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Tt MODKRN NATURK STUDY . \ ■• ,- Kin^fiiher. Harn Su allow. A STL DY IN ADAPTATION. MORANCS TWEXTlETlt CEXTirRV TEXT-HOOKS MODERN NATUR'E STUDY A FIWST BOOK FOR USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS Pakt I. Matter. Part II. Mhthod. WITH COIORH) I'LAfRS AND NIIMHHOIIS 11 HJSTHATK >NS, MANY OF WHICH AKU FKOM OKIGINAL HHOTuOHAPHS S. SILCOX, B.A., D.P/ED. INSPECTOR OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. ST THOMAS. ONT., FOHMERLY SCIENCE MASTER, LONDON COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE. AND O. J. STEVENSON, M.A. BNOLISH MASTER. ST. THOMAS COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE TORONTO GEORGE N. MORANG & COMPANY, LI.MITED 1902 KntLTLtl .noinliii^' to Aci ot the Parliaincnt of CanaJa. in thi- year Ninttixii Hundred and Two, liy Gkori.k \. .Morani; & Com- pany, lamitcd, at the Ocpartincnl of AtiricuUurc. BROWN-SKAKI.E TRINTINc; CO. TORONTO PREFACE IN placinjif this manual before Canadian teachers the authors do not feel that it is necessary to advance any plea for Nature Study. It finds its justification in the conditions of modern society, and rests upon the same psychological basis as Manual Training and Domestic Science. The necessity for Nature Study has been recog- nized by the most advanced educators both in Canada and the United States, and it is only a matter of time till it will find a permanent place among the subjects of study. The value of any subject of study must ultimately be judged from a social standpoint r and Nature Study must prove an important agent, not only in training the faculties of the individual, but also in making him acquainted with the elementary material and the processes upon which our whole social life depends. It is upon this phase of Nature Study as a socializing agent, that we desire in this manual to lay the greatest stress ; and the teacher must not lost sight of this side of the subject if he desires to give vitality to his presentation. It has been impossible for us within the limits of this manual to indicate in detail the various ways in which Nature Study may be of assistance in the teaching of other subjects, composition, geography, etc. On its social side it is related to every subject of the school course, and the points of contact will readily suggest themselves to the teacher. Part I. of the manual has been devoted to the outline of a field of Nature Study and to the presentation of the main facts regarding the diflferent forms of animal and plant life. vl NATURE STUDY If it were at all possible, it would of course be better that each individual teacher and student should observe and ascertain these facts for himself. The manifest absurdity of such a course, however, becomes apparent when we "on- sider the width of the field to be covered, Years of unaided observation, even to a mind of a scientific turn, could serve to make the student acquainted only with the barest outlines, and the beginner must, in the majority of cases, eventually become discouraged. The aim of the authors of this man- ual in supplying the information given in Part I. is not to prevent observation on the part of the teacher, but to stimu- late observation, and to render it intelligent and fruitful. In no case have we attempted to give more than a mere outline of any animal or plant. The main facts given, it remains for the teacher himself to make a detailed study as indicated in the outline lessons in Part II. The work is profusely illustrated, the object of the illustra- tions being to convey information in the most direct and eco- nomical way. No illustration or verbal description, however, can adequately represent life, and it is life that the student of nature should study. If this book stimulates interest in living things our object will have been accomplished. Teachers should read Part II. before attempting to make use of Part I. We commend especially the selection on "The Social Side of Nature Study." Many teachers are afraid to undertake this work because their knowledge of plant and animal life is so limited. This should rather be an incentive to learn with the pupils. All that is needed is confidence in one's own power to observe and interpret the phenomena of life, O.J. S St. Thomas, Aug., 1902. s. S. TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I THK STUDY OF MAMMALS - - . . Rocog^nition of Mammals Relation to Man - . . Method of Study .... Study of the Black (or Cray) Squirrel THE STIDY OF BIRDS - - - . Recognition of Birds - . . Relation to Man - . . . Method of Study - . . . Study of the Kingbird THE STl DY OF REPTILES - - - . Ophidia or Snakes - - . . Chelonia or Turtles - - - . THE STUDY OF AMPHIBIA - THE STUDY OF FISH - . . . THE STUDY OF MOLLUSKS THE STUDY OF ARTHROPODS The Shell-Fish or Crustaceans The Spiders - - - The Thousand- Legged Worms or Myriajxida niF STUDY OF INSEt TS - - . . Butterflies and Moths — Lepidoptera Method of Study The Swallow-Tails The Brush-Footed Buttertlies - The Blues, Coppers, and Hairstreaks - The Skippers - - . . The Sphinx Moths The Tussock Moths Geometrids - - . . The Tiger Moths Tii 4 28 32 37 43 47 68 73 79 84 85 86 88 94 104 116 "7 Ii2 128 i2g 129 »3' 136 '37 140 140 ■42 '45 146 '47 VIM NATURE STUDY The Giant Silkworms The Leaf Rollers The Leaf Miners Flies and Mosquitoes — Diptera Dragon-Flies, etc.— N'eiiroptera 1 he True Bugs, ete.-Hemiptera - Grasshoppers, etc. Orthoptera The Beetles — Coleoptera How Insects Breathe Wasps, Bees, and Ants— Hymenoptera THE STUDY OF EARTHWORMS THE STUDY OK STAR FISHES t>R ECtHNODKRMS The Coelenterates - . . . THE STUDY OF PLANTS - ■ . . Objectionable Plants - Fuiijjous Pests - . . . Kdihie Fuiij4i - - . . . Plants that are Poisonons So-called Flowerless Plants - Plant Tramps - . . . The First Xavijjators of the Air How Seeds Grow - . . . What Plants Do - . . . IMGK '49 '5J .1.1 •56 '58 161 ■65 ,69 "74 '75 188 190 191 i.j.' 218 227 -'-'0 ^33 234 237 2J8 242 242 PART II METHOD OF NATURE STUDY Outline Study of a Butterfly - Outline Study of a Plant Outline Study of the Robin - Sui,^g-estions for Class- Work on Mammals Outline Study of the Red Squirrel - Sl>CIAL SH>E OF NATURE STl DY - Wheat .... Max - - . . . Silk • - - . . Wool - - . . . Wood - - - . . Iron - - . . . 24s 25' 261 265 268 274 274 27s 276 277 27S 279 TABLE OF CONTENTS IX Loati (j^uarlz ...... Stone, Linu'stoiii' - . . . . Li}?ht HINTS FOR H.ASS-WOKK ON IM.ANTS . - . . Roots ----... Trees that Slieil their Hark - - - . Plant Soeieties - - . . . PJxperiments with Plants - . . . AtCORDINCi TO SEASON— JAN lARV TO DKCKMBEK C\>1:RSK in NATl'KH STL'DV FOR AI.I, C, 'SSIS - APPENDIX ---.-.. List of Common Plants, showinif Color, llaliilat, .'iiul Time of I'lowerinjf - . . . Preserving' Specimens . . . . I'AUE -■■^.> jS<) J()2 3' 3 3 '9 3") 3^3 Colored plates will be found facing- the following- pages: 1 RARN SWALLOW ANO KINCFISHER - FRONTISP 2 SONG SPARROW AND HORNED LARK 3 D(.nVNY WOODPECKER AND FLICKER 4 BALTIMORE ORIOLE AND ROSE-BRKA iTKD GROSHKAK - 5 VKLLOW-BILLED CUCKOO ..ND CEDAR VVAXVMMi 6 BROWN THRASHER AND WILSONS TlIRl SlI 7 BllTERFLIES ----.. 8 BITTEKFLIES ...... 9 Bl-ITEKILIES --.-.. lO SPRING FLOWERS ..... TI-SfMMER FUnvIRS ..... 12 Al Tl'MN FLOWERS ..... lECE 48 54 5'*^ 60 66 ■36 ■3S 140 '94 208 2'; V ..,.,-. >,.;i-Y. •:"':£ .tjf, ■" -.-;;: 5 xj^ - NATURE STUDY PART I MOOSE Groundhog ■ " '" •■ ' — ■ ' ■■ Some Mammals of Canada. TliK STUDY OF MAMMALS I. THK J'lKLI) OF STUDY The Mammals are the lii^rhest forms of .-mimal life. They are distinj,n.islied from the lower orders of life by several well-marked characteristics. Most o( them are fvuir- footed, covered with hair, and live on hnd ; and the youn^' are ,n all cases fed with milk. The brain of the mammals IS much more highly developed than that of the lower forms of life, a fact which makes the study of them more difficult, but at the same time more interesting to the nature student.' Tlie Mammals of North America include about eightv species, ranging in size from the whale, seventy feet in length, to the least shrew, which is only two inches long. Between these different mammals noticeable differences in form and structure exist, due principally to their different methods of securing food and of moving from place to place ; and It IS these differences which form the basis of classi- fication. For example, the gnawing mammals have strong chisel-shaped teeth ; the leapers have long, strong hind-legs and bushy tails ; the diggers have powerful fore-feet ; the swimmers have webbed hind-feet and flat tails ; the borers have strong, ..uscular heads and shoulders; and the fliers have flexible wintr-merrihr:!:-.!-'-: 2 NATURE STUDY T.ikiii),' these' iliffL-rciiccs as ;i basis tor ■.lassification, N'orth Anurican mammals are ili\ iilcci iiitd oii,'lit orJcrs, as ti.llows : I. Marsiipialia, or PoiicliocI Mammals. (OpusMims). I I. ScM Cdw's. III. Whales, Dolphins, ami Porpoises. I\' lloi>fed tJuaJrupeJs. (Deer). v. Carnivora, or Flesh-eaters. (Raccoons, Skunks, Weasels, l'"oxes, Hadj^-ers, and Coyotes). V'l. Rodents, or (Inawers. ( Woodcluicks, Porcupines, Rabbits, Muskrats, Squirrels, Mice, Prairie Dogs, and Gophers). VII. lnsecti\ora, or Insect-eaters. (Moles and Shrews). \lll. Winj,'-handed Mammals. (Fiats). In Canada in {^--eneral the study of Mammals is restricted to certain species belonf,rinj,r to the last five classes, includ- ing -the deer, elk, moose, caribou; bear, wolf, fox, lynx, wolverine, otter, raccoon, skunk, weasel, stoat or ermine, mink, fisher, marten ; beaver, woodchuck, porcupine, north- ern hare, wood-hare, muskrat, squirrel, chipmunk, rat, field- mouse ; mole, shrew ; and bat. Some of these animals are found only in the rough and unsettled parts of the country; others exist only in limited numbers; while the remainder, in most cases, live in such close concealment that their very existence is unknown to the majority of people. This condition of affairs is due partly to the gradual clearing up of the country ; partly to the looseness with which the game laws are enfoiced, and to the activity of trappers and hunters; and partly to the fact that the farmers consider the majority of the wild animals to be more or less destructive, and do all in their power to destroy them or drive them out. Under these conditions the work of the nature student must necessarily be difficult. There is. neverthtOi-^-, v;r-.- .;:tJ.jm^XSTk^-'-, ^^;^.7^7>^^^>Viy^ THE FIELD OF STUDY much tli.if I K' in.iv ai\i>in plisli cuinst.iiuos. Wo have, in roalil t'V(.n umior iinfavorable cir- accurato iiitorniatiiM) rc^'art'in^-- the life of tli in this country. It rcni.iins for the cnth y. very little minute and 10 wild animals student to make accurate observations, so e entluisiastic nature in detail tiioir hahit wild animals are of c and miKh can be 1 and hunters, and with oh- as to ascertain s and characteristics. Hooks rel.it inj,^ to istance to the be^'inner, course ot ass earne d fr ation must he verified vation on the part oi' the student h oni conversation with trappers servant farmers ; but all such inform- and supplemented by patient i>bsi Aside, how imself. ever, fn 'in a personal study of animal life, the nature student can do much for the protection of nials. It wild ;uii- loudly denoun quite possible that the animal which the f; [irmer ces as a thief, oft petty depredation en more than atones for h" rodents which are themsel s, in the destruction of weeds, insects, or ve abie. The naturalist the farmer to a prop enemies. Besides thi interest in the wild s m the hij,'-hest dej,'ree objection- can perform a double duty by helping er appreciation of his true friends and i, he can \n many wavs awaken an th eir strut,'^j,'-le for exist inimals and a sympathy with th em Ml co-operation of others in his elfo ence, and ui endeavor to secure tht MS o'l their behalf. M. RKll^GN'ITIOM OF TUE ^f.\MMAr.S Our s.uJy of c.rtair. of the Mammals is practically limited to what u . read of them, or what we hear from trappers and ••un.ers. Some of them, such as the hear, the lynx, the Ueer. and the heaver, are to he found only in the wilder- -K-ssos ol the northern districts ; other., such as the porcupine, are met w.th only in the rou^'her portions of the country : wh.le st.ll others, such as the fo^, the mi.,k. the weasel, tl water-rat. and the shrew, exist only in such limited numhers •Hid live m such close concealment that ohservation is all but nnposs ijo. Interesting^ accounts of these animals will ^e found in Lnn^ s Jn/demrss Ways, and IVuys of Wood-fclk, Kurrou.rh's Slid) feet, arched hind-iiuarters, and lonj; tail tipped with black and marked with fivj black ring's. The native element of the coon is the tree-t ps, where he makes his den in the hollow trunk. He does not, however, like the squirrel or the porcupine, f,'ather the nuts or eat the leaves, but descends to the {,'round in search o( food. He will eat froj^s. fish, mice, crayfish, birds, chickens and e^'f^s, and is fond of fruit and sweetmeats of all kinds. He is an expert fisher, and is very fond of the water, althou^fh he does not dive for fish and crabs, but catches them on shore with his paws. He is very partial to the farmer's corn, and makes frequent visits to the cornfield in early autumn. From his partiality to water, and his peculi.ir habit of washinj,' his food when possible, before eating it, he has been called " the washiny^ bear," an 1 is technically known as Lotor, the IVds/wr, The coon is almost entirely nocturnal in his habits, and is rarely seen by ('ay. The nij^-^hts oi summer and early autumn are spent in feasting. Late in the fall, when he has become fat, he retires with his mate to his den, and sleeps throughout the winter, until February or March. Early in the spring the young are born, five or six in Mttcr. They remain with the parents sometimes a year, and during the summer and autumn accompany them in family parties in their nocturnal depredations. The cry of the coon, if cry it has, resembles th.it of the screech-owl very closely. It is, however, claimed by some that the coon has no cry, and that the so-called coon- whistles are in all cases attribut..ble to the screech owl. a. TiiK Skunk. Body, i8 inches; tail, ij inches. Found in wooJs ,^ir stumpy fields. The Skunk resembles the raccoon in form, but is smaller in size. Like the coon, it has a pointed nose, plantigrade NATURE STUDY i Raccoon nud Skunk. THE RECOGNITION OF MAMMALS «^ feet, arclied hindquarters, and long tail. But the arrant;-e- me.it of its markings is in direct contrast to the plan followed by nature in the case of other Mammals. Examine, for ex- ample, the picture of the wood-hare ( p. 1 2). The under parts, which are naturally in shadow, are light colored to deceive the eye, while the upper parts are rendered inconspicuous by their resemblance to their surroundings. Compare and con- trast with this the markings of the skunk on the opposi ; page, and notice especially the conspicuous white tail-tip. Can you suggest any reason why the skunk does not require to be protected by markings similar to those of the hare, but should seek, rather than avoid, recognition? Would this reason not also account for the fact thtit the skunk is in no hurry to move out of the way of those whom he meets in the woods, but seems rather to regard his white tail plume as a danger signal, a warning to all enemies to keep at a safe and proper distance ? The yellow, phosphorescent liquid to which is due the offensive odor of the skunk, common to most of the members of the weasel tribe, is contained in two capsules beneath the tail. It may be discharged either in the form of a fine spray, or in a thin spurt or a double jet, sometimes projected a dis- tance of a dozen feet. It is strongly acid in its property and has been known to destroy the eyesight in some cases. Notwithstanding the possession of such a ready weapon, however, the skunk is a peaceable animal and will not make use of his disagreeable projectile except in case of attack, and then only as a last resort. The skunk subsists entirely upon animal food and destroys immense numbers of grasshoppers, beetles, toads, frogs, mice, reptiles, eggs of all kinds, chickens, and sometimes even rabbits. He is a goixl swimmer, and possesses strong claws for digging. He makes his den in a burrow, bedded JEiAS; 8 NATURE STUDY with griiss, {^-oiicrally under a stump or liolknv tree. The younj,', six to ten in a Utter, are horn in July, and remain with tlie parents until the following- season. Late in the fall the skunk family yo into hil^ernation, but reappear ag-ain in February. Their tracks on the snow are easily distin- gu-.hed from all others from the fact that they are diagon- ally placed. Skunk Tr;)c'-^s. The skunk is said to be the most silert of ll animals, producing no sound whatever, except when striking or stamping on the g-round as a sign of impatience. 3 The Wkasrl. Rody. ii inrhes ; tail. 7 inches. Tub Mink. Body, 18 inchis ; tail, 9 inches. The Weasel is the most blood-thirsty of the smaller Mam- mals, and often kills apparently for the mere sake of kill- ing. He makes frequent visits to the farmyard, but seldom carries off Lhe chickens which he kills. The habits of the Mink are similar to those of the Weasel. He is, however, partial to the banks of streams, and is fond of fish. Neither the common red Weasel nor the Mink changes color in winter ; the northern variety of Weasel, the Stoat or Ermine, changes to white, however, the tip of the tail alone remaining black. I I RODENTIA, OR GNAWERS 1. Thf WcKlHCiJUCK. nod> ,i'4 inches ; tail, 7 inches. Found K'-'"erally in the field., or in partially cleared wixxls. The Woodchock, or Ground-hog, is not quite so large as the raccoon, and in most respects is his direct opposite. In color he has no decided markings. His coat is generally red- dish-brown, tinged with black on the top of the head, on the tail and on tiie feet. His color, however, varies with his sur- roundings, ranging from yellowish-grey to brownish-black. THE RECOGNITION OF MAMMALS VV,^,.1..l 1. ' 1 to NATURE STUDY The most noticeable features in liis appearance are tlie larjt,'-e eyes, primiinent teeth, flabby and chimsy body, and awkward gait. As his second name indicates, he is entirely a ground animal, and is, in fact, a big ground squirrel, the next of kin to the chipmunk. His burrow generally has two, and some- times three, entrances, some ten or twelve feet apart. Com- pare it in this respect with the burrow of a skunk, and suggest, if possible, a reason for the difference. Off the main passage of the burrow generally run at least two oiher branches, the one for refuse, the other leading to the living room, which is bedded with grass. The woodchuck lives entirely on vegetable food, fresh clover being the staple of his f .-- Sometimes, however, the farmer's garden comes undc bute, in which case the vegetables, and more especially the peas, suffer severely. He is chiefly nocturnal in his habits, and, being slow of foot, will not venture far from the mouth of his stronghold, the burrow, during the day. His curiosity is strong, and his hearing acute, and he will often come to the mouth of his den to s;itisfy himself of the nature of any unusual object. Vou will find it very interesting to watch his movements on such occasions. The young, three or four in a litter, are born earlv in May, and before the end of the season are able to shift for them- selves. After feeding luxuriously in August and September on the young second-growth clover, the woodchuck, like the coon, retires with his mate to his den, and sleeps throughout the winter. The dates of his hibernation correspond approximately with the dates of the September and March equinoxes. The whistle of the woodchuck is a loud quaver- ing diminuendo, unmistakeable to anyone who has once heard it. THE RECOGNITION OF MAMMALS U (. Thb PoRCUPiNH — HoJy, J ',;, feet ; tail, 8'^ inches The Porcupine is not generally distributed, but in tlie rougher districts where it is found, it is an interesting object of study. It lives almost entirely in the tree-tops, making its den in a hole in the trunk, and eating the leaves and bark for food. It is slow of foot, clumsy in its movements, and docs not possess as much intelligence as a coon or a wood- chuck. As a means of defence its body and tail are covered with loose quills, so that any eremy that is bold enough to attack it is sure to come off with mouth and paws full of quills wiiicli slick into the flesh like so many fish-hooks. The old belief that the porcupine was able to shoot the quills, is, of course, entirely erroneous. 1 tie I iTciipinf 12 NATURE STUDY i nc v\ (XHi iiare or v ottonuiii KaDt>it. THE RECOGNITIOS OF MAMMALS 18 X Thb Woon Marii. Hwly. .6 inche«; tail. ^V inchci. Found in woodii with thick underffrowth, in hay and ifrain fields, and i the vicinity of brush piles. The Gray, or Cottontail Rabbit is more properly known as the Wood Hare^ for, properly speakin<,', there are no r.-ihbits in Canada. The distinctions between the rabbit and the hare are simple and may be briefly stated as follows : (i) Hares do not live in burrows as rabbits do, but occupy " forms " or nests, in hollow stumps or log-s, or under brush- heaps, or in the long grass of the hay field. (2) Hares are born with their eyes open, three to five in a litter, in May and July, and are covered with hair at the time of birth. Rabbits are born naked, and with their eyes closed, five to eight in a litter. (3) Hares feed after sunset or during the night ; rabbits, by day. The food of the Cottontail is entirely vegetable. He is provided with a double set of upper teeth, which he some- times uses with destructive f-ffect upon young fruit trees, girdling them completely, and causi.ig them to die. His food in summer consists principally of clover, but he is very fond of cabbage and other vegetables, and makes frequent visits to the farmer's garden. The young are born, generally in the hay-field, in a shallow excavation bedded with dried grass and rabbit fur, and a form of young rabbits makes a very pretty picture mdeed. It is interesting to watch the actions of the racbits in a large field of hay or grain which IS being cut. Try to be on hand sometime when the machine is making its final rounds in the centre of the field, and watch what happens. In the winter the rabbits are active, and subsist on twigs, bark, and dried weeds and grasses. At this season they commonly take refuge in brush piles, or in deserted ground holes. Their track in the snow is easily distin- gHishable, and is somewhat neculiar. inasm.uch as the two. i 14 NATURE STUDY front iiKirks ;iro niiide by tlio liiiid iVot. account for this ? (See cut.) How do you Rnhliit Fo.-trn.lrk!« W'lioii piirsuctl, the Cottontail seldom takes refuse in a i^Tound hole. The brier-hush is his "greatest friend, and he is, moreover, an expert runner, and an adept at throwinj;^ the pursuer off the trail by all manner of devices. When pursued in the cpen, however, he has a foolish habit of run- ning in circles, which t^ives his antagonist the advantag'e at once. His method of sij^-nallintf by "thumping" on the ground with his hind foot is well known to all nature students who have had the pleasure of meeting him in his moonlight excursions. The Northern, or Varying Hare i'^ also found in Canada, but is less common in the southern districts than the Wood Hare. It differs little from the Cottontail, except in its some- what larger size, and in the fact that it changes color, turn- ing white in the winter season. 4. Thr Mi'SKRAT. Rodv. ii^ inches; tail, 11 incties. Found in tlie neighborhood of shallow ponds and slug^i*ih streams. The Musfcrat, so called from the musky odor of a large gland, is about the size of a small rabbit. In color it is dark brown, but the sides are reddish, and the unu r parts ashy- gray. The hind foet are webbed, like those of a duck, so that they are especially adapted for swimming. The food of the muskrat consists of roots and weeds ; he rarely touches flesh or fish, but is fond of clams. During the summer he makes his home in a living room at the end of a tunnel in the bank, the entrance to which is generally under water. Here iU ^ _ .._ - u :_ \t „,i I.. I.. ti ,., *^ ..:,. ,,4^ „ u:_«-u THE RECOGNITION OF MAMMALS 16 Mubkrat. Late in the fall the Muskrat constructs, in the bed of the stream, a cone-like mound resembling- a small hay-cock, in the snug interior of which he passes the winter. The entrance to the mound is always under water, and the interior cf the living room is well lined with lily leaves and dry weeds. It is said by the weather-wise that a careful observation of the height of the cone and the time of building will enable one to forecast the nature of the winter to follow. If the opportunity presents itself, you will find it interesting to verify or disprove this point for yourselves. The muskrat is active in winter. The coldness of the weather does not affect him to any extent, for his Coat is so thick and compact that the water, in which so r. Mch of his time is passed, does not penetrate to his skin. 5. The Sqitrrr!, Four -varieties of squirrels are common in Canada — the chipmunk, or ground squirrel, the red squirrel, the flying 2'i^uiiiuiy uiiu ciiC i^iu.civ or gi'tiy SUunici. 16 NATURE STUDY ThcChipmonk m.n Iv o.l^ily dislin-uishod from (hotvd squTrcl by its s.nallor sizo. striped .o:,t, check pouches, and smaller tail. The chief use of tlic In.shy tail of the other varieties ,s that h helps then i„ leapin- from tree to tree and branch to branch. The chipmunk, lunvever, lives almost entirely upon the K'round, and the sixe of its tailis, accord- inj^iy, adapted to its difTerent mode i^f life. _ The chipmunk is the most provident of the scjuirrels. It h'cs all winter lonj,^ in Its nest under the ^Mound; and in the autumn, before retirin- for he winter, it l.ivs bv sufficient -stores of nuts and acorns to last it for food until t'he sprinj,^ The entrance to the nest is a round hole about an inch in diameter, found f,^enerally in the middle of a knoll or ridge How do you account for the fact that no earth is found around the mouth of the hole? And in this connection .„fi^. rhinmnnk. THE RECOGNITION OF MAMMALS 17 what is tlioro in the rhipniimk's inodc of hvinj,-- that ri'iulers tlic possession of check pouchi's a necessit) ? As may bo seen by tlie snow tracks "in early sprinj,', only owe chipmunk occupies eacli burrow during the winter. The younj,' are born in Juno and .\iij,aist, two to six at a birth. The chipiiiimk has two calls, a short shrill cry indicative of alarm, and a quiet "chunkintf" call-note besides. (j) Thk Rki> SgiiHRii.. nixiy. 71; imhcs : t.iil. (^<4 inches. KounJ in cities, c»|.«iially ill fir trees, and in the country in tlic open woods. The Red Squirrel, or Chickiiree, is the best known of all the squirrels. This is due partly to his preseiiee in towns and cities, partly to the fact th;it he is active in winter as well as in summer, but principally to his own boldness and inquisitiveiicss, which make his scoldinj.^ and chattering' fiimiliar to every one in city and country alike. In winter he lives in ;i hole in a tree, but in the summer he builds a nest, a bif,'- round ball of fine withered K^ass, in a sapling, usually in the middle of a lanj^^Ie of wild g^rape-vines. Make the experiment of putting,'- up a small box, with a hole in one end, in the saplinj,»- containing the nest, or in a tree near by, and note the result. The food of the red squirrel consists principally of nuts, acorns, j,'^rain, pine-cones, and other vej,'^etable matter. In the early sprinj^ he taps the br.mches for sap, and late in the season shows a marked partiality for freshiy-laid birds' ej,'g-s. He lays up a store of nuts for the winter, or buries them in the j^round, whence he di^a them up when required. If you watch him carefully you will find that, very often, in order to be sure of his harvest of nuts, he cuts them off the tree, lets them fall to the ground, and gathers them up afterwards. He has several ways of expressing himself. His call-note is a loud monotonous zill-l-1-1-1 ; while excitement and alarm a;c :::uis.ai.cu oy a vigorous cnattenng, liic nounu oi winch is '_-.'.•'! X 18 NATURE STUDY 1 liu li) uig SquirroL THE RECOGNITION OF MAMMALS 19 impL-rtii tly iniitatod in liis secoml iiamo, the "Chickaree." IIl- possesses, with all his hoklness and inquisitiver'ess, a very nervous and excitable nature, a fact of which you may easily satisfy yourself hy drawinjr his uttentiv>ii to }our presence at the i'oot of the tree, or hy whistlinj,' a lively tune in his immediate heariiij.,', and notinj,-- the etfecls. 'I'he younj,s three i'l a litier, are born in Mav. (l) rilK l"i viNU SyriRRFI . Himetimfs also in townv and citit-s. The Flying Squtrrrl is the only member of the squirrel family which is nocturnal in its haitits. It sleeps durinj^ the day and becomes active about sundown. Although called the flying squirrel, it does not actually fly. Hetween its fore and hind legs, along its sides, rims a membrane which acts as a parachute to break the fall i>f the squirrel ; while its flattened tail serves the purpose of a rudder. Hy means of this mem- brane it is able to sail slantingly from the top of one tree to the foot of another, but it cannot fly from tree-top to tree-top except for short distances. In appearance it resembles the red squirrel more than the other varieties. The Flying .Squirrel makes its nest in a hole in a tree or a stub, and in this nest the young are born in May or June, — • Our at a birth. There are always two entrances to the nest, to provide for escape in case of attack by a weasel or a snake, besides this dwelling, he always constructs a moss nest in the fork of a sapling, for use during the summer months. During the winter he goes into hibernation for some time at least, although he is said to store up supplies of food in the fall. I'nlike the other varieties, the flying squirrel is gregarious in winter, eight or ten often inhabiting one dwelling. His call or cry is a soft thin note which can be heard onlv when close at hand. (4) Thk Ri.ack or Gray SsJI'irrkl. Hody, loVi inches; tail, lo^ inches. Found ic the thick woods. Sec Section V . oi this ciiapier, ior a detailed study. 20 t). I HK I'iKM) Mi>lTSK. NATURE STUDY In C.iii.id.i two variof.'s of Field Mice are common, the f-Ii ice-tooted or deer-mouse, and the meadow-mouse. ^" '"^ZZZn^r ''"'""'■■ "'•'^- '"* '■-""= '^'■'' ^'^ '-'- J^—J '" both The White-footed Mouse is reddish-hrown above and white helow, and may be readily recognized by its long- tail, white le-t and sharp nose. It is prettier in appearance, as well as more interesting,- in habits, than the meadow-mouse. It is a |,Teat climber and always makes its nest above ground in old stumps, lo^-s, hollow trees, haystacks, and sometimes in deserted birds' nests, which it roots over snugly for the occasion. In the fall it stores up supplies of grain, corn, The WhIte-footeJ Mouse. acorns, and beech nuts, the latter of which are neatly hulled beforehand. It is active in winter ar.d is mainly responsible for the mice-tracks on the surface of the snow. THE RECOGNITION OF MAMMALS t» ^^<^ The MeaJdw Mi.>ii«e. U) Th« Mpa,hw.Mo- help of these claws it can crawl upon the ^-round u its win^-s are closed, but its move- ment is very chimsy. The eyes of the bat, unlike those of the nocturnal Hylnj,' squirrel, are very small, but the ears are large, and as the membranes of the wings are very sensi.ive, it is guided in its movements principally by the sense of touch. The food of the bat consists chiefly of flies and gnats, which it catches on the wing. In wmtor the bats hibernate ; they are gregarious, and gather in large numbers in caves, hollow trees, towers, etc., where they sleep the cold season through, hanging head down- ward by the claws as they do in the midsummer days. The young are born naked and blind, one or two in a litter. IV. MAMMALS OF THE PRAIRIES The following Mammals are peculiar to the prairies of Western Canada, .uul are not found in the eastern provinces: I. The Prairih Dog. Body, i^inchen; tail, 4 inches. The Prairie Dog; is a southern species, and s not found very far north of the southern boundary of Ca >ada. The name " prairie dog " is somewhat misleading, as thi. mammal does not resemble a do^ in any respect except in its cry, -i sharp "yap-yap-yiip." It belongs to the ground-squirrel f; mily, and lives in deep burrows in the ground. Prairie dogs live in colonies, and their dens are connected with one another, so as to form underground villages, which extend sometimes for twenty or thirty miles. They are vegetable eaters and li'-e upon grass and roots. In the winter they hibernate, like their eastern cousins, the woodchucks. In the southern prairies the prairie dog is a very familiar figure, as he sits in the sun at the mouth of his burrow. His inqui-itiveness is great, and he is always anxious to know all that is going on in the neighborr.ood of his village. THE RECOGNITION OF MAMMALS 86 Prairie Hops. On tlie slig^htest alarm, however, he disappears into iiis b.ir- row, only to re-appear a moment later to continue his obser- \ations. 2. Thk Gopher. Under the name "^^opher," are commonly classed two very different species of ground-burrowing mammals. (0 The Spermophiles, or seed eaters. Of the spermo- philes three species are found in Canada, the Gra-, Ihj Yellow, and the Striped Gopher. They resemble the chip- munk in form and habits, but are slightly larger in size. L>ke the chipmunk they live in holes in the ground and store up supplies for the vinter. The term spermophile means "seed-eater"; but, although these gophers live principallv upon seeds, they are omnivorous, and will eat fruit, roots, insects, and mice also. 26 NATURE STUDY (-') The Pouched Gophers. Of tlu' poucliod tropliors two specie's :u-c t'ouiul on the prairios, the Pocket Gopher, .'md tlie Mole Gopher. Tliose j^opliors rosomblo the mole in appearance and liahits, but, unlike the mole, they are xej^-o- table eaters. Like the chipmui.k they are provided with cheek pouches for carryinj,-- home their food. As they bib. or- nate in winter, and in summer are nocturnal in tiieir habits, they are r.eldom seen. They live in burrows in the <,'-round, and, as they are great dij,'-j,>-ers and throw up larfj^-e mounds of earth, they are in the highest degree objectionable to the farmer. 3. TnR Raugfr. The Badger is about the size of the raccoon or the skunk, but its head and body arc much broader and flatter. In general habits it resembles the skunk more than any (^iier animal. It is much less common now than formerly. 4. Thk Jack Rahhit. The Jack-Rabbit, or Prairie Hare, is larger than the cottontail. It is called the Jack — or Jackass — Rabbit from its long ears and legs It is very swift of foot and can out- strip the fastest horse in a fair chase. S- The Jumping Moise. The Jumping Mouse is common on the prairies. It is readily distinguished from the other v.arieties of mice by its smaller body, (3 inches in length), and its long tail, (5 inches in length). Its movements are very graceful, and as it bounds along over the grass it hardly seems to touch the ground. In habits it differs little from the field-mouse, except that it hibernates in the winter. Besides these five Mammals, certain other varieties are peculiar to the prairies, but they do not require more than bare iiieulion. The Prairie box, ti e Coyote or I'rairie Wolf, THE RECOGNITION OF MAMMALS 27 aiul tlio Artolopo, were formerly common, but aro now lvmii- |iarati\olv rare. Amoi\t:f the smaller mammals not foiuul in tlie caste "n provinces, are the Hoary l^at, three varieties ot Squirrel, (the Missouri Striped, Say's, and Richardson's), two varieties ot W-^ouchuck, (the Hoary and the V'ellow- liioted), and sncn or ei},''ht varieties of Field-Mice. The Black (or Gray) Squirrel is not found in Western Canada. The remainder of the mammals of the west differ very slightly from those of the eastern prov inces. In the fine Woods. III. RELATIOl TO MAN Most of the Mammals are supplied by niture with effective means of defence. The raccoon and the vvoodchuck, which are neither of them swift of foot, have provided themselves with natural strongholds. They are, besides, good fighters, and are well able to defend themselves from attack. The skunk possesses an effective weapon in its disagreeable secretion. The rabbit is provided with a swift pair of heels to make good his escape. The muskrat, at the slightest alarm, takes refuge in his den under water, whither few can follow. The squirrels have learned the art of concealing themselves in the tree-tops. The field-mice take refuge in the thick grasses, and the moles are protected by their unpleasant odor ; while the bats with their wonderful powers of flight are safe from pursuit. In addition to these individual qualities, the keenness of scent, the protective coloring, hibernation, and nocturnal habits of most of the mammals, are more or less ad- vantageous to them in their struggle for existence. If left to themselves, most of the wild animals would be able to hold their own, and the balance of nature would be preserved. But the advance of civilization has interfered more or less with the conditions under which wild life exists, and it becomes necessary for us to consider and to regulate our relations with these lower orders of life. There are very few of the smaller mammals which are not systematically pursued by man, either for the sake of their fur, or for sport, or on account of the antJ^gonism of the farmer to them because of their depredations. It is almos't imnriss'ble tr\ dr'>'>' a h^'^'i -ir^A f.^^^ i;.,., u,.*... — _ ».i — -i • i 28 I RELATION TO MAN 29 merit our protection and tliose uliich do not, but it is perhaps well to point out some of the facts which may lead us to a proper conclusion in each individual case. (0 The Raccoon, in Southern Ontario at least, is becoming scarce. The demand for the fur for coats, etc., is lar^^ely responsible for this, althouj^h the farmer is by no means friendly disposed to the raccoon on account of his occasional visits to the chicken-roost. It is probabie.however, that in the destruction of mice he more than repays his occasional levy upon the hen-house. The raccoon is easily tamed, and makes a contented and affectionate, but mischievous, pet. His ^'radual disappearance from some parts of the country is much to be regretted. (2) The Skunk, in spite of his visits to the chicken-roosts is one of the most valuable allies of the farmer. He destroys immense numbers of mice, reptiles, grasshoppers, beetles, and injurious insects. When the scent glands are removed, the skunk is an interesting animal in captivity. He is easily domesticated, and affectionate, and no animal is freer from taint, or more cleanly in his habits. There is considerable demand for his fur, which is dyed and put on the market under the name of Alaska Sable. (3) The "Woodchuck continues to hold his own in the fields and woods. His presence in the hay field is objec- tionable more on account of the fact that the holes he makes are dangerous for the horses' feet, than on account of his actual destruction of hay and grass. In captivity t4ie young make intelligent and teachable pets. The fur of the woodchuck is of very little value. (4) The Hare, or Rabbit, is prolific, and, in spite c*" its destruction by sportsmen, continues to hold its own. The farmer finds it objectionable on account of its destn..rt:.v."n«== >n the garden, and its habit oi girdling and killing young 10 NATURE STUDY trees. It thrives in (.aptivit) , and, notu ithstaiulini^ the multitude of its enemies in its wild state, is not likoh to decrease in numbers. Its fur is valueless. (5) The Muskrat is destroyed in lar^'e numbers every year by trappers, for the sake of its fur, but is still found ui con- siderable numbers. If it does no particular ^ood to the farmer, it does him no serious injury, and it is to be hoped that the picturesque domes of ^'rass which indicate its haunts, will continue to he a common feature of our rivers and ponds. (6) The Chipmunk, the Flying "^uiircl, and the Black (or Gray) Squirrel deserve our best eiictts for their protection. They are not in any way injurious to the farmers' interests, and, besides doubling,' the pleasure of a ramble in the woods, they serve a useful purpose in Nature's economy as seed distributors. In captivity, all three make mterestinj^ pets, but tlioy are, of course, seen to the best advantay^e in their native element, — the woods. The black squirrel, like the raccoon, is g'radually disappearing from our woods, and every effort should be made to secure his preservation. The Red Squirrel can have few claims for our protection, beyond his companionship in the woods. He plays havoc very often with the farmers' corn, destroys the eggs and young of many of i ar most useful birds, and displays unrelenting hostility to the more beautiful black squirrel, whom he has succeeded in banishing entirely from many of his former haunts. The fur of the squirrels is of no value. (7) The Field-Mice, rn lire especially meadow-mice, are the greatest enemies of the farmer. They destroy or carry oflF immense quantities of grain, and do great damage by gird- ling young trees. The destruction of the natural enemies of the tield-mice-. — o^vls.. hawks, skunks, etc., — is larsrely responsible for the undesirable increase in their numbers. RELATION TO MAS tl (S) The Mole <-loes little Injury to the liirimr, and per- fmnis ;i certain scr\ i^e in the ckstriKtion of ^ruhs and insects, and in the opening up of tlie soil. (9) The Bat, Hke most insect eaters, is beneficia', and in spite of its disaj,'^reeable intrusion into (' miestic circles at times, is of f^reat service to man. (10) The destructiveness of the Weascl and the Mink, not included in the above list, is much in excessof their good quali- ties, as far as they are known. The fur of these animals is fortunately of considerable market value, and every assist- ance should be jfiven to the trapper in helping to rid the animal world of enemies so undesirable. (11) Most of the smaller Mammals found on the prairies are in the highest degree objectionable to the farmer. The Prairie- Dog; destroys the grass, roots and all, and undermines the ground with its villages. When it has exhausted its supplies in one quarter, it moves on to form new villages and cause fresh ruin elsewhere. Th- Spermophile plays havoc with the farmers' corn and grain. The Pouched Gopher is de- structive to grain and vegetables ; but besides this, it under- mines the ground and destroys the fresh crops by throwing up great quantities of earth. The Jack-Rabbit is, perhaps, the most voracious and destructive of all the rodents, and when not held in check, multiplies very rapidly. The Jumping Mouse is comparatively harmless. The natural enemies of these troublesome pests are the Fox the Badger, and the Coyote; but the farmer, forgetting his obligations to the larger Mammals, has waged incessant war on them. The inevitable result has followed ; the fox, the badger, and the coyote are fast disappearing from the country, and the farmer is left single-handed to fight his enemies and their'-; thf j'imi jack-rabbit. A il._ 1. . _ • • IV. MI' rnoi) ov sirnv The iiiiture stiKlent will find the study of the Mammals in llu'ir wild state much mure dillicult than that of the other fortns of life. if wild animals wore like plants, of which the structure, habitat, i'ood, etc., may be observed at leisure, animal study would be comparatively easy. Hut most nature students find, in the first place, that it is almost im- possible even to see the wild animal, to say nothing of mak- ing,' a detailed observation of its habits. Indeed, most people are tpiite unaware of the existence of numerous wild anim.ds in woods with which they are otherwise familiar, and would be surprised, if the earth could yield up her livinj^, to see the varied company who have all the while been the silent spectators of their rambles in the fields and woods. The wild animal, whose life is one continuous struggle for existence, is at all times on his guard, and an unfamiliar figure in the woods, or the sound of an unfamiliar voice — especially the voice of his arch-enemy, man, — is always a signal for concealment. His eye and ear and nerve are trained to catch the slightest sound or vibration, so that he is aware of the presence of an intruder long before the new- comer is able to see him. Besides this, mother nature has contributed to hi ■ safety by so modifying his form and color that to an unpractised eye he is almost indistinguishable from his surroundings. It is not a matter of surprise, there- fore, that in our ordinary rambles in the fields and woods, we find only silence and solitude on every hand ; or that if by the purest accident we do get a glimpse of an unfamiliar form, we are, for the moment, so surprised and startled that we are unable to describe with any accuracy the nature and appearance of what we have seen. 32 METHOD OF STUDY AnotlKT soiir.e oi ilillicuKv in the oh o lies ill the tact that a j^reat mai v of mal lit wild animals are active only, or chiefly, at nitrht. possible tor us to jjet a faithful reproduct observation of wild ani- our common If it were ion of th ! sij^-hts and sounds of the woods at a j;iven iiour of the nij,'ht, what different conditions and forms of life it would reveal ! On the one hand, the owl from his point of vanta^'e on the pri.- jectin^' stub, straininjr his j,-reat, fierce eyes for the hapless snake or wood-mouse on the ^■■round beneath ! Here the K'raceful llyinj; squirrel, cau},'ht in mid-career in his siantinj,-^ downward flij,'ht ! In the ^-^limpse of open clearing in the mid-woi>d, the cottontail rabbit with hind foot uplifted in the act of "thumping" the ground as a signal to his mate ! Tliere again, a jiair of gray old coons, returning from late festivities in the adjacent cornfield to their hollow tree-top by the gully's edge ! Close by the rotting stump in the cor- ner of the wood, the white back and tail-plume of Sir Mephitis Mephitica, the skunk, are plainly visible, as he digs through the ground in search of an escaping mole or meadow-mouse. The woodchuck is walking boldly from burrow to burrow across the open, and hark ! was that the distant cry of a fox ? In the day-time the scene is changed, and little > in be seen but the chipmunk, or the squirrel, or the wooc^huck sitting in the sun at the mouth of his burrow. Notwithstanding the fact, however, that the observation of the wild animals is a matter of such difficulty, it is possible to learn a great deal about them at first hand by making the very best of unfavorable conditions. It must be borne in mind, in the first place, that absolute silence is the first requisite of animal 'itudy. The noise of a gun or the sound of a huftian voice in the woods, or even the noise of a crackling twig, is an immediate bar to observation. It II M NATURE '^TUDY x*\ follows, as a matter of course, that you are likely to see and hear a g^reat deal more if aloiif, than if in company with others. In the second place, in order that you may not attract tlie attention of the animal which you wish to ob- ser\e, the utmost caution is required in movinj^ from place to place. Indeed, it is very much better that the observer, haviiij^ selected a favorable point of view, should remain perfectly motionless. Nothing- attracts the eye oi' a wild animal so readily as a moving object, and his curiosity is, on the other h; id, almost invariably aroused by the sight of an imfamiliar, motionless form. As a g"eneral thing the nature student will obtain better results by confining- his observations in the main to some particular portion of some woods with which he is familiar. He will be surprised to find, in the course of a short time, how many burrows and runways there are among the stumps, fences, and roots of trees, which at first escaped his observa- tion entirely. It is an easy matter to ascertain whether a par- ticular ground hole is occupied or not, by covering the mouth of it lightly with grass or weeds, and watching to see whether, in the course of the few days following, it has been disturbed. Experiments may also be made by placing dif- ferent varieties of food — corn, nuts, apples, cabbage, meat, el"c., in various parts of the woods or field' , to determine the presence or absence of certain animrds. But, besides what can be learned froni direct observation, there is a g-reat deal that can be g^athered from circumstan- tial evidence. The shell of a walnut that has been filed by a red squirrel, the little tiunch of dried grass that has been gathered by a field-mouse, the ridge of soft earth that has been thrown up by a mole, or the mound built bv the m -sk- rat in the stream for his winter dwelling-,' are, each and all, evidence of the kind ol life that the various wild animals METHOD OF STUDY 35 lead. It is, however, in winter time that the most informa- ilon can be ^^.-lined indirectly regardinj)^ their various ways of livini,»-. The snow is a great revealer of secrets, and the marks on its surface are indisputable evidence of the habits and actions of the wild animals. We are able to learn from it the nature and duration of the winter sleep of the chipmunk, the ^kunk, the raccoon and tlie \"o<-,Jchuck ; while the squirrel, the rabbit, and field-mouse, on the other hand, whether at play or in search of food, leave, with every mark they make in the snow, at least a temporary record of their round of daily life. A whole tr;ii,'-edy, for example, was written in that foot of crushed and beaten snow which I came across, one January mornint: -i fow winters atro. Only a foot of crushed and beaten snow, but the scene of a death strug-gle and death ai,-ony nevertheless, in all respects proved and confirmed by indisputable evidence. A few feet away I noticed the marks of a 'preliminary strui,'-gle, and the indentation of wing- feathers in the snow. But, apart from these confirmatory sis^ns, I knew that the attackins,'- party belonged to the feathered tribe, for I found, leading up to the final blood- ."-iained ci-cle in the snow, on'y a single track,— that of a rabbit. I noticed particularly the last three leaps ; the very distance was eloquent of despair. Which party was victor- ious ? There was not a feather or a hair,— only some few, faint tinges of blood, and the snow packed hard. But the rabbit-tracks went no further ! From what has been said it wil. be evident that in our public schools very little object-teaching concerning the Mammals is possible ; for, aside from the squirrel, woodchuck, rabbit and field-mouse, the children in most districts are un- tamiliar with the appearance of the wild animals. By means of pictures and stories, however, much Cc-n be 36 NATURE STUDY done to iiilcrost t' • pupi's, and the teaclier can at least impress upon them the riocessity of quiet and cautious movement and absolute • ''once in observation, and can encourai^-e them to observe and interpret for themselves the circumstantial evideixe which may come in their way. The use of firearms by boys should be discouray^ed, and the spirit which leads children, boys especially, to destroy wild life whenever they see it, slunild be repressed in every possible way. 1 he interest of observation should be excited to such an extent that it will supplant the instinct of destruction. A detailed study of any one of the Mammals would occupy much more space than we have at our disposal in a manual such as this. The following- outline of the characteristics of tlie black squirrel, althouj^h it does not by any means give a complete account of the habits of the species, may, however, serve the same purpose as an extended study, in as far as it indic;ites the width of the field to be covered in each case, and the necessity for accuracy and detail in observation. "-^m ^£^ ^ 1 *<^^Bi Jt^^ * '"""vl v; ..;•'';-''' '^ ' ■ r . < * • .':.'•- ■\r^ .y . . 1' ■^''m. T""**-^- r^**. .-^^ 4 >- . 1 , •- ^^^ ttJ!r^_»-» — - - • -— ^ ■" ^tfer H ■ ■ ^-.■< I 1 - ^ ^ T ^ ,<-.:l ■ y v^"' ^:'^:.\i^;♦•^: f .^ -":.': >,;! ''':fL'^ v.. "ir ■ - -■ *■- ■ t"' ■ ' ^ ■ '",-~ ■* ■v' v^- -.■..■-■' v" ' Summer Shelter. \. STUDY OF THK BLACK (OR GRAY) sgriRRl.L Ihere ,s a shady corner of a certain bi^ beech ^.ooa to WHch I will lead you, where, if you will sit motionless on a lalien loj,^ a,>d keep very quiet, you may watch the black squirrels m their native haunts. I„ this wood nearly all the squirrels are black, but the color o( their coat is not an im- portant matter alter all, as the pair of ^^ray squirrels across tlK' ravme yonder are identical in all respects with the black -cept that they are dressed in the ^May suit which thJ squirrels farther south ^^enerally wear instead of the north- cTii black. 1-or th 1,,,, ,-,.^. „^.^^,^^^^ ^^^ ^^^j^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ absolute s.lence m the wood. But I know that in the tall ..ckory yonder, Bush, the black squirrel, whom we inter- rupted ,n lus even.nj, meal, is lyin^^ in hidinj,. If you knew run^'r .?"'' '" "'"■' '" *"■■" >""■■ fi^'>^-K^l— s, and if the u„k ot the tree were not in your way, you would see him crouched close ,n the crotch, with his body pressed ti.^ht a^ams the trunk. And if you went around the tree, ^^u -.Id fu,d th U he would shift around the trunk also, to keep th.^ tree or the branch, if possible, between yourself and l>ush trusts to his ears more than anything else, and his > cs are very keen tor moving things ; so you must not make '^^ -sI.K Uest sound, or even move your head to one side, if .-n> w.sh to .see him. H..k ! there he is now ! He is sure you have ^one at last, and here he comes out to the end of s crooked unb u. search of another nut. When he finds 1- . uus back at once, for safety's .sake, to the trunk of t,ec to eat ,t, and if you watch him closelv throu^.h the ''^Icl-glasses you will see what an interesting pro^ss it 3S NATURE STUDY is. He first smells it all over to see if it is good, then turns it rij,rht side up and files a little hole in the end. Now he has jerked it neatly in two with his teeth, a-id is enjoying the meat. His teeth are very strong and he breaks the shell into little bits as he goes along, and flicks them out to one side with his tongue. Now he is smelling the br:nuh of the tree to see if any little morsel has dropped, and the next mement he comes shambling spirally down the trunk to investigate the ground at the bottom. Do you think that he will notice the yellow apple that I left lying among the roots for him when we came into the wood ? He cannot distinguish colors very well ; but bright things catch Tl,,. Rh.,!. v;,, 1 STUDY OF THE BLACK COR GRAY) SQUIRREL 39 his eye, and he is sure to notice it it" he ^'oes to that side. Now he sees it, but he is not sure of what it is. You can always tell when he is excited or alarmed, by the way he waves his big bushy tail ; it is a regular flag of distress. If you watch what he does with the apple you will learn a valu- able lesson ahonf the wn- to prf^"-"-'^ •.•->,,.- r, ,,i *-,_ .,,. ,. ... will notice, he never cats the paring or skin, but throws it out to one side too. He appears to be pretty well satisfied now ; but what can he be going to do with that nut, unless he intends to eat it? Watch him ! There he goes up close to the roots of the tree, and see ! He has dug out a little hole in the ground with his paws and has buried the nut in It; and there again, afoot or two away, he is burying another. This is the way he puts by his winter supply, and when the cold winter comes and the snow lies deep, he will come back and, one by one, dig the nuts up,— though how he remembers exactly the places where they were hidden, is a mystery to every one who knows the ways of the squirrels. Sometimes when he is desperately hungry he tries to steal from the stores of the red squirrel, but this invariably gets him into trouble, for the red squirrel is a first-class fighter in spite of his size, and Bush is gener- ally very glad to make a shield out of hi- big tail-brush, and considers himself fortunate if he is able to reach home in safety. The nut-hiding is rather dirty work, and Bush soon con- eludes that it is time to stop for the night ; for all squirrels, except the flying squirrel, must be safe in bed at dark. So he licks off his paws first to make them clean, and then gives his face and whiskers a good brushing. See there ! Did you ever see anything quite so comical in the squirrel world? What is he doing but using his big bushy tail for a table- napkin and face-brush ! Now he is quite clean and tidy, and makes a ■ery pretty picture indeed, .t; h.- ■^-.f-^ t\-.^=-^ -..rii. 40 NATURE STUDY his paws across his breast, listeniiifj to see if all is well in the high woods before he starts for home, Now he is off at last, and even with your eyes closed you can follow him on his course by the sound of the crashing houghs as he leaps from tree to tree. The big tail, indispens- able in so many ways, was never of more real service than it is now, for it is the rudder which steers him as he takes the dizzy leap, and the parachute which keeps him from fall- ing to the ground below. How does he know which branch to take to lead him to the next tree ? That is a mystery to some people, but to Bush it is quite clear ; for if he has gone by a certain road once, he remembers it perfectly ever afterwards, and he always goes by exactly the same tree- path when he has occasion to ^o that way again. Come, and I will show you his hole in the beech tree. There it is yonder, high up in the hollow trunk. He doesn't live there always thoug^h, for when house-cleaning is neces- sary he simply moves to another hole to save unnecessary trouble. Next week he will very likely commence his twig house in the branches ; for when the leaves fall off and the branches are bare, he is quite unprotected, and to provide against danger he builds a big, rough bundle of dry leaves and twigs, and takes shelter in the middle of it when it is impossible for him to reach his ho'e in the beech tree in safety. A black squirrel, like all other animals, has enemies of his own, silent and stealthy all of them, from the hawk, or the weasel, or the snake, to the gun of the unseen hunter crouching in the undergrowth below ; and a quick eye, fleet foot, and a shelter near at hand, are the price of life. I wish you could come back with me for an hour or two next spring. Bush's old coat gets pretty shabby in the winter and begins to show white patches ; but early in the spring he gets a fine, new, glossy suit and looks very pretty .1&'.- .,■1^'; STUDY OF THE BLACK COR GRAY J SQUIRREL 41 indeed. He needs some consolation of this kind, to bo sure, for in these early spring days he is not treated very kindly at home. In March, when his first family of five little black kittens is born, Bush is turned out of doors by his squirrel- wife, who is not very certain of Bush's good intentions towards the newcomers. But, after all, he doesn't care a great deal, for spring has come ; the tanagers and the grosbeaks are singing once more in the beech woods ; morning and evening he feasts on the maple " keys" and dandelions in the wood, and all day long he basks in the delicious sunshine, dreaming of the golden days to come, when the mushrooms will be white and tender, and the corn will be ripe in the autumn cornfields. ^=^^, 42 NATURE STUDY , ^ - • / NtST W HOW.etLmn.WTXl STWW-t, 'tfsTOf B«?**-(l«»SHtR.UN(««»RU»«l WEST of LfAiT rjfC«rClltRJM A **^- E«Mt.M A HAWTHOWI tUSH, t WHnrt.a*fg MPT uMt YtMiy. E«t»,i.i«»(T»i.ge. EsM,DK>> CRUN. ^ ^£ST OF TANACtR.IN ABOQt TREE; Cee&,eRtENISH 8UJl,SWni|l«DWN. et ta.tR ttWISH yrHITC, »MrrW WtTH BROWN. NUTCr lNnGO&inO.INALQMSHRU&, CMS.Vtcrr PALI BUC. •JtiTO^SoUnmiWQW^NTMt tROUtilJ, E66S. 6RAYISH WHTTE, SPOTTED WITH W»SM CIRINini. NEarr of v/ood Thrush. Nesr of Spotth SanDPIPCR^ IN A SAPUNS, E&tS,BUJC. IN THE SAHI).e«*3,a«»'MU)l». BLOTCHED WITH MOWnT THE STUDY OF BIRDS " The busy nuthatch climbs his tree Around the j^reat bole spirally, Peeping into wrinkles gray, Under ruffled lichens gay, Lazily piping one sharp note From his silver-mailed throat ; And down the wind the catbird's song A slender medley trails along. Here a grackle chirping low ; There a crested vireo ; Every tongue of Nature sings, The air is palpitant with wings ! " — Maurice Thompmn. I. THE FIELD OF STUDY Birds stand next to mammals in the order of intellig'ence. They differ from them, of course, in many respects ; but chiefly in their adaptation to the air, in their life of greater activity, in the absence of the power of keen scent, and in their rehition to their young. Though they do not stand quite so high as the mammals in power of intelligence, they pos- sess, on the other hand, a greater capacity for enjoyment ; and their association with light, cheerfulness, and beauty, renders the study of them in l!ie highest degree interesting and attractive. i ** NATVht: STUDY TI.e bird, of North America are divided into seventeen d.fferent orders, comprising, sixty-seven families, in al Of hese we have in Ontario, which may be considered a epr^ entat.ve Province, fourteen orders, comprising forty-d' t pTctr' ^;r^^f^^^^^^^ three hundred" and 'fif.'t;: spec.es. For the sake of convenience, these ^' fferent orde • may be roughly divided into three f^roups :_ I. Game, Shore, and Water Birds 11. Birds of Prey, in. Land Birds. .J^V ^T^ ^'^"^ '^^^"'Prises ten different orders, which are ^ub d.v.ded mto twenty-seven families. We have in th! Domm.on more than three hundred species belon.^ing to t h i Kroup^ For the sake of convenience they may^e'o ^y chissifiod as follows :— ^ y ^ ruui,niy '■ "'7„^; f^^-'-'"^-^^ Grebes. Loons. Auks. Murres, and Puffins. ' '' "'"oTr ';"''■''"*•' ■"'"■•"'• J""^'"' «''"^. Terns, G.m„ets, Cor,„or.,„,s, Pelicans, Ducks, Geese, „nd •Swans. W..de.s-Ind„din,- Herons, Storks, Ibises, Bitterns, <-ranes. Rails, etc. 4. Shore Birds-Including Phalaropes. Avocets. Stilts Smpes. Sandpipers. Plovers. Surf Birds. Turnstones.' 5. GalKnaceous Birds-Including Grouse. Partridge. Pheas- ants, lurkeys. et>_. 6. Pigeons-Including Pigeons and Doves. The second group, Birds of Prey, includes two families :_ (i) Hawks. Eagles, etc. (2) Owls. 3 THE FIELD OF STUDY The third group includes, in all, nearly two hu-nlred species, and comprises four orders, which are subdivided into families, as follows : — I. Order, Coccyges : — ( 1 ) Cuckoos. (2) Kiiigfi-^hers. II. Order, Pici : — ( 1 ) Woodpeckers. III. Order, Macrochires : — (i) Goatsuckers. (2) Swifts. (3) Humming Birds. IV. Order, Pas.seres, Perching Birds :— (i) Flycatchers. (,o) Vireos. (2) Larks. (,,) Warblers. (3) Crows and Jays. (,2) Wrens and Thrashers. (4) Blackbirds, Orioles, etc. (13) Creepers. (5) Sparrows, Finches, etc. (14) Nuthatches. (6) Tanagers. ^ (,5) Wagtails. (7) Swallows. (,6) Kinglets and Gnat- (8) Waxwings. catchers. (9) Shrikes. (,7) Thrushes and Bluebirds. It will be evident from a glance at this array of families, that even the mere recognition of the birds will be no easy task to the beginner in Nature-study. But recognition is. after all only the first step in making their acquaintance. The bird- lover must make himself familiar with their language, their songs and calls, their haunts, their habitats, their nesting habits, the.r eggs, their food, their relation to agriculture, their ' ■■■^' "'="■ -"rs-ouauiiigs, iiieir changes in form and ja NATURE STUDY phimitj^t.', tlu'ir social liabit' , their niij^ratioiis and the laws that jjovorn them, and the variety of instincts wliich have resulted in particular actiotis and h.ibits. The aim of the bird-student must be three-fold, lo increase his own knowledj,'e of birds, thereby introducinj,'- into his life an additional element ot pleasure, to enlist the interest and sympathy ot others so as to secure like results, and to do all in his power to secure the protection o( the birds where a study of their food and habits proves them to be beneficial and desirable. «, I " Forth into the forest str.iijjhtw.iv All alono w;ilk»'d Hi.iwatha Proiuily, with his bow jind arrows ; Ami the l)irds sanjj round him, oor liim, ' Do not shixit us, Hiawatha ! ' Sang- the Robin, the Opechee, Sang the Bhiebird, the Owaissa, ' Do not .shoot us, Hiawatha ! ' Up the oak tree, close beside him, Sprang- the Squirrel, Adjidaumo, In and out among the branches. Coughed and chattered from the oak tree, Laughed, and said between his laughing, ' Do not shoi't me, Hiawath.- ! ' And the Rabbit from his pa.hway Leaj-H^d aside, and at a distance Sat erect upon his haunches. Half in fear and half in frolic, Saying to the little hunter. * Do not shoot me, Hiawatha ! ' " |i$ i II. RECOGNITION OF THK BIRDS In the recognition of birds, especially in the distinction between members of the same family, the bird-student r.uist have recourse to a field color-key, or to the detailed techni- cal descriptions found in the standard books on birds. But some assistance may be given to the beginner by directing his attention to some of the most marked lines of distinction between the different families a .d species. Besides being classified according to relationship, birds may be grouped according to period of residence, migration, haunts, size, etc. The lists given in the following para- graphs contain only the names of the common land birds in each group, and are intended simply a^ a guide to the begin- ner. The conditions ot bird-life vary, of course, for different localities, and the student must, in almost all cases, compile statistics for his own district, from direct observation. 1. Period of Residence. The two following groups of birds should be noted : — I. Winter Birds : — (i) Snowflake. Tree Sparrow. Golden-crowned Red-bellied Woodpecker, Kinglet. (2) J unco. Chickadee. (3) Cedar Wax wing. Downy Woodpecker. Blue Jay. Hairy Horned Lark. English Sparrow. Nuthatch. Screech Ow". a 48 NATURE STUDY (4) Bohe'nian Wax- wing'. Pine rirosbeak. Crossbill. Redpoll. Lapland Lv)ni^spur. Pine Siskin. 2. Mi^'rants, found only In Spring and Fall :— Ruby-crowned Kinglet. Rusty Blackbird Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. White-crowned Sparrow Red-breasted Nuthatch. White-throated Sparrow. Hermit Thrush. Most of the Warblers. II. Return in Spring. The following biids may be easily distinguished from the other species, as they return in March : — Horned Lark. Phcebe. Bronzed Crackle. Cowbird. Red-winged Blackbird. Kingfisher. Meadowlark. Mourning Dove. Crow. Robin. Bluebird. Song Sparrow HI. Haunts. No hard and fast line can be drawn regarding the haunts of many of the birds, bat the following are characteristic groups : (i) The Woods: — Crow. Nuthatch. Grosbeak. Tanager. Wood Thrush. Hawk. Owl. Woodpecker. (2) The Thickets : — Catbird. Brown Thrasher. Wilson's Thrush. Oven ^>ird. I'ewee. Red-eyed Vireo. Towhee. Cuckoo. Field Sparrow. Indigo Bird. Redstart. I Sontf Sparrow. llorncJ Lark. APKII, EARLY SPRING MUSIC. l^:^ ^:,M RECOGNITION OF THE BIRDS 46 (3) The Field :— Bobolink. Horned Lark. (4) Orchard and Barn : — Meadowlark. Vesper Sparrow. Kingbird. Least Flycatcher. Phcebe. Bluebird. Butcher Bird. Barn Swallow. Chipping^ Sparrow. Wren. Cliff Swallow. Robin. (.S) City :- English Sparrow. Blue Jay. Oriole. Goldfinch. Mourning Dove. Bronzed Grackle. Nighthawk. Waxwing. Warbling Vireo. V'ellow Warbler. Chimney Swift. Purple Martin. (6) River Side :— Red-wingecl Blackbird. Bank Swallow. Kingfisher. Spotted Sandpiper. Killdeer. I\'. The following will be easily distinguished from omer birds by their smaller size : — Humming Bird. Indigo Bird. Nuthatch. Wren. Redstart. Chickadee. Vireo. Kinglets. Least Flycatcher. Yellow Warbler. Brown Creeper. V. Song. Certain birds are sure to attract at«^ention by the superior quality of their song, as for example : — Brown Thrasher. Catbird. Bobolink. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Wood Thrush. Wilson's Thrush, or Veery. <* NATURE STUDY VI. Nest. The location of tht nest affords some clue to the identity of the bird. The following should he noted :— 1. In Holes, in Trees or Stubs :— Bluebird. Woodpecker. Owl. Chickadee. Nuthatch. Crested Flycatcher. ^^'■'^"- Sparrow Hawk. Tree Swallow. 2. On the Ground, or near it : Horned Lark. Bobolink. Red-winjjed Blackbird Meadowlark. Brown Thrasher. Indigo Bird. Vesper Sparrow. Towhee. Song Sparrow. Wilson's Thrush. Oven Bird. Sandpiper. In addition to the above rough classification, the following comments on the individual families may be of assistance to the beginner. I. QAME, SHORE, AND WATER BIRDS !• Diving Birds: — (rt) The Grebes are especially interesting on account of their nesting habits. The nests arc found among the rushes and reeds at the edges of ponds and rivers. The Grebe incubates the eggs only at night, and dur- ing the day they are concealed by a covering of rushes and weeds. The Grebes are, in general, rare in Eastern Canada, but abundant in the West. The Pie-billed Grebe, also known as Dabchick, and Hell- du\ r, is, perhaps, the most widely distributed of the five species found in Canada. {d) For a study of The Loon, see Long's Wilderness Ways, or Thoreau's IValden. 2. Swimmers: — {a) Gulls. In Canada, we have over twenty species of RECOGNITIOS OF THE BIRDS 51 gulls. The most widely distributed species is the American Herring Gull, which breeds throughout the whole Dominion. Hundreds of these gulls are always seen following in the wake of lake vessels or hovering about the wharves in search cf the offal upon which they feed. They have been called the scavengers of the lakes, and are entitled to every protection. (b) Ducks. Over thirty-five species of ducks are found in Canada. Of these the most common are, the Merganser, the Ruddy Duck, the Old Squaw, the Lesser Scaup Duck, the Canvas-back, the Red- head, the Wood Duck, the Pintail, the Spoonbill, the Teal, the Baldpate, the Mallard, and the Black Duck. An interesting study of the Merganser is to be found in Long's IVays of Wood Folk. The Old Squaw is a sea duck, common on the Atlantic coast, and in the St. Lawrence. The Black Duck is the common wild duck of the Maritime Provinces. See Ways of Wood Folk for a study of this species also. The Canvas-back and the Red-head are so closely related that it is almost impossible to distinguish the one from the other. With the exception of the Old Squaw and the Black Duck, all these species are very abundant in Western Canada. The Mallard, though not common in the Maritime Provinces, is the most abundant duck in the North- West Territories and British Columbia. 3. Waders. The most widely distributed of the Waders are the American Bittern, the Great Blue Heron, the Virginia Rail, and the Sora Rail. These different species are found bleeding in all of the provinces, but are most abundant in Western Canada. 4- Shore Birds. We have about sixty species oi Shore Bird;; in Canada. Perhaps the best known of all are the 62 NATURE STUDY 1:1 American Woodcock, the Wilson's Snipe, the Spotted Sand- piper, and the Killdeer Plover. The Woodcock is found only in Eastern Canada, and the Killdeer is abundant only from Ontario westward. Six or seven other species of Shore Birds are very common in Western Canada, but these species are very rare in the Eastern Provinces,— Wilson's Phalarope, the American Avocet, the Longbilled Dowitcher, Baird's Sandpiper, the Western Willet, etc. 5- Gallinaceous Birdi. The Ruffed Grouse, or " Part- ridg-e," is an abund;'nt resident in Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime Provinces. For a detailed study of the Parfidge see the story of " Redruff" in Wild Animals I H„ve Kno7,>n. In Western Canada the place of the Partridge is taken by two different species, the Pinnated Grouse and the Sha-p- tailed Grouse, or " Prairie Chicken." The Pinnated Grouse sometimes known as the " Prairie Hen," is found only along a part of the southern boundary of the Dominion. Of the Sharp-tailed Grouse there are two varieties, the " Prairie Chicken •• the partridge of the plains, and the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, which frequents the copses and thickets. The "Bob White" Quail is found only in Southern Ontario. 6. Pf8:eon8. The Mourning Dove is widely distributed, but is nowhere common, except, perhaps, in south-western Ontario. The Passenger Pigeon, formerly abundant, is rapidly becoming extinct. II. BIRDS OF PREY I- Hawks. Note especially the three Hawk groups: {a) Th > Sparrow Hawk. {b) The Sharp-shinned Hawk. Cooper's Hawk, (c) The Red-shouldered Hawk. The Red-tailed Hawk. "^-•c r -r- r -.^-T"- - ^t^'^^^.|.; RECOGNITION OF THE BIRDS M The Sparrow Hawk is small, not much larger than the Blue- Jay, and the markings of the male and female are quite dif- ferent. The two hawks in {b), and the two in (c) resemble each other closely, 'fhe Red-shouldered Hawk is the largest of the family, and may be readily distinguished by its slow flight and its loud, harsh call, kee-you, kee-you. 2. Owls. The commonest species of Owl in Canada is the Screech Owl. In the various stuffed specimens that you see you will probably notice considerable variation in color, for the Screech Owl appears at different times in coats of different colors, ranging from blackish-grey to rusty-red. These various phases of color do not appear to be governed by age, sex, locality or season, and no satisfactory reason for them has yet been given. Besides the familiar "screech" of the owl, you may, perhaps, have the privilege, some time, of listening to his liquid, quavering song as it is borne across the fields from the woods, in the growing twilight of an early spring day. III. LAND BIRDS I. Cuckoos. Note the differences in the eyes, and in the bills of the two American Cuckoos. During June and July the loud, harsh call of the Cuckoo, ku, ku, kit, ku, kow-kow-kow, is one of the familiar sounds of the riverside thickets. Besides this call, however, he has a regular "cuckoo" song. Watch his contortions while he is singing ; you will be well repaid. The Cuckoo does not nest until late in June. The nest is a very flimsy structure and is generally placed in a thorn bush" in the neighborhood of a stream. When you find the nest, alter due observation decide the following points for your- self. Is there any regularity in the times at which the eggs are laid ? Is the Cuckoo ever guilty of nest desertion ? What is peculiar m the appearance of the young Cuckoos ? Among the farmers the Cuckoo goes by the name of " rain- 54 NATURE STUDY bird," from the popular belief that his call denotes rain. Is there any truth in the superstition ? 2. Kingfrthers. The King-fishers lay their eggs at the end of a tunnel dug six or eight feet into the bank of a lake or stream. Suggest a reason for this choice of a nesting place. Explain the name Kingfisher as applied to this bird. 3- Woodpcckeri. We have five common species oi Woodpecker in Canada, the Downy, Hairy, Flicker, Red- headed, and Red-beliied. The Downy and the Hairy differ principally in size, the Downy being the smaller. Which do you find the more sociable of the two ? Notice the scarlet crown-patch on the males. The Flicker, so called from its song, is also known as the Golden-winged Woodpecker, the Highhole, and the Vellow-hammer. Are its habits undergoing a change ? Read Chapter XI. in Long's Ways of Wood Folk. The Red-bellied Woodpecker, a winter bird, is the most beautiful of all the woodpeckers. It is found principally in southern Ontario. 4- Goatsuckers. This family includes the Nighthawk, and the Whip-poor-will. The name, Goatsucker, is a sur- vival of an ignorant belief. Can you give an explanation of the sound maHe by the Nighthawk? What are the points of distinction between the Nighthawk and the Whip- poor-will? 5- Swifts. The Chimney SwVt is more active at night than m the day. It may be distinguished from the swallows, when on the wing, by its short blunt tail, and by the fact that it never perches. From the fact that it makes its nest in chimneys what would you suppose to have been its nest- ing place before the advent of the white m;;n? 6. Humming Birds. What causes the humming sound? What purp.;se does the long slender bill serve ? Note the OfSft^^W. .^ T' _^', /vVf' V-T^-Iink is a favorite with th^e poets. The following,' >s the last stanza of The O' Lincoln Family by Wilson Flaf-K':— ■ Kvery on.-s a funny ft-How ; every ones a little mellow ; l--lUnv. lolUnv, follow, follow, o'er the hill and in the hollow ! M.riiiy, merrily, there they hie ; now they rise ami now thev tlv ; 1 lioy < ross and fi.rn. and in and out, and down in the middle.' and wheel alH>ut — With a phew, shew, Wadolincoln ! listen to me, Botx.lineoln ! Mai.,)ys the- wcH,inK that's s,x..edily doin^. thafs s,H-edilv doin^. I hat s merry and over with the blotim of the clover ! lioholin. oin. Wadolincoln. WinterseeL.e, follow, follow me! ■ The Cowbird can be recognized immediately by his brown head, and wherever found should be destroyed The female lacks the brown of the head but is distinguished by a dirty, grayish-black coat. The Cowbird is the parasite of American birds, corresponding in habits to the European C uckoo. It builds no nest, but lays its eggs in the nests of smaller birds. The ^^^ of the Cow- biru hatches out sooner than the others and the big Cowbird fledgling soon crowds the weaker birds out of the nest. Besides this, to make sure of the success of the imposition, the old Cowhird often destroys the other eggs in the nest by pricking them with her bill. Sometimes, however, the quick-witted owner of the nest dis- covers the deception and covers the objectionable egg over RIuebird'R Nest with three Cowbird* Eg^g*. NATURE STUDY by building a new bc'tom in the nest. Some idea of the damage done by the Cowbird may be formed if we remember that there is scarcely a nest of the smaller song- birds which does not suffer, to some extent at least, from it. In connection with the Cowbird a number of questions will at once suggest themselves to the bird student. Does the Cowbird perform any service to the bird world in return for its imposition i* Under what conditions are the eggs laid? Etc. The Red-wingod Blackbird builds its nest among the reeds or rushes of the marsh. Why has it selected this location ? Try to count the number of different call-notes which it makes use of in the nesting season, and interpret them. The charm of its spring song will be doubled if you hear it close at hand. The Meadowlark has been wrongly named a lark. It belongs in reality to the Blackbird family. Try to distin- guish its three different notes. D^ you consider its song musical ? What is , eculiar about its flight ? What means has it taken to protect its nest ? Vou will find the latter in a tussock of last year's grass in the pasture field. The Orchard Oriole and the Baltimore Oriole can never be confused. The latter is orange and black— the colors of Lord Baltimore, whence its name; the Orchard Oriole is deep brown or chestnut, instead of orange. Besides, the latter is rare in Canada, while the Baltimore Oriole is abundant. Watch the Oriole wea^ing its nest. Where does it get the material ? If a Yellow W urbler or a Least Flycatcher happens to he out in search of string at the same time, you may see some interesting devolopments if you watch the nest closely. What are the advantages of the location of the nest? The following lines from Edgar 1- awceti contain a poetic fancy regarding the brilliancy of the Oriole s plumage : Hallimo.e Oriole. Ko,t-l.reasled Clu-slieaU jL'NE-crrY AND COLNIKY. RECOGNITION OF THE BIRDS 80 "How falls it, Oriole, thou hast como to fly In tropic splendor through our northern sky? At some glad moment was it Nature's choic« To dower a scrap of sunset with a voice ? Or did some orange tulip, flaked with black, In some forgotten garden, ages ba>.k, Yearning towards heaven until its wish was heard, Desire unspeakably to be a bird ? " The Rusty Blackbird is a migrant, seen only in spring and fall. The Bronzed Crackle is common in the city as well as ill the country, and builds generally in the top of tall spruce trees. Observe the movement of his tail when he sings ! II- Sparrows^ Finches^ etc Over thirty members of this family are found in Canada. The list includes most of our 'vinter visitors, a number of migrants, and some rare sum- mer residents. The common summer residents are the Rose- breasted Grosbeak, Indigo Bunting, Towhee, Goldfinch, and the House, Field, Chipping, Vesper, and Song Sparrows. The Rose-breasted Grosbeak is generally found in com- pany with his cousins, the Tanagers, in the moist beech woods. His song in the breeding season is a regular orches- tral grand march. Male and female take turns in brooding "f you molest them they will almost invariably destroy the i^ggs and desert the nest after you have gone. The Indigo Bird is generally four u in a wild raspberry patch. Notice the difference between male and female in plumage. The Towhee resembles the Robin very much in appearance. His favorite haunts are the thickets and underbrush. The Indigo Bird and the Towhee are found only in southern t^'niario. h- Tioldfinch, or Wild Canary, does not nest until July ; the nest is composed almost entirely of thistle down. What is peculiar about its flight ? 00 NATURE STUDY The Chipping- Sparrow may be recognized by his " chip- pin^r" note and by his chestnut crown-patch. The nest is a neat, horsehair structure, found generally among the ever- greens. The Field Sparrow is found among the copses at the out- skirts of the woods. His song is a sweet little dittv, unmis- takable to those who have once heard it. It might be represented by a series of dashes as follows : — The Vesper Sparrow is a bird of the roadsides and fences As you walk along the road it has a fashion of running along the ground ahead of you. It may be distinguished by its white tail feathers. Its song is like that of the Song Sparrow, but is longer and more complicated. The Song Sparrow supplies the first sweet music of spring It IS "the iittle bird that sings two or three notes so demurely and then forgets itself." It is partial to low bushes and brush piles. It can always bf recognized by its alto ca-l-note, and by the brown spot in the centre of its breast. The Tree Sparrows and the Juncos, the latter of which are sometimes known as Snow-birds, are common in southern Canada trom October to March, and are generally found in company with one another. The 1 ree Sparrow resembles the Chipping Sparrow in having a chestnut crown-patch, and the Song Sparrow in having a blotch on the breast. In sprincr- time, the J unco is often found in the woods where the winter choppers have been at work. His slate-coiored coat, white underparts, and white tail feathers are sure marks of identi- ncation. 12. Tanagcw. The Scarlet Tanager, or Soldier Bird, is generally to be found in the moist beech woods in company with the Grosbeaks. His song resembles that of the Robin, but is hoarser and harsher. The call-n6te of the Tanager is a cheer- ^elK,w.|,illcdC-,uko<>. CcJar Waxwing. |LLV-.\ CIIARACILK CONTRAST. > -a RECOGNITION OF THE BIRDS 61 ful " Chip-chur , •' ' ' Chip-chur. " The nest is lined with cherry sfonis. The female is olive-f^reen in color and has none of the resplendent markings of her mate. Why this difference ? 13- Swallowi. This family includes the Purple Martin, and the Cliff-, Barn-, Bank-, anu Tree Swallows. The Martins, from their color and size, cannot be compared with the other swallows. They nest chiefly about the gables of stores and other city buildings, and are generally wel- corned wherever they take up their abode. The Barn Swallow may be known by its chestnut forehead and under parts, its deeply forked tail, and its habit of nesting insii/e of barns and out-buildings. The Cliff Swallow is dis- tinguished from the Barn Swallow by its white forehead, tail less deeply forked, whitish belly, and its habit of nesting on the outside of barns, under the eaves. The Tree Swallow nests in bird-boxes or in trees. Its under parts a-e pure white. The Bank Swallow nests at the end of a tunnel in a bank. Its coat lacks the lustre of the other species, and a c ay band runs across the breast. One of the most notice- able characteristics of the Swallows is their sociability. 14- "Waxwings. The Cedar Waxwing, or " Cherry Bird," inspiteof hisgen- toel appearance, is very hardy, and remains with us during the cold- est winters. His cliicf food in win- ter consists of the >id mountain- i-'h berries. The W.ixwings re- main in flocks V lounge Waxwingra. k,x <■ NATURE STUDY until late In the spring'. They pair off about the middle of May and durinj,r the breeding season are very secretive. They build their nests chiefly in the tops of the smaller shade trees in the city. The Waxwing has two prominent characteristics, extreme inquisitiveness, and anxiety regard- ing his personal appearance. He is the coxcomb of the feathered world. His note is a thin wheezy whistle. IS- Shrikes. There are two species of the Shrike or Butcher Bird in Canada, the Northern and the Loggerhead. The Northern is a winter visitor, but the Loggerhead arrives early in April and immediately proceeds to build its nest, a rough bundle of twigs, in si me old isolated orchard. It is not common, howevor, in Southern Canr Ja. The Shrike preys upon mice, beetles, etc., and, when hard pressed, will kill sma'Ier birds. He generally impales his victim upon a thorn in order that he may be able to -end it with greater ease. i6. Vireos. Of the Vireos, or Weavers, we have in Can- ada two common species, the Warbling, and the Red-eyed. The Warbling Vireo is partial to the city and its liquid warbl- ing song is one of the pleasantest strains of spring music. The Red-eyed Vireo is not found in the city, and in the country it keeps well to the tops of le tall trees. Its song is somewhat like that of the Robin, and may be heard continu- ously even in the most sultry hours of June and July. Wilson Flagg has called the Red-eye, the "Preacher," and interprets Its notes thus, — " You see it — you know it — do you hear me? — do you believe it?" 17- Warblers. We have in Ontario a great many species of Warblers, most of them migrints. They pass their time principally in the tree-tops and are, on that account, difficult to observe. There are, however, at least three which are very common and easily observed, the Yellow Warbler, the Oven-Bird and the Redstart. The Yellow Warbler', or /- •^^ ■ .:«.' .r RECOGNITION OF THE BIRDS 63 Summer Yellow Bird, is very common botli in city and country ; it must not be confused with the Goldfinch. The Oven-bird, so called because it builds an oven-shaped nest with entrance at the side, is found only in the thick moist woods. Its song- is a loud crescendo twcher. teacher, teacher, teacher, teacher. it is sometimes known as the Golden-crowned Thrush. The Redstart is a dainty little bird with black and orange markings. It is found in thick damp woods where saplings are plentiful. '«• Wagftails. The American Pi{^^:t, the only member of tiiis family which we have in Canada, is strictly a migrant. 19- Wrens and Thrashers. The House Wren is too com- mon a bird to need any comment. Put up a bird box at the back of your house, making the entrance too small to admit a Sparrow, and sooner or later it is almost sure to have a cheerful little House Wren for a tenant. The Catbird, Brown Thrasher, and Mocking Bird are the big brothers of the Wren. The Catbird is common to both city and country. In spite of his sober slate-colored dress and his disagreeable cat-like cry he is one of our best singers and when he takes up his position upon the top of a tall evergreen on a June evening his performance is well worth listenmg to. He is very inquisitive and when anything un- usual is going on you are almost certain to find a bird with a slate-colored coat and black cap stealing through the under- brush to find out what is the matter. The Brown Thrasher is a bird of the thickets and is fond of brush piles. Kis song is generally delivered from an elevated perch ; it resembles the Catbird's song closely, but is marked by regular pauses. To Thoreau, planting corn, the Thrasher from the tree near by kept repeating, "Drop it — drop it— cover it up— cover it up— pull it up— pull it up." The Mocking Bird is not found in Canada. I -->-.v *-vi :\T.. c:r'z.^>f!^»:Jrri^''-*^yML^^' -^ NATURE STUDY Chickadee. WINTER COMPANIONS. Nuthatch. RECOGNITION OF THE blHDS 6S 20. Creepers. The Hri>wn Creoper is a bird of the tree trunk. It is rare in sunnner but coninion in the niig^ratiuii seasons. 2\. Nuthatches and Titmice. Tlie \V liiii-breasled Nut- hatih is one of our most common permanent residents. He fnids his food on the trunk and branches of the trees and his life is one long pilgrimajje up and down the bark. His iwXc is a nasal gnva, gnya, gnya, one of the commonest soimds of the woods. Notice the change in tone in early spring. The Black-capped Chickadee is a rare summer resident but is common in winter. He announces his presence by a cheer- ful twitter or a merry tsic-a-dee- (iee-dee, and is one of the pleas- antest companions in the wixjds. ' His nest is generally placed in a small stub and is usually lined with cow hair. v . 1 1. 1 " C'liii'k-fhiikacicodeo ! ^iilUl■y nolo Out i)f sound luart atid nicrry lliroat, As if it said, ' Good day, ffoovl sir ! Fine .-iftertKK>n, old iKissciijfcr ! Happy to niecl you in these plaix's, Where January brinys few faces.' " 22. King^lets and Gnatcatchers. The Golden-crowned, and the Ruby-crowned Kinglets are common migrants, and tlieir thin fee, tee. We, as they move in flocks from tree to tree is one o'i the characteristic sounds of the woods in October. Die Golden-crowned remains during the wintei, and in the migration season may be readily distinguished from the Ruby- crowned by the yellow border to the crimson crown- patch. 2i- Thrushrj and Bluebirds. The common resident Thrushes are the Robin, the Wood Thrush, the Wilson's I I7r-'.'^ . :^>^/v> 'Oj-- -St, 1 » :.^' -^^^^y^' MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART ,ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2] 1.0 I.I 1.25 |50 ""== |2.5 1^ IIIM |2.2 tm 2.0 1. ^ 1.8 1.6 ^ .APPLIED IIVI^GE Inc '65J Edsl Ma^n Street ^ocliester. Ne» York 14609 USA (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone (716) 288 - 5989 - Fo» 66 NATURE STUDY Thrush and the Bluebird. The Robin and the Bluebird are among the first birds to return in the spring, arriving in southern Ontario about March loth. The Bh.ebird may be readily distinguished from the Indigo Bird by its larger size, its red breast, and its nesting place in a hole of a tree or stub. "Hark ! 'tis the Bluebird's venturous strain Hiyh on the old fringed ehii at the g^ate— Sweet-voiced, valiant on the swinging bough, Alert, elate, Dodging the fitful spits of snow, New England's poet-laureate Telling us spring has come again. " I ^^ - The Wood Thrush is an attrac- ^^■I ^jB^ / t've singer : it is generally found in damp woods. Compare the nest and eggs with those of the Robin. Notice the peculiar habit of putting a piece of paper among the leaves in the foundation of the nest. The Wilson's Thrush, or Veery, is very common, but is very shy, and difficult to ob- Y u- ,Tu u serve. Its song is a peculiar » ouiig \\ »jc . v>rw Youwt Cuckoo. of THeitf^CTgnS' ■>"?■; : eST OF KILLDtEB.INASTRAI a BCRRY PM'CH,CG«*, '^'^^^'^^fe W«**«.E NeST op ROMBWASrCD Gros- »>M- SPOTTED WITH MWWli^gg US IV. MITHOn OF STl'DY ;1 I i «■' " 111 smmiUT whi-n Iho sh.iwos In- shone, And loaves bo larjje ami li'n^, It is full merry in fair forest To hear the fowles' sj. The VV'ot)d-wi'lo SHH)^, and woUle not cease, Sitting' upon the spray ; • So loud, it wakened Robin Mood In the fjreenwood vvherc he lay." The chief difficulty in the study of birds lies, not so much in the lack of opportunities for observation, as in the width of the field to be covered. The nature-student finds himself at the outset bewildered by the number and variety of forms of bird life, and he is oftentimes discouraj^^ed by his inability to distinguish between the different species. This difficulty is moreover increased by the fact that a bird which the student has learned to recognize in one form, sometimes, under different conditions, appears like a totally different species. In the Bobolink and the Scarlet Tanager, for example, there is a wide variety of plumage, and the colors vary according to the age, sex, or season of the year. Besides this, if we attempt to identify a bird by its call-note or its song, W3 find that each bird h.as its own vocabulary. The Warbling Vireo, for example, has three distinct notes, and the Marsh Blackbird has an extensive vocabulary of eight or nine different vocables ; so that, in the recognition of an individual species, unless the student is familiar with the wliole range of the bird's expression, he will often find himself puzzled by an unfamiliar call-note or song. In addition to these difficulties there is a third which is certain to be noticed by the beginner at least. Np^ure reveals to us only the forms for which we bring ears and eyes, and it requires a certain amount ci training to the 74 N ATI 'RE STUDY S^HJ sifjhts and sounds of MMtiiic to enable us to become con- scious of a great deal of the life tbat is about us. For example, in our towns and cities how few people there are, even amonj; those who ordinarily arc susceptible to the beau- ti*'ul in the wi>rld tlunit them, who are even aware of the presence of the Oriole in the over-arching' boughs, or are conscious of the beauty of his architecture and his song. And even amo ^g those who have become fairly familiar with the world of i.ature, how many are there who can remember the time when even the most common sights and sounds in nature would attract their attention? The call of the High- hole, the lisping of the Chickadee, the restless flitting of the Warblers in the tree-tops, the poise of the Hawk, and even the harsh scream of the Jay — were in themselves revelations of a world hitherto unseen and unknown. The nature student will find it impossible to overcome these difTiculties entirely ; but they may at least be minimized by attention to certain details in the method ot observation. It need scarcely be pointed out, in the first place, that the study of birds, as well as the study of mammals, demands the utmost patience on the part of the observer, and that cautious movement and absolute silence are necessary to successful observation. The so called nature-student who rambles through the woods, gun in hand, with two or three boon companions, is likely to learn but little of bird and animal life. The wisest course for the beginner to fol- low is to select a favorable point for observation and then to sit down quietly and wait for the birds to show themselves. '• You need only to sit still long enough in some attractive spot in the woods," says Thoreau, " that all its inhabitants may exhibit themselves to you by turns." The student, however, must be careful not to confine his observations too strictly to any one locality, for according as he takes up his position in the meadow, the orchard, the MFTIlOn OF STUD) 7S river-side, the thickets, or the iKrp still win>ds, he will find diirerent kinds of birds to observe. As a K^"tra' thii.^' the betjinner will find very few birds in the thick woods. Birds prefer the sunshine ; and a half-clearin^.^ overprcwn with thickets and interspersed with old stumps, raspberry vines, etc., is generally a favorite spot. In the study of birds much, of course, depends upon favor- able opportunities for observation. The student himself can, however, do much to facilitate the identification of the different species. He must, in the first place, make himself familiar with the most important facts concerning their haunts and their habits, and learn to make use of these facts in forming his conclusions. We will suppose, for example, that about the beginning of June he notices, in the ever- greens, a sparrow which he wishes to identify. From his knowledge of the winter birds, he knows that it cannot be a Tree Sparrow ; the White-crowned and the White-throated are also excluded as migrants ; the Vesper Sparrow is a ground bird and belongs to the fields ; the Field Sparrow is found only among the copses at the edge of the woods. The only two common Sparrows left are the Song Sparrow and the Chipping Sparrow, and these may be readily distin- guished by their markings, their songs, or their nests. The identification of a bird is, of course, only preliminary to the complete study of its habits. The student must make himself familiar with the dates of migration, the nesting habits, food, song, flight, variation in plumage, etc., of the different species; and the work of the advanced student will, of course, include the study of protective coloration, and adaptation to food and environment. It is important that the observations made regarding the habits of the birds should be accurate. The student should carry with him a note-Dook, and the various points which come under his notice should be written down without delay. The beginner should aim to I 76 NATURE STUDY " • 1 ') > h become closely acquainted with the habits of one or two species each year. A definite knowledge of one or two tvpical birds is much mor. valuable than a mass of general fact's regarding a great many. ^ The nesting season is of course, the best time to make observafons. The birds are then less shy and more easily selectmg thes.te for the nest, constructing it, brooding, and canng for the young, that we see the characteristic instincts and habits of the species. TAe utmost care, hoivever, must be taken not to disturb the fancied, and the other bird must not be annoyed by repeated vts:tstome nest. Above all, children must not be peLitted to interfere tn any way -with the nest and e ergs Unless extreme caution is observed the mother bird -ill desert the nest and the opportunity for further observations Will be lost. The difficulty of making minute observations of the appear- ance and act.ons of a bird may be overcome to a large extent by the use of a field-glass, or a good pair o^ opera glasses The student who wishes to make an accurate study of the var .us spec.es must, in addition, provide himself with some standard work on b.rds. Chapman's Birds of Eastern North America is one of the best published. Except for the destruction of objectionable species such as tie Cowb.rd. the use of the gun in connection with bird study ^hould be discouraged. There may be special cases where thi .denffication, ,n the migration season. But, in general the is not r'° "f" " ^'"" ^•'"P'y '^^f^^t^ his ow^n endt I ^T^Vi- -J 1 • 78 NATURE STUDY Kinphird. Butcher Bird. WHKRK MR;IIT IS RIGHT. L 1 V. STUDY OF THE KINGBIRD Length S% inches ; upper parts, jfraylsh-blaik ; tip of the tail and under parts, whiti- ; wings, wliitiihon theeJffes; hill and feet, black; a Hame-colored crown-patch; in young birds the crown-patch is wanting. It is not an uncommon si^;ht in May or June to see, outlir.ed against the sky, a crow pursued by two black specks, evident- ly two smaller birds, which are making furious attacks upon the retreating intruder, sometimes dashing at his head and eyes, sometimes crossing his path and hinderiTig his flight, and sometimes even alighting on his back and pecking furi- ously at the feathers of his neck and head. To the student who is familiar with nature, a scene such as this is no surprise. It is simply a couple of Kingbirds driving off an intruding crow who has dared to venture his unlucky head within the limits of their domain. For one season of the year at least, the Kingbird is a fightfer, and on account of his fighting propensities he is some- times known as the Tyrant Flycatcher. In the spring, hav- ing chosen his nesting L__ation, he vigilantly guards the approaches, and woe betide the unfortunate hawk or crow or jay who ventures too near and falls under the owner's displeasure ! But though the Kingbird is a fighter, the name Tyrant is somewhat of a libel. Except in defence of his own nesting ground he never wantonly attacks other birds, and in the summer season, after the nesting and brooding is over, he gives up his local attachments and is one of the most peace- able birds that we have. It is mainly to his obtrusiveness in the nesting season that he owes his name of Kingbird, and the title is rendered all i\ m m 80 NATURE STUDY ! the more appropriate from the fact that nature has set off the modest colors of his dress with a ruby crown. Amont; the farmers he goes by the name of "Bee-bird" on account of his reputed fondness for b.'es. Indeed I have heard it said that when the ruby feathers of the Kingbird's crown are erect, Miey resemble a flame-colored flower and are a means of attracting the bees. A prejudice such as this is hard to eradicate, and it is difficult to convince the average farmer that the Kingbird does not eat bees at all, or, at most, only helps iiimself to a few useless drones, who generally flv higher than the worker bees and sometimes come within range of the Kingbird's sharp eyes. The Kingbirds do not care for vegetable food, althoug'a, when hard pressed, they will sometimes help themselves to a few berries. Their food consists, for the most part, of beetles, dragon-flies, moths, and insects of all kinds, and I have, on more than one occasion, seen them carry off the Cicada or Dog-day Locust. One summer afternoon a few years ago, when passing along a country road, I stopped to observe a colony of Sand- Hornets or Digger-Wasps who had established themselves by the roadside. Each wasp had, of course, bored a tunnel of her own, seven or eight inches deep into the ground, and was busily engaged in stocking it with crickets and grass- hoppers for food for the growing larva. Sitting on the fence overlooking' the wasp colony were two Kingbirds who were watching very intently the operations of the wasps on the ground below. Every few minutes either one or the other of them would dart suddenly from the fence towards the ground, make a circle tjirough the air, and return to the fence again to resume the absorbing scrutiny of the wasp colony. What could it all mean? I stood watching for a long time until at last, during one o( the Kingbird's sudden excursions, I got a STUDY OF THE KINGBIRD 81 glimpse of something- green, and then it all dawned on me. The Kingbirds were playing the part of highwaymen and were making an easy living out of the green grasshoppers which were being laboriously gathered in by the hard-working hornets. It is not man alone that, when opportunity presents itself, is given to sharp practice. The Kingbirds do not arrive in Canada until about May 8th, when insect fire begins to be plentiful. They immediately choose out their nesting location, generally an isolated tree in the orchard or by the roadside; but it is not until the latter part of June that they commence to think Kingbird's Nest. seriously of housekeeping. The nest is generally placed near the end of a limb, some twenty feet from the ground. It is a round structure, compactly made, and is composed of weed- stalks, grass, and moss, with a lining of f.pe grass and root- 82 NATURE STUDY -■ ill ji' lets as well as a considerable quantity of sheep's woo!. The egj^s, three to five in number, are very pretty. In color they are creamy-white, spotted with chocolate-brown. About the middle of July the young are ready to leave the nest, and a noisy household they mak^j until they are able to shift for themselves. Duriui,-- the hot midsummer days when most of the other birds have taken refu^-e from the heat, the Kin{,rbird is one of the familiar features of the country roadside. In the pasture field he {renerally takes up his position on a swaying mullein- stalk, whence his sharp eye keeps a keen look-out upon the territory round about. He is fond of the water too, perhaps because of the hisects that it attracts; at all events he is not averse to taking a sudden plunge, but, on the other hand, • seems rather to enjoy the experience. In spite of his.obtrusiveness during the nesting season he is not of an unsociable disposition, and will allow you to approach him to within a short distance. It is a well known fact that the vocal organs of birds are constructed very differently from those of human beings) for the bird's song does not come from the throat, strictly speak- ing, but from the complicated air-chest, called the syrinx, at the bottom of the windpipe. According to the nature of the syrinx, our perching birds are divided into two sub-orders, the Oscines or true song-birds, and the Clamatores or song- less birds. To the latter class the Flycatchers belong : all of our other perching birds belong to the sub-order Oscines. In the true song-birds " the syrinx possesses four or five pairs of intrinsic muscles, while in the Clamatores it has less than four pairs of muscles and is not so highly developed." The kingbird is, accordingly, not a singer, but though his voice is not so finely modulated as that of the singing birds, he nevertheless puts it to constant use, and the loud iezee. STUDY OF THE KINGBIRD 89 kcsee, which, under the influence of excitement, sharpens into a scries of inarticulate shrieks, is familiar to almost every one who has occasion to pass along a country road. On a hot midsummer day it is not an uncommon thing to see two Kingbirds chasing e-'ch other round and round and rising higher and higher in the air, giving utterance all the while to a series of excited twitterings and cries. In September, as soon as insect life becomes less abundant, the Kingbird leaves for the south. It winters in Central and South America where no doubt it finds suitable insect food. Among the Water Lilies. The Feeding (iround of'tbe Kingbird. THE STUDY OF KKl'TILES n li The term Reptile is usually .-issocialod with snakes only, but it includes lizards, crocodiles and turtles, as well as snakes. In fact, the lizard is the typical reptile, while the snake is a degenerate type, as the absence of limbs shows. Lizards, however, are found but rarely in Canada, and only in the western part. The reptiles of Canada, then, are prac- tically limited to snakes and turtles, the crocodiles being entirely unrepresented. Reptiles are air-breathings animals provided with lungs. Their bodies are covered with scales, and this characteristic distinguishes them from the Salamanders, which belong to the class Amphibia. Unlikely as it may appear, they are near relatives of the birds. This relation of birds and reptiles has been established by the comparison of xisting species and by the study of species long since extinct, which show a gradu.il modification of the fore limbs into organs of flight. These extinct species, which have been found in large numbers in certain rock formations, must have been terrible creatures in size and appearance. They so dominated one period of the earth's past history that it is spoken of as the Reptilian age. Dana says that the species known as Dinosaur, probably stood over twenty feet high. Another, named Atlantosaur, had a body probably sixty feet long. Some of the Ichthyosaurs were thirty feet long and the Plesiosaurs about the same length. Certain flying reptiles had a spre.'.d of wing of ten feet. In fact, one can scarcely credit the accounts given until the actual remains are seen in our museums. I. OPHiniA, OR SNAKES Our common Snakes are the darter Snake, the Water Snake, the Grass Snake, the Milk Snake, the Little Brown Snake and the Black Snake. These are non-poisonous species. The poisonous species are the Rattlesnake and the Copperhead, both restricted to unfrequented rocky tracts. Th latter is rare north of 45 \. Lat. The poison is contained in a sac above the jaw, and is forced through a pair of hollow fangs, by pressure, when the snake bites on any object. The protrusible, forked tongue, usually regarded as the "sting," is quite harmless. All snakes have an extremely wide gape, because the lower jaw can be disjointed from the upper, to which it is united by an elastic ligament. They swallow their food (frogs, insects, small birds, fish) whole. The eye has a "glittering stare," due to the absence of lids. Most of the snakes lay eggs, but some venomous species and a few fresh water forms bring forth their young alive. The common Garter Snake ( Eutania sirtalis) occurs every- where in North America, except in California. It is olivaceous in color above, and greenish on the sides and underneath. A narrow, obscure stripe runs along the back, and rather broad but inconspicuous stripes adorn the sides. There are three series of small dark spots on each side — about seventy bet- ween the head and the vent. A description of common Snakes, as given by Jordan, is appended for reference :— \\ ATKR Snakf. Brownish, back and sides rach wiih a series of lar^e, square, dark bloU-hes, alternating with each other; vtry abundant ahc".; streams, feeding on fish and frogs. Length ^o to i;o inches. Grass Snaks. Head, elongate ;-«ieck, slender ; eyes, very large ; uniform deep green ; yello- sh below. Length ioinches. ;>IiLK S .AKK. Gr.-ivish, with three series of brown, rounded blotches bordered with black; Sijuare, black blotches beneath. Length 30 to 50 inches Brow.n Ssake, Head, elongated on a small neck ; eyes, large ; reddish gray, salmon- red beneath. Length 10 inches. Black Snakr, Lustrous pitch black; greenish below ; chin and throat white, Len^rth 50 to 00 inches. «6 II. CHELONIA, OR TURTLES r Turtle. The Mod Turtles arc more attractive than snakes for nature study. Two or three small turtles may easily be obtained for the aquarium, in which they may be carefully observed. Observe their movements in water and on land. Des- cribe each. How do tliey breallie in water? They have no gills. Feed tliem with slug's, small fish, meat, or vegetables. Have they any teeth? Old and young are alike in this respect. How do they protect themselves when attacked? Examine the turtle's scaly covering carefully. Head, tail, and limbs project from a more or less perfect "box," formed by the union of the scales into an upper shield (carapace), and a lower one (plastron). Count the number of scales in each, and note how they are colored. How many toes are on the CHELONIA, OR TURTLES S7 front feet ami on the liind feet? Compare with the froj,' or the snake. Avoid comini,' within reach of the jaws, as they are very stroiij,--, especially in the full-j^rown turtle. The turtles lay their ti^^s in saiuly banks near the water, excavating a hole with the hind feet and depositing therein twenty or thirty round, white, leathery-sheiled eggs, about as large as a pigeon's. If there is a sod surface, the turtle will cover the nest so well as to leave no trace of its work. I once saw a turtle preparing its nest, but on returning later could find no sign of an excavation, even alter careful searching. In the fall, however, the empty shells were found on the very spot where the tu tie had been seen. The sun will cause the eggs to hatch in about three months, and, after so long an incubation, the young are well developed. They immediately take to the water and although they grow very slowly, they attain to large propor- tions at an advanced age. The turtles found i Canada are: — the Snapping Turtle, the Pond Turtle, .md the Box Turtle, and, rarely, the Spotted and the Musk Turtles. A description of the first three, partly as given by Jordan, is appended. Snapping Turtlf, Shell high in front, low behind ; jaws strongly hooked ; tai: lonR, stronff, with a crest of horny tubercles ; plastron small, cross-shaped ; claws, five in front, four behind: color, duiky-brown, head with dark spots; length of adult, two feet or more ; common about water, everywhere. Pond Turtlk, Carapace ovate, broadest behind, the margin havinff a tendency to flare outward; plastron covering- the whole under surface ; toes, broadly wehbaj j color, grcenlsh-hl.ick, marginal plates marked with bright red; plastron, yellow, often blotched with brown : length, alx^ut a foot ; very common. Box TiKTi.K. General shape as in preceding, but provided with hinged plates, which enable it to completely close its shell, and thus actually form a bojt : color, variable, chiefly blackish and yellowish ; inhabits dry woods and is active only at night. TlIM STl'DV OF AMIMIIUIA Li-v<|<.ird ^ro(f• lil The Amphibia inchide the IVo^s, Toads, Tree Toads and Salamanders. The Mud Puppy may also be iiuludcd. They are all animals with slimy or, at least, scaleiess bodies, with four or five-toed limbs, and they pass throuj^h different stajjes in their lite history (metamorphosis) before reaching the adult form. It is said that Barnum's manager once came to him with the story of a wonderful animal, which at one time was a fish, at another a biped, then a swimming quadruped with a long tail, and again a tailless land animal with four legs. "Secure it at any price," cried Barnum, little suspecting that it was none other than our common toad. Perhaps the description is equally strange to many earr. ! Send the boys on an egg-hunting expedition, not to the barns or hed'**es. but tt^s soms .sliaUiiw nt^iid nbout the middle THE STUDY OF AM PHI HI A or Olid of April (ilcpoiuiiii},'- on the season). There they will find strings of small black e^'g's, or masses of brown ones. I'lic former are toads' e}.^j^s, the latt-r, fiD^s' ejfgs. Several do/en of these may be kept in a shallow pan in water. Brin^ water, includinfj a little mud and a few small stones, from the pond every day or two, to make up for the evaporation and to supply the lailpolcs with (ooii. I shall not spoil the pleasure of the earnest student by giv- ing' the life history of the toad or of the frog, as it may be observed in the course of six weeks or more, but sh.ill give a few precautionary directions. Examine the mouth carefully and observe it day by day as its gape extends farther back. Look for the external gills as soon as the t.idpoles begin to swim. Thei ^ are three pairs of gills, but two of these pairs are much larger than the third pair. A fold of skin grows over these gills, and eventually covers thei.i completely, but a small opening on the left side remains as long as the gills persist. Later the gills disappear entirely, lungs being formed in the body cavity. When the hind legs begin to bud out, look for the fore legs under the above-mentioned covering of the gills. At first the tadpole lives altogether under water. Note carefully when it begins to come to the surface for air. Ex- air.ine the gills then. Examine the size and structure of the tail. Some people think that it drops off. Does it? When does the young tadpole leave the water and live on the land? Describe the mode of locomotion in water and on land. How is the animal adapted to its different stages in life? The tongue of a frog or of a toad is attached by its front end only, to the floor of the mouth. It ends behind in two 90 NATURE STUDY U with netting^, put in some flies, caterpillars, etc., and observe how it catches them. It has been estimated that a "good sized toad will destroy nearly ten thousand insects and worms in a single season." It is evident that the toad is a beneficial animal, and is worthy of protection. It cannot harm any one, notwithstanding popular belief to the contrary. Besides thoughtless boys, who sometimes kill the toad, it has other enemies, especially snakes and large birds. A toad sheds its skin occasionally, pulling it off and leisurely swallowing it. This shedding of the skin or the shell is common among the lower animals. Snakes slough their skins several times during the year. Crayfish cast their shells annually. Spiders und insects ' moult ' their skins. The moulting of birds is a similar phenomenon. When cold weather comes on, the toad becomes drowsy, digs a hole in moist ground with its hind feet, and gradually works itself into the ground to the depth of a few inches. Here it remains in a torpid state during the winter. In the spring it comes forth with a good appetite for the insects upon which it lives. Look for buried toads in the jjarden late in the fall of the year. The burying process may be observed if a toad is kept in a box half-filled with earth. Frogs bury themselves in the mud at the bottom of ponds, instead of in the moist earth. Both frogs and toads, in common with reptiles, crayfish, snails and all other animals of low organization, can withstand low temperatures suc- cessfully. Toads are necessarily surrounded by frozen earth for the greater part of the winter, and the ponds, under which frogs are buried, often freeze solid. I have seen a crayfish, thawed out of ice and apparently dead, revive in a short time. The Mourning Cloak, and related species of butterflies, also J I f f THE STUDY OF AMPHIBIA 91 hibernate in this country by hang^ing- in quite unprotected places all winter, reviving in early spring before the snow has disappeared. The Tree Toads are interesting because they have disk- like toes, which help tl.em to cling to smooth surfaces such as leaves, window-panes and bark. Ov most familiar Tree Toad, //y/a versicolor, is a small frog, about two inches long. It is variable in color, either pale green, brown, or Tree Toad, //y/a Versicolor. grayish above, and whitish-yellow below. The upper surface is marked with irregular, lichen-colored blotches. The color is largely determined by the color of the surface on which it rests, but a change from one color to another requires a long time. Its call, " a clear, loud, trilled rattle," is most commonly heard among the trees on damp or rainy days, or in the evening. When making this call its throat is much inflated. Tree Ti .tJ. //yla FickenMifii. Hyla Pickeringii'xs yellowish-brown, or fawn-color, with a cross-shaped marking on its back. It is about one inch i M NATURE STUDY lonj,'. After having: deposited its egfjs in the swamps, it lives in the woods, on the jrround in summer, in tlie trees in autumn. However repulsive the common fros^^s and toads may be, there is nothing- about the tree toad to repel the most fastidious. Its structure and colorinjr are so delicate, its manner so gentle, that one is attracted rather than repelled by it. The Salamanders are tailed ampliibians. Two species, the Brown and the Spotted, are commo in parts of Canada, more especially among damp rocks iP le mountainous districts. The spotted species attains a length of six inches, the tail being about one-third of the whole length. It is black, with two rows of bright yellow spots on each side. Its no.-e is rounded and blunt. The 5>alamander. The brown, or red-backed, salamander is about three inches long and of a dull brown or reddish color. One species, Amblystoma tigrinum, common on the west- ern plains, reaches a very large size before losing its gills. The color varies from uniform brown to yellow, but it is usually spotted. The adult is eight inches long. The Newt, Of Red Eft, is .'ound under stones near pools. The back is olive or red; the under surface, yellow, or orange; the sides, spotted. The life history of the tree toads and salamanders is prac- tically the same as that of the frcg or the common toad. All are beneficial animals, deserving our protection. THE STUDY OF AMPHIBIA 93 The Mud ^uppy^Menobranrh, attains to large and repulsive dimensions, (a foot long). It is dark-grayish or slaty in color with faint spots. Three bright red gill-tufts adorn the sides of its neck. The four short legs are small compared with the body. It is found in streams and shallow lake margins. Compare this animal with the frog or the toad in the tadpole stage Mud Puppy. Descriptions of the common species of frogs and of our only species of toad are given for reference. Cull Froc. Vrry lar^e (5 in. to 8 in.), frrecn wlih sm;,ll faint dark spots alxwc ; h«d usually bngh. oale green ; legs, blotched ; tcHjs. broadly webbed. Leopard Frog. Length .'; in., bright green with irregul,,r black blotchr, with wh.t.sh edges, mostly in two irregular rows on the back ; two yellowish lines along the back j legs, barred above ; comn.on. Crern Frog. Length 3 in., green or brownish with irregular small black spots; arms and lee blotched ; yellowish or white below. Wood Frog. Length .« in , pale reddish-brow,, ; arms and legs, b.,rred aU.vc; com- mon in damp woods. Swamp Frog. Length ,'; i„ , light brown, with two rows ot largr. oblong, sqnarc b.otches of dark brown on the back ; one dark line from nostril to eye. American Toap. Jaws t*>thles, and skin of adult very warty, which are the main distmctions from frogs. Note. The Tree Toads are I'rogs though commonly called Toads. THE STUDY OF FISH I m ■ 1 An exhibition offish in their natural I.abita: always attracts a crowd of interested observers, boys, girls, men and women. At a recent exhibition of this kind the guards were kept busy, often without success, trying to keep the crowd moving. Sub- dued exclamations, eager remarks, and shouts of laughter were heard on all We expect chile ... get their information from books, or, a trifle better, from dead specimens. But all experience proves, that, with young or old, it is the living specimen which fixes and holds the attention. Too often, the aim of the observer is to convert the inter- esting living specimen into a mass of dead matter for the mere satisfaction of exhibiting his skill of markmanship. We should rather "name all the birds without a gun, love the wood-rose and leave it on its stalk," — that is to say, we should study the living specimen in its natural habitat. This is beautifully expressed by Emerson. " I thought the sparn- -"s note from heaven, Singing at d.iwn on the alder bough ; I brought him home in his nest, at even, He sings the song but it pleases not now ; For I did not bring home the river and sky ; He sang to my ear — they sang to my eve. The delicate shells lay on the shore ; The bubbles of the latest wave Fresh pearls to their tyiamel gave, And the bellowing of the savage sea Greeted their safe escape to me. 91 THE STUDY OF FISH « I wiped away the weeds and foam — I fetch 'd my sea-born treasures home ; But the poor, unsightly, noisome things Had left their beauty on the shore, With the sun, and the sand, and the wild uproar." In 1901 thirty-five million pounds of salmon were canned in this country. The total value of the fisheries of Canada is nearly forty million dollars per annum. Surely Canadians should take an interest in the study of fish and their habits, in order that this industry may be maintained, if not materially increased. The centre of interest in this class is the adult rather than the young fish, though there are some interesting phases in its development. The eggs are deposited in different places, accoidiiig to the species of fish. Salmon, Suckers, Pike, Carp and Mullet ascend creeks and rivers ; Bass, Whitefish, Lake Trout, Perch and Pickerel deposit in shore waters ; the Stickleback builds a nest. YOLK' YounfT Catfish. IVrighi. Young Salmon, farker and Hanuell. The young fry, after hatching, have still a portion of the egg-yolk attached to them, which supplies them with food for a time. A Catfish requires three months to attain the adult form, but the time required by different species varies according to circumstances. Thus the Whitefish spawns in November, and the eggs require about one hundred davs to hatch out. The eggs of the Sea Salmon require a longer time than this to hatch, and the period of development extends over several years. NATURE STUDY .'1 ,. For ordinary study we are limited to the smaller fish of our creeks and rivers. The Shiner, Chub, Miniunv, Sun- fish, Bass, Perch and small Brook Trout may be obtained in any part of the country ; at least one or more of each species may be secured for examination. From the lakes and the ocean, the yoimg of the larger fish may be procured for the same purpose. In any of these fish, study the movements, up, do\vn, and forward. Observe the motion of each fin and tell how it as- sists the movement of the whole fish. Observe the motion of the gill-covers and jaws. Why are Ihey continually moving? Count the number of gills and the openings between them. As the water passes over the gills, the blood passing through the gill-filaments absorbs the oxygen dissolved in the water, and is purified. The gills are attached to bony arches, with openings between them. On the inner sides of the arches, projections (gill-rakers) may be seen. These vary in number and length in different species ol fish. They are few, short and blunt in the Perch ; long, narrow and numerous in the Herring. They act as strainers to prevent solid matter passing over the gills. Examine the ctructure of the body, its protective covering of scales, and their arrangement. What parts of the fish have no scales ? Note the arrangement of the fins. There are two groups of these, i.e. , those in a perpendicular plane, of of which the tail fin is one, and those in a horizontal plane, two pair, pelvic and pectoral. It is important to note the fin-rays and to count them. Examine the gill cover ,^f Note the openings on the nose. They do not open into the mouth. Why not? ADF ADF.-Adipose fin. D.F. — Oorsal fin, G.C. ,, , Gill cover. I., - Lateral line. Pt.F. -Pectoral fin. HaVe the eveS any Pr.F.— Pelvic fin. V.F.--Ventral fin. T.F.— Tail i- i o i-- l ' n (;„_ lids r h ish usually THE STUDY OF FISH have small teeth but they are not in sockets as ours are. They serve to hold their prey. The line along^ the side of the body, present in nearly all iish, is the seat of sensory nerve endin^^s. It is called the "lateral line." In winter fish live in deep water. If, however, their natural habitat is a shallow stream, which may freeze nearly solid, they bury themselves in the leaves and sediment at the bottom, and thus survive the winter. Fish and Amphibia are cold-blooded animals — that is, their temperature is below the avera^^e temperature of the element in which they live. Hence they can withstand cold suc- cessfully. TYPES OF FISH The White Fish is a type of our most important family of fresh-water fish (Salmonidie). The White Fith— Length, 30 inches. Note the small head and deep body. The scales are white but not silvery. The Lake Herring (Cisco), Salmon, Salmon Trout, Hrook Trout, Grayling", and the Tullibee of Manitoba are members of this important family. The Salmon is the most valuable fish of the sea, except 11 J V \^-^-u. 98 NATURE STUDY The Atlantic Salmon — I.ci'i;lh 3 to 4 feet. The Lake Herring, on account of its alniiulance and cIicMpncss, is an important fish tlirouyliout the whole laih spots. Till.- Pikr I.fiiKtli. 2 to 4 feet. Tlio l\Tcid;e aic roprc-^oiitod In tlic Yellow Perch aiul the Pickerel. 'I'l^^ tornicr is a small tish of little value to- food, but the latter is a valuable i'ood tish. The Perch. Note that the dorsal fin is divided into two parts, but there is no adipose fin. Adipose means fleshy, or lacUmg spines. The dorsal fms have characteristic dark markings in the Pickerel. Bass are noted for their j^amey qualities rather than for their size, but their llesh is of excellent quality. There are several species, as tlie Rock Rass, White Bass. Black Bass, Calico r.ass. Sun-fish. The body is short, and flat on the sides ; scales, large ; dorsal fin, continuous. THE STUDY OF FISH 101 h Kock Basil. The Sun-fish is distinguished Iron, tl,c Ha^s In a hri-rht red spot on eaci, j,HII-cover. *" The niue Snn-fiih. The Mackerel .s a famous marine wsh whicl, runs in lar-^e schools It ,s clKuacteri.ed by its dark bh.e color, and h^s about thirty-l.ve uavy stripes across its back The Maclcerel^LenKth, 2 feet The Tunny, or Horse-Mackerel, one of the lar^^est of fish. •••■-fonM.g i^uu pounds, is a related species. I 102 NATURE STVnY I . f i The GkI is priihiibly the most famous f'ood-lisli in i.e world, and tlio Hanks of Xowfonndland, wIktc it feeds in such ^-^roal nnmbers, have been the fishini;-j; rounds of nations for years, without in any way lesscniiig^ the annual catch. Tlie Cod - IrtiKlli 1 ♦rel >>r more. The Haddock, loiii,'-th ;,<> inches, is a well-known related species. 1 ! ' Halibi't <^rows to a lenj^^th of six feet or more and to a \veij,dit of 400 pounds. It is found chiefly on .s.mdy sea- bottoms. The members of this family are peculiar in having the head twisted so that both eyes are on the colored side. The Flounder and the Sole are related species. The Flounder— LeriRth, 13 to 18 inches. THE STUDY OF F/SH ,03 species of a once ru.nu-rot.s ^.roup o( (Ish, the ho,.v-scaled fish called danoids. The nun.th of the Lake S,urj,eon is on ,he under surface, and h.s adapts it to bottom feeding;. It nr.y reach a le-.^^fh of s.x feet, ai.d a vvelK'ht of ,.k, pounds or'more \ .n..rM.e species, Acipenser Sturio. reaches a len^^th of twelve leet. The t.ake Sturg^on-LenR-th. 6 feet The Gar-Pike resembles the f. , . . ^''<^*^ in the position of its ims, hut Its prominent jaws and teet It is useless for food. nh easily distin^'uish it. The GarPike-Leog^h, 5 feet. I 5 THE srrDY of :\[()LLrsKS ti pi ! ; i I All the animals hitherto mentioned, Fish, Froijs, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, have an internal skeleton, part of which forms a backbone, made up of a series of small bones called vertehrif. Honce the members of this whole group or branch of tlie animal kingdom are known as Vertebrates. Those animals 'vhich we are now to stud / ha\ e no backbone — in fact, have practically no bones at all, and are therefore called Invertebrates. In many cases they are provided with a hard covering, as in the Clam, Craylish, and Grasshopper. This is c.iUed the exoskeleton, or outer skeleton, while the bones of the Verte- brates are called the endoskeleton, or inner skeleton. The scales of fish and of reptiles, the feathers of birds and the covering- of certain mammals are exoskeletons, which these animals have in addition to their endoskeletons. The MoUusks include Snails, Slugs, Clams, Oysters, Cuttle-fish, Devil-fish, and their relatives. They are soft- bodied creatures, with no internal skeleton, but usually with an outer covering called a shell. Sometimes this shell is a mere remnant, so to speak, as, for example, th;.* of t'leslug. The Slug. Under boards, in moist places, are often found soft, slimy, greyish-colored, or black animals, about an inch long, with a flat under surface and a rounded upper surface. One end of the body, the head, is blunt and rounded ; the other, the tail, is tapenng. But this appear- un ^ THE STUDY OF MOLLUSKS io6 ance of the animal is suhjoct to change. Sh>K--s are eTronoouslv thought to be dangerous and are called " I^lood-suckers." A few of them kept in a j^iass bottle will interest nature students for some days. At first sii,^ht thev appear to have no appenda-es. You will, however, find that they are well provided with them, but that ^ y. they protrude them only when «ii^Brfllii -cont. ■Slutr >" Various l*05.itioii.s. 106 NATURE STUDY \r •; k il The slug slides along- a smooth surface, without any appar- ent propelling- force, and in its wake leaves a slimy track. If, however, you examine its underside as it glides along a glass surface, a wave-like, muscular motion may be plainly seen. The same motion is very apparent when the slug is turned over on its back and attempts to regain its normal position. While observing this motion you may see its mouth, which is on the underside. It is very small and is provided with a rasp-like organ (radula), " one of the most wonderful dental apparatuses known to science," which enables it to 'chew' leaves and soft vegetable tissues such as tomatoes and lettuce. This radula moves forward and back against the hard jaw of the slug like a saw in the hands of a carpenter. There is a small, flat shell just under the skin of the back. It is probable that at one time in its history the slug had a complete shell, like the snail; but now that it lives under bo:irds which protect it, the sliell is unnecessary and accord- ingly remains undeveloped. In handling the slug you cannot help noticing the milky excretion with which it covers itself. This, perhaps, is a protection against enemies, and certainly is a provision against cold. The Snails differ from the slugs, chiefly in the possession of a complete shell, into which they retreat when resting, or during winter. The shells of different species vary much in appearance, but nearly all are more or less spirally twisted either to the right or to the left. It is sometimes thought that a slug is a snail which has escaped from its shell. The shell of a snail, however, is closely attached to the body and is always carried about with it. Empty shells are frequently found but they are the shells of dead snails, not of living ones. THE STUDY OF MOLIHSKS 107 The illustration is that of the common snail. It may he found amoM.'U f,.|i,rn, Sail-, ilu: unshadowed main - The veiitiiiiMis hark that tVuij^s On tlie sweet siiinnier wind its ))iirpleil \vinj,'.s III gulfs e;,ehanted, where the siren siiij^s, And eoral reefs lie bare, Whore the cold sey-maids rise to sun llu'ir sireainin^f hair. " Its wehs of hvinj^ g-auzo no more nnhnl ; WriH-ked is the sliip of pearl ! And e\ ery ehamhered eeil, Where its dim dreaming life was wont to dwell, As the frail tenant shaped its grov inj,' shell, Hef.'re tlu-t- lii-s revealed, - Its irised ceiling- rent, its Miiiless rrypt unsealed. " "S'ear after year beheld the silent t^il Th.it spri'ad his hislrous eoil ; Still, as the spiral j,'^rew, He K-ft the past year's dwelling,' for the new. Stole with soft step its shining archway tlirout;!.. Built up its idle door, Stretched in his last found home, and knew (lu- old no more. "Thanks for the heavenly messatfe hrou^-ht bv thee, Chikl of the wandering se.i, Cist from her l.ip forlorn ! From thy di-.id lips a clearer note is born Th.m ever Triton blew from wreathed horn ! While on mine ear it rings, Through the ueep caves of thoujrht I he.ir a vov-. di.-.t sin-s:- Build thee more statelv mansions, O nn- ,oul. As the swift seasons roll ! Lea\e thy low vaulted past ! Let each ne,v temple, nohU^r than the last, Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast. Till thou at length art fri'e, Le.iving thine ou grown shell by life's umesting sea.' " Note the .several successive cavities in the shell. There are but two species of Nautilus at the present d.ay, while, 110 NATURE STUDY II r i ChambcreJ Nautilus, showing the internal structure nt the shell. in past ai^'es, there were fifteen hundrec' species whicli are now extinct. The Devil-fish is a marine Mollusk, destitute of a shell, but provided with eight long and powerful tentacles, Kach tentacle has two rows of suckers, twenty-five in each row, by which the animal attaches itself to its prey in order to kill it. These eight tentacles give the name Oc' us (eight- footed) to the animal. '• Those weird, horrifying creatures, the Octopi, are very soft-bodied and live on shore just below or at low water mark, or in deeper water. They have no shell. An Indian woman at X'ictoria, \'ancouver Island, in 1.S77, was seized and drowned by an Octopus." — Packard. One species measures, when full grown, fourteen feet from tip to tip of the outstretched arms. In San Francisco they are eaten by the Italians and Chinese. ^ee TitP- l^iii'lpy^ of tJif .SV/i Hv rlui''t'> fi>r a descnotion of THE STUDY OF MOLLUSKS ill Devil-fish. a r\ght with one o{ these ir.onsters in the Fourth Reader. Closely related to the Octo- pus or eig-ht-footed MolUisk are the cuttle-fishes and squids or ten-footed Mollusks (Deca- poda). Loligo is a common representative of the squids. On the underside of the Devil-fish and LoVigo is afuiniel from which water is ejected. The force of this current against the sea water propels the animal backwards at a fairly rapid rate. Note the highly developed eyes, and the neck, around which is a loose fold of skin called the mantle. The Limpets, which cling to rocks on the sea-shore, are 0..-.,..:- The passage is given 'tfio viiijjaris). '•■ i; : ; I 112 NATURE STUDY Mollusks vvhdse slid' ; are not spirally twisted. It requires a force of .sixty-twn ,K)unci.s, or one thousand nine huiulred and eig^hty-i'our times its own weight to detach a limpet from a rock. The Clam. On the .sandy bottoms of shallow water in lake, river, or creek, you will often see a \'-shaped groove. Follow this groove for a few feet and you will find the engineer o( this miniature ditch, probably half-buried in the sand. It is a clam. Why, and with what instrument, does it make this ditch? The instrument is called a 'foot,' but it is, in realitv, the body of the clam. However, as it travels about upon this part of its anatomy, it, at least, fulfils the purpose of a foot. Obser\e the motion of the clam as it pulls itself alons' upon this ' foot.' Clam, with shell rcniovcj from one sltle. Clam, foot protruding. The term ' snail-pace ' has become proverbial for slowness, but, compared with a clam, a snail is as the express train to the stage coach. It IS int'.Testing to ascertain from your own observations the rate of speed of the diifere.it animals. Compare the speed of the different Mollusks. Pick up the clam and observe how it withdraws its foot into the shell. Try to open the shell. Vou cannot do so lli;L.. V. I< F Ct."^3lilt iiKJUL uiic iicaai Kji THE STUDY OF MOLLUSKS 113 tlie sIkII to the other, hold them shut. When the clam is dead the shell will open of itself. The clam can be killed by being pl.-iced in spirits or in hot water. The former is probably the more humane method of killing one, though it causes the body to contract very much. The body of the adult clam is a soft, 'plough-share' shaped mass, of a whitish color. There is no head, and eyes, ears, and nose are also wanting. A nerve centre in the ' foot ' IS generally believed to perform the function of a hearing organ, and a few spots on the mantle's edge, at the hinder end, are believed to be sensitive to hght, but in both of these organs the sens.uions received must be very vague indeed. In fact, the animal has little need of sight or hearing as it is protected by its shell and brings food to itself instead of going after it. 1 here is a mouth just under the muscle which crosses from one valve of the shell to the other, at the front end. On each side of the mouth is a gill-like flup (page 112). These n.ips by constantly moving keep up a current of water to- wards the mouth, and the anim;il obtains its food from the water as it is brought to it in this current. Two tlat, leaf-like gills hang down on each side of the body and outside these there is an outgrowth of the body called the 'mantle,' which completely covers the body and gills. The shell is attached to this mantle, except at its edge. If a live clam is placed in water and a few drops of ink are introduced near the smaller (hind) end of the clam, a current o{ water will be seen to flow between the two valves of the shell at and below the point indicated by the lower arrow in the drawing (page 112), and out at the point indi- cated by the upper arrow. The edges of the mantle will be seen to form a sort of tube :;t each of these points. In some ■t., tvj-., •■'iyii, me cvmhiuou marine ciam, there is ,.,!,_.f-..i ^ ) PI 114 NATURE STUDY an extensible tube ili\iiled into two parts by a !onj,r;t„dinaI partition. A current of water passes down one side of this tube and up the other. This current of water flows over and tlirou-h the^-'ills, and is cused by tlie sweeping,' movement of thousands of min- ute hairs (cilia) on tlie surface of tlie f,Mlis. The bK>od is aerated in the gills by the oxyt^en dissolved in the water. The same current carries food particles which are swept into the mouth by the l.ibial palps. The eg.i,'s of the clam v deposited in the outer ^''1 on ^ each side. When these eggs hatch, the gill becomes ^^ g^f'^atly distended and has a reddish color as if _ hii,-!dy congested. The drawing shows the appear- ▼ ance of the young, under the microscope, at their Vr"mB';li,T most adv.mced stage in the gills. Hxamined with .nur"l.d.' the naked eye they appear like red grains of sand. When the young clam leaves the gills of the par- ent, it attaches itself to some part (gill, skin, or fin) of a fish, where it develops into a form more like the adult. During this period of its life the clam is a parasite, but unlike the ordin- ary parasite, it continues to develop. When capable of a free existence, it drops from the fish and gradually assumes the adult form jf the clam. The Oyster is a Mollusk which can be obtained, minus the shell, in any part of the country. Compare it with the clam. "Canadian oysters are incontestably the most luscious bivalves in the world." The fact that their spawning and brooding season extends from May to September ac- counts for their absence from the markets during that period. The Oyster. - ^- ^ ,. ... ...._- ,^.^-^j^„r -^ aii^jrc raj^iu tUciu tiial \ji ;^**t4i|% THE STUDY OF MOLLUSKS 1,5 the dam. They swim about for a short pt.iod of time, and then they become fixed to the bottom of those parts of the ocean which are suitable for their existence. The two parts oi the shell are unequal. Thev are held together by only one muscle. Thf Mussel is perhaps tite most common seaside form. These Moilusks are found alonj;- the shore at low water. Tliey are eaten in lui- rope and are used for 1 bait in fishing-. The Scallop is not only conuTion on the seaslu)ro but the shells are often taken to mland parts for ornaments. It is a rapid swimmer, propellinj,' itself by opening and closing its shell. All of these wiU be found to have features in common with the clam. Kxamine each part as indicated in the study of the fresh-water clam. The Ml,^s,■l. The Scallop. ' I woiilJ not entiT on my list of fi iotuls, Thou.^li jfr.uvd with polished n.anno, s' .i,kI fine son^ Yet wantinjr sensibility, the man Who noi'iU.'ssly sets foot upon a worm. An inadvertent stop may cnish the snail That crawls at evoniiii,'- in the publii- path ; Hut he that hath humanity, forowanu'il, Will step aside and let tlie reptile live." Till'; STIDV OF AliTIIItOI'ODS I i The Arthropods .^c thoso juiim.ils wliiih li.ne sc'vor.il appcmlaKcs, c;u 1, uiil, ,„.,,, y joint.. T'.c „.nno is tl. tViMn this char.u-t.ristic. 'I his cl;iss iiuliul.s SpiiL-rs, Insects, and 'J lunisancl-lc-yeJ Warms. I i\ I'd Shcil-hsh. The Cr.ivfisli. In place of the internal skeleton ( viuloskeleton) of the \'ertehrates, they nearly all have a more or less hard external coverinw- (exoskeieton), which -ive.s tiio bodv stability and also -ives attachment to the .nuscles. This'exoskeleton is most complete in the Crayfish, Crabs, and their relatives, commonly known as Shell-f-.,h, thou-h they are not fish at all. Aiost of them live in water and breathe bv means of 111 Il THH STUDY Of ARTHHOl'ODS 117 Kills, but lure the rcscmbl.tue to fish ciuls. Thry have neither seaKs nor hjuk-hoiie ; in f,u t they JiHor from true fi-^li in nearly e\ ery'partieular. ' THE SHELL-FISH OR CRUBTACEANS The Cray-fish is the ciimnion fresh-water t\ pe of ,hese hard-shelleil, niany-Iei;,-ed animals. It is usually calleJ a crab, but has many features whieh distinguish it from that animal. The Lobster, a marine form, is larger than the crayfish, but is almost identical with it in structure. The great size oi the lobster makes it a valuable animal for food. Thirty million pounds i>f lobster were caught in looo in this country, and this industry employs over eighteen thousand people in the Maritime Provinces. (Tl.e following applits to cillicr Crayfish or Lobster.) The striking feature of these animals is the large number o( ai-ipendages twenty pairs. On some of these the animal II. . ■ . 1 . . . . •.-. •..•.-..-. , V. ;;r. svm.io it .-.wims , wiih others it brings food to the 118 NATURE STUDY mouth; with others it f.Js, and on one pair the eves are situated. This is a wonderful adaptation of structure to environment. In order to learn which appendages serve the different purposes, a hvnig specimen must be studied. I„ water ob serve how it suims, forward and backward. Examine the appenda-es on the abdomen. Ail are somewhat leaf-like In.t the last pair is very larj,^e and flat. These, with the lasi s-gment of the abdomen, form a powerful tail-fin. Take the animal from the water and observe its mode of locomotion on land. How many pairs of appendages does It use in walking ? These appendages are called the walking- .ogs. The first pair of these will attract the attention at once on account of their siz.. Cou . the number of joints in one of these. Let the animal take hold of your finger or of a small stick. How does it do so ? Examine the ends of the other walking-legs. How many are like the first pair ? On the head are the eyes, placed at the ends of short jointed appendages, which give the animal a large range of vision Each eye is made up of a great number of simple eyes, but these parts can not be seen without a microscope In tront of the eyes two pairs of thread-like structures may be seen. One pair (antennae) is much longer than the other pair (antennules). They are tactile organs like the whiskers of a cat. Study tiie movements of each in a living specimen. ° On the under side of the base of each antennule there is a small opening which leads into a hair-lined cavity. These cavities are the organs of hearing, although we can scarcely call them ears as we u.sually understand the term. Around th. mouth, which opens on the under surface of the body, there are six p.airs of appendages, which .Hd the animal in securing and crushing the snails, insects, e*c THE STUDY OF ARTHROPODS 119 Appendages of Craj fibh. which constitute i*s food. Try to separate one of the largest of these appendages from the otliers ; remove it from the body and examine it. It is con- sidered to be a typical appendage, all others being looked upoo as modifications of this type. The two largest are shown in the figure. The appendages then consist of six pairs of swimming appendages, five pairs of walking-legs, six pairs around the mouth, two pairs of feelers, and one pair of eye-stalks, making twenty pairs in all. As the crayfish lives under water nearly all the time, it must be provided with gills. They may be found between the shell and the body, along that part to which the walking- legs are attached. Some of the gills are attached to the body and some to the bases of the appendages. There are seventeen pairs of gills in the crayfish (the lobster has eighteen pairs). A current of water is kept flowing over the gills by the constant movement of one of the six pairs of appendages which surround the mouth. The presence of this current may be shown by placing a drop of ink in the water, just in front of the head. The rapid novement of the appendages which cause the current may be seen especially when the animal is walking on a slippery surface under water. The body itself is readily seen to be divided into two parts ; the front half, which is undivided, and the back half, wiiich IS divided into seven ring-like parts (segments), movable upon each other. The front half includes the head and thvirax, which together a- e called the cephalothorax. The rest of the body, the se^Mnented part, is called the abdomen. ' ir' NATURE STUDY feet or more a.id always lenve a p.Ieof earth around the entrance, much as shown in the drawing' Tins species differs from the one found in the streams, not only in Its habit of burrowing, but in the structure of the second pair n .-.agnaLt water, wl.ereas ,h<, burroui,,,. .„„,„» ',^T Kept for months without diiriculty. '^ "*^ ""^ The e^-gs may be found, in spring, attached to the abdo ,„ ;t ?""; rr. '"'■"■™-'»). -a, afer hatehi ; 1: jouns crayfish chng to these swimn.erets until they have .uta,ne_d^«,e adult form, which they do only atter^a'^se rli: The adult crayfish never tr^tc «,.^^ *u- u i . "tvcr gets over this mou t nn- hihJf but casts Its shell annually. The sh.ll . r. " ""^ ^'^'"^' 1,^1 . -^ ^ ^"^" spits down thp h-j.-L- and the an.mal pulls itself out of its nl,l h ' ^^^ ^''^^' :„ . . ' I "L oi us old home and remainc m some sheltered spot until its onf^r • , • • T '^ i^v 1. until ii>, outer covenni-r ic ainiV. u„_j =ned ..mciently to protect I, frotn its enen, el S' hi, „™ cess of „,„„,tins, a le,. n.ay be broken olf, bu, the c Z can fjrow a new one in its place IndivlH,, ,1 ""^cr.uhsh with one or f,,., , '"""Muals are often found adventure or accident. The . -i^t ^ff u „ ^ streams. ''^'''''' "^^^^ ''^ '"^""'1 »^ , THE STUDY OF ARTHROPODS 121 The Wood Louse. THE WOOD-LOUSE The Wood-louse, a relative of the crayfish, makes its home on land, under boards and in decaying wood. Often several dozen of them, varyinj^- in size and markings, may be found under a single board, where they seem to live in perfect harmony with the slugs and the thousand-legged worms. The body is oval in outline and is uniformly segmented throughout. Count the number of di- visions or segments and the number of legs. Note the same kind of jointed legs as are found on the crayfish. How are these animals adapted to their mode of lite ? How do they protect themselves from their enemies ? Throw one into the web of a funnel-web spider to see how it protects itself. As it lives on land it cannot breathe by gills, but on the under side of the abdomen (last four segments), there are breathing organs of a whitish color. These are connected with the two processes, shown in the drawing at the hind end. The rhythmical motion of the breathing organs may be seen with the aid of a lens. The single pair of feelers is situated on the head. They are jointed like the walking legs. The eyes are situated at the bases of these feelers. The Wood-louse may be obtained for study at any season of the year. In winter they will still be found under boards and boxes, quite active notwithstanding the frosty weather. A common, fresh-water Crustacean is found in rain-water barrels, along with the wrigglers. Because it has but one eye, it is called Cyclops. Another species, D.iphnia, may also be found, but it is too small for examination without a micro- ti -iU Cyclops Daphnia. iv.:una ill jjOiiUa ami .streams. \ i 122 NATURE STUDY Shrimps iVawns, [.ohsters and CVahs are manno forms 1 hey ,nay bo studied as outlined for the Cravfish. THE SPIDERS The Spider gave man his first lessons in spinning-, and however he may have profited by his teaCin,. and in., roved us methods he still finds it impossible to spin as deli- ate a thread as this hnle animal. Spider,; are often eared, but C omstock says, « If an observer will refra n ru.n p.ckm.^ up a spide., there is not the slightest danger of bc,ng b.tten by one ; and. excepting a single uncon^mon s,xcKs no sp.der .s known in ti..s part of the countrv (New cn-K State), whose bite would seriously affect a human bein-^ " There as no excuse for not observing the spider andlis ^^ ork. Cobwebs c.n usually be found in some corner of the house, summer and winter. If we step outside we are sure to con.e face to face with those wheel-shaped structur vvh.ch have excted adnuration in the minds of all observe"^ of them. If we walk afield in the early morning before the dew has been ^ dispersed by the sun's rays, the grass '•«»©••" ^^''" ^^ ^'^'^^ t'^ be carpeted with "little I I £Y£S sheets of glistening silk, the webs of the Grass Spider." The Ga.!.n Spider. Later in the day we shall probably be annoyed by a floating strin.r of silk apparently attached to nothing, wrapping itself about ou; heads, but sc.mewhere in space at the end of this string, a Ixilloonmg Spider is or has been attached On bushes and sides of buildings irregular webs of tangled thread may be seen, or "between the twigs of a dead branch of pu,e or hemlock," the geometric web of the Tri- angle Sp.der may rouse our curiosity. I have found the latter attached to fences. THE STUDY OF ARTHROPODS 1-23 To learn late in life from other observers tliat the accepted explanation of a familiar phenomenon is false, fills one with a sense of loss. What joy mi-^ht be ours, if we could make the discovery for ourselves ! But we guess at the explanation and lose the joy. Such is my feeling regarding the work of the Grass Spider, whose funnel webs seem to be made anew each night to be destroyed by day, whereas the dew makes visible tbat which, when dry, escapes the care- less observer. You may find funnel wehs of a related species in the angles of buildings and fences. Any garden fence will have several such webs attached to it. The long-legged, brown spiders lurk in the funnel at the angle made by the boards with the post, and rush upon their prey when it becomes entangled in the web. If you want to see the spider in the open, throw a fly into the net and note the cordial welcome of the poor little fly into the parlor of t'^^ spider. It is literally received with open arms and jaws. In fact, the movement of tha spider is so rapid that there is no time to make careful observations. A small earth-worm or a wood-louse will require more time and the contest in this case will probably end in the escape of the captive. The fiercest fight will take place when Greek meets Greek. Throw another spider into the web and you will witness a furious conflict. The result will depend upon circumstances, but one or the other will be killed, and the body will be actually enclosed in a web woven about it by the conqueror. The way in which this is done is worth observing. The funnel has a back-door exit for retreat from danger and also for the convenience of the owner in casting out the worthless carcasses of its victims. These carcasses may be seen on th-c If 124 NATURE STUDY A m The G)bweb Weavers are responsible for the cob\vcl->s most frequently found in tlio corners of rooms. Tliey are not so regular as the webs of the I'-unnel-ueb Spiders, thou<,^h sometimes a funnel-shaped retreat is pnn ided, if there is no convenient corner in which to hide. These spiders run back downwards on their webs. Other species spin webs on bushes. The spiders which construct the wheel-shaped webs in our g^ardens and around our houses almgst everywhere, are known as the Orb Weavers. The web needs no description. Examine it for yourself. Watch a spider making it. When it runs over the web, does it step on the radii or on the spiral? Touch the radii with your lead pencil, then touch the spiral. What is the difference ? Which will entangle the ny ? On which can the spider run most easily ? Is the whole spiral continuous and of the same kind of thuad ? Are the centres of different webs alike ? In spinning its web, the Orb Weaver lets the wind carry the first stay-threads from the point where it is sitting. They become attached to some support and the spider then pulls in the slack and the threads are made taut. The plac- ing in of the radii is a rather complicated task and can be understood only by observation. You will understand the use of its many legs after you have observed the weaving. Where does this spider wait for its prey ? A large yellow and black spider (Argiope) spins an orb- web, but weaves a zig-zag band from top to bottom along one of the diameters. The spider then takes up its position in the centre of the web, head downwards, and waits quietly for its prey. I have seen this spider keep this posi- tion for many days, notwithstanding my close examination. I have wondered if it does not get most of its food at night, as it seems so quiet hy day, refusing to move even when the web is agitated with a stick. THE STUDY OF ARTHROPODS 12.1 Web of the Triangle Spider. The Ballooning^ Spider spins out a thread when it is perched on some high point. This thread is carried off by the wind until it is long- enough for the force of the wind upon it to support the spider, which then lets go its hold and is carried away through the air for long dis- tances. This ballooning seems to be practised by the young of many different families of spiders. The Crab Spiders are so named from their resemblance to crabs. One species lives in flowers, with the colors of which it closely cor- responds, and catches the insects which come there for the nectar. Thus death lurks for them where life was sought. The web of the Triangle Spider is apt to be mistaken for a remnant of a web of an Orb Weaver, but the figure will show the distinction. The spider remains at x and thus feels any vibration of the web caused by a victim striking it. By changing the tension of the net, the spider aids in entangling its prey. The Jumping; Spider is a common species. It does not spin a web but secures its prey by springing upon it. It is dark colored, and has a rather square-shaped head. Two of its eight eyes are very prominent, and this gives it a sprightly look quite unusual in spiders. The Running Spiders are large, dark-colored, hairy spiders, often found under stones and rubbish. They capture their prey by running after it. The females of the genus Lycosa drag their egg-sacs after them, and when i.'jc young hatcii, ihcy ciunb uu Uieir moiher's back. Jumping: Spider. J-« NATURE STUDY In tropical countries, the Tarantula, the larf,'est spider known, is found. It somotirnes comes to our northern countries in bunclu-s of bananas, hut every spider in a hunch of bananas is not a Tarantula. The Tarantulas are very hairy creatures. The Trap-door Spider of tropical countries is a mechanic. It dij;s a hole in the f,'-round, in which it builds a ne>t. The opening is provided with a door, which is properly hin-,'-ed. On the underside of this door two small holes are made, by which the spider pulls to its door and holds it shut. After the webs have been studied, the attention should be directed to the spider's structure. Note its two-parted body, four pairs of legs, its mouth parts, its eyes. As in the crayfish, the head and thorax are closely joined together, while the abdomen is united to the thorax by a very narrow junction. The legs are made up of many parts, jointed to- gether. Count the number of joints. The eyes are usually eight (sometimes six) in number and so disposed as to take in a large range of vision. Their exact arrangement is of great importance in classifying spiders. A hand lens will be needed in studying them. About the mouth are two pairs of jaws ; the mandibles, which are hard and strong for biting and poisoning, and the maxilhe, which have long, jointed feelers. These are sometimes so long as to be mistaken for legs. On the underside of the abdomen, near its union with the thorax, the breathing organ is situated. It consists of a number of thin plates, placed side by side. The spinnerets may be examined with the aid of a lens, and the process of spinning should be closely observed. ITnder the microscope diflferent kinds of thread may be dis- tinguished. Spiders lay their eggs in masses in silken sacs. Some of THE STUDY OF ARTHROPODS 1-27 Spider's Nc^t. fences, etc. Tlu v have tlie appearance of larj^e c.ijis tor toy pistols, bein^' tliickcr in the centre tlian at tlie ed^^c. The eggs of the Cobweb Weavers and of the Orb Weavers are deposited in poinlcd, oval-shaped sacs. These may be found in August and in the autumn months. It is possible to keep these sacs for winter study. One sac may be sacrificed to discover the number of eggs, five hundred or more. Keep other sacs in a warm room. Open one in such a way as to expose its interior, but so that it - may be closed again. I^xamine it at intervals during the winter. " If egg sacs of this kind be opened at different times during the winter, the spiders will be found to increase in size but to diminish in numbers, as the season advances. In fact, a strange tragedy goes on within these sacs ; the stronger spiders calmly devourtheir weaker brothers, and in the spring those that survive emerge sufficiently nourished to fight their battles in the outside world." — Comslock. With such a schooling in the nursery we shall not be sur- prised to learn that the adult spider is a most bloodthirsty animal, preying upon its own species, as well as upon flies and other insects. Nor are the family relations of the adult spiders any happier than those of the nursery. The female spider is the ruler and compels her mate, who is much smaller, sometimes less than half her size, to fight for his life or to escape by his agility or by strategy, from her murderous jaws. The care which she devotes to her eggs is her only redeeming feature, except that she is beneficial in aiding the housekeeper to keep down that household pest, the fly. Daddy Longlegs, or the " Harvestmen,' are near reia- 188 NATURE STUDY t.vc.s of th . spidors. Head, thorax, a.ul ahdomon are all un. .1 .,.„e four pairs of very lon^. dCi.a.e .e,s :a e r. P.d Kvomot.on poss.blo. rheso l.ar.nless animals are from tliem. on pan, of doath, tl,e whcroabonts of mythical ^n s In escap.n^ rrom its captor, the anima. is M.re to ■l^uc^^a K., or tuo as .,r^it .,r Us n.i,.re to meet the Some relatives of the spiders are parasites. Itch is -used by a small animal, something, like a spider, which c'lm^^i": ';r''"- '^"^ ^^'^- Mites. Cheese m!;:^ Cattle Ticks are likewise parasitic spiders. -rt. m/« ' ^"""S^^O-^^QQEO WORMS OR MYR.APOOA The Millipedes and Centipedes are found under old Iol^s n:h rt ^7'-^.^- '-'-^^-^^^^ body like the era : "sh, but the body ,s un.form throughout. The millipedes a r e cylindrical and .,„^ ^'^'•^^^ two pairs of legs on each division (seg- '■''•■''''"'■'"'''• nient) of the body, h-.vP fl.ff I u .- "'^''^ ^'^^ centipedes Have flattened bod.es which are smaller than the former I hey have but one pair of legs to each segment. .^rvf"T ^'^^"" '^ ''^'""^' ^^■'•^ ^='-' - 1'- ""ti- pedes, at least, are pi)isonous. rv TlIK ST( I)V OF I\Si:( TS Two hiituIroJ thousand species of insects are known ! In the f.ii-e ot tliis fact we may feel some hesitation in attempt- ing- to make their acquaintance. The careful study of a few types, however, will enable us to recoj^-nize and understand all which may come under our observation. The Insects may be {,'rouped as folio ws t. Butterflies and Moths. Lcpidoptera. 2. Flics and Mosquitoes. Diptcra. 3. Dra^'on-Flies, etc. Neurnptcru. 4. True Bugs, Plant Ljce, Cicadas, etc Hcmip/em. 5. Grasshoppers and Crickets. Orthoptcni. 6. Beetles. Colcoptera. 7. Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Hymenoptera. The class-names refer to peculiarities of the winj^s. The Lepidoptera have wings covered with minute scales. The Diptera have two wings only, the second pair being- rudi- mentary. The Neuroptera have transparent wings in which the veins show plainly. Hemiptera means half-wings, the basal half of the first pair being thickened, and only the ter- minal half wing-likf TheOrthoptera fold theirwings straight, hence the name, from orthos, straight, and pteron, a wing. The Coleoptera have the outer wings thickened to form sheaths ; coleos, a sheath. The Hymenoptera have mem- branous wings ; hymen, membrane. I. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. (Lopidoptera ) The Butterflies. Let us begin with the butterflies. Even "w LiiixLT^i =*^*::;;^ A 129 *iiy DTing" Ui-zuUl ctii ISO m . s < r I :) NATURE STUDY inlrocliiction to .i buttcrllN , In.t a lut of -r.'en tarlatan tuo feet deep, on a riii^' of stout copper wire a toot or more in diameter, and attached to a li^lit handle about the feet in Ieuj;th, i-, tlie more satisfactory weapon. Oni.\' in tlie net a drop of chloroform will stop all nufterin^^ and thus pre\ent tile destruction o\' tlie delicately painted winj^^s. K,^„„ t|,_. net the huttcrlly should he traiislerred to the poison-bottle. This is a wide nn^uthed bottle with ti.t,rhtly-rittiiij,' cork, riace a lump or two of potassium cvanide, a deadly poison, ill the bottom, cover with water and add plaster of Paris enouK'h to take up all the water. The whole will then set and hold the poison in place. (I-or further instructions re- gardiii},-- collecting; and preserving,', seeAppendix ). Knowinj,^ that all the threat variety of color in the butter- fly is due to extremely delicate scales, which seem like finest powder to our gross touch, we will handle carefully these gaudy, f,'-auze-like creatures. The sunny hours of June, July, and August are the sport- ing time of butterflies, but some may be found in the woods in early spring, sipping the sap from the maple and other trees, and some will linger to flutter above the very latest blossoms. Moths haunt the night and maybe collected successfully around lights, or may be attracted, by a mixture of sugar, rum, and some volatile oil, to any selected spot upon wh.cli the mixture may be smeared, f.^., tree trunk, or fence. Butterflies and moths are distinguished by their color, size of body, and by their antenn:e. Moths are duller in color, have stouter bodies, and feathery antenn.e. The a itennie of butterflies are thread-like with knob-like enlargements at the outer ends. MKIIIOI) ov sriDv To meet butterflios, we must \isit their t.ivorite haunts. The clover field is sure to have the Mv>narcli, tlie V'ici-.oy, and the Clouded Sulphur, flittint,'- over the Ira^^rant blossoms. At evening;' the Thistle Huttertly is almost sure to h ; found on the blossoms of the plant which {^ives it its name. 'Ihore, intoxicated u ih sweets, and drinvsy with the coming i^n of night, this beautiful butterfly may be easily captured without a net. We have all noticed the swarms of yellow butterflies about the drying water puddles, and the white butterflies which visit the tjibbages of our gardens, to deposit their eggs upon the plants which will furnish their young with food. Over the parsley and carrot beds the Asterias or Kastern Swallow-tail hovers to deposit her eggs, knowing well that the larviu need these plants for food ; and decay- ing apples are sure to attract the Question Sign and the Mourning Cloak. There is a species of milkweed, known as butterfly-weed, and the collector can do no better than to discover a clump of these plants and wait patiently for his victims to come to him, rather than, as is often thought necessary, to chase wildly "o'er moor and fen" only to be baffled at last by a barbed-wire fence or an impassable stream. For the student of limited experience and knowledge, it is better to pursue a method of study which is almost wholly dependent on keen observing powers, as outlined in the sub- sequent study of the common Eastern Swallow-tail. Begin by collecting the larv:u which may be fed and observed through all their wonderful change; . If the larv;e are feed- ing when collected, the collector should note the food-plant 131 ^ 132 NATURE STUDY in order to supply it ;is needed. Boxes with glass tops or covered with wire netting- will serve fo*- rearing la. va', or one large terrtiriuvi may be made, in which earth and growing plants mav be kept. The terrarium consists of a large box with glass sides, board bottom, and a top of wire netting. In this, larvie, cocoons, and butterflies, and even larger animals, such as toads, crayfish, etc., may be kept for the purpose of studying their habits. THr LIFE STOrY OF A BUTTERFLY As a type of all other butterflies, we shall describe the life of the Kastern Swallow-tail, or .Asterias Butterfly. (See page 134.) Some day in August you may see thi: itterfly hover- ing over the parsley or the carrot beu, apparently in doubt whether to alight or not, and quite regardless of our presence or attention. But it does not alight. Vou will, however, see it bend its body around to the underside of the leaf, pause a moment and then flutter on. By observing the exact spoi. where the butterfly touched the undersides of the leaves you will be able to collect a few eggs, one from each leaf, for tlo butterfly is depositing its eggs when it acts as described above. Remove the leaves bear- ing the eggs to yor: breeding box or ter- rarium, noting the date of their being laid. Examine daily. In a week or ten days the little black caterpillar, with its white saddle y^ JH~ ^^ midway its length, will emerge. fr 4l riiis little baby is called the larva, and in this stage it does all its eating. Tou .h this larva with some object and it wiil protrude a pair of orange colored horns. These gi' e off^ a disagreeable odor, which protects it from its enemies. Lar\a of Kasiv-rii Swallow-tail. First stage. li THE STUDY OF IWSECTS i:w During: >ts lifetime as a larva, you should observe it closely each day. It casts off its skin several times before reaching' the adult larval stajre. In tliis last larva! st:.<,re the color is usually green, banded with black, in which are orange spots. The orange spots may open into the green, thus dividing the black bands into parts. Another common type has a black body with small orange spots on • h segment. Count the num- ber of body divisions (segments) behind the head. Note the legs on the first three segments. These legs are joint- ed. On the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and twelfth segments there are fl o s h y outgrowths whi end in hairy d:s..j. These are called pro-legs. Of what use are they ? The butterfly itself has but three pairs of legs, which correspond to the three pairs of jointed legs on the first three segments of the larva. When the larva has reached its perfect adult form and has eaton heartily for a time, it becomes very restless and begins to explore the vicinity for a suitable place in vhich it may be Larva of Eastern Swailow-ml AJvanccd stdBc I 'J i 134 NATURE STUDY transformed into its next staj^-e of existence. Having' found a place to its liking-, usually on the under surface of a board or branch, it attaches its hind feet to the surface by a little cushion of silk and clings to the board or branch with its feet, in which position it rests for a while. It next begins to spin a thread of silk which it attaches to the surface on which It rests (see illustration). The pro- cess of spinning this thread is very interesting, but must be seen to be understood and appreciated. When the thread has been made strong enough, the larva manages to slip its head through the loop, in which it then rests as an arm ir. a Chrysalis of Eastern Swallow-t.iil. a. Larval skin. b. Cushion of silk. c. Silk hread. sling. The larva then shrinks, at first gradually, but in time quite noticeably, and after about twenty-four hours, moults its skin for the last time, The moulted skin will probably remain suspended by a thread from the button of silk. {a. in figure.) The appearance of the animal in this stage is shown in the above figure. It is now called ihe chrysalis. This stage, if reached in July, will last about two weeks, but if formed in the fall, that is, by the second brood of the season, it will remain in it throughout the winter, until May of the follow- ing spring. Count the number of segments in the chrvsalis. Locate the different parts of the butterfly in it. I'ind the breathing pores along the sides. Examine the silk thread with a lens to see lli-^w mat-It/ «trnnrlc it- ^^-inf'ji 114; I THE STUDY OF INSECTS 135 The transformation from the chrysalis is the most wonder- ful of all. The chrysalis splits along the back, and the adult butterfly {rmu^^o) emerj^^es, provided with winjr.s for flight and with legs for walking and clinging. The female butter- fly s wmgs are not so conspicuously marked with yellow spots as those of the male in this species. All these stages may be observed in the breeding box or terranum. Eggs may be procured in June or August. The butterfly itself may be taken at any time from June till Sep- tember, while the larvae may be found on parsley or carrots until October. All butterflies have a life history similar to that of the Eastern Swallow-tail. Each may be worked out in the same way when the eggs or larvae are obtainable. In no other way can the relation bet.veen larva, chrysalis and butterfly be so well learned. The larva, of the Cabbage Butterfly mav be obtained from cabbages ; those of the Clouded Sulphur trom clover ; those of the Mourning Cloak, from willows, elms, poplars, etc • those of the Thistle Butterfly, from the thistle and stingmg nettle .• those of the Tiger Swallow-tail, from wild chferry and other trees ; those of the Question Sign from the elm hop-vme and nettle; those of the Milkweed Butterfly from the m.lkvveed ; those of the Viceroy from oaks, birch and willow ; those of the Fritillaries from violets. Cal^adl •^''''' *^''"'"''' ''^ ^""^'^fli-« are represented in (i) The Swallow-tails, Sulphurs, and Whites. (^) The Brush-Footed Butterflies (The Silver Spots Iritillanes, the Monarch, Viceroy, etc.) (3) The Blues, Coppers and Hairstreaks. (4) The Skippers (Dusky Wings). Ih. Bru.h-Fuoleu Huiiertl.es are distmguished from all 136 NATURE STUDY others hy the f.ut that, in both sexes, the first pair of le^rs is very small and useless for walking. Heme these butter- flies have but four le^^s. The m;iles of the third class have a similar structure in the first pair of legs, but the females have six walking legs. The other distinctions of the four classes are in the lar\ ;u and chrysalids, and cannot be dealt with here. (I) THE SWALLOW-TAILS The Swallow-tails contain some of our largest butterflies. Tlic Eastern Swallow-tail (Papilio asterias) has several rela- ti\ es in Canada. A cornmor one is the yellow and black Tiger Swallow-tail (Papilio turnus). Its larvae feed on various plants, but preferably on wild cherry. A recent visitor to southern Canada is the Giant Swallow-tail (Papilio cre-phiMitc- 1, whose larv;e sometimes damage the orange trees in the south. Other food-plants of this species are the prickly ash and the hop tree. The most beautiful species is the Spice-bush Swallow-tail (Papilio troilus). Its food- plants are spice-bush and sassafras, and it prefers a warm climate. The author would like to hear from collectors regarding the occurrence of these last two species in Canada. The Sulphurs and the Whites belong to the same family as the Swallow-tails, though they lack the project-on of the hind wings, which gives the n..me to the latter. The Clouded Sulphur is shown in plate. Its food-plant is clover. The male has a solid black border on the wings, while the spots are more distinct than those of the female. (See plate.) The Cabbage Butterfly Cibbasje i. (t-emaic.; V' '•^r"'-'' »ajja;j, iS SO COmiiiOn cr- e a les alt OS. ■la- ick oil ent ilio \^c fire ies xl- rm ors Ja. lily tlio led te. er. ick lile net lie. r ^^' \ Ih.- l-.;i>uni >« a, u>»i.,i, (/■;,■,/. /Maud l.irvn I he litrir Swallowtail (/'. /;(>-.;k,vI and larva. Il-.c SpKf-hash S».ilu.»lali(/'. rroii„s)a,Hi larva. IlicC.iaiit Swallowliil (/' ,rr.t/,/ir»it,:',) and arv.i. I hi- Harvester { /■'riii.sriii tii rt/uiiiius). The Conitiion Ulur (/.i.rnii />.uiu/argw/i,s) nl^ |r I THE STUDY OF INSECTS 137 as to almost monopolize the ficUl of study. The m.-ile has but one spot on each fore-winj;^. A related species (Pieris protodice) is rare. It has rec- tanf,nilar markinj,'-s instead of the round ones as the C'ahhaf,'e Hutterfly has. Its food-plants are the Cruciferie. (2) THE BRU8H.FOOTED BUTTERFLIES The Argynnis Butterflies have delicate tastes. The larvaj feed on violets, at ni^-'ht, lyinj^ concealed durinj,'- the day. The silvery spots on the undersides of the wing's are character- istic. There are several species in Canada. The butterflies of the related genus, Brenthis, have the same food-plant. Two species, the Silver-bordered Fritillary (1.4-1.7 inches) and the Mea- dow Fritillary (i. 65-1. 8 inches) usually fly together. The latter has no silvery spots on the undersides of the wings. The Pearl Crescent is a common butterfly whose larv;e feed upon the aster and related plants (Composita;). Expanse i. J5-1. 65 inches. The Question Sign is shown in plate. Expanse 2.5 inches. It is one of our commonest butterflies. The larv.-e feed upon the nettle, elm, or hop. The Comma Butterfly is smaller ( 1.75- 2.cx> inches) but will be readily recognized by its resemblance to the preceding. The graceful Angle-wing- is another rela- tive. These all belong to the genus Grapta. The Mourning Cloak is shown in plate. It is b.ownish- black beneath with a grayish-yellow border. We have one related species known as Milbert's Tortoise-shell. The l.irvie of both feed on the elm, willow, and poplar. The adults liibernate and are found in the sugar-bush in early spring. The Meadow Fritillary. TVia \1. »*:ii ' o • • _i3 iTi:;r..vvci;i4 uuitci ny is pel hups our most 138 NATURE STUDY 'H The Monarch Butterfly widely known butterfly. The larv;e feed on the milkweed. The Viceroy flies with the Monarch and imitates it closely in color and markinj^s for the sake of protection from its enemies, who will not eat the latter. Its larvae feed on the willow, and hibernate by rolling- leaves toj^ether to form cases for the winter. The Viceroy's real relatives are the Red-spotted 'The Vitciuy liuiicii!y> 'v.^i ^^" Milherts 1 ortoisc Sliell ( / uw^.s.i,, Miiiiirn). An ArKyimis Hiittertly. The Question Slsr,, {Gr„(,ta itil^ynigationis). larva and chrvsali\ I he Mourning Cloak I i;,nesK„ „„/io/>,i). larva and chrvsalis. I he IVarl Crescent {f'hxcioiies tiniros). Silver-hordered Fritillarv I /?r(H//;/.« m\finn\ \ \ lii 1 ■■ -x-^^^ -^ ^ifem^^^^ Ww ■^njc^-^w-.^^i^^ THE STUDY OF INSECTS 1.J9 Chrysalis of Viceroy. ■- '^^^~Z^ Larva of Viceroy. Purple and tlio Banded I'urple, wlioso larv;u leod on the willow, cherry, and many other plants. The Red-spotted Purple. The Banded PurpU. ■T? ■■' r.' 140 NATURE STUDY Tlio Tliistic Hiittirfly, tlio Red Admiral, and Hunter's Hiit- • ctHy arc siiro to attrait the altcntii>ii of oven tlio" wa\ faring- niaM"ho(.auso of tlioir nunihcrs and of their beauty. Though tJK y beloii";- to the same geiuis (Pyrameis) they vary some wiiat in tiieir favorite food-plant. The first prefers the thi^tl , the second, the nvltle; the third, the composite plants, cuvl- weed and antennaria. I^xpanse 2-2.^ inches. (3) THE BLUES, COPPERS. AND HAIR8TREAK8 The Common Hlue is a small butterfly (1.1-1.3 inches), which ranges fri>m .Alaska to Florida, across the continent. There are many varieties of it, and it is a type of a large group of butterflies, known as the Blues, Coppers, and Hairstreaks. The American Copper (expanse i inch), is a common but- terfly ranging from Hudson Bay to the Ohio River. The larviE feed on the common sorrel. The I-east Copper is ^^^^^ its most common northern relative. This ^/g^^^^ /,„■. /,/., 'U.:< ). !;ii\a ailU L ill > Sri lis Th mcTKan The !■. e L anadian Sk (/ vraiiiih hiinlfrn), larva and L-hrisal M'lHT t.F.rytitfs Mnntiohn.) I'll.- Kid Ad ted l.adv (f\r„m, niral ( /'. at.il„„i„), |a If,/,,/), larva and ihr\.,ali' rva and ihrvsaiis. ■ ' 7"//E STUDY OF INSECTS 141 colored butterflies kno^'ii as the Skippers or Dusky-winq-s. The larvHJ feed, at ni{;ht, upon the plant known as lamb's quarters. Some class the Dusky-winjjs with the moths. There is a strong family resemblance among all the mem- bers of this group, the body being very stou«- for the size of the wings. Most of our butterflies do not recognize the internatioral boundary line at all, and are as common in Canada as in the United States. But we have one butterfly that seems to prefer Canad .n soil and seldom travels south of the 'tariff wall.' This is the Canadian Skipper (Krynnis [paniphilaj, Manitoba). The Moths. The moths may ho grouped as follows : (i) The Sphinx Moths. (2) The Tussock Moths. (3) The Owlets. (4) The Geometrids. (5) The Tiger Moths. (6) The Giant Silkworms. (7) The Leaf Rollers. (8) The Leaf Miners. It is impossible to state here all the distinguishing charac- teristics of these classes of moths, but we note the most important. The Sphinx Moths have very long tongues. The larva; of the Tussock Moths have tufts of hair on the back. The Owlets have stout, tapering bodies and hair-like antennje. The larv:e of Geometrids 'loop' themselves up when travel- ling, thus ' measuring ofl'' distance. The Tiger Moths aie striped or spotted. The Giant Silkworms spin large silken cocoons. The habits of the larva; of the last two classes give the moths their names. The niotiis should be studied in tiie same wav as the butter- flies. Secure their larval forms and rear them in or about 142 NATURE STUDY your homo. The food-plants of the commoner sp.cios are ^iven in the followin-,'- pa^'os as a guide to the student in collecting- the larvic. If the cocoons, which contain the chrysalids, are found, they should be kept in a cool place, each in a separate box, until the moths emerge. Many of these coccH->ns will n- ' produce moths, as the chrysalids may die from various causes. The spinning of a silken cocoon by the larva when it is transformed to the chrysalis stage is usual with those moths which form the chrysalis above ground. Those which form the chrysalis under ground, e.^., the tomato worm, do not spin cocoons but are enclosed in a tough brown case. (1) THE SPHINX MOTH8 The Tomato Sphinx Moth lays its e ,'gs on the tomato, potato, and tobat - CO. In tobacco dis- tricts, this moth (or as some claim, a variety of it) is very abundant and flies at dusk and throughout the night. Their swift flight and manner of of poising before a Lar a of Tomato Sph'.nx flower to extract tne nectar have given theni the local name. Chrysalis of the Tomato Sphinx. THE STUDY OF INSECTS 143 'humming birds.' The hirva is a large green worm, marked with white stripes along the sides. The chrysalis is formed in the ground. The WhiLC-lined Sphinx Moth lays its eggs on purs- lane, apple, grape- vine, turnips, or buckwheat. The larva is yellowish- green or brown with colored markings. The moth is grayish with white veins. A yellowish band crosses each fo.e- wing and a broader delicate pink band crosses each hind- wing. The chry- salis or pupa is formed in the ground. It is much like that of the To- mato Sphinx, but the ' handle' is absent. Both of these moths are attracted by electric lights or other bright lights. The Tomato Sphinx Mo'"-, Larra of White-lined Sphinx Moth. 144 NATURE STUDY ll il The Whitc-liiifd Sphinx Moth. The larvae of the Sphinx Moths are especially suhject to attacl< by the parasitic Ichneumon Fly, which la\s its cy^s in the bodies of the larv;e. These eg'g's hatch and tiie young- fly-Iarv:e live upon the tissues of the Sphinx larva;, escaping only to form lieir white oval cocoons on thtj body of their host, which may Liear several dozen of them. Needless to say the residt is fatal to mine host. A common Sphinx Moth, Clear-wing, which is likelv to be mistaken for a bee or a large fiy is shown in the figure. The larv;e feed on snow-ball and related plants. The moth flies in the heat of the day in Jiuie and July. The Plum Sphinx is an enemy o( the plum tree. The larv;e enter the ground to change to the chrysalis state. Clear-win^ or litre Moth. Chrytsahs of Plum Sphinx, THE STUDY OF INSECTS lio Tlir I'lum Sphinx Moth. (2) THE TUSSOCK MOTHS Til'? Tussock IMotlis are becoming widely known, because of tlieii depredations on shade trees in cities. Tlie female is wintfless, conse- quently this pest I.arva of Tussock Moth. Tussock Moth. (Male) is not likely to .spread rapidly. The cocoons and ^.-i^^s should, however, be collected in winter and destroyed. The Gipsy Moth is a related .species, which happily has not yet been introduced into Canada, but in Massachusett.-, has caused j,rreat depredation, thoug-h thou.sands of dollars have Ixen spent in fiyhtiny it. r.'-' i^^. ^^^ NATURE STUDY (3) THE OWLETS L'lulcrwinf;- Moths are common ni{,'ht flyers. Their fore- wiiij^s usui-lly rescmhle bark in appearance, while their hind- wings are crossed by one or two conspic- uous bars of red, orange, yellow, or white. They belong to a very extensive class, the Owlets, which includes the moths ot' the Arnn- worm, HoII-worm and Cotton-worm. The lar\ ;l' o( the Underwings feed on forest trees. One species preys upon the phnn. Note the thread-like antenn.-c, characteri.ctic of this class. 'I he moth, whose larva is k lown as the Army-worm, be- longs to this group. The Army-worm feeds upon grasses. When they have ex- An L'nderwing Moth. Moth of the Army-worm. hausted the supply in one The Army-wiTm. i ^„ i-. n ., locality, all the worms move with one accord to another, thus forming a sort of army, which, however, is more like a mob, as tliere is no discipline in the ranks. (3) THE GEOMETRIDS Two species of Canker-worm prey upon our fruit trees. These are the Spring and Fall Canker-worms. The larvje «>*f' - .jy . THE STUDY OF , ^-^ECTS 147 are commonly called nieasiiriP};- worn.s, or },'-coinetriJs, K- cause of their mode of locomotion. The body is looped up Larva and Pupa of Spring,' Canker-worm. '•-KBsaiuJ I.arva of Fall Canker-worm. Moths of Canker-worm, a Male, b Female. and then extended. Try to di.scox er the cause of this. Another habit, characteristic of them, is their dropniuK' from the tree and suspending themselves by silken threads when ^ the tree on which they are feed- ing is suddenly jarred. The female moths of both species are wingless. Accord- ingly they may be prevented from depositing eggs on a tree by a band of some sticky paper tied about the trunk. Neither the female moths nor the larva; will cross this. The larvae of both species appear in the spring, but the moths of one emerge in the fall, while those of the other emerge in the following spring; h.^nce their names. The moths ot the fall species may be seen after quite cold weather and their delicate wings seem poorly fitted to with- stand the cold air in which they seem to revel. (5) THE TIQER MOTH8 The Ti^er Moths are well-known in the larval .-tage. The larva of the Isabella Tiger Moth is known as Mt- caterpillar. It IS a hairy caterpillar, brown, with black at each end. In the fall it will be seen travelling ab, i very hurriedly. It hibernates in the larval state, and in the spring has a vora- •-.jv — ywr^ T" '■ J' V^ '-'li: 148 NATURE STUDY Id satisly witli jilmost aiiy- cioiis appotito, wliiili it i-, willi tliinj; in plant form. It soon forms a hairy cocoon (chrysalis stai^o), and in a week or two tlie iiiotli emcri,'es. It is small, taunv yellow in color, with a few dark spots on llie head, wings and body. It flies at night, an<' aiay b^ taken about lights. A related caterpillar is known as the Wllow Bear. It is Q.)vered with long yellow hairs of uneven length which may vary in color froin yellow to brown. It feeds upon almost any herbaceous plant, and is common in Sep- tember and October. It passes the winter in the chrysalis state. The moth is "pure white, with a few small black spots on tlie wing' and with orange and black on tlie abdomen." The Hickory Tig^er I.arva of Hickory Tl^fcr Moth. m .1 • xi Moth IS another com- mon form. The larva; feed on hickory, butter- nut and other forest trees. The moth is ochre yel- low or brown in color, the fore wings dotted with white. It is com- mon about lights at night. The Harlequin Milk- weed Caterpillar is abun- dant on the milkweed. xh, Harlc..u„. M,lkw.ed CaUrpill.r. THE STUDY OF INSECTS 149 TIk- inolh is bliK-^^n.y with unadorned win>,'s, but with a yellow alHlomen spotted with black. It Hies in the summer months. (0) THE GIANT SILKWORMS The Cccropia or Emperor Moth is one of the Iarj,-est species of this or any ^^roup. Expanse 6-6; < inches. The c^^^s are laid on the wild cherry, alder, willow, and many other trees. Cecropia or Emperor Moth. The Iarv:e attain a len^rth of three to four inches and a thick- ness of three-fourths of an inch. The cocoons are formed on trees and vary in shape. The moths leave the co- coons in May and June. Look for the cocoons after the leaves have fallen. , , ^ The related species are Larva of Emperor Moth. the Polyphemus, the I'romethea, the f-una, and the lo Moths. Cocoon of Emperor Moth. ^•■. :^r 150 NATURE STUDY The Polyphemus is known as the Amcrlc.in Siikwdrm. l^xpan>e 5-6 inclus. Tlie cj^^j^s are laid in clusters ( 1 5 to 20) on the under sides of oak, elni, butternut, maple, or linden The Polyphemus Mnth. leaves. The larvje are green. The white, oval cocoons are closely woven, each containing about eight hundred feet of silk, which is suitable for silk manufacture. The chrysalis has n. peculiar habit of shifting about in its Larva of Polyphemus Moth. THE STimv or INSECTS l.^I cocoon in a very lively m;..,nor, so that one is inclinod to drop the cocoon, ifhandlin^rit (ot tlic first time. Tl.o moths emor^'e in May. Look for cocoons amonj^'- lliL- fallen leaves of its food-plants. The larviu and cocoons of the Luna Moth are very similar to those of Polyphemus. The moths, however, are slrikinj,'ly different. They are Iari,'-e and The \vinj,'s bear eye-like spots, with The larv;e feed on hickory, wahuit, and birch, and the cocoons will be found among the fallen leaves under these trees. CoC(K)n of Totyphrmus Moth, bluisli-j,Meen in color, transparent centres. Luna Moth. fre»b from its Cocoon Tails oJ hind wingt not completely extended. . ' ') MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART ,ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2) 1.0 12.8 I.I 1.25 '" yiii— «^ m I: m !^ 140 1.4 [ 2.5 2.2 2£ 1.6 ^ APPL IE D IM/IGE Inc ^^ >';,' r':'J V -; " '/-eet ■^= '716) 482 - OJOO - Pnone ^= i7l6) 288 - 5989 - Fox tl! I! M^ ise NATURE STUDY The Pfomethea Moth is a day-flier. It 'never takes food and is llierefore short lived.' There are two broods, the eyj,'-s of the first being laid in May and June, those of the second in lo Moth. (Male.) August and September. They are laid in clusters (5-30). The larvie feed on the wild cherry, sassafras, buttonwood, ash, etc., at night. The cocoons arc made in leaves, which remain lo Moth. (Female.) on the trees, those of the first brood for three or four weeks ; those ol' the second brood, all winter. The egg-^ of the lo Moth are I;iid in cluster-: (20-80) on corn, cherry, hop, apple, elm, oak, willow, etc. The larva; are THE STUDY OF INSECTS 153 covered with spines, whose prick is slij^-htly poisonous, like nettles. The thin cocoons are made anions,"- tlie loaves. on the yround. Larva of lo Moth. (7) THE LEAF ROLLERS Th- social instinct is developed in the Tent Caterpillars. These build cobweb-like tents, which protect the caterpillars from their enemies and from inclement weather. Female. Male. Mothii of Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar. In July, the moth of the Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar lavs hundreds of egg's in a varnished brown mass, encircling a stem of an apple tree or a wild cherry tree. These eggs hatch in the following spring. The larv;e spin a network of silk in the fork of the tree. In this tent they remain, except in early 154 NATURE STUDY ri miM-niiijr and late afternoon, when they leave it to obtain food. They usually leave the tent in Indian file, and keep in toueh with it hy means o( threads of silk; each larva spinnings out a thread as it moves alon^. The cocoons are formed under stones, boards, etc. They are oval, and among- the threads is a pecidiar dry yellow pow- der. The moths emer<,'^e from the cocoons two or three weeks after they are formed. They are small, yellowish-brown in color and each forewing' is crossed by two light yel- low lines. The Forest Tent Cat- erpillar is a rel ited species, which damages It is particularly fond of wild cherry. Thii, species does not build a tent, and it forms its cocoon in the tree. The larva is similar to the preceding, but has a row of spots instead of the white line along- the back. The eggs, tents and caterpillars of these moths should be destroyed whenever found. Trees which are infested should be sprayed with Paris green when the buds appear in spring. The Cherry Web-worm also builds a tent, but in this case branches and leaves are enclosed and the larvje do not leave the nest to feed. The chrysalids are formed in the tent. Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar, a b Larva;. c Egg«. d Cocoon. orchards as well as forests. !M i THE STUDY OF INSECTS 155 The Fall Web-worm also builds a tent which encloses twigs and leaves, upon whicli the larvje feed, but the chrysalids (pupaj) are formed upon the ground and remain in this state throughout the winter. The motn, which emerges in June or July, is pure white or, in some cases, the fore wings are -potted. Everybody has made the acquaintance of the larva of the Cod- ling Moth, at least, when too hastily bit- ing an early ripe-look- ing, windfall apple. I» _ _ I Fall Web-worm, (a Larva, b Chrysalis, c Moth.) its ravages are also too common in our winter fruit. The moth is on the wing about the time that the apple tree is in bloom, and deposits her eggs in the upper ends of the blossoms. The larvae soon hatch and penetrate the fruit, thereby preventing its proper development. If a bandage of old cotton cloth is tied about the trunk many of the larvae will be secured in the chrysalis stage and may be destroyed. The bandages should be examined once a week, as ten days is the average length of the chrysalis state. A second brood will be formed ii the first is not destroyed. All fallen fruit should be destroyed at once. Spraying trees with Paris green just after the falling of the blossom will kill the larvie. Examine the damage done to a wormy apple. Examine the larva found in an apple. (8) THE LEAF MINERS The typical moths of this group lay eggs on leaves and the larvae mine into their soft tissues. ..'* v. 1 . . '/.* ^ i' 186 NATURE STUDY The Clothes Moth deposits its e^^'s in furs or in woollens. The larvje feed upon these, enclosiu}- themseUes in a case made of the fur or cloth, just as the larvs of the caddis- flies enclose themselves in cases of stones, shells etc Eventually the larv.x' spin cocoons of the fur or wool, thus further destroyipok. They may be mistaken for small snail shells or mere masses of sand. Collect them and ob- serve them at home. You will find that these apparently about. In fact each encloses the I here are many varieties, which manmiate mass.'s move larva of a Caddis-fly. make different kinds of cases o{ sticks, stones, or leaves. Some are free and some are attached to stones. Fixamine the undersides of stones where the water of the stream flows rapidly. You will find small objects such as stones, clam shells, and even nails, adhering to the surface. A CadJis-worm in its case. • # Cases of Caddis-fly Larvae. Caddis-flv. Remove these carefully and you will find that they are attached to each other and to the stone by a sort of network. At one part of the surface of the stone a larger mass of these small objects will be observed. In this will be found a larva of a species of Caddis-fly, an insect related to the Dragon-fly. iV. THE TRUE BUGS. ETC. (Hemiplera) A great many trees and house-plants are often infested with plant-lice (Aphides). The males are winged, the females are wingless. They multiply rapidly during the warm weather, and, in the fall, deposit thick-shelled eggs, which survive the winter. Often in October the winged males become so numerous as f 1 1A2 NATUPF STUDY ere arc iii.iiiy sjuciivs iiifcst- ••"emale. Male. Pl«nt-lice (EnlarBeJ.) to be a dccitied amu>\aiKi-. I li iiiK' various plants Ants kcp the aphides for the pnrposo of securin^^ the honey wh.ch exudes fro„, the two posterior projections. I hey have been called the ' niilch-cous ' of the ants. A few years ago, a poach tree was so infested with aphides as to cause the leaves to curl up. Money bees, i„ |arj,re numbers, were seen to visit the tree, althoui^h it was not in bloom. They were evi- dently j^-^athering- honey from the plant-lice. Aphides do not eat the leaves but suck the sap, consequently they cannot be killed by spraying- uith PO'-'^onous solutions. Oily solutions, such as whale-oil soap, kerosene emulsion, etc if sprayed upon them, will close up the breathing pores and thus kdl them. The Cicada. In the hot days of July and August the penetrating crescendo buzz of the Cicadas may be heard in many localities. Their distribu- tion does not seem to be gen- e r a 1 by any means. The ^ adults live in the A P.,pa Case of D.^-day Uarvc.t t.ees, where thev '^"^'^"^ "''""' ^"^• ""S- C Claw of front foot. •' , ., , ^^^'posa their eggs. These hatch out and the larva> drop to the ground. They burrow about the THF STUDY OF INSECTS Itt roots of the tree and live upon ,hc sap which th.v cx.r.ct from the to.ulcT rootlets. <^ extract nifferent species of Cicada vary i:, the length of their -val per.od. Our eouunon species, the „o,^-Ja,. Har " Hu^. matures i„ about two years, hut thert a,^ sp c^ At the end of the h.rval period, the insect crawls onto he ..round and ascends a tree, fence, or other suppo t til reaches a spot to which it can securely fasten itself Th e mc support. After emer^nn^s the adult climbs a '•ttle farther up the tree and rests until the wini,s exnanJ t are strong enough for flying. ^ '^'"'^^ ^'"^ The process described in th> i. » ^^v„., Ho„„, K,, . ,:::: r::;:, 'r..~r:.:::!:''r the time will be well spent No v -rh i . • ""^"'^^ 't, f -11 . "»^" •■'pcnr. ^^^ verbal descript on nor s..r;,.^. of Illustrations can adequately depict it Notth/T T ""'''' '""'■ •'^'^'"^ ^'" ^-- -^^ fences No c the jerky, .,^..,ag fli^.ht of the adult insect which makes its capture difficult. ' ^"'*' Jhe Cicadas in the larval state do considerable damage to The Squash Bug and the Stink Bug are familiar insects. The former is common vvherever its food-plants (pumpkin, squash, etc.), abound. If you have spent much time about rasp- berry bushes, you have probably been aware of the presence of the Stink Bug. Its musky " — • odor will not be forgotten, nor its taste if v „ , a raspberry perfumed with it. ' ^ ' '''"''^" ''''''" An insect, which looks somewhat like a Stick Ins.ct Squash Bug. 104 NATURE STUDY »i I » ii Kissing^ Bug-. vvitli \\iiij,rs, is the Thread-legged Bug (Emesa longipes). This insect is a near relative of the so-called Kissing Bug, which attained such notoriety in 1898 in the United States. Comstock calls it 'Assassin Bug.' Reduvius personahis is the most widely distributed repre- sentative of the Kissnig Bugs. It inhabits dirty cellars of houses and feeds on other insects Its mouth parts form a long tube which it inserts in its victim. The Giant Water Bug is familiar to most of us, even if its name is not. It often migrates at night, and is found on the ground under electric lights. In 1898 I saw one exhibited on one of the To- ronto-Montreal boats, as the genuine Kissing Bug The Back Swimmers and Water-boatmen are other members of this group which li\e in water. The Giant Water Bug. On ponds and quiet pools will be seen long-legged insects that run over the water with the greatest ease. These are the Water Stnders. Exam- ine their legs with a microscope to see the fine hairs upon them It seems surprising that these insects can defy ordinary laws, but the surface of water is much more resistant than you think Lay a dry, clean sewing needle Water Boatman. Very evenly and carefully on the surface Back Swimmer. THE STUDY OF INSECTS 165 of water and it will float, upheld by the tension of the surface fihn of water. It is not surprising therefore, that ^"i:ill insects can walk on water. The Water Striders. V. GRASSHOPPERS, ETC. (Orthoptera) The Grasshoppers, Katydids, and Crickets are the sonj,-- sters of the insect tribe These with the Cicadas are the only invertebrates which have sound-producing powers worth mentioning True, their songs are somewhat mono- tonous, but so are the songs of savages to our cultivated ears. Still the sounds are musical. The Red-legged Grasshopper is often a destructive pest in grain fields. It deposits its eggs in the ground, in which they hatch, and in which the young develop to a large size. When they emerge they are wingless, but the wings soon develop fully. These young grasshoppers may be found early in the season. Note the comparatively short antennjE (horns), which give this grasshopper and its relatives the name —Short-horned Grasshoppers The Rocky Mountain Locust (Grasshopper), is the western representative of the Short-horned Grasshoppers "They are hatched out in tlie plains in countless numbers, eat up every- thing before them, and consequently become destitute; instinct compels them to move on, just as in the case of the army-worm, and, being winged insects, they fly up into the air to a considerable height, and are then borne aloiiir by the 166 NATURE STUDY ^*: m A '}'-^. A^? r wind, Hliglitinjjf wlu'ii they rea''h a country covered with vegetation." Collect as many grasshoppers as you can, whose antennae are shorter than the body. Observe their mode of locomotion. How are they adapted for jumping? For flying? how are they protected from observation ? Why do they ' spit mo- lasses ' when handled ? Examine difTerent species to discover how they produce sound by rubbing the legs against the wings. Only males produce sounds, Hold a grasshopper in the hand and observe its breathing^. The abdomen expands and contracts regularly, showing that the breathing organs are situated in this part. Look for the breathing pores (spiracles) along the sides of the thorax (chest) and abdomen. There are ten on each side, two on the thorax and eight on the first eight segments of the abdomen. Examine the eyes. Be- tween the two large ones Ti ^^>^'^ there are three small simple ones called ocelli. The antennae are the feel- ers. With a lens you can see their structure. Examine the mouth parts to discover how it bites. The three pairs of legs are attached to the three parts of the thorax. Examine the structure of each pair of legs. With which pair does it jump ? How is this pair specially adapted for jumping? Where are the wings attacheil ? The ear is situated on tlie hrst segmeiU of the abdomen, just behind the breathing pore on that sognient. ' is a sort of crescent-shaped opening, covered with a thin membrane which corresponds to the drum of our ears. The Meadow Grasshopper. THE STUDY OF INSECTS 167 The true grasshoppers have antennfe which are as long as, or longer than, the body. Hence they are called the Long- horned Grasshoppers. The Cone-headed Grasshopper is a familiar species, which makes a piercing 's-zip-s-zip-s-zip ' in rapid and continuous suc- cession. Note the pointed head. The Meadow Grasshopper has a little more variety in its song. It sings ' zip, zip, zip, zip, zee-e-e-e-e-e.' The Katydids belong to this group. They live and sing in the trees. Whether they say 'Katydid' or 'Katydid'nt' you should decide for your- self by making captives of some of them and listening to their music. The Crickets form a third group of singing insec . Everyone has seen and heard the Brown Crickets in garden and in field ; yet few of us I-.ave observed the way in which the 'cri-cri ' is produced by the wings, "The Hearth The Katydid. Cricket of Europe is not common on this continent except in Cimiidii."—//omin/. It is a yellowish-colored insect. The Tree Crickets are alwirys heard, but seldom seen. They are Me musicians of the night. Without them the silence would be felt. They have mostly white or greenish- white wings, and in the daytime may be found on plants. ^W ii I 11 I ! w> 168 NATURE STUDY Ir-* wail'my for the nightfall, when they tune their lyres. Look for them on sunflower plants and low shrubs. X The wing's are delicately fashioned and veined. In- / \ I deed the whole insect is most ethereal in appear- ance, although it has a very material effect on the grape and raspberry, in the stems The llearlli Cricket. of which the female deposits her The Ivory-colored Tree Cric- kets keep up alternate trillings, differing by a lone, which form the background, so to speak, of all the music of the nightly choir. The Rroad-winged Climbing Cricket has a song which is a ' continuous shrill, high-pitched rattle-whistle.' Note the different soimds which are heard at night, at different seasons of the year. How do the sounds on ;i warm night compare with those on a cool night? .\t what time of year do thev be- ..... 1 -' !-J . .^(ICtV ill Wi.c.c.U? THE STUDY OF INSECTS 169 does rain affect them? How does moonliijht affect them? Do they survive hard frosts? The Stictc Insects, or Walkiny-sticks, belong' to tlie same group as tiie grasshoppers, etc. They resemble small branches even in details, and are thus protected from their enemies as well as from nature sf'.iden'.s. As long as tliey stay on trees they are not likely to be noticed. VI THE BFETLES. (Cok-optora) The Beetles are insects which have the outer pair of wings hardened to form a protection for the body. A com- mon example is the Colorado (Potato) Beetle. The Stag Beetle or Pinching Bug is a frequent visitor in our houses at Beetle. Paasiiius cornntus Burying Beetle. May Beetle. night. It is attracted by the light. A black, shiny beetle yPassalns conitiius), will be lound among decaying wood. The wings are strongly ribbed. The head is provided with three short horns, a pair of stout antennai, and very formld- ;d")le jaws. An interesting species is the Burying Beetle, which buries freshly killed animals, such as squirrels, mice, moles, etc., by exca\ating the earth underneath the dead animal. The eggs are deposited in the buried carcass, and when the young larvaj hatch out, they feed upon the animal. The young of beetles pass through a larval stage (grub), similar to the larvae of insects. ;!il I 'i: ii; t> lih 170 NATURE STUDY In ditj^'ing' up garden soil one is almost sure to turn up white, t^ruh-like larva; with orauj^e-yellow heads. These are the larvae of the May Beetle. This beetle lives on the cherry and other trees. The lar\ :e feed on the roots of plants and thereby kill them. The (Irape-vine Flea Beetle is a eomnum pest of J,'rape vines, upon the leaves of which the larvai feed. The Spotted Pelid- nota is common on The Grape-vine Flea Beetle. is a small beetle which does great damage to plums. At rest, it looks very much like the dried bud of a tree. The beetle deposits its eggs in the blossom just as the fruit is formed, in this re- spect resembling the Codling Moth. These eggs produce grub-like larv.-u which pene- trate into the fruit, causing decay and premature falling. The larvae form chrysa- a lids in the ground, in which >l spring' into the air .se\eral inches, ^ The Whirligig Uctllc. A 1'reJ.ueous Diving Hli-iIc. A Water Beetle. A Water Tiger. (Larva of the Predaceous Diving Beetle.) turn itself over, and alii,'-ht on its feet. Its larval stage is passed in decaying wood. The larva of one species, which lives in the ground, is commonly known a.s the Wire-worm, and is often destructive to corn and wheat, the roots of which it attacks. The larval stage extends over two, or, perhaps, three years. HOW INSECTS BREATHE Reference has been made to the breathing pores of certain larv.-e and to the breathing of the grasshopper. Tlie breath- ing pores of insects are on the sides of the thorax and abdo- men. I^xamine the water insects, especially the Giant Water Bug. Two tubes project beyond the hinder end of the body. I ^llLlill S 1 nc iiirvji or inv; un^suUiio -n THE STUDY OF 'NSFCTS 175 has a liih- eiulinj,' in a voscttc of hairs. This tiiK- hra.uhcs oir IfiMn the hoJy luar the liiiul end, and suppncs the aquatic larva uitli air. All these opciiin^-s and tubes lead into a network of small tubes (trachea-). The blood circulates throu},4i the walls of these tubes and is there aerated. These tracheiu are closely connected, by means of the blood vessels, with the heart, which is situated in the abdomei- just above them. If these openinj^'s are stopped tlie insect will die by suffo- cation. The surest way, therefore, of killinjf insect pests which cannot be poisoned with Paris green, etc., is to spray them with oily solutions such as kerosene emulsion, or w'vile- oil soap solution. If the insect or its larva lives under water, the oil should be poured on the water. It forms a tilm on the surface of the water which will effectually shut off the air supply. VII. WASPS, BEES, AND ANTS. (Hymenoptera) The Waips, Bees, and Ants belong to a very large order of insects known as Hymenoptera, or membrane-winged insects. They differ fr(, i the other orders of insects in two marked respects— in the formation of their mouths, which are composed of two mandibles, and in the fact that they have two pairs of wings. The study of the Hymenoptera is especially interesting, on account of the highly organized social life of certain of the species, the seeming intelligence which they exhibit, and the peculiar phenomenon of sex-abortion common to the social species. In addition to this, the nature student will find an especially attractive field of study in the examination of the relation of the different families to plant and insect life. (1) WASPS THa c<^<'i•l1 }'ifa r^f fVir> ...^ :., 1- "'s"'.r >jv;n_n.n)uu man Ill 176 NATURE STUnV i mi i r;ii' ' ! ' 1 \ j ( ii JBHHHj) •-'1 cjs-.^ . -^ I W^ , th;it of tlio Ihos ariil ants. I Ik- lallor roprcsoiit later sta^'cs ill tlio (.•\(.>lutii>n nt' the lito of the (.omrmiiiilv . Ill ^-eiieral apnearain. c the uasp tlifVers from tlic bee in tlie furri' of its hoih-, which is lonj^-er, more sliruler, smoother, ami less hairy. The wasp has not yet leariieil to se -k its food to any extent in the llouers, and consequentiv does not require the hairy lej^'s or Mie pollen-baskets which the bee has developed for the purpose of carryinj,' its food. The wasp has two compound eyes. Kach eye is c^ .i- posed of se\eral hundred simple eyes or facets. Notice the white line which runs throuj,'h each eye. Test the wasp's powei of si},-ht in various ways. Remove some of the land- marks from the nei},dihorhood of the nest and watch the results. Try the effect of diflerent colored papers pi. teed over the en- trance to the nest. Besides the two compound eyes the wasp has three simple eyes, called oce//i, in the forehead. These ocelli are sensitive to liy^ht, but do not enable the wasp to see. Tlie wasp has two antennie, or feelers, protruding from the lace. Notice the divisions of these antenmu. How many joints are there in each? The small joints at the end of the antenn:e are covered with hearing^ and smellinir organs of microscopic sizi;. With a microscope examine the mouth and tongue of a wasp, and notice the complicated machinery by which the tongue is protected. The tongue of the wasp is short and flat, and is not adapted for extracting the honey from flowers. Make careful note of the kinds of flowers upon which you find wasps feeding. Do you ever see them feeding upon the sweet clover, or the golden rod ? Wasps are omnivorous. They are fond of sweets of all kinds, as well as of insect food and decaying meat. In your walks in early spring, you will observe them feasting on the sap which itozes from the stu.m.DS of the tro:>^. '.vhr>rt» th^ THE STUDY OF INSECTS 177 \voocl-clu>ppors hiivc l>c-oii at work. Kvory-oiio lias had the unpleasant sensation o( fiiulin-,-- wasps in the holes in fallen fruit. Do they find their way into your kitchen in preservinj^ time? What attracts them? I'pon hat insects do the wasps prey? Try whether your captive wasps will touch flics or the cabbaj^'e butterfly, or raw meat. The wasp has an unfortunate failitii; (or intoxicants, and if supplied with a beveraj^e of alcohol sweeteneJ with su<,'ar, will return ai^'ain and a},'-ain to it, until it becomes helpless. I he body of the wasp is divided into three main divisions, the head, the thorax (or chest), and the abdomen. The six le^s of the wasp are attached to the thorax. Kxamine the Icf^^s with a microscope, and count the joints. Notice the cleanliness of the wasp. After eatinj,-- it uses its front pair of Iej4-s to clean »ts face, goin^ throuj^h the operation much after the manner of a cat washing itself. Observe the special de- vice on t,)e joint of the fore leg, the prong and groove, for cleaning the anteiuKe. How many wings has the wasp ? To what part of the body are they attached ? Which wings are the larger? How arc the wings fastened together ? Does it ever unhook the lower ones from the upper? It is chiefly by the movement of the wings that the humming sound of the wasp is produced. The sting of the wasp, which serves also as an ovipositor, is situated at the end of the abdomen. It consists of two Unices running in a groove and connected with a poison-sac in the body. When the sting pierces the skin of the human body the wasp is generally unable to withdraw it, and is forced to leave it. The wasp does not often survive the shorlr and ttiin-- lif.».-.illir ,r',x-.^.. :... i:r^ r-- . Cleaner of Wasp. in ucai- 178 NATURE STUDY ii' III! t'i in^"- with the wasps choose a cold day ; on a hot day they are r.nich more easily exc'ted, and much more likely to stin;,"-. If a wasp is loft to itself it will not stinj,'-, and may even be held in the hand, if care he taken not to frighten it. On the basis of habit, Wcasps are divided into two classes, (i) the Social Wasps, and (2). the Solitary Wasps. (i) The Social Wasps, The Social Wasps are divided into two main classes or t;enera, according as the cells of the nest are enclosed by a paper covering or left unpro- tected. The former class, belonging to the genus Vespa, includes two well-known species, the Hornets and the Yellow-jackets. The Hornet may be distinguisiied from the Yellow-jacket by its larger size, by the whit'- markings on its face and body, and by the fad that it suspends its nest from the branch of a tree or the roof of a building. The Yellow-jacket is black, marked with bright yellow, and its nest is built ii^ a hole in the ground. In a community of Social Wasps as well as of bees and ants, three classes of individuals are found — the queen, the workers, and the drones. The queen is the mother and founder '^f the hive, and lays all the eggs from which the others are hatched. The workers are undeveloped females, and it is upon them that the entire care of the hive devolves. The drones are the male wasps. The life of a wasp community Is limited to a single season. With the coming on of the cold weather in the autiunn, the workers and the drones die olT, and only a few of the queens sui\i\"e, in a torpid state, until spring. In the spring each svirviving queen founds a new com- miuiity. Ha\ing selected a ruitable spot she builds a cell of paper, deposits an cy^t:; in it and leaves it to hatch out, while she continues to construct new cells in connection with THE STUDY OF INSECTS 179 the fir:-t. In the course of time the e^'-.t,^ hatches in the form of a grub or larva. After the larva is fed for a time, it spins a cocoon and is tlien known as a pupa. After a few davs it emerges as a full-grown wasp, ready to undertake the duties of the hive. The cell which has been thus vacated is cleaned out and used once more for the same pu pose. The first wasps oi' the season are workers : then the drones are hatched, and lastly the queens appear. After a circle of nine or a dozen ceils has been formed, the wasps proceed to enclose the nest in a paper covering. The paper is made of wood fibres which have been kneaded and cemented in the mouth of the worker. As time goes on, other walls— sometimes a dozen or more — are added to the nest. In the meantime, in the interiof of the nest other tiers of cells are added to the first, and the different tiers are extended by the addition of new cells. The structure is enlarged from time to time by tearing down the interior walls of the nest. In the fall, with the ap- proach of cold weather, the nest is deserted by all the wasps, and even the larv;e are forsaken. The few r e m a i n i n g w a r m days are spent in feast- A wasp's nest may be captured and carried off bodily on any cool e\en- ing, when the inhabitants are too much benumbed by the cold to offer serious resistance. It should K» .. - ,. j^n -^^ ' - |i ^^■S j. iM i f ^^^^^^■^ '\ 1 '■ ^^^^■'' 1 ? ' ^H: \\' ^■; ! i ^^^^■■'t *■ ^Hi: i;^;' H^H. ii. Tl ll Jf^ 180 NATURE STUDY placed in a glass-covered box of such a si/c Uiat it will fit into the bottom of the window frame. An opening must he made in the box to allow the wasps freedom to come and go with their supplies. The interna' economy of a wasp's nest may thus be observed with little inconvenience or danger on the part of the observer. The wasps of the genus Polistes, the nest of which is not enclosed by papi-r walls, differ in se\ eral respects from the Hornets and Vellow-jackets. In appearance they are brown, with reddish spots and yellow rings, and they are longer Polistes. Nest of Polistes. and more slender in form. The nest of the Polistes is generally attached horizontally to a tree or to tiie wall of a building. The communities in this species are small, and only a few cells are foimd in each nest. (j) The Solitary "Wasps. The Stiitary Wasps are divideil into three classes- -the Masons or .\iud-daubers, the Car- penters, and the Miners. I. The Masons attach their mud nests to the walls of sheds, barns, boat-houses, etc., and sometimes build them on the face of the bank of a lake or ^tream. In the spring each of tlie female wasps which has survived tiie winter, begins to construct a ilat, oblong cell, with mud obtained from sonie puddle in the vicinily. W'iien the cell is finished, the wasp catches a spider, par,d\zes it with her sting, and dI'icc- i' '"• *b.;^ fartb.tT i.^\\d of ih.e celL On. tliis spitier an THE STUDY OF INSECTS 181 • ^Hii is laid, and the cell is then packed as full as possihle with spiders. Tlie larva of the wasp thrives best on fresh, livitig" fo( ', and tiie mother wasp possesses the secret of paralyzinj^' her \ ictinis without killing' them, so that they remain alive until devoured by the young larva. When the cell is fully provisioned the end is sealed up. In the course of time the egg hatches, and the larva devours the spiders. It tiien spins a cocoon, and in a few days emerges from its clay tenement a firtl-grown wasp. When the mother wasp has com- pleted one cell it proceeds to construct another side by side with the first. After it has built and provisioned a num- ber of cells it dies, leaving the newly- hatched wasps to construct new nests of their own. In the fall the wasps of the last brood do not lay their eggs, but lie dormant until the spring : the pupai that are still unhatched when the cold weather comes on, remain in the cocoon stage during the winter, and emerge in the spring. In this way the perpetuation of the species from year to year is ensured. 2. The Miners, or Digger Wasps, resemble the Masons in genera! habits. But, instead of building a mud cell, the Digger Wasp digs a tunnel some six or eight inches deep in the ground, and provisions it with green grasshop- pers, crickets, cicadas, etc. After securing the grasshopper or cicada and paralyzing- it, the wasp g-enerally finds that it is unable to fly with so heavy a load. It accordingly drags its burden to the top of a fence post or some other elevation from which it can get a fair start. By repeating this opera- tion at several stages of the iourney, it finally manaires to Mud Cells of Mason Wasps. 182 NATURE STUDY i ri PPPI' If. r til- H > reach its destination. Tlie strcn^'-th and perseverance oi tiiese frai^ile-loiVKint; insects is worthy of admiration. 1 vvatclied one of them one day removing-- an acorn which had been pressed some half an incii into the mouth of the tunnel so that it completely blocked the passai^-^e. It took half a day's hard work on the part of the wasp, but it finally succeeded in removing the ob- struction. Digfjcr Wasp carrj ijig- Cicada. Tunnel of Digger Wasp. If you should have an opportunity of observing- a colony of Digger Wasps, after due observation, settle the following points for yourselves: — How does the wasp remove the earth from the tunnel ? Does it require more than one grasshopper to provision each cell ? Does the wasp take its victim directly into the tunnel, or does it go in first to examine the cell ? How does it go into the tunnel — head foremost or sting foremost ? How does it take its victim in ? How does it come out ? Does it block up the mouth of the tunnel in its absence? Do the members of a wasp colonv ever rob each other, or ever fight ? 3. The Carpenter Wasp, or Wood-borer, chooses a small 14. I'»t-/rii .^iii ^ I I < rli '^j l< ' THE STUDY OF INSECTS 183 for a cell, stocks it with insects of various kinds, and finally closes it with a covering of mud. Instead of constructing- cells in this manner, certain Wood-borers make use of the hollow stalks of the elder, bramble, sumach, etc., which they partition oil" into apartments, ar.d provision in the usual way. (2) BEES ICxamine tlie different parts of the bee, anil compare them with those of the wasp already described. Notice especially the hairs on different parts of the body, the pollen-baskets on the hind les^^s, and tlie formation of the mouth parts, which are leni,'-thened into a proboscis. What purposes do the hairs, the pollen-baskets, and the proboscis serve in the life of the bee ? Hees, as well as wasps, are divided into two classes, the Social Bees, and the Solitary Hees. Of the Social Bees the two best known species are the common Honey Bee and the Bumble Bee, or Humble Bee. (i) The Honey Bee is an importation from Europe, and is valuable on account of its production of honey. The social life of the Honey Bee is more hiyhly developed than that of the wasp. Only one queen bee, for example, is to be foimd in a sing^le hive, and without the queen it is impos- sible for the hive to exist. The con- ditions inider which new queens are produced will form, for the stutlent, an exceedingly interesting' subject of study. The food of the bee consists al- most entirely of the nectar and the pollen of flowers. The nectar undergoes a chang-e in the stomach oi the bee. atid hi^nev is nnx-iuced ■T MP 184 NATURE STUDY and stored away for future use. How does the bee carry home the pollen? What is done with it? Watch a bee gathering nectar and pollen. Von will notice that when leav- inj^- one flower it 1,'^oes to another of the same kind. What reason is there for this ? Does the bee perform any service for the flowers in return for the pollen and honey which it obt;iins from them? What color do the bees prefer? To what extent h;i\e the flowers adapted themselves to the bees, in form and in color ? Have the flowers uliich the bees visit any perfume? Do the early sprint,-- flowers — .Inemone, Hepatica, Bloodroot, etc., attract the bees? In the orchard, what fruit trees require the services o{ the bees? Are the blossoms of these trees fra^'-rant ? Within the hive itself the most inteiestins,'- process is that of makinsjf wax. The following description is quoted from "The Pastoral Bees," by John Burroughs : — "When wax is to be made, the wax-makers fill themselves with honey and retire into their chamber for private medita- tion — it is like some solemn religious rite : they take hold of hands, or hook themselves together in long- lines that hang in festoons from the top of the hivv , and wait for the miracle to transpire. After about twenty-four hours their patience is rewarded ; the honey is turned into wax, minute scales of which are secreted from between the rings oi' the abdomen of each bee ; this is taken off, and from it the comb is built up. It is calculated that about twenty-five pounds of honey are used in elaborating one pound of comb, to say nothing of the time that is lost." The student will find the whole essay o\\ "Tb.e Pastoral Bees " exceedingly interesting and instructis e. (2) The Bumble Bee. Many species of Bumble Bees or Wild Bees are found in Canada, but the species known ,.,1 „f *t,„ THE STUDY OF INSF.CTS 185 The Bumhle Bee constructs a nest of nuiss ami dried ^rass a few inclios hclow tlie surface o( the j^touiuI. Sonietiiiu's the deseited nest of a field-mouse is made use of. The queen bees are tlie only ones which survive the winter, and in tlie spring- each queen founds a new colony in an under- g-round nest. Hy securing a nest and placing li in a glass- covered box fitted into the bottom of the window-sash, you may have an opportunity of observing the working- of the colony. If you examine a nes^ in July or August you will find it composed of about twenty cells, or perhaps less. These cells contain larv;e and pup;e in all stages ot develop- ment. A few of the cells, those which have already been used, will be found to contain honey. Tiie hi\e itself will be found to consist, in the first place, of the old queen, with perhaps two or three queens newly hatched, a number of drones, easily distinguished by their larger size, and a num- ber of workers of different si/es. The smaller workers per- form the duties of nursing th; larvie and caring for the cells : the larger workers look after the external structure of the nest, and supply the food for the hive. Care must be taken in examining a nest, as the workers sting severely. The drc)nes of course h;ive no sting. Besides the legitimate members of the hive, a Bumble Bee's nesL will sometimes be found to contain Cuckoo Bees, or parasites, who lay their eggs in the cells of the Bumble Bees and leave the workers to care for them. After having made hin'^ elf familiar with the habits of the Social Bees, the student will find it interesting to study the habits of the Solitary Bees — the Carpenters, the I.eaf-cutters, the Masons, the Burrowers, etc. (3) ANTS The Ants form a large division of the Hymenoptera ; ill h i = ■1 1 1!^ liy: ^1 (li i : li'l liM im NATURE STUDY from tlio wasps ami the hoes in the fact that all the species are social and liw in coinniunitics. In an oriiinar\ ant coni- iminity lue ilillcrenl classes of ants are touncl, queens, males, larj^'-e witrkers, stnall workers, and siikliers. At certain seasons the queens and males are provided with winj,'s. Tnc e^'j^'s of the ant pass thronj^'h the usual staj^-es in develop- ment- from ej4t,''s to larv;e, from larv;e to pupiu, and from pup;e to full yrown ants. The pup;u are enclosed generally in white silken cocoons. These cocoons are the objects of special care on the part of the workers, who carry them from place to place ir. the nest to secure favorable conditions of heat, moisture, etc. If the nest is disturbed, the workers at once attempt to carry the cocoons to a place of safety. The life of an ant community is continued from year to year, and differs in this respect from that of a community of wasps and bumble bees. Ant Hill, eight teet in diameter. THE STUDY OF INSECTS 187 DitTorcnt spocics of ants occupy difTcrciU kiiuls of nests. Some species li%e in chambers under j,'rounil ; some make galleries in decavinj,'- wood ; some build ' hills' or mounds. A ^'reat variety of substances are used by ants as food. They feed upon decaying flesh, insects, fruit, sap, etc. They are fond of the ' honey-dew,' the secretions from the bodies of the aphides ov plant-lice. It is supposed that ants reco_i,Mii/e niembers of their own hive by the sense of touch, or the sense of smell, located in the antennai ; and that they find their way to their nests, when away from home, by meaiw of ant paths previously travelled, which they are able to follow also by the sense of smell. It is claimed by some that the ant on no occasion shows evidence of possessinjj any special intelli^'-ence, but that all its actions are merely mechanical. The nature stu- dent w ill find it an interesting matter to investigate this sub- ject for himself. Besides the Wasps, Bees, and Ants, the order Hymenop- tera includes many other classes of insects, such as Gall-flies, Saw-flies, et':., which may possibly come under the notice of the nature student. He should at least make a study of the galls or swellings on the stems of the common plants. Golden-rod, Willow, eic, caused by these insects. "There ho lour tliiiiy-, wliiili .ue littU- upon llu" o.irth, but tht y are ex ootUng' wi^.o : " The ants .'lie .i pi-oplo not stronj;, yi-l tliey prepare their meat in the summer ; "The conies are hut a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in tlie roeks ; " The loeusls have no kinij;, yet ^o they forth all of them by bands ; "The spitler taketli iiiikl with iter hands ami is in kinj^s' palaces." — Proverbs, xxx., 24-2H rv VUK STIDV OF KVKTIIWOIIMS •i). iUl ;i.j' The Earthworms .'irc tlio i-ummoiK'st nu-inhers of the l-irjiiKli of anini;ils lU'Xt lu'low tlic inscits in nrj^anizjitivni. Many people confuse the Iar\ ;e o( insects witli worms, liut a j^^lance will at .ince distinguish them. The worms have no distinct hea.l, while the lar\:e have. The former liave no Icj^-s, while the larvju have jointed iej^s. Althoui^h both consist of a series of rini^-like divisions, the larv;e have a constant ninnher, while earthworms have a varvinir num- her, forty or more. There are two interestini,"- thin<,'-s about the earttiworm. In the first place it is of j^neat benefit to the soil, owinj^ to the fact that it is continually bringing;- t'^e sub-soil to the sur- face by passing- it throui^-h its body. It v j^ests the veg-etable matter in the soil and ejects the indigestible portion. Thus the soil is loosened, aired and enriched b}- the same process. Look for the 'casts' of the earthworm on the bare ground, especially after a wet night. The other interestingf fact is that when an earthworm is cut in two, each part becomes an independent worm, and two worms grow where there was only one before. The story of the hydra-headed monster of the Grecian fable is similar to the story of the earthworm, but the one is a myth, the other a fact which may be experimental!}' proven. Just how far this division may be carried without killing the earth- worm wi>uld be interesting to discover. The advantage of this power of resisting death is evident, inasmuch as the earthworm lives in surface soil, through in THE STUDY OF EARTHWORMS IK!) which .sh;irp-oili;i.(.l iiistriiiin-Mits, e.^'., hoc, ploii};h-sharo, etc., often pass. Its food is vci,'ctahle, chiefly leaves, which it drains intii its burrow. It accordinj,dy helps to reduce fallen leaves to soil very tpiickly. Look for leaves in the burrows. How deep does the worm burrow in summer? In winter? VVhv is it not found in li^'ht sandy soil ? Where are the lar},'est earth- worms found? Why? Wlieii do they come out of their burrows? Can they see or hear? Kx.imine the headend for any sij^n of eyes. Tile structure of the animal is very simple and it has few special organs. It has no breathing;- orj,'^rms. The blood is aerated throuj^'h the body-wall. There is no heart, but tlu whole blood system is contractile. It has no eyes, but is provided with a very rudimentary orjjfan of hearinj,'. The Hairworms are interesting,^ relatives of the earthworm. They are found in shallow water in ponds and in lakes. Owing to their resemblance to hairs, it is erroneously be- lieved that they are really horse-hairs which have fallen into the water and have somehow become animated. The fact that they become torpid when the water dries up and revive with the return of water, has been accepted as conclusive evidence of their origin from hairs. Needless to say, they have no connection with hairs of any kind, except in appearance. The Lugworm lives in the sand of the sea-shore, and per- forms the same work on sand that the earthworm does on soil. Its 'casts' may be seen on the surface of the sand. The Leech is a worm-like animal often found in pools. It fixes itself to other animals by means of disks, one at each end, and then extracts the blood after cutting through the skin. After one good meal it can live for months with- out any further food. The medicinal leech comes from Germany. It was formerly highly prized by physicians for th e niirni;K\is The Starfishes ''irc a stop lower in the anim.il siak- th.iii the worms. The coniiiUMi Starfish is called ' 1'ive-lin^'erv.i.l Jack' by seamen. The Starfish. Its most intcrestinj^j relatives are the Sea Cucumber and the .-ieu Jrchin. .vll of these are marine forms, but the shells of the Sea Urchin and Starfish are often seen inland as curi- osities of animal structure. The Sea Cucumber has no shell. The body has a great many projections which end in disks, by means of which these animals can adhere to and climb up smooth surfaces. The Starfish has ihcse 'tube-feet' on the lower side only ; the Sea Urchin and the Sea Cucumber have them arranged in five rows over the surface of their bodies. The common Starfish, or Five-fingered Jack, is so called because of its five-rayed body. The mouth is on the lower side, in the central portion of the body. The other species mentioned do not show this five-rayed structure externally, but their internal structure is similar to that of the common Starfishz These animals eat oysters and other moUuslcs. 190 THE STUDY OF STARFISHES 191 TME OCELENTERATfS The Sea Anemone i*^ a still lower form of animal lilo than the Starlislics. It lias tiic apiHaraiuo of a plant rathor than of an animal. To it arc tvlated the C\>ral Pol\ps which arc improperly called Coral Insects. There is a fresh-water form, Hydra, whicl. in.iy be found adheritij,-- ti> plants in rivers. 'I he mouth of each of these animals i; on the upper surface, and is surrounded by numerous tentacles. "The Hydra is small and appears to the unaided eye as a tiny white or ^'reenish gelatinous particle, attached to some submerj^ed stone, bit of wood, ir aquatic plant." When expanded, however, it is easily seen. Hydra, a In expanded and in contracted condition, b Cross section of the body. The Hydra is peculiar amonj^ animals in its ability to mul- tiply by a process of 'budding.' A new animal grows out from the old one, just as a bud on a tree gives rise to a new branch. The new animal eventually becomes separated from the old one. "Any fragment of an individual hydra is capable of reproducing the rest." LV» ' ^ijt". TIIK STl I)V OF PLANTS !i H! HI! .!i To understand tlie description of flovvers it is necessary to make yourself acquainted with certain botanical terms. The outer whorl of leaves of a flower is called the calyx, and its parts sepals ; the colored part is called the corolla, and its parts petals. When there is only one set of floral leaves it is ■ailed a calvx, whether green or some other color, and the corolla is then said to be wanting. The whole floral envelope oi' a lily and its relatives, consisting of two whorls of three leaves each, usually but not always colored alike, is called a perianth. Inside of the corolla are usually situated yellow-knobbed bodies, t!ie stamens, which together make up the andrtvcium. The centre of the flower is occupied by the pistil, (gyncecium) the parts of which are called carpels. The calvx protects the flower in the bud. The corolla attracts insects. The stamens produce the yellow pollen dust in the little knobs (anthers) at the ends. In order to produce seed the pollen d.ist must reach the pistil, which is specially prepared to receive it, the end of the pistil (stigma) always being sticky. The stigma is usually borne on a stalk (style) which is simply a prolongation of the main part of the pistil, the ovary. In the ovary the seeds are developed from the union oi' the pollen grains with the germ cells of th ^ ovary. In most plants seed is formed only when the germ cells arc fertilized by pollen from another flower of the same species. In any case better seeds are produced by cross- fertilization than by self-fertilization. Hence there is usually Itt THE STUDY OF PLANTS 193 % some arrantfoment by which tlie pollen of a flower is prevented from reaching the stigma of the same flower. If it does reach the stigma, it is inactive. Some phmts are cross-fertilized by wind, e.i>-., willows, grasses; some by water, e.^., Eel- trrass, Potamoireton ; but nearlv all by insects, particularly flying insects, such as bees, butterflies, moths, and wasps. In fact, rnany flowors can be fertilized by only one species of insect, and are so constructed as to refuse all advances from any other insects. In some cases the flower-tube is so long as to be fathomed only by the long tongues of the butterflies and moths; some flowers open at night to welcome the moths; some are closed except to the bees ; some droop so as to be inapproachable by any but flying insects ; some entrap undesirable insects. Flowers, therefore, must be studied in relation to insect visitors, and these should be observed before the flowers are gathered. There is not only a relation between the structure of the flower and its insect visitors, but the flower opens about the time that the insects which cross-fertilize it appear. Flowers which bear stamens but have no pistil are called staminate, while those which have a pistil but do not bear stamens are called pistillate. These two kinds of flowers may grow on the same plant (squash), or on different plants (willow). Most flowers have both stamens and pistil. The love of flowers is, perhaps, our most common char- acteristic. Too often this love is centred on the culti- . « . varieties, to the exclusion of native trees and flowers, 'i is a charm in the natural simplicity of our field and wood flowers, quite lacking in the overfed prodigies of the g-arden and the greenhouse. As soon as the snow has vanished, or even while drifts are still King in the hollows of shaded hillsides, you slunild begin to visit the woods. The ground is still carpeted with last '94 NATURE STUDY scuson's cast-ofF f^arincnts, aiui tlie branches ■(" the forest nuMiarclis \va\ e appeal ini^ly to tlie jji'ditlo south breeze for tlie warm, moist a'r wliieli will clothe them ai,''aiii in varied robos oi' j^reeii, and carpet those ancient aisles with tlower and fern. Hilt all is not dead. Somethini^ in the air is life-like, pul- sating, entirely different from the hazy stillness of October da}s ; and sure enoiij^h, there piishinjj;' its way throui,''h the leaves, are the blossoms of Hepatica, surrounded by the new, half-opened, crumpled lea\es, and by the touifhened sur- vivors of the previous year. The ilowers of Hepatica vary in color from bluish-white to blue or purple. The hairy flower-stem sprin>j;-s from the i^roimd and bears six to twelve sepals. Just below the sepals are three hairy, leaf-like bracts, which are almost sure to be taken for a part of the flower, but there is a small portion of stem between these and the flower. There are two species of Hepatica, the sharp-lobed (3 to 5-lobed leaf), and the round-lobed (3-lobed leaf). Note that all parts of the flower are separate fr>.im each other. About the same time or later the inarsh-lands are spattered with the yellow flowers of Marsh Marit^nild, a plant belong- ing to the same family as Hepatica. The Skunk Cabbage, too, has already sent up its huge leaf, enfolding the club-like mass of flowers, and now lures the black flies with its mal- odoious scent. The latter plant is often found growing up through the ice in March. Even if you do not visit the woods thus early, the pussy- willows will announce the coming o\' spring by bursting thriHigh their winter coats. Indeed, the\' ha\e been peeping through the rents all winter. Some o\ the willows bear silvery tassels (catkins), while others bear gokien ones. 'Ihe color indicates a ditVerence i { I 1. I'ltiiicr i'..ini. .Sit f nit I'm,/ /lu/ purtti. 2. Purple V'uilet. I'iri/a citrullatu. J. Yellow Lady's SiipptT. Cyffyiffediufn pamillorum. 4. Wild L\>liitul>ine. AquiU'\:^ia CitnitUr'nsis. 5. Purple Klowerintf Kasptwrry. Rubus odornitis. b. Marsh Mang^old. Caltha f*aiusfris. li !i !!' lii' THE STUDY OF PLANTS 195 A. Pistillate. B. Staminate. FlowtTS ,r deep to find tiie bulh from uh.ch each plant spriny^s. niooJroot. Snnguinaria Caiiadcnxis. Dojf's-tooth Violet. I-rythfvnium Airiirii anuyn. The next acquaintar.ee made will be with the pure white blossoms oi \\\.o.\r,...U whose war-paint is hidden beneath the -round. Do not fail to unearth the under-round part of all these flowers of early sprin-, for the reason of their early nowerm- is found there. Bloodroot has a storehouse ot rich food laid up in that repulsive, under-round stem (root-stock), reserved from last year's supplv for this very- day s growth. Note how the leaf enfolds and protects the flower while it is youn- and tender. THE STUDY OF PLANTS I»7 There is ;i t\vo-p:irto(l calyx hcloni^^ini,'- to this iloucr, hut it Talis as smm as tiic flower opens and leaves the eij^iil to twelve petals alone. The g-arden Poppy is a relative oi' Hloodroot. Wind-flower, ^ttemone nfmoro\a. WritinLT >^"'' 't'l^ melancholy days' Bryant mournfulK- says, " The Wiiul-tlowor ami the \'ioU't tlu-y perished loiiif :ii;o." The Wind-flower (Anemone) is a relative of Hcpatica and loves the dry hillsides of open woods. It is a daiaty flower; " Aiul whiTO a tear has drop]u-tl, a Wiml-tlinver blows." It has no whorl of green leaves outside the white flower, so We, in common with botanists, call the white floral leaves a calyx, and its parts sepals, and say that the corolla Is wanting. Compare this flower with Hepatica and Marsh Marii^'-old. They all belong to the same family (Crowfoot). The common western species is the Prairie Anemone, a \ i; 'li I OH NATURE STUDY |il;mt uliicli is unorod uilh silky li.iiis. Tin.' iViiit li.is lonj^-, Icalliory tails. Most iit us i;(i to til uootis ill sprins^ ainl return laden with what we call May-Howors anJ Lilies. The so-called May-tlouer is the Spriiii,"- Beauty. It r^\ s related to ihecoiuiuon Purslane, the ^\ i ~ / 1 lane of the t,^ardener, but it has a ,/<»~"^ /\ 1 much better social standinj^ than that despised weed. \ote the two-parted Trailing Arbutus— Mayflower. lipi^ii-a tepeni,. calyx and the dark-veined, rose-colored petals of the corolla. The real May-flower cii Canada is the Trailinyf Arbutus. It is much less common than the Spriny;- Beauty, preferrinj^ the cooler parts oi the woods and flowerinf>^ earlier in the season. Spring: Be.Tiity. Claytonia Virj^inica, ^ THE STUDY OF PLANTS 199 Kvcry (MK- is taniiliar uith tl,c Trilliums (Lilies), of which llioro are several species. Collect liillerent species and com- pare their flowers aiul leaves. Whenever a plant pulls from the ^M-oiind as the Trilliums do, with a Ion-, clean, bleached portion endint,' abruptly in a clean break, you may know there is a bulb, corm, or rootstock below, and you should unearth it. The roots sprini,-- from it. Compare Trillium with Dos^-'s-tooth \'iolet. The flowers are alike in many respects but the leaves differ. The latter has typical lily leaves, straii^ht-veined. The May-apple is so well-known as to need no description. Its leaves and roots are poisonous if eaten. The Star-flower is a plant with simple whorled leaves (7-9) and a delicate white flower, with a usually seven-parted calyx :iHJ SATUm- STUDY :i ) > I! False MitrewiTt Foam-flower. Tiarella cordi folia. and corolla, but the number of parts varies from five to nine. It is found in moist woods in May and June. About the same time the Koam-nowcr blooms. It haj liie name raise MiLre- Naked-stalkcil Mitrewort. Mitellii nuda. M. Jiphvlla has two leaves on itif HowiT stem. W'intcrgreen. Gaultheria procunibrns. THE STUDY OF PLANTS '2t)l wort, tlic tniL' Mitrcworl hoiiis,'- usually fouml near hv. Tlic boauly of l\w Mitrcuorl is in its feathery pe'als, wliieli form a star-shaped, n\e-ra\ed snowllake of a flower, quite clifTcrent from the flower of tlie False Mitre^vort. The hrif^^ht red berries of the Wititerj^-reen may be found in tlie woods in sprint^, tlie combination of brij,'-ht red am' dark j^'-reeii beiiii,-^ very pretty. The flowers do not appear till June or July. We all reeoi,n)i/e Violets, but we mij;;-ht learn a j^'reat deal more about them by collectinj,^ and compariiii,' the species which flower at ilifl'erent seasons. There are twenty species of \'ioleIs in Canada. (.See Spotton's ///^h School liotunv.) The Hird's-foot Violet has a leaf sui,'-«4-eslive of a bird's foot, hence its name. It has a larij-e purple flower about one inch .across. It is found in the North- West. peaata. -HW NATURE STUDY H I m Nc.ulv ;ill llu' \'iok'ts li.ivo liairs in tlu' liilv ot llic eoroll.i, ■ uul OIK- o. tlK- 1^1. il> is spmi\il. Hk- luiis ;iio ;i harrior to small, nawliii),'- insects, uliilo tlio spur, which liMitains the nectar, is accessil-.lo only to the bee, by whoin the pollen is carried troni (lower to llower. The i.lroi)pinj,^ habit, so char- acteristic of the \iolet, prevents water from fillin^^ the (lower Clip. There are several species ot the I.ily family which fltiwer in June. Their leaves, unlike those oi the Trilliums, which are net-veined, arc straij^ht-veined, as the leaves of all real Lilies should be. .SiMne of these Lilies have four-parted corollas, which, for a I.ily, is as disgraceful as having' net- veined leaves, hence these are called l-"alse SoUmiiou's Seals. Others have six-parted corollas, as true Lilies should have, and are called True Solomon's Seals. Wild Lilyof-the-Vallcy. Smihicina bi/olia. False Spikenard. Smilacina racemosa. The hirt^est of the first s^-roup is False Spikenard. The 1 •! _ 4^1. - ii _.. :., j^, V. ;;::i, UiC i;.^-v. cis .^: c :i- steiTi is ic.iiy (li'ivi iii^iiiiy >-»j^ THE STdDY OF I'LANTS 203 rhistors at tlu- eiul of ilio sti-m. 'rhcic is also a threc-Ieavcl s|ici.ios ami a f VM>-li.a\ cd spcrits of this J^roiip of plants. Tin- latlor is calkd the Wild I.ily-of-llu-Vallcy. Oft.ntho visihlo part of llic plant i-onsists of a single leaf which lienor bears a (lower. The True Siijonu^n's Seal also has a leafy stem, hut its ilri>opin<4' flowers are arran^'cd in pairs aloni,'- the nnderside of the stem. All tliese l.ilies sprinLT from (lesh)', Smi/ucifiti atfltatOt True Solomon's Seal. Polygtinalum bifiorum. underLTroimd stems (rootstocks), upon which are markings somethini,' like a :,eal, but whether like Solomon's or not I cannot say. The Onion, Leek, and Garlic belong: to the Lily family. The Leek is peculiar in flowering after the leaves have quite withered away, in this respect resembling Witch Hazel, a icilC nOVVCrii'jt*' SiiiuD. I I ■104 NATURE STUDY iU I t- t Linnrcus was the fatlicr of bi.i.iny, jct few plants bear his name. One, however, was selected by one of his disciples, Dr. Ciroiunius, as a monument of the man of flowers. This plant is the Twin-flower, whose pink flowers grow in nodding pairs in damp, mossy woods, where they may be found in May and June. In ordec to commemorate the founder of botany you should learn the scientific name of this plant, Linncca borealis. The specific name suggests a northern habitat, which it much prefers. Indeed, it has been found by J. W. Tyrrell, in the Barren Lands, 62° N. Lat. No one can fail to recognize its delicate pairs of nodding pink flowers. The leaves are opposite, rounded and ever- green. Jack-in-the-Pulpit needs no ir. -eduction. We are all attendants in his church, yot he is all the time preaching to some wlio, " having ears, hoar not." How many of us iiave heard him tell us that there are two sizes of this plant ; tiiat the smaller ones do not boar fruit ; that the larger ones do ? How many have heard him tell how insects ..re lured to the smaller variety, imprisoned until properly dusted with pollen, then released, only to be made captive in the larger variety where death ends their misery? How is this done? He will tell you if you listen. How does this plant survive the winter? The answer can be learned by giving close attention to what Jack has to say. The part on which the flowers grow is called the spadix ; the leaf enfolding it is the spathe. Examine these thoroughly at dilTerent times of the year. The large under- ground part of the stem is a corm. It has a very acrid taste. In the fall look for the red masses of fruit, . ach with the withered spathe about it. In bogs, especially in peat bogs, the striking and unique Pitcher Plant will be found with its hollow leaves filled with THE STUDY OF PLANTS 206 water in which insects are drowned, decomposed, and thus prepared as food for the phint. (See plate.) It is the leaf whicii ^nves the name to this plant. Although it is not quite like a pitcher, still it holds water and has a lip- like mouth. To make sure that insects, which crawl in, can not get out again, the inside ot the lip is provided with downward-pointing hairs, which make the way down easy as the proverbial paths of sin, but effectually bar the return of the repentant insect. Each flower rises on a naked stalk from the centre of a group of these leaves. Leaf of Pitcher Plant. Roiind-leaveJ Sundew. Drc.ti-ra rotundifolia. Another plant which has carnivorous habits is the Sundew. It, also, is found in peat bogs. In fact, these plants. livinL-" as they do \\\ these bogs, are compelled to resort to animal tood, because the s.^il in peat bogs does not contain any nitrogenous food. -f. 206 NATURE STUDY The loaves oi' the Sundew are like little rouiul-bowled spoons, the houis of whieh are covered with glands. At the end of each gland is a sticky excretion, which glitters in the sunlight like a drop oi' dew. Insects are held by this excre- tion, and tiie glands gradually close down upon them, holding them until they are digested, when the glands resume an erect position. The Blue Flag is so common as a cultivated garden flower that one is apt to be surprised to see, as one may see around Georgian Hay, acres of low, wet land covered with these flowers. The delicately-veined, purple petals, three large and three small, make a very handsome flower, while any suggestion of stiffness is avoided by the three-parted style being leaf-like and colored to harmonize with the rest of the flower. The way in which the bee cross-fertilizes this flower is very interesting. While lily-like in structure, it belongs to another family (Iris), distinguished from the Lily family, by having the base oi the petals grown fast to the pistil. Blue-eyed Gra^s is another member of this family. The six-parted flower is symmetrical and very pretty, but closes up almost immediately after being picked. (See plate.) The Rose family of plants is Petals ,j i-^rgg m^tj valuable family, to which belong the Rose, Apple, Raspberry, Strawberry, Cherry, Pear, etc. If you ex- amine an apple blossom you can discover the distinguishing characteristics of the family, which are as follows : There are Jive petals arid numerous stamens. These are situated on a sort of thickening of the calyx-tube called a disk. Stamens Diagfram of I'lower of Knst- raiuily. THE STUDY OF PLANTS 207 The family contains a <,'reat many wayside plants in addi- tion to those of the g-arden mentioned above. Two of tiiese will be found in almost any part of the country. One is known as .Silver-weed because of the whitish appearance of the underside of the compound leaves, which have nine to nineteen leaflets. The plant gives off runners, upon which the yellow flowers are situated. These runners give the plant the appearance of the . trawberry, to which, of course, it is related. It pre- fers .sandy soil, especially the shores of our lakes, and is com- m<5n westward. The other plant is the Norway Cinquefoil. The stem is erect, hairy, and branching above. The flower is yellow. This plant is more widely dis- tributed than the former, but grows singly instead of in patches. The leaves are composed of three leaflets. The hairs of plants are of benefit in two ways at least. They enable it to shed water easily, and ^'^rwayCinquefoil. PotentUla Noru-e^ca. they also prevent small, injurious insects from crawling up to the flower to rob it of its nectar. The Wild Columbine (see plate) is in flower about the first of June. Both sepals and petals are colored but the petals are spurred. These spurs give the flower a handsome appear- ance, and make its relationship to Buttercup and other flowers obscure. It is, however, a member of the Crowfoot family. 208 NATURE STUDY ; i i, , i I? ':' ir The spurs contain the nectar, and the lenj^th of the spur makes it impiissible for any insect, except the bee, to reach tliis nectar. ^'ou should observe bees, butterflies, wasps, etc., while they are j,sithering honey. The peculiar shapes of flowers are always for some purpose, and usually have a direct relation to the structure of their insect visitors, who pay for the honey they t,^et by carrying- pollen-dust from flower to flower to cross-fertilize them. This plant extends from the Atlantic to the Rocky Moun- tains. Its color varies considerably in diff"erent parts of the country. One cannot soon, if ever, forj^Ct the emotion on finding- the Yellow Lady's Slipper (see plate), or its relative, the Pink Lady's Slipper, in the woods for the first time. There are woods around (leorgian I5ay in which, about the middle of June, one may find these beautiful Orchids; and a little deeper in the woods, across a narrow pond, formed by a hol- low between ancient, shore sand-dunes, the green and purple Pitcher Plant. These three plants, with a white Fringed Orchid found in this same pond, and Orange-red Lilies found in the wood, made the most magnificent combination of wild flowers tiie writer has ever seen, and all were so abundant that they were carried away in armfuls. Three staid and sober men became so excited over their 'find' as to fall into the pond and wade knee-deep (though seven miles from home) to gather the beautiful flowers from its margin of peat moss. The Lady's Slippers will repay the closest examination, for they are beautifully and wonderfully made, and especially adapted, as all Orchids are, to cross-fertilization by insects. The common Milkweed is, however, quite as remarkable in this respect. In June, too, we 1. id the evergreen Pyrola. On' variety St. J oil n ^ V\ OI t, ii\ f: . h»J f^, tJi>til{l,tH. i'irL-wet'J or Cireat \Villo\^ IK-rli. Kfyrlohium ti >ii;uyttjiih'nr. Illm'-i'ved lirass Sisyrifir/iritrn ani^usti/otiu >u. St'U-heal. H ruurUu tulf^nris. Jt'Wfl-wcfi! or Spottftl roiuh-me-Not. /fn/^atirus ftil' a. I5!iK.Wft'tI or \'ipcr\ Rhk^Ioss. lichimn vuly^arr. \ ellow ICvcnrnj< Primrose. (I-.tiuthera hienats. Hluf \*cr\ain. W'rbeiut htistatn. I^iltcriiip. Riinnnculus ?:^--:- W II I. ■ «^ ,^ THE STUDY OF PLANTS 209 has j^reenish-white flowers, another pale pink, another rose- purple, but the ^^eiieral appearance is the same in all. The tlowers are arranj^^ed in a loose, somewhat one-sided cluster, on a naked stalk six or eiijht inclies hii,rh. The leaves vary in shape in dilTerent species. The common yellow Wood Sorrel is found almost e\erv- where from May to Octohor. It has a three-parted com- pound leaf, smaller, but much like a clover loaf. The leaves fold up very characteristically under certain conditions. Wherever shallow water is, there will be found the Arrow- head and some of its relatives. It is a study in symmetrical tri-partite arrang-ement. The leaves are three-pointed, the stems three-anjjled, the flowers three-parted and in j^roups of three upon the stem. There are several varieties varying- in form of leaf and size of flower, but in all, the pure white flowers with yellow centres are beautiful in their simplicity. The Yellow Evening Primrose (see plate), which unfolds its flower in damp weather and at night, is widely distributed in sandy soil. There is design in this habit of opening- at night, for the flowers are cross-fertilized by moths, which fly only at night, and the length cf the flower-tube corresponds to the length of the moth's tongue. Note that this is a symmetrically four-parted flower. Look for undeveloped flowers in which insect larvje are to be found. A cultivated variety. Love Pops, can be seen to unfold about sundown. Fireweed, or Great Willow Herb (see plate), found on ground which has been newly cleared and fire-swept, is a niLMuber of the same family of plants. It ranges far north. '1 iie stamens develop before the pistil. Examine its seed- pods and seeds. The Geranium, so common in our homes and gardens, is, •_'1() NATURE STUDY \h no diMiht, llio ciiltivati'd species of the Wild Goraiiiiim, whiih unioids its pink or lif,^lit purple flowers in June. Hunch-berry is a common wood flovver of June. It appears to be a while flower with four petals, but it is in reality a liead of small flowers, of which four of the outer ones are especially developed, doubtless for the purpose of attract- ing insects. It rang^es far to the north. Examine the Candytuft of the j^ar- den, in flower and in fruit; then look for its field relative, the Shepherd's Purse, which flowers all summer and fall, even after snow falls in December. The fruit is inverted heart-shape. Slifphefirs Purse. Capst'ilti bu r\it'fntsti)r}S. Partridge-berry. Mitchella repens. The dainty, paired blossoms of the Partridge-berry appear in June, but the fruit, a red two-eyed berry, may be found in spring as soon as the snow has melted away. A common lilac-colored or bluish flower, found in the woods in May and Jime, is Phlox. Tiie flower has a long tube with five spreading petals. A flower of the meadow and roadside, which blooms from June to October, is the Buttercup (see plate). This is a rela- l i ^- THE STUDY OF PLANTS 211 tivc of Marsh Marii^olcl, which oftL-n j,rcts the name Hiitter- cup. The petals of llie buttercup are waxy yellow, and all the parts of the flower are separate from each other.as in all the members of this family (Crowfoot). They are all more or less poisonous am! should not i^e tasted. The western representative is the Dwarf Ikitterciip, only eij^ht inches hij;h. Study the mode of flowerinj;- to discover how this plant continues to flower all summer. St. John's Wort and the Purple Flowerinf,'- Raspberry (sec plate) are common flowers in June and July. The former has a yellow flower, the latter a dark red one. The former is a wayside plant, preferring sandy soil, while the latter seeks the margins of woods and the gully sides. Black-eyed Susan or Cone-flower is a well-known flower of July in meadows and in open sunny places. In August it makes the Manitoba prairie 'one blaze of yellow.' It is a good type of the Composite family of plants, to which so many of our plants belong. The ray-flowers are yellow, the disk-flowers a deep purple, arranged in a cone-shaped mass. Examine picked specimens of this flower to discover the rela- tive development of stamens and pistils. Blue Vervain (see plate) is common on low grounds, and will be found in bloom from July to September. It grows to a height of three to five feet. Clematis or Virgin's Bower is in evidence, both in flower and in fruit. It is a vine which runs riot over wayside fences, along streams, and in swamps. In July its clusters of white flowers brighten the landscape, while, in the fall, the hoary fruit attracts .,ie -,.- f,om alar. The leaf resembles that of Poison Ivy, but has a 4 :ite dilTerent venation (see plate). All Clematis vines do not bear fruit, because the staminate li! m m i f 111 2,2 NATURE STUDY and pistillate tlvuvcrs a.v home on dilTcrctit rIaiUs. Only the latter boar Iruil. Clematis is a member of the Crowfoot family. The Thorn Apple is a coarse, ill-scented weed, sure to be found bv wavside rubbish piles and often in cultivated ^^round. ' The'loni;, funnel-shaped corolla opens at ni^'ht to welcome the Tomato Sphinx Moth, whose lon^' tongue is par- ticularly well adapted to reach the nectar at the bottom of the flower. In the Hssex tobacco fields, rows of these plants have often been placed amoni,' the tobacco plants, poison bein- put in the flowers to kill the Tobacco Moths. I understand, however, that spraying the tobacco plants to kill the larviu Is now generally practised. The Spreadinj^ Doi^bane is a shrubby plant two or three feet high. The pink- white flowers grow in droop- ing clusters, and each flower is provided with a trap-like structure which catches in- sects. The larger ones, butterflies and bees, can pull their tongues out of the trap, but small Hies and ants are often held until starved to death. This plant has a milky juice, like Milkweed. It grows along roads and bor- ders of thickets. The Milkweed is so well- known as to need no descrip til.. inn-;t iiimnlicatcd structure of the Spri-:uliiilf PoKlianc. THE STUDY OF PLANTS 213 I flower-world, not oxct-ptinj,' even the Orchids. '. he calyx and corolla are hent hack, and the centre of the (lower is a five- sided, flat-topped stalk, around which are five hooded nec- taries, encircling,' the five stamens. between each two stamens is a slit, into which the le^-'s of insects enter when they .-•re jiatherinj,' nectar. Tlie ley: comes in contact with a saddle-like connection joining,'- two masses of pollen (pollinia). On this unitinj,'^ band is a notch in which the insect's lej; catches and then withdraws the pollinia, and carries them to other flowers, as the insect visits them. The larj^-^e seed pod, with its numerous flat, brown seeds provided with down, is an interestinj;- study in seed distribution. Why is the pod so peculiarly attached to the stem? The milky juice entan','-les the feet of small insects, such as ants which attempt to climb up it. The Harebell is known in verse and story. The large blue bells (corollas) are conspic- L. uous because of the narrow leaves of the plant. It blooms in July and August. It is one of our most beautiful prairie flowers. Self-heal seeks to escape detection by keeping close to mother earth, especially in lawns. In moist soil it may reach a height of eight or ten inches. It is a relative of Catnip, Mint, etc. (Mint family). Note the square stem, opposite leaves, two-lipped corolla, and four-lobed pistil— the charac- teristics of this family (see plate). Jewel-weed, or Spotted Touch-me-Not, is found in moist, shady spots. The peculiarly shaped flower, with its curved projection, is well shown in u Harebtll. Campan- ula >vtundi/olta. Leaves at the base are round. 214 NATURE STUDY w 111 I I • II. tin.- phiti.'. It rosiMiiblos tlu- Naslurtiuni of our ^^•lrllolls. 'l"lic t'niit is a pod, wliiih hursts wIkmi liaiullcd, ahd Mius statlirs tlic sccils ill all iliroitioiis. Toad Max, or IWittor-aiid-Kirirs, is also woll slunvii in the platL'. (Si.0 i'ait ;i.,Motluuls.) Cardinal 1"1o\V(.t jiri'scnts siuh a spike of hrilliaiit red (lowers that we know it al sis;lil, if we iiave hut heard ot it. The corolla, like all Lobelias, is split down on oiw side for the eonvei'ienee of bees, who visit it for the nectar. This plant is comnioTi in Auj^-'ust aloni,'- railways and in damp woodb. It has a blue relative which Hmvers in October. The name Chicory is familiar from its association with cotTee, but we are not all familiar with the pretty blue flower ol' that name (see plate). it is another of those wide-spread Composites althoui,'-h it is easily mistaken for a simple llower. Sometimes it is almost white. Bur Mari,i,'i>ld attracts our attention in the fall, when its pitchfork burs (fruit) stick so persistently to our clothinj,', whether we notice its rather pretty yelIow-ra\ed flower earlier in the season or not. There are five species in Camida. They also belont,' to the Composite family. Houncini; Bet (see plate) has not yet been free friMii culti- vation long Lioui,di in this country to return to its native simplicity, but still forms di>uble flowers. It is interesting as a type of the Pink family which includes the Catchtly, (\->rii Cockle, Chickweed, and our beautiful Carnatiop.. It flowers from June to September. Note the opposite leaves and swollen stem-joints which cha-acterize this family of plants. Asters and C.olden-rod are so well known as to need no introduction, but there are many more species than we think over twenty of each. The purple and white of the Alters and the yellow of the Golden- rod (one species is almost white) are characteristic of our autumn landscape. Kven Ills til roil r it. - the ilaiit >ous. with iiwcr >ro;ic iwer. II its nil ."^ ' irlior i:ida. jiilli- iitivo orn iwors and ants, 'd no think Li.ters Imost vcn %: ^ •^ ,. THE STUDY OF PLANTS ^,5 f,roiina. 1 hey are Compos tes tlnf i^ tu . a . u 1 t ^. ■-'ii.c.-i, iii.u IS, the novver«j nr« Iii ;->• Plan., „,,,.,, n..„^::^::;;:---;;;^^ -C.S, hu, Will „d„,i, t; „ , , , 'r' '° '"'p ""' """" "'• .he b„,„blo Ke' iT K " !'■ "™ """'•■'■•■' ~' P'"-""! 'o •If. L III CI oss-fertiliy;ifimi r<- ., :::'z:r:r:r^y ------ wi.itev.r . ''"'''7'. ''^ the same spec.es, but ants climb vviiacever comes in the r n;tu u r, >- imu f , I , ■ P "• "ciice flowers have learnp,1 tne «ay of transportinj,^ pollen-dust. 1 ne most surprisipr fiovi-..r ,^f fi, 11.., 1 , _» "■^" ft "ovvLr ot the season s the VVitrl- '-v:;t:::t^:-:c-p:.r''r-^"r- -a...e„ ..PH.. a.,u 1.::,.^^'::; :::.::;,,?:'::: P t- Icuos appear ,„ spHn^- a. those of ordinary 216 NATURE STUDY ;?.■: ilr trees. When the Iruit has matured in late fall the pods burst, and by their peculiar structure press the seeds out witli WiKhllazd. .Flower, z Leaf. 3 Branch showing flowers and fruit. 4 F.uit. such force as to throw them several feet. It is interestinj^ to carry a branch into a warm room in October andwitne;., Jiis phenomenon. Ex- amine the pod and explain how the seeds are forced out. As an example of striking adapt- ation to environment, the I'-el-^Tass of ponds and sluj,'^j,Msh waters is in- teresting. The illustration shows the coiled flower-stalks, which can easily adapt themselves to the rise and fall of the water and also move about. This is but half the wonder. The flowers whicli produce stamens grow at the bottom oi' the water, and when mature, break ofT and rise 'grass. THE STUDY OF PLANTS 217 to tl 10 sulfa lO, WlKTO till flowers floatiiii-- tl poll ^talk icre. After fertilization len escapes aiul fertilizes the contracts, drauin-'- the fl the coiled flow er- friiit matin When fl es in ideal ouer nnder water, where tht conditions. oweriiiir plants are bee omins interested in the c Sheplierd's I ^ fewer, we are more nrse White CI C'Uner h: omnion ones liitherto nej,Hected. Though ^'arrow, Charlock, Mustard, and S ive been flowerintr a! csted about the end of October to find th the hard frosts still be found in bl th weet summer, we are inter- ese still surviv UliT Vn occasional Aster and Golden-rod loom, a dash of color h m; e sea of whitened heads of fr lere and there amid plant- Tl le ary ph rcneral grayness of the land imes of ^.'irjrii nits of the earlier fl lowerniir th sea ere IS still a srl •gm s Bower increase the pe But beyond and behind tile russet brown of the oak onous back-round of the green of the pi nes, s, and the yellows and reds of maples, not yet entirely bereft of their s lie yellow button-like heads of T among the crowded patches of thi.. Tl ummer foliage, msy may still be found s sociai plant. DECEMBER FLOWERS December 14th, lyoi.—The fall h paratively cold Hecember- almost IS been a lonf ng- and corn- one, with a p.-.rticularly cold week in earl Vet to-dav, w zero weather with a fe .. inches of , wiien rain has melted a snow, way the snow, I find three Fruit. Corn Speedwell, i.-?" 218 NATURE STUDY (lowors still hlooinim,-^ hoiic.it li it, Slioplicrd's Purse, Corn Speedwell, and Cliiekweed. The first has been mentioned alread} . Corn Speedwell has a delicate blue flower and a flat- Chickweed. tened heart-shaped fruit. This plant lies close to the j,'-roinid as Chickweed does, and thus in its .luniility finds safety. OBJECTIONABLE PLANTS There are black sheep in every flock, and there are plants whose bad qualities so outnumber their f>-ood ones, that we consider them harmful and cull them 'weeds. To some people nearly all wild flowers are weeds, but these people do not see them as parts of one great universe, but as dead matter fit only to be burned or consigned to the rubbish pile. Most of our harmful plants have been introduced from Europe where they learned, by long experience, the most expert methods of propagating and distributing themselves. Finding here large areas of waste land, they have spread rapidly in the land ot tlieir adop'"on. As waste areas are broug-ht under thoroug-h cultivation these noxious weeds will be forced to the wall. Some of these plants are known ' by their fruits ' wliich are prov ided with hooked projections, forming what we call burs. Such are Bur Marigold, Burdock, Cocklebur, Hound's Tongue, Beggar's Ticks (see under " Plant Tr.amps"). 1^ c T THE STUDY OF PLASTS 219 Sheep Sorrel is a weed which j. rows i„ sa.uiv or poor soil The flowers, which are in close terminal clusters, ha^ e a L^reenish appearance, turning- reddish in fruit. It flowers from June to September. An avera^^e plant produces a! out ten thousand seeds. Sour Dock is a member of the same family, but is a stouter plant, the root especi- ally bein^' very large. Thorough cultivation and enrichment of the soil will eradicate both of these pests. The Ox-eye Daisy, so fam- iliar to all who gather Daisies in meadows, is really a most pernicious weed. The admira- tion which so many have for its white-rayed flower, with yellow disk, aids in snreadin" It broadcast through the coun try. In many cases it is .seriously injuring the hay-crop, and, though it does not trouble the farmer in cultivated soil, it should be destroyed. ' Pusley' (Purslane) is the worst plant-foe of the gar- dener. Its spreading habit, its ability to grow in any soil, , wet or dry, and to propagate ^ if self from small cuttings, make it almost invulnerable. Stem and leaves are thick and c. o bheep Sorrel. Rumex aettotrlla, lli^fcL i.';-":^-?/' >"3BWn M' !l,V i:. -'-'1 NATIJRF STUDY flosliy, rmd tlu' tloucr is of a dcluiitc yellow <;o\or. An -.ix oraijo lil.iiit pi\Hliu\s sixty til. Ml-. mil sccus. in i-.imbatiii^- ll,is plant care sluMild ho taken to rcnui\c it, entire, from the soil. I'ortulaea is a pretty relative of this weetl, w hieh is often seen in j^ardens as an ornamental flower, ; . sfirintr'ii^,' tioni cut LMu). varyinj,'- from many shades ot red to yellow antl oran.<^e. It does niit heciMiie am^xions weed. Observe the How ers ot these plants on ilamp days. The C'atehlly is fi^nnil in waste j^n-ounds. There are two or three speeies, but the on-ht-llyinj,'- niotlis wliich cross-fertilize it. Note the opposite leaves and swollen joints of tlie stems which show its relation to Carnations, Corn Cockle, Chick- weed, Bouncinj,'- Het, etc. We should know Poison Ivy in order to avoid contact with it ourselves, and to warn others from touching- it, for, to cer- tain people, it is a most virulent skin-poison. Some are so susceptible to poisoning hv it as to be poisoiu by wind which has passed over it. It can be best recognized by its three-compound leaf (see plate) and greenish white cluster of flowers, growing well under the shadow of the leaves. Sometimes it is bushy, Fruit of Poii-on Ivy. but it also takes the character of a vine, and climbs over rocks, etc., hy the aid of root-like out-growths from the joints of the .;tems. The leaf of Virgin's Bower is similar to the above, but instead of one midrib it has three large veins running from the base (pal- mately net-veined). Its fruit is in hoary clusters. Everlasting-. Aniennana Mar^aritacea. THE STUDY OF PLANTS j,, There are l,v„ „r ll.reo weeds known as Rverfasl „|,i,.|, P.ara„ce. ll,e (lowers are in heads, surrounded by ehaffv nvoueres They are the food-pla„„ of Hun,er','«rr ny, he ehrysalis of which „ay he found suspended 7rm .he^^plan. and enclosed in a .hin weh of .si,k in.erwoeen wi,: showy, one-sided racemes, and each plant bears many racemes. The stem of the plant is rough, hristly, and spot- ted. The plant grrows in mea- dows, along- roadsides, and in waste places. Ragweed ranks fifth in the list of most destructive Ontario weeds, and yet its intro- duction oi, many farms is within the memory of this generation. The flowers are in spikes, one to KaKweeU. Am6rvua arlemiHc,folia. ».;_j t^'^ *•" i * I ffi'l 224 NATURE STUDY six inclios lontr, },tci.mi iihI iiicunspicuous, thoui^li each iiulividii.il Honor is \l1Io\v. Am avcraj^o plant piiHlin.cs about five tliousaiul seeds. The plants should he burned before tiie seetis scatter. Coucli-yrass is a persistent weed which propaj^'ates itself bv seed and rootstock. It is nnire tiesfructive than Rai^^weed. There are two species of Plantain common throui,'h- out the countrv. Both have CoucVi-ffrass. Agrupvron rfpt^ns. Bl.ick Plantain. F*Jn*tino0 lit tii;^nJttt{i '^o?; THE STUDY OF PLANTS radical leaves, hut one has very hroad leaves and a Ion., sp.ke of flowers ; tl,e other has narrow leaves and a short sp.ke of flowers on a lonj,' stalk. The latter is about as bad a weed as can possibly be encountered in lawns. It should bo pulled out at its first appearance. The Canada Thistle is. of course, our worst pest, and should be comb.ued incessantly. Its habit of ^rrowin.^ in patches is due to its f S under^-round stems, which make it almost as invulnerable as the hydra-headed monster which g-uarded the Clolden Fleece. When one head was cut oflT several grew in its place. So with the Canada Thistle ; when « one is cut off, these underground stems give rise to several successors. Then each seed is provided with an inde- penden t means of transportation, and the whole plant is so protected by its prickles that animals seldom touch it, except when it is cut and just withered. Wheat and hoed ComCockj^e. Agnstemma Cahago. t --'-»■ NATURE STUDY crups, Lspoci.illv tlioso whiili ^li.ide tliu yminj,'- thistles, e.g., com, will keep tlicm in clit-ck and eventuilly exterminate tllLMll. Charloclc. Jinixst'ca sinapistrum. Treacle Mustard. Ktysimum chierunthoiiies. Tliere is one whole family of plants which seem to have been created for the .sole purpose of providing- work for the human race in getting rid c*" them, although they contribute, incidentally, to our bill-oC-iare, but only as condiments. This is the Cress family, whose flowers are charac -rized by a four-parted calyx and corolla, and by six stamens, four lorg hr THE STUDY OF PLANTS ,37 an.1 two short. The fruit is a tuo.v„.U pod o.' varying sliapc. The flowers are either white or vollow The d.tieront species of Mustard are members of the CVess _ m, V. , ey stand a dose second, in destructiveness, to the Canaua t,„,„,. „ „^,^ ^ _^^^^ should be pulled and burned, as the seeds live for, ea'rs the so,l, aw.M.n.,. favorable conditions for development If already estabhshed. sumn,er-fallowin,. and hoed'crops a best ior combating- them. ' FUNQOUS PESTS There are many injurious plants which are not usudh ;:^"R'rr"";r"- ^--^^^'— niac^K ' Hut they are plants, and are relatives of the well-known Mushrooms and Toadstools (Funj^i). It is quite easy to study Mould, which may be found on bread preserved fruit, cheese, etc.. and by a thorough J,^^ amnK.t.on of this we ... understand all the others. Not ce the two parts of Mould-the felt-like base and the fuzzy out^ Mycelium-Enlarged. iVFll«hriA.iiM .U Fruit of a MoulJ- EnlarK-tt. • giuuriu part, mycelium. /^:- ,^^,^:--iim^^:'n 11 wm:y V >:>;>«. * *^! " C,-- 1» -;?;■>•; •:- l-'f; >>:,»- -■ iitt / i5^ ■ l^-^' -ii '- ' >;i. •/v .% •1' -''- '.'* ■ lit; ■rf:^ --z- 1 j., il! 228 NATURE STUDY i,'rovvths from it. The base is a mass of lony filaments, so small as to bo seen, individually, only with the aid of a mi- croscope. Si.iiilar filaments form the main structure of all fun-^'ous plants, but in many, c.^., Mushrooms, they grow underi,rround, and we see only a part of the plant, the fruit. The fuzzy outj,'-rowths from the felt-like base vary in diflFer- ent moulds, but in all consist of stalks at the ends of which are minute rounded bodies (spores), so small as to appear to the naked eye like dust. These spores are very li^-ht and are carried about by the wind. They alig-ht in different places, and, if conditions are favorable, grow, and injure the object to which they hav'e become attached. They may be killed by high temperatures (iSoT. or higher). In the Mushroom, the spores are on the underside of the cap^ At first they are flesh-colored, but turn black as they Common Mustiroom. Fairy Ring (edible). Ma ra s m in s o re a des . become rine In the Puff-balls, the spores are formed in a liali, from which they escape throu^^li an opening at the top. In other Fungi (Peziza, Lichens), they grow in little cups. l-\-rmeiUation in fruit is caused by small one-celled plants, something like the spores of Fungi. These spores do not y^row in heads but in chains, or each cjII remains by itself. ^■'fTCT'- —.c-^^v. r ^k—f^—- r//£ Srt/DK OF PLA^TS 229 ffyJnum repandui, Coral Funifuit. Clavuria. Edible Boletus. i9o^/«,, ,. an expert iti n,yco!o-y, vou should avoid all I- un^i except the comnton Mu .hroom which evervbodv knows by Its llesh-colored ^nlls. and the PutV-balls. \iua I.. Mar- shall says: "It is better for the amateur t.ot to eat of speci- mens which have stalks wM a swollen base, sumunuh-d bv a cup-l,kc or scaly cuvehpc especially if the i^iUs are white." SO-CALLED FLOWERLES8 PLANTS We have not yet touched upon a lar-e j^roup o{ plants, ucll-kiiown in a general way, but still includiui; manv species which are looked upon as total stran-ers. We reier to the l-crns, Horsetails, Mosses, and Liverworts. \ot only do we tail to recognize many o^ the me.nbers A these Kfoups, but we s\o not know much about their structure and life- history. Hy vv ly oi arousini; curiosity re-ardin- these plants uc shall point out a fcvV interesting features. The little fruit dots found on the backs oi some fern leaves (fronds) are really i^roups o{ little sa.s. each contain- iMf," about a do,^n small bodies (spores). I.^.ch oi these THE STUDY OF FLANTS •_>3r> spores, iiiu'cr favor.ihic toiidilions, will -row ami prodikc a small. i,ncci., hoart-siiaivd, loal-liko slriKMiiro, wliicli K-ars certain or--aiis correspoiuiintr to the stamens and pistils of oi.r ordinary flowers. By the union of cells produced in these organs a seed like body is formed, which gives rise to what we know as the fern plant. Liverwort. The stalked or^rans correspond lo the pistils of Howering plants. Liverwort. The stalked organ corres- ponds to the stamens of flowering- plants. Moss also bears several orj4-ans of whose existence ue are entirely ij^norant, or whose use is quite un- known to us. The stalk Hud sac at the end of the plant is ;i spore-hearin*,'- part, correspondini,-- to the fern frond. Kach spore develops into a structure quite unlike a moss plant, but from this the moss plants sprini,'. In the ends of the ordinary moss plants, usually in the midst of a rosette of leaves, there are orf,'ans, invisible to the naked eye, corresponding; to the stamens and pistils of our common flowers. From the union of cells in th ;se organs the spore-bearing parts spring. V, 'A' i^ NATURE STUDY Siinil.ir lifo-circk-s constitute the life story of the Liver worts aiij Horsetails. Lichens are fiin},'-oiis plants, 'Ahieh are always with us, sum- mer and winter. In fact, they hogin to flourish when the cold weather sets in and other plants ire taking a much needed rest. Durinj,' the summer they manaj,'e to exist on the shady sides of trees and fences. Although they grow upon trees, fences, and stones, they are quite indepen- dei t of them so far as food is concerned. They, however, damage their hosts to a certain extent by keeping the part under them moist and in a condition favoring decay. A Common Moss, 111 truit. A Ctimmon Florsctail. The little round, green- hordered, black- topped eleva- tions, apothecia, on the surface of Lichens are spore-bearing Lichen, groving on a board. THE STUDY OF PLANTS 237 out->,rro\vths, ami from these spores, scatterei! far aiuf wide, new I.iclieiis arise. PLANT TRAMPS Some plants learned the triik of slealinf,^ a ride before the modern tramp adopted that method of shirking' the work necessary to transport himself across land or sea. With plants, the result is much more satisfactory than it usually proves with man. Plant tramps inherit the earth ; human tramps inherit the prison cell and the pauper's grave. The plant tramps are commonly known as burs. These fasten themselves to our clothin|r, to the sheep's wool, to the cow's tail, or to any medium of a like soft nature. At the end of their journey they insist upon our assisting them to alight, which we do with scant ceremony. Occasionally we mav throw them into the fire, but usually we thr.nv them into rich soil, where they bring forth fruit, ten thousand fold or more. Fruit of Gali'um Head of Rurdock. The pitchfork bur, the fruit of the Bur Marigold, is a common b- r, and what country child has not made baskets of the large heads of Burdock ? These are heads of seeds, surrounded by a many-rowed involucre, each leaf of which is supplied with a little hook at the end. 9» NATURE STUDY I Ik- Iriiit of (."oikli-lnir is imuli llu- v.iiiu- in appi>.ir;itu-e, hilt lonj^LT. TIktc ;iro imly two sccils in ii. The little flat Inirs i>f ,>ur ro.ulsiik's ;.ri' the Cniits of Houiurs Tuii^aic and ot Mc^-j^-arVs lj\o. Tho fruit of the I >J -iiji.'-««|a4 >wr/Wi # Burs of two specien of Rur-Man'tfold. Fruit of I'.irrot— KnlarRed. Carrot is also supplied with minute hooked appendaj^-es, as is also the fruit o( the plants known as Bed-straw ((iaiium). Whenever a fruit oi any kind sticks to the clothint;, it should he examined in order to discover the means by which it secures this free transportation. THE FIRST NAVIGATORS OF THE AIR Santos-Dumont has recently astonished the world by tak- ing- his air-ship around the Kiffel tower. But before man came oiy the earth, Mother Nature had provided many of her seed-children with very successful, thou>,'-h simple, air-ships. Each seed of the Dandelion has an air-ship and parachute combined. These seeds are so common as to be easily ob- served ; yet how few know the way in which this doubly useful structure is evolved. Select a few plants and observe their development from flower to fruit. What do the flowers do at nij^-^ht and in wet weather? The flower oi the Dandelion is a head o^ st-ap-shaped florets, surrounded by protectinj,^ layers of leaves (involucre). lf-> THF. STUDY OF PLANTS 23ft m ■-.'■-v.. :L. n MICROCOPY RESOlUTiON TEST CHART (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No 2. 1.0 I.I |5G j| 2.8 132 1^ 2.5 12.2 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 A >1PPLIED IM/1GE Inc sT'^ 1653 East Mam Street r-= Rochester. New Yo'k Ub09 USA i^= (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone == (716) 288 - 5989 - Fa« 240 NATURE STUDY r* I rhcse leaves dose at nij^^ht and in rainv weather about the i,'-oId of the Knvly flower. Kach flower is complete, hut the calyx, which o-rous fast to the ovary wall, e.uls In fine, hairv bnstles (pappus). Alter the corolla has fallen off, the tube Pappus Style HECEPTAat' Corolla (mvolucre Head of Dandelion with tw.i seeds. Single flon-t of Dandelion. ot the calyx ^^mows in lenj^^th and hears the pappus on its upper end. This forms the well-knou-n, svmmetrical, fluffy ball. As the involucre is now no longer needed, it is turned downwards, away from the part on which the florets g-row, and the seeds are borne away on the passing- breeze. The seeds of Milkweed are also provided with tufts of down, but they have no long- stalk. Many mem- bers of the same family Seed of Catalpa. as the Dandelion (Compos- it;e) provide their seeds with ilown. The seeds of catalpa, bhieheech, and ironwood Friiils of Bluebeech and Ironwood ^ Uilii THE STUDY OF PLAiy/TS 241 trees have special developments, which enable them to be carried by the wind or upon water. The seeds of maple, pine, basswood, ash, and sycamore trees are other examples of hi-hly specialized structures. Durini,^ the fall and also in the winter, seeds may be collected and studied. Make lists of seeds carried by wind, by water, by ice, and on snow ; by birds, by animals, and by man him- self. By making use of some or all of these ai,'encies, plants have travelled around the world. Plants have other ways of propagating the species. Some live from year to year by forming bulbs, e.^. Lily. Some have a thickening (corm) at the lower end of the stem which survives the winter, e.^r- Indian Turnip. Some have thick underground stems, e.^. Butter-and-Kggs. Examine all the early flowering plants— Lily, Bloodrcxit, Spring Beauty, Dog's-tooth \'iolet, for these special structures. Examine the underground parts of plants which grow in patches, e.^. Canada Thistle. Cut in pieces these parts and place them in damp soil in a box. What is the result ? What would be the effect of spading up these patches ? The study of a potato will give you a good idea of the nature of underground stems in general. The eyes are buds, and the fleshy part of the potato is a store of food upon which the sprouting buds feed until able to obtain food from the soil and the air. Ls the arrangement of the eyes regular or not ? Compare their arrangement with that of the leaves on the stem. Distinguish the roots of the potato plant from these underground stems. (Roots never bear buds). Look for buds in bulbs and corms. What plants propagate themselves by runners ? I )iscover other wj'.ys in which plants are multiplied. Examine climbing plants and the structures by which they climb. yj'--)- n i' J' = 242 NATURE STUDY HOW SEEDS GROW The interest in how seeds travel will arouse interest in how they grow. By planting seeds in soil in a glass bottle so that they can be seen through the sides, you can observe how the young seedlings get out of their seed cases ; how the roots strike downwards, or sometimes sideways, according to the looseness of the soil and the distribution of moisture • how roots behave in different soils ; how the stems grow towards the light and the roots away from it ; how different degrees of light affect the growth of a plant ; what becomes ot the seeds ; and a hundred other things which can be learned only by personal observation. Compare the leaves, stem, color, and strength of a plant growmg in very dim light with one growing in strong light I'rom your observations on these, explain why forest trees are so much taller than trees which grow in the open. WHAT PLANTS DO Of course plants grow, produce leaves, flowers, fruit, and •seeds. But there is method in all they do. Observe the arrangement of leaves on different plants to discover how they expose the greatest possible surface to light. Some phtntshave broad leaves at the base and finely divided leaves higher up, thus allowing light ^o filter through to the lower leaves. Some have leaves arranged in rosettes. Some, by different positions on the stem and by having the lower Jeayes set on long stalks, expose each leaf to the sunlight It IS quite wonderful to find how little the leaves of a tree shade each other, though on the ground there is almost complete shade. Many plants move their leaves in a definite direction under the action of sunlight. The Prickly Lettuce (Compass-plant) sets Its leaves in a general north and south direction.' Observe the movement of Sunflower heads, flowers and plants in wuidows. N'OTK.— Ste experiments with plants in Part II. im NATURK STUDY PART II JLETJIOD OF XATUJ{E STUDY "A m.-th.Kl is clc-rivod fro,,, a principle." Harris l^ie u.ulcrlyinj,. principle .^ education is now considered o be some actn.ty of the child, and this activity is essen- .ay constructive At different a.^es this constructive nu ; "I r , "'"'•■' "^ '"""'^' -^^-^'^^^ ■^' h- a different motue and finds expression in different vvavs. Up to the a^ of e.ght or nine years, the child is satisfied with activity for .ts own sake, and there is, consequently, direct and m mcd.ate response to stimuli. The child is not conscious of any definite end beyond the activity, nor does he conside the relat.on ot means to end. There is, indeed, the need o cons ant .rect.on by parent or teacher, in order to economise the ener^^y wh.ch m,,.ht, without supervision, expend itself m useless tasks. ^ From eic^ht or nine to twelve or thirteen years of a.^e there succeeds a period characterized by a growing con! scousness of some end to be attained by activity and "f means m relat.on to such end. but there is lacking the power of reflectne attention to a variety of ends, and of jud^I^ as to the value of the ends in themselves or of meanTto att.n t em. Dr. G. Stanley Hall says of this p^i^d^ \trbal memory ks now at its very best, and should be traned far more than it is. We are now educating the automat,c bases of both mind and morals, and habit^ Tre never so eas.ly formed or made stable. Manual trainh^^. and ^ames should be extremely diverse, manifold, and tho;o:g; ' The energ,es of the child, therefore, must still be directed 915 •240 NATURE STUDY in hv the toachor or parent, but the child must be conscious of the trend of his activities towards certain definite ends, in order that he may adapt means to attain them. The threaten mastery over muscular movement makes accurate work possible. It is essentially a period of habituation. in Nature Study and in the sciences it is the period when facts are most easily learned and retained. The natural mode of expression for this period is drawintr, just as the natural mode of expression in the precedinj,' period is modelling. Of course the child is not limited to any one mode in any period, but each period has its charac- teristic mode, which should receiv" particular attention from the educator. The third staj^e, which follows g^radually upon the second, is characterized by the exercise and development of reflective attention.that is— the child discovers ends and reflects upon their desirability, and upon means to attain them. There- fore, action should become more deliberate, independent, and permanent, and remote ends should be chosen in preference to temporary and immediate ends. And, aj^r.iin, we remind the reader that each stage includes all the mental activities, but in varying degree. Reflective attention should become the dominant factor in this third stage. The child should now be thrown more upon his own resources in solving difficult problems, and the problems should not be presented ready-made, but should arise as (I part of life's experience. Several problems may present themselves at once, and he should choose the one to be dealt wiih, and then consider the means necessary for the solving of the problem, whether it be a material or a mental one. The problem may bo the construction of some article of use, or the analysis of another's thought. In either case there should be independent activity in its solution, and a motive sufficiently strong to arouse spontaneous activity. METHOD OF NATURE STUDY 247 Dr. Dewey says in School and Society : "No number of object lessons, ^ot up as object lessons for the sake of jrivinj,' information, can afford even the shadow of a substitute for acquaintance with the plants and animals of the farm and garden, acquired through actual living among them and caring for them. No training of sense-organs in school, introduced for the sake of training, can begin to compete with the alertness and fulness of sense -life that comes through daily intimacy and interest in familiar occupations. Verbal memory can be trained in committing tasks, a cer- tain discipline of the reasoning powers can be acquired through lessons in science and mathematics ; but, after all, this is somewhat remote and shadowy,compared with the training of attention and of judgment that is acquired in having to do things with a real motive behind and a real outcome ahead." And, speaking of the relation of manual training to education, he says: "We must conceive of work in wood and metal, of weaving, sewing, and cooking, as methods of life, not as distinct studies Upon the ethical side, the tragic weakness of the present school is tliat it endeavors to prepare future members of the social o' der in a medium in which the conditions of the social spirit are eminently wanting." It is, of course, impossible for us to introduce into Canadian schools, as at present constituted, a course of work at all like that which is laid down in the Elementary School of the University of Chicago, but it is possible to modify somewhat our antiquated methods, and make more use of our pupils' activities than we have been doing hitherto. The work here outlined is a humble effort to introduce into Nature Study some living activity, and to base it upon the' fundamental activities of child nature. It is hoped that the attempt to adapt th- principle of Dr. Dewey's school to our conditions will not entirely destroy its vitality. If I I'! li ■:^g-:i^ -■^^ NATURE STUDY APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLE Aftor u h.it has Kvn said about llie piiiuiplo of oonst.uc-tive activity and its action upon cnvironnKnt, there is little to bo said on tiio question of nuthod, except to show the practical applicatitM, of the principle to each sta-e of child life. It is evident that our method nuist vary in these three statues. In each sta^^e we have to consider: (i) The matter of study and how to obtain it; (_.) The teacher's work; ( ^) The pupil's work. In the first sta-e the matter of Nature Study is that with which the pupil can and does come in contact. The immediate environment of the child is the field of study. The extent of the analysis of the matter studied will be determined by the child's power of synthesis. How shall this matter be obtained ? In this primary sta^a^ we cannot depend to any j,rroat extent upon the pupil's'ability to collect, unless under the direct supervision of the teacher. Consequently, teacher and pupils must make excursions to- i,'ether. Hut frequent excursions are impossible, and as we cannot take the children to nature, we must brin- nature to the children. The remarks which follow, concerning school gardens, etc., are applicable to all three staires of child-life. ^ ■ A part of the school yard must be set apart for the recep- tion of plants of different kinds. The limit to the kinds of plants will be determined by the extent of the garden space the nature of the soil, and the possibility of varying the con- ditions. If one part can be kept shady, another pkrt sunnv, another damp ; if one part is loamy soil, another sandv, and another rocky, which, ordinarily, would not be found within a radius of many miles, all varieties of plants can be culti- vated successfully. In stocking this garden with root-stocks, bulbs, and small trees ; in planting seeds, and In caring for METHOD OF NATURE STUDY ;illlluso, tho most iin|-iiM-l;inl Cut s .iknit pi. nils will he loarncd. W'liilo a s.lu)pl--^arJcii will liiriiish matorial lor the stialy of plants, and will briny within n-aih tho insocts and birds uhicii constantly visit them, it is necessary to have some more limited space in which hvin^; animals and plants may be bronchi into the class-room. There shonid be a caye. in which rabbits, squirrels, birds, etc., may be kept for a few days, obser\etl, and then set free ag-ain. .V terrarium for the class-room is an essential part of a museum equipment, and may be stocked from time to time with the proper food-plants of the insects which are to be studied. A few younj,- cabba-e plants on which the eggs of the Cabbage Butterfly have been laid ; a young potato plant, with the yellow eggs of the Colorado Heetle ; a carrot, with the eggs of the Kastern Swallow-tail ; all may be used to stock the terrarium and to furnish matter for Nature Study, for weeks, at the proper seasons. Small animals, e.g:, toad', mud turtle, may be kept in the terrarium, and their habits observed, especially their burrowing when cold weather comes on. A small terrarium may be arranged to open to the outer air, and bees can be kept and observed in safety. One moth, kept in a cage on the window-sill, will attract others of its kind of the opposite sex. Then, there must be an aquarium, small enough to be earned about, yet large enough to accommodate small-sized fish, cray-fish, mud turtles, etc A little care in observing and collecting water-plants will soon enable the teacher and pupils to keep a balance between plant and animal life with- out any further care than to keep the vessel clean, in a favorable light, and to replenish the water as it evaporates. Care must be taken to put just enough food in the aqua- rium so that none will remain uneaten. If too much is put in. the surnhis nmuf Ua ^..-.^c.n.. i - "" ■-■■-■.■.■.J :c::v,--. eu. •_'.".() NATURE STirnY All tlx.sc .no tor livii)j,r thiiij,'-s. lUit there is ;i place for ileai! tliin^-^s.atul lor picliires o( li \n^ lliin-^s, especially if the pictures are in colors. There slu>ukl he stutTed specimens of representative hirds and maninials ; preseived specimens of insects ; plants fi>r reference, and frr the purpose of showing- how they should he preserved. Hut avoid trying to have a complcie set of specimens, and above all things do not think that the study of dead specimens, especially of dead birds, is Nature Study. It is better t.) get your specimens of birds and manunals from a regular taxidermist, rather thati to accept them from pupils, who, should be discouraged from collecting birds and birds' eggs, because of the importance of preserving our birds from destruction. Encourage your pupils to expend their collecting energy on insects and plants. A few life histories of butterflies, moths, and beetles should be prepared for reference, and for review work. Several typical specimens of plants, especially of those more difllcult to obtain, should be pressed, dried, mounted and properly named, in order to show pupils how to do sych work. Specimens from remote districts very properly find a place in a museum, as they will arouse interest in their native districts, and will extend the knowledge of familiar nature. Finally, although these should not be studied analytically until the third stage of school life is reached, specimens of all the common minerals and rock of the country should be in every museum. If, corresponding to each mineral, pictures of the mines, of mining machinery, and of the mining country can be procured, geography may be made a much more profitable study. Sections of woods in their natural state, also polished and stained, should be obtained. Corresponding to these, there should be pictures of whole trees in their natural environment, if these trees are not within easy reach of the school. METHOD Ol NATURE STUDY •-'.-.I THE WOHK OF TFACHER AND PUPILS The te;u-Iier will first of all select the material for sliiiiv. Haviujif done this, and having- provided suitable quarters for it, he should direct the juialysis and the expression of the pupils in each staj^^e in an orderly way. He must not allow the material to be so ^rait in quantity as to confuse the pupil, or to cause dissipatiim of energy, and yet must sus- tain interest by allowing the pupil's love of activity and dis- covery to find free play. The chief work of the teacher, at first, is wise questioning suited to the pupil's capacity. The pupils should assist in preparing cages, breeding-boxes, etc., for the museum. • We shall illustrate the work of teacher and pupil in all tiiree stages in a series of outline lessons or studies making explanatory comments as we proceed. I. OUTLINE STUDY OF AN INSECT THE BUTTERFLY FIRST STAQE -Five to eight year* of age Material. — Living Larvji.-, ChrysaliJs, aiiJ ISutterflies. HoMK : — Pupils will state where they have seen each. .After observing in the class-room they should be told to observe at home and out o( doors. MOVKMENTS : — Observe the larva crawl and eat. Tell how it does each. What does it do when disturbed ? Observe it moult, and describe the change in appearance. Observe it preparing to pass into the chrysalis state. Does the chrysalis move? How is it fixed? Observe the butterfly emerge from the chrysalis. What does it look like ? How does the butterfly move about ? Food : — \A,'l-,,>f ,1 tu„ I le Ciir\'saiiS caL r 253 NATURE STUDY Supply wild nowers, and nhsorvo tlic butterfly {^et ncrtar. Feed the hultci-ny with a mixturo of hiMioy and s..j,'-ar. Toll how it drinks. How lony^ is its tongue ? Color : — Describe the color of each form. STKrcriKij : — What does the larva look like? Has it a head? How many legs has it? Are they ail alike? How many are alike ? How, and for what purpose, does it use each kind ? What does the chrysalis look like ? Has it a head ? What does the butterfly look like ? How many divi- sions are there in its body? }{ow many win-s has it? How many legs has it? Observe its head,' eyes, and antenna", a.nd tell wiiat they are like. Kxi'KF.ssio.v : — In addition t.i oral descriptions, let children cut out paper butterflies and color them. Mould the shape of the chrysalis in clay. SECOND STAGE-Eight to twerve years of age The child is now able to depend partly on memorv, and to imagine forms not actually seen, if aided by the teacher's description. Mathr.a, -i:g:K:s. Larv.eand Food-plant, Chrysalis, Uutter.ly ; Illustrations of several of each of these. HoMii : — Where are the eggs laid ? Does the mother watch over em , th Upon what plants does the larva feed? What plants will it not eat ? Observe it at difi-erent times of the day. Where is the chrysalis usually found? Describe its position. Gather information about it from difl-erent sources. MFTHOD OF NATURE STUDY 253 What flower does the butterfly prefer? Why? Where does it j^o at nij^ht ? In winter ? Obtain information from various sources. Movements :— Review. Describe definitely its mode of walkini,s moultinf,^ and eating. Wliat changes are observed in its activity before and after moulting? Observe it breathe. Compare with your own breathing. Food : — Review. When does it eat most ravenously? When does it do most damage ? On what does the chrysalis live > Compare the chrysalis with hibernating animals. Color : — How does its color harmonize with its surroundings? Compare colors of different species. How do they vary ? Structure : — Count the number of rings (segments) in the larva, behind the head. On which segments are the legs situated? On which segments are the fleshy pro-legs situated ? Compare iarvje of different species, actually present or pictured, and decide if they agree in these par- ticulars. Make a drawing of the larva. Compare the chrysalis with the larva, and tell how they resemble each other. Make a drawing of the chrysalis. Compare different chrysalids. How many parts are in the butterfly? How many wings and legs ? Where are they attached ? Make a drawing of the whole and of each of the parts. Compare with larva and chrysalis. Head, and Sense Organs : — Examine the eyes with a lens and describe. Draw. Examine the antennae. Compare with other butterflies, •jr»4 NATURE STUDY ■M' '"■ ' and with moths. Describe and draw. Examine the tonjrue of the butterfly and compare uith the mouth parts of the larva. Can it hear and smell? Experiment t(^ discover. E(;f.s: — Observe a butterfly deposit its e^i^s. Where are they deposited ruid why ? How many are deposited in a place ? Keep in a box until they hatch. Observe development of the larva. Compare dilTerent sta^-es with each other and with other larvaj. Make drawings of each stage. THIRD STAGE-Twelve Years The aim of the third stage should be to discover relations, especially of cause and efl^ect. Whereas we have been more concerned about the where? how? and what? we now become concerned about the why ? Finally, we classify the specimen as minutely as possible. Material-As before, .-.nd m addition verbal descriptions of different forms of animal l.fe. and an analytical key to each branch, partly, at lea.t. the pupil's own work. Home : — In addition to what has been learned before, the student should now determine what effect the larva has on its food- plant. Does it destroy it entirely or in part ? How does the butterfly benefit the flowers ? Why has the butterfly so long a tongue ? What relation is there between the flowers it visits and the length of its tongue? What relation exists between the time of appearance of certain butterflies and of certain flowers? On the whole— is the msect harmful or beneficial to man ? Movements : — Why does it moult its skin ? Why does it become restless before mousing? Of what benefit is this restlessness to the larva? Has it any movements which are protective ? .-"v> METHOD OF NATURE STUDY 2SS Road about tlic mii^'^ratioii of huttcrnies ami what they do in winter. Compare witli otlicr insect-^ and with birds. Food : — Why are certain butterflies not found in Canada? Wiiat determines their raniie ? Which is rnore easily killed by poisoning, the larva or the butterfly? Why? If you find larva; on different plants, find from your botany text if there is any relationship between these plants. They will probably belong- to the same family. Color : — Observe if the different forms are protected by their color. Compare the color of larv;e in different conditions. Com- pare the color of the chrysalis with the surface on which it rests. Structure : — , Compare all the butterflies studied, witli one another, and with other insects, spiders, etc. Tell wliat is charac- teristic of all butterflies, which distinguishes them ftom moths, beetles, etc. Group the diffeient species studied, according- to their resemblances. How are they adapted to their mode of living ? Like Historv : — Write a complete account of the life historv of the butterfly. Thus the teacher's work is in selecting- the material and in directing the pupil's an-dysis, while the pupil's work is to discover facts about this material, and to give expression to each fact in some way. Finally.the student should summar- ize all these facts in a composition, which is virtually the story of the life of the animal studied. In doing- this work 2r>6 NATURE STUDY the MKw.tal power is incrcasoci in all directions, and the power ol expression is incidentally cultivated in an interest- ni<4- way. witl^ ;r"'" ''" ^'' '" ^•""'^ ^^'^' '^ ^-'■-'-t- Nature Study P'-s.olo^y, and should base all training in expre:sii; .eacU ing, drawino", and composition upon it. II. OUTLINE STOJY OF A PLANT BUTTER-ANO-EGGS OR TOAD FLAX Specin,ons of the whole plant should be obtained bv the tl "s^ , . ■' : ' • ''^ ''-^ ' ''''' ••^"'' ^--P''-^ "-^- i-t , me school sjarc en or in ti. > ..u t^ Tucn, or, ni the absence ot an appropriate nl-irp ■ntoa box which may be kept in thp s -I. V ''"'''\ P''^^'^' The eu-lipr in ti s^-hool-room window. more i ' """" ''""'-^ '^''^"^'^ -^' -^^-ned, the school-room or yard the natural conditions of soil i j and moisture Imlt-.t. ^ ■ ' 'f^''^' plants. "'"'"'■' '" >'^"'' ^'■'-ank^ement of thrt'^t-'"'" '"""" "'"^ "^"'-"^'"- ^'-" ><"-' -f -soil, the loc. ,on. amount of moisture generallv present al .surround,n^.s, and the date of collectfon. Were hire' fe or many plants together? Were thev nnll.H ^'\^^^'^ f^^^' VVor« fU u . '^"'^yP^I'eaup easi y or not'-* \\ ere there bees or other insects about the flowers^ ^Zo there any larvae feeding upon the plants p Do c-.t 1 ' .. animals eat the plants? H . , ^' ' ^^'' ^'^"'^ or other and leave the . ' ^ V ^Z :^ '^^^ ^'. "^^^ "^-^^ enter could not get at theLt::^t:::i::^r^"^"^"'^^-'^'^^ In the class-room, root stom nn^i i . .e t Kre .,0 always ccr.ain related facts wl.ici, „,ay be con ->cd .„ ,„e „a,,„s ,„„,u,.h pi,u,.s „. By .orU., ilpe;:,',; METHOD OF NATURE STUDY 2B1 in hif,'her classes. The one thinj,' to avoid is the attempt to force the pupils to learn mere forms without actual assimila- tion. The method of arousing mental activity varies in the different stages, as previously stated, and this holds good in the study oi plants as in any other study. FIRST STAGE What part of the plant grows above grouni? What is the nature of the underground part? Whe-e was thi;; par- ticular specimen found ? Tell whether it grew in shade or in sun; in dry, moist, or wet soil; or in water. How many plants grew where the specimens were found? How close together did they grow? Were any of the plant.: eaten off by animals? What insects were noticed about the flowers ? What were they doing ? Part of Plant above Ghoind : — How high does it grow? How wide? Are there branches? What kind of leaves are there? Do all the plants bear flowers? What color are the flowers? What odor? How many are on each plant? How are they arranged? Are all the flowers open at the same time ? What do they look like? Cut out paper flowers and leaves to look like the real ones. Color them. Part of Plant Underground : — What kind of structure do the branches grow from? (Give name, root-stock.) How many branches grow from one root-stock? How long is a root-stock? Find the fibrous parts growing downwards from the root-stock. How many are there? How long? Cut up the root-stock into several pieces, and plant all the pieces. Fruit : — What is the shape of the fruit? Is it good to eat? T>o animals eat it? How many seeds are there in it? Mould clay to file shape of the fruit. 2.58 NATURE STUDY ISil' SECOND STAGE Review conditions oC s^Towth as in first staf,^-. What olhcr plmts are gio\vinj,r near it ? Compare conditions of plants found in ditTerent localities. Do the plants vary with conditions? Compare plants which j^row in shade and in sun. Compare plants which grow in moist soil with those in dry soil. What kind oC soil seems most favorable to the plant? Why are the plants found in patches? If animals will not eat them, discover why. Observe how bees enter and leave the flowers. What insects cannot enter? Why? What do the bees j,'-et from the flowers? What do they carry from one flower to another ? Part of Plant above Groi no : — Review work of first stage. Where does the plant grow higher— in sun or in shade? in sand or in clay? in moist or in dry soil ? How high are the highest plants observed? How wide are the widest ? Look at the plant from above. Describe the appearance of the leaves. How are they attached to the stem ? Why are they not placed one above the other? Do the leaves change position in sunlight and at night? Make drawings of the whole plant to show various points observed. Describe a leaf fully and draw it. 'Compare with leaves of other plants. Why are the leaves narrow? Compare the number of leaves with the number on the sunflower or other large-leaved plant. Make a diagram showing the order in which the flowers open. What advantage's it to the plant to have flowers opening successively? Make a drawing of u flower and of the whole plant. Flower : — Examine the different floral organs :— calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil. How many parts are in each? Show by diagram where each part is situated. How is the corolla METHOD OF NATURE STUDY 889 adapted to invite the bee to visit it ? Wliat attracts the bee? Observe one ali},'lit on the flower, and tell just what happens as the bee ali^^lits, enters, and leaves. What part of the bee becomes covered with pollen ? What becomes of this pcllcn? Where is the nectar found? NOTK.- -It is assiinu'd tli U the pupils have examined flowers of simple structure, such as t'le Hiilli-iiup, bot'ore examining' this one. I'^RiiT : — Is it dry or fleshy ? How long does it take to mature? Does it split open when ripe ? How ? Why ? How many cavities are in the fruit? How many seeds? Where are the seeds attached in the fruit ? How are the seeds discharged from the pod ? Examine a seed and make a drawing. How is it made so as to be carried away ? What agent will carry it? Preserve some seeds and plant them next spring. Com- pare with other seeds in shape, size, color, etc. Part of Plant UNnERCROUND : — Account for the plant growing in patches. How does the root-stock grow in length each year? What becomes of the old part? What happens to the plant in wuiter? Preserve some of the root-stocks and plant them in spring. (Give name, perennial, for a plant which lives from year to year, after pupils have discovered this to be the fact.) Compare root- stock with a potato tuber, bulb of Lily, or corm of Indian Tur- nip. Is the root-stock a stem or a root? Why? Compare roots with branches in size, shape, structure, as far as possible. Compare the roots of this plant with those of other plants. THIRD STAGE Under each heading, review the work of preceding Stages. Why do the plants grown in different conditions vary ? In what kind of soil would a plant of this nature spread most rapidly? How can plants that giow in patches be destroyed ? What other plants grow in patches ? Compare tmi 1 * " J- - ■ n III ;''J iiir t!'. it!) •260 NATURE STUDY with this Olio after intcrriiit,'- in what respects thev should aj,'ree. What is the adaptation of the structure of the flower to tliat of the bee ? Part of Flam- aiuuk (iKoi'ND : Determine the exact leaf arrani^emeut of the leaves on the stem. Wliy are they arranged in tliis way? Is the stem woody or soft? Are the leaves net-veined or parallel- vemed ? ' 'rite a full description of stem, leaf, and mode of flowerint;, usinf,-- technical terms. What other flowers resemble this one in mode of flowerins,'- (inflorescence) ? Is the plant an exoyen or an endoj,'-en ? Flower : - Write a full description according to some prescribed form, stating the number of parts in each whorl, and the relation of the whorls to one another. Do this first in simple language and gradually introduce technical terms, such as gumopctalous, etc. Determine the relation between the position of stamens and stigma which favors cross- fertilization by bees. What other flowers have closed cor- ollas? Why? Why is the corolla spurred ? What other flowers have spurred corollas ? Compare the lengths of the spurs in diff"erent flowers. By what other means do plants favor visits by bees? What other insects cross-fertilize flowers? Obtain further information from books on Nature by Darwin, Gibson, Grant, etc. Classify the plant. Fruit : — Write a full description of the fruit. Compare with other dry, dehiscent fruits. In what w.iys does the fruit favor the preservation of the plant ? * Part of Plant Undergkoi no : — Compare the structure of the root-stock with that of the stem above ground. What is the diff-erence between root- METHOD OF NATURE STUDY 281 stock and root.'' Determine the ag^e of the root-stock hy countii)^^ the ripj,'s of wood. Kxamine the root-stock in tlie fall and see what preparation has been made for next year's growth. Compare with annuals and biennials. III. OUTLINE STUDY OF A BIRD THE ROBIN Robin's Nest and Egrgrs. first 8taqe Home : — Where do you see it? In the trees? On the i,rrouiKi ? When? In summer? In winter? Movements : — What part of the body does it use in flyinjr? Notice the movement of the tail when it alights. How close can you get to it before it flies? Foon : — Watch it pulling earthworms out of the ground after a shower. What e'se do you see it eating? Color : — What parts are dark ? pure black ? white ? red ? t-J-J.' I 202 NATURE STUDY Song and Call : — W'\at kind of ;i c.ill tloes a Kobin make ? Docs the Robin move its body when it makes its call? When does il.,in<^'? Insprinj,''? In the fall? At nif^rht? In the morninj^ ? VVHien it is tMinin^""? Have all the Robins the same son^^ ? Afi'Eakamk : I.ook for its e)cs, ears, nostrils. What is the shape of its bill? What is it made of ? Has the Robin a tonj,Mie ? Has it teeth ? What is the shape of its tail ? What color liave the lej^s and feet? How many toes has it? Nest anh Egos : — What is the nest made of? W^here is it foiuid ? On the^'^roimd? In a bush or a tree ? How many ej^f^^s are there? Of what color are they? SECOND STAGE HoMK : — When do you see it first in the spring? When last in the fall ? Where does it go in the winter ? Movements : — Does it walk, or hop along the ground? What part of the body does it use to balance itself when it alights? How does it keep its feathers clean and smooth? In w hat position does it sleep ? Food : — What insects and what fruit do the Robins feed on ? What do they find to give the young ? How do they prepare it ? Why are they so active after a show-er ? Color : — Are the Robin and his mate both of the same color ? Which is the brighter? How does a young Robin difler in color from an old one ? METHOD OF NATURE STUDY 263 Si>\t, AM) I'm. I. : — - Docs it s\\\>j; uIkmi it is llyiMj,'? VVii.it position doos it (.^••cnLT.illy choose- •' a low l->i;mcli, or tlie top of ;i tree? Docs it opoii its hill ulioii it sinj^-s ? Has it more than one kiiKJ ot call? Docs its call mean anythinj,'' ? Com- pare with other birds. NicsT : When does the Robin bet^in to bnikl ? What different kinds v( p1ai.es does it build in ? How long- does it take ? How does it carry the mud? How does it shape the nest ? Does it use the nest as soon as it is finished ? Is the satne nest ever used twice? How many times in the year does the Robin build? Thk luu'.s: — Oi' wliat shape are the e^-^g-s? How long is it before the second egg is laid after the first? When does tlie mother- bird begin to brood? When does she leave the nest to feed ? Does the male bird ever sit on the nest ? How long before the first egg is hatched? The second? Thk \'or\(; : — Have they any feathers at first ? Are their eyes open ? When i.\o you notice any change in their appearance? What food do they receive? Do both parent birds help to feed them? How long do they stay in the nest? Do they all leave at the same time? What are their chief eneuMcs ? How do the old birds keep track of them after they leave the nest? How long do the old birds look after them ? THIRD STAGE Ho.MK : Note the exact date of migrations. Why does it return so '>a.rK' np.J !.j;ive k:i liti^'-* T^:-. K -.(!-. :-.-.;! . .... 1 !" ! ^^^ H\ 264 NATURE STUDY binls rotiiii) .it the same time-' How far south ili< ihcy go in llic u iiilor ? Mo\ i; ,iKN IS : - Note t!ie points which (aL-iMtale fli^-^ht llie covering of feathers, shape, air sacs in the bones uliicli can be inllated. Compare its 'light with that of the (loldfmcli, l\ciliuacleil \\\h>c1 pecker, l?ob4>Iink, Partriilge, Swallow, etc. Toon : In wliat way does it help or injure the farmer? Compare its finnl with that of the Bluebird, Wood Thrush, etc. Coi.i>u : — Why does tiie male bird wear brighter colors ihan the female? Why is the young Roiiin not brightly colored? What points of resemblance docs it bear to the Ciround Robin or Towhee, the Wood Thrush, and the Bluebird? What is the legend as to how- the Robin's breast came to he red? .Vt what season does the Robin moult? SoNXi AND Call : — Why does the female bird not sing? What time of the year does the Robin sing most? Why? What do the parent birds do when their nest is in danger? Compare the song of the Red-eyed Vireo, the Tanager, and the Grosbeak with that of the Robin. In what way do the \ocaI organs of a bird differ from those of other animals? Nest, Kc.c.s, and Yoing : — Make minute observations as to the time occupied in nest-building and brooding. Make accurate notes con- cerning the instincts and actions of the young birds. Compare the nesting habits of the Robin with those if tilt -ith., f iiit-itn l-,..r ^f «1, ... 1- c :i.. METHOD OF NATURE STUDY 2fir> CiiM K \r. I'l: A r iKi:s : Wliiili is tliu lai},'*.-!, tlio malo i>r iho female bird? What aio the tiiaracteristic imneiueiit' of the Robin, bv which you mij^'ht ret.o«,Miize it at a distance? Do the same Robins nest to;,alher ) ear after year, or do they mate every sprin},'-' Do the same Robins return every sprinj^- to the same localities? What proj^Tcss can you make in taminj,' them.? Do the Robins ever molest other birds, or fitjht amonj,' themselves? The writer remembers watchinj,' a Robin who fouj,'ht persistently, day after day, with his shadow in a bri^'^ht basement window, returniu','- to tlie combat time after time after bein^' driven off. ("live an account of the Robin, either in storv or essay form. Read rAiwell's essay on "The Robin." SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASS WORK ON MAMMALS It is impossible to lay down any hard and fast rules for the study of animal lif,; in the class-room, for the conditions of .study vary considerably with the different schools and differ- ent localities. But some general suggestions can be made which may be some guide to the teacher in undertaking the actual work in the class. Naturally no attempt must be made in the junior classes to cover the field of study indicated in this book. But a beginning may br made, for even the youngest pupils can readily understand what is meant by wild animals, in con- trast to the ordinary domestic animals, and in most cases they are already familiar with at least the rabbit and the red squirrel. A little talk on either one will bring out how much the pupils know, and the teacher can stimulate further interest by telling them a few of the interesting things re- ■""tj *% c-4 y iii . nn.,11 tuc Squill CIS oi laooiLs uve. in tlii il k m NATURE STUDY tlio i-ourso o\' .1 lew siuh talks, the pupils will, iiuIiiL'ttlv, Icarii iiu^sl of the i;o(ul and bad points rei,'-ardinj,'- thorn, and will he able to distini,aiisli readily between the cliipmunk and the red squirrel ; and il", in the course ol" liiese first studies, the teacher can read to them, or tell them stories about these animals, or can tell them soinethini,-- of his own experiences in makin-,-- their acquaintance, it will .add very much to the interest o\' the class. Ot course, the fust thiui,'- to be im- pressed u]ioii the minds of the chiklren at the \ery outset ol their study is the fact, that it is their duty to protect wild animals Irom molestation ;uid persecution. Stranj^-e .is il may seem, this is one of the most diflicult thini,^s to persuade boys .and i^irls to do, and yet unless Nature Study is success- ful in this, it fails in its chief purpose as a subject for study in the schools. Alter rabbits and squirrels have been dealt with by the method indicated above, the interest oi' the class may be turned towards othei' smaller mammah-, lield-niice, moles and bats, and the s.ime method followed. A delusion trap may be used to secure specimens of field-mice for the cliild- ren to ex.imine, and they will themselves readily distinj^-uish between the two common kinds. The teacher can tell the class at the same time ibout the ir.oles — the mice which live imderground, and the bats-the mice that flv i.i the air. A third slai,^e in the study of the wild animals will treat of the woodchuck and the skunk. Kvery country school-boy knows of a woodchuck's burrow, and the peculiarities of the skunk .are su!]iciently well-known by all children to make the study an interestini,-- one. The jn>od qu.ilities of the skunk should not be o\erlooked in the study of his various characteristics, and the desirability of his protection should be emphasized. The remainiiii;- M.unm.ils, the raccoon, the inuskrat, METHOD OF NATURE STUDY 267 llio hl.u'k st|uiiTol, aiul tlic flyini;' squirrel, whicli arc less familiarly kiunvii tiian the preceding,'' species, will he dealt witli ill the senior classes. Tiie teacher should, in the mean- time, stimulate the interest of the pupils in animal life in general by reading to them interestinji stories, such as Lonj^'s and Seton-'riiompson's, concerninf^f the Mammals not in- cluded in the rej.;ular course of study ; but the reading' f nature stories must not be allowed to interfere with tne regular study of animal life as it actually exists in the district in which the school is situated. By the time that the pupil is ready to leave the public school, he should be able to niune the different animals which are fmind in his own neighbor- hood, and should know the important facts concerning their manner of living, — their food, homes, defences, season of activity, usefulness, etc. Nature Study, aside from its value in training the scientific and jesthetic faculties, may be turned to distinct advantage by the teacher to give interest to a subject generally disliked h)' most pupils, — English composition. The boy who rebels against the task of constructing a "padded" composition on an abstract theme, generally delights in telling about what he has actually experienced in the outside world. His interest in the woods and fields is almost invariably keen, and a judicious selection of nature subjects by the teacher seldom fails to produce satisfactory results. The pupils may be asked to give an account of their own observation of facts, of which they have already learned in class; or they may be required to reproduce an animal story which they have read or heard, or to give the substance of a passage of poetry which has for its theme some phase of animal life. The following subjects may perhaps suggest some lisies which the teacher may follow in the senior class, either in his own talks lo the class, or in utilizing the study of Mam- ruals lor work in composition. 268 NATURE STUDY 1 1 Mil. 'H ! S'i 'I r iiii I. The Wintr Sluopcrs. 2. Tlie Tell-t.ilc S.unv. 3. The First Spriiii,- Hay. 4. Cliickcn Thieves. 5. Tlie Hay Field. 6. The Xi-ht Walkers. 7. The HiiiUers and Fishers. 8. The Rail Fence. 9. Visitors to My Garden. 10. T\vilij,rht in the Woods. u. Protection and Defence. 12. The Houses in the Woods, 13. Making- Friends. 14. The Autumn Harvest. 15. The Creek. 16. " Nothin^r Walks with aimless Feet." 17. Scent. 18. The Service of Tails. The teacher will find no diHiculty in securini,r suitable sub- jects for the written work in the junior classes. Tlie written exercise does not require to be long, and simple subjects will no doubt be suj^-gcsted by the work of the class. The poets, for various reasons, have written very little on the wild animals, but certain poems such as Emerson's T/ie Moimtain and the Squirrel; Burns's On Seeing a Wounded Hare, and Wordsworth's Hart Leap Well, bear indirectly on the study of animal life, and the teacher cannot do better than to connect Nature Study with English literature by reading these poems, and others on the same subject which may come to his notice, to his classes when the opportunity presents itself. An outline of the saidy of the Red Squirrel is given as a guide to the study of the wild animals in general. OUTLINE STUDY OF A MAMMAL THE RED SQUIRREL The iiu-iimtain and tlic squirrel Had a quarrel, And the former called ihe latter "Little Vrx^." Hun replied : " Vou are donblless very biij, Hut ail sorts of tliin,iuiul ? How does it .succooil in oxtraitiiij,'- tlie kernel from ;i luii ? Will it eat meat of any kind ? C'oi.OK : Notice the black marks alonj,' the sides. Do all red squirrels have them? Are all red squirrels the same shade of color ? Calls : - Which of the calls is j^iveii as a si^ni to other squirrels ? Which is expressive of excitement? Note the peculiar combination of tones in the ordinary call of the squirrel. Its sharper tones are combined with a low, hoarse note, which makes it appear as if there were two different voices. Parts : — To what various uses is the tail of the squirrel put ? Which are the stronj,a»r the fore or the hind leys ? Make a drawing of the squirrel. THIRD 8TAQE Ho.\rK : — Where does it pass most of its time -in the trees or on the ground? What parts of its body are specially adapted to its life in the trees? Compare it with the chipmunk in this respect. Put up a bird-box in the neighborhood of a red squirrel's haunts and watch to see if he will occupy it. MOVEMEN'TS : — When pursued, how does it elude its pursuers in climb- ing a tree ? Does it ever take refuge in a ground hole ? How is it that it is able to pass from one tree to another so readily ? How does it act when its surroundings are strange and unfjimiliar? Food : — in what respect does it differ from the black squirrel in NATURE STUDY ''»( storini,r up its winter supply ? What precautions lioes it take ayainst surprise when eating- seeds or nuts in a tree.'' How does it sometimes make sure of Rettin-,' its harvest of nuts which are in danger of beiuK" carried off by other squirrels ? Coi.OK : — How does it differ from a chipmunk in markins^-s ^ When does it get a chang-e of fur? How do the colors of the red squirrel harmonize with its surroundings? Compare it with other animals in this respect. Cams : — Distinguish between the calls of a red squirrel and those of the black squirrel and the chipmunk. Note the name, chickaree, and compare it with the sound made by the squirrel when excited. Parts : — What is the derivation of the word Squirrel? I'pon which of the organs does the squirrel depend most for food? For safety? What is peculiar in the way in which the eyes are set in the head? Compare with those of a human being. How are the teeth adapted for chisel- ling' the food from nuts? It is said that a squirrel can move either of its lower teeth up and down independently of the other. Disprove or verify this. How is it adapted to its life in trees? YoiM. •• When does it rear the first litter ? Where ? How many litters does it rear in the season ? Note the fact that the male squirrels are driven away from home upon the arrival of the young squirrel family. Why? If possible, study tPtC iiiii'i 1 METHOD OF NATURE STUDY •273 Relations TinvAROs Otiikk Animals : - Hmv do the red squirrels treat the black squirrels? Why? What are the chief enemies of the red squirrel ? What animals? What birds? Last fall the writer watched a red-headed woodpecker chase a red scjuirrel round and roinid a tree. The pursuit was kept up nearly all after- niHin. Wh\ do the birds dislike the red squirrel ? Is it easily trapped? Contrast it with the black stiuirrel in this respect. How does it attempt to j^et out of captivit\ ? Can you tame it ? Give an account of the Red Squirrel either in story or essay form. Read Thoreau's description in IValden. Note, — If you desire to .t;ct a rod stiuirrel for observation, place a I'ox with a hole iu one end on a feiue in the woods Attaih a loiiij string- to a sliile or door in such ;i way that it can be instantly pulled shut. I'lit some sbcllod nuts in the box or on the fence. Early in the morning, or late in the afternoon, when tiie squirre's are most active, conceal yourself a short distance off and await developments. Sooner or later .) squirrel will go into the box, and a sharp jerk on the string will secure it. A cage nia\- be improvised by covering the front of a large packing case with wire netting, and providing it with cross p'eces, and a sleeping-box filled with grass. Be careful to supply It with fresh foini anil wali'r I'vi-rv day. A squirrel which is kept through the winter in this way sliould be let go in the spring. SOC^TAL SIDE 01 XATIKE STUDY ■ iif! In order to make Nature Study an intei,'-ral part of cduea- liou, it must hvhv^ into play the constructive activities by which the social life of the race has been evoKed. This development has been intimately associated with what we eat, wear, and live in, and with the tools by which the raw materials have been converted into food, clothing, and shel- ter for the race in different ages. In order to understand the present complex social organization, the child must repeat the more primitive and typical ptocesses of life, but under more ideal conditions. The following series of lessons is suggested as being typical of the important processes of social development. For food — wheat may be taken ; for clothing— wool, linen, cotton, and silk ; for building mate- rials v.ood, iron, stone, and brick. In each case the study of these should be correlated with history, geography, arithmetic, and with all the modes of expression —modelling, drawing, writing and speaking. WHEAT Plant some wheat, observe its growth and development, partly, at least, as outlined in the study of " Butter and Kggs." Compare the quantity sown with the quantity reaped, and thus estimate yield per unit area. Find out what is the average yield per acre in Canada. Work out experimentally the process of manufacturing flour, from the crude crushing of wheat with stones to the •sit SOCIAL SIDE OF NATURE STUDY 278 finished products of a roller mill. Visit some modern roller mill. 'I'liis work will be correlated with history and ^"•eography. Obtain and compare various kinds of flour. Compare bread made from different kinds of flour. Where provision is made for Domestic Science, the mak- ing of bread will form a step in the study. The value of the whole wheat as a food should be made clear by the study of the different constituents of the g'rain — starch, albumen, and cellulose. What kind of soil is rr.ost favorable for wheat production ? How can poor soil be made favorable for w heat ? How can good soil be prevented from becoming poor? FLAX Seeds should be planted, and the whole plant may be studied as outlined for " Kutter-and-Kggs. " After the plant has been thoroughly studied, secure several bundles of the ripe flax plant, pulled in the ordinary way. Why do they pull it ? Suggest means of threshing, and discover the use of the seed. Secure products of the flax-seed and discuss their value. Break the stems of liax with the fingers. Describe what happens. Lay the straw out-doors for several weeks. Compare with straw which has not been laid out. Suggest ot. er ways of " retting." Let pu->il:s devise a mechanical method of separating the woody anU ttie fibrous parts of the flax straw. Show pic- tures of modern machinery for the purpose. Work out primitive ways of spinning, weaving, bleach- ing, etc. At almost every step in the study of flax, history, geo- hMi il i •276 NATURE STunr Ijraphy, ^lr;^\vinl,^ coiiiposilioii, cti., can bo lorrclatcd. When did pt-'ople spin by hand? WIkii was the spinnini,''-\vheel introduced? What was the cllccl on rolat -d industries of inipro\cd inacliinory? Wlicrc is the L^rcat centre of the linen industr\ ? Whv? SILK After studyint;' one o\ our common motlis, I'.i^. Vo\\. phemus, the pupils will be quite ready to understand the life history of the Silkworm from ej^'j,' to cocoon. Secure pictures oi' the different stai,'es and ciimpare with the staj,res in the life of Polyphemus and other moths. Cocoons may he obtained from the large silk-manufac- turinsr firms, and may be unwound by placinj,"- in warm water, whicli will set free the end. Unwind the whole cocoon by hand. This will .recjuire several hours' work. After this slow process, the pupils will be ready to sui^<,'-est the use of machinery for unwindinj4-, and pictures of modern machinery may be shown. If pupils are properly directed, they will rediscover in a short time the use of the shuttle and the means of throwinsr it, first by hand, then by hand-worked levers, and, finally, by machine power. With improved throwing' power, wider cloth may be woven, and the steadiness of machine-weaving' will be seen to be a great improvement over hand-weaving. How may a strong silk thread be made from the fine silk of the cocoon? Find out how many strands there are in a silk thread. Compare silk with cotton, linen, and wool. Why is it more expensive? Can it be produced in Canada? Which of our moths spin good silken cocoons? Why not make use of these to manufacture silk? What other animals spin silkeTi threads ? The relation of the climate to the crowth of th>^ SilLr\i'i->rm SOCIAL SIDE or NATURE STUDY 877 will miiko a natural ti>MiK'ctii)n between the stiiJy of silk and f^eoj^napliN . What are the ^ilk-pnuUiein^'- and silk-inanufacturinj,'- countries ■' WOOL Make a lhormij,'-h stucl\- of the iliMuestic sheep. Seeure uool, tiie whole or part of a fleece. Show pictures of sheep-washing'', shearing,'-, etc. Discuss tlic use of sheep as food. What conditions arc fa\orahIe for sheep j^Towinj,'? Why ha\e New Zealand and .Vustralia become famous sheep-raisinjr ctnuitries? Compare different parts of the fleece by examiniu},'- the leiif^-th of the wool fibre. Why do wool fibres adhere to each other so readily ? {.\ microscope may be necessary to discover this). Compare different kinds of wool. Try to prepare the wool for spinning by using the fingers only. Let the pupils see the advantage of some sort of instrument to separate the wool fibres. The pupils may invent crude carders, spindles, etc. Show them a spinning-wheel, or a picture of one. Have pupils repeat as many as possible of the steps in the process of preparing wool for use in making cloth. After the white yarn has been produced, discuss dyeing, weaving, kn'tting, etc., as with flax and silk. Why should linen and cotton be cheaper than wciol and silk? Which is the warmer-' Why? Of what use is wool to the sheep? Is it of the same use to man ? Of what use is silk to the silkworm ? Is it of the same use to man ? Of w hat use is cotton to the cotton plant ? Of flax fibre to the flax plant ? COTTON A similar study should be made ot cotton from the seed up to the finished product. Although cotton does not mature m this country, seeds will trprminMt.» in M,-;ii.imi-_v-..-.>.-u..- ^.-v^i I lif; li •_':s NATURE STUDY tlic matiiii.'il LOtlon-bolls in;i\' l">o obtaiiK'il Iti'ni fiicncls in the South, or sui'h iii:itcri;il nay he a part i^t" tlu' roi^ular sihool Ml|iplil.'S. Tlicre is no limit to tin- fiokl of study which may be t;r;i- du ally opened up by the stud\ of those raw material aiitl their maiuilactured pri>tluLts. Questions about suitable soil, elimate, .and rainfall will necessarily arise. Transportation problems must be considered, and as whole districts become lic'.oted to their iiu> .t suitable prinhicts, the impi>rtation into them of other pioilucts not raised there raises the question itf commerce antl interchaui^e of pnulucts. The use of steam-power and of machinery leads to the stutly of coal and iron, their relation to each other and to other products. Later, physical and chemical probleTiis oi every kind will naturally arise. WOOD The best introduction to the stuily of wood is by usinj^ it in tile construction of some useful article. In discussinj;' the use of the article, the kini.1 of woikI best .suited for it must recei\e attention. Ims will brin<.f befv)re t!ie pupils the ditl'erent properties of different woods, and pupils should discover which kind of wood is best adapted for the required article. Naturally the fust articles made should be simple, so that the task of choosins^ the wood should be reasonably easy. It is evident that a great part of the process of preparing the wood must be omitted. The cutting down of the trees, hauling the logs, sending them down the ri\er to the mills, sawing them into lumber, can be shown by illustralionsj and this is an important part of the study of wood. When should the trees be cut? Why? Does the mode of saw ing affect tlie use of the lumber for different purposes ? wu ,,:ti.. i:i.„i,. 4 , u., . :. » .,i 'j SOCIAL SIDE OF NATURE STUDY 27» l^xporiuuMit with difkiviit woods in pi>Iisliinj,', .st;iiiiin^r, tilling,'- and varnishiiii;. A pupil slioukl sodii discover tlu- importance ol' fillinj,-- coarsc-j^Tained wood, siuli as oak, asli, and walnut, hctoro \ arnishinj-. They could even siiK-k'^'st ^'ood liliers, if tluy have learned soniethinj,' about the nature of wood and vej^etahle suhsfmces in j;.'neral. When the wood of a tree has been used in making- si nie article, the pupils v. ill he interested in learninf,-- where the tree j,mows, the soil most suitable ("or i(s ^^-rowth, and its habits of ^Mowth. ]-> it an everj^-reen or not ? What chanj^-e i>cciirs when winter comes on? Which is better for produc- ni^' lumber a tree j^-rowinj,^ in a forest, or one j^rouiu};- in the open? Why? How is the tree propa{,'ated ? How fast does it 5,'-row ? How si>on could a forest be produced? How many of tlie seedlings mature ? Compare the seed- linj,r with the mature tree. How can the ai,'-e of the tree he known ? Study all the parts of the tree in relation to each other^ trunk, branches, leaves, flowers, fruit. [.earn to recoj,niizc the tree by its general outline ; from ils bark , irom a single twig ; from a single leaf; from the flower, and from t!ie fruit. Until this can be done, the tree is ruU known. IRON Varieties of iron should be examined and tested as to malleability, flexibility, hardness, and use for certain pur- poses. (This will include very elementary work.) Make sitnple experiments in tempering iron wire. Heat to red heat and cool suddenly by thrusting into cold water. Try cooling suddenly at dilTerent temperatures, and compare hardness by using a file on the iron. Compare the effect of suddenly cooling other metals, r..^. copper. 2M0 NATURE STUDY l*!xplain thut tlio liardness, malloahility, etc. of iron dopoiui partly on the quantity of carbon which is inixcti witii it. Place small pieces of iron in clilVerent .acids. The black specks which invariably remain after all action has ceased are particles of carbon, which are not acted upon by any acid. Discuss also the effect upon iron of niixiiij^ nickel and other metals with it. Maj^netize short strips o( iron, needles, nails, etc., by drawiui,"- them across the pole of a maj^nel several times, (i/wiiys in the scniie din'ciion ; for a needle, draw either from point to e\e or vice versa. Which ma! es the better maj^-net, hard or soft iron? Try to magnetize copper, tin, zinc, etc. Refer to works on Physics for other wa_\ s oi' maj^netizini,'- iron, and for the application o'i such maj^'nelized irv^n to various instruments, such as telephones, telegraphs, door-hells, etc. Observe the rustinj^ of iron. Under what ccinditions does it rust most readily? How may it be kept from rusting? Weiyh a clean piece o'( iron ; then let it rust and weigh it again. Secure iron ore oi various kinds. By observation where possible, by use o^ pictures, from descriptions, etc., learn where it occurs, how it is mined, transported, etc. Scratch glass with the sharp e^.\^^^ of iron pyrites. File iron pyrites. Note change in color. Powder siMiie iron pyrites. Heat the powder in a test-tube in the flame of an alcohol lamp, or in any blue flame. The substance given otT and depi>sited on the sides of tiie test-tube is sidphur. I'^xplain that iron pyrites is a combination oi iron and sulphur, and that all processes aim at the separation of this sulphur and the obtaining of pure iron. By "roasting," that is, healing with coal, charcoal, or coke, the sulphur is displaced by oxygen, and red oxide SOCIAL SIDE OF NATURE STUDY 2H1 ot iron is produced. Tlio oxyj,aMi may tltoii bo removed bv more intense heating- with charcoal or with coke, in specially prepared furnaces. This latter process can be shown on a small scale by heat- ing a mixture of powdered oxide of iron and moist carbonate of soda with a blowpipe flame, in a hollow made in a piece of charcoal. Small pieces of impure iron may be obtained in this way after several heatings. Bring a magnet near these pieces. Place soine of them in an acid r.^., hydrochloric. Hammer small pieces to discover whether the iron is brittle or malleable. Compare this simple process with the more complex pro- cess of reducing iron ores in blast furnaces. In these fur- naces alternating layers of coal or coke, oxide o\' iron and limestone, are placed until the furnace i^ filled. The whole is then heated by a current of hot air. The coal reduces the oxide of iron to metallic iron, which takes up a little of the carbon, and melts. The limestone acts upon the foreign matter in the iron ore, forming with it the "slag" under which, at the bottom of the furnace, the molten iron collects. The molten iron is drawn off, and the blast furnace is filled in again at the top as the first charge is drawn off. In this way the process is made continuous. LEAD For comparison and contrast with iron, lead is a good metal to study. I'^xamine lead in the same way as iron was examined. What properties make it useful for water pipes ? Heat some lead in an iron spoon in a blue flame. Which melts the more easily, iron or l^ad ? Carefully drop lead from a height of several feet into cold water. What is fornun! ? Explain the manu- facture of shot, and the use of shot-towers. Why do we use lead for shot instead of iron ? 2«2 NATURE STULY Ml '■ i ■ Obtain sonic of tlic common Icatl ore — galona. Tes its hardness willi an ordinary stecl-biaded jack-knifu. Heat a small piece in the blow -pipe flame o.i cliarcoa'. Tlie yellow deposit is an indication of a lead ore. Powder tlie ore ; mix with a little moist carbonate of soda, and heat in the blow- pipe flame. A metallic lead ^--lobiiie will be obtained very easily. Note the shape of the crystals of j,^alena. This ore IS a sulphide of lead, i.e., lead and sulphur in combination. (ialena is of very common occurrence, and is usually associated with silver. Where is g^alena found? QUARTZ tjuartz is so common, especially as the rock in which many minerals are found, that it must be thoroughly studied. It occurs in six-sided crystals and also in bed rock. Secure the crystals, which are very common in houses as ornaments. Examine their form. Compare the shapes of ditTerent crystals. Draw the sharp edge of the crystal over common window t,'-|ass. Do the same with sharp-edited pieces of quartz rock. Tlie ditTerent colors observed in quartz are due to foreign matter, maiis,^anese, chromium, etc. Powder some of the quartz rock. Compare with white sand. Infer that clean, white sand is mostly quartz. Ordin- ary sand contains large quantities of other finely divided rock matter. What would be the effect of driving sand against glass ? Devise some way of etching glass by driv- ing sand against it. Obtain ores of various kinds in quartz rock. Show pic- tures of quartz-vei'ls in different kinds of rock. Place small pieces of quartz m acitls. Note result. Ouartz in the form of pure, white sand is useti in the manu- facture of glass. Jv fl ,^-- it: SOCIAL SIDE OF NATURE STUDY 2S.S STONE Sociiro suinplcs of sovcral kinds ot stone — j,'T;uiitc, lime- slono, SHiidstonc, freestone, Hint, quartz, etc. Let the pupils examine these in order to determine which is most suitable for buildini,-- purposes. Why? The following; points must be considered : ease of obtaining, quantity obtainable, ease in shaping-, lasting- qualities, appearance. If pupils live in a region where there is an outcrop of limestone or other rock, a visit should be made to a quarry. If no quarry is at hand, secure illustrations, pholog^raphs, etc., showing- how the stone lies in strata. Sometimes the rock will be found with glacial strife, or the surface will be found much weathered, and covered with a thin soil. These conditions will open up geog-raphical questions of various kinds. What caused the stri.x'? W^iat would the g-lacier do with any soil that had been formed on the rock ? How do g^laciers form lakes? Compare the upper layer of stone next the soil with the unexposed strata. What is rock gradually converted into? What agencies bring' abou' this conversion? LIMESTONE After its adaptability for building purposes has been dis- cussed, suggrest the sigmificance of the naire. Weigrh a larg-e piece, a pound or more, then place it in a hot coal fire or in a blue flame at an alcohol stove for some hours. Compare appearance and other properties, before and after. Weigh after heating'-. What is the result? Infer cause. Show illustrations of lime-kilns. Place the resulting'- lime in water. Observe and describe all that happens. Collect some of the clear lime water and keep for future use. Mix the slaked 'cream of lime' with sand, and let it dry. Let some of the lime dry without mixing with sand. Com- pare the two products. Ff' 2H4 1-1 l< 1 t i ) -1 ; ; i' i] III ■ A' it >'E STUDY In hii;lier classes, it ,nay he discovered that wlien lime- stone is heated, carhon di.ixide is <;i\en otT, and tlie pupils will be ready to infer that the hardening-- of the slaked lime i^ due to a re-ahsorption of carhon dioxide from the air. Test hardness of ditferent mixtures of sand and lime, and thus discover the best proportion for buildini,-- purposes. Pupils have learned that carbon dioxide is <,'-iven off from the lungs. Explain to them that lime-water is simply a solu- tion oi' slaked lime in water. Blow air from tlie luniks throui,di lime-water for a f.-w mmutes. Ob.serve and note the results. Test limestone with hydrochloric acid, and the j^ras that comes off for carbon dioxide, by passing- it through lime- water, and by plunging a burning match into it. The pupils should infer the likeness of limestone to the precipitate in lime-water when carbon dioxide is passed through it. Collect some of this precipitate and pour hydro- chloric acid upon it. Compare result.s with action of acid on limestone. From these experiments the pupil may infer the mode of formation of our vast beds of limestone rock. Observe the action of growing roots in contact with limestone. Infer connection with formation of soil. Observe the action of the atmosphere on limestone rock. Compare with the "weathering" of granite and of sand- stone. Compare different forms of limestone — ordinary rock, marble, calcite. Test as above indicated. LIGHT In connection with the use of pictures and photographs in the study of various phases of the preceding work, the older pupils should be interested in making their own photographs by u-ing a camera. Let them construct a simple pin-hole camera, i.e., a dark box with a pin-hole in the middle of one SOCIAL SIDE OF NATURE STUDY 286 side, ;uk1 a rack for a plalc-hokler opposite it. Secure plio- tograpiis of simple objects with tiiis. To understand tiie workinj,'- of this camera place a lighted candle in front of a large screen with a pin-hole in its centre, and hold a white sheet of paper behind the screen. Com- pare the iniai^e produced on the white paper with the candle. How can a small imaj^^e be obtained ? How can a large image be obtained ? How can the image be made more dis- tinct ? Trace the course of each ray of light from each point of the candle through the pin-hole to the image. Examine the structure of a simple camera. Discover the action of the simple lens in producing the picture. After the pupils have found that a simple lens is he onU" mechan- ism used in photographing, give them a simple lens to experiment with, using a lighted candle in a dark room. Place the candle in different positions on one side of the lens, and cast the image upon white sheets of paper on the opposite side of the lens. The problems to be solved are : Can a photograph of an object be secured at any distance from it ? Is there any one position better than another .» Can you get too close to the object ? Can you get too far away ? What determines the size of the picture .^ Being interested in photographing, the pupils will discover, without much assistance, the laws of im;.ges formed by lenses. In the same connection they can be introduced to the phe- nomena of reflection and refraction of light ; the forma- tion of the spectrum, and lo the use of lenses in telescopes, microscopes, etc. fl' IIIXTS FOK (7.AS8 WOlUv OX PLAXTS It J; J , ,V ' > I !H ! ill Cliildren can ho introduced to the study of phmts as casilv as to any other subject. Just as they learn to know their playmates, so they may learn to know their friends of the woods and fields. When they are interested in a plant because of any feature of it, and ask " What is this?" the teacher should hasten to ^nve them a formal introduction - "Why, that is Wake-Robin, who lives in the woods over there," or "That is my Lady's Slipper, which was lost many years aj^-o in the forest. Let us learn more about it." A touch of reality is added by this personification, which is really more strictly in accord with the truth than to consider a plant as .so much dead matter. Fancy intro- ducing- a child of fourteen years or less to a living incarna- tion of beauty, in the terms of a dead language, Cypripcdium f>ubcsrcns f The flower should be first treated and studied as a living- thing, and afterwards used as material for drawing 'essons and for color study. We may learn something from Nokomis in Longfellow's Hiawatha. She was grandmother and teacher to him. " M.inythinjfs Nokomis tauj,'ht him Of the stars that shine in heaven ; Showed him Ishkoodah, the comet, Ishkoodah, with fiery tresses ; Showed the death dance of the spirits, Warriors with tlieir phimc; anu war-clubs. HINTS FOR CLASS WORK ON PLANTS 287 Flarirjr f;ir a\v;iy to northwaril In tl)i! frosty iiiichls of wiiiti-i- ; Sho'vi'd the broad wliite ro:id in heavoii, Pathway of the g-hosts, the shadows, Running- strai^'^ht across the heavens, Crowded witli the ghosts, the shadows." * * « ♦ « "Saw the rainbow in the heaven, In the eastern sky the rainbow, Whispered, ' What is that, Nokomis?" And the good Nokonii.s answered : ' 'Tis the heaven of flowers you see there ; All the wild flowers of the forest, All the lilii's of the prairie. When on earth they fade and perish, Blossom in that heaven above us.' " " Of all IxMsts he learned the language, Learned their names and all their seirets ; How the beavers built their lodges. Where the squirrels hid their acorns, How the reindeer ran so swiftly. Why the rabbit was so timid, Talked with them whene'er he met them. Called them Hiawatha's brothers. " Here was an ideal teacher of nature. There was no dissec+i-ii,', but a livings interest in what these things did. By ?,onie such simple method, the child should, in the course of an ordinary school life, become acquainted with the names of all our common trees and plants. As soon as he is able, he should note likenesses and differences, beginning with the grosser and gradually extending to the finer details ; but the teacher must keep within the limits of interest, direct the pupil's efforts, yet see that knowledge is acquired through his own self-activity. Classification into orders, genera, and species, should be left lor more advanced school-work. II j r ■2HH NATURE STUDY m W'.iilc becomiiii,-- at\|iiaiiitod witli tlie names of trees and plants, quilo younj,-- pupils can bej^Mti systematic work, wliich requires only keen eyes and an iiileres ed rr.-nd to acciimplish. They slioukl note where the plants ^row, the color of the flowers, kind of soil, etc., and prepare lists of plants according- to habitat : — Plants j^rouinj^r in water— Saj^nttari.i, Kel-i,'-rass. " sandy soil -Clot-bur, Kveniny Primrose. " " woods — Lily, Anemone. If such work as this is bej^nm in the second ^--rade and continued throus,Wiout the school course, the child will have a store of information about plants which will be of the greatest value whatever his future may be. Another line of work, similar to the above, is i,'-rouping- plants accordinj,-- to time of flowerini; ; at first, by seasons, then by months, and later by definite limiting- dates, showing earliest and latest appearance in bloom. As a guide to teachers and as an indication of the work that might be done by the pupils in the course of seven or eight years, a list of common plants, grouped according to habitat and color of flowers, is given in the appendix. In the past, the study of plants in our schools has been limited almost entirely to minute descriptions of individual plants, with a view to their exact classification. While this work is quite in place for the advanced student, it is quite unsuited to the younger classes. Furthermore, the basis of classification has been the flower to the exclusion of the leaf. As the latter is a much more permanent part of the plant than the flower, a classification based upon it has many ad- v.intagcs. In any case, children should be trained to recog- nize plants by their leaves and general appearance, so that they can gather and examine them at any time during the season. HINTS FOR CLASS WORK ON PLANTS •_'8!) Alter a class has oiuo learned to know a plant, tliis slunild bo collected at rej^ular intervals, say every month, and its development and chanifes noted. The importance of su-h examination may he seen in the case of the Dandelion, which, immediately after it has bloomed, should be examined daily until the fruit is fully formed. Then the life storv of it may be written just as we would write the life story o( a froj,"- or other animal. This periodic examination will lead up to the study of the formation and development of fruit and the dispersal of seeds. The seeds should be preserved in labelled packaj,'-es, planted in the followinj,'- spring-, and their j,^ermination and early growth noted. Thus the observation of the life cycle would be completed. While doing such work as the above, the pupils will dis- cover the distinction between annuals, biennials, and peren- nials. Usually this distinction is brought before the student after a few months of study, but evidently no one can appre- ciate the distinction until a type of each class has been studied for two or more years. Thus the study of plants in the large will be followed by the study of their more particular structure, the buds, leaves, flowers, fruit, and seeds. Each of these may be taken in turn and studied minutely. Bring into your school-room, in March, branches of differ- ent trees, e.^., maple, apple, horsechestnut. Keep their cut ends immersed in water or in moist soil (cutting the ends occasionally), and observe the development of the bud. What becomes of the brown scales ? How is the bud pro- tected ? Where are the buds situated? Which buds develop first? Are there any which will not develop in the room ? Observe the development of buds on the tree later. WK..f :. .. U..A -J o j^„ I &" i" ilivi LiiC DU\iS WiiiCfi ■-'!M( :i IS, 11^ it! 11} NATURE STUDY Which ;ippo;ir first ttio Ii-avi's i->r tli(. hoconic llowors. flowers ? On tlu- iiiJiplc troc tlK- (Ikuits ari- not iicahiL' first ; on the apple tree, bolli ckvdop to^-^etlicr ; uliilc llio liorsL-clu'stnut troo is ill full foliaj^^c before the flowers imfokl. Try to dis- cover other trees liUe each oi' these types, in respect to the appearance of the flowers and the leaves. Followiii},^ the plan siij,'-t;estcd in a precediii}^'^ paraj,'raph, observe these trees at least oucuntin,i,'- the ring's ot tile wooil in t!ie shoot. Tlie terminal Iniils continue tlie j^-'rowth of tiie stem next year. Some of tlie lateral buds never develop unless some accident happens to the terminal buds. Break off the terminal buds of healthy branches on a tree, and note the result. .\ few yeas a.tro the I.irva- of the I'ussock Moth destroyed the entire foliat^-e of shade trees in Toronto and elsewhere. Later in the season the trees not only were covered with new leaves but flowers as well. Sometimes, in the sprinj,^ trees leaf out early and have their foliaj^o totally destroyed by late frosts, but the reserve buds are sufTicient to renew the foli- as^-e, and prevent the death of the trees. During,- the winter.trees and shrubs should be observed a.s to outline, habit of branching, nature of bark, etc. Leafless trees are especially valuable as objects of drawiny-Ies.sons, and birds' nests can then be observed, which escape detec- tion durini^ the summer. The nature of the wood itself should be studied, so that unscrupulous dealers could not pass off black ash for oak, or stained pine for mahoi^anv. In the autumn observe the falling- of the leaves. Some trees shed their leaxes suddenly, e.g:, horsechestnut, wal- nut ; some shed them ^rradually, e.^., maple, poplar ; some retain a few brown and withered leaves throui^hout the ' ■ o > '-•an-, L;cc-».i4. •, •, nc.i GO tiicsc iuiler ieaves laii ? ¥ 202 NATURE STUDY Why? (iriMip till.' trt-os inionliiiy li> tliiso ditVoronl \v;iys iW slucliliiit^ tlK'ir Ic.ivfs. Study llio iViTf^'^rt.'i.'iis. I^o tlu\ slioil lluir Iciv os i-' Oiio is apt til aiiswor "No," hut is iiiinicdiatcly romiiidL'd oi the bids o'i pino needles wliieli carpet the ^Touiid under old pin s. t"ut oH" a branch of a pine or a spruce wliich has a leafless portion. (.Observe the ditlerent years' {growths. V.\. amine the leaves on each year's j^routh. W'iiich year's j^rowth is entirely leafless ? What portions iiave K>st part of the leaves ? What portions have lost no leaves > Compare difTereut everj,^reens, as some sheu their leaves in a dirt'erent way from others. In wliat way are everj^rcens better adapted to withstand winter weather than maples? Which kind oi tree will likely llourish better tar \o the north ? The cause i^t the taliinj^ of leave> is not, as is <,'-eneially supposed, due to frost, tlunij^h :; frost may hurry the pro- cess. The leaves would die if there were no frost, as you may observe many do early in the season. A frrowth of special tissue occurs at the base o^ the stem and cuts off the food supply The leaf then dies. ROOTS There are many interestinj^ facts about roots which may be made the subject oi Nature Study. They must be dis- tinj^uished from underi,^rc.:nd stems which bear buds. In orij,nn they grow from the descending axis of the plant. Observe sprouting seeds and distinguish the ascending axis (stem) from the descending axis (root). Kxamiiie the small rootlets for the root-hairs which absorb water. Where are tliesc root-hairs most numerc)us? W'hv are roots so irregu- lar compared with stems? How would the soil atTect the regularity of a root ? Each root lias ;i mnt-i-Mn nt its tin M-lii.li i^ ./iiiwt.iiif It. HIMS FOR CLASS WORK ON PLANTS ^^ reru-ucd ;,s It is worn o.V hy tl.c soil, through uhi.l, i, fo.cos 'ts way. Ih.s root-cap is a very i.nportant part of the root. Kxamine the roots of clover pla„ts and other members of • tHat fam.ly of plants (bean, pea. etc.). and vou will fw.d sn,all cnh..r^,^en,ents called " nodules." These nodnles plav a' verv .mporta.u part in the nonrishment of these plants.' as the'v are tenanted by n.inute forn,s of plant life (bacteria) which have the power of assinnlatin.^^ nitro^a>n directly from the air Ihe major.ty of plants and arn'mals cannot do this. Thu^ ^P .ntsof this family are rich in nitrogen, and are valu- able fert h.ers of the so.l. as farmers have lon^^ known. A crop of clover plowed u.der is the very best preparation for a crop o w eat. ,n Ciern^any these bacteria have been cultu.- ted and prepared fur sale, ju^t as phosphates are sold as fertilizers. One of the best Nature Study exercises is to have each pup.I plant a dozen or more seeds of various kinds, and report each week or oftener upon their growth. The teacher should keep a few seeds of the san,e kind growing, for class demonstrafon, to correct errors and su,.,.est new work. TREES THAT SHED THEIR BARK We are all familiar with the phenomenon of trees shedding- he,r leaves. We know. too. that in spring they shed the scales which enclosed the buds all winter. Later thev shed most of the parts of the flower-the calyx, the corolla, and he stamens. Then, at the close of the season, the fruit ta! s. There are exceptions to nearly all these statements, but, generally speaking, they are true. Most of our trees shed their bark a so. This is most evi- dent HI the sycamores and birches, but it is none the less true of other trees. In winter the branches of the svcamor. ^•:=sica along the river valleys, and the lateness of the leaves iiii 294 NATURE STUDY \\i in spring,'- marks these trees distinctly a^ains^ the surrounding- greenness. This process of sliedding- the bark is quite evi- dent in tlie white pine, from which the bark scales in rather reg-ular fou^-sided patches. The shag-bark hickorv sheds its bark in strips. This peculiarity gives the name to the tree.* The roug-h surfaces of the maple, oak, walnut, and other trees show that the same process is g^oing- on there, though less regularly. It is, in fact, a necessity of tlieir mode of growth. The growth of ouf common trees takes place in the area just under tlie bark, between the bark and the wood. This area is called the 'cambium,' and it g^rows both inwards and outwards, forming wood on the inside and bark on the out- side. As the tree increases in circumferenc.'. the bark of previous years' growth is shoved outward, but being too small to cover the increased circumference, it splits more or less irregularly, and eventually scales off — very quickly and completely in the sycamore — more slowly in the maple and other trees. Some trees, r.,^. palm, and some plants, r.ir., corn, do not grow as above described, and on these there is no bark, although the outer layer of cells are somewhat different from the inner ones. These trees and plants have points of growth throughout the stem, and the wood is formed at tliese points in distinct bundles. These bundles can be seen if a corn stem is cut across. The plants of the first class have net-veined leaves ; ;he parts of the flowers are in fours or in fives, and when the seeds germinate they send up two small leaves (cotyledons). The plants of the second class have straight-veined or par a!icl-\ eined lea\ es ; the jiarls of llie fli>wers are in threes or in sixes ; and when the seeds gerininate, they send up but one leaf (cotyledon). The former are known as Dicotyledons or HIWTS FOR CLASS WORK ON PLANTS 295 Exof,'ens ; the latter as Monocotyledons or Kndogeus. In these two classes all plants which bear flowers can be placed. In the more advanced classes, the pupils should observe the relation between plants and the soil. Some plants flour- ish best in sandy sod, and are apt to crowd oth.r plants out which mi-ht be able to ^^row there, jf not in competition with these natives, as they may be called. Other plants grow in water, and cannot possibly live on dry land. Others grow in swamps ; others in shady woods ; some in sunny places, and some prefer mineral soil. Thus evergreens prefer sandy or gravelly soil, while the hard- wood trees — oak, maple, beech — need a heavier soil, clay loam. Willows and sycamores grow beside flowing streams, and tamarack in cold, wet soils. The study of these groups of trees may be carried on for several years. Modern botany places great stress upon the adaptation of plants to environment. This phase of the subject is known as Ecology. Plants are found to grow in societies, accord- ing to the kind of soil, amount of moisture, and nature of the Climate. Thus we have peat-bog societies, swamp socie- ties, forest societies, desert societies, fence-corner- , and road- side societies. Four gre.it societies are now recognized : (i) Water plants, i.e., those which grow where water is abundant ( Hyi'rophytes). (.2) Drought plants, :.e., those which grow in extremely dry soil, and in a dry atmosphere (Xerophytes). (:,) Plants which grow where there is a medium water supply (Mesophytes). (4) I'iants which grow in soil which contains a large amount of mineral matter (HaKphytes). At the same time we must bear in -.lind that the same 296 iTURE STUDY I i; m ! II. species of plant may flourish ui-.de-- quite different conditions, and tliese conditions affect the structure of tiie plant. In elementary work, plants should be s^rouped as indicated in the Appendix. The technical terms used above should be introduced in advanced classes only. EXPERIMENTS WITH PLANTS In the hi-her classes a ^reat deal of experimental work in botany may be done. The experiments should, as far as possible, be su<,'-i,'-ested by the teacher or the pupils in order to solve some problem which has arisen in connection with the study of plants. If the pupils are caring" for plants, some of which thri\ e, while others do not, encouraire them to su"-- f;est possible causes of the difference, and then arrange experiments to test their theory. One may sugi'-est that the soil is too wet. Kxperiment by placinjj two plants in similar conditions, and keeping one quite wet while the other is kept just moist. The experiments given here, in order, are not, therefore, intended to be taken up merely for the sake of experimenting, but for th.e purpose of solving some problem which has arisen in connection with tlie immediate experience of the class : 1. Immerse a growing leaf in a glass of water and place in direct sunlight. Compare with results obtained in dim lip-ht. 2. Obtain some water-plants which grow immersed in water. Place a large funnel over tiiem in the water. Invert a test tube, filled with water, over the stem of the funnel, and thus collect the gas which is given off. Thrust a glow- ing splinter into the gas. If the splinter bursts into a Hame the gas is oxygen. 3. Place a growing plant under a glass jar, along- with a dish filled with lime-waler. Make the whole as nearly air- tight as possible. Observe the effect on the lime-water after standing over night. Infer the cause. HINTS FOR CLASS WORK ON PLANTS W 4. Place a i,-r(>\vini,'- plant uiulcr a lar.i^e, clean, dry bottle. What leathers on the bottle? Where tloes it come from? How does a plant prevent the escape of too much moisture? 5. Put some peas, which have germinated, in a closed bottle, and some in an open bottle. Which grow better? Why? Infer proper conditions of g-rowth. How does too much water about the roots of a plant affect its growth ? WHiy ? 6. Show the pi pils how acids attack limestone. Plant peas in a shallow layer of soil on a slab of limestone, and keep the stone in an inclined position until good roots are developed in contact with the limestone. Then remove the soil and examine the limestone. What caused the markings on the stone? What would be the result in time? Infer how growing plants aid in forming soil. 7. Place slips and cuttings in moist sand and some in moist loam. In which do they develop better ? Why? 8. Show how grafts are set, and how strawberry plants spread by runners. What is the advantage c^f a graft over a slip or a cutting? 9. Place a plant in different positions with respect to light, and observe the change in the position of the leaves. Ex- amine different plants to discover how the greatest extent of surface is exposed to light. 10. Make a thin solution of starch in water. Add a drop of iodine solution. Note the result. Heat gently, and then allow the solution to cool. This is a test for the presence of starch. 11. Test pieces of potato, wood, leaves, fruit, stems, etc., for starch by the iodine test. 12. I'lace green leaves in warm alcohol, or in chloral hydrate for a day. What is removed from the leaf? Test the bleached leaf for st.-irch.. Tt>sf vDrieo-nt.-^l \:'":r^= .s s^'v ;■ Vi* ir m I' 2ns NATURE STUDY foli;ii,'-c plants in this way to discover where starch is found. 13. Compare the {greenness of plants gfrnwn In different li^^ht. Where is green colorinj,' matter formed better, in sunlight or in shade? In which is most starch formed? 14. Test beans, peas, wheat, potatoes, etc., for starch. Test the sprouts of potatoes, whicli grow in the cellar, for the presence of starch. 15. After pea seedlings have reached a height of two or three inches, plant them with roots up, and observe results. 16. Devise experiments to discover whether roots grow towards or away from water ot moist soil. 17. Plant different seeds and observe their mod of com- ing out of the ground. By planting in glass vessels, near the sides, the whole process of germination may be ob- served. 18. Mark parts of stem and root with indelible ink, and discover where the greatest growth in length takes place. 19. Plant seeds in two different pots. After they have come up, put a strong solution of ammonia on the soil of one, and a very weak solution on the other. Infer cause of difference in growth. Experiment with other solutions. 20. Place strips of dandelion stem in fresh water and then in salt water. 21. Roots absorb water. Leaves give off water. Are these quantities of water equal or not? Plant wheat in a pot. When it is growing well, place under a fruit jar in a warm place. Observe changes after a lew hours. Why do plants wilt ? 22. An interesting test of plants giving off water-vapor may be made as follows : — Saturate clean white blotting paper with solution of cobalt chloride (red). Dry it thoroughly, noting its change of color. How could it be used to show he presence of moist- HINTS FUR CLASS WORK ON PLANTS 299 lire ? Mold it near the leaf of a f,'rowin^»' plant. What does the change in color indicate ? 23. Water growing seedlings with colored water. After a day or .so examine the roots to discover at what point absorption takes place. 24. Water begonias with colored water. Trace its course through the plants. 25. With cobalt chloride paper, show that moisture is given off from the under side of a leaf more rapidly than from the upper side. Place a geranium leaf between two pieces of the paper, and then press the whole between two plates of dry glass. ACCOUDIXG TO SEASOX . ii iu "Whocovoroth the lu-aven with olouds, ^vho propart-th rain for tlu- .•arlh, who niak.-th tc'a-.s to j,-row upon tlie niouiilains. "He ^iveth to the boast his food, and to tho younK rav.-ns which cry. " Ho sendeth forth his commandment upon oarth : his word runnoth .cry swiftly. "Hejfivethsnow like wool: he scattorolh tho hoarfrost like ashes "He casteth forth his ioe like morsels: who can stand boforo his cold ? "Hesendothouthis word, and moltoth thorn: he causolh his wind to blow, and the waters flow."— Fsalm cxLVii. JANUARY AND FEBRUARY "Bite, frost, bite ! You roll up away from the liKht, The blue wood-lou->o, and the plump dormouse And the bees are stilled, and the flies are killed, And you bite far into the heart of the house, Hut not into mine." Tennj'so,,. Mammals.- Study the tracks in the snow to see what mammals are active in the winter. Distin.i,ruish between the tracks of the Wood Hare, Squirrel, and Field-mouse. Where do animals j,-et their food in the winter? Do they ever dU^ beneath the snow for it ? Do you ever find the tracks of the Fox, Raccoon, Skunk, Mink, Weasel, or Porcupine? How do the Raccoon, Skunk, Porcupine, Woodchuck, Flying-squirrel, Chipmunk, and Bat pass the winter? What animals change color when the snow comes ? If possible, ex.imine a Musk- rat stream or pond. How do the Muskrats pass the winter ? In your walks through the woods lo.-k in the saplings and 300 ACCORDING TO SEASON 301 wild grape vines for the summer nests of the Red Squirrels and the I-'lying Squirrels. For the purpose of study, Rabbits, Red Squirrels, and Chipmunks may be kept in captivity during the winter, but must be carefully attended to. BiKDs. - Make a list of the birds that you observe. Dis- tinguish between those that are winter visitors and those that are permanent residents. What birds do you find in the winter? (ti) in the fields? (b) in the woods? (c) in the city? In the woods, make a special study of the Wood- peckers. In the city, look in the mountain-ash trees for the Cedar Waxwings. If the winter is severe and the snow is deep, keep a careful watch for the Pine Grosbeaks and the Bohemian Waxwings. Notice the different kinds of birds that go In company. Upon what does each species live ? Where do birds find shelter at night? What birds of prey are active in the winter? Upon what do they live ? Winter is the best season to study birds' nests. Pull the old nests to pieces and examine their materials and struc- ture. Make a note of their location. Plants. — Study buds and twigs. Draw forms of leafless trees. Compare modes of branching. Study the ever- greens. How do they shed their leaves ? Look for seeds blown over the snow. Dig under the snow for plants. Insects. — Look for flies and mosquitoes in the house. Spiders. — Look for spiders in the house, under boards, and out of doors. Slugs. — Turn over logs and see what the slugs are doing all winter. Wood-lice. -Along with slugs will be found wood-lice, which mav also be studied. 1,1 •'"'-' NATURE STUDY CKAVKisn.—These may he kept all winter iii stai^-nant water, and studied when convenient. MARCH '• C'.o, Winter ! Co thy ways '. \\\- want ai,'ain The twitter of tiie bUiehlrd ;uul thi- wan ; Loaves over j^reener jfrowinj,', and tlie sliine Of Summer's sun— not thir.e. " Go act thee from us ! We arc eokl, Cod wot, Kmmi as //lou art. We remember not Uow bHthe we hailed thy eomins-. That was O Too long-~too lonj^- aj^o ! "Get from us utterly ! Ho! Summet then Shall spread her grasses where thy snows have b<'en, And thy last iey footprint melt and mold In her first marigold." y. Whitcomh Riley. xMammaus.— The mammals which have hibernated during the winter begin to wake up. Watch for the Woodchuck, and the Chipmunk, and note the dates when they first appear. When the snow melts ofF.walk across the fields and examine the runways of the Meadow-mice in the "rass Birds.— The winter visitors be^fin to return north. Notiw the flocks o{ Snowbirds and Horned Larks in the fields. Upon what C^o they feed ? Examine the flocks carefully to see if there are any Lonj-spurs or Redpolls among them. Between March 8th and 12th look for the first Robins, Blue- birds, and Song Sparrows. Note the dates of their return each year. Watch for the return of the Crow, Mourning Dove, Meadowlark, Redwinged Blackbird, and Flicker, and uote the dates. About March 31st begin to look i.i the fields for the nest of the Horned Lark. Pl.\nts.— Gather twigs of apple, maple, horsechestnut, pussy-willow, lilac trees, etc. Keep their cut ends in water in ACCORDING TO SEASON 303 the school-room,^ and observe tlie hiirstin^'- of the buds. Note any buds which open out-doors. Look for Skunk- cabba^^e. If the weather is mild, you may find the Hepatica in flower before the end of the month. Observe Mosses and Lichens also. LssEi IS.— Watch for Mourning Cloak and Milbort's Tor- toise Shell Butterflies in the woods. Look for ants, wasps, and bees. If the weather is warm, Water-striders and other aquatic insects will appear. Spiders become more abundant. Crayfish sometimes come out of their holes. Frogs. — Note the date of the first sin.y-ing- of frogs. Hivv many different sounds can you distinguish ? APRIL " O hush, my heart and take thine ease, For here is April weather ; The daffodils beneath the trees Are all a-row together. " The thrush is back with his old note ; The searlet tulip blowing- ; And white, ay white as my love's throat, The dog-wood boughs are growing. "The lilac bush is sweet again ; Down every wind that passes Fly flakes from hedgerow and from lane ; The bees are in the grasses. " And grief goes out, and joy comes in. And care is but a feather. And every lad his love can win. For here is April weather." Lizeite Wmdworth Reese. Read also Tennyson's Early Spring. Mamma ii..\a::!!:;e mc oiirruWS oi liie VVoouciiuck, and ili' 304 SATURE STUDY -"- .IK. nvs ..,..„ „.n,un up. U-a.ch .o. M.skra.s In up ! > 1. Moles .., tl>c ,...i..,s a.Kl f.dds. TIk- HlacU and ^ Kcd Se,uu-roIs a.c caring ,or ,h.ir (Irst brood of youn^. Most of the rna.nmals f,^ct now coats for the summer " H.K„s. Ohserv e tl,e dates of the arrival of different birds ''-^"" 'i'-- south, and note the different flocks of mi-^rants passn,^ north. What birds be^in nestin^ in April ? No ce especally those that nest in holes in trees and stubs. Z^ '%^;'^';;" ^--- -'^ the a; p..r.:nce of leaveslnd flo vers. Note the ever^.eens als.. :.ook for Partrid^^e- bcrrK. .n the woods. Observ t>.. doveiopment of the Skunk Cabba,.>. Plant seeds and ....ve the process of },'ernimation. ^ >^<-v-->5. ui Insects. -From cocoons kept in the school-room throu.^h he vv.nter. moths be,nn to emer.^e. Observe the Cecrop" . lolyp em.s Promethea.. Make notes of the insects ob: served. Collect larv.e of the Isabella Moth, and f^d Froc-.s. X^.Ilect froK's' e^f.^^s and toads' eo-^^s. Keep hem u.. a shallow dish in the school-room, and observe their development. Fish be-in to ascend streams to spawn. Ci AMs may be found in the creeks. Ck \^ FISH will have eo-j'-s itt-irhpr1 t , .i i . , , _ ^!>f'-^ .ittacned to the abdomen. Keep these and observe development. MAY " I, country-born an' bred, know whore to find Some blooms tlu-t mako the season suit tho n.ind An soom to motoli tho doubtin' bh.obird's notes - Hall Von in 1'. •.-: L^i ;:; luvi y OoctLs, ACCORDING TO SEASON 305 niiHKltiHils, wliosf ri'lliHi-up loavfs rt" yoii mu iirl, Kaifi iiri fill's I radio to a babv pt-arl, Hill llu'^o an; ji's' Sprifi^''s picki-ts ; suro »•/. sin, The ri'blili- frosts 'II try to drive 'om in ; For hair our May's so awfully like MaMi't, 't would t ile a Sliaki-r or an evrij,'-e saint ; Tlunij;li I own U|> I like our baek'ard Springs TIu-l kind o' baji-^'le w ith their j^reens an' thing's, An' whiMi jou most K'^"^" ''P> '"tlioiit more words." Toss the tielils full o' blossoms, lea\ es, an' birds." Lowf/l. Mammals. — Most of the mammals arc occupied with the care oi' their yoiiiij,'-. Look for t'lyiii^' Smiirrds in old trees and stubs. If you see a hole, hammer on the trunk with a stout stick and watch the result. Note t!ie date when you see the first Bat. Watch for Wood Hares in the underbrush. HiKDs.— Notice the flocks of White-crowned and White- throated Sparrows returning to the north. Watch also for mii,'^ratinj,'- Warl)lers. Observe the dates of the return of the rest of the birds. May is the month of song". Try to distinguish the different songs and calls. Make a close ob- servation of the breeding habits of as many species as you can. Plants. -Continue your collection, noting the places where the plants are found, and the dates. Observe the growth of seedlings — maples, etc. What trees burst into leaf and flower? (See Appendix for a list of flowers to look for.) Insects. — Look for the emergence of moths. Watch lights at night for the appearance of moths. Note the rela- tion between tha development of certain plants and the emergence of moths. Collect eggs of the Apple-tree Tent Caterpillars and keep them in a breeding cage to observe the hatchini'". af.!.]. latter iM\. thr* 1:ir'..'cr* ,i ..u_ i:. I - C - „ i'i. MS i 306 N A TURF STUDY tomlvr the moths u.ll ..nerKc No,. whc-th.T Mav-nies appear in May or not. SciI)i:ks' uehs he.omo qi.ito C(Mnnion. Kroc.s, inv.-Aontin.u. the stuJv of tadpoles in the class- room. Look (or elanis uith thiek, red ^nlls. These con- tain etTKs. Observe their development. Look for tt.rtles in the .streams. Continue the study of fish. JUNE " Whe,. June is here - what ,irt h.ive we to sh,^ I lie whiteness of the hhes miJst the ^reen Of lUH.n-tra.ued lawns ? Or flash of ro; es s.-en L Ike red birds' win^^^? Or oarhest ripening Pnnee-Harvest apples, where the eloved In-es elinj,. Round winey juiees oozing' di)wn In-lween The peekin,iitiiuu' ilu- sliuly ol pl;mts. Look for tlie rare LaJy's Slippor. I'itihor Plain, (.Vanj^v-rod I.ilv. Sti.Jv the loavos of" trees. Observe llie settiiij,' of fruits. Observe tile lieai.liiii,'- ot ulu'at, etc. IxsKi IS. — liiitterflies be},nn to appe.ir in j,neat numbers. Wliy > Look for el:},^s and larv;e of the Potato Heetle, the Cabbaf^^e Huttertly, the Ivastern Swallow-tail. Collect insects around the electric lit^hts. Look for j^-rasshoppers. Note the development of winj,'s. Hej^'iu to observe the son>,'s of crickets, etc., at nij^'ht. Look for the larva- of die Draj,'oii- flies. TiKTi.Hs now lay vv^^s in sand-banks. Try to find some. If a nest can be found and removed in a box of sand to a convenient sunny place, the hatching may be observed in September. JULY AND AUGUST "IXail is Ilu- air and still ! the leaves i.f thf locust and walnut I..izily han),'- IVoni the bou>,'hs, inlaying- their intricate eutlines Kaiher on spaee than the sky— on a tideless expansion of slumber. Faintly, alar in the depths of the duskily \vitherin>< jfrnsses, Katydids ehirp, and I hear the monotonous rattle of crickets." Bdvard Taylor. Mammals.— Continue the study of the smaller mammals. Ill harvest-time look for Wood Hares, and Field-mice in the harvest fields. HiKHs. -Continue the study of young birds. Observe the nature of their food supplies. Look for the nests of Gold- finches in the smaller shade trees. Make a study of the birds along the river-bank— the Kingfishers, Swallows, Sand- pipers, etc. What birds prepare to migrate during August? Plants. —Flowers now become numerous in fields and by roadsides, but vanish from the woods. Observe the develop- ment o( fruits, a.nd the ripening of grains in order. What fruits ripen? 308 NATURE STUDY iNSKCTs. -These are ^^ala days for bmterflies of rll sorts Larv. of son. kind a^e found on nearly every p,ant. TW on c.bba..es, parsley, tomatoes, tobacco, apple trees an" oherfru,t trees, should be studied particalarlv. Dn /o ' hotda^s. The sui^nn^^ of .nsects at nij^ht is very marked Studynre-fl.es. Under what conditions is the 'fire' prct SEPTEMBER " Who liHth not sten thoe oft amid thv More ' Sonu-ti„K-s whoever seeks abroa.l „,ax- fi„d 1 hee situng careless o., a granary floor Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowinj^'wind • Or on a halt-reaped furrow sound asleep Drowsed with the fume of poppies, while thy hook Spares the next swath with all its twined flowers • And somet imes like a >f leaner , hou dost keep Steady thy laden head across a briH>k ; Or by a cider press, uith patient look ' Thou watchest the last oo.in.^s, hours by hours." A'eafs. MAMM.„.s.-Make a study of the lar.^er mammals uh^re poss.ble Raccoons, Skunks, etc.. are more n.m.erous ,' tlK^ woods. When does the Woodchuck .^o into hibenrtio:; be m\ '^' V"?;"" "^'^"^^^'^'^ '-^ommet.ce in Septem- t»er. Make note ot the dates. tlJ;:"" Tu ''T'--'^'-'^ '^'- ^-^^ on the trees befbre t H. ka^es fail. Note the chan^^e in color, and the falling, of ; : ^;'"" "tT\ ''" ^"'^^ ''' ^'^'''^ ^^^'^-^ --'i- in c cT't '"V'^^»^^^■^^'-''^"tion of .seeds of the thistle. Uc. Collect dry fru.ts lor wi. -er study. Flowering, plants ■ ¥ ACCORDING TO SEASON 309 are fewer. Those in flower are mostly composites— as Asters, Golden-rod, Yarrow; but Yellow Evening- Primroses, Gentians, Butter-and-Eggs, still bloom. Begin the study of Mushrooms. Insects.— What butterflies and moths are still found? What butterflies appear for the first time ? Collect larvae and cocoons to keep over winter. Observe the spinning of cocoons. How do insects' son-s at night vary? What insects disappear? Observe the larvaj of the Potato Bug and the Tomato Worm go into the ground. Collect the galls on the Golden-rod and keep them through the winter. Spiders.^ This is a good month to study spiders and their webs. Look for spiders' nests. Keep some through the winter. Note the effc t of cold, frosty nights on different animals. Fish. — What fish are on the market? Oysters.— Tiiis is the first month for oysters. Why? Examine one and compare it with a clam. Note the opening and closing of the seasons for game, as stated in the game laws. OCTOBER " Ere in the northern gale The summer tresses of the trees are g^one, The v\ cx>ds of Autumn all around our vale Have put their glory on. " The mo i»-.ins that infold In their witle swe the colored landscape round Seem groups of j...i,it kings in punileand gold, That guard the enchanted ground. " I roam the woods that crown Tin- upland where the nimgled splendors glow. Where the gay company of trees look down On the green fields below. (k k Ik •"0 NATURE STUDY " My steps are not alone In these briji:ht w.-lks ; the sweet south-west at play FHes, rustlit.J,^ whore tlie painted loaves are strown, Alon^ ttie windinjf way. '■ And tar in lieaven the while, The sun that sends the g-ale to wander here Pours out on the fair earth his quiet smile, The sweetest of the year. " Mamm.als.— This is the best month for the study of mam- mals. Th. smaller mammals are laying in their supplies for the wmter. The Raccoon and the Skunk are feasting- in preparation for winter. The Muskrat begins to build his mound in the stream or pond. Birds.— Continue the study of migrations. What birds arrive from the north for the winter? What birds remain with us until the end of October? What food do the re- maining birds live on ? Plaxts and Trees.— Study the late flowering plants— the Gentians. Study the falling of the leaves, and the distribu- tion of fruits, seeds, nuts, etc. Insects. -What butterflies and moths are still seen? What insects have disappeared? What effect has the change of season on wasps, bees, and ants? Spiders. -Continue observations. The webs disappear. Why ? Cravkish and aquatic animals disappear ; where do they go ? Frogs and Toads disappear. Observe a toad b^.ry itself in the terrariim. How do frogs and mud-turtles bury themselves? Fish.— What fish are on the market? I ACCORDING TO SEASON 811 NOVEMBER " Briffht yelIo\v\ red, and orange, The leaves come down in hosts ; The trees are Indian Princes, But soon they'll turn to ghosts ; The scanty pears and apples Hang russet on the bough ; It's Autumn, Autumn, Autumn late, T'will soon be winter now ! " Aning/iam. Mammals. — What animals go into hibernation in Novem- ber? When does the Chipmunk finally go into winter quar- ters ? Watch the progress of the Muskrat's winter dwell- ing. When the first snow comes, look for rabbit tracks. V'ou will not find any the first day. Why ? What game do you find on the market ? Birds. — The migrations will be completed early in the month. Begin to study the winter birds. Note the open and Close seasons for hunting Ducks, Partridge, etc. Plants and Trees.— Study the Witch Hazel, which flowers after the leaves have fallen. Have any trees leaves on ? Observe the condition of fall wheat and grass. Ex- amine the coverings of buds. Wh.en are they formed ? Notice the effect of frost on the vegetation. Insects. — A few will yet be seen — as for example, the moth of the Tent Caterpillar. Examine the structure of empty wasp's nests. Snails. — Observe how the land snails close up the mouths of their shells. Fish. — What fish are oi\ the market ? What fish are in close season ? NATURE STUDY DECEMBER " In a drear-nij,-hted Doc-..,„ber, Too happy, happy tno, Thy branches neor remomber Their j^reen felicity ; The north cannot undo them, With a sleety whistle through then, • Nor frozen thawinj^s jflue then, From buddinjr at the prime. " In a drear-nighted Dec-mber, Too happy, happy brook, Thy bubblin^s ne'er remember Apollo's summer look ; But with a sweet forg-ett'ing-, They stay their crj-stal fretti'njf. Never, never petting- About the frozen time." A'eats. Mammals. — VV'h .t -j .,:.,,. t trees beintr leafess ? Pv • c ^''^"''^^ ""^ ^^e .he fan. Ext -..e :;:;: 'T '■■"' ■'''^-■""-■"-•^ i.. t-,hl« f T^ potato, the onion, and other vetre table torn.,,. Does Witih H-.v ,i i i ,- . ^^S^- o.s w.tUi Hazel develop fruit in the winter? Insects. -Where are they.? Fi„d a- spiders, wasps, etc. "'' "^^^"^Muitoes, SPiDERs.-Observe development i„ the nest POVD SxA.Ls.-^These may be kept in water U'h tt 1 they do when it is cold ? ' '^ '''' Fish. -What fish are on the market? COUllSE IX NATURE STUDY FIRST CLASS-Parts I. and II. ^ Sun, moon, and stars, their position and appearance. Color of sky at different times. Winter : lee and snow. Jack Frost, winter birds^ trees in winter. Comp.'i.re everi,rreens and deciduous trees. Sppixg Asn Su.MMER : — Melting of snow, water. Coming- of birds, names of common birds, what they eat and do. A bird calendar should be begun, recording the first appearance of each bird, and the name of the observer. Names and color, place of growth, time of flowering of common flowers as Trillium, Spring Beauty, etc. Plant seeds and observe their growth. Study squirrels, rabbits, etc., if living specimens can be secured and kept in cages for a few days. Stuffed specimens are poor material at best, but better than nothing. F.\LL :— A few common plants, seeds and fruits. Dissemination of such seeds as burs. SECOND CLASS More details about sun, moon, and s^ars. If an eclipse occurs, make use of it for a lesson, showing prsition of earth, moon, and sun. ^ Need of sunlight in rooms for ourselves and for plants. Effect of light on plants : movements of plants. 313 IV .--rrtrr .114 ■I W^ \p NATURE STUDY VVlMKK : — Observe the forms of siunvflrikes Different fonns of water -- iee, water, stea.n. The i wT.r r ""' ;'•"" ^^^'^"- °'^^'^^-^ h-^ '- floats ■ n u atu -how nn.ch .mmersed ? Compare lar.^e and small P oces n, th.s respect to discover how the same ;...;>..,/,„ J^ always immersed if ice is clean. Buds of trees.-Study twi.^s of appte, n.aple, horse- Hou Impress the fact that trees are alive all winter b^.t sleepm,. What do ail the birds do in winte'r^ toaUsy \I< all work must precede.) Spring and Simmer :— When 'r'""; '"'■ "'■"" '" ''""'■' "■"■ "'"■•= "X^nsively. Wh ne,„ clas. ,s ,„.eres,ed i„ a natural phenomenon, teach It. Bira and plant calendars. Keep tadpoles in glass jars for six weeks. Observe chanj,^es to adult frog. Write life-history turts"''' '^f ~'r" *''^ '"'" ""'^ ''■^"^^^- ^-^-"-' fea- tures-scales, fins, eyes, mouth, gills. yonmr mud-turtles are interesting water animals. If kept t.ll the autumn they may be seen to bury themselves. Ubserv burying of toads and frogs. Collect larvae from differ^-nt nlints ^t-^ i^u to chrysalids. ^ ' '' '^^'^'''^ '^^"S^ Fall : — Observe emergence of butterflies fron^ chrvsalids. Later observe the cocoons and the chrysalids which live through the wniter. ° ^_ColIect cocoons, e.c. Keep in cool place through the COURSE IN NATURE STUDY 315 Observe departure of birds. Why do they leave? Use of birds. Kindness to them and to all dumb animals. Order of departure. Some stay all winter. Look for buds on the trees before the leaves fall. Observe the falling of the leaves, color, mode of falling. What becomes of fallen leaves? Common fall plants — \'elIo\v Pilvening Primrose, Buttcr- and-Eggs, Asters, Golden-rods, Gentians. Study the head of the wild or of the cultivated Sunflower to learn the nature of a Composite. Fruits and. seeds - dissemination of seeds as before ; also by wind and water ; by birds, by railway and other agencies. The fruits of the apple, horsechestnut and maple, etc., should be examined throughout the year, growth noted, etc. Plants of economic importance, e.g:, wheat, flax. Forms in which plants store up food and propagate them- selves next season, ^..^^., bulbs, root-stocks, tubers, corms. THIRD CLASS Motions of sun, moon, and earth; planets as they appear. Eclipses more fully. Study features of the heavens, noting common constellations. Position of sun at different seasons. Effect. Winter : — As before, passing to consideration of glaciers, icebergs, avalanches, Arctic regions. Expansion of water when freezing — effects on soil, rock, etc. Study structure of buds, twigs, shapes of trees, nests in them. Winter condition of former animals, also of flies, mosquitoes, crayfish, snails, clams, spiders. Cocoons and chrysa'''ls kept through the winter. Study of seeds and fruits. Write life-histories of apple, etc. 'it J '^'^ '"MATURE STUDY Sprint, and Simmer : note classes. ^ ' ^'^""- ^^'fe''" to Study leaves, particularly of trees so -.s M r. • , Study bark u'n,,H / " recoKniize them. J "'»'K. wood, and i?-enf>ril -.,»« fore,.. ,ree.,. l,,, ,„', rohi; u?!,;!"^™""*'" "' ^■"""""" species later. c.,n,par,„fr «ilh foreis;,, Differen, kinds „f fish-Whi.efis,,, Herri,,,,, Pe.ch Fall : — dis^ha":;:' """""•' ^ "-^ ■- "^ --^ •!" -eas are ..rai^:ittrr-::::;C'it^'''^^ °' - - roots. ^^ t-ompare stems and 'Xari:::7t::rrr: "''•. ----^^^^^ type and whe., ,vpe p,!, I , -"r "' "''""'" '''"" structure and irromh r "' '""''■ "'^"^ ""=!■• Place eacKp,at.°::idi:r~ci;.::'"''' "" ''""-^• COURSE IN NATURE STUDY FOURTH OLA88 S17 Winter : — Sun, moon, and stars still further studied. Inquire into causes, e.^^., of cold weather. _ Summarize knouledj^e learned, and arran^-e it in compo- sitions : — ' "Our Winter Birds." "The Sleep of Plants." " Hibernation of Animals." " How Phmts shed their Leaves," etc. Simple experiments— physical and cliemical. Spring and Simmer : — Collection and classification of plants— at first into class and division, later into orders, genera, and species. The knowledge gained hitherto will make the use of a " key" easy. Special study of fnjurious plants throughout the year. How to destroy them. Diseases of plants. Remedies Study of Fungi, Mosses, Lichens, Ferns in the large 1 oisonous plants and parasites. Summarize knowledge under heads :~ " How Insects benefit Plants." "Cross Fertilization." " Movements of Plants." " Plant Enemies." Animals : — Classify the animals into branches : Back-honed animals— Vertebrates. Soft, boneless ax\\ma\?,— Molluscs. Jointed-legged animals— ^rMwA. Study sn.alior forms of animal li.l, ..,,, P,,.,^.,,,, ^^^^ rcla ed post... Huflalo Carpet Heclle. Caddis-flies, Clothes iVIOtll. Make an extended study of one class of animals, birds <.A butterflies, „,.ths. or spiders. Let pupils develop individuality. ' Summarize as under-PIants. Relation toman. Historv of certain torn.s -uhen introduced; how they spread ; ios's to country, directly and indirectly ; our duty towards animals APPKXDIX The inmilnTs refer ti> tlu- month-.. 1 s Lat»' suinnier. -Suimiiut; as^AU summer; PLANTS OF ROADSIDES Flowen, White Shepherd's Purse (4-11) Virj,--!!!!;! Creeper (7) Hedge Bindweed (a s) Bouncing Bet (s) Musk Mallow (6-) Hunch be try (6) Indian Pipe (6-7) Squirrel Corn (4-5) Leek (6) riowari, White Si>lunu>n's Seal (^-f,) '•alse S<)lonioM's Seal (s) Wild I.ily-of-tlie-\-a!ley {^.i,} Wake Rohin (4.5) rainted Trillium (4--) Cariada Violet (s) Hloodrool (4-5) Toothwort (4-5) Mitreuort (5) False Mitreuort (;;) Shin-leaf (6.7) Dutchman's Hreeches (4-5, Wood Sorrel (67) \'elIo\v Violet (5) Ho 1 1 wort (5) \'ellovv Lady's Slipper ((,) Flowers, Yellow Hlue Cohosh (4-5) Wild Gin^rer (4.-) VvWow Wood Sorrel (^.cf) Flowers. Pink, Red, etc. Spring Beautv (4-;) vv;i i r» Wild Geranium (5- ) P 1 r^T::.^^ ^^''>' ("-«) Louseuort (s-7) ' '"•< Lady s Shpper (6) p , r-, . ^^^'" Flower (6) Purple Mowenng Raspberry (6-8) Herb Robert (6-.S) Flowers. Blue or Purple Hlue Violet (4-;) r,, ^ , „, Plant, Green Jack-in-the-Pulpit Roik Ri>so (7-S) APPENDIX 321 PLANTS OF SANDY SOIL Floveri, White -N .crs (s) Flower*, Yullow ^'ollo\^■ I'^ciiini,' IVinirosc (<>-i>) Coluinbiiio (<)-7) St. John's Wort (6.9) Hairy i ucooii (O-j) Sweet Civiklon-roJ (S) Stone Crop {h-H) Flowert, Pink, Red Ameriean Sea Rocket (-j-H) Clothur (I s) Bush (."lover (1 s) Hird's-eye I'rinirose (5-6) Wild [.upinc (6-7) I'urple (Jerardia (7) Flowers, Blue or Purple Asters (s) Thorn Apple {d-i)) Dodder (parasitic] (1 s) Wild Carrot (8-9) Huttercu[-' (6-c)) Five-iuiK'er (5-8) Shrubby Cinquefoil (a s) Silvery Cinquefoil (a s) Kvening- Primrose (6-9) Barberry (5-6) Canada Cinquefoil (5-8) PLANTS OF DRY SOIL Flowert, White Kverlasting (4-5) Fleabane [yellow disk] (6-7) Ox-eye Daisy [yellow disk] (6-7) Floweri, Yellow St. John's Wort (s) Mullein (7-9) Black-eyed Susan (s) Dandelion (a s) Golden-rod (8-9) Prickly Lettuce (6-9) i Flowers, Pink, Red, etc. Great Willow Herb (7-9) Canada Thistle (s) Milkweed (6-8) Wild Ben \/ 322 f t h' . -* « ^- '1 NATURE STUDY Flowers, Blue or Purple Blue Violet (4-5) Hound's Ton,,ue (,-7, VipersBuj, loss (6-8) Corn Cockle (^.,)^'^ '' Ground Ivy (4-5) Thistle (7-ro) '^ Indian Tobacco (6-8) VV;iH n , Self Heal (6-9) ^ ^ ^^'''^ ^^''^'•'""''^ ^7-8) Flowers, Qreenlsh-white Poison Ivy (6-7) PLANTS OF MOIST SOIL Flowers, White J White Violet (5) Elderberry (6-7) Chickweed (a s) ".'irijrin's Bouor (7-8) Choke Cherry (4-5) t)of,'wood (6-7) Cut-leaved Toothwort (4-6) Plantain (s) Poison Hemlock (6-8) Flowers, Yellow Dogr's-tooth Violet (4.5) Jewel-weed i.) Meadow Parsnip (54,) Moneywort (s Loosestrife (6-7) ' Flowers, Pink or Red Small Willow Herb (s) Mint (8-0) Turtle Head (I s) o n^ r r , t^, ' Oswego Tea s) Cardinal h low er (8) f^ lowers, Blue or Purple Blue Fla,^ (5-6) Blue-e>ed Grass (6-8) Common Harebell {u.,j) Forget-me-Not (6-8) (iround Ivy (5-6) Nightshade (7-y) Blue \'ervain (6-8) Fringed Gentian (S-o) Closed Gentian (ij-10) Gold Thread (=-(> SWAMP PLANTS Flowers. White White Swamp Honeysuckle (6-7) KoM.,,1 1^ I <.- ■ -..n.ii . nonevsuckh Kound-le«ved Sundew (6-7) Creeping Snowbe^ry (5) APPENDIX 323 Grass of Parnassus (9) Water Parsnip (7-y) Poison Sumach (6) Water Hemlock (6-8) Flowers, Yellow Marsh Marigold (4-5) Bur Marigold (s) Flowers, Pink, Rrsd, etc. American Cranberrv (6) Swamp Milkweed (s) Showy Lady's Slipper (5) Flowers, Blu* or Purple Pitclier Plant [varies] (6) Skunk Cabbage [variejrated] (4) Purple A vens (5.7) .^ters (7-9) Marsh Five-finger (s) WATER PLANTS Flowers, White Wild Calla (6) Arrow Head (a s) White Water Lily (a s) Water Plantain (1 s) White Water Crowfoot (a s) Eel-grass (8) Water Hemlock (a s) Water Cress (5-6) Water Parsnip (a s) Flowers, Yellow Yellow Pond Lily (5-8) Potamogeton (7-8) Yellow Nelumho (7-8) \'ellow Water Crowfoot (a s) Flowers, Blue American Brooklime (5-9) PRESERVING SPECIMENS INSECTS Collecting Boxes.— Tack a thin sheet of cork in the hot- torn of a cigar-box. Attach a strap or cord to the box so that it ma, be carried easily. After the insects have been in the poison bottle for half an hour, they may be removed and pinned in the cigar-box until you reach home. 324 NATURE STUDY is the same. "^ '°- ^^^ ''-^"ffth of all Vials and plll-boxes should be c-irriod . • excursions for the purpose of ho dinr ';:'"•"' '""'"^' P'NM.No Specimens. Most sn / ""*"'' ^P^'^'''"'^--^^- throu,.h the thorax, but be"t e sirn^K "" ""' ^'"'"'^ the ri,.ht wi„.-cover. Very n al T""^' ^'--^"^^'^ on small pieces ot cardboard a.^ h "" '^ ''"'' '^ f''''^^^^^ cardboard. '^ ^''^ P'" P^-'^'-^d throuf,rh the Sl'KEAUIXG SpfcIMFVv; A with a j,r„ove i„ ,ha ceL . 7 "" '"°''' """' •"= ""«'». «nij,r.s into proper place Th J • "'^' ^^^ ^ind- ^sproadin,. b'oar'd for two or th';:? ^'""''^ ^^' '^^^ «" ^he -•■- be pinned in shallow boxes 1 f' "''''i "'"' '^'^ addition to the name r T . P-^^P^riy labelled. I^ locality. ""• """' ^'^'-^ 'J-te of capture and the Soft-bodied specimens, c^ l-irv.. •., . served in 75 per cent, alc^hof or n ' " ' ^''" '^ ^^ P-^^" fluid. '^''°'' °'^ '" sonie other preservative I'^^r permanent school use it i«! h.ff . -" -"all boxe.. just lar<.e en^u I \7- "^"""^ ^P^<^-^^^ns ^'-- Glue thi specinenT ? " *'""' ^"""^''^ ^^^ ■■--•'•- "■•^'^'^ "ii, r.rn. ^^:::z^:;z':::-^:;!;^ p^-^ of ,,.. can be forn,ed of a p.ece of d V u ' '^^^ ^^^ *'^^ ^^^^ bottom. Glue the trlass to tt , "" ^'""^ ""''-'-^ as the ^ ' t« the side, of the box, and bind in APPENDIX 325 the edj^es with passe-partout. Mounted in tliis way, both sides of the insect can be examined. PLANT8 Plants are preserved by drying them under pressure. The collection, when properly arrang^ed and labelled, is a hcrb- ariu 1. Each species should be represented by sufficient sr ,.nens to display the stems, foliatre, flowers, and fruits. If the plant is an herb, its root should be shown. Aim to have a herbarium which will show the life-histories of a few typical species. Dry the plants between blotters which are twelve inches wide and eighteen inches long. Felt carpet paper makes very good drying paper, and is much cheaper than blotting- paper. Place each p'ant in a folded sheet of a newspaper, and tl^en lay the rewspaper between the felt papers. The sheets may be piled one above another. On top place a board twelve by eighteen inches, and apply a weight of twenty or thirty pounds. The felt paper should be changed every day or so, until the plants are well dried A week or ten days will dry most plants. After the plants have been thoroughly dried, they should b? mounted on strong white paper, eleven and a half by sixteen and a quarter inches. Small plants may be glued last to the mounting paper, but large stems must be held in place by strips of gummed pape.. Only one species sh..uld be mounted on a sheet, and in the lower right-hand corner the label should be glued. This label should give the place and date of collecting, name of collector, height of plant, color, nature of soil, etc., and the name of the plant. Both f,,, common name and the scientific name should I e gi\.n G-' t ff^ % It; ili ^■i s ; 1 «*5»?'-S-^ i». ililJ ■J BOOKS J 01! HKFEHEACK Por Sale by George N. Moranax and Kellogg. G V \t Toronto. $,.,o ^- '"^^ Moran- & Co., Ar.'mal Life, The Study of T A r.. !>^nb„ersS„„,s, NV„. V,,rk. S, .„ '■'' Na,^„ S.^, ,„ Gramma, S„^'B;Mr"s'"i\ *'"" O. .N. Morans: & Co., Toronto S, i'o ' J'^'^"-^'>- MAMMALS ?T- *"""^^^^^ w„,o„. <, ,, BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 827 Wild Neighbors. Hk.nkst I.\(,kkscm.l. (i. N. Moran|r & Co., Toronto. $1.50. Squirrels and Other For-bearr.rs. Joh.v Bi kkoi gms. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 60 cents. BIROS Coir Native Birds- D. Laxc^e. G. N. Moranij & Co., Toronto. $1.00. Citizen Bird. Mabel 0.sgooi>e Wright. G. N, Morani,^ & Co., Toronto. $1.50. Game Birds and birds of Prey. Nei.tje Blaxchan. Intro- duction by "Coquina" (G. O. Shields) Forty-ei^^ht colored .Ili.strat.ons. G. N. Moratig & Co., Toronto. $2.2^ I i.sv suable work. s divided into four parts : Water Hirds Widin^ Handbook of the Birds of Eastern North America. F. M. Chapmax. Appleton & Co.. New York. $..00. Ih.s IS the best standard referenee book 'or .eaehers' use. Bird Life. F. M. Chapman. Appleton & Co., New York. $2.00. Birdcraft. Mabei, Osgoode Wright. G. N. Moran|,r & Co., Toronto. $2.50. Bird Neighbors. Nei.tje Blanchax. Ci. n! Morang & Co., Toronto. $2.25. Bird Homes. R. A. Digmorh. G. N. Moranjj & Co. Toronto. $2.fo. ' Bird Portraits. Erxe.st Thompson-Setox. G. N. Moranj- & Co., Toronto. $1.50. Birds of Ontario. Thomas McIlwkaith. Wm. BriL-irs Toronto. $2.00 'sj,s» Birds of ViUage and Field. Florence A. Merriam. A B.rd Book for Beginners. Houghton. Mifflin & Co' Boston. $2,00. ' , ! .1 I, ^ f! 'ft < 1 32S NATURE STUDY MiMIin it Co., Huston. $i (xj ^^NHf^^^r^''^ 0'--'''^"<'«^>^M"'.HH. Ffou,.hton, M.fflui & Co., Hoston. $,.oo. INSECTS Life Histories of American Insects. C M. Wee,,. g N Moranfr& Co., Toronto. $,.50 Romance of the Insect \7orId. L N. BAOEvocr. G n Moran^r & Co., Toronto. $, ,- A Manual for the Study of Insects. HvJ. H. Comstock and Axv. B. Comstock. IlU.strat'ed hv ;,, f" ,"' The Insect Book. ' L. O. How.vk.,. Wm. Hri,..s To ronto. $3.00. "fei>^. 10- The Bunerfly Book. XV J. „„,,,,„, D„„„ „^ « Co., New York. $300 .'• 'a(,e PLANTS G. N. Mor.Hng: ^ Co. „ Toronto. 80 cents. Study of the Biology of Ferns. Bv C P v r. M \T o / rcrns. liy G. I-. .\tki\so.\. G_N.Moran^.& Co., Toronto. $..00. 1 he reaching Botanist. By VV. F. g.^vono. g N Moran^r& Co., Toronto. $,.,,.. Botany. L. H. Bailey. C. \ Mori.,.. ioran_i,'- & _o., Toronto. For a iMmplete list of iv,-.'" r..i ■ w , it BOOKS FOR REFERENCE »• Plants, j. Nf. C"oi i.iiK. li. N. Moraiii,- t*t Co., Toronto. $i.Ho Plant Relations. J- M. Con thk. (i. N. Moraiifr X: Co., Toronto. $i. lo. Plant Structures. J. M. Coi itek. (i. N. Moranj,'^ ct Co., Toronto. $1.25. How to Know the Wild Flowers. Mks. \V. S. I).\\.\. CliarK's Scribiier's Sons, N\ u V'ork. $2.00. A Guide to the Wild Flowers. Ai.ke Lolnsbkkkv. Wil- liam Hrij^-i^rs, Toronto. $2.50. Nature's Garden- Nki.tje Hlanchan. Wm. Hrij^j^s, To- ronto. $3.00. Flowers and Ferns in their Haunts. Maijki, Osgoode Wright. G. N. Moranjr & Co., Toronto. $2.50. First Studie.s of Plant Life. Atki.nson. Ginn & Co., Boston and New York. 60 cents. Field, Forest and Wayside Flowers. Mai n Going. The Baker Taylor Co., New "\'ork. $1.50. Th Mushroom Book. Nina 1.. Marshall. Wm. Brig^js, Toronto. Sj.cxs. FI8H The Story of the Fishes. J. N. Baskett. .\ppleton & Co., New York. 75 cents. Familiar Fish, their Habits and Gipture. McCarthy. G. N. Morang i^'. Co., Toronto. i?i.5o. MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS AND STORIES Wild Animals I Have Known. Ernest Thompson-Seton. G. N. Morang & Co., Toronto. $2.00. Wilderness Ways. ^^'. J. Lonc;. Ginn & Co., Boston and New York. 45 cents. Ways of Wood Folk. W. J. Long. Ginn & Co., Boston and New York. 50c. Secrets of the Woods. W. J. Lo.g. Gi..n & Co., Boston and New York. 50 cents. liiiii hi a-M» NATURE STUDY I lie Century Co., Wild Life near Home. D. I>. Smakc New \'oik. $2.o<). Wild Life of Orchard and Field. IIrnkst Ingersoll. Harper & Brothers, New York. $1.40. According to Season. V. T. Paksons. CJ. \. Moraii^^ & Co., Toronto. $1, /.">• Nature's Calendar. FIknkst Inckksoi.l. Harper & Hrothers, New York. Si. 50 Flashlights on Nature. (iKAsr Ai.i.kn. Wm. Hriggs, To- ronto. $1.25. Forest Neighbors. W. I). Hi i.bkkt. McCkire, Phillips & Co., New York. $i.:^o. !™ril, ", I' ''■'.' ^i'^"'"'"'- ■" '-<''''■>• <-"rm, int.rostinjc accounts of tho »|'. 214. HiilKn u|), opp. 208. Miiltcrtlii'v,, I 2i) et sn/. Hiitlcrlly-wi'i-il, I )i. I ahh.ii;.- MulUTtlv, 136. C.ul.lis-lliis, 161. t'.iiiu-i.i, 285. C'an.ul.i Jay, (>;. Canadian .Skip|H-r, opp. 140, 141. C'an.iry, 59. C"aiKi\ tut't, J 10. Canker-worms, 146, I47. Cardinal-flowt-r, 214, jj j. Carnation, J14, 222. Carnivora, 4. Carp, <;5. C.irrot, 23S. Calalpa, 221, 240. Catbird, 6j. Catohrty, .ii4, 220. Catfish, 95, 99. Catkins, i()4. Catostomid.x', qS. Cattle Ticks, 128. CoiTopia, 149. Conti|H'dt's, ij8. Charloik, 217, 226. Cl.oU-.- 55- Choose Mites, 128. Chi'loiiia, 8!"), 87. Cherry Weh-worni, 154. Chicadee, 64, 65, 71. Chicaree, 17. Chiekens, 5. Cliiekweed, 214, 218, 222. Chieoiy, 214 Chipiniink, 16, .lo. Chuh, t^. C ieada, 162, 16?. Ciseo, »)7. Clam, ro4, i 1 2. Clavaria, 229. Clear-Miiijf, 144. Clenuitis, 21 I, 221. Clothi's Moth, r^f). Clou, led .Sulphur Hmiertlv, 155. opp. 140. Clupeid.e, ()8. CiH-klebur, 218, 238. ^'od, 97, 102. ClHllinjj Moth, ii;;^. Ciulenter.ites, 191. Columbine, W ild, opp. 194, 207. Comma Uutterth , i 57. Common Blue HutterHv, 136, 140. Compass-plant, 242. Com|H)sites, 211, 214, 215. Cone-flower, 211. Coon, 4, 5. CopjxMhead, 85. CopiHts, hulterrties, 140. Coprinus, 229. Coral Funjfus, 229. Coral Insects, 191. Coral I'olyps, 191. Corn Cockle, 214, 222, 225. Corn Speedwell, 217, 218. Cotton, 277. Cottontail, 12, 13. Cottonwood, 239. Cotton-worm, 146. Couch-j,'rass, 224. Cowbird, 57. Coyote, 26, 31. opp. "'-P' ;~^ Tv -i 17-^^:- i~»^ INDEX AXi Crab. 1J7, 122. CVanlM'i ry, ijj. Cr.iyH«,h, 5, 104, 117 et srq., joj. Cri-o|H:rs, 65, fri-SS, 2jfl, 2J-. Criikc'ts, i()5, i()7, 168. CriX'odiles, 34. CrowfiHil, 107, 207, 212, 233. L'ri>ws, 56, 6«). CrucifiT.'i;, 137. Cfustai-i'iins, I J I. CiukiH.s, 53, 57, 7r. CiukiHi, N'ollovv-hilloil, opp. 60. Cutlli'-flsli, 104. Cyclops, 121. Dadtly Long-li-jfs, 127. D.-iisii's, 2l<). Dainsol-tlit's, 160. Dandc-lion, 23S, 240. Daphiiia, 121. F^ocapoda, 1 1 1. Doer, 4. Devil-fish, 104, 110,111 Devil's Dartiinjf-needles, 158. Dicotyledons, 294. Dinosaur, 84. Dipiera, 158. Dodder, 232. Dog^bane, 212. Doj?-day Harvest Bug:, 162, 163. Dogs-tooth Violet, 195, 196. Dragon-flies, 158, 159. Ducks, 51. KihiniHjfrins, kjo. Kel-grass, 216. Kit, red, 92. Kim, 239. Kriu'sa, 164. Kin|>«-ror Mi>lh, 149. Kndogcns, 295. Krmine, 8. Kveigreeiis, 292. Kxogens, 295. l'"all Web-worm, 155. False Soliimon's .S«'a|, 202. False SiMkeiiard, 202. Ferns, 234. F"ield-mi>use, 4. Finches, 59, 70. Fireweed, opp. 208, J09. Fish, 94, 96, 104. Flax, 275. Flesh-eaters, 4. Flicker, 54. Flies, 156. Flounder, 102. Flycatchers, 55. Fox, 4, 31. Foxglove, 234. F'ritillary, 137. Fritillary, Meadow, 137. FVitillary, Silver-bordered, opp. 138. Frogs, 88, 93, 104. Fungi, 227, 228, 229, 234. Earthworms, 188. Eastern Swallowtail Butterfly, 132, opp. 136. Galena, 282. Galium, 237, 238. Garlic, 203. Gar-Pike, 103. I 'J^ cl.;, :i -* MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART -ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No 2l 1.0 I.I ;- ilia ^ m I: 1^ III 2.5 || 2j_ 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 i.6 jd APPLIED IM/1GE Inc ^^ 1653 East Mam street ^^S '^oclnester. New York 14609 USA '-^ (716) 482 ~ 0300 - Phone ^= (716) 288 - 5989 - Fax ,i! i i(i| 334 (ionlians, 215. Geomotrids, 146. Geranium, 20<). Gi.'iiit Silkworms, 149. Giant Water Hujf, 164. Gingko, 239. Gnat-catchers, 65. Gnawers, 8. Goatsuckers, 54. Golden-rod, 214, 217. Goldfinch, 59, 63. Gopher, 25, 26, 31. Gracklc, 57, 70. Grapta, 137. Grasshopj-H-rs, 165, 166. Graylingr, 97- Grebes, 50. Grosbeak, Rose-breasted, opp. 58. Grosbeaks, 59, 60, 67, 71. Ground-hog-, 8, 9. Gulls, 50. Gypsy Moth, 145. Haddock, 102. Hairstreaks, 140. Hairworms, 189. Halibut, 102. Halophytes, 295. Hare, 13, 29. Harebell, 213. Harlequin, 148. Har\cstor, opp. 136, 140. Harveslmen, 127. Hawks, 5?, 68. Hemiptera, 161. Hepatica, 194. NATURE STUDY Herring-, 96, 97, 98. Hessian Hy, 158. Hickory Tiger .Moth, 148. Highhole, 54. Horned Lark, opp. 48, 55. Fiorsetails, 234, 236. Hounds Tongue, 218, 238. " • •-• ' -J-- Humming- Birds, 54, 143. Hunters Butterfly, 140. Hydiium, 229. Hydra, 191. Hydroph_vtes, 295. Hyla Pickcringii, 91. Hyla X'ersicolor, 91. Ichneumon Fly, 144. Ichthjosaurs, 84. Indian Piix- 232. Indian Tobacco, 233 Indigo Bird, 59. Insectivora, 22. Insects, 116, 1 29 ^/ jfy. , 30 1 , Invertebrates, 104. lo Moth, 152. Iris, 206. Iron, 279. Iroiiwood, 239, 240. Jack-in-the-Pulpit, 204. Jack Rabbit, 26, 31. Jays, 56, 67, 69. jewel-weed, opp. 208, 213. Jumping Mouse, 26, 31. Juncos, 60. Katydids, 165, 167. Kingbird, 55, 78, 79. INDEX sr) Kingfishers, FPOnt. 54. Kinglets, 65 Kissing- Hug, 164. Lady's Slipper, 208. Lady's Slipper, Yellow, opp. 194. T-.ri^^ 55.66. Lead, 281. Leaf Miners, 155. Leaf Rollers, 153. Leech, 189. Leek, 203 Lichens, 228, 236. Light, 284. Lilies, 199. 202. Lily-of-the-Valley, 202. Limestone, 283. Limpets, in. Lmnaea, 204. Liverworts, 234, 235. Lizards, 84. Lobelias, 214. Lobster, 117, 122. Loligo, III. Loon, 50. Lotor, 5. Love Pops, 209. Lugworm, 189. Luna Moth, 151. Lycosa, 1 25. Lynx, 4. Mackerel, 101. Magpie, 67. Mammals, 1 etseq., 104, 265, 300 et seq. Maple, 221, 241. Marsh Marigold, 194, 211. Marsh Owi, 67. Martins, 61, 71. Maskinonge, 99. May-apple, 199, 234. May-tlies, 160. May-flowers, 198, 232. Meadowlark, 57. Menobranch, 93. Mesophyte-j, 295. Mice, 5. Milbcri's Tortoise-shell Butter- fly. '37. opp. 138. Milkweed, 212. Milliiiedes, 128. Mink, 4, 8, 31. Mint, 213. Mites, 128. Mitrewort, 200, 201. Mocking Bird, 63. Moles, 4, 22, 31. MoUusks, 104. Monarch Butterfly, 137, 138. Monocotyledons, 295: Monotropa, 232. Morel, 229. Mosquitoes, 156, 157. Mosses, 234, 235, 236. Moths, 141 et seq. Mould, 227. Mourning Cloak Butterfly, 135 137. opp- 138. Mouse, Whitefooted, 20. Mouse, Field, 20. Mouse, Meadow, 20, 21. Mouse, Jumping, 26. Mud Puppy, 88, 93. Mud Turtles, 86. Mulberrv', 221. Mullet, 95, 98. Museum, 250. Mushrnoms, 227, 228. .Musknit, 4, 14, 15, 2X, .30. Mussfl, 1 15. Mustard, 217, 226, 227. Myriapoda, 128. Xatiia, 108. N'autilus, 108, 109. N'l'uroptera, 158. N'owt, 92. Xorthern Hare, 14. N'orwa; Cinquefoil, 2C Nuthatch, 64, 65. Oak, 239. Octopus, 1 10. Ornon, 203. Ophidia, 85. Orchids, 208. Orioles, 57, opp. 58, (k). Oven Bird, 62. Owlets, 146. ^^^^'K S3> 67, 69. Ox-eye Daisy, 219. Oysters, 104, 114,. Painted Lady Butterfly, opp. 140. Parasites, 231, 232. Partridge Berry, 210. Pearl Crescent, 137, opp. 138. Pearly Nautilus, 108. Perch, 95, 96, 100. Percidje, 100. Pewee, 55. Peziza, 228. Phlox, 210. NATURE STUDY Ph.vlx', 55. Pickerel, 95, 100 Pieris, 136. Pig-eons, 52. Pike, 95, 100. Pine, 241. Pipit, 63. Pitcher Plant, opp. 194, 204, 205, 208. Plantain, 224. Plants, 192 et seq., 301 et seq. Plesiosaurs, 84. Plum Sphinx Moth, 144. Poison Hemlock, 233, 234. Poison Ivy, 211, 221, 222. Polyphemus, 150, 27^1. Poplar, 239. Porcupine, 4, 5, H. Portulaca, 220. Potato Scab, 227. Potentilla, 207. Prairie Anemone, 197. Prairie Chicken, 52. Prairie Dog-, 24, 25, 31. Prairie Fox, 26. Prairie Hare, 26. Prairie Hen, 52. Prairie Wolf, 26, Prawns, 122. Prickly Lettuce, 242. Primrose, 209. Primrose, Yellow Evening, opp. 208. Promethea, 152. Puff-balls, 228, 231. Purple Flowering^ Raspberry, opp. 194, 211. Purslane, 198, 219, 220. Pusley, 219. Pussy-willows, 194. noEx 337 Pyramois, 140. Pyrola, 208. Quail, 52. Quartz, 282. Question Sigri, opp. 138. Rabbit, 4, 12, 13. 29- Raccoon, 4, 6, 29. Ragweed, 223. Red Admiral Butterfly, 140. Red-spotted Purple Butterfly, 139. Redstart, 62. Roduvius Personatus, 164. Reptiles, 84 et seq. Robin, 65, 261. Rodent ia, 8. Rootv, 292. Rose, 206, 239. Rust, 230. Salamanders, 84, 88, 92. Salmon, 95, 97. Sapsucker, 70, Scab, 227, 230. Scallop, 115. School Gardens, 248. Sea Cucumber, 190. Sea Urchin, 190. Self-heal, opp. 208, 213. Shad, 98. Shaggy Mane, 229. Sheep Sorrel, 219. Shell-fish, 116. Shepherd's Purse, 210. Shrews, 4, 23. Shrikes, 62, 78 Shrimps, 122. Silk, 276. Silkworms, 149, 150, 276. Silverweed, 207. Skippers, 140, 141. Skunk, 4, 5, 6, 29. Skunk Cabbage, 194. Skylark, Missouri, 67. Slugs, 104, 105, 301. Smilacina, 203. Smut, 227, 230. Snails, 104, 106-108. Snakes, 84, 85. Snowflakes, 55. Soapvvort, opp. 214. Soldier Bird, 60. Sole, 102. Sooty-wing, 140. Sour Dock, 219. Sparrows, 59, 60, 70. Sparrow, Song, opp. 48. Speedwell, 217. Si>ermophiles, 25, 31. Sphinx Moths, 142. Spiders, 116, i.-!2 et seq., 301. Spotted Touch-Pie-Not, opp. 208, 213. Spring Beauty, 198. Spruce, 231. Squash Bug, 163. Squaw-root, 332. Squirrels, 4, 5, 15, 27. Squirrel, red, 17, 30, 268. Squirrel, black, 27, 30, 37, 38. Squirrel, flying, 18, 19, 30. Starfishes, 190. Starflower, 199. Stick Insect, 168, 169. Stinging Nettle, 233. Stink Bug, 163. 3:w II Iff NATURE STUDY I 1 ' Si. Johns Wort, opp. 208, 211 Stoat, 8. Stone, 283. Stone-flics 160. SturKoon, 103. Suckers, 95, 98, 99. Sujj:ar jNIites, 128. Sulphurs, Butterflies, 136. Summer Yellow Bird, 63. SunJew, 205. Sunfish, 00, IW. Swallow, Bani, Front. Swallows, 61. Swallowtails, 136. Swifts, 54. Sycamore, 221, 241, 293. Tanag-ers, 60. Tansy, 217. Tarantuia, 126. Tent Caterpillars, 153. Thimble Berry, 239. Thistle, 225. Thistle Butterfly, 135, 140. Thorn. 239. Thorn Apple, 212, 234. Thousand-lejfged Worm, 128. Thrasher, Brown, opp. 66. Thrashers, 63, 71. Thread-Iegfg^ed B\ig, 164. Thrushes, 63, 65, 66, 71 Thrush, Wilson's, opp. 66. Ticks, uS. Tiger Moths, 147, 148. Tiger Swallowtail, 136. Titmice, 65. Toad Flax, 214, 256. Toads, 88, 93. Toadstools, 227. Tobacco Moths, 142, 212, Tomato Sphinx, 142, 143, 212, Tort-iise Shell, 137. Towheo, 59. Trailing Arbutus, 198. TrajvdiHir Spider, 126. Tree Toads, 88, 91. Trilliums, 199, 202. Triton, 108. Trout, 95, 97. Tulip Tree, 239. TuUibec, 97. Tunny, loi. Turtles, 84, 86, 87. Tussock Moths, 145. Twin-flower, 204. Umbel, 234. Underwings, 146. Varying^ Hare, 14. \"eery, 66. Vertebrates, 104, 116. Viceroy Butterfly, 138, 139. Violet, Purple, opp. 194. Violets, 201, 202. Viper's Bugloss, opp. 208, 223. Vireos, 62. Virgrin's Bower, 2 1 1 ' 2 1 7, 221, 222. Waders, 51. Wagtails, 63. Warblers, 62. Wasps, 1 75 ef seq. Water Boatmen, 164. Water-rat, 4. Water Strlders, 164, 165. Waxwing, Cedar, opp 60. Waxwings, 61. Weasel, 4, 8, 31. Weavers, 62. 1^ INDEX Wob-wornis, i:;}, I ^2. WhoHt, J74. Wheat Miilffe, 158. U heat ]\u^\, 22J. Wlielk, loS. \Vhitofi,li, c)5, 97. VVhite-foolfil Mmise, 20. White-lined Sphinx Moth, 14J, 144. Whites, Buttertlies, 136. Wild Canary, 59. Wild Cinder, 195. Willow, 195, 239. Willow Herb, 209. Willow Herb, Great, opp. 208. Wing-handed Mammals, jj. Winterg-reen, 200, -'01, 232. Witih Hazel, 203, 216. Wood, 278. Woodehuik, 4, 8, 9, 27, 29. Wood Hare, 7, 12, 13, 300. Wood-lice, 121, 301. Wood|)eckers, 54, 70. Wood Sorrel, 209. Wool, 277. Wrens, 63, 71. Xerophytes, 295. Yarrow, 217. Yellow Bear Cateqjillar, 148.