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Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure ar«i filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams Illustrate the method: Un des symboles sulvants apparaltra sur la dernlAre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbols — ► signif le "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signlfle "FIN ". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre fiimte A des taux de reduction diff6rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul clichA, 11 est fllmA it partir de Tangle supArieur gauche, de gauche k droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images nAcessalre. Les diagrammes sulvants lllustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 ..:.. FAMILY AND SCHOOL HISTORT OF AMERICA. TUTTLE'S NEW HISTORY OF AMERICA HI8T0B1CAL AND DESCRIPTIVE TREASUHY OF THE COUN- TKIES OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. ahitnttd vHlt PoTtniti, BttUt 9cnn, BlitorlMl laeUesti, tto. BT ^ CHARLES R. TUTTLE, ▲nthor of " History of the Northwest," " History of Border Wars of Two Centuries," Histories < the States of Michigan, Indiana, Wisconsin, Iowa, Kansas, etc. SCOPE OF THE WORK: Tbb TJKiTaD States ; DoMiinoH or Canada, and BBrrigR Dbpbmdbnoibb; Wbst Inoim; Rbpublio or Mbxico; Cditmtbies or Centbal Ajubioa; CouNTBiBs ov South Ajubioa; AMD Adjaobnt Iilahob. SOLD ONLY BY CANVASSING AGENTS. MADISON, WIS.: PUBLISHED BT INTER-STATE BOOK COM 1876. >. A n. r n Copt Kigiit. 0. B. TUTTLB. 1BT«. i'^ It deflci ica, a unabl arisee ofhu totlu the c( prese tedio theh acou Wh08 difflc ment Th Ame Btant phas Bout that from M stereotyped and Printed by Atwood & Cnlver, Mndlson, Wis. Hannfsotnred by W. J. Fark & Co., Hadtson, Wli. '. i PREFACE. It is admitted, almost universally, that there is a lamentable deflciency in historical knowledge among the families of Amer- ica, and the fact is by no means confined to the poor, who are unable to purchase books, or to the non-reading classes. It arises, not from a general disrelish for the incidents and events of history, for it must be true that, as a rule, these are preferable to the mass of poor fiction now thrust upon the intelligence of the country; but it is because the works of American history presented are, for the most part, too lengthy, and, therefore, tedious. To become, in any large degree, acquainted with even the history of the United States, one is compelled to enter upon a course of reading, much of which is burdensome to the student, whose hours of study are limited by other duties. The same difficulty, in a greater measure, meets the study v)f other depart- ments of American history. The present work is an attempt to remove this difficulty ia American histories. In its preparation, there has been a con- stant endeavor to present a work embracing all the important phases in the general history of the countries of North and South America, and to compress the material into such a limit that even "he who runs may read " its pages and profit there- from. CHARLES R. TUTTLE. Madisos, Wis., April, 1876. Hknnfsctnred by ark & Co., Madison, Wll. ■ iMnfm { ; u ILLUSTRATIONS. (For general contents see page S61.} j^ortraita. (1. Abraham Lincoln. ♦ >t'^' 8. UlysBCs S. Grant. ^ k '7^ 8. UlysBCs S. Grant. (Z, Gen. Braddock. J 4. Gen. Aliercromble. n B. Gen. Wolfe. 8. Gen. Montgomery. I 7. Gen. Warren. \ 8. Gen. Marlon. [9. Gen. Wayne. 10. Lord Baltimore. 11. Gen. Greene. 13. Pocahontas. f^3. Zachary Taylor. ■■ 14. Gen. Scott. ^. ^16. Qen. B. E. Lee. ,, '16 Benjamin Franklin. '"^ 17. Marquis do La Fayette. fis. Columbus. ' 19. Queen Anno. 20. Geo. Washington. 'i ', SI. Gov. Wlnthrop. 22 Gen. Gates. 23. William Penn. , ,21. James Oglethorpe. ?25. Henry Hudson. n». Uoger Williams. ; 27. Patrick Henry. ') 88. Commodore Perry. \S9. Commodore Decatur. ^ 80. Jefferson Davis. Miaeellaneous. / «. 33. 34. SB. 36. 37. 38. 3«. 40. 41. 4a. English Landing at New York, | 43. 1664.. .fi 4 ^-,,44. Surrendered Army at Yorktown/ Charging of Missionary Bidge. *^ Capture of the Frolic. '-'''' Battle of Bunker Hill, y^ ' ' Washington Crossing the Dela- ware. \ \'v, The First Ballroad Train. I 4 ' A Fortified House. - ' The Charter Oak. Surrender of Lord ComwallU. ^' Battle of New Orleans. > ■" f Sheridan's arrival at Cedar Creek. Stonewall Jackson at Bull Bnn. - Indians welcoming the Bngllnli. men. ' Exposition Building. ^ i^"9 The Alarm at Fort 8tanwix.\ Putnam Summoned to WarJ Assassination of Lincoln. ^ -' Crossing the Bapidan — Gnuit'i Telegram. '-' ' Prayer before the Battle of Bunk- er Hill. ' ' " Memorial Hall. Agricultural Hall. - ^'"^ Machinery Hall. "? ■Wit s. 11.) THE COUNTEIES OF NOETH AMERICA. inln Franklin. jU do La Fayette. ll1)U8. n Anno. WBBhington. VVlnthrop. Gates, am Penn. IS Oglethorpe, y Iltideou. r Williams, ck Henry, inodore Perry, inodorc Decatur, rson Davie. 11 Jackson at Bull Run. - welcoming the Bngllnli- ion Building. 4h iTt rm at Fort Stanwix^ Summoned to WarJ lation of Lincoln. ^ -' 5 the Kapidan — Grant'i ram. '-•' ' >efore the Battle of Bonk- 1. ' •' ' alHaU. r_ tural Hall. ^-'-'^ Bry Hall. NORTH AMERICA. Extent. — The North American Continent, includ- ing Central America, lies between the sixth parallel of north latitude and the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on »he south by the Gulf of Mexico and South America, and the west by the Pacific Ocean. The length of the continent on the east side from Hud- son's Straits to the Florida Channel following tte in- dentations and windings of the coast is over 4,800 miles, and from that point to Panama, about 4,600 more, consequently the total length is 9,300 miles. On the Pacific side, the length following the California coast line, is over 10,600 miles, and the total coastline of the continent, including the north and northeast shores, is estimated at about 22,800 miles. The total area of the continent is about 8,377,648 square miles. Political Divisions. — The great political di- visions of North America, are: British Am£nca, United States, Mexico, Alaska, Danish America (Green- land) and Central America. UNITED STATES. Extent. — The United States of America includes ■within well defined boundaries the best portion of the North American Continent, which for the major 6 COUNTIUES OF NORTH AMERICA. part was less than two centuries ago almost entirely a wilderness. It embraces an area extending f''o"J^"Q British possessions on the north to the Gulf o^^^^^j ico and the republic of that name on the south, and is situated between 25° 7' and 49° north latitude and between 66° 58^' and 124° 43' longitude west of Greenwich. The maximum breadth of the contment within the boundaries of the United States lies be- tween the St Croix Eiver, in Maine, to Gape Flattery, in Oregon, the distance between those pomts being 2,744 miles. The maximum length is from the 49th parallel to the mouth of the liio Grande, which is 1,588. The total area, excluding Alaska Territory, a comparatively modern acquisition, is 3,026,494 square miles. There are only tliree nations on the globe which exceed this vast extent of area— the first be- ing the British Empire, including its East Indian pos- sessions, with all its colonies and dependencies, very loosely held together; the Chinese Empire, the oldest nation existent ; and the Russian Empire, embracing a a wide extent of desert and uncultivable land. I. BOUNDARIES. 1, The Northern Boundary commences at the mouth of the St. Croix River in Passamaquoddy Bay, follows that river through Grand Lake to its source and thence proceeds due north until it strikes the St. Joha River. The line follows the St. John and St. Francis Rivers to the outlet of Lake Pohenagamock, whence it goes southwest to a point on the north branch of the St John, ten miles from the main river. From the point last named, it stretches south 10° west, to the in- tersection of the southwest branch of the St John River, and the parallel of 46° 25' north latitude, follows this river to its source, thence the ridge of the dividing land from whence the affluents flow on one side to the St Lawrence River and on the other to the Atlantic Ocean, to the source of Hall's stream, a tributary of the Connecticut, following this stream to the 45th parallel whic Law passi Onts Claii to t Pige the 55' I it tu para couv Islai 2. chac tude then west to tl Rivt the The the Grat low ous Chri Ven Bayi and inF [most entirely a inding from the e Gulf of Mex- tlie south, and rth latitude and gitude west of I the continent States lies be- 1 Gape Flattery, se points being s from the 49th •ande, which is ska Territory, a ,026,494 square s on the globe X — the first be- iast Indian pos- jendencies, very iipire, the oldest lire, embracing a ole land. tnmences at the imaquoddy Bay, to its source arid kes the St. John and St. Francis gamock, whence rth branch of the river. From the '° west, to the in- of the St John I latitude, follows ;e of the dividing )n one side to the r to the Atlantic a tributary of the the 45th parallel " UNITED STATES. T which becomes the boundary until it strikes the St. Lawrence Kiver near the village of St. llegis; thence it passes through the middle of the St. Lawrence, Lake Ontario, Niagara Kiver, Lake Erie, Detroit lliver, St Clair Lake and lliver. Lake Huron and Lake Superior, to the mouth of Pigeon Kiver ; thence it ascends Pigeon Kiver, crosses the Foul Lakes, and the Lake of the Woods to its northwestern extremity, in 49" 23' 55' north latitude and 95° 14' 38' west lon^ntude, where it turns due south to the 49th parallel, and follows this parallel to the canal De Hans, which separates Van- couver's Island from the continent and the San Juan Islands. 2. — The So\ithern Boundary follows the deepest channel of the Rio Grande due north to 32° north lati- tude, thence runs due west to 108° 30' west longitude, thence south to 31° 31' north latitude, thence again west to 111° west longitude, thence west northwest to the Colorado River, below the mouth of the Gila Kiver. From this point the boundary line runs to the Pacific coast opposite the Carronadoo Island. The southern or Gulf Coast extends from Cape Sable the extremity of Florida, to the mouth of the Rio Grande and is very similar to the Atlantic coast, being low and level. The sea indents the coast with numer- ous bays and inlets, as the Laguna Madre, Corpus Christi, Matagorda, and Galveston Bays in Texas; Vermilion, Atchafalaya, Terrabonne, and Tirabalier Bays in Louisiana ; the Bay of Mobile in Alabama ; and Pensacola and Tampa Bays, besides smaller inlets in Florida II. SURFACE. The Surface of the United States presents numerous marked characteristics, but in the general arrangement of its more striking features, it is quite simple. It is naturally divided into three very distinct areas, videlicet, the Eastern, the Central, and the Western. 1. -r- The Eastern Area or belt consists of the. Ap- 8 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. palachian Mountain Range, more familiarly known as the Alk'ghanies, which form part of the range, to- cethcr with the low plain which stretches along the sea coast and extends backwards until the base of the mountains is reached and gradually ascended. Ihis plain is of various width at different points, as for in- stance, the average breadth in New England is nearly fifty miles, but in New York and New Jersey the area IS much narrower, and farther south in Nor^h and South Carolina the marginal plain extends from the sea to a depth of more than two hundred miles, bouth of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the plain may be di- vided into two sections, that to the east being low. level and sandy in the main, that to the west undulating, broken, and in some regions, diversified by chains or hills more or less considerable. The eastern portion is known as the Tide Water Section ; the western is known as the Piedmont District, a name commonly used in Virginia. The Appalachian Mountains consti- tute a belt about one hundred miles wide and one thousand three hundred miles long, covering an area of very nearly 125,000 square miles, extending from the Canadian Province of New Brunswick to Northern Georgia and Alabama, where the last spur sinks down and is lost in the nearly horizontal expanse, ihe Mountains consist of many chains of hills almost; parallel and extending over vast distances nearly uni- form in elevation and bearing. Between these several heights there are numerous valleys and slopes ascend- ing the mountain sides to considerable altitudes which invite settlement and have already secured a large but scattered population, attracted by numerous advant- ages of soil, water and vegetation. Toward the west the base of the Appalachians is merged in a broad table land slightly elevated, and intersected by water cour,^- " which rise at many points among the mountains, ai flow into the Mississippi. Western New York, Penn- sylvania, Western Virginia and the largest part of Ohio, are embraced in this vast plateau of table land, as a! the side 2 of knc low of 1 the the coai Roc by Mo ten Wt rid] cha det pel fes 4 iss COl res rai tio rid pi; wl ve Fi wl th ar lie ICA. irly known as the range, to hea along the ;he base of the icended. This tints, as for in- ^land is nearly Jersey the area in Nor*h and tends from the I miles. South lain may be di- )eing low. level }3t undulating, i by chains ot stern portion is the western is ame commonly ountains consti- 1 wide and one avering an area extending from nek to Northern spur sinks down expanse. The of hills almost noes nearly uni- len these several 1 slopes ascend- altitudes which ured a large but imerous advant- Doward the west . in a broad table by water courr'- " 3 mountains, ai iew York, Penn- largest part of au of table land, UNITED STATES. • as also are the southeastern counties of Indiana, nearly the whole of Kentucky and Tennessee, and a very con- siderable section of Alabama. , , , 2 — Tlie Western Region consists of the larger part of the mountainous area and range of table lands known as the North American Cordilleras, which fol- low the Pacilic coast of the continent, fror.i tlie isthmus of Panama, to the margin of the Arctic Ocean. W ithin the Unitod States, the Cordilleras fill the area between the 105th meridian west of Greenwich and the western coast The border toward the east is formed by the Rocky Mountains and to the west the line is marked by the lofty chains of the Sierrc Nevada and Cascade Mountains ; the spurs and projections of this vast sys- tern form the Coast llang.is of California, Oregon and Washington, abounding with bold promontories and ridges uiion the Pacilic Coast. Between the lofty chains of the border, there are numerous broken and detached ranges, which have received distinctive ap- pellations from explorers and settlers, out all mani- festly belonging to the same system. . 3 ■_ Nearly all the maps of North America hitherto issued represent the Rocky Mountains as one range continuous throughout The map makers have in that respect been betrayed into an error. There are tw* ranges, and even more, which include the highest por- tions of the continental plateau, connected by traverse ridges at irregular distances. The ridges cut the plateau into a succession of smaller parks or plateaus, which are shut in by gigantic elevations and have a very picturesque appearance, in never ending variety. From the grand cl.ains, there are secondary ranges which radiate and strike out into the plains, fornriing the base of the Rocky Mountains along their whole area. To the south the terminus of the mounUtm chains lies between the Rio Grande and the Pecos Rivers in western Texas, in about 30" north latitude. Trending northwest from this point to 32° north latitude, they then change their general bearing to due north, trav- IX) COUNTRIES OF NORTH AlfERICA. ersing New Mexico, Colorado and Soutlicrn Wyom- ing until they sink down in tliat remarkable depres- sion through which the Sweet Water River and the North Platte flow from west to east, the western nor- tion of which is known as the South Passs. North of the gap the llockv Mountains rise again trending northwest through" Wyoming, Idaho and Montana. The western chain forms the boundary between Idaho and Montana, and in that relation will be more par- ticularly dealt with. ,. 4, — The Rocky Mountains form thedivuung range betvveen the western tributaries of the Mississippi and the considerable streams that flow onward to the Pacitic Ocean. Their mean elevation is ten thousand feet, hence, they form the highest point of the conti- nent, several of the peaks exceeding fourteen thous- and feet in height. The grandeur of this system of mountains may best be conveyed to the mind of the reader by a statement briefly rendered of a few of the principal elevations commencing with Fremont 3 Peak in W voming, whose height is 13,570 feet ; Long s Peak in Colorado, 14,050 feet; Mount Audubon, near the peak last mentioned, but to the west, 13,4o6 feet ; Perry's Peak, about nine miles from the 40th parallel, 13 133 feet ; Mount Guyot, twenty-five miles north of the 39th parallel, 13,223 feet ; Gray's Peak, six miles west of the city of Denver, 14,145 feet ; Mount Silver- heela. to the southwest of Mount Guyot, 13,6o0 feef Mount Lincoln, northwest of Mount Silverheels ana but a few miles distant, 14,123 feet; Horseshoe Mount, southeast of Mount Lincoln, about eight miles distant, 13,806 feet ; the world famous Pike's Peak, 14,218 ; Mount Yale, about fourteen rniles south of the 39tli parallel and west of the River Arkansas, 14,078 feet ; and Mount Harvard, five miles northwest of Mount Yale, the greatest eminence, 14,270 feet. There are in- numerable peaks and mountain tops of lesser altitude, yet waiting to be named, and the entire chain is found to average ten thousand feet as already mentioned. the for nai thi w tai foi wl sh hv CO in ea te m of is a; tl la b tl u a: tl Si t f f c t I 1 [CA. tlicrn "VVyom- rkablc deprea- River ami the e western por- sss. North of gain trending and Montana, between Idaho I be more par- iividing range Mississippi and nward to the s ten thousand it of the conti- ourteen thous- )f this system ;o the mind of red of a few of nth Fremont's ^0 feet ; Long's Audubon, near st, 13,456 feet ; e iOth parallel, miles north of 'eak, six miles Mount Silver- )t, 13,650 feet- silverheels and, rseshoe Mount, it miles distant. Peak, 14,218 ; Lth of the 39tti as, 14,078 feet ; iwest of Mount There are in- lesser altitude, 3 chain is found mentioned. UNITED STATES. 11 5 —The Vast Mountain Kange which constitutes the western edge of the Cordilleras is known m Cali- fornia as the Sierra Nevada or Snowy Range and that name is rapidly being adopted everywhere to describe this section of the greater chain. In Oregon and in Washington, the name changes to the Cascade Moun- tains the range continuing the whole course and con- ormin<' ti the general direction of the coast, from which Its distance, reckoning from mountain crest to Thore line, varies from one Imndred and lifty to one Wired and seventy miles. ^he Siernx Nevada covers a distance of about ooO miles from lejcn Pass in the south, to Mount Shasta in the northwest; the eastern slope is abrupt and bold, and does not exceed ten miles in width, but the western f "P«' ^^.^^^^^^^l^ miles broad, falls gently to the surface of the val ey of the San Joaquin and Sacramento fivers until it is lost in the rolling plain. Toward the south there are three high crests, and betwe.^i them are inclosed the two valleys of the two arms of Kern River, inom Ltitude 36° to Lassen's Peak in 40° 30' the Sierra has but one crest, and from that point to Mount Shasta there is an elevated plateau clearly^ volcanic, which terminates toward the east in ^\ anier s Range. 1 heie is not so much uniformity in the Sierra Nevada range as in the Rocky Mountains, but the average of eleva- tion is about the same. The loftiest peaks are in the southern parts of the Sierras and from 3b 30 lati- tude going north the altitudes of the peaks and of the passes continually decrease; the peaks diminishmg from 15,000 to 8,400 feet, and the passes decreasing from 12,000 to 5,400 feet. So far as explorations have yet determined. Mount Whitney near tlie head waters of Kern River is the loftiest summit, having an alti- tude of 15,300 feet above the level of the sea, or about one thousand feet higher than Mount Harvard the tallest peak in the Rocky Mountains. Mount Tyndall is 13,386 feet high, and Mount Brewer 13,88b, Sount Lyell 13,217, Mount Dana 13,227 feet, Mount f 12 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. Hoffman 10,872, Silver Mountain 10,935 feet, Pyramid Peak 10,600, Mount Sliasta 14,440, the Downieville Buttes 8.400 and Mount Onjumi 8,878 feet. From Mount Shasta the Cascade Mountains trend due nortli through Oregon and Washington, forming a prolong- ation of the Sierra Nevada, resembling the other part of the range in general characteristics, but at a greatly reduced elevation. The transverse valley of Colum- bia River cuts through the Cascade Mountain Kange, and there are some few very high peaks and eleva- tions, as for instance Mount Reinier, 14,444 feet; Mount Baker, 10,719 feet; Diamond Peak, Mount Hood, 11,225 feet; and Mounts Adams and baint Helen's ranging near 9,500 feet high. 6 -- Between the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Moun- tain'Rcinc-.- and the Rocky Mountains there is an ex- tensive legion of tableland, broken by detached mountains, valleys and plains which communicate with each other through narrow defiles, winding around ridges and spurs innumerable, traversing nar- row and romantic valleys which occasionally open out into broad plains, which are among the east lovely features of this region. The narrow defiles are cus- tomarily green and beautiful, but, as the plain increases in breadth, the beauty of vegetation is lost Ihe mountains are always in sight, and the lowest level is at an altitude of 4,000 feet above the sea, from which the traveler may look upon craggy mountain tops bric^ht and glistening with perpetual snow, which re- treats to the highest points as summer advances, ihe wood upon the .anges is but thin at the best and, at limited heights, the vegetation becomes stunted, disap- pearing entirely before the region of perpetual snow is reached. Looked at from a distance, the mountains seem to be massive and solid as they loom up intp the purple atmosphere, and the visitor sees no promlae^ot the canons and valleys which intersect these ranges tn every direction, deeply cut into the projecting stony ribs of the earth. Down the sides of these canons tr) up sm tre wl th un ap fe( mi ou mi jo N. C( iir ell br b£ of bi fn d( U th U ai 0( ir e£ ei OS tV tl ^ tl cl \« CA. UNITED STATES. 18 feet, Pyramid ; Downieville 3 feet. From end due nortli ing a prolong- ;he other part ut at a greatly ley of Colum- untain Range, ks and eleva- 14,444 feet; Peak, Mount ms and Saint Cascade Moun- there is an ex- by detached communicate jfiles, winding traversing nar- nally open out le least lovely iefiles are cus- plain increases is lost The lowest level is lea, from which mountain tops now, which re- advances. The le best, and, at . stunted, disap- srpetual snow is the mountains )om up into the 1 no promia^of these rangerin )rojecting stony of these canons trickle streams which gush from unfailing springs high up in the hills, where they are fed by the perpetual snows above. The massive rocks look like the but- tresses which might have been erected by the Titans when they began their warfare with the gods; and they stand aloft in the pure, crisp air, contributing an unmatched scenic beauty, such as Bierstadt can only approach, but all to be eclipsed by the panoramic ef- fects which reward the sightseer as he scales the top- most heights, and looks abroad upon the earth spread out beneath his feet. The best characteristics of western mountain scenery are massed in the country which joins together the Rocky Mountains with the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains. 7, — The Wahsatch Mountains, which pass through Central Utah from north to south, is one of the most important of these ranges, attaining almost the same elevat on as the Rocky Mountains, then passing as a broad belt of Jhighlands which terminates near the banks of the Colorado River in the northwestern angle of Arizona. Towards the east, the Uintah Mountains branch off from the Wahsatch, and are only cut off from the spurs of the Rocky Mountains by the narrow defile of the Colorado River. The high basin of the Upper Colorado, which is traversed east and west by the Union Pacific Railroad, is to the north of the Uintah Mountains, bordered by the Rocky Mountains and the Wahsatch. The basin of the Middle Colorado occupies a lower terrace south of the Uintahs, extend- ing to the table land of the White Mesa, which stretch- es from the Rocky Mountains westward to the sonth em extremity of the Wahsatch. T'le world-famous canons owe their grandeur, which ranks them among the finest sights visible on the earth, to the power of the Colorado which cut through the table lands of the White Mesa, The Mogollon Mountains are still far- ther toward the south, and there are numerous other chains in Arizona which all trend southeast and north- west 14 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. ft —The region which is bordered on the east by the Wahsatch Mountains and the northern parts of the Kocky Mountains, and on the west by the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains, is properly known as the Great Basin, its breadth varying from two hun- dred to four hundred and fifty miles. There are sev- eral isolated mountains within this area, seldom exceed- ing ten miles in width, with a trend north and south r'^nerally evident; of these, the most important are Uie Humboldt Mountains, about 7o miles from the Utah line; the West Humboldt Mountains, 100 miles east of California and flanking the Keese River Valley on the east, almost intermediate between the Hum- boldt and West Humboldt, the Toyabe Mountains. Severa? peaks of .the East Hu-boMt and To^^^^^^ ranges have an altitude of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet The Humboldt River intersects the central part of the Great Basin from east to west, and, north of that river, the mountains present a different «l^*rjcter from *W already named, as they are not arranged like the Rocky Mountains in parallel ridges, but seem to radiate from a central nucleus in almost every direction There are several of these nuclei, and the character of the JIdiation is as nearly identical as seems to be possible in the arcana of nature where no two forms are ex- act y the same. The middle course of Snake River divides two such ranges, known as the Salmon River Mountains of Idaho, and the Blue Mountains m east- ern Oregon. Columbia River plain, with an elevation hardly exceeding two thousand feet, constitutes eaM- ern Washington; there *f ;b';«% 7/^'%^?^ S within this region, one at the foot of the Sierra 3,8o0 feet above the level of the sea, receives almost the whole drabage of northern Nevada and the eastern slope of the Sierra; the second, known as the Great SaftLake Basin, about 4,250 feet above the sea lev^l, near the western base of the Wahsatch ; and the th^d, known as the Dead Valley, in f "{^^f ^f^^J^^^J^'^"^* is several hundred feet below the level of the sea. gre Th wh the Th it A pai for are or lev riv SOl at do: Pe Fr tin pe at Gi gr tw ra ■w« ri1 th M 3 A. n the east by hern parts of by the Sierra ■operly known Tom two hun- rhere are sev- leldom exceed- rth and south important are liles from the xins, 100 miles e River Valley sen the Hum- be Mountains. ; and Toyabe to 12,000 feet tral part of the h of that river, iter from those like the Rocky to radiate from •ection. There baracter of the 3 to be possible forms are ex- )f Snake River Salmon River untains in east- ith an elevation jonstitutes east- ain depressions be Sierra, 3,850 ives almost the md the eastern rn as the Great ve the sea level, ; and the third, stern California 1 of the sea. UNITED STATE3. 16 9, — The Central Region is commonly known as the Mississippi Valley, and it extends from the Appa- lachian Mountains in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. This immense plain comprises an area of 2,455,000 square miles, and it extends through thirty degrees of longitude and twenty-three degrees of latitude. The Height of Land, a vast plateau less than two thousand feet above the sea, bounds the val- ley on the north, separating it from the Red River Valley of the north. The Red River is one of the great feeders of Lake Winnepeg in British America. The alluvial bottom or flood ground of the Mississippi, which extends from the mouth of the Ohio River to the Gulf of Mexico, is the lowest part of the valley This bottom is occasionally subject to inundation, and it varies in breadth from thirty miles to seventy, some parts being little other than swamp and impenetrable forests, in° many parts covering a large part of the area. Bluffs on both sides of the bottom rise more or less precipitously to the prairies, sometimes at a level of from 150 to 200 feet above the level of the river. The bluffs approach very near to the river at some points, as at the Chalk Banks near Hickman, Ky.; at the Iron Banks near Columbus; at Fulton, Ran- dolph and Memphis, Tenn. ; at Vicksburg, Grand and Petite Gulf, Natchez and Fort Adams, Miss. ; and at Francisville and Baton R« ige. La. From the some- times precipitous bluffs the country rises almost im- perceptibly toward the east and west, and is cut through at intervals bv the rivers and streams which feed the Great Fatlier of Waters, making transverse valleys of greater and less extent. The Ozark Mountains, about two thousand feet high, a belt of uplands and hills rather than mountainous elevations, rises from the •western plain and occupies portions of the Indian Ter- ritory, Arkansas and Missouri. The higher parts of this area extend along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, and are known as the Great Plains. 16 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. r III. RIVERS AND LAKES. The Rivers of the United States are divisible into three systems, which correspond to the divisions of the continent already described. In the first category we place the rivers which empty into the Atlantic ; in the second, those which flow into the Pacific; and the third category embraces those which discharge their volume into the Gulf of Mexico. 1. — The Largest Stream which enters the Atlantic is the St. Lawrence ; its course intersects the Dominion of Canada, but it also forms the boundary of the state of New York, and drains the Great Lakes, receiving numerous affluents from the north central states, hence it is an integral part of the river system of the United States. Although not the longest river in the world, it is by far the greatest, surpassing every other in the volume of water which it contributes to the sea. The St Louis River is the head stream which rises in the Height of Land, flows through northeastern Minnesota, emjSying into Lake Superior at its western extremity. Lake Superior is an expansion of the St. Lawrence, and the Sainte Marie, St. Clair, Detroit and Niagara Rivers are only different portions of the same great stream. From the head waters of the St. Louis to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the length of the stream is up- wards of two thousand miles, and the general direc- tion which it bears in its course to the head of Lake Erie is southe>ast, and from that point to the mouth of the river, northeast. The Fox River, rising in South- ern Wisconsin, and flowing northeast, is one of the principal tributaries. The Fox River empties into Grepn Bay. The other tributaries worthy of notation are the Oconto, Peshtigo and Menomonee, flowing into Green Bay ; the Manistee, Notepseacon, Muskeagon, Grand, Kalamazoo, and St. Joseph Rivers, emptying into Lake Michigan ; the Au Sable and Saginaw, flow- ing into Lake Huron ; the Maumee, formed by the confluence of the St Joseph and St Mary, at Fort ICA. SI B divisible into divisions of the rst category we \.tlantic ; in the acific ; and the discharge their jrs the Atlantic ;8 the Dominion lary of the state iakes, receiving i-al states, hence n of the United er in the world, ery other in the the sea. The lich rises in the item Minnesota, 3tern extremity. e St. Lawrence, oit and Niagara the same great St. Louis to the le stream is up- le general direc- le head of Lake to the mouth of rising in South- 3t, is one of the er empties into )rthy of notation nee, flowing into :'.on, Muskeagon, livers, emptying d Saginaw, flow- I, formed by the )t Mary, at Fort -f .; ^-'T'S r I • _ •tnj,,, i»l«,»ii. illinii«inM>'' «»»« UNITED STATES. 17 Wayne, emptying into Lake Erie; winch Lake also receives the Sandusicy, llock, Cuyahoga, and Grand Kivers, which traverse and largely dram Northern Ohio. Tlirough Lake Ontario tlie Genesee and the Oswerro find their way to the ocean, the last named river "bcincr the outlet of the lakes in Central New York; the^Crookcd, Seneca, Caynga, Owasco, Skene- ateles, and Oneida. Tlie Bhick llivcr rises m the Ad- irondack Mountains, emi)tying into the eastern extrem- ity of Lake Ontario. The St. Livvrence proper receives the Oswegatchie, Rncket, and llichelieu Eivers The Eichelieu is the outlet of Lake Champlam and Lake George. -r^ , ^ ■ ^ ^ 2. — The Principal Rivers of New England include the St. Croix, which rises in Grand Lake, 382^ feet above the sea level, and empties into Passamaquoddy Bay forniin"' the eastern boundary of Maine; the 1 en- obscot, which draws its main supplies from Pamadum- cook and Chesuncook Lakes, and has for its principal tributaries on its course the Seboois and the Maita- wamkeag before its discbarge into Penobscot Bay ; the Kennebec which starts from Moosehead Livke, and has for its main tributary the Androscoggin ; the Merri- inac, which owes its volume to the junction of the Pemigerdasset and the Winnipiseogce ; the lake Win- nipiseogee drains through the river last named ; and the Connecticut, which takes its rise in the Height of Land, verv near the boundary of Vermont. 1 here are two branches of the Connecticut, and the western arm is commonly known as Hall's Stream. The river flows almost due south until it reaches Middletown, Conn., and at that point changes to southeast, emptying at last into Long Island Sound. New England has but few rivers that are navigable far mland, but that fact is due to the configuration of the country, not to any lack of volume in its streams. 3. — New York owes its largest river to the Adiron- dacks, where the Hudson takes its rise, receiving, among many minor tributaries, the Sacondago and the 18 COUNTBIES OP NOKTH AMERICA. Mohawk Vforc Ihe mnjor »t«m fl'™.»;"J" ^"'jj"/,, the ^tate and its soutbern course forms the boundary reccivin.- the J iiniata in its course 1 lie J «'"«" "^' XT ' ?he I gest in Virginia, the Rappahannock ^"'1 the Po and the stream falls into P^^-f ^>^^,.^^"""^; Fe,r River^, 1 a « TT.,«r i^ivprs combine to form l^ape rcu ivivci, the Sav«„,,ah River, wh.oh 'f ""» ''"^eam Cs its and. flowing »"«'^ j™"" *;'iJS the oeeaa Most of rHlei'rnredTarhVn'^fpted a, fa. as tide water ascends. . .v padfic is 4. _ The largest river emptying into t&e rauuo V ITCA. into New York and the scenery leUl to surpass ;h tourists have footstool. The branches within 13 the boundary vania. The Le- he main tributa- ina has also two ned stream flows "Jhesapeakc Bay, 'he James Hi ver, lock and the Po- ake Bay. The ;tion between the n is effected very f Virginia. The Jbemarle Sound. 3 worthy of note, )und. The Deep Cape Fear River, , Carolina to very ,he Congreve Riv- Santee River, are ina. The bound- rgia is marked by :rom the junction c stream linds its Steamboats ascend a. The River Al- ion of the Oconee liver St. John's of amp in that region ;, speedily makes a he ocean. Most of ^ated as far as tide into the Pacific is UNITKD STATES. 19 the Columbia, which takes its origin in a small lake at the western base of tiio Rocky Mountains, and from that region flows north north \vcst along the the rango to the base of Mount Hooker, whence it turns west for a brief space, and eventually flows south, forming in this portion of its course the Arrow Lakes, Upper, Mid- dle and Lower. The Columbia is joined by the Clark Fork shortly after it crosses the southern boundary oi British Columbia and enters Washington Territory, and continuing its southerly direction to about 48" north latitude, makes a bend to the west, and with a bold but somewhat tortuous curve sweeps around the Great Columbia Plain. The largest tributary of the Columbia is the Snake River, which is received at the point 46° north latitude, and 117" longitude west of Greenwich. After being thus increased, the river flows west to the Pacific Ocean, constituting the boundary between Oregon and Washington Territory. The Co- lumbia forms a series of ra[)ids or cascades as it passes through a gap in the mountain chain, to which it gives the name of Cascade Mountains. The waterfalls are separated from each other by long intervals of from twenty-five to thirty miles, in which the stream flows placidly along. At the mouth of this river there is an estuary about six miles wide and fully thirty miles ia length, which opens into the ocean almost midway be- tween Cape Disappointment and Point Adams. The- navigation on the river is good as far as the lowest cas- cade?which is about one hundred and forty miles from the mouth of the river, and steamers are engaged in traffic there. Above the highest cascade, there is also a good navigable stream as far as Old Fort Walla Walla. The two navigations have been joined by means of railroad communication, which runs around the cascades. The distance overland from the source of the river to its mouth is very nearly 670 miles; but the river's length is 1,150 miles, and the area of country drained in its convolutions and by its tributa- ries is '338,880 square miles. The tributaries of the 20 corsTniEfl of noutii ameuica. Fork t.k.s its r>sc u. l';! ^-';>^^^ " ^^ Montana, rc- Cohuulna, a.ul ^l'';"^^, .,," ! rso into Colunibin, turning by a west '"' ''' ^.^'^^^ ^ where it o,ns the great Muumt^it ^^^ trcmitv of the Lower Arrow Lake '';,,''., j.^,,,,, ^:;^'l^,tter U<,ot lliver -;;«,j\ ^ie t^ i.> the Flat Head ll>ver r>«-« ^" ^^ "^ ^^^^ ,.,„,' «c>uth lloeky Mounta.ns J^-^/ '^ ■ X,iV on loavin, tl.o and Bitter Hoot ll.vers J'""' Cla'\,^ ^ '^^, j- MLnc west conrse along the base o the ^^^ ^\ j.^,.^,,,,,^ M.nintains, and I'f f "S \>',';'^ nAr the 41) th parallel it flows into the Columbia Kin u nu t c i "'"r."' i:t u;ve,'"Sn,e. known a, Le»i,' Fork, r». — bnaivCiviNY' , -jj. iviountains, and Its '■"' ''' "'rt.;''aon.\ eSL™-t..ot o! tl,o Titan course is souiu aioup ♦Uroncrh 1 eao between r ^irld'^^r ^d C^ tA^^r. The trJ:;£nJ!::Ssouthwe.afterai.^^^^ tract; t)ut the rooky plateau m i, ^^^^ the stream to the west ^v ide «^£ ^^ '' ^ IL north in Humb(.ldt River. Ihe ^^i^'^'^J'^ ^ j boundary 116° 45' west long, ude, ^"^ .^^jf^^'^^.i',., through between Idaho und O'-ego", whence pa^^^^^^^^^^ . =^ . .southeastern Washington, Sn^]^';i;;y^" j^^'^j^ ^f^ ^oi^ %' ^W^ ln'U;7p S "r'; 1ou;:e the river ilrquK fine Vpearin'ce, and the scenery is very ICA. The Flat Bow :;uiis of BriliHli Moiitanu, re- into Columbin, Llic suuihorn ex- lat Il"!nl Hivcr 1 Clark's Fork, tiic Pasj^, in the )iiit ruiiri south , on Icavin.ii llio in the Biii Hole ,' betwoou Bitter tnivorsL'ri a very foot lliver and r the Flat Head \>rk lias a north- Cicur d'All'-nc Q Pend d'OroiUe, the 41)111 parallel cane, has its rise :e its course lies. ) join the Colum- rn as Lewis' Fork, lountaius, and its •oot of the Titan h a gap between Mountains. The unction with Ilen- a very extensive lern Idaho deflects •atinr, Salmon IJiver, and Clear Water Uiver in Ila- ho; Paloon River, in Southeastern Wasliin.trton ; and in Ore'_'(^n.Owvhee, Malheur, and (iraiide Roint of junction with Snake River. The John Dav's River has its rise in the Blue Mountains. Other al'lluonts fall in in rapid succession, including the Jh's Chidvs, or the The Falls, which have their course along the eastern base of the Cascade Moun- tains, and the Willamette Hiver, which traverse's a rich and fortile valley in Western Oregon, with the Cascade Mountains on one side and the Coast Kanges on the other. The Sacramento and the San Joacpiin are the two largest in the state of California, both discharging into the Bav of San Francisco. 6. — The Colorado Kiver of the West is the result of the conflueiKte of the Greene and Grand Hi vers. The stream falls into the Gulf of California. Greene Kiver rises in the Wind River Mountains, which are tiie loftiest of the Rocky Mountain Ranges in the Ter- ritory of Wyoming, and the stream flows south across the high land which is traversed by the Union Paeifio Railroad. The rise of the Uintah Mountains deflects the stream to the east; but after their base is passed, the stream goes south once more, through the very beautiful basin formed by the Wahsatch and the Rocky Mountains. Greene River joins Grand River near the 38th parallel. Grand River rises in the Mid- dle Park of Colorado, and breaks a way through the ■western chain of the Rocky Mountains, flowing south- west between the F^lk Mountain and Book Mountain. After the Greene and Grand Rivers join, the Colorado flows southwest until it enters the j^-reat chasms known as the Great Canon in the White Mesa. The Colorado h 22 COUNTRIES OF NORln AMERICA. emer'^es from the Great Canon at Collville, in south- western Nevada, flowing due south from that point through valleys and canons until it reaches across^ the low Colorado Dese.t to plunge into the Gulf of Cali- fornia. Reckoning the length of the Colorado from the source of Greene River until it falls into the gulf, the river exceeds one thousand miles, and, with its numerous afTluents, its drainage area is 227,000 square miles. From the west the tributaries are small, but the eastern tributaries are larger and more numerous. The Rio Blanco or Sun Juan has its rise in the Sierra Mimbres, and pursues a westerly course. The Zuri Mountains give birtli to the Flax River or Little Col- orado, which flows by the southern margin of the White Mesa, having its course through the deep can- ons which abound in that region. Gila River comes with a tortuous westerly course from the mountains of southwestern New Mexico through numerous moun- tain chains to join the Colorado River near the south- western angle of Arizona. , xr • j o 7. — The great central plain of the United States is drained by the rivers which discharge their contents into the Gulf of Mexico, and the watershed which di- vides this system of rivers from the others which drain into the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans must be brief- ly described. The Watershed commences in south- ern Mexico, and trends north along the ranges which border the valley through which the Rio Grande flows, and on the west reaches the South Park. Crossing then to the east, curving around Middle Park, the western chain of the Rocky Mountains is followed to the 46th parallel, where it bends east, inclosing almost the head waters of the Missouri River. After reaching the 46th parallel, the ridge trends northwest along the eastern chain of the Rocky Mountains. The Water- shed of the North which separates the tributaries of the Mississippi from the sources of supply for Lake Winnipeg and the Great Lakes, passes throuceans must be brief- ommences in south- ig the ranges which he Rio Grande flows, nth Park. Crossing d Middle Park, the ntains is followed to 5ast, inclosing almost iver. After reaching 1 northwest along the I ntains. The Water- tes the tributaries of i of supply for Lake asses through Dakota stone Lake, following UNITED STATES. 28 the Height of Land in northern Minnesota, passing through Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and Penn- sylvania, but little distant from the southern shores of Lake Michigan and Lake Erie. The eastern drainage area passes through the beautiful plateau of western Pennsylvania, and then following the Alleghany Moun- tains until it reaches the Great Kanawha River, where it crosses to the Blue Ridge, and follows that range right through Virginia and North Carolina until, neat the head waters of the Savannah River, the trend pro- ceeds south through Georgia and Florida. The territory hastily sketched in the lines thus described is larger than the whole area of western Europe, and its fertility cannot be surpassed in the world, assuning always the same skill in husbandry to be app.ied to the soiL The United States have herein a wonderfully produc- tive region, whose boundless wealth is only beginning to be appreciated. . Many of the streams traversing this area are navigable for an immense proportion of their length; and but for the unexampled rapidity with which railroads have been extended, this network of rivers would be still more largely used as a means of communication between distant and populous cities, as they constitute the finest network of riparian facility that can be found in the world. 8. — The Mississippi is the largest of these rivers, and is appropriately distinguished as the Father of Waters. The river rises near the northern boundary of the United States, and may be said to bisect the area from north to south, so that one-third of thecouQ- try lies east of the river bed, and the remainder to the •west. On the Height of Land in northern Minnesota •we find the source at an elevation of 1,680 feet above the level of the sea, and by the river 2,616 miles from its mouth, the distance overland being 1,295 miles. The area drained by this gigantic stream is no less than 1,244,000 square miles. Many of the tributaries of the Mississippi are rivers of great magnitude, bring- ing from the west the drainage of the Rocky Moua- 24 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. tains, and from the east the tribute of the Appalachian chain, to the prand stream wliich floats the commerce of a nation. The great tributaries from th.e east to the Mississippi are the Wisconsin, the Illinois, the Ohio, the Yazoo and the Bi,-,' Black llivers. The Ohio River is constituted by the junction of the Mpnongahela and Alleghany Kivers at Pittsburg, which are joined by nu- meroiis afiluents, including among many smaller streams the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami, Wabash, the Great Kanawha, Kentucky, Cumberland and Tennessee Riv- ers. P'rom the west the princii)al tributaries are the Minnesota River, the Des IMoines, the Missouri, the Arkansas, and the Red River. The Des Moines mter- sects the state of Iowa ; the Missouri rises in the Rocky Mountains of Montana, and in its length this tributary exceeds the Mississippi by nearly three hundred miles, being 2,908 miles from its source to the ocean, and in its course it receives the Yellow Stone, the Platte, the Kansas and the Osage Rivers. The Arkansas River has its source in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, and the Red River rises on the Llano Estacado. 9. — The streams which discharge into the Gun ■west of the Mississippi are those which are found in- tersecting Te.xas, including the Sabine, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, Nences and Rio Grande, the last named be- ing the boundary line separating Te.xas from MckIco. This river rises in the San Juan Mountains and takes its course through tlie San Luis Park, pursuing a course almost due south to the 33d parallel, turning thence southeas^t to empty itself into the Gulf to the south of the Laguna Madfe, not far from the petty village of Bagdad. The largest tributary of the Rio Grande is the° Pecos River. East of the Mi-ssissippi the rivers which are discharged into the Gulf are not so numer- ous ; they include the Mobile River which results from the junction of the Tombigbee and the Alabama Rivers ; the last named being a combination o£ the Cahawba and Coosa Rivers at a point above Montgomery; the Appalachicola River which is formed by the union of 3RICA. the Appalachian ts the commerce m tlie east tc» the llinois, the Ohio, The Ohio River Monongahela and arc joined by nu- iy smaller streams iibasli, the Great 1(1 Tennessee Riv- •ibutaries are the the Missouri, the Des Moines inter- rises in the Rocky igth this tributary 'ee hundred miles, the ocean, and in ne, the Platte, the 3 Arkansas River ains of Colorado, o Estacado, ge into the Guii hich are found in- le, Trinity, Brazos, ihe last named be- 3xas from Mexico, ountains and takes :, pursuing a course llel, turning thence ulf to the south of ho petty village of the Rio Grande is ssissippi the rivers ; are not so nunier- which results from le Alabama Rivers ; )n of the Cahawba Montgomery ; the ed by the union of xr-s UNITED STATES. 25 the Chattahoochee and the Flint, and the Suwanee River which rises in southern Georgia and intersects northern Florida. IV. CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. The area of the United States is within the warm belt of the temperate zone. To the north its boundary is 17^° of latitude from the southernmost limit of the frigid' zone, and to the south it escapes the tropic of Cancer by nearly 1^°, and thus both extremes are avoided, except in the territory of Alaska and in the highest of the Cordilleras where severe cold is experi- enced. Generally the temperature favors the devel- opment of civilized communities, and sufficient mois- ture falls, as a rule, to allow of agricultural pursuits being prosecuted with advantage. The mean annual temperature of a country may seem favorable to hu- man life and to progress, yet the distribution of heat and cold be such as to minimise the possibilities and results of industry ; but no such results ha,ve to be complained of as "^oppressing humanity in this region. Climatology has of late years become almost a science in itself, and the large series of meteorological obser- vations made within the last two decades give a superb foundation, and may soon carry that branch of study to its topmost limit ; but a detailed discussion of its modes would be foreign to our purpose here. The United States may be conveniently divided into two sections in describing its climate and vegetation. Nearly two-thirds of the area may be included in the eastern portion extending from the coast abutting on the Atlantic to the Great Plains, and the western in- cludes the Great Plains and the Cordilleras, extending thence to the Pacific coast. 1. — Eastern Section. Comparative uniformity is the main feature in the distribution of temperature, as the isothermal lines which indicate comparative warmth cross the country almost always from east to ■west in every latitude. Northern Minnesota and -J. 26 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. northern Maine are the coldest Portions and in these the mean temperature for the year is 36 in Uie liist, and 40'in1hJlast. The highest limit is in soutbern Florida at^the mouth of the Rio Grande, where it readies ^.5° ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ Appalachian Moun- tain differs from the Mississippi Valfey in the d.stn- bution of temperature, the greater exf^mes be mg m the Valley Tlie mean temperature of Oambuctge, Massachusetts, r.nd Dubuque, Iowa is very nearly the same but the coldest month in Dubuque has an aver- age of ItV, and that of the coldest month in Cam- Whke shows 25r. The hottest months show respect- ive^ i. Cambridge 69r, and in Dubuque 7o° conse- '^.eUy ihe variation iLiearly 14° greater in Dubuque Iowa, than in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The facts speak for themselves. , , , 3. -The influence of Oceanic currents and the winds prevailing at certain seasons, regulate tempera- Tuie veK larc^ely. The summers are as warm in the eastern Jeetion of the United States as in correspond- ing latitudes in Europe, but the winters are co den New York, in 41° north latitude, has nearly the same mern temperature for the year as Brussels which is 10° furthe? south, but the difference is mainly notice- able in the winter seasons. In tlie summer he north- ern parts of the United States realize almost the warirh of Italy, but the winders remind one of Sweden This Sries of facts allows the cultivation of cereals in high latitudes that would be fatal to their n'. -llmosf ^K'hole area of the Union lies with- in the zone of variable winds, in ^^^ich the who e of the points of the compass seem to be taxed to fail the t7ot change which Kas been demonstrated by Dove. There are two primary currents, one from tne nortb, toward U.e equator, and the other in the precisely OP' • posite direction, which temporanly displace each other, giving rise to all the changes that have been noticed, da. ERICA. ions, and in these a 36° in Uie first, nit is in southern arande, where it 3palachian Moun- lley in the distri- extremes being in re of Cambridge, is very nearly the luque has an aver- 5t month in Cam- nths show respect- ibuque 75°, conse- reater in Dubuque, usetts. The facts currents and the , regulate tempera- ire as warm in the s as in correspond- winters are colder, las nearly the same Brussels, which is !e is mainly notice- summer the north- realize almost the 3rs remind one of 3WS the cultivation uld be fatal to their the Union lies with- which the whole of be taxed to fill the lonstrated by Dove. )ne from the north, in the precisely op- displace each other, t have been noticed, UNITED STATES. 27 but in the main westerly winds predominate, almost equalling all the other directions noted as prevailincy in nearly eleven hundred observations at Portland'! Me., Atlanta, Ga., and at Dubuque, Iowa. ^' — The zone of the trade winds extends to the 39th parallel during the summer, and the southern portion of the United States should experience pre- vailing winds from the northeast but the Gulf of Mexico exerts a local inlluence which changes the cur- rent to south and southwest, and the winds thus indi- cated are experienced as far inland as Cincinnati and St. Louis. The greater heat of the land and conse- quent rarefaction causes the prevalence referred to on principles which have been made clear by Maury and other writers. At St. Louis the prevailing winds from April to October are south and southeast, and from October to April, west and northwest winds are the rule. Near the mouth of the Mississippi southerly winds, varied by breezes from the east, prevail during summer and early part of autumn. 6. — The Mississippi Valley owes much of its fer- tility to the moist climate and genial warmth due to the deflected trade winds just mentioned. North of Mobile and Mississippi sound the annual rainfall is 63 inches, while Louisiana and Mississippi, near the great stream has not so much rain by three inches, and northeast and west from the points named the decrease goes on steadily, until in Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, we find it reduced to thirty inches, or less than one-half. Near the western ranges of the Appa- lachians in Kentucky, Tennessee and eastern Ohio, the rainfall is about 36 inches. The deflected trades cor- responded with this area of decreasing rain as may be seen in the eastern limits of the arid plains which stretch for several hundred miles in breadth along the eastern base of the Eocky Mountains. ''• — The seaboard is favored with a more copious rainfall, which reaches to 63 inches in southern Flori- da, 50 inches in Georgia, 48 inches in the Carolinas, £8 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 45 inches in Virginia, and from 40 to 42 incbes in Pennsylvania, New York and New England. 8. — In the east, indigenous vegetation appears as forest and prairie, the first extending from the Atlantic coast to a line which would be described from southern Michigan to the mouth of the Sabine River, embracing the southern section of the Mississippi Valley. West of that line, including the northern section of the val- ley just named, the prevalent characteristic is the fer- tile prairie which at length terminates in arid plains. 9. — The forests in the north consist of evergreens, pine, spruce, and liemlock predominating. As the traveler proceeds south, deciduous trees, oak, elm, ash, maple and others of the like class gradually replace the evergreen. Pennsylvania and Indiana produce several species of oak, chestnut, hickory, black wal- nut, beech, sassafras and the tulip tree. Below Ten- nessee and North Carolina, the Southern States are rich in evergreens of another type, such as the live oak, the gordonia, the magnolia, of which extens'"*^ groves are found on the Gulf coast, and the palmetto ■which flourishes on the sea coast, from South Carolina to Florida. The peculiar growth known as Spanish Moss, with its long gray festoons, covers vast tracts of southern forests giving a peculiarly mournful aspect to the country where it predominates. The mangrove seems to have a peculiar love for the Florida coast, and many other varieties claim attention, but space forbids. 10. — The prairies form a peculiar feature in the scenery of the United States as they stretch back from the forest belt presenting the appearance of a sargasso sea solidified and covered with herbs and grasses. Fires occurring almost every season during many cen- turies have restricted the growth of trees with the prairie section to bottom lands and other spots peculi- arly protected, but the urgency of nature is not ex- hausted as wherever of late 3'ears protection has been extended over the grassy region, clumps and groves of ", N tERICA. ) to 42 'nches in England. !taticn appears as ; from the Atlantic bed from southern 3 River, embracing ipi Valley. West section of the val- cteristic is the fer- tes in arid plains, sist of evergreens, ninating. As the 'ees, oak, elm, ash, gradually replace Indiana produce ckory, black wal- tree. Below Ten- uthern States are , such as the live f which extens'"*i , and the palmetto >m South Carolina known as Spanish wers vast tracts of y mournful aspect s. The mangrove the Florida coast, tention, but space iar feature in the stretch back from ance of a sargasso lerbs and grasses, during many cen- of trees with the other spots peouli- nature is not ex- )rotection has been imps and groves of -,l'-^ UNITED STATES. 29 trees spring into being. The water courses of the vast rivers cutting deep into the soil and softer rocks have in most districts })reservcd enough timber for the use of settlers, and with the advancement of habitation there springs up a much larger natural growtli in addition to the plantations incidental to occupation. The ab- sence of trees has of course exercised an induence in- reducing the average of rain, and it is noticed that where plantations have increased, rains and running springs have materially progressed. 11. — The Westehx Skctiox is only about one- half as large as the Eastern. Its elevation above tnc lev- el of the sea is much greater than that of the remaining two-thirds, and many lofty mountain chains exercise a great power in refrigerating the air at some seasons. In Wyoming, at the Soutd Pass, the mean tempera- ture of the year only reaches to -10'^ while many local- ities in similar latitudes in the east have a mean of 50". Tiie isothermal line in the Rocky Mountains coincides with the 3olh parallel, which in Arkan.«as and North Carolina shows a mean of 60°, or rather more. The daily variations in this region are astounding to visitors, as it is by no means rare to find the thermometer rang- ing from 2-4° at sunrise to 80° at noon or shortly after. 12. — The elevated plateaus of the Cordilleras and the Great Plains possess a drier atmosphere than other parts of the United States. The westerly winds de- posit their moisture on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevadk so that when they travel over the high lands just mentioned, they are, for all practical purposes, as dry as though they had never drank up the vapors of the Pacific Ocean. The Great Basin is largely cooled by vaporless winds, but the high crests of the Rocky Mountains procure a thin coating of snow from the little moisture which yet remains. Easterly and north- erly winds are found to be the great rain carriers for the pl.iins, so far as they are favored with fluvial visi- tations. The vegetation is scanty in this arid country, trees being limited to portions of the more elevated —itJ^ 80 COUNTRIES OP NORTH AMERICA. I mountains. Wild sage covers much of the land, and there is an efllorescence of alkali which is at first an obst.ncle to cultivation, but after being well broken, the mineral com])osition of the soil is not found objec- tionable. Previous to cultivation the aspect of the country is very unattractive, and travelers find the air unwholosome as well as unpleasant; but after settle- ment these characteristics disappear in a very great degree. Upon the Great Plains there are found during summer varieties of grass known under the generic name of buH'alo grass, wliich are cured on the ground so that they do not lose their nutritious qualities in drying. Other grasses are- now displacing the native grasses with great advantage, and more profitable stock is gradually displacing the herds of bison, deer and antelope, which once roamed at largo over those vast plains. 13. — The section extending from the 40th to the 50th parallel, which comprises Idaho, Montana and Washington, is timbered to some extent with firs and pines in considerable variety. Lofty mountain ranges of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet in height are wooded almost to the top with black pines of great height. On the eastern base of the Bitter Root range which is elsewliere known as the Coeur d'AUene Mountains, west of the Bitter Boot River, the characteristics change; the country is clothed with almost impene- trable forests, and the streams are confined to nar- rower beds in the defiles of the mountains. Further to the west, beyond the densely wooded country, the great plain of the Columbia River extends treeless, or almost treeless, and the land presenting the aspects of a troubled sea. Beyond this plain, the Cascade Moun- tains rise, and almost at their summits forests again appear, which extend to the verge of the Pacific Ocean. Gigantic pines and firs ascend to a height of from 200 to 250 feet in many cases. The best spar and ship timber attainable in the United States can be found ia Washington Territory. an be R di of or cl V( at rfi k at u tl ri V e t( S g i V t c ^ t tfERICA. h of the land, and ■liich is at first an cing well broken, is not found objec- the aspect of the !ivc4ers find the air i; but after settle- ir in a very great •e are found during under the generic red on the ground I'itious qualities in ;placing the native ore profitable stock of bison, deer and rgo over those vast )m the 40th to the aho, Montana and ixtent with firs and ;y mountain ranges leight are wooded es of great height, loot range which is 'AUene Mountains, the characteristics ith almost impene- •e confined to nar- lountains. Further ooded country, the extends treeless, or nting the aspects of the Cascade Moun- Timits forests again if the Pacific Ocean, i a height of from The best spar and lited States can be UNITED STATES. 81 1 4. _ West of the summit line of thn Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains is a comparativelv narrow belt of country, which extends from the Columnia River to the southern extremity of California, wliicli diflfers in important particulars from tlie and regions of the Cordilleras. Italv, and the countries bordoring on the ^[editerrancan, all'ord the nearest parallel to the climate of this favored region, which conduces to a vegetation entirely peculiar. The summer is compar- atively rainless, and the winters arc mild and brief, rather distinirnished as rainy seasons than what is known elsewhere as winter. Near the sea the temper- ature, naturally affected by the body of water, is more uniform than further inland, as the cold current washes the coast from north to south. 15 — Northwesterlv winds prevail almost umnter- ruptedlv from November to April, and the overheate^d vallcvs'give off, rather than absorb, moisture. South- erly and southeasterly winds prevail during the ramy term and the moisture is taken from them as they pass over the land which, during that season, is cokler than the current of moist air. In California and Ore- gon the coast ranges and low plains are destitute of forests. Near the ocean, pines and oaks are found wherever circum.stances favor the retention of mois- ture; but heavy forests only occur in the higher parts of the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains, which shut off the winds from the inland region until they have given off their fertilizing burden, ihe forests are pines in the lower ranges, but beyond an altitude of 2,800 feet, green oaks are found which mix with the pines until an altitude of 4,700 feet above the sea is attained ; beyond that point coniferous trees prevail, the gigantic pines, the redwood and other varieties, whose dimensions astound the beholder. V. POPULATION. 1 — The Population of the United States, accord- ing to the ninth census, taken ia 1870, excluding the 88 COUNTRIES OF NOiri'II AMKUICA. Indian tribes, was 38,555,083, and iiicludinp; the red- skins, 38,853,217. The number since that enumera- tion has increased immensely. Tliere aro four empires which possess a larj,'cr number of inhabitants: ihe Cliincse or Celestial Empire has 477,500.000; the British P.mpire has 174,200,000; the lia.ssian Empire has 76,500,000. and the German Empire, 40,200,000 inhabitants'. The United States, acctu'ding to the enumeration of 1870, comes ne.xt to the trerman Em- mre, but it requires no prophet to foresee that, within the current decade, relative positions- will be considerably changed. Austria and France have each about 3(5,000,- 000, but in France the increase uuring sixty years from the commencement of this ccntur v only amounted to 37 per cent., while the increase of the population of the United States during the same te--m amounted to o93 per cent. There is no other civilized nation that can compare with France in the paucity of increase, nor with this in the wonderful increase which has been exhibit- ed during the term indicated. The wealth and re- sources o1 this country, the boundless regions over which population may extend, not merely for decades, but for centuries, cannot fail to continue the march of progression until this community will exceed the Ce- festfal empire in numbers as much as ,it now excels that nation in almost every other particular. In the year 1790, our population was 3,929,214, '.nd, from that date to the present, the successive decades have shown increases to 5,308,483: 7,288.881; ?/>3J;822; 12,866,020; 17,069,453; 23,191,876; 31,443,321; to the latest rendering in 1870, 38,555,983. 2, There are three efficient cau-ses of progress in population — one by annexation, such as was secured by Germany in the cession of Alsace, by immigration such as that which brings hundreds of thousands every vear across the Atlantic to our shores, and natu- ral increase, such as will require no illustration. We have gained but little by annexation, although Louis- iana, when purchased from France, had 77,000 inhabi- UKUICA. *%■;■ including the red- uce that, cmunera- •0 aro four empires inhabitjuits : The 477,500,000; the liussian Empire Empire, 40,200,000 acct)rding to tlie 1 tlie German Em- 'scethat, wit.liin the ill be considerably .•ach about 3(5,000,- ig sixty years from nly amounted to 37 population of the 1 amounted to 593 ud nation that can if increase, >ior with li has been exhibit- 'he wealth and re- dless regions over merely for decades, itinue the march of vill exceed the Ce- 1 as ,it now excels narticular. In the ^29,214, 'ind, from isive decades have 88,881; 9,638.822; (6; 31,443,321; to ,983. uses of progress in uch as was secured ice, by immigration Ireds of thousands ur shores, and natu- illustration. \V'e )n, although Louis- had 77,000 inhabi. i Ml i r ii ll"" ■■^"■■''--■'-^-^''■"^^.•'''■-■T-i' -" CEXUUL OREENr, i^ UNITKI) STATES. 88 rmBM»h tanla; Florida, 10,000; New Mexico and California, iioarly (10,000. To.\a.s and Oregon also brought addi- tions, but mainly consistin>< of citi/cns wlio hud gorio thither anticipating tmch action. Immigration, tlio second factor, has been our main stay, ami, as a rule, it b-.ings to us a desirable class of people; more es- j)ecially has this been noticeable of la. years. While the civil war was progressing, the increa.se from immi- gration .sensibly fell oil, but, since that strife came to an end, normal conditions of growth have come onoo more into operation, and will .soon exceed all earlier records, as the intelligent and moneyed clas.ses become more conversant with the opportunities and resources ollered by this country. At one time, the underpaid laborer and tradesman, or the evicted cottier from Ire- land and Scotland formed the type of the men and women that crossed the Atlantic, but that time passed soon after ocean steamers became establish(;d as means of communication, and although the working commu- nity is still increased by continuous additions from every Euroj)ean country, commercial and other enter- prises, involving the outlay of very considerable capi- tal, bring large numbers in addition, as it were, to offi- cer the army of industry, attracted by the po-^sibility of results hardly to be found in any other country. 3. — When the last census was compiled, there were nearly 10,000,000 foreigners, or immediate descend- ants of foreigners, in our population, and the extent to which we have been indebted to that factor of de- velopment may be gathered from the estimate of natu- ral increase which, in the year 1850, would have given to the Union a population of 22,000,000 souls, sup- posing that all immigration had ceased at the time of the momentous declaration. When the war of Inde- pendence commenced, there were less than three million persons in the combmed colonies, and, from that time until 1819, the arrivals from over sea had i.-jt exceeded 250.000 ; but the Passenger act which then came into force, as well as steadily improving facilities for inter- I 84 COUNTRIES OF XOBTH AMERICA. /'I 41 .'I course, have resulted in a much greater stream since that date; indeed, the numbers arriving between tlie dates of October 1, 1819, and December 31, 1«70, amounted to 7,553,865. 4. — An influx of skilled and unskilled labor so great has, of course, assisted very materially to devel- op the resources of the country, as every person capa- ble of maintaining himself by honest labor increases the material wealth of the community to which he joins himself, and the condition of our charitable in- stitutions is conclusive evidence that most of those who come are self supporting, at the very lowest esti- mate. A celebrated German statist has tried to reduce the value of every immigrant to an account in dollars and cents, and between that gentleman and other able, authorities, the money value of every fresh arrival is variously stated at from $1,125 to rather less than $1,000. In addition to that estimate, it will be borne in mind that most of the men that come bring with them some small contribution of their own earnings toward the wages fund of the community. Massing all these accretions, and assuming $800 as the money worth of each immigration, the total addition to our wealth from that source comes near to $6,245,000,000, an amount of money positively astounding. 6. — It cannot fail to be interesting to observe in what proportion the several countries of the old world have contributed to swell our numbers up to the end of December, 1870. England had sent us 515,192 ; Ireland, 2,700,493 ; Scotland, 84,623 ; Wales, 12,435 ; and from other parts of Great Britain, not specified, 544,107, so that the total from that empire, in all its parts, during the period named, reached the splendid total of 3,857,850, or more than an eighth of the gross total of the population of Great Britain and Ireland in the year 1870, and nearly one half of the whole sum of our increase from immigration during our centen- nial period. The remainder of our increase comes, for the major part, from the German Empire, of course in- ! . nj utiw m m fntTt n i i* AMERICA. greater stream since irriving between tlie December 31, 1B70, unskilled labor so materially to devel- ,s every person capa- mest labor increases m unity to which he if our charitable in- that most of those the very lowest esti- st has tried to reduce in account in dollars leman and other able, very fresh arrival is to rather less than riate, it will be borne nat come bring with if their own earnings ommunity. Massing ; $800 as the money total addition to our lar to $6,245,000,000, stounding. •esting to observe in tries of the old world imbers up to the end ad sent us 515,192 ; ,623 ; Wales, 12,435 ; Britain, not specified, hat empire, in all its reached the splendid m eighth of the gross 3ritain and Ireland in alf of the whole sum )n during our centen- ur increase comes, for Empire, of course ia- TTNITED STATES. 86 eluding Prussia, wliicli amounts in the gross to 2,363,- 483. from the best educated population in Europe, and tlierefore the most enterprising. Austria, under the Ilapsburg.-^, is more drowsy and contented, consequent- ly only 9,31)8 have wandered across the sea to find '• Fresh woods and pastures new," during tlie same term. Sweden and Norway compare very favorably with Austria, having contributed 153,928 hardy citij zcns to our muster roll. Denmark has sent us 23,425 from the far north. AVe have received 31,118 phleg- matic Hollanders, an excellent item to be added to our too excitable community. From the Swiss Cantons we have been enriched by a contingent of 61,572 mountaineers, who have afjparently overcome their tendency to nostalgia, so that the majority remain with us. The Kingdom of Belgium has spared us 17,278 of the subjects of Leopold. France, never a colonizing country to any considerable extent, has sent us nearly a quarter of a million, the numbers being 245,812. Spain has not entirely consumed her surplus of people in her Carlist wars of succession, and 23,214 have found their way over the Atlantic to our shores, Portugal, more peaceful and prosperous, has only lost 4,695 by immigration to this country. Italy, the- kingdom of Victor Emanuel, including Sicily and Sar- dinia, his patrimonial possession, has been depleted of 26.786, forming in this nation many nuclei that will not fail to aggregate largely in succeeding decades, Eussia, with her immense territory and her restrictive policy, has still lo.st 4,045 of her people, without count- ing the 4,038 Poles, who have been in part driven over the sea by her action since Kosciusko fell. From British America we have attracted 284,491 ; from Mexico, 20,152; from Central America, 1,064; from the West Indies, 50,250 have come to better quartern than could be found in "the still vext Bermoothes;" from South America 7,644; from the sunny and beau- tiful Azores, 6,885 ; and besides 492,245 from unspeci- fied countries, which help to mak.e up the grand total I M COUNTRIES OP NORTH AMERICA. :2 II i of 7,803,865 ; the Celestial Empire, once entirely closed against western civilization, lias opened her ports to emit 109,502 of the countrymen of All Sin, immortal- ized by the genius of Bret llarte in " The Heathen Chinee?' The record is certainly interesting to philo- sophical observers. The population thus received by this country from all the rest of the world has been distributed among the states and territories so that the first named contained 38,113,253, in the year 1870, and the territories 4-12,730, the increase during ten years having been, in the territories, 183.153. and in the states 6,920,o09. Alabama had, in 1870, 996,992 ; Arkansas 484,471; California, 560,244; Ccmnecticut, 537,454 Delaware, 125.015; Florida, 187,748; Georgia, 1,184, 109; Illinois,' 2,539,891; Indiana, 1,686,637; Iowa 1,191,702: Kansas, 364,399; Kentucky, 1,321,011 Louisiana, 726,915; Maine, 626,915 ; Maryland. 780,894 Mas.sachu setts, 1,457.351 ; Michigan. 1,184,059; Mmne sota, 439,706 ; Mississippi, 827,922 ; Missouri, 1,721,295 Nebraska, 122,993 ; Nevada, 42,291 ; New Hampshire 318,300 ; New Jer.sev, 906,096 ; New York. 4,382,759 North Carolina, 1,071,361 ; Ohio, 2.665,260 ; Oregon 90,923; Pennsylvania, 3,521,791 ; Rhode Island, 217, 353; South Carolina, 705,606; Tennessee, 1,258,520 Te.vas, bi8,579; Vermont, 330,551; Virginia, 1,225,- 163; West Virginia, 442,01 4, and Wisconsin, 1,054,670. The territories cannot be fully stated, as Alaska has never yet been included in an enumeration, but the area of 577,390 square miles has already attracted the attention of a considerable colony from Ireland, and at the end of the present decade will begin to make a showing. Arizona has only been once numbered, when it showed 9,658. Colorado had, in 1870, 39,864; but henceforth tliat region will be numbered under another head ; Dakota had only 14.181 ; the District of Colum- bia, 131,700 ; Idaho, 14,999 ; Indian Territory, with its area of 71,000 square miles, has y«t to be enumer- ated ; Montana, has 20,595; New Mexico, 91,874; Utah, 86,786; Washington, 23,955, and Wyoming, AMERICA. once entirely closed :)peiie(l her ports to [ Ah Sin, immortal- e in " The Heathen interesting to philo- on thus received by the world has been erritories so that the in the year 1870, and use during ten years 153. and in the states, , 996,992 ; Arkansas, onnecticut, 537,454; '48 ; Georgia, 1,184,- a, 1,686,637; Iowa, entucky, 1,321,011 ; , ; Maryland. 780,894; m. 1,184,059; Minne- ; Missouri, 1,721,295; )1 ; New Ilanipshire, lew York. 4,382,759; , 2,665,260; Oregon, Rhode Island, 217,- ^ennessee, 1,258,520 ; 51; Virginia, 1,225,- VVisconsin, 1,054,670. bated, as Alaska has jnumeration, but the already attracted the ly from Ireland, and will begin to make a once numbered, when in 1870, 39,864; but nbered under another the District of Colum- ndian Territory, with as yet to be enumer- few Mexico, 91,874; ,955, and Wyoming, UNITED STATES. 87 9,118. Utah would have been a state, in all proba- bility, long since, but for the dominance of Mormonism and its attendant polygamy, which is a difficult prob- lem for the politicians and statesmen of our day. 6. — It will be seen that the rate of increase has been very unequal in the several divisions indicated ; thus in Nevada the progression has been more than 500 per cent. ; in Nebraska, over 300 ; in Kansas, 240; and in Minnesota, over 150. In the territories there have been increases of 187 per cent, in Colorado since then become a state ; in Utah, 116 per cent., and in Wash- ington, 112 per cent. Coming below the.se large aver- ao'es, there are still enormous increments to show, as for instance in Iowa, 77 per cent. ; in the District of Columbia, 75 ; in Oregon, 73 ; in Michigan, 58 ; in Illinois, 48 ; and in California, 471 per cent. ; rates of growth which compare very favorably with the older states in which a higher development demands special fitness and capital as conditions precedent to success in life for the mass; because of the greater density of the population with which new comers must compete. The former slave states have only averaged an increase of 17 per cent, although some of them have grown more than 30 per cent, where the soil and the climate have drawn the people in spite of the setoff, which in the future disappears from our record. New England has increased in its several states less than the aver- age of the union because the ground has long been comparatively well covered. Maine has decreased 2 per cent ; South Carolina has fallen off 3 per cent., and New Hampshire, the state of which Daniel Web- ster said that it was a good location from which to emigrate, has only increased 2 per cent New Mexico has increased little more than 1 per cent, although the density of its population is small, but many circum- stances have tended to postpone the day for an indus- trial conquest thera Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island are densely peopled by comparison with the rest of the states, although sparsely occupied by ™J i 1 1 88 COUNTRIES OP NORTH AMERICA. i: contrast with other countries, and the increase within their area has only averaged about 18 per cent, in the decade from 18G0 to 1870; but then- populations averag;-e^s- "When the last census was taken they numbered o8d,- 712, of which 23-±,7-±0 were nomadic, scattered over the 'thinly peopled western territories; 90,306 were livin"- under agencies and upon government reserva- tions° colorably participating in the work of civiliza- tion; and 25,731 were living outside tribal relations as broken bands. Tne Ethiopian race came to the coun- try as semi-Biitish importations before the war of In- dependence had made us masters of our own destiny, and the legacy of wrong has cost us dearly. Four years after the commencement . of our era in 1790, there were 757.3-13 negroes in the United States, and of that aggregate only 59,446 were free. !« jjje ye^r 1860 there were 487,990 free negroes, and 3,9o3,7bO slaves, making an aggregate of 4,441,756. The cen- sus in 1870 showed a total of 4,808.387 free negroes, from nearly the whole of whom the shackles had been stricken bv the war which commenced at Fort Sumter. Darin"' the decade that preceded the Great Rebellion, i ,1 ERICA. he increase witliin 18 per Cent, in the thei'' populations 16 square mile. )rospered best as a ation has resulted is so well known )gation to cite in- now being aggre- nsequently possess lobe, seeing that of . the nations seem epresented in our ian, the Ethiopian, or superior race ; of complexion as : races. The Indi- le included in our irery limited extent, ! laws of progress, ley numbered 383,- adic, scattered over jries; 90,366 were nvernment reserva- le work of civiliza- le tribal relations as e came to the coun- fore the war of In- of our own destiny, ,t us dearly. Four [ our era in 1790, United States, and ireii. In the year roes, and 3,953,760 ,441,756. Tbe cen- 68.387 free negroes, e shackles had been iced at Fort Sumter, the Great Eebellion, UNITED STATES. 89 the increase of that section of our population was a little more than 22 per cent., while the general increase was over 35 per cent ; and while the war progrossed and afterwards, the unsettled condition of aflairs wlncH depressed the general average to 22.64 per cent., repre- sented the increase of the whole colored population by 9.6 per cent. . ,1,1 8. — In the year 1870 the proportion of colored people to the sum total of our population was as 14^ to 100 but in some cities the preponderance was largely in favor of the negroes, as for instance in Charleston, S C where the numbers were 26 black to less than 24 white. The proportion in the several states and territories may be given with advantage, but the whites predominate in every section except in South CaroUna and Mississippi. South Carolina had o9 per cent of negroes; Mississippi, 53; FloridM8.7; Alabama, 47.7 , Georgia, 46; Virginia, 41.9; iNorth Carolina, 3h.5, Distifet of Columbia, 33 ; Texas, 30.9 ; Arkansas, 27.3 , Tennessee, 25.5 ; Maryland, 22.4 ; Delaware, 18.2 ; Kentucky, 16.9 ; Indian Territory, 9.4 ; and Missouri, 6 8 In the remainder of the union the proportions are much smaller, as for instance in California Oregon, lewa, Vermont, Maine, Wisconsin, Arizona, Colorado, Minnesota, Massachusetts, Nebraska Nevada, New Hampshire, Montana, New Mexico, Utah and Wast- in'^ton Territory there are only small fractions of 1 per cent In Connecticut there is a little more than 1 per cent ; and the same proportion, bating fractions, ap- plies to Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, New York, i enn- sylvania and Wyoming. Louisiana has 5 per cent. Kansas, whose first draft of a state constitution pro- hibited the presence of a negro, bond or free upon the soil, has a little more than 4 per cent New Jersey has a little more than 3; West Virginia, 4; and Ohio, Khode Island, Dakota and Idaho a fraction more than 2 per cent The prosperity of states may be held to be as a rule, in the inverse ratio to the preponderance of the colored population, not because of any fault la i 4f 1^ yu 40 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. that section of tlic people, but because of the social condition, ',o which their numbers testify. 9. — Of late years some few Japanf^se have come into tliis country as settlers, but they are generally in- cluded with other Mongolians under the head Chinese, as their number is small. Chinese are found in no less than twenty-three states. California had 35,565 in the year 1860, but the entire Mongolian immigra- tion onU' amounted to four per cent, of the total in- crease from that source of growth. The Chinese do not emigrate as families, nor with the idea that this country shall be their permanent home, as only seven per cent, of the Mongolian stream consists of females, and they are to a very large extent brought over by speculators to the great cities on the Pacific .slope, without matrimonial intentions. The highest number of Chinese arriving in the country in any one year was less than 15,000. China is so entirely the engrossing idea with the followers of Con Futze or Confucius, that those who come to this country under contract, specially provide for the return of their remains to their native country should they die during their term of service. The natural increase of that race in this country can hardly enter into the calculations of the economist for many generations to come, until the stunted and peculiar civilization of the Celestial em- pire has been abraded. 10. — The Caucasian or White races constitute the bulk of our population, numbering 86.45 per cent, of the bulk, or in all 33,589,857. The Aryan race may be said to comprise the numbers thus given, although some writers make distinctions, more or less valuable, speaking of the Aryans as the Indo Germanic and the Indo European race. 11. — The only Semitic element in the population of the I^'nited States is that of the Hebrews, a very valuable contingent among commercial peoples, but their numbers cannot be specified ; it is, however, esti- mated that their total falls below 100,000. The Aryan LM ERICA. ;ause of the social testify. :\panese have come ey are generalh' in- ;r the head Chinese, se are found in no ilifornia had 35,565 Mongolian immigra- cnt. of the total in- h. Tlie Chinese do the idea that this iiome, as only seven consists of females, )nt brought over by 1 the Pacific slope, rhe highest number in any one year was irely the engrossing 'utze or Confucius, itry under contract, of their remains to ie during their term of that race in this 3 calculations of the to come, until the of the Celestial em- races constitute the ig 86.45 per cent, of 'he Aryan race may ;hus given, although ore or less valuable, lo Germanic and the it in the population ;he Hebrews, a very nercial peoples?, but ; it is, however, esti- .00,000. The Aryan UNITED STATES. 41 race or races have almost entirely contributed to the substantial progress of this nation, the Germanic and Celtic nationalities prevailing largely. 12. — The Anglo Saxon or English, more particu- larly,'were the first settlers, contributing to our com- monwealth their idiosyncrasies, language, laws and institutions so completely that the nation will_ never cease to show the impress and direction thus given m the imitation of these communities, however various may be iho influx from other countries, and however vi"orous the growth as among ourselves. 13. — The German element in our population has been a 'steady influx for many years, except where local circumstances have dulled the taste of the pec^le for more distant enterprise. The wars of the first JNa- poleon may have been one of the causes that kept down the aggregate of immigration before the year 1819 to 250^)00; but since that date, with abatements durincr the Franco Prussian War, which for a time ab- sorbed all Germany, there has been observable a con- tinuous flow of German peoples towards favored sec- tions of the states. Rural pursuits engross a large proportion of the colonies that come, sometimes suiji- ciently numerous to sustain in a very large degree the customs of the Fatherland. There are such settle- ments to be found in Iowa, and in the bhenandoali Valley of Virginia ; in Wisconsin ; and in Pennsylvania there are many districts in which the language still continues to be spoken by native born American de- scendants of the original settlers, from the Palatinate. The Hollanders, in whose hands New Yorlc city was New Amsterdam, on the Island of Manhattan, settled the soutliern part of New York state, and the western shore of the Delaware River was colonized by the Swedes. i ^- • 14 —The Celtic element in our population is very largely Irish, and from the earliest times that con- tingent of the mass has been considerable. After the establishment of the Prince of Orange on the English 43 COUNTUIES OF NORTH AMERICA. i: throne, and tlie defeat of James II at Boyne Water, tlie How ol Irish emigration this way beeamj large, so that in little more than half a century, ending in 17-45, the era of the last attempt of the Stuaii pretenders to the English throne, 208,000 persons liad come to this country from Ireland. Soon after the Treaty of Ver- sailles had been subscribed, there were systems adojjted under which the nationalities of new arrivals were more or less ascertained, and it is calculated that of the 165,000 iunnigrants that came to this country between 1790 and 181-i, a term of twenty-live years, nearly nine-tenths were Irish, and very largely from the scuth of Ireland. Tiie laboring class in the large nianufac- turing and commercial centers are mainly Irish, and comparatively few go into the rural districts to engage in agriculture, partly because the thriftless systems of farming which were common in the land of their birth could not endure in competition with the customs of this country. 15._ \Vhen the Huguenots were persecuted by the Duke of Guise and his followers in the sixteenth cen- tury, many came to this country and formed colonies, and the same lact was noticeable in the seventeeth and eighteenth centuries, when the revocation of the Edict of Nantes disgusted the Protestant element in France, as weVl as in other times of persecution and spoliation. When Mis.souri and Louisiana were pur- chased of the first Napoleon, the population of these regions were almost exclusively French, and there was a large settlement of Frenchmen in South Carolina at a much earlier date. Florida, Texas, California and New Mexico, successively annexed, have added a con- tingent of Spaniards and'Spanish half-breeds, amount- ing, however, to only a few thousands, still enough to bring up the aggregate of the Komanic nations rep- resented here to respectable numbers. The ancient Sclavonic race or nations, represented by Russians, Poles, and some few of the ruder peoples, contribute but little to our mass, and are soon completely merged in the general array. kl ERICA. at Boyne Water, y beciun j lai ge, so •y, etulingin 174:5, tuaii pretenders to s liaii coirie to this the Treaty of Ver- re systems adojjteil arrivals were more ilated that of tlie is eountry between -five years, nearly ely from the scuth ilie large manufac- I mainly Irish, and districts to engage hriftless systems of land of their birth iih the customs of 3 persecuted by the 1 the sixteenth cen- iid formed colonies, in the seventeeth J revocation of the jtestant element in of persecution and jouisiana were pur- population of these snch, and there was 1 South Carolina at ixas, California and , have added a con- lalf-breeds, amount- sands, still enough omanic nations rep- bers. The ancient ented by Russians, peoples, contribute I completely merged UNITED STATES, 43 16. — The ethnological interest which attaches to the question of the combination of races, which will in the course of years, or rather of generations, evolve a race distiiiguishably American, makes it worth while to pursue the inquiry, not exhaustively, but for the purpose of directing other intellects to the subject The materials yet at our disposal are too scanty and rough to allow of conclusive generalization. Since the year 1S20 nationality has been specilied in the re- turns as to immigration ; before that date estimates only could be made upon loose data. In the year mention- ed, 1820, our white population numbered 7,862,106, and since that time our wliite immigration comes with- • in about half a inillion of our entire white population in 1870, which was then 3;3,580,98y. 17. — The excess of births over deaths, or natural increase, represents 17,930,000, between the years 1820 and 1870, a term of lifty years. It will not be diflicult for any person having a taste in that direction, to de- vide the increase thus described, among the American ■white population proper, as shown in the lirst named year — as the quarter of a million that had in all been drawn by immigration, after the first settlement up to 1820, cannot be a disturbing cause of any magnitude — and the contributions from the various nationalities from which the vast bulk of immigration has come, since that time, so that the numbers pertaining to each section of the mass known as the American people may be credited to their several sources. This subject can be followed to results at once curious and valu- able. VI. INDUSTRIES. 1. — The number of individuals engaged in occu- pations and receiving payment by wages, commissions and salaries, was in the year 1870, 12,505,998, of which 1,886,288 were females, and 10,669,645 males. Tlie aggregate of persons without recognizable occu- pations was singularly large, but the number of stu- 44 COUNTRIES OP NORTH AMERICA. dents preparing for professional life, of other persons whose bodily intirrnilies precluded them f;om labor, and the too consideruble sections included in the pauper and criminal classes, account for nearly the ■whole of the population between the ages ot 16 and 60 years. Tiiore were more than nine million females above sixteen years of age who were not stated as engaged in gainful industries, but of that number it is assumed that nearly 7,600,000 were keeping house, many lived upon accumulated properties, others were attending school with or without the prospect of en- gaging \n tuition, some were living at home with their pareniJ and others supported by their sons and daugh- ters, bosiiles whicl' of course a class exists everywhere comprised of paupers, vagrants and worse. 2. — There were according to the census, very nearly six millions of persons engaged in agriculture in 1870, including 2,977,711 farmers and planters ; 2,885,996 agricultural laborers; 31,435 gardeners and imrsery- men ; 6,588 stock raisers, and 5,590 herdsmen employed by raisers of stock. 3^ _ Professional and Personal Services employ 2,68'-i,793 persons, divided into upwards of seventy distinct occupations; embracing 1,031,666 laborers, whose avocations could not be more particularly de- scribed, and 975,734 domestic servants, of whom more than 100,000 were males. The returns show that about one family in eight in the United States employ female help. Of the who!3 number of servants the majority claimed to be American born ; 145,956 were Irish : 42,866 were German ; 14,878 were British American ; 12,531 English ; 5,420 Chinese, leaving 728,180 as of American nativity. The other several occupations such as hairdressers and barbers, boarding house keepers, hotel keepers, restaurateurs, clerks and employes in hotels und other such^ places of en- tertainment, clerks in government offices, and laun- dresses with their employes amount in the aggregate to 210,997. There were authors and lecturers, 458, and 1 itlERICA. UNITED STATES. 46 !, of Other persons tliein f;om labor, included in the int for nearly the the ages ot 16 and han nine million vho were not stated t of that number it 3re keeping house, pcrtics, others were the prospect of en- at home with their eir sons and daugh- 5 exists everywhere 1 worse. I census, very nearly agriculture in 1870, planters ; 2,885,996 eners and nursery- herdsmen employed 1 Services employ ipwards of seventy 1,031,666 laborers, lore particularly de- ants, of whom more returns show that nited States employ iber of servants the born ; 145,956 were 4,878 were British 20 Chinese, leaving The other several id barbers, boarding lurateurs, clerks and such places of en- It offices, and laun- mt in the aggregate ad lecturers, 468, and 608 chemists; 164 metallurgists ; 43,874 clergymen; 7,839 dentists ; 4,703 civil engineers ; 5,286 journalists ; 2,671 l.xnd surveyors; 40,736 naturalists ; 62,383 sur- geons^ and physicians, and 1,169 veterinary surgeons. Tlie flno arts had about six thousand persons engaged in their didusion, including 2,017 architects ; 934 de- signers and draughtsmen ; 775 painters ; 250 sculptors, and 2,948 artists, who were not more i>articular in their description than that word implies, 'i'iie class of teachers amounted to 136,570, of wliom 9,491 devoted their attention to music ; 14!» to dancing; 108 to draw- ing and painting, the rest being engaged in general tuition. ^' — Trade and Transportation necessarily include the great eommereial class tliroughout the commnnity, aggregating nearly twelve iiundred thousand. Bank- ei-s and brokers number 14,362, and their oihcial and clerical stall amounted to 10,2(55 ; the railroad enter- prise of the country at that time employed 163,303 pen. ins, and the electric telegraph, 8,'579, besides whicn the various express comiianies employ 9,396. Traders and dealers numbered 1.262,268 ; their clerks, 222,504; their bookKeepcrs and accountants, 31,177 ; their commercial travelers, 7.262, and their sales clerks, 14,203. There were 56,663 sailors : 21,332 boatmen and watermen ; 7,338 canalmen ; 7,975 men and women employed on steamboats, and 3,567 persons engaged in the freight and shipping business. 5. — Manufactures, Mechanical Pursuits and Mining in their .several departments, employed in 1870, 2,707,421 persons, including carpenters, 344,596; boot and shoemakers, 171,127 ; tailors and .seamstresses, 161,820; miners, 152,107: blacksmiths, 141,714; cot- ton mill operatives, 111,606; woolen mill operatives, 58,836 ; mill and factory operatives who did not speci- fy their particular employments, 41,619; masons, 80,710; painters and varnishers, 85,123; printers, 39,860, and manufacturers, 42,877, showing an aggre- gate of immense value to the commonwealth. ftt.-^.' 46 cor NTH IKS OP NOUTII AMKUICA. VII. KHLTATION. 1. — ScirooLS liftvc always been recogni/cd in tliin country lis part of tin" },'rcat means most to l)o ilosircd for tlie aiuflioralion ot luiinan conditions. The groat University at Harvard was founded by the early .set- tlers in MassacluKsetts only twenty years after their arduous career was begun on this continent, and long before that era schools, simple but cll'ective, had been in opcratiim to .«ecure for the children of the Tilgrinis those advantag(!S whicli had been so well used bv their sires. Schooling and mental culture of a tolerably se- vere order prevailed in all the colonics to siome extent, and other colleges soon followed upon the establish- ment of Harvard, so that even at tlio very beginning mind was reverenced as the best gift of Heaven. The au'-junt of money expended by individuals and by the cominunity.at large in this country challenges favor able comparison with like outlays for scliool pur|)osc 5 in the several grades in any other country in tlie world. Ttie number and value of ourschool buildings and the means providing in such establishments for the culture of youth are : ')t excelled even if equaled anywhere. During the year 1871, there were benefactions from pri- vate cTtizens to the several educational^establishments of the country amounting in all to $8,692,000. Such gifts have little value by comparison with the muniti- cent endowments of some of the foundation schools in Europe, but when it is borne in mind thatsud lona- tions are ailorded from the benevolence of the living generation, and that they can never fail to provoke emulation, ii will be seen that the future of our school system is muniiiceutly cared for. 2.— New England first originated a general system of education, substituting method on a large scale for the somewhat spasmodic efforts of individual?, and while the colonies were yet in their childhood, provis- ion was made in the year 1628, for the proper school- ing of every child in the settlements. Nine years later VMKUICA. N. II rccogni/cd in tlii.s ini).Ht to l)(! (U'sil'LMl iilitioiiH. Tlu! great ed by the early set- ;y yours after their eotitinent, and long t elVeetive, had been Iren of tlie I'ilgrirnH io well used bv their re of 11 tolerably sc- )nies to oome extent, upon the establi.sh- tlie very beginning ift of Heaven. The dividuulsand by the ry ehallenges favor I for seiiool pur[)osc 5 ;ountry in tlie world. :)ol buildings and the ment.s for theeulture equaled anywdiere. benefactions from pri- ,ional establishtnenta $8,592,000. Such son with the muniti- [oundation schools in nind thatsud loua- folence of the living lever fail to provoke ! future of our school ited a general system i on a large scale for of individual?, and eir childhood, provis- [or the proper school- nts. Nine years later T^NITKI) STATKS. 4T orders were made that there should be a school for every lifty families, and for eveiy hundrewA it em- braces military tactics, engineering, natural and experi- mental philosophy, mathematics, drawing, chemistry, mineralogy and geology, ethics and law, the French and Spanish languages, ordnance and gunnery. There is always great competitioa for the honor of an ap- ' I' 52 COUNTniES OF NOKTJl AMERICA. pointincnt to the academy, and candidates must pass a prelitninary examination in muling, wntii^g, elemen- tary aritlunetic, English grammar, gecgraphy, and the history of this country. Besides passing creditably throu.di such an examination, there are hinitations as to ag(.° as the candidate must not be less than seven- teen^nor more than twenty-two years of age at the tune of admission. The academy in which young men are trained for the Navy is at Annapolis, Maryland; and primarily the management is vested in a superintend- ent and eight naval officer assistants. Tlie statt of professors is very strong, as it consists of sixty-seven duly (lualiiied teachers, competent to give instrnetion in seamanship, steam engineering, mathematics, astron- omv and navigation, natural philosophy, drawing, ethics and English literature, and the French and Spanish languages. The limitation as to age is lower in the naval academy at Annapolis than in the mili- tary school at West Point, as candidates must not ex- ceed eiglitecn years of age, and must be over fourteen. The number is limited to 253 at present, and an exam- ination similar to that already mentioned, which must be iiassed at West Point, is also a sine qua non at An- napolis. Tlie value of such institutions cannot be overrated, and it is matter for congratulation that the youth of today highly value the advantages offered. t),_Many circumstances conspire to keep down the average of education in this country, in spite of the immense outlays undertaken by individuals and communities to diffuse the blessings gjjjlhorough train- ing. Nearly 15 per cent, of the whole population can neither read nor write, the number of sucli unfortu- nates above the age of ten years being 5,568.144. In the slave states, for raany years before the Great lle- bellion, the labors of the schoolmaster were entirely forbidden among the colored population, and among the lower class of whites there was little amb-tion for culture. Add to that unfortunate fact the well-known circumstance that a large proportion of the imraigra- lMERICA. (lidatcs must pass a ig, writing, eli'men- gecgraphy, anfl the pas.^iiig creditably are liinitalioiis as be less tlian seven- rs of age at the time lich young men are lis, Maryland; and id in a superintend- ;ants. Tlie staff of isists of sixty-seven , to give instruction mathematics, astron- iiilosophy, drawing, id the French and )n as to age is lower is than in the mili- lidates must not ex- ist be over fourteen, resent, and an exam- ntioned, which must sine qua iton at An- ititutions cannot be igratulation that the advantages offered, spire to keep down country, in spite of 1 by individuals and igs gfa^horough train- whole population can t)er of such unfortu- being 5,568.144. In before the Great lle- imaster were entirely pulation, and among ras little amb'tion for e fact the well-known tion of the immigra- UNITED STATES. 68 tion that comes to these shores is from countries and from classes in which sound instru(!tion and competent training arc the exception rather than the rule. Italy, France, and even England, are less happily placed than our own country in this respect, as tiieir propor- tion of illiterates is much larger, while of course there is not in either of the countries named the same ex- cuse to be made on the score of a recent enfranchise- ment of nearly five millions of an oppressed race; or that a large stream of immigration depresses the gen- eral average. Still there is a residue of ignorance and neglect, that cannot be accounted for among ourselves in either of the ways named, and every intellectual and patriotic American will see therein the necessity for wider and more continuous effort. There arc some states in which elementary schools are not sufficiently numerous to meet the wants of the communit}', and there are localities and classes in which scarcely any- thing less than the strong arm of the law will suffice to bring within the discipline of the school those youths for whom training is most wanted. It is claimed by some persons, whose opinions are worthy of grave consideration, that the low rates of remunera- tion afforded to school teachers of both sexes have an effect in dulling the avidity of youth for proper cul- ture, inasmuch as it betrays a want of practical appre- ciation for the fruits of study, in a peculiarly practical age. Space will not permit a thorough discussion of the question here, but much could be said in favor of the proposition. The southern states are still far be- hind other parts of the Union in providing school ac- commodations, and the scattered population in new territories cannot possibly give as much attention to such matters as the important duty demands. Some portions of the country have framed enactments to compel attendance at school, and although, at the first glance, such regulations seem antagonistic to the genius of our institutions, the interests of the natioa at large and of the individuals immediately concerned must override all sentimental scruples. f ..Ji-*' I-: 64 COUNTRIES OP NORTH AMERICA. 10. — The areas of illiteracy may almost be said to be geographical. From Chesapeake Bay, ^ line drawn through the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, southern Arkansas and Texas, •would inclose an area in which the number of those ■who are unable to read and write ranges from twenty to sixty per cent., and, in some considerable stretches of country, more than sixty per cent, are unable to read and write their own names. The northern parts of the New England States, central New York, north- ern Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, southern Michigan and nearly the whole of Iowa, show an im- mense population in which barely five percent, fail to read and write. The balance of the states north of the Missouri and Oh o Hi vers vary in their returns from five per cent, of illiterates to twenty. The causes ■which account for the variations now pointed out, ■vs'ould permit of ample elucidation did space allow. The facts are entirely beyond question. 11. — Books constitute the university always open to the adult whose mind has been cultivated up to the point of being able to appreciate their value, and all things considered, there is no nation perhaps to be found that has within the same brief period so largely increased its public and private collections of books in proportion to its native born population. Ameri- cans are readers, in the northern and western states more particularly, and in almost every household, however limited, the works of some far popular au- thors may be found. When the last census was com- piled in 1870, there were found to be 108,800 libraries in private hands, with an aggregate of 26,072,420 vol- umes, and the public libraries numbered 56,015, with 19,459,518 volumes, the gross total being 45,528,938 books in 164,815 libraries ; but that statement, large as it may seem, falls far below the truth. Tue value of books published, and the excellence observable in some editions of the best works, cannot be enjoyed by the ordinary reader of the poorer class except by n t; n S' r c r c V a a 1 1 t r 6 r s I t t ( .J 1 1 ( 1 AMERICA. ay almost be said to ce Bay, :j. Hue drawn Florida, Alabama, j'kaiisas and Texas, he number of those ranges from twenty )nsiderable stretches cent, are unable to The northern parts al New York, north- ind Illinois, southern f Iowa, show an im- ■ five per cent, fail to [ the states north of fary in their returns ) twenty. The causes IS now pointed out, ion did space allow, istion. ersity always open to cultivated up to the their value, and all ation perhaps to be rief period so largely collections of books population. Ameri- n and western states st every household, sme far popular au- last census was coin- ) be 108,800 libraries te of 26,072,420 vol- mbered 56,015, with tal being 45,628,938 that statement, large he truth. Tiie value ellence observable in jannot be enjoyed by rer class except by UNITED STATES. 65 means of public libraries, in which such aids to good taste, sound erudition and developed intellect are made available to all comers. The incompetency of some of the officials engaged in collecting the census, rendered the returns necessarily untrue as to some lo- calities. The deputy marshal for the state of Con- necticut gave no returns as to private libraries, and of course that state would, if the documentary evidence were taken as conclusive, occupy a very low status among the other states of the union. It is assumed, apparently on good grounds, that the congressional library in Washington, which in 1870 contained 190,000 volumes, is the largest collection of books on this continent. Pennsylvania had in all her libraries, public and private, so far as returns were procured, 6,447,840 volumes; New York, 6,310,302; Ohio, 3,687,363; Illinois, 3,323,914; Massachu.setts, 3,017,- 813; Michigan, 2,174,744; Kentucky, 1,909,230; Ma- ryland, 1,713,483; Indiana, 1,125,553; and in the state of Missouri, 1,065,638. Several of the states made returns showing less than 1,000,000, but more than 500,000 volumes; it is however probable that the statement is below the fact in many instances : Wisconsin, Vermont, Tennessee, Rhode Island, North Carolina, New Ha'mpshire, New Jersey, Louisiana, Alabama, Iowa, and the District of Columbia. With reference to the last named district, the congressional library of 190,000 volumes may be taken as some evidence that the return could be somwhat varied, with an approach to truth. Wyoming and Arizona, ■with their sparse populations, have less than three thousand volumes in all libraries, public and private, so far as could be ascertained. The returns are of course partial. 12. — It has been estimated that the United States of America print and issue a larger number of news- papers than all the rest of the world put together, and although some of the publications named scarcely disserve to rank with the broadsheets published in the .y.. „J^' 56 COUKTKTES OF XORTIl AMERICA. Fi metropolitan cities, they yet supply a want in the coinmunilv, and in some (Ic^M-ee, even v.. the worst cases hchi' to sustain the intellectual tone of the pub- lic. In the year 1870, the census shows that there were 5,871 newspapers and periodicals issuing no less than 1,508.548,250 copies per annum, with a circula- tion of 20,842,475. Forty numbers were thus pub- lished during the year for every individual, assummg that the distribution was evenly made ; but of course that was not the fact ; and every 6,800 of the popula- tion of the union could be provided with one news- aaper and one magazine. Daily papers then pub- lished amounted to 574; tri- weeklies, to 107; semi- weeklies, to 115 ; weeklies, to 4,295 ; semi-monthlies, to 95; monthlies, to 622; bi-monthlies, to 13; and quarterlies, to 49. The vast mnjority of all the sev- eral issues discussed the political issues of the day, takincr sides, the actual number being 4,833 ; nearly one hundred make a speciality of agriculture ; oyer eio'hty are devoted to benevolent and secret organiza- tions ; 142 are commercial and financial organs ; over 500 are illustrated papers, more or less devoted to lit- erary culture; over 400 are religious; 207 are techni- cal and professional ; 6 are sporting publications, and 79 contained advertisements only. It will be seen that a wide range of tastes must be consulted in the successful management of so many publications. VIII. GOVERNMENT. l._A Commonwealth of Kepublican Conimon- weaiths is the nearest approah to a brief description of the federal government of the United States ; democracy in its broadest sense, the rule of the people, being the bases of the superstructure. Although the Declara- tion of Independence only dates from July 4, 1776, the government under which we now live had been informally begun in May, 1775, when a congres3 assembled in Philadelphia to consider and take action upon the oppressive policy that had been inauguated AMERICA. -iply a want in tVic , even ill the worst lal tone of the pub- is shows that there licals issuing no less num, with a circulu- ers were thus pub- individual, assuming nade ; but of course 6,800 of the ponula- ded with one news- y papers then pub- u>k]ies, to 107 ; serni- 295 ; semi-monthlies, mthlios, to 13; and jority of all the sev- al issues of the day, being 4,833; nearly of agriculture ; over and secret organiza- inancial organs ; over 3r less devoted to lit- ;ious ; 207 are techni- ihg publications, and ly. It will be seen be consulted in the ly publications. ENT. Republican Common- ) a brief description of ted States ; democracy the people, being the Llthough the Declara- !s from July 4, 1776, 'e now live had been 75, when a congress nsider and take action had been inauguated 41 UNITED STATBJS. 57 by Great Britain. The will of tlie colonists had already been pronounced in favor of home rule and against arbitrary levies and exactions by the British Parliament, although there were hopes that the repre- sentations made and to be made by tiie agent of the colonies would result in a peaceful accommodation of all difiicultics. The foolish obstinacy of King George III proved all such hopes fallacious, and the war of independence whi"h followed the world famous declaration vindicated the rights of the people to erect on these shores the free states which now afford refuge against tyranny to all mankind. The Articles of Con- federation were agreed to November 15, 1777, but a delay of more than three years elapsed before the states unanimously acoc^rded their approval of the action taken by congress. There was a fudamental error in the articles, as the federal power was not armed with authority to enforce its decrees whenever the states, or any one of them, in their sovereign capacity assumed to be inherent in all relations should refuse obedience. As against individual, each com- monwealth had power within its own dominion, but the same rule did not apply with like rigor in the larger commonwealth in which sovereign <*tates be- came individuals. This defect had to be amended, in that union and strength should be realized, as other- wise the confederation must be little other than a rope of sand, unless under unfavorable circumstances, the arm of military force, invoked to uphold federal authority, might have changed the whole fabrij into a despotism wielded by an un.scrupulous ruler for a time. So much had been suffered from authority, that the first essay towards self government erred on the side of weakening the central focus to an extent inconsistent with the common safely. To remedy this cardinal mistake, a convention assembled in Phil- adelphia in May, 1787, in which all the states except Ehode Island were represented by delegates, and after several months of careful consideration, the articles 58 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA, were revised and amended, pnbjcot to tlie approval of the several states. Tlie • eiulmenls tlieii made brouglit into operation tho constitution of the United States wliicli is now in force. Every state in due course convened by delegates to consi. any department or officer thereof." The powers thus exercised are the levying and collection of taxes and duties with due regard to equality and uniformity throughout the United States ; the procurement of loans on the credit of the union whenever necessary ; the reg- ulation of commerce between the several states and lorcigQ nations ; the establishment of uniform laws as ■ % AMERICA. ;ct to tlio approval ulments tlieii rnailo II lion of the United Every state in due 2oiisi authorize the Presi- ipointments made by o the advice and con- he ])urpose of raising the Senate, but when into the possession of rein, or projiose any oflice, the Vice Presi- •esident of the Senate, UNITED STATES. 01 and in his absence the Senate .shall elect a temporary presiding oHicer. I'lie Senate al.so appoints a secre- tary to record its ])rocet;dings, a sergeant at ai'uis to carry out the will of the body, and to arrest ollenders, and a doorkeeper to prevent unlawful intrusion upon its dt.'liberatioiis. (}. — The House of Representatives is the second body, and it has })owers coordinate in most respects with the Senate. Its members an> chosen by the 'ireet vote of the people, in the several states, every si'oml year, acording to the jmpulation in each state, .s set "forth in the census last obtained. The whole nn.nibcr of repre.senatives to which a state is entitled being de- termined by Congress after each decade shall have ' x- pired, the local distribution of the ro{)resentativcs de- volves u|)on the .several states. A candidate to bo eligible lor election must have attained the age of twenty-live year.'*, and must be a citizen and a resident in thestate for wliich he is elected. The house must choose its own speaker, clerk, sergeant at arm.s, door- keeper, and other olliccr.s. In this House is vested the e.\(;lusive right to originate bills hu' .ng for their object the levy of a ttxK or duties ; the power of the Eurse is thus held by the representatives of the people, cgislative and advisory duties properly devolve upon Congress, the judicial and executive functions are else- where itn posed, but as we have .seen, one chamber may be constituted a High Court for the trial of ollenders against the United States, under the process of im- peachment; a power seldom called into requisition, 7, — The JuniciAr, BiiAXCir. This power consists of the Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Con- gress may from time to time ordain and app(y:!,i i\ll cases of law and equity arising under the cou^. .Lution, under the laws of the United States, and under treaties made by the authority of the United States, come under the jurisdiction of this branch, as also all cases which af- fect ambassadors or other public min'siM's and consuls ; cases of maritime jurisdiction una admiralty causes X!" 62 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. generally pertain to the Supreme Court, and all con- troversies to wliicli the United States n-ay become a party ; questions of law between two or more states, or between citizens of different state., or between citi- zens of the same state wlio may filaim lands under grants from otlier states, or as between a citizen and the state in which he resides, or any fi)reign state. g, Where ambassadors or other public ministers and'consuls are affected, and in any case in which the state may be a party, the Supreme Court may exercise original jurisdiction ; but in other cases such as have been specified, the court has appellate jurisdiction only, both as to fact and law, subject to such exceptions as may be made bv Congress. 9. The Supreme Court is, as its name implies, the highest judicial tribunal in the United States. The court is composed of a Chief Justice and eight Asso- ciate Justices, who hold their offices for life or durmg good behavior. The Chief Justice presides in his court and regulates the order in which business shall be transacted, controlling the docket and assigning to the Associate Justices the cases in which they shall prepare opinions. . , 10, There are nine Judicial Circuits in the United States, and a Circuit Court must be held twice every year in each state within the circuit, by a justice of the Supreme Court duly assigned to that duty, and by the District Judge of the state or district iu which said court is held. 11. — Original and appellate jurisdiction are alike vested in the Circuit Courts, which have concurrent jurisdiction with the state courts when the matter in dispute exceeds in money value $500, and the United States is a plaintiff, or where an alien is a party, or where the controversy arises between citizens of differ- ent states. In all cases of crime against the United States, such courts have exclusive jurisdiction, unless the law expressly confers the power upon other courts. la all admiralty cases, and in most of the cases arising :-A.' AMERICA. Court, and all con- states n-ay become a n two or more states, tate;, or between citi- y filaim lands under etweon a citizen and iny foreign state, tber public ministers my case in which the le Court may exercise 3r cases such as have Hate jurisdiction only, to such exceptions as as its name implies, le United States. The istice and eight Asso- fices for life or during istice presides in his which business shall cket and assigning to s in which they shall Circuits in the United t be held twice every juit, by a justice of the ) that duty, and by the district ia which said jurisdiction are alike hich have concurrent rts when the matter in ; $500, and the United n alien is a party, or tween citizens of differ- ne against the United ive jurisdiction, unless )wer upon other courts, lost of the cases arising UNITED #rATE3. 68 under the custom laws and in bankruptcy, the district courts have original jurisdiction. 12. — Claims against the government prior to the year 1856 could only be dealt with by petition to Con- gre.ss, and the process was so unsatisfactory that the court of claims was established at the date mentioned, and under its jurisdiction come all questions as to demands upon the government which the regular de- partments refuse or fail to satisfy. The court consists of live Judges appointed by the President, subject to the advice and consent of the senate, and they hold their places like the Justices of the Supreme Court, for life or during good behavior. Before this court comes or may come every chum founded upon a law of Con- gress, or arising out of the regulations of an executive department, or under contracts implied or expressed, and of counterclaims by the government. In all mat- ters and suits the Attorney General and his two assist- ants and the Solicitor General represent the govern- ment. The advantage of such modes of investigation for the public in general over Congressional manipu- lation must be immediately visible. 13. — The Executive. This power is vested in the President, who is chosen by electors from the sev- eral states, and his term of office is four years. Every etate is entitled to as many electors as it has senators and representatives in Congress. The Vice President who is ex-officio President of the senate, and who in certain events may become President of the United States, is chosen in a similar manner at the same time with the President. The Chief Executive and the Vice President must be native born citizens of the United States, residing within the states fourteen years, and the Constitution further demands that they shall have attained the age of thirty-five years. 14. — The President is Commander-in-chief of the armies and navy of the United Stales, and of the mili- tia forces of the several states whenever such forces are called into the general service. The pardoning m I /ill I 4: i i\ t, 64 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. power of the President suffices in all offenses against the United States, except in cases of iripeachtnent. The President has power to make treaties with foreign powers, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, provided that two-thirds of the number of sen- ators present wlien such question may arise concur in such action. Subject to similar advice and consent, the President nominates all the officers of government: ambassadors, public ministers, consuls, justices of the Supreme Court, and all executive officials, except such as are expressly provided for otherwise by the Consti- tution. Tlie President receives tlie Ministers from foreign powers, and it devolves upon him to grant the exeqncdor to foreign Consuls. Tlie President commu- nicates by message with Congress at the opening of every session, setting forth the condition of the coun- try, and recommending such action as he may deem expedient. 1 5. — The power to veto a bill or measure is not ab- solute in the hands of the President. Every order, vote or bill, in which the two houses of Congress may have concurred, ex:;ept only a resolution to adjourn, must be presented to the President for his approval and signature. Should that form be complied with the bill becomes law, but the power of the veto may be exerted by returning the measure unsigned to the house in which it originated, with a statement in writ- ing of the President's objections, and the reasons why he thinks it should not become law. That is the ex- tent of his authoritv in that direction ; as in the event of Congress reafiirming the bill by a two-thirds major- ity, it becomes an act and is law thenceforth. The constitution holds the President responsible for the faithful execution of the laws, and in the discharge of his onerous duties he is assisted by the highest execu- tive ' ficers, who compose his Cabinet. The Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, the Postmaster General and the Attorney AMERICA. I all offenses against 3es of iripeaclunent. 3 treaties with foreign and consent of tlie )f the number of sen- I may arise concur in advice and consent, fTicers of government: )nsuls, justices of the e ofiicials, except such lervvise by the Consti- s the Ministers from upon him to grant the he President commu- ;ss at the opening of ondition of the coun- jtion as he may deem II or measure is not ab- jsident. Every order, juses of Congress may resolution to adjourn, dent for his approval )rm be complied with K)wer of the veto may !asure unsigned to the th a statement in writ- ?, and the reasons why law. That is the ex- ection ; as in the event by a two-thirds major- law thenceforth. The ;nt responsible for the and in the discharge of 1 by the highest execu- abi'net. The Secretary Treasury, the Secretary Navy, the Secretary of jneral and the Attorney i'NriJD STATES. 65 General constitute the Cabinet. They are the consti- tutional advisers of the President on questions of policy, and as to the executive duties of the federal govern- ment without as well as within their several depart- ments. The meetings of the Cabinet may be held at any time most convenient to the President and mem- bers ; but usually the Cabinet assembles twice in every week for consultation. The President is not bound by the advice that may be offered to him, 16. — Thk Department of State. This branch of the executive power was created by a law passed in July 1789, and next to the President the Secretary of State is'the highest officer in the executive. The for- eign office in the several states in Europe corresponds with the functions of this department, and the Secre- tary of State is, from their point of view, our minister of foreign affairs. He holds intercourse with duly accredited ambassadors and ministers from foreign governments, and conducts all official correspondence with them ; instructions for our own ministers and consuls abroad are prepared and issued by him ; and all regulations as to the dispatch and proper record of their business are subject to his control. They must report through him, and he submits to Congress all communications of value, and whatever information can be collected as to commercial affairs through min- isters and consuls, or by any other means. The acts of Congress, when duly enrolled, after they have be- come law, must be promulgated by the Secretary of State. When civil commissions have been signed by the President, the Secretary of State must append thereto the seal of the United States. Two assistant secretaries perform such duties as he may prescribe for them in the fulfillment of the law. He has also under his immediate control the Disbursing Agent, who has charge of the funds and accounts of the department; the Translator, who translates such foreign documents as may be required by the department; the Clerk of Appointments and Commissions, whose duty it is to 5 ^ 66 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. make out commissions and keep their record, as well as nominations to the Senate, exer^uators, and all sucli documents; the charge ,1 ^he department l.brary.s vestpd in this officer. The Clerk of Kolls and Ar chives is one of the staff, properly «Pf ^'"g',^^]^^" .^'j retarv of State. He has charge of the enrolled acts of Cong^res , as thev come from the President, and it is his dutv to prepare copies of such acts, as well as to ™ ntend^t leir publication, together with all treaties. ThTs officer has charge of treaties with the Indian tribes. Last of the principal ofhcers in the staff of the Secre ary of State is the Clerk of Authentication, vvho has cSSdy of the seals of the United States and o the department, and whose duty it is to certify and authenticate documents, receive official fees, and ren- der a due account thereof, and keep a record of a letters, except those which belong to the consular and diplomatic service. , . ^17 The Diplomatic Service, as we have seen, is controlled through the department of the Sj-t^tary o£ State Diplomatic Agents rank as Envoys Extraor- d nary and Ministers Plenipotentiary to England Ger- Sian? France, Russia, Spain, Austria, Italy, China Mexico, Brazil, Chili and Peru. N^^ to these «^^^^^^^ Ministers Resident, such as represent the United btates l^n Denmark, Sweden and Norway, the Neiherlands Belgium. Portugal, Switzerland, the Hawaiian Islands, Hay i Turkey, Greece, Jnpan, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Gult^'mala, Honduras, Salvador New Granada Vene- zuela Ecuador, the Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Pai- a"uay, Uruguky, and' Liberia. Where a Minister Plenipotentiary or a Minister Resident represents the United States, Secretaries of Legation are also author- ized and for London and Paris there are also assistant secretaries. Consuls reside in foreign countries as duly authoH-ci public agents, charged to -atch over the commercial interests of citizens. Such officers are usually located in important cities and at seaports Sere are about seventyfive such agents customarily - engaged in the line of duty indicated. 'k LMERICA. ;lieir record, as well ualors, and all sucli ipartment library is Ic of Rolls and Ar- ipeaking, of the See- the enrolled acts of President, and it is 1 acts, as well as to ther with all treaties, es with the Indian 3rs in the stafE of the Authentication, who Fnited States and of it is to certify and official fees, and ren- :eep a record of all ' to the consular and , as we have seen, is ,t of the Secretary of as Envoys Extraor- iary to England, Ger- Lustria, Italy, China, Next to these come sent the United States ray, the Netherlands, the Hawaiian Islands, ricaragua, Costa Rica, New Granada, Vene- lepublic, Bolivia, Par- Where a Minister esident represents the nation are also author- there are also assistant reign countries as duly ed to watch over the g. Such officers are jities and at seaports, ch agents customarily Lcated. UNITED STATES. 67 18. — The Treasuuy Department. This branch of the public service is presided over by the Secretary of the Treatiiuy, whose duties embrace an efficient su- pervision of all fiscal affairs and the financial opera- tions of tlie government, as well as the execution of laws affecting navigation and commerce, the due sur- vey of the coast in the interests of public safety, and the establishment and control of lighthouses wherever necessary ; the maintenance of the Marine Hospital of the Uuited States, and the construction and main- tenance of public buildings for custom houses and other purposes. There are several bureaus in the de- partment, under re.-ponsible chiefs, who are subordin- ate to the Secretary. 1 9. — The Subordinate Chiefs of the several bureaus in the department of the treasury are the First Control- ler, who prescribes the modes in which the accounts of the civil service, the diplomatic service, and the public lands, shall be kept and rendered ; the Second Controller has under his chai-ge the accounts of the army and navy and the Indian Bureau. There are six auditors in the department whose business it is to hold the scales fairly between the United States and individuals. In the hands of the first are placed the accounts of the customs and the revenue, together with the appropria- tions and expenditures of the civil list; and it is his- duty to report the balances arrived at, to the First Con- troller and to the Commissioner of Customs. The sec- ond takes charge of all accounts in relation to the pay and clothing and recruiting of the army, as well aa those in connection with the Indian Department. This officer reports his balances to the Second Controller. The third on the auditing staff has for his supervision, all accounts for army subsistence, for fortifications, for the support of the military academy at West Point, for the making and maintenance of miliary roads, for the quartermaster department, for pensions, claims for military services which accrued previous to 18(31, and for horses and other property lost in the military ser- ■a 'I t i" TJ 68 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. vice ; reporting to the Second Controller. The accounts of the Navv Department are auilited by the fourth on the staff, ami the Fifth Auditor has charge of all ac- counts for the diplomatic n'> " consular services under the direction of the Secretary of State. The Sixth Aud- itor adjusts the accounts of the Post Office Department, and unless an appeal is made to the first collector ■within one year, his decisions are final. Where legal steps are necessary to compel the prompt payment of moneys due to the department, it is the duty of this officer to give direction. Lands and other properties assigned to the postal department in satisfaction of debts are under the control of the Sixth Auditor. 20. — The Commissioner of Customs prescribes the methods assumed to be most convenient and safe for preserving the records of moneys received from cus- toms and revenue, as well as all disbursements in that connection, and for the building and maintenance ot custom houses. The Treasurer is the custodian of the moneys of the United States, disbursing the sums called for by warrants under the hand of the Secretary of the Treasury, countersigned by the First Controller ; and by warrants under the hand of the Post- master General, countersigned by the Sixth Auditor. Accounts of jiublic receipts and disbursements are kept by the Register who is the recipient of the returns of 'commerce and navigation, and who also, for pur- poses of registration, receives from the First Controller and the Commissioner of Customs *he accounts and vouchers adjusted by them. The Solicitor has it m his charge to superintend all civil writs commenced by the United States, unless proceedings have been origi- nated by the Post Office Department; and in fulfill- ment of his duty he procures from each term of the United States courts, a return showing the progress of •each suit. With the exception of such lands as may be assigned to the Post Office Department, and the care and custody of which belong to the Sixth Auditor, the Solicitor has charge of all land and property assigned Ji MKRICA. )ller. The accounts ed by tbe fourth on is charge of all ac- ular services under te. The Sixth Aud- ; Office Department, I the lirst collector final. Where legal prompt payment of is the duty of this nd other properties t in satisfaction of Sixth Auditor, stoms prescribes the renient and safe for received from cus- Isbursements in that and maintenance of is the custodian of tes, disbursing the er the hand of the irsigned by the First the band of the Post- the Sixth Auditor. [ disbursements are iipient of the returns who also, for pur- the First Controller is *he accounts and 3 Solicitor has it in writs commenced by ings have been origi- [lent; and in fulfill- )m each term of the iwing the progress of f such lands as may artment, and the care le Sixth Auditor, the ad property assigned UNITED STATEa 69 to the United States in satisfaction of demands, having power to sell or in any other way dispose of the same for the benefit of the United States. The Commis- sioner of Internal Revenue supervises the collection of the direct taxes and all matters connected with the tax laws. There are no less than three thousand offi- cers employed by ihe Treasury Department, residing iu Washington. The Light-house Board controls the erection and repair of light houses, light vessels, buoys and beacons; the coast being divided into thirteen light-house districts. The Secretary of the Treasury is president of the board by virtue of his office, and is responsible for the administration of its affairs. The United States coast survey forms part of the treasury department, and it has now been in progress forty-four years, having been established in 1832 to survey the coasts and harbors, and prepare maps and charts on v/hich absolute reliance can be placed. The opera- tions of this bureau are carried on by a superintending officer and a staff of assistants comprising civilians and officers of the army and navy, qualified for such oner- ous scientific labors. 21. — There are sixty-two Collectors of Customs ap- pointed by the President, subject to the usual advice and consent, to superintend the collection of customs in the sixty-two districts into which the seaboard of the United States is divided. The collectors have for their duty, in each of their several districts, to issue clearances, without which vessels cannot sail from the Unitefl States ; to certify the correctness of manifests and bills of lading; to take account of all vessels built within their area of duty, and to make accurate re- turns of all imports and exports to the Register of the Treasury. Upon the arrival of foreign vessels the col- lector receives the manifest from each officer in charge, and, on that basis, computes the duties to be paid be- - fore the goods named therein can be landed. Clerks, appraisers, weighers, gangers and inspectors are em- ployed to assist the collector in each district ac- ■ M 1: #' il I t ft: Is; i^ 70 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. cording to the onerousness of the duties devolving upon him. The import duties collected in this way in the year which ended July 1, 1872, amounted to $216,370,286. For the larger ports naval officers are ajjpointed, who countersign all permits, clearances, certificates and other documents which are proper to be granted by the collectors, examining also and certi- fying, when correct, the Collector's accounts of receipts and disbursements. Surveyors 'are stationed only at the larger ports, having for their task the superintend- ence of inspectors, weighers, gangers and others, and to report to the collectors every case of failure to per- form a public duty on the part of the officers superin- tended. Besides the collectors of customs thus de- scribed, the United States is divided into internal revenue districts, with a collector in each, making as- sessments and collecting the direct taxes. 22. — The Principal Mint is at Philares, including rations for troops and garrisons are the especial province of the Commissary General, ^ 36;_The Office of Paymaster General controis all disbursements of pay to officers, soldiers and em- ployees connected with the army. The paymasters con- nected with the various commands report to this bureau . , ■,■,■. -^ *• 37. — The Ordnance Bureau is described by its ti- tle; armories, arsenals and ordnance stores all over t.ie country are under its superintendence. , -, 38. — The Office of the Engineer is charged with the construction and maintenance of .nilitary defenses, MERIOA. ng and command- ments, V;eing also nt, clothing, stores, veil as all works of l1 duties are divid- ed over by officers generally assumed anaged, Vrmy is in the office that office was in then a change was eral has charge of troops, and all re- ition. ice keeps all records ch as, among other lorrespondence with goes through this e army are received le Secretary of War come through this ral provides quarters lo storage and trans- r, horses for cavalry i office has charge of steries. Subsistence ps and garrisons are lissary General, General controls all !, soldiers and em- The paymasters con- ands report to this s described by its ti- ice stores all over the nice. leer is charged with of inilitary defenses, UNITED STATES. w such as forts on the seaboard, etc., and the improve- ments of rivers and harbors as well as the care of the military' academy at West Point are parts of the re- sponsibilities devolving upon the Engineer's office. The Chief of Engineers who commands the Engineer Corps of thearmv, has the direction of this department, and its works are just as important during peace as in war times. 3c)._The Surgeon General controls sanitary regu- lations, and has the management of the military hospit- als, as well as of the sick and wounded. From this office the surgeons of the army receive their orders and assignments of dutv, reporting to the Surgeon General. 40. — Military Justice has a bureau which was founded in 1864, and its staff consists of a Judge Ad- vocate General, with the rank and pay of a brigadier genenJ and an Assistant Judge Advocate ranking as a colonel of cavalry. This bureau has charge of the proceedings of all courts martial and courts of inquiry. 41. — The Signal Bureau is under the direction of the commander of the Signal Corps, and to this office meteorological returns are made from all the signal stations throughout the country. " Probabilities " has here its head quarters as the forecasts as to weather are made in this bureau three times every day and trans- mitted by telegra[»h to all parts of the union. More than three-fourths of all the predictions arrived at by consideration of the universal system of reports have been verified for many years past, and further study of wind- currents will not fail to increase their accu- racy. No gieat storm has occurred along the seaboard of the United States for a long time without warning being thus afforded to the threatened areas. Among all the works of applied science, the operations of this office take high rank, and the value of its work has frequently been realized in the saving of property and life 4a. — The Army is limited to thirty thousand men, by act of Congress, and the term of enlistment is three 80 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. years. The present organization consists of Cavalry, sixteen regiments, twelve companies in each ; Infantry, twenty-five regiments, ten co?npanies in each ; Artil- lery, live regiments, and one battalion of Engineers, besides the West Point Cadets. The command was vested in 1871 in 1 General, 1 Lieutenant General, 4 Major Generals, 16 Brigadier Generals, 68 Colonels, 83 Lieutenant Colonels, 270 Majors, 53H Captains, and 1,137 Lieutenants, first and second. 43, — The Navy Department. This branch of the service is under the direction of a Secretary, who procures naval stores and materials, directs the con- struction, arrangement and the equipping of war ves- sels, and generally carries out the orders of the Presi- dent as to this arm of delense. Orders to commanders of squadrons and of vessels, and indeed to all officers of the Navy and the Marino Corps, come through this office. The several bureaus of the department are controlled by the Secretary, who is aided by an As- sistant Secretary acting under his orders. 44. — The Bureau of Navy Yards and Do';l8 miles, of which 174,627 were traveled by horse jjowor, 18,860 by steamboat, and 57,911 by railroad. Tlie mail transportation for the year trav- ersed 064,984,322 miles of road, and tlie increase in that respect, as in all others, still proceeds. 48. — The Third Assistant Postmaster General con- trols the Finance Ollice, supervising tliH financial affairs of the department so far as such business is not by law assigned to the Auditor, such as accounts with the draft ollices and other dejjositories of the depart- ment, the issue of warrants and drafts in payment of balances found to be due to mail contractors and other persons upon the report of the Auditor. Officers un- der order to deposit quarterly balances at points des- igiiivted by the office, and postmasters rendering ac- counts of their quarterly returns of postage stamps are under his supervision. The issue of postage stamps and the control of the dead letter office belong to this office. The Postmaster General estimated that, in the year 1873, the deficit to be supplied by con- gressional appropriation upon the whole service of the year would amount to $6,310,592, a very small sum considering the vast area of sparsely settled country supplied with postal facilities, and, in some degree, with banking accommodation, and the vast districts^ traversed on many of the mail routes. The post of- fice, well administered, is a beneficent means of civili- zation. 49. — The Attorney General's Department; The duty of this officer is to prosecute offenders and con- duct all suits in the Supreme Court to which the United States is a party, and to give his advice on all questions of law upon wbich his opinion may be required by the President, or by the head of any department The general superintendence of United States' attor- neys and marshals also devolves upon him, and he di- rects them in the discharge of their several duties. Two Assistant Attorneys General and a Solicitor Gen- I ' •4 s a! ^1( A t 84 COUNTUIES OF NOUTII AMEUICA. ii't eral assist liim in the performance of tlie duties of his cilice lie is also the examiner of titles for all lands to be purchased hy the United States as sites for lif^lit- houses, custom houses, arsenals, and for other public Works.' lie receives and considers all applications for the appointment of judges, dislrict attorneys and mar- shals ; and, upon appctils being made to the 1 resident for pardons, or for the remission of the imprisonment of public debtor.-, it becomes the duty of that olliccr to examine into the facts and to report thereupon to the President, preparatory to action being taken. IX. EAlMiY HISTORY. J.'rom the first Act of Col„„lz,ec diem. Their tyranny increased with every manifesta- tion of their power. The voting privilege was restricted to freeholders and housekeepers, and the few Quakers in the settlement were taxed at the rate of $1,200 pei' annum for nonattendance in the Anglican church. The lloyalists contrived thus to establish in Virginia two well defined parties, the wealth}' planters assum- ing the aii's of an aristocracy, making common cause ■with the office holders, and the industrious liberty lov- ing people consorting together as men deprived of un- doubted rights. 14. — The Premonitory Rising known as Bacon's Rebellion, wliich occurred one century, exactly, before the Declaration of Independence, was the natural and almost the inevitable outcome of the system introduced and upheld by the Royalift Assembly. Gov. Berke- ley, who once made his boast that " there were no free schools nor printing presses in Virginia," had been re- moved from office as Governor by Cromwell, in 1651; but being restored by Charles II in 1660, he continued in office until the year before his death, which took place in Londoa in 1677. During 1676, there were T IICA. almo. t cruslied ; in 1(500, which hipped to Eiig- ;lish vessels, by iteil against the es had tried in iin tobaeeo, hut ssful. In 165b invited to take 5 ddtiei! as were [\y changed to a ent was hirgely nd they phiyeJ ^hind, usurping ir term of olliee and they fixed of tobacco per very rnanifesta- ;e was restricted le few Qnalvers :e of $1,200 per igliean church, lish in Virginia planters assum- common cause 3US liberty lov- deprived of un- iwn as Bacon's exactly, before the natural and item introduced . Gov. Berke- ;re were no free I," had been re- Tiwell, in 1651 ; iO, he continued ith, which took 576, there were UNITED STATES. 91 troubles with the Indians, and provision had not been made for the defense of the colony, until a young law- yer named Bacon, aged about 36 year.s, raised a com- pany and routed tlie marauders. For that service Gov. Berkeley denounced the leader as guilty of treason, imd Nicholas Bacon came, with liis armed fol- lowers, to discn.-^s the question. The Governor was driven out of Jamestown, the settlement was burned, and the village has never been rebuilt; but just when things promished a favorable outcome for the people, the young leader died. Oct. 1, 1676, and in the absence of efficient direction, the attempt was quelled by Berke- ley with great severity. 15, — Massachusetts. New England was the ambition of the Plymoutli Company, but like most of the adventurers tiiat formed companies on the other side of the Atlnntic, they knew but little of tlic task which they pnindsod to undertake. Several attempts were made on behalf of the Plymouth Company to explore and settle Northern Virginia, and a colony was actually established on the Keimebec in 1607, but the men composing the expedition had not the mate- rial of which success is made, and the settlement was abandoned in 1608. only one of the party having died. In the year 1620 the company procured a new patent as the Council of New England, with great privileges and concessions, but the settlement of New England was not to be achieved under their auspices. 16. — Plymouth Rock was reached by the Pilgrim Fathers and their families, on board the Mayflower, in December, 1620, and they landed, to the number of one hundred souls, in the" midst of a storm of snow and sleet. They had endured too many hardships in their search for freedom to worship God to care for the inclemency of tlie season. The actual landing was made on Forefathers' Rock, as it is now called, on De- cember 21st, the day being Sunday. The fir.st hours of the new comers in their adopted home were thus given to worship ; but their ddigence on the succeed- 92 COUKTUIES OF NORTH AMERICA. ing days showed that their hours of devotion had re- cuperated minds strong by nature, and their spirits could not be cast down by obstacles and difficulties. 17. — The moral force of the Pilgrims had been proved and improved by the persecutions alreadv en- dured by them in the name of religion, and the wilder- ress, cold and inhospitable as it seemed, was not more rugged than their determination to subdue it to their purposes as a home; in which liberty, as they under- stood the word, should reign supreme, and in which God should be worshipped by all men, according to the views for which they had lived and suffered. Pri- marily it was their care that their children should be surrounded by religious influences, and be well edu- cated, and thoy were thrifty in the management of their affairs, being in every" respect most worthy and desirable citizens. 18. — Trials of fortitude were not wanting at any time in the new settlement; but during the first winter, the worse than usually severe weather, and the unprepared condition in which it found them, killed more than half their number. There were hardly as many in good health as sufficed to bury the dead and attend upon the invalids; at one time there were only seven who were not sick; but the constancy of the little band never wavered for a moment. 10. — The Pilgrims who were sent with the shal- lop to inspect the coast before a landing was effected at Forefathers' Rock, on December 21st (new style), endured one attack from Indians; but after the settle- ment had been made, the colony was undistubod from that source. The tribe that had lived upon the terri- tory which they occupied had been killed off by a pestilence, so that they were not trespassing in any way upon natural rights. Samoset, one of the tribe of Wampanoags, who had learned some few words of English, carne to visit them one day in early spring, with words of welcome, and a treaty" was entered into with Mussasoit, the chief of his tribe, which for fifty }-oars wlios( comn was 1 Cano: gvims not b that 1 Ciu-vc ^[ayf Brad; 20 iient in th< is cus only ance the a( being vals. here, days rcsul' whicl after in th' for IS whic Gove and 1 21 first abou and desir a gr Engl mak over [ERICA. devotion had re- and their spirits and difficulties, ilgrims had been itions ah'eady en- n, and the wilder- ed, was not more subdue it to their ;y, as they under- ne, and in which len, according to id suffered. Pri- lildren should be nd be well edu- management of most worthy and not wanting at during the first weather, and the ind them, killed } were hardly us jry the dead and there were only ;ancy of the little it with the shal- ing was effected 51st (new style), ; after the settle- undistubed from 1 upon the terri- killed off by a spassing in any le of the tribe of e few words of in early spring, sras entered into , which for fifty IXITKI) STATES. 93 years was observed on both sides. ^Nfiles Standish, whose fame has been sung by Longfellow, was the commander of tlie small force of the colony ; but there was little occasion for actual war. One sachem, named Canonicus, who wavered in his faith as to the Pil- grims, sent a token of defiance, but a reply that could not be misunderstood, convinced the Narraganset chief that he could not afford to fight the new comers. Gov. Carver having died soon after the departure of the Mayflower, the oflTice was conferred upon William Bradford, afterwards the historian of the settlement. 20. — Starvation seemed for a long time an immi- nent probability. For many months there was no corn in the settlement, as the harvest proved a failure. It is customarv to mention that at one time there was only a pint"of corn to be divided, and that the allow- ance of each settler was only five kernels each, but the actual fact reveals much greater destitution, clams being the only food available for considerable inter- vals." Communistic methods of working were tried here, as the same system had been tried in the early days at Jamestown, and in both cases failure was the result, until every man worked his own land, after which there was comparative plenty. Four years after the first settlement there were only 18-t persons in the colony, and it was ten years before the Council for New England gave the colony a grant for the land which it had occupied. The people chose their own Governor, as no royal charter clogged their liberties, and they made their own laws. 21, — T/ie Bay Colomj. John Endicott, the first Governor of the Colony of Massachusetts, was about forty years of age when he came to America, and althougfi a severe man, it was undoubtedly his desire to be honest. He, with five associates, procured a grant of land about Massachusetts Bay from the English Company, and a Royal charter, with power to make laws and rule the Colony. The Company made over their rights to the people who might take part in [" •! I ^' 94 COrXTUIES OF NQKTII AMERICA. the ontorpriso, nnd as n conscqupnc^o manv Piiritnn farnilk's wcra attracted to this region. Saletn and Charlcstovvn already founded by Governor Endioottin 1()2!>, formed centres of attraction for many; some col- onized Watertown and Dorchester, and in the year 1030, Boston was founded on the site known as Shaw- mut, afterwards called Tremont, by about one thou- sand colonists under Gov. Winthrop. 23. — Religious Intolerance was the vice of the age from whicli the Puritans fled, but it infected the men who ran from it. as well as their pursuers. Those who established themselves in Massachusetts Bay were opposed to the forms of the Church of England, and wlien persons who were ificlined to Episcopacy came to their Colony, they sent them back again to England. A system of religious tests was rigorously insisted upon in the settlement. Among the new comers was one man, who.se admirable heterodoxy took the form of asserting that every person should think for himself on all matters of religion, being an- swerable only to God. This man was the great Kogcr Williams, and a bonfire in the midst of a powder mag- azine could hardly have caused a greater commotion than did his manly teaching, around Massachu.setts Bay. The interference of the civil magistrate in' sup- posed offenses against religious thought was denounced by him as unjust, and in 1685 an order was made that tlie Preacher should be sent to England ; but instead of submitting to that mandate, he fled to the woods, taking refuge among the Indians, who afterwards gave him land whereon to found a settlemerit which he called Providence. The state of Rhode island was thus founded, and although the grant from the Indians •was to Roger Willian)s in person, he did not reserve to himself one privilege, but sought to build up a purely democratic form of g >vernment with such light, as to conscience, as was then new to the world. In the same relation the name of Anne Hutchinson arises, as during the same year as that which marked the ban- islimc this V specijj a grci attrae se.x, t uge i to the ally t hv til The t way, in va ban is iiltere they isiied reinai at las only aban( 23 14, li succe chief tliat I upon extin whicl The and 1 they flew shift( tous. that on fi prom condi U ERICA. M'.G rnanv Piiritnn ■gioii. Siiletn and )veriior Kndicott in r many ; some col- , find in the yoar .e known as Sliavv- ' about one thou- I. the vice of tlic >ut it infected the • pursuers. Those [assachusoti.s Bay hurch of p]iigland, led to Episcopacy 3m back again to sts was rigorously Among the new irable heterodoxy M'y person should religion, being an- as tiie great Kogcr t of a powder niag- ^reater commotion ind Massachusetts magistrate iu'sup- ght was denounced der was made that jland ; but instead fled to the woods, ho afterwards gave tlemerit which he Ihode Island was t from the Indians ! did not reserve to build up a purely h such light, as to he world. In the tchinson arises, as marked the ban- UMTKI> STATRS. 95 Isliment of lioger Williams from liis churcli at Salem, this wonderful woman, who claimed to have received special communications from on high, was the centre of a groat controversy, as her jiroachinus and exjiositions attracted so mucli notice, especially atnong her own sex, that she was banished eventually, and found ref- uge in Rhode Island, where none were questioned as to their religious views, as under authority. Eventu- ally this pure and high minded woman was murderc to ii edf( inidi elfec caus Eon tent laho safe hed into pells fi'on' mur Mas. in al hum arm on t tens, was set ( were the wen 3( allt in e' ceivi Peqi lERTCA. e in.;L... — Indian Perils environed the Western Colo- ny, and the Narragansets were about to join the I't'fjnods to make war upon the settlement, when the founder of Khode Island, the blameless and admirable Eoper Williams, who had communicated the fact of the imjKuuIing combination to the Governor of Massa- chusctt.s, and ha'^eCSUl&^.. 100 COUKTHIES OF NOKTII AMEIUCA. sistancc by men and couscls to the Conneeticutcojony. This settierncnt comprised llarlford, Windsor ;uul \Vctherslield among which a written constitution, the first framed on tliis continent by tlie people themselves, gave the right of voting to all free men. Saybrook Colony v/as a proprietary settlement at lirst, but Con- iiecticiit bought the comiiaiiy's rights and the settlement was included under its laws. New Haven Colony took the bible for law ami government, and the settlement was under church rule. The ab-sorption of Saybrook by Connecticut left only two colonies in the region named. 31. — Definitive Union was secured 1062, by the issue of a Royal charter by Charles II, under the in- fluence of John Winthrop, which extended to all the colonists in the combination the rights certified under the Connecticut constitution. King Charles could be induced to indorse such liberal provisions in sheer thoughtlessness, although he would have annulled all the eliarters if his life had been spared. His brother James in 1686, sent Governor Andrews to Hartford to demand the surrender of the Koyal gift. The charter was about to be handed over when the chamber was suddenly darkened, and before the candles could be relighted Captain Wadsworth had disappeared through the°erowd, and the document, safely hidden in the Charter Oak, was not visible again until Governor An- drews had returned to Boston. The annulment exe- cuted by the llovalist Governor was of no avail, and three years later James II, having fled from England, Governor Andrews was imprisoned by the colonists. The charter was to have been violated in 1693 under the rule of Governor Fletcher, but Captain Wadsworth intimidated the Governor into abandoning the project. 3"i._RHOl)K Island. Freedom of Thouglit was the watchword of this colony from the first. Before lloger Williams came to the Island, William Black- stone, an independent, who had become tired of the rigorous rule of the church in Boston, had settled near no vo in< Cn pe( affi mc mc ort pr bo erf in of UNITED STATES. 101 MEUICA. oonnocticutcojony. ;rd, Windsor nml m constilutiDn, the ! people iheiiiselves, e men. Siiybrook ,t at lir.st, but Con- s uud the settlement [laven Colony took and the settlement rption of Saybrook jnies in the region :ured 1G62, by the !S II, under the in- exteiuled to all the ^hts certified under ig Charles could be provisions in sheer 1 liave annulled all )ared. Ilis brother Irevvs to Hartford to d gift. Tlie charier Ml the chamber was iie candles could be disappeared through \fely hidden in the until Governor An- rhe annulment exe- was of no avail, and fled from England, led by the colonists, ated'in 1093 under Captain Wadsworth indcjining the })roject. im of Thought was n the first. Before md, William Black- oeeome tired of the iton, had settled near the site of Providence ; and as we have seen, Eoger WiHiams made his settlement in 1636, cotemporary with the second expedition to Hartford under Hooker. From all the settlements, tliose who were oppressed made their wny to Rhode Island, and Williams gave of his lands to every one until only two small pieces which he had cultivated from the first remained in his own possession. Mrs. Hutchinson, and some of her followers, came to the settlement ; the good woman having been banished from Massachusetts, as being worse even than Roger Williams in the vindication of liberty of conscience. Some of the new comers estab- lishecl the Rhode Island Plantation on the Island of Aquiday. The name Rhode came from the Hutch roode, or red. In this colony the civil magistrate had no power to interfere with men on account of their re- ligious views. 33. — Roger Williams, one of the least worldly of men, was obliged at every step to combat the preju- dices of his surroundings, all of them men able to ap- preciate his goodness, but impressed with the idea that he was light headed because he upheld freedom of thought. The Rhode Island settlement was denied the right to join the New England Union on the plea that no charter had been granted, and the preacher made a voyage to England while the civil war was progress- ing in that country which ended in the triumph of Cromwell. Returning with a charter in 1647, the people were convened to elect their officers, and to affirm the principle of religious liberty ; which was the more remarkable in that age, b-cause those who were most sealous against the old tyrannies, or so called orthodox thought, were among the readiest to put pressure upon the thoughts of other men. 34. — New York. Ferdinand, Duke of Alva, boasted that he had put to death 18.000 Netherland- ers during the war for the supression of Protestantism in the low countries, but he could not destroy the spirit of enterprise and reform among the people, and soon ii^*i/««^-is*ffl«*.*»at=^«aft«»J*B*^»«*23. This set- tlement was successively called Beverwyck and Wil- liamstadt, before tlie name of Albany was given, in compliment to the Duke of York and Albany, after- wards James 11. of England. Patrons or Patnujns, ■who brought fifty emigrants with them v;ere allowed by the company to buy land direct from the Indians, and titles so obtained" were indcfeasable. The Van Rensselaer family obtained twenty-four miles square on both sides of the Hudson. 36. — New Amsterdam, on the Island of Man- hattan, had four Dutch governors in succession, ending ■with Peter Stuyvesant, the ablest of the quartette, but none of them were able to understand the principles of civil liberty. Dutch Burgomasters could not compre- hend the claims of the colonists to enjoy such privil- eges as had been conceded to the settlers in Connecti- cut, as the liberties of the Netherlands had been mere- ly the crystallization of the powers of a commercial aristrocracy, under which the people enjoyed but little freedom. The Swedish settlement on the Delaware and the English settlers on the Connecticut troubled the peace of the Dutchmen when they were not engaged in warfare with the Indians, but in the end, Peter Stuyves- ant came to terms with Connecticut as to the territory lying between Connecticut River and the Delaware, and being thus enabled to give undivided attention to tlie Swedes he reduced their settlement to submission. This happened in 166-i and in September of that year, just when affairs looked more sound than they had ever appeared before, since the first landing, an English fleet demanded an unconditional surrender in the name of the Admiral, the Duke of York. The people were am tlie l)u ile( the till it' wc fie m( 1(5 G( C( pc Ul' Di D w ce in tl: in w V .MKi;i>'A. of th'i river in 1609 ludson to tliis diiy, Itiviite a trade vviih lade by tlie West nil ill i(ilo, and at iidson. in Kll-i, and ill 1()2;3. This set- everwyek and Wil- )any was given, in and Albany, after- itrons or Patnujiis, tlietn were allowed , from the Indians, feasable. Tlie Van y-four miles square le Island of Man- II sneeession, ending )i the quartette, but mil the principles of i eould not ccmpre- ;) enjoy such privil- eltlers in Conneeti- nds had been mere- rs of a coniineroial le enjoyed but little on the Delaware and ictieut troubled the were not engaged in J end, Peter Stuyves- It as to the territory id the Delaware, and led attention to tlie nent to submission, ite.nber of that year, iund than they had t landing, an English irrendar in the name £. The people were UNITED STATES. 108 certain of more liberty under the new rule than they were enjoying, so they refused to fight, and the brave old Govornor was compelled to capitulate. 1 he name was tlien changed to New York in honor of the Duke, who was thenceforth considered the proprietor. 36. — Connecticut Privileges were not conceded by tlie new rulers, the people were taxed arbitrardy aiid their remonstrances were burned contemptuously by the hangman, so that there was no difliculty about tlie reconquest of the settlement in UTS, when the Dutch fleets had become masters of the seas, ihe fleets prepared by Cromwell had been the means of the first conquest, but since Charles II ascended the throne, England had so much declined in power, that it was feared the Dutch, who had sailed up the lliamea, would even sack London. Tlie presence of a Dutch fleet caused the name of New Amsterdam to be once more assumed, but when the war came to an end m 1(574, England was allowed to resume the mastery. Gov.' Andros, who was afterwards imprisoned by the Colonists of New England, was the first ruler ap- pointed after the resumption, and his conduct was so monstrous that he was recalled by Charles II. Gov. Doncran, the next comer, obtained permi.ssion from the Duke of York to convene a popular assembly, but when the Duke became King he revoked every con- cession, added New York to the New England Prov- ince, of which Andros became governor, forfeited all the charters, forbid assemblies and denounced print- inc^, carrying out on this continent the bigoted rule which was the cause of his downfall in England m 1688. The deputy governor that represented Andros in New York was so conscious of his own misdeeds, that he fled as soon as he learned that the people of Boston bad imprisoned Andros ; and in the absence of other rule, Capt. Leislor, an able man, in whom the people had much faith, assumed the direction of affairs. The first governor appointed by William and Mary was named Slaughter, and his most objectionable deed 104 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. was the slauglitcr of Leislor on a baseless charge of treason. It is claimed that Gov. Slaughter was drunk when the order was made to gratify the aristocratic enemies of the captain. The rule henceforward was less arbitrary until the days of George III, but there continued to be enough of tyranny to maintain the vigi- lance of the jieople in defending their rights. 37, — New Jersey. Dutcli Parentage must be conceded to the settlements first made in New Jersey, and soon after the Duke of York became proprietor o£ the New Netherlands, he handed over the territory between the Hudson River and Delaware to Sir George Carterel and Lord Berkeley. Elizabethtown was named after Lady Carterel in 166-i, by a company of settlers from Long Island and the New England Colo- nies, and thus the first permanent English colony in New Jersey was established almost at the same date as the surrender of New Amsterdam to the English fleet. 38. — Further Settlement was mainly due to the Quakers, although Puritans and Scotch Presbyterians lagely possessed the land. West Jersey was the por- tion belonging to Lord Berkeley who sold to some English Quakers, and a settlement from that body was formed at Burlington, being joined by large num- bers subsequently. East Jersey was purchased from Carterel's heirs, after his deathi by another company of twelve Quakers, including William Penn, and the the colony prospered. 3oo. There was some fighting and Chiyboriie's party was beaten. He did not wait tlio result of the (!oiitest, but returned to Virginia, when«o lie was sent to England to be tried as a traitor. He was acipiitted of the cliarge, and in 16-15 returned to Maryland where he succeeded in raising a rebellion which overpowered the (lovcrnor for a time; but after a brief interval, (iov. Culvert K«IiA*>3»» -- 112 COrNTlUES OF XOKTH AMERICA. tract of land now known as Georgia, being named from tlic king, to be held in trust fur settling the colony. Tlie territory was at tliat time in dispute between Great Britain and Spain, and Gen. Oglethorpe was Commander of forces as well as founder of a colony. John Wesley and George Whitfield were a.ssociated with him in tiie work of 'settlement, and thelatter vis- ited the colony very often, intent upon charitable pur- poses. The first settlement was made at Savannah in January, 1733, by Gen. Ogletliorpe and 120 persons, ■who were to hold land on the condition of rendering military service when required, but the requirements in that direction were irksome, and great numbers left the colony for Nortli Carolina. After that time a change was made, and every .settler was allowed fifty acres°of land in fee. When war was declared by Eii- gland against SiKiin in 1739, Gen. Oglethorpe com- manded the colonial troops and Indian allies to the number of 1,000, but an e.xpedition into Florida, un- detaken by him, proved a failure. Charity contributed largelv to make Georgia a home for the sullering and struggling poor in England, but much discontent was ex pressecf because negro slavery, which was allowed in other states, was expressly prohibited here, and in 1752 the trustees surrendered their trust to the Crown, and Geoi'gia became a Royal Province until the year 1776. There were many other limitations in the way of paternal legislation, attempted by the trustees during their term of authority, such as prescribing the size for a farm, forbidding the importation of rum, and declar- ing women incompetent to inherit land. Wisdom nat- urally suggests limitations as to all such matters a.s desirable sometimes, but the people will seldom sub- mit gracefully to such prescriptions from others. It was proper when land was to be held on terrns of military service that women should be di.squalifieJ, but in any other respect the law was an absurdity. Georgia was the younger state when the Revolutionary War commenced, but'^she bore her share in the strug- gle with exemplary courage. AMERICA. I, being named from settling the colony, in dispute between in. Oglethorpe was ounder of a colony, eld were a.ssociated t, and the latter vis- jpon charitable pur- lade at Savannah in e and 120 persons, iidition of rendering nt the requirements 1 great numbers left After that time a er was allowed fifty vas declared by En- n. Oglethorpe corn- Indian allies to the an into Florida, un- Charity contributed or the suffering and nuch discontent was which was allowed hibited here, and in r trust to the Crown, ivince until the year mitations in the way ly the trustees during escribing the size for 1 of rum, and declar- land. Wisdom nat- all such matters a.s pie will seldom sub- ans from others. It be held on terms of luld be di.squalifieJ, w was an absurdity, en the Revolutionary er share in the strug- UNITED STATES. 118 59._-VYahs. Under King William hi. 1689-1G97. Trotestantism had been fought for between Holland and France for many years before William, Prince of Orange, was called to the English throne. That event inade°the war English, and involved the colonies. The Iroquois assisted' the English settlers, the Indians of Canada and Maine gave aid to France. 00. — Indian Atrocities were now combined with the strategy and weapons of civilization, and outlying settlements in New York and New England were ex- posed to terrible outrages. Some of the scenes de- scribed are absolutely shocking, and of course the cllort on each side was to outstrip the other, once a beginning had been made. It is claimed that the pre- linnnary assault was made by a war party of French and Indians from Canada. 61. — Reprisals were made with little delay. Gov. Phipps', of Massachusetts, led an expedition against Port Royal, in Acadia, and was very successful, ob- taining much plunder. Another enterprise, involving a combined attack by sea and land upon Canada, failed utterlv. Proceedings dragged on in a desultory way until "the King of France, Louis XIV, concluded a peace in 1697, acknowledging the right of William III, by treating with him at Ryswick. The territories held at the beginning of the war were not disturbed by the trcntv* %^i. —Under Queen Anne. 1702-1713. The War of the Spanish Succession was entirely European and dynastic, as the aim of England was to curb the power of France, but it involved the colonies in a resumption of hostilities. New York was protected by the neutral- ity of the Iroquoi.s or Five Nations, but New England suffered severely, their frontier line being desolated. Outlying settlements were given up, and near to the towns people worked with their weapons ready for use. 63. — The Colonists replied vigorously by wrest- ing Port Royal once more from the French, with the assistance of English troops, and the place was called 8 114 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. *:ii ^ n Annapolis as a compliment the Queen. Quebec was assailed once more without avail ; many vessels were lost, and nearly one thousand men. South Carolina and Georma made attacks upon the Spanish i^ort o St Augustine in Florida, which had become a nest of freebooters, but the colonists had no success in that quarter. . . , 64. — Treaty of Utrecht. After eleven yeai-s ficrhtin-^ the genius for war possessed by the Duke of M'arlborough, commander of the English force>», com- pelled Louis XIV to subscribe a treaty most unfavor- able to France. Among other concessions Acadia was ceded to Great Britain. Q'^.- Under Georrje IT. 1744-1748. European complications once more involved the colonies, but the capture of the fortress of Louisburg, on Cape Breton, was the main incident on this side of the Atlantic The capture was effected by English and Colonial troops combined ; and when peace was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, France re- sumed possession of Louisburg. ■ ^i}.-- French and Indian. 1754-1763. Territo- rial atrgression was the purpose aimed at by the French, and probably by all parties, in the nine years war which commenced in 1754. During the brilliant meteor-like career of John Law in France, the nation had become possessed of the idea that this continent contained enormous mineral wealt'i in all parts, and consequently the policy then inaugurated still con- tinued in operation. Territory mu?t be extended wherever possible. The English possessions were not well situated for defense, as they spread over a coast line about one thousand miles long, without facilities for inter-communication and support between the sev- eral colonies. The French had cultivated friendly relations with the Indians for almost a century since the tirst arrival of the Jesuits on Lake Superior, and that gave them command of an immense area of coun- try as well as of very useful allies in such a war us .'itifif»'?^xwgat)£i**S^^^^ii'«^''^'lo*'*l^'f^^*»*^ VMEUICA. lueen. Quebec was ; many vessels were r^ South Carolina the Spanish Fort of ad become a nest o£ no success in that After eleven years sed by the Duke of English forces, corn- treaty most unfavor- icessions Acadia was J. _ 1748. European the colonies, but the us, on Cape Breton, ;id"e of the Atlantic, nglish and Colonial ;e was concluded by n 1748, France re- 754-1763. Territo- ie aimed at by the ies, in the nine years During the brilliant in France, the nation ea that this continent alt'i in all parts, and naugurated still con- 7 mu?t be extended 1 possessions were not y spread over a coast ong, without facilities port between the sev- d cultivated friendly Imost a century since >n Lake Superior, and immense area of coun- lies in such a war as UXITED STATES. 115 was now to commence. The intercourse of Fathqr Manpictto with the native tribes was now to become valuable, in a wariike sense, to his countrymen. France was not well prepared for a war, but it seems to have been anticipated that strategic aggressions would pass unheeded, until the troops should be so firmly established in their posts that any operation against them with the limited force available would be fmitless. From Quebec to New Orleans, France had possession ; and at many points in the interior there were strong positions, such as could hardly be taken froni them without a regular seige and a considerable army. The region west of the Alleghanics, along the Ohio, was debatable land, and the right of the strong- est would probably prevail. The o^itrages inflicted and endured by both sides during preceding wars had created intense animosity, and occasions for quarrel were daily offered. Surveyors on the Ohio, acting under English orders, were seized and detained by French troops, and very soon there was hardly one of the sixty posts occupied by the enemy, that had not some unhappy prisoners of war held in durance with- out authoritv. The British had established a post one the Miami ; "the French, with a largely superior force,, broke it up, although there was peace between the two- nations, secured as firmly as anything can be secured by treaties. In reality all that was being done was- under orders from head quarters, and at the most favorable moment there would be a sufficient force readv to follow up any advantage. Additional forts had been erected at Presque Isle, near the town of Erie, Pa., on French Creek, known as Fort Venango, and twelve miles north of that point, near the site of the town of Waterford, Fort le Boetif. These move- ments gave much concern to the colonists. 67. — George Washington, already a young man of parts and promise, was twenty-one years of age when Lieut. Gov. Dinwiddie commissioned him to visit the forts last mentioned, and request that they 116 COUNTRIES OF XOHTH AMEIilfA. sliould be dismantled. The jounioy tlirough the wil- derness from Williamsburg to Lake Erie was full of peril, but nothing daunted the .young hero. The Freneh ofliccrs were of course acting "under order.s, and there was no argument but force that would compel them to retire. The commandants were polite, but confident that they could hold their own, and there were many evidences that expeditions were even then afoot, which boded no good to the Colonists. On the return through the wilderness, fully four hundred miles, the horse." of AVashington and his friend broke down, and they were obliged to continue the journey as pedes- trians, during a very inclement season. An attempt on the life of the youthful ambassador only resulted in the capture of the skulking Indian ; and a still greater peril was encountered by the upsetting of a raft on which the two companions were cro.ssing the Alleghany river. The reply of St. Pierre, the com- mandant at Fort le Bceuf, left no room for doubt that within a few months at farthest war would be com- menced bv one of the two })arties. (j8^_CoMMEXCiN(} IIosTiLiviES. Early in the spring some Englisli traders were driven away by the French from the fork of the Monongahela and the Alleghanv, and a fort was erected at that point. The site of Fort Du Quesne was of such importance that even at that moment a Virginian regiment, with Col. Frye, commandant, and Washington as his second, was on the march to hold the position. Washington, with a corps of observation, was despatched to recon- noitre, the first shot of that long war being fired under his orders. Jumonville, a French officer, lying in am- buscade to surprise and slaughter the Colonial force, was taken in the rear and defeated by the young Vir- ginian. The Colonel commandant dying, Washington built a stockade at the Great Meadows, and defended Fort Necessity against the French wiili very great odds, until capitulation was inevitable. 69. — Necessities ojj^ the Situation. Virginia MEUICA. UNITED STATES. 117 y tlirough the wil- Erie was full of ; hero. The French ' order-s, and there ,ld compel them to )lite, but confident 1 there were many 1 then afoot, which On the return hundred miles, the 1 broke down, and journey as podes- ison. An attempt ador only resulted ndian ; and a still the upsetting of a 3 were crossing the t. Pierre, the com- oom for doubt that ar would be com- ;S. Early in the Iriven away by the [longahela and the it that point. The ;h importance that regiment, with Col. ton as his second, tion. Washington, 3spatched to recon- ir being fired under officer, lying in am- the Colonial force, by. the young Vir- dying, Washington dows, and defended ;h wiili very great ible. lUATiON. Virginia and Pennsylvania were menaced by the Indian allies of the French as long as Fort I)u Quesne remained in the hands of its builders, therefore the fort must be demolished or occupied by British troops. Louisburg, once taken by the Colonists, and abandoned by the British, was, in the hands of the French, a perpetual source of danger to the Newfoundland fisheries, as pri- vateering vessels harboring there and in Acadia, could commit ravages and escape pursuit under the guns of the fort. Quebec strongly fortified gave to Canada the St. Lawrence River. The route to Can- ada by the Lakes George and Champlain was com- manded by the fortresses at Crown Point and Ticon- deroga. The fortress at Crown Point was called Fort St. Frederick, and it occupied a very fine position for militiirv purposes. After the British procured posses- sion ttiey spent $10,000,000 on the fortification. To take such places out of the hands of the French was of primary importance. 70. — Buaddock's Command. The British Gen- eral to whom was committed the task of capturing Fort Du Quesne, held his Indian enemies too cheaply, and would not be warned by his aid de camp, George Washington. The approach to Du Quesne, in July, 1755, was signalized by the troops failing into ambus- cade of Indians, with whose methods of war the regu- lar soldiers were unfamiliar, and they were terribly cut up. Gen. Braddock fell mortally wounded, .and his command retired in confusion, their retreat being covered by the Virginian troops under Washington, whose conduct deserves the highest praise. 71. — Brigadier General Forbes' ICxpedition. Three years elapsed before the British were agaia ready to move on Fort Du Quesne, this time under Gen. Forbes, Col. Washington commanding the Vir- ginia forces. Braddock lost everything and hi? own life by recklessness. Forbes, a cautious Scotchman, spent so much time in making roads for his troops that it was near the end of November, 1758, before he came 118 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. .i f >l ■within fifty miles of the point of attack, and a council of war determined to abandon the enterprise. Wash- ington urged a rai)id advance, and led the van himself, guarding against all chances of an ambush, so that on the 2r)th of November the fort was abandoned by tlio French, who set fire to the buildings and retreated. The Brigadier General named the captured ruin Pitts- burg, in honor of the first William Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham, the ablest statesman that had ever been Prime Minister in England, The spot which was then the key to American security is now the vast en- trepot of her manufacturing greatness. 72. — Conquest of Acadia. There was but litte glory in the proceedings of the British troops in this expedition, as the people were driven ruthlessly from their homes, which tliey had made no effort to defend, and therefore they should have been treated as non- combatants. The forts at Fond de la haif, now ren- dered Bay of Fundy, wore not capable of vigorous de- fense, and with their fall the whole region east of the Penobscot became British. 73. — Louisburg was the next point to be carried, and Gen. Loudoun was to have made the attack in 1757, but after much preparation he abandoned the project and remained at Halifax. Gen. Wolfe and Gen. Amherst, afterwards Commander in Chief, cap- tured the citv and fortifications at Louisburg in 1758, after a sharp^bombardment; but the island was not made the rendezvous for the British forces. 74. — A Fruitless Battle. When Gen. Brad- dock was marching to his defeat and death near Fort Du Quesne, Maj. Gen. Johnson, in command of the provincial forces, approached Crown Point. Baron Dieskau, the officer in charge of the French fortress, did not wait to be attacked ; he led his forces, with bis Indian allies, against Gen. Johnson's camp, and canie near destroying the whole expedition. The Command- ant being wounded early in the affray, the conduct of the defense fell upon Phineas Lyman, the second m r. HEBIOA. ack, and a council interprise. Wasli- cd the van himself, imbusli, so tluit on abandoned by tlio ngs and retreated, aptnred rnin Pitts- tn Pitt, afterwards nan that had ever rhe spot which was is now the vast en- !SS. rhere was but litte itish troops in this en ruthlessly from no effort to defend, en treated as non- fe la haie, now ren- ible of vigorous de- region east of the point to be carried, lade the attack in he abandoned the Gen. Wolfe and nder in Chief, cap- Louisburg in 1758, ;he island was not h forces. When Gen. Brad- id death near Fort 1 command of the iwn Point. Baron lie French fortress, i his forces, with his I's camp, and came ■^r\. The Command- fray, the conduct of man, the second in UNITED STATES. 119 command, and with such men as Israel Putnam in the ranks, fighting as private soldiers, it would have been difficult to entirely lose the day. Baron Dieskau fell mortally wounded. The attacking party was routed completely, but there was no attempt on the part of the commandant to capture Crown Point Gen. John- son was made a baronet, had the thanks of Parliament and $25,000, because of the otherwise barren victory, which he did not improve. This action took place in September, 1755, and after loitering awhile longer, building Fort William Henry, he returned to Albany, leaving a small force in charge of the useless fortifica- tion. This fort was afterwards taken by the French. 7 5. — Gen. Abeucuomuie's Failure. About four months before Fort Du Quesne fell, in November, 1758, Gen. Abercrombie, a British officer, ordered an assault upon Ticonderoga, unsupported by artillery, and it was noticed that he was conspicuous by his au- sence during the fruitless assault Tlie General was properly removed from the command soon afterwards. The attack was a disastrous failure. 76._OvERCOMiNa THE DIFFICULTY. Gen. Am- herst, with a large army, compelled the evacuation of both Ticonderoga and Crown Point by the French m 1759, and thus another step was obtained towards security for British Colonial America. 77. — General Shirley was to have captured Fort Niagara in 1755, but having reached Oswego ■with his forces, he was discouraged because of the de- feat of General Braddock, and after building a fort, which was afterwards captured by the French General, Montcalm, with a quantity of valuable stores, he left a garrison, to become prisoners, and returned. Four years later, in 1759, General Prideaux compelled J^ort Niagara to surrender and the west was fully possessed by the British and Colonial forces. 78. — Wolfe and Montcalm. The summer of 1759 saw two able and brave men pitted against each other at Quebec. General Wolfe, with a large naval -i...-_, - 120 COUXTTUES OF NOKTIT AMERICA. t It. 1 r t 11 force and 8,000 troops, nrrivcd off Qiicboo, designing to attack and capture tliat city and fortress from u French force equal to his own, in a strong position, commanded by a gallant and entirely competent ofTicer, General Montcalm. The city was destroyed without difficulty, by bombardment, but the citadel on the Heights, beyond the plains of Abraham, seemed to defy all pos.sibility of capture. Wolfe, sick in bed, revolved many schemes, but none promised success, until a careful reconnaissance revealed a narrow path- way up the precipitous rocks, and by that road he led bis troops to victory. The shore was guarded by sen- tinels, but a device prevented a pi.' nature alarm and the soldiers were on the heights rculy for battle before daybreak, on the V6\.\\ of Soptomber, 1759. Mont- calm was almost paralyjced by the audacity of the as- sault, but as soon as it became evident that it was an attack in force he used all the means at his disjiosal to destroy the assailants. Both commanders fell mor- tally wounded. Wolfe, thrice struck, died on the field of battle, und Montcalm followed him within twelve hours. The steady conduct of Wolfe's troops was in marked contrast to \}\., precipitancy of the French sol- diery on this occasion and a bayonet charge which Wolfe proposed to lead in person, decided the contest. Quebec garrison and city capitulated five days after the ascent of the heights" to the plains of Abraham, and this event more than any other contributed to bring the war to an end. The pathetic courage and skill of General Wolfe, with the devotion of Mont- calm, divided the admiration of mankind. 79. — WiLUAM Pitts Policy. The capable and bold man who had conducted the war to the point just seen was wise enough to be aware that France would not lose Canada without a final effort, consequently when, in 1760, there was an attempt to recapture Que- bec, a powerful and well appointed fleet was dis- patched in time to defeat the movement Montreal •was taken and all Canada came under British sway. —~M>aia>«« M« at rf < ro » **WW««»«'K»«*«*!»»«««*»«««^^ IMKniCA. [ Qiicbco, designing nd fortress from a 1 a strong position, entirely coriipetent city was destroyed Mit, but the citadel :)f Abraham, seemed Wolfe, sick in bed, e promised success, aled a narrow path- by that road he led ,vas guarded by sen- -^nature alarm and '\i\y for battle before rdJer, 1759. Mont- ; audacity of the as- •ident that it was an ins at his disjiosal to nmanders fell mor- ick, died on the field I hirn within twelve /■olfe's troops was in y of the French sol- yonet charge which decided the contest lated five days after plains of Abraham, ither contributed to athetic courage and devotion of Mont- lankind. r. The capable and war to the point just e that France would effort, consequently ipt to recapture Que- inted fleet was dis- lovement Montreal under British sway. UNITED STATK9. 131 Spain ceded Florida, and France gave up her territo- ries east f)f the Mississippi to England, except certam small fishing stations south of Newfoundland. New Orleans and the country west of the Mississippi, held by France, was given to Spain, and Louisiana re- mained to be dealt with later by Napoleon. g()^_TilK Ott.vwa Chikf. Pontiac represented better than any other Indian of his time the deep hold that the policv of the French had taken upon the tribes. Tlie insolcnefl and hanleiir of the British Officer and troops rou.sed in the Indian nature all that was least lovely, while the polite and friendly bearing of the Frenchman had made allies in all directions. The difference being constitutional, there is no ground for wonderment that the same result has been experi- enced by all the leading Frenchmen from Father Mar- (laettc and the B.;ron La Salle to Moncalm dying at Quebec. Soon after the French forts were surrendered to the English, Ponti.ac, chief of the Ottawas, an able and very treacherous man, proposed to the several tribes a combination against the enemy, so that they being taken unawares, might be despoiled of all their possessions. Many forts were carried by sudden assaults and other devices. Detroit was to have been the grand stroke, and Pontiac presided there in person, but the night before the attack an Indian squaw to whom the Governor had been kind revealed the con- spiracy. Pontiac and his braves were to wait upon the Governor as a delegation, apparently unarmed, but really with their muskets shortened for the pur- pose hidden under their mantles. The chief was to make a complimentary speech, and at its conclusion offer a belt indicative of friendship to the doomed officer, but the manner differing from the customary method was to be a signal for the warriors to carry out their scheme of slaughter, by killing the Governor and his household first, and then proceeding to the de- molition of the settlement. The delegation was re- ceived, but every man surrounding the Governor was 122 COUNTHIKS OK NOUTH AMKUIO.V. armed ostentatiously, and while Poiitiae v\as speakin'.'. the soldiers on rl ^ wt r■^^^rf>mlr1rB^^l'•Wi°'^^ AMKIUOA. ^)llti.1(; was spefikinu', iturooiii were heard the wary Iiid'an wat 10 belt WiiH preseiiteil ii sr, so that although I the several conflicts •einained was stronger ' the work ihat must al undertakings had I only about $5,000,- y Great Britain, still g and the money was been first class tories, tely cured by contact . superciliously upon i he had the manners trained military man. gth all the better for he regulars, and they UNITKI) STATES. 198 had ix-nuired a Mate for liberty which might easily bo induced to take a wider range than a mere chaiigo from the rule of France or Spain to the rule of another foreign country. Many young oflieers, who had conio through the wars with credit to tliemselves and willi advantage to the couiitrv, had found their greatest ad- vantage' tor all palriotic"^puri)oses in t,.J fact that tliey had brcome weaned from a sentimental loyalty whicji mi'^lfd others in tlie day of trial. Such men as Wash- iii.'ton, Gates. Pulnaiii, and others such as they were iii'spirit, had been so often compelled by their mtriot- \ ki tc: ai in tl li n > h ti I s P s s i: I t ■■•««4»W^»«ftMfelW8«Hi««^»««*«*»«*«»a*««*»«*« H A5IERIUA. ooIh, had been already I endowment for liar- lists commencing when (vns only sixteen yeai-s ue to the people them- that of one college, rniiig and zeal for the came an early demand ess, which in the year, on in Cambridge, and ames II, was especially ion. Most of the books :\1 effusions, chiefly ser- lewspaper appeared in , September 25. The urcncp.s " contained so government censured ?d the issue after only " The " News Ldter" 704, and among some ! early days, the " New )y James Franklin, and ,"his brother, Benjamin in 1721, in the same ry rapidly increase, but 5 felt extensively. Be- ind some small begin- as a public circulating St action for libel tried t to suppress the New ), but the effort was de- s no newspaper in "V'ir- as a government organ, ufactures were identi- it- of the New Eng- irginia, where such em- inbraced, necessity com- ir starve. Agriculture nd even the Indians UNITED STATES. 125 learned something in that direction, as one of tlie tribes, having procured a .supply of powder, planted it as seed, expecting to reap a harvest of ammunition. Some kinds of manufactures ruddy carried on were prose- aited from the beginning of the colonies, and in Bos- ton, shipbuilding dates from the first year. Cloths and cloth weavintr, shoes, paper, hats, farming imi)le- inents. furniture and cutlery, were manufactured.^ al- though there was a long series of complaints that Eng- lisii manufactures were injured by such action. ^ Com- merce was crippled by the operation of the English Navigation Laws, which were supplemented by regu- lations under which it was provided that the produc- tions of the colonies must be shipped to England in British vessels only, and that no manufactures nor supplies of any kind should be sent into any colonial port except through the intervention of English ves- sels, sailing from the ports of that country. These re- strictions were not rigorously observed by the colo- nists, but wherever the government was strong enough the system was enforced. Besides these important in- dustries, the fisheries o£E Newfoundland were improved as far as possible, and whaling enterprises to the far north were also undertaken. 85. — Travel and Traffic between the colonies come next in importance to industries and intellectual cul- ture, and are identified with each. For a long time journeys were made on foot, on horseback or by meatis of coasting sloops. From New York to Philadelphia was a three days' trip with fair winds, and a wagon ran twice a week between New York and different localities in New Jersey. It was an immense improve- ment when conveyances, called "flying machines" for their speed, in 1766, made the journey from Phila- delphia to New York in two days, and a stage route from Providence to Boston occupied the same time. The postoflice had been inaugurated and its influence was so highly appreciated, that Franklin, when Post- master General, occupied live months in his carnage, 126 COUNTRIES OP AMERICA. traveling through the c , lo perfect the arrange- ments o£ his dei)artmeni }. be took an extra horse with him for occasional serv^icc. The monthly mail was commenced in 1672, between Boston and New York by way of Hartford, Connecticut. 86. — Sumptuary laws and customs reveal the life of a people, and New England lived by line and rule. Scriptural teaching was the standard of conduct, min- isters were the recognized censors, and were them- selves above reproacl^for some time. Cards and games ■were prohibited, sabbath breaking was an offense, and a man who shot some birds on Sunday was whipped. Tavern keeping was strictly under surveilliance, and drunkards could not buy liquor. Connecticut forbade tobacco to youths under twenty, nor could any one indulge more than once in twenty-four hours, and he must then be distant from, any residence. The cloth- ing to be worn by the different classes was regulated in°regard to their wealth and condition. Grand dames rode pillion with their hu.sbands, theological questions •were engrossing topics, and a reproof in church was the ultimatum of social severity. The manners of New York closely approximated in simplicity to tliose of New K igland"jo^«s a trifle more of sociality which remains crystallized in tho custom of new year's visit- ings- 87. — The plantations in the southern colonies, wherein large estates and numerous servants, often negro slaves, made the rule, had an effect in changing the manners of the people. The negroes had their own quarters and were kindly tret'ted generally. 'J'obacco was the staple production, and the planter made his own establishment serve every purpose. He shipped his own tobacco to agents in London, ground his own flour from corn and wheat, ra sed by his slaves, his bondsmen were taught such tivdes as he required in operation, luxury was the rule among such men, labor fell more and more daily inU) disrepute, hospi- tality was the rule everywhere, and display became th( Ch: in ur go su fo in in ui fn C; ai 01 tc d if I n i- r e 1 • "'vaiiitimimm M i t mi mm i-, ^„i,tsm*^£^»ii->iii«*^*i^»'*^'''<^ - . AMERICA. to perfect the arrange- r.e took an extra liorsc The monthly mail was Boston and New York It. customs reveal the life lived by line and rule, ndard of conduct, min- isors, and were them- time. Cards and games ing was an offense, and 1 Sunday was whipped, nder surveilliance, and r. Connecticut forbade ity, nor could any one ;nty-f()ur hours, and lie ' residence. The cloth- t classes was regulated ondition. Grand dames Is, theological questions reproof in church was irity. The manners of ;d in simplicity to tho.se more of sociality which itom of new year's visit- the southern colonies, imerous servants, often id an effect in changing le negroes had their own ted generally. 'I'obacco d the planter made his ^ purpose. He shipped jondo'ri, ground his own a sed by his slaves, his tnides as he required in rule among such men, ly inU) disrepute, hospi- s're, and display became UNITED STATES. 127 the fashion in dres.s, furniture and equipages, stamping characteristics upon a people which may yet be seen ^" 88. _■ Schools and teachers were obliged to labor under difliculties in the southern colonies, as the trovernors appointed from England were opposed to such innovations upon the rule of ignorance, especially for the working class. Free schools were denounced in connection with printing presses by Gov. Berkeley in Vinnnia with groat emphasis, but in Maryland, under °the rule of the Baltimore family, there were free schools in 1696, and in 1712, Charleston, South Carolina, followed that example. Private schools wore more generally established, and church rule was ample for all purpo.ses. The minister had a farm of one hundred acres and a share in the best corn and tobacco fiivt gathered. Nonattendenee at church, or disrespectful words to the minister, were offenses pun- ished among the .slaves by whipping and deprivation of food, with cumulative sentences of terrible import. Even freemen were held under heavy restrictions in many parts, fines being substituted for corporal pun- ishments. Slave owners in Georgia were liable to a penalty of $25 if they failed to send tlieir slaves to ohurcb. . . 1 89 —Massachusetts and Connecticut esteemed education next to religion itself, and with the colonists life was a worthless burden unless sanctified by wor- ship The endowment of Harvard University, then known as a seminary at Cambridge, by the town of Boston, when the settlement was only six years olrt, tells its own story, unsurpassed in the wor d s history. The invested funds of the institution, besides the grounds, buildings, libraries and other property, amounted in 1878 to $2,750,000. Since 1642, there have only been five years without a graduating class ; nearly 13,000 persons have received degrees there, ana fully half that number are now alive. The people at one time when money was scarce, contributed trom 128 COL-XTUIKS OF NOKTII AMERICA. each family a ])cc:k of corn, or one shilling, towards the college. Kdiication was provided 'or every age; in 10()5, every town had a free .school, and every con- .siderable town a grammar school ; besides which, there were town meetings for general discussions, which every freeman was expected to attend. In Hartford, Conn., those who failed to be present, unless excused, were fined. Yale College was founded in Connecticut in 17U0, being flr.st established at Saybrook, and the library afterwards removed to New Haven. \H). — Isew York, Delaware and Pennsylvania were not behind the other colonies in solicitude for early training. The countrymen of Erasmus loved books, and tliere were many schools in New York in which English was reckoned among the accomplish- ments. Princeton College had made an excellent start, and in 17(58 had an Orrery to teach as to the movements of the heavenly bodies, such as no Eu- ropean College could then excel. Among the Quak- ers and other nonconformists at Lewiston, Del., tiie first Colonial School for girls had its origin ; and among men of the .same class in Pennsylvania in 1683, before Perm returned to England, a Commercial School was inaugurated, the fees being two dollars per annum. Before the arrival of the founder of that colony, the Swedes had places of worship, and every denomination made provi.sion in its own way for preachers and meetings Wampum, beaver skins, and sometimes tobacco, oorvcd as currency for the payment of the salary of minister or teacher, but in no case was it known that the colonists omitted to provide fairly for education and worship. 91. — Spiuit of the Age. The newspaper press generally confined itself to local matters and news untd about and after 1745. Such men as the Frank- lin.s, and Zenger who was tried for libel at the instance of the government, were rare exceptions; but after 1745, revolutionary ideas began to find utterance. Samuel Adams became a journalist in Boston in 1748, b ti Cf C( S, n tl T tl ei h; d( h h t( (i h; ti h. 13 ti n ir ai ei h t( S! b r tl n e a; iMERICA. e shilling, towards dcd k>r every age; ool, and every con- besides which, there discussions, which end. In Hartford, snt, unless excused, ided in Connecticut Siiybrook, and the Haven. and Pennsylvania !s in solicitude for of Erasmus loved Is in New York in ig the aecomplish- iiade an excellent to teach as to the !S, sucli as no Eu- Among the Quak- Lewiston, Del., tiie id its origin ; and nnsylvania in 1683, lid, a Commercial sing two dollars per 16 founder of that worship, and every its own way for 1, beaver skins, and icy lor the payment but in no case was d to provide fairly lie newspaper press matters and news men as the Frank- libel at the instance ieptions; but after to find utterance. ; in Boston in 1748, UXITED STATES. 129 but the printer having been imprisoned, the publica- tion was suspended. The " Boston Gazette,' which came out in 1755, plainly indicated the desire of the colonists to he left untrammeled by Great Britain. Samuel Adams and John Adams, Mayhew, Otis, War- ren, Cushing. Dexter, Austin, Cooper, and others of tliat stamp, fought every abuse through its columns. Tins marked a new era in the value of the press, and the spirit thus indicated compelled the British Gov- ernment to repeal, in 17(56, the odious stamp act which had become law in March, 1765. The tyrannous designs of George III. and the fatal subserviency of his ministers, could not rest at that point, the King being resolved that he W(juld compel the colonists to pay taxes to the mother country ; and, in 1767, the duties on tea, paper, glass, and on other commodities, liaving been imposed, the battle of public opinion con- tinued with increasing vigor. The duties could not he collected, and, in 1768, British troops wer'3 sent to Boston, but notwithstanding every endeavor, the du- ties were afterwards abolished b}' the British Parlia- ment. Exasperation had become almost unbounded ; many of the newspapers suggested an appeal to arms as a means of redress against the oppressions of gov- ernors and troops, and the years 1773-4 were signal- ized by momentous events. The Tea Riot in Boston took place in the year first named, and the latter year saw assembled in Philadelphia, on the 5th of Septem- ber, the first "Continental Congress." The Boston Port Bill wa3 the immediate cause of that Congress, the declaration of rights its first outcome, and proxi- mately the Independence of this Nation is due to those events. X. THE REVOLUTION. After the Vontlnental Congrena, 1774, to the Declaration of In- dependence, 1770, 1. — The Beginning of the End. Growing ex- asperation on both sides left but little hope that there would be a peaceful end of Colonial difficulties, after 9 ! i r ; I i«*«»»i«^i*iiiasia^s4afeS^fo*«iBte^ - - ■«i.a^^i«i(«Sfc««fe«*^&ai«s»tC' 130 COUNTRIES OP NOKTH AMERICA. the Declaration of Rights had been adonted, although there were many parliamentary ])recedonts for such action on the part of English sul)jects ; but unfortu- nately George III was more nearly absolute than any king'lmd ever been in England, since the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII, and his hatred of America already verged upon insanity. 2. — 0[)prcssivc enactments crippled every branch of trade, in the hojie that the depletion of the Colo- nies would enrich the mercantile, manufacturing and shipping interests of the mother country. The navi- gation laws were not stringent enough to secure the desired ends and there were additional restrictions •which were gradually narrowing the industries of the Colonists to a point, at which they must have become agriculturists only, without permission to sell their products anywhere, except in England, taking therefor such wares as manufacturers in that country would send, at any ]irices they thought fit. The yoke was unbearable. The small" beginnings of that iron indus- try, on which modern nations must base their civiliza- tion, were common nuisances in this country in the sight of English lawmakers, and all manufactures were prohibited. Edmund Burke and the Great William Pitt, now become P]arl of Chatham, manfully upheld the cause of the Colonists, one in the House of Com- mons and the other in the House of Lords, but noth- ing availed as against the will of the king. 3. — The Retrospect of the Age shows an accumu lation of wrongs under which patience would have been a crime. Every pretext was availed of in some districts to annoy men in their homes and business, unless thev were known to be subservient to the au thorities. ' King's officers could enter any residence, or store, under warrants known as " writs of assistance," to search for smuggled goods. This power was used to an extent that almost seems incredible, but perhaps some of the officials were desirous to be bought off. 4. — The Stamp Act had been repealed, but not AMERICA. Ill adopted, although ])recedonts for such l)jects ; but unfortu- ly absolute than any nee tlie beginning of i hatred of America •ippled every branch cpletion of the Colo- ), manufaeturing and country. The navi- nough to secure the iditional restrictions the industries of the y must have become mission to sell tlieir jland, taking therefor that country would lit. The yoke was gsof that iron indus- ist base their civiliza- 1 this country in the all manufactures were d the Great William am, manfully upheld n the House of Com- !e of Lords, but noth- the king. ge shows an accumu patience would have IS availed of in some homes and business, subservient to the au ;nter any residence, or " writs of assistance," This power was used icredible, but perhaps .IS to be bought off. len repealed, but not UNITED STATES. 131 before it had worked a terrible state of feeling among the Colonists. Newspapers, documents to have force in law, and printed pamphlets as well as other matters which it would be tedious to particularize had to bear a government stamp before publication, and many newspapers just struggling to live were comf)elled to susiieiul while the act remained in force. Tiie Colo- iii.sts met the attack with a peculiar energy. When it became known that a man hud accepted olTice as the British Stamp Agent, he was visited by a delegation in many instances, and so completely overawed that he forthwith resigned his oflico. Ilouses were at- tacked, supporters of the exaction were burned in eOig}', and stamps were destroyed whenever a capture was made. Associations were formed, pledged to wear no clothes but sucli as could be produced in the Colonies, nor to consume any article of English man- ufacture. '' Sons of Liberty " were enrolled in all the colonies, and in some the organization was very pow- erful. The aspect of the people, no less than the elo- quence of their leaders, gave evidence that the system would not be endured, but when the parliament, much to the disgust of the king, receded from their enact- ment they yet afBrmed their right to tax the unrepre- sen led Ct)lonies. 6. — Board of Trade. Boston had earned already a leading place among the leaders, and, in conse- quence, when the Briti-sh Government proceeded to the next iict of taxation, a Board of Trade to sit ia Boston was nominated, having authority above all colonial assemblies. The tolling bells, days of mourn- ing, minute guns, suspended business and other signs of determination which, by moral force mainly, had rendered the stamp act inoperative, were now to be treated with disdain, and troops were sent to enforce the laws. The mutiny act would have compelled the colonists to give quarters and food to the soldiery, but, one after another, the colonies, by their representative assemblies, refused obedience. New York led the van 1,1 I ;[ ^l I.' N-1 132 COL'XTKIES OF NOUTII AMERICA. ill sucli vindication of the rights of tao people, aiul the ariscinbly was immediately disfranchised. :Massa. chu.setts badced up New York by sending an appeal to the other colonies, inviting union, and nearly all the colonics asserted that taxation without rei)resentatioii meant tyranny. Parliament in vain called upon the people to abaiidon the position, from which no show of right could dislodge them. (J _ Gen. Gage, the last Governor of Alassachusetts appointed by Gw)rgc III, had, previous to 1774, vis- ited Boston, being chosen by the government to en- force the odious provisions of the mutiny act. 1 he st.ru<"rlc seemed to be as of Boston against all Lng- land°°and Samuel Adams was Boston. Gen. Gage came with his troops, marching to martial music, with colors flying, through Boston streets one Sunday morning." Demanding quarters, and being refused, he took po.;session of Boston State House. Boston Com- mon was made into a military camp, cannon were planted to command the town, and everything indi- cated a state of war. Quarrels were common between the youn-'-cr citizens and the soldiery, and, during one of these encounters with the City Guard two young men were badly wounded and three killed. Ihis event, known as the Boston massacre, was the signal for a general rallying of the colonists of Massachu- setts, and it was thought best that the soldiery should retreat to Castle William until the effervescence subsided. The soldiers engaged in the mehe were tried for murder, but John Adams and Josiah Quincy defended them, and all save two were acquitted; the two being convicted of manslaughter only. 7 — Faneuil Hall was crowded during the evening of December 16, 1773, by men who were determined that the obnoxious tea duty should never be collected in America. There were three ships in the harbor laden with tea, and the agents were willing to send it back to England, but the British authorities refused to grant permission for the departure of the vessels. AMERICA. of Via people, aiul franeliised. Massa- .seii(liii : sustained Massachusetts lu its resistance, dischumed the recent acts of the hnglis h irovernment, and resolved (o hold no intercourse vvilh the mother country. The rights of the colonists were to be upheld, but the men forming the Congress be- lieved that so much could be ailected without break- ing the connection. „, ^ e \r ^ 10. — FiHST Bloodshed. The Governor of ^ assa- chusetts, having ascertained that there vyere military stores at Concord, belonging to the i)eople, concluded that he would procure them for his own use or destroy them, and an expedition of eight hundred men, under Col. Smith, was detail..! April 19, 1^7o, for that pur- TDOse. The people st ited oil messengers to rouse the minute men, and a signal lantern on the steeple of North Church called assistance from considerable dis- tances. Lexington was one of the rallying points o the colonial forces, and when the Britishers arrived there they found almo.st a company of minute men as- sembled on the village green. Ma]. Pitcairn, second in command of the Royalists, ordered the people o disperse, and upon their declining to do so, a battle ensued, in which seven of the Americans were killed. The troops pushed on to Concord and the stores were hastily destmved, as it had now become evident that the retreat to Boston must be conducted through a country swarming with minute men, iinpatient to avencre the blood spilt at Lexington. Every point that "could give shelter to a marksman, trees, rocks buildings, fences, inequalities of surface, were ai turned to good purpose by the Colonial troops, and three hundred refcoats fell before the remainder were rc^cucl by reinforcements from Boston. 1 he war had commenced, and as the news, carried by swift messen- gers, coursed through the land, men left their work m the fields unfinished to hurry to the scene of conflict Israel Putnam, an incorruptible brave man, was one of the earliest recruits, and he was in Bcston almost as Tr VMEUICA. lenounced the pres- ;d Massachusetts in t acts of tlie English no intercourse with )f the colonists wcru g tlie Congress be- cted without brcuk- } Govern.M" of ^^assa- there were military 10 people, coticludeil is own use or destroy hundred men, under >, 177;"), for that pur- wengers to rouse the n on the steeple of "om considerable dis- ic rallying points of ic Britisliers arrived ly of minute men as- Maj. Pitcairn, second •dered the people to ig to do so, a battle merioans were killed. I and the stores were become evident that conducted through a e men, impatient to ington. Every point iirksrnan, trees, rocks, af surface, were all 1 Colonial troops, and re the remamder were Boston. The war had rried by swMft inessen- men left their work in the scene of conflict. 3 brave man, was one as in Boston almost as UNITED STATES. 185 soon as the retreating regulars, leaving his cattle yoked in the tiehl. There was no longer a vestige of author- ity in the hands of British Governors from Massachu- setts to Georgia, further than their troops could compel obedience. Twenty thousand men worked at the in- trenchments that were to shut up Gen. Gage and his forces in Boston. Congresses were formed instanter in all the colonies, to consider the situation, and com- mittees were duly authorized to call out the troops should emergencies arise. Gov. Gage had commenced a war which he did not live to see fought out to its glorious result. 11. — Bunker Hill. The Colonists were deter- mined to see the matter to an end, or perish in the at- tempt, and Col. Pre-scott was chosen to command in the tirst regular engagement. The President of Har- vard prayed at the head of the troo{)s before they started from Cambridge to fortify Bunker Hill, and they worked through the bright moonlight until morn- ing, when their earthworks were completed. They had pr; ferred Breed's Hill for their fortification, as they found it more commanding, and .so silent liad been their labors, although vithin hail of the sentinels in Bos- ton, that the British troops knew nothing of their pro- ceedings until they saw the redoubt fully constructed June 17, 1775. Sir William Howe commanded an at- tack, and three thousand men ascended the hill to within ten rods of the redoubt without being molested. The Colonel had given orders that the defenders should not fire until ihey could see the whites of their opponents* eyes, and they were soldierly enough to obey his orders. At the proper moment the word "Fire" was heard, and consentaneously every rifle vomited forth its mes- senger of death. The redcoats, immovable as a wall one second before, had fallen in their ranks or were in rapid retreat when the smoke lifted. They had anticipated nothing so terrible as that act of slaughter. The village of Charlestown, set on Are by Gov. Gage, was the rallying point of the regulars, and having re- I t -!t*WM«SS«»«i«!i 136 CUlNTniKS OF NORTH AMKRICA. forincl thoro, tlio troops oiu-o more broasted the lull. Tlic (loailly volley met tlunn as before, and tlioy were coinpollo.1 u second time to retire ; tins time so sliul- tcred that they eoiild not renew the attack witliout re- inforceniet.ts. Had the patriots possessed a sulRciencv of ammunition thewhole force under Uowc s command would have been insullicient to disnosscss them, hut their weakness consisted in that lacking,' \\ hen t!io third assault was made there was only powder and ha I sulRcient for one volley, but that was delivered with emphasis and terrible eftect. The British troops paused for a moment, and then finding no repetition of the san-uinary salute, charged over the earthworks at the point of the bayonet, and the patriots, having no weapon.-, but their cluhbed muskets, were compelled reluctantly to retire from the scene on which they had already immortalized the name, American. 1 wicethe Briti.sh had come in contact with the continentals whom they professed to despise, and although on each occasion t'hev had w^^.l.^ETnvx Au.KN. Within one month of the Battle of Lexington, the fortress of Ticonderoga, so often assaulted °n vain by regulars and volunteers combined, was surprised and captured ^v a J^o^y of volunteers under Col. Ethan Allen and the afterwards infamous Benedict Arnold. The commander was lu bed when Allen demanded his sarrender and the e -was nothing possible in the way of resistance, ihe AMKRICA. •c broastt'd the liill. fore, iiiid they were c; tliis titno so sliat- le attaclc without re- wcsscd a snllicioiii'v l(>r IIowc'h ('Dintiiiuiil (lisi)osses.s tliotn, htit lacUiiif^. W!ien the mlv pinvdor and hall f wad delivered with The British troops inding no repetition over the earthwork.s the patriots, haviri!:; ds-ets, were comjiol led le on which they had imeriean. Twice the ith the continentals, md alth'High on each success, the prestige the patriots. Before iltle of Lexinton, the lusetts had, in May, Lhy of obedience, and proclamation offering uel Adams and John t established martial ittle of Bunker Hill, fidice by Sir Will'' 71 where he died wuhin lin one month of the iss of Ticonderoga, so rulars and volunteers aptured by a body of len and the afterwards he commander was in sarrender, and there ay of resistance. The UNITED STATES. 187 olTiccr demniided in whose name the force of Green Mountain Hoys had made the demaml, and Col. Allen r'plicd: " In'the name of the (Jreat .lehovah and the Continental Congress." Crown Point was (laptured soon afterwards, and the Continental forces were thus maiie masters of large cannon, small arms and ammu- nition. There was" not one lite lost in the expedition. i:{. (Ihv, Washington. Theseeond Continental Con'M-e.ss assembled at JMiiladelphia on the day of the capture of Ticonderoga, May 10, 1775, and it w;as eon- chided that twenty thousand men should be raised for the war, to serve under the orders of Gon. Washington, Commander-in-chief. A petition to the King was adopted at the same time, but George Ifl refused to receive the document. The Commandor-inchief pro- ceeded to the camp before Boston, and there found ahout 1-4,000 men, ill clad and worse armed, many of them unlit for the service which they had taken up on the impid.se of the moment, and of which they were already heartily sick. Very few knew anything about drill oV discipline, and there were only nine cartridges per man in the magazine with which the War of Inde- pendence was to be fought. Gen. Washington di(l all that could be done under the circumstances, and Gen. Gage remained enclosed in Boston. 14. Invasion of Canada. In the autumn of 1775, Gen. Montgomery led a force by the way of Lake CharnpLain now open to the operations of the colonists, took St. Johns and Montreal, appearing before Quebec in December, where he was joined by a band of men almost famished, led by Gen. Arnold. The new com- ers had ascended the Kennebec and made a road through the wilderness to the point of attack. The two forces joined were less than one thousand effect- ives ; but with this small body a siege was maintained for three weeks, until an assault was thought practica- ble, and in a blinding storm of snow the forlorn hope advanced by two divisions, one led by Gen. Montgom- ery the other by Benedict Arnold. Unfortunately the ■J ' I; ,;j>^m*i0>»^smmsm»*&i»e^^'-- 138 COUNTRIES OF NOKTH AMERICA. cliief in command fell mortally wounded, and yet more unfortunately, Arnold fell wounded, but not mortally, as he survived to tarnish a name winch might have been saved from disgrace by an early death. Cren. Morckadc^of the city until spring, retreated on the approach of Bnti.sli troops, to reinforce the garrison. ^tt i • 1 f,. — CoNTiXKNTAL SUCCESSES. Gen A\ ashing- ton steadily pursued his purpose all through the win- ter of 1770-76, to bring his armv into foi-rn and to compel the British to evacuate Boston. Dorchestej HeifeiHamiia'>te!«'flaS' < > wM ll >» sl 140 COUKTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. for service, turned his attention toward New York as soon as Boston had been freed, and he was correct in his anticipations that the British Commander in Chief would make a descent in that quarter. Cren. iowe proceeded from Boston to Halifax where he rehttcd and then sailed for New York. His brother, Admiral Lord Howe, joined him there with a fleet and rein- iorcements. which when joined to the troops com- manded by Gen. Sir Harry Clinton, gave an army of 80 000 men. The government had sent by the Admi- ral powers to treat with the Americans, but they were to be dealt with as revo'ted Colonists, not as a free and independent people. An officer was sent to the American camp witii a letter addressed .to beorge Washine remainder he occu- pied a strong camp at North Castle, and Howe pru- dently retired to New York. Fort Washington, which stood^whcre ISlst and ISfith streets now are, was taken by the Hessians, Nov. 16, 1776, after a very obstinate defense, with 2,600 prisoners. Our army, small from the first, was now hardly 3,000 strong, and it v,'as ne( e?«: v to retreat into New Jersey to resist a march on r '.Jphia. Lord Cornwallis, with 6,000 troops in g 1 -' idition, followed the shoeless ranks of tlie Armj ot Independence for three weeks, until Wash- ington crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania. Gen. Lee, who was slowly following the commander in chief, was taken prisoner by the enemy during this retreat. The boats on the Delaware had been secured by the Patriots, ar'd Gen. Howe concluded that he would cross that river on the ice as soon as practicable, to follow up his successes by taking Philadelphia. The villages along the river" were occupied by his troops, and he waited for his opportunity. This was the darkest mo- ment in the war. The troops were outnumbered, dis- heartened and ill supported, and the strong places were falling or had fallen into the hands of the enemy ; but the sun was still shining behind the clouds. 5. _ V'icTOiiY AT Trknton. Christmas night, 1776, was made memorable by an event, which reanimated the soul of liberty throughout the United States. There was a terrible storm, so severe that men were frozen to death that night, when Washington recrosaed 142 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. the Delaware with 2,400 men, and attacked the TTos- sian troops in Trenton, killing their leader and (tap- turing 1,000 prisoners, with a loss of only four of liis own men. Tlie surprise was perfect, and when Wash- ington returned to his camp after that victory, the jiros- pcets of tlie patriot army had improved wontlerfnlly. llecruits came in daily, men whose term of service had expired, remained; and Lord Cornwallis, who was to have carried to England the news of the almost com- plete extinction of the American army, was recalled by his commander in chief to enter upon a winter's compaign. The light of battle was in the eyes of tlie people. (J. — Princeton Victory. Washington recrossed the river, January 3, 1777, at the same point, and estab- lished himself at Trenton to await the coming of Corn- wallis. The Royalist forces came up about sunset, and attacked our little army, but they were repulsed with some loss, and the British general resolved to wait un- til morning. He had no cause for hurrying; there was no escape for the troops under Washington ; they should all be taken in the morning, as his force was enormously superior, and they were shut in by bis lines, and the impassable river, Washington was no sluggard, and neither his troops nor himself could sleep il at night. The watch fires burned brightly along the whole line, and behind that wall of flame, the patriot army moved noiselessly away with forty cannon, over the newly frozen country roads, which a few hours before were impassable. The British troops at Princeton were entirely unprepared for an attack, when the Americans fell upon them, and routed the force, capturing three hundred prisoners, with whom the General marched to Morristown Heights, without causing. Lord Cornwallis arrived at Princeton, too ate to°redeem the fortune of war, and his foes were beyond his power. The praise of Washington was on every lip, and all that winter he harassed the British, until New Jersey was all but rescued from their arms. ..^^i>jai.$i JgAJ H \.MERICA. (1 attaclv-ed the TTos- iioir leader and (tap- I of only four of his ■ct, and wlien Wash- bat victory, the jiros- proved wonderfully. i term of service had •nwallis, wlio was to 5 of the almost coin- army, was recalled ter upon a winter's 13 in the eyes of the '"ashington recrossed ime point, and estab- the coming of Corn- up about sunset, and ' were repulsed with resolved to wait un- for hurrying; there ;r Washington ; they ing, as his force was n-ere shut in by bis Washington was no 3 nor himself could res burned briglitly d that wall of flame, 5sly away with forty untry roads, which a The British troops spared for an attack, hem, and route;;; fenscless section of the Union. Charleston ^-^-^^l the next point of attack, bvit the siege under 1 levo^t ^vas precipitately raised on the approach of an A nc • ican force' undei'Oeiieral Lincoln, and l^'-^vo.st etu - cd to Savannah. The recapture of^^^wannah was g. l- lantly attempted in September, 177t> by Lincoln in oo,2iiation with the fleet under the l'''"^''-^' Ad.m al but a thousand lives were ost m an attack aftc a severe bombardment of the city, and tl e Cut D'Estaing then refused further assistance. Ihe p. t i- Ota blanred him very severely for his conduct 1 1 e brave J'ole, Pulaski, found a grave here, and his sei- vices with the Legion bearing Ins '>^""«;^^';^^^ /^ later date, commemorated by a monnmvnUa ^^^ J^""|h. 1.) —Northern Operations under Clinton weie lit- tle ot'her than savage acts of spoliation, where no do- fmS vis possible and where no military advantage olTowed llis course of action Norwalk airfield and Kew Haven, Conn., were plundered and set on hre f„d the work of destruction was made as complete as POS9 ble. Whereve. a few men could be g^ithered to Fnake a show of opposition, the predatory bands we^ kept from giving a taste of their quality. General Putnam rendered good service to our cause and d,s- {inguished himself at Horse Neck, operatmg against Trvon this summer. , , n i \v»K,r^a 20 —Stony Point was captured by General Wayne wirhaforceof eight hundred men, with the aid of a ne-ro who was in the habit of visiting the fort and Sw TlnTeountersign. The colored patriot led the tttaddncr party by a route well known to hirn, and ad^ vane ngalSne to the sentinel, gave the word, a ter which heremincd conversing with the soldier until he could iMKlUCA. atoly nii'l ^l»c wliolo was once :v Royal for a \)rii!f term on ) have doHpairud o! IS, ami tliorcforo liis a comparatively do- Imrlcstoii, S. C, was sios^e uiulor Prevost )n«icU of an Amor- and Prevost return, f Savannah was gal- .77t>, by Lincoln in Lhe French Admiral, n an attack after a ty, and the Count s'lstauco. The patri- )r his conduct. The ve here, and his ser- iiis name were, at a nument ill Savannah, der Clinton were lit- liation, where no de- ) military advantage orwalk, Fairfield and ered and set on fire, made as complete as could be gathered to predatory bands were eir quality. General to our cause and dis- jck, operating against ed by General Wayne len, with the aid of a visiting the fort and jlored patriot led the known to him, and, ad- re the word, after which 3 soldier until he could UNITKD STATES. 149 ho surprised and prevented from giving an alarm. From that point the troops passed over tlie causeway and reached the hill undiscovered. About midiiiglit the assault was made with every precaution to secure .silence, but the attacking p:irty was lired upon by the first picket of the fort and Wayne was one of the first wounded, but at his own request he wos carried at the cc(Uly k;;ied, head of his column and the capture was spccdil etiected. The defender;) lost six hundred men in k^lec wounded and prisoners, besides the fort and itscontc its. 21. — Chastising the Tories and their allien, the red nien, was the t:isk allotted to Gon. Sullivan ii\ the (jene.see country, and the Wyoming massacre was not forgotten. There was a battle near Elmira, N. Y., and tho^cnemy received a crushing defeat, after which the American force laid waste the Indian villages. oo^ John Paul Jones, whose real name was John Pauf,* rendered eirectual service to the cause of the union on the sea. The naval service was necessarily small, but it consisted of able and daring men, in small vessels generally fitted out as Letters of Marque and privateers, and within the first three ^ears of the war five hundred British vessels had been taken along the coast. The naval department had no more active and enterprising man than Paul Jones, who ravaged the coasts of Great Britain. After several noteworthy exploits, Jones procured a French vessel which he named Le Bon Ilomme Richard, in honor of Benjamin Franklin's genius, and with that vessel captured the Serapis, an English Frigate, in every way a better ship than his own, and carrying heavier guns. Our ship was old and rotten before the French gave hor to Paul Jones, but she was made seviceable until th.- ;• rapis had been taken in a desperate hand tohand cik junter, and from that time the British vessel was sailed by Paul Jones, under our flag, a terror to Ei.ghsh com- merce. The pride of the mother cour.uy was more touched by such exploits than by tbs ;^urrender of an array. i.^^^MtammsMsaii'tf i 150 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 23. __ Charleston, S. C, was again attacked in 1780, and this time an overwlielming force by land and sea compelled a surrender, after a bombardment and siego of forty days duration. Gen. Lincoln managed tlie defense admirably. Cornwallis sent predatory parties under Tarleton and other such leaders, to distress the colonists in all directions, and terrible brutalities were perpetrated. 24. — Burgoyne's Capture. Gen. Gates took command of the southern army, but his conduct in this campaign favors the idea that his previous success ■Was not due to his own energy. Gates planned a night r.ttack on Cornwallis, near Camden, and tlie British, 'vho had entertained a similar project, for the same time, were met in the woods marching to sur- prise the American camp. After skirmishing in the dark for a time, both forces waited for day, and the advantage of the encounter was entirely on the side of the enemv. Baron De Kalb, Major General of the force, and se'cond in command, fell mortally wounded on the field, and his comrades were overpowered fight- ine bravely. The militia fled, and Gates was nowhere during the engagement. The Union force in the south ■was entirely broken up. 25. — Patriot Leaders. The defense of the south became little other than a guerilla warfare. Marion, Sumpter, Lee and Pickens rallied the most daring men in the Carolinas — North and South, and British de- tachments were cut off in all directions. Some garri- sons were captured, and a system of reprisals, ren- dered necessary by the conduct of Tarleton and the Tories, made the country very warm during the con- tinuance of British rule. Some of the patriots were so poorly armed that they depended largely upon pro- curing the weapons and'ammunition of their enemies. Such°tactics prevailed at Hanging Kock, August_ 6, and at King's Mountain, October 7, in both of which engagements the patriots were victorious. 26. — Unlimited inflation had been the policy of -ny,vi^:k-^^vt<-<>:>aiKW45^B»t»>^^ * it t^fcsweifi**'* «**>S(!«>*sti»* t5ir.^fe»atN-;%a*;^«V*^***' ' J AMERICA. ain attacked in 1780, ree by land and sea nbardment and siego lincoln managed tlie ent predatDi-y parties iders, to distress tlie rible brutalities were Gen. Gates took , but liis conduct in t his previous success y. Gates planned a %r Camden, and tlie milar project, for the ds marching to sur- r skirmishing in the ted for day, and the entirely on the side Major (jreneral of the !ll mortally wounded :re overpowered fight- id Gates was nowhere ion force in the south B defense of the south ilia warfare. Marion, I the most daring men )Ulh, and British de- ■ections. Some garri- ;em of reprisals, ren- of Tarleton and the rami during the con- of the patriots were ded largely upon pro- tion of their enemies. ;inp Kock, August 6, • 7", in both of which ictorious. id been the policy of UNITED STATES. 161 Con-ressin all monetary concerns ^ '-""^ t^« ^"^^ ' ^"^ $200,000,000 issued by authority, could be bought for 850 000,000 specie. Currency would haidly buy Ssary articles, and the soldiers were unable to pro- cure boots with iheir pay. The British government he ped the financial muddb by circulating counterfeit notes and, in some districts, the troops were at the pont' of famine. Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, sen I 000,000 rations to the army, and relief associations ^^;ere formed, but the distress was ^o/'";";"^"™ Pennsylvania troops, to the number of l.f^^O, l^ea the camp at Morristown to secure redress by force m PhiladelDhia. Sir Harry Clinton, whose spies were Tve v-wheiTimproved the occasion by offering bribes to the revolting Union soldiers as a premium for de- sertion, and numbers of these creatures were handed over to the authorities by the men whose poverty they hooed to corrupt. A congressional committee speedily ISedZ cla^mor by slewing that they were doing ill in their power to carry the war to a successful con- "^^'27?-!- Abnou), the Traitor. While the soldiery were suffering heroically, and in the main without complaining, Benedict Arnold meditated an act of tZ!L uns^urpassed in the world's history. His brav- ery had long been his only recommendation to employ- ment, and he never suffered want if it was po^^'ble to rob the men serving under him, or anyboc^^ else he had now married a Tory, and was living with his wife in great style in Philadelphia. Charges of a grave nature were proved against h m, and it became neces- sary that he should be publicly rebuked by the Com- mander in Chief. Gen. Washington performed h,s duty as gently as circumstances would permit, in con- sidemtionof Arnold's services but the disgrace was keenly felt by the unprincipled man, and he sought an op'^ortunity to revenge himself upon his comUry Having by solicitation procured the command of West Point, under the pretense that he wished to redeem his "H.M(U.iwS£KME«< #*i»ia»-a«/iMW!fc^''5^5'aE««^^3*«"«B:»^^ 152 COl'KTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. character, this position, the most important in our possession, he at once offered to Sir Harry Clinton for a price, and the terms of the infamous compact were arranged without delay. The plan of surrender re- quired an interview with an agent above the status of an ordinary spy, and Maj. Andre, an English officer much respected, passed the American lines to complete the details. The British sloop Vulture conveyed him up the Hudson to West Point, but fire having been opened on the vessel, she dropped down the river, and Andre was under the necessity to return overland to New York. The papers were concealed in his dress, and Andre reached Tarrytown on his return, when three men, Paulding, Williams, and Van Wart, seized him on suspicion. Knowing that one American offi- cer was corrupt, Andre thought he could procure his release bv bribes; but his offers convinced the men that they' had obtained a valuable prize, and he was conveyed to the nearest post. A .'■afe conduct from Arnold was looked upon as a forgery, and the officer in command was on the point of sending Andr6 to West Point as a prisoner, but providence intervened. A note from the officer conveyed to Arnold the intel- ligence that his treason had miscarried, so that he had time to escape on board the Vulture, at a point lower on the Hadson, and he detained the boatmen as pris- oners. The price obtained by the traitor was about $32,000 and a colonel's command in the English army ; but officers of standing would not associate with him, and he was continually insulted to the end of his life, although protected by the king. Andre, sympathized with by all classes, was necessarily hanged as a spy, and the Union service was happily purged of a brave and able, but most iniquitous officer in the desertion of Arnolci. 28. — Conclusion of the War — 1781. Gen. Greene succeeded to the command which had been demoralized by Gates, and found only about 2,000 men in the last stages of destitution. The Battle of M«^ffl(|g»«*»fMW«^3*fe«^*'^'^^W»**"«*«^'' aiERICA. ; important in our r Harry Clinton for mous compact were an of surrender re- above the status of , an English oflficer ;an lines to complete ilture conveyed him Hit lire having been down the river, and ) return overland to ncealed in his dress, m his return, when id Van Wart, seized t one American offi- le could procure his convinced the men le prize, and he was A. fafe conduct from •gery, and the officer )f sending Andr6 to ■evidence intervened, to Arnold the intel- irried, so that he had ;are, at a point lower the boatmen as pris- he traitor was about in the English army; t associate with him, to the end of his life, Andre, sympathized 'ily hanged as a spy, ly purged of a brave licer in the desertion War — 1781. Gen. and which had been id only about 2,000 ution. The Battle of UNITED STATES. 153 Cowpens was fought by a part of this force under Gen. Morcran, who was attacked on the 17th of January, 1781° by Col. Tarleton. The militia retreated in con- fusion, and the Continentals made a retrograde move- ment to secure a strong position. Tarleton thought the whole force was routed, and his soldiers rushed forward to annihilate the Colonists, but our troops, facing about at the word of command, delivered a de- structive fire ftt point blank range, and the British colonel was completely defeated, many prisoners being taken. Lord Cornwallis was desirous to retrieve this disaster, but Morgan retreated into Virginia, carrying his spoils with him, and the Catawba, just swollen by heavy rain, prevented an instant pursuit. 2«). — Gen. Morgan was now joined by the Com- mander, and the retreat from this point was conducted by Greene. The weather favored our forces. Just after the Yadkin had been crossed by the patriots, the river was so swollen that Cornwallis was forced to make a detour before passing the stream. The start thus obtained saved Greene's command from absolute demolition by a superior force. The patrioiism of the South was proved by many noble deeds of self sacri- fice during this compaign, and when at last the fords of the Dan were crossed before Cornwallis could come up to dispute the passage, the British commander aban- doned the chase. Gen. Greene won and deserved the unanimous thanks of Congress for his masterly con- duct. , 30. Fighting Cornwallis. Greene wanted a respite only for his men, and he had given them con- fidence in his and their own powers. We find him at Guilford Court House, March 15, 1781, fighting ao-ainst great odds, but now the assailant. The nnlitia dtd not stand fire, but the continental troops held their own splendidly, and although there was not a, victory, Cornwallis retreated to Wilmington pursued by Greene immediately -.fterwards. The force under his command being insufficient to invest Wilmington, te- N^*C*'M •s^ ^^>V ^ 154 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. Greene now joined Marion, Sumpter Pickens and Lee in South Carolina, and harassed the hngli.sli until Georgia as well as South Can)hna were almost entirely free from the troops of the oppressor, llie enemy was so broken by the battle at Eutavy bprmg?. September 8th, that they retired upon Charleston, South Carolina. The commander of the enemy, re- lieved from the presence of Greene, made a raid into Vii-crinia, and although the tories made many demon- strations, the regular war in the south had come to an end, although ClMrleston was not evacuated until the following y jar, 1782. n ., m •* 31.— Northern Operations. Arnold, the i raitor, was in Virginia, covering himself with infamy by his brutal endeavors to prove his usefulness to the enemy. La Fayette, with an inferior force, held him somewiiat in check until Cornwallis, coming from South Caro- lina, assumed the command, and continued, with a much greater force, the same horrible system o£ butchery, plunder and destruction. Gen. Clinlon, Commander in Chief, recalled Cornwallis from his marauding expedition in the interior, directing him to keep near the coast ready to cooperate in a scheme ot defense should Washington attack New York and in consequence that officer fortiried himself in York- ° 32. — Combined Attack. Our French allies and our own forces now proceeded to hem in Cornwallis at Yorktown. Washington assumed the offensive at New York, so that Clinton believed himself m mo- mentary danger of an assault, until the commander in chief was drawing near his actual point of attack, and on the 28th of September twelve thousand men were before Yorktown. Batteries were opened immediately, and red hot shot and shells fired the shipping in the harbor. The American force carried one redoubt, while the French troops carried another, and the finest spirit of emulation made every soldier equal to the work of two men. The walls were soon breached, and ■^»-'. ,»«eiti^BI»*M««s»M»««>«»«'--^ AMERICA. impter, Pickens and larassed the Englisli Can)lina were almost ■ the oppressor. The ttle at Eutaw Spring?, red upon Charleston, ler o£ the enemy, re- eene, made a raid into iS made many demon- south had come to an ot evacuated until the s. Arnold, the Traitor, 3lf with infamy by his iefulness to the enemy, je, held him somewhat ling from South Oaro- md continued, with a 3 horrible system o£ iction. Gen. CI in ton, 1 Cornwallis from his terior, directing him to Doperate in a scheme of ittack New York, and tiried himself in York- Our French allies and to hem in Cornwallis at amed the offensive at elieved himself in mo- until the commander in iial point of attack, and Ive thousand men were 3re opened immediately, red the shipping in the e carried one redoubt, d another, and the finest !ry soldier equal to the were soon breached, and UNITED STATES. 155 an assault was imminent, when Lord Cornwallis fol- lowed the example of Burgoync and capitulated on the 19th of October, 1781. ^ ^ i • 33. — SUKUENDER OF YoRKTOWN. Gcn. Washing- ton commanded that the sword of Cornwallis should be delivered to Gen. Lincoln who had been compelled to surrender Charleston, and the captive army, 7,000 stron^r, marched out from the fortifications with cased colors and arms shouldered, between the two armies, French and American. Cornwallis escaped the humili- ation of being present by a convenient fit of sickness, but the defeat was entire and complete, and every per- son felt that the war had come to an end. There was great rejoicing in every patriot heart, but the lories and the traitors were eaten up with an ignoble rage. Hardships, until now all but unbearable, were swal- lowed up in victory ; joybells were ringing, and the watchmen in the streets announced the intelligence with tears of thankfulness as they made their nightly rounds in the city of Philadelphia. Men awakened from their slumbers, rushed to the windows to be sure. Congress assembled very early in the morn- int', and in the afternoon succeeding, marched to the Lutheran church, where the Te Deum of thanksgiving from full hearts ascended to the God of Battles, lor sio-nal mercies vouchsafed to the youngest nation on tlie globe ; beginning then and there a career of pros- perity unexampled in all time. England saw that the conquest of such a people was impossible, a"d the populace demanded that the ministry which had advi.sed on the war should be dismissed. The House of Commons denounced further action, and George 111 was compelled by his weakness to submit to the de- mands of justice. 34^ After the War. The greatest peril that ever menaced a country was now pressing upon the United States, although the war was virtually ended. There was no commerce, no trade, no manufactures; and agriculture had long been neglected because of .1. % 1 ,a»a(M»Ei«» AMERICA. of Lexington, had tied all avocations, strugsle commenced, ncy which had been ime past would buy n open rebellion be- eir services being ac- to which they were could not, in many r circumstances, dur- .nd, the Puritan sol- to succumb to their Cromwell Dictator; higher type than the f Cromwell, and the I was superior to the ons to Congress for m an empty treasury, crown to the Com- ce of the great and irties to prevent vio- y was accommodated was no period of in- English government )ints which were still eace long since estab- 3 Independence of the cognized by all the •nally inaugurated by ember 3, 1783. The Commander-in-Chief •non svich devotional n the hearts of man- ruler of priceless in- TY. The colonies had yranny and exactions an undue jealousy of UNITED STATES. 157 governmental strength, and, in consequence thereof, Congress possessed too little power under the articles of confederation agreed to by the states. An advi- sory congress was found to be an utter failure, and the debt incurred by the management of the lievolution ary War could not be dealt with save by an authori- tative body, but Congress could levy no ta.xes and, of course, possessed no funds. Shay's Eebellion, which aimed at the subversion of the general government, was subdued by the militia under Gen. Lincoln, in New England, but the weakness and inadequacy of Congress was admitted on all hands. It was necessary to make a strong Congress, such as could enforce the will of the whole people, yet such as could not become an incubus upon the population. 37. — Solving the Pkohlem. Philadelphia was the city chosen for the assemblage of a convention to revise the articles of confederation, and Gen. Wash- ington was chosen president of the assembly. The whole of the states, except Khode Island, sent dele- gates, and the deliberations were at times anything but calm and conciliatory ; but, after much debate, the Constitution of the United States was adopted by that body, on the 17th of September, 1787, and the work of organization having been carried out during the following year, after a sufficient number of the states had ratified the articles to give them the force of law, the Constitution was brought fully into operation in 1789. Four of the states delayed their ratification for some time; Rhode Island did not accept the Ccnstitu- tion until 1790, but North Carolina, Rhode Island and the rest came under the operation of the law notwith- standing. XII. RECENT HISTORY. WatMngton and the RepubUo. 17S7-1797. 1. — Reviewing the Position. It might seem that there is no warrant for placing the time which elapsed from the adoption of the constitution to the inauguration of the first President, under Washington's 1C8 COUNTUIES OF NORTH AMERICA. name, but lie was the President of the Philadelphia convention in 1787, and his moral power, more than the influence of any otiier single individual, ruled tiie Union from tlie close of the war until he was elected President of the United States in 1789. His inaugu- ration, on the SOtii of April, was an almost unanimous outburst of gratitude toward the twofold deliverer of his country. He had expe'.led the foreign foe, and he had saved' the nation from the tyranny of an armed dictator. Ilis journey from Mount Vernon to New York, the temporary capital, was an ovation, and tlie people wouUl have crowned him with flowers in every village. His oath to support the Constitution of the United States was taken on the balcony of the old Federal Hall. ^_ , 2. — Want of Funds constituted the first difficulty with which the government was obliged to contend. The tretisurv was empty, and the experiment of a dem- ocratic republic being new, the moneyed men of the world had no credit to bestow upon novelties. The Indians were hostile, and there were no forces save the unpaid militia to huld them generally in check. Our navv could not protect our merchant vessels from Al- y ■ ^ nil ! • _ ..t tu,. \*;„,,;..o;„v,; gerine corsair.s. The navigation of the Mississippi was under Spanish control, and that nation refused us the risrht to travel on its waters. The whimsical ha- tred of George III prevented the nomination of an English minister to this government, and there was nc treaty of commerce between the countries. 3." — Grasping the Nettle, Washington called around him the men of leading minds, who represent- ed all parties in the Union, and firmly holding them together, proceeded to arrange the affairs which his government must reduce into order, or fail entirely. Jefferson, Hamilton, Knox and Kandolph were asso- ciated with him in the cabinet. 4. — The Treasury. Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, induced Congress to assuine the liabilities incurred by the several states during the AMERICA. , of the Philadelphia ral power, more than individual, ruled tiie until he was elecicd I 1789. His inaugu- an almost unanimous ! twofold deliverer of le foreign foe, and he tyranny of an armed unt "Vernon to New } an ovation, and tlie with flowers in every he Constitution of the 3 balcony of the old ;ed the first difficulty i obliged to contend, experiment of a dein- moneyed men of the upon novelties. The 'ere no forces save the erally in check. Our ihant vessels from Al- >n of the Mississippi that nation refused us 3. The whimsical ha- ;he nomination of an nent, and there was no countries. !. Washington called minds, who represent- d firmly holding them the aftairs which his order, or fail entirely. Kandolph were asso- xander Hamilton, the jed Congress to assume lyeral states during the UNITED STATES. 159 war of Independence, and to pay the national debt in its totalitv. Funds were raised for the purposes of trovernment, by duties on imported goods, and an ex- cise on distilled liquors. Philadelphia was made the home of the United States Mint, and of a National Bank. The vigor exhibited in these measures estab- \\A\ed credit. There was, in 1794, an organized oppo- sition to the tax on spirits in western Pennsylvania, but 1.500 militia men subdued the riot, and the strength of the government was fully established. 6. -- Tribal Deprkdations. The Indians had de- feated two armies, sent for their subjugation, in the northwest, but the appointment of Gen. Wayne to the command was the signal of better action. The wiser Indians counseled peace, but a long career of rapine induced the majoritv to dissent, and the battle of M^u- mee was the consequence, August 20, 1794. The Indians were routed and destroyed, their towns laid waste for fifty miles, and they were glad to purchase peace by a treaty whereby they surrendered the terri- tory now forming Ohio and part of Indiana. Wayne was a terror to the Indians. , . -, . ^ 6. FoREiGX Debts. England complained that moneys due from citizens of the United States could not b"e olleoted, and the answer might justly have been, Your government, by its tyrannous action, has destroyed our means of payment, therefore look at home.' Individual Americans did say as much, and called attention to the fact that American seaman were still subjected to impressment on the high seas, as well as that posts were held on the frontier, as at Detroit and elsewhere. To arrange the matters in dispute, Chief Justice Jay went to England as Envoy Extraor- dinary, in 1795, but the treaty made by him excited much discontent among all classes, as it gave Eng and all that was demanded, and secured no equivalent. The Senate became very unpopular because of the rat- ification of the treaty, and its advocates fell under the censure of the public. leo COUNTRIES OF NOUTII AMKHICA. 7. — Tho Mississippi ^\ns opened to our ships by a treaty witli Spain in 1705, wliich also defined the boundaries of Florida. Tiie Dey of Algiers was obliged to release Americans prisoners, detained by bis government, and, under a treaty made with him, the commerce of the Mediterranean was made safe and practicable for American vessels, 8. — The French Kevolution and the European war, which was the consequence of other nations intermed- dling with France in matters peculiarly domestic, ap- jiealed to the sympathies of the American people witli great force; but Washington and his Cabinet could not see cause for this country to rush into a war on that account, and the neutrality of the United States was preserved as .learly as possible under the circum- stances. Genet, Jie French Ambassador to this coun- try, fitted out puvateers in oui- ports, and appealed to the people against the President ; but the minister was recalled upon Washington's representations. 9. — Neaukh Home. Washington could hardly keep the peace between contending })artie3 in his own Cabinet. Jeflerson associated with Madison, and Ran- dolf led the llepublican party in the country, opposing the assumption of state debts by Congress, the Eng- lioh treaty negotiated by Jay, and the establishment of a national bank. Alexa'nder Hamilton and^John Adams, able men and high principled, led the Feder- alists who supported Washington and desired a strong central government. Hamilton was rather a Monarch- ist than a Republican. Washington might have been reelected, but he declined a third term, and in the con- test between parties, Adams was elected his successor by two electoral votes over Jefferson. The nation had made very wonderful advances during the administra- tion of Washington, but the General was only too much pleased to resign the authority which he had borne for 80 many years. Adama and Hie Ji-public. 1797-iSOl. 10. — Strong Government. John Adams was I •'•mtAsmsemn^m.miimiit^iiai^sse.iiMmm a .-i i aiMmm m t^^ AMKIUCA. lied to our ships by a ich also dcfitied the i)cy of Algiers was risoiicrs, detained by eaty made with him, an was made safe and .^ , " -'■:■/' >nd the European war, her nations intermod- culiarly domestic, ap- \inorican people with id his Cui)inet could rush into a war on of the United States ble under the circum- basaador to this coun- lorts, and appealed to ; but the minister was esentations. lington could hardly mg })artie3 in his own itb Madison, and Ran- the country, opposing ay Congress, the Eng- md the establishment jr Hamilton and John cipled, led the Feder- n and desired a strong was rather a Monarcli- gton might have been 1 term, and in the con- s elected his successor irson. The nation had during the adniinistra- leral was only too much which he had borne for , '1 1707-lSOl. John Adams was .51 Smt FWSr SA1LR04D TSAW, ^^^^- -3J\\\.V.--,\\\\V^yi4, ' mm. X rOBTUIBD HDUSfc «^tfi(«iSM«^^MS^^8S%Si«@aSi^£i««^i«l' UNITKU STATES. lei entirely a inaii of stn)ii<,' inoaHvires, and immcLliately afujr his a.-siiiiiption of oll'ico lit; u.stoeinetl it necessary to repros.s thu iicoiise witli wliifli tliu govoriniiont of tho b'liituil Slates was being assaileil by rosiiieiits in llio country wlio tiiought tliat America should assist Franee. Tlic alien and sedition laws wore the natural result of the uroponderaiuio of his party, and it was now possi- ble lor the President to expel any foreigner frotn the country if he saw such action to be advisable. Under the sedition law, lines and iniprisonnient were de- nounced against any person libelling the President or the .rovernnient. The {)eople hated those enactments. 11. — Al-MOST AT Wau. The revolutionary gov- ernment in France treated this country with marked discourtesy. American vessels were capture(l and the flag dishonored, and envoys sent to the French Directory were refused an audience. The men who had ui)held the cause of France were silenced by that line of conduct. An army was to be raised, and Gen. Washington was nominated Commander-in-Chief ; but before any decisive action had been taken, Napoleon became First Consul, and a better understanding im- mediately resulted. The people had, learned the value of nonintervention in European politics. Jefferson and the Itvpulilic. laOl-lSOO. Ijj. — AcQUiniNG LouisiAXA. Thomas Jeflerson was the most brilliant man that ever filled the Presi- dential chair, and his terms of office were marked by- many events of large import for the United States and the world. The acquisition of Louisiana by purchase from Napoleon, in 1803, for $15,000,000, was an ad- mirable piece of statesmanship. The territory had been in the hands of Spain, and had been a cause of trouble in the early days of the Republic, and France had come into possession under an act of cession made by Spain, This purchase gave to us more than one million square miles of land', out of which ten states, two territories, and parts of other states have been con- structed, besides making us masters of the Mississippi 11 a COUNTRIKS OF NORTH AMERICA. 1 162 1 \ — Aaron Burr, who was Vice President during Jefcr'son'fn t term of office, and who had at first the same .umber of electoral votes for the Presuleney as JefTerson hhnself, 73, was bitterly -'^tagomst.o to Ah exander Hamilton, whom he challenged to a due and shot dead This event made Burr very unpopular, although he was brilliant and very able, as even those who disapproved of manvof the measures of ILumlton Tt 1 admi-ed the man. Burr went west during the fecondterm, and under a pretense of --"^S «.^ ^^^"^ on Northern Mexico, was suspected of an attempt to break up the Union.' On that charge he was arrested and triell after long imprisonment; but the ca^^^^^^^^^^^^ not be established. 13urr was a "^^7^. ^/^S^f,!^^ nnd with all his talents hod a wonderful faculty loi ruininc. his friends and himself. He passed some yearn In Eur° pe and lived to an old age after h,s re urn to thif country, but in public life he was a nullity after the death of Alexander Hamilton. 14. -Robert Fulton's Steamboat The first steamboat that ever traveled ^f ,^1^« ^^f ^;;^;„^,"^^ built by John Fitch a native of Windsor, Connea^ cut who constructed the vessel in 1787. Ut con structid a model in 1785. His vessel attained a speed of six miles an hour, on the Delaware, but was sub - quently burned. After that event, the "^^^ int "d c Son of steamboats is due to the second Pre la^^^^^^^^ term of Thomas Jefferson and the ingenuity of Robert Fulton. The Clermont ran for many years on he Hudson from New York to Albany, being then the only steamboat in the world, and the --nd ever con^ structed. The idea was worth more to the Lnitea States than Louisiana ten times repeated. 15 —BoMiB.^RniNCx the Bashaw. The pirates of th^ Barbary States had levied tribute upon he commerce of ^Europe for years, ^"d^^ea^^ycfuj^tr TTiirltime nations submitted to the exaction, bruisers SomTpol captured small vessels belonging to ar.y country, and hild their passengers and crews at ran- II AMERICA. Vice President during nd who had at first the for the Presidency as rly antagonistic to Al- ai'lcnged to a duel and Burr very unpor)nlar, -ery able, as even those e measures of Hamilton went west during the nse of having a design ected of an attempt to charofe he was arrested, ent ; but the case could a man of irregular life, a wonderful faculty for He passed some years age after his return to 3 he was a nullity after ton. Steamboat. The first was the Perseverance, } of Windsor, Connecti- ssel in 1787. He con- is vessel attained a speed Delaware, but was subse- Bvent, the next introduc- the second Presiaentia! 1 the ingenuity of Robert for many years on the Albany, being then the and the second ever con- rth more to the United les repeated. Bashaw. The pirates levied tribute upon the ■ears, and nearly all the ,o the exaction. Cruisers vessels belonging to any en^^ers and crews at ran- UNITED states. 163 som The United States bad conformed to the custom of payiii" tribute, but, in 1801, the year of the acces- sion ()f President Jeirer.s(.m, tlie Bashaw of Tripoli de- dared war against this country. The President sent a fleet to bombard the Mohammedan city, and after a few lessons in the arts of civilized war, the basliaw, completely subdued, asked humbly for peace. Ihe dis"racefnl act of paying tribute ceased from that time. 10. — EriiOPEAX Wars. The wars of the Irench Kevoiution continued witli varied success. Napoleon was master of the continent of Europe and England was mistress of the seas. Napoleon sought to destroy the commerce of England by closing all the ports a<'ainst her, and the carrying trade of the world was lart'ely conducted by the United States. In the crude condition of international law which then prevailed, our shipping suffered from both parties ; but ji,ngland, being more powerful on the seas, injured our com- mercie more tlian France, and, besides, that country claimed the right of stopping any ship on the high sea to impress seamen of English birth into that naval •service The power was as monstrous as that exer- cised bv the Bashaw of Tripoli before the bombard- ment of his capital. The capture of the American friirate Chesapeake by the British frigate Leopard, ott Vi'i'-nnia, brought the quarrel close home, and Jeffer- son ordered all British ships of war to quit the waters, of the United States ; but England disavowed the act, and, in consequence, xar was not declared. An em- barcro laid by Congress upon all American vessels, forbidding them to leave port, was very injurious to commerce and was removed, but intercourse with either of the belligerent nations was interdicted, ihe war fever assisted to secure the election of James Madison, towards the close of President Jefifersous second term, and the Republicans hoped that some oc- casion would arise to wipe out old scores. Ihe J^ed- eralists strongly opposed war measures, and they were a powerful minority. inmae 164 COUNTRIES OF XOUTH AMERICA. :U„.IUona,„lthcll.l»,hllr. ISO'J-lsn. 17 -Dkfext OF Tecumseii. Great Britain, by her emissaries, had been for some tiinc tampering with : the i ans, and the brave and wily Tecumseh saw h, opportunity', in 1811, to eonfederate tl>c tribes^ in t; Northwest ai^ainst our government. The lust gicat 1 re t of iis° powers of ^ eoinbination was a crushing def at at the hands of Gen. Harrison, at Tippecanoe i Nov 7 1811. The attacking party came upon the ' American camp by night, but they were crushed i coinpletelv, with an immense shiughter. , , „f i 18 -KxGl.AXi). Everybody saw the hand of .{ En dand in the Indian war, and tlie unjust preten- ds of that country as to the "-F^---^"^-;;;!;^^ I continued without abatement. bailors ^ve e taU , I .hips were captured if any opposition was oi^^^i^^,f^ L veiels of war were even sent into our own wateis to . t ^ake prizes. Sometimes the insolence of the enemy & !i ZveaLx where prudence might have prescribe- mod- ': 1 eKo 1 The British sloop-of-war Little Belt was . 1 tv\M 'bv our frigate President, and the answer was ;^eb>firin-i:.°o our frigate. Tne President spoke th7!nmelo -"uefora little while, until the bellicose tp w-1-^bled, rfter which amicable relations were established. Finallv, it became evident that Ihtie SS b no honorable peace with the English nation until there had been war, and President Madison made the necessarv declaration on the 19th of June, 1812. 1 « _ Hull's Cowahpice. The invasion of Cana- da commenced the second war with England, and the conduct of ^^rig. Gen. Hull is, with the exception of A nold s treason, the worst record that our military history has presented. That officer crossed into Cana^ da hom Detroit, where he resided as Governor o Michioan, and i-ssued a proclamation to the Canadians twiel.e prepared to attack Fort Maiden. As soon as he learned that a force was prepar-.ig to attack nni, he fled precipitatelv, and was subsequently follow the shores ot Lake Champlain ; and Gen. Harrison, whose name was already popular, commandod the army of the west. The enemv en- trusted the V .- :uet of the war to Gen. Proctor, and the Indian allies were under the command of lecumseli. Two of the armies and their doings may be summed UP in a few words. Gen. Dearborn attacked York, nbw Toronto, and the assault was being splendidly led bv Gen. Pike, when the magazine blew up kil ing him and a great portion of his command. 1 he place was captured, April 27, 1813. Dearborn was short y after succeeded by Gen. Wilkinson, who descended the St Lawrence with his men, to combine with Gen. Hampton in attacking Montreal. After repulsing the British at Chrysler's Field, there was some misunder- 1»*tw^»««^apWBti:i«!«G«»etf :^^^^^^am^sim4mmiiim^i¥im«ie»i>i,m: [ AMERICA. rendered Detroit and c. Tlie sloop of war St of North Carolina, h brig Frolic, October ent ensued, in which ie\ fought until there ,he flag. The Wasp's to their surprise they ;ck, not prostrated by eel. Tliere were some eord on land in such , and there were fully ' our privateers bef re. Hiile these events were rm drew near its termi- l their endorsement of ting him Presid(Mit. There were three ariaies that the proceeihngs of character of the land 3d during 1812. Gen. ■of the center, stationed [ampton, with the army 3S of Lake Champlain ; le was already popular, west. The enemy en- to Gen. Proctor, and the command of Tecumseh. doings may be summed 'earborn attacked York, A'as being splendidly led :;azine blew up, killing s command. The place Dearborn was shortly inson, who descended the to combine with Gen. 3al. After repulsing the lere was some misunder- UNITED STATES. 167 standing between the two leaders and the armies sep- arated without an attempt on Montreal. Uampton las defeated by the British at St. Johns, and then made his wav to Plattsburg, where he was reinforced and did nothing for the remainder of the year 24. — Gen. Harrison, with the army of the west, made a good showing, and the men under his orders S t that\hey were in good hands. A detachmen o his force on the Maumee, under Gen. ^\ mchester, left the fort to render assistance to the people of l^rench- town? who feared an Indian assault. The Indians were defeated, but before he could recover h'« P^'^^^^^"'^ Jf men were attacked by an overpowering force under Proctor. The battle ended in a surrender uijon hon- orable terms, but after the battle the Eng.sh Genera whether thoughtlessly or by design left tbe Amencau wounded at the mercy of the red skins maddened by whisky and success. The result made the massacie at River Raisin a terrible war cry among Kentuckians during the rest of the campaign, as tne sufterers were mostly f : om Kentucky. Proctor besieged I^rt Meigs, defended by Harrison, but he soon found that the con- , queror of Tecumseh knew the art of war, although lis force was not strong enough to take the hel^d. From Meigs, Proctor hastened to Fort btepl en.on, where the garrison was only lot) strong under the command of Major Croghan but he was doomed ^o a second repulse, and after that c.ent he re urned to Canada. Still Michigan was in the hands of the ene- mv and Ohio was in danger at many points. ^i.r - Battle of Lake Erie. The naval force on Lake 'Erie was assigned to the OA,mmand of Uapt. Perry, a young sailor only twenty-seven years of age who had neve? seen a naval engagement. Many ot t e ships that were to sail under his orders were yet to be coStructed, and he must win his victory, it_ there was such an achievement in store for him, again, a man who had fought under Horatio Lord Nelson. Co.a- modore Barcfay bore down upon Perry's fleet of ame 1G8 COUKTRTES OF XOllTH AMEBIC A. n vessels carrying 54 guns, on the 10th flay of Septem- ber, with six sliips carrying 63 guns. The probabih- ties were all on the side of tlie largest ships and most guns, bnt the vonng commander was a hero that did not know when he was beaten. His flag ship, the Lawrence, was attacked by two of the heaviest of the enemy as well in number of guns and men as in size, and be continued to f^.ght until there were only . ei<^l t men left fit for action. When the last gun had bc'en fired on board tln^ Lawrence, he carred his flag to the Niagara, pas>ing in a small boat through the British fleet. Hr-isting his this on the Niagara, ho broke the enemy's line, delivering both broadsides as rapidly as his men could load and fire, and before the countrymen of Nelson knew what the next movement mi'^ht'be, Perry was master of the situation. The dipv)p.cch sent by Perry to Gen. Harrison was as good in 'ts way as the brief announcement by Cesar: Veni, vuli, vici. Perry said : " We have met the enemy and they are ours." All over the country those words were repeated, and the admiration earned by the j'oung sailor became an impulse to patriotism in every heart. 2(i._HAKRSi0N's ViCTOKY. The dispatch from Perry found his colleague, Gen. Harrison, preparing for a" descent on Canada, where Proctor and his In- dians under Tecumseh, fully two thousand strong, occupied Maiden, designing to lay waste the Ameri- can frontier. The General hurried to Maiden at once, but thf enemy had fled, and he followed rapidly m pursuit. His' course from Sandusky Bay had only prepared him for his work. The enemy were over- taken on the Thames, and his dispositions being al- ready made the battle was commenced without delay. Col. Johnson with his horsemen from Kentucky, full of remembrances of the Raisin massacre, charged through the EngMsh line and formed immediately in the reiu to resume operations. Proctor, on a swift horse, made his escape, and the army surrendered. The Indians were attacked with special energy, and '4>^,^,i>.,,^Hmm:^>M^m>^^S.^I'^^^^^*^^^''^^*- AMEBICA. 10th clay of Septein- iiiis. Tho probabili- argcst sliips and most [• was a hero that did I. Ilis flag ship, the af the heaviest of the jnns and men as in until there were only . Hien the last gun had ice, he carred his flag all boat through the y on the Niagara, he ig both broadsides as i(i fire, and before the lat the next movement )f the situation. The Harrison was as good sment by Cesar : Veni, ive met the enemj' and country those words n earned by the young riotism in every heart. The dispatch from in. Harrison, preparing e Proctor and his In- two thousand strong, i lay waste the Ameri- ried to Maiden at once, le followed rapidly in ndusky Bay had only rhe enemy were over- s dispositions being al- imenced without delay. !n from Kentucky, full isin massacre, charged formed immediately in s. Proctor, on a swift the army surrendered, ith special energy, and UXITKI) STATES, 169 Tecumseh fell mortally wounded. That incident was? in itself a defeat for tlie red men, and they Aed in every direction, without striking another blow. 1 his victory following so rapidly upon the Lake hrie ex- ploit, ended the war in this section of the country, and the two commanders were spoken of everywhere as tlie men who were alone worthy to command the armies and naw of the Union. 27. — Loss OF THE Chesapeake. Capt. Lawrence, of the frigate Chesapeake, was in Boston Harbor re- fitting his^vossel, and was in no sense ready for action when he received a challenge from Capt. Brock, of the Shannon, then Iving ofl the harbor, to come out and ficrht him. Such a message should have commanded no attention under the circumstances, for half his men had been discharged, and the remainder were unpaid and all but mutinous, so that he could not properly ficrht his ship, even if she had been thoroughly reht- te°l Still his error was heroic, and the outcome might have been different had not a hand grenade burst in the arm chest of the ship at the very monrient that the Shannon's men boarded her. The slaughter was ter- rific, but when Capt. Lawrence fell mortally wounded, the last hope of victory was gone. The crew was fee- ble and disheartened, and the last words of their com- mander, "Don't Give up the Ship," fell upon the ears of men who were already beaten. _ yg —Creek Indians Defeated. Tecumseh in- duced the Alabama Indians to join his murderous league in 18U, and in 1813 Fort Mims was surprised, theVrrison slaughtered, and the women reserved for worle tortures than they suffered in seeing their chil- dren slain and mangled. The facts of that piece of treacherv and horror brought avengers from everv quarter'and under Jackson the Indians were pursued from one point to another, until they made a stand on Horseshoe Bend in a fortified position. The troops scaled their works regardless of obstacles and earned the day at the point of the bayonet. The Creek In- ifimumi^<> •if n ' 1 -J r 170 COUNTRIES OF NOKTII AMERICA. dians knew that they were fighting for life, and tWy rpnder on such terms as a aog wouiu ia> , ,,„ S tribe will long remember the battle of March 27, as^t; Kit ,^ £. .. £ or bombarded, and on the 24th ot /^"oU - marched into Washnigton, whe e he burnca iior^^ forces were disembarked to c««P-rf^^^^iiViJe\,; ^ s another wanton act of spobatio^^^o^t McU-;y^^^„^ allotted to tbe fleet, but tb« ^^^^^^^^ ^i,u ^o much produced "°^S^«\£"f,i^,"^'e°P;ho had been under of Ballimore ivas iKistporied. G™- jwss was thpfP was indignation ana a icsuiyc k i,„;ntT leance upon the authors of the ruin that wa bemg brought, Ind every seaport was speedily fortified to p,.e|.re f- -^^J -^J^f;, ,, igU. Canada was at- victory at Chippewa was won by Gen. Wmtield boow ^**-*.. [ AMERICA. ting for life, and tlioy their assailants. Six ainilor made their suv- ,-ould liave disdained, le battle of March 27, The British Navy ) make war among tlie whole of the soulliem of sailors and marines a's. squadron. Bridges I, crops devastated, and were carried out along the Curolinas. lu the were observed on the Commerce was annihi- inecticut were captured 1 of August, Gen. lloss lere he burned libraries veilings and stores, and baritv°by destroying the ; made his way by the 3 12th of September, the .operate with the fleet in on. Fort McUenry was attempted bombardment roops met with so much ,en who had been under he ships, and the erasure Gen. Boss was killed xpedition. On all hands i resolve to wreak ven- the ruin that was being was speedily fortified to ' 1814. Canada was at- under Gen. Brown cross- t Erie was captured ; the 1 by Gen. W infield Scott UNITED STATES, 171 on the 5th of July, and twenty days la er he bloody battle of Lundy's Lane was fought to a bnlliant h ■■- . The dav was closing in when hcott gave Col. Millu instructions to carry the key c,f the British P<«>tion, a battery on a height The C<.lonel headed his regi- ment, and was soon master of the battery; but the British knew its value as well as he; three tunes they concentrated their force upon its recapture, and as manv times they were driven back m dismay by the weirorganized defense, until about midnight they re- tired from tlic contest, leaving victory with our in- domitable troops. „^^,^„f 3 1 . _ Lake CnAMPLAiN. Plattsburg was alrnost entirely deprived of troops; there were only LoOU in the i,lace on the 11th of September ; the rest had been sent to Canada to serve under Gen Brown, when Gen. Prevost with 12,000 men, who had gone through the Peninsular wars with the Duke of Wellington, at- tacked the town. The British fleet on the ake was to render essential aid in demolishing the place, and there was only one obstacle to success: a squadron of American vessels under the command of Cmnmodore McDonough. Still there was an obstacle sufiicient tor ihe purpose by land and by lake. The 1,500 soldiers defended the passage of the Saranac against nearly as many thousand veterans, and the fleet upon which Prevost depended was all but destroyed. The Battle of Lake Champlain has a place in IV'^^^^'^rl^r^, -'^'i* Britain has no poet to sing its praise. 1 he British Commodore lost his ships, and the General fled with his army, leaving sick, wounded, and military stores, in oroof of his precipitation. 32 —BATTLE OF New Orleans. The last en- ga-er^ent in this war was fought after peace had been concluded between England and America Napoleon who had been compelled to abdicate the throne of France and retire to Elba, was speedily to leave Ins splendid prison and reappear in France. England had probably an inkling of what would happen, if she was 172 COUNTUIES OF NOETil AMERICA. ,,, really in the secret ^^^ ^^::t^Z^Z:^: reason she wantea Ijf^^, '^^ ^.^jf,;!, eoncUuU-d iu hence the haste vvilh wh.ch V^^'^^^t to prepare for, the latter part of Decen,ber, a .lent t j ^^1 ^^^^ | the l.lood.er ^ '^"'^':« ^^^.^ eounUV Gen. Pakenha.n's already jnends w.th th . ^^'^ \.^^-erU\ Heet ad- coirunand of 12.000 ''^^" ''"[.„, ,\,, (Jen. Jackson vanced to the atta-dc on New ^ '^^/J'-j^jics ^^^^ had thrown up ^-^''^^^^'^J^^ ^trucme fire, city, a,ul the "^-'^'i'' ,i^;^ii .o, .7the hail storm of hut they moved steadily ^'''"'•"' , i^eincn of Ken- '^t ^f^Sn" rr -ndttfter, a,ul the :;;i^..s£.'u;a Sf invincible so^^^^ Pakenluua 1. 11 dead ^^/^^^ ^''^^.^^^fX" battle until ^"'\ V^rST^^ SSraUaS!h!g%rty .as as n.ghtfall ; but e^^^^^^^ to have been unneees- thorough as the aitauv wah i encounter, sary. The Br t,sh lost 2,000 mum ^>« ^ ^^,,^^,,^, ^ir 1?!:;^; ?o;^ ^'coSlicf The treaty sub- .eniut gU:^ ^ not -.-in an excess a andou- xnent oE the British claim as to > I ^ ^m*^^^^^^ .^^ ,as a tacit -^^-f-f^^.tt^ir u'tS the vvar, ure in vain ; the powers of f , V^eople na i .^ hy land and sea, and Europe had been t^ u Jnot F-t.aWe ^.r jjuy^orce U^^ecmqu. ^^^ possession of this teiriioiv • £ American Ihere had been an enforced .P "^^^^'^j^^^^^^.e^ eut off .nanufactures, as European ^^^^^^^^^ cama bv the blockade, and when ^^^e e.r.b e vis ta ^^^^ Jan end. the home made article couc^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ AMERICA. looptinn, find for that Hide of tlio Atliuitu; ; PC was concliuU'cl iu llicnt, to prepare for | laware that they were ry, Gen. Taken ham's !i pcnverf.il fleet ad- ■leans, den. Jackson oine miles helow the by a destructive fire, ,rh the hail storm of S the riflemen of Ken- ml to sutler, and the so long, wavered now. heartcTiing his troops, tinued the battle untd attacking party was as I to have been unneces- tnen in the encounter, I killed and wounded. LiCT. The treaty sub- II an express abandon- impressment, but there it would never be again sion justified the war, try amounted to $127,- ; spent blood and treas- people had been proved ad been taught that it to conquer and retain While the war lasted, protection of American nments had been cut ott ' terrible visitation canift ■icle could hold its own The resources of the sense permanently im- merce and specie were iia twenty years the war UNITKD STATES. 173 debt had been been entirely cancelled, and the nation was on its way to ii, wt^nderfnl prosperity. Tlit; naval ])reen ineiice of thi.s country sl.owcil that tlie ohl Norse blood had not degenerated among the liardy mariners that live upon our coasts. While the war continued, the Algerines took advantage of the trouble to renew their depivdalioiis in the Mediterranean, and as .soon as the immediate busine.ss on hand was cMmpleted, a lleet under Admiral Decatur proceeded Tunis, 'J'ripoli and Algiers to remonstrate with it guns. The pirates liberat.'d every ]>risoner, male in- ilemnitv for all losses, and gave such pledges for the future "that other nations learned the proper way to (leal with persons of that class. There w;.s yet anoth- er consequence of the war. The federalists, once strong in the aifections of the people, were routed be- cause they would have taken peace at any price, and when Madison's second term came toward its end, another republican, James Monroe, was chosen almost by acclamation. Jtlotiror and the Itepiihlir. 1811-lS'JS. 34. — The Missouri Compromise was an evidence of growth, as there was a time when no such question as the admission or nonadmission of a slave state to the union would have arisen ; but in the year 1820, when it was flr^t proposed that Missouri should be ad- mitted, public opinion was already so strong on the subject that nothing short of the promise contained in Henry Clay's compromise, that the limits of slavery were irrevocably fixed, could have satisfied the nation, or procured the admission of ^Missouri in 1821. 35. — Social progress was manifested under the ad- ministration of Monroe by tiie wondrous recuperative power exhibited by the country just emerging from a peculiarly disastrous war. Internal development, manufactures, steamboat enterprise, and a tendency to expand over the whole continent, spoke of a nation that already felt its destiny as one of the greatest, if not indeed the greatest thht is destined to help the n *ta»tiairyrotit from this possession since the days of Tonee De licon, and since the settlement of (ieoVgia there had occurred many opfiortunities for defending the fort of St. Augustine at considerable ex- pense. In the year 18U), negotiations were com- menced with Spai'n for the purchase of Florida, and in 1821, the treaty was made under which, in the foUovv- in" vear, the virrilory was organized under the consti- tution. The .•! nouncemcnt by the President in a mes- sage to Congress, that an attempt by any European nalion to obtain a foothold on thi.s continent yurAd be considered by the United States as an unfriendly act, deserves special mention, as the Monroe doctrine, whether avowed or not, must continue to be the policy of tliis country ; and the gradual absorption of the pu;^::. ssions of" France and Spain shows that similar vv" vs had been entertained for many years by our statesmen. The purchase of Louisiana was eflected during the time that Mr. Monroe was our Minister in the Court of Napoleon. 37. _TiiE Nation's Guest. The Marquis De La Fayette, who came to this country in the day of its peril, and stayed until that dancer had been surmounted, came as our guest in 1824, and made a more than royal jn-ogress through the states, welcomed every- where. The thirteen states, for which he fought at Brandywine, and throughout the war until the sur- render at Yorktown, had grown into twenty-four states, and he also had changed from the young noble, full of generous enthusiasm, to the matured statesman, who had sounded the depths of human existence. He had assisted liberty in his native land until it became license, and then endangered his own life by arresting the dangerous excess. He had dared the anger of 11 AMKIUCA. la of inventive genius xintry, before tlic eolo- julvmicing toward tlie \. Spain had never m tins possession sinee d sinee tlie settlement many opiiortunities for stine ateonsiderable ex- legotiations were com- eliaseof Florida, and in cr which, in the foUow- mized under the consti- ,' the President in a mes- empt by any European this continent wo'dd be es as an unfriendly act, the Monroe doctrine, ontinue to be the policy idual absorption of the ain shows that similar for many years by our Louisiana was eflected roe was our Minister in T. The Marquis De La try in the day of its peril, had been surmounted, and made a more than states, welcomed every- for which he fought at the war until the sur- jrown into twenty-four d from the young noble, ) the matured statesman, )f human existence. He ,ive land until it became his own life by arresting tiad dared the anger of ' E"gj! ' 'j'jg, ' o / IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) Ti^mpsmss^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques 1 UNITED STATES. 175 rovalty while it was strong, and generously sustained it "when tottering to its fall. He had fought the battles of the people and been compelled to quit his country for conscience sake when his emigration cost him a prolonged and unjust imprisonment. His term of usefulness had not even tlien been reached, as he I was to assist in exchanging the Bourbon proper on 1 the throne of France for tl)e Orleans branch in the citizen king, and in every act of his life to testify the presence of a conscience void of offense, and a heart full of generous einotii)ns. The Marquis was worthy to be the guest of a nation. 38. — Temper of the People. The Kepublican party which had cast down and destroyed the Feder- alists was gradually being broken into its constituent parts. The ties of party were loosening and a new combination, to become known as the Whigs, was beinw erected in opposition to the other wing of the old party, thereafter known as the Democrats. John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, favoring protection and internal improvements, represented the Whig ele- ment, and the first named of the leaders, son of Presi- dent Adams, was chosen as the successor to President I Monroe. Adams antf the Bepublic. 18SS-1SS9. 39. — President Adams had not a majority of the electoral votes, nor had any one of the candidates, and the House of Representatives gave him the position ; hence there was no strong party in his favor, and when his name was put forwared as a candidate for reelection, he, like his father, was doomed to suffer a 1 defeat. The protective policy championed by him was peculiarly objectionable to the southern states, and Gen. Jackson, the defender of New Orleans, be- sides being the nominee of the Democrats, was popular because of his services, among all classes. The east upheld the protective tariff, but it could not subtain John Quincy Adams against such a combination as was arrayed for Jackson. The first railroad in the .1,11 1., * * i V ' i*iu.>«B»«*«*ij»-ssrt«aiai*« _ UxiTEi) States Bank. Jackson refused to renew the charter of the Bank, and on that basis was re- elected, so that he assumed to have tested the will of the people upon that question, and thereupon the public money was drawn from that instiiution. Much suffer- inJHn«wiM»i ifS'i «aa»5«*»'-'' 182 COUNTRIES OF NOUTII AMKRICA. Calif.)rnia to the United States. The Mexican forces, lar.'elv sai)eri()r in nuinbors, wore routea m every con- llie°t, ar.d by the aid of Gen. Kearney, who arnved in time to talvJ jnirt in the last battle, the eonciuest was completed. When Fremont fir.st intervened he was not awafe that war had been declared, bnt he was an ed ir.aterially in his operations by Commodores btoekton and Sloat. . , . ^t„,.,. 66. — Gen. Scott's campaign commenced -'t Vei.i Cruz, where he landed with 12,000 men on the 2i)lh <.f March lS-i7. The Mexicans did not oppose Ins land- inft an'd after a bombardment which lasted fonr days, the city and eastle .)f San Juan de UUoa were surren- deu^l to our arms. . . ., ,, 67. — Ceuuo Goudo. Early in Aprd the army be-nin its march to the capital but the mountain pass of'Cerro Gordo was strongly fortilicd by the ene.ny The General conveyed his cannon by means of tackle up the face of the precipice into positions which coni- nlanded the enen.y's lines and an attack in fron was commenced simultaneously with the cannonade, on the 18th of April. T^ie ellect was almost mslantaneou. andSaiUa Anna very narrowly escaped capture at that point, 3,000 prisonei4 were taken, 5,000 «t;V^^l "^ /^'™ Eld i'd piecei of artillery. The moral etTeet of the victorv was still greater then the material advantage, as other positions witW. large supplies of ammunition and guns were abandoned, Puebla and 1 erote wereoc^ cupied without resistance, and at the latter town o4 cannon were captured. , o x,. i -.^^ 68 — FvLL OF Mexico. General Scott, having been 'reinforced, resumed his march with 11 000 men on the 7th of August, arriving on the crest ot the lt- mevJ on the 10th. From that P^-t ^je c^pttd cc^ild be seen, but there was a force of ^O-OO^/^en to dH^ute the approach, and numerous strong fortifiea^ tioiis The least defended route was pur-sued, and Contreras,an entrenched earn^p, fourteen '^^le^ south of the city, was reached on the morning of the 19th. there armi Mex (|uer Sth }Jl^-.-^^. [CA. UNITED STATES. 183 [cxican forccfl, 1 ill cvL'ry coil- wlu) arrival in CDiKiucst was ■iicil lio was not t ho was aided [ores StoL'klou jnced at Vera on the 2i)lh of [tpose liiri h\nd- sted four tlays, )a were snrren- ,pril the army mountain pass hy tlic enemy, means of taeklo jns which eom- ick in front was unonade. on the instantaneous, I capture at that D stand of arms d ctTect of the 2rial advantage, of anununition Peroto wereoG- ! hvtter town 54 a Scott, having vith 11.000 men crest of the C-r- )oint the capital £ 30,000 men to strong fortifica- 13 pursued, and een miles south ling of the 19th. The force under Gen. Valencia was defeated and the camp taken by assault. Tiie operations of the army covered much ground during that ilay and the next, but on the evening of the 20lh, the fugitives from many poinUs had been pursued to within one niilo and a half of the capital. Churubusco and San Antonio had been carried, 3,000 prisoners had been taken 4.000 men had beiiu killed or wounded, the army wa.s dispersed, 37 pieces of ordnance had been won, and there was notiiing before the city but surrender. An armistice for negotiation was being improved by the Mexicans in strengthening their works, and in conse- (|uence, General Scott commanded an assault on the Sth of Septend)er. The outworks were carried in suc- cession day after day until the Castle of Chapultepec, which commanded the city, was stormed on the 13th, and early on the following day, the army marched in- to the city, which the Spaniards had held since the fall of the Montezumas. Ti.e war was ended, although the treaty was not signed until the beginning of February, 18-48, under which the vast territory reach- ing west to the Pacilic Ocean and south to the Gila be- came part of the United States. 59, — TiiK Wii.MOT Proviso was introduced to Congress in 1846, by David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, seel/Ing to prohibit slavery in any territory that might be acquired during the war. The proposition pro- voked much debate in the country at large as well as in the House and Senate. 60. — Gold in Calikokxia. Gold was found in Sacramento Valley in February, 1848, immediately after the territory came into our possession, and within a few months emigration had commenced from all parts of the world. Since the Crusades, there had never been such an exodus, and San Francisco was speedily changed from a half slee]iing Spanish seaport to the busiest hive in the world. The city did not im- mediately become beautiful as it now is, but the gain- ful industries commenced ia those early days have . j.aiPMSff»#ftr>J4..*»^*"K5iS--»:.,iK*k ^^. *'^'.«ii5B-f>«^=ii-'.'A-*'5fcAr««i. *i. ■"t««tfj'-'^-t*eifi.>"" 18-i corNTHiKs ov sonru A^fKnTCA. since mado Califoriiiu tlie world's wonder. The gold itself may not, have 1)c(mi a benefit to the state, as it has cost more in the jiroeureiTient than the tnetal rea- li/.e.s on .^ale, l)iit tin possession of sneh a popnlation as that gathered in California makes amends for any such trivial drawback. Streets, bank.s, churches, halls, and gan\b]iiig iionses, provided for all that was good and evil in the j)e(^ple, who were crow(ler all that was re crowded to- vice and oritno repression and rly citizens, so ins of the eom- xation of Cali- t events in the le in which it wed that there ruled over by enominated the s Cass, as their Tragcs to Gen. xico made him xlities well de- opposed to the tarty were abo- on. Taylor was 1S4»- tSlSS. y 9, 1850, but expectations of \ Fillmore be- in every sense he great ques- I application of as a free state, lition, not yet the watch con- not fail to per- ceive that bcf. — FiUNKLix PiKRCK was nominated by the Democrats as the next President after Fillmore, and the President, against whom no one liad anything to aver, was not renominated. Gen. Scott was put "for- ward by the Whigs, and both parties bade for the sup- port of the pro-slavery Democrats, by rpholding Clay's compromise against which the mor ■ logical Free Soil party inveighed bitterly. The Democrats elected Franklin Pierce. The expedition to Japan en- hanced the value of Fillmore's term of office, and as- sisted the spread of civilization and commerce in that country. PlercK and the JtrpultHe. IStSS-lSST. 66. — Stepiikx a. Douglas was the most promi- nent figure in American history after the great leaders passed away, and his measure as to "Squatter Sover- eignty " in Kansas and Nebraska, in 1853-4, was the .t:.n,ja;,^3»ai,'w^«^Tti^i«ate»:%!^iuti<»S:'j 188 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMKRICA. value upon his life, compared with the principle upon which he had concentrated his love. With two sons who liad been with him in Kansas, and some Ir-'nds, about twenty in all, he surprised and capturea the arsenal and armory at Harper's Ferry, proclaiming freedom to all slaves, on the 16th of October, 1859. The Virginia militia captured him and his friends on the 17tli, before any assistance oould reach him. and he, with all his party, suffered the penalties of the law. Captain John Brown, whose name will live in history, was hanged in Charleston, December 2, 1859. The man moved before public opinion was ripe. 72. — Slavery or Secession was the issue broadly announced by the southern states during the fall cam- paign, in the year 1860, and but for division in the democratic rank's, the party might have elected Stephen A. Douglas. That leader had, however, become un- popular with the extreme section of his party, because he would not concede all their demands, and the^ divided in their nomination, one section sustaining Douglas and squatter soverignty, the other presenting John C. Brei;kerridge, with all the consequences of the Dred Scott decision. Brcckenridge did not come near being cle(;ted, but his nomination destroyed the chance of Mr. Douglas, who procured on the popular vote 1,365,976, against Lincoln's 1,857,610, while Brccken- ridge carried 8-17,953. John Bell, of Tennessee, re- ceived 590,631 votes. Abraham Lincoln, who was at that tim.e content to let slavery stand unmolested, but would not allow it to be carried into new territory, was elected. 73. — State Rights. The Southern States now made ready for secession, as they averred that the government was Calling into the hands of their ene- mies. They held with Calhoun the doctrine of State Rights which involved full liberty to leave the Union at any time. The beginning, long prepared for, was made in December, 1860, when South Carolina passed an ordinance of secession, being followed by Alabama, Flo u 'p Mo oirr seci Pre civ for iiig sup stri Un Foi ter tioi wa; hac Mo of lesi cisi Un ass tio the coi W sta sin ad tee Cb Tt an IKRICA. ;he principle upon ;. With two sons and some Ir^nds, and captured the 'eriy, proclaimingi of "October, 1859. :ind his friends on Id reach him. and enalties of the law. rill live in history, )er 2, 1859. The as ripe. the i.ssue broadly iring the fall cam- )r division in the ve elected Stephen wevor, become un- his party, because ?mands, and the^ section sustaining le other presenting onsequences of the did not come near istroyed the chance the popular vote 10, while Brecken- , of Tennessee, re- in coin, who was at id unmolested, but ) new territory, was uthern States now ' averred that the lands of their ene- e doctrine of State to leave the Union ; prepared for, was ith Carolina passed ^owed by Alabama, UNITED STATES, 189 Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas. "The Confe(iorat(! Sluics of Auiericii" organized at Montgomery, Alabiima, in February, 18GI, by electing oilicers, Jell'erson Davis became President of the seceding states, and Alex. II Stephens, \'ice President. Pre.st. Buchanan did nothing to avert the calamity of civil war now imminent, although Gen. Scott was urgent for action on the instant. United Slates arms, build- ings and properties were seized as of riglit, and many supposed that the union would be broken witiiout a struggle, 74. — Major Axdehsox, who commanded the United States forces in South Carolina, moved from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter because the latter bet- ter admitted of defense, and he antieipated the recep- tion of order.s, but none came. Tiie steamer which was to have given him reinforcements and supplies had been driven bacic by confederate forces fi'om Fort Moultrie, Buchanan was apparently too much afraid of the confederates to relieve the threatened fort, un- less by their permission, and they said that any de- cisive act in that direction would commence the war. Under such circumstances, and in imminent peril of assassination, the new President went to his inaugura- tion, from Independence to Secession. 1770-lsej, 76. — The Struggle to maintain the integrity of the Union being on the threshold, we may as well consider what were tlie forces to be encountered. When the famors declaration was signed and sub- stantiated, there were thirteen states in the Union, and since that time twenty-one had been constituted and admitted, 76. — Vermont, or Green Mountain, came four- teenth on the -•oil. March 4, 1791, First explored by Champlain in 1609, it was not settled until 1724. There were disputes as to territorial rights before 1776, and some blood had been shed in the quarrel bjtween New Hampshire and New York, but in 1777, the in- ■-•-*uat.«W«««i-Jes^itJM''«"''«irt5t«>'4« :;« ()iij4) JHsE-il*!;--' 100 COrXTUIES OF NORTH AMEUICA. liahitantp claimed to be an in(lcpciiflpnt state. New York rcliiniiiisliod lier claims for $30,000 in 1791, and Vermont was the first slate to conic in under the con- stitution. 'J '7. — Kkxtucky, the arena of Daniel Boone's ex- ploits, came next in order, being admitted June 1, 1702. The battles with the Indians on this territory, gave to the region the title of " The dark ami bloody ground." IJooncskoroiigh was the first settlement here, but Virginia then engrossed the whole of this section of country until 1790. Tiiere were many at- tempts to .set up an indepeiident organization, but without substantial results until 1790, when, under the Constitution, Kentucky was made a territory. When admitted as a state, there were about 75,000 inhabitants in Kentucky. 78. — Tkxxkssee, named from "The River with the Groat bend," was the sixteenth state. The first permanent .settlement south of Pennsylvania and west of the Allcghanies was made at Fort London, near the site of Knoxville, Tenn., in 1756. The next, within this area, was made in 1780, where now Nashville flourishes. North Carolina surrendered her claim to the territory in 1789, and after being joined to Ken- tucky for a time, Tennessee was admitted to the Union June 1, 1796. 79. — Ohio, so called from " The Beautiful River," came in as the seventeenth, the first in the Great Northwest, Nov. 29, 1802. Baron La Salle was the first European exjiloror, and the first settlement was made at Marietta in 1788. 80. — Loi'lsiANA, the eighteenth .state, named after the French King, was admitted April 8, 1812. Father Marquette led the way to the Mississippi, under infor- mation procured from the Indians, and Baron La Salle continued the exploration, giving the name of Louisi- ana to a large area of country, but no permanent set- tlement was made until 1699, at Biloxi, near the mouth of the river, and, in 1712, New Orleans was fou Sp. the $15 as 1 as t 181 gi-o Th teei knc was iirs in ■ 175 seq in '. Ma was by lar< 18] Un hos enc the lou ber dia ene res Th am 171 rERICA. UNITKI) STATES. 191 iflont state. New 0,000 in 1791, and in under the con- )anicl Bfione's ex- admitted June 1, 1 on this territory, dark and bloody B first settlement the whole of this 're were many at- organization, but 790, when, under nade a territory. rere about 75,000 " The River with state. The first sylvania and west London, near the The ne,\t, within re now Nashville ered her claim to ig joined to Ken- admitted to the Beautiful River," irst in the Great La Salle was the St settlement was .state, named after 1 8, 1812. Father sippi, under infor- nd Baron La Salle 3 name of Louisi- no permanent set- Bilo.\i, near the New Orleans was founded. The territory passed into the hands of Spain in 17(52, but Napoleon procured the title from the Si>aniards in 1800, and sold the area to us for §15,000,000, in 1808. When Louisiana was admitted as a state, the remainder of that country was known as the Territory of Mis.souri. This state seceded. 81. — In'diaxa came in on the lllh of December, 181(), having been constituted a territory within its jin^sent limits in 1809. Indian difTicuUies retarded its growth, but its progress became rapid after 1810. This, the second state in the Northwest, is the nine- teenth in the L'nion. 82. — Mississippi, named from the greatest river known to commerce, the twentieth state in the Union, was admitted December 10, 1817. De Soto was the iirst explorer. Settlements, established by the P'rench in 1700 and 1703, were destroyed by tiie Indians in 1728, and there were fierce wars with the tribes in con- sequence. The Mississippi Territory was constituted in 1798, and the Alabatna Territory was cut off in March, 1817. Mi.ssi.ssij)pi .seceded. 83. — Illinois, named from the "River of Men," was in the territory first visited b}' Marquette, followed by La Salle ; but the territory so named was much larger than the state which was admitted December 3, 1818 — the third in the Northwest, twenty-first in the Union. The Indians were very pertinacious in their hostility to the first settlers, but the Black Hawk war ended such difficulties. Chicago is the metropolis of the Northwest, and its growth seems almost miracu- lous. 84. — Alabama came in December 14, 1819, num- bering itself the twenty-.second state. The Creek In- dians, of whom Gen. Jackson disposed, were great enemies of the early settlers. The name " Here we rest" must have seemed a mockery to the pioneers. The first settlement dates from 1702, at Bienville Fort, and Mobile, on the bay of that name, was founded in 1711, being for many years the capital of the French ^L, jA4«, and at San Francisco in 177«, but in 18135 there was only one habitation near the bay. The monks had the entire manacrement of the country until the Me.Mcan revolu- tion i°n 1822 upset the Spanish power. The white population of the territory in 1831 was under o,000, but after 1843, there was some emigration from this countrv, and the possession was eventually wrested from Mexico by Capt. Fremont and Gen. Kearney, to become one of the most prosperous states in the Union Mexico ceded the territory to us at the close of the war The area thus added to the United States embraced what is now known as California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, parts of Colorado and New Mexico; in all about 450,000 square miles; with variations of soil and climate capable of producing all the vegetal treasures of the globe. Nearly all of these advantages are beincr improved. California came into the Union September 9, 1850, and is numbered as the thirty-first 94 —Minnesota, from the Indian "Cloudy Wa- ter," takes its name from the river. La Salle and Father Hennepin were first explorers in 1680, but Fort Snellirg only dates from 1819, and St. Paul was founded in 1846,' the territory being organized three years later, but rapid growth was not entered upon un- til the Sioux ceded a considerable area to the United States in 1851. The state was admitted May 11, lbo», numbered as the thirty-second in the Union. tl ft J<' ir B tr sc h( bi P- ro w A se or er an ad m an ha CO th is he lai ex m( Ca un wsi tei foi Dc up Tl KlUCA. erwanls of Iowa nd v'iis adiriitUnl dato.s from 1G39, from llio. It imc in the Imliaii 5 Waters." The riors were in part Sir Francis Drake in 1578-9, ami lie e Spaniards estab- 17()1>, and at San ere was oidy one Ivs had the entire e Mexican revolu- )\ver. Tl>e white was under 5,000, ligration from this ventually wrested nd Gen. Kearney, rous states in the f to us at the close > the United States ;;;alifornia, Nevada, and New Mexico ; with variations of ing all the vegetal jf these advantages me into the Union id as the thirty-first dian " Cloudy Wa- er. La Salle and orers in 1680, but 9, and St. Paul was ing organized three ot entered upon un- area to the United litted May 11, 1858, ,he Union. UMTKI) STATES. 195 t)5. — OKK(;ox, named from tlie Spanish for Wild Marjoram, which is plentiful on the coast, was part of the land puirliased in ISO;] from Napoleon, while Jef- ferson was President, and Madison the Minister to J'ranc'o. Tiie Columbia liivf-r was partially explored in 1792 by Capt. Gray in the ship Columbia, from Jiostoii, who reported in glowing terms as to the coun- try, and the explorers Clark and Lewis, in 1804, were pent by President Jefferson along the Missouri to the head waters, and thence to the Pacific by the Colum- bia Kiver. Tiie operations of the American Fur Com- pany followed speedily upon the publication of their romantic adventures in a country hardly trodden by white men before their work commenced, and in 1839 American emigration began. The northwest boundary settlement in 1846 aided the growth of population, and organization as a territory followed in two rears. Lib- eral grants of land by Congress promoted colonization, and on Februaiy 14, 1859, the thirty-third state was admitted ; Washingtt)n Territory having been or^-aa- ized north of the Columbia Kiver, in 18u3. ° 96 Kansas came into the union through fire and blood, after the secession of that element which had struggled so desperately to possess the soil and construct thereon a slave state. Clark and Lewis were the first white visitors in modern days, although there IS a probability that both French and Spaniards were here in much earlier times. This also was part of the land purchased from the Emperor Napoleon ; and the explorations by Fremont, the Mexican War, the Mor- mon exodus, the Sante Fe trade and the gold fever in California, led toward settlement, which was deferred under an erroneous impression that much of the land was a desert. Slavery had been introduced into the territory in defiance of the Missouri Compromise be- fore the Kansas-Nebraska bill was introduced by Douglas, and from the beginning Missouri was resolved upon the establishment of a slave state in Kansas. Ihe war that was commenced so bitterly on that area 106 COL-NTlUKri 01' NoliTlI AMKIMOA. ^•as f(.u-lit out o„ a wiaer (ic-M, to uu .ud winch none Lt nithuMusts o[ th. John nrown lvi>e t u.,Kl't 1.-^ blc within our trenorulion. Kiinsus oi-au./.ca !>> Aet o Von-n.s. in is.-,i, was not lubnittoa to ihe union un- til Prc.s.a.nt Bucha.KU> lutd given placo to us n.com- aral.ly g.rator snec'ssor, Abrahan. Lnx.oh. <.n tl c lilti. oC .)" unarv, 18t;i. thus closing the record beh.io The war witli thirty-four states enroile^h «)7._ A CoMl'AHATIVK Stidy of ihe state., sotui iu.r, and of those that were resolved to uphold the umon, shovild have convinced an nni-artud o -seive. on ^'hich side victory would rest, ussunung a like ear.K^t- IL on the question at issue, on either hand; but much iflcr al depended upon careful and states.nan- r ;.: K^<' lent of our altiirs, so that puMic opm^jn 'itluld no^be shocked by violent ^^^^'^^^^g^ have reacted against our success. Wealth, P " ; ^"^; philosophy and right were on our side; but on c ,thcr were brave men, trained to «t=Uesn.ansh.p, o ne- ootiation and to war, who had long controlled the re, Soirees of the union with tj-e expcctatu.n o such a time sup..rvening, and who had arranged t « foccs and supplies at that ^^'^^^^^' ''1^''''^^,';'^'^ ^"Z aims; unchecked, if not ^^^f^l^^t^^^^ "^^'^'•' i^;/ J ' the dent Buclianan. Abraham Lincoln was called to the work of a giant, and he was equal to the task The ,{,,>,ino„-hl»col„»niltlu•: KliU'.V. I L'lid wliich none j)C t'longlit possi- n'L'aui/.cil ^ly Act [ U) ilic union im- lace to liis iiujoni- LiiKfoln, on the the record before [ ihe stiites soced- .>d to uphold the lartiul observer on linjf alike earnest- either hand; but ful and statesnuin- hat public opini'>u ition. which might /■(•alth, population, side ; but on the .tesinanship, to ne- controlletl the re- )Cctati(Mi of such a rranged the forces es!5ly to suit their y assist«d by Presi- i was called to the :o the task. tbilc. ISOl-ISO.t. so apparent wlien iug tlie new Presi- for Air, Lincoln to ve in Washington were ready ft)r exe- ivelled in disguise popular fallacy ; he ; expected and that /^good purpose. The s a sc.emn event in 3 troops under Gen. loeaut. None could UNITED STATES. 197 tell in what quarter danirer mii,'lit ovpii tlion bo lurk- ing, and there! was a delusivf (!oiiliderii't> in the tone of the coiife'nsun Halu ed their fla^' before they h.were.l it t.) the enemy ami tl.o north was unite.l as one man. DeuDerals an.l K.'iml)- licanswere n..w prepared f..r war ; the Uubie.m wa^ passe.l laneoln ealle.l for To.OOO tro..ps, his ohl rival and >ino,Hla,u enemy, Douglas, ui-e.l ium'U lam lo m- crcas.' the re.piisition, and defended his course bef.,ro the Denu-eratie partv ; hi.s dying words to Ins soud soon after were: "Oboy the luws an. support the constituth.n of tho United Stat.'s." ' hree hun.l ed thousaii.l volmite.-rs answered tho call for aal, ho fla.', l.)wercd at F.)rt Smiit.>r, was raised all over tlie north, evoking the spirU oi 70, and the best men wero ready t.) mareii l.i the front. r . • j()() _TiiK South was inllanied by the Ur.st vic- torv and l.n.ke.l f..rward witli enthusiasni thr.Migh tho smoke and din of battle to a result which might justi- fy the terrible arbitrament. Virginia j..ine.l the e..n- federaev cl..sely f.»ll.>we.l by Arkansas, lS..rth Caro- lina anil Tennessee, tho aruDi-y at Harper .s lerry and the navy yard at Norfolk were se.ml by the Vii- cinian troops, and llicluaond was ma.le the enpital, Washingt.)n was in danger, and a regiment of ^Massa- chusetts militia marching to aid m its defens.; was attaeke.l in Baltimore city, on the anniversary of tlie battle of Lexington, a number of men being killed. The war had commenced in earnest. _ 101. — TiiK War BkoinxinCx. Virginia was the scene of operations, because the Capital of the Umoa must bo protected, and Col. Ehner E. Ell^wc>';^^;/;f^ his zouaves occupied Alexandria, who was shot at tue - >*v*»>i*»Wi"^»»^l-'^'* E*^VW »,^»»p«S:-*riS«.-v^ uiPnfltetw*^ av»4«i*SaFStt.-^»^*i^=iii'-*«'*^'**~ EUICA. UNITKD STATES. 19D if possibU.', Imt at ishf.l. 'I'lial fiict oiifcdci'iito irodprt, roiuloi' of llie fort, it-rt' was a faiinoii- llie bariai-ks worn risoii was exhaust- lion vitli tlio litiii- garrison waliUrd lie iMicmy, ami iho ocials and llt'imb- tlio Rubicon was roops, his old rival I ii|i()ii him lo 111- 1 his co\irse before words to Ills solid ; and support tho " Three iiundred ) call for aid, the raised all over the i the best men were 3d by the first vic- isiasin thnMigh the which might justi- liii joined the con- msas, North Caro- IIar[)or'H Ferry and seized by the Vir- I made tiie capital, regiment of Massa- in its defense, was ! anniversary of the men being killed. t. Virginia was the ipital of the Union ;r E. Illllsworth witli who was shot at the very beginning of tin; confliot. Arlirtgton Heights opposite the (capita! were seized I v national troop.s ou the 24tli of May, llStil. Fortress .\loiiroe at the cfi- tranee of the (Jliesapeakc! was garrisoned under Gen. Hiitler, and soon ij'lerwards an expeilitum was sent ngainst IJig Hetliel, where the confederates had Inrtili- caiiona. Several forces were dispatched at niidniglit June }), I8(il, by (Jen. IJutlcr, to make the assault on the following morning; but the dillerent bodies mis- took each other for enemies in the uiieertain light and the nssaidt failed, after cansing the United Slates a loss of one hundred men. The confederate force, un- der Col. Magruder, immediately fell back to York- town. 103. — Union Victoiuks were rare in the first year of the war; the troops were raw levies, enthnsi- astie but untrained, and there is an apprenticeship necessary for ollicers and men before even the bravest can look unmoved upon the probability of instant death, leaving the care of those dearest and best loved to the sympathies of strangers. Western Virginia wa3 loyal to the union, but it was held by confederate forces, and a series ot engagements at Philippi, ]lich Mountain and Carriek's Ford, under the command of (Jen. Mc- Clellan, won the whole state for the union. The Con- federates under Wise and Floyd tried to recover the lost ground, but Rosecrans attacked the ex-War Sec- retary at Carnifex Ferry, Gov. Wise did not give sup- port to Floyd, and there was another defeat for the Bcceders?. Gen. Lee tried to sustain the failing cause, but his repulse at Cheat Mountain was not followed by any decisive gain for his side, and the union re- mained master in Virginia to the end of ISfU. 103. — On to Richmond was the cry of the inex- perienced public, and the battle of Bull Run July 21, resulted from a desire to satisfy that impatient demand. Gen. McDowell commanded the Army of the Potomac, and the opposing forces were each about 30,000. The confederates were driven from the field in the beginning 200 corxTKiES OF xoin'ir amkrica. of theHrrlit. but they were rallied hy the example of Stonewjill Jackson, ami a reiiiforceincnt from Win- chester corniu.L' up before the continuing contest could be ei.ded, caused \i panic among our men, such as hap- pily never occurred again during the war. The north was cast down but not dismayed ; the war must be a trial of strength and moral purpose among men consti- tutionally unused to surrender, and an elfort propor- tioned to the purpose must be made. Congress voted five hundred thousand men and $500,000,000 for the service, and McClellan was made Commander of the Army of the Potomac. His promotion to the com- mand-in-ehief followed shortly after. 104. — Col. Baker, Senator from Oregon, one of the ablest and best men on the side of the union, fell at Ball's Bluff, October 21, in an action in which a re- connoitering party of 2,000 was overwhelmed by su- perior numbers ; but a victory at DranesviUe, after a spirited engagement December 20, restored the courage of the Federals, when all around looked dark. 105. — Missouri remained neutral in spite of n.t- tempts to carry a secession ordinance ; but the troops of both parties selected this ground for many battles. Gen Lyon, witli a small federal force, broke up Camp Jackson, defeated an attempt on the Union Ansenal at St Louis, and on the 17th of June routed a confeder- ate force of 2,500 men in an entrenched camp atBoone- ville, capturing guns, clothing and camp equipage Gen Si<'el, outnumbered bv the combined forces of the confederates under Jackson and Price after a wed foucrht battle, was compelled to retire on Carthage and Sarcoxic on the 5th of July, and Lyon, .eft unsup- ported, chose to attack the armies of Price and Mc- CuUoch at Wilson's Creek on the 10th of August. He fell leading a bavonet charge in that unsuccessful ac- tion and Col. Mulligan was sub.sequently compelled to surrender Lexington. Gen. Fremont assuming the command, forced the confederates under Pnce to re- treat to Springfield, but he was superseded by Hunter *i«*«-^*»*' *-=.=vs*jt':**"i»*-»i««'''**'fl*^*^' UIKRICA. liy the example of •cement from Win- luiiii'j; contest could ir men, such as hap- he war. Tlie north the war must be a 13 among men consti- d an elfort propor- ile. Congress voted ■5500,000,000 for the Commander of the motion to the com- er. rom Oregon, one of le of the union, fell action in which a re- overwhelmed by su- Dranesville, after a restored the courage looked dark. Litral in spite of ot- ice ; but the troops of r1 for many battles, nrce, broke up Camp .he iJ nion Ansenal at le routed a eonfeder- nched camp atBoone- ind camp equipage. combined forces of nd Price, after a well 3tire on Carthage and id Lyon, left unsup- ?s of Price and Mc- 10th of August. He that unsuccessful ac- quently compelled to •emont assuming the ■s under Price to re- iuperseded by Hunter UNITED STATES. 201 before a decisive battle could be fought. Gen. Hallecls, who soon succeeded Hunter, continued the course com- menced by Fremont, and i'rice retreated to Arkansas. On the 6th of November Gen. Grant, with 4,000 troops descended the ISfississippi river, from Cairo, and on the following morning drove the confederates from their camp at Belmont, after a prolonged eng.agement, and destroyed the camp with all its contents; but strong reinforcements from Colurnljus under Polk, coming to the rescue of the enemy, Grant was eventually driv- en back to his boats, without losing a gur, and carry- ing with him artillery captured during the assault; thus the year ended favorably for the union in Mis- souri. 106. — Coast and Sea ofTered a field for opera- tions, of which Jefl'erso"n Davis proposed to avail him- self by issuing commi.ssions to privateers, and i\i con- sequence the southern ports were blockaded. The Union navy had been scattered all around the world by the Buchanan administration, and of the forty-two ships in commission, there was but one efficient vessel on the northern coast. Before the end of 1861, the navy consisted of 204 ships of war. The Savannah privateer was the first to sail under the confederate flag, and she was captured after making only one prize. The Petrel was sunk by the St. Lawrence, having mis- taken a war frigate for an unarmed merchant ship, and Capt. Semmes sold the Sumter in Gibralter Bay to prevent her falling into our hands. The forts at Hat- teras Inlet, N. C, were captured by a joint attack of land and sea forces, and a similar combination carried Tybee Island, at the mouth of the Savannah, and Port Royal Entrance, S. C, which became the depot of the Union fleet. 107. — Belligehext Rights had been conceded by England and France to the Confederates, and the South, hoping for foreign aid, sent Commissioners Sli- dell and Mason to those courts. The British steamer Trent was boarded by Capt. Wilkes of the San Jacinto, 202 COUXTHIES OF NORTH AMERICA. and the Commissioners capturea; but t}^e S^"^'':';! f J; ''Tif-TiiKENr) OF 1861 showed a somewhat mixed resuU * The hisses at Harper's Ferry and Nor ok ntl ol l.nt tliev were not defeats tor our arms, Th aT ha u afned at Bull Hun and Wilson^ Creek The e had been reverses .dso at B.g Be he , Sgton, and Ball's Bluff. Carthage rj..t a Uea , had compelled a retrograde movemen and th. bnl liant affair at Belmont was not entn-ely a success, S online whole these .ere -^S^f,,,?;! xnen were beeoming trained to ^^^^ ;,^^^f„^';^.'Ssa- ?:™r-J D -vilfe the vvl,..le S„».l, Lad been iZLZio a state ot siege, shut -.t, by ar,n,eB on land, "■1«^rJio';!?i;.=rs:'"TK,tvSb,co„. T ai tl h a] h< tl IT c fr a1 ni tr F T tl i: c p V r Ol ir tl ti hi G b b w w F u g' a! T i p«i««i*5«>"ura>.»Wf'**'!' ERICA. t the general gov- prisone'n were set )loon would liave the Con federates, leld in eheck by ! that the sympa- Lie carried with us a somewhat mixed tM-ry and Norfolk feats tor our arms, Hun and Wilson's ilso at Big Bethel, ullage, not a defeat, nent, and the bril- entirely a success ; :iipensations. Our and that was every- ickens, near Pensa- 1 by a wise concen- on Old Point Com- al?o Ilatteras Inlet and and West Vir- ecessionists, at\d be- ppi. Rich Mountain, Mountain, Carnifex ,le South had been 1 by armies on land, )n the coast. 1 force voted by Con- been raised to meet The disparity was 1 earnest of the inex- million, which could e to the bitter end. with three purposes, ely closing all south nd, the capital of the ?ort Donelson, on the UNITED STATES. 203 Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, must be captured, and impregnable Columbus opened to our troo])s, so that there was no child's play before our lieroes. Cum- berland Ga|), Mill Spring, and Bowling Green were also strong positions in Confederate hands, and it was hoped that if tlie Tennessee lliver could be carried, there would be valuable results before the commence- ment of 1S()2. 110. — Ox THE Tennessee. Gen. Grant and Com. Foote, with the army and gunboats, moved from Cairo, Feb. 2d, and on the 6tli the combined attack was to be made on Fort Henry ; but bef(jre the army could come up the fort surrendered, and the troops driven out by the bDnibaidmciit escaped to Fort Donelson, increasing its dcuinse by 3,000 men. The General in command and 70 men were taken with tlie works. Grant moved upon Fort Donelson on the 12th, having waited until the gunboats had been re- paired. The force to be assailed was very strong, having been reinforced by the Confederate Genenila Pillow, Buckner and Floyd, and the battle lasted three diiys. Figlitiiig began on the 13th, wlien after a vigorous cannonading an assault was made, and re- pulsed. On the 1-lth, reinforcements to the number of 10 000 men joined Grant, and the gunboats hav- ing come up, the battle was renewed, but before the afternoon closed Com. Foote was compelled to re- tire with the gunboats, and the lines of investment by- land were drawn closer. On the loth the Confederate Generals tried to cut their way through Grant's force, but their aim had been divined and they were driven back with considerable loss. An advance along the whole line forced the defenders back within tlieir works, with no alternative but surrender. Pillow and Floyd made their escape, and the surrender devolved upon Buckner. Grant was ready on the 16th for a general attack, but with early dawn came a messenger asking for an armistice and terms of capitulation. The reply was worthy of Grant : " No terms but un- 204 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. conditional surrender can be accepted. I projiose to move upon your works at once."' Tlie suricnder was made on tliose conditions, and tlie fort, with 10,0U0 prisoners, 48 guns and largo quantities ot arainunition, fell into our hands Feb. lOth. The consequence was as had been anticijiated, that Bowling Green and Co- lumbus were abandond by the enemy and BucU took possession of Nashville. Corinth was the ne.xt rally- ing point of the Confederates, and Gens. Johnson and Beauregard concentrated their strength at that point, the railroad center of Mississii)pi and Tennessee. Grant in command ascended to Pittsburg Landing, and Buel was to come up with reinforcements. Tlie Memphis and Ciiarleston Railroad was to be secured by our forces, and the enemy saw the purpose to be important. ill. — Pittsburg Landing. Grant, who had ■won the first great success of the war, was now Major General, but subordinate to Ilalleck, and he was eonv manded not to attack Corinth. lie encamped at Shi- loh with 38,000 men, and waited for Buell. Five thousand of his troops were beyond supporting dis- tance, when the Confederates, 50,000 strong, advanced fn^m Corinth to crush Grant before he could jirocure reinforcements. The slaughter was terrible, and the national forces slowly retired to the river, where they ■were held by Grant until dark, when Buell's force began to arrive. The guns were worked all night upon the Confederate camp, and early on the follow- ing day Grant, with the combined forces, drove the enemy back to Corinth. .John.soa was slain, and Beauregard returned with a loss of 11,000 men. The loss on our side had been very severe, but the ground fought over was in our hands, and although the sur- prise had been a severe shock, the preslirje of victory remained with our forces. The evacuation of Corinth and its possession by Halleck on the 30th of May, ■was a consequence of the desperate struggle on the 6th and 7tli of April, as no fighting had since that time occurred. 1 ate 10, thr fori loh tro am Co: I'y inn ton the % ern phi anc Bri at an Th vai vil me thi by 101 ev( ]'et cui th( tit; an la.s no wc Bi ufeMw^^W K WUlX *»if^- r.^^TWiPg^rt3*<^a-«SJ^1'-*<» i^^'X . ^ 'if iiS Am- ^ ..grt . 'W i^.,t„^»te; ,jfi^i4?rts=***:.ia'*'^*f» '■ ERICA. nl. I propose to 'lie sunciidcr \v;is fort, with 10,000 !s of arainuiiition, consequence wiis ig Green and Co- y and Buell took IS the next rally- ens. Johnson and igth at that point, and Tennessee, ittsburg Landing, forcenients. Tlie was to be secured le purpose to be Grant, -who had ir, was now Major , and he was ecnii- eneamped at Shi- for Buell. Five d supporting dis- ) strong, advanced. he eould jiroeure I terrible, and the : river, where they hen Buell's force worked all night rly on the follow- forces, drove the n was slain, and 11,000 men. The re, but the ground although the sur- presliije of victory cuation of Corinth the 30th of May, e struggle on the ng had since that UXITKn STATES. 205 112. — llKsri/rs of Sim.oii. When the confeder- ates abandoned Columbus, they occupied Island No, 10, in the !N[ississippi, wliere they were bombarded for three weeks by Com. Foote; but the surrender of the force, 7,000 strong, on the day of the victory at Shi- loli, was coiu[)elled by the action of Gen. l\)pe. The troops of the south had been concentrated at Corinth, and New Orleans was left almost unprotected. The Confederate iron clad fleet was defeated on the river by the C^nion gunboats, May 10th. Fort Pillow fell immediately after Corinth, the Memphis and Charles- ton Jlailroad was .secured, Memphis was taken, and the Confederate flotilla in front of Memphis destroyed, by our gunboats ; and indeed Kentucky and all west- ern Tennessee were in our pos.session. From Mem- phis almo.st to Chattanooga our line was unbroken, and Buell was on the advance to the point last named. Bragg, Price and Van Dorn, the Confederate Generals at Chattanooga, luka and Holly Springs, were under an imperative necessity to break our line or retreat. They chose the former alternative. 113. — Battle at Perryaii-le. Gen. Bragg ad- vanced with 50,000 men, and Buell retired to Nash- ville, where, having ascertained that his opponent meant to reach Louisville, he made a forced march of three hundred miles to cut oflE Gen. Bragg, beating him by just one day. Buell being reinforced had now 100,000 men under his command. Grant had sent every veteran that could be spared, and Bragg slowly retreated to Pciryville, where a desperate light oc- curred on the 8th of October. Brap-sr drew oil:' during the night succeeding the battle, carryihg a vast quan- tity of plunder which had been gathered on his nuirch, and Gen. Buell was superseded by Kosecrans on the last day of October. The retreat from Kentucky was now inevitable. 114. — Iuka and Corinth. While Grant was weakened by the absence of the men sent to assist Buell, Price and Van Dora meditated the recap- 206 COUNTUIES OF XOKTII AMERICA. turo of Corintli. Orfint lind also a design, and lie moved upon luka Sept. 19, hoping to capture Price; but ]{o«et;rans did not carry out liis insvructions, and Price escaped ; and to tliat extent the victory was in- complete; but tlie Confederates lost nearly 1,500 men. Tiifc Confederate Generals then earned out then- sciieme and made a combined assault on Corinth with 40.000 men. Grant atrengtliened the fortifications and directed the defense which resulted in another Con- federate defeat on the 8d and 4th of October, followed up by tlie battle of the Ilatchic on the 5th, the losses of the enemy beinsr more than 6,000 men. 115. — KosECHANS AT MruFREESHORO. Before abandoning Kentucky, r>ra,'*'***'**»^***'*****''''*l EBICA. L design, and he to ciiplure Price; insiructions, and le victory was in- nearly 1,500 men. arrieil out their ; on Corinth with fortifications and in another Con- October, followed the 5th, the losses men. ESHORO. Before lined upon a final 1 to Murfreesboro, ic. 31. The Ccm- purpose, attacked 'eakened to carry losecrans ; and the for the courage of i^ether until liose- tie. The Confed- 3 first assault, but r. On the 2d of attle, but after one he war, one-fourth the two days fight- to stand only upon ond recovery, and es on Chattanooga. BURG. Maj. Gen. J 2d of November, with 30,000 men, : by the river with Grant had reached hen Col. Murphy I. Van Dorn's cav- the army for his impaign had to be TTNITED STATES. 207 abandoned. Sherman, unaware of this change, made his attack at Chickasaw Bayou, but was defeated with gi'cat loss. Arkansas Post was captured V)y Slicrman on the 11th of January, 1863, and the campaign of 1862, on ti:e Mississippi, was clo.sed by that act. Mis souri was still the scene of operations, but Gen. Curtis drove Gen. Price into Arkansas in February, 18(53, and when Van Dorn, with a command of 20,000, at- tem])tcd to recover tlie lost ground, he was totally de- featcil at Pea Ridge, March 7-8, and no further import- ant battles were fought in ^[i.ssouri. 117. — Fahuagut at New Okleaxs. The south- ern armies being concentrated at Corinth, left New Orleans an easy prey to our arms; but the defenses on the sea front were tremendous. As soon as the capture was resolved uj)on, Commodore Farragut was nominated to the command. Ilis preparations and his orders for the attack were worthy of the success that was achieved ; he left nothing to accident, and no mis- hap marred his victory. His fleet of forty-four ves- sels carried 8,000 men under Gen. Butler. The de- ffn.ses at the mouth of the river were bombarded for some days, but at length it was concluded to run in post the forts and come to close quarters with the city. The daring movement was eminently successful. Shot, shell, and fire rafts, failed to destroy the Union fleet, and the Confederate force of thirteen armed steamers, the steam battery Louisiana, the Ram Ma- nassas, and the forts at short range, were all in turn vanquished, and twelve of the flotilla destroyed. The city was then defenseless under our guns, and the forts, menaced from the rear, surrendered. Thus New Or- leans was reached and conquered through an array of defenses which, to that day, had been deemed invinci- ble. The Commodore proceeded up the river in the summer of 1862, ran the Vicksburg batteries, passing through the awful fire of the forts at Port Hudson, and joined Flag Officer Porter in command of the fleet on the Upper Mississippi, assisting in the capture of 208 COrNTlilKS OF NOUTIl AMKUICA. Pert lluasou, as l.o had already taken Bidon Rouk'o id nI^cI^c.; Jle well deserved the tbanks ajjd p^c. mclion beslcwed uik.u l.i.n by Congress, loitei was ^'7^8 -cl^?uuK'r KO.VKOKK. Gen. Burnside re^^d an huportant se.v.cc to the ^-'- .u,se m thp c'lDturc of Koanoke, the key to tlio dclui..,cs oi Norf as it u.ade the bloekade o£ ^\^^^'''\^'^ . Sm et;.- elleetive. This isU.nd was we 1 ^f,}-^^ lock " two sounds, eight rivers ^7^\ ""V;;: '•" ^^^, j,;,!^ ^ forts at Roanoke were eaptured he fl^'*;*;; ^/^ l'^^'^'^ Newbern, Elizabeth City, and Macon ^^e''" ;^'^^ "' that Bean[<,rt Harbor became ours, and the whole fo'ist of "North Carolina. , . ^^n-i U{^^-i\>m' iloYAiJmving been captured naSGl was u w a base of operations agamst Klonda and Georoia, and during this campaign, iH-rnand.na lo CUnd., Jacksonville, Darien, St, AugusUne, anOon Pulaski were taken in succession. ^ ''«^ ^''^^^^V^'^Yt; capture closed the Port of Savannah ; ; "^ «vejy ci^ on the Atlantic coast except Mobile, Chailt.ton ana Savannah was held by our troops. l->0 — Mkhuimac and Momtok. Ihe uon ciaa Merrimae really named " Virginia," steamed into nXon'Km Is March 8, at noon, steering directly for Se Cumberland sloop of war, in -lu.se sule she made R hole laree enongh to admit a man. The eloop sauK St once wfth all on board, the --working tl.n-^gun n., thev went down, with colors flying. 1 lie bongiess ?rie.te^was run aground to save her from the same fu! burshewas compelled to surrender to this in e- sistible power. Thei4 was no longer a place on t lie coast wiSe wooden vessels could be safe against such Tn eneriy, and the Merrimae, sure o v-tory, reser ed the feast of destruction untd next dav. ^^«^jf^^^ erates were full of joyous auguries NoJ)lockade was possible while the Mernmao kept afloat -T^^t then 5ie Monitor, built by Ericsson arrived Che«aP«^^« Bay, with the revolving turret, armed for attack, ana —s.! t,iiiaiar«i»il»»a''*»'*''»''»W*" ivaSoaKKaB"**"**"'**"^''*'*"' [KUICA. ken Biiton Rouk'o e tb links and pro- Ljrcss. rortcr was Gen. Burnside he Union ciiuse in to tlio defenses of )f tVie South more as well said to un- )ur railroads." The e fleet annihilated, .•on were taken so rs, and the wliole n captured in 1861, 'uin.st Florida and II, Fernandina, Fort Augustine, and Fort Tlie last named luh ; and every city lile, Charleston and OK. The iron clad nia," steamed into steering directly for whose side she made in. The sloop sank 1 working their guns ying. T lie Congress . her from the same urrender to this irre- :)nger a place on the be safe against such i of victory, reserved t day. The Confed- 3s. :5f o blockade was pt afloat .Tust then .rrived in Chesapeake irmed for attack, and a fci cal. the eon telle com liai frori lant The sola fi'on live weij stru tern she was iiesH Uni steal Stan whil Perl 1) land 100, advj 5,00 siegi whe] ,tave guns mocl der t IS E. J force •^Z«,^,,,,^»i5g^jtt(aaaJW»-««w»a*8ii^»«'******^*''*^ IXITKI) STA'I'KS. 209 a form almost invulnorablo. Tlic occasion was criti- cal. Should she answer the ex{)eetation of lierfrienda the Confedoraey miglit be broken ; but otherwise, who <;ou Id foresee tlie result? Her tonnage was ji baga- telle against that of the Virginia. Nine hundred tons, compared with five thou.^^and. Heady for service in Hampton lloads, she waited the arrival of the monster from whose sides und roof, the shot of the Cumber- land had rolled off harmlessly as hail from a clill. The morning brought the destroyer, and the Minne- sota steam frigate was chosen as the first victim ; but from under the lee of that ship came the Monitor, de- livering shot one hundred and sixty-two pounds in weight; masses of iron, whose impact must be de- struction. The Minnesota was spared until the little termagant could be silenced. Shot failed to affect her, she must be run down, and five times the experiment was tried, but the Monitor came from under the Vir- ginia's prow untouched. The world had never wit- nes.sed a duel .so strange, but the victory was with the Union ; as the Virginia gave up the contest, and steamed back into Norfolk, leaving the Monitor sub- stantially unharmed. Ericsson's ship of iron and white oak was worth the ransom of four million slaves. Perhaps the Monitor even saved the Kepublic. 121. — YouKTowN Bksikgeu. Gen. McClellan, landing on the 8th of April at Fortress Monroe with 100,000 men, commenced the Peninsula Campaign by advancing to Yorktown, where Gen. Magruder, with 5,000 held him at bay for one month ; until heavy siege guns could be procured from Washington, and when all was ready for a terrible beginning, Magruder ,tave up his untenable position, where many of the guns were found to be wooden substitutes, painted in mockery. It would have been an ill wind for Magru- der that blew him into McGlellan's hands at that tune. 122. —Battle of WiLLiAMSHUKa Gen. Joseph E. Johnson, posted at Richmond, having sent rein- forcements to the Confederate rear guard in the forts »maifisa«-- 210 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. tit ■Williatnshiir?, Oon. TTnokor was rtfTonlcd nn oppor- tunity for .1 hattlo; as the retreating troops lU-tcrimnod to make their stand at tliat point. Nine lioiirs the battle rajred, but the assaulting party being remforeed, (ien. Hooker earried tlie works by fltorm, and pursuit continued until lue fugitives were willuii seven miles of Kichrnf)nd. Tlie city would probably have fallen an easy prey at that time. 1 23._C()NKKi)EKATE PANIC. The Congress sitting in Riehmond hastily adjourned, and an attack was bourly expected in the capital, where all was hurry nn.l confusion : but McClellan had learned tliat there was a force at Hanover Court House which might en- dan<'er his base of supplies, and the tune passed for openitions. Hanover Court House was captured .May 27, 18fi2, and the army waited for Gen. McDowell, but the junction was rendered impossible by other move- ments. , , 1 i 1^ 124. — Stonewalt. Jackson was hurled towards Wasiiim^ton, not with the expectation that an oppor- tunity for an assault upon the National Capital would arise but for the purpose of relieving Kichmoud. His action in the Shenandoah vallev concentrating upm himself the attention of a force of 70,000 men, yet eUidincr pursuit and being always on hand to deliver telling strokes against our forces, provoked adrniration amon^ those who deprecated the cause to which his abilitres were dedicated. The Union troops under Gen. Banks, marching 85 miles in one day, crossed the Potomac, as a necessary movement under the circum- stances. The President took military possession of all the railroads, and consternation was general in Wash- ington. The northern states were called upon to send militia to defend the city, and three generals — hre- mont, Banks and McDowell — were commanded to make Jackson their prisoner ; but it was as daiiger- ous an operation as grasping an electrical eel, and ap- parentlv impossible. He dashed through every ob- stacle in his retreat, burning the bridges by which ho J' u II .1 ti c (' ll e r( c; cl S tl J. ft tl ni fe oi m tc fe e.> m fo se II so ce ed se an Wl RllTCA. I'MTKn STATKH. 211 fTonlcd nn opjior- troops (Ictcrmiiioil Nino hours the being reinforced, torin, and pursuit vilhin Heven mih'S baV)ly have fallen le Congress sitting •\d an attack was ere all was hurry learned that there !e which might en- le titne passed for was captured May en. McDowell, but )le by other move- as hurled towards on tliat an oppor- onal Capital would ng Richmond. His loneentrating upon )f 70,000 men, yet on hand to deliver rovoked admiration cause to which his Fnion troops under one day, crossed the under the circum- iry possession of all s general in Wash- called upon to send iree generals — Fre- ere commanded to t it was as danger- ectrieal eel, and ap- th rough every oh- jridges by which ho pnsscd, and, wIumi I-'rornont attacked liiiri at Cross Kcvs, June 8, he fous-lit from nmc in the itioniing until nijjrlit. and thi-n <;ontinuc(l his retreat in the dark- iicss. AtJ'ort .Fai Lson, on the Itth, he eti;,Mgcd and • l.'fcatcil (icii. Shicld.s, 'japturing seven guns, atid re- turned to his starting point, with nearly i{,()()() prison- ers and over {),(i()o stand of ea[)turcd arms. These exploits with ir,.()()() men diverted attention froin -Hi.hniond. and prevented a .notion between MeDuw- ell and McClcllan. 135. — .NfcCi.Ki.LAN AT Fair Oaks. The General had pusned his left wing acro.ss the Cliickahominy, just when a storm had changed the creek into a tor- rent, and the Confederate commander in Kichmond came down upon the .semi-detached force with terrible effect, sweeping all befere him for a time; but Gen. Sutnner, by a brilliant movctnent, saved the fortune of the day, and, when night fell, the Confederate leader Johnston was severely wounded, .so that the command fell into less able hands the next day. June 1 saw the Confederates driven back into Kichmond with tre- mendous lo.«ses of men and arms, and the pursuers, followed them to within five miles of that city, but,, once more. Gen. McClellan did not yee his way to. make one of those bold strokes which are possible only to military genius. 1^0. — Gkn. Lee now took command of the Con- federate army, but, in consequence of the influence exerted by his political chief, the supreme control of military operations was not vested in him, and the forces were scattered over a wide range of territory, in services which did not permit of continuous support. He was much loved by his troops; an able defensive soldier, but not a good di.seiplinurian, nor a very suc- cessful general as a rule, save in defense. His knowl- edge of the art of war was well nigh perfect, but he seemed to lack first-class capacity to mass his troops and direct their operations in the field. Perhaps there was not another man in the Confederacy who could, i^Lh^%ikiv^ w^a^^Uifag. ^ai Siit fe ^^a^^jWA>-"^»v^^ "' 212 COUNTKIES OF XOKTII AMKHICA. witli the saiiic moans, have made a (Icfoiiac so orilliant as that wliich will jierpetuato his fame in connection witli liie name of Kicliniond. lie wonld have aban- doned Kielimond at a inucli earlier date, but that he was overruled by the Confederate government in that, as in many other particulars, and the intellectual merit of his work is enhanced by the fact that he was labor- ing much of his time under dilliculties all but insu- ])erable. The appointment of Lee to the Confederate conunand was speedily followed by a severe check to our arms under McClellan. That officer approaclied llichmond once more. Hooker's pickets were in sight of its steeples when Gen. Stuart, on the 12tli of June, made a movement with cavalry round the Union forces, burning supplies along the roads most impor- tant for our purposes, and returned untouched. Stone- wall Jackson threatened Hanover Court House and our White House communications, so Hooker was called off from the advance, and a retreat to the James Eiver commenced on the 26th of June. 127. — CoNFEDEUATE Aggkessioxs began by an attack on the Union right at Mechanicsville, at dawn of day on the 26th, whicli was repulsed, and our troops fell back to Gaines' Mill, where Porter held the bridges across the Chickahominy until darkness shrouded our movements, the retreat, hotly contested, going on all the time. As soon as our baggage train liad crossed, the bridges were burned, and the retro- grade movement continued all night. Similar opera- tions, the localities only being changed, continued for seven days and nights. The retreat was an act of con- summate generalship on the part of McClellan, but Lee had discovered his aim, and troops were thrown forward by all roads to intersect his line of march. On the 29th, at Savage's Station, Magruder was on our flank, but as before the position was held until night, when the retreat was resumed. On the 30th, Long- street and Hill tried to cut our lines at Frazier's Farm, but were beaten off, and that night our forces concen- 1 1 I c r a c r t: ji n fi ]V d rr h; G ui nj 8( UKUICA. cfoiiac SO brilliant line in coinicotion ivoiild liave aban- datc, but that he )vei'ninent in that, i intellectual merit that ho was labor- ties all but inau- to the Confederate a severe cheek to ofHeer approached jivcts were in sight the 12th of June, round the Union ■oads most impor- intouehed. Stone- Court House and , so Hooker was itrcat to the James me. oxs began by an micsviile, at dawn ied, and our troops Porter held the T until darkness it, hotly contested, our baggage train ed, and the retro- t. Similar opera- ged, continued for was an act of con- of McClellan, but roops were thrown ine of march. On ruder was on our s held until night, a the 30th, Long- at Frazier's Farm, 3ur forces concen- UNITKD STATES. 218 wneio the la.st battle of this series was foucrht Bit- tSTt- e ci^' "r" "" ^''? '^'^P'"' «'^- "^ the plateau, old t,.e C« ..federates on the morning- of Julv 1st that the ret.-eat.n,^ Army of the Poto.nac was Ldv for act.on Keally the brave fellows we.-e reduced o the last p.teh of exhaustion by the harrassin.. work of he preeedn.g days and nights; but none woukl have recot n.zed that fact in the p.-oceedings of the day NavS support on the Ja.nes Kiyer protected tlY'left but nothmg daunted, the C(.nfede.-ates hoped to carry the posmon and completely destroy MeClell ui'rrLer I he rejndse sustained by Lee's army at this vStZk remendous, and the Union army proceeded ^ o II-xTri son s Landing without further molestation aftenvaX" but he effect o the Confederate movernents unde' £' i / V''"'"' ""T^ S'-^-'^* confidence to the Seces' s.onists. Twenty thou.sand men lost at Malvern mil nn'tn Tf P''"'" '\^''^' ^^'^ ^ ««ccession o v ctoHes up to that point, which had driven McClellen froS under the works at Richmond, taken 10,000 prison^ destroyed and secured stores of enormous va ue de- and oX lefVr^ 'I ''''''',' 7 "^«^^>^ that n^nbe cSe McCldhnll'''''" r•n^^°'■'^"^ ^^'"^ ^o the res'- cue. McCielJan s loss in killed and wounded was ter- •ifie; the north was depressed beyond measi^re and the President made a fresh levy of 300,000 men ' • Tu ^^^^ Record on the Rapidan comm-ind ing the troops intended to defend Wa?h n "ton wTs Jhe nex object of attention. The Confederate no longer Jghting for their own capital, now threatened ous and MeCe Ian was subordinated to Gen. Pope, bemg or^ dered to bring his army to Acquia Creek Lee deter mined to crush Pone before relief could an've tnd GStthVth T r ?^"^ ^•'"' --Pelled'that ijeneMl to fight the whole foi-ce of the Confederacv nnstt mT'^' "t^^^ ^'^ ^'-^"'^ ground of 'E nassas, or Bull Run. The actions of Au^^ust 29th and 80th cost the north a terrible discomfit^ure, in which ■ •■•«**^s*^'^*ws^«iBfe'aife*E«^&tai,aia^^ ^Js4--!^.'*g,->v^Jrfl*«llRSq 214 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. the loPS of thirty guns and a vast quantity of military stores very valuable to t'.e south, formed the smallest items in the!.ccount. The Army of tl,e Potomac, all Imt demolished by this new loss of 30,000 men and the iwesihje of utter rout, found safety in the fortifica- tions of Washington. r .i ^ 12». — McClellan Resumkb Command of the army such as it had become under Poj^e, and after re- organizing the force, he followed Gen. Lee mto Mary- rand Having ascertained that Lee had dispatched Stonewall Jack-on wit. 25,000 men to capture Har- per's Ferrv, defended by Col. Mills with onl3-^ll,000, \tcClellan"' overtook the Confederate main b(vly at South Mountain and forced the Baltic of AnUetain, ou The 17th day of September. The battle might have been fou.ht on the 16th, but McClellan lost twenty- four hours, and that allowed Jackson to return with part of his command before the engagement came to an ind But for that delay Lee would have been crushed, or at any rate that was' the general impression in the north At dawn on the 17tl,, Hooker [el upon the Confederate left, Burnside waiting a favorable moment to carrv the bridge and attack the right. Hooker was woiuid^d and Ins^attack repulsed, but both sides being reinforced, the battle continued until niglit, the advan- tage at tlie close of the engagement being with Lee Xho retired into Virginia shortly afterwards and was not followed by McClellan until after a delay of six ^v-eeks. Lee had been compelled to abandon his scheme of invasion, Washington was safe, and the bat- tle of Antietam had thus the results of a victory. 1 30.— Emancipation of Slaves. President Lin- coln, whose mind had long pondered the question of slavery as an abolitionist, and the policy of emancipa- tion as a statesman, issued his famous proclamation on the 22d of September; but the actual operation of its conditional clauses only commenced when the sup- plementary document followed on January 1- 18bd^ 5?he ori'-inal draft had been made m July, bat the M ERICA. uantity of military ormed the smallest )f tlio Potomac, all ,f SO^^O men, and ety in the fortifica- CoMMAXi) ot the PoiK>, and after re- ren. Lee into Mary- jce had dispat(;hed en to capture llar- Is with only 11,000, rate main body at lUle of Aiitietuin, ou • battle might have Clellan lost twenty- kson to return with i'ae policy of emancipa- famous' proclaination he actual operation of nenced when the sup- on January 1, 1863. ade in July, bat the UNITED STATES, 215 president had waited for some favorable moment to fiublish his intention, when it should not appear to lave been forced out of him by reverses. Tlie decla- ration was opportune, as it gave fresh courage to many who had been disheartened by what had seemed the want of purpo.se, in a war arising out of slavery. The south was already so bitter, that nothing could increase its animosity against the north, consequently there was no reason for further delay ; still it was important with many in the north, to make it evident that emancipation was necessary as a war measure. 131. — McClellan Superseded. Public opinion had long been wavering as to McClellan, but the campaign of 1862 was fatal to his po{)ularity, and he was superseded by Gen. Burnside November 7th, who advanced to Fredericksburg on the 17th, crossing the liappahannock on pontoon bridges, and found Lee ready to make a masterly defense of his position in the bloody conflict of December 13th. The position to be assailed on the 13th of December could have been taken with ease, when Gen. Sumner asked Burn- side for orders to capture the place on the night of November 17; but the newly appointed commander seemed resolved that he would prove his ability to move so large an army, of which he had already pub- licly spoken, and he waited until the force of one regiment of cavalry had been changed to the entire confederate army under Lee in person. The battle was a series of blunders on our side, in which orders, half understood, were executed or attempted with useless heroism, and the slaughter under the stone wall at Marye's Hill, defended by Gen. Longstreet, was an entirely fruitless massacre of brave men before an impassable obstacle. Twelve thousand men fell, and half of that number, at Marye's Hill, dying like heroes but without result, except that Burnside's estimate of his own powers had been fully sustained, and eight days later he was relieved from the command. 132. — Kesults of the Campaign. The vic- ■ narti r?uM H» iiia ai,- t '. n m iT ki , r0 .amiitmiki^e*tmmiiii*iir]^', - im emrt a ue,: >*^r-, .r^;*e**;ie^saK^£rf'M«''^ :t- 216 COUNTRIES OF XOUTII AMERICA. tories of the south had been won almost entirely against the army of the Potomac, and it was evident, at almost every movement, that our forces were out- generaled by superior men with whom- they had been associated at West Point, until every minutia of their minds had been read. The victories of Stonewall Jackson and of Lee in the Peninsular camnaign, and at'ainst Pope at Ikfana-ssas, followed by Cedar Moun- tain, Chickasaw Blulf and Fredericksburg, almost ended the record : as the operations of Bragg in Ken- tuckv had been considerably checkered by reverses. The victories of the north had still been such as to counteract all these drawbacks, and to prove that there were on our side commanders who knew how to move masses of men with deadly celerity upon points of attack, and to win victories by land and sea. Forts Henry, Donelson, Pulaski, Macon, Jackson, St. Philip and Island No. 10, taken by the Federal arms, proved the bravery of our troops and the capacity with which they were directed m the open- ing of the Mississippi early in the year. The same river opened to Yicksburg, the capture of New Or- leans, Koanoke Island, Newbern, Yorktown, Norfolk and Memphis, the battles of Pea Eidg«, Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, luka, Cor- inth and Murfreesboro, the destruction of the flotilla before New Orleans, and the defeat of the Mernraac by the Monitor, made a good showing for the work of the year ; but most men saw that the command of our resources in the west anJ along the coast had been much more conducive to glory and success than that which, under several heads, had sacrificed the north in Virginia, 133._IxmAX DiFKicUT.TiES came in to increase our complications during 18H2. The Siou.x, unable to procure their payments from Indian traders, com- mitted horrible massacres in Uacotah, Iowa and Minnesota, driving thousands from their home, and murdcrin'^ about seven hundred whites. Col. bibley P' c er II ^ be in C( u;i ha nc mi Ja an Wf thi bu thi Pt lie re; CO 43 sh thi Pt he U th toi ha hi in to ga ce bi [ERICA. 1 almost entirely ul it was evident, r forces were out- om. tliey had been yr rninutia of tlieir ries of Stonewall liir campaign, and by Cedar Moun- ricksburg, almost of Bra pi( m( bv M, \yl sic Br cei Ki th( ge sw ch of gLl ho th( Big Gi ph CO mi in foi sei wi on sai of Vicksburg, I ERICA. hat campaign was killed, wounded, lus ihe (jrcat river is-5ippi Valley saw altogether was un- ;les and capturing of Port Hudson, ' many weeks, fol lei " " " ■ • severed ergy displayed by ans in Tennessee, ■oice of the people iissippi Valley to ith made a Major )secrans made no il June, when he )0 men, and com- ittanooga, Septem- \tions. Assuming IS followed precip- the sudden move- ., when the pursu- le of about forty rs, September 19th vantage gained by e 20th, Longstreet ivay the centre and ! fugitives. Gen. I against the entire he retired to Chat- 3 went The army gg cut ofl all corn- son with famine. s "The Rock of { beleaguered when cover that region, at date he was on UNITED STATES. 219 the spot, and on the 27th, the battle of Lookout Val- ley relieved the Army of the Cumberland. There was no llo.secrans now to dally with danger. Hooker came from the Potomac by rail, with two corps, 25,000 men, and Sherman dashed into the scene of glory by forced marches from luka. November 23d, 2-ith and 25th saw Bragg defeated in the battle of Chattanooga, driven from positions supposed to be impregnable, losing 5,000 prisoners in the open flelu, and forty pieces of artillery. The Confederates reported 2,500 men, killed and wounded. Orchard Knob was seized by Gen. Thomas on the 23d, and on the 2-±th Lookout Mountain was carried in a grand charge by Hooker, who the next morning advanced on the south of Mis- sionary Kidgc. Sherman disturbed the equanimity of Bragg by his operations on the northern flank, and the center was weakened to resist him. Grant, at Orchard Knob, saw his opportunity and sent Thomas to carry the rifle pits at tlie foot of the ridge ; but his men, for- getting all limitations, liettered the instruction by sweeping up the ridge with headlong impetuosity. A charge along the whole line was the crowning movement of tlie day. Bragg's army was nnnihilated, his own guns were turned upon him, there was no longer a hostile army west of the Alleghanies. and Georgia was open to our arms, with Virginia, the CaroUnas, and the complete control of East Tennessee. Bragg re- signed his command immediately afterwards, and Grant became the idol of the North. 138. — KxoxviLLE, Tenn., was now the abiding place of Gen. Burnside, who, after his misfortunes in command of the Army of the Potomac, had achieved many successes in this region, but had been shut up in Knoxville, Sept. 17, by Longstreet, with a superior force. Immediately after Chattanooga the commander sent Sherman to relieve Burnside, by forced marches with barefoot troops, over terrible roads, a distance of one hundred miles. Longstreet made his grand as- sault Nov. 29, hoping to subdue Burnside before aid ■ f .iWi> ama iii W («r (W i < iiia««a»i«Mej»s«^»u>acaB«Bate^ ufttmimsux^lst&itiitm^^ i- 220 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. could reach him, but that General knvw hr-w to fight to the last man, and the attack was heroically defeated. The relief undor Sherman came on the -ith of Decem- ber, and Longstreet retreated in good order. 139. — Gkner.u, Hookkr succeeded Burnside in command, after Fredericksburg, in January, and upon the departure of Longstreet, who was sent into Ten- nessee to help Bragg, Hooker determined upon an advance with about iOO.OOO men, to attack Lee, who had now only about 60,000 within reach. Sedgwick was left before Fredericksburg, and Hooker pushed forward to Chancellorsville, taking up a very strong Position, from which Lee was unable to dislo(1ge him. 'he fight continued two days. May 2d and 3d, but on the second day Hooker, having been stunned by a cannon ball, which struck a post against which he was leaning, could not direct the operations of his side. A terrible attack in the rear of the force by Stonewall Jack.son, while Lee made an assault in front, partially demoralized the army ; but the great body of the for- ces held their ground. The redoubtable Stonewall Jackson fell in this battle, being shot by mistake by one of his own men, as is believed ; and the loss of such an officer was wor.se than the destruction of a regiment, for the Confederate cause. Sedgwick crossed the Rappahannock, carried Fredericksburg by assault, and attacked the rear of Lee's army, but that officer concentrating his force upon Sedgwick, drove him back across tlie river, and Hooker, having lost 18,000 men, recrossed the Rnppahannoclc. The Confederates lost about 13,000. Sedgwick's movements were well executed, but the accident to Hooker prevented the designs originally formed from being carried into exe- cution. 140. — PiiiT.ADELPiiiA AND New York were now the objective points with Gen. Lee, and he was confi- dent that he could dictate terms of peace in the heart of the northern states. The successes at Vicksburg and in that neighborhood were yet in the future, and th( SU| sio Sii Ch Bli ino Lei tin ick the I'es Me Ge wh the ] the ant bei ma die for on end led lou Bu ooc gre fon da\ fon tior den abo othi he ! klERTCA. kiT.w hf.w to fight croically defeated. ;he 4th of Decem- 1 order. eded Bnrnside in anuary, and upon IS sent into Ten- ermined upon an attack Lee, who reach. Sedgwick 1 Hooker pushed np a very strong e to dislodge him. 2d and 3d, but on !en stunned by a inst which he was tions of his side. )rce by Stonewall in front, partially t body of the for- btable Stonewall ot by mistake by ; and the loss of 3 destruction of a Sedgwick crossed :sburg by assault, •, but that officer wick, drove him aving lost 18,000 The Confederates ements were well ;er prevented the ; carried into exe- ' YoKK were now and he was confi- peace in the heart ises at Vicksburg in the future, and UNITED ST.VTK.S. 221 the south made a desperate efTort to equip an armv superior to anything ever yot attempted by the Scc-e.s- sionists. Iluoker, who was in command of the Kod- I'ral army, when Lee moved down tlie valley of the Slienandoah and crossed the Potomac, advancing to Ciiamber.^burg, continued on the same line along ]ilue liidge and South Mountains. Fearing .some movement that would endanger his communications, Leo turned east to threaten Baltimore. Hooker con- tinued in command until the army arrived in Kreder- ick City, when in consequence of his demands as to the disposition of troops not being complied with, he resigned, and the command devolved upon Gen. Meade. Congress afterwards gave a vote of thanks to Gen. Hooker for his services in averting the blow which might have been inflicted upon the capital by the Confederate forces under Lcc. 141. — GKTTYSHL'ua. Gen. Meade only assumed the command of the Army of the Potomac June 28tli, and the great battle commenced on the 1st of July, being continued for two days afterwards. The plans made for the campaign by Hooker were eminently ju- dicious, and in part, his movements were answerable for the results at Gettysburg. There was no intention on either side to fight at that point, but an accidental encounter between cavalry corps on the 30th of June, led to another assault of a similar character at Wil- loughby's Kun near Gettysburg, July 1st, when Gen, Buford with 4,000 horse, held the ground against 30,- 000 men of all arms; and so by the will of God the great battle was fought on the place allotted. Other forces rallied to the support of both sides, and the first day ended with some slight disadvantage to the Union forces ; but they had taken up an impregnable posi- tion, and Seminary Ridge had given the troops confi- dence in themselves and in each other. There were about 75,000 men on the side of the union, and on the other side about 80,000. Lee's force was 100,000 when he started, but many had scattered beyond reach when «ffinai**»ai?wa£k «t 222 COUNTUIKS OF NORTH AMERICA. the brittle coinmcnoocl. The second day wr.s a terrific stru"<'lo on both sides, but Lee had gained no advan- tagewhen tlic sm went down, nor afierwards when the battU^ was continued by moonlight, until both ar- mies soii'dit rest. Tlie position talcen by Sickles on the secoifd day has been blamed by some military au- thorities, but the greatest authority we know, Cxcn Grant, after surveying the battle field with a full knowled^re of all the circumstances, pronounced Sickles to have been " right." The dawn of day on the third saw the battle recommenced at Gulps llUl, but the confederates were repulsed after a struggle which continued from about 6 in the morning until 11. There was a lull until about 1 P. M., when loO great guns opened tiro upon the federal position, and for two hours the atr losphere seemed freighted with death ; then came the churge up Ccnetery liidge, one of the fine.'t charges of tlie war ; but heroism was met by hei-oisin, and position told sufficiently to more than compensate for our disparity of numbers, i he attack was . grand failure, and the battle of Gettysburg was won for the North. The losses on the part of the South wore over 31.000, and Meade was generally blamed because he did not follow up his advatjtage. President Lincoln is reported to have said that • 1 my- idence had twice delivered the army of Northern Vir- ginia into our hands, and with such opportunities neg- lecited, we ought scarcely to hope for a third chance. Meade allowed Lee even to carry off the prisoners taken in the first two days, and slowly followed him to the Rapidan. Grant, in the same place, would have ended the war at Gettysburg. The campaign so end- ed closed out all fears of a northern invasion, and Lee slowly retired toward Richmond to wait the time for a surrender of his hopeless struggle. The veterans lost in the great \)attle, added to the death of Stonewal o ickson at Chancellorsville, had taken the heart al- most entirely out of the once indomitable force. 142. — Admiral Du Pont, on the 7th of April, IS in t\\ he CO a Wi Si in Tl 111 yc at Wi Wl ce sa fe C hi R of m bi it h! St It] SI CJ tc C( o f( f< s ii MERICA. UNITED STATES. 223 . day wr.s a terrific gained no advan- afterwards when ight, until both ar- ken by Sickles on some military au- ,y wo know, Cicn. field with a full inces, pronounced B dawn of day on ced at Gulp's Hill, 1 after a struggle e morning until 11. M., when 150 great position, and for eighted with death ; llidge, one of the iroism was met by intly to more than mbers. The attack of Gettysburg was on the part of the jade was generally up his advantage. Lvesaid that " Prov- ly of Northern Vir- li opportunities neg- for a third chance." •y off the prisoners slowly followed him tie place, would have he campaign so end- n invasion, and Lee wait the time for a , The veterans lost death of Stonewall taken the heart al- >mitable force, a the 7th of April, 1803, tried to force his way to Charleston with eight ironclads, but after engaging Fort Sumter for nearly two hours, and having failed to silence the batteries, he drew off to reconsider the attack, and eventually concluded that Ch irleston could not be taken witliout a combined assault by land and sea. Fort Wagner was afterwiirds taken by regular approaches, and Fort Sumter reduced to raiUs, but even then it was found impossible with the force at hand to effect a capture. Thus the year came to an end with results generally more favorable for the union arms, than any previous year since the rebellion commenced. The confeder- ates claimed Chickamauga, but the victory was tem- pered by the heroism of Thomas. Chancellorsville was not a crushing defeat for our arms, and Galveston was the only considerable gain made by that side, ex- cept that Charleston had been held against our as- saults. The record on our side had many brilliant features. The doubtful victory won by Bragg at Ciiickamauga had been followed by the destruction of his army at Chattanooga in the charge up Missionary Ridge. The b.ttles before Vicksburg and the capture of that fortress city with the demolition of two armies, more than equalled in results the three days at Gettys- burg. Port Hudson and Jav.ivson were but small items in a return of such magnitude. The Mississippi had become ours. The confederates were cutoff fronn supplies, Arkansas, East Tennessee, Mississippi, and much of Louisiana, with Texas to the Rio Grande, had submitted to union arms. There was substantial cause for rejoicing in the north, but the price was felt to be enormous. How much more terrible was the cost paid by the south for its terrific failure? 143. — Lieut. Gen. Grant had won the suffrage of all thinking men by his promntitude and capacity for command, before the commana in chief of all the forces of the north was conferred upon him. Men spoke of hio good fortune, which consisted in his leav- ing nothing to chance where his powers could be made --W >fmii>*«t>ilf^jjtij.m. i^ii >!**■* 224 COrNTlUKS OK NOUTII AMKKICA. to cover an ciiuM-cnov. With ample autlionty and sullicic'iit foivo, lie wart now lo take .sui)rLMiu! military control, aii.l the armieri of the north would move m concert, (irant assunu'd the task of rtuhdninj? Lee in Vir<;inia, devolving upon Sherman the iluty to ileteat Johnston in (ieorgia. 144.__Ai>VANciNa <)\ Atlanta, den. Jo.-cpli ElU'rtton Johnston was stationed at Dalton, Ga., when Gen Slierman moved upon his works, and he had prc- dared for the attack wliich must come by a series of almost impregnable lines, which must retard, and wliieii might prevent, the capture of Atlanta. 'Ihe advance, ■witli lUD.UUO men, was made early in May, ami Slier- man was confronted by Johnston with only 54,0U0, who i)rudentlv avoided an engagement in the open country At Ke.saca, Johnston defended his position with obstinate valor, repulsing Sherman with considera- ble loss, but Johnston, iinding himself onlilanked, re- tired successively lo Adairsville and CassviUe, hotly con- testing every step. The AUatoona Pa.ss was the scene of u very determined resistance, and many days elapsed before that position could be carried. Retreating then to Kenesaw Mountain, where his field works siiowed profound military science, and the flanks of his po.sition were stren"theiied by Pine and Lost Mountains, Sher- man was once more held at bay by his brave and able antagonist, losing 3,000 men iri one assau t, while the Confederate loss was 4-i2. Outflanked at last, the Confederate General fell back on Atlanta on the 10th of July, having fought over one hundred miles of country more than two months against a force nearly twice as strong as his own, and as the reward lor his arduous labors he was superseded at that point by Jef- ferson Davis, who could not apureciate the policy that was being pursued. Gen. Hood took command of the defense, and soon discovered that there was nothing before him but escape or surrender. After hard fight- ing and great losses on both sides. Hood evacuated the city of Atlanta and made a dash into Tennessee. At- a CKICA. Ic authority ami uipi'oiiu! military I would movo ill rtuliiluiiif? Leo in le iluty to defeat A. Gen. Jo.-cph )altoii, G.I., wlieu i, and he had jn'c- 10 by a series of retard, and which a. The advance, ti May, Hiid Slier- vith only 54,000, riciit in the open nded lii.s position 111 with considora- L'lf onlllanked, rc- assville, hotly con- ?as.s was the scene iiaiiy days elapsed Retreating then eld works siiowed nksof his position Mountains, Sher- by hid brave and one assault, while lanked at last, the .tlanta on the 10th hundred miles of inst a force nearly the reward for his , that point by Jef- late the policy that ik command of the there was nothing After hard fight- lood evacuated the to Tennessee. At- .?• ,-i,%»;Ul*t».«6vAi*->««-**^*~*^"'*'''^^*^-***^ **' UNITKD STATES. 225 h lanta had long been a storehouse for the south, and it was now in our hands, having cost 30,000 on our side to 40,000 on the otlier. Before Sherman started from tliis position for his famous ''March to the Sea," the inhabitants were, as a precautionary measure, driven from tlie cit}' and the place reduced to ashes. The supplies of clothing, cannon, powder, wagons, harness, and cannon balls which had been drawn from Georgia were now no longer available for tlie southern armies. Ten battles had been won and lost, but the result at- tained was worth the fighting. 145. — Thomas at^Nasiiville. Hood, with an army of 45,000 men, abandoning Atlanta, sent a de- tachment to capture Allatoona, but sustained a repulse in that quarter, with terrible slaughter, at our hands. He surrounded Kesaca, but did not dare an attack, as Slierman was close upon him, and from that point he commenced his march upon Tennessee. Sherman sent reinforcements to Gen. Thomas, at Nashville, and was ready to reorganize his force. Ilood destroyed every- thing as he advanced, and recruited his ranks, until when he reached Pulaski his force had grown to 55,000, against which Thomas could only oppose 30,000, under the command of Schofield. The Union men retreated to Franklin, in a bend of the Ilarpeth, where, with 20,000 men, Schofield defended himself desperately against nearly 60,000, inflicting a loss of 5,000, and never losing a gun. Continuing his retreat in the night of November 30th, Schofield joined Thomas at Nashville, and the place was almost imme- diately beseiged by Hood. There was an ominous in- action for about two weeks, but the " Eock of Chiok- amauga " was only biding his time. lie permitted Hood to believe that there was a glorious career of victory before the Confederate arms in Ti-nnessee, and then, when every preparation had been completed, sallied upon his beseigers, whom he defeated and drove in every direction, during two days of terrible fighting, December loth and 16th. Thomas secured 72 guns, 15 ■ ^*4»iKcr,r/,*wtft*ii.^£-*^ ■-^^im»*i0in^-=^y.-.Mt»eiuAiiaiittiXajit»f.'-.^^ 226 COUNTRIES OF NOUTII AMERTCA. 12 000 prisoners, one of tlicm a Major General, and more than 2.200 men took the amnesty oath as desert- ers The over confident Hood escaped over the ien- Tic«see at Bainbridge with barely the fragment of an army. His force was not merely demoralized, it was destroyed. East Tennessee was cleared of armed Con- federates, and it was evident, for the first time that the war in everv department, had fallen into right liancl-s. The war at the west was ended, save as to a few petty operations, and Sherman was already ofT upon his cel- ebrated march. .i ^ mi 14(j —Siieuman's March. Confident that lliom- as coufd do all that was required in Tennessee, Sher- man started from Atlanta on the 16th of November, with 65,500 men. SUirmishers and Kilpatrick s cav airy disaped over the Ten- the fra.Erment of an r demoralized, it was leared of armed Con- he first time, that the lien into right liands. nve as to a few petty ;ady ofT upon his eel- Confident tliatThom- in Tennessee, Sher- 3 16th of November, and Kil Patrick's cav he army as it moved ne knew its direction Railroads and works ites were destroyed, lat no intelligence of litted by such means, Bt, with" some fighting d reached the sea at the Ogechee, was car- December, and seven :Ioned. The Confede- Sherman's subordi- s orders by distressing with over 1,300 pris- )visions h:id been cap- that march, however, I results. The cannon ,rere transmitted from as a Christmas present few days the march vent of which any per- When the army under lancellorsville country, UNITED STATES. 227 after crossing the Hapidan, the Confederate army under Lee attacked them, toiling along the narrow roads in the; Wilderness. The butchery was terrible, but tiie men on both sides stood their ground with wondrous resolution. Two days the battle raged, and on the tiiird botli armies rested in their entrenchments. Grant's army was reduced by 20,000, Loe admitted a loss of 10,000, and there was some hope that the Union men would retire behind the Eapidan once more. Grant made other arrangements. The 5th and two following (lays had been spent in the Wilderness, and on the 8th of May he outflanked Lee, making for Spottsylvania Court House. The Confederate com- mander was j)laying his best card, defense, and every movement was calculated upon. When Grant arrived at his destination a Confederate army was before him, and for five days more there was hard pounding be- tween men as nearly as possible compeers of each other in courage and skill. On the 12th of May, Grant detc, ; icd that he would once more turn the right flank n" ■s antagonist, but Lee divining the in- tention, wai^ .1 bim at the North Anna, and the battle of Co * ': .;oor resulted on the 3d of June, It was during this terrible series of battles that Grant wrote- his well known dispatch : " I propose to fight it out orv this line if it takes all summer.'' The Commander- in Chief came into this region with 111,000 men, and he was opposed by Lee on the defensive, with 75,000. Before reaching the James River he had lost 6.000> killed, 26,000 wounded and 7,000 missing. The Con- federates carefully destroyed their own records of losses, consequently there is only a guess at results, but they captured only 6,000 prisoners, while Grant captured 10,000, and it is probable that in every par- ticular their losses were nearly as great, perhaps greater than our own. Grant never fought harder battles than those in the Wilderness, at Spottsylvania, North Anna and Cold Harbor, but after every en^ gagcment Grant advanced and Lee lost ground. The vtm^. is*iatm ■i*r ijr->.-^agaL j» 228 COUNTIUKS OF NOKTH AMKUICA. purpose in view was the aiiniliilati'Hi of the army under Leo, as it was very evident that the Confetle- raey eouUl never rephice sueh .soldieis in the liehl ; and the h)ss of a few tlioiisand human lives must not stand in the way of tiiat result. Tiie course of the army from the liapidan to the .lames before the Con- federate capital had been well considered, and the cost was on the whole more distressing to the south than to the north. The attack on Petersburg proved the pi'escience of Lee, as the works were so defended that nothing less than a regular seinfc could compel sub- mission, and Grant commenced his intrenclunents without delay. The works were b<'gun in June. 148. — Bkfohk RlcilMoxi). There were but few events of national importance in tlie early days of the siege upon this spot, but tlie whole military scheme of the L'nion converged here. The siege kept Lee so completely occupied that he could do nothing to assist the other victors, while Grant was calmly directing every considerable movement. The conquest of At- lanta and the march to the sea, all contributed to the success which had to be secured at Richmond. Thomas, reinforced, not only made Sherman's march a possibil- ity, but destroyed an army also; and Sheridan, here, there, and everywhere, carried defeat into the enemy's ranks wherever he struck. The forces were not greatly dissimilar, allowing for the requirements of attack and defense. Grant, joined by Butler's force, had 110.000 men, and Lee had joined to his regular force of 75,000 men, 5,000 more, including the local militia and gun- boat crews. There was an explosion of a mine under a fort at Petersburg on the 30th of July, and the work became a ruin ; but the result was not of such a char- acter as to enable our forces to carry Petersburg. The Welilon Railroad was cnptured by good strategy and hard fighting, on the 18th of August, and although Lee, knowing the importance of the communication, put forth all his powers to recapture that position, our lines permanently closed in upon him to that extent T L i( b u ol h p P' S 1( d. k: sc in fc St di G Cf C fl: ta fu hi th ct g' o\ E bi w R a w R m ~■rll!:^1it3K^'VPf■■>S7■f^J!^■tX>iK^■»£^i&eiP^ MKUICA. iti'iii of the army tliiit llio Confc'tle- lieis ill tlic lielil ; laii lives must not Tiic course of tlic es before tlie Con- dereil, ami the cost to the south than rsburn of a mine under July, and the work not of such a char- y Petersburg. The good strategy and gust, and although he communication, e that position, our him to that extent UN'ITKI) STATES. 229 The scheme which had so many times called off the Union forces from the Capital of the Confederacy was lo be tried once more, and Washington was threatened ; but Grant continued to devote his personal energy upon Lee, and made ample provision for the defense of the northern territory through other hands. 14J>. — Ckdak Ckkkk. Ge^ii. Hunter had allowed himself to be deflected from the line of march planned for him, and there was in consequence an op- portunity for Gen. Lee to dispatch Early along the Shenandoah Valley toward Washington, and on the 10th of July he threatened Fort Stevens, one of the defenses of the Capital, with 20,000 men. One day- lost there, rendered action an impossibility, and, with some i)lunder, having burned a village, he was back in the Shenandoah. Sheridan, dispatched by Grant for the purpo.se, came down upon Early like a cyclone, striking him at Winchester, and again at Fisher's Hill, driving him apparently into thin air. The Confederate General, having been reinforced, struck Sheridan's camp at daylight on the 19th of October, at Cedar Creek, during the ab.sence of Sheridan, and the left flank was turned and driven in confusion for some dis- tance. Sheridan heard the cannonade and returned at full speed to find the aspect of affairs. His men felt his presence as an inspiration, and when he said to them, "Boys we are going back," there was no diffi- culty in routing the Confederates, recapturing his own guns and thirty pieces of artillery beside, releasing his own men and taking 2,000 prisoners before sundown. Early and his force were completely broken by this brilliant campaign of only one month,' and Washington was threatened no more. 1 50. — Red Kiver. The joint expedition on Red River, which was to have captured Shreveport, proved a failure because of the incompetency of Gen. lianks, who was routed by the Confederates at Sabine Cross Roads. Gen. Banks was at once relieved of his com- mand. 230 COUXTIUES OF NORTH AMERICA. 161. — Mobile was the object of an expedition under the cominaiid of Admiral Farragut, and lus shit.s foULdit their way past the Confederate forts to en4-e the Iron Clad fleet, all of which were captured or°put to flight. The Iron Ram, Tennessee, was one of the prizes. , , , Ttri • ^ 152 —Fort Fisher, the defense of Wilmington Harbor, N. C, was attacked by Commodore r_orter and a land force under Gen. Butler. Dec. '24-2o, bu after bombarding the fort, Butler was convinced it could not be taken, so he returned to l^.rtress Monroe. The fleet remained off the harbor, as Porter was cer- tain that the fort could be reduced, and upon lus re- quest the troops originally sent were ivturned u. lnm with 1,5U0 more, and the works were carried by a hand to hand figlit on the loth of January, 18bo; t lo assailants being two columns, one of soldiers and the other of .sailors. The defenders behaved heroically. 1 53. — Results of the Camp.mgx. 1 he unilica- tion of our war under the Lieutenant General showed excellent results. The blockade had become so e 1 ec- tual that the Ccmfederacy was at its last gasp. Inii-t Fisher just taken closed the last Confederate port. Confederate cruisers, so called, had damaged our com- merce, but the south was without corm.ierce^of any kind The Alabama, suffered by British officialism to escape from an English port, had done immense iniury, for which Great Britain ultimately paid ; and before the war ended, Capt. Winslow of the Kear-sarge, destroyed that vessel off Cherbourg harbor, Com- mander Semmes escaping in an English yachv after he had surrendered. The wants of the men under arms, and more especially of the wounded and suffering, called forth an amount of philanthropy m all clas.ses, such as was never excelled in the annals of civili- zation. Over $17,000,000 was expended by the bam- tary and Christian commissions in such works ot mercy; their modes of operation being numberless. Despite the load of debt incurred by the adminstra- i*»l..-!PS,»»*;'«««»'*.H'^«»-'l'3tf'»'fJ->'i j.^.£ii*AilwW»*air««>2H* I'tOft «-* ' [EUICA. of an expedition l^iirragut, and liis )nf(!derate forts to lich were captured 'ennessee, was one se of 'Wilmington oinmodoro Porter, ;r. Dec. 24-25, but was convinced it Fortress Monroe, as Porter was cer- 1, and upon his rc- rc ri'lurned lo liim were carried by a January, 1865; the of soldiers and the liaved heroically. IGX. The unitica- nt General showed id become so elTec- ts last gasp. Fort : Confederate port. damaged our com- t commerce of any British officialism had done iiiM;iense Itimately paid ; and >w of the Kearsarge, )urg harbor, Corn- iglirth yacht after ho lie men under arms, ided and suflering, ii-opy in all classes, he annals of civili- jended by the Sani- in such works of being numberless. 1 by the adminstra- UNITED STATES. 281 tion in conducting the war, Abraham Lincoln, renomi- nated by the Kcpublican party, with George B. Mc- Clellan for liis opponent, put forward by the Dem- ocrats, carried the Union by a majority of over 400,- 000, and McClellan had only three states. The gains of the Confederacy in field or fort, this year, had been small indeed. Olustct^ and the Sabine Cross Roads, Bermuda Uundred and Monocacy were all their vic- tories, except that they held Grant at arms length at llichmond, and had defeated expeditions at Red River and into Florida. On every side they were giving way. North and Souih Carolina were their only states east of the Mississippi. Mississijipi, Alabama, Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia and Florida had been overrun by our troops. The Wilderness, Spottsylvania and Cold Harbor had been followed by the results of victory for the North, and there had been undoubted victories for our arms at Resaca, Dallas, Kenesaw and Atlanta; at Pleasant llill, Winchester, Fisher's Hill. Cedar Creek and at Nasliville. The forts in Mobile Harbor, Fort McAllister, Fort DeRussy, the march through Georgia, the capture of Atlanta and Savannah ; the devastation of the Shenandoah Valley, and the demo- lition of its army of defense, the annihilation of Hood's army by Thomas, the coast blockaded by our navy, the destruction of the flotilla at Mobile and the firm grasp by Grant of every avenue to vic- tory as well as of Lee and the last shred of Con- federate force at Richmond, left it now only a ques- tion of a few months at farthest, when the rebellion should be reckoned among the things of the past 154. — The Last Campaign. The beginning of the end had come, and already the Union forces were concentrating upon Richmond with the desire of the huntsman to be in at the death. Sherman, after a brief rest at Savannah, had only to end the military career of .Johnston and he could then join Grant Sheridan was already in the lines of circumvallation. Wilson and Stonemau were within hail ready for 282 COrXTlUKS OF XORTII AMKRICA. •wliatcvcr iliity tlio cointnandor-in-chief might find necessary, ami the courage of the naticn stood never at a liigiicr pitch of entliusiasm. 155.— Siikuman's Makch through the Carolinaa from Savaunali, commenced February 1, 1865, after a brief rest, was a movement as rapid as the conditions of the time and hot haste could render possible. Rivers that had no bridges, without a long distance, were waded, and one battle was fought by his army shoulder deep in a stream. Grant's orders were, that he should come north without delay, and Sherman obeyed to the letter and spirit. Fifty miles was his front, and the army, 60,000 strong, marched in four columns leaving the broad print of their footsteps in desolation. Hardee evacuated Charleston and retreated north towards Lee with 12.000 men. Columbia, the state capital, was burned by accident. Kilpatrick, routed by a sudden rush of Wade Hampton's forces, recovered the surprise, gathered up his men, and retrieved his fortune. Fayetteville, North Carolina, saw the first decided stand against our armies. John- ston had collected 40,000 men under Beauregard, Hardee, Cheatham and Bragg, with cavalry forces under Wheeler and Hampton. A halt was called on the 11th of March, to mass the forces of the Union, and on the 15th the word was once more, *' Forward." Hardee, on the left wing, attacked him in a narrow pass, but the force was beaten off. The right was attacked near Bentonville by Johnston with his main body, but there was another defeat for the Confederates on the 18th. Halting his forces at Goldsboro on the 19th of March, Sherman hastened forward to City Point to consult with his commander. A junction of forces between Lee and Johnston was now the forlorn hope of the Confederates?, and the chance was micro- scopic, with Grant on the alert as usual- and so many forces converging toward' the Union lines. Still Lee would not ebandon his hope as long as a possibility remained. MKRICA. •chief might find laticn stood never igh the Carolinas ry 1, 1865, after a as the conditions . render possible. It a long distance, nght by his army 1 orders were, that lay, and Sherman 'ifty miles was his marched in four their footsteps in jston and retreated 1. Columbia, the dent. . Kilpatrick, Hampton's forces, ip his men, and , North Carolina, ur armies. John- nder Beauregard, th cavalry forces lalt was called on ces of the Union, more, *' Forward." him in a narrow The right was ton with his main r the Confederates Goldsboro on the forward to City ir. A junction of s now the forlorn hance was micro- iual- and so many I lines. Still Lee ig as a possibility rXlTED ST.VTKS. 288 1 60. — BKFoitE TlicHMOM) A(;ain'. An attack on the right was tlic device that was to divert Grant's at- tention from the more important movements contem- plated by the Confederate (General, and Fort Stedman was surprised and captured at daybreak, >[arch 2ijtli, with a loss of two thousand five hundred troops on either side, including the assault by which the position was recovered, and Lee lost 2,000 prisoners out of his force of only 5,000. Hardly 500 returned to report the substantial failure, and Grant not called off from his main purpose, closed in with fatal tenacity upon the works. Jlc saw that the time for the evacuation or surrender of Richmond was at hand, and his watch- fulnp.ss was communicated to every man in the ranks. 157. — FiVK Fours. The movement of Sheridan toward Five Forks was part of a much larger opera- tion commenced by Grant on the last day of March, to turn Lee's right. The Confederate General fought with his whole force to avoid the calamity ; but on the first of April, the brilliant affair at Five Forks completed the operation, taking nearly 5,000 prisoners, and ren- dering Lee's position, in a military .sense, untenable. Our loss was oqly about 1,000, and the end was now within easy reach. 158. — Petershurg and Richmond were evacu- ated on the following days in consequence of an ad- vance of the whole line upon the works. President Davis was informed soon after 10 in the morning of the 2d, that the city could be held no longer, and before the ne.Kt morning at 4, Richmond, damaged as much by fires and explosions as their means would permit, had been abandoned by the army under Lee, whose hope now was that he might escape from the loils of his able adversary. Davis escaped to Danville hoping to hear tidings of success in the field from Lee, but the case was hopeless. He then fled toward Johnston, and remained a while at Greensboro, N. C, but seeing no hope there, started for Georgia with a cavalry force of 2,000, which soon dwindled to very meager pro|)or- •■'■umta«/:W*J 284 COUNTllIES OF NOUTII AMKHICA. tions. Tlicn putting aside tlu- dignity of oflice, he t"ied to escape with his family, and was captured on the 10th of May, to bo conlined in l-'ortrcss Monroe for two years, and then liberated on the bail »f Horace Greeley, a monument of northern merely. Turning now to Lee, a lion at bay, we tind him at Amelia Court House with 35,000 n'len, trying in vain to pro- vision his army, and with (irant close upon his tracks, outnumbered, ouigcncralled, boriu' down at every point, his ranks tiiinncd by the hourly desertions of starving men, whole corps surrounded and captured, the hemic tlufender of tlie cause of the confederacy, proposed to meet Grant and discuss the terms of peace, llenimed in on all sides, he was at tiie mercy of Ids foes, but he was still a brave man, and that secured him consideration. Grant could olfer no terms but to receive his surrender, and on the 9th of April he ac- cepted that hard condition in the open iielil at Appo- niatto.x. Court House, with all that remained of his once i)owerful army, now reduced to 27,000 men. An army of 70,00(» men had been annihilated in ten days, antrthere was no longer a ))lank on which the Confed- eracy could float. His treatment of Lee had in it .so inuj'h of magnanimity, that the outlying generals speedily came in to sliare the terms upon which the war ended. There were some operations after this date and before the news could be fhished along the coast; but the Rebellion had now been extinguished in the blood of nearly a million of men. 15<>._ Consummation of the Tragedy. Grant returned to Washington to disband the army which had won such laurels ; and there on the 14th of April, Abraham Lincoln was a.saassiiiated, in the midst of our univensal rejoicings. Grant had been invited to share the President's bo.\ that night in Ford's Theatre, but his engagements prevented acceptance, or perhaps he also would have fallen a victim to the savage hate of men who could not appreciate the mercy shown to their misguided champions. The news went over the [KRICA. iiily of oflice, he I wii.s ciipturotl on ortross Monroe for 10 Irnil >f Horace nierc^. Tarning 1 liini al Aineliu ig in vain to pro- ;u upon his tracks, down at eveiy iiuly desertions of le'l and captured, the confederacy, the terms of peace, tiio mercy of liis and that secured er no terms but to 1 of April he ac- pen iioUl at Apuo- t rcMnained of his ) 27,000 men. An liliited in ten days, wliich the Confed- )f Lee had in it so outlying generals is upon which the tions after this date •d along the coast ; ainguished in the Tragedy. Grant d the army which 1 the 14th of April, in the midst of our ■en invited to share Aird's Theatre, but imce, or perhaps he 1 the savage hate of e mercy shown to aews went over the UNITED STATKS. 235 land and around the worKi with tlie circLt of a fiiiiL-ral l)all in tlie presence of a bridal parly, and .such tears were slied, even in distant lands, over tlie heroic life thus ended, as told of an inllnence over tlie .souls of civilizetl man everywhere, unexampled in the history of rulers. IGO. — CiJMi'ARKO wiTir Lixcoln's Dkath, mea all over the Union held the heavy eo.st of the war as notiiiiig. Three hundred tliou.sa'nd of our brave fel- low citizens had died facing the foe in battle array, or in disea.ses superinduceil by war; two iiundrcd thou- sand maimed and crippled remained to tell of the struggles through which the Union had p;issed, and the i.ruiics in giey had piohably .sull'('rc(l more severe- ly; our debt had increased to $2,750,000,000; but all the.se items were as nothing for a time in the pre.senco of that .soul of mercy and patriotism, slaughtered by an iiKsaiie zealot with the cry Sic nanp,',- (i/rainiia. The wonJs .seemed aceur.sed, and the cowardly rage which at such an hour could fruiilcs.-^ly slaugh'ter "he best man of his time and country, pnieured as it merited the reprobation of the human race. The end of the Lincoln ei.ocii had arrived. Andrew Johnson had be- come President; but upon the hero of the war, after Lincoln our greatest man, all eyes were turned.' The nation was growing and demanded able administration, for even while the war progre.s.sed, new States had sought adniLssion to the Union. West Virginia and Nevada hail brought up our numbers to thirty-six ia June, 1863, and in October, 1864; besides which the problem of reabsorbing the seceded states presented a task for every leading mind to ponder. ,TohnKOH and the J{,j,Hblie, 1S03-1S1HK . ^^.}'~,}-^^ ^'*^^^' l'^«J^'^'»i^'NT liad no claims upon the Kepubhc, except that he, being a life-long demo- crat, had remained faithful to tiie Union, and it was not long before his imperious disposition had anta"-o. nized most of the liepublican leaders. Two men more completely unlike than Johnson and his great prede- 2u0 ColNTlMKS OK NOHTH AMERICA. f(io pause. (Iraiit was ahradv disbanding the nrniy, having dismissed tlio Confederate soldiery imon their parol. The terms ex- tended to Lee and tiie brave men who liad fought un- der him would have been annulled by Johnson, but Grant eame to the rescue, and tlie imlietment for trea- 8on whieli impended was relnetantly abandoned. The Tresident would fain earry (Jrant's approval with him in the devious courses which already promised an ex- tension of rule, as the name of the successful General was a tower of strength all over the Union. Congress was eager to crown hitn with honors; private citizens, in their bounty and munithience, gave him wealth and possessions; lie was the hero of society. l(i'.J.— I UKCONSTltrcTioN caused a quarrel between Congress and the President, who recngni/ed state gov- ernments in Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas and Louis- iana, and appointed provisional oflicers in the other states which had seceded, elaiming that the I'liion had never been l)roken, and tliat therefore they had never actually lost their rights by their abortive secession. Conventions met in the states provisionally officered, repudiated secession ordinances and the war debt in- curred in the south, and ratified emancipation. The policy of Johnson was now to remove all legal disabil- ities, proclaim amnesty to secessionist olTcndcrs, except a specilied class, on their subscribing the oath of allegiance, and still later, full i)ardons at successive sta-x's were given to all secessionists. Before that point was reached the Thirteenth Amendment, ratified by the states, was engrossed in the Constitution, De- cember 28, lS(iu. The facility with which Johnson granted psiidons upon personal applications was one cause of coinjtlaint against him. 1<>;J. — CoNOKKSS TOOK Issi'E against the Presiden- tial policy, as it was claimed the power to readmit be- 1( tl e_ V u o tl ci t( b ai u C! (i (1 a I li tl il w II t Ol p. si it fc hi i: F c d^ t\ tl it ei tu ai .va,>i.<«a»ag» iriaii>»i«t>»asi>»»>.wgaBrMaaaB^««w» MKRICA. c new Prcaitlent ns- II ft ivw hours of tho work of theiidmiii- pause. (Jrniit was ving (lisniissi'd tlio rol. Tlic terms ex- ;lio liad fought un- m1 hy Johnson, but iiidielinent for trea- y abandoned The approval with hiin :ly promised an ex- : successful General e Union. Congress )rs; private citizens, ave him wealth and ;iety. I a quarrel between eengni/ed state gov- Vrkansas and Louis- )flicers in the other that the I'nion had fore they liad never abortive secession, ovisionally ofliccred, \nd the war debt in- emaneipation. The ove all legal disabil- list olTenders, except uribing the oath of irdons at successive onists. Before that Amendment, ratified ;hc Constitution, De- ,vith which Johnson appliculions was one against the Presiden- power to readmit be- I'NITKI) HTA'IES. '287 longiil to Lhat bod}-. Proclamations and orders, whilo tho land .viis at pcacf, could have no power, in tho eyes of CongP's.s, und bills were passed over the veto, ])roviding for the continuance in oflico of (.'ivil servants until th(! Senate indo'sed their removiil ; the protection of freedmen and de."titut(! whitcrf in tlie south, ami for the .>*ce was restored to her position, having aece[)ted the fourteenth amendment, but the other .states, under John.«on's jirovisional appointees, refusing ac(]ui- escence, were {)laced under military rule March 2, 18(!7. (Jenerals in charge of the contumacious districts con- ducted elections to remodel state constitutions, and after much bitterness there were govcriuncnts estab- lished in the .several .>si«ii«S«MSSt*SSi«iS«*>««W»»W**K^-i=»«*'*'--> AMERICA. lent had Leen reduced the extra troops had 'ANTON, the Secretary .igust, 1867, was sub- itanton as contrary to sed in March. Gen. by the President, and 5 subordinates seldom trust of Johnson, but 8 removol of Stanton, to pursue his course, but eventually when le law or break with the President. The iater height than ever. J among the men who on. ESIDENT was the final eing made by an im- February, 1868. The f March. 1868, and re- fay, in 35 votes against r. One vote changed ed of high crimes and two-thirds majority, ice was comparatively 3 retired to Tennessee, ! election, he was sent 175, and died in office commissioned to sup- vest, v;hich had grown 35-6, but the battle of ! in 1868, when Black braves were surprised lN. Louis Napoleon, ite success, and while ^i3igii^eeif'^^taii»\- UNITED STATES. 239 the war was pending, he assisted the Imperialist faction in Mexico to a temporary ascendancy, during which the Archduke Maximilian, of Austria, was chosen Emperor. The United States protested at the time against Napoleon's intervention, but while the civil war was pending, nothing more could be accomplished. The " Monroe Doctrine " came into operation as soon as the war was ended, and under our pressure the French troops were recalled, whereupon Maxmilian was shot by the Mexican liberals. The conduct of Napoleon in receding from the support of Maximilian has been much blamed, but the astute emperor of France saw that he must be defeated in a prolonged contest with this nation. 168. — Joining the Nations. Cyrus W. Field conceived the idea in 1858, of uniting this continent to Europe by an electric cable, but the work was encom- passed by so many difficulties, that two cables had been lost before 1856. Further attempts were made in 1857 and in 1858, the British government and our own supplying the necessary ships, but the only re- sult was a partial and temporary success in 1858. While the war lasted capital was not available to renew the enterprise, but in 1865 the penultimate effort came so near success, that the cable was spliced and completed in 1866, after thirteen years heroic effort. The triumph for humanity cannot be stated in wofds. 169. — William TI. Seward, Secretary of State, conducted the purchase of Alaska from the Russian government in 1867, the price paid for the peninsula 350 miles long, by 25 miles average breadth, being $7,200,000. This region has since been annexed to Washington territory, its area being 580,107 square miles. The Fenian raid upon Canada, in 1866, was an attempt to embroil this country in a war with England for petty purposes, but there was no success attending the movement, and those who took part in it were made prisoners by our troops on their return to this territory. The treaty with China in 1868, when an 2-iO COrXTKIKS OF NORTH AMERICA. k ,v. embassy came to Washington from that empire, under Anson Burlingiune, opened up to tliis ..oiuitry a much wider field for commercial enterprise than had ever be- fore been enjoyed by western nations, and the results of that movement are still progressing. The services of Mr. Seward under the Presidency of Lincoln and the attempt to assassinate him at the same time as the President fell, concentrated upon that able public ser- vant much attention, which was well deserved. The conclusion of the Johnson term of office was near at hand, he had "swung round the circle" in vain, the nomination sought by him from the Democrats was not procured, and the llepublicans nominat- ed and elected Gen. Grant, by a demonstrative ma- jority, Schuyler Colfax being elected Vice President. The nomination of the Democrats was given to Horatio Seymour and Gen. Frank P. Blair. (iriiHt and the Ilrpiihllr. 1SGU-1S77. 170. — Grant's Terms. The enmity manifested by the late President had by no means impaired the popularity of the General, and his election was con- sidered certain from the first. Ilis administration dur- ing the first term was peculiarly propitious for the nation, as the strifes which arose out of the war largely ceased after his inauguration on the 4th of March, 1869. The war debt continued to be reduced, and the Alabama claims were, during his Presidency, referred to the arbitration of the Congress appointed by both powers, under the award of which Great Britain paid $15,500,000 for actual l(.sses of ships' cargoes and in- terest consequent upon that government having failed in due diligence in regard to the Alabama and the Florida privateers. The rules for international gov- ernment suggested by the award of the Tribunal at Geneva are even more valuable than the sum paid by England in pursu ace of that decision. During the latter part of the lirst term, man}' of the Republicans withdrew from the Republican party and ran Horace Greeley for the Presiaency, ia conjunctioa with the Den that mas and the 1 disai as ai grov worl ciliti betw are ( worli adel( to Sii from week hour 17 ingt( to "; origir and h of the negro such i ture. to its 171 to a g and pi regard iunnes conne< forget North, within legisla '--.^jit;^**w«dtf^atgt9a*U/ii^ j»M ; Whi is i''*B &^wa ';i «tf ^ftWt i i a Tr:i i*a rffW ie?«a&s^55fe^^^-^ - lM ERICA. tliat empire, under his ..oiiiitry a much io than had ever be- >ns, and the results sing. The services icy of Lincoln and le same time as the lat able public ser- ell deserved. The f oflice was near at e circle " in vain, om the Democrats )ublicuns nominat- dcmonstrative ma- ed Vice President. vas given to Horatio aO-1877. enmity manifested neans impaired the 3 election was con- administration dur- propitious for the t of the war largely the 4th of March, be reduced, and the Presidency, referred appointed by both Great Britain paid ips' cargoes and in- iment having failed Alabama and the international gov- )f the Tribunal at an the sum paid by jision. During the of the Republicans •tv and ran Horace njunctioa with the UNITED STATES. 241' Democratic section of politicians ; but the result proved that tlie General's popularity had not waned with the masses, as he received a larger vote on that occasion and a larger niajonty than any former President since the nomination of Gen. Washington. 171. — TiiK Union Pacific Kailro ad, afterwards disastrous to many reputations, and often referred to as an evidence of the corruption that almost invariablv grovvs out of civil wars, was in its inception a grand \vork, and it has been found of such value for the fa- cilities which It affords to commerce and passencrers between the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts, that men are constrained to wonder how the business of the world was conducted before Boston, New York Phil- adelphia and Washington were joined bv the iron road toban l^rancisco, so that freight and travel can pass Irorn one ocean to the oljier in the brief space of one week, and without the luxurious traveler losin^ one hour of his accustomed sleep. ° 172. — The Fifteenth Amkndment, cruarantv- ing to every man the right of suffrage without re-ard to race, color or previous condition of servitude " originated under the administration of President Grant and having been duly ratified, was announced as part of the Constitution on the 30th of March, 1870 ThS negro is now under no disability in this countrv save such as that under which he labors by the law of na- ture. The Eevolution of 1776 has thus been carried to Its legitimate conclusion. 173. — General Amnesty. The nation havino- to a great extent, recovered from the effects of tVe waT and popular feelings having considerably softened as regards the South and its ill starred effort, a general amnesty was proclaimed which covered all persons connected with the civil war; but the South cannot torget her own errors and sufferings so readily as the ISorth, and in consequence the work of reconstruction within the law goes on much more slowly than the legislative action of Congress. It is not easy for men 16 24:2 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. ^ho have been from their birth acoustomfd trt look upon colored persons as chattels and sub.3rdinatcs, to submit to a reconstruction which raises ihe negro .n an dectoral and legal sense to their level, but slowly o uot, the work progresses, and the next generation will see the Southern states far on the way tovvard the North in general prosperity. It is much to the credit of the Nonh that a man of such strength of mind and power over human affections as Alexander Harnilton Steohens Vice President of the Confederate States, i^ now a member of Congress against whom no man cites his career in that oflTice to his discredit, but it is often remembered by his personal f"«"^l«,,^ '''^„^;^^";';?: even among his political antagonists, that on the night of Novemb°er u! 1860, in the legislature that had al- ready resolved upon secession, this man exerted all hi. eloquence to prevent the decision being arrived at; to wS' once passed, he loyally adhered through peril r 17 4. -Horace Greeley's Candidature and death illustrate the strong feeling which prevailed amot certain classes against Gen. Grant's reeiection ?f there was a man in the Union for whom the SouUi had a hatred, which was not relieved by personal Re- gard, that man was the Editor of the New York Tn- C yet all that animosity was smothered m the Sse'desire to defeat Grant; and after the Liberal convention in Cincinnati in May, 1872, had given Grelley ?heir nomination, the Democratic convention in BaUimore in the following July presented him to the Union as their candidate also for the office of Pies- dent There were then, as there are now and will be for manv years to come, whether the party in charge of nubTic affairs may be changed or not, awkward suspi- Tons of jobbing and corruption among higii officers in the state and in consequence many who had been suDnortersof the Eepublican party were inclined to draTback from the oV-tio" at that tje ; bes^es which there was a belief that the men of the North P Of re fii V( 01 w ^gi^^^t^^^J^ - ■ ^ifP ^& ^ft ^ '' [ERICA. rXITEI) STATES. 243 nistomfcl trt look d subordinates, to iea ilie negro in an !vel, but slowly or ixt generation will J way toward the much to the credit ?ngth of mind and e.xander Hamilton n federate States, is kvhom no man cites dit, but it is often Is who are many, !. that on the night dature that had al- man exerted all his eing arrived at ; to ered through peril ])andidature and ig which prevailed .^Grant's reelection, or whom the South ved by personal re- the New York Tri- ! smothered in the (id after the Liberal T, 1872, had given nocratic convention ly presented him to [or the office of Pres- are now and will be he party in charge of not, awkward suspi- iiong high officers in lany who had been ty were inclined to It that time ; besides I men of the North and South would shake hands across the bloody chasm, under a President nominated by the South, in con- junction with the North ; but all these circumstances coinbined, added to feelings of personal love which were inspired by Greeley among those who knew his sterling qualities, could not save him from a terrible defeat, 'wiiieh unsettled his mental and bodily health, and terminated his life on the 2(Hh of November, 1872. 175. — ScituvLEU Colfax, who was Vice Presi- dent with Grant during tlie first tcm of office, came of good lineage, being a grandson of one of Washing- ton's Generals. From 185-i to 1869, he sat in con- gress as one of the Representatives of Indiana, and during si.x reelections his record was unimpeached. ^rhe conflict in Kansas called him to the front in con- gress, in 1856, when he depicted in eloquent terms the sufferings and wrongs of the free settlers. From his general suavity and evident capacity, Mr. Colfax was chosen Speaker of the House in 1863. the like honor being conferred upon him again in 1865 and in 1867 ; and it was said of him that he proved himself the most popular Speaker of the House since Henry Clay. AVhen the nominations were made by the Republican party in May, 1868, his name was associated with that of Gen. Grant. It assisted him materially with the people that he had been during the civil war ojie of the steadiest and most trusted friends of Abraham Lincoln. The election in November, 1868, gave to the Republican ticket 214 electoral votes out of a total of 294. The name of Mr. Colfax became unpleas- antly mixed up with the proceedings of " The Credit Mobilier of America," an organization chartered in Pennsylvania in 1859, and reorganized in 1864, to carry on the construction of the Union Pacific Rail- road. The breath of suspicion which then for the first titne blurred the good repute of Mr. Colfax, pre- vented his renomination, probably, in 1872, but it is only just to the ex-Vice President to say, that there was no evidence of corrupt action on his part, and that 244 COUNTRIES OF NOllTIl AXtERICA. u Lis entire innocence of tlic charges laid at his door is an article of faiili with millions of his countrymen. There was a lai-gc party in the country only too glad to bring down a nian'of such high standing in the ranks of the Ke])ublican.s because tl-r: chances must needs be improved by the defeat of their political opponents, and for that reason it was deemed advisa- ble to substitute the name ot' Henry ^yllson as Vico President in the second nomination of Gen. Grant. 17(}._0akks Amks. son of a blacksmith in Eas- ton, Mass., and himself brought up to the same trade, having become wealthy as a manufacturer of Agricul- tural miplements, was in great repute as a linancier in "cori'n-css. where he sat for eleven years, from 1862 to 1873 When the Union Pacific Railroad was to be constructed, Mr. Ames was one of the manipulators of the Credit Mobilier, and when later than this, there was a congressional investigation as to his proceedings among his fellow members, he appears to have eitlier wantonly, or by inadvertance, east a stigma on Mr. Col- fax, by exhibiting in his writing upon a check for a con- siderable sum, the initials of -'S. C," which he con- strued to mean Schuvler Colfax. There was, how- ever, no evidence that the money went into the hands of the Vice President, and there is positive evidence that the check never went through his account Oakes Ames died May 8, 1873, while the public mind was still undecided as to his share in the transaction 177 — IIenuy Wilson, the successor of Schuyler Colfaxi commenced life as a New Hampshire fa-m lad, with the barest rudiments of an education, to which he added all that lay in his power after arriving at uian s estate. Not a great man himself, it was his good for- tune to be born at an era when simple fortitude ami honesty secured him association with some ot the foremost minds of his time after he had made his way upward from the humble occupation in winch he began life. Mr. Wilson was one of the fastest friends of Charles Sumner, and after the shameful assault '«jsjis«ea«.«»M»»a(«s«*s'«»i;<^^ U ni hi 1) k tl hi St tc ul b( Hi hi V( II as at II ai i" of a I P OS Cl at P< g' b( tl: .Cf tV tl ie S in u ERICA. aifl at his door is his couiitryinon. try only too glad standing in the ":'i oiiaiices must of tlieir political :\s deemed advisa- ■y Wilson as Vico )f Gen. Grant, lacksmith in Eas- to tlie .same trade, cturer of Agricul- te as a linancier in ;ars, from 1862 to lailroad was to be the manipulators ter tlian tliis, there to his proceedings lears to have either stigma on Mr. Col- li a check for a con- 3.," which he con- There was, how- ent into the hands s positive evidence :)ugh his account ile the public mind n the transaction, ccessor of Schuyler lampshire fa"m lad, ication, to which he 3r arriving at man's it was his good for- mple fortitude and with some of the e had made his way ation in which he )f the fastest friends le shameful assault UNITED STATES. 245 upon that gentleman by Preston S. Brooks, his re- marks in congress had tlie effect of concentrating upon him the iiatred of the proslavery party for a time. During his term of oflice he was distinguished by his kind and conciliatory tone towards every section of the community, and he died before his term of office liad expired. He appears to have been one of the stockholders in the Credit Afobilier organization, but to have gone into the venture as a mere business spec- ulation, without any knowledge of a current purpose being entertained by any of the parties. Unfortu- nately, so many schemes ot personal aggrandizement have been traced to congress within the past few years, in the fearless investigations originated by the Kepublican party, irrespective of persons, ]ilace or associations, that the public have become censorious and suspicious, and for that reason the record of Henry Wilson was very narrowly scanned by friends and foes, but no damaging fact could be discovered. 178. — Geneual ixcHEASE. There was a pro- posal that Santa Domingo, forming part of the Island of Ilayti, should be annexed to the United States, and a committee of eminent men nominated by the President to visit the Island and report upon the prop- osition, was very favorably impressed in 1871, but congress was not convinced by the report submifcted, and the application was not acceded to. Cuba has jioculiar claims upon this country, considering its geo- graphical position, and the brave struggle that has been maintained by its people for many years against the oppressive and soulless rule of Spain ; but the .country has not yet seen its way to an assumption of the quarrel, and after viewing the question from every point, it does not appear to be the manifest duty of this goverment alone to right the wrong of Cuba, un- ie.ss other circumstances should require war with Spain, and the release of Cuba should then ari.se as an incident in our proceedings. Nebraska came into the Union thirty-seventh in the list of states, on the first 246 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. t. of Marcli, 1867, having been orgfinized as fi territory uiuler tlie same aet as Kansas, in the year 18o4. 1 lio first named state had not the same eliarms for a slave- holding proprietary as Kansas, and therefore i-t grew more slowly than its neighbor and was saved from tie terrible warfare that distracted Kansas for years. J ho state will advanee by slow degrees to very considera- ble importance, but for many reasons does not seem likely to keen pace with Kansas, winch has advan- tages as to soil and a very considerable start in popu- lation. Colorado has also been admil^ed as a state. XIII. SKETCHES OF STATES. Alahatiin, 1. — The area of tlie State is 50,772 square miles. This reart!nents of the University. Arkttiiitii*. 10. — The area of the state is 52,198 square miles. It was first settled by the French, m l»)8o, at Arkan- sas Post The state derives its name from the Arkan- sa tribe of Indians. The territory was originallv em- braced within the boundaries of Louisiana, and ;^-as purchased, in 1803, from the French government by Thomas Jcll'eivon. In 1^12, it was separated from Louisiana and organized ir.to a separate Lerntory, and in 1836 it was admitted as a state. , 11. — This state po.sse.sses valuable mineral re- sources. Zinc and iron rcc found in large quantities. Lead is also abundant, and eopper occurs in some localities. There is a considerable deposit of Arkan- sas whetstone, which is considered the best in the world. Coal is also found. The state abounds in many fine mineral springs. . -i i .a o^roo I'i. — The climate in Arkansas is mild and agree- able The soil is mostly covered with pine forests, although there are some prairies of considerable ex- tent Grand Prairie is nearly one hundred miles long and thiVty miles broad. In the hilly parts the forests cons:st of oak, maples, hickory, etc., while the nvers ure frin^red with groves of cottonwood, cypress and gum trees .1.1 the southern part of the state pine for- ests predominate. . . , . ,„„.„„ _f tu,, 1^ -Agriculture is the principal industry of the state and the staple product is cotton. Stock raising L conducted on a large scale. Manufacturing is on he h^rea e a,d there^re ample facilities for the en- coum'emcnt of that industry. Arkansas has a large river u^de, exporting all surplus products to New Or- lei m as fit tu sii or b( in of St n< sc at tl T n rn e' IT iz n a( V c' h tl e t; h a a •^i.,. ;4li»iiB!(-...^.»^cM»»««H igs»ssai*ig»»**'*i*M»*'3M»»»****»*^ a)ffai«»KWigf»aBM> hundred miles long lilly parts the forests tc., while the rivers inwood, cypress and of the state pine for- jipal industry of the itton. Stock raising Manufacturing is on ! facilities for the en- Arkansas has a large products to New Or- Kletii£^J(itMS»t(^^i^ UNITED STATKS. 249 leans. The large rivers of the state afford over 1,000 miles of navigation. 14-. — 'l'iie\'onstitution provides that the p^encral a.ssemblv sIk.II establish and maintain free schools. It further jirovidos for a state university, with an agricul- tural department. The state board of education con- sists of a superintendent and ten district superintend- ents. ^IMie progress of education in the state lias not been great, but elTorts in that direction are now meet- ing with better encouragement, and there arc promises of improvement. The state institutions are in a fair state of cihcienev. 15. — The government of the state has but few notable features. The governor, lieutenant-governor, secrctarv of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney-general and superintendent of puV)lic schools, are chosen by the qualified electors of the state for a term of four year.s. The house of representatives consists of 82 members, chosen for two yeai\s, and the senate, of 24 members, cho.sen for four years. The legislature meets every two years, on the first Monday of January. AU male persons, born in the United States, or natural- ized, or ha.'ing declared their intention to become cit- izens of the United States, who are twenty-one years old and upward, shall have resided- in the state for six months next preceding an election, and are at the time actual residents of the county in which they offer to vote, are electors. The supreme court consists of a chief justice and four associate justices. It has appel- late jurisdiction and the supervision of all inferior courts. It holds annually two terms. The judges oi the supreme court are appointed by the governor for eight years. The circuit courts have original jurisdic- tion over criminal cases not otherwise provided for by law. The judges and attorneys of the district courts are appointed for four years by the governor, with the advice and consent of the senate. t'nHforn(a. 16._ The area of California has been computed at 250 COI'NTUIES OF NOUTH AMKHtCA. IfiO.OOO square miles. The Iniuls suUj.-ct, to overflow, known as tl.o "Tule lands," comprise o.iMIO.OOO aeirs, uml U>c mountains I'ovur an area of nearly 2t',.(MlO,()(»() ucrcs. California was eedeil to ili<- L'nitni State's by the treaty of peace wliieli terminated llie war witli Mexico in 1S-1«, and was admitted into tlic Union as ft state in IbAd. 'I'he state was fust settled by the Spaniards, in ITGU. at San Diego, ll derives its nanie from a character in nn old romance. 1 he cliinalic conditions of the state vary according to location and elevation, but upon the whole the slate has a very healthy climate, both for animal and vegetable life 17. — The vegetation of the state is remarkable. The nnniber of species of trees is small compared with those of the eastern portions of the eoiilinent, nor is the e.\tent and compactness of forest nearly so great ns there. The great interior valley consists mainly of prairies, only the ^vater cour.ses being fringed with narrow belts of cotton wood and other deciduous tree.*. The coast rantres produce forests not remavkal)le for variety or extcMit. The valleys arc park-like, as the trees grow in graceful clumps. Various kinds of oak and conifers predominate everwhere. The shrubby undcr"-rowth consists of the "chamiro," the "manzan- ita," called by the settler the " California lilac," and various shrubby oaks, each furnished with as many thorns as there are points to leaves and branches, mak- ing' what IS known as the "chaparal." impenetrable thTckets, rendering part of the stale quite inaccessible. The glory of the coast ranges is the redwood {sequoia sem- pervfnm), a coniferous tree of great size and beauty of form. It frequently attains a height of 275 feet, and a circumference at the ba.se of 50 feet In the Sierra Ne- vada there are extensive forests, consisting mainly of ])incs, tirs and other coniferous trees. Tlie most re- markable species among the.se is the " Big Tree" {se- quoia (ji()anteu\ which is found exclusively scattered over limited areas in the Sierra, over 4,000 feet above the sea level, and, as far as known, between 36° and klKinCA. uUjfct, to overflow, sc r>,(t(K».OUO acres, nearly 2t{.O00,()(H) L'liileil Stall's by teil the war with into tlic Union as irst settleil by the ll derives its name ice. The cliinalie ing to location and slate has a very d vegetable life, ale is remarkable, ludl compared with ic continent, nor is ;t nearly so great as consists maiidy of }eing fringed with ler deciduous tree.«. not remavkalde for •c park-like, as the iriiius kinds of oak ere. The shrubby fiiro," the "manzan- thfornia lilac," and died with as many and branches, mak- aral." impenetrable :; quite inaccessible, sdwood {ncqnvid sem- t size and beauty of ht of 275 feet, and a ■^ In tlie Sierra Ne- jonsisling mainly of ,'ecs. Tlie most re- the "Big Tree" {se- xclusively scattered •er 4,000 feet above rn, between 36° and US'ITKO STATK.'^. 251 88" 15' latitude. There are eight distinct ]>atclies or groves of big trees. The one in Calaveras county, on the road which ero.ssos the Sierra at the Silv(M' Pass, was tilt; lirsl discovered and is llie most act'essililc. it contains about one hundred trees, varying in height from 25(5 to o25 feet, and in circumference, ten feet above tlu- ground, from ol to 45 feet. There arc other groves similar to it. IN. — In relation to mining, very much more might be said than our space can admit of. 'I'lu^ first .cold discovery was made in ly4S, by I. W. Marshall, wliilo digging a race for a saw mill of Capl. Sutler. As soon as the news of it became known, thousands of adven- turers from thi^ eastern stales, from Knrope, and even from ^ isaM» ir\\w I ■[ -.•iiiT-eirJiJ&HaruiKiu. -i^^Mk^iielhiii'aiSbimlimu:^mi«il '.-i;iWi«^^uc^Aj^MMIjB^£i|L;»>'Vt«4M«^>«**'^ 252 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. ,g bes{ins on the the grass is green all winter; plowin_^ first of December, and sowing is continued even into March. Thus the farmer has three or four months to put in his crops. Corn is planted from March to May, and harvested as late as December. After the middle of April the rains cease, and the whole harvest season is absolutely without rain. The great valleys of the San Joaqum and the Sacramento embrace the far greater part of the farming lands of California; but many of the valleys of the coast ranges, and those south of the San Bernardino Mountains, are equally productive. With so large a body of most fertile lands and so favorable a climate, provided the farmer adapts himself to the peculiarity of the seasons, agriculture is already the principal occupation of California. 20." — The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secre- tary of State, Comptroller, Treasurer, Attorney-Gen- eral, Surveyor-General, and Superintendent of Public Instruction are chosen for four years, commencing with the first Monday in December after election. The last election for state officers was in September, 1875. The legislature meets biennially on the first Monday of December of the odd years. It consists of forty Sena- tors and eighty Representatives. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Juritice and four Associate Justices. It has appellate jurisdiction in all cases of equity, in all cases involving the title or possession of real estate, or in which the matter in controversy amounts to $300, and in all criminal cases amounting to felony on ques- tions of law alone. The state is divided into fourteen judicial districts, in each of which there is a district court. The term of office for the Justices of the Su- preme Court is ten years; for the Judges of the Dis- trict Courts, six years, and for Judges of the County Courts, four years. Colorado. 21. — This state was admitted to the Union in 1875. It has an area of 104,500 square miles, and the surface is varied, sometimes mountainous, in other places level, 11 t r !'■ t; i V P tl y v C d C d tc tl P fc h: ti dl a I Ir fr P is la tc a P< w T VI ERICA. UXITKD STATES. 2o3 nng begins on the ntinued even into or four months to I'om March to May, After tlie middle lole harvest season eat valleys of the embrace the far of California; but ranges, and those ntains, are equally f most fertile lands [ the farmer adapts sons, agriculture is California. t Governor, Secre- rer, Attorney-Gen- fitendent of Public ;, commencing with election. The last ember, 1875. The e first Monda}? of sists of forty Sena- ^he Supreme Court Associate Justices, sesof equity, in all >n of real estate, or amounts to $300, to felony on ques- /ided into fourteen there is a district ustices of the Su- Judges of the Dis- ges of the County the Union in 1875. les, and the surface n other places level, and in others broken and uneven. The climate is favorable. Stock raising is a proli table industry. 22. — Mining operations date as far back as 1858, when gold was taken from placers near the sitn where now stands the city of Denver. Afterward followed the discovery of the rich deposits of gold, silver, cop- per, lead and zinc in various portions of the mountain region. Afining is now chiefly carri'jd on in tlie coun- ties of Gilpin, Park, Clear Creek, t-.ammit. Lake and Boulder. Gold is mostly found intermixed with sil- ver, and silver with copper and lead. Tlie value of precious minerals, obtained during 1870, has been esti- mated at about $4,000,000, of which $1,500,000 were yielded by ihe placers, and the remainder \iy quartz veins. The census reports the value at only $859,374. Copper pyrites occur in the gold and silver mining districts, and silver-bearing galena (lead) is also found. Coal beds have been discovered in the mountainous districts and in the parks, and will doubtless aid ma- terially in the development of the mining and indus- trial interests. Salt occurs near Fair Play in South Park, but the cost of furnace evaporation has been found too great to leave a profit. Tn several localities, however, dry and comparatively pure salt is found. Mineral springs are very abundant in the territory, par- ticularly such as contain sulphur. Those in the Mid- dle Park range in temperature from 100° to 116° Pahr., and are found to be efficacious in rheumatic and scrofu- lous diseases. In the San Juan Mountains, not far from the southern boundary of the territory, is the Pagora Spring, which has a temperature of 200°, and is reported to possess great curative power. Another large sulphur spring is situated near the Raton Pass, to the east of the San Luis Park. 23. — The constitution of Colorado was framed by a convention, on August 12, 1865, and adopted by the people September 5 of the same year. The capital was formerly at Golden City, but is now at Denver. The legislature consists of a council of 13 members, =«»3!«*««i .sti an pr oti tiv Be tli( cu fiv Se Tl pn gai go CO th( tw of re] sit tu sh; sh m( is en thi en jui Tl nii or CO all ju> VT ERICA. 6 memoers. The .iy of October. original states, de- )rd meaning long ir, bv the English, Union in 1788. It J. The surface is valleys, but there 3 mineral treasures foremost. White jranite is largely Iv and other places, ar Bristol, and, in found, though not t is similar to that ing marked by ex- len changes. The xclusively of Eng- le Irish have come of the surface are ! cattle, butter and es of export. The he grains usually I great abundance, n successfully car- ming more profita- le population, Con- inufacturing states of the inhabitants 3d in some branch enjoy a well-earned eges in the state: ty College, at Hart- fan University, at lie College there are ■, a law school, a UNITED STATES. 255 medical school, and the SheflHeld scientific school. By an act of the legislature the latter has been con- stituted the college for the promotion of agriculture and mechanic arts, and has received the land appro- priation bestowed by congress for this purpose. The other professional school.s are : the Theological Insti- tute of Connecticut (Congreiscopal), at Middletown ; tlie Episcopal Academy, at Clieshire. and the Connecti- cut Literary Institute at Suffield. Tliere are twenty- five incorporated academies in successful operation. Seven cities and many villages sup])ort high schools. Tlie charities of the state occupy a high place in the progress of the state. y7. — The government of the state is about the same as that of the other New England states. The governor, lieuten'int-governor, secretary of state and controller are chosen annually and hold office from the first Wednesday in May. The senate consists of twenty one members, chosen by districts ; the house of representatives of 237 members. The senators and representatives are chosen annually. The commis- sioner of the school fund is appointed by the legisla- ture. Every male citizen of the United States, who shall have attained the age of twenty-one years, who shall have resided one year in the state, and six months in the town where he offers to vote, and who is able to read any article of the constitution, is entitled to the privileges of an elector, upon taking the oath prescribed by law. The supreme court of errors consis'ij of one chief judge and three associate judges, who also are judges of the superior court. This court has final and conclusive jurisdiction of all matters brought by way of error from the judgment or decrees of any superior court. The superior court consists of six judges, exclusive of those who are judges of the supreme court. It has jurisdiction of all causes which may be brought before it. The judges of both courts are appointed by concurrent '^^•iiwasiSi^fieiifeMaimBssiiseijasii^iKSjai^aaijtasaa^ 256 COUXTIUES OF NORTH AMERICA. vote of tlie senate and house of representatives, and hold office for eight years, but are dir:qualilied when seventy years of age. Delaware. 28. — Delaware is one of tlie original "Thirteen." It received its name in honor of Lord Delaware. The territory embraced within its boundaries was first settled in 1688 by the Swedes at Wilmington, and has an area of 2,120 square miles. In 1655 it became a de- pendency of the Dutch colony of New i\msterdam, and together with this colony fell into the hands of the English in 1664. In 1682 the English govern- ment made it a part of the William Penn grant ; but in 1701 it was separated from Pennsylvania, though subject to the same governor down to the war of inde- pendence. 29. — Delaware occupies the northeastern portion of the peninsula which separates Delaware Bay from Chesapeake Bay, and which forms a plain of but little elevation above the sea level. Through the center of this peninsula extends from north to south a broad swell of ground, somewhat higher than the sea coast, covered with swampy tracts, from which the small streams issue. Delaware includes a portion of this higher ground and thus forms a plain gently inclining from the west to the shores of the Delaware Bay on the east 30. — The climate of Delaware is mild, being tem- pered by the nearness of the ocean. Agriculture is profitably pursued and i. e '-.dustries of tlie state are in good condition. The wimufacturing interest is of great importance, there being over 800 establishments in the state. 31. — The educational interests of Delaware are very prosperous. The state has three colleges. Del- aware College, located at Newark, has a scientific department and an agricultural college. St. Mary's College is at Wilmington, and Brandy wine College at Brandywine. sta a t sta au( Th of po' SUJ. a c jus me; Au of ext Coi qui wit] ing ei'al Stat ern veg pall spe( fror the gro' ang fror by rid^ ban tee mos pan 'lewi itERICA. 'presentatives, and dir:qualilied when iginal "Thirteen." ■d Delaware. The ■ies was first settled gton, and has an )5 it became a de- New i\insterdam, into the hands of 3 English govern- Penn grant ; but nsylvania, though to the war of inde- rtheastern portion •ehiwure Bay from plain of but little ough the center of to south a broad ban the sea coast, which the small a portion of this n gently inclining Delaware Bay on mild, being tern- 1. Agriculture is of ttie state are in ng interest is of iOO establishments UNITED STATES. 257 of Delaware are ree colleges. Del- I has a scientifie illege. St. Mary's dywine College at 33. — The government is similar to that of other states. The governor is elected by the people for a term of four years, and he appoints the secretary of state and the attorney general. The treasurer "and auditor are elected by the legislature for two years. The senate consists of nine members and the house of twenty-one, elected for two years. The judicial power is vested in a court of errors and appeals, a supreme court, a court of chancery, an orphans' court, a court of oyer and terminer, a register's court and justices of the peace. Dover is the capital. Fforttla. 33. — Florida is derived from a S])anish word meaning blooming. The state was first settled at St. Augustine, by the Spaniards, in 1565. It has an area of 50,268 square miles, including the peninsula, which extends into the Atlantic from the North American Continent on the southeast. The surface is flat and quite low. The climate is of a tropical cliaracter. The winter is comparatively dry, and is equable and brac- ing. Indeed, the winter months in Florida offer, gen- eially, such delightful and healthful weather that the state is visited annually by many thousands of north- ern visitors in search of pleasure and health. The vegetation of the peninsula is varied. The low saw- palmetto and tall and graceful cabbage palm (both species of chamo3rops) ; the Spanish moss, trailing from the mighty limbs of the live oak and cypress; the mangrove, clothing and concealing with :ts dense growth the shore islands, and the groves of wild or- ange trees, strongly arrest the attention of the visitor from the north. The dry sandy tracts are occipied by forests of red pine, while the interior limestone ridge produces hickory, white oak, gum and other hard woods. The animal life is abundant. The mana- tee or sea cow was formerly frequent, but is now al- most extinct. Alligators are numerous. Deer, bears, panthers and wild turkeys abound. Paroquets, cur- lews, and other birds of brilliant plumage enrich the 17 •«t*6t**fiaMjftmi'a!!«AtWt«.l>*>»,iaii^iiii^fS' '■^•^^fiJ^aA i St^Otit^:-. '"■-^ '■-■■- rC;',.''>ifcJv£v-*fv. -*)'*■ 258 COUNTUIES OF NOUTII AMERICA. woods and waters. The mullet, river trout, pomnano and other excellent fish swarm in the rivers and la- goons. The green turtle is caught on the sea shore.^;, and the gopher in the interior. Scorpions, centipedes, stinging insects and venomous snakes are also not rare? but serious accidents from them arc infrefjuent. 34. — The chief product of the soil is corn and cot- ton. Manufacturing has gained considcmble head- way, and the commercial interests of the state are in a fair degree ot prosperity. . 35. — The government of the state has some inter- esting features. The new stai" con.ititution was adopted in February, 1868. It provides that slavery shall not exist in the state; that there shall be no civil or political distinction on account of color, and that the state shall ever remain a member of tlie American Union The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are chosen by thj qualified electors, and hold their offices for four yea vs. The Secretary of State, Treasurer, Comptrolipr. Attorney General, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Commissioner of Immigratton and Adjutant General are appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the senate. 3^j —The members of the assembly, o3 m number, are chosen biennially, and the 24 senators for a term of four years. The sessions of the Legislature are an- nually held on the first Tuesday after the first Mon- day in January, and may extend to sixty days. Special sessions convened by the Governor cannot sit over twenty days. E-ery male of twenty-one years of ap and oVer, who is a citizen of the United States, or who shall have declared his intention of becoming such, and who shall have resided in Florida for one year and in the county for six months, next preceding the election at which he shall offer to vote, shall be deemed a qualified elector. . , . 37 —The ju'^icial power of the state is vested m a Supreme Court, C'rcuit Courts, County Courts and juAices of the peace. The Supreme Court consists of ERICA. r trout, pomtmno ic rivers and la- in the sea shores, pions, centipedes, ikes are also not I arc infrequent, lil is corn and cot- jnsidcmble liead- tUe state are in a ,te has some inter- con^ititution was vides that slavery -e sh.iU be no civil of color, and that r of tlie American lant Governor are I hold their offices State, Treasurer, Superintendent of Immigration and the Governor and bly, 53 in number, enators for a term Legislature are an- ter the first Mon- si.xty days. Special or cannot sit over ty-one years of age lited States, or who of becoming such, arida for one year next preceding the )tc, shall be deemed ! state is vested in a [bounty Courts and ae Court consists of T'NITED STATES. 2o9 a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices, who hold their offices for life or during good behavior. 'J'hov arc appointed by tlie Govenior'and confirmed bv tlio i^cnate. Tlio Supreme Court holds tliree sessions an- nually at tiie .otate capitol. It has appellate jurisdic- tion Iherc are seven Circuit Judges, appointed by tic Governor and confirmed by the senate, who holcl their offices for e;ght vears, and the state is divided into seven judicial districts. The judge must reside in the district to which he is assigned. The Circuit Courts have original jurisdiction in all cases in which the Supreme Court liasap])ellate jurisdiction, and they have final jurisdiction in all civil cases arisino- in the county courts in which the amount of controvery is ?100 and more, and in all eases (jl misdemeanor. The County Judges are also appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the senate, and each 'judge holds his office for four years. Ororffia. ^ 38. — The state of Georgia was named in honor of (reorge II, and was first settled at Savannah, by the iLnghsh, in 1783. It is one of the thirteen oritrinal states, and was admitted to the Union in 1788. °The surface of the state has an area of 58,000 square miles, and is level, or but slightlv undulating in .some parts and mountainous in others. The difference in height above the level of the sea, and in latitude, pro- duces a difference in temperature. In seme parts of the stPie the summer is very hot, while in others it is healthful and invigorating. 39. — Iron and copper occur in quite large quanti- ties, and gold is found in limited quantities, and be- fore the discovery of gold in California, was consid- ered of considerable importance. Agriculture is by- far the most important branch of industry in the state. The soil is very productive, and the cotton product is nearly always large. Before the war, Georgia had made considerable progress in manufacturing. This branch of inaustry has started up again vigorously -A(*ri***«K;ij**^*1^0ai^<,..6a6i>*i3>'iL^ijl^^ .... 4i* m to< : iita^».->igiac'. f . ^■^^ ^ -. I _.i!i=--ieiti«*^ 'OB-Jfflffe**--^ .#* 260 COUNTRIES OF NOUTII AMFIUICA. since tlic war. Local commerce in Geon^ia is increas- ing, but direct foreign commerce is small. 40. — (jcorgia records three Universities: tlie State University, at Athens; Oglethorpe University (Pres- byterian)," at IMilledgeville, and Mercer University (I'.aptist), at Kenticld,'\vith 18 teachers and 37i> ])upils. The 28 eolh'ges and 123 academies liave respecitively 133 and 22G teachers, with 2,583 and 0,550 pupils. 41. — The covernment of Ch naa been Ic well reconstructed. The new constitution was adopted in convention in March, 1868, and ratified by the people in the ne.xt month. It declares all citizens of the Uni- ted States residing in the state to be citizens thereof. The Govei'nor is chosen by tlie people for four years; and for the same period are elected by the General Assembly the following officers: the Secretary of State, Com])troller General, Treasurer and Surveyor General. The Senate consists of 44 members, one- half elected biennally for four years, and the House of Representatives, elected biennally for two years. The Judiciary of the state comprises a Supreme Court, a Superior Court for each judicial district. Courts in Ordinary and Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction only. The Superior Courts have exclusive jurisdiction in cases of divorce, in criminal cases, where the penalty is death or con- finement in the penitentiary, in cases respecting titles to land, and in equity cases. They have also power to correct errors in inferior judgments, and to issue writs that may be necessary for carrying into effect their powers. " The Judges of the Supreme and Su- perior Courts, the Attorney General, Solicitor Gen- eral and the District Judges and Attorneys are ap- pointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate. Illinois. 42. — The name is derived from an Indian word meaning lliver of Men. The state was first settled at Kaskasivia by the French, iu 1702, and in 1819 the .1 S '\ T I i C t h 1 h s I 6 $ '1 h n T d t ai Ii a( sc U! oi tl T 1{ P< ta eoi'^ia is increas- lall. rsities: tlie State J Diversity (Pres- Tcer University i and 37i> jinpils. lave rc.spe(!tively 0,550 pupils. V lias been well 1 was adopted in sd by the people lizens of the Uni- 3 citizens thereof, le for four years; . by the General the Secretary of !r and Surveyor A members, one- i, and the House Y for two years. I Supreme Court, district, Courts in !. The Supreme '. The Superior cases of divorce, y is death or con- 5 respecting titles have also power ;nts, and to issue rrying into effect Supreme and Su- al, Solicitor Gen- Attorneys are ap- ivice and consent 1 an Indian word jvas first settled at and in 1819 the UXITED STATES. 261 State was admittod to the Union. The surface, with an area of 55,405 .square miles, is a pl;;iti, gently sloping from the northeast towards the Mississippi. The climate is marked by great extremes. The sum- mers are very warm and t\w winters verv cold. Large portions of the surface consist of prairie. "Coal abounds in large quantities and is worked with great profit. Copper, limestone, etc, pre also found. The state surpasses any other commonwealth in the Union in the fertility of its soil. Some of the prairies are bottom lands and are said to be overlaid by loam from 25 to 100 feet thick. Illinois is also a manufacturing state having over $205,000,000 emploved in that in'^lustry. The state is favorably situated "for commerce, and is prosperous in a large (degree in all her commercial in- dustries. 4-S. — The School System of Illinois is excellent. In 1870 there were 11.050 public schools, with 20- 0{)7 teachers (8,791 male, and 11,306 female), and 677^- 623 pupils. ''The total income of these schools was $7,810,265, mostly raised by taxation and public funds. The eighty classical, professional and technical schools had 371 teachers and 11.755 pupils, and the 705 other not public schools, 3,388 teachers and 78,397 pupils. The six universities had 56 teachers and 1.277 stu- dents, including 148 females. The State Industrial University, founded by act of the legislature in 1867. and located in Champaign county, was opened in 1868. It has over 1,000 acres of improved farming lands, 40 acres of which have been set apart for gardens, nur- series and specimen orchards. The remainder is to be used for experimental and stock farms. The course of this institution is science, literature and arts. Nei- ther the classical nor modern languages are taught' Ihe State Normal University was opened in October, 18o7, near the city of Bloomington, and is in a pros- perous condition." **• — The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secre- tary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, and Superintendent .«sa«a«^iaM»SI>a»iM«d««»»sW^^ t 262 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMKRICA, of rul)lic Instruction, .iiv elected by lliii people for four yeiirri. The general eleetion i" l.oui on tlie first Tuesday in November. The Senate eonsists of fifly- ono members, elected for four yeo,rH : the House of Kepreseiitatives of one hundred ami fifty-three mem- bers, eleeted for two years. The LejL,nsliitnre meets biennially on the fir.st Monday in January in the odd years, 1871, 1873, ete. The Supreme Court has ap- pellate jurisdiction only, and consists of three divisions, correspcMiding to the three divisions of the state. There are twenty-eight Circuit Courts. Each co\inty has a County Court. The State Capital is at Spring- field. Chicago is the nietro|H)lis of the state, and there are forty-two incorporated cities in the state. Itiitiinia. 45. — The State was first settled by the French at Vincenne.s, in 171fi. The area exceeds 3P>,809 sriuarc miles, and the surface is gently undulating, but not rnountainou.s. Agriculture is tlio principal pursuit, and manufacturing has gained much headway. 46. — Indiana has Jie largest .school fund of any state in the Union. The State has six Universities. These are the State University at Bloomington, Mon- roe county ; was opened in 1840, and comprises a col- lege of arts, literature and science, a college ol law, a college of engineering, a college of military science and a normal school. Tlie libraries embrace over 5,000 volumes, and the philo.sophical and chemical apparat- us is very complete. The faculty consists of the Pres- ident, ten Professors and two Tutors ; the number of students was, in 1870, 304. Indiana Asbury Univer- sity, located at Greencastle, Putnam county, is under the control of the Methodists. Wabash College, with ♦ ■which a military department is connected, is at Craw- fordsville; Earlham College, near lliehmond; the University of Notre Dame, at Notre Dame; Salem College, at Bourbon ; Fort Wayne College and Con- cordia College, at Fort Wayne. In 1870, there were in the state 8,871 public schools (including 69 high and 371 graded schools), with 11,042 teachers. fc (} Ti te Pl (h er T .h cc R sii of of th v< I'o m B to oi fo ta is b. p; T ir 0( tV d( al ci P' Cv aucA. UNITKL) STATES. 203 y tlio pooplo tor l.oiu on the first consists of fifty- s: tlio IIouso of fifty-tlirec moiii- iegislutnro meets .Hilary in the odd c Court has iip- )f three divisions, IS of the state, ts. Kaeli eoiuity pital is at Si)riiig- le state, and there le state. by the French at sds 3P>,809 square Inlatin^, but not principal pursuit, headway. lool fund of any si.K Universities. h)omington, ^fon- 1 comprises a eol- eollege ot huv, a ilitary science and ibrace over 5,000 chemical apparat- insists of the Pres- ; the number of I Asbury Univer- I county, is under }ash College, witli ected, is at Craw- lliehmond ; the re Dame ; Salem Dollege and Con- 1870, there were ncluding 69 high. 5 teachers. 47. — The government of the state of Indiana dif- fers from tliat of other states, in .some respeet.s. " The (lovernor, Jiieutenant CiMvernor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor. Attorney lleneral and Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, are chosen by the peo- l)le at the general election, held on the seconil Tues- day of October. The Governor and Licuteiuuit (lov- ernor hold oflice four years; the others two years. .he Legislature meets "biennially in the month of January, in the odd years of 1873, lS7r», etc., and comprises a Senate of oO member.s, and u House c/ Representatives of JKS members. 'I'he judiciary^c sists of a Supreme Court, (\rcuit Courts and a Cou,. of Common Pleas. The Sui)reme Court is composed of four judges, chosen by the people for seven years; the judges of the Circuit Courts are elected for si.x: years, and those of the Court of Common Pleas for four yeafs." Iowa. 48. — The name loiva comes from an Indian term, meaning drowsy ones. The state was first settled at Burlington by the English in 1833, and was admitted to the Union' in 1846. The territory within the limits of the state has an area of 50.914 square miles. It forms a part of a vast plain, and there are no inoun- tains or ranges of hills within the state. The climate is free from injurious ext-emes, its general character being a salubrious dryness. Agriculture is the princi- pal pursuit, and manufacturing is progressing rapidly. 4<). — Iowa justly boasts a grand school system. The State University at Iowa City has an endowment m land and other property of $195,582, and worthily occupies its place at the head of the scliool system of the state. It had, in 1870, 25 teachers and 455 stu- dents, including 178 females, and embraced academic- al, law, medical and normal departments. The Agri- cultural College at Ames, Storey county, has an im- posing building, located on a fine farm of 648 acres, and contains a library, museum, cabinet of minerals, etc ■^ivi^f •'•m'-itMi^^T.fL t*r~vi— if -j-Ti'iaVrtft^-viiffrffi' i 'i'h 7iii" 'fn iiTr«»inWi"i i' ir * '" if">.i>>ciwi|i:j tj m 264 COrXTUIKS OF KOUTir AMKIlirA. 50. — TheOovernment ot tlio state of Towa doos not (lilTor in any groat particnlar from that of otlicr states. 'I'lio (lovornor, Tiiciitonant (iovenior aii. Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^ 4>' <^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques UNITED STATES. 265 Professorships of drawing and practical cliemistry have lately been added to the faculty. The library and tlie collection of ajiparatns are increasing rapidly. In 1870, it had nine professors and 218 students. Tlio Ottawa University was? organized in IStiO by the Bap- tist church of the state ; Lane University, at Leconip- ton, in 1850 : Baker University, at Baldwin City, in 1858; and Highland University, at Iligldand, in 1859. Tiie census reports eleven classical institutions, with sixty-three teachers and OO-i pupils, and four technical schools, inclusive of the State Agricultural School at Manhattan, which has an endowment of 90,000 acres, has ten instructors, 194 pupils, and a library of 8,000 volumes. Kansas had, according to tlie census, 2,068 organized school districts, with l,6fi3 public schools, having 1,864 teachers, and 58,030 pupils. The number of persons between five and twenty-one years of age was 109,242. The charit- able institutions already established are in success- ful operation. The Asylum for the Insane is at Osawatomie, tlie Asylum for the Blind at Wyandotte City, and the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Olathe. 63. — The Government of the state of Kansas is much the same as that of the other states. The Gov- ernor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Audi- tor, Treasurer, Superintendent or Public Instruction and Attorney General, are elected for a term of two years. The Senate is composed of twenty-five mem- bers, elected for two years, and the House of Represen- tatives of seventy-five members, elected for one year. The Legislature meets annually on the second Tuesday in January. Male citizens of the United States, or persons of foreign birth, who shall have declared their intention to become citizens, are entitled to vote after having re.sided six months in the state and thirty days in the township. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and two Associate .Justices, who are elected for six years. The state is divided into nine ■ -•^^ii«>M>««iW!«ni««<«»>«e»aiiiiWM^ 266 COUNTRIES OF KOllTII AMKRTCA. judicial districts, in each of wliicli a District Court is held, the judges of which are elected for four years. Ki'iitiirkif- 54. — The name Kentucky is derived from an Indian word moaning "dark or bloody ground." The state was first settled in 1775 at Booncsbow by the English. The surface has an area of 37,GSO square miles, and is quite broken or undulating. The climate is mild and agreeable. Kent.icky is abundantly supplied with productive coal beds and iron deposits. Agriculture is the principal pursuit, and manufacturing is pursued with profit. 55. — Education is now receiving earnest attention by the citizens of the state, and the school system is very efficient. The most important of the higher in- stitutions of learning is the Kentucky University, with which is connected the Agri(jultural College. 5G. Tiie government consists of a Governor, Lieu- tenant-Governor, Auditor, Aitorney-General and Su- perintendent of Public Instruction, elected by the peo- ple for a term of four years. The Governor is ineligi- ble for the four years succeeding the expiration of his term. If a vacancy occur in the office of Governor during the first two years of the term, it is filled by a new election ; and if it occur during the last two years, the Lieutenant-Governor, and after him the Speaker of the House, becomes acting Governor. The Treasurer is elected for a term of two years. The Secretary of State is appointed by the Governor, by and with the advice of the Senate. The Senate comprises 38 mem- bers, who are chosen for four years, one-half biennially. The'members of the House of Representatives, num- bering 100, are elected for two years. The sessions of the legislature are biennial, and cannot continue longer than s1.\ty days, without a two-thirJs vote of the mem- bers of each 'branch. Every male citizen who has re- sided two years in the state, one year in the county, and sixty days in the precinct in which he oflEers his vote, is a legal elector. t ii c o a C a ti fc b e; C( tl fc tl Ji fo y< X u su is th CO ca rai th( tui ou "b Ufi I of Tt MKRTCA. a District Court is (1 for four years. derived from an bloody ground." at Booncsboro by in area of 37,GyO en or undulating, ble. Kentucky is ive coal beds and principal pursuit, profit. g earnest attention e school system is t of the higher in- ky University, with 1 College. )i a Governor, Lieu- y-General and Su- elected by the peo- Governor is ineligi- le expiration of his office of Governor srm, it is filled by a g the last two years, him the Speaker of or. The Treasurer The Secretary of lor, by and with the ; comprises 38 mem- one-balf biennially, cpresentatives, num- ,rs. Tlie sessions of mot continue longer •Js vote of the mem- i citizen who has re- ! year in the county, 1 which he oflEers his UNITED STATES. 267 o7. — The highest judicial tribunal of the state is the Court of Appeals, whicli has appellate jurisdiction over the final orders and judgments of all other courts in civiii_ cases, where the amount in controversy ex- ceeds $50; or in cases of judgment granting divorce or on a judgment of an inferior court from which an appeal is given to the Circuit Court. The Circuit Courts have original jurisdiction in cases where the amount in controversy exceeds $50 ; appellate jurisdic- tion in certain specified cases, and criminal jurisdiction lorti.e trial of all offenses which mav be 'prosecuted by indictment, and all prosecutions and final actions, except where exclusive jurisdiction is given to other courts. There are also county courts and justices of the peace. Judges of the Court of Ai)pcals are elected for terms of eight years, one every second year, and the Judge having the shortest term to serve is Chief Justice. The Judges of the Circuit Courts are elected for SIX years, and the Justices of the Peace for four years. lyouiniana, „^^*~" This State takes its name in honor of Louis XIV. It was first settled by the French at Biloxi, in 16!)9, and was admitted to the Union in 1812. Tlie surface throughout is a low, alluvial plain. The climate is warm, but with colder and more variable winters than the regions in th same latitude on the Atlantic coast. 69.— -The vegetation is luxuriant, oranges, sugar- cane, bananas, and other tropical productions being raised. The cypress, cedar and yellow pine are amonS the principal trees. The lagoons abound in alligator^ turtles and fish, while serpents and insects are numer- ous in the swamps. The soil of- Louisiana, in the river "bottoms," is good, and corn culture is |)rofitable. Man- ufacturing is carried on to a very limited extent. 60 Education is beginning to take a deeper hold of the people, and the school system is improving. The Louisiana State University, located at Bato^n -^*.fcj«taoB*6r;i=5(aa*eisi, 370 COUXTniES OF NORTH AMERICA. one vear Tlie Logislaturo sliall convene on the first VV(>(lncs(iav of .Fannary, annually. ««. — Tlio Governor sliall l)e elected by the quali- fied electors, and shall hold his ofTu-e one vear from the first Wednesday of .lanuarv. He shall be not less than thirty years of age, a born citizen of tiie United btatos, and have been five years a resident of the state, lie shall nominate and, with the advice and consent of the Council, appoint all judicial oflicers the Attorneys General, the Sheriffs, Coroners, Re^ds- ters of Probate, Notaries Public, and all other cTvil and military officers who.'-e appointment is not other- WKse provided for. The Council shall consist of seven persons, citizens of the United States, and residents of the state, to advise the Governor in the E.xecutive part of the government. The Councilors shall be chosen annually by joint ballot of the Senators and liepresentntives in convention. The Secretary of State and the Treasurer shall be cho.sen annuallv at the first se-ssion of the Legislature, by the Senators and Kepresentatives in convention. T *i^-T/^^''^® judicial power is vested in a Supreme Judicial Court, and such other courts as the Le c aa i>aa» a ; »ih Ki*Vf.-flT-:q*:-fc\^>»ja»itffaiS^«apaaK»-'- U^'^-- 272 COl'XTKIKS OF XOKTH AMERICA. ()[ Green ^louiitaiiis traverse the western jtart of tlic state. Tlie southwestern part of tlie state is low and Mindy. The eliniate is co')l. The winters are h)ng and (luite severe, the siunniers short and warm ; agri- culture and manufacturing are the principal industries. The state has a grand and complete system of railroads, and commerce llourishes. 72. —The state has established educational institu- tions of all grades, and maintains them with great lib- erality. The IJoard of Education consists of the Gov- ernor, Lieutenant-Governor, and eight members ap- pointed by the Governor and Council. It has the gen- eral oversight of the i)\iblic schools and educational htatistics, and receives the reports which the jjcrsons in charge of every institution of learning in the state arc recpiired by law to make. The number of incorporated academies is o(>, and of private schools about 500. The .six colleges had, in 1870, 137 teachers and 1,2!I0 pupiLs. Harvard University, at Cambridge, tiie oldest college in the country, has 7(5 professors antl nearly 1,200 students, 73. — The state includes the original colonies of Plymouth (settled in 1H20), and Massachusetts Bay, (settled at Salem in l()2y). In 1(J8S, the colonies wore united under one government, Ma.ssachusctts adopted a constitution in 1780, and ratified the Constitution of the United States in 1788. The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor and Attorney General arc chosen annually in November, and hold olTicc one year from the first Wednesday in January. A council, consisting of nine persons be- sides the Lieutenant Governor, has the function to ad- vise the Governor in the performance of his executive duties. The Senate consists of 40 members, no less than 16 of whom form a quorum, and the House of Ecprescntativcs consists of 2-10 members, no less than 100 of whom form a quorum. Every male citizen 21 years of age, able to read the Constitution and to write his name, who has resided in the state one year, and in his election district six months, and has paid a .MEUICA. (vestern ))art of tlic ,he ftato is low and c winters are long t and waiMu ; agri- Di'inc'ipal indiislrics. sysloai of railroads. educational institu- licni with great lib- [consists of the Gov- eiglit members ap- ;il. It has the gen- :)ls and educational diich the })ersons in linii; in the state arc nber of incorporated i)ls about 500. The _>rs and 1,290 pui)ils. tiie oldest college in „\niiy 1,200 students, original colonies of Massachusetts Bay, 38, the colonies were issachusctts adopted the Constitution of overnor, Lieutenant asurcr, Auditor and ually in November, I first Wednesday in )f nine persons be- 3 the function to ad- nce of liis executive iO members, no less I, and the House of embers, no less than Every male citizen Constitution and to n the state one year, nths, and has paid a CBKBBAL ROBBItT I. LH, JXTFmtOK SATia« TUB SUHSZNDBBSD ASHT AT VOUCTOWm m U.VITKI) STATKS. 273 tax witliiii two years, is (Mititloil to vote. The Su- prciiic .liuliciiil Court consists of one Cliiof Jiistioe ami live Associate Justices. It lias exclusivo co<,Mii/,ance of all caoital crimes, and exclusive cliaiicery jurisdic- tion and concurrent ori-final jurisdiction of all civil cases, where the amount in dispute exceeds §4,000 in Sull'olk county, and §1,000 in the other counties. The Superior Court consists of a Chief Justice and nine Associate Ju.sticcs. It has civil jurisdiction in all cases where the amount in controversy exceeds §20, and criminal jurisdiction in all excicpt capital crimes. Tlie judges of botli courts are ap|)()inted by the Governor, by and with the advice of the Sen- ate an>i hold their offices during good behavior, JHIihliiiiii, 74.- -Tl;u state derives its name from an Indian term, meaning Great Lake. It was first settled by the French at Detroit in ITol. The surface has an area of 52.198 square miles. Agriculture is the principal in- dustry. Manufacturing is progressing, and commerce is in^a healthy condition. 75. — Michigan has distinguished licrself by her liberality in educational enterprises. The State Uni- versity at yVnn Arbor is the largest college west of the Alleghany mountains, and ranks with the foremost institutions of its kind in the country. In 1870, it had 1,126 students and thirtyfi ir i)roft.ssor,s. The numbers of students in the dei)arlrnent of science, lit- erature, and the arts, was 477 ; in that of medicine and surgery, 340; and in that of law, 309. The university admits lady students. The Agricultural College, lo- cated at Lansing, was established in 18(i3, and has an endowment of 240,000. It had, in 1870, seven pro- fessors and 142 students. The three other colleges of Michigan are at Kalamazoo, Albion and Olivet. The State Normal school, at Ypsilanti, was opened in 1854, and embraces a training course and a higlier course. In the Experimental School, the pupils of the Normal School practice actual teaching. 18 a«6«M»taJ*«i»t4«i^.«^«WWC»«*<--ai^*«--i.^-td--i*wft,^^ .,-- ^Maw»iawK>i---^tt<*iar«K/-^, 27i COUNTIUES OF XORTH AMKRTCA. 7(). — The state of Micliirraii was admitted as a state into tlie l^nioii, in 1887. The following oflicers iire chosen biennially, by popnlar vote: Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State. Treasurer, Auditor General, Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion and Adjutant General. The legislature meets biennially, in the odd years, and consists of a Senate of thirty-two members, and a House of Representatives of one hundred members. The qualifications to vote are: He must be above the age of twenty-one years ; must liave resided in the state three months, and in his election district ten days. The judicial power is vested in one Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, Probate courts and justices of the peace. The Supreme Court has superintending control over all inferior courts, and consist of four judges, who are chosen by the voters for eight years, one judge retiring every second year, unless reelected. The judges of the circuit court are chosen for six years. Minnesota. 77. — The state derives its name from an Indian term meaning cloudy water. It was first settled by the Americans, at St. Paul in 1846, and was admitted to the Union in 1858. The surface has an area of 95,- 27-1- square miles. Agriculture and manufacturing are the principal industries. 78. — Tlie legi.slature of Minnesota, in 1851, pro- vided for the establishment of the University of Min- nesota and in 1854, the building was begun on an eminence commanding a view of the Falls of St. An- thony. After many struggles, the institution is now in full operation, with a classical, agricultural and militr. — establishment. It has 11 professors and 371 students. Three Normal Schools are in operation : the first at Winona, the second at Mankato, and the third at St. Cloud. The attendance was, in 1871, 498 students. An excellent system of public schools has been estab- lished in the state. 70. — Minnesota was admitted into the Union in [ AMERICA. 1 was admitted as iiiHslp2>i. 80, — The state derives its name from an Indian term, meaning Great P^'ather of Waters. It was first settled at Natchez, by the French, in 1716, and was admitted as a state in 1817. The surface has an area of 47,156 square miles, and is quite undulating. The climate is warm, the summers are long and hot; the wmters short and mild, the soil is fertile and the vege- tation luxuriant, hence agricultural pursuits are profit- able. 81. — Education is now making progress. The State Normal School is located at Holly Springs, and admits none but tho,se intending to become teachers. Tougaloo University, situated seven miles north of Jackson, is in successful operation under the manage- ment of the American Missionary Association. The 276 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. College ai Pass Christian, Harrison county, was organ- ized in 18')(i, and includes a preparatory, collegiate and ■couiniercial department. Mississippi College, at Clin- ton, liinds county, commenced in 1«(58, with two col- lege and nine preparatory students, but is now attend- ed by 150. It has been adopted by the Baptists of Arkansas as their state institution. The University of Mi.ssi.ssi|)pi is located at Oxford, La Fayette county, und compi-ises three general departments ; a depart- ment oE preparatory education, a department of science, literature and the arts, and a department of professional education. 82. — The region now comprised in Mississippi was first visited in lo-lO by De Soto, a Spanish soldier of fortune. The settlement at Fort Rosalie (now Natchez), in 17115, by a party of Frenchmen under Bienville, was the lirst permanent colony. At tiie peace^ of Paris, in 1763, Mississippi became part of the Eng- lish territory. In 1798, Mississippi including Alabama was 'fleeted into a territory, and in 1817 was admitted as a mute into the Union." The present constitution, adopted by the convention in 1868, provides that all male inhabitants who are citizens of the United Statvs, twenty-one years of age and over, who have re- sided in the state six montlis, and in the county one month next preceding the day of election, are qualified electors. The House of Representives consists of 107 members, chosen every second year by the qualified electors. The Senate consists of 33 members chosen every four years. 83. — The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are elected by the qualified electors, and hold their offices for four years. They must be at least thirty years of age, must have been citizens of the United States twenty years, and must have resided in the state two years next preceding the day of election. The Secre- tary of State, Attorney General, Treasurer and Audit- or of Public Accounts are also elected for four years, and must be at least twenty-five years of age. A UVAnCA. county, was organ- tory, collegiate and )i College, at Clin- .8(58, with two col- but is now attend- by the Baptists of The University La Fayette county, rtnients ; a depart- jartnientof science, lent of professional in Mississippi was Spanish soldier of alie (now Natchez), 11 under Bienville, At the peace of I part of the Eng- including Aiabatna 1817 was admitted resent constitution, 5, provides that all IS of the United I over, who have re- in the county one ection, are qualified ives consists of 107 ar by the qualified 33 members chosea ;nant Governor are id hold their offices least thirty years of the United States led in the state two jction. The Secre- reasurer and Audit- ;cted for four years, 3 years of age. A UNITED STATES, 277 Sheriflf, Coroner, Treasurer, Assessor and Surveyor are elected in each county for two years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, consisting of three judges, who are appointed by the Governor, by and with the advice of the Senate, for 9 years. The judges of the Circuit Court are appointed ifor six years and those of Chancery Coui'ts for four years. MImioiiri. 84. — The state takes its name from an Indian term meaning muddy water. It was first settled by the French at St. Genevieve in 1755, and was admitted in- to the Union in 1821. The surface has an area of 67.880 square miles and is nearly level, some parts being rough and broken. The climate is subject to great extremes. The summers are long and very hot, and the winters very cold. 85. — The mineral of Missouri is as great as that of any equal area on the globe, and its productions are distinguished not only for theirimmense quantity, but also for their excellence and purity. The coal depos- its of northern Missouri are a portion of the great Iowa field, and within the limits of the state measure 62,887 square miles. Prof. G. C. Swallow, the state geolog- ist, estimates the amount of available coal at 184,435 billions of tons. The smaller coal areas in other parts of the state, compared with this vast amount, are but of local importance. The iron deposits of Missouri are perhaps surpassed in extent by those of Michigan and Pennsylvania; but in neither of those states are such vast qualities of almo.st pure metal so near the surface or even upon it as here. Iron Mountain in St. Fran- cois county is 228 feet high, covers an area of 500 acres, and its contents, of the finest ore, have been estimated at 16,555 millions of cubic feet, or 28'^,187,- 075 tons. Pilot Knob, in Iron county, is 581 feet Ligh (or 1,490 feet above the sea), and covers an area of 360 acres. Magnetic iron, interspersed with specu- lar iron, is found in immense quantities on Mt. Shep- perd, hear Pilot Knob, Lead is, next to coal and iron, ' * ~s ,Tfeam»iT' ia "i< «g i j »-■ 278 COUNTHIES OF NORTH AMERICA. the most important mineml production of Missouri, and is found in groat abundance and of good qual- ity Tlie soil of Missouri is excellent, and agri- culture ailords a large profit. Manufacturing has gained considerable headway, and commerce is very extensive. , , i rm i • i ,. 86. — Missouri provides good school.s. i lie hignei educational institutions of the state were the btate University, at Columbia, with which an agricultural college is connected; the Mining Schoo, at Kolla; three Normal Schools, at St. Louis. Kirksville and Warrensburgh ; the Lincoln Listitute at • ellerson City, a seminary for colored teachers ; 19 colleges, o6 seminaries and 92 high schools. All state educational institutions are strictly non-sectarian. ^7. _ Tliere are also numerous institutions not con- trolled by the state, the most prominent of which is the Washington L^niversity, at St. Louis, with an en- dowment of $700,000. The following institutions are controlled by Roman Catlmlics: .^t V.ncents Seminary, at Cape Girardeau ; St. Louis Un.ver.i ty^ at St. Louis; Stanislaus Seminary, at l^lorissant; the colk-cs at St. Louis and ILinn.bal : the Col cge of CI 1 stian Brothers, at Sc. Louis Tney also have 9 female schools, 23 parochial schools and oO elementaiy schools The Lutheran institutions are the Concordia Seminary and an academy at St. Louis, a higher e- male .school at St. Joseph, and about oO parochial ^^tJ'^A new constitution was adopted by a con- vention in April, 1865, and ratified by the people m June but \L since then been modified by several amendments. The Governor, Lieutenant Governor Sea-etary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Register of Lands, Attorney General and Superintendent of 1 ub- ii^e s' ools are elected for a term of two years, on the firs?'l\iesday after the first Monday of November, in th even ye^rs, 1872, 187i, etc. The Senate compri- ses 34 members, elected for four years, one-half biea- MEKICA. action of Missouri, and (;f good qaal- cellent, and iigri- Manufacturing has commerce is very ;liools. The higher ate were the State lich an agricultural r School, at Holla ; jis, Kirk.sville and tiiutc, at Jefferson ors ; 19 colleges, 33 A.11 state educational an. institutions not con- )minent of which is t. Louis, with an en- llowing institutions •lies: St. Vincent's t. Louis University, y, at Florissant; the "bal : the College of They also have 9 is and 60 elementary ns are the Concordia . Louis, a higher fe- about 50 parochial IS adopted by a con- .ed by the people in modified by several jieutenant Governor, Auditor, Register of perintcndent of Pub- of two years, on tlie day of November, in The Senate compri- ■ years, one-half biea- UNITED STATES. 279 nially. The House of Representatives consists of 138 members, who are chosen for two years at the general biennial election. The (leneral As.sembly meets an- nually in the month of January. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, 29 Circuit Courts, Lifer- ior Courts, County Courts and Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court is composed of live Justices elected for 10 years and has appellate jurisdiction. The judges ot the circuit courts are elected for six years. Nebraska. 89. — The state derives its name from an Indian term, meaning Water Valley. It was admitted to the Union in 18()7. The surface has an area of 75,000 square miles and is, for the most part level. Agricul- ture is the principal industry. 90. — Nebraska has more organized schools, and better school facilities than were ever en joyed by any state of the same age. Tiie land endowment for the schools embraces one-eighteenth of the entire area of the state, 2.(323,080 acres. Tlie Governor is of the opinion that the whole educational system, from common school to university, can be made entirely independ- ent of the state. An CKcellent Normal School for the training of teachers is located at Peru, Nemaha coun- ty. Tlie State University is at Nebraska City. The State Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Omaha, was opened in 1809. At liincoln, are the State Lunatic Asylum and the State Penitentiary." 91. — Nebraska was organized as a territory in May, 1854. A constitution was framed by the state convention and ratilied by t'le people in 1806, and in January, 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a state. The executive power is vested in a Gover- nor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Treas- urer and Auditor. These officers are elected for two years, except the Auditor, who is elected for four years. The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The former has thirteen members, 280 COUNTP.IES OF NORTH AMERICA. tlic lattor twenty-nine members. All male citizens of the United States, who have resided six months in the state, and ten days in the district in which they ofTer to vvite, arc legal electors. Tlie Jndiciary coin])rises a Supreme Court, District Courts, Probate Courts, and Ju.stices of the Peace. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and Two Associate Justices, elected for a period of six years. Tlie state is divided into three judicial districts, in each of which one of the Supreme Court Justices holds district court sessions. 92 —This state takes its name from a Spanish word meaning snow covered. It was admitted into the Union in 18(54. The surface has an area of 112,000 sqnare miles, and embraces the great plan, lying be- tween the Sierra Nevada and the Wahsatch Moun- tains, and known to geographers as the Great Basin Tlie climate is characterized by great extremes — cold winters and hot summers, and by a very dry atmo- sphere, with but little rain or snow. _ _ -93. — Nevada is a prominent mining state. In 1872 it produced nearly one-halt of all the bullion produced west of the Missouri River. The state then had 162 mills and furnaces, with 1,904 stamps, and capable of reducing daily 5,183 tons of ore. The mills turned out, for 1871, $20.010,l7o, and for 18<2 S*>3 719 212 in gold and silver bullion, besides ^evenil Thousand tons of lead, copper and antimony. The counties which produced more than ^If »'»;*y'' '"^Vl'; lion, in 1871, were the following: Lander $2,099 014 , Lincoln, $3,604,833; Storey, $10,644 704: U hue Pine $1 223 266. Tlie richest silver and gold deposit of the state, and probably in the world, is the famous "Comstock Lode" in the Virginia Range, Storey county. It crops out on the eastern slope of the range at an altitude of about 2.000 ieet above ihe level of the plains, and has been clearly traced about four miles, within two of which are the portions that iave thus far been developed. The " Sutro funnel, n( ta b: cc ar ar ar )€ 31 fa ci th th tit th tw ch asi lai of th of St G< th Le Cc Tl tw an CO in po [ERICA. 11 male citizons of six months in the 1 which they olTer iciiiry coin])n.ses a )l)ate Courts, and 2 Court consists of ustices, elected for divided into three le of the Supreme jssions. e from a Spanish admitted into the a area of 112,000 it ph\in lying be- Wahsatch Moun- s the Great Basin, it extremes — cold a very dry almo- mining state. In of all the bullion r. The state then l,904r stamps, and tons of ore. The 175, and for 1872, ion, besides sevt'nil d antimony. The ^l.OOO.OLM) in bill- .ander, $2,099,014; 0,64-1.704:: White er and gold deposit orld, is the famous lia Range, Storey tern slope of the 00 feet above the learly traced about 3 the portions that le "Sutro Tunnel," UNITED STATES. 281 now in progress of eon.struction, is intended to facili- tate the working of the mines on the Comstock Lode, by penetrating the vein at a greater depth. Wiien completed it will make easy the drainage of the mines, and will allow tlie ores to be brought to the surface at an easy grade, thus avoiding the expense of pumping and hoisting from great depths. 94. — The soil is good, and agriculture is in a pros- perous condition. Stock raising is also a profitable ;)ursuit, and manufacturing is gaining considerable headway. 95. — Education is progressing, but is yet in its in- fancy. The government is well planned. ' Every male citizen of the United States, of the age of twenty-one years and upwards, who shall have actually resided in the state six month.s, and in the district or county thirty days next preceding an election, shall be en- titled to vote. The legislative authority is vested in the Senate and Assembly. The members of the Assem- bly, thirty-six in number, are chosen biennially for two years. The .senators, eighteen in number, are chosen at the same time and places as members of the assembly', for four years. The sessions of the Legis- lature are biennial, commencing on the first Monday of January next ensuing the election of members of the assembly. The executive government consists of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Comproller. Surveyor General and Attorney- General, who are elected "by the qualified electors at the time and places of voting for tlie members of the Legislature. They hold their offices for four years. 96. — The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, District Court, and in Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court con.sists of a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices, who are elected by the people and hold their offices for the term of six years. This court has appellate jurisdiction in all cases of equity, in all cases at law in which is involved the title or possession of real estate and mining claims ; and on •^;> 282 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. quostioris of law in criminal oa>!es, in wliiuh the case c'iiarged amounts tcj felony. Tlio state is divided into Tiine'judieial districts. Tlie District Judges are elected by the people for the term of four years. Xi-w lliiinpililre, \)'j^ — This Ptatc takes its name from Hampshire county, Kng. It was first settled at Portsinoutli, by the Knglisli, in 1()2(), and was admitted into tlie Union in 1788. Tlie surface has an area of 9,280 square miles, and is hilly and mountainous. Tlie climate is rigid, the winters being long and very severe. The sununcrs are mild and pleasant. Agriculture and inanufaeturing are the principal industries. 9H. — The schools are well supported. An excel- lent State Normal School is at Plymouth. It was es- tablished in 1870. The higher institutions of learning comprise Dartmouth College at Hanover, which was founded in 17(59, and had, in 1871, twenty-three in- structors and 300 students. Tlie " Ciiandler Scientific School " is also at Hanover. Tlie "Methodist Bibli- cal Institute," a theological college, is at Concord. The New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts was opened in 1870, and occupied Cul- ver Hall at Hanover. It has nine instructors. 99. — The early settlements in New Hampshire were annexed to i[a.ssachusetts in 1641, but became a separate province in 1741. It was one of the thirteen original states, framed a constitution in 1776, and rati- fied the United States Constitution June 21, 1788. The legislative povver is vested in the Senate and House of Representatives. The former consists of twelve members, who hold their oflfice for one year; the latter has one member for every town, parish or place entitled to town privileges, having 150 ratable male polls of twenty-one years of age or upwards; two members for every town, etc., having 450 ratable polls, and so proceeding in that proportion. The rep- resentatives are chosen by ballot for one year. The Legislature is oliicially styled the General Court of in till itii eh foi cr; an Ti joi Su die Sii lis th( sqi hil is arc fac du Be ne_ att N( coi Sti rat stu erl Nc Pr the au( t^nbSMk I ■h»te-tf.Wfcnig»«w''iW* a MKUICA. in wliich tlie case att; is divided into Judges are elected ^'cars. 3 from Iliunpsliire at Portsinuutli, by tt(;d into the Union ;a of 9,280 square s. Tlie climate is very severe. The Agriculture and uytries. ,)orted. An excel- mouth. It was es- itutions of learning anover, which was '1, twenty-three iu- Cliandler Scientific "Methodist Bibli- ge, is at Concord. Lgriculturc and the , and occupied Cul- instructors. 1 New Hampshire 1041, but became a one of the thirteeu n in 1776, and rati- on June 21, 1788. in the Senate and former consists of office for one year ; ^ery town, parish or having 150 ratable if age or upwards; having 450 ratable oportion. The rep- tor one year. The ; General Court of UNITED STATES. 283 Xew llampshire. The Governor is chosen annually in March; must be thirty years of age; must be of the Protestant religion, and must have Iven an inhab- itant of the state for seven years ne.\t preceding the election. Tliere are annually elected five Councilors, for advising the Governor in the executive part of goveiiiment. All judicial officers, the Attorney Gen- eral, Solicitor, Sheriir, Coroners, Registers of Probate, and general Held officers of the militia, are appointed by the Governor and Council. The Secretary of State, Treasurer and Commissary General are chosen by joint ballot of the Senators and Keprtseiitatives. The Superior Court is the only tribunal of general juris- diction. 100. — This state received its name in honor of Sir George Carteret. It was first settled by the Eng- lish, at Klizabethtown, in lOlW, and was admitted to the Union in 1787. The surface has an area of 8,320 square miles, and is level in the .southern part but hilly and broken in the northern part. The climate is mild and agreeable. Afinerals of iron ore and zinc are found in large quantities. Agriculture and manu- facturing, especially the latter, are very important in- dustries in New Jersey. 101. — Education is liberally supported. The Board of Education consists of the Governor, Attor- ney General, Secretary of State, President of the Sen- ate, Speaker of the House, and the Trustees of the Normal School. This board appoints the state and county superintendents of the i)ublic schools. I'he State Normal School at Trenton is in successful ope- ration, and had, in 1872, 34 male and 194 female students. The Farnum Preparatory School at Bev- erly, and the Model School, are connected with the Normal School. The College of New Jersey, at Princeton, is the foremost institution of learning in the state, and in its aims and purposes resembles Yale and Harvard Colleges. lu 1871 it had 18 instructors 284 COUN'TUIES OF N'OUTII AMERICA. and .'}80 stiulonts. Eutprrs College, comprising .in {if!i(lcniic and ii sciontitic school, is at N'jw Brunswick. The (ileiiwood CoMcginte Institute is at Matawan, and Seton Hall College at South Orange. There is also a college at Bordentown, and anotlier at Burlington. The I're.sliyterian Seminary at I'rineeton was founded in 181 '2. and the Drew Theological Seminary at Madi- son, in 18(57. 102. — New Jersey was first settled by Danes, Swedes and Dutch, and was dependent on New York until 1738, when it was made an independent province. It was one of the thirteen original states, adopted a con- stitution in 177r). and ratifieii»i~^ ' MERTCA. ge, comprising an it N'jw lirunswick. is at Matawati, ami e. There is also a ler at Burlington, ceton was founded Seminary at Madi- d by Danes, Swedes 1 New York until ident province. It tes, adopted a con- L'liited States Con- nale citizen of tlie ity-one years, wlio state one year, and ■) vote, five montlis entitled to vote for er may t)e elective )wer is vested in a le two houses meet anuary. The Sen- 1 county (at present ters for three years, members annually ig the counties ac- habitants, provided ; be entitled to one members shall not he actual number). I vested in a Gov- al voters for three y years of age, and Jnited States for at of the state seven e Secretar}-- of State nd with the consent irs. The Treasurer ine year; the State UNITKl) STATES. 285 Librarian is appf>iiitO(l for throe y(\Trs ; the Suiierin- tendent of Pul)iic Schools is appoiiitctl by the Tiustecs of the School Fund for two years, and the Adjutant General and Quartermaster General are appointed by the Governor. 104. — Tlic judicial power is vested in a Court of Errors and Aj)peals ; a Court for the Trial of Impeach- ment, a Court of Chancery, a Prerogative Court, a Su- preme Court, Circuit Courts and such inferior courta as now exist or may hereafter be established by law. The Court of Errors and Appeals consists of the Cliancellor, tlie Justices of the Supreme Court, and six Judges, who are appointed for six years. 105. — The House of Assembly has the power of impeachment ; and all impeachments are tried by the Senate. Tlie Court of Chancery consists of a Chan- cellor, who is tlie Ordinary or Surrogate-General, and Judge of the Prerogative Court. Tlie Supreme Court consists of a Ciiief Justice and four Associate Justices. Justices of the Supreme Court, Chancellor and Judges of the Court of Error and Appeals, are appointed by the Governor witli the consent of the Senate. The Justices of the Supreine Court and Chancellor hold their office for seven years. The Circuit Courts are held in every county by one or more justices of the Supreme Court, or a judge appointed for that pur- pose. yew York. 106. — This state takes its name in honor of the Duke of York. It was first settled by the Dutch in 1613, at New York City. The surface has an area of 47,000 square miles, and is greatly diversified, includ- ing rolling plateaus, level valleys, and lofty mountains. The climate is characterized by great extremes, but, upon the whole, is salubrious. The mineral treasures are great, yet there is no coal or precious metals. Iron ores are abundant. The soil is good, but varies in different portions; agriculture has attained to great importance, and manufacturing is conducted on a scale 286 rorVTHIKS (IF NOHTU AMFHTrA. nt onoo stn|ioi)(l()iH. T\u> cotntiu'rcc ('•f New York ist greater tliaii that of any state in tin- I'liion. 107. — Kdneation is kcepiii^i jiaee with tlio other interests. 'I'iiere are eiirht Nnrtiial s<:lioi)ls, ami tlie juinitier of hi^'iiiM' eiiueational inslitnlioiis is very hirj.'e, nnd inelndes Colnnihia CoUege, Ifniversity of New York, Maiiliattiin College ami Untgers CoUeL'e for fe- male students — all in New York eity ; Cornell Uni- versity nt Ithaea: the St. Jjawrenee Cniversity at Can- ton ; the Alfred Tniversity at Alfred ; Hamilton Col- lege at Clinti>n ; the I'liiversily of KochestcM" ; Kltnir.i Female College; Ya.ssar College for young ladie.s, near Poughkeensie ; Ingham University nt Le Uoy ; the Baker Collegiate Institute at Hrooklyn, and the eelc- brated Collegiate and I'olyteelmie Institute also nt Brooklyn. The twenty-two higher institution.s, exelu- fiive of the profe.ssional .schools, had, in 1871, 3,2(^7 pupils and 303 instruetors. There were further, thirty- si.K medical schools, eleven theological seminaries, and live law .schools. Tlie 282 academies liad nearly 30,- (100 pupils and 1,0(U in.structor.s. An tigricultural college is connected with Cornell University, a poly- technic department with the University of New York, and a mining school with Columbia College. 108. — The history of the government is full of in- terest. Ilendrick Hudson, an English navigator, in the service of the Dutch East India Company, was the first European who (in 1609) entered the Bay of New York and explored the river now bearing ids name. Four years later the Dutch established trading j)osts on Manhattan Island and below Albany. In 161-t the colony received the name of " New Netherlands," but, in l(i6-i, the Duke of York appeared with a squadron before New Amsterdam and demanded its surrender. Gov. Sluyvesant had to yield, and the colony received the name of New York. The Dutch retook it in 1(373 ; but in the following year it was finally ceded to the English by the treaty of Westminster. New York is one of the original thirteen states of the Union ; framed "-^•Mfteviikiint) AMFiirrA. •ce of New York h u" Union. jiaco with tlio other lal s<'ho()ls, .'iml tin- tn lions is very hiivc University of New itfeg^ ': 5Sji w fa»* «« fa fe ^ AMERICA. ime from nn Indian t was lirst settled at ?d to the Union in 39.96-t square miles, lie agricultural and ,te are very large and itter system of pub- an in 6hio. " Each n, and each subdis- which manages its rol of the township quired to be in ses- year. The Probate oard of school exam- jrtificates to teachers •8. In 1865, a State with power to issue ninent for learning, ie or special school of the lands appro- purposes. The state St on these funds to Ohio University, a is located at Athens ; :)rd; Oberlin College 'sity at Berea ; Ken- I T^niversity at Gran- ^ormal Schools. Of )ne, the " Southwest- he state school fund, ities and academies, ,ny lack. of technical m the Northwestern states by Virginia, in 3n as a slate in 1803. ernor and Treasurer UXTTKI) STATES. 291 are elected by the people for two years, and for the same period the Secretary of State and Attorno}' Gen- oral ; but their elections take place in alternate years. The Coinpfrolicr of the Treasury and the State School C()mii)is.-i'ai fe.v MKIUCA. in large quantities, if iron ore an; witli- i tlio state lands for 'ollows: 1. School th sections, or their sections were held le public surveys. 72 sections, for the »ity. 3. Five hun- urposes of internal designated as state )f land for the sup- ;liiecernbe, 1^73 a new constitution, to take effect January 1 187-4 ev cent in certain specified instances, was submitted to the people and ratitled by nearly 150.000 majority. L nder ts provisions, the executive departincnt consists o a Governor, elected for four years; a I^'^^te'iant Gov- ernor, elected for the same time; a bocre^ary of the Commonweath, an Attorney Genera and Superinten- dent of Public Instruction, the two first nomina.ed by r Governor, and confirmed by the Senate during pleasure, the latter for a term of four years ; a Secre- tary of Internal Affairs, elected for four years ; an Au- ditor General, elected for three years, and a State Treasurer, elected for two years. , • n „i i27._The legislative power is vested m aGene.al Assembly, consisting of a Senate and "«'^^« °^, ^J-JP" resentatives. Senators are elected tor a term of four years, and Representatives for two years. Ihe num- ■Coi Senator^ is fifty. The members of the House o llepresentatives are apportioned among the counties on a ratio obtained by dividing the population of the state by two hundred. , io« _Anv male citizen twenty-one years of age, who'shall have been a eiti.en of the United States for one month, who shall have resided in the state on 3 yeai (or six months, if a former elector therem;, AMKRICA. at Allentown, and loaster. sus of 1870, the six 127 teacliors, ol wliDtn ; anil 170 female stu- vo dental, eleven tlico- it commercial schools d within the present lied by Cliarles II to by Kngli^^ll Quakers he Stale Constitution ince been amended in n Deeember, 1873, a January 1. 187-4, ex- , was submitted to the ,000 majority. Under partmcnt consists of a i; a Lieutenant Oov- e ; a Secretary of the neral and Superinten- wo first nominaicd by )y the Senate during )f four years ; a Secre- for four' years; an Au- le yearsj and a State r is vested in a General ite and House of Rep- jted tor a term of four two years. The num- embers of the Uouse of id among the counties 5 the population of the renty-one years of age, )f the United States for jsided iTi the state on 3 )rraer elector therein}, UNITED ST.VTES. 295 and in his election district two months, is entitled to ''"I'aO.-Theiudicial power of the state is vested in a Supreme Court, composed of seven judge, elected for "term of twentyone years: in Courts of Common Pk>as, which shall have oL judge for every d.stncto^ 40,00) inhabitants, and who is to be de'^ted f > ten ve^irs- in Courts of Oyer and Term.ner, beneral Ja 1 l)eliv;ry Quarter Sessions and Orphans' Courts, which iieu) be presided over by the Judge of the Common Pleas Court in the same district. tthode IitUind. 130 —The State was first settled at Providence by the'English in 1633, and in 1790 it was adnutted to the Union. The surface has an area of only 1,306 quare miles, and is hilly and broken, but incudes no mountains. The temperature is similar to that of Massachusetts. „ i a ctotp 131.- Education is a% «"«"«''f.f,- ,t\^oX Normal School was established in 1871 at liovi lenc^ The foremost of the higher educational in- St Sons is Brown University (Bapf-t), which waa founded in 1754 at Providence, and had in 1873, 904 students and thirteen instructors ; Lapham Insti- tute Ts u,„l of the Free Will Baptists, is at Sc.tuate; the Friends' School and the Providence Conference Seminarv (Methodist) are at Providence. 532 -The Constitution of Kl«olisli. South Varoltnn. 134. — This State derives its name in honor of Charles TI. It was first settled in 1(570 'ly the Eng- lish at Ashley River, and was admitted a^ a state in 1788. The surface has an area of 20,385 s(iuare miles, and is gently undulating, except the nonii-- western corner, which is hilly or mountainous. 135. — Gold and other minerals of great value are found. The foremost of the higher educational insti- tutions is the University of South Carolina, which was founded in 1801, and attended in 1872^ by eightv-eight students. The establishment of a State Norrnal School is provide 1 for by the new constitu- tion, but up to 1870 there existed only a " Normal Class " in the Avery Institute at Charleston. Other higher schools are "'the College of Charleston: the Furman University (Baptist). at'Greenville; the Claflin Universitv (Methodist), at Orangeburgh ; the Woffard College ('>[ethodi.'-,t), at Spartanburgh ; the Newberry College (Lutheran), at Walhalla: the Theological Seminary (PresV)yterian), and the Lutheran Theologi- cal Seminary, both at Columbia, and the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, at Greenville. 136. — The government "is similar to that of the other reconstructed states. The present constitution was framed by a convention, sitting from January 14 to ^f Apri l'nit( over, the a resid( whi<'l elect i tinct tativc A.sser IIous bers, eitixei jnemV is rep autho two J also a retarv 13> Court, mon I Genen Proba Suprei Associ quorui of cha of Err the sei the Ge 139 term n first s{ and wt has an 'A. rmvprnor, is Ucnonil As- or from cacli isciitut'ives of , IjicMitciiant itary of State, I', are elected April. The one Supreme by tlie two mVrior courts ime to time in lionor of I oy the Eng- r.-! a state in 0,385 s(iuare vi, the noiLii-"^ nous. eat value are •ational insti- roliiia, which in 1872 by nt of a State new constitu- i a " Normal eston. Other arleston : the le; theClaflin ; the Woffard the Newberry 5 Theological Tan Theologi- the Southern /ille. ;o that of the it constitution m January 14 I'MTEn STATES. 2f)7 to ^farch 17, ISHS, nrid was ratified by the people in Aprd. It provi.les that every male citi/en of the 1 nited States, of the age of twentv-oiie year.s and over, who was a resident of the state at the time of the adoption of the eonstitutioti, or who hereafter has resided in the state one year, and in the county in whwh he ofTers to vote si.xty days ne.xt prccedin<' an election, is eiitith'd to vote. ° l«n. — The legislative power i.s vested in two dis- tinct branches, tiie Senate and Ifoiise of Represen- tatives, and l)otli together are stvled the "(Icncral Assembly of the State of South Carolina." The House of Kepreseiitatives is composed of 124 mem- bers, clio.sen by ballot every second vear by the citij^ens of the state, '{'he Seiiate is composed of one member for each county. The conntv of Charleston IS represented by two senators. The chief executive authority is vested in a Governor, who is elected for two years. The qualified voters of the state elect also a Comptroller General and Treasurer and a Sec- ^■et"^v of S^ate, who hold their oiTices for four year.s. 138. — The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, m two Circuit Courts, viz. : a Court of Com- mon J leas, having civil jurisdiction, and a Court of (.eneral Sessions, with criminal jurisdiction onlv in Jrobatc Courts and in Justices of the Peace "The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices, any two of whom constitute a quorum. It has appellate jurisdiction onlv in ca.ses of chancery, and constitutes a court for the Correction of lirrors of Law. It is held once in each year at the seat of government, and at such other places as the General Assembly may direct Ten neanee. 139. — This State takes its name from an Indian term meaning " River with the Great Br-nd." It was first settled by the English at Fort London in 1757 and was admitted to the Union in 1796. The surface has an area of 45,600 square miles, and is diversified *s=s*i*afe»a»a^;,^a^!.- Vf-r'i.-i^ ^ and liaving 27(> students in 1871; the Kasl Tennessee Tnivcrsity, at Knoxville, organ- ized in 1807 ; the Central Ten ne.s.sce College, at Nash- ville, organized in 18()t5, and liaving, in 1871, 2'2t) student"^ ; the Lookout Mountain Institution, organ- ized in ISCtU; the Fi.sk I'niversity, at Nash yillc,^ for colored students, organized in 1807, and the Kast Ten- nessee Wesleyan University, at Athens, organized in 18(57. ,. . , 143. — The territory embraced within the limits of the stale originally formed a i)art of North Carolina, but was ceded to the United States in 178-t. A con- stitution was adopted in 17H0, .-md in June the same year the state was admitted into the Union. By iifi act pas.sed November 15, 1860, a convention was di- rected to be called for revising the constitution. Jt was duly elected, met at Nashville in danuary, 1870, and completed its labors in February. The new con- stitution then framed was ratified by a popular vote m March, 1870, and is now in force. 143._Kvery male i)er.son of the age of twenty-one veai's being a citizen of the United States and a resi- dent of the state for twelve months, and in the county wherein he may oiler his vote for six months next preceding an election, shall be entitled to vote f(^r members of the general assembly aud other civil offi- cers for the county or district in which he resides. 144. — The supreme executive power is vested i a u ( met yea I mil.'' ncx poll: vcai .'lie 1 .yea I and 1 oral .Hep] from be a Unit shall and I imiiK .shall Unit have the c tion. 14 Cnir the ] judge presK judge the cc Knox electe The , also e and li of tht 14^ H ami plaiiiH. '.men «)f cither /aliKiblo niin- i (jiiality, ami II many largo wo, education ate ; but it is lililier iiistitu- of Nasliville, ients in 1871 ; iXville, orgaii- lege. at Nasii- in 1871, 220 tution. organ- Nashville, for the KastTen- , orgiini/ioil in 1 tlie limits of orth Carolina, 1784. A con- une the same Jnion. By an LMition was di- nstitution. It lanuary, 1870, The liew con- )opu!ar vote in 1 of twenty-one ites and a resi- l in the county ; months next ;d to vote for 3tlier civil offi- he resides, ver is vested in UNITED STATEa 299 u (.ovcrnor, who ,,s cho.-scn l.y the electors of tlio n.cr,d,crs of tin- ..n.-ral assembly for u term of two .years He imum 1,0 at lci.st thirty years of age. and must have been a citi>cen of tlie state f(,r sevci? yearn next before Ins election. A Secretary of State is ap- point.'d by joint vote of the general a.s.semblv for four years ; a 1 reasurer and a Comj.troller of the^Treasurv .•ire appointed in the .same ..nner for a term of two years. 1 he (...venior appoints his Adjutant (Jeneral and Ins other stall ojlieers. 145.-- The legislative authority is vested in a .ren- oral as.sembly, which consists of a Senate and llou..^- of J{cprescntatives, who hold their olllces for two yenri from the day of the general election. No per.son shall be a repi'esentalivc unless he shall be a citizen of the Ini ed States, of iho age of twcnty-one years, and shall have been u citizen of the state for three years and a resident of the county he represents one year """lediatHy prcce.ling the election ; and no person •shal be a senator unless he shall be a citi/.en of the iM.iied Stales, of the age of thirty years, and shall ave resuJed three years in the state an.l one year in the county or district immediately preceding the elec- tion. ° n **<»• — '!''.'« Jii'^'(^'''il power is vested in one Supreme th^l>'.H!!'''"'^p;'"''^'' ^''^i"^'^''y>'"Lirts and Justices of cacc. . The Suj)reme Court consists of live juugcs, who designate one of their own numbpi- to preside as Chief Justice. The concurrence of ihree judges IS necc.s.sary to a decision, 'i^he jurisdiction of the court IS appellate only. Its sessions are held at Knoxvil e, Nashvdie and Jackson. The judges are elected by the legal voters for terms of eight years. I he judges of the Circuit and Chancery courts" are also elected for eight years. The Attorney General and lieporter for the State are appointed by the Judges ot the Supreme Court for eight years. Texan, 147. — This State has an area of 237,321 square i-^a«K^^ Hvrr_-;fc,;«jj^jj^i.ji.sjj.l^-;^5,;,4^^^j.(^_^ _,-^ ■ . »ti j,;j«»;-i. . v:;tei, ^r-ti^ .ii^af;^ KSTOSfc- ■arosfeJ^"- 300 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. miles Tlic surface is diversified. The climate is very warm, but free from extremes. Tlie state is rich m minerals, but they are, as yet but slightly developed. Agriculture and manufacturing have made considera- ble progress. . ,. , 148 —Education is now progressing on a soul foundation. " Texas was admitted as a state into the Union in 1845, and passed an ordinance of secession on February 5, 18(51. After the close of the war a provisional governor took charge of the executive de- partment in 1805, and .•iilled a state convention; whidi assembled at Austin in February, 1866. Lnder uhe reconstruction acts of Congress of 1867, lexas was included in the fifth military division. The state con- stitutional convention having reassembled in Decem- ber 1868, completed its labors, and the new constitu- tution was ratified by a vote of the people at the election held in November, 1869. In March, 1870, Conj^-«.'isAacati« »«*«£*f^.:'i --**f*f*^ ,.»«■<»---'- 802 COT'XTRIES OF XORTII AMERICA. In criminal cases no appeal is allowed to the Snrieme Court, unless some judge thereof, upon insjiectmg a transcript of the record, believes that some er-orof law has been committed bv the judge before whom the case is tried. The Supreme Court holds its sessions annually at the capital of the state. The state is di- vided into judicial districts, for each of which one hnUe is appointed by the Governor, by and with the consent of the Senate, for a term of eight years. The District Court has oritrinal jurisdiction of all criminal cases, of all causes in behalf of the state to recover penalties, forfeitures and escheats; of all cases of di- vorce ; of all suits to recover damages for slander ; of all suits for the trial of title to land ; of all suits, when the matter in controversy amounts to $100. The Dis- trict court has appellate jurisdiction in eases ori,t^inat- in"- in inferior courts, and original and exclusive juris- diction for the probate of wills; for the appointment of guardians ; for the granting of letters of administra- tion ; for the settling of accounts of executors, admin- istrator.« and guardians; and for the transaction of all business appertaining to the estate of deceased persons, minors, idiots and lunatics. Justices of the Peace have such criminal and civil jurisdiction as is provided by law. Each county is divided into five justices pre- cincts." yerttiont. 153. — This State takes its name from a French term meaning Green Mountain. It was first settled in 1724 at Foit Drummond, by the English. The sur- face contains an area of 10,212 square miles, and is broken by the Green Mountains. The climate is cold and marked by great extremes. Iron ore is abund- ant, and other less valuable minerals. Agriculture is the principal industry. 154 _ The public schools are well supported and are, in most of the villages, well graded. Three Nor- mal schools have been established. The University of Vermont is located at Burlington, and the State Agri- culti are 1 state i; presc setts, 1771 state as " conv mitte Febr stitu Win^ and its pi ed a trove legisl ceria sion ; uary, accor whic ilegei appn State held "Coi prop( thus by tl the t 16 is a State state who is en !A. UNITED STATES. 803 the Saricme iiipjiecting a le eri'oi'of law re whom the Is its sessions e state is di- of which one ■ and with the t years. The )f all criminal ite to recover 1 cases of di- or slander ; of ill suits, when 00. The Dis- eases originat- xclnsive jnris- e appointment of administra- cutors, admin- nsaction of all jeased persons, ;he Peace have is provided by e justices' pre- rom a French ; first settled in ish. The sur- e miles, and is climate is cold ore is abund- Agriculture is supported and (i. Three Nor- le University of the State Agri- cultural College has been incorporated with it. There are two other colleges and several academies in the state. 155. — Jurisdiction over the territory within the present limits of Vermont was claimed by Massachu- setts, New nami)shire and New York. In January, 1771, a convention met at Westminster declaring the state an independent jurisdiction, to be forever known as " New Connecticut," alias "Vermont." The same convention met again in Jul}', and appointed a com- mittee to frame a constitution. The legi-slature, in February, 1779, passed an act declaring that the con- stitution, as established by general convention at Windsor in 1777, together with such alterations and additions as should be made in pursuance of its provisions, should be forever held and maintain- ed as part of the laws of the state. After the con- troversy with New York was amicably settled, the legislature of Vermont, called a convention to as- certain the wishes of the people with regard to admis- sion into the Union. The convention met, and in Jan- uary, 1791, resolved to make application. An act was accordingly passed, to take effect March 4, 1791, by which Vermont was admitted with the rights and priv- ileges of an independent state, and by another act, approved in March, 1791, the laws of the United States were extended over Vermont. There have been held under the constitution of the state, thirteen "Councils of Censors,"' at intervals of seven years, to propose changes to the constitution, and the changes thus proposed were adopted by the convention called by them. The first Council of Censors met in 1785, the thirteenth in 1869. 166. — Every man of twenty-one years of age, who is a native born citizen of some one of the United States, or has been naturalized and has resided in the state one year next before the time of election, and who will take the oath prescribed by the constitution, is entitled to the privileges of a freeman. ,-'=4ii^.;iwWii^,^4»ii^4fes^,^P55,,t,tS*5*-i.Vi^>u««>s^ cyBSexsajttAjfc--- 804 COrNTKlES OB^ NOUTII AMERICA. 157^ —The supreme executive power of tlu state is exercised by tlie Governor, or, in ease of his absence, by the Lieutenant Governor. They are electcil by baHot, hold tlieir ollices for two years, and must have resided in the state four years next preceding tlie day of election. The Treasurer is elected in the same manner and for the same time. Tiie Secretary of State, the Auditor, and all other oflicers whose elec- tion is not otherwise provided for, are elected by the Senate and the House of Ecpresentatives in joint as- sembly. 158. — The i-upreme legislative power of the state is exercised by the Senate and the lIou.se of Repre- sentatives, which are styled the " General Assembly of the State of Vermont." The Senate is composed of thirty members who have attained the age of thirty years, and the House is composed of 2-il members. Senators and representatives are elected biennially for two years. |5€j^ — The judicial powers of the state are vested in a Supreme Court, a Court of Chancery, a County Court in each county, Justices of the Peace in the sev- eral towns, and a Trobate Court in each probate district. The judges of the Supreme Court are elected biennially by the Legislature, and all other judicial olftcers by the people. Since 1870, the number of judges of the Supreme Court is seven. This court has no origi- nal jurisdiction, but is a court of errors. It holds an- nually a general term anr' uiso a term in each county. Each judge of the sanie is a chancellor, and holds his court at the same time as the County Court The County Courts have original jurisdiction in divorce, in all civil actions for over $2l0 and in relation to real estate. Two terras of the County Court are held in each county, annually, over which one of the judges of the Supreme Court presides, assisted by the iwo county judges. All actions out of the original juris- diction of the County and Chancery Courts, except for divorce, must be brought before a Justice of the Peace. 10 beth ;it Ji the 1 The The s ore is prom; era Is tion. IG of fre Supei ami t same 1871, with is nov gress oiler instru 16 leges, durin: and () of W tered the V opene seven ty, at 1871, Univ( in 18i had fi less tl and n ICA. TJXITEl) STATES. 805 ;r of tlu state of his absence, tire electcil by md must have ceding the day 1 in the same le Secretary of jrs whose elec- elected by the ^es in joint as- ler of the state ouse of Repre- al Asseinbly of 3 composed of ! age of thirty ' 2-il members. 1 biennially for state are vested icery, a County 'eace in the sev- probute district, ected biennially d officers by the judges of the t has no origi- s. It holds an- in each county. :•, and holds his ity Court The )n in divorce, in relation to real art are held in e of the judges ted by the two e original juris- Courts, except Justice of the yirffhiln, IttO. — This state takes its name in honor of Eliza- beth the Virgin Queen. It was first settled in KWT, ;it Jamestown, by the English, and was admitted to the Union in 1788. Tlie surface has an area of ^3y,3u2 square miles, and is diversified by hill and vale. Tlie climate, upyii the whole, is mild and .salubrious. The state is rich in minerals. Gold is found, and iron ore is obtained in large nuantitie.s. Copper ores also promise to aflord profitable investment. Other min- erals of less importance enrich the geological forma- tion. IGl. — Until recently, the state lias had no .system of free public schools. In ^farcli, 1870, tlie first State Superintendent of Public Instruction was ajipointed, and the new school bill became a law in July the same year. Before the end of the first scholastic year, 1871, tlie number of .schools had increa.sed to 2.900, with about lo0,469 pupils and 3,000 teacher.s. There is now every prospect that Virginia will steadily pro- gress on the road begun, and at no distant day >vill oli'er to her growing population a sj'stem of thorough instruction. 163. — Before 1860, the state had twenty-three col- leges, with 2,824 students, whirh were mostly closed during the war, a {)art of the buildings being burned and others used as hospitals or barracks. The college of William and Mary, at Williamsburgh, was char- tered in 1693. The buildings were destroyed during the war ; but in the fall of 1865, the college was re- opened, and in 1871 it had twelve profe.ssors and seventy-six students. Washington and Lee Universi- ty, at Lexington, was founded in 1782, and had, in 1871, twenty-two professors and 305 students. The University of Virginia, in Albemarle county, founded in 1825, was a flourishing institution in 1860, when it had 600 students. This number had diminished to less than fifty in 1863, but in 1871 it had 317 students and nineteen teachers. Provision has been made by 20 306 COL'XTKIES OF XOKTII AMERICA. the Legislature for the admission of one student from each scMiatoriul district, witliout payment of fees and rents. l(}3._Thc sti.te formed a constitution in July, 177G, and ratified the United States constitution in June, 1788. In ISfil, the state of West Virginia was formed and set off from the old commonwealth. A new state government was instituted in 18()3, at Alex- andria. A convention, which met in February, 18(54, abolished slavery. In May, 1805, a provisional Gov- ernor was ap}io:'.!ted b}' the President of the United States. In December, 1808, a convention met at Kichmond and framed a constitution which was adopt- ed in Julv, 1809. The state was admitted to repre- sentation "in Congress January 26, 1870. j(j4.^_Every male citizen of the United States, twenty-one years of age, who shall have been a resi- dent of the state for twelve months and of the county, city or town in which he shall offer to vote, three months next preceding any election, shall be entitled to vote. I(j5, The chief executive power of the common- wealth *is vested in a Governor, who holds the office for the term of four years, to commence on the iirst day of January next succeeding his election. Ihc Governor is elected by the voters of the state at the times and places of choosing members of the General Assembly; must be a citizen of the United States, and if of"' foreign birth, must have been a citizen of the United States for ten years next preceding his election. He must have attained the age of thirty years, and must have resided in the state three years next preceding his election. A Lieutenant Governor is elected at the same time and for the .same term as the Governor, and his qualification and the manner of his election must be the same. The Secretary of the Commonwealth, Treasurer and Auditor of Public Ac- counts are elected by the joint vote of the two houses of the General Assembly, and continue m office for the t AVor Trea Hi Gene Ilout clcet( and ( ate h of 43 the f nnnu days me ml .«essic Ion ire 16 Courl The three juri.scl inand civil boun( the jc blv, {1 The s oach ' the tv eight year 1 eorpo weak by a , for a inga vote ( City Court UCA. 10 stiuknt from ent of fees ar.d tution in July, constitution in ;st Virginia was iiionweallli. A I 18()3, at Alex- L^obruary, 18(54, I'ovisional Gov- of tlie United mention met at hicli was adopt- nitted to repre- ). ! United States, ve been a resi- 1 of the county, • to vote, three ill be entitled to of the common- liolds the office ice on the first election. The the state at the 1 of the General United States, 3en a citizen of t preceding his e age of thirty tate three years tenant Governor e same term as d the manner of Secretary of the )r of Public Ac- the two houses lue in office for rXlTKO STATES. 307 There is a Board of Public the Governor, Auditor and the term of two ycai's, Works, consisting of Treasurer. !(»(>. — "Tlio legislative power is vested in the General Assembly, wliicli consists of a Senate and House of Delegates. The House of Delegates is elected biennially by the voters of the seveial cities and counties, and consists of 138 members. The Sen- ate is elected for the term of four years, and consists (if 43 senators, representing the 40 districts into which the state is divided. The General Assemblv meets annually, and no session continues longer than 90 (lays without the concurrence of three-tifths of the members elected to each House, in which case the .session maybe extended, for not more than 30 days longer. 167. — " The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts and County Courts. The Court of Ap|)ea]s consists of five judges, any three of whom may hold a court. It has appellate jurisdiction only, except in eases of habeas corpus, mandamus and prohibition. It has no jurisdiction in civil cases where the matter in controversy is l(?.ss than $500, except in controversies concerning the tide and boundaries of land, etc. The judges are chosen by tlie joint vote of the two houses of the General Assem- bly, and hold their office for a term of twelve years. The state is divided into sixteen judicial circuits, for each of wdiich a judge is chosen by the joint vote of the two houses of the General Assembly for a term of eight years. A Circuit Court is held at least twice a year by the judges of each circuit in every county and corporation thereof. In each county of the common- wealth there is a County Court, which is held monthly by a judge learned in the law of the state, and chosen for a term of six years. In each city or town contain- ing a population of 5,000, there is elected by the joint vote of the two houses of the General Assembly, one City Judge, v;ho holds a Corporation or Hustings Court of said city or town." 808 corxriuKf* of Noirni amkimca. licit rifffhiiii. l(iH,-^Tlic surfiice is mostly inouiilaino\is. The 'oliiiiiUc is mild. In ]iursu:tiice of a I'cuuiiemciit of the new constitution, a system of public schools has been a(h)[)te(l which is making good progress. 1(J}). — The three normal schools (at Uiintington, Fairmount and West Liberty) are in successful opera- tion. 'J'lio normal school at Huntington, called " ^[ar- sliall College," was attended in 1872 by 195 pupils, 78 female and 117 male. Tiic West Virginia Lniver- sity, at Morgantown, was organized in 18(57, and i.s doing good work. A military department is connected with it. 170. — West Virginia " formed a part of the com- imonwealth of Virginia until the latter .seceded from the Union. In June, 18()1, delegates from thirty-nine rohi when oxcln title point guard I'oadv tion c (lictio victio and \ court is div is ele( for a every tic A. iitaino\is. The I'ctjiiiiemont of lio ficliools lias Igl'CSS. It Lliiiitington, iccossful opora- 1, called ".\[ar- by ItT) pupils, irginia Liiiver- 11 18(57, and is !tit is connected irt of the coin- 1- .seceded from roni thirty-nine test against the isionai govern- gnst, 18()L and election to be istion of organ- e of Kanawha," ;ounties of Vir- ate was ratified s passed an act, he adoption of ;ution. These people, and on ited States de- iw constitution that date. In 1 and Berkeley :ed to the state n was held, and ipril, 1872, was tate are entitled the counties in 10 have not re- rXITKD STATES. 809 sided in the state for one year, and in tlie county in which they oircr to vote, foV sixty davs, ne.xt pro'ced- Mig an election. The legislative power is vested in a t -Senate and TTonse of Delegates, which are styled "the T.egislature of West Virgini.x" The Senate is potn posed of twenty- four niendK-rs, one-half of whom .ire elected biennially for the term of four vears. The Jfonse is composed of sixty-five delegates, who are elected for two years. 173. — "Tiie executive department consists of a Governor, Secretary of State, State Superintendent of Free Schools, Auditor, Treasurer and Attorney Gen- eral, who is ex-OIHcio Eei)orter of the Court of Ap- jieals. These oflieers are elected by the legal voters of the state for a term of fonr vears, comme1icinxt after their election. ° 173. — "The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Appeals and in Circuit Courts and the jud-res thereof; in County and Corporation Courts and in Jus- tices of the Peace. The Supreme Court is composed of four judges, who are elected bv the voters of the .state for the term of twelve yeails. It has oriirinal jurisdiction in cases of habeas corpu.s, mandainus^and j-rohibition, and appellate jurisdiction in civil cases where the matter in controvery exceeds ,$100 in value, exclusive of costs; in controversies concernimr the title or boundaries of land, probate of wills, the ap- pointinent or qualification of a personal representative, guardian, committee or curator, or concernin? a mill! I'oadway, ferry or landing, or the right of a corpora- tion or county lo levy taxes. It has appellate juris- diction in criminal ca.ses where there has been a con- viction for felony or misdemeanor in a circuit court, and where a conviction has been had in anv inferior court and been affirmed in a circuit court. The state IS divided into nine circuits, for each of which a judo^e * IS elected by the voters thereof, who holds his'office for a term of eight years. A circuit court is held in every county twice a year. The circuit courts have the V «-«^=*-1t -J— -^^^-.ii^rh'r' I'i'fl f •-^f-n^mt■lH 310 COrXTHIES OF XOIITII AMEUIC^V. su]iorvision of all procnodings before the eouii*y courL and oilier inferior tribunals, and with eertain oxcf^p- tions have crigiral and jreneral JMrisdictii.n of all mat- ters at law where the atnonnt in eontroversv exc(>eds SoO. They have appellate jurisdiction in all cases of judgrneiits, decrees and final orders rendereil by the county courts where the matter in controversy ex- ceeds i?;20 in value. 174. — " Tu each county there is i. county court, wliich is composed of a j)resident and two justices of the ])eace. It holds six sessions during the year. The president is elected by the voters of tlie (bounty for four years. Kaeh county is laid ofT into tlistricts not less than three nor more than ten in number, in each of which one or two justices of the peace are elected by the voters thereof for ' air years." It'lurtlttKln. 175. — This state takes its name from an Indian term ineanini^ Githering of the Water.s. It was first settled at (Ireeri IJay, by the French, in 17-15, and wa.s a'lnitted to the Union in 1(S48. The surface has an area of .")8.924 square miles, and is plea.»jantly diversi- fied. The climate is quite severe and subject to sud- den changes, but health}'. 17<>. — The state has inade very liberal provisions for all classes of educational institutions. The public schools are under the supervision of a State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, and county and city sup<.'rintcndent.«. The state has four Normal Stdiools, one at ]*latteville. one at Oshkosh, one at Whitewater and one at liivcr Falls. The State University, at Madiscni. is in a pr<\«perous condition, and had, in 1870, uwenty-seven professors and 4H2 student.s, of whom 124 were females. It embraces a college of letter.s, a col- lege of arts, a preparatory department and a female de- ))artment. The college of arts is the agricultural and •scientific college of the state. The other institutions for higher and professional education embrace twelve coUeires, five academies, one law school and three theo- logical schools. ;hica. he county coiirL li certain oxcop- ictiin of !ill iiiat- troversy exceodM )ii in all cases of leiulorcil by tlic controversy ex- i, county court, I two jurtices of i (lualifiiMl elootors therein . have ..ri-iniil )nrisi nil iimttors -mviI a.ul on,ni.Ktl,"uul MpiH.llut.. junsaic'tiou from a 1 u. .•ru> courts and tril.uals. ati.l u sniHTVisory .'outrol osn tl. , sa.no. A Cironit Conrt is l.cl.l at U-ast Iwii-.r m c«a.-h year in cad. coiLity of the siato org.u.i/.tnl for jiulirial purpos'-s. ThiMv-is chosen in each (-mnty by the nualilicl cleoto.'s thccf a .Tn.l-e of I .'ohate ^^ho holds his ofiico for two years ; and the olcctoi's of tl.i several towns ehrt .lustieos of the Peace, whose term of ollicc is also two ycai's." * XIV. HKKTtHKS (>K TKHHITOUIKH. Alimka \ —Alaska is a peninsula, ncc.ipyin.ir the extreme northwestern portion of the North Am.. Most of the mountains do not r.se above three thousand feet in hei-ht, b.it several ^n-eatly exceed tl.is Mount Fairweather rises to U, <(W feet .n height aiul the volea.ux-s. Mount St. Klias, U.\m feet and llla.na.io. 12,(>(')6 feet, i-ank among the loftiest peaks o the continent. Uut little of the countiy otlers land suitable for agriculture, the g.-eater part being rock v and sterile, or else swampy." The principal river is the Yukon or Kwitchpak. ,.„ , , o —The climate is materially modified by a warm ocean current which flows along the southern coa.st. " At Sitka the thermometer rarely falls below /.ero t he mean tempcratuie being about 4-t° Fahrenheit, 1 he warm and moist sea air meeting with a cohl curi'cnt from the mountains, causes fi-equent fogs am rains alon.r the southern coast. The average rainfall .s be- tween 8(» and 90 inches annually, the months of Sep- tember and October being especially wet. It is said ♦ From "CcutenniiilGuzuttceiV by A. Von Steinwehr. [CA. Circuit Courts tors, t;ivil ami )m nil infi'i-ior oiitrol over llio *t iwii'i' in fiicli k(\ for judifiiil coiiiity by the I'l'olniU', will) electors of tlie loe, whose term iMtlKH. iiir the oxtromo 'riean continent, ire miles, ami is iiversed by the [onntains, and a [;l it in all direc- risc above three jrreatlv exceed ()(S feetin lieight. U.\HM feet, and loftiest peaks of iitry offers land )art being rocky )rincipal river is lilled by a warm 1 southern coast. Is below /-ero, the l<'ahrenheit. The h a cold current it fogs and rains ige rainfall is be- r months of Sep- Y wet. It is said Von Stcinwehr. ITNMTKP STATKa 813 that about 2r.O days in the year are cloudy and ramv. In the northern imrt of the ncninsula this influence H not fi'lt, but as this portion li.'s within the An^tte (Mr- fie, the climate is intensely cold, and the biief summer does not suiriee to thaw the frozen soil." :| — A heavy "-rowth of timber covers the soil on the southern seaboard, lofty trees clothing the moun- tains to a hci-ht of 'J.odO or 8,iHl() f.rt. 'Ihe f..rests consist of Sitka spruce, yellow cedar, fir, hemlock, larch, and kiii.lred species. In the more northern dis- tricts the soil is barren. Owing to the constant moist- ure the cereals do not ripen, the potatoes are small and watery, and gar.len vegetables yield but moderately. Cranberries and salmon berries grow wild. 4 —Thewcallli of Alaska is in its furs and lish- oric^ The latur include cod and mackcM'cl, the former in .rreat abundance. Seals, bears, deer, wolves, and other wild animals are numerous on the shores and in the interior. The seals aiford a profitable source of revenue in their oil and skin.s, but the land animals are little hunted by the whites, owing to the impassable nature of the soil. . . 5 __ The population of Ala.slst- ern coast as far north as ley Cape, in latitude <(» iU N In the year 1799, the region was granted to the 814 COUNTRIES OF XORTII AMERICA. Eussian- American Trading Company, who estal.lished posts at Sitka and elsewhere. Propositions for its sale to the United States were made in 1806, and the ]>nr- chase was effected the following year, for $7,200,000 m gold. The United States government took formal pos- session in October, 1867, since which date it has been under the charge of the United Slates military author- ities stationed at Sitka. Arixonn, 7. —This Territory of the United States lies^ west of New Mexico. The" territory was organized Febru- ary 24, 1863, and the executive branch consists of a Governor. Secretary of State, a Treasurer and lieceiv- er-General and an Auditor. The judicial power ia vested in a Supreme Court and Probate Courts. The Chief Justice and the two Associate Judges composmg llie Supreme Court are ajiponucd by the President. This court holds one session annually at Tucson, com- mencing the fourth Monday of October. Dakota. 8. — This Territory lies west of Minnesota and Iowa. The Governor and Secretary arc appointed by the President. Tlie Auditor, Treasurer and Superintend- ent of Public Instruction are chosen by the qualified electors. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Conrt. District Courts and Probate Courts. The Su- preme court is composed of one Chief Justice and two Associate Justices. District of Colli nihia. 9. — In 1790, Maryland and Virginia ceded a square tract of land ten miles long and wide to the United States, as a site for the national capital. Tliis tract was named the District of Columbia. In 18-46 that ])ait of the district which lies south of the Potomac lliver was retroceded to Virginia, and since then the northern or Maryland portion forms the national dis- trict, including the capital of the country (the city of Washington), and also the city of Georgetown, 18 CO be II el( Si es w St ec til th b B to T G P C at a II oi ti. id ni di oi C ri ir ITCA. 5vho estal'lisVied tions for its sale 6, and the pur- ;)!• $7,200,000 in took formal jios- late it has been military author- States lies west •ganized Febru- ch eonsists of a irer and lieceiv- dioiiil power ia te Courts. The ulges eomposing y the President, at Tucson, com- 3r. nesotaand Iowa, ipointed by the nd Superintend- by the qualified ed in a Supreme iourts. The Sii- Justice and two a ceded a square e to the United itai. Tliis tract In 184(3 that of the Potomac . since then the the national dis- intry (the city of :)rgetown. UNITED STATES. 315 10. — An act of Congress, approved in February, 1871, provided a territorial government for the District, consisting of a Governor and a Council of eleven mem- bers, ap}K)intod by the President for four years, and a House of Delegates consisting of twenty two members, elected bv the people. The judiciary c(nisists of the Supreme 'Court of the District of Columbia, which was established in 1803, and is composed of four Justices who are appointed by the President of the United States. This court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, and appellate jurisdiction in all judgments of the Justices of the Peace of the District. It holds three generid terms annually at Washington. Recent- ly the government of the District has been vested in a Board of Commissioners. Idaho. it. —This Territory lies east of ^Yashington Terri- tory, and west of Montana and Wyoming Territories. The gold fields of this territory are very rich. The Governor and Secretary of State are appointed by the President ior a term of four years; the Treasurer, Comptroller and Superintendent of Public Instruction are elected by the people. The legislature comprises a Council of "ten members, chosen for two years, and a House of Kepresentatives of 20 members, chosen for one year. r^, ■ ,. r ] 2. _ The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Jus- tice and two Associate Justices, appointed by the Pres- ident for four years. It holds at least one session an- nually at the seat of government. The territory is, divided into three judicial districts, in each of which one of the Supreme Court Justices holds a District Court session. Montana. 13^ _ This Territory lies west of Dakota and is very rich in gold and silver. It is one of the most promis- ing territories of the Union. 14. — The government consists of a Governor, Sec- retary of State, District Attorney, Surveyor-General, 816 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. Snpcrintcnclerit of Indian Affairs, United States Com- riiissionor and a Treasurer. These territorial oflieera are appointed by tlie President of the United States, by and with the eonsetit of tlie Senate. Tiie Leirisla- tiire comprises a Council of 12 members and a Ilouse of Representatives of 2fi member.s. The United States District Court of ^[ontana is composed of one District Judge and two As.soeiate Justices. »M> JUex.iru, 15. — This Territory lies west of Texas and the In- dian Territory, and is now .seeking: admission to the Union, whicii will probably bo accomplished at an early day. The territory is rich in gold and silver. l"(5. — New Mexico was organized as a territory by act of Congress, September t), 1850. Tlie Governor, Secretary, Superintendent of Indian Affairs and Pur veyor of Public Funds are appointed by the Presi- dent, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices, appointed by tiic President for four years. This court holds one term annually at the seat of the territorial government. One of the jus- tices holds a district court session in each of the three districts into which the territory has been divided. The Supreme and District Courts have ciiancery and common law jurisdiction. Utah, 17. — This Territory lies west of Colorado. Gold is found in paying quantities. Utah, originally a part of Ui)per Cali'foriiia, was ceded to the United States by treaty with Mexico, in 1848, and erectcl into a ter- ritory in September, 1850. It was first settled by the MormoiKS, a peculiar religious .sect, calling themselves Latter Day Saints, in 1847, after their expulsion from lUinoi.-s, where they had founded the settlement of Nauvoo. The Governor and Secretary are appointed by the President of the United States for four years. The Legislative Assembly is composed of a Council and a llouse of Eepreseutatives. The 13 members of tnc bei ill ; aiH .-isl Th eat hel Th ixe Sei Sti del coi am bei ele tiv ye; aS Pe tici du pre me di\ the Fo tor yei Ilk mi a PI lot «Bj(iba«9B'»NS»»s<»U'»iiftV.-rt'«* i^^WsS*- lKME*V.^WJ,^tS RICA. UNITED STATES. 817 ted States Com- rritor'ul oflicers ! United Sttites, !. Tlic Le-risln- 3rs and a House , The United omposed of one ices. 'xas and tlic Tn- .Itnission to the niplislied at an d and silver. IS a territory by Tlie Governor, Ul'airs and Pur I by tlie Presi- iit of tlic Senate, lief Justice and lie President for annually at the )ne of the jus- ach of the three 5 been divided, ^e chancery and Colorado. Gold [jriginally a part ^ United States •ectoil into a ter- it settled by the llina; themselves • expulsion from e settlement of ry are appointed ; for four years, ed of a Council i 13 members of the Council are elected for two years and the 26 mem- bers of the House for one year. 18. — The judicial ])o\ver of the territory is vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts. Probate Courts and Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court con- >ists of one Chief Justice and two Associate .lustices. The territory is divided into three judicial districts, in cacti of which a regular term of the Supreme Court is held every year. Vasltiiitlton, 19. — This Territory lies west of Idaho territory. Tlio territory, formerly u part of Oregon, was organ- ized as a territory in March, ISo'd. The Governor and Secretary are a|)pointed by the President of the l.'nited States, and the Auditor and Treasurer are chosen un- der territorial authority. The Legislative Assembly consists of a Council and House of JJepresentatives, and convenes annually on the first Monday in Uecem- bor. Tlr^ Council is composed of nine members, elected L; '"-pf. years, and the House of Kepresenta- tives is c; . 1 of thirty members, elected for one year. T v' - :;ial power of the territory is vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts and Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Jus- tice and two Associate Justices, who hold their ofTices during a term of four years. One term of the Su- preme Court is held annually at the seat of govern- ment. For District Court purposes, the territory is divided into three judicial districts, in each of which the Justices of the Supreme Court hold the sessions. For each of these districts a territorial Prosecuting At- torney is elected by the people for a term of two years. Wtiomiiifi, 20. — This Territory lies southwest of Dakota, and like all the other territories of the far west it is rich in mineral treasures. The Governor and Secretary are appointed by the President of the United States for four years. The Legislative Assembly consists of a iU r.i8 COrNTUIES OF NORTH AMERICA. Council of nine momliors and a House of Ropiosenta- tivos of tliirtoon members. 31. — The jnilieiul power is vested in a S\iprcmo Court. District' Courts, Probate Courts and J>istices of tlie Peace. Tlie Supreme Court consists of a Cliief Justice and two A.^sociate Justices, any two of whom constitute a quorum, and wlio hold a term at the seat of government annually. Tliey are appointetl by the President of the United States for four years. Tlie territory is divided into three judicial districts, and in each of them a district court is held by one of the Ju.stices of the Supreme Court. XV. THE CONFEDERATE STATES. isni to isor,. 1. — Basts of Action. Strictly speaking, the Federal Union of these states is a Confederacy ; but when the Confederate States are mentioned, the Southern Confederacy is understood. Sliortly after the Constitution had been adopted in the last century, there were indications that some of the men who were firmest for Union held views as to .state rights, which, if carried to tiicir logical results, would have endang- ered or destroyed the United States. There may have been, <>n the part of some of the men who rati- fied the Constitution, a reserved thought that the Union should endure only as long as certain individul ends could be served, but no such right was e.xpres.sly reserved under the Constitution framed in 1787, and subsequently ratified by all the states. The aim of the framers of the Constitution was to make a strong government, becau.se the articles of the Confederation had left to the General Government only an advisory power, in eflect, without executive capacity to enforce a decision. That fault could not have been remedied by a constitution that would leave to every individual state the right to retire at any moment. There would have been in the autonomy of the states such powers of disintegration, that Union naust have been a name wil ha^ ad( lati del ad I wa ret res aiK sta olH res stit mil tiiii I Lo' stil SU( prf .sul Th tlu 18 for en( coi pai nal th( th( mc ma wh Sti up ^afert" i^~ pft^«^irtt|N^--*l . £, t^.w«=aij»J»«»w«*i5'''^-->;' .^-;va^:«.'t!aef - ERTCA. !e of Ropicsen ta- ct! in a S\iprcrno s and J)isticos of nsists of a Cliiof ny two of wliotn , term at the scat appointed by the four years. Tiie 1 districts, and in Id by one of the STATES. ly speaking, the Confederacy; but mentioned, tlie \. Sliortly after the last century, he men who were ate rights, which, nld have endang- tcs. There may he men who rati- ;hought that the I certain individul ght was expressly ned in 1787, and .tes. The aim of to make a strong the Confederation only an advisory apacity to enforce ve been remedied ) every individual nt. There would tates such powers lave been a Qame UNITED STATKS. 819 without a meaning, and the Federal compact would have had tlic strcnLjtli of a rope of sand. 3. — KKNTifKY AND ViucixiA in 1708 and 1799 adopted resolutions, supi)oscd to have been formu- lated, the first by Thomas JclTer.son, afterwards Presi- dent, and then Secretary of State in Washington's administration ; the second by James Madi.son, after- wards President and in the intermediate term Sec- retary of State in Jcffenson's administration; but the resolutions did not go beyond asserting an uncertain and ill defined right of nullilication ; and neither of the statesmen nienlioned advocated such action in their olliciul characters as tlie resolutions implied. Such resolutions could not be of value as against the con- stitution already ratified, except in so fur as tiiey might teml to illustrate the intentions of the parties to that compact. 3. — JosiAH QuixcY of Boston, when opposing the Louisiana purchase, which he condemned as uncon- stitutional, said ill the House of lleprcsentativcs, that such an act dissolved the Union virtually ; but the practical advantages of Union were stronger than the subtleties of logic, and his statement led to nothing. There was an approach toward the same sentiment in the Federalist party during the war with England in 1812-15, which at length found utterance in the Hart- ford Convention, at the time that the war was being ended by negotiations at Ghent, and the effect of the convention was to destroy the influence of the Federal party as well as of its prominent men in any combi- nation afterwards made. Public opinion, sound to the core, had no tolerance for views that endangered the public safety, and that fact testified to what was meant by the Constitution. 4. — The Missouri Compromise in 1820 was made the occasion for the South to threaten secession, when the North objected to the admission of the new State, unless there were stringent limitations placed upon the slave power. Again, there was a threat of nul- 320 COINTUIK?? OF NOUTII AMKHICA. lificuiion ill 1828 from South CaroliiiM, when ^I'C T'-'^ leclive Tiuifl of tliut d:ite was cii!n:u.'(l, and m loo'J lliciv was an attempt to ctarry the im-naco into clloct; hut as \vc have seen, tlie thou rrcsident, Oeii. Jaclc- i^on. emphatically a man of action, rospomlca hy .send- in" troops to enioi-cc the law, while justifying himself in^his course hy the publication of a masterly state- ment. Uenry Clay came to the rescue w.th a coni- jiromisc measure "and a collision was avoided, but there can he no doubt as to the result, had the policy of millilic;iiion been maintained. There was no such sentiment ->n the tarilT, as would have called forth cooperative southern oiTort in civil war, and the Gen- eral would have stamped out the small beginning' without hesitation. There had been no recognition of the as.serted right to secede, but there was a c()n- siderable party that claimed to have reserved tiie power to be used whenever the circumstances war- ranted its exerci.se in the last resort. 5,_ NKdUO Slavehv, once general in the colonies, but'now partiallv repudiated in the states, alYorded the ground upon winch the secession issue could be tried. The South claimed that the North had abandoned slavery only because it did not pay, and therefore there could be no reason for its being bound by an example that did not apply in the circumstances of the south, where it was believed by nearly the whole pop- ulation that negro labor must be used, and could on y be availed of profitably in the form of slavery. Keally the North had abandoned the domestic institution on two grounds, not inconsistent with each other; 1st. That slavery is a wasteful system not conducive to material prosperity ; and, 2d. On the higher plane, be- cause it was wrong in the sight of God for one man to hold another in bondage, except as a punishment for wrongdoing. With the growth of popular intelligence, and more especiallv with the preponderance of con- science in the developement of public opinion, those views had been silently spreading among the masses. Thel lowei tionis thing warrii there withi howe CO mil coiidi sioiKs, ciate witho 1 cadi I Unioi the s slowl niindi 6. ized, ned 1 fouth be sec bates Coinf seeth The day, 1 for tl preei] pone .settle to be came battle bv th '7.- tried north AX-oUAOiB^-' ttn*--^ *'^4i%i*!r<«*rt***«atti^fcAy.-- 322 t'Ol'NTlUES OF NOKTH AMKRICA. lie was arrested at Sqiiuttor S(n-erei<,'iity by ]Mil)lic oitiiiion in Viis own party at the North, and lie could not go farther witlioutsacriiieiiig all claim on their rej^ard, yet tlic South, linding that Snnatter Sovereignty failed to civo them Kansas, demanded im])ossil)le concessions from the great leader, and when he could advance no longer upon their line, repudiated i.im to seek their fort°ine at the cannon's mouth. That act of rcjmdia- tion threw away their last chance of success. Going solid for Douglas, they could have elected the succes- sor to Buehannan, but divided in their rage between Breckenridge and the great leader, they permitted tlie still greater man, Lincoln, upon whom they had no claim whatever, to occupy the position in which lie be- came, without one effort on his own lyart to misuse the powers entrusted to his administration, the instru- ment in the hands of God to bring human laws into accord with the divine ordinances. 8. — Abraham Linx'oln's Election in November, 1860, was the signal for secession, because it was known that there would be no favor exhibited by him for their schemes of .slavery extension. He had an- nounced clearly enough that slavery must be protected where it already had a foothold ; but that there must be no extension. They had long since concluded that every man who had not taken hold with the proslavery party, was at heart an abolitionist; therefore they feared Lincoln unduly ; but on the other hand they were well aware of the fact that slavery must fad un- less they had at their disposal an always increasing territorv in which to dispose of their human stock. <),_! South Cauolina led off in the dance of death. The' legislature in that state was sitting, and a con- vention was called for December 20, which duly an- swered the summons by an ordinance, declaring that state no longer in the Union. Seven states had taken that step before March 4th, 1861, when Lincoln was solemnly inaugurated. There was wisdom in taking time by the forelock, as the safety with which tlio «''*t''wniTg?'^iE»'iKa.-isse«^««^Kaaaa»^^ £i^o-i«c>iW*i^i**Ta6M:ir»a*Bffi*F>.^«?»«'!^^ IICA. rXlTKT) STATKS. 323 <,qity by piiblio iml lie could not [Ml tlieir ro reduction of the fort was eU'ected in tliirty-si.v hours. This action was the express result of orders, many times repeated, from detlerson Davis, who was at that titne Chairman of the Congressional (^oitunittce on Defenses, as well as Pres- ident of tli(! seceding Confederney. l''l Till': XouTII Rksi'oN'dki) with intense indig- nation, which left no doubt as to the war feeling. Lincoln called for To.oOO volunteers, and Stephen A. Douglas, better informed as to the crisis, urged him to call foroOO.OOO. The larger number would have been ecpiipped just as readily as the stnaller. 'i'hc people W(>re thoroughly arou.sed, and those who had hereto- fore championed the South were silenced bv the au- dacity of the Sumter outrage. The J*resident was de- termined " to repossess the forts, places and property sie/A'd from the Union," but public opinion breathed war for the insulted flag. The patience exhibited by Lincoln was justilied by the result. The call to arms was indignantly repudiated b}^ North Carolina, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, Missouri and Arkansas. Virginia passed a secession ordinance, followed by North Caro- lina, Tennessee and Arkansas at brief intervals. Del- aware and Maryland were not inclined to aid the Gen- eral (jovernment, and in Missouri, the Governor not being able to pass an ordinance of secession, com- menced war on his own account. The Ctnifederacy, when arrived at its full development, covered about one-half the inhabited area of the United States, car- rying with it about one-third of the population, if we leave out of sight the fact, that great minorities in the eleven revolted states clung to the Union. Still there were minorities in the rest of the Union favorable to the Confederacy. The ditlerence was as two to one, with wealtli and business capacity on the Union side ; train- ing, military skill and settled plan of action on the 820 COrNTHIKS OF NOHTII AMKItlCA. olhcv. V.v\mh\\cam w(>ro stran<.'('rs :it Aiiiiiipolis and ut Wcstpoiiit, as .siil)SC(iiunit cvmU were to pro^'o. 14. I'liKSiDKNT Davis was in cointnaiul of 100,- 000 men, tliat niimbor liaviii^' boen autliorizi-d by tho Coiifodcrati! ('(Higrcss two days after tlie i!iauj,Miialion of President Lincoln. It was signilieant that tlie order liad been delayed until tlien, as it seemed as tiioiijjrh tlie Confederacy had hoped something would ha])pen to prevent his corning into jniwer at the proper tinin. The Confederacy assumed possession of all phices and properties seized from the Union, and commissioners were sent to Washington to arrange the terms of seces- sion. Duties were being collecter.s from Mont- >s on the part of 'nion. SumttT Ljolu called for at such action, aration of war, sals a^'ainst the call for troops from March 0. e South as well a loan of $5.- , it wa-; answerd 3re were 8."), 000 close of April, le North. The [ay, having sat ,o reassemble in I'ernment meant ue to the North that such sums .reasury. Prac- ticipated, in the )t the money in not paid to one rce collected at UKITKl) STATES. 827 T^ooncvillo under Gov. Claiborne Jackson's orders, commandeil bv ('ol. Marmaduke md inttMided to co- operate with the Confederate a' lies — although Mis- souri had refused to secede — was .ittacked by Capt. Lyon, the camp carried, 2,500 men driven in confusion, nrid an immense quantity of clothinn, except an ap- proach within four miles of Eichmond by Hooker, but he was recalled to Fair Oaks, and McClellan did nothing for one month, during which time Gen. Lee made his arrangements at his leisure, called in Jack- Hon and other reinforcements, to enable him to cope with the army of 15B,828 men under the Union com- mander; and generally made himself master of the situation. When Lee was quite ready on the 26th of June. Mechanicsville was the scene of operations, and after Hill had sustained a repulse from the Federals, Porter was ordered to fall back to Gaines' Mill, where he was defeated, with a loss of 19 guns and 8,000 men. McClellan's ba.se of supplies at "West Point having been captured, that General now ordered a retreat to the James River. hlvery day had its ])attle and every niglit its march, until that river was leached, when the troops concentrated on ^lalvern Ilill, and supported by gunboats on the river, fought successfully one of the bloodiest battles of the war; the Confederates being repulsed at every point with a loss of about 10,000 men. The los.ses on both sides were very severe during the campaign, from the arri- val of ^rcClellan on the Chickahominy to his return to the James at Harrison's Landing, and there was nothing to show on the Union side as an offset to the loss in blood and treasure. The Confederates, with inferior force.s, had practically defeated and driven off the army to the Potomac. 23.-^Gex. Pope's Command of 50,000, charged with ihe defen.se of Washington, was severely han- dled in detail by the Confederates at Cedar Mountain, on the 9th of August, and at many minor points, un- til the main body suffered a terrible repulse at Manas- sas Junction on the 29th. It is claimed that the .sec- ond misadventure at Bull Run was largely due to Mc- Clellan having failed to support Pope. The battle was continued on the 30th without advantage to the Union arms, and Pope retiring to tlie Potomac re- signed his command. The Union had lost 25,000 ia .:.'->:^^^°£tf^<^>XVAAA%»b'r^'^ ^^Uti-i^fCeh^iMA^f-t ~^iiAjSii-^..-.-^pKr-.im&sZ''tanii*^' ' COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. tliis disnstrons cnrnpaiirn. incliulitin; many ofneers of (listinguisliod merit. ^fcCIellan was once more Com- mandiM" in-Cliief of tlic Army of the Potomac. S.'J.- — (tex. Lke advanced into Maryland Septem- ber 8. ^fcClellaii following upon hi.= 'iglit wing ; but as if Lee knew tliat there was nothmg to fear from the dash of his opponent, he at that time detached Jack- son to capture Harper's Ferry and a force of 12.000 men under Col. Mile*. There were several slight en- gagements in the following day.s, but the battle of Antietam, which should have destroyed Lee before Stonewall Jacks-rm could rejoin him, was not fought until September 17th, when Jaek.son, after taking IIar{)er's Ferry, was able to assist Lee in resisting the Union forces. The Union force engaged was 87.000; the Confederates 70,000, and the battle was one of the most destructive in the war. Many regiments lost half their number, and at night, when the advantage was inclining to the side of the L^nion, Lee was al- lowed to escape unmolested. McClellan was relieved of his command on the 7th of November. 24. — Gen. Burnside the successor to McClellan, distinguished himself by his operations before Fred- ericksburg, where thousands of men were wounded and slaughtered before a stone wall defended by pick- ed troops, so posted that it was impossible to efTect their dislodgment. On the 28th of January, 1863, Burnside was relieved from the command. 25. — Gen. Halleck, in command of the armies of Grant and Buell after Pittsburg Landing, did nothing worthy of note after the capture of Corinth, and on the whole there was a decided gain for the Confeder- ates in the partisan war that prevailed for some months in Tennessee. Gen. Bragg with 45,000 men, in June, cro.ssed the Tennessee near Chattanooga, and striking boldly through the state, with many minor successes, entered Kentucky where he had the satisfaction to capture Mumfordsville, and to throw Cincinnati and Louisville into great trepidation. Buell was on Bragg's trad tivet no a( was near but ] and twic( cleai upor ed tc tains men feare 2( ness( leek of a Gen. the ( incoi nigh 1,00' Cori assai 3d a the : the 1 itati' *>' and berh quar (ler frees assai men tlie < of J tTCA. UXITEI) STATES. 835 lany ofncers of nee more Coni- Dtomac. •yland Scptctn- ight wing ; but o fear from the letaclied Jack- force of 12.000 veral slight cn- t the battle of ed Lee before was not fought 1, after taking in resisting the ed was 87.000 ; was one of the regiments lost the advantage DH, Lee was al- \n was relieved er. r to McClellan, s before Fred- were wounded fended by pick- )ssible to effect January, 1863, .nd. ~>f. the armies of ig, did nothing orinth, and on the Confeder- :>r some months ) men, in June, la, and striking linor successes, satisfaction to Cincinnati and was on Bragg' .s tracks with 100,000 men, but ho distrusted the cfTec- tivencss of his troops, most of them raw levies, and no action was attem|)ted by him until his left wing was struck by Bragg's force, on the 9th of October, near llarrodsville. Tlic fight commenced at 2 P. M.. but Buell was not aware of the fact until four o'clock, and altliough the los.ses on the Union side were nearly twice as great as those on the other, the advantage was clearly with the Unionists when darkness closed in upon the combat, and during the night Bi'agg retreat- ed towards Tennessee, crossing the Cumberland Moun- tains before he paused. The result of that engage- ment seemed to indicate that Buell need not have feared the capacity of his men to cope with an enemy. 26. — Gen. Grant was commanding in West Ten- nessee, having succeeded to that position when Ilal- leck became General in Chief. lie devised a scheme of attack that should have captured luka defended by Gen. Sterling Price, but Eosecrans failed to carry out the orders given, and in consequence the victory was incomplete. Price abandoned his position during the night of September 19th, having sustained a loss of 1,000 men. Grant then directed the fortification of Corinth, which enabled him to repulse the combined assaults of Confederate forces for its recovery on the 3d and 4th of October, and on the 5th the battle of the Ilatchie resulted in another success for the arms of the Union. Van Dorn and Price retreated with precip- itation. 27. — Gen. Roseckans now succeeded Gen. Buell and the army was known as The Army of the Cum- berland. The new commander transferred his head quarters to Nashville and he had now 65,000 men un- der his control, llosecrans advanced towards Mur- freesboro on the 26th of December, where his right was assailed and routed on the 31st, with great loss of men and guns, but the center and left stood firm, and tlie Confederates did not renew the attack on the 1st of January, 1863. The battle was renewed ou the 2d, ?■;«« iiiXt^-if:;iJr <_:;,s. xrirfJt'. -e*!*m»tt.-- X iiJ 886 CorXTHIES OF XOUTlt AMKHICA. and afior hard liglitiiig all day, Bragg evacuated Mur- frce.sb(m^ at tiigiit, having suirered very heavily. Ilia losses in the protracted engagement were over 10,000 men. A detaclmientsent to operate upon Bragg's rear by Ho.secran.s was surrounded near llotne, Ga., and com- pelled to surrender. Kosecrans now sat still for sev- eral months, until Bragg returned to give him battle, with a change of destiny at Chickamauga. ^ 28. — CuMMoiJoHK FoDTK, who was associated with Grant in tlie ea])iure of Forts Henry and Donelson, in the beginning uj the year, swept down the Mississippi from Cairo tsip|il was entirely in the hands of the United States. ,'n. - <'K.v. Banks who sueeoetled (Jen. Jiutler in the coniinand at New Orleans, having learned that Galveston had surrendered to four gun boats, sent down a reL'iincnt to taUc jiosse.ssion, and part of that foree oidy had landed when Gen. Magruder command- ing the Confedei'ate forces in ^I'e.xa.s, attacked the Union fleet in the harbor, sank one vessel, captured another, and coniiielled the troops to surrender. Other operations of a like de.scriittion made the Confederate cause a winning side in Texas. IJanks with a force nominally of od.OOO men, but hardly U.OOO elfectives, so great were the lo.sses fi\)m sickness and desertion, captured Alexandria and besieged Port Hudson, but the garri.sou would have continued its resistance but for the news of the failure to hold Vickburg, upon being convinced of which, Gen. Gardener surrendered the Port a!id 0,408. The cfTeetives under Banks that day only numbered about 10,000, and he had captured during his o(ierations 10,58-t men, 73 guns and (5,000 aland of arm.s. The operations of the force under Banks in Te.xas were not of a character to aflect the general issue, but generally his expeditions were a trifle late or too early, too stronger not strong enough, .and he is more to be remembered for the places that he failed to take than for the captures recorded to his honor. Brazos Santiago, Brownville, Aransas Pass, and Fort Esjieranza on Matagorda Bay, were among his prizes, but there was hardly any force in opposition, and there was scarcely any military value in their pos- session. In the spring of 18(54. Shreveport was taken and Gen. Price was outnumbered and routed. Banks should have cooperated with the fleet by an advance beyond Alexandria, March 1, 1864; he barely reached the place on the 16th and then could go no further until April first. His movements beyond that point itrcA. IMTKI) SI'ATKS. 330 with f^irat ('('lilt for tliu C.'oiifnlc- ill the hands uf I Gen. Jiutlcr in iiig learned that gun boats, sent and j)ait of that ;ruder command- as, attacked tlio 1 vessel, captured surrender. Otiier the Confederate nivs with a force U,()0() eireetives. us and desertion, 'ort llud.soii, bnt ts resistance but Viekbnrg, upon lenersurrendereil iiider Banks that I he had captured } guns and (3.000 the force under itev to aflect the peditions were a ot strong enough, the places that ho recorded to his e, Aransas Pass, IJay, were among rce in opposition, due in their pos- veport was taken I routed. Banks t by an advance he barely reached Id go no further iyoud that point wore bliindei'.-! and misfortunes of which the Coiifed- eriitcs largely availi'd themselves at Sabine Crod.^ Unad-s, at IMcasant (irovc, at Dean's Hayoii, at Man- sura and at Yellow Bayou. One gunl)oat had to be lilowii up to prevent capture by the Coiifcilcrates, three were captured and ono wa.s burned. The force fi'om Litth' Hock, which was to cooperate with Bank.s if he iiad come to time, was exposed to imminent peril in consciiuencp of his failure, but (jeii. Steelo succeeded in biiuging ofT his main body without ma- terial disaster, and Arkansas lemaiiied iriiionist in the northeastern half, Confederate in the other to the end of the war. 3'j. — RosKcit.VNS IN' Tkn\ks.ske enjoyed a period of repos(! from the beginning of .raniiary until tho 21tli of .June, IStio, when he atlvanced from Miirfrees- boro to Shelbyville, taking a few guns and a few hun- dred pri.soner.-!. Bragg retreated before him with lit- tle los.s. Chattanooga was evacuated, and everything conspired to beget a false conlideiice in the LTiiion general, when Bragg reinforced by Longstreet's eorp» ^roin A'lrginia, turnetl upon him suddenly with a fm-co- al)out equal to his own, something near 55,000 men.. The battle of Chickamauga was thus commenced un- der heavy (li.«advaiitages, but the first day. Sept. li)th,. jiiKssed without any marked disaster. On the 2Cth, Uosecrans' right was completely shattered by Long- street and with part of the center was swept from the Held, Rosfccrans going with the flying troops to Chat- tanooga. Gen. Thomas holding the left, stood unmov- all that day, repelling all attacks until the Confeder- ates drew off. "The Rock of Chickamauga" occu- ])ied his post all day on the 21st, and when night came, retired to the position assigned him by Rosecratis in front of Chickamauga. Rosecrans held Chattanooga until orders arrived for him to hand over his com- mand to Gen. Thomas. The Garrison suffered tre- mendously before aid could be forwarded, but there was relief of a very effective sort on the way, such as 340 COUXTIUES OF NOUTII AMERICA. woald tenniniite soutbeni pretensions in th:a quarter for some time. 33. — Ukx. Grant was sent to assume the com- mand in cliief in this region, Slierman being ordered up from Yiclvsburg to serve under liim, and Hooker, with two corps from the army of tlie Potomac. Sup- plies were the lirst necessity, and Iloolver was intrusted with the duty of clearing the river Tennessee so tliat the starving soldiery might be saved from iibsolule fuminc. Tlie commissariat thus cared for, the next desire was to reacli the point of danger before any furtlier mishap could occur. Grant, now a ^lajor Gen- eral in the regular army, and in command of all the forces in the valley of the Mississippi, had vast respon- sibilities upon him, but he was equal to the emergency, lie was before Chattanooga on the 23d of October, and on the 27th the battle of Lookout Valley was fought under his direction, after which there were sup- pliel for the army befc"e the city in which Rosecrans had been shut up. Sherman came by forced marches ready for any duty on the 15th of November, and as soon' as his arrangements were coinpleted. Grant's Fourth corps moved out directly in front of Cliatta- iioocTa, seizing the Confederate outposts before they dreamed that they were in danger, on the 22d of November. Bragg was still on Lookout Mountain lookinp' down into Chattanooga and occupying a posi- tion assumed to be impregnable. The battle of Chat- tanoo»a commenced on the 23d at two in the after- noon "by an attack on the Confederate Ijft, gallantly executed by Gen. Thomas. The rifle pits were car- ried and held during the night. Morning, on the 21th, found the battle renewed along the whole line. Sher- man carried the end of Missionary Ridge near the rail- road tunnel, and Thomas, strengthened in his post, repelled every effort of the Confedefates near the center, while Hooker, against odds that were simply terrilic, had made a lodgment on Lookout Mountain, iu which he was so strong, that during the night the ERICA. 13 in thui quarter assume the com- lan being ordered him, and Hooker, 3 Potomac. Sup- )ker was intrusted Tennessee so tliat ed from absolute red for, tlie next linger before any now a ^lajor Gen- mmand of all the i, had vast respoii- to the emergency, ! 23d of October, >k(nit Valley was L;h there were sup- 1 which Ro.secrans l)V forced marches November, and as OLMpleted, Grant's n front of Chatta- ;posts before lliey 3r, on the 22d of lockout Mountain occupying a posi- fhe battle of Cliat- ; two in the after- rate loft, gallantly ifle pits were car- rning, on the 2-ith, whole line. Sher- lidge near the rail- iiened in his post, federates near the i that were simply Liookout Mountain, ring the night the UNITED ST.\TES. 341 Confederates abandoned that position entirely. Dawn^ on the 2r)tli, found the men again ready for ttieir wjrk on both sides, but the burden of a manifest destiny loaded down .he Confederates. All througli that day the battle raged, the ehargp up Missionary Ridge being one of the handsomest sights ever presented by actual •war, and it was idmost dark wlien the work was ended. Bragg's armv was routed beyond rallying. Tlie Chattanooga rifle pits, Missionary Jlidge and Lookout Mountain top were successively won and held with ])erseverenee and valor never surpassed. The losses on the Union side were about 6,000 all told, while tlie Confederates lost 6,000 in ju-isoncrs alone, forty pieces of artillery and thousands of small arms; Slierman and Hooker, leaving nothing to chance, followed the fugitives almost as rapidly as they fled, and when, on tlie 27th, there was a .stand made at Taylor's Ridge, near Ringgold, Georgia, another fight, short and desperate, made an end of that effort. 34. — Gen. BrKNSiDEwas no sooner relieved of the too weighty responsibility of the command of the Army of the Potomac, than he was transferred to the command of the department of Ohio, where he achieved successes against Morgan's Raiders, compelled Gen. Frazer to surrender the almost impregnable position of Cumberland Gap, and continued in charge of East Tennessee, distingui.shing himself in several actions, until after the defeat of Rosecrans at Chickamauga, Longstreet with a superior force drove him into Knox- ville. Burnside defended Kno.xville against the force under Longstreet until it became possible for Grant to dispatch Sherman to his relief. The day before Sher- man's arrival a desperate onslaught was made by Longstreet in the hope that he might carry the town before relief could reach the defenders, but the repulse xvas complete, and the retreat was made just in time to escape the relieving force. After that event Burn- side was engaged in the terrible campaign between Grant and Lee in Virginia, 342 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 35._Gkn. IIookeh, one of tlie best figlvLing men on the Union side, whom we have just seen in the brilliant campaign under Grant, relieved Burnside of the command of the Army of the Potomac in. January, 1863, when the desertions averaged over 200 per day, and demoralization had reached its depth in conse- quence of the disastrous failure at -Fredericksburg; and two months were spent in givin/ tone and effi- ciency to his force, before it was possio'e to recom- mence offensive operations. The affair at Chancellors- ville, in which Stonewall Jackson fell mortally •wounded, extinguished the eleventh corps of Hooker's army, the right being taken in the rear while at sup- per," by Jackson with 25,000 men, whose impetuous daring could not be resisted. In the battle of the next day Il-^oker was injured by a cannon ball strik- ing a post against which lie was leaning, so that he was unable to direct operations, or to carry out the plans already laid ; consequently he found it necessary to recross the Rappahannock after many days hard fight- in- in which he had lost about 18.000 men, but in which it is probable that the Confederate loss was nearly as great as his own. While Hooker was plan- ning a movement to flank Gen. Lee, tiiat officer exe- cuted a similar design against the Union army by Culpepper Court House into the Shenandoah Valley and across the Potomac, so that by the 25th of June, Lee's army had all crossed the Potomac and were ad- vancing: into Pennsylvania over 100,000 strong. Ho(jkcr had follovvecl this daring movement with projier care, and succeeded in deflecting Lee from his proposed line of march ; but in consequence of a dis- pute with Hp'leck, his superior officer, on his demand for 10,000 additionnl troops from Maryland Heights, his resignation was accepted a few days before the battle of Gettysburg; but it is claimed that the glory of that actionals largely due to the services previously rendered by Hooker, and Congress gave him special thanks. The battle of Gettysburg was fought under sid the ive fea tio thf ph of noi pri to we Le ne cr< ERICA. :)est figliUng men just seen in the I veil Burnside of omuc in. January, )vcr 200 per day, depth in conse- i^redoricksburg ; 1/ tone and efli- )ssrolc to reeoni- lir atChanceUors- in fell mortally corps of Hooker's rear while at sup- whose impetuous the battle of the L;annon ball strik- ing, so that he was irry out the plans d it necessary to y days hard fight- .000 men, but in federate loss was Hooker was plan- , that officer exe- Union army by lienandoah Valley the 25th of June, )mac and were ad- 100,000 strong. movement with cting Lee from his ;equence of a dis- er, on his demand Maryland Heights, 1 days before the ned that the glory ervices previously gave him special was fought under UNITED STATES. 843 Gen. Meade on the Union side. Gen. Lee in person commanding the Confederate forces. .Tuly commenced with the preliminary skirmishing of this terrible three days fighting, which cost the Union 24,000 men, and the Confederate cause at least 36,000; and on the an- niversarv of our Independence, the Southern force was in full retreat, but allowed to escape by the culpable negligence of Meade, when he should have followed up hfs dearly bought advantage. The fighting on both sides was very grand, and the result, even in spite of the incompleteness permitted by Meade, was destruct- ive to the chances of the Confederacy. After the de- feat sustained by Lee, he retreated to his former posi- tion on the Rappahannock, abandoning all ideas for the time of n ^ t 37._Gka>,t Before Richmond. On the first ot March 1864, Gen. Grant having been made Lieutenant General of the Union armies, there began to be a more immediate prospect of an end to the strife ; as the dis- jointed efforts of the several commanders were now to J 344 COUXTKIES OF NOKTII AMERICA. give place to designed and connected movements, directed by one brain, and that tlie most capable, in a military sense, that this age and country have pro- duced. With his customary decision of character, Grant moved toward the scene of action, and it soon became evident that there was a terrible certainty in the operations of the Lieutenant General. A visit to Washington enabled him to see all that was being done in each of the departments, and to direct such changes as v/ere necessary to bring every command into acci)rd with his larger designs. Citizens and the army alike were satisfied that the new commander, who had given proofs of his capacity at Vicksburg, at Chattanooga, and wherever his genius for war was left untrainmeled, would render a good account of the whole Confederate force ; and many looked for an almost instant succes- sion of victories. 38. — The WiLDERXESS. Grant crossed the Rap- idan with tlie army under Meade, May 4th and oth, 1864, at Germania and Ely's Fords, striking at once into the Wilderness. Lee was on the watch at a posi- tion higher up, but he lost no time in striking at his antagonist. Up to this hour Lee had not found one man his superior at all points, and therefore it was necessary to beat Grant for his own glory as well as for the welfare of the Confederacy. The country through which the Union t"->ops were passing was to them entirely new, bat to the Confederate forces alto- gether familiar. The ground, thickly covered with small trees, favorea he operations of an inferior force well acquainted with ..ne locality, against a body nu- merically superior, bat lacking that desirable know- ledge of the peculiarities of the position. Two days of desperate slaughter on 'both sides in the Wilderness came to an end on the evening of the sixth with a dashing attack on Grant's right, but there was no tell- ing advantage for either side. Lee doubtless hoped that his new antagonist would retreat, intimidated by such pertinacity, as others had done before ; but Grant nif to\ los foi da Le sei an Lc mc N( trf hii ssi be B« wi W( th fr( as pi th Bi C. h( se SI lo w ec O w Pl rii tl w ti i ^..Jitlui'>^"-i>-ir ■^As >•»■=* «^-Wi ..»»«^i*!*t H ERICA. jcted movements, most capable, in a iountry have pro- sion of character, ction, and it soon srrible certainty in ineral. A visit to liat was being done irect sucli changes amand into acci)rd id the army alike ler, who had given 2:, at Chattanooga, left untranuneled, whole Confederate ost instant succes- t crossed the Rap- May 4th and oth, i, striking at once he watch at a posi- in striking at his lad not found one i therefore it was n glory as well as icy. The country ere passing was to iderate forces alto- jkly covered with )i an inferior force igainst a body nu- it desirable know- jsition. Two days 1 in the Wilderness [ the sixth with a t there was no tell- e doubtless hoped 3at, intimidated by before ; but Grant UNITED STATES. 845 merely moved on, on the morning of the seventh, towards : 39. — Si'OTTSYiA'ANiA CouRT IIorsE. The Un= jn loss had been at least 20,000, but that was a reason for gaining ground rather than retreating. Several days of heavy fighting again, with various success, Lee narrowly escaping capture once on the 11th, only served to illustrate the strength of his position and another 20,000 of the Union forces had disappeared. Lee on the defensive seemed to be invulnerable. Once more moving to the south Grant tried to flank Lee at North Anna, on the 17th, but Lee having the inside track as to roads, was entrenched at that point before his arrival. Butler was to have caused a diversion by seizing Petersburg with 30,000 men, while the main body was thus occupied, but he was confronted by Beauregard and held at bay. The advantages were with the Unionists at North Anna, but to storm the works would have proved so costly in human life that there was another change to Cold Harbor still con- fronted by Lee, who saw every movement as rapidly as it was conceived. Here a general assault was re- pulsed with grpat slaughter, and it became evident that some other road to Richmond must be discovered. Baffled, but not defeated by the south, although the Confederates were really fighting for their last strong- hold. Grant was south "of Richmond in time to have seized Petersburg but for the momentary indecision of subordinates. Assaults on the 16th and the two fol- lowing days in June found Lee in full force, and the works for the time impregnable. Movements follow- ed each other in rapid succession, a mine sent 300 Confederates iir.o the air, and thousands of Unionists were lost trying to storm the breach, made ly the ex- plosion, in the defenses of Pittsburg. The Weldon railroad, attacked at two points, was finally held for the Union by Warren, and numerous small successes were almost counterpoised by repulses in other direc- tions, but Grant was closing in upon bis antagonist, M6 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. determined to win the point thoiigli it should ■• take all summer." The Army of the Potomac, during 1864. lost 88,387 men, but the end could now be seen, as the greatest general on the Confederate side was barely able to hold his own against Grant, whose resources could be increased without limit, to subdue the always decreasing strength of secession. 40. — WESTEitN YiKtiiNiA had steadily vetoed secession from the first. Tiie Confederacy aiming at suppression met with successes in 1861, until McClel- lan's army came to the rescue, and at Phillippi, June 8d, routed the invaders, repeating his victories ut Rich Mountain and at Carrick s Ford until the last rern- tmiit of the force escaped over the Alleghanies. This region was still the region for much fighting, but its loyalty to the Union could never be^ impeached. Sheridan came into the command in West Virginia soon after Grant had established himself before Eich- mond. and his career as usual was marked by vigor and general sucocss. He had gone to Washington, leaving his force ^-.t Cedar Creek,, apparently safe from attack, when Early, defeated just before, but now reinforced, madt! an assault in the darkness of early morning, October 19th, and drove the force under Crook, a panic stricken mob. Twenty-four guns and 1,200 prison- ers had been captured, and tlie army was demoralized. Sheridan, at Winchester, on his return learned of the disaster, and, within fifteen minutes, he was in the saddle dashing at full speed to retrieve tlie disaster. By ten in the forenoon he had reached his defeated comrades, and his presence renewed their tone. At noon they repulsed a fresh attack on their left. At three o'clock they bigan a general advance with small arms only, to confront the artillery of two armies; that brought by Early, and that taken fn^m Crook. Before nightfall they had routed their pursuer, taken bis g iSis, in addition to their own, and with the pres- tige oL this victory, the result of Sheridan's Kide, ended the cam[.'vign in West Virginia. IKTCA. should ■• take all ac, during 1864. now be seen, as 3 wide was barely whose resources bdue the always steadily vetoed leracv aimiiitj at ;i, until McClel- ; Phillippi, June victories ut Rich HI the last rern- leghanies. This tigbting, but its bo impeached. 1 West Virginia elf before Kich- kcd by vigor and rato coniniana hero, was supported by Hardee, Beaur.MMrd, Cheatham, Urag-.', and tlie eavalry eorns of Wheeler and Wado ILunpton. There was a hat of three days, and tlien on the loth ..f March an ad- vance llank-e assailed the left in a narrow pass, V)Ut was rei)nlsed heavily; and there was no more hghtin-- until the 18th, when Johnston with the mam body struck the ri^ht near Bentonville ; but the Confeder- ates drew oirafter very eon-^iderable losses, and the armv rested at Goldsboro, while the victorious leader eona»i, i«itt««-<*' w^B*"^*- ICA. of 40.000 mrn on, chief of tlie ted by Hiirilec, cjivulry corps hero was i\ lialt f Marcli an ad- arrow pass, but more fighting- the main body It the Confeder- losses, and the ictorious leader ;;iiy Point, as to ^., was of trans- ,tcs, and it liad "s of tlie Union, iber, 1864, and 1865, with only 2d of Fel)ruary, iiered Wilniing- ured the place, man arrived at )perate with his federacy was at ig every quarter, ling at New Or- spring of 1865, a series of sue- owed the area of 3d ; Montgomery acrirpegate of 84: :1, and at Macon )f the news that is evacuated by erations, and 150 1 at that point. \d under him his the energy of de- ill ; but there was UNITKD STATKS. 851 notliing before him save defeat, with su(di lioiior and rc'^pcct^as bravorv ami --apacity .seldom fail to inspire. Karly in December, 18()4, (Irant's right had extended down the Weldon railroad twenty miles to Ilieksfonl, and another fortified post was established at Hatchers Pvun, where earlv in February, 1865, an assault by the Confe.lerales was sevcirlv rejinlsed. Sheridan, m the beginning of March, drove Karly from Waynesboro, talTin" g"ins anil prisoners, destroyed stores at Char- lottesvilTe, broke up miles of the Lynchburg and Ki<-h- mond railroad, and passing behind Lee's army, rea<' (irant before Petcr.sburg on the 27lh of March. j made an assault on Vort Stedinan on the 2.Jtli of tiiat month, but the success of the tirst movement was not supported, and it became evident that the Confederate General was prcjiaring to abandon his position.^ 1 h e aflair at Dinwiddle Court House was part of Grants movement to hem in his opponent, and Lee's endeavor to repeat the lesson of Clianeellorsville, met with but little success. Five Forks was won under Sheridan on the first day of A{)ril, with great loss to the Con- federates, besides tne works that were earned ; and now the way was clear for a general assault on 1 eters- bui-f' on the follovvine dav. Petersburg was gallantly earned in spite of the heroism of its defenders, and Lee communicated to President Davis that Itichmond was no longer tenable. But thai he was overruled by the President, Lee would have abandoned Riehmond much earlier, as his force in the open field could have been much more serviceably employed ; but he was a soldier, and he bowed to authority. Before the morn- iii"'*-ii*« i, a^^JJirr ■•^V'f-"'" '" ^-'i ' *-» ^J ^A. ^BT 354 COUXTIUES OF XOKTII AMERICA. marched each his several wny, canning as much of Confederate property as lie eoiild seeure, a? sniull in- stallments toward the never to be paid indebtedness of the defunct government. Tluis the military existence of the Confederacy ceased, and its civil jiower was dy- ing out at the same moment. 47, — PjiKsiDKNT Jeffkrson Davis was at Dan- ville when we last saw him, having retreated to that point when Lee made a stand at Amelia Court House. One week after his arrival at that point, where he was still dreaming of making terms, if he could not secure a victory, tidings reached him that Lee had surren- dered, and that the Confederacy had entirely failed. The merciful eoiididons granted to the crushed armies of the rebellion, completing tb.e victories won by force of arms, left the defeated President no hope that his troops would ever again rally under that standard which his hands had ii ;furled, and which his brain had plotted for during many months, if not many years, before the rupture between the states. Southward to Greensboro, North Carolina, was his next flight, still President of the Confederacy, and hoping that his presence would infuse new courage into Johnston's army ; but a brief halt at that place showed him that his fortunes had waned entirely. Johnston, next to Lee in point of ability, and in some respects even his superior, had common sense enough to perceive that the war, continued beyond the stage that had now been reached, must be an inexcusable provocation to butchery without the remotest chance of success. The capitulation of the army in North Carolina was con- summated on the 26th of April, and before that da}', Davis was on his way to Washington in the state of Georgia, escorted by a cavalry force of about two thousand men, which dwindled in numbers at every cross road and halting place, and which revealed in every action the falling off which the dignity of the ruler had suffered. Arrived in Georgia he was no longer President of the Confederacy, but simple Jefferson Davis So rnai could ]iris(>n( overtoc ( I corgi Lii icoli liooth . 'comj nhare I ville w cita.st, \ ])atrol son, w down I at onc( family to Fort Mr. Da while 1 men wi tion, it escapee with n mercy i capture lion. '. a propo was no jiositior rnagnar quonda stand a the civi the hos banging and shi and th( mandan acA. ig as much of re, a? small in- iii(lebtediiess of litary existence jiower was dy- [s was at Dan- itreated to that a Court House. t, where he was ould not secure lee had surren- entirely failed, crushed armies ;s won by force 5 hope that his that standard ^hich his brain [lot many years, Southward to lext flight, still oping that his into Johnston's owed him that inston, next to spects even his 3 perceive that that had now provocation to if success. The rolina was con- )efore that da}', in the state of of about two mbers at every ich revealed in nity of the ruler was no longer mple Jefferson rXITKI) STATES. 855 Davis hoping to find safety in fiight upon anv terms. So many millions had suffered from his action that he could not ho].e for personal safety if he became the jirisoner of the north ; and yet that was the fate which overtook him, within a few days after his arrival in (jcorgia, within one month from the assassination of Lincohi, and on the fourteenth day after John Wilkes ])Ooth was shot for that cruel deed. Jefferson Davis, . 'companicd by a few followers who were content to share his altered fortunes, had encamped near Irwin- ville with his family, hoping to make his way to the coast, when two detachments of cavalrv, sent"out as a ])iitrol in search of the flying President, by Gen. Wil- son, whose headquarters were at Macon, swooped down upon the encampment. He and his familv were at once conveyed to Savannah, where, of course, his family was liberated, but he was conveyed a prisoner to Fortress Monroe and held there for two yeai-s. If Mr. Davis had been brought to trial in the North, while his name was yet associated in the minds of men \yith the Surratt-Booth conspiracy and assassina- tion, it is hardly to be believed that he would have escaped ; but the rulers were willing to temper justice with mercy, and he remains a monument of such mercy as has never been paralled in the case of the captured leader of a bloody and unsuccessful rebel- lion. Two years after the capture, in 1867, there was a proposal to allow him to go at large on bail, and it was not easy to find men who would assume the jiosition of bondsmen for him; but Horace Greelej magnanimously assumed the responsibility, and the quondam President has never been called upon to stand a trial. The only executions in consequence of the civil war, beyond the range of the battle fields of the hostile armies on northern soil, have been the hanging of the accomplices of Booth in the cowardlj' and shameful assassination of the Great President; and the well deserved execution of the Prison Com- mandant at Andersonsville, Henry Wirz, whose brutal ■i. il«s*j««mSU;i5ffl-fekf^-,*i«teiiiSaljf.^.^ri^u£tJ.i,t;;ei;,e* »*-;t;. -^-■--raa-^ , -^-j^ ; j^ i:'iEi5SL^'ii3,«(g5Ei - . '356 'Col-lNTlUES OF NUHTH AittlUtCA. coiulnct to the Union prisoners, dnring tlie war, merited tlic worst punislitrient tliat linmai.ily could devise, as a deterrent against siieh runianisin in llie future. Wirz was tried by a military tribunal, and, being found guilty, was executed on the lOlli of No- vember, 1865. 4^^_CuNFKl)EHATE PlUVATKEKING. ISaturally desiririg to pre.serve the current of allairs on land, and on the'eoast, during the record of the Confederacy, it was not possible to interweave therewith the deeds ■which for a time almost ruined the international com- merce of the United States; and yet the history o£ the time, however briefly given, must needs be frag- •mentary and incomplete witliout some notice of those ..inciden"ts. The proceedings of privateers are seldom ■blazoned on the pages of history, but in this instance the claims made upon Great Britain for damages re- sulting to our commerce from the action of ships built, fitted and refitted in her ports, have given a world wide reputation and notoriety to deeds but little if anything above the status of buccaneering. For that reason it becomes necessary to trace the doings of the privateers that fought and plundered in the name of the South from 1861 to 1865. , ^ , •, 49 — TuK Dkclakation of Wak by the Confed- erate' States on the 17th of May, 1861, mainly con- sisted of an announcement that letters of marque and reprisal would be issued against the commerce of the United States ; and soon after that date, a Confederate af^ent named Bullock, entered into arrangements with u°iirni in Liverpool, England, to build the vessel after- wards known as the Florida. There was a f()rmal pre- tense that the steamer was being built for the Italian Government, but her actual ownership and purpose were well known. Tlie British Government was on several occasions informed as to the actual facts, by the Minister at the Court of St. James, Mr. Adams; and the Consul at Liverpool, Mr. Dudley, continuous- ly represented each successive step m the proper quar- ter, 1: the I on th time, feder; can.se sailec crew her ( whicl ried 1 they queni ])repii hours sea a ravajj ing, s sels a could vesse ders, alwa^ On ti hoist( ish rn into I 1863, enem milli( stroyi ence, the s false chanc licens the h fitted natioi missii ilCA. UNITED STATKS. 857 J ring tlie war, iiunarily could nianisin in llie / tribunal, ami, ;he lOlli of No- CG. Naturally ir.s on lancl, and Confederacy, it with the deeds :ernati()nal com- , the history of needs be frug- noticc of those 3ers are seldom in this instance for damages re- in of ships built, ) given a world jds but little if ering. For that 16 doings of the I in the name of , by the Confed- 01, mainly con- j of marque and jommerce of the te, a Confederate rangements with the vessel afler- ,vas a formal pre- t for the Italian lip and purpose '^erninent was on actual facts, by les, Mr. Adams; iley, continuous- the proper quar- ter, but without avail. There was no sucli .''peed in the movements of the builders as to prevent action on the part of the government ; but in reality, at that time, the ministry was well inclined towards tlie Con- federacy, and would not make an efTort to serve the cause of the Union. The Florida, being completed, sailed on the 28d of March, 1862, nearly the whole crew being Britisii, and only one an American, and her destination was Nassau, N. P. Another vessel, which sailed about the same time as the Florida, car- ried her shot, shells and ammunition to Nasi^au, where they were taken on board a schooner, and subse- quently transhipped. So complete had been the ])reparalion in Liverpool, that within twenty-four hours after that shipment, the Florida was ready for sea as a war vessel. The Florida commenced her ravages against our mercantile marine at once, burn- ing, scuttling and otherwise destroying unarmed ves- sels at sea, because there was no port into which they could be taken to be sold as prizes. Three of the vessels captured by the Florida were fitted up as ten- ders, and rendered aid in the destruction of our ships, always carefully avoiding contact with armed vessels. On the fourth of September. 1862, the Florida having hoisted the English flag, and pretending to be a Brit- ish man of war, ran through the blockading squadron, into Mobile, escaping thence on the 26th of January, 1863, and continuing her career in the service of the enemy until Oct. 7, 186-1, within which time many millions of dollars in value were captured and de- stroyed by this ship and her armed tenders, the Clar- ence, the Archer and the Tacony. In the presence of the ships of the United States, the Florida showed false flags and false papers, so that there was but little chance for the suppression of her infamous system of licensed piracy. The complicity of Great Britain in the fact of her being built in an English port and re- fitted at several different times under the flag of that nation, was clearly made out before the High Com- mission at Geneva on the Alabama claims. XaMiti^ ii-!^J t3W-!?i Ice-^l^tUc^'^Utiir^i 'i ^■tv^yll1^^.-■^--.".:^ x 858 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 50. — The Alabama Cruiser was built for the Confederate government by Laird & Sons, m Birken- head, and pierced for twelve guns. In tli's case, as in that of the Florida, j)roper representations were made to the British government, but witliout such results as would prove the strict neutrality of tiiat power. The minister at the Court of St. James did not cease to ini- f)orlune Downing Street, the official home of the Eng- ish government, to procure vigorous action, which would have prevented the sailing of the vessel ; but the utmost good attained was a reference of the case to the Attorney General for an opinion on the law, and when that folly had been leisurely enacted, the vessel had taken her departure, under the pretense tliat she was only making a trial trip. As in the former case the shij) was not armed at the time of lier departure, but she was prepared for armament, and the recpiisites to complete her equipment were forwarded to Terciera. Capt. Semmes took command in August, 1802, and from that time to the end of the ship's career the com- merce of this country suffered from her depredations. The Alabama never ventured into a Confederate port, as her captain knew the dangers that might be.set him before he could regain the open seas. It is claimed that he captured sixty-five vessels, burning nearly all, with such parts of the cargoes as could not be easily appropriated, and the total value of the ])roperty de- stroyed by him is stated at $B,000,000. Besides that enormous aggregate of loss, there was a still greater item distributed over the enhanced cost of shipments and rates of insurance which taxed the whole commu- nity. The Pacific Ocean was the favorite cruising ground of Capt. Semmes, and the strength of his arma- ment made him a terror to merchant vessels, so that he at length arrived at the opinion that he was invincible. Laboring under that idea the Captain found an oppor- tunity to submit his belief to the crucial test of experi- ment in June 1864 The Alabama was at that time lying in Cherbourg refitting, after a prolonged cruise KRICA. yas built for the Sons, iVL Birken- In til's caso, as in xtions were made lit such results as iiat power. The 1 not cease to ini- lionie ot the En^»— ,"J[«t3«(tief>=S»:^i-: -.-::i-tr^:-j;9?«P:»»«Sn»i«** B60 COUNTRIES OE NOHTH AMERICA. assist in rescuing the men who were in (l.in,%'erof death, and Seinmes, taking refuge in that vessel, was carried to Etigland. International law assumes that a ship is n part of tlic nation from which she hails, and in con- secpienec a person once on hoard of an Knglish vessel occupied a position just as unassailable as though lie trod the soil of that country. The fact was none the less greatly to be regretted." The depredations of the Alabama were duly considered and awarded upon at Geneva. »»1. — The GKOHfiiA ran a much .shorter carreer. She was built on the Clyde in Scotland, for the Con- federates, and sailed early in 18G8, after some abortive and tardy steps on the part of tlie Kngli.sh govern- ment to prevent lier departure. The consular and diplomatic service of the country did all that was pos- sible to .secure prompt vindication of the neutrality, which Great Britain claimed to be ob.serving. Like the other ve.s.sels named, she was not armed when leav- ing Great Britain, but arms, ammunition and equip- ments were sent to meet her off the French coast, in another vessel, and immediately after the transfer was effected, she commenced her course of spoliation. Twelve months later the Georgia returned to Liver- pool and was there disposed of by the Confederate agent.s, in spite of the })rotests of Ur. Adams in Lon- don, but a better method of oi)eration was discovered after the sale had been effected, as the United States cruiser Niagara took po.ssession of lier soon after she again left port. 52. — The SiiEXANnoAii was the British steamer Sea King, and engaged in the Lul'a trade, but hav- ing been purchased by the Confederacy, she sailed in ballast from Bombay in October, 186i, and met at Funchal. the capitalof ^fadeira, another vessel which supplied her with all the munitions of war and a Confederate crew under the command of Capt. Wad- dell. Most of the original crew refused to serve in her as a Confederate cruiser and she sailed con.sequea- KKICA. 1 atli, jssel, was carried nos that a sliip is lails, and in con- ui Knglisli vessel l)le as tlioiigh lie ict was none the iredalions of the iwarded upon at 1 shorter carreer, tnd, for the Con- er some abortive Knglisli govern- lie consular and all that was pos- f the neutrality, :)bserving. Like riiied when Icav- ition and equip- French coast, in the transfer was e of spoliation, urned to Liver- the Confederate Adams in Lon- i was discovered 3 United States 3r soon after she British steamer trade, but hav- 3y, siie sailed in Hi, and met at ler vessel which 3 of war and a : of Capt. Wad- sed to serve in ailed con.sequea- L'NITKl) STATES. 861 ly with onlv half her complement from Funohal. Fn January, 1805, the Slu'namloali arrived in Melbourne, the port and capital of Victoria, where her ciinracter as a C()nfeva S(n)tia and Cape Breton, New Brunswick. Prince Kdward Island, Ncvvfouiulland, British Columbia, Manitol)a, the Northwestern Terri- tory, Hudson's Bay Territory and Labrador. Besides these political divisions, the British possessions in America may bo said to include British Guiana, the West Indies, etc, THE DOMINION OF CANADA. Extent. — The Dominion of Canada is a partial dependency of the British Empire, and will, in all probability, eventually inc nde all the American pos- sessions of Great Britain lying north of the United States. The Dominion, in contradistinction to the forms of government existing in the provinces pre- viously, was founded in 18(57, by the union of the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. In 1872. the provinces of Manitoba, British Columbia and the Northwest Territory were added, and in 1873, Prince Edward Island was admitted, leaving only Newfoundland outside the Dominion in 1873. 364 COL-NTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. I. BOUNDARIES. 1. — The Dominion of Canada is bounded on the south by the Llnited States, on the east by the At- Jantic, on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on the west by Alaska and the Pacific Ocean. A part of the southern boundary is formed bv Lakes Superior, Huron Kiie and Ontario. The line which divides the country from the State of Maine was not determined until 1848, and the long pending discussion between Great Jiritain and the United States, as to the island of San Juan, in tiie Pacific, was not decided until 1872. The maUCi- was referred to the Etnperor of German v. Jv 1872 the area of the Dominion was estimated at 8 389 - 442 square miles, being nearly equal to that of the United States. II. SURFACE. 1 . — OxTARio AND QuEBEC. The St. Lawrence river IS one of the finest in the world. It is difficult to give any well defined line dividing this noble river from the gulf bearing its name into which it enters- at some points this river has a width of fortv miles at others It contracts to one mile. It has three outlets the principal of which lies between Cape Breton and JNewfoun.lland ; the narrowest is the Gut of Canso which divides Cape Breton from Nova Scotia; the third consisting of the Straits of Belle Isle, dividint. the Labrador coast from Newfoundland. The St° Lawrence is navigable for seagoing vessels as far as Montreal, a distance of fiOO miles. Above Montreal there are several extensive rapids, which can be de- scended by tlie largest steamers that traverse tb-- at lakes; but as no force of steam can overcome ';ne strength of these rapids, canals have been constructed near the sides of the river, enabling steamers to ascend. Ihe canals, with that intended to overcome the Falls of Niagara, the Welland, have been constructe.l nt a cost of over $14,000,000 by the government of Can- ada. By the aid of these canals and that constructed at St rior, lake to L' liavi cum 500 brea dept mile 860 a lei ferei feet. Nia< by t St. ( by t a of s TO OS que upo abo ren( rivt and 80,( exti wa the ove to Alt whi and bea gal ove Ott JRICA. Douiided on the Bast by the At- ean, and on the . A part of the superior, Huron, ides the country etcrmined until 1 between Great lie island of S.in intil 1872. The f German V. Ip mated at 8,389,- to that of the Lawrence river difficult to give oble river from h it enters ; at f forty miles, at s three outlets, ape Breton and Gut of Cunso, •va Scotia; the B Isle, dividing land. The St. '■essels as far as bove Montreal lich can be de- iverse tb-- at overcome '„he Ben constructed mers to ascend, •come the Falls onstructed nt a nment of Can- hat constructed DOMINION OF CAN.VDA. 865 at Sault Ste. Marie between Lakes Huron and Supe- rior, vessels may descend from tiic head of the latter lake to the ocean. Vessels have sailed from Chicago to Liverpool. Lake Ontario is a beautiful inland sea, haviu"- a length of 180 miles, a breadth of (50 and a cir- cumfeu-enee of oOO miles. It has an average depth of 500 feet. Lake Erie has a length of 280 miles, a breadth of 03, a circumference of 700 and an average depth of 2r)0 feet. Lake Huron has a length of 2o2 miles, a breadtli of 190 miles and an average depth of 800 feet. Lake Superior, the largest of the chain, has a length of 300 miles, a breadth d' 140 miles, a eircum- ference of 1.500 miles and i.n average deiith of 1,000 feel Lakes Ontario and Erie are connected by the Niagara River; Lakes Erie and Huron are connected by tlie Detroit River or Strait and the River and Lake St. Clair; Lakes Huron and Superior are connected by the Sault Ste. Marie. ' , ^ , , i a. — Over the interior of Ontario and Quebec, lakes of smaller size are profusely scattered ; even in the roost rugged parts of Quebec the mouiitains are fre- quently'c4eft by rivers, and bear beautiful little lakes upon their summits. The more level parts of Ontario abound in creeks and rivers. Next to the St. Law- rence, the Ottawa, one of its tributaries, is the largest river in Canada. It has a length of about 080 miles, and drains, by ihe aid of tributaries, an area of nearly 80,000 square miles. This valley is one of the most extensive pineries in Canada. The width of the Otta- wa is very irregular, and in man)' places it is lost in the lakes through which it runs. In one place, for over forty miles, it has an irregular width of from one to ten miles; in other places it is much the same. Along its course, the Ottawa presents many portages where the waters expand to a width of over fifty yards and are precijiitated over rocks, sometimes forming beautiful cascades. The Ottawa has been made navi- gable in stretches, by the construction of canals to overcome falls or rapids, a considerable distance above Ottawa City. 366 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 3. — TIio third great navigable river of Canada is tlie Sagucna\'. At its entrance is the ancient port of Tadousac, whicli had become very popular in Europe, before Quebec was founded. The mouth of the river is furtlier down the St, Lawrence than Quebec, hence it was frequently visited by the early French explorers. The average width of the river is about three-fourths of a mile. Its banks are high and precipitous, and present a picture of rare grandeur. It is navigable for seventy -five miles from its mouth. The St. Maurice, whieli falLs into the St. Lawrence from the north, at three rivers, is navigable for a short distance from its mouth onlv, when navigation is interrupted for forty- four miles ; then there is another navigable stretch of seventy-five miles, on which steamers run. Luml)er- ing has been conducted on this river a di.stance of 150 miles from its mouth, and in furtherance of this inter- est, its tributaries have been surveyed through an area of over 14,000 square miles. The valley drained by this river is very extensive. 4. — Tiie Betisamite, situated below the Saguenay, is also a large tributary of the St. Lawrence, flowing from the north. It is navigable for light crafts. The Rideau River, which falls into Lake Ontario at Kings- ton, was made navigable as far as Ottowa City, for military purposes, by the aid of the Rideau Canal. This was accomplished at a cost of $7,500,000, but the canal has since fallen into disuse. The Peninsula of Upper Canada, though well watered by a large number of small streams, has no navigable rivers. The Thames, which falls into Lake St. Clair, is navig- able for small crafts as far as Chatham, a distance of over eighty miles. By artificial aid, the Grand River, which falls into Lake Erie, has been made navigable for small vessels as far as Brantfbrd. Lake Simcoe lies north of Toronto, forming the eastern limit of the Peninsula. It is forty miles long and thirty wide, and has an average depth of 125 feet. It is connected by means of the river Severn with Georgian Bay. There arc se Of the 5.- length counti being being called the sc 3,768 menti( This e John, ing th of the 1.- plain, discov borde' the L Queb( possef Algor at his of coi was 3 plain of th( which ( onst£ lend ! ing t( drean the s{ men trated tICA. !r of Canada is ancient ])<)rt of ular in Europe, ith of the river Quebec, hence ench explorers. it three-fourtlis )recipitons, and s navigable for le St. Maurice, n the north, at stance from it.s ipted for forty- ;able stretch of run. Lumber- Ji.stance of 150 e of this inter- hrough an area ley drained by the Saguenay, irrence, flowing lit crafts. The itario at Kings- ;towa City, for Rideau Canal. ;7,500,000, but The Peninsula ■ed by a large .vigable rivers. Clair, is navig- I, a distance of e Grand River, lade navigable Lake Sirncoe ;rn limit of the hirty wide, and s connected by ,n Bay. There DOMIXIOX OF CANADA. 367 arc several small rivers which flow into Lake Huron. hi liicse the Spanish River is the largest. 5. The province is traversed throughout its entire Icn-'-th by a chain of mountains which divides the cou'iitry into two great basins, that on the north being the largest in the east, and that in the .south bein" the largest in the western part. This range is called the Laurcntian Mountains. The mountains on the south of the St. Lawrence reach an elevation of 3 7(58 feet, while the highest i)ealance, the powers of government again fell into the hands of Champlain, who turned his attention to discoveries and settlements in the in- terior."' Champlain, soon after his restoration, nego- tiated a treaty between the Iroquois and Ilurons which, for a short time only, put a stop to the war between those nations. From 1622 to 1627, and even later, the jirogress of the colony in New France was checked by the war between the Catholics and Protestants ii» Europe, which extended also to America. In the lat- ter year, however, war broke out between England and France, and two Calvinists — refugees frorm PVance — David and Lewis Kirk, enlisted in the British service, and engaged in an expedition against the French settlements in America. The squadron, under the command of these men, sailed to the mouth of the St. Lawrence, captured several vessels, and cut off all communication between New France and the mother country. Port Royal and other French settle- ments in that vicinity soon fell into the hands of the English, and. in July, 1629, Sir David Kirk demanded the surrender of Quebec. The post, being weakened, yielded, and now the French possessions in America fell into the hands of the English. But these events had scarcely taken place in the new world when, in 372 COrKTUlES OF NORTH AMKUICA. the old, articles of peaee had been signed wl.ieli pro- uiLsed the restitution of all the conquests inade previ- ous to April U, 1S29; and, by the iuuil treaty of }*[arch 1(532, France was restored to a possession ot her American colonies — not only of New France, but of all Acadia. _ , , . , ,, 6. — No sooner was the French authority peacefully reextended over New France, than Cluunplain was re- invested with his former jurisdiction, wliicli he worlli- ilv maintained till his death in 1G36. He was suc- ^cecled bv M.)ntrnagny, whose situation was rend.H-ed •critical by the dangerous attitude of the Indians. 1 ho war with the indomitable Irocpiois had broken out with greater fury than ever. The Frencli, being them- selves weakened, were unable to render their A gon- quin friends any a.ssistance; hence they were Hum- bled; the Iluroni? were also sorely pressed, ancl ot course the French settlements were in danger, llie Governor, however, succeeded in effecting another treaty, and for a time it was observed m comnarativo peace. During this partial peaee on the borders, the missionaries formed establishments not only at Quebec and Montreal, but penetrated far into the interior, es- tablishing missionary posts, collecting the natives in vilhK^es. and converting them to the Catholic faith by thousands. Upwards of three thousand Ilurons are recorded to have been baptized at one time, aiid thoucrh it was easier to make converts than to retain them° yet many were for a time reclaimed from their savage habits, and very favorable prospects were opened. But this period of repose was soon ended, tlie Iroquois having, in 1648, again determined to re- new the war, and, as it is asserted, without any known cause or prete.Kt whatever. j ., * , 7. — However, the blow was effectual, and the fury of the invincible Iroquois was felt throughout Canada. " The frontier settlements of the French were attacked with the most fatal precision, and their inhabitants, without distinction of age or sex, involved in indis en dc 11(1 Tl nn Wi g'' WJ Ih hn vi Ki of ra ag of so tri m O Cfi P' w cc m 1" ar dt w te lit P< la b' di a tV ■ -. ifc j«*;it;-< jfc^<>:^/5»^»*''*»* ^ *" *-«*'^*"*"'^"' *' '"-- UICA. ifncd wliicli pro- L'sts made priivi- I iiiuil iroaty of M possession of New France, but liority peacefully luuni"»hun was le- wliich he vvortli- Ij. lie was suc- ;ion was rendoled ;lie Inilians. Tlio liad hrokeii out jncli, being tliem- ider their Algon- tliey were hum- • pressed, and of in danger. The effecting another d in comparative 1 the borders, the lot only at Quebec ;o the interior, es- ing the natives ia ! Catiiolic faith by jsand Ilurons are It one time, and rts tlian to retain claimed from their e prospects were 3 was soon ended, determined to re- vithout any known ctual, and the fury hronghout Canada. 3nch were attacked their inhabitants, involved in indis DOMINION OF CANADA, 878 criminate slaughter. The Ilnrons were ovorywhcro defeated; aiwl their country, lately so j)eaceabio and flourishing, became a land of liorro" .'ind of blood. 'J'lie whole Huron nation, with one con.-;ent. dispersed, and (led for refuge in every direction. A few after- Wards relnclaiitly united with their conqncrers; the greater number sought an a.sylum among the Chippe- was of Lake Superior ; while a small remnant sought the protection of the French at Quebec. 'J'he Iroquois having completely overrun Canada, the French were virtually blockaded in the three forts of Quebec, Three ]{i vers and Montreal; and almost every autumn, bands of hostile invaders swept away the limited harvests raised in ilie immediate vicinity of these places. Yet again this tierce people, as if satiated with l)lood, began of their own accord to make overtures of peace, and to solicit the missionaries to teach them the Christian doc- trine. In 1()56 a French settlement, connected with a mi.ssion, was aetuall}' established in the territory of tlie Onondagas. This establishment, however, was of short continuance, for as the other confederate tribes disap- proved of the measure, the French were obliged to withdraw. In 1658 the French were compelled to ac- cept humiliating terms of peace, yet even by these means tliey obtained but little repose. Often, while peace was proclaimed at one station, war raged at another. At length, in 1663, it was announced that deputies from the different cantons of the Iroquois were on their way to Montreal, with the professed in- tention of burying the hatchet so deep that it should never again be dug up, and of planting the tree of leace, whose branches should overshadow the whole and. But uidiappily, a party of Algonquins, stung )y accumulated wrong.s, and resolvmg on vengeance, determined to violate even the sacred character of such a mission, and having an ambu-scade, killed nearly all the party." With this indiscreet blow all hof)es of peace disafipeared, and the [roquois renewed the war. 8. — Everywhere before them they sent dismay, and 374 COI'NTnI^jS OF NORTH AMERICA. boliind tlicMii llicy left rep 180C raqu diati in w bod; towi (listi in fi troo tim( wer app mar but tre£ but age ere< me: the Bii^^-iw>-!v-«f'''-JiMW*»rf*M-*»#-i«ttra«s«aaw«^'^-"'° -■ RICA. 1 and coiiqiiost. tlior lioil or wcro )t at rosistaiico. eir coiKjUL'st, tlio !, fi'ariiion the slightest pretext for war. Among their more desperate onsliiuglits was that upon the Island of Montreal, which they devastated, carrying of! 200 prisoners. In the most critical hour, Utiion- villc was recalled and Count Frontenac reappointed governor. He reached the colony in 1089 and at- temi)ted to conclude u {)eace with the Trocpiois, b\it they were too much elated over their own victories, to listen to any propo.sal, hence tlie governor prepared for war. " As* France and Kngland." .says Marcus Wil- son," " were now engaged in war, in consequence of the English revolution of 1(588, Frontenac resolved to strike the first t)low against tlie English, on whose sup- port the enemy so strongly relied. In ICM) he fitted out three expeditions, one against New York, a second against New Hampshire, and a tl.ird against the pro- vince of Maine. The party de.stined for New York, fell upon ('orlacr or Schenectady, and completely sur- prised, pillaged and burned the place. The .second |)arty burned the village of Salmon Falls, on the borders of New IIam{)shirc, and the third destroyed the settlement of Casco, in Maine. The old allies of the French, rea.s- sured by these sucees.ses, liegan to resume their former energy — the remote post of Mlchilimaekinac was strengthened, and the French were gradually gaining ground, when, from a new quarter, a storm arose •which threatened the very existence of their power in America. The northern English colonies, roused by the at hastily one b; by lai under j)osts tlie Si sail ol been hastil rciide detiat landii by w •were ubaiK nmmi tion : the i Moll! Schu Iielie "'rail u but dure their 1696 he r hef( theii treat clus' land Froi liere lAni can rop( ■rs,iiV^.*.r'i '-^^tW ^.jCji -rufunr-" ' - .»»vaK.* vt aii a ^ t» °^«tit^ NM«>k«>»e«k£UWkfr^- f— t^'fcfaWiWJ*** " '*' " ^*"^ * ' y nil tlio ^.'irri- tuliaii ciiusc iH)\v ii(;({ililillU'(l willi voii till! Frciicli vcriior, ill KWS, lost Iniiiiiliating •e for the rrtnrii iind soiit to that lost immodiiitely w so exasperated or war. Among s that upon the astated, carrying eal hour, Ueiion- itiac reappointeil in lost) and at- he Tro([uois, but own victories, to rnor prepared for lys Marcus Wil- )nscqucnce of the nac resolved to sli, on whose sup- In 1 (){)() he fitted vv V»)rk, a second , against the pro- I for New York, 1 completely sur- The second |)arty on the borders of ed the settlement ' the French, rea.s- >ume their former lilimackinac was ijradually gaining :•, a storm arose of tbeir power in lonies, roused by DOMINION OF CAXAPA. 877 the ntrocith'S of the F."nch and th'-ir savage allies, hastily preimred two e.\peosts in Acadia and Newfoundland, with f^.'vend oii tlie St. [.awience, and had arrived within a few days sail of ()ucbec before any ti**»-fc-- *- - .-JS.^«&S^!4iwS£S4fa-«**:^ ; "-i ■;&trL"iaig<»t^ X EKICA. isistimco to New e English, elated he design of eon- leriea. The Iro- by both parties, ill directed their Cnsrlund Colonies, .vearied of unsiic- lUKLr the cotn- the reduetioii of reneh, the squad- ihe St. Lawrence. 1 terrible struggle Foxes, who pro- f Detroit, and in signs of success. !ollected their for- Bay, where they expedition being fed to capitulate, in, however, long g warfare against their communica- sissippi. 1713 put an end , or until the war enjoyed compara- . the principal set- e best account of Dec then contained tant? but the en- hat period is un- ifined, principally, between Montreal mce below the lat- )nly detached sta- ^'ort Frotenac and ;d, but there were in the vicinity of DOMINION OF CANADA. 379 either of tho.se places. A feeble settlement was found at Detroit, and at Michilimackinac a fort, surrounded by an Indian village. On the whole, however, it ap- pears that, west of Montreal, there was nothing at this time which could be called a colony. 1^ rom this time to the war in which Wolf and Montcalm fell at Que- bec, there is nothing of great importance to record in the history of Canada, so conden.sed as this one, except that the French were not slack in securing the friend- ship of the Indians, bv which they were the better ])repared for the struggle in which they lost their Col- (,11V The other events are thus summed up: In 1731, the French erected Fort Frederic (now Crown Point), on t';e western shore of Lake Cluunplain. but surrendered it to the Phiglish, und-jr Gen. Amherst, in 1759. In 1756, they erected the fo 'tress of Ticonde- roga, at the mouth of the outlet (f Lake George. Uere occurred the memorable deffat of Gen. Aber- crombie, in 1758. During the administration of the Marquis du Quesne, in 1754. the fort bearing his name was erected, at the confluence of the Allegliany and Monongahela, where Pittsburgh now stands. '1 he French were likewise encroaching upon Nova Scotia, which had been ceded to England by the Treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, and in .the west they were attemptincr to complete a line of forts which should confine the British Colonists to the territory east of the Alle^hanies. These encroachments were the prin- cipal cause which led to the "French and Indian •5var,"— a war which resulted in the fall of Canada, and' by which the exercise of French power over it was exchanged for that of the English. An account of this war has already been given in this work, from page 114 to 120 inclusive. Engltah Caiunln. 1700-1840. 14. — The history of Canada under English rule is a subject quite familiar to the general reader. We need therefore sketch only the more important features. The Marquis de Vaudreuile Cavagnal, Governor of 380 COrNTRIFS OF XORTII AMERICA. Canada, when the articles of capituhitirm were cnterod into at Quebec, secured liberal stipnlaiions for the good treatment of the inliabitants, the free exercise of the Catholic faith, and the preservation of pro{-.erty belonging to religious comnmnities. "The change (if dominion produced no material change in the condi- tion of the country. All oflices, however, were con- ferred on Bruis-h subjects, wlio tlien consisted only of military men and a few traders, many of whom were poorlv qualified for the situations they were called to occupy. They showed a bigoted spirit, and an ofTen- sive contemptof the old French inhabitants; but the new Governor, Murray, strenuously protected the latter, and, by his impartial conduct, secured their confidence and esteem." 15. — When the war of the American Revolution broke out, the French Canadians maintained their allegiance to the British Crown. This condition of poliucal feeling so essential to Canada, was further secured by the "Quebec Act," passed in 177-t, which changed the English civil law, and introduced in its place' the ancient French system, with the exception of the criminal branch, which continued to be similar to that of I^tigland. The French language was also directed to be employed in the courts (jf law, and other changes were made which gratified the pride of of the French ])opulation, although they were far from giving universal satisfaction, especially as they were not aUended with the grant of a representative assembly. Only one serious attempt, on the part of the Americans, was made during the Revolution, to reduce Canada, after which the Canadians united with the British, and, assisted by the Six Nations (with the exception of the Oneidas), carried on a harassing war- fare against tlie frontier settlements of New York. The issue of the war of the Revolution was attended with considerable advantage to Canada. A large number of disbanded Briti.sh soldiers, and loyalists from the United States, who had sought refuge in the Britisl- the U and Ti! Ifi. ]Mre I iMIgVb suppb buildi These in Ca ohang wilde: on th impoi On tar found evcfry With tive into ward gove; basis and 1 prorc that live' life, tive assis duti( had bod; ernii pro\ ters crov vali of I »v'«e**!r'*-»*i^*^^'**»*'**'^^-"**'^^ I ERICA. vtion were cnterod jinlaiions for the the free exercise nation of projierty " The change of nge in the condi- awever, were con- consisted only of ny of whom were liey were called to )irit, and an ofTen- habitants; but the dy protected the net, secured their leriean Revolution maintained their This condition of .nada, was further ;ed in 177-t, which I introduced in its A'ith the exception nued to be similar language was also ;ourts of law, and itified the pride of gh they were far especially as they )f a representative ipt, on the part of the Revolution, to adians united with : Nations (with the •n a harassing war- its of New York, ntion was attended Canada. A large liers, and loyalists )ught refuge in the DOMTNIOX OF CAN.VD.V. 381 r.ritish territories, received liberal grants of land iu the Uppvi- Province, bordering on the fet. I^awrence anil T,ake Ontario. •.„! Vm 16 _ These new settlers were termed " Lnited l^.m- pire i.oyalists," and were greatly encouraged by the •hvdish government. They received not only a full .uimlv of land, but also the necessary farming utensils, hail ling materials, and even subsistence for two years These inducements not only increased the settlements in Canada, but the appearance of n. A ^oM^ chancre was soon produced, and a irreat extent of Seiness converted into fruitful fields. Kingston on the site of Fort Frontenae, rose into commercial importance, and was for a long time the capital of an;. The town of York, afterward Toronto founded soon after by Gen. Snncoe, rose rapidly, and e^n-y where Canada moved forward in prosperity. With this advancement came a demand for representa- tive Vovernment, and in 1791, Canada was divided nto Uvo provinces, called Upper and Lower, afer- wards Ontario and Quebec, over which representa iv e Governments were established on a British constitution hnsis A Governor was appointed for each province, and'to him was given the same power for convoking^ proro.ruing and dissolving the representa ive assembly flat the King himself enjoyed in Engdand. A Legis a- tve Council, with members appointed by the Knig for L was also established. There was also an Execu- i!; Council appointed by the King, to advise and n«sist the Governor in the performance of his executive duties The representative assembly in each province had but little direct power. It formed a concurrent body in the general legislature. Each provincial gov- ernment had'control over all matters pertaining to the province, excepting the subjects of religion, Us minis- lers and revenues and the waste lands belonging to the crown Acts affecting these subjects could not be valhl without the sanction of the King and Parliament of England. 882 COrXTUTKS OF XORTn AMERICA. 17, — In 1707. Civu. Prcscott was mole Governor of Lower Canada, and iti lSl)8, a decision of the Cliief Justice of ^^ontreal declarod slavery unlawful in that country, and a few individuals held in bondage were freed. "In 1807, aj)prehensions being felt of a war with the United States, Sir James Craig, an ofTieer of di.stinclioi), was sent out as Governor General of the British Provinces. The ])rincipal events of the war of 1812, so far as they belong to Canadian history, have already been related in another portion of this work. Soon after the clo.ee of that war, internal di.«sensioiis began to disturb the quiet of the two provinces, but more particularly that of Lower Canada. So early as 1807. the Assembly of the Province made serious com- plaints of an undue influence of other branches of gov- ernment over their proceedings; but in vain they de- manded that the judges, who were dependent upon the executive and removable by him, should be expelled from their body." 18. — The administration of Sir Drummond, in 1815, was marked by a discontent among the people that found emphatic expression. He was succeeded in the oflice of Governor-General by Sir John Sher- brooke, who reached Canada in 1816, and by whom harmony was restored to the provinces. He effected a compromise with the Assembly as to the support of the government. But, in 1818, this Governor was succeeded by the Duke of Richmond, who reversed the pacific policy of his p-edecessor, and exercised a tyrannical rule. However, in 1819, the life of the Duke suddenly terminated in an attack of hydropho- bia, and, in the following year. Lord Dulhousie was appointed to succeed him. He immediately became involved in the same difficulties with the Assembly that his predece.s.sor had encountered, and, assuming even a higher tone, demanded a large sum as a perma- nent annual grant for the uses of the government. But the Asseinl)ly still adhered to their purposes until a compromise was agreed upon. There seemed to be r AMERICA. was mo le Governor I decision of the Ciiief ivory unlawful in that leld in bondage were i being felt of a war •rf Craig, an ofTieer of pernor General of the d events of the war of anadian history, have portion of this work. •, internal dissensions le two provinees, but Canada. So early as lee made serious com- other branc^hes of gov- but in vain they de- •e dependent upon the n, should be expelled Sir Drummond, in nt among the people I. He was suceeeded al by Sir John Sher- 1816, and by whom evinces. He effected y as to tlie support of 3, this Governor was bmond, who reversed Bssor, and exercised a 1819, the life of the 1 attack of hydropho- Lord Dulhousie was ! immediately became ;s with the Assembly ntered, and, assuming large sum as a perma- i of the government, to their purposes until There seemed to be DOMINION OF CANADA. 888 n irrowing dislike to the tyranny ;i ..>„...,,„ ....ilikc to the tyranny of the Governor- "GeTieral bv t!ie i)eo[>lc, and, in 182o, tlic jxipular eau.se was streu"Lrth';Mi<'d by the insolvency of the Kocciver- (letieral or Treasurer of the Province, who proved to be indebted to the public over $400,000. 1«).— Lord Dalhousie was absent in 1825, during which time tlie government was administered by Sir Francis lUirton, who, by yielding nearly all the points in dispute, succeeded in pacifying the Assembly. But every c(Micession made by the Governor to ihe Assem- bly only creati^l further demands on the part of that body, and, on the return of Lord Dalhousie, in 1826, the dissensions between the Assembly and the Gov- ernor became violent. On the meeting of the Assem- bly in the following year, Mr. Papineau was elected Speaker. He was the" leader of the opposition to the Government, and the Governor refused to sanction his appointment. The house continued obstinate, and the result was, no session was held during the following winter. In 1828, a petition, signed by 87,000 residents of Canada, was presented to the King, complaining of the conduct of Lord Dalhousie, and also his prede- cessors, and demanding compliance with the policy of the Assembly. The petition was referred to the House of Commons, and that body favored its demands. This report was received by the Canadians with the greatest satisfaction, and their joy was increased when, near the close of the same year. Sir James Kempt was sent out as governor, with instructions to carry the new policy into elTect. The judges, although they re- fused to resign their places in the Assembly, withdrew from its sittings; and seats in the executive council were even ottered to Neilson, Papineau and other popular leaders. 20, Lord Aylmer suceeeded to the government in 1830 giving assurances that he would carry out the liberal policy of the Assembly. The home govern- ment, however, had instructed him that certain casual revenues, arising from the sale of lands, the cuttmg of —■£ =Wri;=Mliki-i£sS: 38i COrXTKlKS OK XOUTir AMEltlCA. timber aivl otlicr sources, were still to he consitlorod as belonging to the cr(;Wii, and were to be ,!j)i>roi>riate(l cliicfly to the payment of the stipends of the elergy of the Established iCh.ircli. When these instructions be- came known, the designs of government met with violent opposition, and the Assembly declared that " under no circumstances, and upon no consideration whatever, would it abandon or compromise its claim of control over the whole public revenue." A long petition was drawn up, setting forth the grievances of the people. It received the indorsement of the Gov- ernor, and soon after the British Parliament con- ferred upon the Provincial Assembly full control over the most important revenues. But, in turn, permanent salaries were demanded for the judges, the Governor and a few of the chief executive officers. "The As- sembly consented to make the required provision for the judges, but on the condition that the casual reve- nues, which had been sought to be reserved to the crown, should be appropriated for this purpose. This condition, however, the home government refused to accede to. A large majority of tlie Assemblv voted against making a permanent provision for the Ccv- ernor and other executive oflicers, on the ground that the executive, not being dependent on the repre- sentatives of the ])eople for a naval and military es- tablishment, would, in case of such permanent settle- ment, have been entirely free from that provincial control and dependence essential to the public security and welfare." 21. — The Province, in and through its represen- tatives, was now in direct conflict with the Crown. The Assembly now began to name conditions for the payment of salaries, and demanded that the legislature appointed by the Crown should be abolished, and a new one instituted that should compare somewhat with the United States Senate, with members elected by popular vote. In 1833, a petition urging this measure was transmitted to the King, and in reply the British mir: loy; iinl pre: si or Car afi ing pas: stra and legi Kmj out an i Ass mat swe gov con( to ( disc Bon Up, stru had adnr the und 3 men plai wit! and the an ; posi elecl opp( :o he considorod 1 be ,!|)i>n)i)riate(l s of the clergy of e instructions be- riiuent met with ily dechired that no eonsidcration )roinise its chiiin /enue." A long the grievances of nent of tlie Gov- Parliamcnt con- full control over 1 turn, permanent i!s, the Governor leers. " Tlie As- red provision for t the casual reve- reserved to the is purpose. This iment refused to 3 Assembly voted ion for the Ccv- the ground that It on the repre- and military es- permanent settle- 1 that provincial he public security ugh its reprcsen- with the Crown, jonditions for the hat the legislature abolished, and a ire somewhat with rnbers elected by rging this measure reply the British DOMINION- OF CAXADA. 385 ministry not only declared the proposed change dis- loyal, but hinted at the possibility that events might unhappily force upon Parliament the exercise of its su- preme authoi'ity to put a stop to the internal dissen- .«ions of Canada, or even to modify the charter of the Canadas. This intelligence threw the Assembly into a fury, and it refused to pass any measures cooperat- ing with the ministry, and the session of 1834 was passed in the preparation of another petition or remon- strance, setting forth the grievance of the provinces, and closing with a peremptory demand for an elective legislative council. Meatiw'hilo affairs changed in England, and in 1835, the Earl of Gosford was sent out as Governor of Canada. He at once promised, in an indirect way, the .speedy performance of all that the Assembly demanded. But if these promises or inti- mations produced any good feeling, it was speedily swept away when his real in.structions from the home government were made known. Lord Gosford probably concealed his instructions from the Crown, with a view to obtaining the needed funds, but his designs were discovered before he gained his point. Sir Francis Bond Head, who had been sent out as Governor of Upper Canada, was the means of disclosing the in- structions to both Governors. The British ministry had proclaimed that " the King was most unwilling to admit, as open to debate, the quesdon whether one of the vital principles of the provincial government shall undergo alteration." 22. — The excitement that followed these develop- ments was intense; "the Assembly not only com- plained of disappointment, but charged the Governor with perfidy ; the customary supplies were withheld, and no provision was made for the public service. In the autumn of 1886, the majority of the Assembly, in an address presented to the Governor, declared their posititive adherence to their former demands for an elective council — maintained that they themselves, in opposition to the then existing legislative council, 'the 86 i» St i«»i->«,p **v^ai*iioft^ 8813 t'orXTHlKS OF XOIiTir AMKinCA. represciilativos of tlic tory purty,' woro t.ho oiilylc-unti- matu ami autliorized organ of the jieoplo — and rnially, tliey expressed their resolution to grant no more sun- i)lies until the great work of justice and reform sliould be eompletcd." A crisis had now come ! 2;j ._ Appearances declared that violent measures woulvl ensue. The provincial Assembly were firm in their radical demands, while the Ministry were unwil- linir to concede the monarchical prerogatives. " Karly in 1837, the British Parliament, by a vote of 318 to 56 declared the inexiiedicncy of making the legisla- tive council elective by the people, and of rendering the executive council responsible to the Assembly. Intelligence of this vote occasioned violent commo- tions in the Canadas, and various meetings of the peo- i)le were held, in which it was afTirmed that tlie deci.s- lon of Parliament had extinguished all hopes of justice, and that no farther attempts should be made to obtain redress from that quarter. A general convention was proposed, to consider what farther measures were ad- visable, and a recommendation was made to discon- tinue the use of British manufactures, and of all arti- cles paying taxes." , . j 24. —The situation now became unpleasant, and Gov *Gosford fearing the influence of Papineau, early in June, 1837, called upon the governor of New Brunswick for aregimentof troops, and issued a proc- lamation warning the people against all attempts to seduce them from their allegiance. Meetings of the loyalists were also held in Montreal and Quebec, condemning the violent proceedings of the Assembly, and deprecating both the objects and the measures of the so called patriot party. In August, Lord Gosford culled a meeting of the provincial legislature, and submitted measures for amending the legislative coun- cil but the representatives adhered to their former purposes of withholding supplies until all their griev- ances should be redressed when the governor ex- pressing his regret at measures which he consider- ed ro! to th( an gl< trn trc w; of in< fre o(T CO ad th( ofT au SOI tie ill- sit W( an pe we Lc sei de po ws ag CO in< en th( m( IMKTUCA. verc the only logiti- 3oplo — and iinully, grunt no inorc suti- ! and reform sliould cotnc ! iit violent tncasuros embly were firm in [iiiistry were unwil- >rogatives. " Early >y a vote of 318 to making the legisla- 0, and of rendering 3 to the Assembly, led violent com mo- meetings of the peo- ,rmed that tlie deeis- lall hopes of justice, d be made to obtain leral convention was r measures were ad- 'as made to discon- ires, and of all arti- ame unpleasant, and ;e of Papineau, early e governor of New 3S, and issued a proc- linst all attempts to iance. Meetings of ontreal and Quebec, igs of the Assembly, and the measures of August, Lord Gosford leial legislature, and ; the legislative coun- ered to their former IS until all their griev- en the governor ex- 3 which he consider- POM IX fox OF r'AXAPA. 887 0(1 a virfu;il aiiiiihilalioii ot llio constitution, pro- rogued tlie Assembly." A resort to arms soeins now to have bcLMi resolved upon by tlio popular leaders of the })eoplo, asnu'ainst the governmentof (ireat Hritian, and, it was nodoiibt lioped by this class that the strug- gle would result in complete independence. A cen- tral committee wns formed with headquarters at Mon- treal, and an association known as " Sons of Liberty " was organij^ed l)y this management, which nuircjied in procession through the street.s, demonstrating a feeling of disloyalty, or dislike to the British yoke, and call- ing upon the peo})le to rally round the standard of freedom. 35. — Violent demonstrations against the crown oflicers were now witnc.«.scd in many quarters. In the county of Two Mountain.s, nortli of the Ottowa and adjoining Montreal on the west, the peoi)le deposed their magistrate.^, and reorganized the militia under officers of their own choice, thereby' overriding British authority in that section. These proceedings were soon after imitated in other places. In six coun- ties southwest of the St. Lawrence, all persons hold- ing ofiice under the crown were forced to resign their situations or leave the country. Loyalist associations- were also formed in opposition to the Freedom party, and these -backed by the Catholic clergy, exhorted the- people to loyalty. In Montreal the " Sons of Liberty," were attacked in the streets and dispersed by the: Lo^-alists, and, although none were killed, many wer& seriously wounded. The office of the Vindicator was destroyed and the residence of Papineau, tlie great op- position agitator, was set on fire by the loyalists, but was saved from the flames after great agitation. Ex- aggerated reports of these doings spread through the country creating the wildest excitement The disloyal movement was now assuming such shape that the gov- ernment issued warrants for the arrest of twenty-six of the most prominent agitators, of whom seven were members of the Assembly, including the popular *<:* iij>iji!v-si;is:;-i^'i-(j:*.iT.v:atiyi .^ ia*-i*fi«ii»#»'^^t»ee-"A. 38S ("oiNTiiiKS OF Nonrir amkuica. rjliiiu'iui, ilii> spfukor of that body. Several wore ar- iX'StL'd. l)iit llic speaker eoiihl not lie found. Consider- able o|i|)osilioii wiis [lut forlli against tlie iiarties en- deavoring toniakctlie ari'ests, and many reseues were fil'eeted. "In tlie latter {)art of November, strong dc- taehinents of governnient troops, commanded by Col .. Gore and Wetlierall, were sent to altaek armed bodies of insurgents, assembled under J'apineau, Brown and Neilson, at the villages of St. Denis and St. Cliaileson the Sorel. Cd. (Jore proeeeded against St. Denis, wliich ho attacked with great spirit, but was repulsed witli a loss of ten killed, ten wounded, and six missing. Col. Wetlierall was more successful. Although St. Charles wa^ defended by a thousand men, the place was carried after a severe engagemetit, in which the insurgents lost nearly three hundred in killed and wounded. Thiti aflair suppres.sed the iri- surrection in that quarter. The peasantry, panic stricken, threw down their arms; Neilson was takm prisoner, and Brown and Papineau sought safety by escapmg to the United States." •2(i.__The w(jrk of suppressing the insurrection con- tinued. In December, 1837, thirteen liundred regular and volunte." troops were sent against the districts of Two Mountains and Terrebonne, which were still in a state of rebellion. " At St. Eustache an obstinante stand was made by the insurgents, who were flnally defeated with severe loss. Numbers of the inhabitants were remor.selcs.sly ma.ssaered, and their beautiful vil- lage burned. The village of St. Benoit, which had been the chief seat of insurrection, surrendered with- out resistance, but such was the rage of the loyalists, who had been plundered and driven out of the country, that thov reduced a large portion piring in the lower province, events of groat importance took ])'ace in Upper Canada. A discon- tented partv hail arisen there, demanding reforms rpiito as distasteful toiJreat Britain as those urged in Lower Canada, and in Ib^rt the assembly had stopped the ordinary supplies, but in the following year, when a new election for members was held, the iiillueneo of tlie governor. Sir Francis Head, succeeded in causing tlie election of a majority of members friendly to the existing government. " From tliis time trancpiillity prevailed until the breaking out of the insurrection in the lower province, when the leaders of tlie popular partv. who had long desired a separation from Great Britain, seized the opportunity for putting their plans 111 execution. During the night of the oth of Decem- ber, 1837, about five hundred men, under the com- mand of Mackenzie, ns.sembled at Montgomery's Tavern, four mdes from Toronto, with the view of taking the city by surprise. Several persons pro- ceeding to the city were taken j)ri.soncrs, but one of them esea|)ing, the alarm was given, and by morning three hundred loyalists were mustered under arms, and the design of attacking the place was abandoned." On the 7th the loylists marched to the attack, and the insurgents were easily driven back and many of thera made prisoners. 28. — The excitement now spread along the border of the United States. Mackenzie, having fled to Bnllalo, succeeded in raising there a great enthusiasm for the cause of Canada. A small force was quicikly rai.sed, and Van Rensselaer, Sutherland and others presented themselves as military leaders. This force took pos- session of Navy Islarid, in the Niagara Channel, and erected fortifications on it, which were mounted by thirteen pieces of cannon. A thousand recruits soon flocked to this post. Col. McNab soon arrived oppo- site the island, but without the facilities for crossing the channel or successfully cannonading the fortifications. These scenes and incidents drew around them many 800 COUSTHIKS OK NOHTII AMKUICA. Amcrioa.is. wl.o wnr .lisposnl to rspouso tl.o cause of tl," '' mtri. k" l.ut I'resia.nt Va.. Wmvu .ss.u.l two sue- !l^i J. iK.liunalions. warninj.' the people o tl... ponal- ties to Nvlii.-1« ill. active iKUlieipatioi. n. i\n' e.M.I ut Xul 1 . .ake tluMU lial.le. Cen. S.ott was apiuuntea to U . con innml on the frontier, wth instmetiuns to .Ma.n- a ,Atriet neutrality. M. anvvl.ile a .inall s.e.m.er m ne.l tlH- Caroline, vvl.ieh haJ been einplove.! by the insuments in theehanuel forronvoym- sni-plu'S, was at- t"uS iM the niKhtbyCapt. Drew, while moorea to he A neriean shm'e. One of the crew was kille.i an. t« vessel, after bein- towe.l to the nn.Mle of the s tr a n. wa^ set .>,. tire. The bnrn.ng eraft was earruM ovor the falls. This net, having oer-invd ... I .^.tea States wate,-s. o,rasio„ea -reat exe.te...ent th.-ou^a.o..t the I'nio.i, an.l Icl to an an-i-y eor.Tsponaenee between the Bi-ilish and Uiiitea States Mii..sle.-s. 2 ) --' After the arrival of Gen. Seott on the front.e,-, the insnr.reti.m i.. that vicinity was soon (piellcd. hi- ceti ve nureve,.tf..rll.er snppl.es S re-ruits f.'o.n reaching ^^u•y Island, whe.., he force of the assailants continually it.e.-e.is.ng. an.l a scvn. cannonade having been -^nrnence. bv then, the ins.ugents evacuated thc.r pos.t.o.^ on the 14lh o J^Miarv. Va.. llensselaer and Maekcn.ie "..api.-g to the i. ted States. we.-c ari-ested bv the A..o...... a..^ t or tie , but aa.T.itted to bail. A nu.nber of the fu r ve; Ilea to the west, and under the.r leaaer, Sut h- erh nd, for.ned an establish.nent on an tslana ,n the Detro.'t Cha..nd. After meeti..g w.th ->-« J^j;: ««' this mrtv also voluntarily d.sbanded. 1 i-anquillity ^as .^-U tored to both Canadas- Pa.-liarnent .nade Tome char-es in the constitution of tl.e lower prov- ide -and%n May. 1838, the Earl of Dn,-ham arr.ved .tOuebec as (ioyernor.General of all B.;it sh Amcnea. Havin-'taken the responsibility of ban.shing to Ber- m da,^un.ler penalty if death in case of return a nurn^ ber of prisoners taken in the late insurrection, and chLrcred Vith the crime of high treason, his conduct itKUICA. |)()\iso tlio o:\usc of rcii issiK'il two auu- It'Oplo of iht' IHMlill- oti ill tilt' c;<)iill'u;t tt wii"* apiioiiit^'tl to iistructiDiis lo muni- u a small stcaiiuT, n einplovod by iho iiir province, h-ft f..r Ki.glan.l, several band.s of Ime nui.s invite.l by the " p='t-'..ts,' crossed ho Ng a Channel, but wer. driven back by the m.l.tm. ' A partv als.. crossed near Detroit but, alter losing a few of their number, were compelled to return, yn ,e IM of November, only two days after llie departure tl.^ Karl of Durham, a fresh rebellion, which had ce ..r.'ani//.n^' .luring the summer along the vviolo no of r.e American frontier, broke out m the southern c un es of Montreal District. At Napierv.l e, west OK. Sorel, Dr. Neilson and other leaders had col- ectel about 4.000 men, several hundred of whom were kt ehod toopen a communication with their friends n the Amerilan side of the line. These were attacked ^ d repu sed by a partv of loyalists, who afterwards Zte ' emselvL iJodeltown chapel where they were ntun attacked by a large bodv of the "iHurgents, headed bv Ncils..n himself, but after a severe engage- rn^ilt thelatte. were obliged to retreat with cons.dera- Vile loss. in -But while these movemeuts were going on. Sir James McDonnell was marciung at the head of ?even remments of the line upon the insurgents, bo r'nfdand effectual were his movements that in less thn two weeks the whole rebellion in Lower Canada ^a. suppressed. Not long after these events seyera hundred Americans sailed from the vicuutyof Sacketts iKm arid landed near Pre.cott where they were ohed bv a force of "patriots." The par y was prmnptly attacked by the government troop.s, but the a er were repulsed ; but being reinforced, the invaders vere repulsei or taken prisoners. Later in the year a Dartv7 Americans crossed frona Detroit, and after ere- Kng conViderable disturbance, they were defeated and if^iM=ti»f4f-**tii'rii'^ '-•■•--'-••■^— ••^^^***~- ' 392 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. dispersed. A number of prisoners were oidered to be shot by the Canadian authorities immediately after the engagement. These events closed tlie year I808, and were the closing acts of the rebellion. During the struggle the American government had exerted itself to maintain neutrality, but it was evident that the feeling of the people of tlie United States was in warm sym- pathv with the Canadians who fought for libertv. 3*i. — On the 23d of July, 1840, the British Parlia- ment, after much bitter discussion, passed an act by which the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada were united into one, under the name of the Province of Canada. The form of government was but little changed — the Governor was appointed by Her Majes- ty, a Legislative Council, and a Representative As- sembly. The old Executive council was abolished. "The members of the Legislative Council were to con- sist of such persons, not being fewer than twenty, as the Governor should summon, with Her Majesty's per- mission, each member to hold his seat during life. The members of the Representative Assembly were to be elected by the people, but no person was eligible to an election who was not possessed of land, free from all incumbrances, to the value of five hundred pounds sterling. The duties and revenues of the two former provinces were consolidated into one fund, from which seventy-five thousand pounds sterling were made pay- able annually for the expenses of the government. After being subject to these charges, the surplus of the revenue fund might be appropriated as the Legislature saw lit, but still in accordance with the recommenda- tions of the Governor." We turn, at this point, to bring forward the history of other provinces, in order that we may bring ourselves to a point where we may take up the Dominion, which was constituted in 1867. 1 ag tw( bet wh inli of Ba Ba of lari are Ca inc pu wt ha Ba wi th( go Sc fiv isl of in an wi en A of ha HERTCA. were oidered to be mediately after the tlie year 1888, and llion. During the ad exerted itself to 3nt that the feeling was in warm sym- ht for liberty, the British Parlia- passed an act by jower Canada were if the Province of lit was but little I ted by Her Majes- ilepresentative As- icil was abolished, ouncil were to con- er than twenty, as Her M.'ijesty's per- 5 seat during life. Assembly were to •son was eligible to f land, free from all ; hundred pounds of the two former B f'lnd, from which ng were made pay- the government. , the surplus of the [ as the Legislature I the reeommenda- 1, at this point, to irovinces, in order )int where we may onslituted in 1867. POMIXIOIJ OF CANADA. 898 PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA. I. SURFACE. 1. — The coasts of Nova Scotia are indented with a great number of excellent bays and harbors, and be- tween Halifax and the Gut of'^ Canso alone there are between twenty and thirty commodious harbors, ten of which will accommodate ocean ships. The principal inlets are Chedabncto Bay, at the entrance of the Gut of Canso : Halifax HarboV and Mayaret's and Mayhon Bays, on the southwest; St. Mary's Bay, Annapolis Basin. Mines Basin, and Chignecto Basin, on the Bay of Fundy; and Pictou Harbor on the Northumber- land Strait. Among the most prominent headlands are Cape Canso, at the mouth of the Gut of Canso ; Cape Sable, tlie southeastern extremity of the Prov- ince, and Cape Chignecto, at the end of a peninsula putting out into the Bay of Fundy from the Isthmus which'connects Nova Scotia with the mainland, and having Mines Basin on the one side and Chignecto Bay oil the other. The coasts throughout are lined with islands, close to which there is deep water. On the Atlantic Coast the islands and rocks form a very good breakwater. 2. — Sable Island, about 85 miles from Novo Scotia, but considered as belonging to it, is twenty- five miles long and one and a quarter miles wide. This island is surrounded by an extensive bank and consists of but little else than a sandy waste. It lies in the track of vessels sailing between Europe and America, and is the scene of frequent shipwrecks, a party of wreckers are maintained on it by the provincial gov- ernment. 3. — The principal rivers of Nova Scotia are the Annapolis and the Shubenacadie. flowing into the Bay of Fundy ; the P^ast, West and Middle rivers, into the harbor of Pictou on Northumberland Strait, all of 391 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. which are naviuahle ; and tho Avon, Havre, Medvyay, Mersey, Clvde, Shelbiirne, Tiisket and St. Mary. The Shubenacallie Canal, together with a 'hain of lake.s, forms an inland communication from Halifax to Gobe- (luid Bay. There are numerous lakes, but with the ex- ception of Rossigiial, which is thirty miles long, they are all small. The surface is undulating, and though there are no mountains, ranges of hills of considerable size take their place and give diversity to the landscape. The highest point. Ardoise Hill, is only 810 feet above the level of tlio sea. The soil varies much in fertdity. II. HISTORY. 10O3-1S07. l._In 1603, the King of France granted to De Monts, a gentleman of distinction, the sovereignty of the countrv from the 40th to the 46th degree of north latitude. Sailing with two vessels in the spring of 1604, he arrived at Nova Scotia in May, and spent the summer in trade with the Indians and examining the coasts to find a suitable place for a settlement. A.{ter spending the winter and suffering much on the coast of New Brunswick, in the spring of 16()5, He Monts removed to a place on the bay of Fundy, and here was formed the first permanent French settlement in America. The settlement was named Port Eoyal, and tlie whole countiy, embracing New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the adjacent islands, was called Acadia. The settlement at Port Royal was invaded, in 1614, bv Samuel Argall. under the authority of the colony of Virginia, and reduced, which completed the conquest of Acadia by the British. France made no complaint of Argall's aggre.'^sion, beyond demanding the restoration of the prisoners, nor did Britain take any immediate measures for retaining her conquests But, in 1621, Sir William Alexander, afterwards Earl of Stirling obtained from the King, James I, a grant of Nova Scotia and the adjacent islands, and. in 162o, the commission was renewed by Charles I, and ex- tcr po bu th« wi W[ ha dt lo qi to th in fi Li A ti; hi ^ ei ct a| si r( \\ a ti t( 2 P a i: f i I M ERICA. n, Havre, Medway, Liid St. Mary. The \\ a -liain of lake.s, la Halifax to Cobe- :es, but with the ex- miles long, they are g. and though there if considerable size ■ to the landscape, only 810 feet above js much in fertility. .nee granted to De the sovereignty of 6th degree of north Is in the spring of in May, and spent ians and examining :e for a settletnent. i'ering much on the spring of 1605, De bay of Fundy, and it French settletnent named Port Itoyal, cr New Brunswick, islands, was called Koyal was invaded, the authority of the vhich completed the 1. France made no beyond demanding lor did Britain take ning her conquests, der, afterwards Earl ng, James I, a grant siiind.-^. and. in 1625, • Cliarles I, and ex- DOMIXIOX OF CANADA. 895 tended so as to embrace all Canada and the northern i)ortions of the United States. 2. In 1623. a vessel was dispatched with settlers, but they found the whole country in tlic possession of the French, and were obliged to return to England without founding a settlement In 1628, while the war with France was in progress. Sir David Kirk, who had been sent out for that purpose, succeeded in re- ducing Nova Scotia, and not only so, but in the fol- lowing year, as we have seen, succeeded in the con- quest of all Canada, but the whole county was restored to the Frencli by the treaty of 1632. At this tune the French court divided Nova Scotia between three individuals. La Tour, Denys and Piozillai, and ap- pointed the latter Commander-in-Chief of the colony. lie was succeeded by Charnise, between whom and La Tour a quarrel arose, which caused great trouble. At length Charnise died, and the trouble was for a time siippressed by La Tour's marrying the vvidow of his enemy; but not hmg after, a creditor of Charnise appeared, named La Bargne, and with an armed force endeavored to reduce Denys and La Tour. lie over- came several important posts, and was, marching against St. John when a formidable opposition put a stoj) to his conquests. Cromwell had assumed the reins of government, and, in 165-1, England declared war against France, and dispatched an expedition against Nova Scot'.a, which met with success, bringing the whole country under England, La Tour submitted to the new yoke," and, in connection with Sir Thomas Zemple, obtained a grant of the greater portion of the peninsula. Sir Thomas bought out La Tour, soon after, and spent $30,000 in fortifications, which greatly improved the commerce of the country ; but all his fair prospects were swept away by the treaty of Breda, in 1667, by which Nova Scotia was again ceded to France. 3. — The French at once took possession of the colony, which, as yet, contained no very large settle- 806 COUNTRIES OE NOUTH AMERICA. nients^ — tlie population, in 1680, not extieeding 900. Tlic fisheries, tlic only profitable industry, were con- ducted by the Englisii. The forts were few and weak, and two of tiiem were plundered by pirates. In this situation, wlien the war broke out in 1(580, Acadia ap- peared an easy conquest, and the achievement of this was given to Massachusetts. "In May, 1G90. Sir William Phipps, with 700 men, appeared" before Port Koyal, wliich soon surrendered ; but he merely dis- mantled the fortress, and then left tlie country a prey to pirates. A French Commander arriving in Novem- ber of the following year, the country was reconquered simply by pulling down the English and hoisting the French flag. Soon after, the Boston ians, aroused by tiie rlepredations of the Frencii and Indians on the frontier.a, sent out a body of 500 men, who soon re- gained the whole country, with the exception of one I'M-t on the River St. John. Acadia now remained in possession of the Etiglish until the treaty of llyswick, in 1697, when it was again restored to France." 4. — The peace of 1697 was soon followed by war. "War was declared against France and Spain, and it \yas again resolved to reduce Nova Scotia, and again the undertaking was intrusted to Massachusetts. This time the invading party was assured that what was gained by arms would not be sacrificed by treaty. "The first expedition, despatched in 170-I-, met with little resistance, but did little more than ravage the couatry. In 1707, a force of 1,000 soldiers was sent against Port Royal, but the Frencli commandant con- ducted the defense of the place with so much ability, that the as.sailants were obliged to retire with consid- erable loss. In 1710. a much larger force, under the command of Gen. Niclu^lson, appeared before Port Royal, but the French commandant having but a fee- ble garrison, and declining to attempt a resistance, obtained an honorable capitulation. Port Royal was now named Annapolis. From this period Nova Sco- tia has been permanently annexed to the British crown." tl fr ]i( h: in w h n tl S( d si ^ el tl w a w F f( ti o t' C J t c I t c s { I t c AMERICA. , not exceeding 900. industry, were con- s were few and weak, by pirates. In tliis t in 1(580, Acadia ap- acliievenient of this 'In May, 1G90. Sir ppcared before Port but he merely dis- t tlie country a prey !• arriving in Novcm- itry was reconquered iish and hoisting the stoiiians. aroused by and Indians on the I men, who soon re- he exception of one Jia now remained in e treaty of llyswick, :d to P^ ranee." ?>n followed by war. :e and Spain, and it ra, Scotia, and again riassachusetts. This a red that what was 5acrificcd by treaty. I in 170-1-, met with ^re than ravage the 30 soldiers was sent ;h commandant con- k'ith so much ability, ) retire with consid- ger force, under the peared before Port lit having but a fee- .ttempt a resistance, •n. Port Iloyal was is period Nova Sco- xed to the British DOMINIOX OF CAXADA. 897 5. „. But the Indians of Xova Scotia, like those of the other portions of northern America, remained fast friends to the French, even after tlie I'renoh cause was hopeless and the country had passed forever into tlie hands of the English. They were determined to re- main independent: hence tliey carried on a vigorous war against the English. In' 1720 they plundered a large "establislimcnt at Canso, carrying off fish and incT'chandiso to the amount of $10,000; and in 1723 they captured at the same place seventeen sail of ves- sel.a, with numerous prisoners, nine of whom they deliberately and cruelly put to death. The Indians still continued hostile, and the British inhabitants of Nova Scotia were obliged to solicit aid from Massa- chusetts, and in 1728 that province sent a body of troops against the principal village of the Norridge- wocks, o7i the Kennebec. The enemy were surprised and defeated with great slaughter, and among those who fell victims to the contest, was the missionary, Father Ralle, who had resided among them for over forty years. This severe punishment awed the na- tives, "so that for many years the English settlements of Nova Scotia enjoyed tranquillity. 6. — But when, in 1744, war broke out again be- tween France and England, the French Governor of Cape Breton immediardy attempted the conquest of Novia Scotia. He reduced Canso, and laid seige to Annapolis, but was unsuccessful. The English, on the contrary, succeeded in taking Louisburg, the then Gibralter of America, but when peace was concluded, by the Treaty of Aix la Chapelle, in 1748, the island of Cape Breton was restored to France. After this treaty Nova Scotia began to be the object of attention of ifngland. The peninsula had hitherto been settled almos" exclusively by the French. In order to intro- duce a greater proportion of English settlers, it was proposed to colonize in Nova Scotia a large number of the soldiers who had been discharged in con.se- quence of the disbanding of the army, and in the lat- 898 COT'NTRTKS OF NOTJTH AMERICA. tor pnrt of .Imio, 1740. a comnany of nearly 4.000 julveiitm'crs of this class wa.s iiddcd to the jiopiiKition of the ('olony. To every soldier were given fifty acres of iaiid, with ten additional acre.s for every member of his family. Olficers had a larger allowance, and every person above a captain received six hundred acres, witli proportionate increase for the members of fami lies. These .settlers were conveyed free of expense, nnd furnished with ammunition and with utensils for clearing their lands and erecting dwellings, and were naintained twelve months at the e.xpense of the gov- ernment. 7. — The emigrants were landed at Chebucto Har- bor under the charge of the Hon. Edward Cornwallis, whom the King had appointed their Governor. At this place they at once commenced the building of the town of Halifax, which was named in lionor of the nobleman who had the greatest share in founding the colony. The place selected for the new town con- tained the advantages of one of the finest harbors in America. The colony "was considered of so great importance to England, that parliament continued to make annual grants for it, which, in 1755. had amounted to the enormous sum of nearly two millions of dollar-s. But although the English settlers were thus firmly established, they soon found themselves unpleasantly .situated. The limits of Nova Scotia had never been defined, by the treaties between France and England, with sulticient clearness to prevent disputes about boundaries, and each party was now striving to obtain pos.session of a territory claimed by the other. The government of France contended that the British dominion, according to the treaty which ceded Nova Scotia, extended only over the present peninsula of the same name; while, according to the English, it extended over all that large tract of country formerly known as Acadia, including the present province of New Brunswick. Admitting the English claim, France would be deprived of a portion of territory of g' tl ei si tf F P (' tl a 11 n 1 t ( V fi _L AMERICA. ifiny of nearly 4.000 L'd to the ])0|)iilation ivcre given fifty acres for every member of allowance, and every six hundred acres, he members of fami ved free of expense, and with utensils for ; dwellings, and were 3 expense of the gov- led at Chebucto Har- Edward Corn wall is, their Governor. At jd the building f)f the ned in honor of the hare in founding the ' tlie new town con- the finest harbors in nsidered of so great liament continued to vhich, in 1756. had >f nearly two millions English settlers were on found themselves ts of Nova Scotia had ;s between France and s to prevent disputes y was now striving to claimed by the other, inded that the British ty which ceded Nova present peninsula of ig to the English, it t of country formerly i present province of the English claim, portion of territory of DOMINION OF CAN.\PA. 809 Croat value to Vicr, materially affecting her control over the llivor and Gulf of St. Lawrence, and greatly endangering the security of her Canadian posses- sions." .... g jfo sooner was it apparent that the linglisli in- tended to colonize the whole peninsula, than the French jealous of their former enemies, sought to projudico the Indians against them, "in the hope of etleotuiillv preventing tl,o English from extending tlieir plantations, autl, perhaps, of inducing them to abandon tlu>ir settlements entirely. The Indians even made attacks upon Halifax, and the colonists could not move into the adjoining woods, singlv or in small parties, without danser of being shot and scalped, or taken prisoners. In support of the French claims, the Governor of Canada sent detachments, which, aided by stron<^ bodies of Indians and a few French Acadi- aiis erected the fort of Beau Sejouron the neck of the peninsula of Nova Scotia, and another on the River St John on ]ireten.se that these places were within the government of Canada. Encouraged by these der .on- Ptrations, the French inhabitants around the bay of Chi"-necto rose in open rebellion against the English -rovernment, and in the spring of 1750, the Governor of Nova Scotia sent Maj. Lawrence with a lew men to reduce them to obedience. At his approach, the French abandoned their dwellings, and placed tliem- selves under the protection of the commandant of Fort Beau Sejour, when Lawrence, finding the enemy too strono- for him, was oblitred to return without accom- plishuicr his object." Not long after, Maj. Lawrence was a.ej».!a ^ «p »»« M »UM» » t «i I "" n Xi«»««>»>i.-»»*»<>-»"«--" DOMINION OF CANADA. 401 of great sirr.i.licity. They were a peaceful, industri- ous ami aiaiiiblo race, governoil mostly by tlicir pas- tors, who exercised a parental authority over them ; ihoy clierished a deep attachment to their native coun- try^ they had resisted every invitation to bear arms against it, and had invariably refused to take the oath of allegiance to Great Britain. Although the great body of these people remained tranquilly occupied in the cultivati(m of their lands, yet a few individuals had joined the Indians, and about 300 were taken iu in the forts, in open rebellion against the govern- ment of the country. Under these circumstances, Governor Lawrence and his council, aided by Ad- mirals Boscawen and Mostyn, assembled to con- sider what disposal of the Acadians the security of the country required. Their decision resulted in the determination to tear the whole of this peo- ple from their homes, and disperse them through the different British colonics, where they would be unable to unite in any offensive measures, and where they might in time become naturalized to the govern- ment. Their lands, houses, and cattle, were, without any alleged crime, declared to be forfeited ; and they were allowed . carry with them only their money and household furniture, both of extremely small amount. Treachery was necessary to render this tyrannical scheme effective. The inhabitants of each district were commanded to meet at a certain place and day on urgent business, the nature of which was carefully concealed from them ; and when they were all assem- bled, the dreadful mandate was pronounced, and only small parties of them were allowed to return for a short time to make the necesssary preparations. They ap])ear to have listened to their doom with unexpected resignation, making only mournful and solemn ap- peals, which were wholly disregarded. When, how- ever, the moment of embarkation arrived, the young men who were placed in front, absolutely' refused to move; and it required files of soldiers, with fixed 26 402 COUXTRIE.S OF NOUTir A>fKUICA. bayonets, to secure obedience. No arrangements had been made for their loiititioii clsewlu're, nor was any eoinp< nsation oU'ered for the property of which tliey were deprived. They were; nierely thrown on thi! CO!' jt at dilTerciit |)oiut.s, and compelled to trust to the charity ul the inhabitants, who did not allow any of them io be ab.solntely starved. Still tlirough hardships, distress, and change of climate, a great ])r()i)ortion of them perished. So eager was their desire to retnrn, that those sent to Georgia had set out, and actually reach- ed New York, when they were arrested. They ad- dressed a pathetic representation to the English gov- ernment, in which, quoting the most solemn treaties and declarations, they proved tliat their treatment iiad been as faithless as it was cruel. No attention, how- ever, was paid to this document, and so guarded a silence was preserved by the government of Nova Scotia, upon the subject of the removal of the Acudi- ans, that the records of the province make no allu- sions whatever to the event. Notwithstanding the barbarous diligence with which this mandate was exe- cuted, it is supposed that the number actually remov- ed from the province did not exceed 7,000. The rest fled into the depths of the forests, or to the nearest French settlements, enduring incredible hardships. To guard against the return of the hapless fugitives, the government reduced to ashes their habitations and )roperty, laying waste even their own lands, with a ury exceeding that of the most savage enemy. In one district, 280 houses were at once in a L.aze. The Aeadians, from the heart of the woods, beheld all they possessed consigned to destruction ; yet they made no movement till the devastators wantonly set their chapel on Ib-e. They then rushed forward in des- peration, killed about thirty of the incendiaries, and then hastened back to their hiding places." 11. — At the close of the "French and Indian war," France was compelled to yield her possessions in North America to the English, and now the English I :rQHa»S^GKHC5M19E^B««MPBi®fii3faBB«3WI0«aS»^ ;-Wai*C MKUICA. » arrangemonts had ihcrc, nor was any )rty of which tlicy jly thrown on th^; lied to trust to tlio I not allow any of through hardships, ^reat ])r()[)ortion of losire to return, that and actually reach- rrested. They ad- :) the English gov- lost solemn treaties their treatment iiad No attention, how- and so guarded a /ernment of Nova loval of the Acudi- nee make no alln- otwithstanding the s mandate was exe- )er actually remov- !d 7,000. The rest , or to the nearest credible hardships. ! hapless fugitives, leir habitations and own lands, with a savage enemy. In 36 in a l.aze. The woods, beheld all traction ; yet they ?tators wantonly set shed forward in des- e incendiaries, and places." bVench and Indian eld her possessions nd now the English DOMIXinX OF OAN'ADA. 403 government of the i'rovince of Nova Scotia did all in its power to promote the general prosperity of the sctllemenf.", but after the fullcsi, e.xrrtions hud been juadc, the drc.'idful blank made by Llie banishment of the Kr-Mich was painfully visible. After the peace the Ereiuth were allowed to return to their •lid homes, and occupy lands on taking the cus- tti'uary oaths, but no compensation was olfercd them for the property of which they liad been |tlundered. However, a few did return, and in 1772, out of a Fr'MK.'h population of 18,000, that once occupied j)ortions of Nova Scotia, but 2,000 rcmtiined. It should have been mentioned bef(jre, that in 1758, ilurirrg the administration of Gov. Lawretice a legisla- tive assembly was given to the people of Nova Scotia; und also, that in 1761 a treaty was made with the Indians by which they agreed to forever bury the hatchet, and to accept George III instead of the King i)f France as their great father. 12. — During the war of the revolution, Nova Scotia remained loyal to the British interests, and at the close of the war, the population of the province was greatly increased by the loyalist refugees from the United States. Many of theie settled in what was. soon after, in 1784, erected into the Province of New Brunswick. At the .same time the island of Cape- Breton which, since the capture of Louisburgh, in, 1748, had been united with Nova Scotia, was made a. separate colony. It remained under a separate gov- ernment, but under the British crown, until 1820,. when it was reunited to Nova Scotia, to which it still belongs. Since these events Nova Scotia has enjoyed a long period of peace, in which the province, with a popular government, partially representative and par- tially crown appointed, has grown in commercial importance. In 1867 the province beeame a part of the Dominion of Canada. 404 COUNTHIES OF XOUTII AMERICA. PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. I. SURFACE, 1. — The principal bays and harbors of New Bruns- wick are Bathurst Bay on the north coast, Miramichi Bay on tlie east, and Passamaquoddy Bay and St. John Harbor on the soutli. Tliere are many rivers streams and lakes in the province. The largest river is the St. John, which has its source in a lake of the same name in Maine. After entering New Brunswick it flows, first, south, and then sinitheast, and falls into the Bay of Fundy, at St. John, after coursing over 450 miles. The principal tributary of the St. John, in New Brunswiciv, is the Tobique. The Miramichi courses through the central part of the Province in a northeast direction, and falls into the gulf of St Lawrence. The Restigouche divides New Brunswick from Canada and falls into the Bay of Chaleur after a course of 200 miles. The Nepisiguit, 100 miles long, also flows into this bay. The Petitcodiac flows into the Bay of Fundy, and is navigable for over twenty- five miles for large vessels. There are a number of small lakes in the northern part of the Province, and in the southern portion there are a few somewhat larger. Among these are Grand Lake, twenty miles long and about five broad, and Washademoak Lake, twenty miles long and two broad. These are both between St. John and Frederigton. 2. — Tliere are no mountuiris of any considerable hight in New Brunswick, however, in the northern part of the Province, the country is quite mountainous. The scenery of this district is very beautiful. The surface of the southern portion is greatly broken by rocks and ravines, the coast being bold and rocky. East of the St. John river the soil is deep and very fertile, and originally covered with tall and dense forests. To the west of that river the soil is rather poorer, but there are many well watered valleys that siWK«wiir^»<»»iar««ai«J 3 »-'» ^' *K.i«— aag-fm=fwp5»aigvM i-artHtvr-fV.- ar€ ale coi int far or( no wii cli ve; wl Ai th( en thi tit na fir to th ])e wl an or th Fi es de vi th of tr w ai tc 1 AMERICA. ;UN8WICK. rbors of New Bruns- irth coast, Miramichi noddy Bay and St. ere are many rivers !. The largest river urce in a lalve of the ring New Brunswick s(.)Utheast, and falls 1, after coursing over Lxry of the St. John, ue. The Miramichi ; of the Province in into the gulf of St ides New Brunswic'K fiy of Chaleur after a guit, 100 miles long, 'etitcodiac flows into ble for over twenty- jre are a number of of the Province, and ire a few somewhat I Lake, twenty miles iVashademoak Lake, id. These are both I. of any considerable ver, in the northern 3 quite mountainous, 'ery beautiful. The is greatly broken by ing bold and rocky, oil is deep and very with tall and dense er the soil is rather watered valleys that DOMINION OF CANADA. 405 are very fertile. For nearly twenty miles inland, along the shore of the gulf of St. Lawrence, the county is flat and fertile; but in the interior it rises into gently sloping hills, which extend to the west as far as the St. .John. Iron ore is abundant, and copper ore has been found on the banks of the Nepisiguit, noi, far from St. John. The coal field of New Bruns- wick covers an area of 10,000 square miles. The climate is healthful thongh quite severe. The chief vegetable production of New Brunswick is timber, of which there are all the varieties indigenous to North America — the pine predominating. II. HISTORY. 1783-tf>(l7. 1 . — In our history of Nova Scotia, we liave brought the history of New Brunswick forward until it was erected into a separate province in 1783. Previous to that erection, the French comprehended it under the title of New France, or the British held it under the name Nova Scotia. After Nova Scotia had been finally ceded to the English, the P'rench set up a claim to New Brunswick, and, as we have seen, to defend their claims, they erected forts on the neck of the ])eninsula. and armed the Acadians and Indians, but, when all Canada had fallen into the hands of the British, and the peace of 1768 was concluded, all dissensions on this subject were ended. However, even after this, the country was left nearly unoccupied except by a few French, who had sought refuge among its forests to escape the heartless persecution of the English already described. In 1762, a few families settled at Mauger- ville, about fifty miles up the St. John, and, in 1783, they numbered over 800. At the close of the war of the Kevolution, several lhou.sands of disbanded troops, who had been removed from New P^nglan i, were located at Fredericton; and a party of Acadi- ans who had settled there, were ordered to Madawaska to make room for them. These new colonists, however, 406 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. accustomed to all the comforts of civilized life, en- dured the most dreadful hardsliips wh'sn first placed in the midst of this wilderness; and it was on!}' after severe siiifering and toil that they could place their families in any degree of comfort. 2. — In 1785, Sir Guy Carleton was appointed Gov- ernor of the province. lie exerted all the powers at his command to improve the condition of the prov- ince, which gradually but slowly advanced in pros- perity. In 1803, he returned to England, after which, until 1817, the government of the coloisy was admin- istered by Presidents. But the foundation of New Brunswick was at length laid in 1809. when heav}'- duties were levied on timber imported to England from the Baltic, while that from New Brunswick was left free. "The export of timber, from that period, continually increased, till it reached its height in 1825, when, in consequence of speculative overtrading, a severe reaction was experienced. Yet, since that event, this branch of industry has rallied, and becom.e i nearly as extensive as ever, while a new impulse has ^ been given to the prosperity of the country by the ar- rival of foreign cultivators." 3. — From 1817 to 1823, the office of Lieutenant- Governor was held by Major General Smith, although during nearly the whole of the time the administra- tion of affairs was intrusted to Presidents Chipman and Bliss. In August, 1824, the latter was succeeded by Sir Howard Douglas.*, to whose exertions the growth and prosperity of tlie province are greatly in- debted, lie was relieved by Sir Archibald Campbell, whose place was supplied, in 1837, by Major General Sir John Ilarvey, from Prince Edward Island. On the removal of the latter to Newfoundland, the office of Governor of New Brunswick was given to Sir W. G. Colebrooke. During the administration of Sir John Ilarvey, the disputed boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, which had long been a cause of controversy between Great Britain and the United ! >t"iiw^:u ' ^j(iiiam ' ;,,WTO™reB««K^-»WwWs»roS«»-<^-'!SSW5K^ Sta' lilit tenl bou Sin ern equ pr(j atit 1 Ne ies by thf ne; om pr wi lig ck ha mi Tl bt nc ki Is St of fit IMERICA. )f civili/ed life, en- 5 wlnn first placed id it was on]}' after yf could place their was appointed Gov- l all the powers at dition of the prov- advaiiced in pros- ngland, after wliieli, colony was adniin- foundalion of New 1809. when heav}' ported to Enghmd •few Brunswick was •, from that period, 1 its height in 1825, tive overtrading, a Yet, since that rallied, and become a new impulse has ! country by the ar- fTice of Lieutenant- ral Smith, altliough me the administra- 'residents Chipman atter was succeeded hose exertions the vince are greatly in- Archibald Campbell, , by Major General Idward Island. On :)undland, the office fas given to Sir W. ministration of Sir lary between Maine ong been a cause of in and the United DOMINION OF CANADA. 407 States, threatened to involve the two countries in hos- tilities; but fortunately, in 1842, this subject of con- tention was removed by a treaty which settled the boundary in a manner satisfactory to both parties. Since this period. New Brunswick has enjoyed a gov- ernment similar to tliat of Nova Scotia, and has made equal progress in commerce and wealth. In 1867, the province, with Nova Scotia, entered into the confeder- ation called the Dominion of Canada. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. I. SURFACE. 1, This Island is separated from Nova Scotia and Nevv Brunswick by Northumberland Strait, which var- ies in width from 9to 30 miles. The shores are indented by numerous bays, some of which extend so far inland that the island "is shaped into three peninsulas, con- nected by narrow isthmuses, one of which is but one mile wide. The coasts are bold and lined with p'1 cliffs, ranging from 20 to 100 feet in hight. The , ,,ee is beautifully diversified and watered by nu- • us springs and rivers. The soil is fertile, covered with a th'in laver of decayed vegetable matter, over a lio-ht loam about a foot 'deep, below which is a solid clav, resting upon sandstone. No valuable minerals have been discovered. The climate is very healthy, much milder than that of the adjoining continent. The island was formerly covered by extensive forests, but they have been nearly all removed, and there is now only sufficient timber for industrial purposes. All kinds of grain and fruit succeed well. Prince Edward Island is one of the best fishing stations on the gulf of St. Lawrence. The fishery is principally in the hands of fishermen from the United States, who during the fishing season employ from 200 to 300 vessels. II. HISTORY. 1063-1807. 1. —It is claimed by some, though erroneously, that 408 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. this is tlie island that was discovered by Cabot in 1497, and by him called St. John. When France established a colony in America called new France, this island was included within its boundaries ; however, if we except Cliamplain's description, there is scarcely any mention of it until 1663, when it was granted toa French captain by the name of Doublat, who held it in subordination to a fishing company established at the Island of Miscou. It was valued only for its fisheries, and to facilitate this industry several unim- portant stations were established on its coast. St. John, as the island was called, began to emerge from gener- al obscurity soon after the treaty of 1718, when Nova Scotia, being ceded to Britain, a number of the French settlers, who could not submit themselves to the Brit- ish yoke sought refuge and freedom on tliis i.sland. When Cape Breton was captured by the New England forces in 17-1:5, St. John shared the same fate; but three years later, both were restored to France by the treaty of Ai.\ la Chcpelle. After the second reduc- tion of Louisburg, in 1758, that of St John again fol- lowed, when it became permanently annexed to the British crown. 2 — But the French inhabitants of this island, numbering at the time four or five thousand, were subjected to about the same treatment as their breth- ren in Nova Scotia. The details of the expulsion are not stated, but it appears that some of the inhabitants were sent to Canada, some to the southern colonies, and others to France ; while it is admitted that many contrived to conceal themselves. So complete, how- ever, was the desolation, that, in 1770, twelve years later, only 150 families were found on the island. The treaty of 1763 confirmed St John to the British gov- ernment of Great Britain. However, several years elapsed before measures were taken to promote its settlement 3. — A strange scheme was that forrr-ed by Lord Egrcmont, by which the island was divided into twelve dist ere( was pla adi 20, cou cl,ai tie wh the pri we kii cec of 15 po ex sic g<^ Pf hi pr an V( ar w h( in IT tl Vi P 1 -^HtiS5(F.ffl »-.t.ii4r9—a^iKg.aftfe&< g^i* ' ! »***' ^^"^ AMERICA. verecl by Cabot in )hn. Wiicn France lied new France, this jundaries ; however, ion, there is scarcely 1 it was granted to a )oublat, who held it pany established at valued only for its ustry several uuirn- I its coast. St. John, emerge from gener- of 1718, when Nova umber of the French jmselves to the Brit- dom on this i.sland. 3y the New England the same fate ; but ed to France by the r the second reduc- [ St John again fol- ntly annexed to the ints of this island, live thousand, were nent as their breth- of the expulsion are »e of the inhabitants i southern colonies, admitted that many So complete, how- 1770, twelve years d on the island. The 1 to the British gov- ?ever, several years ,ken to promote its hat forp^ed by Lord s divided into twelve giWva Scotia and New Brunswick. The Legislature of Newfound- land declared in favor of joining the Dominion, but the people, in November, 1869, by a large majority, voted against it. In the same year the government of the Dominion purchased from the Hudson's Bay Com- pany its vast territory. An insurrection of colonists and natives, who protested against having their land treated as a dependent territory, induced the govern- ment to organize in 1870, that part of the newly pur- chased territory which is situated between longitude 96° and 99° West, and the United States boundary line and latitude 50° 38' North, as an independent prov- ince under the name of Manitoba. The immense un- organized territory bevond the limits of Manitoba is called the Northwest Territory. British Columbia was received into the Union in March, 1871. NEWFOUNDLAND. 1 . — This island was discovered by the Cabots in 1497. It is a large island in the form of an irregular triangle, about 1,0(X) miles in circumference. On the nonhwestern side, the straits of Belle Isle, about ten miles in width, separate it from Labrador; and on the southwest it is about fifty miles distant from Cape Breton, leaving a pa.ssage of that breadth into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The shores are generally bold and rugged, the surface mountainous, and the soil barren ; yet,° notwithstanding its scanty internal resourees, Newfoundland has formed hitherto, in a commercial -. 0magn^ii>*»iammemis^^asi»n^i»' J. /VMERICA. ts between eighteen ! and reserve force, e rolls was 675,000. in 1871 consisted of itained on the great I two coa.st steamers, 3 said, originally in- |ueV)ec, Nova Scotia ature of Newfound- tlie Dominion, but jy a large majority, T the government of Hudson's Bay Com- •rection of colonists it having their land induced the govern- •t of the newly pur- [ between longitude ed States boundary in independent prov- The immense un- nits of Manitoba is Jritish Columbia was 1871. ?d by the Cabots in form of an irregular lumference. On the Belle Isle, about ten abrador ; and on the 3 distant from Cape jreadth into the Gulf ! generally bold and and the soil barren ; ' internal resourees, rto, in a commercial DOMINION OF CANADA. 413 view the most important of all the British no.s.seHsions in America. The surrounding ocean is rich in treas- ure. Immense fields of ice, detached from the Arctic shores, and annually floated down to the neighborhood of the island, convey on their surface large herds of seal, from which the adventurous seamen draw valu- able stores of oil. To the east the celebrated bank of Newfoundland, compo.sed almost throughout of masses of solid rock, forms an extensive fisliing ground of bOO miles in length and 200 in breadth. Here the cod fishery, the most .'-tensive fishery in the world, has for several centuries been constantly increasing in ex- tent, and yet not the slightest diminution of its fruit- fulness has ever "been observed. •i — Almost immediately after its niscovery its shores became celebrated for their fisheries. 1 he Eng- lish claimed the right of jurisdicti<.n over the island. But for a long time the number of British vessels em- ployed in the vicinity of the island was less than those of the French or the Spanish. After several unsuc- cessful attempts to form a settlement, Mr. buy, an intelli'^ent merchant of Bristol succeeded in induciiig a number of influential persons at court to engage in the undertaking, and, in 1610, having been apix.nued governor of the intended colony, he conveyed thither thirty-nine persons, who constructed a dwelling and storehouse, and formed the first permanent settlement on the island. . -»j„„ 3 —A Catholic colony was established in New- foundland in 1621, by Sir George Calvert, ^^terwards Lord Baltimore, the founder of Maryland. lie resided on the island a considerable time In 1660, the J rench began to form settlements, which they fortified, show- inl an evident wish to get possession of the whole island. In 16V)2, their works at Plf ^P*^* ^.^/^f;" tially destroyed by the English, but, in 1696, they twice attacked St. John, and the second time having gained possession of it, set it on fire Soon a^^er they reduced all the English stations but two, but the tammsisas^msMfif- 414 rf)T-NTIUKS OF NOllTIT AMKHTCA. treaty of Rvs\vi2, the eoloiiy was, of cu.u-se, again exposed to at- taelv from tlio French. In 170.'). the British eolnnists were snceessfnlly attacked, and, in 1708, St. .lohn ■was surpri.sed and eonii>leiely de.«trf)ved, and the French became masters of every Knirlish .station but one on tlie island. The suc(!esses of the Knglish, how- ever, on the continent enabled them, at the treaty of Utrecht, in 1718, to redeem all their lo.«ses in this dis- tant quarter, and Louis XIV was compelled to yield lip all his possessions in Newfoundland, but Iut re- tained for his subjects the right of erecting huts and lishiii"' stages on particular portions of the coast. In 1729,°the colony was withdrawn from its nominal de- pendence on Nova Scotia, from which period, until 1827, the government of the island was admini.stered by naval commanders appointed to crui.se on tlie lish- ing station, but who returned to England during the wi'nter. Since 1827, the government has been admin- istered by resi. The total population was, in the tame year, estimated at 50,000. 'J he linest harbor is at E.squimault. The province has an Anglican Bish(^p, who is located at Isew Westminster. THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. I. ABORIUINAL HISTORY. J'rior to the Sjianlah Conquetit. 1. — Only by a careful analysis of the architectural and other remains of a people, can we approach to a knowledge of their history in the ab.sence of written records or of hieroglyphs which may be deciphered ; and, until recently, the buildings found by the Span- iards in Mexico at the time of the Conquest, have been misunderstood as indicating the grandeur of the pal- aces occupied by monarchs, while the people were ap- parently homeless and uncared for. The errors of the past will serve as beacons to warn us from siuiilar dangers. 2. — When America was first discovered, the bar- barous tribes that inhabited and possessed the country differed considerably in their degrees of civilization. Some tribes depended almost entirely upon their suc- cess in the chase, and others mainly resorted to fishing for a sub.sistence. Other tribes added to such pursuits a knowledge of agriculture more or less limited, and u;i^a^-vatete^^te^d^iftV^^^^,--...^^>^,:j»:^,aapiS-ag.ri;.» , !!i >t?'- r-' 416 t'Ol'NTItlKrt OK NOimi AMKHICA. yet others, now distinguished na ViUage Indians, had iutaineil a h'v^h degree of proficiency as biiiUlers, unit- ing tlicrewilii some slvill in the art of war, great apti- tude and progress in astronomical researches, much Miccesa in the management of huula whicli tliey had >(rought under cultivation, and so umeh, or so little, development in social life, as is involved in the prac- tice of living in common. Aboriginal Mexicans were of the last innned and higlu t class, but there is no reason to conclude that they were in any respect dif- fering from other tribes save iu ilevel(>ptnent. 3. — The tribes iu dillerent parts of the continent do not ajjpear to have varied from each other more than the circumstances by which they were surrounded and influenced snfUcientiy explain, if we take into ac- count long courses of years operating upon diflerent members of one family in various climates, shut ofl from intercourse by the absence of literature until long after the main divergences were consummated. Tliere is no positive evidcn(;e that the Mexicans were of the same race with the Indian tribes by which they were surrounded, but there is nothing that militates decidedly against that conclusion ; and within historic times in Europe, the diEferenliation observable between German bands that engaged in war and those of tiie same tribes who were persistently occupied in agricul- ture and other indu.stries, sulliciently illustrate how much greater changes than have been observed on this continent could readily arise among peoples of a like origin. The traditions of the Mexicans favor the idea of peculiar races, but where there is no written history, such traditions cannot be accepted as decisive; still such contributions toward knowledge are valuable and cannot fail to be interesting. i, — Mexican hieroglyphics are said to show that the Toltecas, or Toltecs, were expelled from their own country, somewhere in the north, which they name as Tollan, in the year A. I). 472. They are supposed to liave spent 104' years from that time as a migratory IKUICA. lagc Indians, had as b\iilder.s, unit- ►f war, ercat upti- researches, nnicli s which tliey had imch, or so little, lived in the pruc- lal Mexicans were i, but there is no ) any respect dif- l(^j)tnent. of the continent each other more y were surrounded f we take into ac- ig upon difterent climates, shut off )f literature until ere consummated, he Mexicans were bes by which they ing that militates md within historic ibservable between and those of tiie !cupied in agricul- lly illustrate how n observed on this peoples of a like jans favor the idea no written history, as decisive ; still ;e are valuable and said to show that ed from their own nich they name as 'y are supposed to le as a migratory -Jil^B^K^MsSC^^^^U^-^.^ Ht.,iia,iiifijfii ^ ,Ts^^j i ^-' ■ ■ ^t^ ^ iMK ^^ REl'UDIJC OF MEXICO. 417 ;u. RUN. people, before they settled down at a place about fifty miles east of the present City of Mexico, in the year 578, and continued there twenty years, moving a little way to the west at the end of that time to found a city, called after the home from which their ancestors had been driven, Tollan, or Tula. 5, — Probably an elective monarchy or chieftainship governed the wanderers in thoir movements from place to place ; but it seems probable that the monarchy be- came centered in one family about or soon after their aeitlement, as it is claimed that monarchical institu- tions prevailed for almost four hundred years, from A. D. 667 until the people, having largely increased in numbers and wealth, were suddenly smitten by famine and pestilence, so that their cities were almost depopu- lated. 6. — If Cortez and his followers, on their arrival in Mexico in 1519, had been capable of understanding the value of hieroglyphics, and the necessity for merci- ful behavior toward the conquered people, it is possi- ble that we should possess much information from which we are now shut out; but many documents were destroyed, and the people were so misused that the more learned fled the country, or were killed when Montezuma fell ; hence, all that can be gathered con- cerning the Toltecs is largely conjectural. The sym- bols from which the ruin and dispersion of the nation is read implies that a spirit of evil appeared to them in the midst of one of their feasts, and suffocated them in his gigantic embrace, being followed by a child whose ulcerated head conveys the idoa of pestdence super- vening upon famine. Acting upon the advice of the evil one, whose warning had nearly destroyed their race, the remainder abandoned the country of their ancestors' adoption and their own birth, and were re- ceived with kindness among the other tribes or nations bordering upon Mexico, towards the end of the eleventh century. 7. — The Chichemecas occupied the territory from 27 ' -ifi»)bJiWfi^>i]M&^*tL^-«t££twjn«as^to-jg^ ^-^^}m*^^isr^^«^iief*'-^r^im;;^:^^-:^i^^- " 418 COrXTHIKS OF XORTII AMERICA. which the Toltecs had departed, and they a'-e said to have oceupicd one year and six months in their jour- ney from tlie nortli, about one hundred years after the plague and the famine had driven ofT their predeces- sors. There still remained a fragment of the Toltecs, and these, intermarrying with tlie new corners, gave them an insiglit into 'the arts and sciences which had for so many centuries flouri.shed in their cities. The information and aid thiis imparted changed the Chi- chemecas from h.unters and wanderers into an agricul- tural people. Monarchical rule or chieftainship had prevailed among them prior to the time of their fusion with the fragment of the Toltecs. Another tribe, the Acolhuans, followed the Chichemecas from the north, and the two peoples engaged in petty aggressive wars for many years, until the advent of the Aztecs prepared the way' for more satisfactory progress. 8. — The Aztecs, as described by the hieroglyphics, wandered for fifty-six years, making brief stays at dif- ferent spots on the banks of the Gila, or San Francisco Kiver, where ruins are pointed out as having owed their origin to this people. Their home was a long way to the north of the Gulf of California, and their departure, in the year 1160, was due to a command from one of their gods. They made one of their settle- ments at Zumpango, in the Valley of Mexico, on the eastern shore of Lake Zumpango, but that was not the end of their journey. 9, — Their next settlement was made about two hundred and fifty miles from Chihuahua and about nine hundred and fifty miles northwest from the city of Mexico. The exi.stence of considerable remains of a vast building known as the Casa Grande, which were noticed at the time of the conquest, marks this spot as one of the Aztec halting places, but the evi- dence is not conclusive. Culiacan was their next rest- ing place south of Casa Grande on the banks of the C liacan river, which enters the Gulf of California in the 24° of north latitude. During their stay here they M ERICA. d they a''e said to ntlis in tlieir jour- Ired years after the off tlieir j)redeces- ent of the Toltecs, new corners, gave ciences which had 1 tlieir citie?. The chan have discovered nations that origi- REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 421 nally overspread this continent. Their calendar with the positions of the stars, the moon's changes and the recurrence of eclipses, were among the items embodied in the pictures upon which the Spaniards vented their ignorant, pious rage. 1(5. — IIap{)ily the records were not all destroyed, but what remains renders it the more to be regretted that the pictured history is incomplete. One collec- tion of paintings shows as nearly as pictured writings can render such matters clear, the history of Mexico ; subject always to the chance of misconception on the part of the translator. Another set describes the tribute moneys paid by conquered nations and cities. The domestic, military and political institutions of Mexico ap])ear in another set, and every map was a picture setting forth the positions of cities, towns, rivers, boundaries, and outlines of coasts. Cortez saw paintings on skins, on the inner surface of the bark of trees, suitably prepared, on paper made of aloe leaves, by processes rudely resembling the earlier modern methods, and on cloth made from the flbr.e of aloes and palms. In the schools and in the homes of the Mexicans, their children were taught in numberless songs, the meaning of every picture, or of such pictures as were thought essential, so that every generation became versed in the learning of the nation. 17. — The rage of the Spaniards was more violent- ly excited by statues than by paintings, and precisely in that direction the genius of the Toltecas and Mex- icans found its highest point. Sculpture, Mo.siac work and the castings of metals had been carried to great perfection, but all such evidences of ingenuity and grace called for the energy of destruction in which the conquerors excelled. It is asserted that when the fir.st church was built in Mexico, many thousands of these statues were destroyed to make the foundation, and the inexhaustible zeal of the Monks, stimulating the still more ignorant hate of the soldiery, left few relics worthy of notice. 1 W '- ■■»t^ « i r «»»i T ';" '-%WW Sv^^»^ 422 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMEHICA. 18. — Cliarles V, Emperor of Spain juid uormany, to whom iiumorourf presents in gold and silver work ■were sent by Hernando Cortex, as indieations of the ■wealth of ihe country and of the skill of the con- quered people, was transported with astonishinent, and the jewelers, to wlioif ^'.^se cunning productions were exhibited, declared that they were inimitable in Europe. The Mexicans were alike skillful in casting and in chasing the precious metals, and this branch of art was ascribed specially to the favor of their (rods. Under the rule of the conquerors there remained but few evidences of taste on the part of the people, and wherever escape seemed possible, the Mexicans and Toltecas escaped from the intoleiable rule of &[mu. 19. — It might be supposed that the richness of the material einploved was one reason why in a coarse and rude age the art of the Mexicans and Toltccas was highly praised, but their skill in feather work was just as°markcd and successful, as their fine mosaics had all the effect of paintings, so exquisit.'ly was every feather placed in regard to color and shade. The Spaniards were astonished when they found Indians able t() excel their painters in works of art with such materials as feathers only. The extent of Mexican and Toltecan acquirements in science found no ajipreciation among the soldiery, but art appeals more immediately to the senses. 20. — The Mexicans or Aztecs traced their course towards the city which they founded by the building-s which they rai.sed and left when they passed on, and in the city itself massive buildings were found consist- ing of one, two and three stories built on terraces, and having flat roofs which served as terraces from which the next stories rose in succession. Those buildings, supposed at one time to have been the palaces of great peoi)le and rulers, are now found to have been the common dwellings inhabited by the mass of the com- munitv of every rank. Usually these dwellings could be traversed from one compartment to another par- lEHICA. RKl'UnUC OF MPJXtCO. 423 \\n and uormany, il ami silver work iiulications of the skill of tlie con- jistonisliinent, and ; ))rodiiction.s wore ji'o itiiinilablu iti skillful in casting and this branch of vor of their Gods, lere renriuined but if the people, and the Mexicans and le rule of S[)ain. the richness of the •hy in a coarse and ; and Toltccas was ither work was just ine mosaics had all V was evcM-y feather e. The Spaniards dians able to excel such materials as xican and Toltecan ippreciation among immediately to the traced their course id by the buildings hey passed on, and were found consist- nlt on terraces, and erraces frf)m which Those buildings, the palaces of great to have been the e mass of the com- ese dwellings could mt to another par- tially within and wholly by means of trapdoors in the terrace roofs. Sometimes there were as many as live thousand people in one such dwelling erected on three sides of a quadrangular court raised from the surface of the country by a system of terraces. The lower parts of the buildings had no openings save windows high from the court yard ; ladders reached from with- out to the terrace roof, and in the event of an attack, those ladders withdrawn gave almost complete security to the defenders of such a dwelling. Tiie materials used were of a kind that defied fire, and the glistenmg whiteness of the walls seen from a distance, made the Spaniards believe that the city was built of frosted silver. The cleanliness of the Mexicans was as marked as the firmness and majesty of their architecture. 21. — Extensive aqueducts, conveying water a dis- tance of two miles, attest the high degree of civilization attained by the ^Slexicans. These works were con- structed of stone and cement. The population of Mexico is almost entirely matter for conjecture, and the conquerors used such expressions as would justify the assumption that there were many hundred thou- sands of inhabitants in the kingdom, but the lowest and most moderate computation consistent with ascer- tained facts, places the number at one hundred thou- sand. The civilization and progress in art culture as •well as in science, which we find evidenced in the sev- eral cities, cannot be imagined as parts of the develop- ment of a scanty population and village life. 22. — The King exercised what in modern phrase- ology might be termed a limited monarchy. The right to elect had, during nearly four centuries, been narrowed to six of the most powerful chiefs, including those of Tezcuco and Tacuba, with whom the privilege had become hereditary, and all the more important acts of Montezuma were submitted for confirmation to a council of the principal chiefs. Practically, the idea of chieftainship remained almost entire, and in their government as well as in their homes, the natiou was ^ 424 COUNTRIES OF XOKTII AMKUICA. communal and democratic. There were but few changes in their form of government so far as can be ascertained from the time of the foundation of Mexico until the death of Montezuma. 23. — We cannot too distinctly keep before our eyes the tribal institutions of chieftainship when con- sidering the constitution of the Mexican government. The chiefs or nobility held a kind of feudal state, each being possessed of territories amnle for all pur- poses, taken from other tribes, or held under certain conditions as to improvement, and certain titles indi- cated the relation of the chief in every case to the community with which he was immediately identified. The idea of the family permeated all the tribes and the nation. Slaves might be taken from other nations and held in bondage, but so far as the Mexicnns them- selves were concerned, their labors were almost en- tirely voluntary. European writers, knowing nothing of society except as they found it in their own country, where oppressed peoples were just emerging from the feudal condition, to become subjects of the several m.onarchies, with little improvement, unless to change masters is a relief, have applied the limitations of their own condition to Mexican society, and have arrived at most erroneous conclusions in consequence. Hence, we are told that the people occupied a most humiliating position, and the condition of those who •were held in bondage, having been taken prisoners in the warlike expeditions of the time, has been stated as that of the lower rank of the Mexicans themselves. By studying the condition of the Indian tribes of to- day, in those positions in which they have attained the best development, it will be seen that such conditions of servitude are not consistent with the maintenance of manly vigor upon which the actual existence of the nation continually depended in the contests with sur- rounding tribes. Instances of personal tyranny, perhaps, may have been noticed, but circumstances were not of such a character as would permit of their growing lMKKICA. ;re were but few lit so far as can be tindation of Mexico yr keep before our ftainship when con- !xican government, ad of feudal state, amnle for all pur- held under certain certain titles indi- every case to the nediately identified, all the tribes and n from other nations the Mexicnns them- )rs were almost en- I's, knowing nothing n their own country, ; emerging from the sets of the several nt, unless to change the limitations of society, and have ons in consequence. )le occupied a most dition of those who in taken prisoners in e, has been stated as exicans themselves. Indian tribes of to- ey have attained the that such conditions ith the maintenance tual existence of the le contests with sur- nal tyranny, perhaps, mstances were not of lit of their growing KKITDLIC OF MEXICO. 425 1 into a system of oppression. Social obligations were rigorously observed, and the language displays much refinement in this respect, but in the main, where war continued to be the basis of society, the fighting men could not be socially degraded below the men whom, they followed successfully in their forays or defensive operations. . 24. — Where election, within certain limits, de- termined what individual should reign, and what acts should have authority, the rule of the monarch was necessarily unostentatious as a rule ; but the Spaniards claim that Monte/uma had converted his administra- tion into a pure despotism, reducing all his subjects to a state of slavery, a statement impossible of realization among people self defended and not overridden by standfng armies. The writings of the Spanish monk, Clavigero, illustrate the manner in which such ideas have arisen. 26. The form of the Mexican communal resi- dence or pueblo has already been given, and the size of some of the pueblos was such as that even six thousand people could be lodged therein. This building, probably constructed upon a detailed plan, determi°ned upon at first, would be erected only as circumstances required. The mound intended to hold a pueblo, that would lodge six thousand ultimately, would be commenced when only a tithe of that num- lier required accommodation, and each succeeding increase would build on a section in accordance with the system observed, every compartment being the property of the builders and their successors. Their fishing, hunting, and warlike expedttions were also prosecuted in common, and the common stock of pro- vision for each compartment was cooked at common fires in the court yard, suflicient in number to meet the regulated demands of each family or circle. The sovereign and his council of chiefs occupied parts of such common dwellings as therein only was safety against the assaults of predai,ory wandering tribes aud hostile neighbors. 426 COUXTHIES OF NOKTIF AMKUICA. 26. — Spaiiisli writers assume lliat the vast pueblos instead of being a coininoii residoiiee for all classes, were palaees of kings and nobles, in wliieh all the people that ass('int)led in their respeetive homes were coui'tiers, dependents and slaves, doing daily homage to their masters. It did notoeeur to them to intjuire how so many s^'stematie i pectivo hotiios wore i)iiig daily lioinage ■ to tlietn U) inquire iild 1)0 fod, or they ' so cursed would r weakness did not Clavigero speaks of lie aiitceliaiiibcrs of le cursory observa- who first saw tlic scribe in detail just .'ti observed anionic other savages ; the lis eoniinunal exist- habits of industry ,o represent a whole 1 living in an inex- industries, waiting riie Jlode iio-sote or bled the pueblos of on home of numer- )artriient had a fire- ggested by climatic r houses in clusters, ving and eating in ultiplied to an im- m said to illustrate by such writers as ms of the Mexicans, ne more conversant as well to observe : the court were as t by no means im- such an immense orts, guarded only jiKi'rm.u; ok mkxico. 427 \)y noble matrons, may well he nialtor of gonuino dt)ubt. 28.— The homely dresses worr; by the nobihty and the courtiers when in the palace can be very read- ily understood, when we see that the pueblo was the so calleil palace, in which every man or woman was at home, and beyond the necessity for pompous disphiy. The forms and ceremonies used in addressing Monte- zuma are the more suspicious, because they rocnible the customs that prevailed among European sover- eigns at that lime. The kings, to whom the Spaniards i.;ud court, dined almost in public, as did those o France and England at that era, and when it had been found that.Montezuma was in the liahit of dining in his reception room, that circumstance was ipiotcd :is evidence of a somewhat similar regal condition in Mexico. , 2})._The details given as to Montezuma s ves.sel3 of gold and silver, and choice earthenware of Cliohila, are only in part apocryphal; and the descripticm of the extent of Montezuma's feast, the number of dishes and attetidants that waited the pleasure of the monarch, covering the floor of a great hall, is only another in- sianceol life misunderstood, by an observer ih t skilled m comprehending an cniirely new phenomenon. Every dish was accompanied hy a chafing dish, that it might not grow c:)ld, a very natural {)recaution when thtT common meal 1 -id to be conveyed, every day, from the fire in the open court to the common room. The S[ianiards under Cortez saw every event with eyes and minds preoccni)ied by their own customs, hence the misapprehension whicli is unravelled, when the customs of Indian tribes are used as the key to open the secret of Mexican social existence. 30. — Montezuma is said to have indicated always the dishes chosen by him, before the nobles proceeded to consume the remainder; and it is noted as a re- markable circumstance, that he was waited upon by persons of both sexes during his repasts, as also that 498 COTNTRIKS OK Nomil AMKKIl'A. dwarves, jesters, and deformed persons, were retained to amuse liitn with tlieir roiiiiuks, wlien the music temporarily lulleil in the intervals of liis daily meal. Tlio statement as to dwarves and jesters is onlv open to suspicion because |)reeisely similar custoins hud been in force all over hurope for some centuries wlieii the story was first told; still there ia no element of im|)roh!'!)i!ity in the narration. 31. — Clavigero probably believed nil tliat he stated as to the Mexicans, but he wrote a long time after the events and customs described by liim had pns.se(l nway, and all his information came through doubtful channels; hence the story that Montezuma habitually traveled in a palanquin, su[)ported on the r,liouIders of the nobiliiy, that carpets were carried fr.ni place to place, in order that his royal feet might never touch the earth, and that his subjects stood still, with their eyes closed, while his canopied palanquin pa.ssed by, may be accepted as an exaggerated version of some- thing actually seen. The extravagance or the despot- ism of one monarch may have found extraordinary expression in a ridiculous state : but such exhibitions could hardly have crystallized into custom, in the course of less than four centuries, of an elective Mon- archy, or Chieftanship, among a warlike people, hardy enough to have placed the yoke of servitude, or tribute, upon the tribes by which they were sur- rounded. 32. — There are evidences that in their warlike boasting the Mexicans did not widely differ from other Indian tribes, and it is a.-^serted that they were canni- bals, as the Fijians are to-day, to the extent of eating the flesh of prisoners taken in war. Their religious ■worship, although refined in some particulars, required terrible sacrifices of human life, and it was perhaps in order to satisfy that demand that wars continued to be waged against other tribes ; but the history of the peo- ple comes to us through hands so little qualified to an- alyze contemporary statements that it is matter for mo pri! ate in I • « me (io lur (lis ve' rili IlK CUl an les CO, s'a( thi \V( Wl ni th so b( te V( hi ni g' d^ n P tl c h AMKKU'A. lorsons, wore retained rk.^, wlieri tlic music Ills of liis daily meal, I jesters is only oiien similar custoitls had ' some eenturies wlieii lerc ia no element of 3ved all tliat he stated a long time after tin; by him had passed me through doubtful lontezuma habitually :d on tlie r.houlders of carried fri>m plaee to ?t might never toueh itood still, with their palanquin passed by, ited version of some- agance or the despot- found extraordinary but sueh exhibitions into custom, in the I, of an elective Mon- warlike people, hardy Vice of servitude, or lieh they were sur- hat in their warlike dely differ from other that they were eanni- :> the extent of eating war. Their religious 3 particulars, required :ind it was perhaps in wars continued to be he history of the peo- little qualified to an- that it is matter for REPrilMC OI" MKXICO. 4ff> most legitimate doubt. The statement tliat all the iirinoners taken in battle were .sacrillecd is immedi- ately eoiitrailictcd by the fact that some were retained in a condition of servitude. :i:j. — The Aztecs arc credited with liaying com- iiienced the practice of oiTcring human sacrifices to the (It)ds, as the Tcdtecas and Cliichciiiccas arc said to have been clear of tliat horrible i>racticc, but at this distance of time, and with such mediums for the con- veyance of information it is not wise to jji-onounco tlugmatically. The number of viciims oll'crcil as sac- rifices cannot fail to have been overstated by even tho most moderate of the writers usually (luoled, but wo can do nothing better than rcneat their estimates with an expression of prudent doubt. Clavigero says n<)t less than 20,000; Zumaraga, the first Bishop of Mexi- co, says that more than that number were annually .sacrificed in the city of Mexico alone; Aco.sta says tliat there were two days on which 5,000 and 20,000 were respectively sacrificed ; and Gomara auotcs other writers to show that the aggregate exceeded 50,000 an- nually. Such diversities of statement tend to show that there were no reliable data upon which to base the several stories. 34. — The Temple of the Sun which is said to have been consecrated by the immediate predecessor of Mon- tezuma is supposed to have attracted (5,000,000 of people to witness the sacrifice of G0,000 victims. It is very evident that no such number of persons could have been attracted, lodged and fed during the ceremo- nial, and it is almost inevitable that the numbers were grossly exaggerated in both respects. Beyond all doubt the people were bowed down beneath a system more or less idolatrous, administered by an order of priests whose authority was secured by the ability of the learned men to overawe the ruder multitude b^r oc- casional displays of their power ; but sacrifices such as have been named would have depleted the nation. ^ 430 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. II. SPANISH KECORD IN MEXICO. ISIO-ISOS. 1. — Tlcrnando Cortcz, the conqueror of Mexico, was !i soldier of fortune under Velascpez, who con- quered Cuba in 1511, and after that event had been consunnrnated, the commander dispatched his subaltern with an expedition to Mexico in the month of Febru- ary, 1519. Cortez had only a small force, but in or- der to compel his men to fight desperately, he is said to have destroyed liis ships immediately upon landing at A^'era Cruz. By combining with the native tribes that were inimical to Mexico the conquest was effected and the sovereignty was vested in the Spanish King. The proceedings of Cortez were so un.satisfactorv to Velasquez that another officer was sent to supersede him with a force more considerable than his own ; but Cortez fijght and vanquished Narvaez with his thou- sand men and persuaded most of the soldiers to enlist under his flag. Cortez was nominated Governor and Captain General by the court of Spain in 1522, and continued with some changes, and with one break caused by a visit to Eun pe in 1528, to administer the affairs of the colony until the year 15'±0. 2. — The Spaniards were moved by two desires, to win territory' for the King, and to win souls from idol- atry ; but unfortunately their missionary zeal had not the efi'ect of making their conduct kindly toward the people whom they conquered. The Catholic faith in- troduced from Spain was rigidly upheld, and it is claimed that 4,000,000 of the natives were induced or compelled to give in their adhesion to Christianity as thus represented within a few years; but the change was only nominal, and the people degenerated. Coro- nado mentions that when he had successfully prose- cuted an expedition against a native city, the con- quered people gathered up such of their pos.sessions as could be transported, and fled from the dominion of Spain. With a wide range of country before them, the thii na; inc Ik. Til to as int pe: tar eia hi.' eff wa nn oh th( ni: in wl wi an no ex nc isl cr se te tir pr tic th itf AMERICA. ^ MEXICO. iqueror of Mexico, '^elasquez, who con- hat event had been atched his subaltern he month of Febru- all force, but in or- isperately, he is said iately upon landing h the native tnbes )nquest was effected the Spanish King, io unsatisfactory to s sent to supersede 3 than his own ; but •vaez with his thou- ;he soldiers to enlist lated Governor and Spain in 1522, and id with one break 8, to administer the 1540. I by two desires, to win souls from idol- ionary zeal had not i kindly toward the lie Catholic faith in- ' upheld, and it is ves were induced or m to Christianity as I's; but tiie change Jegenerated. Coro- successfully prose- itive city, the con- of their possessions om the dominion of luntry before them, BErUHLIC OF MEXICO. 481 the Indians preferred the wilds with liberty rather than cities and oppression. 3. — Half responsible Governors and their subordi- nates constituted what was known as colonial govern- ment in Mexico. Tlie conquerors held the natives as bondmen, and made life hateful by their exactions. The influence of Bartolome dc las Cilsas alone tended to soften the condition of the Mexicans but his career as Bishop of Chiapa ended in 1551. In spite of his intervention they were still held as serfs and com- pelled to work in the fields, or in the mines, under tar^kmasters nominated by the governors. The denun- ciation of Spanish cruelty made by Las Casas upon his return to his native country produced an excellent effect upon the mind of the "Emperor, Chas. V, who was also King of Spain. 4. — Vassalage slowly won its way over serfdom until the beginning of the 18th century, when the oheapness of native labor induced the abandonment of the last relics of slavery but the people were tyran- nized over in a cruel and destructive manner by laws in which they were not consulted, and by magistrates who could do almost as they plersed. Intermarriage with the white population was strictly prohibited, fire- arms could not be owned by the pure Mexican race, nor could they enter into any contract for an amount exceeding $50. 5. — The population of Mexico, which had been noted for industry and skill, degenerated under Span- ish rule, as an almost inevitable consequence of the cruel system persevered in, until they were seldom seen in the cities, except as mendicants, or little bet- ter ; and on the lands over which they were at one time unquestiond masters, they were barely able to procure subsistence by reason of the want of irriga- tion and the general badness of the location to which they were limited. 6. — Spain is not successful in the management of its colonies, and the descendants of the conquerors 432 CKINTIUKS OF NOUTII AMKRICA. were as little benefited by the system in operation as those who owed their birth to the native stock. Court favor continued as k)iig as Spain held sway in Mexico, to determine the appointments of Viceroys and other officials, who were selected in Europe, and it provoked painful comment long before the revolution, that the American born Spaniard was never preferred to any office that could be filled by a man sent direct from Spain. The rulers thus sent had no interest in com- mon with the native population, nor could they hope for a continuance of favor for their families, should they remain in Mexico. A system of caste was thus superimposed upon the other evil conditions observ- able in Mexican society. 7. — The representative of Spain in Mexico cus- tomarily returned to Spain at the termination of his career in office, a very wealthy person, although his salary rarely exceeded $60,000, and the style in which he was expected to live, maintaining the retinue of a king, could not be supported upon that amount of money. Notwithstanding that drawback, the office was at all ^imes in request, and only great favorites could procure the nomination as Viceroy. The deficit in actual salary was made up by organized malfeas- ance in offi-^e. Titles and distinctions much sought for among colonists could only be procured as a rule through the recommendation of the governor, and he must be paid for all such marks of favor. Commer- cial privileges were also paid for in a manner some- what similar, and the monopolies granted to individu- als and companies, to deal in s6me particular articles of foreign manufacture, were made conducive to the wealth of the "Ticeroy as well as to the enrichment o£ the treasury of Spain. Many offices were held with- out salary in consequence of the facilities thus acquir- ed for levying exactions upon the public. 8. — The law hnd forbidden intermarriages between the Indian and white populations, but the Creoles wore very largely tinctured with Indian bloo.i, and tha effo Ch£ Coi ern acti con pea sec icai heo exf cas « giv pie qu( ity in sisi 0V( all \va wa we the col ed leg op res a"!' th' d,i in in Tl th ' ^'**«5(;*,»««»W»»*t«i*W**««-*«W ■'«** ,v*«an---.**i*-t;)*Ki*Of *- i»»»li'-' TKRICA. ;m in operation as itive stock. Court :i sway in Mexico, iceroys and other e, and it provoked volution, that the T preferred to any sent direct from interest in com- r coukl they hope ir families, should of caste was thus conditions observ- n in Mexico cus- termination of his son, although his the style in which ig the retinue of a n that amount of aw back, the office nly great favorites ;eroy. The deficit :^rganized malfeas- ions much sought procured as a rule ; governor, and he E favor. Commer- in a manner some- ranted to individu- particular articles ; conducive to the 1 the enrichment of es were held with- ailities thus acquir- 5ubUc. rmarriages between !, but the Creoles Indian bloo i, and REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 433 that race found just as little success attending their efforts to procure justice as the Indians themselves. Changes were made sometimes in good faith by the Court of Spain, but it was the misfortune of that gov- ernment, that it had no means of ascertaining the actual condition of the colonies, and that it would not confer upon the people self government. The Euro- pean Spaniard enjoyed a distinction of caste that secured him attention and preference, where the Mex- ican of pure white descent, could scarcely obtain a hearing, and the name Creole was one of the lowest expressions of contempt, on the part of the ruling caste. 9, — The Spanish government is supposed to have given countenance to such distinctions, on the princi- I)le that is conveyed in the maxim " Divide and Con- quer." Those who were upheld by European author- ity were calculated upon as the chief defense of Spain iri the colonies, and there was a continuous and per- sistent effort to maintain the dominion of ignorance over the bulk of the population. The sum total of all the teaching permitted went to show that Spain was the greatest monarchy on earth, and that Mexico was well placed in becoming her dependency. Schools were seldom permitted as learning was dangerous to the ruling caste, and was supposed to be unsuited to colonial life. The City of Mexico was specially favor- ed in being permitted to use a printing press, a privi- le^e not extended to other cities and colonies, but the operation of the boon was the subject of very severe restrictions. 10. — Spain, always jealous of her naval suprera- my and commercial advantages, rigidly insisted upon the retention of all Trade with her colonies. The pro- d ire that sought a market in Europe must be shipped in Spanish vessels to Spanish ports, and the supplies in exchange must come through the same channels. Their ports were closed against foreigners as rigidly as those of China and Japan before this century. No 1 434 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. foreign ship could enter the port or trade with the peo pie, and the native born Spanish-American was not allowed to own or charter a ship. Such articles as could be manufactured in Spain, however badly, were not to be manufactured in the colonies, and even the cultivation of vines and olives in Mexico was forbid- den, because Spain sought a monopoly in that direc- tion. The produce that was not prohibited was still often placed under limitations, often determined by the tonnage of Spanish vessels available lor exportation, and the enterprise of Spanish mariners. Under such distortion of paternal government the people were ground down into the bitterest dregs of poverty, even while mines of gold and silver were in full operation. 11. — France and England secured some commer- cial privileges at intervals during the eighteenth cen- tury, which partially opened the ports of the Spanish colonies. France opened the v/ay during the war of the Spanish succession, and in the year 1713, under a treaty signed at Utrecht, Great Britain obtained the privilege of sending one ship of 500 tons burthen every year to the fair of Porto Bello. How narrow had been the restriction can beat be seen in the small concession thus grudgingly wrung out. The colonies were next allowed to trade with each other, but it was not until 1774 that such a small measure of liberty was perfected upon infinitesimal beginnings. In the year 1778, an- other instalment jf freedom was permitted to take effect. Seville had been the only port of Spain in which Mexican produce could be sold, or from which supplies »" the colonies could be obtained; the Se- villian moviopoly was broken, so that the colonists could consign their shipments to either of seven differ- ent ports, but the market was still circumscribed strictly, as no foreigners could enter into competition with Spain, and the seas of South America were as strongly held against any form of commercial enter- prise as the waning power of Spain would permit. 13. — Charles IV became King of Spain in 1788, and the odi< a pi iner dati for The a ri poii his hur plac tyf Josi eve did pen chi( hav thei rev( easi Spa fror bee to ( or hav per me! mai all wa] i">r ubo tior ipu ■a«:,iat>i«gm«an iM.Ar- [ERICA. rade with the peo American was not Such articles as vever badly, were lies, and even the [exico was forbid- oly in that dircc- rohibited was still determined by the e lor exportation, ers. Under such the people were 1 of poverty, even J in full operation, ed some commer- le eighteenth cen- ts of the Spanish luring the war of ear 1713, under a itain obtained the cons burthen every w narrow had been e small concession olonies were next ,t it was not until )erty was perfected the year 1778, an- permitted to take port of Spain in aid, or from which obtained; the Se- that the colonists ber of seven differ- till circumscribed r into competition America were as commercial enter- would permit, of Spain in 1788, REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 435 and Godoy, the faithless Prime Minister, favored by the Queen, rendered the Spanish rule in Mexico more odious tlian ever before. Every office v »s for sale at a price named in money or in some disgniceful employ- ment, and neither talent nor character were recommen- dations, unless the lowest influences were resorted to for the purpose of securing appointments or promotion. The judges were men without principle or capacity as a rule, and if a man who po,sses.sed ability was ap- pointed, so much the worse for the people against whom his talents were used. Every fresh arrival was more hungry and necessitous than the person whom he dis- placed, and the community suffered an always increas- ing drain upon its narrowing resources. 13. — When Napoleon removed the Spanish dynas- ty from the throne of Spain, and substituted his brother Joseph, the rottenness of the superseded court affronted every nostril, and although the condition of Mexico did not enter into the calculations of the French Em- peror, it naturally suggests itself here as one of the chief considerations why a change of any kind must, have been a source of hope. The aspects of society there /isible indicated a state of suffering that must, revolt, unless relief could be found in some other and easier form. The Creole class, most nearly related to- Spain of all the native born population, stood apart from the Spanish born caste of office holders, indignant because of the wrongs which they hnd been called upon to endure. There was no press and but few schools, or the reign of ignorance ami submission could not have endured no long. Peculation and other frauds pervfided every department of the governnient; com- mei'N', in fetters, could give no support to the people; manufactures had long been interaieled ; and beneath all thepe disturbing causes there reposed, with an al- ways increasing share of supineness, first, an aboriginal population, degraded below the average tndian, and above him the several varieties of half-bred popula- tion, ignorant enough to be used by the first ubte traa- ipulator that could arouse their passions. 436 COUNTRIKS OF NORTH AMERICA. |III. THROWING OFF THE YOKE. jaOH-lS30. 1, —We have seen what was the condition of Mex- ico 'immediately before the abdication of Cliarles IV of Spain, and the deposition of his son Ferdinand of- fered an opportunity for casting ofi the European Yoke ; and we will now briefly examine the means whereby the disruption became possible. 3. — The favorite Godoy and the guilty Queen of Spain had become so much abhorred by the people, and the old Kiii<: now almost sixty years of age was so much an object )f contempt, that m the face of re- cent developments in France, even Spain might have been tempted to rise in rebellion ; more especially when it appeared that the son, Prince Ferdinana, was willing to direct the movement. Probably those domestic troubles were being skillfully manipulated, by the secret agents of the French court ; certainly no other combination of circumstances could have so complete- ly assisted Napoleon in his designs upon that King- dom The King, disturbed by strife within the palace, was ill prepared to cope with threatened revolution outside, and on the 19th of March, 1808, he abdicated the throne in Ferdinand's favor, who was at once pro- claimed King, as Ferdinand VII. 3 —Ferdinand only reigned about six weeks, when he was compelled to resign by Napoleon. The French Empe'-or hud long been an interested observer of bpan- ish affairs, and as soon as the abdication had been made piblic, his troops crossed the frontiers as in the inter- ests of order, and Murat, with an army, entered the capitol. The old King relieved from the former pres- sure and probably influenced by Godoy now revoked his abdication expecting that Napoleon would assist him to remount the throne. The Imperial Mediator who had already satisfied himself as to the unfitness of either of the family to govern a Kingdom, and who lir' seoursd the services of Godoy m his interest, ar- ilEUICA. E YOKE ; condition of Mex- tion of Cliarles IV son Ferdinand of- off tlie European ixarninc the means sihle. ;he guilty Queen of [•red by the people, years of age was it in the faee of re- 1 Spain might have ore especially when iinana, was willing )\y those domestic .nipuliited, by the certainly no other d have so coni})lete- ns upon that King- [e within tho palace, reatened revolution , 1808, he abdicated lo was at once pro- out six weeks, when oleon. The French sd observer of Span- ation had been made tiers as in the inter- i army, entered the rom the former pres- G-odoy now revoked ipoleon would assist 3" Imperial Mediator as to the unfitness I Kingdom, and who y in his interest, ar- UEl'UBLIC OF MEXICO. 437 ranged for the whole of the Spanish royal fauiily to meet him at Bavonne; where daring an interview on the 28th of April, 1808. he mduced or compelled both father and son to renounce the crown ; and when that act had been completed on the first day of May, the ])arties to the compact were consigned for safe custody to the Chateau of Valencay, where they remained un- til March, 1814. Joseph Bonaparte was proclaimed King in the stead of either Ferdinand or Charles, and at once assumed his duties. 4. — Spain would have risen against Charles with much pleasure, and was not very sorry to be quit of Ferdinand; but the manner in which the change had been effected, and the substitution of the Corsiean, Joseph Bonaparte, aided by French bayonets, proved too much for Spanish pride. The people by their leaders established a Central Junta, and immediately thereafter a regency, which was set up as the only le- gitimate government of the Kingdom during the im- prisonment of the Monarch. The Regency really ad- ministered a Democratic form of government in the name of Ferdinand, and the idea took hold upon the bulk of the people. 5. — The knowledge that such events had transpired in Europe was in itself a revolution for Mexico, as, until that moment there had been no doubt in the popular mind, that the Spanish monarchy would endure to the end of time. The Spanish Monarch and not Spain had always claimed the fealty of Mexico, and in that fact was found a reason why neither Joseph on the one liand nor the Regency Junta on the other could be ac- cepted as the sovereign, so that there was an admir- able opening for the people "o assume the management of their own affairs, if only their class differences could be accommodated. 6. — The Kingdom of Spain, now held by foreign troops, could do nothing worthy of mention in the way of vindicating its claim to Mexico, and instead of pur- suing a just and liberal policy toward the colonists, the 438 COUNTRIKS OF NOUTIl AMKiUCA. Junta and the Regency drew the reins of commercial restriction more tightly than ever before, so that it be- hooved the people to consider whether some means of self-help could not be found. 7. — The immediate result of the substitution of Joseph for Ferdinand on the throne of Spain was, that in Mexico the Spanish Viceroy issued an address to the people announcing his determination to stand firmly by the old dynasty, and soliciting their concurrence and support. The Creoles were pleased immensely by this appeal to their patriotism, and the response to the address was of such a character that a chamber cf depu- ties from the several provinces wis convened to take measures for carrying on the government in the name of the King. 8. — The European Spaniards would probably have given their support to the Viceroy, if he had made his appeal w them only, but the idea of admitting the Creoles, or American born Spaniards, to a share in the government, outraged their sense of dignity, and their immemorial privileges, as well as the rights of the Crown. A'A soon as the party had determined on re- sistance, a plan of operations was agreed upon. The Audiencia, or High Court of the colony was made the basis of action, and the Viceroy, seized under the or- ders of that tribunal, and his most dangerous adhe rents, were held prisoners for a considerable time. When the first step had thus been taken, the Span- iards armed themselves to resist the Creoles if neces- sary, and every man was enrolled in the patriotic bands that stood ready for action. The Creoles soon roused themselves to action, and the angry feelings long before active against the privileged class soon found occasion for an outbreak, now that the question •was not such as to afiect their loyalty to the impris- oned king. 9. — Hidalgo, the priest in the town of Dolores, commenced the revolt against the Audiencia party in the name of religion, and in the hope that reforma- tif S€ lie dc Ci ar fli P< VI hi il d tl tl il \ e t c ] MKUICA. sins of commercial clorii, so that it be- lier some means of bhe substitution of I of Spain was, that ;d an address to the »n to stand firmly ; their concurrence iased immensely by the response to the a chamber of depu- convencd to take iiment in the name ould probably have y, if ne had made ea of admitting the ds, to a share in the f dignity, and their s the rights of the . determined on re- agreed upon. The olony was made the leized under the or- st dangerous adhe considerable time, m taken, the Span- [he Creoles if neces- ed m the patriotic , The Creoles soon the angry feelings ■ivileged class soon )w that the question ralty to the impris- 10 town of Dolores, ! Audiencia party in hope that reforma' REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 439 tion of grievances would be secured, on the 16th of September. 1810. There were pr.vate as well as pub- lic grievances to be redressed, and the policy of the dominant clique had long been very opDress.ve. 1 he Creoles were quite in sympathy with t^"s movement and ten of them were acting with their priest in t e first outbreak, which resulted in seven of the Eun> pean party being imprisoned and their proper jes di- vided^among the followers of Hidalgo. The Viceroy had now been a prisoner for just two years under the illet^al orders of the Audiencia. ■, t *i,^ fo.- Insurrection became now the order of the day, and Hidalgo was so strongly reinforced within three days from his fir>-t exploit, that he took San Felipe arid San Miguel, two large towns, confiscating the property of the Audiencia party in each and every instance This line of policy increased his followers very speedily, as the pay of the rebel force was lib- Iral aEd rapid, and in a very little time he was able to undertake much larger expeditions. His greatest capture had been San Felipe, with a nopulation of 16 000 but within thirteen days from the first rising, his force had become 20,000, the major P^rt Pooriy armed Indians, but he attacked and carried Guanaxu- ato, overpowering the garrison, putting all theSpan- iorAa tn death orivin^T up their property as before ar^tg his fot'wis and Lizing ^^00^?? "^P"'^'d fmids This city contained 80,000 inhabitants, and the fame of his rising still further recruited his num- li —Valladolid submitted without resistance on the 17th of October, and Hidalgo commanding a force ^f 50,000 men was now recruited by well armed bod- kso militia as well as by accessions o Indians Father Morelos, a priest with an .-^solute talent fo revolution, joined him at this point, and Toluca was Jhe next position to be taken, at a distance of only twenty five^ miles from Mexico. Hidalgo was opposed bythe new Viceroy, Venegas, with 7,000 men, but 440 COl'NTRIES OF NORTH AMKRICA. the first cnsrageinent bet-'^een a detachment from that boily and tlio in.mv.-goiits, resulted in a defeat for the constitutud authorities, on the aOth of October, at Las Cruces ; and it the Creole party had puslicd forward immediately, there can be but little doubt that Mexico would have fallen into their hands, Hidalgo sudden- ly retreated when the game was already within reach, and from that moment lus opportunity seemed to have passed away. Troops well disciplined can be held back with comparative safety, but an insurrection must never pause in its career until success has crowned the effort. 12. — Gen. r;il!eja, commanding the forces of the Aucficncia, met and routed Hidalgo on the 7th of No- vember, on the plains of Aeupulco, and it is said that 10 000 Indians fell in that engagement. Most of the force under Calleja consisted of Creoles. At Cruau- axuato the victor avenged the deaths of the Euro- peans, by terrible excesses against the inhabitants re- iiijiiniiig in the city, whose throats were cut to save the expense of shooting them. 13, _ Both sides committed horrible crimes against humanity in the name of patriotism. Hidalgo be- headed eighty Europeans at Yalladolid, and then pro- ceeding to Guadalaxara, he arrested and imprisoned everv European. Their days in captivity were brief, as Hidalgo, believing, or professing to believe that they had conspired against the insurgents, removed them from their jail and caused nearly eight hundred persons to be murdered in the mountain recesses with- out any form of trial, and with every precaution^ to surround the crime with the veil of secresy. The atrocity thus committed sealed the fate of the insur- rection, as the better class of Creoles sickened at the idea of such abhorrent practices, at once impolitic and frightful. . , T» • 1 t 14 — The two armies met again at the Bridge ol Calde'ron on the 17ih of January, 1811, near Guada- laxara, and the defeat of the insurgents was decided. "■*»fc... ->isa^&'j»^*«W»™**^ J ,isj»»a»sc^ »»**«**• * MKRICA. acliment from that in a defeat for the of October, at Las ul pushed forward doubt that Mexico , Hidalgo sudden- ready within reach, lity seemed to have (lined can be held ut an insurrection until success has g the forces of the ;o on the 7th of No- », and it is said that iment. Most of the Creoles. At Guan- ileaths of the Euro- the inhabitants re- ts were cut to save rrible crimes against )tism. Hidalgo be- dolitl, and then pro- ted and imprisoned captivity were brief, iing to believe that insurgents, removed learly eight hundred uritain recesses with- every precaution to eil of secrcsy. The le fate of the insur- )les sickened at the at once impolitic and lin at the Bridge of Y, 1811, near Guada- urgents was decided. REPUHMC OF MKXICO. 441 Ilidal'^o, with a force reduced to about 4,000 men, re- treated to SaltiUo, and, from that position, tlie leader with several olFicers proceeded toward tlie Atnencan frontier, intending to purchase arms and munitions of war from the United States, if possible, as the treas- ure captured at Guanaxuuto roinained yet unexpended. While on the journey, the leader and his associates were taken ])risoncrs in con.sequenci' of information ./iven by a former comrade. Tlio Priest, having been uicd at Chihuahua, was sentenced to be shot, but was Hrst shorn of the privileges of his onler. and those of liis followers who were captured at th me time were also shot. , , ^ f „„ 15._Morclos, who joined tlir < urgent forces nnon the arrival of Hidalgo at Valladolid, had, since then, '^one to the southwestern coast to induce the Creok°s to rise, being accompanie-'- CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 443 failed to destroy him. Morelos having repulsed the assault last mentioned, at Cuautla, was afterwards shut up and besieged in that town by Calleja with a largely- increased force, but famine did not impair the deter- mination of the defenders, and it was not until all hope of procuring supplies had been abandoned that tlie pliice was silently evacuated on the night of the second of May. Other leaders, who began their course under Morelos, invited attention by their conduct dur- ing the defense of Cuautla; Bravo and Victoria were among the more prominent at this point, and Guerrero also came into notice for his gallant and successful defense of another town. The leaders thus mentioned became more famous as the war proceeded. 20. — Morelos, in the open field, encountered sev- eral divisions of the enemy after his retreat from Cuautla, and in every instance won a victory. At the Grove of Palms, an engagement that lasted three days resulted in the Spaniards retiring to the village, whereupon the place was carried by storm, the assault being led by Gen. Bravo. The fatfier of the successful general was at that time a prisoner in the hands of Venegas, under sentence of death for political offenses, and his son offered three hundred Spaniards captured at Palmar in exchange for the old man's life. Venegas cruelly refused the offer, but the Spaniards were not punished because of the merciless conduct of the Viceroy, as Bravo gave them their liberty on parole. 21. — Oaxaca was carried by storm in November, 1812, in spite of an obstinate defense by the garrison, and the same fortune attended the army of Morelos, when, in the following year, after a siege of six months duration, the city of Acupulco was compelled to sur- render its strong fortifications into the keeping of the popular party. 22. — Still pursuing the hope of a more general ideniifioation of the people, with the struggle now onward, a national congress was convened in 1813, and that body in conjunction with the central governmeat, U4: COUXTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. having assembled at Cliilpanzingo, declared Mexico independent of Spain in November, 1818. 2o. — 'Vhe lortunesof Morelos had now reached their highest point for some time, and reverses were in .store, but not such as to reflect discredit upon the priest, or general. While the National Congress was sitting, Gen. Matamoras fought the second battle of Palmar, inflicting signal losses upon tiie Spaniards, although their troops were veterans specially sent from Europe "to determine the contest. Morelos attacked Valladolid in December, with a force of less than 7,000 men, although his troops were fatigued by toilsome marches and were opposed by Iturbide with a strong garrison. The repulse was sanguinary, and on the following dav, Dec. 24, a sally from the town completed the discomfft- ure of the army of Morelos. The assault by Iturbide would not have proved fatal, in all probability, but for a mistake by a body of cavalry wi. ch had been sent to sustain Morelos, but actually charged upon his flanks, supposing that his men were enemies to the popular ca'ise. This incident, at the moment when success and failure were in the balance, routed the army, with the loss of guns and munitions of war. 24. — Iturbide continued his attacks upon the de- feated general, never allowing him time to rally. An assault on the 6th of January, 181-4, dispersed the troops, and Matamoras was made a prisoner. The hero of Palmar was shot by order of Calleja, now become Vicerov, in spite of the offers of Morelos to e.Kchan. — There were now many scattered forces under leaders of considerable heroism and capacity, but none of them had attained a national reputation, con- sequently the cause of the insurgents looked all but hopeless after the deaths of Morelos and Matamoras ; still the contest was not abandoned and the jealousies of the several leaders did not completely mar the chances of ultimate success. The principal chiefs were Padre Torres, Guerrero, Teran, Rayon, Victoria and Bravo. 20. — Torres, naturally vindictive and false, was a terror in the district of the Bax'i, in his half mili- tary, half priestly, character. The whole district was allotted among men who had but one merit in his or in any other eyes, their fidelity to their leader. The authority wielded by Torres was exerted for purely personal ends generally, but his influence was miiinlv given on the popular side, and his devastations afflicted the whole community. Under his protection there continued for some time to he a junta which published decrees, but there was not even a show of authority for their edicts beyond the ground covered by the arms of the Padre Torres. 27. — Guerrero maintained himself in the fastnesses of the mountains, on the western coast, until 1821, t--^-i'-t;V^,->r^-'.-iJ^&p,^/,.^^j.«^^j^^j5i^r^^ __ 446 a)LNTniES OE NOKTir AMERICA. ■when ho made u combination with Iturbide for the movement tlien commeticed. Bravo maintained his career heroically against superior numbers in different parts of the country until 1817, when his forces being dispersed, he was taken prisoner and conveyed to Mexico. Kayon was in command in the nothern dis- tricts of Valladolid province, where he defended his stronehold against Iturbide with marked courage, repelling a furious assault on the 4th of March, 1815. The place was not surrendered until January, 1817, when Rayon was absent, and soon afterwards the courgeous lawver was made a prisoner, being confined in Mexico uiail the proceedings of 1821 reversed the order of events. Teran confiiied his operations to the Province of Puebla, where the national congress was for some time under his protection, but eventually that body was disbanded by his orders, and the mili- tary necessities of the time, lie was enabled to main- tain a kind of guerrilla war with occasional succ^.?ses, until the close of the year 1816, and if arms could have been obtained for his followers, much more would have been possible; but under the circum- stances he could only surrender in January, 1817, having made terms that secured him against the fate which had overtaken greater generals in the earlier years of the struggle. Teran remained at La Puebla until 1821, when his services were once more in re- quest. 28. — Victoria alone remains to be mentioned of all the scattered leaders. He was stationed in the piovince of Vera Cruz, with a force about 2,000 strong, and the Viceroy found him an unwearied source of perplexity for more than two years. Thousands of troops were sent from Spain to subdue Victoria, and a strong chain of forts at length closed him in. His old soldiers died in harness, and it was not easy to recruit his ranks, so that he was at length left alone to face the power which he had so long combatted. Even in this strait he could have made terms with the Viceroy, ai Of \v rn di di at ]-e tr V ar e> w lo ar er th th pr rit at m ca th li:- ali Si be of bu w! W( th( th of HERICA. I Iturbidc for the 'o maintained his mbers in different n his forces being and conveyed to n the nothern dis- ) he defended his marked courage, ;h of March, 1815. til January, 1817, )ii afterwards the ler, being confined 1821 reversed the s operations to the ional congress was n, but eventually ders, and the mili- s enabled to main- casional successes, and if arms could wers, much more inder the circum- in January, 1817, m against the fate irals in the earlier lined at La Puebla ! once more in re- ) be mentioned of s stationed in the about 2,000 strong, nwearied source of irs. Thousands of lue Victoria, and .a d him in. His old not easy to recruit left alone to face mbatted. Even in s with the Viceroy, KKl'LUMC OF IIKXICO. 447 but he preferred to wander away into the mountains and bide liis lime. 29. — The Indians were strongly disposed to suc- cor the wandering chief, and at iirst all his wants were abundatitly su{)plied, but Apodaca, the Viceroy, made it so perilous to harbor Victoria that he was re- duced to terrible extremities by want of sustenance during a long illness, and the pursuit was abandoned at length, because a body, supposed to have been the remains of the famous leader, was brought in by the troops sent to capture him. The trials and escapes of Victoria would form the basis of an admirable poem, and it is probable that imagination has already been exercised in that sphere, but at the end of three years, wiien the revolution of 1821 was impending, Victoria, long supposed dead, emerged from his hiding place and was welcomed by his former followers with such enthusiasm that the people largely accepted him as their leader in the new emergency. The constancy of the man that had never submitted to the usurping party entitled him to much honor. 30. — Immediately before the dispersal of Victo- ria's force, a Spaniard named Don Xavier Mina landed at Soto la Marina with a force of about 350 men, many of them being officers of assured courage and capacity, and with this body as the nucleus of an army that he felt certain he could collect, he hoped to estab- lish a free government in Mexico, subject constitution- ally to Spain. Mina had distinguished himself in Spain by his regard for constitutional liberty but had been driven out of the country in consequence. Part of Mina's small army deserted him at Soto la Marina, but he had still about three hundred in all. 31. — A body of men, so well appointed, landing when Morelos was in the beginning of his career, would in all likelihood have helped to win victory to the popular standard, but there was no longer any en- thusiasm among the Indians or Creoles, and the fact of Mina being a Spaniard and remaining faithful to *--.«tS=^.. if.:;^. ;.> ,^•^■^1ii,.^j:^,^.^^ 448 COl'NTJUKS OK NUKTK AMEKICA. Spain severocl him from the people, who nlone coukl recruit his ranks ; still the brave man and his party puhhetl their way into the country and their daring won successes against large disparities of force. ',i'2, — Having garrisoned Soto la Marina, Mina set out with two hundred men and at Valle de Maiz routed twice his number of cavalry, but at Peotillos he was confronted by two thousand men, under Gen. Arminan, nearly half of the force being Spanish troops that had served against Napoleon in the Penin- sular campaign.s. Wlien arrangements had been com- pleted for guarding his military stores, Mina had di- minished his force by thirty men, and the remainder, prepared for death, determined to meet it in one ter- rilic onset. Contrary to their expectations, the vastly superior force fled in an unaccountable panic and the rout was complete. Pinos was surprised soon after- wards anen. Tturbido, the officer whose successes wero the downfall of ^[orelos, was secretly encouraged by the Viceroy, to raise the standard of revolt, and an army jilaceil at his disposal to vindicate absolute au- thority on the part of Ferdinand; but the General, bet- tering hi.s instructions, used th(( force to establish inde- }iendence of Mexico, having faith that he could there- )y establish a good understanding between his Creole retriinents and the insurgent party routed finally in 1819. 3. —The plan of Iguala, as Iturbidc's scheme was called, secured the concurrence of the soldiers, who took an oath to sustain it on the 24:th of February, 1821. The throne was to Vje offered to Ferdinand, king of Spain, if he would reign in person, but failing such consent, then his younger brothers were to have succession ; and in any case, there were to be constitu- tional limitations, the nation must be independent, and the state religion Catholic. A Congre.ss was to be convened to frame a constitution, to wh'ch all must be sworn, and under that document Spaniards, Creoles, Indians and Africans were to share alike the privileges of citizenship, without distinction, save such as merit warranted. 4 — Apudaca was deposed from his position as Viceroy, and Don Francisco Novello was nominated bis successor, but Iturbiile was the virtual ruler. The insurgent generals, Victoria and Guerrero, joined in the movement, and the Creoles, encouraged by the clergy, flocked to the standard of revolution. All the country, with the exception of the capital city, adhered \MKKK'.V, tnciit liatiiiL; iimovii- 1, till inoro nulicai ;oiint. Tlu! clmrcli L'uts, and that iit'ces- tioiiariey, and Apo- •tunity to return to )ru allegiance to tlio 'hose .suf'ocsscs wero ctly encouraged by d of revolt, and an idicate absolute au- )ut the General, bct- ce to establish inde- that he could there- between his Creole ,y routed finally in rbidc's scheme was f the soldiers, who ^ 24:th of February, ered to Ferdinand, 1 person, but failing )thers were to have were to be constitu- be independent, and /ongress was to be o wh'ch all must be Spaniards, Creoles, 3 alike the privileges save such as merit om his position as ello was nominated virtual ruler. The Guerrero, joined in encouraged by the revolution. All the capital city, adhered liKIMIUJC Ol' MKXtCO. 451 to Itiirbide. and Xovrllo was closely environed tlioro, depending upon his JMiropeaii troops, whose fealty was (lonbifnl. .'i. — While things were in this condition, a new Viceroy arrived at Vera Cm/, and Iturbide, leaving his main body at (^neretaro, met the new comer at Cordova, fifty miles from his landing place, where terms weie made ntider which the inilej)endenee of Mexico was forni.'dly iccognizetl on the b;isis named at Ignola. Tlie tre.'ity of Cordova made the insurgents masters of the en))ital, without bloodshed, on the l?7th of Septem- ber. Is21, and a provisional government was formed, having for its chief duty to convene the Congress idready provided for. Iturbide was named head of a Council of iiegency, consisting of five members, his t-idary being settled at $120,000 per annum, and bis duties including the command of the forces by sea and land. (). — The popular favorite was master of the .situa- tion, and his will was law until the preparations were advanced for convening the Congress, when Iturbide wished to insert a condition that all the deputies should be bound by oath to sustain the plan framed at Iguala, .Ts a condition precedent to their assumption f)f oIKce, (iuerrero. Bravo and Victoria, leading tne old insur- gents, demanded that the deputies should be left free to give expression to the will of the [jcople. The dif- ficulty was accommodated, and Iturbide carried his ]ioint, but disintegration had commenced before the Congress assembled. There were three parties in that body : Bourbonists, who followed the plan of Iguala ; Kepublicans, who.se name reveals their purpo.se, and Iturbidists, who preferred that leader as King instead of a Bourbon. The notional government simplified the quarrel by annulling the treaty of Cordova, and the only questions remaining were. Shall there be a re- public, or shall Iturbide be King? 7. — The Republicans were in a majority, and, as a measure of precaution, the army was to be reduced to _ !'J*Sit.^s4>i^.- '^jA; 452 COUNTRIKS OF NOUTH AMKHU'A. a peace stu.uliira ; b..t l.eforo such an ananciemont cuuM 1.C can-i..l out llurlmle was proclauuc. kup. < . the l«ll. -f May, Ib'i'i, tiie l<.wer section of Uif l.ol.u- . re co.ul.i..iuK wul. tl:c soMi.My for tl.at purpose. T he . c^lv proClaiuiea Ku,g subnu.tc. tin- .p.esuou ^^^ Con.nvss; which was m.w surrouu. C by h.s fr.cn U a^^^u the presence of an overwheluung orc-e u chan-c iH.pnhirlv .uacle was auUiori/.ecl. Ihe piov i ^eheut n theiV a.lhesiou to the chose.nnonarch, an. Uurbulc was n.ore tha.i ever niasler of the dcsluues of ^^'s -The rnnitations to be phu-e.l upon the King were now eo..siclerea by Congress and Uurbule de- nn 'lea such powers as would hardly luive been c..n- e id 1> the hereditary successor to a thro.ne over a free people. The Constitution must be subject to Ins veto and the judges owe to him their olhces, besides ;^ ch Z cuanel progressed, a pr.>posal was made U^'lh; King or EniiL.r should appoint mdU^^^^ bunals. Congress refused concurrence. ihe pun ipa o nts were imprisoned, and when the reeah-itrant ^ '^ , bly pr..leste.!, Iturbide dismissed h.s rarl.ament mMuinating in its stead a Junta of h.s own friends and ""'^1^-- The Junta did as his majesty desired, but the people <'ave .m adhesion to the new body, havin,.; been n.^1n>,nthe Emperor A«^-^"b - W>.de^wa itvled by his arbitrary assumption. Gen. banta A una who hadbeenG(,vern(>rofVer^ l-ul ^een di miS by the Emptor, published an address in Dece ber, demanding tlie reassembly of Congres nd reuronchi.cr Iturbide with b.-oken obligations. heie iZCT^n insurrection in November in the northern n m' ices but that was easily suppressed ; this was a . P oiV fm-midable movement. Victoria served under tre banner of Santa Anna, and B.-avo as well asG er- r ro took the held to cooperate with him. l^oices sent to que the tumult joined the insurgents, part o the am?y was in open revolt, dissatisfaction was all MKUICA. li ;ii\ anancfomptit n.chiimiMl Kiii'j,' on ution of lliu popii- for that ixirposn. le(l the (lUL'slioii to led by his fi'ieiuls, liolmiiig foico, iho )ri/.i'il. The prov- losoii moiKirch, and • ol the ileslinios of imI upon the King , anil Ittirbide de- lly liave been con- .() a tlirone over a ^t be subject to liis their ollices, besides proposal was nuide appoint military tri- •nee. Tin; principal hen the recalcitrant s.sed his rarliauieut, his own friends and jsty desired, but the AT body, having been itin, as Iturbide was I. Gen. Santa A una Oruz, and had been ished an address in ibly of Congress and obligations. There mber in the northern ppressed ; this was a etoria served under ravo as well asGuer- > with him. Forces 16 insurgents, part of issatisfaclion was all REPlTBLtC OF MKXrCO. 458- but universal, and on the 10th of ^^arch, \9,2^, tlio I'linperor Anguslin formally resigned tho crown to a rcassetrdjiy of such uietiibers of Ccngre.-'s as (!ould b(; gathered for the oceasion. Upon the .«tatemciit that ic intended to leave tin; country to prevent an oirusioni of blood, Congress, while condemning his assumption- of the im|ierial title, voted him $'J.'),0()0 per year for life, iind he with his family embarked for Leghorn in the succeeding May, lb23. I(>. — Gens. Uravo, Victoria and NegnMe were n:un(.'(l as a provisional goveriunent upon tin? abdica- ti')ii of Itni'biile, and in August a new Congress assem- bled to prepare a constitution, which was submitted to the popidar vote after the .'Ust of January, 1824, being saticiioncd in the following October. The eoiistitution of the United States was generally iicccptresident, should render an account to the Constitu- lional Congress, but iliat .stipulation was set aside by the President. , • , , t> • jj^^.__Tlie term of five ycar.s for which the Presi- dent had been chosen commenced in January, 1844, and one of the first acts of Congress was to^ vote c;4.,O0O.O()0 for the purpo.se of making war on Texa.s. Santa Anna wanted power to raise a loan of $10,000,- (1(10 for the same war, but Congress declined the larger n.'sponsibilitv, and inasmuch as the contribution order- ed scarce! V produced enough money to meet the daily expenses of the gm-ernment, the war scheme laiigui.sh- cd and died oul Santa Anna was not popular in Congress, and he was more unpopular among the peo- ple, "who saw in liim the representation of military iiower only. When it became neces.sary to nominate an ad inO-'rim President, the ministry only carried tiieir nominee by one vote. It was a favorite ruse with Santa Anna to procure the nomination of deputies to his work, so that he could control the office and yet be irresponsible for what was done. 19, — Demands for reform were made by the As- sembly at Jalisco soon after Santa Anna's temporary retirement, and the object sought was a revolution, as it would have made the President responsible for his acts as provisional president Paredes took sides with the Jalisco Assemblv, declaring against Santa Anna, and he was soon at the head of 1,400 men, having his headquarters at Lagos. Canalizo, the acting President, gave the management of the war against Paredes into the hands of Santa Anna, who with 8,500 troops set 464 COL'NTKIKS OF NOUTH AMEHK'A. out for the capital, rrofcssimis of loyalty wore plen- tiful enotigli. as lr>ii<: as liis army was :o bo (lc[>eii(loil upon, l)Ut tlio I'resiiloiit knew internally tliat words are but poor iiuloxos of the state of tlu; mind, amon.i,' men of bis caliber, and lie wisely doubted. Coiigre.ss reminded liim that liotraiisgres.sod constitutional limits, hy commanding the troops in person, unless at their reipie.st, ane revolutionary party in the as- scendant, and that (ionond, once more direetmg it'o (rovernmcut of Mexico, found himself eonfroiited with ft foe that could teach him the art and P'-f tiee of war in a manner beyond his experience. '1 lie history of this era of Mexican development having been written with sumeient detail in describing the adniini.strati..u of President I'olk in the pages devoted to the Unite. States, the rea.lcr is referred to that account to uvuul needless repetition here. VI. AFTER THE WAR. To thf lirnth s in urging this measure .n the Federal Congress of 1846, and the decree was nriadc ; but Santa Anna could not permit the C^iurch to be dispoiled, and in consequence the will of Congress was set aside. It was useless to argue that the Churcli oucht to bear part of the cost of the general defense, in^vhieh her safety formed part, as only one idea weighed with Santa Anna. The Church was necessary to ifim as an ally, and therefore the property must be ^"^2!— it is but justice to Santa Anna to say that AMKUICA. vessels \in(ler Com- liiid, as [liiit of tin; I the city and valley exercise tlio power , deposed by Suiita iial biuiislimeiit li;\4 [iry party in the ns- iiioro directing llu; [iselt coiifroiitecl with and practice of war iico. The history of having been written g the administration evoted to the Unile(l lut account to avoiil WAR. J»4«-l«7». inds to prosecnte the inde use of by Gomez >f the Church in tho en it was determined 1 be procured, either erty of the Church, or possessions. Benito entage, challenged at- ging this measure .n the decree was made ; nit the Church to be 3 will of Congress was gue that the Church : the general defense, irt, as only one idea Church was necessary the property must be ita Anna to say that KKrilll.lC OK MEXICO. 467 fifitn the hour of his return to power, upon his re- call from the sentence of jieijietiial banishuiiMit, until the end of the war in iSli, his eoiiragi! and en- cigv were beyond praise, and the great pri'pomlcr- iiiiec of tro()"|)s on his side was such as to givo vcrv reasoniiblt! grounds for anticipating victory. At'Bueiia Vista, the Mexican force was 2i),(>iM» op- posed to .'),000 or rather les.s, of which nundwr 4,500 were volunteers on their lirst battle-field. Very nearly the same proportions were observable oil other of the great fields in this war, conscMpiently no blame could attach to the defeated general. He pro- cured the best material that the country could alT()rd, and as much as seemed to be recpiisite for the .service, besides which, it must be admitted that the troop.s fought well. The condition of the country could nut lie eo:isidereil in the presence of hostile troops arriv- ing by land and sea and overrunning the whole terri- tory. >[exico, oocu{)ied by United States soMier.s, siihndtteil to military rule without linding mucli more to eomplain of than had been endured at the hamls of the native government. The disinendierment of Mexi- co, to procure peace, was one of the bitter necessities' of an unsuccessful war. Ilerrera would have met tha Texas dilHculty with negotiations. Paredes took the opportunity to'drive him from office, and, before many months had pa.s.sed, was him.self glad to }>rocure an ainistice, which was ended by Santa Anna's assump- tion of command, only to terminate at last in a com- plete and humiliating defeat with loss of valuable ter- ritory. 3. — The career of Santa Anna was not ended even when his prowess had failed to repel the Ameri- can troops. In the enfeebled condition of Mexico, it was no longer possible to hold the several prov- inces together with a firm hand. The strong cen- tral government, so much desired, was less than ever possible, and many of the provinces revolted, Oaxa- ca, among others, having maintained the disposition 468 COUNTRIES OF XOllTII AMEllICA. of her own alTairs for many yearri under the rulo of Juarez as Governor; bnt San'.a Anna, always intriguiii.ii', proeiired a further term of ofhce. reduced the province to subjeclion, imprisoned and baiiishol Lis op[)onents. and continued to rule until, in the year 1855, Gen. Alvarez, having taken command of an in- eetionary force at Aeapuleo, linally deposed Santr la, and "was himself proclaimed President in Oclc to surrecti Annii ber, 1855. 4, — Gen. Alvarez was quite an old man when lie accepted ollice, and the greater responsibilities were thus cast upon the younger and more energetic men with whom he had surrounded hiniself. Juarez, since so deservedly famous in connection with Me.\ican history, was his .^iinister of Justice, and was also chaiged with the superintendence of ecclesiastical affairs; and Gen. Ignacit) Comonfort, with whom Alvarez had for some tune been associated, was the ruling spirit in the cabinet. There was not a good undersianding between the ditfer- ent members of the government, and, in con.seqiienoe, when the I'resident linally devolved upon Comonfort the priiuiipal duties of hi.s ofiioe by making him pro- visional President, Juarez retired from the ciibinet ami resumed his provincial duties in Oaxaca as Governor. The reforms introduced by Juarez in his departments were distasteful to Coinou'fort because they swept over too much ground, whereas he desired to concentrate his attention upon the church, being determined to curb its privileges. Tnis fact was so wtli understood that several revolts were in train against the provrs- ional President, and one came into full operation : but Comonfort crushed the movement, and, in 1856, issued a decree conliseating church properties for the benelit of the State. The priests and reactionaries generally were bitterly opposed to the new re/june. 5. — Comonfort was proclaimed constitutional Pres- iden't in 1857, and at the same time Juarez was elected to a position in the cabinet as President of the Federal Supreme Court, or Chief Justice ; but Comonfort al- i»5^-^a-R;;aK»Xl4a!.f3^>i;3*-.a r .^-aaa^iiF'rt***'*''****^^'*^-^ rir AMEUICA. voarri under the rnlo t Saiiia Anna, al\vay> r tonii of oflice. reduct-'il iipri.soiiecl and banislicil o rule until, in llio year ken command of an in- o. iinally deposed SauUi limed President in Oelo :c an old man when l\o ter responsibilities were nd more energetic niLMi hiin?elf. Juarez, since so )n with Mexican history, id was also chaiged with lastical allairs; and Gen. n Alvarez had lor some aling s[)irit in the cabinet, nding between theditler- jnt, and, in con.-^eqiienoe, volved upon Gomonfort ice V)y making him pro- red from tlic cabinet and in Oaxaca as Governor, lare/. in his departments because they swept over le desired to concentrate ch, Vieing determined to , was so wtli understood train against the provi.s- 3 into full operation ; but nent, and, in 1856, issued properties for the benelit d reactionaries generally new re'june. limed constitutional Pres- 16 time Juarez was elected s President of the Federal istice ; but Gomonfort al- BEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 169 Imvod himself to be compromised in the plot of Zaloa<^v, which alTorded an opportunity for his ene- mies m the. church and the armv to drive him into (xile in the beginning of 18o8. Thr original want of agreement between Juarez and Gomonfort was appar- ent during the last brief term of office, as the President liad caused Juarez to be arrested and imprisoned pend- iiK- the exi.'cntion of his share in the conspiracy that eiiTled in his own banisliment; but immediately before bis flight from the capital, Gomonfort set Juarez at lihert>% and he used his opportunity to return to Oaxaca, where he had won the hearts of nearly all the community. , , , , • ^ (). — Tiie militi.ry party, backed by the priests, were now masters of the situation ; but the peojile were restive under the voke, and a popular assembly was convened at Guanajuato to concert measures for their overthrow. The choice of all classes fell upon JuarC; to head this effort of the states, and under the consti- tution as President Judge, he was proclaimed President ill January. 1858. There were now so few resources available on the side of the people, that Juarez and his irovernment were compelled to retire to Guadalajara, and part of the garrison in that place under Lieut. Gol. Laiida pronounced for reaction, so that tlie President and cabinet were made prisoners in the palace and in momentary danger of death. Beyond doubt the reac- tionaries would' have executed the President but for tlie interposition of another olUcei who rahic;. n. small force of regular troops and combined them with the National GKiards and people for the defense of the government. The liberal army was being beaten at all points, so well had the measures of the opposite side been matured, and when Gens. Parrodi and DegoUado, beaten at Salamanca, fell back upon Gua- dalajara, Juarez with his cabinet retired to Golima. Parrodi was made General in Ghief and Minister of War, but Guadalajara was forced to cayiitulate to the reactionaries. DegoUado was now made General in F^ ,-ilfta?^Wi .;iH*W»;tn*W*JTi*^ ^ 3fiS«»aB«>r 470 COUNTIUES OF NORTH AMERICA. Cliiof and War Minister, and Juarez reached Vera Cruz tlirougli Manzanillo, Panamaand Havana, almost the \vl)ole interior of the country being held by his enemies. 7. — The condition of Mexico was desperate, but President Juarez maintained his courage, and in June, 1859, in the face of apparently insuperable didiculties lie published his plans of reform. The lit)eral partv, taking fresh heart from this pronunciamento, alai'med the conservatives and reactionaries into inviting Euro- pean intervention, promising that with the assistance of England, France and Spain, there should be elli- cient measures of reform based u])on conservative principles which could not fail to endure. Tiie (jcn- eral in Cliief, Degollado, was caught by tlie.se specious promises, and gave in his adhesion to the scheme, but the army repudiated him and his ])rocedurc at once, Juarez saw the danger of interference fni» < »a,5aarte~*-''^^bj^ai ^wa»J *e«ife'^^^- .Bia^sgv^--^ V i?'ya i i '> nai frt'-'* ift::-ii~- ^ iVMERICA. imi'cz reached Vera and Havana, almost f being held by his was desj)erate, but )urage, and in June, uperablo difhcultios The liberal parly, meiarnento, alarmed into inviting Euro- witii the assistance lero should be elli- u])on conservative endure. Tiie (jen- lit by these specious I to the scheme, but ])rocedurc at once, rcnce from without, ition. Ills mode of le(;t a new Congress y legitimate means, tie of CaljHilalpam the liberals on the arez master of the ceession nearly two •rowly escaped cap- B liberals entered. )nal President, after IS to reestablish his tple an opportunity staflf. Tlie election lident of the Kepub- 2VS of congress who of Gonzales Ortega in his refusal by I try, the state legis- inces. The impov- most utterly bereft ndustries for more REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 471 than two years, rendered extreme measures necessary, and, in July, 18(51, Congre.>s, upon the recommendation of Juarez, was obliged to suspend payment of all pub- lic obligations for two years. This desperate alter- native, only to be defended in the presence of in- solvency, and as a remdial measure, afTorded a pre- text for the tripartite alliance between England, France and Spain, inasmuch as foreign obligations were sus- ])end('d as well as domestic, and in the December fol- lowing a force, sent by the three nations, landed at Vera Cruz. 0. — The combination and succession of disasters might have broken down even a courageous man, but Juarez was full of faith, and the country, although weakened by forty years of civil war, did not suc- cumb. France was very soon left alone in the enter- ])rise, as England and Si)ain withdrew, and for a long time the states were able to maintain the contest with the power then supposed to be the greatest military nation in the world. The first attempt upon Puebla, in May, 1862, was repulsed with great loss to the French, and the city was not taken until the following !N[ay. The attempt might even then have been unsuc- cessful but for the traitorous aid given to foreign arms by native sympathizers, who hoped, by means of European intervention, to secure a fresh lease of power for themselves. The French entered Mexico in June, 1863, and Juarez retired to San Luis Potosi. 10. — Many who had stood firndy against the in- vaders, until the capital was carried, now ceased their opposition, and Juarez found it necessary to proceed to Saltillo. Ascertaining that the Governor of Nuevo Leon and Coahuila had gone over to the French interest, the President deposed him, and calling the people to his assistance. Juarez compelled the traitor to fly to the capital. It was not possible to organize a force sufficiently strong to cope with the invaders in the field, and in consequence, the President fell back upon Chihuahua when Gen. Quiroga advanced. The forces 472 coi'XTnip:s of nokth amkkica. that were bmuglit into tlie field under Gens. Ortegn and I'atoni were poorly armed and worse commanded A:^^ai^H«a'*-«to'55=SSfi4^'^*S^«25**^«^-^-'>?^*^'^»««^°^^^-^*^*^ AMKKICA. uiidor Gens. Ortegn 1 worse coinniandod of Negrete, Ministei ihillo, !Nrt)iitL'n!y jind I'o followed by u re- c action on tlic part !Z retired to Pass dc iublic. t the term for which expired, and, there- ed upon him as the tionally the demand question of policy, the proposition, and >ple, held on to his , until there could who should be his .'fs in diflerent jiarts as well as could be linst the Archduke iich allies, until the ng come to an end, ''ranee the recall of the P^rnperor Louis emphatic request, catecas in January, : ordered home, but ments of the Presi- very near m COr-XTRlES OF NOKTII AMERICA. niont of tlie Kmporor Maximilian were continuons, nnU his reproschtations to the governtnrnt of tlie Uni- ted States eventually produced their proper efleet as soon as the struggling administration of Abraham J.incoln couj.l give eflieient attention to the eneroach- merits of France. Until that time arrived, there was mtle that could be done bejond maintaining confi- dence m the pofuilar cause. 3 When Maximilian, supported by Louis Napo- leon, was in the heyday of his success," and confident that the oaths of his European patron would be ful- tilled, there was no resource for the national govern- rnent but to retire slowly from point to point and wait tor tlie turn of the tide, while military leaders main- tained a desultory war in the heart of tli^ nation, by way of continuous protestation against the tyranny upheld by foreign trooj.s. Sebastian Lerdo continued in the exercise of his ofTices in the successive seats of government at Monterey, Saltillo. Durango, Chihua- hua, and at Paso del Norte, although there was \ht\e glory and less emolument connected with his oP.cial career at that epoch. The confidence of the Minister in the eventual triumph of the popular party was not a blind faith, as he had become well versed in the causes that were operating to prevent the intervention ot the Lnited States, in the manner subsequently real- ized ; and he had not failed to forecast the results which became patent to the world. When, after three years of severe trial, the forces of the enemv were about to be withdrawn from Mexican soil, feavincr Maximilian to reap the fruits of his own policy, the advances of the Juarez adminisiration to Chihuahua, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, were the natural out- come of the foreign policy which had been steadfastly worked for by the President and his vigorous and de- voted Minister. 4. — The sudden overthrow of Maximilian's projects were more surprising to that monarch than to his per- sistent allies, as almost to the last moment the Emperor MERICA. were continuous, rnrnrnt of the Uni- 3ir proper effect, as ation of Abrahaia on to the encroach- arrived, there was maintaining conli- d by Louis Napo- 3ess, and confident ron would be ful- e national govern- t to point and wait tary leaders rnain- of the nation, by ainst the tyranny n Lerdo continued successive seats of Durango, Ciiihua- [h tliere was lutle id with his oP-icial •e of the Minister ular party was not .'ell versed in the it the intervention subsequently real- recast the results When, after three the enemy were ican soil, leaving 5 own policy, the on to Chihuahua, ? the natural out- d been steadfastly i vigorous and de- ximilian's projects h than to his per- tnent the Emperor REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 477 believed that he liad acquired power among the \)eo- pie. Lerdo fully concurred with Juarez in the ccm- elusion that the sentence arrived at by the Court Mar- tial must be executed against the Kinperor and liis two ollicers, Mtjia and Miramon, as otherwise they might have served at any time as rallying points for the reactionaries whose policy had cost the country so iiKiiiy years of suffering and poverty. There were no means spared to induce the Cabinet and the President to relent, and among all the influences exerted, tho representations mercifully offered from Washington were most potent; but the ends of justice, under the circumstances, demanded death, and the men upon whose liat the matter hinged were not induced to waver for one second. The death of Maximilian was a reproach to the Emperor of France, but it was not in any sense a wrong on the part of the national party in Mexico and their government. Lerdo fully sus- tained the decision of Juarez to continue in olHce, iii spite of the representations of Gen. Ortega, until the public could determine who should be his successor. 5. — When the general election was ordered in 1867, upon the return of the national government to the capital, the distinguished merits of Lerdo were recognized by his being chosen President of the Su- preme Court of Justice, an office which carries with it the vice presidency of tiie Republic, and in connection with the functions thus assumed, he carried on the duties of the ministry for foreign affairs in which he had become the greatest adept in Mexico. Manv of the proposals that were made and executed for the re- habilitation of the national credit and re.soarces were popularly credited to the Vice President, between whom and his Chief a good understanding, based upon mutual respect, continued to subsist Naturally enough, every reform made an enemy, but most of the reactionaries were already as bitter as in fact they could be, long before the Juarez government enjoyed an opportunity to carry their beneficent schemes into :^'^*3fft(iii«*o..~The sudden death of Juarez on the 18th of July, 1872, called Lerdo to the presidential -hair by virtue of his ollice as Vice President of the Uei)ul)lic, and in the election that took phice in Octob-r, 1872, he was chosen by the peoj)le for four terms, so that liis terni will cease in December of tlie Centennial vear, 187H. His course in oflice has been marked by great ability and high tone, and he may be ranked in the Castelar school of Spanish statesmen. The reaction- ary or church party has disturbed him as much as the circumstances of the time would permit, but he has met all their machinations with an inflexible determi- nation, rigidly suppressingevei/ attempt at revolution, yet meeting every citizen of wi.i.ever grade with con- summate urbanity, such as can hardly fail to disarm the better disposed. The policy of reform initiated by Juarez has been steadily adhered to and carried out with great sagacity. The abuses incidental to a long continuance of military rule and priestly domination have been reduced firmly and without rashness, so that the people are being gradually educated up to the point at which they wdl be able to realize the best fruits of republican institutions. 7. --Schools and the liberty of the press, which are especially the enemies of caste and of class legislation, have, within the few years that have elapsed since the death of Maximilian, been allowed free scope as edu- cating inQuences for the mass of the community ; and IS n a v r () w t< S( o II AMERICA. 1 was not deterred any fear of j)er.s()iial obabililv of his he- •ncy ill 1871, JiCrdo I nary of tliat year, ion of his judicial > President received in -Inly; bnt Con- devolved upon it |)oIled an ahsolutc f I'resident .Iiiarez. re/ on the 18th of residential '"hair by !it of the Hej)nl)Iic, I in Oetob.T, 1872, 1 Pterins, so that his e Centennial year, n marked by great r be ranked in the len. The reaetion- hirn as much as the pertnit, but he has inflexible determi- em{)tat revolution, ver grade with eon- rdly fail to disarm reform initiated by to and carried out icidental to a long iriestly domination lut rashness, so that lucated up to the to realize the best he press, which are of class legislation, e elapsed since the free scope as edu- e community ; and CKNTHAL AMKUTCA, 471) tlic bigotry which for centuries lias made M(>xi('o as .i Spanisli Colony, and as an independent Ui'|>nl)li(N the special inlieritanee of the Catholic Apostolic Church, is slowly receding under more enliglitened rule. Com- merce and manufactures, tlie niainstavs of a nation, aie l)ecoming acclimated on the soil too long de- voted only to civil strife; but it will necessarily be a painful and prolonged process, that can raise a people once so degraded and opj)ressed, to tlie same level witli their neighbors, who have never bowed the knee to Baal, nor ireen cursed with the terrible burdens of Spanish tyrantiy and misgovernment. The stateinetit seems to be in the nature of a platitude, and yet it is one of the most deplorable facts of this age, that the main cause of the decadence of Mexico, from the civ- ilization which was being accomplished by the unas- sisted Indian Haee in the sixteenUi century must bo found in tlie {)resencc and intluenee of European civil- ization upon this continent, as represented by the church, the military and the courtiers of Spain. 8. — The party of reaction cannot wait for the end of the term of ofnce devolving uponLerdo, and the last year of his administration has been marked by several insurrections, but up to the date of this writing, he has been equal to every emergency, and there is good reason to believe that he will be as popular in the end as in the beginning. CENTRAL AMERICA. l._ Central America is that narrow strip of land which united North and South America, but which may be regarded as a division of North America. It lies between the parallels of about 7° and 18° north latitude. It is about eight hundred miles long, with a breadth varying from twenty to four hundred miles. It is bounded on the north by Mexico, on the east by the Caribbean Sea, on the south by New Granada, and ' '*— "' ^-ft'T^-iFirniriif ■.iaw;f.- U' 480 COrNTIMKS OK NOKTII AMKItFCA, oil lli'^ west by till! PaciHc Occati. lu area is about 18N,,')7() S((iiaiv miles, 5.. — 'I'lic liict; of tlio coiiiitry is wry moiintaiiioiiH, and is intorsccti'd l>y iiiuncMoiisstri-ams'of coiisidcrahle si/x', but (initc short fr<)tn tliu narrowiii'ss of tiu! coiiii- try; all tlio lar^'cr .stn-aiiis ll(,\v into tlic Atlantic, Among those tilt- Usuinasinta is the largest, and tii.; San Jnan, which forms the outlet of Lakt; Nicaragua, IS next in size. Among the bavs and gulfs tho must important are the Unlf of Ilondnras on the east coast, the Hay of Taiiania, the (adf of Diilee, Caronai. — New Guatemala and the Capital of the repub- lic is a well built town covering an extensive area, as 31 ~- .^Hffcvn^ 'aft'' the Coi be.< poi abl the ten anc Sar Ric the the try per mu a c abo eqii ma( gol( HE RICA. "iroferrcfl by Fran- lies. Tliis voyage my liard.ships, tiie 104, ami (lied two almost broken in itry anil king tliat uilhcnticity of the I questioned in fa- it there seems to )rising and hardy _'asing population, t for many eentu- le fact had really and his own erew that he was com- oiiization, and his Tlie next visit oc- edro Alvarado to in two years, the nominal reeogiii- ere was no further ihei'e were manv , after a lapse of . the colonies were Central America. I colonies, the at- after 1833, there republic into the luras, San Salva- ere have been sev- ' republic, but no ;h the present in- ern State of Cen- laragua, the Carib- Ocean. The area , and is monntain- sed by a continua- CENTRAL AMERICA. 487 tion of the Cordilleras, containing several active and many distinct volcanoes. The highest peak is Mount Irasn, or Cartago, 11,480 feet above the soa. Earth- quakes are common in Costa Rica. Eains prevail from April to October, the remainder of the year being comparatively dry. The soil of the table lands is easily worked and very fertile. 4. — 'J'he name of the coast, Costa Rica, is due to the mines of the precious metals, which havi been opered here, and which had evidently been worked by the Indians before the advent of the Spaniards made their existence a source of o})pre.ssion. The main de- pendence of Costa Rica is n[H)n the cultivation of cof- fee, maize, tol)aeco and sugar. The dye woods obtain- able in the forests, which are very extensive, supply a shipment which is always in demand. Mahogany cedar and other valuable woods s[)read over a1ar"-o area of the country, and will hereafter become a .source of enormou.s wealth, but every industry is neglected in the present stage of development. The capital of Costa Rica is San Jose, a city f)f 25.000 inhabitants, besides which Cartago has 10,000, being .second in im- portance. Cartago was once the capital, being prob- ably the oldest city in Central America, and m 1823, there were 37,000 inhabitahts, but in 1841. there was a terriiic erathquake which destroyed seven churches and 2,900 houses. Mount Cartago is near the city, and San Jose about twenty miles west. Nqminally, Costa Rica is a republic, having been so named in 1823, and the president is chosen every three years, but in all the essentials of Republican government the coun- try is entirely wanting. Prest. Guardia rules, the ex- penditure is about $1,590,000, and the debt about as much. There is a standing army of 1,000 men, and a commercial navy of 45 vessels, with a burthen of about 5,000 tons. The imports and exports are nearly equal, ranging near $2,000,000 annually, being partly made up of rice, caoutchouc, sarsparilla, rubbei-, hides gold and cotton. « 488 COUNTRIES OF NOKTII AMKRICA. THE RP:PUBLIC of NICARAGUA. jgo-i-tmo. t 1. — Nicaragua has the honor to have been discov- v ered by tlie groat Genoese navigator in 1502, but the a country was not beneficially occupied by Spain, until o twenty-one years later, when the settlement of Leon l- ■was eointnenced by Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, on the western border of Lake Managua, in Imbita. c At that time the native city of Subtiaba is said to t have had 100,000 inhabitants, a fact which, even if \ only approximating to the truth, reveals a degree of e civilization to which Spain is still a stranger. The c town of Subtiaba is now quite a small suburb, inhab- a itcd by descendants of the Indian possessors of the r days of Fernandez, but com|)letely degenerated by t contact with a semi-military and priest ridden form of t civilization. Nicaragua has an area of 58.200 square r miles, and an estimated population of 400,000. 2. — Leon, the principal city, has a ponulation of 25,- t (>00 persons, composed of Creoles and Mestizoes of i various grades. The cify was removed from tlie site originally selected in the year 1610, to the place now j occupied on a well watered and fertile [)lain 200 feet above tlie sea. TJTe city is now well watered, and is di- vided into si.K cantons, known as Sagrario, San Felipe, San Juan, Calvario, Zaragoza and Laborio of San Sebastian. The city is only divided by a street from the Indian town of Subtiaba. Want of water fit for use was one of the embarrassments suffered near the lake. Tliis is the best and hand.somest city in Nicaragua, the other principal places being Granada, with 12,000 iidiabitants and Kealejo with 5,000. Tlie buildings are low, and therefore defective in style; more especially this is noticeable in the Cathedral, but the tendency to earthquakes overcomes art. This building was commenced in 1746, and finished in 1774. The streets in the center of the city are paved and lighted, and there are twelve churches besides the t II -I AMERICA. JAIUGUa. have been discov- tor in 1502, but the pied by Spain, until settlement of Leon nandez de Cordova, Vfanagna, in Imbita. Subtiaba is said to faot which, even if reveals a degree of till a stranger. The unall suburb, inhab- ,n possessors of the ;ely degenerated by )riest ridden form of i-ea of 58.200 square II of 400,000. 18 a population of 25,- 3s and Mestizoes of }moved frotn tlie site 10, to the place now fertile {)lain 200 feet ell watered, and is di- Sagrario, San Felipe, ,nd Laborio of San iivided by a street ba. Want of water ssinents suffered near handsomest city in aces being Granada, ejo with 5,000. The ) defective in style ; in the Cathedral, but vercpmes art. This and finished in 177-4. city are paved and hurches besides the CENTKAL AMERICA. 489 Cathedral. The city also contains two Episcopal pal- aces, a University, the buildings formerly used by tlic Spanish government, several rnona.sleries, some of which have been turned to better account as hospitals and .schools for the study of surgery and medicine, and otiier building.-*, many of which are distinguished by peculiar beauty. 'i. — Leon is a fair representative of Nicaragua gen- erally, having few manufactures and no industry, but there is a languishing trade carried on through the port of Corinto, whicli is not far distant. The gen- eral facts embodied in the sketch of Costa Rica as to changes in the form of government, apply to this State also, and recapitulation would therefore be a needless repetition, con.sequcntly we may use our space to bet- ter pui-pose by ilescribing other features of greater in- terest. The surroundings of Leon are beautiful, and mineral springs of great value are found at the foot of the Sierra de los Marrabbios. The Indian population of Subtiaba is comparatively industrious, but the Viumber has not been ascertained. 4. — Granada was founded on the shores of Lake Nj^icaragua, toward the northwest, about the same date lis the settlement was made at Leon, and the place was very thriving for a Spanish settlement, until the civil wars of 1854-55 destroyed its glory, and the recu- perative power of the people is so small that the city is still mostly in ruins. The same story substantially, might be told of Realejo, and tlie country generally does not progress. President Quadra was chosen for four years, and is now in office. The annual expendi- ture is $700,000; tlie national debt is $4,250,000; there is an army of 800 men on the peace establish- ment, and a commercial navy of eighty ves.sels, whose united burthen is less than 9.000 tons. The imports of the country reach about $1,000,000 annually, and the exports a"bout $800 000. The shipments consist of cocoa, cochineal, indigo, coffee, sugar, tobacco, rice, caoutchouc, rubber, sarsaparilla, dye woods, mahogany, cedar, hides, gold, silver and cotton. iP 490 COUNTUIKS OF NOKTH AMKRICA. THE H1:PL'HLI(J of SAN SALVADOR. 1X09- 1H7H. 1, — The early visit of Ci>Inmbu.s ami the settle- ment, by expeditions dispatelieil for the jnirpose by Cortez, is a twice told tale, and so is tiie story of the confederation known as the Republic of Central America, and its disintegration to form the several small republics already described. There are few fea- tures of special interest in connection with the ur|)ose bv so is tlie story of tlu' Iti'piihlic of Central to form the scvenil I. Tiiere are few fea- etion with the l Diitoli nicrcliaiits and mariners wcro very jealDus of such operations, and re|»'atc(lly attacked the little eol- onies. The Inrliaiis were for tiie most part peaeeuble, and in some degree civiiiwd, but not to fueli nti extent as was found in Mexieo. Tiierc were some few disturbances with tlie natives at (Irst, in eonsequenci' of tlie cupidity and tyranny of the settlers, but on the whole it may l)e said that the disturbing causes of the early years of Hrazilian colonization resulted from the (Ireaded visits of the ships of war of the difTerciit nations in Kurope, wlii(;h de{)en(led upon buceaneerinu- as their main pursuit upon the seas. Some of the set- tlements were actually destroyed by avaricious men ■who could wring gold from the colonists as the price of immunity from their assaults. The natives were reduced in part to a condition of slavery, wliich con- tinued until the year IToo, when a decree was passcil in Portugal, specially exempting the Indian race from slavery, reserving that fate for negroes onl}'. 2. — The number of uncivilized Indians now in the Empire cf Brazil is estimated at 200,000, but they liave been forced back into ihe interior by the eontiii- \ious aggression of the white popidution, and with the exception of those tribes that occujiy the north and the extreme west of the territory, the natives gen- erally acquiesce in their gradual dispossession. The triV)es excepted are savage and warlike, and they steadily resist the advance of the Portuguese. Tlie Inciian tribes are very numerous, and their dialects differ very considerably, but there seems to be a prob- ability that their ancestors all spoke only one lan- guage. Negroes have been largely introduced into Brazil, and in consequence there are districts from ■which the native races are now almost entirely ex- cluded. The .southern parts of Brazil have become the negro abiding places, and in the north the Indians predominate; but there are mixed races which are distinguished by particular names. The principal races s«;-*A ••a- ..jTiMv :^$™ i» T AMKRICA. Sjuiniiinls, Kii;L,'lisl) atiil were very jealous of atta<'ko(l the little col- most part peaceable, but not to sucii nti Tlicro were some few t (Irst, in eoiisequetici' f the settlers, but on tie disturbini' causes of iiiizatioii resulted from f war of tlio (litTerent led upon buceaiieeriiii; eas. Some of tlie set- id by avaricious men e colonists as the price Us. The natives were of slavery, which coii- n a decree was f)ass('il ; the Indian race from egroes onl3'. ed Indians novv in the at 200,000, but they interior by the contin- pulation, and with the )Ocuj)y the north ami )ry, the natives gen- .1 dispossession. The d warlike, and they :lie Portuguese. The us, and their dialects re seems to be a prob- spoke only one lan- •gcly introduced into re are districts from tv almost entirely e.x- Brazil have become the north the Indians xed races which are !S. The principal races EMI'IIIK OF nRA7.ITi. 493 of In. bans are the Tupi, i'uri, (luarycnrnes, Tapm- iuiibas, Taperivas, and the Hotacudocs. Indians that have .settled are known as Caboclos, the mi.\cd race between wliites and Indians are called Mamclucoes, and tliose between Indiana and Negroes nro known as Cafuzoe.s. :j. — The white settlers are almost entirely descend- ants from the Portuguese founders of the colonics, vary- ing in degrees and kinds of culture according to po- Mt"ion, as for instance, in Pernambuco, the settler is a ^lave holding Grandee, in his way, with many of the vices peculiar to that condition, and on the other hand, those in the region of the Rio (Jrande do Sul, are pas- t;)ral in tlitiir pursuits, and comparatively .simple in their habits. The residents in Minas (Jcraea have tho highest intellectual position, and those in the province of'^Hahia are iiKwt prosperous in manufactures and in oihcr industries rc(iuiring energy and aptitude. The fertility of the lowlands in this province has olfered a premium to those en traged in agricultural pursuits, so that the cultivation 'of cofToe, sugar, cotton, tobacco, rice and manioc, witli the several manufactures arising llieretrotn, have afforded suiUcient inducements to re- tain laborer.s, notwithstanding the attractions to mine [or gold and seek diamonds in mony parts of this rich country. The population of Bahia alone is estimated at 1.4ijO,000. '1 he city of Bahia has a population of 120,000, and is very beautifully situated, with a bu.sy and' enterprising population, but the mercantile affairs of -he port are largely controlled by the English. This ciuy was at one time the capital of Brazil, and it con- tains fine libraries and many beautiful buildings. 4. The province of Espirito Santo or the Holy Spirit is a very extensive and fertile area, but it is to a large extent covered with forests, and the population haixlly exceeds 65,000. of whom nearly one-fourth are slaves. Throughout Brazil the established religion is Koinan Catholic, but there has been toleration for oth- er forms of worship since tlie year 1811, and it is esti- 494 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMEKICA. mated that there are now about 25,000 Protesants in the country, mostly Germans in tlie rural districts, and English or American in commercial cities. The gov- erinent of the country is a limited monarchy, the Em- peror succeeding to the throne as an inheritance, and the legislative powers being exercised by the Senate and Cliamber of Deputies; the members of the Upper Chamber are chosen for life, and the members of the lower, for four years only. The dangers inseparable from a standing army are guarded against by a law bearing date 1869, which limits the peace establish- ment to 20,000 men. The navy is much more consid- erable, but there is not so much room for fear, as to the permanence of freedom from sea forces, as from those on land. Education is well provided for in most of the large towns, and in liio Janeiro there is an excellent museum. Engineering, naval tactics, military .science, law and medicine have each their special schools, and the press is comparatively free, there being over 300 newspapers published in the Em{iire. 5. — When Napoleon invaded Portugal in the year 1808, the King, accompanied by his court, sailed for Brazil, and soon after his arrival the ports were thrown open to all nations, besides which numerous abu.ses were rectified, which had the effect of greatly improv- ing the administration of affairs in the country. When the reverses of Napoleon culminated in his re- tirement to Elba, Brazil was raised to the rank of a Kingdom, and John VI continued to hold his court in Brazil until the year 1820, w^hen in consequence of .a revolution, it became necessary for him to go back to Lisbon. Don Pedro, who had been installed as Re- gent by his father, was obliged two years after that event to proclaim the nation free and independent, his own title as Emperor taking its rise at that time, and in 1825, the home government recognized the new Empire. The iir.st Emperor was obliged to abdicate in 1881, in consecpience of wide spread dis.satisfactioii with his rule, but his son then under age was accepted t^.TQ»®«^-^--" ■ ni AMEKICA. It 25,000 Protesants in 1 tlie rural districts, ami lercial citie.s. The gov- ited monarchy, the Em- us an inlieritance, and exercised by tiie Senate ! members of the Upper nd the members of tlie rhe dangers inseparable irded against by a law its the peace establish- vy is much more consid- 1 room for fear, as to the sea forces, as from those ■ovided for in most of the ro there is an excellent tactics, military science, leir special sciiools, and ;e, there being over 300 Cm [I ire. led Portugal in the year by his court, sailed for ■althe ports were thrown vhich numerous abuses jflect of greatly improv- iflEairs in the country. )n culminated in his re- raised to the rank of a lued to hold his court in hen in consequence of a y for him to go back to d been installed as Re- ed two years after that ree and independent, his s rise at that time, and mt recognized ihe new was obliged to abdicate le spread dis.satisfaction . under age was accepted EMI'IKE OF BRAZIL. 495 as his successor, and a council of Regents administered the government in his name until 18-40, when, the boy, liavi"ig attained his liftecnth year, was declared of age by the Assemblv, and crowned Emperor in 18-il. 6. The young Emperor's reign was troubled at its outset, with a servile insurrection which threatened to be of long continuance. His father had made a treaty with Eii'Jland in 1826 for the abolition of the slave trade, ami more was hoped from that movement than was immediatelv found practicable, but eventually in 186(), Don Pedro II emancipated all slaves held by the government, and in 1871, the legislature made provis- ion for the gradual extinction of slavery throughout the Empire. There was also a war with the Argen- tine Republic soon after he ascended the throne, but the conflict was not momentous and it did not con- tinue long Paraguay declared war against Brazil in 1865, antf ior nearly tive years hostilities were vigor- ously conducted., the victory resting with Brazil. While the war continued, a decree was issued by the assembly opening all the great rivers of the Empire to foreign vc-^sels, a measure which has proved very ben- eficial to the community by the extension of commer- cial facilities. In the year 1869, there were ten large steamers engaged in the trade on the Amazon and Peru, and Ecuador had smaller .steamers fully engaged in their commercial transactions. There are now about six hundred miles of railroads being operated in Brazil, and still more are projected ; while the elec- tric telegraph has nearly two thousand miles of wire in full work. One railroad is owned by the govern- ment, extending from Riu Janeiro to Sao Francisco ; the remaining lines are owned and oy)erated by com- panies, and the management is as good as the average of such enterprises. The condition of the country is on the whole prosperous: the people compare very favorably with those of Mexico, as well in their general habits as in the comforts by which they are sur- rounded. The climate offers varieties suitable to al- 496 cor.vnuKs of souxn amkiuca. most every taste and constitution, and the populations of the twenty provinces aggregate more than ten mil- lions inclusive of slaves. THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. ABOllKilXAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 1* — Spain has the honor oi having discovered the La Plata in 1516, when Juan Diu/C de Solis took pos- .session of the country in tlie name of the King, but Buenos Ayres, now tiie capital city of the Argentine Republic, was not founded until the year 1585, when Don Pedro de Mendoza became Governor. Tlie In- dians, for some reason, were not enamored of the set- tlers, and the jjlaee was twice destroyed before 1580, when it was rebuilt for the second time. The natives still continue very numerous, and to a large extent hostile to the Republic. There are three considerable groups now recognized: the Guaranis, whose rule formerly extended from the Atlantic to the Andes and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Rio de la Plata; theQuichus, whose ancestors were subject to the Incas of Peru, and who live in the region east of the Cor- dilleras, as far as Santiago ; and last though not least, the Arancanians, whose northern limit is the Rio Sa- lado, but who break bounds so often that they are said to hold 3,000 Argentine citizens captive, at the present time, having taken them in their several in- cursions. 3. — Some portions of the aboriginal tribes have be- come blended with the white race, and their descend- ants constitute the bulk of the population ; but within the last twenty years immigration has been extensive ; in the year 1870, there were nearly 40,000 Europeans added to the population of the republic. The dress and manners of civilization are thus beginning to pre- dominate in the principal cities, as for instance in Buenos Ayres; but the Mestizoes and half breeds con- ***i«B«^ife=jaE* i rS -i-. a h J t s r.'.-^^fW fW i^ ""' * ' i*- HMnc^iDtEf^ -^Ti rTrrr iiiMr rT ^-'— --'---f-"T?T°^'^M'^---''-~- ~ --*' '^ *^--'^^« " ' **' ' '^ '^= .\MK1?ICA. and tliG populations more than ten mil- CPUBLIC. SETTLEMENT. I'ing discovered the de Solis toolv pos- of the King, but y of the Argentine lie year 1535, when jovernor. Tlie In- lurnoi-ed of the set- ;royed before 1580, time. The natives to a large extent three considerable 1 ran is, whose rule iitic to the Andes e Rio de la Plata ; ubject to the Incas )n east of the Cor- •t though not least, imit is the Eio Sa- ften that they are ens captive, at the 1 their several in- nal tribes have be- and their descend- ilation ; but within as been extensive ; 40,000 Europeans )ublrc. The dress s beginning to pre- is for instance in ad half breeds con- !e^«iWWWi-tt;^V;'- '•5^-*«!»*'-' ARGENTINE KEPUIU.IC. 407 stitutc the lower chuss, and their manners are rude in the extreme. They arc gamblers and dissolute char- iicters with a taste for coarse life. Tlieir dress consists oi; a jacl^et and pantaloons of sheepskin, tlie latter open from the knees down, and over all tiiisa }H)ncho, consisting of a kind of coarse blanket with a hole in tlic centre through which the heail of the wearer passes. Tlie dress of the other se.x is but little more relined, and it has been ascertained that one-fifth of all the children born in the country are illegitimate. Roman Catholicism is tlie religion that predominates, except among immigrants, and there are s(jme monas- teries, but more nunneries. Efforts arc made to eon- vert the Indians, but the change when etrected is not always an improvement. Education is at a low ebb; very' few persons can read and write; but under the present administration, efi'orts are being made to im- prove and increase the number of schools. There are .several Universities, and more are in course of erec- tion. Tliere are thirty-.seven newspapers in the Ke- public, and forty three printing establishments, sixteen of each being in Buenos Ayres, whi(;h is beyond com- parison the greatest city and state in the Confedera- tion. 3. — The Viceroy of Peru had control of the colo- nies on the La Plata until 1778, when they were oroctpfl into a Vi<'e-R(jvalty, which included Rio de la Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay and BoliviM, with Buenos Ayres for the capital. The British held Buenos Ayi'es and Monte Video in 1806-7, but did not retain the possession, and a certain degree of liberalism com- menced to operate in the community after that time. In 1810, the Viceroy was expelled and a governing Junta nominated, but their authority was not recog- nized by Cordova, Uruguay and Paraguay, and civil wars were of long continuance thereafter. The Con- federation issued its own coin after 1813, and the Spanish flag was abandoned, Montevideo, the last fort- ress of the Spaniards having been taken. The first Dic- 32 498 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. tator was nominated in ISlfi, Gen. inieyrredon being apfiointed by the representatives of llie Confederatimi assembled at Tucuman. Spain endeavored to eotnpel submission to its rale, but sustained severe defeats in 1817-18 and '21, the last being decisive. The leaders of the revolution were meaniime quarreling among themselves for the possession of the spoil, and it was not until 1825 that a supposed strong central govern- ment was formed, which was destroyed by the mal- contents almost immediately. 4. — liivadiva, having been compelled to resign, was followed by Dorrego, who was forced upon Bueno:^ Ayres as Governor by the Gauchos under Manuel dc Hosas. Such outbreaks and profitless changes were almost continuous uniil Rosas, in 182H, was elected for six years. In 1835 he was offered a reelection, but declined to serve under any other terms than as Dic- tator of the Republic with unlimited powers. Tliat hard condition having been conceded, he continued in office until 1852, and no Congress was assembled dur- ing seventeen years, but civil war was hardly once in- ten-upted. Uruguay had assumed independence of the Confederation, and therefrom fresh hostilities were continually arising, and France was induced without much difliculty to take part in the quarrel. There was a brief peace from 1840 to 1845, when England and France intervened and blockaded Buenos Ayres and occupied the island of Martin Garcia in order to com- pel a settleniei.t of difTiculties. Some of the provinces by which he had been supported havii.g Withdrawii, Rosas was defeated in February, 1852, and compelled to find refuge in England. Vincente Lopez was then elected President, but displaced by Gen. Urquiza, who was subsequently chosen President in 1853. The in- dependence of Paraguay was recognized, and Buenos Ayres seceded, but after much negotiation, war fol- lowed, and the seceding state reentered the Confedera- tion in 1859, on the basis of the Union of Parana. 5. — Difliculties were not ended, as it was con- te CO of Bi CO no wt frc in l\i on go an ch Mi eq Sa th( inL Re un Jo tWi ne: du rev In( po] ( be in ele ev{ to abl tyr len am tioi - TK^^^X'^v^Bmi-'^^^f^iMiUkii lMERICA. . Piievrredon being f tlio 'Confederntioii ileiivorcd to corn pel ed severe defeats iti ;isive. The leaders rjuarreliiig among lie spoil, and it was ong eentral govern- troyed by the nial- polled to resign, was )rced upon Buenos )s under Miinuel dc itless changes were 82B, was elected for ed a reelection, but terms than as Die- ited powers. That led, he continued in was assembled diir- was hardly once in- ;d independence of resh hostilities were as induced without quarrel. There was when England and Buenos Ay res and cia in order to com- imeof the provinces hav iiig WitiUiraWh, 852, and compelled ante Lopez was then Y Gen. Urquiza, who t in 1853. The in- agnized, and Buenos negotiation, war fol- tered the Confedera- Jnion of Parana, led, as it was con- AKOKNTINE KEPrHLIC. 499 tended with good reason, that taxation was excessive, considering llrj small results obtained in the way of government. In 1861 Gen. Mitre, commanding Buenos Ayies troops, defeated the federal forees, com])elIed tiic President to resign, and was himself nominated to the ofliee ])M)visionally, being after- wards elected to the same position, which he occupied from 18(52 to 18(38. Serious outbreaks were suilered in 18(5(5 in many provinces because of the war with J'araguay, which was unpopular, and tl.f^re was at one time just ground for anxiety lest the fabric of government, poor as it was, .«hould give ])lace to anarchy. Both houses of Congress concurred in changing the seat of government to Hosario, but Afitre vetoed the measure, as it would have been equivalent to destroying his own position. President Sarmiento was elected in 1868, and under his rule there has been a larger share of prosperity than dur- ing any (Hher period in the liistory of the Argentine liepublic. There was a rebellion in 1870 in the unimportant province of p]ntre Kio.s, headed by Gen. Jordan, and it was not suppressed until 1871, after two pitched battles. The yellow fever destroyed nearly 1-4.000 people in Buenos Ayres in 1872, anc! during the same year there were "^three atteuqits at. revolution, besides an invasion by the Arancanian Indians, but Sarmiento maintained his hold upon the- populace and the d'g'v.ty of the Kepublic. 6.— The prospects for the Argentine Republic will be good only when the influx of a better population, in sufficient numbers, removes from the old Spanish element the possibility of further di.sturbance. Wher- ever Spain planted a colony, the people grew up unfit to exercise the powers of self government, and incap- able of submission to any other rule than a military- tyranny. The opportunities for settlement are excel- lent, the area held and claimed by the Republic amounts to 1,000,000 square miles, and the popula- tiou altogether is less than two million souls. The 600 COUXTlifEri OF SOUTH AMKlilCA. pampas will sustain unimiiibercHl inillions of cattle, which wiili {iropor euro could not fail to enrich a nation. The dryness of the air is one of the chief drawbacks of the cUniate, but if one-tenth of the energy that has been sj)ent on civil wars had been cmuloycd on wc^ks of irrigation and water supply, niaiiv of the evils complained of would have disap- peared long since, lloads are wauling entirely in many diri'ction.s, and in others have fallen into lament- able disrepair. But railroads are rapidly spread- ing over tlie country, telegraph wires are operating over thousands of miles, a submarine cable connects Monte Video with Buenos Ayres, ;;nd all that is wanted to make the country successful in the highest degree is an organized colonization, on a large scale, suilicient to superinduce good order, uud settled gov- ernment. THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA. ABORIUINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. lS3S-tH70. 1. — There appears to have been a settled gov- ernment among the Indians under the Incas of Cuzco for more than five centuries prior to the irruption of the Spaniards in I'hiS, when the territory now in- cluded in the llcpublic of Bolivia was taken posses- sion of under the arms of Charles V of Si)ain. Sairi Tupac, the reigning Inca, did not resign his authority until 15o7, when he submitted to the troops of Philip II. but the dominion of Spain was not established until 1780. when under the name Charcas this region was included in the Viceroyalty of La Plata, having the seat of government at Buenos Ayres. When Ferdi- nand, King of Spain, was compelled to abdicate by Napoleon in 1808, the intelligence caused revolu- tionary risings in Bolivia, which continued with vary- ing fortunes until 1824, when the popular party be- came sulficiently established to convene a congress, d( tl: B P ai al m "1' 1" pi ei ti ir 1" V( u T C ill ci a I oi O' ot S( k ir P bi ec w C( ir P P h AMKUlL'A. il inillioiirf of cattle, lot fail to oiirich a is olio of tlie chief if oiio-teiith of the ;ivil wars liad been 1 and water supply, [ would have disap- wauling entirely in ve fallen into lanieiil- are rapidly spread- wires are oper-.itiug ariiie cable eoiiiieels res, and all that is ;essful in tiie highest on, on a large scale, ler, and settled go v- BOLIVIA. ) SETTLEMENT. been a settled gov- 3r the Incas of Cuzco ir to the irruption of he territory now in- ia was taken posses- !s V of Sjiain. Sairi t resign his authority the troops of Philip 3 not established until [ircas this region was La Plata, having the \yres. When Ferdi- )elled to abdicate by ence caused revolu- contmued with vary- he popular party be- convene a congress, REPUBI-IC OF liOr.TVIA. 501 declare the indcpondenco of the Republic amt give it the name of Bolivia in honor of its bencfiictor, (ion. Jiolivar, who liad the honor to l)e chosen Dic'ator of Peru in ly2.'!, I'resident for life of Bolivia in lb25, and also President of tiio Republic of Coloini)ia. 2, — Bolivia is especially rich in the precious met- als, as gold is found not oidy in ([uartz reefs in the mountains, but in the river beds in very considerable ([uaiuities, where it has been deposited in the natural ju'occsses of disintegration during many centuries, and probably during thousands of year- The whole country aj)pcars to be auriferous, and to have in addi- tion vast coal dejjosits, copper, tin, mercury, lead, iron and salt, in large quanlities enough to secure j)resent and future wealth for a great nation. The vegetal wealth of the soil and climate is j)ractieally unlimited either as to quantity or range of productions. The aboriginal population consists of Chiriquaiios, Clii(|uitos and Majos, and there are very few negroes ill Bolivia. JIalf-brceds are very numerous, and edu- cation can hardly be said to have been organized, aliiiough the Catholic Church has complete ascendency over tlie people, and the heads of that body, presiding over the universities and engaged in the pro[)agatioa ol their religion, nominally control tlie school svstem. With all i;s wealth of soil, climate and mineral re- sources, the financial condition of Bolivia is extremely low ia coii.ioqucnce of wars and civil strife since its independence of Spain was vindicated. 3. — Gen. Sucre was chosen President of the Re- public in 1826, upon the adoption of a constitution, but within two years he was compelled to leave the country, and a long interval of civil war ensued, which resulted in the complete exhaustion of the country, so that Gen. Santa Cruz at length succeeded in procuring order and peace. Under his rule as President there was a time of great prosperity, and Peru was invaded by his forces, ])art of that RepuWic being annexed to Bolivia in 1885. A Federal Re- 502 COUNTHIKS OF SOUTH AMKKICA. ])ulilie linviiij^ boot! cstalilislied, S.nita Cru/, was (^lioscu Prou-otor, hni a comliiiiiitioii of Cliil' iiiid the Arjj;ni- tine Hepublic eventually clofoatcl him ami drove hiiu from power, being assisted by internal eord, in 18!5(*. Many revolntions fujlowcd eaeli othei' in rapid sneeession niitil, in 1840, (len. Balli\ ian obtained reeoj^- nition as Pre.sident, and administered the irovernment with great vigor. An attempt to unite Bolivia tc Peru was repulsed during Hallivian's rule, and Peru eamu noar being eontpiered, but peaee was eoueluded and old boundarii's restored in lSi2. Keforms in the ad- ministration stirred U|) strife, and (ieu. Velaseo dis- plaeed Ballivian, but was superseded alm(>st imme- diately, in 1848, by Gen. l$al/.u, who held the reins for .six vears with mut;li success. In the seventh year ('f bis reign, eerlaiii arbitrary measures aroused the indig- nation of the popiilace. and Bal/Ai was forced to resign in 1805. still he remained the virtual ruler, as he pro- curei>»tv' Pf'':u io ir.vuuo Bubvici wuu Pciuviaii forces, but lie was defeated and slain by Gen. Melga- rejo in December, 18t)4, who had already defeated and superseded Acha. Bolivia then joined a cond)iiuition against Spain, and amicably arranged its boundary qtuirrels with Chili; all the acts of Mclgarejo being legalized by a Congress convened in 1808. The con- stitution of 1808 was overthrown in 18()9, by President Melgarejo, but in the May following the constitution was restored, after a lapse of only three months. Melgarejo was defeated in 1869 by Gen. Morales, who became President, and was himself shot in 1872, wliereupon Gen. Don Adolfo Ballivian succeeded to ^.1 4 > II AMERICA. S.inUi CrM7. was clioscii '. Cliil' and the Arf^i'ii- e uhito Bolivia U IVni '.s ride, and Peru caniu L'O was coiicluiled and 2. ]{cft)rtns in llie ad- and (icn. Vidanco dis- tersedod ahnosi iniuio- , who held the reins tor In the seventh year ('f iures ai'(ius(^l the indig- ■/Ai was foreed to resign •irtmd ruler, as he pro- ve, C\jrd()va, who per- i j)Oiiey until he was ited Cordova, tried to ids op])onenis were too s suecess, and in 18()1, c of War, who beeanie ng strife of contending ii I>uii V l '•nnff»rrpd bv f\ stronof .Government, would transform Bolivia into a flourish- fng and prolific country, blest with an extensive com- merce. THE UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. l!!10-lH7(i. l.--The population of Colombia is now about 3,000.000, and the area of the country comprises 357,179 square miles. There are about 126,000 In- dians in the territory, in addition to the settled popula- 504 COUNTHIKS OV SOlTlt AMKUICA. tion. The SpaiiiiiiMls iilimtccl ji (■oloiiy on the (iiilf of ibarion in 1">10, wlu'ii tins |iiiit of tlio ■.'real Anicricini continent was called Now Circiuida. 'I'lit; c-u.stoniMry troubles with the Indian population marked the pro- j,qfss, or ratlu'r the sta^'nulioii, of llie settlement, and jnst as \isnal with Spanish colonies, the people; were l)ledof all their earnings mure ranidly than nature eould sM[ipIy the demand, so that industries wliieli gave no prolil to their promoters lani^MiisliLl or wen; al)an(loned. ill the year 1811, the colony revolted and secured an independent government, being united with iOeuador and Vene/.ut'la in one general federated republic, which continued until lyMl, and then resulted in tin; forma- tion of three re})ublics. F«'dcra'ls and Liberals prose- cuted civil wars during 18t)0-rtl, until the Liberal I)arty obtained the aseendeni;y, ami in a Congress then convened changed the name of New Grenada to the United States of Colombia. 2. — There are nine States in the Unioji: Antio- quia, Dolivar, Boyaca, Cauea, Cundinatnarea, Magda- lena, Panama, San'tander, and Tolinui. The ea|)ital is located at Bogota, a city founded, in 1687, on the Kiver San Francisco, and which has now a population of 40.000. The State of Antioquia has an area of 22,100 s(iuare miles, and a jKipulation of about £)80,000, lurgelv dependent upon mining, the precious metals and other valuable minerals being abunuam. There are extensive forests covering a large part of the coun- try, and a fair measure of pros])erity is realized. Boli- var has an area of 2(?,()00 squibre miles and a popula- tion of about 250,000. The Magdalena flows along the western boundary of the State, and the Cauea bi- sects it; the surface being level and covered with forests. Cauea is partly mountainous, with fertile val- leys watered by the river of the same name, and a population of nearly half a million occupying parts of an area of 68,300 square miles. Cundinamarca is divided from Antioquia by the Central Cordilleras, and its population is a little more than 400,000, chiefly ^"•^sMseais*! 1 1 II "finiiiii»"iittr it-— ''^^'--■-^-■-»-«'''''^'^' 4m»:^<***f^'ii-i«i^''^'»:^>^''''^'^'^^^'' I AMKKICA. r'dloiiy on the (iiilf of )f tlici <;rcal Anicricjiii iiidii. 'I'Ik! curttoiiiiiry tioii iiiiirkcd tlio pro- of lli« sclllemciit, and onies, tlie |k'o]i1o wurc lidly lliaii nature rould u^trii's wlii(.'li gavo no If I or \vt.'r(! al)an(lont'd. ,'olt,ed and st'cnred an united with Ecuador lerat.ed re|)u\>lic, wiiicli resulted in tlie forma- als anil Liberals prose- tU, until the Liberal md in a Congress then New Grenada to the in the Unioji: Antio- Dundinarnarea, Magda- 'olima. The (■a|)ital is ided, in 1687, on the has now a population ioquia has an area of ation of about 380,000, S, the precious metals nng aoumiaiiL. llicio large part of the eoun- erity is realized. Bob- e miles and a popula- Vlagdalena flows along late, and the Cauca bi- !vel and covered with [linous, with fertile val- the same name, and a lillion occupying parts iles. Cundinamarca is he Central Cordilleras, )re than 400,000, chiefly BKl'rilllC OF ECl^ADOn. 50,- ,u.Mged in agriculture, the principal exports being .■im-hona and tobacco. Bogota, the capital of the r,ii,,n. is in this State, and the mam .Irawbaek to its attractiveness is the frequent recurrence of earth(piakes. Tlie remainder of the Union can be judL'c.l from this brief description of a few States. The constitution that is now in force was adouted in >[ay, 18B.< ; it ],n)vides f..r legislative control l)y two chambers popu- larly elected, and an executive under the rrcsiduit, uho is chosen for two years only. The State religion i^ Roman Catholic, and intolerance is the rule. Ldu- ciition is at a very low ebb, and the press almost inop- erative. The coimtry is rich in mineral resources, as, ;illhou-di there have been but few and scanty explora- tions, Tt is known that gold can be obtained in Antio- (luia and for great distances in the valley of the Cauca Jlivcr. In the Choeo the natives have found platina, !uid ^farquctoncs has silver deposits, besides which, and even better f^r the eventual prosperity ot the country, there are rich lavcrs of coal under the i)lains (.f Bo.'ota. The great liiver Amazon forms part of the southern boundiirv of the Republic, and tlie Ori- noco is its eastern border. The Pacific Ocean is the western limitation, and to the north the States reach to the Caribbean Sea. Venezuela, Brazil and Ecuador are the close neighbors of Colombia; but there i.s room for whole nations to grow up between them when law and order can be estaoiisued. REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR. ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. J471S-1H70. I —Ecuador, so named in modern days because of its equatorial position, was originally known as the kingdom of Quito. The Republic exten.ls about 800 miles east an.l west, and its area ^^-^OMO square miles, although it is estimated at 200 W 2 bv Guyot. The Spanish province of Quito is included in Ecuad. r. gi^3gi)ljasBi*asifi?*^*'5S*Si»*^i 506 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. Intlian traditions, seliloin reliable when tl-ey go be- yond two generations, say that there was oiiee a mighty kingdom on this area, comprising fifty prov- inces, its people being known as Quitoos or Qui- choos. Sometime in the ninth century a strange peo- ple, coming from the coast, conqnered the Quitoos and reigned over them for five ceniuries ; the conquerors were called Caras. The emigration movement seems to have ))rcccded the advance upon :^^exico. In the year 1475, the Great Inca Iluayna Capac over- ran the countrv, and divided his conquests between his sons, Iluascar and Atahnalliia, tiie latter becom- ing King of Quito and the former Inca of Peru. The last named events come near enough to the era o£ Spanish possession to be worthy of some dependence. The brothers quarreled, and the King of Quito con- quered Huascar, and when the Spaniards landed in the country, Atahnallpe was sovereign of both terri- tories. He made war against the Europeans and was subdued, losing both throne and life in despite of his gallant eJTorts. Quito then became a Presidency in New Spain, and for nearly three hundred years this countrv supplied Spain with vast quantities of gold and silver ; but the despotism of the rulers was so oppressive that in many districts the Indians in mere desperation destroyed the mines which were made the means of their oppression, and in consequence the mineral treasures of the country have not been ex- hausted by the rude workings of the aborigines. 2. — There were two attempts to establish the inde- pendence of the colony, in 1809 and in 1812, but they were subdued, and it remained for the country to be freed in 1820, by the revolution under the leadership of Bolivar. The final overthrow of Spanish power was not accomplished until 182-4, when the battle of Ayacucho terminated the hated rule of the European within the limits covered by Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador at one blow. The separation of the des- tinies of Ecuador from those of Colombia, occurred ia AMERICA. ; wlieii tl'ey go be- tlierc was oiioe a mprising fifty prov- as Quitoos or Qui- jiitury a strange peo- ered "the Quitoos and iries; the ccniquerors on movement seems upon Mexieo. In IIiKiyna Ca})ae over- s conquests between pa, the hitter beeom- irmer Inca of Peru. enough to the era of of some dependence. King of Quito con- Spaniards landed in ^ereign of both terri- 3 Europeans and was life in despite of his .■ame a Presidency in i hundred years this ist quantities of gold jf the rulers was so I the Indians in mere which were made the in consequence the \f have not been ex- the aborigines. to establish the inde- and in 1812, but they for the country to be under the leadership )W of Spanish power 24, when the battle of rule of the European Colombia, Venezuela separation of the des- Colombia, occurred ia REPUBLIC OF ECUADOK. 507 1831, when the companion of Boliver, Gen. Juan Jose de Flores, was chosen President. Tiie rule of Flores, sometimes as President and at others as Gener- al-in-Chief, continued fourteen years, but in 1845 ho was compelled to sign an agreement that he would quit the country. The history of Ecuador has been little other than a record of wars, insurrections and revolutions ever since independence from Spanish rule was attempted. Vincente Rosa, who succeeded Flores in 1845, subdued an insurrection in O:;tober, 1846, but the clerical party succeeded in electing Koboa, their candidate. President in 1850. In the f(^llowing July, 1851, he was deposed and exiled, and Gen. Urhino, ri'})resenting the opposite faction, reigned until 185(3, in comparative peace, so that his successor, President Eobles could introduce reforms in the gov- ernment and social condition, among others the French decimal system of weights, measures and currency, between 1856 and 1859. Robles resigned because he would not ratify a convention agreed upon between commanders of the forces of Ecuador and Peru to terminate a war between the two Republics, and in January, 1861, Dr. Garcia Moreno, representing the priest party, was nominated President by a national convention, Flores being appointed Governor of Guay- aquil. This administration conducted two unsuccessful wars with New Granada, since become the United States of Colombia, and Moreno resigned in 1865. His last act of any importance was an alliance ofi'en- sive and defensive with Chili, which was annulled by Congress under his successor, Geronimo Carrion. 3. — Ecuador joined the combination against Spain in January, 1866, associating therein with Chili, Peru and Bolivia, but there was no immediate result affect- ing the Republic. Prest. Carrion resigned in Novem- ber, 1867, and Dr. Espinosa became President. It v,'as during his presidency that Ecuador was visited with the terrible earthquake of 1868, in which over three thousand persons perished, but the destructive 7T'■■t&i■■^£*i.,.■^*5«^^5S^'*WMi-^t:^3fe->'•. 508 COrXTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. forces of inanimate nature did not quell the national tendency to revolution, as in January. 18G9, Moreno lieaded a party that overthrew tlie administration of Dr. Espinosa, and became Dictator until May, when a convention named Dr. Carvajal as Provisional Presi- dent. The general election that followed that nomina- tion, gave tlie presidency to Moreno, and his rule has been on the whole favorable to the development of the resources of the Rei)ublic. The Indians rose in rebel- lion in 1872, and destroyed much valuable property, but the outbreak was subdued with great vigor, aiul since that date, some efforts have been made to favor education by tlie establishment of a college, a poly- technic, schools of art, and minor academies, besides which an observatory under European professors has been established at Quito. 4-. — Ecuador is traversed by two Cordilleras of the Andes, consequently it embraces every temperature, from the terril^le heat of the tierrus cnUcntes^ tu the re- gion of perpetual snow, and there are sixteen active volcanoes, including Cotopaxi 18,875 feet high, in the territory of the Republic. Chimborazo is the highest peak, being 21,42-i feet above the level of the sea. The highest points in the eastern Cordillera are Cay- ambe and Antisana, 19.535 and 19,137 feet high re- spectively. The table land of Quito lies between two ranges, 9,543 feet above the sea, enjoying a delightful temperature. Perpetual spring reigns here, and in the elevated valleys of Cnenca and Ilambato, the only variation in the so called winter being more co]iioi;^. rains. The Amazon has many considerable tributa- ries in Ecuador; the Na{)o, the Tigre, Pastaza, and lea or Putumayo. The great river is here called the Maranon. The L'a and Napo are supposed to be navigable for five hundred mile.s. 5. — Tliere are three dejjartments in the Republic: Guayas with Guayaquil for its capital ; Piehincha, whose capital is Quit and AssuAy having Cuenca for its chief city ; these departments are subdivided into \5rERICA. ; quell the nationul aary, 1869, Moreno tlie administration tor until May, when s Provisional Presi- lovved that noniina- 10, and his rule has development of the ndians rose in rebel - valuable property, ;th great vigor, and been made to favor a college, a poly- aeadernies, besides pean professors has 'o Cordilleras of the every temperature, s c'lliciites, tci the re- are sixteen aetive ^75 feet high, in ilie orazo is the highest e level of the sea. Cordillera are Cay- E),137 feet high re- ito lies between two lioving a delightful gns here, and in the [lainbato, the onlv being more copior,^, )nsiderable tributa- rigre, Pastaza, and !r is here called the re supposed to be :s in the Republic: capital; Piehineha, y having Cuenca for are subdivided into REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR. 509 Quito is the c!i,;)ii; .,1 oi tb.e Peinil >iie, ant I ])rovinces, (iuayafpiil its prineijial seaport. The p(){)ulation of Giiaya(piil is about 25.000, and the city stands at the mouth of tho river of the same name, which is navig- able for sonic distance. The city is neither healthful nor picturcscpie, but it is the seat of a considerable trade, as its imports average $2,500,000 per annum, and its exports $3,750,000. Cocoa, caoutchouc, tobac- co and timber are the staple exports, for which wines, hardware and cotton are taken in exchange. Good water is very .scarce in Guayaquil. The province of Guayas has a population of about 40,000, and the de- partment of Guayaquil, containing an area of 14,000 t(piare miles, has about 100.000 inhabitants. Tiiis de- partment extends from the J'acific to the x\ndes, and Gua^'aquil is the capital of both province and depart- ment. 0. — The population of Ecuador is about 1,104,000; including Europeans, principally Spaniards or their (lecendants, about 900,000; Indians, 160.000; Negroes, 8,000, and Mestizoes. 36,000; but the iigurcs are largely conjectural. There is political equality among the races, and the profession of lloman Cathoiicisin is general except among the uncivilized Indian.s. Intol- erance is of course the rule. There is a university at Quito which dates from 1684, and there are four col- leges, besides eleven high .schools and nearly 300 primary schools, of which only thirty are devoted to the education of girls. Education is subordinated to the direction of the Catholic Church, and the Indian races are entirely unprovided in this respect. The minerals found in the llepublic include syenite, gran- ite, porphory, trachyte, gold, silver,, mercury, anti- monv, coj)per, iron, lead, zinc and salt, in all of which considerable exports will be carried on when the com- merce of the country is more fully developed ; but the Jorests abound with wild animals, including the cou- gar, jaguar, panther, bear and ounce. Many of the vegetal products are very valuable, such as the cin- «*»*«-^-»*5tJtei«i*^., riA'.-;i^.Bi,-;£j^ 510 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. chona, from which Peruvian bark is obtained ; vanilla, cocoa, tiilu, caoutchouc, croton oil, pineaple, the orange and cheriinoya; and tlic forest trees arc valued for .sliip building purposes. In the lowlands, which are very unhealthy, cotton, sugar cane, coffee, rice, pepper and the banana flourish ; and on the high table- lands of Quito, in the region of perpetual spring, where the better class of population will of course eventually congregate, maize, wheat, barley, and almost every cereal comes to perfection. There is but. little wanted beyond capital, population and settled institutions to make Ecuador a i)rosperous republic ; but the frequent recurrence of earthquakes, due prob- ably to the equatorial position of the country, will necessarily impede settlement for many centuries to come. THE KEPUBLIC OF CHILL ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. iBwt-is'ne. 1. — When Pizarro conquered the Inca of Peru, the province of Chili was part of his dominions; but Chili was not directly invaded until 1535, when Almagro undertook the conquest. Valdivia succeeded Alma- gro in the command, and all the country except Aran- cania was finally subdued bv Spani.sh arms. Santiago was founded in 1541 by Valdivia, but in 1553, the Arancanians, a fierce and unconquerable race of In- dians, defeated and killed that leader. The growth of Chili is enveloped in great obscurity for a long term of years, and the rule of Spain was tyrannical without being complete, the Arancanians being a perpetual source of trouble to the European settlements, and a rallying point for other disaffected Indians, but the form of government and the reality of despotism were never abandoned. 2. When revolutionary movements commenced in the South American Colonies in 1808-9. Chili fol- lowed in the same track, and revolted in 1810 against AMERICA. is obtairied ; vanilla, 1 oil, pineiiple, the orest trees are valued the lowlands, which nr cane, coffee, rice, md on the high table- of perpetual spring, lation will of course wheat, barley, and 'ection. There is but, )pulation and settled prosperous republic ; irtliquakes, due prob- of the country, will 3r many centuries to F CHILL D SETTLEMENT. 1 the Inca of Peru, the dominions ; but Chili 1535, when Almagro via succeeded Alma- country except Aran- inish arms. Santiago via, but in 1553, the iquerable race of In- ;ader. The growth of ;;urity for a long term vas tyrannical without ns being a perpetual ;an settlements, and a jted Lidians, but the lity of despotism were 3vements commenced i in 1808-9. Chili fol- .rolted in 1810 against REPUBLIC OF CIITU. 611 the authority of the mother country. A Junta as- sembled at Siinliago and nominated a native of Cliili, the Marquis Do la Plate, lirst President of the repub- lic. Spain did not permit the colonies to depart in peace, but after a jjrolongod and desultory war, Eu- ropean pretensions were partially extinguished by tlic victory at Chaeubuco on the 12th of February, 1817, the final blow being struck at Mayper in May, 1818. Lulependcnce was proclaimed in January, 1818, but it was not until 182(3 that the la.st stronghold of Spain, the island of Chiloe, was captured. 3. — Two constitutions were adopted in succession, the finst in 182-i. and the second four years later. AVar was declared against Peru in 1837, and hostilities continued nearly two vear.s. Spain recognized the independence of. Chili by treaty in 18-4-4, and the Re- public has generally enjoyed greater quietude than the other South American .states. The administration of President Bulnes, from 1841 to 1851, was almost entirelv free from commotion, and his successor, Presi- dent Manuel Montt, had only to suppress two insur- rections during the ten years of his rule. The natural result of this exceptional condition was, that all the domestic arts flourished, and immigration from Eu- rope progressed considerably. Agriculture was exten- sively carried on, navigation advanced steadily, and the mines were worked with much perseverance and profit to all concerned. Manufactures were also ex- tensivelv undertaken. 4. — President Perez enjoyed two administrative terms, from 1861 to 1871, and during part of that time Chili was at war with Spain, having joined with Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru for that piirpose. The contest began in 1865, and in March, 1866, Spain bombarded Valparaiso, but was compelled to raise the blockade within fourteen days, in consequence of the emphatic protests of the European powers, which indicated a determination to carry the remonstrance into material effect, unless hostilities were abandoned. '5-«SQ--,i!-,^^>3SV!St*gt%*iV-t^i,-.^ 612 COUNTIIIKS OF SOUTH AMEUICA. Peace was not definitely coneliulcd until 1800, when the Tiiited States, acting as mediator, procured a set- tlement of the ([uurrel. President Errazuri^! was chosen to coniinenee his llrst term in 1871, and will probably be reelected in September of the present year. The Conservative or Churcii Vr.,.y nas been in tiie ascendant for the last twenty-live years ; but the liberals persistently contend in a peaceful and consti- tutional way for religious toleration and the introduc- tion of universal sulTrage, instalments of liberty not yet secured. There have been no intestinal commo- tions since the year 1859, but the Arancanian Indians, always intractable, have frequently risen against the government and have been suppressed on several oc- casions only after much bloodshed. In effective gov- ernment Chi'i stands at the head of the South Amer- ican llepublics. 5. — The territory of the Eepublic is long and nar- row, hemmed in between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean. The greatest length is 1,200 miles, the breadth varying from 90 to 130 miles, and the estimated area 132,616 square miles. The treaty of 1866 settled ter- ritorial limits between this republic and Bolivia. The Chilian Andes have a mean elevation of nearly 14,000 feet, the highest peak being the Parphyritic Nevado of Aconcagua, 22.-±22 feet above the sea. There are several active volcanoes, and many lateral ridges of the mountains separate the country into beautiful and very fertile valleys. The southern and central parts have the richest soil, the country north of Valparaiso inclining to sterility. The coast is bold and pre«.>ipi- tous so that vessels of great burthen can lie almost close to the shore at many points. Earthquakes are very common in this region, one of especial severity in 1822, destroyed many cities and permanently raised the coast about four feet. 6. — Silver mines of great richness have been opened in the northern parts of Chili, but the want of water and the necessity to convey nearly all the AMKUICA. c(l until 18(50, when iator. prt)cured a sot- deiit KiTazurij! was tn in 1871, and will nber of the present [ih lV»..j lias been in y-five years ; but the peaceful and const!- ;)n and the introduc- rnents of liberty not no intestinal coinmo- Arancanian Indians, ;ly risen against the jressed on several oc- ;d. In cfleetive gov- of the South Arner- iblic is long and nar- ndes and the Pacific JOG miles, the breadth d the estimated area y of 1866 settled ter- lic and Bolivia. The tion of nearly 14,000 Parphyritic Nevado e the sea. There are any lateral ridges of ry into beautiful and rn and central parts / north of Valparaiso i is bold and pre>^ipi- rthen can lie almost its. Earthquakes are of especial severity in I permanently raised richness have been f Chili, but the want ionvey nearly all the REPUBMC OF CIIILI. 618 provisions required by the miners into that inliospita- l)le country, have prevented the prosecution of large works, such as will become easy, in the course of a few years' development, in which irrigation and aque- ducts must play a very prominent part. Copper mines are plentiful and the ores particularly rich. Gold, lead, bismuth, iron, cobalt, antimony and quicksilver can be obtained in considerable quantities, and exten- sive beds of bituminous coal have been opened at Tal- cahuano. The climate is very healthy ; there are rains from June to Se])tember, occasionally, except in the north, where droughts often continue for years, re- lieved only by heavy dews at night, sometimes. The greatest heat comes in January and February, but do" in the shade is the maximum. Storms seldom oc- cur, except in the winter or rainy season. Dense for ests occur in the southern provinces, with laurels, myrtles, cypresses and other such growths of gigantic proportions. Pastoral pursuits and the cultivation of cereals flourish in the middle provinces, and the main products are wheat, barley, maize, hemp and potatoes. Fruits are abundant, such as plums, pears, apples, peaches and oranges. Silver, copper, wheat, wool and hides are the chief exports from Chili. 7. — There are no rivers or lakes of great size in Chili. The Biobio is nearly two hundred miles long, but not navigable; it is a mountain torrent rather than a river. There are many small lakes locked in among the mountains, from some of which valuable water supplies will be procured when circum- stances warrant the necessary outlay. There are good ports and secure harbors at Valdivia, Valparaiso, Con- cepcion and Coquimbo, and sufficient facilities are everywhere enjoyed for the prosecution of an exten- sive commerce. 8. — There are fifteen provinces in the Eepublic: Chiloe, Concepcion, Aranco, Maule, Nuble, Curico, Talca, Valdivia, Llanquihue, Colchagua, Valparaiso, Santiago, Aconcagua, Coquimbo and Atacama. The 83 614 COTNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. capital is at Santiago, and the other principal cities arc Valparaiso. Conce})cioii and Talca. La Concepcion has hand.some houses and broad streets, and un exten- .sive foreign trade. Its port is Talcahuaiio, one of the best in Chili. The city has been thrice destroyed by- earthquakes — in 17.30, 17ri2 and in 1825; but its population is now about 1(5,000. 9. — Tlie President is elected for five years, and the Legislature consists of two chambers, both elective, the upper being chosen every nine years, the lower for three years only. The established religion is Itoinau Catholic, and no other is tolerated, but the minds of the people are being liberalized by outside influences. The population is mainly of Spanish descent, but re- cent immigrations are disturbing the balance. The mixed races and Indians are numerou.s, and the popu- lation is very nearly 3.000.000. The imports and ex- ports each exceed $85,000,000, and there are about 500 miles of railroads in operation. The income of the government customarily realizes about $11,000,000, and the expenditures slightly exceed that amount, be- ing incurred partly in works of a reproductive char- acter, covered by loans which amount to nearly $4:0,000,000 at the present time. The national fleet consists of twelve steamers ; the army of about 5,00ft soldiers of the line, and a national guard of about 55,000. The colony of Magallanes forms part of the Kepublic of Chili. GUIANA. COLONIAL HISTORY. 1. — The vast territory under this head is bounded hy the Atlantic Ocean and the rivers Amazon and Oronoco on the northeastern part of South America. Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Brazil and Venezuela hold parts of this region in different con- ditions of dependency, a ■. development is stunted al- most as a matter of cou ^e. From the Atlantic coast, AMERICA. cr principal cities are lea. La Coiicepcioti streets, and an e.xten- vlcaliuano, one of the 1 tlu'ice destroyed by nd in 1825; but its for five years, and the rnbers, both elective, e years, the lower for •id religion is llonian d, but the minds of )y outside influences, mish descent, but re- g the balance. The :ierou.s, and the popu- The imports and ex- and there are about tion. The income of ses about $11,000,000, seed that amount, be- a reproductive char- 1 amount to nearly I. The national fleet army of about 5,00ft onal guard of about nes forms part of the 'ORY. this head is bounded rivers Amazon and rt of South America, therlands, Brazil and gion in different con- lopment is stunted al- jra the Atlantic coast, GUIAXA. 516 Tniiana strctehfvs back over a belt of low land varying from ten to forty miles in breadth, and the soil is mainly due to the mud brought down by the rivers Essccpiibc), Uomerara, Berbice, Corenten, Maroni, tiie (_)yap()k and other streams. The shallows extend far beyond the coast line, ai.d vast banks of mud are just awash even now at low tides, .so tiiat the mode of formation is readily illustrated to the observer. 3. — The river Corenten is the boundary line be- tween English Guiana and the Dutch possessions; the Maroni separates Dutch Guiana from tiie Frencii prov- ince: and the Oyapok divides French Guiana from that pertaining to the Empire of Brazil. The .wil is very fruitful where it can be cultivated, as it consists of de- conipo-sed clay, marine .salts and decayed vegetation, but tlie low land.s, when drained, are found Vo subside about twelve inches, which exposes them to an overflow unless protected by dykes from the ocean. Low sand- hills rise to the rear of the low lands, and back of this region the Sierras Parima and Pacaraima take their rise in a wild hilly country. The quantity of spark- ling mica in these mountains cau.sed the early discov- erers to believe that they were rich in gold, a fable long since spoiled by examinations carefully con- ducted. 3. — The climate of Guiana is not so deadly as that of .some parts of l' • West Indies, but it is hot and moist, therefore more favorable to vegetal than ta human life. Tliere are but few sudden changes or extremes, but there are two wet and two dry seasons in every year the tran.sitions being accompanied by thun- der storms without strong winds. June, July and Au- gust are remarkable for rains which are followed by dry weather during September, October and Novem- ber. Three months of rain then follow in December, January and February, which lead up to fine dry weather in March, April and May. Sugar, rum and mo- lasses are the chief exports ; cotton and coffee were more largely raised but modern improvements in )16 COUNTUIKS UI'" .SOUTH AMKIUCA. iiKicliiiiery liave iikkIl' su^iir tlio most iirolitablo pro- ducUoii. ' Timber is largely cxporteu us llii; (iouiilry contains valuable forcstn of 'large trirs of special worth. The mira tree attains a height of 150 feet, and its tim- ber is ranked witii teak. The fruits of the country in- clude the banana, pine api)le, guava, ami other vari- eties of that elas.s. Much e.\celleiit tish is obtained from the rivers and ahjng the coast. 4.- iMcneh (Juiana lies between the rivers Maroni and Oyapok, covering an area of 1«.000 .<porat'u>ri, 5. — Surinam or Dutch Guiana occapies the area of about 45,000 square miles between the rivers Maroni and Coreniin, and the lliver Surinam gives its name to the territorv through which it flow.s. The white pop- ulation of Surinam is only about 7,000 ; there are about 1,000 aborigines, 40,000 negroes, and about 7,500 ma- roon descendants of runaway slaves, making about 55,500 in all, or a little more than one person to the square nule. The Dutch settlement comes between those of the English and French, and the capital is lo- cated at Paramaribo. 0. — British Guiana occupies the westernmost terri- tory, comprising an area of about 76,000 square miles, with a population of nearly 200,000 persons, of whom about 12,000 are white, 10,500 are aborigines, and the remainder of the inhabitants are Negroes, Coolies, Chi- AMKUU'A, most iirolitaljlc pro- ortcii as till! country ;n'i'rt of special worlli. 150 fcot, iuul its tim- jts of tlio country in- iiva, iUiil otlier vari- cut lisli is obtuiuod it. !oii tlie rivers Maroiii Ib.OUO square miles, ban three persons to total number being here lusts frt)ni Nov- jtion, and the trade tern[)eruture, as they ' the sun would other- xnd of Cayenne lies oast, and is used by r j)olitical oflcnders. my and it bears a ter- triots wiio consider ivalent to a sentence I. I occupies the area of een the rivers Maroni larn gives its name to )ws. Tlie white pop- 7,000 ; there are about and about 7,500 ma- laves, making about lan one person to the meat cc^nes between and the capital is lo- the westernmost terri- ; 76,000 square miles, 000 persons, of whom re aborigines, and the Negroes, Coolies, Chi- RKPimr.K! OK rniTGiTAY. 617 tioso, and of several mixed niccs. Tliorc are throe- counties, Ksse(]uibo, Demerara and Hcrbice. and the- principal towns arc (icorgctown and New Amst.'V '.am.. riic iJivcr Ksscquibo is navigable for si.xtv miles, and the cstnnry at its mouth is twenty miles wide, the- li'iigtli of the stream being 5(t() miles. 'I'hc town o£ N(!w Amstenlam has a population of about !*,i)oi'lunity to devel- op the resources of the country. The annual expen- diture is under $-i,()O(»,l»0O, and the debt of the rcpub lie but little exceeds .■S27.UUU.UUU. The army, <»J>^ the l)eace establishment is only ;3,UUU strong. Afontc Video is the capital, and the i)o[)ulatiou of that city is esti- mated at r2(),UUU. The principal exports are hides, meat, tallow, wool and horns. THE KEPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA. ABORIGINAL HISTOllY AND SETTLF.MENT. 1. — Spain made the first white settlement in Vene- 7.uehi early in the sixteenth century, and the career of the governing class in that colony differed in no essen- tial particular from their conduct in the other colonics already mentioned. The Indians were oppressed until they fought, and were then beaten until they were glad to purchase peace by temporary submission; but as AMKUICA. isas stru^;,'lfil lianl to jt until 18'2S that tlio rocogni/.cil by tlio 19 lon^ HA llosas re- s, and ill l«.*)'i. acorn- been niailc bctwcoii ;lic foR'i'.s of till' Die- lo of Moiilu Cascras, 1(1, and undor I'losi- R- SL'ci'diii^ provini'C'rf iiblitiri wrre ctoucodud. idians and witli otln'i- ; not i^ivat. and riril- [ foiiiuaralivo peace, blics liuvo usually ter- 1. . about Otl.700 scinaro Illy exceeds im),m). opportunity to devel- Tlie annual expen- ;lie debt of the repub U. The army, on the I strong. Afonie Video )U of that city is csti- al exports arc hides, VENEZUELA. s'D sp:ttlf.ment. ite settlement in Vene- :ury. and the career of ly "diflered in no esaen- !t in the other colonics IS were oppressed until en until they were glad ry submission ; but as RKrillMO OK VKNKZrKr.A. 519 soon as the rcmeridirance of former defeat was didled, hostilities were recommenced in a desultory way tliat mad(! it especially dan^i'rous for a Spaniard to wander fur from the setllemenls unless ho was well armed. The settlers were o|)pressed until there was little ud- v.'i!itMg(! to be gained by the prosecution of industries that wen; gainful elsewhere, and eonseipienlly there were times when the settlements were on the verge of starvation. •i.--l)uring the troubles in tho beginning of this century, Uojivar, who was born in Caracas in July, 17bu, and had studied law in Madrid, joined the pat- riots under Miranda, who rose in rebellion against Spain in LSlO. Tiie revolution was successful, more especially after the young libcjrator obtained a -separate coiumand, and iu 18U5, his victories over the Spanish troops were so decisive, that he was received triumph- antly in his native town. The war was not yet ended, as in the following year JJolivar was defeated and driven out of Venezuela, but he succeeded in rallying his forces, and the (md of 1816 .saw the dictator at the head of a considerable army, with which he defeated the Spanish troops under Morillo repeatedly in 1817. A Congress assembled at Angostura and Bolivar was elected President, and in Dec-ember of tho same year the Confederated Uepublieof Colombia was formed by the junction of New Grenada and Ecuador vith Ven- ezuela, of which the Venezuelan Bolivar was made I'residont. Venezuela was obliged to withdraw from the confederation in 1829, in consequence of the fac- tious troubles constantly prevailing, and the constituent parts of Colombia became three republics. The dis.so- lution caused much trouble at the time. The union was formally dissolved in 1831. 3. — Venezuela consists of three states, Caracas, Maracaibo and Cindad Bolivar, and the cities of the same name are their respective capit; Is. Caracas is also the capital of the Kepublie, having a population of nearly 50,000. The area of the republic is estimated 520 COUXTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. at 368,200 .square miles, and the population exceeds 1,500,000. The product.= of Venezuela are coffee, cocoa, indigo, tobacco, cotton and hides, and the commerce of the republic is steadily increa.sing. The best cultivated districts arc found in the state of Caracas, which is mountaiuou.s, with many benutiful and fertile valleys. The capital of the province and of Venezuela is sep- arated frt)m its port at La Guayra by a mountain range. There is a somewhat dangerous harbor at La Guayra, which stands on a narrow belt of land between the sea and an almost perpendicular wall of rock ris- ing 3,000 feet, to the elevated plateau of the interior. Tiie town of La Guayra is one of the warmest and most unhealthy places on the coast, but a population of 8,000 persons is concentrated there, in defiance of heat and earthquakes, to carry on the profitable busi- ness of exporting and importing goods. Caracas is twelve miles froir. La Guayra and 8,000 feet above the sea, consequently it does not suffer from excessive heat, and the city is supplied with excellent water in abund- ance, running near and also through the streets. An earthquake which visited Caracas in 1812 destroyed 12,000 people. There is an excellant college and sev- eral hospitals in Caracas, and the streets are well paved. The buildings are also very handsome. Pres- ident Blanco is now ihci chief executive of Venezuela. TIIE EEPUBLIC OF PARAGUAY. ABORIfJTNAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. iiiiii-is7e. I. — Paraguay was a Spanish colony early in the sixteenth century, and has suffered all the conse- quences of that fatal connection, in which the white population tyrannized over the Indians, and was in turn despoiled by the governing class appointed by the Crown Vv'ithout regard to character or fitness; and in consequence there is but little history to give, save that which has already been recorded in connection I AMERICA. iG population exceeds ezuolii are coffee, cocoa, , and the commerce of ;. The best cultivated of Caracas, which is 111 and fertile valleys. of Venezuela is sep- layra by a mountain ngerous harbor at La w belt of land between ular wall of rock ris- ateau of the interior. of the warmest and )ast, but a population i there, in defiance of n the profitable busi- ig goods. Caracas is (i 8,000 feet above the 3r from excessive heat, sellent water in abund- )ugh the streets. An as in 1812 destroyed ellant college and sev- the streets are well •ery handsome. Pres- :ecutive of Venezuela. PAEAGUAY. in SETTLEMENT. 1 colony early in the iflered all the conse- n, in which the white : Indians, and was in ig class appointed bv aracter or fitness ; and e history to give, save ecorded in connection EEPUBLIC OF PARAGUAY. 521 with the other colonies on the La Plata. The Vice- roy of Peru was the distant Governor of Paraguay until 1778, but his absence was not altogether an ad- vantage, as his deputies levied exactions upon the people for their own profit, as well as in the name and on behalf of the Viceroy. When the provinces of Eio de la Plata or River of Silver were united into one Viccroyalty, in 1778. Paraguay was one of the associated colonies. But little benefit caine from the change. The expulsion of the Viceroy in 181.'), was the act of Buenos Ayres mainly, and Paraguay did not j)articipate in the revolution until nearly three years later, after a long course of civil war had much injured all the colonies. 2. — Wiien Monte Video had been captured from Spain, and the last stronghold of the monarchy was lost, in 1812, Paraguay joined the Confederation in the establishment of a constituent Assembly, which met at Buenos Ayres and in 1813 issued the coin of the liepublic. The subsequent battles with the troops of Spain were participated in by Paraguay, in 1817, 1818 and 1821, when the Royal arms were badly defeated, but continual struggles on the part of ambitious men to pervert the government to their own ends made the liberties of the peoi)le only a name. Paraguay, having seceded from the Argentine Repub- lic, was involved in a ruinous war with the forces un- der Rosas, until that despotic ruler was vanquished at Monti Caseras by the united forces of Brazil, Uru- guay and Paraguay, under the command of Gen, Ur- quiza; when the commander having become Presi- dent of Paraguay as an independent Republic, in June, 1862. The Argentine Republic again made war on Paraguay in 1866, but the action of the government was strongly condemned, and in several provinces of the Argentine Republic there wore outbreaks of the populace, more especially in Catamarca and Mendoza, which were not subdued without much hard fighting. Since the conclusion of that war, Paraguay has been 522 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMKRICA. able to develop its internal resources, and, under the rule of President liiverola, has made groat progress. The area of the country is about 60.8OU r'^uare miles, and the population a liule over 1,000,000. The capi- tal of Paraguay is lo-'ated at Ascciuslon, which city has u population of -iS.OoO souls, and the primdpal ex- ports of the country consist of verba mate, manioc, tobacco, lumber, hides and troi)ical fruits. Tl^e gov- ernment is administered with great economy, anu the attempts tliat have been made to encourage manufac- tures will ultimately build up a great nation, if they should be per.sevcrcd in and assisted by an extension of the blessings of education and freedom in worship. THE REPUBLIC OF PERU. ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 1. — Particulars have ab-eady been given as to the wars and migrations that aH^ected the destiny of Peru, prior to the invasion by Spain, in the early part of the sixteenth century, which the reader will find in the brief sketch of 'Ecuador in this volume. The Indians had arrived at a high degree of civilization under the rul. of Iluayana Capac, the great Inca, who, towards the end of the Hfteenth century, con- cluded to divide his territory between his sons Huas- car and Atahnallpa. The throne of Peru fell into the hands of Atahnallpu. by contest in 1530, and his brother, Huascar, remained a prisoner in his own palace until Atahuallpa was defeated and slain by the Spaniards in his daring attempts to expel the invaders. The oppressions of the conquerors made tiie former rule of the Incas esi)ecially dear to the Indian population, but the story has been told so often that it is cnly necessary to say, that here as well as elsewhere, Spain destroyed her own projects by the rigidity of her exactions, and forced the natives into atutudes of defiance and desperation. RICA. and, under the great progress. 3U r'luare miles, ,000. The capi- (, which city has e priniipal ex- i mate, nuinioc, ■uits. Tl'c gov- Lionomy, anu the ourage manufac- t nation, if they by an extension jdom in worship. EEU. TTLEMENT. 1 given as to the destiny of Peru, lie early part of ider will find in s volume. The ee of civilization the great Inca, ith century, con- in his sons Huas- Peru fell into the n 1530, and his :)ner in his own ed and slain by pts to expel the conquerors made ially dear to the lias been told so that here as well ,'n projects by the [ the natives into REPUBLIC OF PERU. 523 2. •The Viceroy of Spain resided in Peru, and from that point every scheme of oppression originated until the year 1778, when a district viceroyalty was established at liio ilc la Plata. Cuzco, the most popu- lous (lci)artinent in modern Peru, was tiio region lavored by the Incas in the days of their glory, the city of Cu/cco, and capital of the department, having been the capital of tlic ancient government, ^fassive .specimens of IVruvian architecture are visible in Cu/.co, and the city is delightfully situated about 11,880 feet above the level of the sea, surrounded by a country mountainous in some parts, with extensive pampas and table lands, capable of sustaining im- mense quaulites of stock. The soil is fcitile and ihe earth abounds in metals, .so that the mineral resources of tlie country are as great as the agricultural and pastoral. The ai'ca of the province embraces 45.000 square miles and s'lstains a pojnilation of nearly 500,- 000. The population of the city is about 40.000, and there are several ;nanufactories of cotton, woolens and jewelry. There are in the city of Cuzco several con- vents, a fine cathedral, a mint and a university, but the dominance of the Catholic faith has the efi'cct of di- minishing the attractiveness of general learning. 3. — Peru was among the first of the colonies to throw oil the yoke of Spain, when the movements of Nopoleon in Europe gave to the people a possibility of success, but the concentration of force at that point delayed the day of liberation, in spite of every effort, until Bolivar, having won a great victory over the Spanish forces at Carabolo in June, 1821, led an army into that co\ .iM-y from Venezuela in the following year, and finallv expelled the royali.st forces. Bolivar was proclaimed Dictator of Peru in 1823, an honor well deserved, am', for a wonder, not abused by the possessor.' The adulation bestowed upon Bolivar in his tour through the country, after he had driven out the Spaniards, was enough to have converted an ordi- nary man into a despot. The soutliern part of Pera 524 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. was converted into the Republic of Bolivia, to perpet- uate the name of tlie liberator. 4. — Peru was always rich in the precious metals but the avidity of the Spaniards to procure riches without labor on their own part induced so much des- potism towards the Indian miners that many of the best mines were deliberately ruined by the laborers to re- venge themselves upon their cruel taskmasters. Gold and silver arc found in the river beds as well as in the rocks, vvhence much has been removed by the gradual process of disintegration ; and besides these metals, iron, copper, tin, mercury, lead and salt abound. There are admirable and extensive coal deposits which ■will be of more value in extending the manufacturing interests than even gold and silver. The Spaniards came into the country in loSS, but although con- quered and driven from the old seat of government, tlie descendant of the Incas did not abandon the struggle until 1557, when he resigned his authority witlf^great reluctance. After that date the Indian races still continued to fight as often as opportunity occurred, where the weapons of the European soldiery were compensated on their side, by some advantage equivalent, and the Spaniards could hardly feel that they were masters until about the year 1780. The Colonies under Spain never reached so high a plane of civilization as tl.at under the Incas of Peru which was disturbed by their prosenc<>. 1 .le transfer of part of the authority of the Peruvian Viceroy to the new appointee of the King at ?^'o de la Plata in 1788 did not really affect the colony . any degree. 5. — Peru, having become independent in conse- quence of the united efforts of the several colonies against Spain, had then to undergo a series of convul- bions in consequence of the designs of military chiefs who wished to substitute their own despotism for that of Spain. In the year 1835, Gen. Santa Cruz, then Protector of Bolivia", invaded Peru and annexed part of its territory to that of the republic over which he >-'-J(V.». ■ r'/li^^V** "• HERICA. Bolivia, to perpet- he precious metals to procure riches need so mucli des- it many of the best the laborers to re- askmasters. Gold h as well as in the ;ed by the gradual ides these metals, and salt abound. :oal deposits vvliich the manufacturing •. The Spaniards but although con- ;at of government, not abandon the rned his authority , date tlie Indian ten as opportunity European soldiery y some advantage .d hardlv feel that ! year 1780. The sd so high a plane icas of Peru which ae transfer of part ricerov to the new- Plata in 1788 did iegree. ■pendent in conse- le several colonies a series of convul- j of military chiefs despotism for that , Santa Cruz, then and annexed part )lic over which he RErUBLIC OF PERU. 525 ruled, but eventually Santa Cruz was defeated and expelled from the government of Bolivia by the inter- • position of Chili and the Argentine Kepublic in 18;30. Ambitious designs on the part of Gatnarro involved the country in another war with Bolivia in 1841, but when peace was restored the old boundaries were re- stored. The area of the liepublic is about 510.000 .'square miles, and its jiopulation about 3,200.000. The public expenditure is estimated at $72.(»0(),000 per annum, and the public debt exceeds ,$100,000,000. The standing army aggregates nearly 5,000 men and the war navy consists of 20 vessels carrying (52 gun.s. The mercantile navy consists of 120 ships, aggregating about 80.000 ton.s. The imports annually amount to about ,$44,000,000 and the exports to more than $80,- 000.000. The main exports are guatio — of which in 18tiH, 456,186 tons were exj)orted — saltpeter, cotton, wool, borax, hides, silver and copper; and the princi- pal city is Lima, with a poj)ulation of 140,000 souls. 6. — Caliao is the port of Lima, from which it is distant about six miles. This is a fortified town in northern Peru, at>d the fortress is a very fine structure. There is a railroad c^^nneeting the port with the city, and the amount of shipping and general busine.ss tran.sacted in Caliao supports a population of nearly 11,000 persons. The harbor and roadstead are par- ticularly safe, being protected by the island of San Lorenzo, which operates as a breakwater and forms the best shelter obtainable on the coast of Peru. There is a commodious quay and quite ■>ufll nent wharf accommodation for a still larger traflic. There was an earthquake in 1746 which almost entirely de- stroyed the town, but since that time only light shocks, comparatively speaking, have been experi- enced. The city of Lima suffered on that occasion almost as much as Caliao, the shocks being repeated every seven or eight minutes, and over 200 of the most violent description were then counted within twenty four hours. Peru is particularly marked by 526 COrNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. such convulsions: in the year 1868. when the latest of tiic great sliocks struck the western coast of South America, the nourishing city of Arica, tlie principal sliipping port for the Republic of Bolivia, disappeared in a few moments. Arequipa was levelled ta the ground and oO.OlM) people left homeles.s at one stroke. In tiie Andes of Ecuador the city of Catocachy dipap- ])eared, and a lake now covers the spot; wliile the cities of Ibarra, Ottavalla. and other places were swal- lowed up, an aggregate of 10,000 persons being lost in the vast eonvul.-Aion. At Arica, at the same time, the sea reireated from the sliore carrying all the ships that were in the harbor as if their cal>l';s had been straw- bands. When the wave returned, four of the ships were dashed to pieces instantly, and the fifth was car- ried two miles inland. 7. — The city of Arequifta, just mentioned as hav- ing been desolated by tlie eartlupiake of Aug. 18 and \i, 1868, is about fourteen miles from the Volcano of Are(iuii)a, and is the capital of the department of the same name in I'eru. The area of the department is 201.000 square miles, and its population 180,000. The soil is fertile, producing grapes which are manufac- tured into wine. Gold, silver, lead, zinc and coal abound. The eiiv is about forty miles from the Pa- cific Ocean, on the Chili River, and on the plain of Quilca, 7,8r)0 feet above the sea. The town is well built and beautiful, has several convents, a cathedral and a ccjllcge, and the houses which are of stone are only two stories high as a precautionary measure. There have been several earthquakes affecting Are- quipa, that in 1868 d istroyed more than $12,000,000 •worth of property and 500 lives, but an active trade is done here, and a railroad connects the city witli MoUendo on the Pacific. According to Buckle, there is some connection between earthquakes, volcanoes and nriestly intolerance, and certainly it would be diflicuS to i'md a country in whicii these several afflic- tions pre more persi;-'ent3y concurrent than in South "^'WVnH^Kff*;!** fit**' MERIOA. PATAOOXIA AND FALKl-ANP ISLANDS. 527 B. when the latest [•I'M coast of South I'ica, tlie principal oiivia, ilisappeared IS levelled ta the jless at one stroke, f Catoeaeliy disap- le spot; wiiile the r places were swal- M'sons being lost in tlie same time, the [J all the ships that -: had been straw- four of the ships 1 the fifth was car- mentioned as hav- ke of Aug. 18 and ■om the Volcano of department of the the department is ition 180,000. The hich are manufac- ad, zinc and cf)al niles from the Pa- id on the plain of The town is well nvents, a cathedral ih are of stone are lutionary measure, ikes affecting Are- 3 than $12,000,000 lut an active trade lects the city witli ng to Buckle, there nquakes, volcanoes ;ainly it would be these several atflic- rrent than in South America, whether they are joined as cause and efTect being the only question. PATAGONIA AM) FALKLAND ISLANDS. 1^ — To complete the record of South America, it is necessary bricllv to mention Patagonia, the Falk- land Islands and" the Islands of Galapagos, South Georgia and Aurora. Patagonia, with an area of 376,- 300 square jniles, has only a i)opulation of 24,000, or rather more than fifteen square miles to each inhabit- ant. The Falkland Islands consists of about 200 is- lands, in the south Atlantic, with an aggregate area of 13.000 square miles, and a population of less than one thousand ])ersons. The two largest islands, known as East and West Falkland, have been at dill'erent times the homes of French, Spanish and English settlements. The English are now in possession. In winter the tem- pcratui-e ranges from 30" to 50", and in the summer from 40" to 65°, with frequent rains and high winds. No trees nor fruits grow here, but the pasturage is ex- cellent, and horses and cattle originally placed on the islands by the Buenos Aryeans have increased won- derfully. " Davis discovered the islands in 1592, and Stronggave them their present name in 1690. Port Stanley is a thriving village in East Falkland, with an excellent harbor, and the population of the colony in 1875, was under nine hundred. 2. — The Galapagos Islands, otherwise known as the " Tortoise Islands," are thirteen in number, and evi- dently oi a volcanic origin. They are in the Pacific Ocean and on the equator. The flora and fauna of this group are peculiarly interestmg. The Ecaudori- ans took possession of the islands in 1832, and planted a penal settlement which is still maintained, but there is no population except prisoners and those inter- ested in their retention. Land turtles are found in the Galapago Islands in great numbers. The Aurora Islands and South Georgia Islands comprise 528 WEST INDIA ISLANDS. respectively 210 and 1570 square miles, but being en- tirely uniuliubited, they have no interest for our readers. WEST INDIA ISLANDS. DISCOVERY AND SKTTLEMENT. i4Wi-f sro. I _ The West India Islands were the first land seen by Christopher Columbus, when the great discoverer was on his way, as he seems to have believed, toward the East Indies, and in eemsequencc the land thus found, being supposed the westernmost extremity of th.i coveted country, was called the West Indies Tiiere was already serious disquietude in the minds of the sailors, who feared their arrival at a point from which return would be impossible, and Columbus named a time within which he would turn back un- less a laud fall had been made. That time had not expired, when the welcome cry of " Land Ho ! from the mast head of his Caravel announced the success ot the expedition. There had been a proposition prior to this time, to throw Columbus overboard, but the mutineers who had no skill in navigation, once they were out of sight of land, feared their incapacity to re- turn without the mariner, whose death they desired yet dreaded. r rv ^ 2. — The land thus discovered on the 12th of Octo- ber 1492, is supposed to have been San Salvador, oth- erwise Cat Island, and was certainly one of the Baha- mas a group of islands, fourteen in number, now possessed by Great Britain. Columbus, continuin^g his voyage, landed in Cuba, finding the natives a mild and trustful people, who conceded to their new visitors every kindness, until they discovered that the com- panions of Columbus were not necessarily good men. The aboriginal name of the island is that which still SI ar of isl in th ar St Lt tiu G: CI ail cai 4.2 92, rm Isl f ifSWRsjBatt^J-r^i'nWKETWRBW^ttWV-iM * r.TVtrtT** SSS! ri)S. niles, but being en- o interest for our iNDS. LEMENT. ;ro the first land seen tlie great discoverer ive believed, toward unec the land thus •nmost cxtrenriity of the West Indies, tude in the minds of al at a point from ble, and Columbus oiild turn back, un- Tiiat time had not " Land Ho ! " from unced the success of a proposition prior overboard, but the lavigation, once they leir incapacity to re- ■ death they desired on the 12th of Octo- n San Salvador, oth- nly one of the Baha- E;n in number, now )lumbus, continuing ig the natives a mild to their new visitors vered that the com- Bcessarily good men. i is that which still WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 529 continues to be used, but Columbus gave to the terri- tory tlie name of J nana. 3. — The islands thus opened to European adven- ture were generally called the Antilles, which generic term applies to all the West India Islands, e.\cej)l the Baliania.s, and the word was intended to convey that tiiey were the islands that must be ])assed before the main land could be reached. Those islands extend from the Gulf of Mexico almost to the Gulf of Paria, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea! There are two groups — the Greater and Lesser Antil- les, the latter being known as the Caribbean Islands, easternmost of the group. The Greater Antilles in- clude tlie four largest islands of the archipelago: Cu- ha, llayti or San Domingo, Jamaica and I'orto Kico. There are many smaller islands along the coasts of the Great Antilles included in that group. *• — "f'he Antilles, being in the torrid zone, are •subject to frequent hurricanes and earthquakes, and are, no doubt, of volcanic origin. High mountains, of granitic formation, are found' in the centers of the i.slaiids, The Lesser Antilles are numerous, but small ill size, arranged in a crescent, with its convexity to the east. The Windward or South Caribbean Islands are, Barbadoes, Grenada, the Grenadinis, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago. The Leeward or North Caribbean Islands are, Anguilla, An- tigua, Barbuda, Deseada, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Marie Galenti, Montserrat, Nevis, Saba, St. Bartholomew, St. Christopher, St. Eustatious, St. Martin, Santa Cruz, and the Virgin Islands, still smaller, which are held hy the British, Spaniards and Danes. Some of the Lesser Antilles are coralline, and others are of vol- canic birth. 5. — The Antilles contain, on the whole, about 4,220,000 inhabitants, and comprise an area of about 92,000 square miles. The staple products are sugar, ruin, tobacco, cotton and coffee. The Windward Islands are all British except Martinique, which be- 34 580 REPUlUilC OF ITAYTI. long to France, (iroat Britain liolds tli" ..■ijor portion of the Lesser Antilles. France luis colonies in Des- eada, (uiadeloniic, Marie (ialante and St. Martin, in the last, of which the Dutch have also a settlement. St. Bartholomew is Swedish; three of the Virgin Isl- lands are British. The largest part of the po[)ulation arc negroes and mnlattoes, but all free, cNcept in the Spanisli po.ssessions of Cuba and Porto Kico. This group of i-slands is especially related to our conti- nent, not only in the order 'of di.seovery, but from their position, being .southeast of Florida, in the re- cess formed by the narrowing of our land, where Central America intervenes. Having thus generally introduced the archipelago to our reader.s, the constitu- ent parts may be considered in relation to the coun- tries whereof 'tliey are dependencies, or in their posi- tion as independent Republics, THE REPUBLIC OF IIAYTL ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. J40g-ia70. I. — Ilavti is, next to Cuba, the largest of the Antilles, and the island is divided into two states, the Republic of Santo Domingo, and the Republic of Hayti. Originally the island was called Hispaniola by' Columbus, but the name Hayti, which in the Caribbean tongue signifies mountainous, has outlived the Spanish appellation. The first settlement made on this island was called Isabella, in honor of the Queen whose favor procured for Columbus the scanty atten- tion that was bestowed upon him in the court of Cas- tile, and the second settlement, which was founded in 1496, four years after Isabella, was named Santo Do- mingo. The colonies first planted were prosperous in the extreme, nnd in 1506 there were fifteen upon the island, which was erected into a Bishopric in 1511. The prosperity enjoyed by the Spaniards was wrung from the lives of the natives with such terrible exac- v-*^ja^cn'hi!*:M^i':>ir.:'i^^^^-i'' ■■'■•^'''^^^ ■ .•7Hrf!t,iSM*«>t^ • lYTI. >l(ls til" '.Mjor portion lia.« colonicH ill Dos- e and St. Martin, in e also a settlement, 'ee of the Virgin Tsl- art of the po[)ulation 1 free, except in the il Porto Kieo. This ■eluted to our conti- (li.'seovery, but from if Florida, in the re- of our land, where living thus generally reader.s, the eonstitu- relation to the coun- cies, or in their posi- F IIAYTL fD SETTLEMENT. I, the largest of the ed into two states, the md the Republic of vas called Ilispaniok Hayti, which in the ntainous, has outlived rst settlement made on 1 honor of the Queen nbus the scanty atten- n in the court of Cas- which was founded in ivas named Santo De- ed were prosperous in were fifteen upon the a Bishopric in 1511. Spaniards was wrung ;h such terrible exac- KKI'IIII.IC UK IIAYTL 531 tion.**, that the pe(/i)le steadily decreased in inunbers from tlie very begiiiiiing, imtil the aboriginal I'aee ap- pealed likjiy to l)e destroyed entirely. WIhmi the lir.steoloiiy was j)lanted, there were 2.000,000 aborigines on the island, or at any rate that was tiie estiniMti> then made; yet wiiliin a (jnarter (^f a century, st) terrib!':: had been the labors imposed upon the natives, who were compelled to work m the mines and otherwise to toil without ceasing, and so frightful had been the slaughter with wliieh insurrections were subdued, that it was found expedient to introduce negro slaves t' work the mines and })Iantatio!:s for the C()iH|uerors. This was not done as an act of merey toward the na- tives, but beeau.se their numbers had fidlen below that demanded to carry on the designs of their master.'?. Tliere were only 21,000 in the year 1511, and the de- crease continued steadily. It is doubtei.' of the Spanish (le[)cndeney. In 17'J2, ;;ie ripur. 'ions from France, received in San Domingo, v.ero valued at .$7."),000,000, and the exports to Fi •■ were m-arlv $70,000,000. Tliere were then in tl; ., ion V 780,000 persons, of whom 40,000 were white, VOO.obO slaves, and 40,000 free colored people. 4. — When the revolutionary ideas of France be- came known all over the world, after the fall of the Bastile in 17Si), there were echoes of free thought among the colored population in San Domingo. Many of the free negroes were wealthy men, holding large estate?, but because of the color of their skin.s they were devoid of political rights, although many of tliein were possesseil of considerable culture. They agitated to be placed on the same footing with the wiiite popu- lation, and in 1790, finding that force had been used in France, as formerly in the United States, with good fl;"r^^fV^.tf»^M^hff.-r^r^l^^^'*ff^^f'^i>rr^'-■- *'^^,io-fia*»^-i^^^-^-'^*->j™e^tf-^Jt^--^-=»'fc'^^--'a^ .7iti^»„-»***f'- m k "11. of tlic West Iiidioa |iiiiii. Uiit hi! >licil ill he V'ici'iDVally for riiiile liiiu of the dm- itioii. fiitiiici's wttk'il oil 1(180, huviiig pi'oh. i|iuMi(;(! of Uii! fiiil- |{in;lu'lk; ; iiiid from iiiiiiii i.-^hmil, wliero lolwithstiuidiiig llio to drive thctii from ticaty of Uyswiitk if Kranco, in 1097, llayli to tliat kini:^iia^ h \i>. !»«~ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ^ Ki §22 ' US liio lU Jim U il.6 L HiotDgraphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^^•^v •^.f^ k ^ n? ^Hr;?T^'~ ■- jjp&H |ii%-r,,:,-ifej#,^,s7si5ftaa^ 1 CIHM/iCMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. i Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques REPUBLIC OF IIAYTI. 5na effect, they orjranized tniops to enforce their demands. The wliitc popuhition defeated the free negroes, and their leaders were cruelly treated ; but in the follow- ing year, 1791, the National Assembly of France con- sistently allowed the claim of tlie colored free men of San Domingo to participate in the liberties which, until within a brief term, the PVench citizen had not shared in himself. The slaves now broke into an in- surrection, and their numbers exceeded the white pop- ulation by seventeen to one. To add to the embarrass- ments of the time, France, having tried and executed! the King and Queen, was outlawed by the combined sovereigns of Europe, and, as incidents of the war then raging, the Spaniards and the English madeonslauglits upon San Domingo. The French government, having rolled back the tide of invasion from her own frontiers, by the victories won by Dumonriez over the forces of the allies, was enabled, to send commissioners to the colony, empowered to deal with the color difficulty in a rcvolutioTiary spirit. The principles of liberty, equality and fraternity were applied to the contending races, and Toussaint lOuverture was appointed com- mander of the army raised by his countrymen. The negro commander expelled the invaders, and order war. restored. The whole island was ceded to France in 1795, Spain having begun to discover that there was strength in democracy, and Toussaint I'Ouverture became Governor of the two colonics. There was an exceptional measure of prosperity in Hayli during this remarkable government. 5. — Napoleon Bonaparte, whoso aspirations for liberty had been uttered in the form of pamphlets, while he continued a subaltern in the French army, had changed his views long before he won the great victory at Marengo in 1800. and in the following, year the First Consul sent an expedition to the island under Geti. Leclerc, with instructions to reestablish slavery. It is not certain that even the arms of Napoleon would have prevailed over Toussaint I'Ouverture, with the fe£aigi^gia*^%=^.'g!aga^;i^"3ecg¥l5^j<^^ KKPUBLIC OF HAYTI. disparity of forces that could be brought into the field, but, by iin act of cowardly treachery, the negro Gov- ernor was entrapped into captivity and sent to France, where he died, shortly after, in prison. Gen. Dessa- lines fought the battle of freedom with great vigor and wisdom, and Gen. Lcclerc did not win laurels in San Domingo. The army, much reduced by sickness, finally capitulated to an English squadron in Novem- ber, I8O0, and one month later San Domingo became an independent republic by its own declaration, with Gen. Dessalines Governor for life. 6. — Tiie military liberator and Governor a\)ed the career of Napoleon Bonaparte, who, in May, ISO-i. was proclaimed Kmj)eror of France, and in October of the same year, Dessalines broke the constitution, which he had sworn to preserve, in order to assume the title of Emperor of Ilayti. Civil wars ensued, and after two years of excesses in the attempt to ^ stain an absurd dignity, Dessalines was assassinated. Tiie result of this wicked attempt on the part of Dessalines was an almost complete disunion among the people. The old Spanish element went back to its Spanish allegiance, and Iliiyli was for a long time a prey to anarchy, in consequence of the efforts of contending chiefs to be- come dictators. During the year 1822, Jean Pierre Boyer, a mulatto, succeeded in uniting tiie whole island under his government. In his youth Boyer served in the Fi'cnch army, and during the civil wars on the island was an officer under Pethion, against Christophe, the negro King, who was crowned in 1812 as Henry I. Tlie cruelty and oppressions of Chris- tophe, who surrounded his throne with a burlesque no- bility, such as the Duke of Marmalade, provoked a revolt which the King could not subdue, and that ruler committed suicide in October, 1820. Before that event occurred, Pethion having died. Boyer had been chosen President, and, upon the death of Christophe, the island fell once more under one administration. Boyer ruled with much wisdom at first, but latterly his 1 he f negi gov( The by] siwri ill L 7, secti the a pr chop of 1^ fortr retir louq the 1 Gem .salir to s espo a CO the i Soul ble, pero in 11 the 1 next of 01 orde der exp( was tons 16 g stroi to ^ REPUBLIC OF HAYTI. 535 it into the field, the negro Gov- sent to France, n. Gen. DessM- ith great vigor ; win hiurelri in red by sickness, ;lron in Noveni- Dniingo became cclaralion, with 'crnor aped the ^[ay, 180-i. was October of the tution, which he ime tlie title of 1, and after two -tain an absurd Tiie result of jssalines was an eople. The old nish allegiance, y to anarchy, in ng chiefs to be- )22, Jean Pierre ting tlie whole is youth Boyer ig the civil wars ?ethion, against crowned in 1812 issions of Chris- 1 a burlesque no- ide, provoked a abdue, and that 20. Before that Boyer had been 1 of Christophe, administration, irst, but latterly his measures became arbitrary, and it was claimed that he gave preferences to inulattoes, which caused the negroes to rise again.st him. He was driven from the government and expelled from the island in 1842. The independence of the republic was acknowledged by France in 1822, and when Boyer was driven out he si)ent the remainder of his life in Paris, wliere ho died in 1850, aged 7-1 year.s. 7. — Upon the expulsion of Boyer in 1842, the two sections diviu?d once more; the eastern portion became the Kepublic'of Santo Domingo, and Ilayti again fell a prey to internal dissensions. Soulouque, who was chosen President of Ilayti in 1847, assumed the title of Fm[)eror in 1849, and administered the imperial form until 1858, when an insurrection compelled his retirement. President Geffra.'d, who succeeded Sou- louque, had been made a Duke lay the Esnperor, when the imperial style was assumed. Geil'rai'd, son of the General of the same name, who cooperated with Des- sahnes against the French troops, was a Orllfe, that is to say he had three parts of African blood, but he espoused the cause of the mulattoes, and so procured a combinatian of parties in his favor. His rank in the army gave him a claim to consideration, and when Soulouque became so bad that a change was inevita- ble, Gelfrard conducted the revolution. The ex-Em- peror was banished in 1860. ^-resident Geflf rard ruled in Ilayti until 1867, when he was expelled, and passed the remainder of his career in Jamaica. Sal nave, the next President, was driven out in 1870, after a term of only three years. President Missage-Saget restored order, and Ilayti once more became prosperous. Un- der his rule imports rose to $5,880,000 per annum, and exports expanded to $8,260,000 ; the commercial navy was represented by 144 ships with a burthen of 60,000 tons. The war navy consisted of seven ships carrying 16 guns, and the army on a peace footing was 6,000 strong. The annual expenditure was brought down to $2,900,000, and the national debt of $10,090,000 \ !H'ts>*a*yT"^f*»t.-.jr<;:i5i^:i:,*«5te,Jij,i^i,,i 536 KKl'l'HLIC OF HAYTI. was in a fair way towards liquirlation, beiiif^ but a small matter for a prc^perous people 572,000 in num- ber, with a territory of 10,000 square miles. 8. — Cien. Mieliel Domingue sueoeeded in regular course to the Presidency by popular election, and the course of prosjierity entered upon at the eommencc- ment of this decade is being continued with every promise of permanency. AVar may be said to be the normal comlition between the Ilaytien Kepublic and that of Santo Domingo, and in consequence, when the smaller government — which will be noticed in due course — desired to procure annexation by the United States, very considerable activity was exhibited by the Ilaytien government to prevent tlie consummation of the treaty. It was claimed in 1870, that some offi- cers of the U. S. Navy had behaved arbitrarily in the ports of llayti, but the mere representation of the fact in Congress provoked an investigation which will not fail to be of material value hereafter. Ilaytien troops periodically overrun the territories of Santo Domingo, but it is i)robable that the two territories will eventu- ally combine in harmony. 9. — Ilayti is composed of four departments, and Port au Prince is the capital. The legislative power is vested in two chambers, and the executive in a President elected for four years by the representative Assembly. The annual expenditure exceeds the in- come by about $420,000, but the rapid developments of commerce promise to terminate that anomaly with- in the present decade. Within ten years the burthen engaged in commerce has increased by 90.000 tons, and there is room for a very much greater increase. For want of roads or canals the timber resources of the island are all but useless ; coflee culture is carelessly prosecuted ; indigo, vanilla and tobacco are almost abandoned, and sugar does not demand as much at- tention as the value of the traflio would warrant. Cofl'ee, cotton and cocoa are exported largely, and rum very largely, but in every department there is room for development sq an bn Is£ mi na esj Gi pei tit' mc CO' fer th( riv So va en( sea ler tor ba Ai inc rar are coi ma co: an( th( poi REPl'BLIC OF SANTO DOMTXGO, 537 ;ion, beitif^ but a 572.000 in num- miles. Bcded in regular election, and tlio t the coininencc- ued with every be said to be the en Kopublie and juenee, when the i noticed in due m by the United as exhibited by le consummation 0, that some ofTi- arbitrarily in the itation of the fact n which will not Haytien troops Santo Domingo, cries will eventu- iepartments, and legislative power e executive in a Lhe representative e exceeds the in- pid developments at anomaly with- ears the burthen by 90.000 tons, iter increase. For resources of the Iture is carelessly lacco are almost nand as much at- would warrant, rted largely, and partment there is 10. — The i.sland altogether comprises about 28.000 square iniles, including the lesser islands adjoinini:-. and the greatest length is 405 miles. The greatest breadth is from north to south, 105 miles from Cape Isabell'i to Cape Beata. The coast line of about 1500 miles has many excellent bays and harbors in which navies might find shelter, the Bay of Samana being of especial importance in the passage to the Mexican Gulf. Tiierc are several mountain ranges, the highest peak being 0,000 feet above the sea. There are beau- tiful savannahs exceedingly fertile, and many of the mountain ridges are culturable to the very summit, or covered with virgin forests. The plains are beautiful, fertile and extensive, sloping almost insensibly from the mountain sides to the sea. There are several fine rivers, and the surface generally is well watered. Some of the streams are very rapid. There are great varieties of soil and temperature which are increased by the different attitudes possible, and by the preval- ence of trade winds. The transition from the wet seasons to the dry, and vice versa, are generally vio- lent, and during May and June the raii» descends in torrents, which causes the rivers to overflow their banks. The heat during the day in June, July and August rises to 104'"' in the shade on the plains, chang- ing with altitudes to from 77° to 66°. The nights range from 59° to 62°. Earthquakes and hurricanes are frequent. The mineral treasures of the island are considerable, including lignite, which has been on many occasions mistaken for coal, but there are also coal deposits. Gold, silver, platina, iron, copper, tin and mercury may also be named, but the list is not then completed. THE REPUBLIC OP SANTO DOMINGO. 1. — The early history of Santo Domingo was incor- porated necessarily with that of Hayti and the Island ■ ■*'*'**t*--»*Wftji^-j7V^5*»,-^...,,iiM(i^^ 538 REPL'BLIC OF SANTO DOMINGO. ot Ilispaniola, but from the time of the exi>ulsion of rresierly considered a very important matter, and many arguments were supplied in favor of the partial annexation, should Congress refuse to .sanction the larger measure; terms being offered by the Domini- can government that would cover any proposition. The whole of the lands of the republic were oHered as security if the United States government would as- sume the responsibility of $1,500,000, the debt op- pressing the administration in the Antilles. The President, in sending the report to the Senate, did not make a recommendation, but left the question to bo considered and dealt with by the people and their rep- resentatives. No further action has been taken, and possibly none will be taken, but in the event of that island falling into the hands of any warlike European power, much injury might result to the United States at some future time ; more than could possibly accrue from the maintenance of a naval and military station there and the assumption of a debt so small. The an- nual expenditure of the Republic is about $2,000,000. Its imports are $520,000, and its ex|)orts are about $690,000. Its chief shipments are tobacco, wood, wax, honey, hides, dye stuffs and coffee, but in every department the trade could be quintupled directly. The capital of the state is San Domingo, with a popu- lation of about 15,000, and the institutions of the country are fairly republican. iflNfiO. CUBA. 641 jstigatiori, and tlio veil vvoiit to Santo ;y, 1H71. ion was tnorougl) tlic report from a political points of ^terpiecc. Domin- lieir own resources 3ir own lifetime of as a naval station, lortant matter, and iivor of the partial to sanction the m1 by the Domini- r any proposition. )ablic were oHered ernment would as- ,000, the debt op- le Antilles. The the Senate, did not the question to be >ople and their rep- as been taken, and n the event of that r warlike European ) the United States uld possibly accrue md military station so small. The an- s about $2,000,000. exports are ab^'ut ire tobacco, wood, cofifee, but in every uintupled directly, ningo, with a popu- institutions of the CUBA. ABORKJINAL HISTORY AND SKTTLEMENT. l,_Cuba was visiteil by Columbus in 1492, and there can be but little doubt that the able (jcnocse, would have made the Spanish name respected and be- loved among tlic Aborginies, could he have controlled the Court ol Sjjain, and the unruly si)irils that repre- sented Castile and Arragon under his nominal com- mand, in tlie new po.sse.ssions of the crown. Unfor- tunately he could not even preserve himself frc:n un- merited outrage, and the Indians, who had no chaneo of representing their case at court, were still worse placed than he. 2. — The Island of Cuba was colonized in 1511, and with few intervals of comparative repo.se for the people, the Spanish crown has retained possession almost ever since that date. Here, as well as else- where, the Indians sulTcred under the rule of Spain. Hernando, the governor, was so cruel in his adminis- tration that within forty years the Indian race had be- come extinct. Spain was not allowed peace from without, in the prosecution of its domestic tyranny, as we find that in 1534:, and again twenty years later, Havana was destroyed by the French, but on each oc- casion rebuilt, and in 1584 strongly fortified. That fact did not prevent its capture by the Dutch in 1624, who unfortunately did not obtain possession, in the in- terests of humanity. Fi Hi busters and Buccaneers muJe havoc in the island during the latter half of the seventeenth century, Puerto Principe being quite de- stroyed in 1688, biit the city rose again, the plunder- ers were suppressed and the fortunes of Spain were once more in the ascendant. The English seized Havana in 1762, but restored it to Spain in the following year, taking Florida in exchange. The monopoly of tobac- co established by Spain in 1717, rendered it necessary J".'.Wi««bra.?*^ •, 642 cunx. forotlicrgovcrtirnonts to pursue n like policy witli tlioir colonics. H. — Freer intcrcourso with Spnin, but with Spain only, wns allowed to Cuba after ITH.'i, and an increased measure of prosperity resulted, V)ut it was cursed with th(> stain of the slave traile, as Cuba became the depot for the traflic in humanity for all Central America. The trade in slaves was freed from all former restric- tions in 17H!). and from that year to 1820, the; average importation of slaves to Cuba per annum, was 7.(K)(>. For the ne.xt twenty-one years the average was 18.0(10. The trade was placed under restrictions after 1S41, and in 184") it was expressly forbidden. That order was made absolute by the vigilance of Captain (ren- eral Concha during two years, but after that lapse of time it became understood by Spanish officials that the order was not in earnest; it was a concession to civiliz- ation in outward appearances, not intended for every day wear. So the slave trade revived in Cuba after the year 1847. 4. — Cuba enjoyed an era of commercial prosperity after the first quarter of the nineteenth century, for three reasons : Hayti had fallen into trouble, and civil wars distracted attention from busines.s, so a rival was practically removed ; the tobacco monopoly, which confined all dealings to Spanish ports, was annulled in 1816, and the benefit speedily followed ; and thirdly, general freedom of trade was permitted in and after the year 1818. There were insurrections of the ne- groes in the year 1844, and again in 1848, besides many minor outbreaks, but such risings were repres- sed with great rigor, and it is believed that the war of 1848coi5t 10,000 negroes their lives. The slave traffic could not have been all profit, when from a slave own- er's point of view, so much valuable property had to be aestroyed in order to prevent all the rest from emerging into human conditions. 6. — Cuba is an object of very great interest to the United States, as may well appear from the fact that r a 1' CI (•( (' 1 h n y . iverage was 13,000. ietions after 1841, idden. That order lie of Captain (ien- aftcr that lapse of ish ofRcials that the onceasion to eiviliji- intended for every ived in Cuba after nmercial prosperity teenth centiirv, for into trouble, and business, so a rival 30 monv)poly, which rts, was annulled in 5wed ; and thirdly, flitted in and after •rections of the ne- 1 in 18-48, besides risings were repres- ved that the war of . The slave traffic n from aslaveown- )le property had to all the rest from jreat interest to the ' from the fact that CUBA. rAB President Polk authorized an offtjr to Spain of $100,- (100,0(10 for the island. 'IMio govcrnineiit of Madrid, always in want of rno'iey, promptly rejeetcd tiic pro- )M)siiii>n. Tlic purchase of Florida from Spain in- creased tlie value of Cuba. Ucvolutions were unsuc- cessfully attempted in 184!>, and agjiin in 1850, by Col. Narci.«.so Li)pez. The attempt was repeated in ls,")l, but the main result was the execution of tho leaders [jopex and Crittenden, as the Cubans would not rise when the opportunity was offered to breal; tho yoke of Spain. There was a proposition in 1850 to guaranty Cuba to S|)ain, but America, under Presi- dent Killmore, declined to become a party to the treaty, although strongly urged by the governments of Eng- land and France. 0. — llfsiilities came very near breaking out be- tween the United States and Spain .soon after that event, in consequence of the conduct of a Spanish Man-of-War in the case of the steamer Black Warrior, as Spain, although one of the weakest Monarchies in in Kurope, is the most insolent by far. The attitude assumed by the United States intimidated the Spanish court and proper reparation was eventually made and for a time the danger was tided over ; still there has never ceased to be an uneasy feeling in Spain on the Cuban difficulty in view of her own danger, and the certainty that under sindlar ciroumstaices old Spain would long since have proceeded to amextion. Three Ambassadors of the United States at European Courts, of course moved by their instructions in 1854, signed the manifesto of Ostend which claimed for their gov- ernment the right to take possession of Cuba by force of arms in the event of Spain persistently refusing to cede the country by purchase. That manifesto caused a great commotion at the time, and subsequent pro- ceedings gave to it a still greater national signifiicance when one of the signers became President of the United States. The Ambassadors were Mason, Soul6, and Buchanan, whose election followed soon after the declaration had become the world's talk. ftl';^^»ffe'*Ki; 5U CUBA. 7. — The national expression which was ftared by- Spain did not lead to any overt act on tlie part of the United States, probably because Buchanan's adminis- tration was closely and jealously watched by the anti- slavery party with a very reasonable determination that additional slave territory should not be added to the Union ; but the words and documents of states- men on the pro-slavery and democratic side continu- ally pointed to the acquisition of Cuba as one of the cherished projects of that oi-anizalion for slave pur- poses. ' ^^ . T „ , . , ^^ rpj^g ^jyil ^y.|,. ;ri the United States, wnicli may be said to have r )inmeiiced before Buchanan left oflice relieved Spain from fears in that quarter for several years, but in 18(58, Queen Isabella was com- pelled to seek refuge in France, in consequence of the revolution led by Generals Trim and Serrano, and that event became the inciting cause of an insurrection in Cuba. The friends of independence on that island commenced a revolution in the month following the iliidit of the Queen in September, 18(58, and from that time to the present there have been hostilities with- out ceasing. ,/-,!. U 9 The first act was an address to the Cubans by- Manuel Carlos Cespedes, on the 10th of October 1868, proclaiming Cuba a republic, independent of Spain. The troops came into collision with the in- sur<^ents on the 20th of the same month at Les Tunas, and^immcdiately afterwards a provisional government was appointed at Bayamo, from which a pronriise was obtained that slavery should be abolished, without de- lav Cespedes was nominated President of the Cuban Republic by a Constitutional Assembly, in April, 18(39 and the first acts of that body after organization consi'sted of the total abolition of slavery, and the an- nulment of every exclusive privilege theretofore ea- ioyed by the Catholic Church. Spain was for some tirne involved in a search for a King, and during that time the young republic was comparatively but not actually at rest. lo hi th bi hf sa pf OS w; .si( th of Ci Is ac ai ar Pi P< h: til h sc b( tb g' ol icli was f( ared by )ii tlie part of the chanan's adminis- ,cbed by tlie anti- ble determination not be added to urrients of states- itic side continu- uba as one of the on for slave pur- 3d States, which ore Buelianan left that quarter for sabella was com- onsequence of the Serrano, and that an insurrection in je on that island inth following the 1(58, and from that n hostilities with- to the Cubans by 10th of October, ;, independent of ision with the in- nth at Les Tunas, iional government ich a promise was lished, without de- dent of the Cuban iembly, in April, after organization avery, and the an- ege theretofore ea- )ain was for some g, and during that paratively but not CUHA. 545 10. — The administration of Prim and Serrano did not loose their hold upon CuVxi, as to have done so would have offended the pride of the Cortes, and pnjbably the same motive controlled King Amadeus during his brief rei"'n. The accession of Alfonso, after Amudeus had resigned and Serrano had run his career as ruler, saw the same policy in force, and so united were all parties in the matter of Cuban oppression, that a prop- ositicm was made on behalf of Don Carlos, during the war of succession, that all prisoners taken on either side should be sent to Cuba to unite in supiiressing the rebellion, which was peculiarly odious in the fact of its defying Rome as well as Madrid. War with Cuba was more vigorously prosecuted after 1871. 11. — The accession of Alfonso Xll, son of Queen Isabella, in 1875, only intensified the action of Spain against Cuban liberties, in the name of the monarchy and religion ; and the war was conducted with rage and vigor on both sides, but without such power as to produce decisive results. Eecognition of Cuban Inde- pendence by the United States has long been sought by the patriots, and denied by the present administra- tion, probably because it would appear to be dictated by a desire for territorial aggrandizement, should the solicited concession be made, as of course there could be no doubt as to the outcome of a war with Spain in the event of such hostilities commencing. The Vir- ginius difficulty which arose soon after the acce.ssion of Alfonso, and in which the cruel and arbitrary poli- cy of Spain in Cuba involved many American and , glish subjects, gave great hope to the patriots, as Spain obstinately refused to make reparation, so great was the bigotry of the populace that the government dared not grant what at the same time it dared not re- fuse. The demands of England and America were at I'nt'th, and very reluctantly conceded, so that the as- pirations of Cuba were relegated to a distant day. On both sides there have been atrocious cruelties ; but it .8 clear that Spain cannot govern Cuba, and if there 35 546 CUBA. was a court of appeal amon^ nations, snch as our courts of justice are among individuals, Madrid would certainly be bound over to keep the peace. 12. — The Cubans fight well, and they persist in their 'struggle, having sought the intervention of the United States repeatedly, but President Grant, while speaking oracularly on many occasions, has not gone beyond offers of mediation in actual deed. Captain General Dulce was compelled to return to Spain in consequence of the volunteer force commanded by him having defied his authority. Caballero de Rodas the ne.\t Captain General was almost as unsuccessful with the rebels as Dulce had been with his own men, and the Count de Valmaseda cannot end the conflict. If there was anv certainty that the Cubans knew how to govern themselves, it would be the duty of civil- ized nations to interfere in their behalf, but there is good reason for believing that, as soon as Spanish troops are withdrawn, unless some strong nation under- takes to suppress revolt, the contending factions amon,^ themselves will carry on the work of depletion until the nascent nation can bleed no more. 13. — Cuba is separated by the Bahama Channel from Florida, from which it is distant only 130 miles Ilayti being about 45 miles east of Cuba. The^island is 800 miles long, and varies in breadth from 2o miles to 130, its area being 45,883 square miles. There are very good harbors at Havana and Matanzas, besides many other very fair ports of refuge. The highest mountain peak is Pico Turquinos, 7,750 feet above the sea, and the chain of mountains traverses the length of the island. There are no navigable rivers, the streams being small, but lagoons and swampy land alternate with savannahs of great fertility, from the mountains' base towards the Caribbean Sea. iiiere are copper mines in the mountains, and the mineral resources include coal, silver, marble, iron, limestone, granite and gneiss. 14. — The mean temperature of the whole year on nations, snch as our iduals, Madrid would [he peace. and tliey persist in B intervention of the resident Grant, while casions, has not gone ctual deed. Captain I return to Spain in brce commanded by Caballero de Rodas, most as unsuccessful ;n with his own men, inot end the conflict, he Cubans knew how be the duty of civil- • behalf, but there is as soon as Spanish e strong nation under- ending factions among -k of depletion until more. the Bahama Channel stant only 130 miles, of Cuba. The island areadth from 25 miles are miles. There are md Matanzas, besides refuge. The highest nos, 7,750 feet above ns traverses the length navigable rivers, tiie ns and swampy land eat fertility, from the aribbean Sea. There ains, and the mineral larble, iron, limestone, ; of the whole year on CUBA. 647 the coast is about 78° Fahrenheit, and in summer 88° is about the ma.ximum, so that there are no great variations obtainable without recourse to the moun- tains. Earthquakes frequently occiir. Vegetation is luxuriant, and on the highlands there are extensive forests of fustic, ebony, mahogany and cedar. Fruits, such as the pineapple, orange, lemon, melon and banana, flourish. Sugar, cotton, rice, coffee, maize, indigo and tobacco are produced, but sugar and its product, rum, are the chief exports. Among the prin- cipal manufactures and works produced in the country, are tobacco and cigars, the bleaching of wax, making sugar, molasses and rum, and handling the smaller staples of the island. Cattle have increa.sed until there are about 1,500,000 head on the island. There arc about 400 miles of railroad in operation. There are two departments under the Captain General with subordinate governors and lieutenants. The popula- tion of the island is about 1,500,000, of which number one-fourth are slaves, and about one-eighth free colored, the balance being of European descent or birth. The capital of the island is Havana, the established religion Catholic. 15. — Havana is the most important city in the- West India Islands, and as a mart of commerce, it. ranks among the ports of the world. It stands on an inlet of the Gulf of Mexico, on the northern shore of Cuba. There is hardly a finer harbor to be founds and the narrow passage by which it is entered is strongly fortified for nearly half a mile before opening into the capacious and secure basin which would hold one thousand ships of the line secure against any troubles except war or earthquake. Wharf accom- modations are ample and complete, and there is also a (ine dry dock. The city has endured guat vicissi- tudes ot fortune and changed hands several times, but it is essentially Spanish. The old streets are narrow and dirty, the more modern, where foreign residents abound, being more handsome and more salubrious, 548 CUBA. with broad drives lined with palm trees. The old houses are low, without glazed windows, having wooden blinds and iron shutters. Tlie roofs are flat and tlie houses gaudily painted. Tlie opera house is one of the largest in tlie world, the eathedral eontains the dust of Columbus, procured from San Domingo in 1706, and the palace of tlie Governor General has apart- ments for the transaction of all government business. The plazasand promenadesof Havana are itschief glory, including the Plaza de Arms, the Parque de Isabel, the Alameda de Panla and the Paseo de 'I'acon with nu- merous others of less repute. The supply of water is e.xcellent, being brought seven miles through an aque- duct from the Chonera. and therj are over lifty public fountains without reckoning similar works of smaller dimensions with which the atmosphere Js gratefully cooled in private grounds and parks. There is a fine university, a botanical garden and numerous cliarit- ^ able asylums. Tlie educational arrangements are de- fective," but science and the school are re[)resented. l(i. — Manufactures do not flourish in Cuba, but the city of Havana takes the lead in that respect as well as in commercial matters, and its lines of steamers communicate with all parts of the world; besides which, lines of cable connect the city with Key West in Florida, Aspinwall in Panama, and Kingston in Jamaica. The whole island can be reached by lines of railroad radiating from Havana. Tobacco is its staple manufacture and export, the figures for 1872 having e.xhibited shipments of 18,210,800 lbs. of leaf tobacco, 229,087,546 ibs. of cigars and 19,3-14,707 packages of cigarettes. Sugar comes next among ex- ports, following which are rum and molasses, with the other products already named. Tlie commerce of Havana embraces one-half of the aggregate exports of the islaiul, and three-fourths of all the imports; and the aggregate production is over $126 000,000. Of the 1,669 ships that entered Havana in 1869, 721 were from this country. The university at Havana has 4 ir re tu wi e.N ra .sl( itii CO re I SOI W.I 1\ rai su< toi cli no Th pel Ki( is 1 in fpii in 1 val in 1 i but hav 1 trees. Tlio old windows, liaving riie roofs are flat lie opera house is ;alliedral eoiitains 1 San Domingo in Greneral has apart- jrnment business, are its chief glory, •que de Lsabel, the e 'I'aeon with nu- ^upply of water is through an aque- ■i over fifty public • works of smaller here is gratefully =. There is a fine numerous eharit- ^ ingements are de- re rei)resented. rish in Cuba, but in tliat respect as .s lines of steamers le world ; besides ty with Key West and Kingston in e reached by lines i. Tobacco is its e figures for 1872 10,800 lbs. of leaf ■s and 19,3-14,707 es next among ex- molasses, with the Tlie commerce of rgregate exports of the imports; and $126 000,000. Of I in 1869, 721 were ity at Havana has OTHER SPANISH POSSESSIONS. 549 400 students, but there is no toleration in religious matters except in regard to foieign residents. ° OTHER SPANISH POSSESSIONS. PORTO RICO. 14n3-187H. 1. — Columbus discovered Porto liico in 1493, and returned to Spain in 1496. There are no special fea- tures in connection with the history of Porto Rico which would justify a recapitulation of oppressions exactions and wrongs that gradually crushed the native race into the eartii, and led the\vay toward ne■«*,, ;y. Caribbean Islands res, but not in their in their products liles of territory in limited area of St. 2,898 people, who ijoy a fair measure le smallest of the answer the general CONTENTS. NORTH AMERICA. Extent, 8 Boiiiidiiries, 5 Areii, ...... 5 I'oliticnl Divisions, - ' - • 5 US t TED STATJSS. I, Boundaries, Extent, 5 Biiuniliiries, ..... B Aruii, -.--.. 6 ir. Surface. F.astern Area or Belt, - . 7 W'uMtern Kuuion, - . . 9 Missif^sippl Valley, - - - 15 III. liiei'r.1 and Lakes. RiveiB emptying into Atlantic - Ifi liivers enii)Iying into Pacilic, - 18 HivLTH eniptyiui; into Oiill^ of -Mexico, 84 ly. Climate and Vegetation. General Keniarlis, - - - S5 Eastern Suction — Comparisong, 28 Oceanic CUirrentB, - - . !J0 Zone of the Variable Winds, 8H Zone of the Trade Winds, . 27 Dellected Trade Winds, - - 27 Kuinl'ali on Sea-board, - - 27 Indigeuons Vegetation in East, 28 I'rariie Scenery, - - - - 28 WeKtern Section — Elevation - 29 Mountain Inllnences. - - 29 Indigenons Vegetation of West, 311 C'liniiile of the Far West, . - 81 The Winds and Kalns of the West, 31 V. Voptilation. Population by Nativities, - 32 t'aufces for Progress in Popula- tion, ---..- 32 Foreign Popnlation, . - - 38 Chiiiucteristics of, - - . 34 Volume of Immigrntion, - - 84 Comparative Contribntions to I'nited States Popnlation, - 84 Population by States, - - 36 Compared by States, . - 37 80 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 49 43 43 44 44 45 4ft 45- Gain per cent, - . - . 87 (jains by a Mixture of Kaces, 88 ColoredPopnIation, - - - 89 Japanese Population in the United States, .... Chinese Population in the United States, .... Origins of Americana, The Semitic Element, Anglo Siixon or English, . German Element. The Celtic Elemeni. - French and Spanish Elements, Excess of Births over Deaths, Vt. IndastriPH. Nnmbcr of Persons Employed in any Piirsni*., - . - . Number of Persons not Em- ployed in any Pursuit, Nnmbcr Engaged in Agriculture, Number Engaged in Professions, Number Engaged in Trade and Transportation, - Nnmbcr Engaged in Manufac- turing, ril. Kdueation. General Kcniarlis, . . . 4^ Early Education in New England, 46 Characteristics of United States Common Schools, ... 47 Colleges and Universities, . 4(V Harvard College, ... 49 Yale College 49 Columbia College, - - ■ BO Agricultural Colleges and Scicn. title Schools SO Military Schools, - - . 81 Impediments to Education In Certain Sections, . - - 88 Areas of Illiteracy, ■ - . 83 The Press, Boolcs', etc., . - S4 VIII. Government. General Remarks, Articles mill ;)ii;ii'B of the I'rcs lilnit. Di'lmrliiiriit 111' Hliile, - J)ipliiiiuilii' ^iTvire, TiiaMir.N Di'luirliiuiiit, SiilMiiiliniilc (JliiulK, «;u>ti)iiin, .... Jliiitf, «.'i)iisl Siirvi'jH, FiimiiLus 111 I'uitcd Stiitos, Niiliiiiiiil Di'lit. itupuiliiifiit 111' luteriur, (ifiii Till l.uiid Olllce, - C'oiniiiisi-umor of I'ciisione, IiKliiiii Olllcu, ])t|iiuliiii;iit of Agriculture, Jlui'i'iiu iif EiUicaiion, JJfpiiiliiii'nl iif W'ur, - Army DIUccth, f^iauul Ituruiiu, Till' Army, . . . - Tlif N;ivy Utipartmcnt, Nuvv Varils mid Docks, I'o^'^ Dltlcii Di'partmciit, Altoiui'y Uuiarurs Department, IX. ICarlu lllatory. From till' tirst act of (Dliiiilzatloii, 1607 til the UrHt CuliHtltulluiiul CuugrcKii 1774. Karly Scltlumiint, ViiiuiMA — Sir Walter Italeigh, Capt. Smith, the Adventurer, Capt. Smith's Book, - I'ocahoiita!', - - - Ciiliiiiial Sketch of Virginia, Marriage of I'ocalioutas, - King James annuls the Charter, Death of Cioiuwell, JJacon's Kehellion, JIassachuuKTTs, Plymouth Company, - The I'ilgrim Katheru, Their lliird»hips, Hamoset, ... Starvation, - TiiK Hay Colony, John Endicott, Kelig'oui' Intolerance, First Indian War, The First Union ol the Coloulcs, Navigation Act. . - - The Witchcraft Delusion, - Maink and New Hasipsuiue, CONNKCTICUT, ... Indian I'erils, The I'eqmid War, <;harter, Charles II, - KnoiiK Island, - Roger Williams, . - - New YoiiK, .... New Amsterdam, l>cspoiism in Connecticut, NewJersky', Couaulidutiou, 84 H4 a. 85 Wi 8«-88 8'.t 89 89 UO 111 91 91 9-J (ta 93 83 93 94 95 9() lie 97 97 98 9!) 99 100 100 101 101 KB 103 104 104 Dei.awaiik. . . . • I.iMil l)e l.a Warr. Three Lower lountries, Pennsylvania, Uroiherly Love, - I'i'iiii's 'I'lilenilion, (irmid Indian Treaty, Maihi.ano. - - . - The Maryland Charter, Councilliir Clayliorne, SoiTii Caiiiilina, John Lotkes Legislalion, liiiyal I'lovineeof SouthCarolin Nonrii Cauoi.ina, Lien. Fox, the Founder of thi l^uakers, .... (iEoiiiiiA — tieoige II, War under Kiig William III, Under liiieeii .\nne, . Treaty of Utrecht, War under (ieoige II, French and Indians, - (ieorge Washiii'^tou, - lloslilities Commenecd, The Siiiialion, Uraddock's Command, rorhes' K.xpedilion, . Conqnest of .\cadla, - LouisDurg, . . . - Draddock s Defeat, Al)ercroinl)ie"s Failure, Shirley Discouraged, Wolfe "and .Montcalm, Pilt"s Policy, .... Chief Pontine, ... Keviewing the Situation, . Schools, etc., ... A'. The Jtevoliilion. After the Continental Congress. 1774, to the Ueclaratluii of ludepcuaeuce,1776. The Stanii) Act, • - . . l;W Board of Trade, .... 131 Hen. (iage, ..... 1.33 FaneuilHall, .... 132 Uage in Boston, .... 133 Congress in Philadelphia, . - 133 First Bloodshed, . . - -134 Bunker Hill, l;« Ethan Allen, - . - - 138 Cien. Washington, Commander, 137 Invasion of Canada, . . - 137 Continental Successes, . - 1^18 Admiral Parker, - - - .1:18 The Ureal Declaration, - - 139 XI. The American Xalion. B'roni the Great Declaration, 1 i76,to the Constitution of the United Btatca, 1787, The War of Indtpcndcnce, - 13!) First Defeat of the Americans, - 140 Strategy, Ml Victory at Trenton, 1778, - - 141 Princeton Victory, - - - 1^^ Brandywine Creek, - . - 143 Qerudutowu Engagement, - 148 Aan The Hoin Euri The Soci: ,»»s«siaif«iai»iWff'«»»^ A'lirr, I'DUPtliu!?, ilA, pv^^ . . . - ■III inn, ... II Treaty, (I C'linrtcr, layliuriiu, I. ISA, s l,i'i;i.' 13!) 141) 141 141 iia 143 143 Norlliorn Siirccsei's, ... 1I3 Uriiish Kcvcrscw, .... Mt Itallli's iif SillhviitcT, - - - 145 ^Sllrrl•lldc'r at Saniloij'a, - - 14.5 SiilkTiiij,'s ill Vallcj l'"orge, - 141) lU'iijamiii l''niiikliil. - - - 14(i llattliMif MiiMiiioiitli, - . . 14li Ciiiiiit I)'l';sl;iiiiir. - - - - 147 Till' Viillcv of W'voniing, - . 147 CaiiipiiiL'il of Hiii, - - - 147 Stony Point. 148 ■loliii i'aiil .loiu'fi, - . . . 14!) HiiiL'oviic's Capture, ... 1.50 Paliiot I.eadcr-. - . . - 1.50 AiiioM. the Tniiior, ... i.'ji CoiiiliiKion of the War, - - 15'i Fij.'liliiii;Corn\\alliB. - - - 1.53 La Kayclto, 1,54 Conililiu'd Attack, ... 151 iSiinuiHliT of Yorkfown, - - 1.55 After llie War, .... 155 Treaty of Pari.", - - - - IDti Isolvliiu' the Problem of Indc- peiiduiice, 157 XII. Jlvcent iriatoff/. Wituhiiujion and the liepiihlic. Tlie Situation, - . - - 157 Want of Fiiiiils. . ^ . . 15s '•(iraspinu the Nettle," - . 1.58 Tho Treasury, - ... .168 Trouble Willi Indiana, - . - 1.5!i Foreign Dehtw, .... ]5!l MissisKJpiii Opened, - - . lliO The French Uevoliition, - - ItiO Adtuns and the Jiepublie. .Tolin AdaniH, . - . .161 Trouble with France, - - .101 Jeffemon and the Republic. Aaron Hiirr, 162 The Fulton Steamboat, - - IBi Hoinbariling the Uashaw, - - Itli Jiuroiiean \^ar^', .... 163 Madhnn and the Republic. Deft'at of Tecumsch. - - - 104 War of isia, ItH IIuH'k (imardice, - . .164 (JueeiiKtown Heights, - . . 16.5 On the Sea. - - - . . 165 Koardiii!; the Frolic. - - . 166 The Canipaitrn of 1813, - . 166 Oen. Harrison. .... -,67 Haitle of Lake Erie, - - .167 IlanisonV Victory, - . .168 Loss of the Chesapeake, - . 16!) Creek Inilians Oefeated, - . Hi!) Harbarous Tactics. ... 170 The I'ampaigM of 1814, . . 170 Lake Chaniplain, - . . -171 Battle of New Orleans, - . 171 Fruit» of the Conflict. - . .173 Monroe and the Republic. The Missouri Compromise, - 173 Social Progress, - - • - 173 Cosslim of Florida. Visit of l.a Fayette. Temper of the People, - Adat/ix and the Republic. niack Hawk War, - Seminole War, Injury to U. S. Cotniuerce, - Jackson and the Rfpubllc. Jackson's Policy, - Knergetic .\(lini'nistration, - United Stales Hank. - Van liuien and the Republic. Results of Inflation. - The Pajiineau liebellion, Haninon and Tyler. Ilarrisoiis's Death. Domestic DilHeultio^i, - The Naiivoo War. - Annexations and Sottleinentj, Polk and the Republic. The Mexican War, Gen. Taylors Campaign, Capture of Monterey, "■ Victory at liuena Vistii, Gen. Keainey's .\riny. - Gen. Scott's Campaign at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, .... Fall of Mexico, Tho Witmot Proviso, - Gold in California, Taylor and Fillmore. Death of Taylor, - ('lay's OmnlbHs Hill, - Fiil'ibusteriiig Kxploit, President Pierce. - Pierce and the Republic. War in Kansas, ... Foreign Policy, Slavery Tactics, ... Huehanan and the Republic. The Died Scott Case, - John Drown Slavery or .Secession, - State Uights, .... Major Anderson, ... From Independence to Secession. Struggle to Maintain the Union, 189 Veniiont, 189 Kentucky, ISO Tennessee, ..... lao Ohio, 190 Louisiana, ..... lyo Indiana, ---... 191 Mississippi, ..... 191 Illinois, 191 Alabama, 191 Maine. l»;i Missouri, 198 Arkansas, ..... 193 Michigan, 193 174 174 175 176 176 176 177 177 177 178 178 179 179 179 180 180 180 180 181 181 183 18'j 182 183 183 184 184 185 185 186 186 187 187 187 188 188 189 664 CONTENTS. Florida Tcxau, ..... luwii, WimconBlii, .... Califoriiiu, ..... Miniiexotu, .... OregDii, ..... Kuimiii*, ..... C'umpurativc Study, The Ilrheilion— Lincoln. Lawlt'SB UenignH, • Fort Suimcr, - The HoHlh, - Beij'iiiiiinb' of the War, Union Victories, - Un to Kichmond, - Micsouri Neutral, - Coa<. 809 21U 210 211 211 212 313 214 214 215 215 21» 217 217 21K 218 219 220 220 221 222 223 2^4 22.5 22tt •tia 228 229 fm 230 '£W 230 232 833 233 Evacuation of Richmond, . • 23.1 Lincoln's Death, - ... 235 Johnton and the liepublic. General Reniar' s, - . - 23.') Reionstructloi., .... Z\6 Cc ngress vs. The President, . 2:10 Removal of Stanton, . ■ - 2:W Impeachment, .... 2:18 Indian Wars, • - - - ZW Emperor Ma.\Imilian, - . . 238 Trans-Allantlc Cable, - - - 2:1H William II. Seward, - • - 230 Grant and the Sepublic, General Remarks, - - - 240 I'nlon Paclllc Railroad, - - 241 The Fifteenth Amendment, . -^ll tJeneral Amnesty. - - .241 Horace Greeley's Candidature, - 242 Schuyler Colfax, - - . .243 Cakes Ames, 814 Henry Wilson, . . . - 844 Ueiieral Increase, ... g45 XIII. Skriehra of States. ALABAMA. Area, 846 Mineral Treasures, ... i}4ti Climate. 248 Vegetation, 848 Animals, 847 Po)>ulatlon, 247 Agriculture. . . . . ^7 Government, - . . . !M7 ARKANSAS. Area, 818 Minerals, 848 CMImate, 248 Agriculture, ..... 248 Government, .... 819 CALirOBMLA. Area, 849 Climate, 850 Vegetation, 2.W Minerals, 851 Agruulture, - .... 8.51 Government, ..... 858 COLORADO. Area, 8.VJ Mining, 8.M Climate, 253 Government, - .... 863 CONNKOTICUT. .\rcB, ...... 854 Climate, 2,54 Schools, 854 Government, .... 855 DELAWAHB. Area, ...... 8Sfi Surface, ..•--• 286 Climate, SM Education, 266 Qoverument, . . • - 857 '■**.&_' )n of Richmond, - • 33.1 Uuttth, - - - - tii ■mon and the Itepublic. {cimir' 8, - . - 23.') iictioi., - - - - SKW vs. The PrcHidcut, - 2:lli of Stuiilon, ... aw iiciit, .... 2;(H UT*, ■ . . . ZIS Maximilian, --■'£« untie t'ul)lc, - . . 2:in I. Sewiird, ... 830 ml and the Sepublio. Euinarl{8, - . . 240 dllc Hnilroad, . - 241 until Aniunciincnt, . -^1 ininvHly. ... 341 rueiey's Candidature, . 242 Uuifax, - - . .243 1C8 244 iHon, .... 344 u crease, ... 245 . Skrtrhea of States. ALABAMA. 246 rca8UrC8, ... 24tt 248 n, 84H 247 ri, 847 •e. . - . - M7 nt, . . . . JM7 ARKANSAS. 248 248 848 •0, 248 nt, .... 219 CALIFORKLA. 249 250 1, 2.W 251 e, 251 nt, 258 COLORADO. 2.V] 25;) 253 nt, S63 CONNKOTICtrr. 2S4 8.54 254 nt, .... 855 DELAWAUB. 2S« 2B6 2.56 , 286 nt, ... - 257 CONTENTS. rLOBtDAc Area, L'iiuracteristica, Cotton, • tiovcrnment, OEOROIA, Area, Minerals, hctioois, Guverunicnt, ILLINOIS. Area, etc., Sciioois, Clovernment, Area, etc., Sciioois, (jiovemment, Area, Sciioois, Uovernment, Area, Sciioois. Uovurnmeut, KBSTDCET, Area, Sciioois, Government, LOUIBIANAc .'.roa. Vegetation, . Education, - Uovernment, XAIKB Area, Education, - History, (ioYcrnmcnt, MARYLAND, Area, Minerals, Government, MASSACHUBETTB, Area, Education, - History, Government, Area, Education, ■ Government, MINNBSOTA, Area, Sciioois, Govemment, 257 2.5T 8.58 858 2.5fl 85!t 2fiO S(il 201 368 2tW 26;) 863 au3 204 864 264 265 866 sm 266 267 2«; 86T 807 808 2i;» 2ti9 870 270 271 271 271 872 878 878 873 273 874 MIBSI88IPFI. Area, Education, - History, Government, 274 274 274 11I880UBI. Area, .Minerals, Sciioois, Government, NEBRASKA. Area, Sciioois, Government, Area, Mining, . . . . Soil, . . . - . Education, . . . • Government, MEW OAMFSnlKE. Area, Schools, . . . . History, . . . - Government, . . . NEW JERSKT. Area, Education, ■ History, Government, NEW YORK. Area, Edncation, . . . . History, . . . . Government, . . . NOBTn CABOLWA. Area, . - . . . Schools, . . . . History, . . . - Government, . . . onio. Area, Schools, Government, OREGON. Area, Schools, Government, PENNSYLVANIA. Area, Education, ■ Government, 665 275 275 270 876 877 877 278 878 8T9 879 279 280 880 881 881 881 388 882 282 282 - 883 . 88:) . 284 ■ 284 285 886 286 287 288 288 290 290 890 291 2Q2 293 S93 293 294 RHODE ISLAND. Area, Schools, Government, 995 895 205 566 CONTENTS. aOCTII CAItOI.INA. Area. • SMtt! Mliiornis, 'JIKl .Schoii'i', awi Uuvoimneut, .... aiiu TENNESSEE. Arci. iKl7 Mliii.'inls, aw Sc-li.piil^<. i'lH U.ivornmont, .... ssis TEXAS. Area, iKK) Kducutlon, an») Uoverumeiit, .... ijiKi VERMONT. Area, »« BchooU, 8U-i Government, - - - - 30:i VIRGINIA. Arcs. 805 Schoolfi, aifi Oovcninient, .... aou WEST VIROINIA. Arcn, 30e Eduiiition, 3(l« UoveruMicut, .... 80f. WISCONSIN. Area. 9in KduL-nllon, ..... 'UO Government, - - - .311 XI r. Slcelcliea of TerHtorina. ALASKA. Area and Surface, - - - 312 Cllinute, 312 Vecolatlon, AVA FurH Hiid Kicheries, ... 313 Population, 313 History, 313 OTIIEH TEIlllITORISS. Arizona, ..... 314 Dakota, 314 District of Columbia, - - 311 Irtiiho. 31.') Montana, ...... 31.5 New Mexico, .... 3l(i Utah. 31(i VVashlnRton, .... 317 Wyoming, 317 A'J'. Confenterate States. Cicnpral Heniarks, ... 318 .loslah (Juincy, - - - - aii) Mls«,)iiri Compromise, - - 31!) Tsei;r() Slaverv, .... 8'JO Sti'plien A. lioiiglas, ... 321 Ai>niliain Lincoln. ... an Lcadersliip of Sontli Carolina, - 322 Monlj;omiry Convention, - . iVii War I'omnKniocri. - - . 321 Inauguration of Lincoln, - - 834 iiespouso of tlie North, - - 325 PreHldent Davis, • War .Meafiiri't, Tlie ConleHl in IMil, . Tlie Conle»l in lMi2, - Al'mlrs in >iew Mexico, LoMies, .... Kaillc of KairOaks, l 3fi7 31.7 373 374 37t 37S 3711 378 878 37it 380 381 38-.> 382 38:j 383 rd, HIS. i; Insurrections, t on the borders, un the Frontier , 384 48U 38« 887 31-8 381) mi CONTKNTS. Sir I''r.uiuiatiMii, - l')ll^il^ll I'dfS' -sion, • >.'ov« iScotitt I.oyi.l, \eie Jli-uiiau'ick hr.rfaoe. History, Firi'l SetlU.mi nt, .Sir liuy t'arl( Ion, Major iieii. Miiilh, • ijvetnor, ... Jloiindary, I'riiiee Ktlwnrd laland. Surface, . . - . llisloiy caliid St. John, - ■ - Settleii ent, - l'iM>ei .ition of t'rcnch, Lord j;!,'ieni.)nt, - tiov. I'atleison, - Gov. Uesbuuea, - Jifiminion, Confederation, Populaliou, ... Schools, - . . - (ioverninent, History, .... Jfewfottndlana. Discovery, . . - Fisheries, Settlement in 1621, Calvert, . . . - History, .... iivitiah Columbia. 393 31)1 :iiii 311' .'lir, 3liii 3'Ki I'llI 3118 'II Ml ■II Ml •lilt 'Mi ■KVI ■111.") •Id.-. 4lMI 41 M! 4Uli 4U7 4117 407 408 4(18 40f> 4)18 400 400 410 411 411 411 412 Situation, .... Characteristics, ... RKI'UHLIC OF MEXICO. Natives, Hieroglyphics, ... Cortez, ..... Chichemccas. ... The Aztecs, .... The Toltocas, ... Painting, .... Buildings, .... Aqueducts, .... Katlve Kings, ... 412 413 413 413 4.4 414 415 415 416 417 417 418 420 4S0 492 42S Nalivc (lovcriinient, - Miiiiir/iiiiiu'n \ I'ssels, (■|irliiii.-> liii'liii'iils. The Teiiipiu of llie Sun, 567 - 494 - 427 - 428 • 4V9 SiMinlMh III Mrjcieo. Ileinaiiilo Cortez, - - - 43li I'ortiiii-", 431 Skill iif I'lipiiialion, - - - 431 OllUial Moijiy .Making, . - 432 ('iiiiiiiieri'iai PrivllegcH, - • 4^-1 Ctiloiiiai Triiiililes, • - - 4.W Cl-euie I'lans, .... 4;a Tliroirhiff off the Yoke. DinictillieH inSpai 436 Prime lA-rdliiaiul, ... 43a Kraiiee vm. Sjiaiii, - - - 437 KlleilM oil .\Irxico, - . . 437 Creole Loviillv, .... 4;i8 SpaniMh liiNl.ivalty, - - - 438. lieMili ill Ueligio/I, ... 4;W liisiirreetions, .... 4;)H Vallailxlid vs. Illdalgo, - - 111) (i.'ii. Callcjii, 'V40 llorrllile Crimi/s, 14U The Cuiilest, 410 -Morelos, ..... 411 War liiciden'.s, - . - - 449 llatlles, 443^49 Adopting n Cunstitution, First Coni'tltulion, - . - 44!) The llevo'.utionary Struggle, - 4.'iO Mexican indepundence, - - 4.M Iturlilde, 4rti The Junta, ...... 4.52 TheAlHlicatlon, - . . . 45:1 Now ( ongre.is lnl824, - ■ 4.5.3 Forming the liepublic, • • 45:1 Fate of Iturblde, - - . . 4M The lleiniblle. President Giiadalonpe, . .454 Pvestdent Victoria, ... 455 Gen. Bravo, 4.55 Gen. Santa Anna, ... 455 Continuation of the Struggle, • 456 Anarchy, 457 President Pedraza, - - - 4.57 Movements of Santa Anna, - 4.58 Coin|>elled to be Dictator, - - 459 War with Texas, . - - - 4tiO Gen. 8am. ]limgton, ... 461 Santa Aiiiia'u Keverses, . . 461 Another Junta. - - - - 4fi9 Santa Anna as President, - - 4t)3 W ar on Te.vas, - - - - 46.3 Contest wUh the United Stotes, 4()5 Closing' Scenes of the War, - 405 After the War. Church Property. . - .436 Santa Anna after Banishment, - 467 Gen. Alvarez, .... 4R8 Gea Comonfort, .... 4(18 Political Strife, - - . 469-414 568 CONTENTS. /;««• o/ Reform, Vtvfuwl Ilixlury, - l.crdo, .... Alaxhiiillun, - liciii'iiil Klt'Ctluii, 18*17, biKldcii Dcjitli (if Jiiiiruz, l^LM'du UM I'tculduiit, Kuliuuls, ... VKNTRAL AMERICA. IsltuHiuiu and Kxtviit, . biiiliuM;, huUHOIlH, . . . • . Uivlsioni), Ouutemala, Early SL'ttlcmeiit, VoluaiiuuH, ... Ni'w ouutemula, - Traile, .... UoHdurat. First SuttleinuDt, VuiuuluriuH, - Burlacu, - Lack ol' Industry, MtfUlah Uonduraa. Arua, ..... I'uiiulatiou, .... luUiistrius, .... 474 47S 470 477 47H 478 478 47lt 48U 48U 4HU 480 48t 481 482 Coata Sir,a. Population, ... Kxplorution, ... KuBourccs, ... Trade, .... Army, .... yiearagua. Discovery, ... buDtiabu, . . . , liVOU, .... C'liurchos, ... ludustrlus, ... tirauada, ... San Salvador. Exploration, - Area, Cities, ...... InduBlries, Uoveruiuuut. . . . . SOUTH AMERICA. Braxtl. Discovery, Natives, Portuguese, Bspirito rianto, - beltlemont of Brazili Don Pedro, - Wht, - - . 483 48.) 4«3 484 484 48S 485 485 48S 48.>> 4ti7 4dr 4C8 488 4tj8 489 48tt 489 490 490 490 490 491 4«1 4ini 498 4<.)S 494 494 496 A"DrHtlne Rrpuhtte. Discovery, 405 Nalivvs, 41W Early Metllement, - . - 4IMi Early Wars, - . . - 497 Kivadiva, 49R Present Prospects, ... 499 MoUttia. Natives, - . - - MO Early Hcltlenient, - - .5(1(1 Minerals, 501 Uistory, .... tsoi-soa United Statna of Colombia. Poimlatlon, MM Colonization, - • - 0U4 States, 506 Present Condition, • - - BU5 Hcuador. Quito, 805 Uistory and D^iscription, • 605-510 v7 m. uistory and Des-ription, - 610-614 (Iviana. UUt.orr and Des^^rlptlon, • 614-617 Urujua. HIstoi'y and Description, . 617-518 Venexueln. Uistory and Description, - 618-620 I'arttauay. Uistory and Description, - 630-533 J'crii. Uistory and Description, - 523-537 Patagoniaand Falkland. History and Description, - 687-538 West Indiea. History and Description, - BSa-CTO Ilaytt. Uistory and Description, - 630-537 Santo Ihnninfio. History and Description, . 637-541 CuAa. History and Description, - 641-549 PoiiTo Kico, .... 549 Jamaica, ..... 550 Bakbauoes, . . . . 5M Antkjua, ..... 551 Behmuiia Islands, ... 565 Dominica, -' - - - .555 tillKNAUA, ..... 560 Bahamas, 567 Mabtiniuue, etc., ... 668 Danish Possbssions, - .669 Dutch PossbssiuiOi • - - 669 XI 2 4r' ■^^ grtUtne Iteptihlle. 4()« 4(H« lumcnt, • - - 4MI B, .... 4irr 4IIH roepocts, . • • 4UU HoUvia. MO leniunt, - . - 5(»i Mil . B01-5(« d SUttim of Colombia. II, 5I« oil, . . - om 605 undltlon, • - - fiU5 Hcuador. 805 id DoBcrlptlon, - B05-610 v7 m. id DeK'rlption, - 810-614 OvUina. id Description, . 514-617 Urui/vn. id Description, . 517-518 Veneaiueln. id Description, - 518-520 Varaguay. id Description, - 520-533 I'crii. id Description, - 528-587 fonlaand Falkland. d Description, . 627-6'-t8 West Indie: id Description, - 628-S<)0 Ilayti. id Description, - 530-537 lanto Ihnniniio. id Description, . 637-&il CuAa. id Description, - B41-549 :o, .... 541) 550 !8, . . . . 5M 5W Islands, ... 555 .■ . . . .555 , 65e 65T ITB, etc., ... 568 oaBBSBioNS, - - 669 issusBiuMa, • - - 66i> ► i*®M4'^i?^;^*»"i!i»'-*--" "%>