IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ///// ^^ MPM? 1.0 I.I ■45 in i 12.5 |: 2.2 2.0 11.25 11.4 11.6 -T ^ n 7 ^^^ ^> /^ '-^i '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716) •72-4503 4P> 4. i i CIHM/iCMH Microfiche SerieSo CIHM/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques . ,,. . .:. ,■i^^:H■.■•.^■^ -.».- Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bioliographiques The I toth The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. n n D D D n D Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur Covers damaged/ Couverture endommagde Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaur6e et/ou pellicul^e Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque I I Coloured maps/ Cartes g6ographiques en couleur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) I I Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Relid avec d'autres documents Tight binding mi.y cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La re liure serr^e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge int^rieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajout6es lors dune restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela dtait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6t6 filmdes. Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppl^mentaires; L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'll lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-Atre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mithode normale de filmage sont indiquis ci-dessous. I I Coloured pages/ D D Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommag^es Pages restored and/oi Pages restaurdes et/ou pellicul^es I — I Pages damaged/ I I Pages restored and/or laminated/ The poss of th filmi Origi begii the I sion, othe first sion. or ill Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ Pages ddcolories, tachetdes ou piquies I I Pages detached/ Pages ditachdes Showthrough/ Transparence Quality of prir Quality indgale de I'impression Includes supplementary materii Comprend du materiel suppl^mentaire I I Showthrough/ I I Quality of print varies/ I I Includes supplementary material/ The shall TINL whic Map: diffe entir begii right requi meth Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une peiure, etc., ont 6X6 film«ies d nouveau de fapon 6 obtenir la meilleure image possible. This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film6 au taux de rMuction indiqu* ci-dessout. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X J 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X e 6tail8 fs du (lodifier ir une ilmage The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: UniMfsity of SailcatGhewan Satlcatoon The images appearing here are the best quaiity possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. L'exemplaire filmA fut reproduit grice d la g4n6rosit4 de: University of Saskatchawan Satkatoon Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin. compte tenu de la condition et de la netteti de l'exemplaire filmd, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de f ilmage. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. )S Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprim6e sont fiimris en commen9ant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont fiim6s en commenpant par la premiere page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la derniire page qui comporte une telle empreinte. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol —«»>( meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol y (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Un des symboles suivants apparaftra sur la dernidre image da cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbols —► signifie "A SUIVRE", le bymbole V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmte A des taux de reduction diffirents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 A partir de Tangle supArieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images nicessaire. Les diagrammes su'vants iilustrent la m^thode. errata to pelure, }n A n 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 r sv ■J ^ --^ .-*>. AHV ^. THE ART •,!•>.■ :■> )vV' '^-i^^ ■w SCHOOL MANAGEMENT il Text-Book for Normal Schools and Normal IntftUutes, and a Reference Book for Teachers, ScJiool Officers ^^ and Parents. /\ (r^ , ^ J. BALD WIT; PRESIDENT OF THE STATE NORMAL 8CHOOL,MIIlKSVILLEl CANADIAN EDITI Adaptetlr^r use in the Schuatfaftd Homes Sf Ca TORONTO : ■wa-ti-wiok: &c so'jsrs 1887. wmmtm w EiUteKd according to the Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight hundred and eighty-six, by Warwick &; Sons, in the office of the Minister of Agriculture. of ^k Warwick &, Sons, Printers, 26 AND 28 FRONT STREET WEST, TORONTO. le year one Sons, PREFACE. Baldwin's Abt of School MjlNaobment has been weli'^vnd' favourably known to the teaching profession in Canada ever since its first appearance, and the subject very properly has formed, and still forms, an essential part of the professional examination of candi- dates lor certificates of qualification as teachers in the Province of Ontario. It has been found, however, that the book, in its original form, contains some things that are not so weU suited to the wants of Canadian Schools and Teachers as they are to those of the neighbouring republic, and others that are not exactly in harmony with the School Law and Begulations of Ontario. The present edition has been prepared specially to meet these reasonable objections, and thus to render the book suitable in every way for use in the schools and homes of Canada. It is not a compendium of the original work, nor is it merely an abbreviated edition, made by the rejection of what appeared to be superfluous. Many of the sections have been entirely recast, especially in the earlier and more important portions of the work ; and among these early chapters have been interpolated many of the ideas and suggestions scattered more or less through the later chapters of the work. A good deal of space has b^en gained by avoiding unnecessary repetitions, and by excluding a large amount of speculation on topics interesting enough in themselves, but bearing no direct reference to the subject of School Management. By thus relieving the teacher from the drudgery of mastering irrelevant subjects, by rearranging the important principles so as to exhibit their harmony with Canadian Laws and customs, and by carefully elaborating the Topical Reviews of all the chapters, the editor trusts that he has at least partially succeeded in making the Art of School Management easier and more interesting to his fellow-teachers in Canada than it was in k£| original form. Though it has been deemed advisable to harmonize the text as closely as the subject would permit with the School Laws of the province, it has not been considered necessary in any case to limit , ..... . ... [1] . ..-....-....■ /\ PREFACE. the suggesfcions and recommendations for the management of schools to the compulsory requirements of the Law. Phese suggestions would in several things, no doubt, impose up«)n the teacher a heavier task than he is now required to perform ; but though he is some- times recommended to go fmther than the law, the book does not now contain any rule or recommendation at all cmitra/ry to the law, as it exists in Ontario. Wherever such recommendations have been found in the original text care has been taken to alter or expunge them. Ab an example of what is meant by going fwiher than the law but not c(yntrary to it, may be instanced the suggestions as to the Opening Exercises (Part II., Cap. IV., p. 68) where singing and the reverential reading of a suitable portion of Scripture are recommended in addition to the form of opening provided by the Regulations ; here the recommendation goes beyond the legal requirement, but is very far from being contrary to it. Other instances will be readily detected by the reader. An error, perhaps a little more than a clerical one, occurs in giving the number of cubic feet of air space for each pupil (Part I. , Cap. II., p. 23) ; it should be 260 instead of 160, but, as the page was already printed before the detection of the error, I take the present opportunity of correcting it. In connection with the whole subject of school buildings and the health of the children at school, much useful information will be found in the pages of Dr. Hodgins' "School Architecture and Hygiene," which contains all that is necessary on the subject of school-buildings, playgrounds, etc., in relation to the physical training of children ; while Mr. Houghton's work on "Physical Culture" contains an admirable series of exer- cises for the systematic training of children in the playground. These works were not in my hands when preparing the sections referring to the subjects of which they specifically treat ; otherwise, these chapters would have been more interesting and elaborate. The addition of the Appendices containing the portions of the School Law and Regulations required of candidates for teachers' certificates will be appreciated by those careful students who desire to compare the requirements of our own Laws with the general principles of school government on which those Laws are based. R. DAWSON, B.A., T. CD. High School, Weston, August^ 1886. v J... CONTENTS. Paqe. Introduction 1. School Management Defined. 2. The Art is based on the Science of Education. 3. Essential to Success. 4. Successful Teachers. 6. Objection to Methoda. 6. The plan of the work. PART I. bduoational instrumentalities. Chafteii. I. School Grounds .... . 16 1. What School Grounds should be. 2. Plan of School Grounds. 3. Beautifying and Preserving School Grounds. II. The School Buildings . . .21 1. History of School Architecture. 2. Plans for School Buildings. 3. Beautiful School Buildingfs. 4. Commodious School Buildings. 6. Heating and Ventilating School-houses. 6. Light vi the School- room. 7. Necessary Rooms besides the School-room. 8. Beautify- ing the School -room. 9. Oost of Building and Appurtenances. III. School Apparatus .28 1. Apparatus is Necessary in all Schools. 2. Black-board Surface. 3. Mathematical Apparatus. 4. Geographical Apparatus. 6. Cabinet. 6. How to Procure School Apparatus. IV. School Text-Books . . .34 1. Definition. 2. Characteristics of Good Text-books. 3. Uses of Text-books. 4. Abuses of Text-books. 5. Uniformity. V. School Hygiene . . . 37 1. Definition. 2. Hygpienic Position. 3. Ventilation o^ School- rooms. 4. Light in the School-room. 5. Calisthenic Exercises. 6. Play and Health. 7. Hygienic Habits. 8. School Punish- ments should be Hygienic. 9. Laws of Health from the Educa- tional Standpoint. 10. >iever use Tobacco. PART n. SCHOOL OBOANIZATION. I. Preparatory Work . . .47 1. Introduction — School Organization. 2. QnalifioationB of the Competent Teacher. 3. Securing Positions. 4. Agreement be- tween Teacher and Trustees. 6. Plan of the work for the Term. [3] CONTENTS. Chapter. Paoe. II. School Tactics . . . . . .50 1. Introduction — ISohool Tactien. 2. The Principles of Tactics. 8. Calling School. 4. DisnaHaiag School. 5. Calling Classea. 6. DismiBsing Classes. 7. Hand Tactics. III. School Cla43siflcation . .62 1. Introdution. 2. Principles relating to School Classification. 3. Temporary Classification. 4. Permanent Classification. 5. Classi- fication of an Ungraded School. 6. The Teacher Classifies. IV. Opening Exercises, Seating, Recesses . 68 1. Importance of So-called Trifles. 2. Opening Exercises. S. Methods of Seating. 4. Recesses. V. First Day of School . . 72 1. First Day most important. 2. He Early. 3. AddresH of Wel- come. 4. Have a Plan. 5. Special Directions to Teachers. PART III. BOHOOL QOVERNMBNT. ' !, I. Elements of Governing Power . . .70 1. Introduction. 2. The Eleven Elements of Governing Power. 3. System Requires for Everything :— o. Energy. 6. Vigilance. e. Will-Power. d. Self-Control, e. Confidence. /. Power to Punish Judiciously, g. Culture, h. Heart Power, i. Teach- ing Power, j. Tact, or Managing Power. II. School Regulations . . .91 1. Extremes and Mean. 2. Principles Pertaining to School Regu- lations. 3. Greneral Regulations. 4. Special Regulations. 5. Adoption of Regulations. III. Enforcement of School Regulations . 97 1. Adoption aids Enforcement. 2. Regularity. 3. Promptitude. ' 4. Decorum. 6. Quiet— not Stillueas. 6. Communication. 7. Morality—a Positive Quality. IV. Principles Pertaining to School Punishment . 108 1. Discipline Defined. 2. The Problem of School Punishment. S. Principles Stated. 4. Bentham's Principles Relating to Punish- ments. 6. The Governing Eorcea. , : . „• -■. 7 V. Judicious and Injudicious Punishments . . 115 . 1. JudicioxiB Punishments. 2. Reproof Rightly Administered. 3. Privations are Highly Efficacious. 4. Deportment Marks. 5. Extraordinary, or Special Punishments. 6. Injudicious School Punishments— General Definition. CO^iTENTS. Ohaptkb. Paob. VI. Special, or BbLtraordlnary Punishments . . 125 1. Special Punighroenta. 2. SuHpen^ion— UeHt form of Special Paniabment. 8. Expulaion— Ditfc^rHfroraSuHptiusiop. 4. CSorporal Punishment —Ground of Opposition— Oonolusion. VII. Bpeciflo Management and Management of Individual Pupils 135 1. Detailed Reports Demanded. 2. The Inexperienced Tea(;her needs Concrete Gases. 3. Suggestiveneas of such Reports. 4. Disorderly Schools, PupilB, or Parents, need Special Treatment. 6. Management of Disorderly Schools —Ringleaders. 6. Govern Individuals through the class. 7. Management of Dull Pupils. 8. Management of Hard Cases. 9. Successful Management should be Reported. VIII. Conditions of Order — School Duties and Bights 144 1. Order. 2. Conditions of Order. 3. School Duties of Teachers. 4. Duties of Pupils. 5. Duties of Parents. 6. Duties of School- boards. 7. School Rights. PART IV. STUDY AND TEACHING. L Bules and Conditions for Study . . .157 1. Questions relating to the art of Study. 2. Rules for Stiuly. 0. Take a deep interest in the Work. b. Give your entire Atten- tion to the Subject, o. Study systematically both as to Time and Method, d. Master each step as you go. e. Think vigouron.sly, clearly, and independently. /. Study to Know, not to Recite. g. Use what you Learn, h. Duly mix Study, Recreation, and Rest. 3. Conditions of Study. II. How to Study . . . . . .163 1. The Art of Study. 2. Progressive Steps hi Study. 3. Helps in Study. 4. Benefits of Hard Study. III. Art of securing Attention and Study . . 169 1. Importance of securing Attention. 2. Unfavourable Conditions for securing Attention. 3. How not to secure Attention. ■^. Rules for securing and cultivating Attention. 6. Unwise Incentives to Study. IV. Work for the Little Ones . . . .176 1. School Work should give Pleasure. 2. Play is an Educational Process. 3. Hand and Eye-culture. 4. Voice-culturei 5. Body- culture. 6. Action — Culture. 7. The day for Parrot-work is past. CONTENTS. Ohapthb. • Paoi. V. Principles of Education and Teaching . . 180 1. Fundamental Prinoiples. 2. Oeneral PrincipleH of Education. (BroolcB.) 3. Psychnlo^fical PrinoipleH relating to Teaching. 4. Principlen pertaining to the Order of presenting Truth. 0. Prin- dples pertaining to the proceBHea in HarmoniouH Teaching. (Johonoot.) 6. Cuones of Study and Metliods of Teaching. PART V. CLASS HANAOBMENT. " I. Principles Relating to Class Management . . 187 1. Clasa Defined. 2. The Interoat of the Pupils must be Secured. d. Each Pupil Responsible for Each Answer. 4. AnawerH must be in the Pupil's Own Words. 6. The Pupil must do what he can for himself. 6. Recitation hour is the Time for Explanation. 7. Pupils should be Honest, Independent, Thorough. 8. Pupils, not Teaohera, should do the work. 9. Each Pupil Recites at Every Lesson of his Class. 10. Oral and Written Work Equally Important. 11. System, Vigour, and Vivacity Essential to Suc- cess. 12 The Heart Must be in the Work. II. Lessons and Class Work 191 1. Objects of Glass Work. 2. Length of Recitations. 8. Assign- ing Lessons. 4. Treatment of the Unprepared. III. General Class Methods .196 1. Introduction. 2. The Socratic Method. 8. The Topic and Question Method. 4. The Discussion Method. 6. The Oonver- sation Method. 6. The Lecture Method. IV. Auxiliary Class Methods 203 1. Auxiliary Methods. 2. The Writing Method. 3. The Outline Method. 4. The Reporting' Method. 6. The Reciprocal Method. 6. The Concert Method. V. Questionable, Erroneous, and Antiquated Class Methods 206 1. Questionable Class Methods should be avoidod. 2. Erroneous Class Methods violate principles. 8. Antiquated Class Methods. 4. Conditions of Progress. VI. Art of Questioning 210 1. Principles tmderlying the Art of Questioning. 2. General State- ments relating to Questioning. 3. Objects and kinds of Questions. VII. Golden Hints to Teachers 214 1. The Seven Laws of Teaching. 2. Preparation of Lessons. 3. Practical Rules to be Taught to Pupils. 4. Conditions of Success. 5. Secrets of Success. 6. A Model School — Principles — Practice— Results. 7. Effects of Method. CON'lENTS. ' 7 PART VI. examinations) and rkcohdr. Chaftib. Paoi. I. School Bzaminations 221 1. Examinations Must remain um Means of Kducation. 2. ObJectH of Examination— generally, to Siq plcnient Good Teaching. 8. What should Examinations be? What ahould they not be? 4. Frequency of Examinations. 6. Oral and Written Examin- ations. B. Examinatioui should be brief. 7. Promotion Ex- aminations. II. Marking Grades 226 1. Marking is a Mechanical Necessity. 2. Objects of Marking. 3. Criteria for Marking. 4. Frequency of Marking. 6. The Scale of Marking,— from 1 to 100. 6. General Remarks. III. School Beoords and Reports .... 2.10 1. Form of Reginters. 2. Value of Registers. 3. School Regfisters for Ungraded Schools. 4. Teachers' Reports. 6. Inspector's Report. APPENDIX I. Paqb. School Law and Regulations 239 Duties of Trustees ...... 239 Rural Schools . » . 239 Cities, Towns and Incorporated Villages . 242 Teachers 245 Certificates ...... 248 County Boards ...... 261 County Model Schools .... 252 Institutes 252 Inspectors ...... 253 Superannuation 268 Non-Resident Pupilf.. 261 Authorized Books 262 Public School Regulations 263 Accommodation ..... 263 School House . * . . . 264 Blackboard, Globes and Maps 266 Programme of Studies .... 266 lA b ; CONTENT 8. Page. G^eneral Directions 268 First Three ClasBes . 268 Fourth Class .... 270 Fifth Class .... 271 General 272 Duties of Pupils 273 School Hours 276 Duties of Teachers 276 Collections, Presents— Last Time 278 Inspectors .... 278 Qualification . 278 County Inspector's Duties 270 City Inspectors 282 Powers of Inspectors 283 County Model Schools 283 Course of Study . , 285 Text Books 285 Final Examination 285 Teachers Institutes 286 First Day 28V Second Day 288 Normal Schools 288 General 288 Duties of the Principal 288 ". " Master 289 Students ■ 289 Coixree of Study 289 Practical Teaching 289 Examinations 290 Subjects for Final Examination 290 Model Schools 290 Belisrious Instruction 291 Superannuated Teachers Fund ^ 292 Text-Books ^ 293 Care of School Property . 294 Arbor Day ... 296 Fire Drill 295 APPENDIX II. \ Forms of Prayer 296 Q ^i:' Page. 268 268 270 271 272 273 276 276 278 278 278 271) 282 283 283 286 285 285 286 28/ 288 288 288 288 289 289 289 289 290 290 290 291 292 293 294 295 295 296 FHE ART OF SCHOOL MANAGBMEiNT. INTROBUOTION. I. School Management Defined. — School Management u the art of so direeting school afiairs as tc pttiduce System and Order, and thus to seotire Efficiency. Th& art is somertimM calldd school economy, ck :-Ool discipline, oY Sdhool govdnctmebt ; but stteh titles are far too narrow, for School Management not ofify' iholirdes these subjects, but embraces, besides, all thAt pertains directly or indirectly to the successful education of children. Hdncd it has to deal ^th all the machinery of echtcatiafi as well as With the pupils to be educated, with the school-house and its surroundings, the furniture and equip- ment of the olass-rooms, the subjects of stady and the best means of studying, the rules of the school and the laws on which they are based, the relations of the teacher to his pupils, to his trustees, to the community, and to himself. II. The Art is based on the Soienoe of Education. — All true education is self-education, and the best method of educa- tion is that which guides, controls, and assists the unconscious process of self-education that begins with the infant in its cradle ; so, too, the ideal method of school management is that which judiciously develops the power of self-government inherent in the child, and thus makes the pupil himself the unconscious instrumsnt of his own self-control. [9] 10 INTRODUCTION. li! I m. Essential to Success. — School management is an essen- tial part of the teacher's preparation for his duties. Without it there can be no order, and without order education is impossible. No matter how learned the teacher may be in the subjects to be taught, no matter how painstaking, conscientious, and zealous he may be in the discharge of his duties, yet if he does not possess the art of wisely adju!4ting the educational forces at his disposal nine-tenths of his labour will have been in vain. And not only will the pupils fail to acquire mere book-learning at the hands of such a teacher, they will miss the equally important education in the habit of sdf-eon- t/rol which ought to be one of the chief objects aimed at by every me*nber of the profession. We send our children to school not merely that they may learn a certain modicum of facts, but that their latent powers and dormant faculties may be called forth, and that they may be so strengthened in the practice of habits of self- government and self-control as to be enabled afterwards worthily to take their proper positions in the world as the free citizens of a free community. rV. Successful Teaohers.— School Management demands ability and skill, and offers a wide iaeld for the exercise of Origin* aUty, Independence, and Individuality. To organize educational forces and instrumentalities aright requires as much generalship and executive ability as to command armies or govern states. The time has come when we demand that our teachers shall be possessed of ability, culture, and experience ; and no one need hope to succeed in the exercise of this profession who does not possess these re- quisites in at least a moderate degree. Exceptional facilities are now provided for the education of our teachers, and the chief aim of the present work is to assist the young teacher in acquiring that experience in the art of school management so necessary to ^ujcess. It is not given to all to be equally successful as teachers, nor can any general method be laid down which would serve as a model for the guidance of every teacher. The utmost that can be done is to lay down a few broad, general principles, by the light of which each may be assisted in developing his own method, and in stamping his own individuality on the pupils for whose welfare he is responsible. But though all cannot be equally successful, all can succeed, if nature has endowed them with a love of children and a wish to make success endowi if you you mf cess ; in the quer a III INTKODUCTIUN. 11 Lt is an essen- bhout it there )0SBible. No to be taught, he may be in art of wisely; enths of his pupils fail to eacher, they * of sdf-con- at by every > school not !tB, but that «i forth, and abitsof self- » worthily to ens of a free at demands ) of Origin- educational generalship bates. The e possessed to succeed B these re- kcilities are e chief aim uiring that to pujcess. rs, nor can \ model for done is to nrhich each imping his ^sponsible, lucceed, if a wish to make them happy and to do them good. This is the key to the successful practice of the teacher's art, and without this natural endowment no one can ever become a truly successful teacher ; but if you feel that you have indeed this divine attribute of aym/path/y^ you may rely on it that you possess the essential elements of suc- cess ; and you may confidently enter the noblest of all professions in the full assurance that Faith a/nd Feeling will enable you to con- quer all your difficulties. V. Objection to Methods.— It is frequently nrged that attempts to systematise methods of instruction, or even to introduce method at all into the teacher's work, can only be productive of bad results. Such phrases as "Cast-iron methods," "Machine-made teachers," and the like, are glibly uttered, and we are assured that to encourage members of the scholastic profession to follow any system is the sure way to emasculate the intelligence and annihilate the individuality of the teacher. These ob j ections are most frequently raised either by outsiders who know nothing whatever, practically, of that whereof they speak, and who will be found generally to have some sinister object in view, some ulterior purpose to serve, whether it be social, political, economical, or what not ; or they are advanced by some of the old-fogy members of the profession, either by those who, having never had a method, are naturally averse to acquiring one, or by those who, being urged to exchange a vicious method of their own for a better one, find it easier to decry the use- fulness of systems in toto than to acknowledge that their errors have arisen from a too fond attachment to bhe misshapen bantlings of their own creation. But whatever may be the causes of them, a very slight consideration of the subject shows not only that such objec- tions are without weight, but that they have been long since given up by the best educators of our time. What would be thought of the man who would seriously propose as an axiom that the indi- viduality of a general would be destroyed by a minute knowledge of the method of drill ? — that a physician would be unable to cope with disease because he had made himself acquainted with the system of his school of medicine ? — that the artist would cease to be original who had studied the principles of perspective, and become familiar with the optical theory of colour ? It is undeniable that the most skilful generals have always been those who had familiarised themselves with 12 INTUODUCTiON, // systems of tactids, and had leArned all the details of a soldier's duty. The best and most original physicians, painters, engineers, and others have been those who have most carefully methodized their know- ledge of the principles that form the foundations of their several professions ; and so it is in the the teacher's profession — the best and most original teachers will be found to be those who have some well-considered system, or method, of government, and are able therefore to seize on any and every opportunity of stamping their own individuality on the school, and of developing such marks of originality as they may observe in their pupils. It is not well for the teacher to follow even the best system too slavishly and blindly in all its details, but it would be better for him to do even that than to have no system at all to follow. VL The Plan of the Work.— In the foUoWmg pages it will be the aim of the Editor to present the subject ih a plain, clear, cotiy ersational style ; no effort shall be made at fine writing ; Aor shall anything be introduced that does not appear to be of special value to the teachers of Ontario. It is intended ihAt the Book shall be useful', (a) as a Class-book for teachers in training at the Model Schools, (h) as a Text-book for discussion at Teachers' Institutes, (c) as a Manual for the teacher's guidance in the school-room, (d) as a Reference-book for trustees, parents, and other friends of education. Several topics that usually find their way into works on school management have been omitted in this edition, not because of any desire or intention to ignore their importance, but because they do not appear to come fairly within the scope of. a work specially intended to meet the wants of the teachers of Ontario. ■.,... ,1 •Idier's duty. 3, and others their know- bheir several >n — the best have some id are able oiping their ih marks of not well for *nd blindly n that than •ages it will ►lain, clear, fiting ; iior ' of special Book shall 1 Schools, room, er friends on school se of any le they do specially .,..■,■! VV>-^ PART I. ED UGA TIONAL INSTR UMENTA LITIES. CHAPTER I.— School Grounds. *' II. — School Buildings. •* III. — School Apparatus. ** IV. — School Text-Books. •• V. — School Hygiene. ,. 1 i' ■ I: Til ■1} PART 1. -^-^T wac sRv ^ o^<^.. \\';., -V % > ^;'V ^^N,> ' 11 I EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. CHAPTER L School Gbounds. School Grounds neglected in Rural Sections.— In our cities and towns very many of the school grounds are laid down with considerable taste, and with due regard to the objects for which school grounds are intended ; but in far too many of our rural sections, notwithstanding the cheapness and abundance of land, and the consequent facilities at the disposal of the school officers for securing desirable accommodation, so little attention has been paid to this matter that the school grounds may without any exaggeration be described as a disgrace to the community. That such a state of things should exist in the very earliest days of the infancy of civili- zation in a new country might naturally be expected, and ought at least to be tolerated if net condoned. But it is simply mtolerable that any school should now exist in this country without being fully provided with the necussaiy accommodation in the way of school grounds. In many sections, on the other hand, the people take a most commendable pride in their school and its surroundings, and the very fact that so many of our rural schools are situated in spacious, beautiful, and commodious grounds ought to be an incentive to those who have heretofore paid but little attention to the subject. What is possible in relation to this matter in one section is possible in all, [15] I"! t I 16 SCHOOL GROUNDS. tPABT I. and it is earnestly to be hoped tliat the day is not far distant when the schools and school grounds of Ontario shall be quoted as models for imitation by the inhabitants of other countries. Whether it be true or not that *' the school-btdlding with its surroundings represents the average culture of the community," it is beyond question that communities are to a large extent judged by the mere appearance of their churches and their schools. And it is right that it should be so. Men have long since learned that they cannot afford to neglect the surroundings of their churches and chapels if they wish to maintain a character for self-respect ; and just as little can they afford to neglect the school-grounds of their section, if they desire to secure the reputation of being affectionately anxious for the welfare, the comfort, and the happiness of their children. I. LOCATION OP GROUNDS.— In selecting a site for the school house and grounds, particular attention should be paid to the following points. The grounds should be : 1. Accessible and Central.— The site must be accessible ; and, other things being equal, that site should be chosen which is most easily reached by the largest number of the pupils. Con- sequently the centre of population, present and prospective, should be chosen rather than the mere geographical centre. 2. Commodious and Suitable. — Commodious school- grounds, adapted to educational ends, pay large dividends. Cities expend vast sums to secure large school-yards. Many of our towns and villages set apart from two to ten acres for school purposes. In the rural sections, not less than from two to Jive acres should be consecrated to child-culture. To restrict a country school to half an acre is a mistake and a misfortune. 3. Healthful and Beautiful. — Science has shed such a flood of light on sanitary measures that nothing short of inexcusable stupidity or obstinacy can explain the selection of an unhealthy site for a school-building. The healthfulness, and therefore, to a very large extent, tho success of the school depends (a) on the nature of the soU ; \ (6) on the elevation ; ' ' (c) on the drainage ; (d) on remoteness from marshy ground and stagnant water, ' • Cap. I.] LOCATION AND PLAN OP GROUNDS. 17 The soil should be dry and good ; a sandy loam and a southern slope are in every way desirable. The elevation should be such as to secure pure, fresh air in unlimited quantity. The drainage should be carefully attended to ; particular care must be taken to guard against the possibility of sewage or any other impurity finding its way to the pump or well. The vicinity of marshy ground or stag- nant water should be rigidjy eschewed ; the malarial effluvia and the noxious insects engendered in such places very seriously impair the health no less than the comfort of the teachers and pupils. Though health must be the primary consideration, beauty of loca- tion should by no means be overlooked, and in general it will be found that beautiful surroundings, in which parents and pupils can alike take pleasure, will prove to be at the same time conducive to health. II. PLAN OP GROUNDS. 1. Each Section should have its own Plan. — Given plans are suggestive, but are never to be copied too closely. Individuality and originality should characterize the educational nurseries of the race. Here is an excellent field for invention and taste. The school-building and grounds should represent the highest culture of the neighbourhood ; and all concerned should vie in their efforts to render the surroundings of the school, as well as the school itself, beautiful and attractive. The very best results may be obtamed by taking advantage of such natural beauties as the ground itself affords, adapting the details of the plan to harmonize with the features of the locality rather than attempting to force nature into an unwilling conformity with some unsuitable model. 2. Grass and Flower Plots should decorate all school grounds, however small. In no other way can so much be done at so little cost to foster ce4hetic culture. These plots should be largely in front of the building, if the grounds will permit, and should be so arranged as to be easily kept in order. The care of them should be entrusted to the pupils, under the supervision of the teacher, and should form no part of the duties of the regular caretaker of the school. 3. The Location of the Well is a troublesome thing in some sections. It looks well to place it in front of the building in a neat rustic arbor. Between the building and the walks to the well. I '11 18 SCHOOL GROUNDS. [Part 1. Cap. flower-plots may be arranged. Two wells, one in the private play- grounds for the girls, the other in the boys' private play-grounds, give the best satisfaction. 4. The Play-grounds are primary in the plan. In front of the building and the evergreen hedges are the common play -grounds. Here the boys and girls freely intermingle. Here, under the eye of the teacher, refinement and social culture receive special attention. On one side and in the rear of the building are private play-grounds for the girls, and on the other side are the boys' private grounds. Play-grounds should be supplied with such instruments and incen- tives.as tend to cultivate gracefulness and give the fullest physical development. In . the education of children, play is an important factor. When we learn to lead children through play to work, we shall revolutionise our school processes, and make childhood truly the happy seed-time of life. 5. The C^ymnasium need seldom be a much more elaborate affair than can be provided and maintained by the pupils, under the direction of the teacher. Indian clubs and dumb-bells, horizontal and parallel bars, and good swings (not too high) for the little ones of both sexes can be procured at very little trouble or expense. These last, especially, should be found in every play-ground. They are not only a constant pleasure to the children, but the necessity of waiting for their turn tends to form and strengthen habits of unselfishness and self-control. 6. Trees. Forest-trees, such as the walnut, the elm, the maple, should be interspersed with ever-greens ; nor does there seem to be any valid reason why fruit-trees also should not be in- troduced. The trees may be planted singly or in groups — rarely in rows — and must he arranged with reference to the play-grounds. For beauty and comfort, the tree deserves a prominent place in all school grounds. The bare, shadeless, shapeless grounds so often seen, are a burning shame and an inexcusable disgrace to the community. III. IMPROVING AND PRESERVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS.— Every school officer, every parent, and every child should feel a peculiar interest in beautifying and preserving the grounds and the building. 1. The Teacher is the natural Leader in this as in all educational work. He consults, plans, and directs. He enlists n ADVANTAGES OF SUITAU GROUNDS. ■'^h Cap. I.] pupils and patrons. He studies the ^lam (^his predeoosson, modifies, and perfects them. Here we find one of the man^ reasons for retaining the same teacher for a series of years. 2. Each ohild is a Protector as well as a Oonatruotor. — The work should, as far as possible, be done by the pupils. Each one should bo trained to protect every shrub and flower. Thus our Canadian youth may be educated to respect public pro- perty and public grounds. The vandalism that begins with cutting and marring the school desks and destroying the school shrubbery may thus in time be overcome. Children take a natural delight in cultivating and fostering the growth of what they have themselves assisted to plant ; and the habit of protecting property, thus formed in childhood, will not be likely to die in the after years. 3. The institution of Arbor-day in the schools of Ontario has already done something, and may reasonably be expected to do much more in the future, towards the ornamenting and beautifying Qf school grounds. IV. ADVANTAGES OP SUITABLE SCHOOL GROUNDS. 1. Invigorating and healthful exercises are encouraged, tending to the development of better physical conditions. 2. Quietness in the school-room results from the vigorous exercise in the play-ground, where the natural restlessness of the children finds its natural vent. 3. Better results in study are attained in consequence of the improved physical conditions obtained in the play-ground. 4. The cultivation of taste and refinement is fostered at an age when the pupUs are most susceptible. 5. The glad memory of the joys of childhood sweetens all the after life ; and far from the least of these joys are the pleasure and happiness they may so cheaply receive in decorating and protecting beautiful school grounds. ■'I ,H, I' 20 SCHOOL aaoUNDs. [I'AKT I. ! ■ Topical Rkvibw.— Sc;nooi, Guounds. The school grounds shoiild be : 1. Central and accessible. 2. Commodious and suitable, 3. HeaJ.thful a/nd beoAitiful. Plan of school grounds : 1. Each school should have its own plan, 2. Grass and flower-plots. 3. Location of well. 4. Arrangement of the play-groMuds. 6. The gymnasium. 6. IShade-trees a/nd shrubbery. Beautifying and preserving school grounds : 1. The teacher the natural leader. 2. Each child constructs and protects. 3. Esthetic, intellectual, and physical culture, and memory the rewards. A METHOD OP CONDUCTING PROFESSIONAL CLASSES. glad 1. Subject assigned — School grounds: the members of the class will study the lesson as here presented, or as presented in some other work. 2. With the plot of the school grounds drawn on the board, the topics presented in the chapter will be briefly discussed by the members of the class. 3. The instructor, with his own plan on the board, briefly dis- cusses the subject. 4. A short time is devoted to criticisms, questions, and sugges- tions by the class. 5. For the next recitation, each member of the class will prepare an original plot of school grounds, and also a short essay on the subject. 6. At that time the lesson of the day previous will be reviewed, and as many of the essays will be read and criticised as the time will permit. 7. The essays and plots will now be exchanged. The members of the class will examine and grade each other's papers. At the next recitation, as the roll is called, these grades will be reported and recorded. In small classes the instructor can examine all the papers. Remarks. — By pursuing the above plan, very satisfactory results have been secured in the institute and normal school work. The professional instruction is thus made as interesting, as systematic, and as thorough as that in any of the sciences. It has been found necessary, however, to vary the plan to suit the subject and the circumstances. It is due to say that other instructors, using wdely different methods, have secured equally satisfactory results. Here or elsewhere, there can be no stereo- typed methods of teaching. I i CHAPTETl 11. 8onoOL-BTJIM»IN08. I. HISTORY OP SOHOOXi AROHITBOTnRE.-Tho nineteenth century is pre-eminently the age of progress, and in all our great centres of population the progress that has been made in school architecture has pretty fairly kept pace with that in other things. Vast, indeed, is the difference between the stately, well- equipped schools of our cities to-day and the old log school-house of the past, with its huge open fireplace, its puncheon floor, its clap- board roof, its old slab seats, and its general air of ugliness, discomfort, and neglect. Nor has the progressive spirit of the age failed to exert its benign influence, here and there, on the old seven-by-nine rural school of the last generation. Some of the country schools erected within the past few years are models of comfort, and reflect the highest credit on the enlightened trustees under whose auspices they have been erected. But these are, unhappily, the rare exceptions to a rule that is far too general. In many of our counties, the rural school is still comparatively a rude structure ; unsightly, uncomfortable, and unhealthy ; poorly lighted, poorly heated, poorly ventilated, and poorly adapted to school work. The resulting injury cannot be estimated in dollars and cents ; thousands and tens of thousands of youth sufler a loss that cannot be repaired. The stern necessities of an infant community are the sole excuse we can ofl'er for the existence of such eye-sores in the past ; but the spirit that keeps them standing now is not only the falsest of false economy, but it is utterly at variance with the genius of the age. The earnest demand of the most enlightened of our people is for better school accommodation for our children, and it may be looked upon as absolutely certain that the next quarter of a century will witness the erection of new school buildings, to meet the requirements of a fast increasing population, in nearly every rural section in the province. It will be the duty, as it ought to be the pleasure, of every trustee and school officer to see that these structures shall be the best possible of their kind. L21J :^^i 22 SCHOOL BUILDINGS. tPART L II. SCHOOL ARCHITECTS AND PLANS FOB SCHOOL -BUILDINGS. —In the erection of school-buildings it will prove a wise economy to consult a competent axchltect, and to be guided by his advice. Only those who have made a profound study of school economy are prepared to plan school-buildings. In this age of specialists no trustee is expected to know how to draw the plans and specifications for a school-house and its surroundings, nor is it the least disgrace to him not to know anything whatever about it ; it is not his business, and he will show his wisdom and his fitness for oflGice by referring all such subjects to some upright school architect who has made this special study the business of his life. The cost will be but a trifle, and will be repaid a hundredfold in the increased blessings it will bring to generations yet unborn. Where immortal minds, the minds of our precious children are concerned, the best is ever the cheapest. FoUow the Plan. — The school officers have here an honourable field for the exercise of their zeal and watchfulness. The plans and specifications furnished by the architect are the result of long years of thought and patient study ; they have been drawn up with special reference to school work, and any change may mar all. It is safe to follow skilled counsel, and the trustees should insist on having it followed implicitly. III. BEAUTY AS WELL AS UTILITY. -In the school- building utility and beauty should be combined. Eveiy where nature teaches this lesson. " Thousands for utility, but not a dollar for beauty," is not a fit motto for civilised communities ; it is beneath the intelligence of the savage. 1. The Cost. — Beauty adds but little to the cost. It is an affair of proportions, of form, of adaptation, of colour. The style of school architecture should be simple and chaste. Nothing gaudy or extra- vagant is permissible. 2. Beauty Pays. — That " a thing of beauty is a joy for ever," is nowhere truer than here. " "What a beautiful school-house!" This emotitn welling up in the heart and finding utterance on the lips of every child, of every parent, and of every passing stranger, is a per- petual joy. Such a building exercises a most potent influence on the character and conduct of children, alluring them by its silent Cap. II.] REQUISITES OF GOOD BUILDINGS. 23 gracs to a desire to prove worthy of their beautiful surroundings ; it cultivates the taste of the entire comnivmity ; it delights, it elevates, it pays. IV. SIZE AND PROPORTIONS^ OF SCHOOL - BUILDINGS. — In general, a school-building should be commo- dious. As a minimum, 12 square feet of floor-space and 150 cubic feet of air-space should be provided for eacb pupil. The height of the ceiling should be from 12 to 14 feet. A room 26 x 28 x 13 feet will give nearly 150 feet of space to each of 64 pupils. When the number of pupils exceeds 50, another room should be added, and an additional room for each increpse of 50. Commodious school-rooms give pure air and working space. Small, low, over-crowded school- rooms show wretched economy. A few paltry dollars must not be weighed against the comfort, the health, and the lives of our children. V. HEATING AND VENTILATING SCHOOL - BUILDINGS. — Nothing connected with school architecture is more difficult or more important. How often pupils are called stupid and punished, simply because they are compelled to breathe impure air I It is frightful to contemplate the sufiering and death resulting from the lack of proper appliances for heating and ventilating school- buildings. But a brighter era dawns. Inventive genius has given us the means by which almost perfect heating and ventilation may be secured ; and the cost is lessened rather than augmented by these improvements. 1. Ventilating Stoves. — Where these admirable stoves are in use, pure air from without is constantly heated and thrown into the room. Like the old open fireplace, the stove also radiates heat and carries oflF impure air. All parts of the room are nearly equally heated, and the supply of pure air is steadily maintained. 2. Ventilating Platform and Flues— A platform, three feet wide and six inches high, passes around the two sides and back end of the room. The end platform has an open base. The platform thus constitutes a horizontal flue, leading to ventilating flues behind the stoves. The pipes from the stoves pass up through these brick flues, thus creating a strong and constant draft. What could be more simple ? Yet by this arrangement we secure pure air of about the same temperature in all parts of the room. No better contriv- !'1I ■f ' 24 SCHOOL BUILDINGS. i [Paut T. anco has yet been found for the ventihition of buildings in winter — the period during which ventilation has hitherto been almost impossible. 3. Window Ventilation. — Fit a board, eight inches wide, on the inside and bottom of each window. See that the board fits per- fectly. Raise the lower sash about eight inches. Where the lower sash overlaps the upper, a current of pure air will enter, ascending in a curve to the ceiling, thus obviating the direct drafts that are so dangerous from windows raised or lowered in the usual way. During mild weather the schoool-room may be ventilated by lowering the top sash and raising the bottom one. Both sashes should be hung with weights. 4. Temperature. — The temperature of the air in the school- room should be maintained at as uniform a degree as possible. Each room should be furnished with a thermometer and one of the pupils may be entrusted with the duty of regulating the temperature, which can be done without difficulty where ventilating stoves are used. A uniform temperature of about 67** F., in winter, will prove conducive to health and comfort, and consequently to steady work and satisfactory progress. 6. Location of Stoves. — Two small stoves will generally heat a room better than one large one. They should be placed in comers, and not standing out in the room, where they are decidedly out of place. VI. LIGHT.— The steadiest and best light is that which is admit- ted by windows with a northern aspect. The pupils should never be seated facing the windows, unless there is a considerable distance between these and the desks ; nor should the room be lighted from opposite sides. All the windows ought to be furnished with blinds, but especially those facing south. The importance of the proper lighting of class-rooms can scarcely be exaggerated ; in the erection of school buildings, therefore, great attention should be paid to the relative location of the seats, black- boards, and windows. (The Hygienic importance of light is dis- cussed on pp. 38-39.) yiL PORTICOES, FUEL-ROOMS, AND OUT- BUILDINGS. — No little importance attaches to these addenda. They cost little, but they add much to the comfort, health, effici- ency, and morality of the school. Cap. II.] ROOMS AND EQUIPMENT. 25 1. Porticoes. — There should be separate entrances for the boys and girls, and a small portico at each entrance. These impicve the appearance of the building, serve as storm-doors in bad weather, and are in every way desirable. ^ 2. Fuel-Rooms may be built in connection with the porticoes. The door from the fuel-room opens into the portico, never directly into the school-room. In these rooms may be stored fuel sufficient for months. It is a marvellous fact that, at the close of the nineteenth century, more than half of the Boards of Trustees in the rural sec- tions leave their fuel without shelter, to the great inconvenience of the school, and at a considerable loss in the value of the fuel. 3. Privies. — A tight fence, covered with vines, passes from the rear of the school to the farthest extremity of the grounds, sepa- rating the private play-grounds of the boys and girls. Sei)arate privies, or closets, with deep vaults, must be provided for boys and girls ; they should be in the rear of the building, but not too far back, and should be screened from public view either by shrubbery, or high, close fences. They should be separated by a considerable distance, as well as by their respective fences, so that it would be impossible to see or hear anything from one to the other. In com- mon with the rest of the school buildings, they must be kept scrupulously clean and free from pencillings or other marks ; and the approaches should be in good order, so that they may be reached without inconvenience in any weather. VIII. LIBRARY AND APPARATUS ROOM AND CLOAK ROOM. — Only teachers fully realize the value and necessity of these rooms. 1. Library and Apparatus Room.— This room should be immediately in the rear of the teacher's platform. With such a room, a library, a cabinet, and the necessary apparatus can and will be speedily accumulated and carefully preserved. 2. Cloak Rooms. — Every school should be provided with cloak rooms for the boys and girls. They should be entered directly from the porticoes, and need not be larger than 8x8 feet. One side of each room should have four tiers of boxes, 12 inches deep and 8 inches high ; the other sides should be provided with hooks or pegs. The boxes and hooks should be numbered, and one of each should : *t, 1 S: '^' 26 SCHOOL BUILDINGS. [Part I. be assigned to each of the pupils, who should have numbers to cor- respond. A place for everything is one of the indispensable con- ditions of order. In the near future vre shall no more think of having school-houses without apparatus and cloak-rooms than with- out windows and seats. IX. DESKS AND SEATS.— Competition and science have given us seats and desks almost faultless. It is economy to procure the best. School-desks with movable lids and seats are decidedly j/referable. The desks must vary in height and proportions to suit the different pupils. The teacher's desk should be a model of beauty and utility. Every school-room should also be supplied with at least three chairs — one for the use of the teacher, and at least two for the accommodation of occasional visitors. (The subject is fully treated on pp. 37-38. X. PICTURES AND FLOWERS IN THE SCHOOL ROOM. — It ia an easy matter to cultivate the aesthetic part of man's nature. A vase or two of flowers on brackets or on the teacher's desk, and a few pictures to break up the dreary monotony of bare walls, address themselves to the vision, and produce impres- sions that work upon the thoughts and the sympathies. They arouse purer feelings and lead the mind to higher thoughts, enabling the pupil to appreciate the highest and most refined pleasures. XI. COST OP BUILDING AND APPURTENANCES. — The cost of a good country school house, with such out-buildings and equipments as have been described, will vary from, say $800 to $1,500, according to material, style, and other circumstances. But even when it reaches the higher figure, it will be the best and most profitable investment that could be made with the money. Most people are glad to tax their property to secure efficient railroad ser- vice. A tax of about 5 per cent, on the property of an average school section would be sufficient to erect school buildings of which the members of the community might well feel proud, and for which their memories will be cherished \>j generations yet to com**, i ! Cap. 11.] tOPICAL REVIEW. Topical Review. — The School Buildings. History of school architecture. 1. The old log school house. 2. Improved school architecture. Plans for school buildings. 1. Secv/re plcms by school architects. 2. Adhere to plcms fwmished. Beautiful school buildings 1. Beauty as well as utility. 2. Beautiful school buildings pay. Commodious school buildings. Size and number of rooms. Heating and ventilating school-houses. 1. Ventilating stoves. 2. Ventilating platform and flues. 3. Window ventilation. 4. Temperature. 5. Fosition of stoves. Light in the school-room. 1. Light admitted from the north is best, 2. Neither teacher nor pupils should face windows. Necessary rooms besides the school-room. 1. Library a/nd apparatus room. 2. Cloak-rooms. 3. Porticoes and fuel-rooms 4. Becitationrroom, where the school is large. Beautifying the school-room. 1. Suitable pictv/res. 2. Vases of flowers. Cost of building and appurtenances. 1. The cost varies according to material and style. 2. Good school-buildings pay. 27 ' if II T nrli ■■: •■'i >;>. >< CHAPTER III. SciiooL Apvaratus. hh Necessary in Elementary Public SohoolB.— School wppa- oui/iis embraces all that can be used in the school-room for purposes of illustration and explanation. It would be as reasonable to expect good work from a mechanic without the ordinary tools of his craft as to expect good results from a teacher without the ordinary appa- ratus of the school-room. Our High Schools are fairly well sup- plied with apparatus, though even in these there is still room for improvement ; but in our elementary schools we find a lamentable destitution, notwithstanding the fact of its being universally admitted that it is in such schools apparatus is most needed. Concrete examples are more satisfactory than abstract theories to pupils of all grades, but in dealing with young pupils, concrete examples are absolutely necessary. All good teachers are now trained and skilled in the use of apparatus, and every school must be furnished with a fair supply if good results are to be looked for. I. THE BLACK-BOARD AND ITS APPURTEN- ANCES — These are a necessity of every school ; they are required, and they should be used, in the teaching of es^ery subject ; in fact the efficiency of a teacher might not unfairly be judged by the use he makes of his black-boards, crayons, and erasers. 1. Extent. — One black-board should extend across the room in rear of the teacher's desk, and there should be two others along the sides, extending at least half-way down the room. They should be not less than four feet wide, the bottom being between two and two- and-a-half feet from the floor. The walls below the blackboards should be wainscoted. 2. Crayon Troughs. — Each board should be furnished with a trough, or shelf, three inches wide and one deep, running along the bottom the whole length of the board. The erasers and a supply of crayons should be kept in the troughs, which are very useful, nufi only for this purpose, but also to catch the chalk -dust rubbed otf [28] ^^ t. 7 Cap. III.l THE BLACK-BOARD. 29 Til)!, otf in cleaning the boards, and thus prevent its diffusion through the room and into the lungs of the pupils. The extreme ends of the troughs should be open so as to admit of their being readily brushed out as occasion requires. 3. Erasers. — A sufficient supply of these should be provided to furnish one to each pupil in any class that may be reciting at the board. They can be procured at a very trifling cost, or may be made by tacking pieces of sheepskin or coarse carpet-cloth on small oblong boards with edges and corners slightly rounded. 4. Crayons. — The common cheap crayon is the best. They can be procured from any dealer in school requisites ; and trustees should never leave it in the power of a teacher to say that he could not make a proper use of his black-board for want of a sufficient supply of crayons. No expenditure for school purposes pays such an abundant profit as the small outlay required for the box of crayons. Common lump chalk should never be used ; it creates clouds of dust, and is therefore unhealthy ; it is clumsy and ^Ithy, and so prevents cleanliness and neatness ; and it rapidly wears out the black-boards, and is consequently expensive and extravagant. 5. -Directions for Making a Black-Board. (a.) The back ground for the plaster of the black-board should be as firm and solid as possible ; hollow or springy boards wear out much more rapidly than solid ones. Con- sequently, if the walls are brick, the plaster should bo laid directly on the wall, and not on laths with a hollow space behind them, as should be the case with all other portions of the wall. In frame buildings the part to be used for black-board should be lined with good stout boards, to which the laths to hold the plaster should be firmly nailed. (b.) The plaster should be made with a large admixture of good plaster of Paris, so that when once dried and set there may be no subsequent cracking or scaling. (o.) The whole surface should be thoroughly polished with fine sand-paper before each coat of colour is laid on ; at least three coats of colour should be laid on with a wide, flat vamiah brush, each coat being tlioroughly dried and sand-paperbd before the next is given. i m SCfiOOL APt»ARATUS. ^ART t. (d.) A good liquid colouring may be made by dissolving 4 oz. of gum shellac in a quart of 96 per cent, alcohol, allowing about twelve hours for the solution. Emery powder with enough chrome green to give the desired tint should then be stirred in till the mixture is of the consistency of tliin paint, when it should be laid on with long even strokes of the brush, up and down, keeping the mixture constantly stirred all the time. Lamp-black is some- times used instead of chrome green, but the latter is now very generally preferred. 6. Use of Black-Board. — The least competent and most ob- scure teacher now uses the board in Mathematics. The skilful teacher uses it in all recitations. In Language and Grammar the exercises are written on the board, and sentences are constructed, analysed, and parsed on the board. In Geography, maps are drawn and lessons outlined. In Reading, words are spelled and defined ; inflec- tion, emphasis, pitch, force, and quality of voice are marked. But it is needless to enumerate. The qualified teacher will no more attempt to teach without ample black-board surface than the granger will attempt to farm wit! a t a plough. Pupils must be taught not to use the black-board except in class, or by direction of the teacher. • II. MATHEMATICAL APPARATUS. 1. The Numeral Frame is of the utmost value for class- work in all the elementary rules. A good, well-made frame should be procured, and should be constantly in use in every primary school. 2. Bundles of small Sticks, or Splints, about six inches long, and of several colors, furnish an excellent means of illus- trating many of the processes and operations of Arithmetic. 3. A Box of Marbles of different sizes and colors, with little bags, or purses, will be found both useful and interesting in giving even very yoimg pupils correct ideas of numbers, and enabling them to perform the elementary operations of Arithmetic with pleasure and success. 4. Weights and Measures.— Every school should be fur- nished with a complete set of the ordinary weights and measures, and also with a set marked according to the Metric system ; and the pupils ' / Cap. III.] GLOBES, MAPS, CABINETS. 81 r should be taught to use thom in all their operations with denominate numbers. Thus the drudgery of learning unnecessary tables by rote would disappear ; the pupils would understand and take pleasure in their work ; they would soon find out and demonstrate for them- selves not only the tables, but the various rules resulting from them. 6. Geometrical Forms. — These forms are of great value in education. They cannot be dispensed with in any school where it is oven pretended to give correct notions of the forms, and the modes of reasoning required in geometrical study. A small box of accurate forms can be got at a trifling cost, and the pupils should be encouraged to enlarge the collection by adding to it the products of their own skill. III. GEOGRAPHICAL APPARATUS.— The earth is the real basis of instruction in this branch. Each lesson is based on the child's observation and experience ; correct teaching leads him to obsorve and discover for himself. Apparatus, however, greatly aids teacher and pupil. 1. Globes. — A globe from eight to twelve inches in diameter and a five-inch hemisphere globe are needed. With these nearly all geographical topics may be illustrated. The improved tellurian globes cost more, but seem almost indispensable. 2. Geographical Board. — This ia very valuable. The board may be two by three feet, with water-proof strips around the edges. With sand, clay, and water, the continents, divisions of land and water, mountain ranges, river systems, etc. , are constructed by the young pupils. 3. Outline Maps. — A set of outline maps, and local maps of the township, the county, and the province, may be advantageously used in recitation. The teacher will not, however, allow the use of these maps to prevent the frequent drawing of such outlines on the black-board, by himself and the pupils. rV. CABINET. — A small collection, to illustrate the natural sciences, can be made by the teacher and the pupils. School-boards will gladly provide cases. 1. Geological Specimens of the Neighbourhood can be Collected and Classified. — Exchanges can be made with other schools. The pupils may secure the donation of some fine specimens, TVJany geological specimens may thus be accumulated. i \ t^j 111 i. ;> 1(1 if 32 SCHOOL APPARATUS. [Paut I. Cai 2. Botanical Specimens. —The kinds of wood, Iohvos, flowers, grains, etc., of the surrounding countiy, may be prepared and arranged for the i)urpoHes of illustration. While affording recre- ation, the work of collecting and preparing those specimens will prove highly profitablo. In the authorized textbook on Botany, the teacher will find full instructions as to the manner of preparing and preserving botanical specimens. 3. Zoological Specimens. — It is somewhat doubtful whether any advantage that might accrue from the acquisition of a fairly full collection of the birds, insects, &c. , of the neighbourhood would not be more than counterbalanced by the lessons of cruelty learned by the young collectors. If such a collection be attempted, the utmost care will be necessary to guard against the development of cruel instincts in the children ; they should be taught that when the death of any of God's creatures becomes necessary for the benefit of man, that death should be procured with the least possible pain to the unfortunate victim. V. HOW TO PROCURE SOHOOIj APPARATUS.- To thousands of struggling teachers this is an unsolved problem, but it is certainly not misolvable. 1. Create a Demand for Apparatus. — So teach and so work that the pupils and the people will say, *' We must have apparatus." Secure a good lecture on the subject. Put strong ar i-'Jes in the local papers. Send an educational tract on the subject to each family, and visit them in i^erson. 2. The School Board will Purchase Apparatus as soon as the demand is sufficiently strong. This is the right plan. Stoves, desks, and apparatus should be procured on the same ground. The law makes it the duty of school-boards to furnish suitable apparatus. 3. Purchase Apparatus with the Proceeds of Enter- tainments. — This plan is objectionable in some respects, but some- times it is the readiest way to reach the result. 4. Let the Teacher Own the Apparatus.— In exceptional cases this is possible, but in most cases it is utterly impracticable. Nor is it fair to expect it ; with as much reason we might argue that the teacher should own the desks and the stoves. 1 E U a( Ca He Cap. III.) TOPICAL REVIEW. Topical Rkview. -Rchool ArrAUATUS. Apparatus is necessary in all schools. The best teadiers iwe it in all rccUation$, Black-board surface. 1. Extent, materialy cmd colonr, 2. Orayon, trough^ and erasers. 3. How to make a black-board. 4. Use and abuse of the black-board. Mathematical apparatus. 1. Numeral frame. 2. Sticks or colored splints. 3. Bcujs of marbles, consequence in a school-book. Children, even young children, are shrewd critica, and very readily distinguish what is suited to their capacity from the sesquipedalian verbiage that soars beyond their comprehension. The language of a text-book should be correct and choice, and the Htyle clear, vigorous, and vivacious. A text-book written in a Bty]< beyond the capacity of the pupil is not only useless, but positively injurious ; since either the pupil becomes disgusted with the study and neglects it altogether, or ha commits to memory the language of the book under the erroneous impression that he is acquiring knowledge, and thus his mental habits are seriously, if not permanently, vitiated. 5. Sohool-Books should be Models of Art. — ** Nothing is too good for children," is an accepted maxim of the age ; hence all the resources of art have been applied to the production of text- books combining beauty with utility. The best material, clear, open pages, and choice illustrations are highly desirable features in school-books. Beautiful books allure the young disciple to study, they cultivate the taste, and are a constant source of pleasure. II. USB AND ABUSE OP TEXT-BOOKS.— The wise use of text-books is an important feature of school management. 1. Uses. — Text-books are used : (1), to aid the teacher, by affording to the pupil independent sources of information and in- struments of study, and by securing systematic work ; (2), to aid the pupil, by enabling him to acquire habits of self-reliance in study, and to learn how to use books as a means of self-culture. 2. Abuses. — These are legion. (1), Committing the text to memory. Not what the book says, but what the pupil thinks about what it says, is important. " Crowd not the memory, but develop the understanding," is sound doctrine. (2), Reciting the book. The subject, and not the book, is what we need to teach. (3), Confining the work to the book is a pernicious abuse. Nature should be made to supplement the book. The teacher needs to lead the pupils to combine experimental knowledge with book knowledge. (4), Studying the text-book to the exclusion of others is a great evil. Where the teacher knows but one book, he is likelv to be narrow and dogmatical ; and the pupils are liable to imbiho the spirit of the teacher. We need large, liberal-minded teachers who use books as helps. (i,. 36 SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. [Part 1. II 3. Oral and Objective Teaching can never take the place of text-books. At first, the living teacher and objects almost wholly engage the attention of the child ; but, more and more, the pupil loams to gain knowledge from books, and the work becomes sub- jective as well as objective. III. UNIFORMITY.— All members of the class should have the same text-book. The widest experience verifies this statement. Some theorists claim that a variety of books may be used to advan- tage for reference. This is true, but it is not true so far as it refers to text-books. By some means uniformity should be secured. As a rule, the best teachers insist on all members of a class having the same book. Even where individual teaching can be largely employed, it is found by experience that a multiplicity of text-books tends to distract the attention and render the subject uncertain and indistinct. Where class instruction is the rule, as it is in Canada, uniformity is essential. Other books may, and ought, to be consulted both by teacher and pupils as aids to the elucidation of particular topics ; but for the regular class work of the pupils, one text-book on each subject, and one only, should be used. Topical Review— School Text-Books. Definition. Necessity for text-books. Characteristics of good text-books. 1. Text-books^ not eticycloj.tvdias. 2. Logical and educatiov.al. 3. Teaclmblc and learnable. 4. Models of style, and of art. Uses of text-books. 1. To aid the teaclier, 2. To aid the pupil. Abuses of text-books. 1. Memorising without understanding. 2. Neglecting the subject for the book. 3. Putting the book in place of nature and experiment. 4. Ignoring other books. 5. Employing oral teachituj to the exclusion of text-books. Uniformity. Pupils in the same class ahoidd have the same text-books. CHAPTER V. School Hygiene. I. HYGIENE, OR THE ART OP PRESERVING HEALTH is the most important of all earthly arts that can be acquired by the pupils ; it is the primary duty of the teacher to inculcate sound hygienic principles and to train his pupils to the habit of right living. The following pages are not intended as a substitute for the standard works on hygiene ; we merely give a few of the most important conditions of sound health, to be observed by teachers and [ upils during their connection with the school-room. II. HYGIENIC POSITION. 1. The Erect Position in sitting, standing, and walking is as necessary to health as to gracefulness. " Keep your back straight," were the last words of a celebrated physician to his son. The violation of this condition of health is one of the great hygienic sins of school life, occasioning untold suflfering. Not for a moment must a stooping position be tolerated. 2. Height of Seat.— The child's feet should rest firmly on the floor. No child can long occupy a seat too high or too low and keep the spinal column erect. The shoulders fall forward, the chest is compressed, the breathing is defective, the circulation is impaired and the child slowly becomes an invalid. See to it that the seats vary in height to suit your pupils. 3. Curve of Seat and Slope of Back.— Straight seats and backs, rendering an erect position difficult, are now inexcusable. The construction of desks that will foster an erect position has com- manded the best eflforts of able scientists. Some of our school-desks lire admirable. The seat is curved and slopes upward. The back is curved to support the back of the child, and the slant is such as to favour the erect position. The old box desk, that cruel instru- ment of torture, like the old slab seat, belongs to a past age. 4. Height of Desk. — Curvature of the spine often results from sitting habitually with one shoulder higher than the other. In such [37J 'I'j i i I •i I 38 SCHOOL HYGIENE. [Pakt I. an awkward attitude, neither the breathing nor the circulation can be normal. On this point the teacher cannot be too careful. The Regulations of the Education Department of Ontario recommend the following as convenient : AoB OF Pupils. Chairs ob Seats. Height. Front Rear. Slope of Back. Desks. Length. D'ble. Single Width Height next Pupils. Five to eight years. Eight to ten years. Ten to thirteen years. Thirteen to sixteen y'rs. 12 in. 114 in. 2 in. 36 in. 18 in. 12 in. 13 " 12J5 " 2 " 36 " 18 " 12 " 14 " 134 " 24" 30 " 20 " 13 " 16 " 16|" 3 " 40 " 22 " 13 " 22 in. 23 " 24 " 26 " 6 Training is the Condition of Success. — With all pos- sible aids, constant watchfulness is needed to train pupils to the habit of maintaining an erect position. III. VENTILATION OP SCHOOL-ROOMS. 1. Importance of Adequate Ventilation. — Pure air con- tains 21 per cent, of oxygen and 79 per cent, of nitrogen. Air once breathed becomes loaded with organic and other impurities. Breathing vitiated air enervates, impairs digestion, causes headache, renders the pupils listless and inattentive, and makes mental growth almost impossible. 2. How to Secure Good Ventilation.— In the chapter on School Buildings (Chapter II., Section V.), we have sufficiently indicated how good ventilation can be secured ; we refer to it here in order to emphasise our conviction that its importance can hardly be exaggerated. IV. LIGHT IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 1. Dark and Damp Rooms are a fruitful source of disease. The prevalence of weak eyes and short-sightedness is a sad com- mentary on our management with reference to light. 2. Imitate Nature. — The nearer the light of the scnool-room approaches that of the open air the better. Curtains or shutters are only used to avoid the glare of the sun. Cap. v.] HEAtTH FROM EXERCISE. 39 rdly 3. Position of Pupil. — The light should not fall directly in front of the pupil. High windows, admitting the light from above and on the left side are best. 4. Change Position. — It is well so to place the pupil during recitation that the light will fall upon him from a diflferent direc- tion than during study. With a little care the teacher may observe this hygienic law. 6 Look well to the Byes of your Pupils. — Not to do so is cruel. By judicious management many eyes may be improved, and nearly all may be saved from permanent injury. School-rooms should be lighted from the top, back, and one of the sides only. Pupils must not be permitted to face windows unless the room is sufficiently long to have the window at a considerable distance from them. As far as possible the light should come from above the level of the eye, and from the left side. V. CALISTHBNIO EXERCISES.— A well-arranged course of indoor exercises is of great benefit in any school. The books published upon this subject need to be used with care. Many of them multiply exercises unnecessarily. Some contain much that is objectionable, if not actually improper. Of the value of such exer- cises, judiciously directed, there can be no doubt. (1.) They supply a grea,. want when outdoor exercise can not bo taken. (2.) They can be used at any time to break up sluggishness. (3.) They call into activity all the muscles and hence promote health. (4.) These movements are regular and in time, and hence develop gracefulness. (5.) They train to prompt and exact obedience. (6.) They train the pupils to work in harmony with others, and thus prepare them for the great world without. VI. PLAY AND HEALTH. 1. As a hygienic agency, nothing can take the place of amuse- ments. Recreation is re-creation. Study exhausts ; play rests. Many are utterly ignorant of the philosophy of recreation, and to not a few teachers recreation seems to be a lost art. 2. Play-Grounds. — Every school should be provided with ample play-grounds, and eveiy proper form of out-door amusement 1 ' i 40 SCHOOL HYGIENE. Hi [Part I. should be encouraged. Health is vastly more to be desired than the sham refinement and mook delicacy that forbid healthful re- creation. School life is the time when, most of all, healthful amusement is needed ; and it is the duty of the Trustees to provide the means for indulging in it. 3. Plays for Boys. — Hard^ and vigorous games should be encouraged. We want strong men, able to do and to bear. The more studious the boy, the more vigorous should be the recreation. Cricket, foot-ball, lacrosse, baseball are well adapted to the wants of the senior pupils ; even the younger pupils will enjoy these games, if they are allowed to play them without running the risk of coming into collision with those much bigger and stronger than themselves. 4. Plays for Girls. — For girls, nearly all schools, high and low, are prison-houses of decorum, repressing the glad activity necessairy to physical vigor and happy lives. It is infinitely better to give our girls less music and less book knowledge, but more physical vigor. A teacher who does not stimulate the girls to "romp" and take abundance of outdoor recreation sins against the race ; the girls are the future wives and mothers. Encouraged by teachers and parents, girls will usually select appropriate plays. Every play-ground should have a portion fenced off specially for the girls, so that they may enjoy vigorous outdoor exercises, undeterred by the presence and criticism of their more athletic fellow-pupils, — the boys. 5. Play is Spontaneous Activity.— Pupils should be left free to select their own plays, provided only that they be neither unhealthy nor demoralising ; unwittingly, they will bring into action all the principal muscles, especially those that are used least while in the school-room. The teacher may, and indeed should, be upon the play-ground, to suggest plays, and thus quietly secure the selec- tion of refining amusements. He should not dictate in any respect, nor use authority while directing the pupils in their plays. "The Philosophy of Recreation," ought to interest teachers and parents. VIII. HYGIENIC HABITS.— Teachers and parents should assist and encourage each other in training the rising generation to convijrt hygienic laws into hygienic Iiabits. (■^ Cap. v.] HYGIENIC HABITS. 41 1. Cleanliness. — Order may be heaven's first law, but assuredly cleanliness is its second ; soap and civilization are inseparable, dirt and degradation are the constant companions of the savage. Children should never be allowed to take their places in the school room with dirty hands or faces. The wise teacher will set his pupils an example of personal neatness, and insist on their following it. Not only will the appearance and comfort of the children be im- proved by cleanliness ; it will greatly benefit their health also. A free use of water promotes mental growth as well as physical vigor, and is the best of all preventives of disease. 2. Clothing. — Proper attention to clothing conduces highly to the health and comfort of the wearer ; and it is the duty of the teacher to give good advice and to set a good example to his pupils, It is not necessary that the clothing of children at school should bn expensive ; on the contrary, every tendency to extravagance in dress should be discouraged and repressed. The garments shouW be neat, clean, and appropriate to the season ; the material should be suited to the circumstances of the parents ; and the children should be taught that a neatly patched jacket is no cause of shame, whereas an unmended rent or rip is a piece of slovenliness foj which there can be no excuse. 3. Food. — The wise man " eats to live ;" the glutton "lives to eat." Temperance in eating and drinking is essential to the enjoy- ment of good health ; a few good lessons on the hygiene of diet might be given by the teacher, to the great benefit of the pupils, their parents, and the community in general. The qxudity and quantity of food, the mode of preparing it, and the times and manner of eating are the most important points on which instruction is required in this subject. 4. Sleep. — Abundant sleep is a primary condition of sound health and profitable study. It is nature's remedy for the exhaustion of mind and body, caused by study and physical exertion. It enables the system to repair the wasted tissues of the brain and muscles and to carry off the waste material, so that one in good health may rise up in the morning as fresh and vigorous as on the previous day. The great students and great workers have ever been good sleepers. Hard study hurts no one ; but irregularity, dissipation, and late hours do incalculable injury, especially to the young. Some 1' ! I t-L J, 42 SOflOOL aYGlENE. tt'Anr I. f constitutions require more rest than others, but an average Df about eight hours sound, refreshing sleep will be found sufficient for most people. Every pupil should get to bed before ten o'clock and be up and washed and dressed by six o'clock. 6. Cheerfulness. — Youth time is the sunny side of life. Clouds will appear and do appear ; but the teacher should endeavour to turn the silver lining to his pupils, and lead them to look upon that. Serenity and cheerfulness pay in effective work, and a good con- science usually means a long life and a happy old age. Cheerfulness is the best of all hygienic agencies. Those who are always glad are seldom sick. Of all places, home and school should be made most cheerful. A grim, cold, repulsive teacher chills the child to the bones. Education comes from voluntary and glad effort. The teacher ought to be happy and glad, and ought to fill the school-room with an atmosphere of love and a glow of cheerfulness. In such a school, disease will be a stranger. VIII. SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS SHOULD BE HYGIENIC. — The health of the teacher as well as of the pupils is often seriously injured by unwise punishments. Think of it. Study to make your pupils happy, not miserable. Even punishment should be full of encouragement. Its purpose is to reform, not to crush. IX. LAWS OF HEALTH.— [Holbrook's "Hygiene of the Brain."] These laws are stated from the educational standpoint. 1. A Well -regulated Mind is the Most Important Law of Health. — The proper object of life is the development of the mind. The brain requires constant exercise to maintain its power. The tone of the mind has the mo?t potent influence on the health. If our pursuits are rational and in harmony with the laws of God, the self-satisfaction resulting has the most exhilarating influence on health. 2. A Resolute Will and Ambition to Succeed in some Honorable Career is the Second Law of Health.— A strong will has a wonderful effect on the health. A determination to live and work throws off diseases. 2. Love in all Innocent Forms is the Third Law of Health — Love of Friends, Love of Society, Love of Women, Love of God. — There is no lilgljer liygienic law than Cap. v.] LAWS OF HEALTH, 43 i lOll of of to lovo with our whole soul, and to work with all our might. The brute basks, man works. "The bliss is in action, not in ease." God is love, and the superior man is godlike. 4. Balanced Culture is the Fourth Law of Health.— Muscular exercise must balance mental, and intellectual activity must balance emotional. Every muscle and every brain-cell needs to be daily used. Every power of the soul should be kejit in action. Balanced culture gives a vigorous body and a vigorous mind. One- sided culture is a fatal mistake. Let the workingman devote certain hours daily to mental culture. Let the student devote certain hours daily to labour and recreation. 6. To Resist and Throw Off Trouble is the Fifth Law of Health. — Every species of uncomfortable sensation must be driven off. " These miserable feelings MUST go !" is better than all medicine. The great destroyers of life are care, misery, worry, fretting, crime, and dissipation ; and not exertion, physical or mental. Fretting is a moral and physical sin, destroying health, usefulness, and happiness. None but a child cries over spilt milk. Let it go ; only take care for the future. Always do the best you can, and never worry. Worrying undermines health and unfits the teacher for his duties. X. NEVER USE TOBACCO [Dio Lewis].— I trust you will never learn to use tobacco. It is doing more to destroy the brains and nerves of American boys than any other agency that can be named. Within half a century no young man addicted to the use of tobacco has graduated at the head of his class in Harvard College, though five-sixths of the students have used it. If a man wishes to train for a boat race, his trainer will not let him use tobacco, be- cause it weakens his brain and muscles so that he cannot win. If a young fellow would prepare to play a fine game of billiards, while he is training for the tournament his trainer will not let him use tobacco. And, as you see from the experience in Harvard College, if a man will train himself to graduate from a college with honor, he must not use tobacco. It is a powerful poison, and the brain can not escape if it is uaed in any form. t: ' II i 44 SCHOOL HYGIKNE. IPakt I. Topical Review. — School Hygiene. Definition. Importance, Hygienic position. 1. Keep your back straifjht. 2. Ileujht of seat. 3. Curve of seat and back. 4. Desks in the schools of Ontario. 5. Training is the condition of success. Ventilation of school-rooms. 1. Importance of ventilation. 2. Hqu) to secure it. Light in the school-room. 1. Evils of improper light. 2. Imitate nature. 3. Position of pupils. 4. Glumge of position. 5. Look well to the eyes of your pupils. Galisthenic exercises. 1. Supply a want. 3. Promote health. 5. Train to obedience. 2. Break up sluggishness. 4. Develop gracefnhiess. 6. Promote harmony. Play and health. 1. Recreation is ro-creation. 2. Play-grounds shoiddhe extensive. 3. Plays foi' boys. 4. Plays for girls. 5. Spontaneous a^.tivity. Hygienic habits. 1. Cleanliness. 2. Clothing. 3. Food. 4. Sleep. 5. CJiccrfulness. School punishments should be hygienic. 1. Shoidd not injure health. 2. Shoidd befidl of encouragement. Laws of health from the educational standpoint. 1. A well regxdated mind. 2. Resolute will and ambition. 3. Lov?. 4. Balanced cidture. 5. Throwing off trouble. Never use tobacco. 1. It destroys physical power. 2. Destroys mental vigor, 3. Prevents success at college. 4. Is a powerful poison. . I. f CBA ■ 'v. PART II. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. w. m CHAPTER I. --Preparatory Work. " II. — School Tactics. » ** III. — School Classification. ** IV. — Opening Exercises, Seating, and Kbcessrs. V. — First Day of School. «( •i^ ■ > ■ >•:■! ■t' '^... - ir ^ V' T \ 1 r if- PART II. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. CHAPTER I. Preparatory Work. "!'■; ifi School Organization is the systematising of school work — the adopt! n of auch rules and regulations, such tactics and other devices as shall secure constant emi)loynient, efficient instruction, and moral control. The office of the school is to promote the physical, mental, moral, and sesthetic development of the pupils, so as to fit them for positions in the world, alike creditable to them- selves and serviceable to their fellow-men. To this end all the arrangements of the school are directed ; everything is so adjusted as to remove friction, induce order, and secure cheerful and effective work. The proper organization of an ungraded school, even to the experienced teacher, is not an easy task. It would be simple enough if the teaching staflf were so large as to allow a teacher to each class, alternately supervising its studies and conducting its recitations. But where the teacher has to give oral instruction to one class, and at the same time to keep a watchful eye on the many classes studying fvt their desks, it is obvious thet thorough organization is an essential condition of success, and that the solution of the problem how best to organize his school is of vital consequence to teacher and to ])upils. Defective organization is a fruitful source of failure in school management. No matter how sound may be the scholarship of the teacher, no matter how excellent his method of imparting [47] 1 1 ! !l : ■ I :ii 48 PREPARATOUY WORK. [Part II. instruction, if he has not also the faculty of providing constant employment for the whole school, and the moral power requisite to keep its members cheerfully active in a right direction, his school will be a failure in every way. On the other hand, a well- organized school becomes a kind of mechanical power, having for its working force the exuberant energies of childhood and youth, and for its intelligent direction the boundless influence of the wise teacher. The faithful teacher will devote all his efforts to securing right answers to the following questions, nor will he feel that he has done all that might be done for the organization of his school till every answer is perfectly satisfactory : 1. Are your educational instrumentalities the best you can com- mand ? Are they aujfficient to enable you, in the management uf your school, to do justice to yourself and to your pupils ? 2. Are your hiisineas arrangements satisfactory ? 3. Have youf mastered a good system of school tactics f 4. Are your pupils properly seated f 5. Are your pupils wisely classified f Is the classification the bist that could be adopted for your school ? 6. Have you adopted sensible reyidations f Do your pupils perceive the justice and reasonableness of your rules ? 7. Are your progranmne and time-table well planned ? 8. Do you make the best possible use of the opening exercises and of the recessea of the school ? : ; .- ■ Before entering upon the direct work of school organization, the following important preliminaries demand attention : — I. TEACHER'S QUALIFICATIONS.— The great want everywhere is competent teachers. Give us competent teachers, and all obstacles to educational progress can be overcome. The teacher should have: "= ■ •♦ ' .;• w. .: i 1. Vigorous Health. — The labor is necessarily severe, taxing to the utmost the strongest men and women. There is no profession so exacting, none that breaks sickly men and women down so early, as that of faithful teaching. The cheerfulness, the vigor, the ver- satility, and the endurance essential to sucoeaa can come of good health only. II. mfc jito his ■ell- for nth, wise riglit done svory coni- )Ut of Cap. I.] teacher's qualifications. 49 m tlie pupila ses an(l tzation. It want jrs, and Iteacher ixingto >fession |o early, the ver- lof good 2. Knowledge of the Branohes. — The teacher needs not only to have a thorough knowledge of the branchou to be taught, but also a fair knowledge of the cognate branches. To be able to teach well, one must be at once master of the text-book and the subject. It is wtrse than folly for one who is not a scholar to assume the responsi- bilities of the teacher. 3. Skill in Teaching. — Teaching is the art of human develop- ment. Methods of teaching are the ways in which educational means are applied to educational ends. " In education method is everything," says Everett. From the want of method and skill, the most scholarly teachers often make the most striking failures ; they know, but they cannot cause others to know. With them teaching is an undiscovered art. The teacher needs to observe, read, think, practise. He needs to sit at the feet of Jesus, of Aristotle, of Socrates, and of Pestalozzi, and learn methods from the masters. 4. Skill in Management.— Here good sense and tact have boundless scope. The successful teacher must combine the qualities of the statesman and the diplomatist — he must be possessed of a natural or an acquired insight into the principles of government, and he must have learned the art of smoothing away the asperities of temper and removing the antagonisms of discordant elements. To manage a school well is hardly less difiScult than to manage a state ; it requires a maturity of judgment not to be expected in the inexperienced. To place a new recruit in command of an army would be eminent wisdom in comparison with the practice of placing undisciplined boys and girls in charge of our schools. Happily, the facilities provided for the training of teachers are doing much to supply the lack of experience. The conscientious teacher-in- training should do his utmost to profit by his opportunities in this respect — opportunities the like of which were enjoyed by very few of his predecessors. 5. Sympathy with Children.— The true secret of success in tlie teacher's profession is love of children — sympathy with them in their griefs and joys, their triumphs and defeats. Whoever possesses this, possesses all that is necessary to warrant him in entering on the study of the art of teaching with the fullest confidence that he will ultimately succeed ; whoever does not possess it, had better give up at once all hope of attaining to any high degree of merit as a :fy,i I i 50 pkeparatory Work. [Part 11. i *.. teacher — had better retire at once from a profession of which he can never become an ornament. Sympathy with children wins their confidence without an effort, renders the study of child-nature easy and attractive beyond all conception, and immensely helps the would-be teacher in the study of the various branches in which he must be proficient. ' *; <• ;•. .• H II. SECURING POSITIONS.— Teaching is a business as well as a profession, and business principles should be followed in the dealings of the teacher with his employers, as they are between the physician and hib patients or the lawyer and his clients. No legitimate effort should be spared by the teacher to secure a position where most good can be accomplished. , . 1. Suitable Position. — The right teacher in the right place is a desideratum in education. By attempting too much you may endanger all. You should have a school that you can manage and hold. This will enable you to grow, and to make a reputation. 2. Line of Promotion. — Beginners can afford to take humble positions and work up. The best officers often come from the ranks. An inspector is better for having taught in all the grades. A teacher should prepare himself for the best positions, and then secure a place, if possible, in the line of promotion. Merit and pluck will win. Large fields of usefulness, as well as fair salaries, await talent and well-directed effort. n , r 3. Few Recommendations. — No one who has not taught successfully should ask a recommendation ; and the pernicious dishonesty of giving high-flown testimonials to incompetent teachers, simply to get rid of them, should be sternly frowned upon by every lover of education. Life is too short to read bundles of recommendations. All you need is your professional certificate, and a single paragraph from a responsible educator as to teaching ability and success. The rest you must do for yourself. ^^; tria^^f;-, {. 4. Apply in Person. — As a rule, this is best for young teachers. Little attention is usually paid to applications by letter. The board want to see you and converse with you. Be modest in your pretensions and promises. You can safely say that you have tried to prepare yourself for the work, and that you will spare no effort to succeed, After you make a reputation, positions will seek you. •i?^"^/ 1 . • Cap. I.J teacher's contract. nicious achers, every les of te, and ability young letter. |in your ,re tried lo effort ?k you. 5. Never Undermine or Underbid.— you can not afford, directly or indirectly, to undermine or underbid a fellow teacher. As a band of honorable men and women, we must work together. We must scorn everything mean and unworthy. We dare not stoop to the low tricks of petty politicians. A. teacher who would under- mine the reputation or slander the character of another, would be a disgrace to a society of thieves. >•...., 6. Permanent Position. — Persistently seek promotion until you secure a satisfactory position. Make this permanent. To retain the teacher for a series of years is best for all concerned. The pre- cariousness of the teacher's position is a blight upon the profession •Mid upon the cause of education. Frequent changes are always a calamity, and are sometimes a disgrace. Secure a position that will require all your powers, — one to which you can gladly devote your best efforts, ^.j..,,- ,, ^.. *_-:.: .^.-.^ •->,:,■•■:. ";^:. r;v,!'^u ■'•Ai?:. >■.».., iir'^ :■ ■; III. CONTRACT BETWEEN TRUSTEES AND TEACHER. — All contracts should be in writing, signed by the teacher and by a majority of the board in rural sections, or by the teacher and the chairman and secretary of the board in cities and towns, and sealed with the corporate seaL They should be made in duplicate, one copy for the board., the other for the teacher. 1. Yearly Engagements. — ^The contract should be for one year, unless under exceptional circumstances, and should state the amount of the yearly salary, with the dates of payment, which should not be more than three months apart. < ^ ;• 2. Teachers must be and continue to be Qualified.— The teacher agrees to conduct the school in accordance with the requirements of the School Law and Regulations. He waives his claim on the trustees in case of his ceasing to be the holder of a legal Certificate of Qualification as a Public School Teacher in Ontario, so that his claim for salary would lapse from the date of the expira- tit)n or cancellation of his Certificate. 3. Legal Holidays. — The Trustees agree to pay the teacher : — (a) For all holidays and vacations, prescribed by Law and Regu- lations, occurring during his engagement ; (b) For the days of his attendance at the Teachers' Institute ; (c) For such period of sickness as may be provided for by Statute. im •J I 'II i:\ I! f PREPARATORY WORK. [Part II. 4. Notice of Termination of Agreement.— Either party to the contract may terminate it by giving to the other, in writing, such notice as may be agreed upon — the notice to be given not less than one calendar month previous to the termination, and the engagement to end on the last day of a calendar month. j - -. .. . 5. Agreement Continues ft-om Year to Year.— The agreement should continue in force without re-engagement from year to year, until it is terminated by formal notice, given by either of the parties. The foregoing are the provisions of the Contract between Teachers and Trustees in Ontario. For convenience of reference, the full form of Agreement provided by the Regulations of the Education Department is here given : — Form of Agreement for Engagement of a Public School L.::i Teacher. tj. Memorandum of Agreement made this day of 18 — , between the Public School Trustees of Section No. , in the Township of [or the Public School Board of the City, Town or Village of] , and (Name here) of , the holder of a class Certificate of qualification as a Public School Teacher in Ontario, as follows : 1. The [Trustees or Board of Public School Trustees] hereby employ for their said school such Teacher, at the yearly salary of dollars, for the term of one year, beginning on the -, and ending hundred day of - on the eighty anc one thousand eight hundred and day of , one thousand eight and further agree that they and their successors in office' will pay such salary to the said Teacher at least quarterly, and will exercise all powers and perform all duties under the Public Schools' Act and Regulations of the Education Department, which may be requisite for making such payment. 2. The Teacher agrees with the said Board of Public School Trustees to teach and conduct the said school during the said term, according to the said Law and Regulations in that behalf. 3. The foregoing is subiect to the following conditions : (1) That the teacher shall continue to be the holder of a legal Certificate of qualification as a Public School Teacher in Ontario. (2) That hoU- oayB and vacations prescribed by the Law and Regulations are excepted from the said term. (3) That the days on which the Teacher has attended the meetings of Teachers' Associations or Institutes, as certified by the Inspector or Chairman thereof, shall Jchool I term, Cap. I]. WORK OF THE TERM. ' ' 63 be allowed him as if he had actually taught in the said school ; and (4), That in case of sickness, as certified by a registered medical practitioner, he shall be entitled to receive his salary without deduction, for such period as may be authorized under the Statute in that behalf. 4. The Trustees or School Board and the Teacher may, at their option respectively, terminate this engagement by giving notice in writing to the other of them at least calendar months previously, ind so as to terminate on the last day of a calendar month. 6. This agreement shall also be construed to continue in force from year to year, unless and until it is terminated by the notice hereinbefore prescribed. As witness the Corporate Seal of the said Trustees or School Board and the hand and seal of the Teacher, on the day and year first above-mentioned. ' ;:;;!';;;;!;;;;;;;;;;!!;;;;;!;!; yTrustees. [^^«^ j Seal.] Teacher. [Seal.] }"n '.' ^nce of ; . .-«' t „. . , [i ''plicate J One copy to be retained by the Trustees and the o^iior by the Teacher. IV. PLAN OF THE WORK FOB THE TERM.— Before entering on the active work of the session, it is of great importance that the teacher should have carefully considered, and adopted, some general plan of operations. A few preliminary preparations may also be necessary, especially in a new situation. Success is more important than money, and the sooner the people understand that their teacher is acting on this principle the sooner will they begin to appreciate and second his efforts for the common good. 1. The Building. — Manage to have this put in good condition. Let the school-room be clean, orderly, and cheerful, to begin with, and keep it so. 2. The Apparatus. — If necessary, have the black-boards slated ; secure erasers and crayons. If there is no library room, procure a case for the apparatus, and another for the library and cabinet. Have everything in readiness for use. ,, ,,. -. s. t» J 3. Books and Slates. — Precious time may be saved by making such arrangements that the children can procure their books, slates. 1: !! 1, ■ I! ■>"■' \ 54 1»reJ»aeatorY Wor^. [tART 11. etc.^ for the first day. The dealers will be glad to procure the necessary supply, if you will let them know in time what books, and about how many of each will be required for the session. 4. Enlist Trustees and Parents.— They will gladly aid you if they see you mean business, that you are not afraid of extra work, and that you esteem success more than money. 6. Programme and Time-Table.— The prescribed "Course of Study " relieves you of the trouble and anxiety of considering what subjects you shall teach ; the School Register, with such information as you can get from the Trustees and others, will give you a fair idea of the probable number of pupils in each class — so that you can prepare a time-table beforehand, that will require but little change. 6. Plan for Each Branoh. — The work you propose to do throughout the term should be well considered and wisely planned, and the what^ the /u>t&, and the "how much thought out in detail. What is your plan for Language Lessons? Arithmetic? Geography? Oral Work ? Much must be left to be developed from week to week, but a well-matured general plan is essential to success. Mere text-book routine — assigning pages and hearing recitations — belongs to a past age. You must teach. 7. Remove Obtacles. — Stand above the petty quarrels and jealousioB of the neighbourhood. Quietly make friends of all, and unite them in the school work. Prudently grapple with obstacles to success, and, if possible, remove them. 8. A Good Boarding-place. — The teacher needs much time for preparation and study. He requires a comfortable home, and must have a good, cheerful, airy room to himself. Orotoing men and women are the only companions fit for teachers. Growth implies study ; study implies facilities. Even if the cost is greater, a good, Juyme-Uke boarding-place is indispensable. » 9. First Day. — Have your plan well matured for this day of days. Secure a large attendance at the beginning. When at all possible, each pupil should be in attendance on the first day. No effort to this end should be spared. Too much importance cannot be attached to the first day of school. Do the best work of which you are capable during this and each succeeding day, and you will not fail to wm success. „ „ . and I, and itacles time [e, and men Irowth reater, '• [day of at all . No Icannot which )U will Cap. I.] TOPICAL REVIEW. . 65 ' Topical Review. — Preparatory Work. Introduction. —School Organization. 1. Definition. - 2. Objects. 3. Difficulty. ' . . 4. Importance 5. Beaidts. 6. Topics for consideration. Qualifications of the competent teacher. 1. VigoroiM health 2. Knowledge of subjects. - 3. Skill in teaching. 4. Skill in management. 5. Sympathy with children, and knowledge of child-nature. Securing positions. i .X 'T,i' 1. Secure a positioTi, suited to your ca/pacity. 2. Secure a position in the line of promotion. 3. Carry few recommendations. 4. Make a personal application. 5. Never undermine nor underbid. 6. Secure a permamsnt position. .. ,■ Agreement between teacher and trustees. 1. Yearly engagement. 2. Teacher must be legally qualified. 3. Legal holidays. - 4. Notice of termination of agreement. ■■. 5. Continuous engagement. 6. Form of contract in Ontario. ' ■ Plan of the work for the term. 1. Prepa/re the building and surroundings. 2. See that the apparatus is in order. """' ' 3. Provide for supply of books and slates. 4. Enlist the help of trustees and parents. ' " ' 5. Arrange your time-tahle. "" -'.lur 6. Bame a plam, for each subject. '' ' " ' ' 7. Bem^yve obstacleB to success. . -/>" f^ > <■■ .-.,-?' 8. Secure a suitable boarding-place. " ' ^ ' 9. Have a well-matured plan for tfie first dcmj. * -v; . , .. dy. — The board will be cleared before this command is given. As this signal is never given except when the pupils are about to move, no misunderstanding can occur. 2. Bise, or Turn. — The pupils rise and turn if on recitation seats. If the class is at the board, Turn is the signal given. 3. Pass, or Seats. — In dismissing a class. Pass is always used ; in sending the class from boards to recitation seats, Seats is the signal. The order of passing will be so arranged as to consume the least time and avoid confusion. Some teachers let the pupils stand after passii^ to desks, and at the signal Seats all take seats at once ; but this is not ne«BSsary. .JM| I--: 60 SCHOOL TACTICS. [Part II. Glass Symmetry. — Place the tallest in the middle of the class, and the others each way according to height. The reverse order is equally good. You secure symmetry, and each pupil always knows his place. Since " turning down " has been abandoned, this arrangement of classes is becoming general. Position at the Boards. — The pupils should stand in straight IvneSj i.e., in lines parallel to the boards. It will require some tact and training to induce them to keep this ponition con- stantly. The teacher should be careful not to make the recitations too long, so that the position may not become irksome. Loung- ing must not be permitted. Appearance as well as health requires the erect position. Make your pupils always stand and sit erect, and the position will soon become habitual. »,;• > r,,. - ; r- • , n ,, ^. ! • li^' ll 1 r !j i I. UP. V. HAND TACTICS., . f/-.i ■>■ 11. DOWN. 1. To Answer, i ;. ^ 2. To Criticise. 3. To Ask Question. 4. To Concur or Oppose 1. When Recog- nized. 2. When one is Called. i: I. HANDS UP. — No one speaks without permission. This regu- lation is imperative and absolute. In all cases the desire to speak is indicated by raising the right hand. 1. The pupil raises his hand whenever prepared to answer the question or do the work required. All should be made to realize that it is wrong and dangerous to raise the hand unless prepared. 2. Each pupil is held responsible for each answer. All that object to the answer given raise their hands ; but no hands are raised till the pupil has finished j otherwise hand-raising becomes prompting. Any one wishing to oflTer a criticism raises his hand. A failure to raise the hand indicates approval. 3. The pupil wishes to ask a question. The desire is indicated by raising the hand. , ., ...xn i» II. HANDS DOTVN. — 1. Whenever the teacher recognizes the pupil, the hand is dropped. 2. When any one is called to answer, all hands are dropped. , , - „ Cap. II.] TOPICAL IIEVIEW. «1 :ated ? . Topical Review. — Scuool Tactics. Introduotion. — Sohool Tactics. 1. D^niUon. 2. Importance, 3. Necessity. Principles of tactics. 1. School tacUcs shoidd he wiiform. 2. Each movement should he necessitated hy school-work. 3. Signals few a/nd aignijicant. 4. Each movement should have its own signal. 5. Signals should he given with correct elocution, 6. Movements must he quick, quiet, and precise, „ - > 7. Movements sJumld follow signals. Calling school. ^^ ■ 1. Bing the bell, pupils take places in line. ,,.:,. 2. Pupils ma,rch to places in cUiss-room. 3. Attention. (Command by voice, or bell, or clock.) Dismissing school. 1. School, attention! or tap on the hell. 2. {General husiness). 3. Arrange desks. 4. Ready. 5. Rise. 6. March. (Count 1, 2, 3, 4—1, 2, 3, 4.) ' <■ i I Galling classes. (' i. 1. Ready. 2. Rise. 3. Pass. ; ■ 7* Dismissing classes. 1. Beady. 2. RisefOrturn. 3. Pass, or seats. Hand Tactics. ' ^^ ' SANDS UP. '--^-'-^ ' ^'- •- •'"--■■^- ■ ^_ ^O'"' '?•-• 1. To answer. 2. To cnitcwe. ■^'<«' ■'' 3. To ask a question. .; 4. To ccucatr or oppose. *'' HANDS DOWN. - 1. ffTwn recognized. 2. When one is called. '^ Remarks. — 1. The hand should be raised as high as the head, and held still. 2. Snapping the fingers must never be tolerated. 3. Pupils not raising hands should frequently be called. 4. The teacher should be wide awake, so as to see all hands as soon as raised. 6. Pupils must not raise hands except for good cause. Timid and dull pupils must be encouraged. [Board Tactics belongs rather to the Art of Teaching than to the Art of School Management. Each teacher can frame his own system to suit the use he makes of his black-board in teaching.] .>" ■■ HI': ^' I ji (1 f i! 6' , ?, 1 J 1 i !■ ■i i j.._ .,:.. i j i ■ ■■■■ : ii ' I i ■■ L ! CHAPTER 111. School Olassification. School Oladsiflcation is the grouping of the pupik for school work according to age, ability, and scholarship. Wise classification puts each child in its proper place. Two distinct plans arc pursued — close classification and loose classification. On the first plan the pupil makes equal advancement in the several branches of the course ; on the second plan the pupil is permitted to advance in certain branches without reference to his attainments in the other branches. In all elementary schools the classification should be close ; the loose system would waste most of the teacher's time, and keep his classes in a constant state of confusion — it is being steadily superseded by the close method. As a basis, attention is invited to the following general principles and suggestions : I. PRINCIPLES RELATING TO SCHOOL CLAS- SIFICATION. 1. Uniformity. — The Several Branches shotdd be kept Abreast. The phase of the several branches pursued must be the same. It is not uncommon to find pupils well advanced in Arithmetic, but extremely backward in other branches, or well advanced in Geography, but deficient in Arithmetic. These unfortunates should be so classed as to give the greater part of their time to subjects in which they are deficient. The application of this principle will work well in ungraded schools. 2. Adaptation. — The pup^l should be placed i/n Glasses adapted to his AbiliUf and Advancement. If classed too low, the pupil is not stimulated to eflfort ; if classed too high, he is apt to become confused and discouraged. Nothing succeeds like success. Each pupil should be so classed as to become a success in his classes. The application of this principle requires sound judgment and a profound study of child-nature. Classification can never be done by machinery. You must know your pupils before you can classify them to advantage. [62] • - asify Cap. III.] GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 63 3. Criteria. — Age, AhilUyy and Scholarship determine the Classification. Other things being equul, older pupils are clasHod higher than younger, and strong, bright pupils, higher than delicate or dull ones. The reasons are apparent. To consider scholarship alone is a grave, though common error. Examinations, oral and written, give some of the conditions ; but to ignore ability is to fail to reach the correct solution. Study the child. 4. Standard. — Rf.ading and Arithmetic are made the Standard of Glassijication. All the pupils in the elementary school are in these branches. Ignorance of these bars progress in other studicu The judicious teacher will give duo weight to th» pup'Vs advancv ment in other branches ; some may be worked u.), otl ors r;oroly reviewed. Complete adjustment may be secured by firni'^ess .ad a few months of hard work. 6. Number of Glasses. — As few Classes should he Orga ^ izcd as is Consistent with good Chrading. Upon this principle depends largely the efficiency of the ungraded school. Numero x . asses fritter away the time of the teacher without producing ai.fcisfactory results. Uniformity of text-books, wise combinations, and practical devices enable the competent teacher to reach a high standard of efficiency even in a large ungraded school. 0. Size of Classes. — Mediwfn-sized Clares a/re Best. Ead\, Pupil must be reached Individually during tJie Bccitation. In very largo classes this can not very well be done. In very small classes it is difficult to maintain sufficient interest on the ])art of teacher and pupils. A^'class numbering from ten to thirty is most desirable. Avoid, if possible, organizing classes for three t/ -mr pupils. As a rule, from five to ten should be the minimum number in any class where the school is large. 7. Adjustment.— r/ie Work must ^' Adjusted to the AbUi- fies and Tastes of Different Pupils, lome, for example, excel in Language, but have little or no taste for Arithmetic. It would be manifestly absurd to attempt to make such pupils accomplished arithmeticians. The proper course would be to require of them the minimum amount of work in Arithmetic and the maximum in Languages. And so with other branches, s!ii'.4i::« t Scfi- w\ iU'M i I 64 SCHOOL CLASSIFICATION. [Part II. II. TEMPORARY CLASSIFICATION. -Permanent clas- sification is not possible at the first. The teacher goes to work vig- orously and approximates a proper classification. The young teacher may profit by the following suggestions : 1. Follow the Classification of your Predecessor.— If this has been reasonably good, it will give you a good basis on which to build. The pupils will readily fall into line, and further classifi- cation will not be difficult. 2. Carefully Plan the Organization of a New School.— Where the school has not been classified, you will need to be well prepared for the work. A week spent in the district before the term begins will enable you to secure the necessary data and form the necessary plans. • * • j; . 3. Let it be Understood that the Classification is Tem- porary. — This will prevent dissatisfaction. Very soon you expect to reach a proper classification. Endeavor to so classify the pupils that few changes will be necessary, and that changes will be promo- tions rather than demissions. III. PERMANENT CLASSIFICATION. -From day to day, as you learn the true places of pupils, you promote or put back until all are properly classified. This work should approach comple- tion during the first week. As new pupils come in, you will take time and care to place them in the right classes. Pupils who show themselves worthy will be promoted whenever you deem it best. It is of the utmost importance that you should make a thorough study of your pupils, not only collectively, but individually. You must study the nature and the peculiar characteristics of each pupil, that you may know how to awaken their nobler emotions, and adjust the work to their wants. Your permanent classification will then be truly artistic ; it «rill satisfy yourself, your pupils, and their friends. IV. CLASSIFICATION OF AN UNGRADED SCHOOL. — You have studied the principles pertaining to clas- sification, and are familiar with the condition of your school. You have your plans well matured. After the opening exercises you at once proceed to classify your, say forty, pupils. 1. You First Classify in the Leading Branches.— Theee ar6 Reading, Arithmetic, Language Lessons, and for all except the I.BT II. itclas- rk vig- ieacher or.-If 1 which classifi- lool.— be well Core the nd form sTem- u expect le pupils e promo - n day to put back t com pie- will take yho show best. It igh study fou must upU, that kdjust the then be r friends. ADBD g to clas- 3ol. You les you at . — These except the Cap. III.] UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 65 M I < I youngest pupils, Geography. If you prefer to classify according to the pupils' standing in only one branch, the Beading will generally be the safest guide. As soon as you have one of the divisions clas- sified, set every pupil in it to work at once. Then proceed to the classification of the remaining divisions in the same way. About an hour should be long enough to effect the temporary classifying of the whole school. 2. Give Each Class a Short Drill and Assign a Lesson. — A short, lively drill, or review exercise, will help you to know more about each pupil, and to assign him to the proper class. Avoid embarrassing or confusing the pupils ; your object is to find out what they know and of what they are capable. Assign a short lesson for study, with necessary directions as to how it ought to be prepared. 3. Promote or Put Back as You find it Best.— Pupils who are clearly in the wrong class should be changed at once, and without hesitation. The first day is by far the best time to make changes. Inform the pupils that other changes will be made as you find it necessary. 4. During the first Half Day all the Glasses may be Organized. — During the first week each pupil may be perma- nently classed. A teacher who requires two or three weeks for the organization of a school evidently has mistaken his calling. It is better, at the outset, to put pupils in classes below their natural position than in those above it, for it causes less bitterness to promote to a higher class than to put back to a lower ; but, with a little tact, the latter may be done without opposition. Let the pupil feel that the classification is for his good, and that you will be glad to promote him as soon as he is fit for it, and you will not only reconcile him to his present position, but also furnish him with a powerfp.1 motive for exertion. V. THE TEACHER CLASSIFIES. 1. The Right of the Teacher to Classify is Unques- tioned. — The pupil is not prepared to choose his studies. The dictation of parents would render classification impossible. School- boards have no power to direct the classification ; it is strictly professional work. All rulings or decisions to the contrary are discouraging and anti-cducationaj. \ ; 66 SCnOOL CLASSIFICATION. [Part II I I s M i i i ' 2. The Teacher should Conscientiously Classify his School, regardless of Fear or Favour. — You have but one question to consider, "To what class does the pupil properly belong?" Your duty to the child and his parents, to yourself and the profession requires of you a correct classification. 3. Uniform Promotion Examinations.— On the comple- tion of the course of study prescribed for any class, all the numbers of the class are theoretically supposed to be ready and fit for promo- tion to the division or class immediately above it ; but practically this is found to be vc ry far from being the case. Some will be found utterly unfit for promotion, and the conscientious teacher will be com- pelled to classify them again in the same division as before. Hence he will not unlikely be assailed with charges of partiality and prejudice. Under the system of uniform promotion examinations all the classes of the same standing in an Inspectorate, or in several Inspectorates agreeing to act jointly for the purpose, are subjected to a written examination at the close of term — the same printed questions being supplied to each pupil — and the result of the examination is taken as the basis of promotion. Though not free from objection, the system proves to be at least a valuable help to the teacher, and of course silences all foolish complaints of unfairness. 4. Manage to avoid Conflicts with Pupils or Parents. — Wise management will usually prevent such conflicts. Make no effort to force pupils into branches not generally recognized as elementary. If you show the advantages of these studies, and interest the pupils, it will remove objections. Introduce new things gradually, and with the approval of all whom you can interest. •■''■'"'' 5. Shun the Clap-trap of the Demagogue.— Classing pupils too high, rushing them through books, showy surface work, and promoting pupils when not prepared, are base, unprofessional tricks, and are charactt istics of the demagogue. Popularity gained by thus swindling X)upils and patrons will not last. Only by conscientiously doing thorough and good work can you win a reputation that will endure. If unusual pressure is brought to bear on you in order to induce you to promote unqualified pupils, it may be necessary to call in the aid of the County Inspector. It is his duty to assist you in removing objections and overcoming difficulties to the spread of education. « . Dap. III.] tOPICAL REVIEW. 67 Classing gained 'nly by win a ight to pupils, ;or. It 'coming Topical Review. — School CLAssincATiON. Introduction. ^ 1. Definition. i . i?. s.m/portance, 3. Classification should he close, never loose. Principles relating to school classification. 1. Uniformity. — The severed branches must be kept abreast. 2. Adaptation. — Adapt the work to the ability of each child. 3. Criteria. — Age, ability, and scholarship deteimine the classi- fication. 4. Basis. — Beading and Arithmetic are made the basis of classification. 5. Number of classes. — Organize the smallest possible wumber. 6. Size of classes. — A medium-sized class is best. 7. Adj^tstm^.nt. — The work must be adjusted to the taste and capacity of the pupils. Temporary classification. 1. Follow the classification of yowr predecessor. 2. Carefidly plan the classification of a new school. 3. Have it imder stood that the classification is temporary. , , Permanent classification. 1. Promote and put back as you find it necessary. 2. Complete the perma/tunt classification during first week. 3. Study the character of your pupils. Classification of an ungraded school. 1. Classify in the leading branches. 2. Give each class a short drill, and assign a short lesson. 3. Promote or put hack as you find it best. 4. During the first }Mlf day aU classes may he organized. The teacher classifies. 1. The right of the teacher to classify is unqtiestioned. 2. The teacher should conscientiously classify tJie school. 3. Uniform promotion examinationsjprevent foolish complaints. 4. Manage to avoid conflicts with pupils or parents. ':.;..;.. ^ 5. Shun tJie clap-trap of the dem^ogue. If necessary consult the School Inspector. i I,,, v i < ■ I ;'t' Tv^;.,, i s hi '•x I CHAPTER IV. .^ ^ Opening Exercises, Seating, and Recesses. Importance of Trifles. — It is a common error to suppose that the opening exercises, the seating of pupils, and the daily recesses are matters of trifling importance ; and, consequently, but little attention is paid to them in many schools. They may, however, be made of considerable value in disciplme, besides exercising no little effect on the moral and physical education of the pupils. I. OPENING EXERCISES should be short, interesting, and appropriate. They should be of such a nature that the children may take part in them without violating the conscientious scruples of themselves or their parents ; and where such scruples exist, the children should be excused from attending during the progress of the exercises. * 1. Singing. — Vocal music will, it is to be hoped, soon be taught as generally in our schools as it now is in Germany. Its ethical and aesthetic value is universally acknowledged, and its place as a part of the opening exercises can hardly be called in question. If the teacher cannot lead the singing in person he will be unfortunate indeed if he cannot get some pupil to do it for him. 2. Bible Reading. — The reverential reading of a short, appro- priate passage of Scripture should form a part of the opening or closing exercises of every school in this Christian land. The Bible is now read without objection in a vast proportion of the schools on this continent, and wherever else the English-speaking races live ; but if any parents object to their children being present, they should of course be excused — they may remain in the cloak-room, without suffering any injury, during the few minutes of the opening. The reading may be either by the teacher, or the pupils, or both. In either case it shoul(^ be unaccompanied by any comment or remark whatever. ■ r^ ? -* 3. Prayer. — A short form of prayer, approved by competent authority, may be offered up by the teacher ; after which the Lord's e^,., uppos« 3 daily ,ly, but )wever, sing no 3. resting, shildren scruples dst, the gress of loon be ly. Its and its illed in he will or him. appro- Ining or le Bible Lools on [es live ; should rithout The both. lent or ipetent Lord's Cap. IV.] METHODS OF SEATING. 69 Prayer should be repeated reverently by the teacher and the pupils together. 4. Boll-Gall. — Many teachers find it convenient to haye their roll-call immediately after the opening exercises, allowing sufficient time for the excused pupils to enter and take their places. In small schools it is well to call the names of all the pupils ; in larger schools the class monitors may give the numbers or names of absentees. As soon as the permanent classification is completed, the teacher will have the map of the pupils, as seated, in his mind's eye, and can thus at a single glance ascertain who are the absentees. It should not take more than a minute each day to mark the attendance of any sbhool in the register. II. METHODS OP SEATING.— The seating of the school is the embodiment of the teacher's ideal of symmetry and fitness. 1. Seat with Reference to Size — Because of convenience and symmetry, this plan is in general use. Accepting this as the basis, the thoughtful teacher will make many exceptions. 2. Seat with Reference to Class.— In an ungraded school the observance of this direction must, at best, be partial. It should be taken into consideration as far as circumstances will permit. 3. Seat with Reference to Sex. — The orthodox way is safest for the young teacher. The boys and girls are seated on opposite sides of the room, with a wide aisle between them. Having alternate tiers of boys and girls is found to work well in the hands of a teacher of culture and power. Some teachers secure the best results by having the boys and girls occupy alternate seats. 4. Reserve the Right to Change. — It should bo well understood that the teacher may remove a pupil from his seat at any time, and without question. The change may be made for convenience, or to lessen temptation, or to place unruly pupils in the best position to be trained to correct habits. 5. Make the Seating an Educational Means.— Let the teacher study profoundly the problem of social and moral culture. It is within his power to render the seating an important educa- tional means. •• > 6. Government by Seating.— Control your school by seating it properly. As long as your room will admit of it, put but one pupil nil m I ir ft »• ' I lit r v^ 'J ■i! . u i; ('■ r , ■ J ■ t ! I i r 70 OPENING — SEATING — RECESSES. IPart II. on a seat. When a pupil becomes troublesome to his neighbours, remove him to another seat. Place weak pupils with strong ones. Place troublesome pupils in ?eats where they cannot give trouble. III. BECESSEIS. — Recreation is not less important than study. To properly manage recesses is one of the teacher's most delicate duties. 1. Two Recesses, of not less than ten minutes each, during each half day, give the best results in elementary schools where the pupils are nearly all young ; but in the average rural school it will be found better to have one recess of fifteen mimUea during each half day. Recesses give an excellent opportunity for the thorough ventilation of the rooms, keeping the pupils all the time fresh, and in a fit condition for vigorous study. i. ,, 2. All should have Recess at the Same Time. — It is an educational mistake to give the boys and girls separate recesses — it prevents the ventilation of the rooms, throws the classes into confusion, and is objectionable in other ways. The grounds and out-buildings should therefore be arranged with this principle in view. Very little children should, however, be allowed recess more frequently ; their work should, in fact, partake, as far as possible, of the nature and the appearance of play, and very much of their time may profitably be spent in the open air when the weather will at all permit. 3. The Teacher Mingles Pleasantly with the Pupils, and watches over them during recess. Invigorating games are encouraged, rudeness and impropriety are checked. If there exists the proper feeling of respect and esteem for the teacher on the part of the pupils, and if he is imbued with a true sympathy in the joys and sorrows of his pupils, he may join frequently in their amusements without the slightest risk of injury to his authority or to his dignity. Nowhere is the presence of the cultured teacher productive of greater good than in the playground. He must carefully avoid the appearance, and still more the reality, of espionage on their movements. Pupils should be put on their honor, and made to feel that they are so put, as early and as far as possible. They will have confidence in the teacher who shows that he has confidence in them, and they will regard hii presence in the play-ground as a pleasure rather than a restraint. t^ _ Cap. IV. TOPICAL REVIEW. 71 lipils, es are exists on the ithy in n their rity or teacher must ity, of their far as IwB that in the Topical Review. — Opening Exercises, Seating, Recesses. . Importance of So-called Trifles. Iiifl/uetice in moral and physical education. Opening Exercises. 1. Singing should Jind a pla^e. ■^ 2. Bible-reading by the teacher, or pupils, or both. 3. Prayer by the teacher, followed by all joining in the Lord's Prayer. '. 4. Roll-call — On^ minute should be sufficient. Methods of Seating. 1. Size of pupils and desks. . ,r 2. Glass — As fa/r as other considerations unit admit. ' ,,:^ _ 3. Sex — Boys atid girls at opposite sides of room. 4. Resei've right to change. ^ ,, : 5. Make the seating a means of education. * ; 6. Make it a means of government. Recesses. 1. Number of recesses for school— for youngest pupils. ': .1 2. Simidtanemis recesses for boys and girls. • 3. Tlie teacher should be in tlie playground at recess, ^ •■ ,-■'',■ Jl - ■ • t-_J'J:lVi^ ■■:■■:■■ ;■ W^^ ^«\/\>S/Si^ ^^\./^%. . ..V ■* 1 ' > 'V' '- ,':>'.■;>..(;* 'n: r III! \ t i lij CHAPTER V. ^ First Day of School. )!::;»' The First Day is the Most Important Day of the Term. — Nowhere is the old Greek aphorism, " Tho beginning is the half of all," truer than in the experience of the teacher in the government of a new school. A good beginning, giving favorable first impressions, is a leading element of success. The judicious teacher will leave undone nothing within his power to make his first appearance a success. I. BE EARLY. — It is the teacher's duty always to be early ; but it is his interest, not less than his duty, to be especially careful to be early on the first morning. 1. To see that aU is in Readiness. — ^The house should be clean and warm ; and the furniture and apparatus should be ready for use, especially the black-boards and appurtenances. The pupils will not fail to note and to be impressed by such evident proofs of their teacher's interest and desire to promote their comfort and welfare. And this, combined with a kindly greeting of each on his arrivsJ, will predispose them in the teacher's favor. 2. To Welcome the Pupils. — ^A few kind words spoken to each one as he comes into the school-room will do much good. First impressions are lasting, and it is of vital importance to the teacher that he should produce a good first impression on his pupils ; they will imbue their parents and friends with their own ideas, so that the teacher's character and reputation in the section may often be made or marred, according to the doings of the first day of school. 3. To Preserve Order. — While cheerful conversation and laughter are encouraged, no rude or boisterous conduct must at any time be permitted in the school-room. At the very outset it is well to impress the duty of protecting the school-room and its belongings. The children must be trained to treat their temple of learning with as much respect as they would the best room in their mothers' houses. [72] Cap. v.] PRE-ARRANGED PLANS. 73 f the ling is in the rorable dicious lis first early ; careful 1- ■ ' \ ould be >uld be B. The evident comfort each on oken to good. |e to the pupils ; [eas, so lay often school. lion and (must at bset it is and its ^mple of room in II. ADDRESS OP WBLOOMB.-0rder is promptly called. When all are quiet, you give a short talk, containing ideas something like the following : Ton are glad to meet the pupils. You will do all you can to help them. Do they wish to learn ? Will each one help to make this the best school in the country ? The address should be simply an earnest talk with the pupils, and of not more than five minutes' length. Find some topic on which you can make them feel that you are in hearty sympathy vrith them^ and your brief address of welcome will have won half the battle. Short and appropriate opening exercises should follow the address. III. FOLLOW YOUR PLAN.— By following a well- digested plan, the young teacher may avoid a world of embarrassment. There is no hesitancy ; not a moment is lost. Vigorous work forestalls mischief. The following outline will help the inexperienced teacher to arrange a plan of operation of his own ; it is not intended as a model for exact imitation in every case, it must be so changed as to be made specific: 1. After the opening exercises, seat the pupils. 2. Classify the school, and assign lessons. As each class is called, give a short drill. This will require all of the forenoon. 3. Have short recitations of all the classes during the afternoon. Follow a special programme. " 4. Make school tactics a speciality during the first week, devoting a few minutes, on each occasion, to drilling the pupils on the suitable tactics. The younger pupils will consider it great fun, and will enter into the drill with keen relish ; the older pupils may be inclined to consider the tactics childish and trifling, but a few words on the importance and beauty of tactics in the army and navy, and particularly in the la/rge»t a/nd best schools in the country, will bring them to your side. 6. During the last half hour adopt the general regulations. 6. Leave nothing foreseeable to the impulse of the moment. '•What to do," "When to do it," and " How to do it," must be thought out before entering the school-room. Observe and study the plans of others, but mature and follow your own. ; I' i 74 FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL. ■n ii: 1 '1 I [Pabt II. VI. SPECIAL DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS. (BeU.) 1. Upon no other day of the school year does so much depend. The impressions made the first day, especially the first morning, will be lasting, and will have a powerful influence for good or for bad upon all future work. 2. Know definitely the organization of the preceding school, especially the classification, and the page to which each class had advanced. This information can be obtained from the records of the former teacher, or from the pupils. In some way, get the information. ' 3. See to it that your school-house is in good condition before the school assembles. 4. Prepare carefully your opening exercises, and make them brief. The opening "talk " should not exceed five minutes in length, and should be of such a character as to gain the confidence of the pupils and put them at their ease. 5. Announce no rules of order, but say, "I expect each pupil to do just what he thinks is right. This afternoon we may see about regulations." 6. Begin as you expect to continue. Allow no liberty the first day that you do not expect to grant next week and next month. 7. After very brief preliminaries, in the quickest way possible, ijive each pupil something to DO. One of the quickest ways to do this is to assign work in Arithmetic. ; : '• ' '^ 8. Hear elates rapidly, and assign suitable work. A skilful teacher will never allow any of his pupils to become idle. 9. The secret of success in organizing a school lies in the ability of a teacher to assign work promptly, and to keep the pupils biisy. 10. Follow as closely as possible the classification and programme of the former teacher, and make changes as experience dictates. 11. Never waste time by taking the names of the pupils the first thing. Any other time is better. r , 12. Study your work carefully, and have clearly in mind just what you are going to do, and how you are going to do it, before begirding. In this way you will gain and retain the respect and GOV nlcnce of your pupils. i. ■•#■- *> i ■ > •' - .-■•'.'■- Caf. V.J TUPICAL KEVIEW. 75 TopiOAi Review. — First Day of School. First day most important of term. The Teacher should prodiice a good first impression. I. Be early. 1. To see the huildiiig ready, 2. To welcome children. 3. To keep order. II. Address of welcome. Should be hrlefy ea/niest, sympathetic. III. Have a plan and follow it. 1. Opening add/ress and exercises. 2. Classify^ review, and assign lessons. 3. Afternoon recitations. 4. Adopt regulations during tiie last half-hov/r, 5. Drill on tactics for tJie first week. 6. Leave nothing to imp^dse. IV. Special directions to teeichers. (Bell.^ 1. First day. 2. Ascertain former dassification. 3. Prepare the building and apparatus, 4. Opening ceremony. 6. Begin unthout ^* rules." 6. Begin as you mean to continue, 7. Assign work promptly, 8. Lively redtaiions. 9. Keep pupils busy, 10. Make cJiangesfrom eocperience. 11. Don't begin by tahing nam^s. 12. Study ''what" and'' how. " i ^"^r Il %» J ,^' i,r.f^ .V"' i S' . •»A :i :-y ' I ' J ;,-•'. jA*'-..-;' .«•►• i ! ,\\u'' ■«' : -J i 4 V.' PART TIT. i .1 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT, ! ■,ia CHAPTER I. -Elements of Governing Power. ♦* II. — School Regulations. III. — Enforcbmemt of School Regulations. IV. — Principles pertaining to School Punishmbnth. V. — Judicious and Injudicious School Punishments. VI. — Special or Extraordinary Punishments. VII. — Management of Special Cases. Vill. — Conditions op Order; and Duties and Rights of Teachers, Pupils, Parents, and School- BOARDS. I'rf ..^- ' i \ i i PART III. SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. CHAPTER I. Elements of Governing Power. School Government is the power of control which produces and sustains order in the school by the co-operation of the pupils, and thereby trains them to habits of self-government. The problem to be solved by every consc'entious teacher is, not simply "How may I keep order ?" but " How may I so develop the self-governing instincts of my pupils that orderly behavior shall become the chosen law of my school ?" The end of school government is to facilitate growth — mental, moral, and physical ; but this growth must be the result of voluntary and well-directed effort. The child is to bo developed into the self-reliant, self-determining man. His vicious habits are to be broken up, and right habits formed in their stead. These results are not to be attained by lorce, nor by mere authority, nor by iron rules, nor by cruel punishments. It is, indeed, possible to " keep order " by such means ; but it is the "order" of the slave, not of the loving subject. YIe have known schools in which the pupils had been reduced to a more than clock-work precision of uniform behavior by the terrorism of a martinet master ; but tho lessons of obedience and precision enforced by such discipline have seldom been lasting, — their educational value must always be very slight. The teacher must constantly bear in mind that the future [79] 1 1 i I ■i. 80 ELEMKi^TS OF GOVERNING POWER. [Part III. is success of his pupils depends not more on the intellectual progress they may make during their school years, than on the formation of such habits as will fit them for the proper discharge of their duties in the great world without. They must be led to love and choose the good, and to hate and reject the bad. By judicious, painstaking, conscientious training, principles must be converted into habits. As the best instructor is the one who renders his pupils independent of himself, so the best disciplinarian is the one who trains his pupils to govern themselves, — who creates such a love of order throughout the school that the disorderly or disobedient pupil would find him- 8 3lf at once discredited by the public opinion of the little community around him. Governing power, in its educational sense, is ability to train to the habit of self-control. It is the capacity to marshal and render eflfective all educational resources. The teacher spares no efibrt to master the elements of governing power, and, thus armed, he assumes the responsibility of child-culture with reasonable hopes of success. I. SYSTEM IS THE FIRST ELEMENT OP GOV- ERNING POWER. — System characterizes all good government, human anvi divine. It is a condition of success in all fields of human achievement. The three factors in system are Time^ Place, and Method. 1. System means a Time for EverythiTig.— Order, regularity, and promptitude are the pillars of government. How admirably ordered is the well-regulated household ! The rising, the retiring, and the meals, occur each at its appointed time, and thus confusion is prevented and comfort produced. A network of rail- roads is a grand exhibition of the power of system. The time-table has revolutionized society, and the nations have learned to move to the rhythm of the rail. Napoleon once said to his officers, "(jive your men plenty to eat and plenty to do, and you will find littJo difficulty in governing them." " Steady and congenial employment for the people " is the profoundest maxim of human government. " Keep the pupils interested and busy " is the best rule ever given for the management of schools. The school programme, by providing congenial employment for each pupil during each portion of the school day, lays the foundation for good government. Uap. 1.] SYSTEM— ENEJIGV. 61 )rder, How :, the 1 thus rail- -table ove to (jive little foment ment. n for viding of the 2. System means a Place for Everything.— " A place for everything, and everything in ita place," is as important to the teacher as to the housekeeper or the mechanic ; it enables him to secure good order with great readiness. The teacher's desk, the pupils' desks, the apparatus, the school-room, and the grounds, should be models of order and neatness. The pupils being thus trained to habits of order in the school-room will be prepared to carry their orderly habits through life. 3. System, means Method in doing Bverjrthing. — All general school movements and exercises, — such as calling and dis- missing school, class tactics, drill and calisthenic exercises, — should be conducted with military precision. Time is thereby gained, the harmony of concerted movement is secured, the interest of the pupils is assurea, they thus acquire habits of prompt obedience, and learn to move to the rhythm of society. II. ENERGY IS THE SECOND ELEMENT OF GOVERNING POWER.— Energy is the magic wand to which all obstacles yield. System plans and organizes the work of the school ; Energy inspires and maintains its motion. 1. The Teacher should possess Boundless Energy.— A well-ordex'ed school is liko a mighty engine, equipped with all the requisite macliinery, but wanting the application of the steam power to be ready for the perfoimance of its work. The energy of the teacher is the steam power of the school, and he, the engineer who applies it. Energy keeps the grounds, the house, the furniture, and the apparatus in the best possible condition. Energy prepares all available means of illustration, infuses the utmost life and vigor into the recitation, and meets and overcomes difficulties. Energy studies the disposition and capacity of each pupil, and adapts the management and work to each. Energy evokes and directs every power of every pupil. Indomitable energy compensates for many faults, and almost compels success. 2. A Laz^' Teacher is an Intolerable Nuisance. — He keeps his seat through the livelong day. He prepares no lessons and gives no illustrations. In sleep-producing monotones he drawls through tho weary hours. Under his administration dulness or disorder reigns, mischief and meanness flourish. He may "'keep i I, HSIHS! 82 ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWEtl. [Part HI. \i \ ' ! u school," but he can never educate. The school is a failure in his hands, and ho is a pauper supported by the public funds. III. VIGILANCE IS THE THIRD ELEMENT OP GOVERNING POWER.—" Eternal vigilance is the price of victory." However perfect the engine, and however great the energy of steam, the constant vigilance of the engineer is indis- pensable. However systematic the organization, and however intense the energy of the teacher, no school can be successfully managed without untiring vigilance. It is needed for the prevention even more than for the correction of disorder, and should be exercised to discover merit not less than to detect wrong. 1. The Teacher must know his School, and hence must use his eyes and ears To govern well he must know his pupils, their feelings, their purposes, and their aspirations. He must be thoroughly in sympathy with them so that he can see and hear in detail all that happens, and thus be able to correct disorder. His observation of his pupils and their doings should be that of a kind, judicious, sympathetic friend, not that of a lynx-eyed, list-slippered detective. 2. Vigilance Prevents as well as Corrects Faults — Careless government fosters crime in the State ; it encourages dis- order in the school, and renders its punishment unpopular and ineffective. On the other hand vigilant government anticipates and prevents crime ; the eye of the watchful teacher dissuades from doing wrong, discovers and encourages every effort to do right. 3. The Vigilant Teacher seldom finds FaMlt.— Fault finding is one of the most hurtful habits with which any teacher could be cursed ; and he who indulges in it will soon find that his constant complaints and reproofs are utterly void of effect, and that his influence over his pujjils has vanished. So many of the faults of children arise from mere childish giddiness that the judicious teacher will find it jjolitic as v^ell as humane to pass them over without notice of any kind whatever. But serious faults should invariably meet with serious reproof ; violation of principle, with suitable punishment. 4. The Vigilant Teacher Watches to Encourage.— As the judicious teacher should frequently ignore the unintentional IS Cap. I.] VIGILANCE — WILL-POWER. 83 from errors of thoughtless childhood, so ought he on the other hand to be constantly on the alert to discover every sign of honest eflfort to do right. Nothing can well have a better effect in strengthening the half -formed good resolutions of the pupils than the consciousness that a kind, wise, sympathising friend is ever on the look out, not to detect and punish, but to encourage and assist by a kindly word or look. IV. WILL POWER IS THE FOURTH ELEMENT OP SUCCESS. — WiU may be termed decision of character — persistency of purpose — the unflinching determination to succeed, that bears down all opposition and makes success an almost fore- gone conclusion. In all agjs it has been the iron will that has mastered the world, and has stamped the impress of its personality on the laws of the nations. The laws of the School should be so administered as to show that a resolute will as well as a kindly heart is possessed by the teacher who controls it. Law pervades the universe. The child must be taught to know law, to love law, to sustain law. 1. School Management must be Uniform and Certain. — System must be strictly enforced. A vacillating, temporizing policy is as fatal to good scholarship as it is to good government, A good easy teacher is generally good for nothing. The determined teacher will hold the reins lirmly, and will train to orderly habits and eflicient work. 2. The Teacher needs a Powerful Will.— This trait char- acterizes the great men and women of all ages. To resist impor- tunities, to counteract fickleness, and to train to form and follow plans, requires the utmost firmness. To develop decision of character, to infuse iron into child-nature, and to fit youth for achievement, is possible only to the teacher with great will power. 3. The Firm Hand is best for the Pupils.— The teacher kindly but firmly holds the pupil to systematic work. The soldier obeys without question. Th*^ pugilist submits absolutely to his trainer. How much more should the pupil yield implicitly to the requirements of a loving teacher ! Have your plans and purposes clearly defined and arranged, and then carry them out without flinching. Firmness will do mm h to secure the confidence of your pupils, and to render the work of government easy and effective. '^MS^^KH-V^- a 84 ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWER. [Pakt III. V. SELF-CONTROL IS THE FIFTH ELEMENT OF GOVERNING POWER.— The great general remains calm in the midst of the battle. The statesman is not excited by the tumult of partyism. Still more does the teacher of youth need to be calm amid all storms. He moulds as well as governs. To teach his pupils the lesson of self-control is his highest duty, and before he is able to teach the lesson to others he must have thoroughly mastered it himself. 1. Self-Possession greatly Aids Self-ControL— The teacher needs to keep all his powers well in hand, ready for every work and prepared for every emergency. 2. Anger must be Crushed. — Exhibitions of temper do incalculable injury. The violent teacher loses the respect of his pupils — loses all moral power over them. If he succeeds at all, his must be a government of force, blunting all the finer feelings and susceptibilities of his pupils, and rendering them morose, discon- tented, and deceitful. The importance of avoiding all exhibitions of anger can hardly be too earnestly urged. 3. Impatience must be Repressed. — A hundred things occur daily to render the teacher irritable and impatient. To yield is ruin. The teacher needs a world of patience. Child-nature is full of perversity, and child-mind develops slowly. Wesley's mother would tell him the same thing twenty times ; and many children of the present day require equal patience. 4. Antagonisms must be Suppressed.— To suffer antagon- ism to spring up between yourself and a pupil or a patron is a serious mistake. Control yourself and thus control others. Never wilfully excite the antagonism of others, if you can avoid it without sacrifice of principle or loss of self-respect. A deservedly popular teacher will find numberless opportunities of doing good not .nly to his pupils but throughout the section. 5. Cheerfulness Helps Self-ControL— Cheerfulness is an electric power. Tliere is no one thing that will do more to make a well-qualified teacher su essful than cheerfulness. As the cheerful mother will do much to mai.o sunshine and happiness in the home circle, so the teacher who can be habitually cheerful will be very sure to have a pleasant, happy, and successful school. ': I Cap. 1.] SELF-CONTROL — CONFIDENCE. 85 Tin. [?OF Im in umult calm 3h his )re he )ughly —The ' every per do of his all, his igs and discon- ibitions things Int. To nature ealey'a many [ntagon- :on is a Never Iwithout I popular only to Iss is an make a Icheerful lie home be very VI. OONFIDBNOB IS THE SIXTH ELEMENT OP GOVERNING POWER.— There should be reciprocal confi- dence between the teacher and all who come within the sphere of his operations, — the pupils, parents, trustees, and residents of the section. If the teacher is fit to hold his position it is only fair that he should enjoy the confidence of the community in return. Next to an implicit faith in the love of a Higher Power, the teacher will find his strongest support in the assurance that he deserves and enjoys the aflfection and esteem of those among whom his lot is cast. 1. Confidence in the Pupils. — The surest way to render your pupils worthy of confidence is to trust thtm. You will seldom find your confidence mis-placed, and if you should occasionally be deceived it will still be better that your pupils should consider themselves acting "on honour" than that you should prove the impossibility of being over-reached, by adopting a system of espionage, eaves-dropping, and mistrust that would disgrace the secret service of a despotism. Let the pupils know that you expect them to act honorably, and they will generally do as they are expected to do. They will appreciate at its true value the vigilance you may find it necessary to employ in guarding them from evil ; and you will have the satisfaction of seeing them grow up into open-hearted, gonerous, whole-souled boys and girls. Suspicion is the mark of a weak, cowardly, cruel disposition ; it can only pro- duce falsehood, injustice, and treachery. We want our Canadian youth to grow up wii-h the constant feeling that they are expected to do right, and are for this reason trusted by their teachers. 2. Self-confidence means a weU-grounded assurance on the part of the teacher that he is able to do what he undertakes ; it is very far from being synonymous with overweening egotism, or inordinate self-esteem. It must be based — (1), on sound scholar- ship ; (2), on knowledge of child-nature ; (3), on familiarity with the principles and practice of school management. With a fair amount of self-confidence the well-prepared teacher may reasonably expect to succeed ; without it success is impossible. He must, however, carefully guard against allowing his self-confidence to degenerate into an off'ensive self-assertion. Human nature will not accept the arrogant assumption of superiority without protest or resentment. '+.. 86 ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWEtl. [Part III. VII. POWER TO PUNISH JUDICIOUSLY IS THE SEVENTH ELEMENT OP GOVERNING POWER.- Punishment, as an educational means, is essentially corrective, its main object being to lead the pupils to see their faults and correct them ; it should also be preventive, h&ving the effect of deterring possible offenders from the commission, or at least from the repeti- tion, of offenses, by proving to them that the violation of rules is not only wrong but is inevitably followed by punishment as its natural consequence. 1. The necessity for punishment becomes less and less in proportion as the teacher possesses the other elements of governing power ; but no teacher need expect to be able to succeed without at times inflicting punishment of some kind. He should earnestly strive to carry on the work of education with as little help from punishment as possible ; and when it is necessary to inflict it, he should see that it be judicious and judiciously administered. 2. The Art of Judicious Punishment is a rare accomplish- ment. It means the ability so to punish as to increase the pupil's respect and love for you, and at the same time to awaken in him a resolve to forsake the wrong and do the right. He must be convinced that the punishment is inflicted for his good, that it is just, and that it is the natural consequence of his fault. VIII. CULTURE IS THE EIGHTH ELEMENT OP GOVERNING POWER. — Culture of mind, culture of manners, and culture of voice vastly augment the teacher's power to govern. 1. Culture of Mind. — Thorough scholarship commands respect. We honor men and women with well-developed and well-stored minds. The ignoramus is despised, and soon comes to grief. 2. Culture of Manners.— The teacher is a model. Pupils tend to become like their teacher. Hence, our teachers should be refined ladies and gentlemen. The coarse, ill-mannered, dowdyish teacher not only fails to govern, but also becomes a positive influence for evil, in the school and in the section. 3 Culture of Voice.- The human voice is one of the grandest instruments devised by the Creator for government and instruction. Everyone feels and acknowledges the power of correct elocution ? Cap. I.l PUNISHMENT — CULTUllK — HEART-l'OWER. 87 and judicious selection of words ; and yet, how few teachers think it necessary to attend to these matters in the daily routine of the school-room. In the training of dumb animals we recognize and act on the necessity for correctness of articulation, tone, pitch, emphasis, etc. ; it is surely of no less importance to attend care- fully to these things in the control and education of the rational beings who look up to, and, consciously or unconsciously, imitate the manners, language, and even the very tones of their instructors. 4. Practise what you Teach. — Good manners and a pleasing elocution are very important parts of an education, and their possession wonderfully increases the teacher's power to govern. The best governed schools are often found in charge of girls under twenty years of age. Gentle manners, with a low, earnest voice, largely explain the mystery. Rough, double-fisted men are no longer selected to master the unruly boys of the section. IX. HEART-POWER IS THE NINTH ELEMENT OP GOVERNING POWER.— This means the ability to win and to retain the respect, the confidence, and the love of all — colleagues, teachers, parents, and pupils ; it is the power of govern- ing through the highest and most ennobling motives. The worthy teacher invariably possesses this power in some degree, as a gift of nature, which he may cultivate and improve ; the charlatan never possesses it, never succeeds in his endeavours to imitate it. 1. The Teacher must Work for his Pupils.— His days and nights must be consecrated to their interests, his constant thoughts must be employed in devising means to make them happy and to do them. good. The school-room and all its surrounding* should be made and kept as beautiful and as attractive as his ingenuity can make them ; and the daily feast of learning should be as palatable and as instructive as his most earnest efforts can render it. 2. The Teacher must Love his Pupils.— "We love God because he first loved us." The loving teacher, ever affable, kind, and considerate, is certain to win respect, confidence, and love. Love wins love. Kindness, combined with judicious executive ability, will govern a school better than all arbitrary law possible, :1^ 1 i Hi- 88 ELICMENTS OF UOVEIINING TOWEH. If (I [Part III. 3. Despotism is a Mistake. — The cold, repulsive tyrant may have forced quiet, and may compel good lessons ; but ho creates an atmosphere in which all hateful passions and habits are fostered. 5 Obedience should be Cheerful and Glad. -In the sunshine of confidence and love, all that is lovely in cliiW -nature buds and blossoms and bears fruit. Lessons are a feast and an endless delight. The teacher is a kind, loving friend, leading pupils up to all that is beautiful and desirable. Heart - power renders school government easy ; but the wise teacher will not make it his sole dependence. All the elements of governing power should be employed. X. TEACHING POWER IS THE TENTH ELE- MENT OP GOVERNING POWER. Teaching Power is the ability to enlist and direct the whole energies of the learner — to secure such effort as will result in culture and in scholarship. Good teaching requires good scholar- ship, though good scholarship by no means necessarily implies the power to teach well. Genuine teaching arouses, interests, and directs the pupil, makes him eager to learn, and finally causes him to know what will render him a powerful, useful, noble member of society. To be a thoroughly succiessful governor of a school, it is often suflBcient to be a thoroughly good teacher ; for the good teacher is able to enlist the energies of the pupils so deeply in the cause of study that they will neither have time nor inclination for the ordi- nary disturbing influences of the school-room. They catch the enthusiasm of the teacher, and order is the natural result of their cheerful, earnest work. The enthusiastic teacher must not, however, rely entirely on his teaching power ; he will find it useful, if not absolutely necessary, to utilise the other elements of governing power in order to produce the highest and best results. XI. MANAGING POWER IS THE ELEVENTH ELEMENT OP GOVERNING POWER.— Skill, wisdom, tact, common sense are some of tha terms by which this element of power is designated. It has a world of meaning. 1. The Teacher should be a Man among Men.— He not only manages the children, but also directs the educational work of the section. He is the natural leader in all movements that tend to improve and elevate. ,/,- Cap. II.] TOPICAL llEVIEW. 80 2. Oo-operation must be Secured.— One can not do much. It is co-operation thut builds railroads, manages school systems, and establishes States. To make a school successful demands the hearty co-operation of the entire section. To secure this requires tact, management. While guiding, the teacher must often seem to follow. 3. Bverjrfching must be Turned to Advantage.— Defeat must be changed to victory. The angry opponent who comes to give trouble must be sent away a warm friend of the teacher. Misconduct must be made the occasion for deepening the love of right. Evils must be attacked and conquered in detail. Opposing forces must be made to counteract each other, and thus promote the welfare of the school. Every agency must be utilised for the development and discipline of the natural powers of the pupils — to lead them onward and upward to higher and still higher platforms of excellence, removing the evil and cultivating the good, as the child grows into the youth, the youth into the man, armed and equipped at all points for the great battle of life, the battle that must be fought by every child of Adam. Concluding Remarks. — Teaching is incomparably ihe greatest work on this earth. The noblest creations of Art fade and crumble. Cities and nations and worlds grow old and pass away. Minds only are immortal. The teacher's work alone endures. Minds grandly developed ; hearts attuned to the true, the beautiful, and the good ; lives devoted to every ennobling work ; spirits occupying a lofty position among the eternal tenantry of God's boundless universe — these are to be the everlasting monuments of the teacher's labours. Topical Review. — Elements of Governing Power. Introduction. 1. The problem of school government. 2. Importance of the subject. 3. Definitions of school government and governing power. The eleven elements of governing power : — 1. System ; 2, energy ; 3, vigilance ; 4, vnll-power ; 5, self-control ; 6, confidence ; 7, punishment ; 8, culture ; 9, heart-power ; 10, teaching ; 11, tact. \ I P^i 1(1 7 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET {MT-3) 1.0 I.I IS- Photographic Sciences Corporation // <,^.<^^!^ '''^^I^^ <- ^^W «?^ 1.25 1.4 1 6 ^ 6" ► # \ :\ \ s^^ ^.> c^ :^' >.^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 'red. 4. Opposition utilized, ^ iT III. CHAPTER II. School Regulations. I em. I firm, ineral. .^ )tion ; System is the first condition of good government, as well as the first element of governing power. Wise regulations establish and foster system. The old schoolmaster, with all his rules and all his rods, belongs to the past. Though often a blundering despot, he did what he could. Peace to his ashes. The goodish modem teacher, with no rules and no rods, is the opposite extreme. The eflicient teacher will equally avoid these dangerous extremes. The coming teacher, with necessary regulations, wisely enforced, is the true mean. The objeot of School Begrulations is not simply to keep order, but rather to facilitate the moral training of the pupils, to develop the sense of right and duty, and to strengthen the innate power of self-control. I. PRINCIPLES RELATING TO SCHOOL REGU- LATIONS. — Great principles underlie all educational processes. Principles, and not whim or caprice, determine plans and test methods. 1. Few. — School Regvlations should he Few^ hut Exhaustive. Simplicity is of primary importance in school management. Many rules occasion much friction, and cause a vast amount of waste labor in education. 2. General. — School Regulations should he General rather than Special. They should be such as apply to all pupils and all schools. Special regulations with specific penalties should be exceptional. 3. Popular. — School Regulations should Merit the Approval of AU. They should be so evidently just and proper as to command the approval and support of all — teachers, patrons, and pupils. The influence of public sentiment is immense. 4. Practicable. — School Regulations should he such as the Teacher can amd wUl Enforce. Rules or laws not enforced tend to bring all rules and laws into contempt. [91) 1« i m 92 SCHOOL REGULATIONS. [Part III. ii'i 6. Educational. — AU Begvlations should aim at the Formation of Bight Habits. It must be constantly borne in mind that the mere acquisition of book lore is otdy one of the purposes for which pupils attend school. The object of school-life is to prepare for real life, to make ready for the discharge of the duties and responsi- bilities of citizenship. 6. Positive. — Regulations should he Positive, not Negative. Prohibitions should be sequences of positive regulations. To inculcate positive duties and to strengthen the moral sense are the objective points to be kept in view in the framing and enforcing of rules. II. GENERAL REGULATIONS. -The foUowing regu- lations have been drawn up in accordance with the foregoing principles, and, though few and brief, they will be found sufficiently comprehensive to cover nearly all the ground. They are in use in every school in which true education is being carried on, and they can be enforced with very little difficulty. 1. Reg^arity. — Teachers and Pupils must he Regular in their Attendance. Each teacher and each pupil must be present every day and every half day during the term, unless prevented by sickness or some equally weighty and unavoidable cause of absence. 2. Promptitude. — Teachers and Pupils must be Prompt in the Discharge of every Duty. Regularity and promptitude are the pillars of good school discipline. 3. Decorum. — Teachers and Pupils must observe sl/rict Decorum. Decorum means proper conduct, good manners, and becoming behaviour. It means to do the proper thing at the right time, and in the right way. 4. Quiet. — Teachers and Pupils must study to be Quiet. In every working school there will be the hum of business, but teachers and pupils study to avoid unnecessary noise, and to produce a pleasant stillness. While the boisterous school is both unpleasant and injurious, the death-like stillness of inactivity is equally to be avoided., . ^ 6. Communication. — All Communications during School Hours must be made through the Teacher. The observance of this rule Cap. II.] GENERAL AND SPECIAL RULES. d3 m\ prevents a large proportion of the disordev often noticed in schools. Pupils must not communicate by talking, by writing, or by volur tary signs. 6. Morality. — Teachers and Pvpils must sustain good Moral Characters. School government should be positive. It is not enough that pupils avoid all immorality. The positive virtues must be developed into habits. Truthfulness, honesty, benevolence, and fidelity must be systematically cultivated. III. SPECIAL REGULATIONS.— The above general regulations are exhaustive. Very few cases will arise that do not legitimately fall under these rules. But the peculiar circumstances, the special application, the necessaiy details, and the proper enforcement of general regulations may on occasion require special regulations. The general regulations should be adopted at the close of the first day ; special regulations should be adopted from time to time as they become necessary. 1. Special Regulations are intended to Specify and Enforce General Regulations. — The pupils should have their attention called to the fact that these are not new rules, but simple sequences or corollaries, of the general regulations, intended to explain them. 2. Special Regulations should only be adopted when Necessaiy. — Care must be taken to avoid the accumulation of school regulations. They should be few and brief ; and should not be adopted till the necessity for having them is evident to the school. IV. ADOPTION OF REGULATIONS.— The teacher should never lose sight of the fact that his authority is paramount in the school-room ; nor should he allow this fact to be ignored by others, whether pupils or outsiders. But it will greatly aid him in carrying on the discipline of the school, if he will call the pupils into consultation in the framing and adoption of the regulations necessary for their government. They will much more readily, cheerfully, and intelligently obey laws that have to some extent been made by themselves than rules that have the appearance of being arbitrarily imposed upon them by the teacher. Besides ^i f;': ■if' I' I :( 1 liJ d4 SCflOOL REGULATIONS. fpART 111. which, the habit of making, obeying, and sustaining their own laws will do much to prepare them for the realities of life, and to fit them for discharging the duties of intelligent, self-governing, law- abiding citizens. 1. Presentation. — The Teacher Proposes and Explains the Eegu- lations. These ifiust of course be in harmony with the School Law of the province, and must be suited to the requirements of the school. The teacher prepares the regulations beforehand, proposes and explains them to the pupils, and thus leads them to adopt such rules as his experience proves to be necessary and useful. 2. Adoption. — The Teacher and PvpUs Adopt the Regulations. Having explained the regulations to the pupils, the teacher joins in their adoption. By thus acting with them he shows that rules are for his guidance as well as for the government of the children. He thus raises them in their own esteem and imposes on them the very strongest obligation to obedience, because they cannot but ^eel that the regulations are self-imposed rules of conduct, not arbi- trary laws imposed without their consent. 3. Pledge. — The Teadiers and Pii^s Pledge themselves to Help each other in Obeying avd Sustaining the Regidations. Such a pledge is eminently proper, and is a powerful means of promoting good conduct; it stimulates the pupils' efforts to do right until they become fixed habits. It would be an idle ceremony to adopt regulations, unless a mutual pledge be taken to abide by them and to carry them into effect. 4. Approval. — The School Board Approves the Regulations. It will be judicious in all cases to submit the regulations for the approval of the Board of Trustees. It will show them that the teacher and pupils are determined to start right, and it may stimu- late and strengthen the board in the desire to supply the necessary equipment for the school. Their approval will, in any case, st|«ngthen the hands of the teacher, and place him in a secure position of vantage, when any case of discipline arises requiring the attention and interference of the trustees. 6. Enforcement. — The Teacher Enforces the Regulations. The fitneiB of this arrangement is apparent to every pupil. The teacher is the natural head of the school, to whom they look for instruction, Ca| fori hal th€ poll Cap. II.] CONSIDERATION AND ADOPTION. 95 for advice, and for the maintenance of law and order. The pupils have pledged themselves to abide by the regulations, and to assist the teacher in enforcing them. How he may best do so will be pointed out in the next chapter. 6. Method of Adopting. — This may vary according to the number of the pupils, their ages, and other considerations. In general, the teacher may call the school to order at the close of the first day, or on any more suitable occasion if such should present itself, and the regulations should then be proposed, discussed, and adopted in accordance with the general system of school tactics. Some such plan as the following will generally be found speedy and effective ; it is not intended for universal imitation, but will help to indicate the course to be pursued : — The attention of the school is called to the necessity for some regulations. As the state must have laws, so the school must have regulations. Teacher. — How many think that the teacher and pupils should be prompt ? Pupils all raise their hands. Teacher. — How many are in favour of making promptitude one of our regulations ? Pupils all raise their hands. Teacher. — All that will join with me in a pledge to make an earnest effort to be prompt while connected with the school, please rise. Pupils all rise. In a few minutes, at the close of the first day, the six regulations may be unanimously adopted. In rare cases a pupil may refuse to rise. After dismissing the school, talk the matter over with him, and secure his pledge. As new pupils enter, they may be pledged privately or before the school. Teachers-in-training in the Model and Normal Schools Will receive special instruction from the Principal as to the best method of proposing and adopting general and special regulations. , al t : I J \k li' 96 SCHOOL REGULATIONS. [Part III. j; Ml! Topical Review. — School Regulations. Extremes and mean. 1. The old schoolmaatery vnth his rules and rods. 2. The goodish Uacher, vnth no rules and no rods. 3. The coming tea^nery ivith necessary regulations toisely en- forced. Principles pertaining to school regulations. 1. Feto. — School regulations should he few, but exhaustive. 2. General. — 8<^ol regulations should be general, not special. 3. Popula/r. — School regulations should merit general approval. 4. Practicable. — School regulations should be enforceable. 5. Educational, — School regulations should tend to form right habits. 6. Positive. — School regulations should be positive, not negative General regulations. 1. Begularity. — Teachers and pupils must he regular. 2. Promptitude. — Teachers and pupils mu^t be prompt. 3. Decorum. — Teachers and pupils must he decorou,s. 4. Quiet. — Teachers and pupils miist study to he quiet. 5. Communication. — All communications must be made through the teacher. 6. Moral ity. — Teachers and pupils must sustain good characters. Special regulations. 1. Object. — To enforce general regulations. 2. Adopted. — Only when absolutely necessary. Adoption of regulations. 1. Presentation. — The teacher proposes a/nd explains regulations. 2. Adoption. — Teacher and pupils adopt regulations. 3. Pledge. — Teacher and pupils pledge themselves to sustain regulatums. 4. Approval. — The school-board approves the regulations. 5. Enforcement. — The teaclier enforces the regulations. 6. Method of adopting. — Will be illustrated in the Model and formal Schools, Pabt III. CHAPTER III. nsely en- ttive. t special. approval. )le. rm right negative through Procters. lationa. sustain hi and Enfoeckment op School Rkoulations. The Adoption of General Regulations in accordanae with some such intelligent plan as that suggested in the preceding chap- ter will greatly help the teacher in carrying them into effectual operation ; but he will be sadly in error if he supposes that adop- tion is the only thing necessary for enforcement. It is, indeed, highly probable that the pupils, elated by the thought that their teacher has considered them so far worthy of confidence as to con- sult them in the preparation of the regulations, will make strenuous efforts at first to conform to the rules in whose fairness they have acquiesced, and that their conduct will, therefore, be as nearly per- fect for a brief period as could possibly be expected from children of their age. But the experienced teacher will not dare to hope that such perfection of discipline will last ; he knows that the young citizens of his commonwealth are intensely human, prone to yield to the impulse of the moment, and almost as liable to violate regu- lations as are their elders : and, consequently, he will adopt every means within his power to strengthen their good impulses, and to help them in their efforts to cheerfully observe the rules. *' How Shall I Enforce the Regulations ?" is one of the most important questions that can be asked by the inexperienced teacher, and it is one of the most difficult to answer. The regula- tions are based on sound principles ; but great wisdon ;. needed in the application and adaptation of the principles. Each tt icher must take into consideration all the conditions of his school and of the community, and then do the best he can under all the circum- stances. He must remember, however, that it is his bounden duty to enforce the regulations ; the more tact he can employ in doing so the better it will be for himself, his pupils, and the whole com- munity. Principle of Duty. — Pupils should be trained to feel that they have special duties to themselves, their fellow-pupils, their [97] li r ■I |:K 98 ENFORCEMENT OF UEUULATIONS. I [Paut III, CaI parents, and their teacher, and that these duties, as well as their higher duty to their Creator, place thorn under an obligation to redeem the pledge they have given to obey and to help each other to obey the general regulations adopted by the school. I. REGULARITY. — Irregularity, in rural sections especially, is a serious evil, and no effort should be spared to reduce it to a minimum. It is very frequently the fault of the parents, who are only too ready to keep the children at home for trifling causes ; but it is also too commonly the result of indifference on the part of the children themselves ; and occasionally, we fear, it is due to the negligence of the teacher. It is a good thing to find out first of all what is the cause of the, evil, and then apply the appropriate remedy. 1. Intensely Interest the Pupils.— Make the school as attractive in every respect as you can possibly make it. Prepare each lesson so thoroughly that you will bo able to teach it in such a way as to interest every pupil, and make them feel that your lessons proceed in such a well-graded plan that they cannot stay away for even one day without losing something specially interesting and important. Impress your pupils with the truth that success in school depends on regularity, and that in the outer world no amount of cleverness will make an irregular person successful or respected. If you thoroughly interest the children and make them anxious to get to school they will generally manage to be regular. 2. Interest the Parents.— Show how it is that an irregular pupil falls behind his classes and becomes discouraged. The intelli- gent parent will not willingly detain a child from a single recitation. Point out to them that the occasioned absence of other children causes inconvenience and loss to theirs ; and get them thus to see that in detaining their own children at home they are not only injuring them but also violating their duty to their neighbors. Teachers must do much missionary work of this kind. 3. Urge Regularity as a Duty.— The pupil should make the most of himself. He should so act as not to injure himself or others. Irregularity injures the pupil and also the school. More- over it disappoints the hopes of the parents, and is a serious annoyance and inconvenience to the teacher. Cap. lit] RteGULARIT"— PROMPTITUDE. 09 4. Inflict necessary Punishments. — To say the loast, irregularity is a misfortune, for which the pupil must suffer the consequences. If the habit becomes chronic, it may work a forfeiture of seat, of position in class, or even of position in school, as events decide. The School Law provides that habitual irregu- larity is a sufficient cause for the suspension of a pupil ; it may become the painful duty of the teacher to carry the law into effect, as a punishment to the offender and a warning to those who may have been influenced by his bad example. II. PROMPTITUDE.— Schools wisely vie with each other in the effort to secure the utmost promptitude. To enforce prompti- tude — 1. Let the Teacher be Prompt.— The teacher should be at the school-room at least a quarter of an hour before the time of opening. The teacher's example greatly influences the pupils. 2. Train to the Habit of Promptitude.— A determined teacher will soon revolutionize an entire school and the community. Promptitude is easy when it grows into a habit. 3 Impress the Importance of Promptitude.— Point out the advantages of promptitude and the evils of tardiness. Show the effects of tardiness by examples. Tardy pupils will often miss the first part of a recitation, which usually consists of a review of the previous day's work, and will chus lose their best opportunity of fixing the subject in the memory. Their standing in class is thus materially lowered, and their progress seriously hindered. 4. Arrange for Exceptional Cases. — Promptitude must be secured at any cost ; but simple justice requires provision for exceptional cases. Pupils peculiarly situated should not be con- sidered tardy up to a fixed time. It would be obviously unjust to punish such pupils, provided that they reach school as early ^s the circumstances of their cases will permit ; nor would public senti- ment sustain the teacher in exacting attendance fiom them at as early an hour as the other pupils are expected to be present. 6. Exercise Discretion. — In the enforcement of this regu- lation the teacher should exercise a wise discretion, and adapt the treatment to the community. What will suit one school admir- ably will not be possible in another ; even in the same school what will be easy at one season may be utterly impossible at another. t y I: 11; ■ ir I' 100 ENPORCEMKNT OP REGUlATtONS. I V i [Part lit. 6. Infliot appropriate Puniehments.— Tho Urdy list works well in some bcIiooIb. As the tardy pupils enter, they write on tho board or slate their names and the number of minutes they are tardy. At recess, when the others pass out, these take the tardy seat. If the explanation shows that the tardiness was unavoidable, the pupil is excused, otherwise he remains seated for about twice the length of time lost. As a general rule, detention is a punish- ment that should be inflicted as rarely as possible ; but if prompti- tude can be secured in this way only, the teacher must not shrink from adopting it. III. DECORUM. — This should characterize every voluntary act. Positions, movements, dress, manners, and conduct, in school and out, are some of the points to be considered. 1. The Teacher should be a Model.— Pupils tend to become like the teacher ; hence good manners is an essential quali- fication of the teacher. An uncouth, ill-mannered, slovenly teacher should never be i)erinittod to disgrace the school room ; nor should an overly fastidious, mincing, drawling dandy ever enter the teaching profession, — a calling that more than any other demands the constant exercise of shrewd, sound, practical common sense. 2. Decorum is one of the Conditions of Success. — The well-behaved are everywhere preferred to the ill-behaved. " He is a gentleman," is the best of all passports. When pupils are made to realize that the teacher is a lady, it is not difficult to persuade them to try to be decorous. 3. Teach Decorum Systematically.— A short, practical lesson occasionally will prove of great value. The subject will thus be kept before the teacher and the pupils. These lessons should be full of interest and point ; they should aim directly at the correction of such breaches of decorum as seem to call for urgent interference ; and they must be given with such delicate tact as to correct the evil without lowering the self-respect of the offenders, or unduly weakening their confidence in the infallibility of their parents. It requires skilful handling, for example, to teach a class that spitting on the floor is a most offensive mark of ill-breeding and vulgarity. Poor children ! they have perhaps been accustomed all their lives to see the filthy habit practised by most of those to whose example they would naturally look for their guidance. Cap. III.J DECORUM— gUIET. 101 4. Teach Decorum Incidentally.— ChiMron muBt have concruto wuuiH. As ttioso occur, briefly chU attontiuii to thtiin, and commond the decorous. 6. Train to Habits of Decorum. — Precept is good ; example is butter ; training is best. Training converts precepts and examples into habits. Manage to make the pupils act decorously until decorum becomes a habit. Train them to conduct themselves properly everywhere and at all times. The earnest and continuous effort to become decorous will soon grow into a life habit. 6. Bight Punishments may be Used.— Some pupils can not be reached in any other way. Whatever will work in the pupil an appreciation of good manners and proper conduct is legitimate. Violation of the laws of good manners is generally the result of ignorance, and merely to indicate the error will in most cases be sufficient to effect a speedy reformation ; but wherever a pupil persists in his offenses against decorum, the teacher should not hesitate to inflict such punishment as may be necessary to bring the offender to a speedy compliance with the regulation. rV. QUIET. — Pupils and teacher here pledge themselves to study to be quiet ; that is, to avoid making unnecessary noise ; and it is essential to the comfort and progress of the school that this regulation should be strictly enforced. It is important to bear in mind that the quietness of a well-governed school is a very different thing from the stillness that used to be regarded as the great desideratum in the schools of the oldon time, and that is still occasionally exacted by some teachers from whom better things might reasonably be expected. A room full of children so stiU that " one might hear a pin drop " speaks volumes for the crushing power of control that can produce such a phenomenon, but it says very little for the intelligence of the teacher who supposes that absolute silence is synonymous with perfect discipline in the school- room. The school-room is a workshop, and the industry of a busy, earnest community of students can no more be carried on without noise than could the operations of a first-class factory. Do not make the mistake of asking or expecting your pupils to sit still ; they cannot be active without noise ; but such noise is not disorder; it is only unnecessary noise that causes confusion, and this is what your regulation is intended to repress. 1:1 1 ' H 111 m 102 ENFORCEMENT OE HEGULATiONS. [Part III. 1. Be Quiet Yourself. — A fussy, noisy, boisterous teacher demoralizes the school, and produces the kind of noise that it is his duty to prevent. Talk earnestly, but in a low, quiet, concentrated tone ; move quietly, and avoid all clapping, pounding, and stamping. Energy and vigor can and should be manifested in better ways. 2. Secure Quiet ftom Principle rather than from Fear. — This must be a cardinal principle in the enforcement of all school regulations ; but it is specially important in securing quiet- ness, for the quiet that results from fear is much more likely to be the stillness of inactivity than the orderly quietness of work. The pupil should be trained to feel that he has no right to disturb others, that his duty to his fellow-pupils and the teacher impera- tively demands from him an earnest eflFort to be quiet. 3 Boisterousness in the School-room must Never be Permitted. — During intermission, if the pupils are confined to the house owing to inclement weather, talking and laughing are proper and should be encouraged ; but all romping, scuffling, and boisterousness must be tabooed. The school -room must be held sacred to the genius of quietness and order. 4. Train Pupils to do Everything Quietly.— If a pupil does anything noisily, cause him to repeat the act quietly. Soon your pupils will become toned down, and will acquire the habit of speaking and moving quietly. Do not allow them to acquire the cat-like tread of the panther ; let them learn to move with the quiet grace of well-bred gentlemen and ladies rather than with the treacherous noiselessness of the burglar and the thief. 6. Use necessary Punishments. — Some vicious and careless pupils can not otherwise be cured of noisy habits. If quietness can not be secured in any other way, you must resort to punish- ment ; but in this and all other things do not try coercion till every other expedient has been tried and proved ineffectual. Let punish* ment be your last resort. V. COMMUNICATION.— Necessity has forced all good schools to insist on this regulation being carried out to the very letter. Though exceedingly difficult, it can and must be rigidly enforced. Order cannot otherwise be maintained, and without order there can be no sound education. Even for his own sake — Cai Cap. lll.l COMMUNICATION. lo;4 for sake of present peace, and with a view to further advancement in the profession — the teacher should not cease liis efforts till he has established non-communication as one of the characteristic virtues of his school. Nothing more clearly proves the teacher to be a good disciplinarian than the successful enforcement of the regulation against communication by voice, by writing, or by sign ; and very few things contribute more to the comfort, the prosperity, the morality of the school. 1. Appeal to Principle. — It is not difficult to get the pupils to admit the injurious effects of communication, and to acknowledge that it is their duty to make an earnest, continuous eflfbit to avoid it. It is no less the duty of the teacher to adopt wise means of arousing and directing the conscience of his pupils, and to strengthen and encourage them to comply with this and other regulations, because conscience tells them it is right. 2. Never Grant Permission to Speak. — Say to pupils firmly, "No." Necessary communications can be made through the teacher, or at times set apart for that purpose, and miist not be tolerated, much less encouraged, in any other way than that pro- vided by the regulation. 3. An'jlcipate and Prevent. — By word, or sign, or look, you may prevent the offense; and prevention is infinitely better than correction. Herein lies one of the secrets of the success of the best school managers. 4. Throw Around Pupils the most Favourable In- fluences. — It is wise to remove the weak from temptation. Place them with the strong and brave. In chronic cases, the pupil may for a time be seated apart from the other pupils. .6. Train your Pupils to the Habit of Non-Communica- tion. — This has been done in thousands of schools, and wliat others have done you may do. When the act has grown into a habit, very little of your time will be required for preserving order. 6. Cultivate a Determined Purpose.— "You must not communicate " should be felt in every nerve and fibre of the school. No quarter must be shown to whispering. Where there is a will, there is a way. Nature never allows the violation of any of her laws without imposing the legitimate penalty ; here also the teacher S'l <) r i Ii ii 1 ^' INI 1' 1 : I i ii i 104 ENFORCEMENT OF REGULATIONS. li i' I '.' i .1 PI } 3 [Part IIT nms€ imitate nature, he must be persistent and must convince the pupils of his resolute determination to enforce the school law of non-communication. 7. Inflict appropriate Punishments. — The habit must be broken up. When other means fail, effective punishment must be used. It is impossible to indicate what the punishment should be. In each case the teacher must do whatever promises the best results. General or private reproof, or changing seats, will usually prove effective. VI, MORALITY. — Moral culture is by far the most impor- tant party of an education ; the development of a virtuous character should c3 the aim of every teacher. Morality is a positive virtue, based upon the intuition, "I ought," and not a mere compliance with a series of prohibitions, "You must not." No system of in- struction can succeed in which sound moral principles are not systematically iiaculcated ; nor is the teacher fairly discharging the duties of his office, if he fails, by precept or example, to place before his pupils a high standard of morality, and to encourage them to reach it. It should not be more difficult to produce good character than good scholarship ; systematic and persistent effort on the part of the family, the school, and the community will as certainly pro- duce the one as the other. 1. Teach Morality by the Influence of your own Sxample. — It is impossible to over-estimate the influence for good of the truly worthy teacher. His pupils unconsciously imitate his example, and their characters are steadily moulded into confor- mity with his. All his impulses must be pure and elevating ; his morality must be positive ; his conduct must show that he loves the truth and hates iniquity, not in compliance with mere expediency but in obedience to the command of conscience. ' 2. Teach Morality Systematically.— Regular lessons will do great good, if the teacher has the gift of making them very interesting and practical. It is not advisable that the teacher should usurp the functions of the regularly ordained ministers of religion ; he will, in fact, be compelled to use some caution lest his familiar talks on morals should change into laboured sermons un dogma. Cap. 3. nect occi acco sciei repe teac mon Cap. 111.] MORALITY. 105 Hrsi 3. Teach Morality Incidentally. — This can be done in con- nection with Heading lessons, cases of discipline, or when incidents occur involving morality. If timely and persistent, this method will accomplish far more than lectures or set lessons. Morality, like science, can be taught best by concrete examples. Children are repelled by vague abstractions and moral sermons ; but the watchful teacher will find many excellent opportunities of instilling sound moral principles from the ordinary lessons and occurrences of the school. 4. Work in the Pupil a Love of the Right and a Hatred of the Wrong. — In reading or telling anecdotes, avoid the details of crime, but show the nobleness of right-doing and the meanness of wrong-doing; show the tendencies and the outcome of the two courses of conduct. This field is unlimited, and full of inspiration. 5. Attack one Vice at a Time. — The skilful general manages to conquer the enemy in detail. So must vices be conquered. Take profanity, then untruthfulness, then dishonesty, etc., and mass all your forces on each in turn. When the first is conquered, attack the second. This is the only successful plan for a campaign against vice, either for the individual, the school, or the community. This does not imply that you are to treat other vices as of little or no consequence. On the contrary, you must resolutely set your face against wrong-doing in all its forms ; but a steady, systematic massing of your forces against a particular vice will render your pupils especially watchful, and will more rapidly develop their power to avoid it. 6. Train the Pupil to the Habit of Right-doing.— No amount of moral teaching will answer. Doing good is the only way to become good. Precept lets the pupil hear what is right, example lets him see what is right, training makes him practise what is right. It is as easy to cultivate the practice of good as of evil, if not easier, — as easy, for instance, to train pupils to speak well of their absent fellow-pupils as to slander and malign them, — easier to induce them to help than to hinder each other in advancing. Childi'en have an instinctive love of what is just, generous, and chivalrous ; and it is not a difficult task to train this instinct into a habit of doing right from right motives. i. til lil I c, )'l I . i\ t.> V . s 106 ENFORCEMENT OF REOCLATIONS. [Part lit. 7. Administer Punishments in Love. — See that the wrong-doer suffers the inAitnroX consequences ofhitaeU. Kindly but firmly manage to make the pupils get right and keep right. See that the punishment works in the pupil a hatred of the wrong and a love of the right. Ponder before you act. Injudicious punish- ment is criminal. It breaks down manhood, and is a prolific source of human woe. The objects of punishment are to reform the offender and to prevent others from committing a like offense. Not only the offender but every other pupil in the school, as well, should feel that the teacher is actuated by a strong sense of duty when he inflicts punishment for any cause ; that he abstains from it as long as he can possibly do so, consistently with the faithful discharge of his duty to the school, as well as to the individual offender ; and that he sorrowfully resorts to it as a last resource in the hope of preventing the formation and spread of evil habits. Appeal to Conscience as the great motive power in inducing obedience to all regulations. Conscience is a rational emotion ; it impels us to do what we believe to be right. Conscience is a feeling of satisfaction in view of right-doing, or a feeling of remorse in view of wrong-doing. "An approving conscience is the smile of God; remorse, His frown." Veneration, honour to parents, truthfulness, honesty, courage, fidelity, virtue, benevolence self-control — eveiything that elevates and ennobles — must be cultivated from the standpoint of conscience. This becomes, as it ought, the master impulse of the soul. Appetite, passion, selfishness, weakness, yield to the man- dates of conscience. An intelligent, conscientious man is the noblest work of God — *' His mind clear as the mountain air. His heart pure as the driven snow." To produce such men is the grand end of education. The para- mount work of every teacher is the culture of conscience ; and this is involved in all that is taught and all that is done in the school- room. \ C Cap. IIl.J TOPICAL RKVIEW. 107 Topical Review. — Enforcement of School Regulations. Adoption aids Enforcement. 1. Children on good behaviour at starting. 2. Teacher strengtheti^ their good impulses. 3. Circumstances miist he considered. 4. Priri.ci'ple of Duty in general. Regularity. 1. Interest pupils intensely. 2. Interest parents. 3. Urge the duty. 4. Punishment. Promptitude. 1. Be prompt yourself. 3. Impress the importance. 5. Exercise discretion. m 2. Train to the liabit. 4. Exceptional cases. 6. Punishment. Decorum. 1. Set a good example. 3. Teach decorum systematically. 5. Train to the habit. 6. Punishment. Quiet— not Stillness. 1. Be quiet, not fussy. 3. No romping in school-rooms. 5. Punishment. 2. Passport to success. 4. Teach decorum inc i- dentally. 2. Appeal to principle. 4. Train to the habit. Communication. 1. Appeal to prhxciple. 2. Never permit communication,, 3. Anticipate aiid prevent. 4. Employ favorable influences. 5. Train to the habit of non-commimication. 6. Be persistent. 7. Punishment. Morality— a positive quality 1. Teach by example, 3. Tea^h incidentally. 5. Atta4ik one vice at a time. 2. Teach systematically. 4. Lead pupils to live right. 6. Train to the habit. I- ' - 7. Administer punishments in love and from a sense of duty. CHAPTER IV. Principles Pertaining to School Punishment. f ■ 11: 'I :* Discipline is Instruction and Training in Duty. — Some use "discipline" as equivalent to school government; but, as we have seen, school government embraces many things that do not come under the head of discipline at all. Here we use it in the sense of punishment in its relations to a life of duty, and, indeed, it was in this sense it was used in the systemless system of the old regime ; but the old regime recognized no other instrument of gov- ernment than punishment — no other instrument of punishment than the rod. With impartial blindness it tried to whip learning into the stupid, manners into the clownish, and morals into the vicious. It never seemed to contemplate the possibility of the pupil's being trained to govern himself, nor of his acting rightly from principle rather than from fear ; hence punishment and government were used as synonymous terms. Happily, the educational theories and practices of the world have changed. Punishment — the inten- tional infliction of suffering upon offenders — is no longer regarded as the chief, much less the only means of school government. Instead of the fear of punishment, the sense of duty has been substituted as the great motive power, and the best teachers expend their most earnest energies in training the children to do right because it is right. If all pupils could be trained to this without calling in the aid of punishment, no right-minded man or woman would ever resort to it — there would be no occasion for its use. But the desire to do right is not implanted with equal ease in the breast of every child, occasionally it requires something more than precept and example to quicken conscience, and herein lies the legitimate function of punishment. Suffering, mental or physical, wisely inflicted, edu- cates conscience. As soon as conscience asserts its supremacy, the discipline of punishment becomes unnecessary, duties are performed from right motives, and the constant performance of duty soon grows into the habit of doing right. [108] Cap. IV.] REFORMATORY— NATURAL. 109 I I The Problem of School Punishment.— To continue the discipline of suffering, after it has fulfilled its true mission of arous- ing conscience, would be senseless and inhuman ; hence it is a mat- ter of the utmost importance to consider what punishment to inflict at school, as well as when and how to inflict it. No subject con- nected with school management is more delicate than this, none requires more judgment, discretion, or wisdom. There can be nc- bettor test of the general fitness and capacity of a teacher than is furnished by the amount and kind of punishment he finds it neces- sary to inflict in order to conduct his school efficiently. In apply- ing such a test, the general character and conduct of the community should, of course, be taken into account ; but, as a general rule, the best teachers are those who punish the least, and the wisest, thosci who make the best choice, when punishment must be inflicted. The foUowiT)^, are some of the more important principles to be con- sidered in Connection with the problem of punishment in school r I. Reformatory. — Punishment shotdd he Reformatory, never Vindictive. — ^AU punishments should tend directly to benefit the punished, and indirectly to benefit the community. The State deals with adults, and hence, in the State, punishment is retribu- tive and not necessarily corrective. The school deals with children ; hence school punishments should be corrective rather than retri- butive. The good of the punished should be the paramount con sideration. Vindictive punishment is worthy of the arch-fiend only ; it should never be inflicted, either in school or State. It has taken the educational world a long time to discover that reforma- tion and not retribution is the true object of punishment ; no doubt the State will in process of time come to see that possibly it may be wiser as well as more humane to .attempt the reformation of criminals rather than merely to exact retribution from them. Men, criminals and other's, are but children of a larger growth. II. Self-Control. — Punishment sho^dd foster Self-control and Self-respect. Self-government alone is worthy of man. Punish- ments should tend to foster self-control by working in the offendei a firm resolve to forsake the wrong and do the right. FunishmentT) that crush manhood are fiendish. ^ III. A Natural Consequence. — TJie Punishment shoidd be a Natural Consequence of the Offense. This is a fundamental principle * v; ; :i f ' fe no PRINCIPLES OF PUNISHMENT. (Part III. J of the Divine government, and the more closely human govern- ments conform to it, the better. Such punishments, seemingly retributive, are in fact corrective. The relation of the punishment to the offense should be profoundly studied before it is administered. IV. Mild. — Punishments sJiould be Mild, hut Certain. Undue severity creates sympathy for the offender and weakens the moral influence of the teacher. All semblance of cruelty should be avoided, whatever savors of ill-temper or brutality, whatever tends to the injury of the body, mind, or sensibilities of the child, is to be unsparingly condemned. Mild but certain punishments are most efl'ective. Not the amount of pain inflicted, but the effect produced on the character of the child is the important considera- tion. Spasmodic discipline produces the most injurious efiects on child-nature. If he is punished to-day for an offense of which no notice was taken yesterday, he cannot fail to conclude that the punishment does not so much depend on the offense as on the capri- cious temper of the teacher, and he is thus easily tempted, on the next opportunity, to repeat the offense and take the chances. Justice is the strongest principle in the childish mind, and his sense of justice is outraged by either cruelty or uncertainty in the exercise of discipline. Vi Deliberate. — T/ie InJli^Aion of Punishment should he Deliberate and Infrequent. Not in anger nor in haste should the child be caused to suffer. If possible, both teacher and pupil should have time for reflection. By faithful teaching and wise management, offenses should be prevented and punishment averted. The almost continual and violent punishments inflicted by some teachers and parents are a crying evil. VI. Loving Heart. — Punishment shoidd he Inflicted in Love. It grieves the teacher to inflict the punishment ; he suffiers that he may benefit the child. The child realizes that his teacher suffers for him and with him ; and the knowledge that the teacher's sym- pathy is with him even in the act of punishing will do more to open the childish heart and quicken the childish conscience than all the pain that could be inflicted in years of tyranny by a cold, unsympathising martinet. VII. Educational. — Punishment shoidd he made an Educatiorwil MeanSy and as such it should he essentially Corrective. It seeks always i a c >ARTlIl. govern- emingly ishment listered. Undue BnB the lould be er tends Id, is to mts are le effect (nsidera- ffects on 'hich no bhat tlio ie capri- , on the chances, and his C in the ould he )uld the d pupil nd wise averted. )y some in Love. that he r suffers r's sy in- more to than all cold, cational always Cap. tV.l DELIBERATE — LOVING— EDUCATIONAL. Ill to bring the youth to a sense of his wrong-doing, and to produce a positive alteration in his behaviour. It has for its aim his improve- ment. Every punishment must be looked upon as a means to an end. The pupil should always be conscious that it is painful to the teacher to punish him. Nothing can be more effectual as a means of cure for wrong-doing than for the wrong-doer to perceive in tV.e manner, the tone of voice, and the words, that he who punishes also suffers in order that the wrong-door may be cured of his fault. "The principle of vicarious suffering lies at the root of all spiritual healing." Besides aiming at the reformation of the offender, punishment aims at the prevention of offenses. It is deterrent as well as reformatory, and for this reason it must occasionally be administered before the school, as an example and a warning. The teacher's duty is to educate the entire school, and though punishment should in general be inflicted in private, yet should he not hesitate to sink his consideration for the feelings of the individual in his desire to benefit the school, when the circumstances warrant the belief that the public punishment of an offender will have an educational value sufficient to justify the deviation from the general rule. In such cases, the teacher will be careful to guard against even the appear- ance of vindictiveness, cruelty, or excess. Bentham's Principles. — The following are selected from Ben- tham's principles pertaining to punishment : 1. The punishment following an offense should exceed the appar- ent advantage derived from its being committed. 2. The greater the offense, the greater should be the pains taken to secure its punishment. 3. Punishment should never be greater than is needed to prevent a repetition of the offense. 4. Regard should be paid to the sensibility of the offender, ad dependent on age, sex, position, health. 5. Punishments should be increased in magnitude as the detec- tion of the offense is uncertain or remote. 6. When the offense is not an isolated act, but an act indicating the existence of a habit, the punishment should outweigh the apparent advantages, not merely of the act, but of the habit. !f i t. 'V 112 PRINCIPLES OF PUNISHMENT. tPABT in. 11 Mi GOVERNING FORCES.— Whatever moves to right-doing, and develops the power of self -government, is a governing force in the educational sense. A brief outline of the governing forces is here submitted. They are five in number, viz. , intellectual, moral, social, will, and physical forces. 1. Intelleotual Forces govern by system through motives. {a) System. — Intellect matures plans and perfects system ; it sub- jects impulse to reason, and governs by establishing th ^ reign of law. (fe) Motives. — Intellect leads the governed to act from high and ennobling motives. Wise management leads the pupils to choose order. ' 2. Moral Forces may be sub-divided into conscience and the affections. Man is a moral being, endowed with powers to enable him tq appreciate and enjoy the right ; his moral qualities fit him to be an inhabitant in a world of duty. (a) Conscience impels to the Bight. — The imperative J otight is a universal intuition. This is the central idea in all government. Without it government, except by physical force, would be impos- sible. The teacher, by educating conscience, renders the pupil an upright, self-governing being. (6) Affections. — Rising above all the other faculties are enthroned the affections. Craving objects beyond self, they draw man into communion with his Maker and his kind. Happy the child impelled by love, and trained to do right because it is right ! 3. Social Forces. — Man is a social as well as a moral being. Social influences act and re-act. Society is to a great extent regu- lated by the two great social forces, companionship and p^iblic opliiiorii. (a) Compa/nionship. — Many aphorisms indicate the wide-spread conviction of the great influence, for good or evil, of companionship. Good companionship is a potent educational force, and one of the most powerful of the governing forces. The wise teacher will seek its influence for himself, and cultivate the desire for it in his pupils. (6) Public Ojnnion. — It is impossible to estimate the overwhelm- ing force of that subtle, impalpable, irresistible influence known as Public Opinion. By it the masters of assemblies rule. The teacher I* Cap. IV. GOVfiRNlNQ FOUCfcS. iin should bo caroful, in his little world, to create and guide public opinion aright, and to avail hiniself of its aid in governing his school. 4. Will Forces. — Man is free and responsible. Will is the self-determining power of the soul. (a) Self-Gontrol. — We never l>roak the child's will. We clujrish free choice from right motives. We develop the power of self-gov- ernment. (6) Firmneas. — The teacher is firm because he is right. Kindly but firmly he guides. The child is developed into a self-determin- ing and self-acting man. Kight motives lead to right determina- tions and right actions. 6. Physical Forces. — In school, as in society, the use of physical force as a punishment sometimes becomes necessary ; but, in the ratio that the higher forces control, it becomes unnecessary to use physical force. (a) Beatraints. — This is probably the most effective way in which physical force can be used in school. By restraints even wild beasts are tamed. (h) Pain. — Some pupils can scarcely be influenced except through the body. In extreme cases, until higher motives can be brought to bear, it may be necessary to utilize this force. (c) Comfort. — Favorable physical conditions do vastly more than rules to secure good government. {d) Becreatioti. — This is a mighty governing force. If teachers and parents would profoundly and practically study the philosophy of recreation, they would find comparatively little need for punish- ment. The great Public Schools of the old country are, to a large extent, governed and controlled by the espHt de corpt formed and fostered in the play-ground, the gynmasium, and the cricket ground. In our own country, too, much more attention is now being paid to the physical culture of the rising generation than was the case in former years ; and we may reasonably look for correspondin • • , • 5 present cunce, den. er of the ate and Hie firm fense. ah. ition of r. icuU. ibits. m. CrfAPTER V. JuDIOIOUH AND In.< t/OICIOUS PfTNISIIM ENTS. JUDICIOUS SCHOOL PUNISH MthWTS aio thoso that work ill the children a love for the right and a hatred for the wrong. Such punishments will be found to accord with the principles laid down in the foregoing chapter. They will tend to make the oflTonder strong to do the right and to resist the wrong ; and they will dimin- ish the aggregate number of offenses in the school, not by the establishment of a reign of terror, but by the introduction of a healthy moral tone among the pu])ils. Judicious punishment not only reforms the individual and trains him to right habits, it also enlists the sympathy of his fellow i)upils in behalf of the teacher who has effected such a change, makes them wish to help in the work of reformation, and tends gradually to establish duty as a cardinal principle of the community. Bentham gives the following as the characteristics of judicious punishments : 1. Variability — They should admit of degrees. 2. Equability — They should admit of equal application under all circumstances. 3. Adequacy — To the offense committed. 4. Special Suitability — To the nature of the offense. 5. ExEMPLARH^ESS — They should be impressive. 6. Subserviency — To reformation. 7. Public Popularity — They should not excite public sympathy in favour of the offender. 8. Remissibility — In case of repentance or of miscarriage of justice. As the best of all punishments, we begin with — I. REPROOF. — This is an efficient corrective of most faults. Let teachers and parents learn rightly to administer reproof, and they will find the child-heart responding as does the rose-bud to the summer sun. [115] r 1^ 116 WISF AND UNWISE PUNISHMENTS. [Pakt III. 1. General Reproof is the mildest and most eflfective of all school punishments. It alone will suffice to correct a majority of oflfenses. Some pupil has done wrong. At the proper time, in a low, earnest tone, the teacher speaks of the offense and the offender. No name is mentioned, but the sincere hope is expressed that the offense will not be repeated. Thus kindly and considerately dealt with, the pupil resolves to reform. Other pupils are strengthened by such reproof. The spirit of the school impels to the right. 2. Private Reproof, administered in the right spirit, is wonderfully effective, and works marvellous resuits. General reproof having failed to induce the pupil to reform, the teacher has & private interview with him. He does not announce his mtention to the school by publicly ordering the offender to remain after the closing hour, but finds or makes an opportunity for a stiHctly private meet- ing. Kindly and gently he shows the tendencies of such conduct, and asks if he will not at least try to do better for the future. He wishes to help the boy to become a man. Will he help himself ? Nay more, will he not help the teacher to set a good example to the rest of the school ? He can do it if he will, and the teacher will thoroughly trust him, and help him to overcome the temptations that he himself had found so hard to resist when he was a boy. Such an interview has been the turning point in the formation of the character of thousands. The pupil feels that he and his teacher are standing heart to heart ; for the first time, perhaps, he fully realizes that the teacher is also his sincere friend, tenderly anxious for his w.elfare, and deeply sympathising with him in all his trials and temptations. His heart is touched, and his better nature is aroused, for the time at all events, to an intense desire and resolve to do the right, and thus prove himself worthy of the confidence and esteem of his teacher. 3. Public Reproof is a powerful but dangerous punishment. It should be used sparingly and with great discretion ; with some pupils it shoiild never be employed, excei^t for some unusually serious misconduct. It is a fearful thing to break down a pupil's self-respect, and to blunt his regard for public opinion. But public oi)inion has its place. If the pupil cannot be moved by either general or private reproof, the teacher, at some favourable moment, presents the matter to the school, mentions the nan.e of Pakt III. v^e of all jority of me, in a offender, that the ;ely dealt ngthened jht. spirit, is il reproof i& private m to the le closing ate meet- conduct, ure. He himself ? pie to the icher will [nptations 18 a boy. nation of is teacher he fully anxious his trials nature is d resolve onfidence ishment. ith some nusually ft pupil's e moved ivourablo nar>.e of Cap v.] KEPROOF — PRlVATlOK. 117 the offender, not to wound his feelings but to arouse him and to give all the pupils an opportunity to aid h' > in the correction of his faults. If the public opinion of the school is healthy, the offender canncart til. naturally fall into lower and still lower classes. The time may come when such pupils may even forfeit their positions in school. These backward movements should be prevented if possible. Rarely do they result in good to the pupils or to the school. 5. Deprive of Certain Privileges. — Privation of a privilege should follow its abuse. The pupil will recognize the justice of the punishment. If inflicted in kindness and sorrow, this punishment is powerful to efiect reformation. 6. Keeping after School. — Except as a penalty for oflfenses committed while returning from school, this punishment is seldom justifiable. A boy mistreats younger pupils, or is quarrelsome, or uses bad language ; as a natural consequence, he is deprived of the privilege of returning home with the other scholars. This method of punishment might be resorted to occasionally with good effect for the correction of other faults than those just mentioned, if teachers would only act with discrimination in inflicting it, keeping in view Bentham's 4th Principle, as enunciated in our last chapter. But, imfortunately, many teachers have not acted judiciously in this respect, — the punishment has been imposed on children to whom the regular hours are too long, and for offenses for whose correction it is eminently unsuited ; consequently a most admirable means of discipline has become decidedly unpopular, and the practice has steadily fallen into disuse. 7. Deprive of Favour. — If a proper bond of good feeling exists between the teacher and the pupils, there can scarcely be a more effective means of punishing a disorderly child than the temporary withdrawal of the teacher's favour. The pupil is insolent, insubordinate, or idle, and as a natural consequence the teacher refuses to continue on the same terms of cordial friendship with the offender as before. It is precisely what would happen between friends in real life ; business relations continue ; ordinary duties are discharged ; common civilities are exchanged ; but so long as any cause of offense remains without atonement, no cordial feeling exists, no smile of approval is bestowed. The estrangement is keenly felt, and it seldom takes long to evoke from the child manifest signs of repentance and of desire for amendment and recon- ciliation. These signs the teacher should be quick to notice and to encourage, that dosj)air of regaining the old footing may not drive Part 111. ime may n school, possible, school. privilege ce of the nishment r offenses LB seldom ilsome, or ed of the is method Qod effect tioned, if ■j, keeping t chapter, ciously in kildren to or whose admirable and the »d feeling rcely be a than the pupil is Lience the 'riendship happen ordinary ; but so 10 cordial angement the child nd recon- ce and to not drive Cap. v.] DEPORTMENT MARKS. IID the unhappy delinquent still further from the path of duty. The approval of the wise and faithful teacher is a wonderful incentive to good conduct, his disapproval is always a severe punishment ; neither should ever be lightly bestowed. III. DEPORTMENT MARKS.— The pupil begins with a standing of 100 in deportment ; only improper conduct can lower his standing. The daily conduct of the pupil makes its own record on the mind of the wide-awake teacher. At the close of the month or quarter the deportment is recorded in the register, and a report is sent to the parent. 1. Grades and Reports.— From 100 to 90, excellent; from 90 to 80, good ; from 80 to 70, passable ; from 70 to 60, poor. The words, never the figures, should be reported or published. Some schools use cards of four colours to represent the four words, and report the class standing on these cards. 2. Correct Marking. — Great care and strict impartiality are necessary. The marking must be on general conduct, and not on specific violations of the regulations ; these have been dealt with already, immediately after the occurrence, and it would hardly be fair to punish the pupil twice for the same offense — once by the special discipline suited to the transgression, and again by lowering the deportment record intended as an index of general behaviour. What record has the pupil really made ? If you hesitate, always give the pupil the benefit of the doubt. Exert yourself to the utmost to prevent any pupil from falling below 70 in deportment. 3. Injudicious Marking has brought all marking into disre- pute. Some teachers carry it to the extreme, and the conduct of their pupils has reference to the marking rather than to the right. Others continually mark for specific offenses, and thus make them- selves recording machines. Then, the marking is often glaringly unjust. Some incorporate self -reporting, with all its evils, with deportment marking. 4. No Marking is considered better than injudicious marking. Hence some educators oppose all marking for deportment. They tell us that, in the hands of the average teacher, this punishment proves a serious injury. 120 WISE AND UNWISE PUNISHMENTS. [Part III. ! ?■ I i r i 5. Doubtful Punishment. — Marking deportment is consid- ered by some educators as a doubtful, if not an injudicious punish- ment, to be ranked among the mere outward restraints employed in the discipline of the past. But, general good conduct is undoubtedly entitled to the approval of the conscientious teacher, and this is, partially at least, if not adequately, expressed by high deportment marks ; Imhitually bad conduct unquestionably deserves his disap- proval, and this it receives in a low deportment record. No sensible teacher will expect or trust that marking, however well and wisely done, is going to cure all the ills of the school-room. Deportment records have, however, proved a valuable auxiliary in the hands of many able teachers ; and the system is at least worthy of a trial. 6. Marking is a Silent Force. — As such it should be per- mitted to exercise its influence for good. Seldom should the teacher refer to it, and never should he urge this as an incentive to good conduct. The punishment follows, as in nature and society, as a result of improper courses of conduct. IV. EXTRAORDINARY PUNISHMENTS. — Suspen- sion, Expulsion, and Corporal Punishment, when judiciously administered, must be regarded as coming fairly in the catalogue of Judicious Punishments ; but on account of the serious nature of the discipline involved in the first and second, and because of the divided opinions that still exist concerning the third of these, we think it better to discuss them separately, under the head of Special Punishments, in the next chapter. INJUDICIOUS SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS. —Vnder this head are to be classed all punishments that fail to excite a desire to do right because it is right. If mere compliance with a rule were the end and aim of punishment, then many of those which we shall have to class as injudicious would be entitled to take a much higher rank, and might fairly claim to be considered eminently successful. But ohedie^ice from a right motive^ and not compliance merely, is the immediate object sought by discipline, and all pun- ishments that fail to effect this must be ranked as injudicious. Punishments which violate principles must be avoided ; that which is not established on a correct basis cannot be beneficial in its tendency. The mode of infliction, also, must be carefully consid' i ART III. Cap. v.] EXTRAORDINARY PUNISHMENTS. 121 consid- punish- loyed in )ubtedly this is, lortment IB disap- 1 sensible id wisely lortment hands of h trial. I be per- e teacher 5 to good lety, as a - Suspen- idiciously catalogue IS nature ecause of of these, ) head of ider this 3 a desire h a rule )se which to take a sminently 3nipliance . all pun- judicious, hat which ;ial in its ly consid- ered, for many punishments, otherwise judicious and in strict accordance with principle, may become useless and ineffectual, even mischievous, if injudiciously administered. All punishments inju- rious in their tendencies are injudicious and should be tabooed. Their name is legion ; only some of the more common are here classed. 1. Unusual Punishments commonly prove to be Injudicious. — Punishments approved by public sentiment will generally be found safest and best. Teachers who rack their brains to invent new tortures render themselves unpopular, and hence less successful. The preceding punishments are abundantly sufficient. 2. Cowardly Punishments are always Injudicious.— Children not less than adults despise a mean, cowardly person, who wantonly punishes the helpless. Scolding, censure accompanied by threats, is one of this class of punishments. The wise teacher or parent tries to be sweet-tem- pered also ; such a one never scolds, never threatens, never irritates. The sour, whining, threatening dyspeptic keeps the school continu- ally irritated by the everlasting rasping of his scolding tongue. The wretchedness caused by this cowardly punishment is beyond com- putation ; the unhappy child has not even the poor privilege of talking back ; he must simply sit there and silently endure what- ever the venomous coward may choose to utter of censure and abuse. Persons to whom the habit of scolding has become chronic should be excluded from the school-room. 3. Threats are Injudicious and Unworthy of the Teacher. — Nature makes no threats ; but a mild, certain punish- ment follows violated law. The teacher cannot follow a better model ; he should never threaten, never intimidate. Foreshadow- ing consequences must not be confounded with threatening. It is highly proper and right that the pupil should be forewarned of the inevitable consequence of misconduct ; but this is a very different thing from the punishment in question — warning is not threatening. 4. Nagging is an Injudicious, Contemptible Punish- ment. — It means constant, vexatious, irritating talk and action. Foolish and short-sighted teachers are sometimes guilty of nagging. They do not scold, nor reprove, nor punish outright ; better if they f-lM 122 WISE AND UNWISE PUNISHMENTS. LTart III. I-I I? ii! did. The victim perhaps reports in this way : " The teacher is always picking at me." It is quite possible that ihe teacher has no such intention, and for that reason we do not here apply any stronger terms than "foolish and short-sighted" to those guilty of the practice ; if done with malice prepense it is quite as cowardly and despicable as scolding or threats. Those addicted to the habit are sometimes utterly unconscious of the fact ; they may even think it kind to refrain from downright reproof, and to substitute perpetual admonition for it. But it is a most mistaken policy. The average child is susceptible, and responds promptly to generosity, confi- dence, and obvious good will. When the child-heart feels that the teacher wishes, respects, and enjoys goodness in the pupil, it has the strongest motive to be good. But let the dark suspicion, whether well-founded or not, once get into the mind, " My teacher wishes me to fail and trip so that he can be down upon me," and the influence of the teacher for good is gone ; the child-heart is so embittered as to bring forth only evil instead of good, and the great end of education is defeated. 5. Cruel Punishments are Injudicious and Inhuman.— Such brutalities as placing pepper on the tongue, putting split sticks on the ears, compelling pupils to stand long on one foot, or to hold weights at arm's length, etc. , are of this class. All tortures, all harsh and cruel punishments of this kind are injudicious. More- over, they are fortunately illegal, so that any teacher guilty of such atrocities would very probably soon find himself where he would be lucky if the tables were not completely turned upon himself. But bodily torture is not the only direction in which cruelty can find vent. Mental torture is a much more cruel punishment ; it is infinitely harder to bear, and it too often leaves dark bruises and ugly scars upon the soul, that time is powerless to efface. Some teachers will not hesitate to indulge in the keenest sarcasm at the expense of an ofiending pupil, especially if he be an old offender ; nay, they will pride themselves on their skill in making such a "hard case" \^ince. The teacher may have forgiven the csjrit once before and let him go scot free. If so he will now flnig his former leniency in the poor wretch's face and taunt him with his want of gratitude, his weakness in doing right. Perhaps the edifj'- ing scene will end by his forgivinri the poor badgered victim once 4\ !■ Cap. v.] INJUDiCtOtTS PUKlSflMENTS. i2n more, and letting him go unpunished this time also just to see whether that will have any effect on his callous nature and induce him to do better for the future. Alas ! for the chances of moral growth, in an atmosphere in which an unhappy child would gladly welcome the severest flogging rather than forgiveness ! Truly somo teachers do not know what punishment is, much less what is its aim and purpose, 6. Head Punishments are Improper.— The head, the immediate organism through which the soul acts, is a sacred thing. Slapping, boxing, pulling the nose, ears, or hair, are indignities to which no child should be subjected. If you must use corporal pun- ishment, under any circumstances spare the head. 7. Degrading Punishments are Educational Mis- takes. — No means should be spared to have the child think well of himself. Punishments having an opposite tendency are mon- strous, and teachers who take a fiendish pleasure in degrading and demeaning their pupils are human monsters. 8. Vindictive Punishments Injure both Parties.— Any l)unishment administered in anger is more or less vindictive. That a parent or teacher should punish a child simply to gratify spleen, and without reference to the good of the child, is hard to conceive. That such punishment is common, is a humiliating fact. 9. Keeping in, except for the causes mentioned in this chapter (under the heading " Privations," sub-section 6, p. 118), will gener- ally prove to be an injudiciou3 punishment. It has fallen so much into disrepute and disuse that it might almost be classed among the "Unusual Punishments." On the whole, it is perhaps best to let it remain there ; better risk the loss of a sound means of discipline than run the risk of adopting what in your hands may prove to be an injudicious one. It is a fearful thing to punish improperly. Erring man should ponder long before punishing a little immortal, "Over whom the angels watch." Injudicious punishments tend to crush out the noblest traits of child-nature —tend to foster all hateful passions. 124 WlSE AND UNWISE PUNISHMENTS. (fART 111. TopiUAX Review — Judicious and Injudicious Punishments. Judioio\is Punishments. 1. Definition. 2. Effect. 3. Benthani'a characteristics. Reproof rightly administered. 1. General^ without mentioning names. 2. Frivate, administered with gentle kindness. 3. Public, mtut he used discreetly. Privations are highly efficacious. 1. Seaty for irregularity, disturbance, die. 2. Recess, for disorderly conduct du/ring recess. 3. Becitation, for neglect, copying, or communicating. 4. Position in class, for negligence and inuttention. 5. Privileges, for abuse of them. 6. Goitig home with others, for misconduct on similar occasions. 7. Favour, for insubordination or repetition of offenses. Deportment M^jiks. 1. Grades and Reports. 2. Correct ma/rking. 3. Injudicious marking. 4. No marking. 5. A doubtful pxmishment. 6. A silent force. Extraordinary, or Special Punishments. Suspension, exp^dsion, and corporal punishment. Injudicious School Punishments— General definition. 1. Umisual punisliments. 2. Cowardly punishments. 3. Threatening. 4. Nagging. 6. Gruel punishments. 6. Head punishments. 7. Degraditig punishments. 8. Vindictive punishments, d. Keeping mi, except for misconduct in retiring. • •>^/vw^/^.■ 'v.v^^^rfNi/s/V* / ART in. ENTS. CS. :casiott.ii. nition. lents. J. menta. CHAPTER VI. Special, or Extraordinary, Punishments. Special, or Extraordinary, Punishments are the modes of discipline resorted to by the teacher in extreme cases. They include Suspension, Expulsion, and Corporal Punishment. In works on School Management, it is not uncommon to class these punishments, or some of them, among the common means to be adopted for the government of the school ; and we have so far conformed to the general practice in this respect as to name them with other judicious punishments in the preceding chapter. Again, corporal punishment is frequently put before suspension in theory, as it generally has been in practice, as involving less serious consequences to the pupil —as being in fact a milder form of discipline. We, however, prefer to group all three together for treatment in a separate chapter, because we wish to emphasize our opinion and desire that teachers should regard any one of these means of discipline as a very special, uncommon, extraordinary exercise of the power and authority with which he is invested ; and, for the relative positions assigned to them, we place suspension before corporal punishment, because the latter, being essentially a degradation, barely escapes being ranked with the injudicious punishments ; while expulsion, not being refor- matory, is not in the proper sense of the term a school punishment at all, but rather a precaution against the contaminating influence of an incorrigible offender. It is arranged next to suspension merely because they both involve the enforced absence of the culprit from school, and so far resemble each other. Reproof and privations are the only punishments ordinarily needed in school or family. The management should be so syste- matic and vigorous as to render severer punishments unnecessary. Still, in rare cases, the teacher may be compelled to resort to suspension, expulsion, or corporal punishment. I. SUSPENSION. — This punishment combines the charac- teristics of the disciplines of reproof and of privation. It means the temporary banishment of the pupil from the school and grounds, [125] V V : m EXTRAORDINARY PUNISHMENTS. [Part III. f * depriving him of all the rights, privileges, and advantages enjoyed by his fellows ; and the sentence of suspension, publicly pronounced, as it generally is, constitutes the keenest reproof that can be uttered within the bounds of right feeling and good taste. It is, therefore, a punishment of extreme severity, which the teacher should avoid as long as the good of the pupils and the school can be promoted without it. When demanded, he should have the courage and judgment to carry it out effectively. Weak teachers continually resort to suspension ; strong teachers rarely use this punishment. But suspension is the best of the s^^vorer punishments. Rightly managed, it results in the good r>f the susp. nded as well as the good of the school. Who should suspend ? When f How 'I How long ? How may the suspended be restored ? Teachers must be prepared to act the answers to these questions. Success or failure may depend upon the course pursued, 1. The Teacher Suspends.— Charged with the govemnient of the school, familiar with all the conditions, and seeking only the good of all concerned, the teacher unquestionably should exercise the right of suspension. This right should be vested in him by law or by contract. It is so in Ontario. Even in the absence of any express statute, the teacher's position gives him the right to suspend a refractory pupil, pending the decision and action of ih ji authorities. It is founded upon necessity. Order miist be maintained ; and if it cannot be maintained by other means, the teacher has no choice but to suspend. 2. Causes for Suspension. — This punishment should be used with great discretion. The age and general character of the pupil, the necessity, and the probable effects must be duly considered. The School Law of Ontario provides for the susi)ension of offenders for any of the following reasons : — (a.) "Truancy persisted in." If the pupil sets so little value on the right of attending school as to persist in absenting himself with- out permission and without cause, suspension may induce him to estimate his privileges more correctly. The deprivation of a right has a wonderful effect in increasing one's desire to possess it. (b.) "Violent opposition to authority." Insubordination has always been held a sufficient cause for suspension. A pupil who refuses to comply with the reciuiromcnts of the teacher should be Cap. VI.] SUSPENSION — CAUSKS. 12^ may right suspended, if ho cannot otherwise be led to Hubmit. The teachor's authority must be maintained at any lawful coat. (c.) "Repetition of any offense after notice." The repetition of an offense betrays either the existence of a bad habit, or of excessive thoughtlessness ; but the repetition after express notice shows a detennination to disobey, and merits a sentence of suspension. Such offenders are frequently cured effectually by a short period of enforced absence from school, and pupils likely to follow their bad example are generally willing to accept the timely warning. (d.) "Habitual and determined neglect of duty." Habitual neglect of duty implies determination to neglect it, and such general worthlessness necessitates suspension. The school is a workshop. Earnest effort is the condition on which its privileges may be enjoyed. The pupil is determined to neglect his duty, notwith- standing all the efforts of the teacher to arouse him to a proper sense of it ; nothing therefore remains but to try suspension, and this sometimes works a radical change. (e.) "The use of profane, or other improper language." It is absolutely necessary that the pupils should be kept as free as possible from contamination ; and if the ordinary punishments of the school are not suflScient to break up the vile habit of using pro- fane language, the teacher has no other course left than to suspend the offender. It may quicken his dormant conscience and lead to permanent reformation ; it will, at all events, free the school for a time, at least, from the influence of a bad example, and will mark the teacher's emphatic condemnation of the vice. In dealing with this evil, the humane teacher will remember that too many of the pupils attending our schools are daily subjected to the debasing influence of incessant profanity and other improper language at home ; and he will consequently exhaust his ingenuity in devising expedients for putting such pupils constantly on their guard against the use of such language, before he resorts to the extreme measure of suspending the offender, and thus depriving him of the only chance he can have of coming under better influences than those surrounding him at home. (/.) " General bad conduct, and bad example, to the injury of the school." This regulation seems at first sight to have only the good of the school in view, and not the reformation of the culprit. ^raa U\ In 128 EXTIIAOIIDINAUY PUNJSFIMKNTS. [Part III. But the very fiict that his general conduct and example are con- sidered injurious to the school, and that nothing short of his suspension will sufhce for its protection, has often a most salutary effect in arousing a scapegrace to a sense of the seriousness of his misconduct, and to a strong desire for amendment and restoration. («/.) "Cutting, marring, destroying, defacing or injuring any of the public school property, such as buildings, furniture, seats, fences, trees, shrubbery, &c., or writing any obscene or improper words on the fences, walls, privies, or any part of the premises." If a pupil is so malicious as to wantonly injure or destroy the pro- perty of the school, he has no right to complain of being deprived of the privilege of attending it ; and the privation seems the most likely means of impressing him with a sense of the value of that which he has injured, and thus of inspiring him with a feeling of shame and regret for his act of vandalism. If the injury consists in the writing of obscene words, no one will say that the punishment is too severe. It is not severe enough. A boy who could be guilty of such a piece of blackguardism should be first soundly flogged before the whole school, and then suspended indefinitely. The school- room is not the place for miscreants ; we need houses of correction for them. The school and the community should be relieved from their contaminating influence. 3. Appeal to the Board of Trustees.— Under the School Law it is also provided that *' Any master suspending a pupil for any of the causes above named, shall, immediately after such suspension, give notice thereof, in writing, to the parent or guardian of such pupil, and to the trustees, in which notice shall be stated the reason for such suspension." The object of this precaution is to give the parent or guardian the right of appeal, in order to have the case fully investigated, and so to prevent the perpetration of injustice. Except in cases of gross injustice, the school board should, and generally does, sustain the teacher. In fact, it is but seldom that the board is called upon to interfere officially in such matters. The teacher is the best judge of the necessity for the infliction of such a punislimont ; no teacher, who understands how to govern his school, would think of resorting to it till he had convinced himself that other means of discipline would be without effect. He adopts it only when all other means have failed. Cap. VI.] SUSPENSION — MODE — DiniATION. 129 4. How to Suspend. — Tho nuuiftgoinont hns been such tlmt the pupils feel that the oftender should bo suspondod. The teacher has used all possible effort to save the pupil, and failed. Suspension has become a necessity. The school must be freed from demoral- izing influencef* and tho pupil must bo placed in a ])o.sifcion favourable to reflection = ad reformation. The manner of pronouncing tho sentence of suspension would, of course, depend to some extent ou the nature of the offense that has directly led to tho suspension. Some such course as the following will generally answer the purpose of directing the public opinion of the school, and rendering the punishment impressive and effective. At the close of school, when the second step of tho tactics for dismissing has boon readied, the teacher calls the offender by name and orders him to stand up. He then, in a low, earnest tone, announces to the school that to his great regret he has been forced to decide on trying the effects of a temporary 8uspensi(m, seeing that all his own efforts and those of the school in general have failed to induce the offender to do right. It is a very painful duty to be obliged to punish a pupil at all, and nothing but a strong conviction that his duty to the remaining pupils compels him to adopt this course would induce him to cut any pupil off from enjoying the privileges of the school and play- grounds. He wishes he could even now think of any milder way of getting the boy to act as others were trying to act ; but he is sorry to have to say that all his expedients are exhausted. He is determined to have order at any cost, and as the boy is not willing to adhere to reasonable rules, it is better that they should separate. He hopes, however, and so do the boy's fellow-pupils, that the separation will not be long — it depends on the boy himself — as soon after the time named as he feels that he can do right for the future, he may return, and he will be gladly welcomed by them all. 5. Length of Suspension.— The time may be definite or indefinite. Short periods are usually best, but the time must not be so short as to bring the punishment into contempt. Indefinite suspension fixes no limit. 6. Restoration. — The restoration of a suspended pupil is a delicate duty, requiring judgment and skill. The pupil should realize that the past is buried, and that he is permitted to begin anew. Attention is called to the following points ; I .Ik l!| 130 EXTllAOllDlNARY PUNISHMENTS. [PABTlir, (1) Restore a pupil whenever he gives satisfactory evidence of a determination to do right. (2) So manage tliat the conduct of the restored pupil shall be especially exemplary. He will be closely observed. (3) In no case should the school-board restore a pupil without the approval of the teacher. II. EXPULSION. — Suspension temporarily deprives the pupil of the privileges of the school ; expulsion severs his connection with the school. Suspension looks to the good of the pupil as well as to the good of the school ; expulsion looks' alone to the good of the school. 1. Not a School Punishment.— Expulsion is not designed as a school punishment. It is not reformatory, does not aim at the correction of a fault with a view to the ultimate restoration of the oflfender. Its sole object is to protect the school from the evil example of a pupil whose conduct seemingly proves him to be utterly worthless and depraved. 2. Causes for Expulsion. — " When the example of any pupil is very hurtful to the school, and in all cases where reformation appears hopeless" the offender may be publicly expelled, "and, where practicable, removed to an Industrial School." This is the law in Ontario, and a similar 1« w prevails in most countries. It is sanctioned by the courts, and by public opinion ; and though it seems harsh to cut off any oflFenJer from the most likely means of reformation, yet the higher duty of shielding the well-behaved from corrupting influences must override all minor considerations. 3. "WTio Expel?— "It shall be the duty of the master, with the approbation of the trustees, to expel, etc.," is the provision of the Ontario law. It is the act of the school-board, never of the master alone. 4. Precaution. — Rare, indeed, are the cases that justify this terrible punishment. Ponder long before cutting off opportuimty and hope even from the most unworthy. Act as if the unfortunate one were youi own child. When you consider it imperative to inflict the penalty, think whether you cannot sufficiently discharge your duty to the other pupils by inducing the parent or guardian of the offender to remove him privately from the school. You might, Cap. VI.] EXPULSION — COEPORA.L PUNISHMENT. 131 in that case, explain to the school that you had suggested the with- drawal of the pupil in order to avoid inflicting on him the stigma of expulsion. 5. Restoration. — In most cases the act of expulsion puts an end forever to the school career of the offender ; for the etiquette of the profession is that a pupil expelled from one school will be refused admittance into other schools. But in Ontario it is pro- vided that "any pupil under public censure, who shall express to the master his regret for such a couree of conduct, as openly and explicitly as the case may require, shall, with the approbation of the trustees and master be admitted to the school." III. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT is the intentional inflic- tion of physical suffering as a reformatory means. There is a marked difference between the views now current on this subject and those that prevailed in the past. In former times the rod was regarded as the great panacea for all the ills of the school ; now corporal punishment is very properly regarded almost as the last resource of the teacher. There is a growing feeling among teachers that it is degrading alike to the pupil who suffers it and to the teacher who is obliged to inflict it ; and consequently the practice is steadily falling into disuse, though the theory of its value as a mode of disci- pline still remains almost as strong as ever. *' Grant the right, but avoid the use," is the modern doctrine, approved, with singular unanimity, by the world's educators. The fact that the teacher may and toUl resort to corporal punishment, if it becomes necessary, exerts a salutary influence. In the ideal school, taught by the ideal teacher, this punishment is not necessary. In the average school, taught by the average teacher, it may be necessary. In all schools those teachers who seldom or never resort to corporal punishment should be held in the highest esteem. They have learned the art of governing through nobler motives. Ground of Opposition. — The arguments against corporal pun- ishment are, for the most part, founded upon its abuse ; but the widest experience as well as the soundest philosophy requires its retention as a school punishment. The highly skilful may never need to use this punishment ; good teachers will use it sparingly l| 1: 132 r« !1i EXTRAORDINARY PUNISHMENTS. [Pabt III. j^ffi \ and wisely ; only bunglers will resort to it as a common punishment. In another generation, flogging in the school will be regarded as capital punishment is now regarded in the state. General Conclusion. — The utmost discretion and tact is needed to determine when it is advisable to employ corporal punish- ment in support >of government ; we would counsel extreme modera- tion in the use of it, but we are far from taking the high ground of denying the teacher's right and duty to have recourse to it. The true aim of all school discipline should be to stimulate such action in life as proceeds from the correct idea of duty. Such motives should be presented as will lead the child to obey rightful authority because he is under the highest moral obligations to do so. If love of doing right in the abstract, or the better- understood feeling of a child, love for his parents or his teacher, do not influence him to obedience, then we say that it may be the duty, as it is obviously the right, of the teacher judiciously to inflict corporal punishment. 1. The Infliction Should be Private.— The sacred principle that one child must not be corrected in the presence of another has a double significance here. Only in cases demanding publicity should the infliction take place in the presence of the school. Arc there such cases ? 2. The Punishment Should be Moderate.— It is the moral power of the teacher, and not the severe pain, that proves effective. This punishment simply enables the teacher to reach the nobler nature of the child. In many cases a single stroke is suffi- cient. Severity and cruelty are universally condemned. It is safest to err on the side of mercy. 3. The Instrument Should be the Rod.— The time-hon- oured birch is the fittest instrument. The ferule, the strap, the cat-of -nine-tails, are instruments of torture, to be shunned by the teacher. Employ no instrument that is not sanctioned by custom or regulation. 4. The Back and Shoulders are the Fittest Portions of the Body to Inflict. — Avoid all slapping, pulling ears or hair, shaking, or thumping. Hold the head sacred. Never break down the self-respect of the child, nor run the risk of injuring him for life, if not of killing him outright, by striking him on the head, the Cap. VI.] GENERAL PRECAUTIONS. 133 ' 6. Punish in Love. — You are the pupil's friend, and seek his good. You grieve to be compelled to punish him thus. You suffer most. The rod alone is powerless for good. The magic power of love does the work. The pain is soon forgotten, but the heartfelt sympathy of the teacher is like seed planted in the pupil's soul, des- tined to develop into a noble life. 6. The Punishment Should be Deliberate.— Prepare the pupil by leading him to realize its necessity. Calmly strike a single stinging blow. Talk earnestly for a minute or two, then give another blow, a little more severe. Thus administered, not many blows (seldom more than three or four) will be needed. Whenever the determination has taken possession of the pupil to forsake the wrong and to do the right, the punishment should cease. 7. Treatment after Punishment.— This should be tender and considerate. Reformation is a growth. The pupil must be won back to right feelings and right conduct. Let every look and word and act show him how much you are his friend. Encourage him, stimulate him, guide him. Thus administered and thus followed, corporal punishment becomes a great moral power. But may not the teacher who can thus administer this punishment succeed even better without it ? General Remarks. —After laying down these somewhat elaborate principles, we feel very strongly inclined to say to teachers, in the words of Bentham : — "And thus having shown you when to punish and how to punish, let me advise you to have as little to do with punishment as you can help." See if you can not, by moral suasion, by precaution, by improved methods of organization and instruction, and by the bonds of affection established between you and your pupils, prevent offenses, and thereby avoid the necessity for punish- ment. K you must punish, try the effects of light punishments, such as reproof and restraints, before having recourse to severer punishments. You will be a good teacher in proportion to your ability to dispense with these. Few things have more hindered the art of education than the abuse of punishment. m lit • > 134 EXTJIAOHDINARY PUNISHMENTS. [Part III, Topical Review — Special, or Extraokdinary, Punishments. Special Punishments. 1. Definition. 2. Classification. 3. Necessary in extreme cases. Suspension— Best form of Special Punishment. 1. The teacher suspetids. 2. Causes of suspension : — (a) Truancy persisted in. (6) Violent opposition to authority. (c) Repetition of any offense after notice. (d) Habitual and determined neglect of duty. (e) The use of profane, or other improper language. (/) General bad conduct, and bad example, to the injuiy of the school. (ART in. I : [it V. MANAGEMENT OF DISORDERLY SCHOOLS.- Treat each case on its merits. Do not suppose that any general system of treatment will suffice to eradicate all the specific disorders to be encountered in teaching. What has answered well at one time may utterly fail at another. Patience, perseverance, and above all, tact, will be required to enable you to apply general principles, ""ules, and regulations in such a way as to meet the special difficulty j.'ou may have to encounter. Make a careful diagnosis of the dis- order, and when you have discovered the specific cause, seek care- fully for the specific treatment necessary to effect a cure. As a' rule, disorderly schools follow the lead of a very few ringleaders ; and if you can get at these effectually, and reform them, the rest of the nchool will fall quietly into line. Make a special study of the ring- leaders, become interested in them, make them interested in you, employ them to help you in the management of the school and play- ground, and you will soon find the disorder on the wane. 1. Disorder ftom Physical Discomfort. — Remove the causes. Render the seats more comfortabl ; improve the heating and ventdation ; secure abundant exercise ; create an atmosphere of cheerfulness and content. Do not forget to secure the help of the ringleaders in whatever way you can employ theui. The sen- sation of working for the good of the community will raise their moral tone and give you better material to work on in the future. 2. Disorder from Coughing. — Nothing is much more con- tagious than coughing, except, perhaps, laughing. It is a disorder that requires prompt treatment. Send home two or three of the worst cases, who really cannot control the cough, and then require the rest to stop. Must of them will try to do so immediately ; but should any pupil continue coughing, in the hope of being sent home for the day, call him up- divert his attention by some sudden change in his work, or in any other way — and when you find that his cough has ceased, send him to his seat with an admonitory request not to begin it again. A few pointed remarks to the school will then be enough in most cases to hold the evil in check. 3. Disorder from a Rough, Turbulent Class of Pupils.— Boys, who have never had any good example before them, cannot be expected to be orderly at the outset. They will fight, and lie, und talk during school hours, and very possibly steal into the lRT in. Cap. VIl.] DISORDERLY SCHOOLS. 137 iLS.- generai Borders ae time ove all, aciples, ifficulty the dis- ek care- i &' rule, ; and if t of the he ring- in you, nd play- ove the » heating ftosphero ^ help of The sers- ise their uture. lore con- dirforder 56 of the require ely ; but mt home i udden find that monitory le school upils.— , cannot and lie, into the bargain. Get at the ringleaders ; join in their games, and let them see that you can heartily appreciate vigour and energy when exhibited at the right time. This will do something to arouse their interest; keep on and interest them still more, till you get them ready to help you. Don't preach at them ; but bend all your energies to the task of enlisting them to help you to carry out the sysUm of the school. The worst men can be made into soldiers, and they will fight well because there is a system in the army. Speak litUe. Practise a class in coming and going, until it moves right, if it takes ymi all day. This is the secret of the dicipline of all large schools. Do not worry ; be cheerfvl. Get up an interest in the lessons. Somehow, get them to studying, by smiles, by praise, etc. Pick out the leaders, the troublesome ones, and take them singly, and try your influence on them ; get them to help you, to be your assistants. Call on the parents and talk with them ; make them glad you have called. Don't complain of John or Henry ; tell them, however, you want them to improve, and what they should do. Get up some exercises to call their parents in — some dialogues, etc. ; it gives an interest to the school-room. Examine your own manner carefully ; see whether you scold, or fret, or lose your balance or dignity. Improve your manner day by day. One half of the fault is there. Resolve to be master, not physically, but mentally, morally, by the force of your will. Study to be a power in your school-voom. 4. Disorder caused by Whispering. — Many teachers ask, " How can I stop whispering?" I answer — by stopping it. The Story op Joseph. — My first teacher permitted us to study "out loud." My next teachers prohibited loud studying, but placed no restrictions on whispering. After that we had a strict teacher, who prohibited all whispering. I could not start to school until the com was gathered, but I heard of the new rule. The morning I entered, the teacher met me kindly, gave me a seat, arid arranged my lessons. Very quietly he said : "Joseph, we do not have any whispering. " After about half an hour I forgot this fact, and asked my seat- mate something about recess. The teacher, in passing me, said, in alow, earnest tone, "Joseph, you must not whisper," and went right on with his work. I did not whisper for an hour, when I again thoughtlessly asked my seat-mate for his knife. Again, and still more earnestly, the injunction came, "Joseph, you wutst not whisper," 188 SPECIFiC MANAGEMENT. [Part ttt I fPlTlf' liM I did not whisper again till afternoon, when I was bo unfortunate as to ask about the Spelling lesson. The teacher came to me, and said : "Joseph, you may take your books and come with me. You may occupy this front seat by yourself. When you feel that you can get along without whispering, I will let you return to your seat." For about a week I kept that lonely seat, and thought. I then told the teacher that I could now get along without whispering. "Very well, you may take your former seat." I gave the teacher no further trouble. My recollection is that there was no whispering in the school. The story of Joseph is instructive. The teacher had system, and was wide awake and firm. His management was vigorous and eflfective. By training, he converted precept and example into habit. Pupils who had always whispered were trained to the habit of non-communication. " Where there's a will there's a way." 5. Disorder because of Contagious Laughter.— " Our high school included sixteen laughter-loving girls, who spent the recesses in telling each other the most amusing secrets, and who often interrupted the school by bursts of uncontrollable laughter. The usual remedies utterly failed, but the following expedient proved completely successful : I changed the programme so as to have a laughing exercise at the time when the girls were generally the worst. When the time came 1 sent these girls to the board, one by one. The school saw the reason and began to laugh. I explained that I had set apart ten minutes for a laughing exercise : that whatever they did, I intended they should do in a systematic manner ; and closed by calling on the most mischievous one to begin the recitation. I had so completely surprised the school as to produce the greatest sobriety, and the young ladies looked so ridiculous, that, at the close^ the stillness was broken by one con- tinuous and prolonged uproar of laughter. Some of the young ladies laughed, others wept. I never called the class again, nor was I ever afterward troubled by laughing from those girls." This is a good illustration of the truth embodied in the aphorism, similia similih'ua curantuvy which may occasionally be employed in discipline with as much success as in medicine. 6. Disorder occasioned by a Disorderly Teacher.— " To correct such disorder, be orderly yourself; this is the prime requisite. Any other means to secure order is unsatisfactory and unphilosophical. The teacher teaches more by example in all the details of school work than by virtue of authority. In every school the large majority of the pupils will soon imitate the teacher in lii^ \BT tit rtunate ne, and 3. You hat you irseat." I then spering. teacher ispering em, and OU8 and pie into he habit ay." .—"Our pent the and who laughter, xpedient so as to generally e board, augh. I exercise : rstematio s one to school as ooked so one con- le young zain, nor .phorism, )loyed in loher.— le prime tory and n all the )ry school icr in hh Cap. VII.l GOVERN THUOUGH THE CLASS. 139 tone, language, and daily walk in the school-room. If the teacher is noisy in his manner, he will have noisy pupils, and as a result, a noisy school. If he walks heavily, he must expect his pupils to do the same, for like begets like. If he whistles in the school-room, he must expect his pupils to do likewise ; and he should not be surprised if his pupils try to outdo him in this particular, for it is but natural for them to attempt to excel. On the other hand, if the teacher's manner and walk in the school-room are quiet and self-possessed, and his voice at a medium pitch, soon the conduct of the pupils will be similar. The teacher's manner of doing every- thing will be truthfully copied by the band of pupils, who instinct- ively follow him from day to day. " Teachers, are any of you dissatisfied with your order ? If so, I advise you to examine yourselves, find your defects, and set about a reformation, radical and thorough." VI. GOVERN INDIVIDUALS THROUGH THE CLASS. — Instead of giving your attention to individual pupils and single misdeeds, trying to correct each in detail, endeavour to deal with faults in such a manner as to exert an influence upon the entire class, which will lead to right thoughts and better actions. Aim thus to develop the public opinion of your class in favour of the right, so that you may govern individual pupils through the influence of your class. ' Suppose you have a class of young pupils, among whom are many careless or restless children, and you notice that they make a great deal of noise in taking slates from the desks, or in placing slates on the desks. Telling them to make less noise, or reminding John, Charles, and William that they are too noisy, or taking their slates away from them, will not secure habits of handling slates quietly. But if you tell the class that some of the boys are always quiet in handling their slates, and that it trould be so pleasant if all the boys would try to be quiet, and then ask how many would like to try to put down and take up their slates quietly, the unanimous response would commit the class in favour of less noise. Do not attempt to govern your class by naming individual pupils and charging them with faults ; such a course, if often pursued, seldom secures the desired end. Instead of directly telling pupils of their faults and bad conduct, lead them to see their own misdeeds *^ 140 SPECIFIC MANArjEMENT. [Part III. Ifi t: ll -^ I' I in their true light through the public opinion of the class. The following incident will illustrate this point : Disrespect Reproved and Corrected.— One day a boy gave the teacher of his school an insolent reply. All who heard it were greatly astonished, but the toachor did not exhibit anger by scolding or threatening the boy with punishment. He quickly determined to improve that opportunity by teaching a valuable lesson to the entire school. The very calmness of his manner made a deep impression on the school, and while the pupils wondered how the disrespectful boy would be punished, they felt certain that such conduct would not be allowed to pass unnoticed. The hour for closing came, and school was dismissed without any allusion to the conduct of the boy. After the customary opening exercises on the morning of the next day, the teacher addressed the school substantially as follows : "Boys, if, while you were at play in the street before school opened, a gentleman who was passing the school had inquired the direction to the railroad station, would you have told him the way in a respectful manner ? " " Yes, sir," was the unanimous response. "Suppose a common labourer, whose occupation soiled his gar- ments, had come along and asked the way to a certain street, would you have told him as well as you could, or would you have treated him rudely, telling him to go about his business ?" " We would tell him the way," said the boys. "Very good,' said the teacher. "Now, suppose a man, very poorly clad, who was seeking work that he might earn a little food for his wife and children, or even one who was compelled to bog his daily food, should ask you a civil question, how would you treat him ? Would you give him a civil answer ? " "Yes, sir," responded the school. " That is right, boys." Thus the teacher prepared the school for the lesson he had planned to give. After a pause, looking carefully over the school, until all eyes were fixed upon him, even those of the boy who gave him a disrespectful answer the day before, he said, \vith a kind but sad tone of voice : " Yesterday afternoon I asked a question of one of the boys of this school. It was a proper question for me to ask a pupil ; it was a question which was justly entitled to a respectful reply. And yet, I am very sorry to know chat even one boy in this school so far forgot that respect which is due to his parents, to his teacher, and to his school mates as to give hh teacher a less civil reply than should have been given to a beggar in the street. I hope no boy in this school will ever again forget to be respectful." — Calkins. ,.r!ii i RT III. The a boy 3ard it ger by quickly aluable r made •ndered lin that le hour ision to cises on 5 school } school ired the the way his gar- it, would treated an, very ttlo food to beg pu treat planned until all ve him a but sad Cap. VII.] DULL I'UPILS — HARD CASES. 141 e boys of "it was \y. And school so teacher, •eply than )e no boy XKINS. VII. MANAGEMENT OP DULL PUPILS.-Mrs. Duinont was the idofil of a teacher, because she succeeded in forming; character. She gave her pupils unstinted praise, not hyj)ocritically, but because she lovingly saw the best in every one. Wo worked in the sunshine. A dull but industrious pupil was praised for diligence ; a bright pupil, for ability ; a good one, for general excel- lence. The dullards got more than their share, for, knowing how easily such a one is dishcartoncd, Mrs. Dumont went out of her way to i)raise the first show of success in a slow scholar. She treated no two alike. She was full of all sorts of knack and tact, a person of infinite resource for calling out the human spirit. VIII. MANAGEMENT OF HARD CASES.-The wise teacher so manages as not to have hard cases in his school. The materials of which such are made up are transformed into good pupils. But, in all schools, cases frequently occur that try the teacher to the utmost. For their management no specific lias been or ever will be discovered. Each case must be dealt with on its merits. Yet, certainly, the management of similar cases by wise teachers mm ; prove highly suggestive. 1. Charbe. — "Charlie was an inveterate joker. His quaint answers and questions produced no little merriment at my expense. I reproved him privately and publicly without eflfect. I resolved to turn the joke. ' Charlie, you may take oflf your coat. Hang it on the chair. Take this rod. Now, whip the coat,' Charlie was much surprised, and went to work with a right good will. I did not restrain the mirthfulncss of the school. Soon Charlie broke down and burst into tears. He felt that he was beaten at his own game. After that he gave me very little trouble." 2. Brice. — "I was fairly puzzled. I had tried moral suasion, I had tried punishment, but the boy seemed incorrigible. He had been taken from a lawless private school and sent to me. His last teacher had expressed himself as glad to be rid of him, and he had evidently entered my school with the determination of having 'a good time,' which meant, in his opinion, getting many boys into mischief, and annoying me as much as possible. The boy was gen- tlemanly-looking, bright, and apt ; but ' obedience ' and ' order ' seemed to be terms which he habitually and systematically set at defiance. The weak teacher's refuge, svspoision, was possible ; but the remembrance of former victoiies, and the heartfelt desire to train this smart boy into a good and useful man, made me shrink more than usually from such an alternative. I walked awav from \iy ; ^l ;|; .r II f I i M 142 SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT. [PAttl- III. the school in some perturbation. What course had I best pursue ? The happy thought struck mo, ' Place confidence in him, put him to work for others ; perhaps he will endeavour to deserve tins trust.* I caught at the idea, and that afternoon, having called my fourth grade to the blackboard, I said, 'Brice, I have been some time trying to teach this grade how to do Long Division. Sometimes children catch such things quicker from an older child than from a teacher. You are quite apt at Arithmetic ; will you come up here and try what you can do for them V The boy's face flushed, but he camo up with alacrity, and I never saw more patient, thorough work done than ho wont through for the next half-hour. I had no more trouble with Brice that afternoon, nor have I had a great deal since. As soon as I see him becoming restless, I call on him to help me with some of the lower grades, after which he will always return to his own task with renewed diligence. This method, doubtless, is old to many of you ; but by some it may have been untried, and to such I submit it, hoping that they may meet with like success." 3. "Alfred and Lena have arrived at that age at which youthful love begins to develop. They begin to think very much of each other. They begin to sit and stare into the distant future, and study the probabilities of the coming life. Fancy builds air- castles. They are continually smiling at each other. They sit together at rests, promenade together at noon, assist each other in the difficult problems ; notes pass between thorn ; he waits for her at the gate ; they go from and come to school together ; they are so engrossed in each other that they begin to fail in tlieir classes. However beautiful this boy and girl love, it is a serious evil in school life, and n^ust bo cured. I felt that something must be done. After much reflection I pursued the following course : '* I spoke to the school about a pair of baby lovers. I described their conduct in a ridiculous light. Without mentioning the names, pupils knew to whom I referred. The cure was only part'al. I kept them in at rest, and told them I wanted them to look at each other. I kept them after school, and told them I wanted them to walk home together. A few days' treatment, with the laughter of the school, effected a cure." — Thomas. IX. SUCCBSSPUL MANAGEMENT SHOULD BE REPORTED. — Now that teaching and school management are recognized as arts, and the best talent is flowing into our noble profession, the demand for details of practice is imperative. Works now published, giving the practice of Postalozzi, of Froebel, etc. , however valuable, are too meager to meet the wants of teachers. Another decade ought greatly to enrich this department of our professional literature, and give us many volumes filled with the details of skilful and successful school management. Cap. VII.] TOPICAL UKVIEW. 143 Taut III. 1 piirsuo? put him luB trust.*" ny fourth me trying a children k teacher, re and try ; he came ivork done no more deal since, o help mo i return to )ubtless, is icd, and to ccess." at which very much ant future, builds air- They sit )h other in lits for her they are so eir classes, uus evil in st be done. described the names, )art"al. I )ok at each ed them to aughter of QLD BE gement are our noble ive. Works oebel, etc., jf teachers, ent of our d with the TorioAL Revikw. — SpkABT 111. Cap. VIII.] DUTIES OF PARENTS. 151 lOUSB. IS at your ind halls ; mouncing ackboards curacy ; fances as — iging posi- ^ iflcs ; n repeMtion; do so. OHOOL- to disturb r. ood of ihe ouse. I. DUTIES OF PARENTS TO THEIR CHILDREN. 1. To provide the best educational facilities ; 2. To encourage regularity and promptitude ; 3. To encourage studious habits ; 4. To aid by sympathy and counsel ; II. DUTIES OP PARENTS TO TEACHERS. 1. To sustain teachers ; 2. To impress upon their children the duty of respectful and cheerful obedience ; 3. To visit the school and encourage the teacher ; 4. To discourage fault-finding ; 5. To co-operate with the teacher in cases of discipline. III. DUTIES OP PARENTS TO SCHOOL-BOARDS. 1. To select the best citizens as members of the school-board ; 2. To urge the employment of the best teachers ; 3. To sustain the school-board. IV. DUTIES OP SCHOOL BOARDS. 1. To provide good grounds and buildings ; 2. To provide suitable apparatus ; 3. To select the best available teachers. 4. To sustain the teachers. 5. To avoid the selection of relatives or personal favourites for teachers. 6. To give no encouragement to factious complaints. School Rights. I. RIGHTS OP TEACHERS. —Teachers have rights ; to insist on these is noble. A truckling, cowardly sycophant is not fit to be a teacher. 1. The teacher has the absolute control of the internal workings of the school. He is responsible for results, and hence must be left untrammeled to reach results in his own way. 2. The teacher has the absolute right to classify, teach, and govern the school. Parents and school-boards may suggest and advise, but not dictate. The competent teacher knows best ; the incompetent teacher should be speedily removed. 3. The teacher has a right to the respect and confidence of the parents, pupils, school-board, and community. !1 i-i ■ ^: 152 ORDER — DUTIES — RIGHTS. [Part III. I 1 ' ti I 4 The teacher has a right to a joint control with parents of pupils while going to and from school ; also, to punish for conduct out of school which tends to injure the school and subvert the authority of the teacher. II. RIGHTS OP PUPILS. 1. To the treatment due to rational beings. 2. To sympathy and encouragement. 3. To thorough and appropriate instruction. 4. But, towering above all the specific rights of childhood, and embracing them all in its wide significance, is the grand right to maturity — the right to the complete unfolding of its powers — the right to attain its end ; the right to be a man ; the right to read the Creative Mind spread abroad upon His works ; the right to the infinite pleasures that wait upon mature susceptibilities ; the right to scatter happiness here ; the right to retire in peace from a well- employed mortality ! III. RIGHTS OP PARENTS. 1. To thoroughly qualified teachers — those who know methods as well as subjects, mind as well as matter. 2. To faithful and devoted teachers. Parents intrust the teacher with their most precious treasures. The teacher owes it to parents to do as well for the children as if they were his own. 3. To kind and loving teachers. Loving parents claim the right to commit their precious darlings to sympathetic teachers ; teachers from whose hearts issue treasures of love and encouragement ; teachers who will take the place of the parents. IV. RIGHTS OP SCHOOL-BOARDS. 1. To manage the finances. 2. To employ and dismiss teachers. 3. To approve the general regulations. ' 4. To expel disorderly pupils. 5. To sustain worthy teachers. Suggestions. — The youthful teacher will read this chapter many times. The pupils can be quietly taught their duties by giving one or two items at a time. School duties and rights furnish valuable topics for essays and lessons in training schools and Teachers' Insti- tutes, i" !' ^i'; [Part III. of pupils act out of thority of hood, and I right to w^ers — the :> read the ;ht to the the right im a well- lethods as lie teacher to parents I the right ; teachers rageruent ; ipter many giving one }h valuable hers' Insti- Oap. VIII.] TOPICAL REVIEW. 153 Topical Review — Conditions of Order — School Duties and Rights. Order, 1. Dejmition. 2. Pa/rties comprehended in the idea of a school. Conditions of Order. 1. For the section. 2. For the parents. 3. For the children. 4. For the teacher. School Duties of Teachers. 1. Duties of teachers to themselves. 2. Duties of teachers to ea^ch other. 3. Duties of teachers to school property. 4. Duties of teachers to parents. 5. Duties of teachers to pupils. 6. Duties of teachers to the school. Duties of Pupils. 1. Duties of pupils to themselves. 2. Duties of pupils to schoolmates. 3. Duties of pupils to teachers. 4. Duties of pupils to the school. 5. Duties of pupils to property. 6. Duties of pupils in the school-house. 7. Duties of pupils outside the school-housa. Duties of Parents. 1. Duties of parents to their children. 2. Duties of parents to teachers. 3. Duties of parents to school-hoards. Duties of School-boards. 1. As regards the school buildings. 2. -4s regards the teacher. School Rights. 1. Bights of teachers. 2. Eights of pupils. 3. Rights of parents. 4. Bights of school-boards. I I n ifr 'm i PART IV. STUDY AND TEACHING. CHAPTER I. — Rules and Conditions fob Study. II. — How TO Study. III. — Art of Securino Attention and Study. IV. — Work for the Little Ones. (( (( (i tc V. — ^Principles Pertaining to the Science of Edu- cation AND THB Art of Tbachino. I It id i B; ' PART IV. STUDY AND TEACHING. CHAPTER I, Rules and Conditions fob Study, Questions Relating to the Art of Study.— How r ay pupils be trained to study? How may the teacher 80(/^/' study? How may the largest results be obtained from the effort' put :orth ? How may such a desire for knowledge be created as will make of the pupil a lifelong student ? In this and the following chapters the attempt is made to answer these questions. Certainly no part of the art of school management is of greater importance Importance of the Subject. — We have already said that one of the most imperative duties of the teacher in the intellectual development of his pupils is to instruct them in the art of acquiring information from books. It is not at all an uncommon thing to find, even in the ranks of the teaching prof, r ion, men and women who have not yet fully mastered this art Wi^^ itselves. As long as the question before them is simply how to acquire additional infor- mation on any subject with which +> ey are already tolerably familiar, they do not find much diffii" ty in extracting the desired knowledge from the volumes in the reference library ; but when the necessity arises to diverge into some hitherto unknown region of learning they find it extremely difficult to follow the plainest directions of the guide-book. Such teachers frequently exhibit a most lively and laudable anxiety to remove from the paths of their 1ljrl:| >.%' iiii «.r 15{ STUDY — RULES — OOlfDlTlONS. (t»ARTlV. pupils the stumbling-blocks that have proved so troublesome in their own experience ; but they find it, of course, an almost impos* sible task to teach others what they have never learned themselves. THE RULES FOR STUDY, being first thoroughly mas- tered by the teacher, should be taught systematically to the pupils. They have proved of great value to many hundreds, and the teacher can hardly benefit his pupils more than by teaching and illustrating one of them each week, and training the learners to apply them. Better study conditions, better learning. Whatever tends to secure effective study tends to elevate the student and the race. I. Take a Deep Interest in what you Study.— Cold iron can not be welded. The indifferent student fails to weld the new and the old knowledge. Heat the iron and a few strokes do the work. Interest is mental heat ; learning and memory are in proportion to the interest. A cold, slow, repulsive teacher is a dead failure. He who can not create and sustain a deep interest can not teach. The student who does not take an interest in his work does not learn. II. Give your Entire Attention to the Subject.— Atten- tion is the condition of knowledge. But for the accumulated power of attention, learning and progress would be impossible. Close and continuous attention enables the pupil to master difficulties and retain results. As the rays of the sun, when concentrated by the burning glass, produce combustion, so, when the energies of the «oul are directed to a single point, the mind burns its way through all difficulties. Newton said : " The difierence between myself and others is, chiefly, that I have acquired the power to concentrate my attention more completely, and to hold it longer on a subject, than most men. " Herein lies the secret of success. A giddy, inatten- tive pupil accomplishes little. A teacher may do much but if he can not secure and hold the attention of his pupils he can not teach. III. Study Systematically both as to Time and Method. — A programme sufficiently elastic to meet the various circumstances is needed. A well-arranged programme enables the student to accomplish double as much as he ordinarily will do with- out one. "In education," said Everett, "method is everything." The pupil who knows how to study, and wisely uses his time, can 'ART IV. some in t impos- tnselves. ily mas- pupils, teacher isbrating y them. secure ^— Cold veld the 'okes do yare in her is a interest st in his L-Atten- 3d power 'lose and ties and i by the s of the through ^self and brate my Jct, than inattcn- )ut if he )t teach. le and various ^bles the io with- (rthing." me, can Cap. I.] RULES FOR STUDY. 159 J. 1/ prepare his lesson better and in much less time than one who does not know how to study, or who lacks system. A teacher who is not systematic, or who can not train his pupils to system, has no busi- ness in the school-room. IV. Master Each Step as you go.— The child asks, " What is it?" the boy or girl, '*Eow is it?" the youth, ''Why is it?" the man, " Tl^nce is it?" The child masters the objective phase of the subject ; the boy, the analytic ; the youth, the scientific ; and the man, the philosophic phase. While in hand, is the time to master the lesson. To go through a book once should in most cases be sufficient. Let each lesson be a review of previous lessons. " Leave nothing unconquered behind." Teachers who hurry their pupils through the book, who crowd them through many and long lessons, do much to injure them. Study few subjects. Short les- sons and long study will produce strong men and thorough scholars. The teacher must guard against the error of supposing that mas- tery of the subject means the thorough comprehension of it in all its manifold relations. To acquire such a mastery as this of even the simplest subject of study would demand the highest powers of the human intellect ; but it is possible for each pupil, if judiciously guided in his mode of study, to acquire by once going through the text-book, such a mastery of the subject as is within the reach of his intellectual development. The child is not expected to master the analytic, the scientific, or the philosophic phase of any subject. V. Think Vigorously, Clearly, and Independently.— "Thinking makes the great man." The ninny dreams, leaving others to solve the problems and think out the lessons. In most classes may be found those putty-faced, soft-brained, indolent crea- tures, who do their best to prove Darwinism. Ability to think rapidly and eflTectively is the objective point in intellectual culture. The honest, independent, and able thinker is the grandest man that walks this earth. VI. Study to Know, not to Recite.— Studying to recite is one of the greatest evils connected with school life. In many- schools the pupils who study to know are the exceptions. The lesson is recited glibly to-day, but forgotten to-niorrow. Good marks are secured, but the child is not educated. Right metho49 ?■ '';:iiii t 1 S ; ' J 160 STUDY — RULES — CONDITIONS. [Paet IV. of teaching render such reciting impossible. The true teacher inspires the pupil with a love for knowledge. The subject is studied, and the book is used as an instrument. Instead of merely reciting the facts, theories, etc., given in a book, the pupil tells what he thinks about what the book says. The teacher and the pupils together work out wider, deeper, more accurate views of the subject than can be obtained from the text-books. Pupils thus taught never finish their education ; it begins in the cradle, nor ceases at the grave. VII. Use what you Learn. — Knowledge increases mental power. It is valuable for its own sake. Use keeps knowledge fresh. Think, write, talk. Connect books and nature. Connect past and present acquisitions. In whatever you engage, command and use your entire resources. The true teacher trains his pupils to use what they learn, by leading them to tell what they know. VIII. Duly Mix Study, Recreation, and Rest.— Recrea- tion and rest are essential to physical vigour, and hence to effective study. Winship practised gymnastics and lifting for an hour or two a day, until the weak boy became the strongest man in the world. Daniel Webster would concentrate his mighty powers for a time, then take recreation, and he became the intellectual giant of the age in which he lived. "Work while you work ; play while you play. " Hard study hurts no one. The greatest thinkers are usually healthy. Man was made to think. GOOD CONDITIONS OF STUDY are essential to the proper carrying out of any rules or system, and to the full realiza- tion of the hopes of teacher and pupils. Cheerful, earnest, well- directed study is the key to scholarship and success ; it cannot be secured except under favourable conditions. I. Physical Conditions.— The body is the organism through which the mind works, and hence must be kept healthy and vigor- ous. Pure air, suitable exercise, proper diet, cheerfulness, and abundant sleep are the physical conditions of hard study. The stomach should be neither empty nor loaded ; the system should be neither excited nor relaxed ; the position should be neither uncom- fortable nor sleep-inviting. Under such conditions, pupils will have clear heads and the power of physical and mental achievement and endurance. Cap. I.] CONDITIONS OF STUDY. 161 II. Surroundings. — The disciplined mind may work on through turmoil, but even philosophers seek solitude and stillness. Much more does the inexperienced pupil require the most favourable sur- roundings. The wise teacher manage^ t't have a quiet school, to have communications made only through the teacher, to avoid all distractions ; he so arranges everything as to foster study. Parents should see that certain hours are made equally favourable for home reading and study. The pupil will soon learn to place himself under the most favourable conditions, and "In solitude to muse, to think, to conquer." III. Struggle or Perish Alone. — Each soul is an individual personality. Self-study and self-help develop individuality and power. Each pupil is trained to do his own work. He learns that "Heaven helps students who help themselves." During recitation and social intercourse, he gains what he can from others. During study, he suffers no one to hinder or assist. The habit of indepen- dent study grows irto the habit of independent thinking and acting. IV. Programme for Study. — Comparatively short periods of study, with ever-increasing intensity, are best. I have found forty minutes the best average time for advanced students, both for study and recitation. Intense study during periods of forty minutes, followed by a few minutes of real recreation, enables the student to accomplish twice as much during a year as he can by drudging on through many weary hours. Lively recitations of forty minutes each, followed by short recesses, are also by far the most favourable for advancement. The youngor the pupils, and the more intense the work, the shorter must be the periods of study and the longer the intervals of rest. The plan now adopted in many schools, of having a recess of ten minutes at the close of each hour, is based on a profound knowledge of child-nature. Effort must stop short of exhaustion. After rest, the mind readily grapples with the work of the hour. With renewed vigor and power, after each period of recreation, the pupil takes up again the problem. He works syste- matically, doing specific work at specific times. The youth who vigorously follows these directions will steadily increase in physical and mental power. !; I ^P i • ' ?:i hi! I 162 STUDY — RULES — CONDITIONS. [Part IV. --IM !U nl i r. Topical Revibw. — Rules and Conditions for Study. Questions relating to the art of study. 1. Nature of the questions to be a/nswered, 2. Importance of the subject. 3. Neglect of special training in the use of boohs. Rules for study. 1. Should be learned by the teacher. \. 2. Should be taught systematically to the pupils. I. Take a deep interest in the work. 1. The wninterested teacher fails to teach. 2. The uninterested pupil fails to learn. II. Give your entire attention to the subject. 1. Concentration of attention masters difficulties. 2. Newton's secret of success. III. Study systematically both as to time and method. 1. Need of v^ell-arranged program,me and time table. 2. Equ/jlly necessary for pupU and teacher. IV. Master each step as you go. 1. Mental development accords with growth in years. 2. Short lessons studied long produce the best resxdts. 3. Pupils should gain such mastery of the subjects as best suits fJieir a^e and mental capacity. V. Think vigorously, clearly and independently. Ability to do so is the objective point in intellectital cult%(/re. VI. study to know, not to recite. Not what the book says but what the student thi/nks is impor- tant. VII. Use what you learn. Reproduce and apply what you have studied from books. VIII. Duly mix study, recreation, and rest. A so\ind mind in a sound body cannot be otherunse secured. Conditions of study. 1. Physical conditions must be favourable. 2. Surrou/ndings miist be quiet and orderly. 3. Students must be prepared to struggle or perish alone. 4. Programmes for study should be carefxdly planned, BT IV. CHAPTER II. ■'I: I khod. t suits e. mpor- d. • \ How TO Study. How to Study is the most important lesson that can be taught by the teacher to the pupil, for the development more particularly of his intellectual powers. Any one can study, but he is a philoso- pher who knows what to study, and when to study, and how to study. The farmer, the mechanic, the artist, the scientist, and the teacher are entitled to start with the accumulated experience and achievements of the race. Thus only is progress possible. Surely the child is entitled to no less. To leave the young to grope their way is to rob them of their best years. Wise parents guide the efforts of their little ones. Experienced and wise teachers should direct the activities of learners. The chief office of the teacher is to train pupils to right habits of study. He who knows how to study and has the will to study scarcely needs a teacher. He has learned how to search for truth and how to master subjects. He has gradually become self -helpful and independent of the teacher. He falls in love with knowledge, and esteems truth more than millions of gold." The pupil thus trained will be an earnest student through life. How may we edu- cate our pupils to study ? How may we make them independent of ourselves. Attention to the following considerations relating to the order, aids, and benefits of study will assist the teacher in his effortd to find satisfactory answers to these questions. I. PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN STUDY. 1. Get Clear Ideas of the Lesson. — Experience and pre- vious lessons furnish the basis. What is the general subject? What are the relations of the lesson to previous lessons ? Whatever the lesson, the learner asks himself these questions. With the subject olearly before his mind, he goes to work. [103] :^ '" m Is if i :|f i : ■H ■ i 164 HOW TO STUDY, [Part IV. 2. Bead the Lesson Carefully.— This ia done in order to get before the mind its general scope. The student reads the lesson slowly. Each word not undert^tood is examined, and, if compound, analyzed. After thus reading the lesson, the student is prepared for its systematic study. 3. Master the Leading Features of the Lesson.— Now begins hard study. Definitions, principles, divisions, and leading facts or statements are made a part of the pupil's self. He will not rest until he can correctly present and clearly illustrate the principal points. Committing and reciting definitions, principles, or state- ments, that convey no meaning to him, are monstrous errors. Only principles, definitions, and facts, thoroughly understood, should be treasured in memory. 4. Study Details and Illustrations.— From particulars to generals, then from generals to particulars, is the true method of study. The student begins with the concrete and works up to definitions, principles, and classification ; reversing the process, he reduces generals to particulars, thus verifying his conclusions. He synthetizes and analyzes ; he induces, deduces, and reduces. He begins with intuitive knowledge, works up to generalization, and finally reduces all generalizations back to intuitive knowledge. At every step he has recourse to illustrations. Illustration is the great lever in study and teaching. To illustrate means to illumi- nate, to make clear. Illustrations remove mountains of darkness and difficulty. The unknown is expressed in terms of the known. New and abstract truths are reduced, by concretion and comparison, to the range of experience. The child and the philosopher pursue substantially the same course. Too much detail, and too many illustrations should be care- fully avoided ; they weary the pupil and tend to obscure the principles rather than to illustrate them. Enough should be given to ensure a mastery of principles and their ready applications, and here the details should cease. Some pupils will require more than others ; even experienced teachers will need to be on the alert, and guard against extremes on either side. II. HELPS IN STUDY.— If the mechanic needs tools, how much more does the student need books ? Books are guides as well iHf 4 ! Cap. II.] STEPS AND HELPS IN STUDY. 165 he as implements. To learn what books to use and how to use them to the best advantage is one of the most important parts of an education. 1. The Dictionary Stands First— As soon as the pupil begins the Third Reader, a small dictionary should be placed in his hands, and he should be trained to use it properly. The advanced student, at any sacrifice, must have for constant use an unabridged dictionary. Without a dictionary, no lesson can be properly pre- pared. Whenever there is a doubt about the meaning, pronuncia- tion, or spelling of a word, the appeal is made to the dictionary. It should be the constant companion of teacher and pupil, as it is of the scholar. 2. Other Text-Books for Reference are needed.— Other authors may often open up new fields <:i thought, or present the topic from different standpoints. The student with two or three text-books to consult on the same subject has decided advantages. 3. Reference Books. — A good encyclopaedia is invaluable. It enables the student to gain wider and deeper knowledge. He finds where information may be had, and learns how to gain it. The more of the works of great thinkers the student has at command, the better. These he consults as he does the dictionary, or as he asks the views of his companions. He learns to commune with the masters, and thus discovers the sources of information, and acquires the power of vigorous thought. 4. Objective Helps. — Agassiz would leave his pupils for days to gain what they could from objects. Afterward he would give. instructi(.>n based on the student's own observations. Great teachers seem to have uniformly pursued a somewhat similar course. This method is divine. A pupil studies geology from the book ; when he comes to the rocks he has to begin again. Does his knowledge help or hinder ? The better plan is to begin with nature. Let the pupil make crude collections for geology, zoology, and botany ; he finds in these the keys to unlock the books. In geography, physics, and chemistry, let him construct, if necessary, simple apparatus to illustrate the principles. In this way he forces the secrets from nature and from the books. One experiment made by the pupil himself is worth hundreds witnessed. *■ [, h *i 1 166 HOW TO STUDY. [Part IV. 6. Outlines of the Subject. — After the subject has been carefully studied, the student prepares an outline, showing the relations of the subdivisions, and also the relations which the sub- ject discussed bears to other subjects. Outlines, properly used, are valtliable for these reasons : (a.) The Outline gives Comprehensiveness. — Having mastered the parts, the student now examines the subject as a whole. What are its latitude and longitude ? What are its boundaries ? What are the logical relations of the subdivisions ? The answers are embodied in the outline. (6.) The Outline aids Memory. — Ideas are associated in their logical relation. Any link in the outline suggests all the other parts. Students who lack system will be found deficient in memory. Teachers who leave subjects scattered in fragments need not expect their pupils to retain permanently the things taught. Caution. — Do not make a hobby of diagrams. Though of great value when properly used, outlines may become an incubus. Details precede summaries. The outline is used for review. The teacher who begins with the diagram shows that he has failed to grasp a fundamental principle in teaching ; he begins at the top to build the tower. III. BENEFITS OF HARD STUDY.— School-books Have been so simplified and diluted, teaching has been so largely degraded to the trade of feeding children with spoons, parents have become so fearful that hard study will ruin the health of their fragile darlings, that there doubtless is danger that hard study may become a loot art. Let every educator and every parent ponder the follow- ing facts : 1. Hard Study is Healthy.— Man was made to study. Gieat students have usually been long-lived and healthy. Proper food, plenty of sleep and exercise, and right habits will insure to the hard student vigorous health. Abominable diet, late hours, excessive novel-reading, dissipation, and lack of abundant open-air exercise — not hard study — are the causes of bad health among students. No student who obeys hygienic laws will ever be injured by hard study. " Many, far too many, of our school girls and boys are ill-fed or over-fed, and their stomachs, rather than their brains, are over- (JAP. 111.3 BENEFITS Ot HARD STUDY. 1G7 worked. Many, far too many, of our girls, in school and out, aro dressed in ways that invite sickness and disease, and their bodies suffer far more than their brains ; but jaded stomachs, congested livers, and obstructed circulations make heavy, neuralgic heads, and study becomes a process attended with weariness and discomfort." 2. Hard Study Develops Manhood.— Nothing else can take its place. Hard study is the royal road to manhood, as well as to geometry. The student must grapple with the problems and solve them for himself. This gives pluck and tenacity. It develops the feeling of mastery and independence. 3. The End of Study is Culture and Manhood.— Books, teachers and schools are means. Good teachers and good books stimulate and direct effort, but do not relieve the pupil from effort. All our improved educational instrumentalities and methods simply increase the facilities for working out our own educational salvation. *' Thinking makes the great man." Hard study is the royal road to manhood and success. 4. Hard Study versus Amusement.— " A life spent in practical education is the best means of exploding the foolish theories which make the staple of many treatises that assume to tell the teachers how to teach. The teacher's work is so practical that, when he does it best, he can hardly himself tell how he does it. I once thought I could make learning so entertaining that pupils could be educated as an amusement. In this view I was fortified by Rousseau, Locke, and Pestalozzi. I have since learned that such an education, if it were possible, would be a miserable prepara- tion for the stern realities of life. While the teacher should win the attention and sustain the interest, he should keep in mind that amusement in education holds about the same ratio to toil that a lady's jewelry does to her substantial dress." — (Prof. F. T. Kemper. ) 6. Hard Study must be Encouraged. — Oral teaching must be made to stimulate and direct effort, not displace it. Trans- parent and well-arranged books must be made to aid in the acquisi- tion of real knowledge. Time must not be wasted in solving puzzles and answering conundrums. Parents and teachers must encourage hard study. Only thus can w^e educate a race of brave, strong, independent men and women. !■ It I \:l i i 1G8 How TO STUDY. Topical Review — How to Study. tt»ART iV. The Art of Study. 1. Importance of the subject. 2. When may the teacher's help he withdravm t Progressive Steps in Study. 1. Get clear ideas of the lesson to be sttidied. 2. Bead the lesson carefvlly. 3. MoAter the leading features of the lesson. 4. Study details and illustrations. 6. Avoid too much detail. Helps in Study. 1. The dictionary stands first. 2. Other text-hooks for reference. 3. Encyclopcedia and other reference hooks. 4. Objective helps — ohservation and experiment. 5. Outlines give comprehensiveness and aid memory. 6. Diagrams are u^ed for remew, not for introduction. Benefits of Hard Study. 1. Ha/rd study condux:es to health. Importa/nce of habitvM obedience to hygienic laws. 2. It develops manhood. 3. The end of study is culture and manhood. 4. Ha/rd study is superior to amusement. 6. Hard study must be encou/raged. ^^^«srw« .BT IV. CHAPTER III. Art of SEouRixa Attention and Study. abitiud Attention is the power of the mind to direct ita own activities. It is the concentration of the mental energies upon one thing at a time. The art of teaching is based on the art of securing and hold- ing the attention of the learner, and thus developing the habit of attention. I. EDUCATIONAL IMPORTANCE OP ATTENTION. 1. Attention is the Condition of Knowledge.— Without some degree of attention, nothing can be learned. The accumulated power of attention renders acquisition possible. 2. Mental Growth Depends upon Attention. — Mental power increases in proportion as the pupil acquires the power of exact, rapid, penetrating, and prolonged attention. Imbeciles lack this power. 3. Perception and Memory Depend upon Attention. — Where there is no attention, we are unconscious of mental action, and hence recollection is impossible. The closer the attention, the clearer are our perceptions and the more tenacious our memories. Indistinct perception and poor memory are largely the results of the habit of inattention. 4. Teaching Pc"^er is Determined by the Power to Secure and Hold the Attention. — Without this power, neither ability nor scholarship can avail. It is clear that the art of securing attention is a fundamental qualification of the teacher. Education is a failure unless it develops in the pupil the power of penetrating and prolonged attention. II. UNFAVOURABLE CONDITIONS.— As far as pos- sible, whatever distracts attention should be avoided. The disci- plined mind may work amid confusion, but children need every favouring influence in their weak efforts to give attention, [1691 ifl! J( MblL.' Hi i » • 170 ATTENTION AND STUhV. tPAIlTlV. 1. Boisterous Teaching Distracts the Attention of those Studying. — Teachers and pupils should si)eak in low or medium tones. We want energy, but not ngise. Study to bo quiet as well as earnest. 2. Punishing Pupils during School Hours Seriously Interferes with Attention. — Only the most unskilful teachers distract the attention of the school by reproof or scolding or other punishments. ** A time for everything." 3. Speaking to the Teacher Diverts Attention.— "May I speak ?" ** May t get a drink ?" " May I leave my seat ?" No such questions should be permitted. All necessary communications should be made by silent signals. The first question miist never be asked. For the second question, the hand is raised wibh the first finger extended ; for the third, with the first and second fingers extended, etc. The teacher responds by an appropriate movement of the head. Bettor see that all such things are attended to during the recess, and thus avoid these interruptions. 4. Watching Disorderly Pupils is most Damaging.— The entire attention of the teacher is due to the class reciting. Only thus can he hold the attention of the pupils. Hero is a serious difficulty. There is no remedy but in training the pupils to the habit of self-government. Place the disorderly where they will not need watching. Let your eyes and ears always be wide open, so as to take in the whole school. Watching the bad pupils will become unnecessary. III. HOW NOT TO SECURE ATTENTION. —A tten- tion is not secured by claiming it ; not by entreating it ; not by urging its importance ; not by threats ; not by promises ; not by bribes. All such efforts are the subterfuges of the weak and the unskilful ; but they fail to long hold attention, and utterly fail to develop a habit of attention. The art of securing attention is posi- tive, not negative. IV. RULES FOR SECURING AND CULTIVATING ATTENTION. Rule 1. Command Attention by Interestmg the JPupils. -This is the fundamental means of securing, as well as of cultivating, the power of attentittn. The teacher must have some- 'autIV. ion of I low or bo quiet riously toachors Dr other -"May No such lications never be the first fingers ovement during ging.- reciting. a serious 8 to the will not en, so as 1 become — Atten- ; not by ; not by and the 'ly fail to n is posi- ATING ng the well as of ive nomo> Cap. III.J CONDITIUNS AND UULES. 171 thing good to present, and must present it in a suitable ninurior. Study the secret springs of interest. Keep curiosity and the thirst for knowledge always active. (1. ) Nooel Objecta. — The child is all attention to novel objects. As primary teaching is necessarily objective, moans of interesting pui>ils are readily commanded. Infinitely silly must be the teacher who does not use objects as the moans of securing and cultivating the attention of children. In nearly all school work objects may bo used to increase the interest. (2.) Stories. — Children are wonderfully attentive to stories, anec- dotes, incidents, and lively descriptions. Each recitation may bo made more attractive and more valuable by incidents, anecdotes, or something else in this line. Be brief, and make everything illus- trate the lesson. (3.) Adaptation. — All knowledge, if timely, and adapted to the capacity of pupils, may be made as interesting as objects and stories. Your language, your manner, your illustrations, and your methods must be suited to tho advancement of your pupils. The knowledge must be youra, and must be fresh. (4.) Mistakes. — Tasks, repulsive lessons, and forced work are educational mistakes. They repel and repress rather than develop the power of attention. It is glad activity that gives culture. When study is made more interesting than play, pupils, unasked, give the utmost attention. By interest and management, not by force, the soul is reached, and glad effort secured. *' Command the attention of young pupils by an animated manner, and by addressing curiosity and expectation ; of older pupils, by brevity and clearness of language, and by logical connection of matter." R\ile 2. Win Attention by Endless Variety. — Avoid all routine, all monotony, all prosy explanations. Make everything real. Flash upon the class your information and your explanations. Win attention by presenting new and fresh knowledge. Prepare for each lesson. Create activity and win attention by constant surprises. Thus, while educating others, you will yourself grow strong and vigorous. i:^l!' hli 172 ATTENTION AND STUDY. [Part IV. ^*t ,:f!Wf si I \ .1; I Rule 3. Attract Attention by a Good Elocution.— Don't talk much ; don't talk loud ; never scold ; and seldom repeat. Talk to the point, be in earnest, and keep in mind that "words fitly spoken are like apples of gold in pictures of silver." As the magnet attracts the needle, so does good elocution attract attention Where the elocution is good, it is seldom necessary to ask attention. It is hard for any one to give attention to droning, inarticulate, monotonous, lifeless utterances. " 'Tis modulation charms tho ear" and rivets l^Iits attention. " That I may attract attention, I must have attractive power that will draw the pupil toward me. I umst have magnetism that will hold the pupil fast to me. I muot have enthusiasm that will fire my pupil with zeal for work. I must be able to sink myself from fight ; to transfer attention fi om myself to my subject. If I have these four personal elements in my teaching, I shall get attentioa and hold it. If I have not, I must cultivate them." Rule 4. Compel Attention by Right Class Manage- ment. — Each member of the ^lass is held responsible for the entire lesson. Each one may be called on at any moment. Inatten- tion is considered a serious disgrace. Questions are asked but once. Topic and question metnods, individual and concert answers, written and oral work, are duly intermingled. The pupils are leavningf not merely reciting. Most minds are somewhat sluggish, and work well only under pressure. The skilful teacher incites without exciting ; presses ^.vithout coercing ; instructs without repressing self-helpfulness ; inspires without confusing ; compels without forcing. Rule 5. Favour Attention by Frequent Change of Position. — If kept long in one position, pupils will become restless and inattentive. Now let them stand, now sit ; now make them work on the board, now explain ; now let them answer indi- vidually, now in concert ; now give a moment's exercise, or vary the position in some way, and thus make attention possible and pleasant. '* Give attention a chance." Rule 6. Promote Attention by Vigilance.— Use your eyes and ears. The entire class and the entire school must be seen and heard. All symptoins of inattention must be noted at once and i 'II of jstlesa them indi- ,ry the asant. Cap. III.l RULES AND REGULATIONS. 173 the remedies ai)plied. Stupid teachers, who see but a part of the class or school, promote inattention. Sensible teachers will not continue the lesson for a moment without attention. The alert teacher promotes attention by always being wide awake. Rule 7. Cultivate Attention by Frequency of Repe- tition. — During each recitation the leading features of i)revious lessons are required. Because they are required to use their know- ledge continually, pupils learn to give close attention. Studying merely to reciva is a fatal error. The lesson of to-day is forgotten to-morrow. Now, nothing can be said to be well learned until it has been often \ efore the mind. Then, children deliglit to do that which they can do well. Cultivate attention by making each lesson a review of all previous lessons. Rule 8. Stimulate Attention by Rewarding it. — Always have something interesting and valuable to present. The teacher supplements both the book and child-experience. He is a great student. He constantly interrogates nature. His knowledge is always fresh and sparkling ; it is at once wider and more specific than that derived from textbooks. He opens up to child-mind new beauties and new wonders. Curiosity is kept active. Every energy is aroused. The pupil grows strong as well as wise, and the power of ready and penetrating attention becomes a life habit. Rule 9. Bnoourage Attention by Showing that it is the Key to Success. — Your own observation will furnish many examples. Each successful life is an example. Each pupil's experi- en^, will illustrate the rule. (1.) Newton. — "The difference between myself and other men consists chiefly in the habit I have acquired of more completely concentrating my attention, and holding it longer upon a subject, than most men. Because I have acquired the power of intense and prolonged attention, I am able to accomplish what others fail to do." (2.) Dickens. — "The only seri'iceable, sale, certain, remunerative, attainable quality in every study is the power of attention. What- ever I have tried to do in life, I have tried with all my heart to do well. Whatever I have devoted myself to, I have devoted myself to completely. This I now find to have been my golden rule. '" (3.) Napoleon. — "The mind is like a chest with many drawers : ) 4 ;i i I I: I ill I I ■ w I 174 AITENTION AND STUDY, [Part IV. Bn jj-;i ! lf| when one is opened, all the rest should be closed. I am able to despatch a marvellous amount of work, because, witli all the powers of my mind, I attend to one thing at a time. When I have finished the work in one drawer, I close it and o])en another. When I have finished and closed all, I can rest ; T can sleep at once, even on the battle-field." V. UNWISE INCENTIVES TO STUDY. -As a rule, prizes, individual emulation, rewards, punishments, and all such incentives, are unwise and generally injurious. The true teacher will very seldom need to resort to such expedients. The incentives embodied in the above rules will be found all-sufficient. "If prizes are ever offered, it should only be in cases where the pupil can not be reached by worthier motives, and as an expedient to lift him to a higher plane. ** I have known a few cases in which rewards, and even punish- ments, were productive of good results ; but such instances are exceptional. The rule is, that the fruitage of such motives is bad. Inflating the minds of children with ambitious prospects of becom- ing some ' great one ' is baneful and pernicious. Such incentives turn the youth from the shops and farms and overcrowd the pro- fessions — results inimical to the stability and prosperity of the state. "The love of knowledge, the development of a true manhood, preparation for the highest usefulness, qualification for the greatest happiness, approval of the Creator — these are beoter, safer, nobler motives." — Prof. William Irelan. The Question of Rewards and Punishments is one that still admits of discussion ; and we do not intend our statements in the text to imply that all rewards and all punishments are to be discarded, even as means for the attainment of the mental development of the pupils. The true objective point in education is the development and culture of the mind, and the communication of knowledge by the teacher, directly and indirectly, is and always will be the chief means of securing this end. He is the best teacher who can attain thi? object with the least help from rewards and punishments ; but we do not expect that even the best teacher will be able to dispense entirely with these doubtful incentives until the educational millennium has arrived, and that, we fear, is not so very close at hand as some of us would fondly hope. i V Cap. III.] TOPICAL RKVIEW. 17i Part IV. 1 able to le powers e finished ten I have 3n on the /^s a rule, d all such ue teacher incentives where the expedient en punish- stances are ives is bad. J of becom- 1 incentives «rd the pro- >f the state. 3 manhood, the greatest afer, nobler J is one that Atements in lents are to the mental in education nmunication and always best teacher rewards and teacher will mtives until aar, is not so Topical Review. — Art of Securing Aotentign and Study. Importance of securing attention. 1. Attention is the condition of knowledge. 2. Mental grotvth dA'penda upon attention. 3. Memory and perception depend upon attention. 4. Teachi/ng power is determined by the power to secure attention. Unfavourable conditions for securing attention. 1. Boisterous teaching. 2. Punishments. 3. Speaking to the teacher, 4. Watching disorderly pupils. How not to secure attention. 1. Not by claiming it. 2. Not by entreating it. 3. Not by force. 4. Not by urging its im2>ortance, 5. Not by threats. G. Not by promises. 7. Not by bribes. 8. Not by punishments. Rules for securing and cultivating attention. 1. Command attention by interesting the pupils, 2. Win attention by endless variety. 3. Attract attention by a good, elocution. 4. Compel attention by right class management. 5. Favour attention by frequent change of position, G. Promote attention by vigilance. 7. Cultivate attention by frequency of repetition, 8. Stimidate attention by rewarding it. 9. Encourage attention by showing that it is the key to success. Unwise incentives to study. 1. Pr.^es. 2. Individual emulation. 3. Riwarda. 4. Punishments^ etc. t*' :;l CHAPTER IV. n\^.k Work for the Little Ones. Pestalozzi is credited with the first discovery of childhood. Every successful primary teacher makes the same discovery. As a result, many of our primary schools are becoming models of interest and adaptation ; means and methods are adapted to child-nature. As flowers unfold amid sunshine, so children develop under genial influences. I. SCHOOL WORK SHOULD GIVE PLEASURE. - As motion is in the line of the least resistance, so education is in the line of the greatest pleasure. Not painful, but pleasurable, are the processes of development. The application of this pervading principle is working an educational revolution such as the world has never before known. The old education was painful and repulsive. Studies were con- sidered beneficial in proportion as they, were distasteful. The new education inspires voluntary and glad effort. Adaptation ixvA interest are cardinal. The old education consisted largely of unmeaning task-work, which tended to discourage and repress. The new education leads the pupil to discover and apply, and inspires boundles." enthusiasm. II. PLAY IS AN EDUCATIONAL PROCESS.-It is the natural vent of the child's activity. Properly directed, the child plays up to work. To thus direct play is the mission of the Kinder- garten. This can be done largely in every family and in every primary school. The play songs cultivate a luve of music. The construction blocks lay a foundation for inventive drawing. The exercise plays develop strength and grace. The mother and the teacher who understand childhood will need few hints. There is a limitless field from which to choose. III. HAND AND EYE CULTURE.— The child is incap- able of abstract study He deals with tlie concrete. Ideas are developed through action. Results are worked out. [170] Cap. IV.] CULTUtlE OF SAND— EVE — VOICE. 177 1. Reading. — The object is examined. The name is spoken and placed on the board. The pupils find the word on the cards, print it on the board, write it on their slates. Words are combined and read. Lessons are written or printed on board and slates. Words aro spelled and sentences written. Pictures are drawn. Objects are collected and brought to class. Constant activity and endless change characterize preparation and recitation. Hand work leads up to mind work. The pupils read well because they understand what they read. 2. Drawing and Penmanship.— The fact that every child loves to make pictures, indicates a great educational law. Drawing educates the hand, develops taste, aids in the acquisition of know- ledge, and is of great practical value. It keeps pupils interested and busy. 3. Arithmetic. — With small sticks, the numeral frame, weights, measures, etc., each pupil performs the operations. The board and slate are used without limit. The children are delighted because they can do, as well as understand, the work. 4. Geography. — With a board and some clay and sand, the continents, the divisions of land and water, etc., are constructed. Maps are drawn on slates and board. The globe and outline maps are made to do good service. The divisions of land and water aro all made on the playground. A solid foundation is laid in actual experience. 6. Other branches equally engage the hand and eye. Indeed, hand exercise is the secret of success in primaiy-school work. The little ones are ovor-flowing with activity. Let this activity be so directed as to keep them interested and busy. At the same time let it be so directed as to lead to knowledge and culture. IV. VOICE CULTURE.— Speech and song are divine. All ciiildren delight in vocal effort. The teacher so manages as to make the vocal exercises educational. The child becomes an excellent reader, a charming conversationalist, a sweet singer. The teacher takes lessons from the children while at play, and trains them to be equally natural and eloquent in the school-room. Every lesson is full of meaning and full f>f action. The Kindergarten has taught UB invaluable lessons, true to nature. t t r h I i ! ■' i i, n H. ? 1 I" i 17S Work for me cfliLDHfiN. [Part IV. V. BODY CULTURE.— Play— spontaneous activity— pre- pares for work — determined activity. Play is the best exercise for children, yet calisthenics are indispensable, for these reasons : (1.) These exercises educate the body — give the children better command of the body. (2.) They are hygienic. By fostering a good circulation of the blood, they make the brain a better instrument for mental effort. (3.) They promote order by working off the restless activity of childhood. (4.) They tend to fit for citizenship. Pupils learn to act in con- cert, and thus prepare for the rhythm of society. They learn exact and prompt obedience to rightful authority, and are thus prepared for citizenship. These exercises need to be frequent and varied, calling into activity every muscle. They must be adapted to the strength of the pupils, and must bo so managed as to delight the children. "Physical Culture," by E. B. Houghton, will give the inexperienced teacher a full series of suitable exercises for pupils of all grades. VI. ACTION AND CULTURE.— The following great educational principles pervade all primary work : 1. All true education is self-education. 2. Personal and persistent effort is the condition of growth. 3. Child-ctdture consists largely of well-directed physical activities. 4. The chief office of the teacher is to stimulate and direct child- effort. 5. Child-growth is simply the gradual, continuotis, all-sided develop- ment of the original powers and tende^icies of child-nature. The day for parrot-work, for cramming, for mere book-teaching, for stultifying and dwarfing, for lifeless, repulsive schools, is for ever past. Now our little ones begin their education with glad activity. They see, and hear, and taste, and handle. They feel, and choose, and do. They begin with nature and oral teachivr, and from ideas are lead to words, from words to definitions, from ^hiture to books. They tread surely, because every step rests on the rock of personal experience. They move on cheerily, because each lesson opens up new beauties. They grow strong, because each step is a victorjr. "Good schools are the natural results of good teaching. They never come of good school-incuses, or good courses of study, or good superintendence, or good discourses on the philosophy of education, taken alone. All these external means may be useful and necessary as conditions ; but good teacliers, guided by a true method, consti- tute the etticieut cause of all good schools." Cap. IV.] TOPICAL REVIEW. 179 Topical Review — Work for the Litttb Ones. School work should give pleasure. 1. Education is in the line of greatest pleasure. 2. The old education was painful and repulsive. 3. The new education inspires volu/ntary and glad effort. Play is an educational process. 1. Play is the spontaneous exhibition of child-activity. 2. Work is determined activity. 3. The childf properly directed, plays up to work. Hand and eye-culture. 1. Kindergarten work. 2. Primary Reading. 3. Drawing and Penmanship. 4. Objective Arithmetic. 5. Objective Geography. 6. Other branches. Voice-culture. 1. All children delight in vocal effort. 2. Make the vocal exercises educational. Body-culture. 1. Galisthenic exercises give command of the body, 2. They are hygienic. 3. They promote order. 4. They tend fo fit for citizenship. Culture by action. 1. All true education is self-education. 2. Effort is the condition of growth. 3. GhUd-cultwre begins in physical activity. 4. The teacher directs and stimulates effort. 5. Child-growth is the gradual development of child-powers. The day for parrot-vjork is for ever past. 1. Now the little ows begin ivith nature and oral teaching. 2. They see, and hear, and taste, and handle. 3. They feel, a/nd choose^ amd do. 4. They work up to ideas, wqrds, definiiions, books. 5. They grow strong and happy because each step is a victory. "■I t ■« n-^ 1^1 if I I CHAPTER V. PllINCIl'LES PbRTAININO TO THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION AND THE Art OF Teacuing.* I. Fundamental Principles. 1. The body and the mind are inter-dependent. 2. Education is a growth. 8. The mind in all its faculties is self-acting. 4. By systematic and well-directed effort each power of the soul is educated. 5. The teacher stimulates and directs effort, but all education is self -education. 6. The teacher, to take a single intelligent step, must understand the plan of child-mind and the plan of the subject taught. 7. In teaching, the matter and the method must be adapted to the capacity of the learner. 8. At every stage, contact with the entire circle of science is necessary to complete and harmonious development. 9. Educational effort should be in the line of least resistance — i. e., of greatest pleasure. 10. At every step in education, moral, intellectual, and physical development should receive due attention. 11. General Principles of Education.— (Brooks.) 1. The primary object of education is the perfection of the indi- vidual. 2. The perfection of the individual is attained by the harmonious and full development of all his powers. •These principles are merely stated here; in the "Science of Human Culture" and "The Art of Teaching" they are derived, examined, and applied. [180] il Cap. v.] GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 181 3. The intellectual powers develop naturally in a certain order, which order should be followed in education : perception, memory, imagination, conception, judgment, reason. 4. The basis of this development is the self -activity of the child. 5. This self -activity has two distinct phases : from without inward — receptive and acquisitive ; and from within outward — pr6ductive and expressive. 6. These two phases, the receptive and productive, should go hand in hand in the work of education. 7. There must be objective realities to supply the condition for the self-activity of the mind. 8. Education is not creative ; it simply develops exist ing realities and possibilities. 9. Education should be so modified and adapted as to develop the different tastes and talents of the pupils. 10. A scheme of education should aim to attain the triune result — development, learning, and efficiency. III. Psychological Principles relating to Teaching.* 1. In education, culture is worth more than knowledge. 2. Exercise is the great law of culture. 3. The teacher should aim to give careful culture to the percep- tive powers of the child. 4. The teacher should aim to furnish the memory of the child with facts and words. 5. The memory should be trained to operate by the laws of asso- ciation and suggestion. 6. The power of forming ideal creations should be carefully culti- vated. 7. The mind should gradually be led from concrete to abstract ideas. 8. A child should be gradually led from particular ideas to general ideas. ill • "Normal Method of Teaching," by Edward Brooks, is a valuable work, in which these principles are elaborated and applied. 182 EDUCATION AND TEACHING. [Pabt IV. \ikk E If! •' I 9. A youth Hliould be taught to reason first inductively and then deductively. 10. A learner should be gradually led to attain clear conceptions of intuitive ideas and truths. IV. Principles pertaininp- to the Order of presenting Truth. (Brooks.) 1. The second object of teaching is to impart knowledge. 2. Things should be taught before words. 3. Ideas should be taught before truths. 4. Particular ideas should be taught before general ideas. 5. Facts, or particular truths, should be taught before principles, or general truths. 6. In the physical sciences, causes should be taught before laws. 7. In the physical sciences, causes and laws should be taught before the scientific classification. 8. The elements of the inductive sciences should precede the deductive sciences. 9. The formal study of the deductive sciences should precede that of the inductive sciences. 10. The metaphysical sciences should be the last in a course of instruction. V. Principles pertaining to the Processes in Har- monious Teaching.* 1. Primary instruction should proceed from the known to the unknown. 2. Advanced instruction may sometimes proceed from the unknown to the known. 3. Primary instruction should be given in the concrete. 4. Advanced instruction should be more abstract. 5. Primary instruction should be synthetic and analjrtic. 6. Advanced instruction should be both analytic and synthetic. * James Johonnot, in " Principles and Practice of Teaching." Some of the principles are slightly modified. letic. Cap. v.] courses — METHODS— TOPICAL REVIEW. 183 7. Primary instruction nhould be inductive. 8. Advanced instruction should be inductive and deductive. 9. Primary instruction should proceed from the practical to the theoretical. 10. Advanced instruction should proceed from the theoretical to the practical. VI. Principles pertaining to Courses of Study and Methods of Teaching. (Johonnot.) 1. All primary ideas of the material world must come through the senses. 2. The senses should be trained and made acute by systematic object-teaching. 3. Attention is best secured by proper and related object lessons. 4. Perceptive knowledge should be made the basis of primary instruction. 5. Memory is best cultivated by forcible, repeated, and related perceptions and ideas. 6. Subjects appealing mainly to the reason and judgment belong to the advanced course of instruction. 7. Ideas should precede words. 3. Instruction should proceed from the known to the unknown. 9. Exercise should be left to the pupil. 10. Each process of instruction should include full perception, distinct understanding, clear expression, and, where possible, the passing of thought into action. Topical Review. — Principles of Education and Teaching. 1. Fundomiental Principles. 2. General Principles of EdtLcation. (Brooks.) 3. Psychological Principles relating to Teaching. 4. Principles pertaining to the Order of Presenting Truth. 5. Principles pertaining to the Processes in Harmonious Teaching. ^ (Johonnot.) (), Courses of Study and Methods of Teachitig, I. in r\ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^ ^ 1.0 I.I L;|28 |2.5 £t 1^ 12.0 12.2 L25 114 IJ^ 0% <% > >:) Phoi Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. US80 (716) 872-4S03 i\ '^ ) n 6^ i i • ^ j,i/- ■; " ,v > ^" i" ".1 - ■■ • I if ; .:^;'Ksi, "'"' 1 ;'^' •' # CLASS MANAGEMENT. il PART V. ■ CHAPTER I. — Peinciples Relating to Class Management. '♦ II. — Lessons and Class Work. " III. — General Class Methods. ^ /^ . ^ " IV, — Auxiliary Class Methods. (( (< V. — Questionable, Erroneous, and Antiquated Class Methods. VI. — Art of Questioning. • *< VII. — Golden Hints to Teachers. I r; til m i(. ■*>t ■■::■(., I' PART V CLASS MANAGEMENT. CHAPTER I. Principles Relating to Class Management. A Class is a Number of Pupils of Similar Standing and Attainments, grouped for Common Work.— Grouping multiplies the teacher's efficiency by twenty, and utilizes those potent forces — sympathy, emulation, and competition. The problems relating to class management are of profoundest interest. For their solution the centuries have done much. Much may be learned of the masters, from Socrates down. But, with all the lights of the past, and all the ] elps of the present, each one, from necessity, must work out these problems for himself. The teacher is an artist, not an artisan. In what follows, the effort is to develop principles rather than rules, and to create better ideals rather than to teach specific methods. The teacher should be the master of methods, not the slave. His mind should mingle with that of the pupil, and he should breathe a new life into the soul of the learner. Do you think such a teacher will ever be found standing before his class, book in hand, trying to teach verbal definitions, and listening to verbatim recitations ? I. The Interested Attention of aU must be Secured.— The interested attention of each pupil during the entire recitation is the first condition of success in teaching. Tou may be able to solve the hardest problems and write the ablest books, but if you have not the power to secure and hold the attention of your pupils, you can not teach. [187J I' u .■ [Pabt V. eot Good They grieve lb they are I. idy.— Bach (her. Good is a serious •Id. " [ must be ous ways : lings of the vilege of the not be per- spedient lias or whipping 1. Generally ihment. Do »f the pupil ? >u manage to 'o you make you afford to soul develop scret in edu- The idle, ^he }t be reached. I made plain I have no ngs must be necessary to management Cap. 11.) TOPICAL llfiVlEW. 195 Topical Rbvibw — Lessons and Glass Work. Objects of 018438 Work. 1. To tram thie pupils in the art of study. 2. Examination of ivritten exerciaes. 3. Testing the pupil's preparation. 4. To cultivate the practice of correct composition. 5. To stimulate inleresty love of study and investigation. 6. To mpplemsnt the knowledge gained from the text-book. 7. Intelligent direction of the pupils in their work. 8. 2*0 lead the pupils to apply their harming. Length of Beoitations. 1. Must not exceed the powers of the pupils. 2. Limits according to class and age. (a.) Junior pupils in primary schools — 10 to SO minutes, (h.) Third and junior fourth classes — SO to SO minutes, {c.) Advanced classes — SO to 40 minutes. {d.) Adult classes in college, die. — ^0 to 00 minutes. Assigning Lessons. 1. The lesson is for the average of the class. 2. Pages as well as subjects should be specified. 3. Short lessons secure the most thorough preparation. 4. Teach the pupils how to prepare the lesson. Treatment of the Unprepared. 1. Approve good work, and enco'urage every lionest effort. 2. Ascertain causes and apply remedies for failure. 3. Show that you expect careful preparation. 4. Impress the importance of diligent study. 5. In chronic cases : — (a.) Contrast failure u)ith su/xessful cases. ; (b.) Deprive of the privilege of recitatioii,. (c.) Bemove to a lower class, (d.) Stispend in extreme cases only, C). Do not try to win a love of study by force. . Employ force to punish idleness and disobedience. s ■I I : i« t i m r CHAPTER III. General Glass Methods. Bj!: ' r' f Class Work stimulates and directs BflEbrt.— The fruitful mind of the teacher broods over the struggling mind of the pupil — arousing, guiding, instructing. The learner is trained to wrest the secrets from nature and books. Mental power is developed and right habits are formed. This is teaching. Class Methods vary as Subjects and Teachers vary.— The method is determined by the subject, the class, and the teacher. The end to be reached is culture by means of mastering subjects. The safe rule is to employ such methods as will best enable you to e£fect the desired results. General Class Methods are used in all subjects, and are common to all good teaching. Founded in educational principles, they are essentials in the art of teaching. Such are the Socratic, the Topic and Question, the Discussion, and the Conversation methods. The Lecture method has, perhaps, some claims to recog- nition under this head. I. THE SOCBATIC METHOD. 1. Definition. — By skilful questioning the pupil is led to discover truth for himself. Subjects are examined from the stand- point of the learner. The teacher stimulates and directs, but never crams. Pupils are encouraged to present their own thoughts. If correct, the teacher deepens and widens these views by suggestive illustrations ; if incorrect, the absurdity is shown by leading the pupils to discover the legitimate consequences. Thus the burden of observation and research is thrown upon the learner, who, at every step, feels the joy of discovery and the conscious pleasure of (assisting the teacher. Such teaching results in development, growth, education. 2. Illustrations. The following free translation of a conver- sation between Socrates and one of his pupils is a good example of the Socratic method : [190] Cap. III.; THE SOCRATIC METfiOD. 197 -The fruitful )f the pupil — d to wrest the leveloped and lers vary.— d the teacher. )ring subjects, enable you to jects, and are lal principles, the Socratic, Conversation aims to recog- ipil is led to om the stand- ects, but never thoughts. If l>y suggestive >y leading the us the burden kmer, who, at >us pleasure of development, 1 of a conver- od example of Meno. " Socrates, we come to you feeling strong and wise ; wo leave you feeling helpless and ignorant. Why is this ? " Socrates. '* I will show you." Calling a young Greek, and mak- ing a line in the sand, " Boy, how long is tl\is line ? " Boy. *' It is a foot long, sir." Socrates. " How long is this line ? " Boy. " It is two feet long, sir." Socrates. ** How much larger would be the square constructed on the second line than on the first line ? " Boy. " It would be twice as large, sir." Under the direction of the boy, Socrates constructs the two squares. Socrates. " How much larger than the first did you say the second square would be ? " Boy. *' I said it would be twice as large." Socrates. " But how much larger is it ? " Boy. " It is four times as large." Socrates. " Thank you, my boy ; you may go. — ^Meno, that boy came to me full of confidence, thinking himself wise. I told him nothing. By a few simple questions I led him to see his error and discover the truth. Though really wiser, he goes away feeling humbled." The above is an object lesson. To illustrate the Socratic method of teaching abstract truths, another example is given : A Model Lesson. — " Socrates would convince Alcibiades, in opposition to materialistic v'^ws, that the mind is the man. He abstains from laying this down as a proposition to be proved, and offers no connected argument. He begins by asking whether he who uses a thing and the thing used are not altogether different ; and then, Alcibiades being reluctant to answer positively, he asks again more specifically : " Socrates. A currier, does he not use a cutting-knife ? is he not different from the instrument he uses ? " Alcibiades. IVIost certainly. " S. In like manner the lyrist, is he not different from the instru- ment he plays on ? 'M. Undoubtedly. " S. This, then, was what I asked you just now. Does not he who uses a thing seem to you always different from the thing used ? '*^. Very different. "(Sf. But the currier, does he cut with the instrument alone, oi also with his hands ? ''■A. Also with his hands. *'(Sf. He, then, uses his hands? "A Yes. "/Si. We are agreed, then, that he that uses a thing and the thing used are different ? *' J.. We are. .' I H im fll i B ■*' \H 198 GENERAL CLASS METHODS. I [Part V. ■.y ; \ : :.■ ■ r i "SI. But we are agreed that he that uses and that which is used are different ? '-'A. Yes. "(S. A man is, therefore, different from his body? ''A. So I think. " S. What then is the man ? "^. I can not say. • ' 8. You can say at least that the man is that which uses the body ? *M. True. "(S. Now, then, does anything use the body but the mind? ''A. Nothing. "(S. The mind is therefore the man ? — A. The mind alone." 3. Use of the Socratio Method. — Though older than Socrates, this method is modern ; it is, in a high sense, the method of Pustalozzi and the new education. Its special use is in giving original instruction. In primary work the Socratic h the dominant method. In all grades of school work it holds a prominent place. The teacher is an instructoTy and teaching is presenting a au^ect or object of thought to tlie mind in such a manner as to lead it to thiriky to reason, or to gai/n knowledge. 4. Advantages. — Pupils discover truth for themselves, solve their own problems, master their own difficulties, and become courageous and strong. Impressions made are lasting ; the know- ledge thus acquired can be used. Mere school-keepers, rote-teachers, quacks, shams, and fossils will never adopt this plan of teaching ; but, as teachers become familiar with the science of education, and skilled in the art of teaching, they will necessarily use the Socratic method in giving original instruction. Questioning is better than telling. II. THE TOPIC AND QUESTION METHOD. 1. Definition. — The subject is examined by topics, and acquisi- tion tested by questions. Pupils are trained to tell connectedly their own thoughts in their own language. Pointed questions are interjected at every step to hold the attention of the class, to direct effort, and to test thoroughness. [Part V. ) from the ch is used s the body ? mind? klone." older than ' the method is in giving le dominant inent place. a suhject or I it to ihinkf selves, solve and become ; ; the know- ote-teachers, of teaching ; lucation, and the Sooratic better than OD. and acquisi- connectedly ][ue8tions are ass, to direct Cap. 111.] TOPIC AND QUESTlON—DlSCUSSlON. 199 2. Use. — This method is made the basis in class- work. Other methods supplement this. The teacher, whenever necessary, asks sharp questions. Each member of the class is held responsible for all the work. Thus the close attention of each one is secured, and shallowness and pretense are exposed. 3. Danger. — Class work may degenerate into mere reciting, and teaching may be excluded. Exclusive topic work is fatal to vigour and thoroughness. The topic method needs to be used sparingly in primary teaching. Lazy teachers find the topic method an admir- able means of shirking work. They hear the recitations. 4. Advantages. — Subjects are examined systematically, and pupils learn the art of consecutive discourse. When judiciously used and constantly supplemented by other methods, the topic method may rightly be made the basis of class work. III. THE DISCUSSION METHOD. 1. Definition. — In short and pointed speeches the pupils define and maintain their positions. Objections are urged and answered. Pupils learn to yield gracefully when convinced. The teacher directs the discussion, and closes it at the right moment. 2. Use. — Discussion elicits intense interest, calls forth the best efforts of pupils, and leads to accuracy and clearness. In some form, and to some extent, this method may be used in all schools. 3. Dangers. — Time may be squandered in desultory talk ; the disposition to dispute rather than investigate may be fostered ; and feelings may be wounded by sharp retorts and personal allusions. The wise teacher will guard against these evils, and will use the discussion method sparingly and wisely. 4. Advantages. — The discussion method tends to develop vigorous thought and independent expression. As iron sharpens iron, so discussion sharpens mind. Educationally, the discussion method stands very high. In these mental conflicts the utmost power of the pupil is put forth. He acquires cogency of thought and vigour of expression. He learns to resptct the positions of others, and at the same time manfully to maintain his own. There is no better way to cultivate independence, self-assertion, liberality, and the habit of treating an opponent courteously and fairly. The discussion method supplements the Socratio and the topic methods. ■^3! n ■\ I :;! ■«NM 200 6t:NEtiAl cUss Mfitaot)S. tl^ART V. :1 It it; i ¥1 It tends to break up monotony, to dissipate insipidness and stupid- ity, and to bring into contempt all sophistry and shallow pretense. From the primary school to the university, this method may be used with incalculable advantage. Let the discussion method pre- dominate in our schools and colleges, and teachers will cease to be called narrow, bigoted, tyrannical. Wide culture and a clear head will be found necessary in order to decide points, direct discussions, give information, and sustain the interest. Mere school-keepers do not dare to permit discussions ; many a college professor would lose his position within a month. But competent educators who use this method will grow with the work, and, like their pupils, become courteous ladies and gentlemen, as well as independent and power- ful thinkers. Give us less cramming, less artificial training, and more rugged development. The great want of our schools is growth. The world needs oaks, not willows. The discussion method is pre- eminently the method to make men. IV. THE CONVERSATION METHOD. 1. Definition. — The teacher presents his views, and leads the members of the class to do the same. The style is conversational. Each one is free to ask and answer questions. The teacher should be well prepared, and should work for results. This was the method of the Great Teacher. The perfect model lessons may be studied as reported by Matthew and Luke. • : „ . 2. Use. — This method supplements the Socratic in giving original instruction, and is especially suited for the oral work in all schools. Professional instruction, for the most part, is given by this method in training schools and Teachers' Institutes. Many instructors in theological, medical, law, and technical schools use it to great advantage. 3. Dangers. — Teachers may become loquacious ; pupils may ask silly questions ; or side issues may absorb the time. The teacher needs to be full of the theme, and his few remarks should be full of information and pith. The pupils need to be so impressed that no one will dare to trifle. 4. Advantages. — The teacher seems to merely lead in the investigation, and his remarks seem to be spontaneous. The pupils feel that they are doing the work, and each one realizes the pleasure of original discovery. This is true teaching, and the result is real education. - -^& t^ART V. and stupid- w pretense. hod may be nethod pre- cease to be % clear head discussions, l-keepers do r would lose )rB who use pils, become and power- raining, and •Is is growth. 3thod is pre- id leads the iversational. [icher should i the method f be studied ! in giving I work in all is given by utes. Many schools use pupils may The teacher lid be full of issed that no lead in the The pupils the pleasure esult is real CJap. II1.1 CONVERSATIONS — LECTU&ES. 201 6. Illustration. — The following conversation between an insti- tute instructor and the teacher-pupils admirably serves our purpose : QiiesHon. Why should we teach ? Answer. That others may gain knowledge. Q. Why should others gain knowledge ? A. That they may have a wider means of enjoyment and useful- ness. Q. In order to enjoy their knowledge, what must children do with it ? A. They must use it. Q. In order to use their knowledge, what must they do ? A. They must tMtik. Q. Why have the children as weU as the teacher to think ? A. In order that their knowledge may do them greater good. Q. Why not let the teacher do all the thinking ? A. It would not improve the children. Q. What must be used in thinking ? A. The mind. Q. What does every child's mind possess ? A. Certain faculties. Q. What are faculties of the mind ? A. Powers which the mind possesses to do certain things. Q. In order that children may use these faculties — may think — what must be done with the faculties ? A. They must be cultivated. The children must be led to use them Q. How may this be done ? A. By teaching object lessons ; thus taking the children to Nature — the source of knowledge — and allowing them to compare, reason, and generalize for themselves. Then let them express in their language the results of their investigations, being careful to have their expressions accurate. This kind of work makes the children independent. V. THE LECTURE METHOD. 1. Deflnition. — The teacher clearly, tersely, and systematically presents the subject ; the learner listens intently, firmly fixes in his memory the leading points, and at his leisure ponders and digests the lecture. The lecture method is utterly out of place in elementary schools. Wherever tried, it proves an ignominious failure, a sure training process for inattention, listlessness, and mischief. We would advise Public School Teachers to eschew it ; or, if they will use it, let it be only in the most advanced classes, and there, sparingly. H 1 1 I 'liiil' t ; n :| T I it, |i il' 11 202 QENtlKAL CLASS METHODS. [Part V. I (\ •' '! i1 '"l 'A Topical Bevibw. — General Glass Methods. Introduction. 1. Class work should stimvlate cmd direct effort. 2. Class methods vary vjUh the teacher, the subject, and the class. The Socratic Method. 1. D^nition. By skilful questioning, the pupil is led to dis- cover truth. 2. Illustrations. Socrates amd Meno ; Socrates and Alcibiades. 3. Use. In giving original instruction, and in exposing error. 4. Advantages. Questioning is better than, telling. Fusils discover. The topio and question method. 1. Definition. The subject is examined by topics, and acqidsi- tioii is tested by questions. 2. Use. This method is made the basis in class work. 3. Danger. Class work may degenerate into mere recitation. 4. Advantages. Subjects a/re examined systematically. Fupils acquire the a/rt of connected discourse. The discussion method. 1. Definition. The pupils define and prove their positions. 2. Use. Discussion calls forth the best efforts of the pupils. 3. Danger. It may foster disputation rather than investigation. 4. Advantage. It develops vigourous tiiought and self-assertion. The conversation method. 1. Definition. Facts and views are stated, and q^iestions are asked and answered by pupils and teacher. 2. Use. To stimulate and direct original investigation. 3. Danger. Time may be wasted in mere talking^ ' 4. Advantage. The pupils feel that they are doing the work. The lecture method. 1. Definition. The teacher clearly, tersely, and systematically presents the subject. <■ •• * 2. Use. For advanced work. 3. Abuse. Its use in the lotoer schools. 4. Advantage. It inspires and directs effort. ^' [Part V. nd the class. i led to di»- I Alcibiades. oosiiig error, ig. F'wpils and acquisi- h. recitation, dly, Fupils oositions. he pupils, fwestigation. elf-assertion. qitestions are lation. g (he work. ystematically CHAPTER IV. Auxiliary Glass Methods. The general class methods cover all the ground, and are the methods used by efficient instructors. Besides these, the skilful teacher calls to his aid various expedients which we may call auxiliary methods. Of approved auxiliary methods, we call attention to the following : I. THE WRITING METHOD.— Whatever plan may be pursued, much written work should be required. The board, the slate, and the paper are important educational aids, and should be fully utilised. The inspired and over-sensitive teacher, who shrinks from a little crayon dust and the life and hum of vigourous class work, should be speedily promoted. The class-room is no place for the nervous, the fussy, or the invalid. To awaken interest and direct the energies of youth, requires enthusiasm, power, energy, work. The means for written work should always be at command. From the primary school to the college, much class work should be written work. The teacher who ignores the writing method needs to learn the ways of education more perfectly. II. THE OUTLINE METHOD. —After a subject has been mastered in detail, it is reviewed in outline. The outline aids ■ memory and enables the learner to grapp the subject as a whole. It leads to the mastery of essentials and the omission of burdensome details. President Brown asks aiA answers the vital question : " Do we not Teach too Much ? I do not mean that our courses of study are too extensive ; but do avo not teach too much of any one subject ? We give the mass without the thought, the essence. We solve problem after problem, we commit definition after defini- tion, we parse word after word, we translate sentence after sentence, and do not realize that there is any relation the one with the other. It seems to me, that if we would learn principles systematically rather than so much, we would have more knowledge at our command. ' [203] I ;j t ! ; n ■ ^i{ 204 AUXILIARY CLASS METHODS. [Part V. If we could see the thought as developed in any subject, just as we should and must see the thought in reading — and not only see the thought in one subject, but be able to follow it through avery branch — then our knowledge would be systematic." The outline method, when wisely used, tends to secure the results referred to above. Caution. — Avoid mere outline work. Your pupils will starve if fed on skeletons. To begm with diagrams, to teach from diagrams, and to depend upo)i diagrams, are fundamental educational errors. The Place of Outlines. — Subjects are first presented syn- thetically, then analytically. We begin with the concrete and work up to classes, definitions, rules, principles. We begin with particu- lars and work up to diagrams. Modern text-books rightly place the outline at the close of the subject. III. THE REPORTING METHOD.— One or two members of the class are appointed to report on specific topics connected with the lesson, or previous lessons. The teacher will see that these reports are brief, well prepared, and well presented. The reports occupy a small part of the recitation. They should neither be too long nor too frequent, nor must they supplant the regular work. They furnish extra work for bright pupils, and tend to relieve inequalities in classification. These reports serve well for review, but the chief advantage is in training pupils to work up subjects and present the results of research. IV. THE RECIPROCAL METHOD.— The class is divided into groups of two or more each, and these in turn act as pupil and teacher. For large classes, this is a valuable artifice, as it greatly multiplies individual work. In normal work it is found to be admir- able for practice teaching. The wide awake teacher may use the reciprocal method sparingly, but must never rely upon it. Nothing can take the place of individual teaching. V. THE CONCERT METHOD.— The members of a section or of the entire class answer together. To overcome timidity, to quicken the interest, or to fix a fact, this method may be used sparingly. With young pupils, about one fourth of the recitation may be conducted in this way. But, as the pupils advance, it will be used less and less. In some subjects concert work affords a [Part V. just as we »nly see the ry branch — 3 the results all starve if n diagrams, nal errors, sented syn- jte and work nth particu- ttly place the two members nnected with 30 that these The reports dther be too sgular work, id to relieve 1 for review, ) subjects and ass is divided ; as pupil and as it greatly d to be admir- may use the it. Nothing )rs of a section e timidity, to may be used the recitation dvance, it will irork affords a Cap. IV. TOPICAL REVIEW. 205 valuable drill. It may be advantageously used to a limited extent in all classes, but especially in oral work. Danger. — The exclusive concert method is a sure cure for study. Concert teaching is showy but shallow, and is favored by "fuas and feather " teachers. The honest teacher wiU use the concert method sparingly in imparting instruction, never in ascertaining the pupils' knowledge of the subject. Other approved class methods are omitted, as there is danger of perplexing the young teacher. The orator, while speaking, never thinks of the principles of elocution, or the intonation of his voice. The artist seems inspired, but hard work is the source of the inspira- tion. While teaching, the educational artist seldom thinks of principles or methods. Having mastered both, he intuitively pur- sues the method best suited to his purpose at the time. He is the master of all methods, but the slave of none. Topical Review.— Auxiliary Class Methods. Auxiliary methods. Employed oecaswually to supplement general methods. The writing method. 1. The hUick-hoa/rd should be in constant use. 2. Written exarcises should extend from the primary school to the university. The outline method. 1. Aids memory. 2. Fixes principles by presenting the subject as a whole. 3. Do not depend on diagrams. 4. Time and place for ouUvfies. The reporting method. Trains pu/pHis to work up and report on special subjects. The reciprocal method. 1. Is useful in large chisses and trainimf schools, 2. Must not take the place of individual teaching. The concert method. 1. May be used to remove timidity or iiuittention. 2. Of no use m examination ofpupUs. r. I i ■; ')! i:|ii I • l-A m CHAPTER V. '( ( QUKSTIONABLE, ERRONEOUS, AND ANTIQUATED GlASS Methods. I. QUPSTIONABLB GLASS MBTHODS.—Some methods not wholly bad are modestly classed as questionable. We strongly advise against such methods. Use only sound methods. 1. Turning down is wrong in principle and unsatisfactory in practice. This method lingers in remote districts, but ia rarely used in good schools ; in fact, it deserves to be classed with antiquated methods. True emulation must be secured by other and better means. 2. Daily Marking is a relic of the old education, and is an incubus and a mistake. Unphilosophical, it tends to mislead teacher and pupil. It wastes precious time and gives no equivalent. As a rule, pupils should not be marked oftener than once in two weeks. To this rule there are exceptions. No marking is the other extreme. 3. The Exclusive Question and Answer Method is more than questionable ; it is pernicious. The teacher ceases to be an*instructor, and becomes a mere interrogation point. The chil- dren are kept in leading-strings and literally starved. Text-books constructed on this method should be consigned to the moles and bats. Any teacher suspected of this method should be court-mar- tialed, and, if found guilty, should be at once dismissed from the service. In a past age school-keepers were permitted to ask ques- tions from the book, and pupils were required to answer in the language of the hook. The modem teacher closes the book and con- structs his own questions, instructing as well as questioning. In the modem school, the learner studies the subject and constructs his own answers. v , '^ 4. Any Exclusive Method is Bad.— A violin with a single string, a piano with but one key, and a teacher with but one method, are an unmusical trio. Like the musician, the teacher should [206] BD Glass iDS. — Some onable. We I methods. latisfactory in ia rarely used jh antiquated )r and better • ' . ' '■ • \ on, and is an Is to mislead no equivalent. . once in two ig is the other Method is sr ceases to be nt. The chil- Text-books the moles and be court-mar- issed from the )d to ask ques- answer in the book and con- lestioning. In and constructs • ^ in with a single ut one method, teacher should Cap. v.] EKRONEOUS— ANTIQUATED. 207 command the entire key-board of his art. The slave of a method should be emancipated before he is permitted to enter the school- room. II. BRRONBOUS CLASS METHODS.— Their name is legion. To this category belong all methods that violate well-estab- lished educational principles. 1. The Parrot Method. — The pupil commits the lesson, and recites it verbatim. Pursuing this method, the Chinese have made no progress in twenty centuries. This, the worst of all methods, is a favourite with mere school-keepers. 2. The Cramming Method.— Thorough digestion is as essen- tial to mental as to physical growth. Cramming is fatal to digestion. Child-mind assimilates knowledge slowly. Mental food requires to be adapted to the capacity of the learner, both as to quantity and quality. Perfect digestion promotes growth, and gives us strong men and women ; cramming produces mental dyspepsia, and gives us learned weaklings. 3. The Drifting Method.— System conditions efficiency. The teacher who meets his class without a plan must fail. Well may men and angels weep to see the vast herds of drifting teachers. Without chart or compass, they are blown hither and thither by every breeze of fancy or wind of caprice. Unfortunate pupils I The true teacher matures well his plans, and works to them. III. ANTIQUATED CLASS METHODS.— Pod augers, wooden mould-board ploughs, old washing machines, and antiquated class methods will doubtless receive due attention in the "curiosity shop " of the coming Dickens. We can only give samples. 1. The One-at-a-Time Method. — The old schoolmaster tried to hear his pupils one at a time, thus squandering nine-tenths of his time. Classification has increased the teacher's power twenty fold. 2. The Consecutive Method. — The old schoolmaster, at a later period, called on his pupils in regular order. He was some- times called "Old Next," because, when a word was misspelled, or a question missed, he would shout, " Next ! next ! next I" This method was found to be a sure cure for attention. ! * t 208 fAULTY CLASS METHODS. IPaotV. ru ti 3. The Maohine Method. — The old schoolmaster asked the questions in the book, and assigned the next lesson. Sometimes he made the class take the lesson over. A machine that could ask questions would serve about the same purpose. 4. The Oiphering Method.— The pupils " ciphered," and the old schoolmaster worked the "sums" for them. The big boys would cipher all day, and would take the hard "sums" to the master, who would often work hours on a single " sum." CONDITIONS OP PROGRESS.— Most of the erroneous and antiquated methods referred to in this chapter were in common use within the memory of persons still living. Their disappearance and the substitution of better methods are striking evidences of educational progress. Tliat we may continue to make steady and rapid progress, we must act in accordance with well-defined principles. 1. The Achievements of one Educator or one People must be made common property. 2. Bad Methods, like Poisons, should be Labeled.— Teacher-life is short and child-life is precious. Unnecessary experi- menting is criminal. When theory and experience determine a method to be bad, let it be laid aside for ever. Methods approved by the thought and experience of the race are safe. 3. The Teacher must keep himself en Rapport with the Educators and Educational Movements of the World. — Educational associations. Teachers' Institutes, school visi- tation, educational journals, and educational books furnish ample means. The art of teaching is based on the science of education. In view of the infinite interests involved, how profoundly we ought to study the immortal being committed to our guidance I We ought to mcuter the laws of human development, and become familiar with the means of human culture. We should make our own the achieve- ments of the educational world. Then will we be able with cer- tainly to apply educational means to educational ends, in accord- ance with educational principles. Then will our methods be neces- sarily good, because founded in law. Then will we be able to produce results of which the mass of our teachers, even now, scarcely dream. Oap. v.] TOPICAL REVIEW. m Topical Review. -QUBSTIONABLS, ErRONBOUS, aJTD ANTIQUATED Olabh Methods. rs, even now, Questionable olass methods; shoui4 be avoided. 1. Tii/mvng down creates 2or\fusion, and is wrong in principle. 2. Daily marking wastes timet and mialeada both teacher atul pupUe. 3. The exclvMve question a/nd aiistoer method is pemicuyiis. (a.) It makes the teacher on interrogation point. (6.) Book questions and hook answers dwarf the intellect. (c.) The questions should be framed by the teacher; the a/nswerSf by the piipUs. 4. All exclusive methods aa^e had. Erroneous class methods violate principles. 1. The parrot method is the worst of all. 2. The cramming method destroys mental digestion; and removes the appetite for intellectual food. 3. The drifting metJiod blows teacher and pupils about aim- lessly. Antiquated class methods. 1. The one-at-a-time method ignored classification. 2. The consecutive ** Next! next!" method killed attention. 3. The machine method merely questioned and aligned work. 4. Tha ciphering m>ethod made a calculating machine of the master. Conditions of progress. 1. Educational principles must supplant machine teaching. 2. Individu4xl achievements must become common property. 3. Bad methods^ like poisons, should be labeled, 4. The teacher must be abreast of the educational m>ovements of the time. 6. He must profit by educational sodetieSy jottmob, institu- tes, and other m^ans of improvement. ^ G. He must study the laws of huwMfi development and culture. ■ m i 4 -^1 I OHAPTUR VI. Art of Questioning.* I. PRINCIPLES UNDBRLYINa' THE ART OP QUESTIONING. 1. Questions must be adapted to the Capacity of the Pupil. (1. ) What is it ?— For children. (2.) How is it ? — For boys and girls. (3.) Why is it ?— For youth. (4.) Whence is it ? — For manhood. The matter, manner, and form of questioning should be adapted to the ago and development of the learner, and to the nature of the subject. Three stages of development should be recognized : early childhood, youth, and beginning maturity. Teaching questions, especially, should conform to the obvious laws of mental suggestion and association. 2. Questioning is Better than Telling. (1.) The learner is led to discover for himself. (2.) The learner is trained to do independent work. (3.) The learner is incited to greater mental activity. 3. Questioning is a great Mental Force. (1.) It directs effort. (2.) It awakens thought and stimulates activity. (3.) It leads to close observation. (4.) It trains the pupil to analyze and synthetize. 4. Questions should Follow each other in a Logical Order. (1.) The questioner must have a well-defined object in view. (2.) The question must logically lead to its evolution. ♦This subject belongs properly to the "Art of Teaching." The outline 18 g^ven here to show the bearing of the art of questioning on school manage- ment. The productions of several authors have been freely used in this outline, but chiefly those of James U. Hooie. %0l Cap. VI.] GENERAL PRINCIPLEhJ, 211 ,BT OF fcy of the be adapted iture of the lized: early r questions, suggestion rk. /ity. p. a Logical )ject in view, ition. The outline jchool maiiage- y used in this 5. Questioning carried too far is Injurious. (1.) It cenfuses and bewilders. (2.) It fosters a dependence on the questions. II. GENERAL STATEMENTS PERTAINING TO THE ART OP QUESTIONING. 1. Questioning implies two Parties : (1.) The teacher, who understands, and is prepared to assist the learner ; (2.) The learner, who does not understand, and who needs ' assistance. 2. The Efllcient Instructor is Master of the Art of Questioning. (1.) He constructs his own questions. (2. ) He adapts his questions to the learner and to the subject. 3. As to Subject Matter the Question is : (1.) What is this or that ? or, (2.) How is this or that ? or, (3.) Why is this ox that thus or so ? or, (4. ) Whence is this or that ? 4. The Teacher must Remember that the Pupil gains a Knowledge— (1.) Of the objective world by sense perception ; (2.) Of the subjective world by conscious perception ; (3.) Of the relation world by thought and imagination ; (4.) And that all knowledge is reproduced by a well-trained memory. 5. When the Learner is unable to Advance he may with Propriety ask for Aid. The preroquisities on the part of the teacher for profitable ques- tioning are a thorough knowledge of a subject and its relations ; a clear conception of the important points of a subject, and of its difficulties ; some knowledge of the general laws of mental action, and of the special laws of suggestion and association ; and a know- ledge of the condition and peculiarities of the learners. ss :i I E 1 : i 212 ART OF QUESTIONING. [Pabt VI. III. OBJECTS OP QUESTIONING. 1. To properly direct the efforts of the leanfer. 2. To incite the pupil to think for himself. 3. To lead the pupil to discover truth for himself. 4. To arouse the dull and startle the inattentive. 5. To bring out the important details of the subject. 6. To test correctness and to correct errors. IV. QUESTIONING IN CLASS MANAGEMENT. 1. In general the question should be propounded to the entire class. 2. Give a moment for each one to think and raise hand. 3. Call on any one in the class for a part or all of the answer. 4. Each member of the class must be held responsible for each answer. 6. The instructor should listen attentively and patiently to each answer. V. QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS. 1. Give questions involving principles and the application of principles. 2. Give questions requiring definite answers. 3. Give questions involving the pupil's general knowledge of the subject. 4. Avoid technical questions and puzzles. 5. Be liberal and just in marking the answers. VI. OBJECTIONABLE QUESTIONS. 1. Leading questions. '* The world is round, is it not ? " 2. Questions that indicate the answer. " Did Columbus discover America ? " 3. Questions of the alternate form. "Is the world round or square ? " 4. Questions that quote part of the answer. " Arithmetic is the science of what ? " 6. Questions that suggest the answer : (1.) By language; (2.) By emphasis; (3.) By inflection ; or (4.) By the expression. / ■ if Cap. VI.1 EXAMPLES — TOPICAL REVIEW. 213 . knowledge of world round or ** Arithmetic VII. QUESTIONS TO BE AVOIDED. 1. Avoid questions that include too much. 2. Avoid pomUess or ailly questions. 3. Avoid " kUl-time " questions. 4. Avoid pert questions, designed to display your aharpneas. 6. Avoid pedantic questions, designed to display your lea/mmg. 6. Avoid all haphazard questions. All questions should be clear and definite, both in thought and language. Teaching questions may be suggestive ; testing questions should neither involve nor suggest the answer. Teaching questions should be put slowly , examination questions may, on many sub- jects, be put rapidly. Teaching questions may, in many cases, be answered by a class collectively ; testing questions should usually be answered by individuals. VIII. ANSWERS.— The answer should be— <1.) To the point; (2.) Clear; (3.) Direct; (4.) Concise; (5.) Definite; (G.) Complete ; and (7.) Original. Topical Review. — ^Abt of Questionino. Principles underlying the art of questioning. 1. (^stiona mud suit the capacity of pupils. 2. Questioning is better than telling. 3. Questioning is a great moral force. 4. Questioris should follow each other in logical order. 5. Questioning should not be carried too far. General statements relating to questioning. 1. It implies ttDO parties. 2. The teacher shoidd be master of the art. 3. Questions as to suhject-matter. 4. Teachers should know how pupils gain JcTwwledge. 5. The pupil may ash for aid when unable to adoance alone. Objects and kinds of questions. 1. Questions in class management. 2. For written examinationa. 3. Objectionable questions. 4. Qtieations to be avoided. 6. How questions shmdd be ansu^red. I*. il ■ i'i ^l n in ll „! t V ' Ml il CHAPTER Vn. OoLDBN Hints to Tbaohers. I. THE SEVEN LAWS OF TEACHING. (President Gregory.) 1. Enow thoroughly and familiarly whatever you would teach. 2. Gain and keep the attention of your pupils, and excite their interest in the subject. 3. Use language which your pupils fully understand, and clearly explain every new word required. 4. Begin with what is already known, and proceed to the unknown by easy and natural steps. 6. Excite the self -activity of the pupils, and lead them to discover the truth for themselves. 6. Require pupils to restate, fully and correctly, in their own language, and with their own proofs and illustrations, the truth taught them. 7. Review, review, review, carefully, thoroughly, repeatedly, with fresh consideration and thought. These laws underlie and control all successful teaching. Nothing need be added to them ; nothing can be safely taken away. No one who win thoroughly master and use them need fail as a teacher, pro- vided he will also maintain the good order which is required to give free and undisturbed action to these laws. II. PREPARATION OF LESSONS. (President Gre- gory.) 1. Prepare each lesson by fresh study. Last year's knowledge has necessarily faded somewhat. Only fresh conceptions warm and inspire us. 2. Find in the lesson its analogies and likenesses. In these lie the illustrations by which it can be made to reveal itself to others. 3. Find the natural order and connection of the different facts and truths of the lesson. A jumbled mass of materials does not make a building, nor does a jmnble of disjointed facts make up a science. [214] 1 to discover Cap. VII.] CONDITIONS OF SUCCESS. 215 4. Seek for the relations of the lesson to other lessons already learned, and to the life and duty of the learners. The vital force of truth lies in its relations. It is the passage of the electric fire along the distant connected wires which makes the telegraphic apparatus important. 5. Use freely all aids to gain the truth, but never pause till the truth gained has been thoroughly digested in your own mind, and its full meaning and importance have arisen upon you as a vision seen by your own eyes. 6. Study the lesson till its truths and facts take shape in easy and familiar language. The final proof and product of clear thought is clear speech. III. PRACTICAL RULES TO BE TAUGHT TO PUPILS. 1. Stand or sit erect. Stand while reciting. 2. At signals, move promptly, quickly, and quietly. 3. Give your entire attention during the whole recitation. 4. Be courteous to your teacher and fellow pupils. 5. Answer in your own words. 6. Answer in complete sentences. 7. Raise your hand when you (a) can answer the question ; (6) disagree with an answer ; (c) wish to criticise ; (d) wish to ask a question. 8. Never speak without permission. 9. Speak in a medium tone. Speak distinctly and energetically. 10. Never prompt. Be honest and independent. IV. CONDITIONS OF SUCCESS. (Prof. B. S. Potter.) 1. Earnestness from a deep interest in the work. 2. Knowledge from actual experience. 3. Aptitude to teach, enforced by a mastery of the art of teaching. 4. System both in teaching and managing. 5. Ability to detect and correct one's own failures. 6. Hard work from a thirst for knowledge and a love of teaching. V. SECRETS OP SUCCESS.-(Prof. W. P. Nason.) 1. The teacher must be able to seize and impress the principal points in the lesson. , i i '■ : \ 1 '■ I I 'in -^ -t-" SfflKf- 216 QOLDEN HINTS TO TEACHERS. [Part V. I I ■ i; 2. The teacher muf>t hold the interested attention of the class till aM have mastered the point under consideration. 3. Difficult and important points must be frequently reviewed. 4. Each member of the class must be kept interested and busy. 5. General class drill should constitute a part of the recitation. 6. Work, and manage to make your pupils work, with enthusiasm and energy. 7. Talk to the point, talk well, but avoid too much talking. VI. A MODEL SCHOOL. ("Visitor.") 1. Principles. — (1.) Each study was divided into subjects in their natural order ; each subject into its logical division ; each division into the steps of its development ; each step into lesson- steps ; each lesson-step into lessons, each containing but (/m ne«> idea, and so simple that the teacher could give aXl the necessary illustrations and instruction. (2.) In the primary and intermediate classes no facts or principles were given to commit to memory as a task ; memory simply recorded the use, in a variety of exercises which directly or indirectly referred to the senses. (3.) Every lesson was thoroughly understood and applied before the next was presented to the attention. (4.) No time was wasted in trying to illustrate or explain what the pupils, on account of age or lack of experience, were unable to understand. (5.) In advanced classes the principles of generalization were deduced from primary and intermediate practice. 2. Practice. — (1.) Close classification, in which pupils of the same degree of advancement only were placed in the same class. (2.) The lessons were given in a brief, pointed, and methodical manner, with no extra words to obscure the sense. In every case, when possible, the pupils repeated the illustration of the teacher with the objects in thtir own hands. (3.) The text-book was used* in class to furnish exercises for a review rather than as a manual of instruction. (4;) No lesson was recited that the preparation did not in some way exercise the judgment in discriminating and comparing, cultivate neatness and taste in penmanship, and correctness of othography or [Part V. 9 class till viewed, d busy, sitation. nthusiasm ing. ubjects in ion ; each ito lesBon- it one new necessary p principles y recorded ;ly referred lied before plain what e unable to sation were ipils of the ne class, methodical every case, the teacher srcises for a not in some ing, cultivate bhography or ti' Cap. VII.] EFFECTS OF METHOD. 217 punctuation, or require skill in the logical order of arrangement on the slate or blackboard. (5.) In recitation the teacher had nothing to say by way of assist- ance. Pupils were required to ask questions as often as to answer them. ' ' (6.) Short and prompt recitations, the time being from ten to thirty minutes. (7.) Nearly double the usual time was given to the primary and intermediate grades ; consequently not so much time was required in the advanced grades to make the same progress. 3. Results. — As a result of the above system, habits of personal industry in the school-room were secured in a remarkable degree. No special system of discipline was required ; the pupils apparently had no time for mischief. Every recitation was an eminent success or a positive failure ; no blundering, no helping, no make-believe. Self-confidence was based upon actual ability and not upon self- concession. VII. Effects of Method. (J. W. Riohardson.) There is a prevailing opinion existing in the minds of a certain class of educators, that methods are of little importance. Many go further than this, and believe that to make our acts conform to a method is to give them a mechanical character, which deprives them of all appearance of being the products either of genius or of a free intelligence. Such opinions are especially mischievous in our educational affairs, as they encourage educators to think little of the philosophy of education, or of those general principles on which alone can be founded either a true science or art of teaching. Every intelligent act implies a knowledge of its beginning. All ends produced by human agency are produced by the use of some means. Success in attain- ing ends depends on two things — on the use of the right means, and on using them in the right way. The way of using means, or of performing our acts, is called method. ThoB-; who have no definite methods to use have no definite ends to obtain. But all teaching worthy of the name has its known ends to accomplish. Teaching occasions knowledge, development, and method. When- ever the mind exerts its power in a right manner upon appropriate m 218 GOLDEN HINTS TQ TEAOHEBS. [Pabt V. objects of thought, it becomes conscious of two results. One result is the possession of new knowledge ; the other is an increased faeiUty in the exercise of the powers by whose activity knowledge is acquired. The facility is mental training. The faculties are trained by their right use in doing what they would acquire the power of doing The third result produced by a method of teaching is found in the method of thinking or study it communicates. Not much knowledge or mental discipline can be obtained by the longest courses of study now taught in our schools ; but a good method of teaching will always present a good plan of study, and occasion that discipline of mind which will enable it to use the plan in the further pursuit of knowledge after the pupil has left his school. "Teachers have their individuality, which shows itself in greater or less degrees in their school-room practice, while applying philo- sophical methods of teaching. This individuality is exhibited in the way that one teacher illustrates a point differently from another ; in the way he speaks ; in the way hj looks ; in the way he thinks, it may be ; in the way in which his questions are conceived ; in the impromptu expedients which he deviset. ; in what in general is called ' his way of doing things.' This individuality of the teacher is known as mcmner. Misapprehension of the true province of scientific methods of teaching has led many to apply the term to any peculiar experiment or expedient which may be selected, which things are, in fact, but examples of manner." — James H. Hoose, " Methods of Teaching." I ^ Topical Revibw. — Golden Hints to Teachers. 1. The Seven Laws of Teaching. — Gregory, 2. Prepa/ration of Lessons. — Gregory. 3. PracUcal rules to he tonight to pupils, - ,■ 4. Conditions of Siiccess. — Potter. 5. Secrets of Success. — Nason. 6. A Modd School — Prbuyiples-^Pra^itice — Results. 7. Effects of Method.— RiCHARDaoN. ■) l;jr ^^ r / PART VI. EXAMINATIONS AND RECORDS. CHAPTER I.— School Examinations. ** II. — Marking Grades. ' *' III. — School Records and Reports. -|. ■ .ii ■'J ir Ml B- j H l' » i WK H ^_ 3 <^ '*>! iX PART VI. I M EXAMINATIONS AND RECORDS. CHAPTER L SoHOOL Examinations. Examinations, records, promotions, reports, and graduation are important factors in school management. Enthusiasts chafe, and viaionaxies theorize, but the philosophic educator finds these expedients m valuable as they are necessary. Machinery implies friction, and without machinery achievement is impossible. The time has come, however, for a calm and critical re-examination of the entire subject. Many abuses and some hideous practices must be corrected ; the drudgery must be reduced to the minimum ; teachers must be trained to subordinate machinery to culture ; but all attempts of well-meaning sentimentalists to pooh-pooh necessary agencies out of school work will prove harmless. A sohool examination is a good servant, but a bad master. When rightly managed, good results are obtained ; when unwisely managed, it becomes a cruel instrument of torture. Unwise management, abuses, and extremes have created prejudice and opposition. When the abuses have been corrected, the objections will disappear, and examinations will be welcomed by both pupils and teachers. I. OBJECTS OP EXAMINATION.— Why do we examine? Simply to supplement good teaching. Some special objects deserve mention. ... ,.,., r'r:s\\-- [221] ■1! it ii I; 222 SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS. tPART VI. I. : 1. To Stimulate Pupils to Master Subjeots.— Smatterers dread examinations, but thorough scholars welcome them. When the subject is once mastered, the pupil is always prepared for examination. The certainty that the work will be examined, and examined thoroughly, \a a powerful but legitimate stimulus to effort. 2. To Incite Pupils to keep Knowledge Ready for Use. — Examinations test mental power and the mastery of prin- ciples. Pupils are stimulated to frequently review subjects ; thus their knowledge is deepened and widened. 3. To Secure Valuable Data for Promotions, Records, and Reports. — To base the pupil's standing wholly on examina- tions is a great educational blunder, but to disregard examinations is a greater one. Education should be a training to promote insight, power of thought, and facility in acquiring knowledge. Perception, not memory, should be cultivated ; and as the student can advance only by his own endeavours, he should be led through such a course of labour and original thought that he may come out an independent thinker, as well as a thorough scholar, in such branches of education as he has inclination for. To obtain such a training, examinationa should be means^ not ends. II. WHAT SHOULD THE EXAMINATION BB?- Not killing to both body and mind ; not an instrument of torture ; not a grinding slavery to teachers and pupils ; not a stimulus to cramming ; not a discouragement to study. 1. As to Matter. — The examination should be confined to what the pupil ought to know, or ought to be able to do. No puzzles, nor questions designed to exhibit the examiner's knowledge, are admissible. 2. As to Method. — The examination should be a test of the ability and acquirements of the pupil, not of his power to memorize. Does the pupil really understand the subject ? Has he the ability to express well what he knows ? With the view of ascertaining these facts, the examination should be conducted. 3. As to Questions and Topics.— The examination must be made searching and thorough. The questions should be pointed Part VI. natterers When )ared for ined, and niulua to ady for jr of prin- cts ; thus Records, examina- minations power of )tion, not irance only i course of dependent : education ammationa Sr BB?- )f torture ; itimulus to onfined to o do. No vnowledge, test of the • memorize, the ability ascertaining ation must be pointed Oaf. I.] OBJECTS— FREQtJlNOY. 223 I;. and clear, requiring brief and definite answers. Principles, plain problems involving principles, essential definitions, leading features, and work to be done are the points to be pressed. Caution. — Avoid unimportant details, dates, and technicalities ; avoid puzzles, catches, and e erything ambiguous. Let every question be clear, concise, and to the point. Avoid all questions that merely test verbal memory, or show the smartness of the examiner. 4. As to Preparation. — Examination should be so arranged as to foster genuine study and discourage all cramming. Pupils soon learn that nothing counts in real examinations but a thorough understanding of the subject, and that special cramming for exami- nation will always manifest itself to their injury. No lesson should be studied or recited with reference to examination. Pupils should become so absorbed in their work that when examinations do come, each is delighted to tell what he knows. Mistakes. — All cramming and hurried preparations for examina- tions are ulcers indicating disease ; the teaching is wrong ; the examination is wrong ; the system is wrong. The reconstruction of such schools must be radical and complete. Instead of educating, they stuff ; instead of developing, they dwarf. III. WHEN SHALL WB EXAMINE ?-Not at stated times, or so frequently as to oppress pupils and teachers. When- ever the teacher is satisfied that it will do good, he should examine the class. Pupils properly taught are always prepared, and hence need not know when an examination will occur. Regular examina- tions at the close of the month or quarter would be better aban- doned ; the evil more than counterbalances the good. At some time, during each period of from four to six weeks, each class should be carefully examined. As no time is fixed, there is no hasty pre- paration or feverish anticipation. Too frequent examinations burden the teacher and disturb the regular order of work. Advanced Classes may be Examined at Stated Periods.. The necessity for facing an anticipated ordeal is an excellent preparation for the actual business of life ; pupils trained to meet such tests without flinching will not be disheartened in after years by nervous dread of failure under the pressure of an appearance in public. T m !| lii'; ' ! li 224 SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS. [Part VI. IV. ORAL AND WRITTEN.— How shall we examine? Shall we make it oral or written ? I answer, let the oral and written be combined. In good teaching, each lesson is a review and an examination. Oral and written work occupy about equal time. An examination differs from a recitation in omitting instruction, and simply testing the pupil. With large classes, the written work is the principal test ; but, with ordinary classes, the oral, equally with the written examination, is used. This combination is better every way ; it relieves the tension, and affords each pupil a guarantee of fairness. The difficulty of supplementing written examinations by oral is confessedly very great. In many of our examinations it would be impossible to adopt the oral method without manifest injustice. It would seem, in fact, that in all ^.< u'lral competitive examinations, the written method is the best, if not the only, means of securing the application of a uniform test ; and unless such examinations are uniform, they are worse than useless. V. LENGTH OP EXAMINATIONS.— Written examina- tions should be brief. Five questions may be made as good a test as fifty. Lengthy examinations wear out the pupils, and grading the papers wears out the teachers. The effort is necessarily severe, and the time should be correspondingly short. The average length of examination may well be reduced one-half, and this will remove a leading objection to examinations. VI. EXAMINATIONS FOR PROMOTION AND GRADUATION. — The examinations should undoubtedly consti- tute one of the conditions of promotion or graduation. Is it the most prominent condition ? I think not. The recitation standing of the pupil is the estimate of all his class work during the month or term. Let this be multiplied by four, the average of his examina- tion grades added, and the sum divided by five. The result is his class-standing, and can hardly be otherwise than a fair estimate of the pupil's standing ; but, in case of doubt, let the pupil be further tested in a private oral examination. Such a course is so eminently reasonable and just as to disarm all opposition. The deliberately formed opinion of the teacher as to the pupils' fitness for promotion should unquestionably have great weight in determining the classifi- cation of the school. ». [Part VI. examine ? d written V and an time. An ition, and 1 work is ually with tier every ,rantee of lations by nations it manifest Dmpetitive aly, means nless such examma- ;ood a test id grading :ily severe, :age length ill remove N AND idly consti- Ib it the n standing the month IS examina- ssult is his estimate of . be further eminently ieliberately r promotion the classifi- Oap. I.] TOPICAL REVIEW. Topical Review. — School Examinations. 225 U Examinations must remain as means of Education. 1. The sibbject demands to he reconsidered. 2. Abuses prove nothing against vrise use. 3. Examination, a good serva/nt but a bad master. Objects of examination— generally, to supplement good teaching. 1. To stimulate pupils to master subjects. 2. To incite pupils to keep knowledge ready for use. 3. To secu/re data for promotions, records, and reports. 4. Examination encourages thoroughness in special subjects. What should exa.minations be ? What should they not be ? 1. Should be confined to what the pupils ought to know — not to cont-ain conAindrums nor examitiers* display questions. 2. Should test ability and a^iquirements, not mere memory. 3. Should be clear and searching, involving principles and their applications. 4. Should enco^trage genuine study, and render cramming as u/nsuccessfid as it is hurtful. 5. Stuffing is not feeding ; cramming is not educating. Frequency of examinations. y, 1. Should not be held at stated periods. 2. Shoidd not be held oftener than once in four weeks. 3. Advanced pupils are disciplined to self-reliance by stated examinations. Oral and Written examinations. 1. Both methods should be employed where practicable. 2. Oral tests correct errors of writf^en ones unth young pupils. 3. Uniform oral tests cannot be employed in general competitive examinations. Written examinations should be brief. Such a severe strain shoidd not be prolonged. Examinations for Promotion. 1. Examination shoidd be a test, but not tJie only one for pro- motion. 2. 27w teacher's cbservation and record must have full weight. '\\ I , I '■■ ii :'• W •' I :':i! '» m -;--5,-..'Jl.-.«:i,-r^ 1 1) ! CHAPTER II. Marking Grades. Simplicity should characterize school mechanism. The teacher and the pupils must be left untrammeled. Spontaneous and glad eflFort is the law of growth. In so far as mechanism enhances spontaneity, it is desirable ; whenever it fetters, or cramps, or represses, it should be modified or thrown aside. Marking is considered a mechanical necessity in every well- ordered school, and, when judiciously used, is a wise educational expedient. At longer or shorter intervals nearly all successful teachers, in some way, mark the achievements of their pupils. I. OBJECTS OP MARKING.— Every act of the teacher should have a well-defined object. The objects of marking are : 1. To Stimulate BflEbrt. The true teacher is delighted with success and grieved by failure. By words, and looks, and marks he expresses his pleasure or pain. The aim of the pupil in studying should be to know, yet the recorded approval of the teacher is a strong incentive to effort. 2. To Indicate the Achievements of the Pupils. The teacher will thus be enabled to do the best for his pupils. It is not wise to trust to memory always. Even the orator finds notes helpful. To the teacher they are indispensable. 3. To Enable the Teacher to Make Reliable Records and Reports. Teachers are changed, pupils are promoted, and courses of study are completed. Parents and school officers justly expect trustworthy records and reports. Careful marking furnishes necessary data. II. CRITERIA FOR MARKING.— Marking is a difficult art. Effort, attainments, and growth are to be estimated, and the comparative results are to be expressed in figures. At best, the percentages are but approximate judgments. [226] Cap. II.] CRITERIA — FREQUENCY. 227 1. BflPort deserves the Fullest Recognition. Let each step which the pupil masters by earnest effort be noted, that he may realize his progress. Many a hard-working pupil becomes dis- couraged and loses heart because he can not perceive that he improves. As soon as he becomes conscious that he has accomplished a little, he will redouble his efforts to accomplish more. Determined effort deserves all possible encouragement, because it points to boundless possibilities. Well-directed and persistent effort ulti- mately wins. 2. Originality and Independence deserve Special Recognition. The pupil is encouraged to work his problems in his own way, to present his thoughts in his own language, and to form and express his own views upon every subject. All glib parrot reciting must be discouraged. 3. Real Attainments must receive Due Credit. Suc- cess is tangible. The pupil masters principles and readily applies them. He steadily grows stronger as well as wiser. Marks should as nearly as possible show his achievements and his relative strength. How to Mark.— (1. ) Duly weigh effort, originality, and attainments ; mark in view of aU. (2.) Study your pupils ; if you err, 1p*j it be in the pupil's favour. (3.) Be not an unfeeling marking-machine; your mission is to encourage and help. (4.) Be impartial ; mark favourites below, rather than above, and unfortunates above your estimate, rather than below. Your feelings may bias your judgment ; you need to make due allowance for unconscious aberrations. III. FREQUENCY OF MARKING.— Once a week does well. For most classes, once in two weeks is sufficient. Many teachers find once a month satisfactory and altogether sufficient. Pupils never know when they will be marked. If the mark is low, the teacher redoubles his efforts ; the pupil is encouraged, and tested again and again ; if finally merited, a higher mark is inserted in place of the low mark. Teaching versus Marking.— (1.) Marking-machines belong to a past age. Few achools can now bear the incubus of daily marking in all the subject* m i i u § ^H Hi; ' ,1! i ; I m . !■ 228 MARKING GRADES. tPART VT. :iJ I' i i (2.) Daily marking of minute details exerts a baleful influence. Pupils are stimulated to study to recite, rather than to know. (3.) The business of the teacher is teaching, not marking. Daily marking wastes much of his energy. No marking is better than daily marking. (4.) Marking must never interfere with teaching, but must be done at such moments as the teacher is free. IV. THE SCALE OP MARKING.— By common consent, from 1 to 100 has been adopted as the best scale. 1. 90 to 100 denote excellent. — These grades should be given only in cases of decided merit. Unmeaning and careless marking does great injury. Flattery is sin. 2. 80 to 90 denote good. — These grades indicate decided satisfaction on the part of the teacher. 3. 60 to 80 indicate passable. — No effort should be spared to bring each pupil up to this standard. 4. Below 60 means unsatisfactory. — ^Poor marks should rarely be permanently recorded. Use your utmost resources to secure interest and work. Test the pupil again and again. Wait days and even weeks before finally recording a grade below 60. Remarks. — (1.) Pupils may or may not be permitted to see the register. Usually it will be found better not to allow the pupils to see it. (2i) In all reports to parents, the words excellent, good, passable, or unsatisfactory are given, and not the figures. The same course is pursued whenever pupils are informed of their grades. (3.) The exact figures are for the teacher and his successors. (4.) Written and oral work are marked on the same basis. (5.) No marking and daily marking are extremes to be avoided. The thoughtful teacher will not mark his pupils, as a rule, more frequently than once a week, nor i?8s frequently than once each month. (6.) The pupil is not marked on j. single answer or a single recitation, but upon a series of answers and a succession of reci- tations. (7.) A clear head and an honest heart are essential to successful marking. ' (8.) Honest work must be secured at any cost. Part VI. ifluence. :. DaUy iter than must be consent, hould be careless e decided be spared •ks should iources to ,in. Wait )w 60. e register, see it. i, passdbUj ime course isors. sis. »e avoided. rule, more , once each tr a single ion of reci- > successful Cap. II.] TOPICAL REVIEW. Topical Review — Marking Grades. 229 Marking is a meohanical necessity in every school. 1. Simplicity shovld characterize all school mechanism. 2. Achievements of pupils must he recorded. I. Objects of Marking. 1. To stimulate effort by recording the teacher's approval. 2. To aid tlie teacher in the preparation of records and reports. II. Criteria for Marking,— must be carefolly weighed. 1. Effort deserves the fullest recognition. 2. Originality and independence merit special recognition. 3. Real attainments mu^t receive due credit. 4. How to mark : — (1.) With reference to effort, originality , and attainments. (2.) Study your pupils; let errors he in their favo^i/r. (3.) Let your marking give encouragement and help. (4.) Be impartial; allow for possible errors of feeling. III. Frequency of Marking. 1. Once a week. 2. Not on fixed days. 3. Teaching versus marking : — (1.) Marking machines helong to the dead past. (2.) Daily marking induces study from wrong motives. (3.) Daily marking uxtstes time and energy. (4.) Marking must not he done in teaching hours. IV. The Scale of Marking,— from 1 to ICX). 1. 90 to 100 denotes excellent. 2. 80 to 90 denotes good. 3. 60 to 80 indicates passable. 4. Below 60 means unsatisfactory. V. General Bemai>ks on Marking. 1. Pitpils are not allowed to examine the register. 2. The uxyrds, and not the figures, are used in reports. 3. The figures guide the teacher and his successors. 4. Written and oral work are marked on the same basis. 5. Avoid the extremes of daily marking and no marking. 6. Marking is based on a series of recitations. 7. Correct marking requires a clear head and a clean heart. 8. Honest work must he secured at any cost. Ui [ CHAPTER m. School Beoobds and Reports. I. FORM. — For ungi'aded schools the records and reports must be in the simplest possible form, involving little labour and less skill. Most school registers now published are so well arranged that no teacher need fail to keep a correct record. The blanks usually furnished for reports explain themselves, so that mistakes in filling out are inexcusable. Teachers in training in the County Model Schools will receive special instruction as to the manner in which the registers, and other books prescribed in the School Law and Regulations of Ontario, should be kept. It would be a needless extravagance of space to insert here specimens of the various entries to be lade in these books ; a brief examination of their form, and of the entries in th belonging to the Model School, will be sufficient to guide each teacher as to the proper manner in which to keep his own. II. VALUE. — Records and reports, properly kept, aid in many ways. 1. They help the Teacher. — Since conditions and results must be recorded and reported, the teacher is stimulated to do his best. Slipshod work is discouraged. Moreover, the teacher hav- ing the records before him is better prepared to do his pupils justice ; and, because of the permanency of the record, he is far less likely to do injustice to any pupil. Care must be taken, however, not to allow the register to become an unhealthy stimulus either to teacher or pupil. There is probably less risk of the teacher doing injustice to a pupil by too low a record than of his doing him more than justice by erring too constantly on the side of mercy. Justice, tempered with meroy, should be the guiding principle in every entry in the register. 2. Records are a Great Aid to the New Teacher.— Barbarians make no records. Schools without records are in a barbarous condition, as the new teacher has nothing to guide hiui. [230] Cap. m.] VALUE OP RECORDS. 631 Well-kept records enable the new teacher to begin where his prede- cessor left oflf. It is, in fact, utterly impossible for any teacher properly to classify a new school unless the various registers have been faithfully and regularly kept. 3. Records Aid School Oflloers. —County Inspectors and school-boards may readily determine the condition of a school, and take intelligent action with reference to it, if the records are complete and reliable. Without such records, official action is likely to be blind action. 4. They Elevate the Teacher in his Profession.— The registers are the business books of the teacher ; and Inspectors and others cannot but be impressed by the manner in which the entries are recorded. Teachers should remember that teaching is a busi- ness as well as a profession, and their duty to themselves demands that they leave nothing undone to further their interests by honour- able means. III. THE SCHOOL REGISTERS.— For ungraded schools, r'igisters may be arranged for the following purposes : 1. Enrolment. — The names and ages of pupils, the times of entrance, and parents' names are carefully recorded each term. In case of withdrawal or removal, the time and its cause should be noted opposite the name of the pupil. 2. Attendance. — The roll may be arranged alfihabetically, and the teacher may call the names. This is the approved plan in small schools. In large schools numbers may be assigned to pupils, each calling his own number ; or, the division leaders may name absen. tees. The latter method has decided advantages. The teacher calls a division ; the pupils belonging to this division rise, and the leader reports the absentees, The other divisions, in like manner, are called in turn. The teacher marks each absentee on the roll. In this way, the roll of ar^y school may be called in less than one minute. In all cases, absentees alone are marked ; no mark means present The attendance roll is called at the close of each half- day session. (See also page 69.) 3. Tardy RoU. — This roll may be called at the beginning of «aeh h&lf-day session. The — mark means tardy ; when explained satisfactory, \>ao — is changed to 4*1 but the record is permanent. ^See also page 100.) if 232 RECORDS AND REl'ORTS. tl*ART VI. 4. Class Rolls. — These rolls show the recitation and examina- tion grades and the class-standing of the members of each class. The average of the class grades in the branch, multiplied by four and added to the average written-examination grades, and the sum divided by five, will give the class-standing for the month, term, or year. 5. Reports. — All reports should be recorded in the register. The register should always contain blanks for this purpose. 6. Programme. — The programme should also be recorded in the register, which should contain blanks for this purpose. The register should be preserved with as much care as the ledger of the merchant. The new teacher wiU find recorded in it the real condition of the school, and the data he needs in organizing. IV. TEACHERS' REPORTS.— These should be such as impose the minimum of extra labour. Faithful teachers of ungraded schools are always overworked. 1. Monthly Report Cards to Parents.— No grades are placed on these — simply the words, excellent^ good, passable^ poor. A foot-note explains that "excellent" means from 90 to 100 ; "good," from 80 to 90; "passable," from 60 to 80; "poor," below 60. These reports will include deportment as well as scholarship. Times absent and times tardy should also be reported. In no case should these reports be made oftener than once a month. 2. Quarterly Reports to School-Boards. — In these reports are given the total enrollment, the average attendance, the average class-standing of each pupil, and such other items as the blanks call for. To require these reports monthly is a useless impo- sition upon teachers. The law should be so changed as to require only quarterly reports to school-boards, but monthly reports to Inspectors. 3. Reports to County Inspectors. — ^Afull report, containing items mentioned in the report to the School Board, and such ether items as may be required in the blank furnished, should be made at the close of each month to the County Inspector. In addition to the regular reports, special reports may be required at any time. Some Inspectors now wisely require monthly reports from teachers, and thus keep themselves fully informed at all times as to the Cap. in.] TEACHERS AKD INSPECTOHS. 233 condition of the schools under their charge. Efficient county supervision is thus secured ; and, though it is by no means absolutely necessary, nor is it required by law, to furnish such monthly reports, yet there can be no question that such reports, judiciously and systematically furnished, would do. much to secure greater efficiency in the schools and a closer approach to uniformity in the grading and classification of the schools. 4. Enforcement. — Statements that the reports required by the School Law and Regulations have been made should condition the payment of salaries. When reports are required at the close of a quarter, the salary for the last month should be withheld until the reports are made. V. REPORT OP COUNTY INSPECTORS. -This should be made annually to the Hon. the Minister of Education, and quar- terly to the County Council. It should be printed in pamphlet form. This report may embrace : 1. The Names of Teachers. — Address, salaries and grade may be given ; also the number of times that each one has attended the Teachers' Institute in his own county. 2. Catalogue of Pupils.— This should contain the names of all pupils enrolled during the year ; the division to which the pupil belongs will be indicated after the name. One page may be devoted to each school. 3. Names of Graduates. — Pupils completing the elementary course of study should be published as elementary-school graduates. Our school system is so arranged as to utilize as far as possible all the machinery of education ; and, as the High School follows the Public School in natural order, it seems, for the present at least, better to encourage as many of our Public School pupils as can do so to continue their studies to the end of the regular High School course. The time has not yet arrived for a purely technical " graduation " in connection with our Public Schools ; but credit should be given in the report, whenever any candidate has left the school either by entrance into a High School or by the completion of the full course prescribed in the programme of studies for Public Schools. 4. Financial Statement.— The report should exhibit all moneys received and paid out for school purposes by each school. m .1 r If ill-! 234 ttfcCOUDS AND REPOtlTS. [Pabt VI. 6. Misoellaneous. — This report should give the course of study and such goneral information as will tend to advance the educational interests of the country. 6. Cost and Value. — Printing is cheap ; the cost of printing such a report would be insignificant, and its value would be great. It would establish a school system for the county. Each pupil would know his place in the line of advancement. All the teachers of the county would learn to work to a plan. As much interest would be taken in graduation from the district school as is now taken in graduation from higher institutions. The whole people would be interested. Many of our County Inspectors* Reports are models of their kind, — suggestive, able, and comprehensive. It will be a great economy of time, money, and talent when the circulation of such reports becomes general. A collection of the reports of County Inspectors shduld contain sufficient information about every school and every teacher in the province to enable vacancies to be filled at once by those best fitted for them by nature and education. [Concluding Remarks. — The foregoing pages contain all that appear to the Editor of this special Canadian edition to be essential for the successful management of an average Canadian school, whether graded or ungraded. He is not, indeed, at all sure that he has not placed before the teachers in training rather more than is absolutely necessary ; but if so, the Model School masters will guide them to make a judicious selection.] '1'! ws-w V WWVW^WV«« i I ■' \ if $ Cap. III.] TOPICAL RKVIEW. 235 Topical Review — School Records and Repouts. I. Form of Registers. 1. Must 6e, and generally are simple. 2. Teachers in training receive special instructions as to the keeping of registers. II. Value of Registers. 1. They help the teacher to grade his pupils. 2. They aid Hie new teacher to organize his nchool. 3. Ihey enable Injectors and trustees to act judiciously. 4. They elevate the teacher in his profession. III. School Registers for Ungraded Schools. 1. Enrolment of pupils' names, ages, parents, dtc. 2. Record of daily attendance — mode of marking. 3. Tardy roll. 4. Glass rolls. 5. Beports to he recorded in register, 6. Programmes anc time-tables. IV. Teachers' Reports. 1. Monthly reports to parents. 2. Quarterly reports to school-board.'^. 3. Reports to county Inspectors. V. County Inspector's Report. 1. Na/mA of teachers. 2. Catalogue of pupils. 3. NamAS of graduates. 4. Financial statement. 5. Miscellaneous information, 6. Cost and value. 'I ,ii r m\ i't vvwwwwwww It* iW "K I The APPENDIX I. SCHOOL LAW AND REGULATIONS. : I • 4 The following sections of the Public School Act and the Regulations of the Education Department will bo found to contain all that is required for the examination of third class candidates in School Law. [237] ■V. § ,'j — — 1 h ' : t ^ V • i. ^ 1 I r \ H , .•! 1 1 ■ '. ij * f ' ■ i ( ' ' f. ■! 'i i i 1^. I-* i-'. ! APPENDIX I. .1 ' SCHOOL LAW AND REGULATIONS. ,»«..■, ;a The followiwf sections of the PiiMic School Act atid the KeijMlations of the Ediication Department will he found to contain all that is required for the examination of third-class candidates in School Law. DUTIES OP TRUSTEES IN RURAL SCHOOLS. 40. It shall be the duty of the Trustees — (1) To appoint the plaee of each annual school Meetings meeting of the ratepayers of the section ; and the J^in^^by time and place of a special meeting of the same for the trus- (1) the filling up of any vacancy or vacp,ncies in the *®®** trustee corporation occasioned by death, removal, or other cause ; or (2) for the selection of a new school yaJfanfigg site ; or (3) the appointment of a school auditor ; or (4) any other lawful school purpose, as they may think ^ . proper; and to cause notices of the time and place, and of the objects of such meetings, to be posted in three or more public places of the section, at least six days before the time of holding such meeting. (a) Every such meeting shall be organized, and its proceedings recorded in the manner provided for in the seventeenth and following sections of this Act. (2) To provide adequate accommodation and a Adequate legally qualified teacher or teachers, according to the J^J^™™*'' regulations prescribed by the Education Department, tor two-thirds of the actual resident children between [239] I'l ' i^l f /: -**"|. 240 SCHOOL LAW. w^ Apply to munici- pality for school moneys. Arrange payment of salaries, Repair- ing, etc. school- house. Names and addresses of trustees and teach- ers to be 'i given to township clerk. 1 . the ages of five and twenty-one years, as ascertained by the census taken by the Municipal Council for the next preceding year ; provided always such actual residents are not to include the children of persons on whose behalf a separate school is established accord- ing to the provisions of the Separate School Act. (3) To apply to the Township Council at or before its meeting fn August for the levying and collecting by rate, all sums for the support of their school, or schools, and for any other school purposes authorized by this Act to be collected from the ratepayers of such section, or to raise the amount necessary for the purchase of school sites, the erecti(m or otherwise acquiring of school-houses and their appendages and teacher's resi- dence, either by one yearly rate or by debentures, as provided in section 129 of this Act, as may be required by the Trustees. (4) To arrange for the payment of teachers' salaries quarterly and, if necessary, to borrow on their pro- missory note, under the seal of the corporation, at interest not exceeding eight per cent, per annum, such moneys as may be required for that purpose, until the taxes imposed therefor are collected. (5) To keep the school-house, furniture, outbuild- ings, and enclosures in proper repair, and where there is no suitable school-house belonging to the section, or where two or more school-houses are required, to build or rent a house or houses and to keep such house or houses, its or their furniture, outbuildings and en- closures in proper repair. (6) To give notice in writing, before the tifteentli day of January in each year, to the Clerk of the Township and the Inspector in which their school is situate of the names and post-office addresses of the several trustees then in office, and of the teachers employed by them, and to give reasonable notice in writing from tim§ t-P time of my changes therein, DUTIES OF TKUSTEES. 241 (7) To exempt, in their discretion, from the payment Exempt of school rates, wholly or in part, any indigent persons, ^person". ' notice of such exemption to be given by the trustees to the Clerk of the municipality, on or before the first day of August. (8) To dismiss from the school any pupil who shall Dismissal be adjudged so refractory by the trustees (or by a Jo/^^'^**'ji . majority of the a) and the teacher that his presence in school is deemed injurious to the other pupils, and, where practicable, to remove such pupil to an indus- trial school. (9) To take possession and have the custody and Custody of safe keeping of all Public School property which has school been acquired or given for Public School purposes in the section ; and to acquire and hold as a corporation, by any title whatsoever, any land, movable property, moneys or income l cr«. or acquired at any time for Public School pur;,- s. and to hold or apply the same according to the terms on which the same were gaie of acquired or received ; and to dispose, by sale or other- school site wise, of any school site or school property not required property, by them in consequence of a change of school site, or other cause ; to convey the same under their corporate seal, and to apply the proceeds thereof to their lawful school purposes, or as directed by this Act. (10) To visit, from time to time, every school under visit their charge, and see that it is conducted according to schools, law and the authorized regulations, and to provide school registers and a visitors' book, in the form pre- scribed by the Education Department. (11) To see that no unauthorized books are used in Text- tl\c school, and that the pupils are duly sup [died with b""^»- a uniform series of authorized text-books, sanctioned l)y the Education Department; and to procure annually, for the benefit of their school section, some periodical devoted to education, and to do whatever they may deem expedient in regard to procuring apparatus, maps, prize and library books for their school, Ii!:|i 1 ^'^ 1 1 ^ s 1 1 *l If ^ ^^ , fj If r I ti If 242 Report at annual meeting. Annual and semi- annual returns. A SCHOOL LAW. (12) To cause to be prepared and read at the annual meeting of the ratepayers, a report for the year then ending, containing, among other things, a summary of their proceedings during the year, together with a full and detailed account of the receipt and expenditure of all school moneys received and expended in behalf of the section, for any purpose whatever, during such year, and signed by the trustees and by either or both of the school auditors of the section. (13) To transmit to the Inspector the semi-annual returns on or before the 30th day of June and 31st day of December respectively, and the annual return on or before the 15th day of January in each year according to the forms prescribed by the Education Department. [48 V. c. 49, s. 40.] 1 DUTIES OP TRUSTEES IN CITIES, TOWNS AND INCORPORATED VILLAGES. ■m\ 1 fi I Duties of Board. Appoint- ment of secretary and col- lector. To provide adequate accommo- dation. 113. It shall be the duty of the Board, — (1) To appoint a secretary and treasurer or secre- tary-treasurer and one or more collectors, if recjuisite, of such school-fees or rate-bills as the board may have authority to charge. . . r (a) The collector or collectors, and secretary, and treasurer, or secretary-treasurer (who may be of their own number), shall discharge similar duties, and be subject to similar obligations and penalties and have similar powers as the like officers in the municipality. (2) To provide adequate accommodation, according to the regulations of the Education Department, for all the children between the ages of five and twenty- one, resident in the municipality, as ascertained by tlu^ census taken by the Municipal Council for the next preceding year; provided always, such residents are DUTIES OF TRUSTEES. 243 ,he annual year then Linmary of vith a full nditure of L behalf of iring such ler or both jmi-annual J and 31st Lual return each year Education TOWNS ^ES. r or secre- f requisite, d may have retary, and be of their ;ies, and be es and have lunicipality. n, according irtment, for find twenty - lined by the •or the next esidents are not to include the children of persons on whose behalf a Separate School or Schools have been established under the provisions of the Separate Schools Act. ■ (3) To purchase or rent school sites and premises, To provide and to build, repair, furnish, and keep in order the school pre- school-houses and appendages, lands, enclosures, and paratus, movable property, and procure registers in the pre- p'^e scribed form, suitable maps, apparatus, and prize books, library, and, if they deem it expedient, establish and maintain school libraries. « (4) To determine the number, kind, grade and des- Kind of cription of schools (such as male, female, infant, cen- schools, tral or ward schools) to be established and maintained ; the teachers to be employed ; the terms on which they are to be employed ; the amount of their remunera- tion, and the duties which they are to perform. (5) To prepare from time to time, and lay before the To lay Municipal Council of the City, Town or Village, on or Qo^^cils before the first day of August, an estimate of the sums estimate which they think requisite for all necessary expenses JjJo„gyg of the schools under their charge. (6) To appoint of their number annually, or oftener To appoint if they judge it expedient, and under such regulations ** 9fi^J as they think proper, a conmiittee of not more than for each three persons for the special charge, oversight and school. management of each school within the City, Town or Village, and to see that all the schools under their charge are conducted according to the authorized regu- lations. , (7) To collect, at their discretion, from the parents Trustee or guardians of children attending any Public School ™fJe°from under their charge, a sum not exceeding twenty cents parents, per calendar month, per pupil, to defray the cost of text-books, stationery and other contingencies, and to To see that see that all the pupils in the schools are duly supplied book^are^ with a uniform si9ries of authorized text-books. used. 3'!i^ !H. ; 11 2U SCHOOL LAW. To submit (8) To submit all accounts, books, and vouchers to to auditora be audited by the municipal auditors, and it shall be the duty of such auditors to audit the same. To give (9) To give orders on the Treasurer of the Public moneys^'^ School Board for all moneys expended for school expended, purposes. Model (10) To constitute at their discretion one or more of ISe/s?" the Public Schools of such City to be a Model School for the prelimir^ary tiaining of Public School teachers therein, subject to the Regulations of the Education Department. To publish auditors' report. To prepare annual report for Minister. School sites. Excep- tions. Kinder- garten Schools. (11) To publish at the end of every year, in one or more of the public newspapers, or otherwise, the annual report of the auditors, and to prepare and transmit annually, before the fifteenth of January, to the Minister of Education, in the form prescribed by him, a report signed by the chairman containing all information required by the Regulations of the Edu- cation Department. (12) Every Public School Board in a City, Town or Incorporated Village, shall have the same power to take and acquire land for a school site or for enlarging- school premises already held, as the trustees of rural schools ; provided always that vacant land only shall be taken in such City, Town or Village for a school site without the consent of the owner or owners, and in the event of disputes between the owner of the land selected and the trustees, sections 64 to 72 of this Act shall apply, save and except that in the case of Cities and Towns, the City or Town Inspector shall replace the County Inspector as arbitrator. [48 V. c. 49, s. 114;50 V. c. 39, s. 25. (13) To provide if deemed expedient for children between three and five years of age a course of instruc- tion and training according to the methods practised in Kindergarten Schools, subject however to the regula- tions of the Education Department in that behalf. ouchers to it shall be the Public for school or more of odel School Dol teachers Education ir, in one or erwise, the )repare and January, to escribed by utaining all )f the Edu- by, Town or le power to or enlarging bees of rural id only shall for a school owners, and r of the land ! of this Act ase of Cities shall replace ; V. c. 49, s. for children se of instruc- )ds practised bo the regula- t behalf. TEACHERS. TEACHERS. 245 151. All agreements between trustees and teach- Valid ers, to be valid and binding, shall be in writing, signed ^nttiwith by the parties thereto, and sealed with the corporate teacher, seal of the trustees, and such agreements may lawfully include any stipulation to provide the teacher with [48 V. c. 49, s. 152.] board and lodging, Qualified teacher defined. Duties of Public School teacher. 15!3. No teacher of a Public School shall be deemed legally qualified, who does not at the time of his engaging with the trustees, and during the period of such engagement, hold a legal certificate of qualifi- cation. [48 V. c. 49, s. 153.] 153. It shall be the duty of every teacher of a Public School — (1). To teach diligently and faithfully all the To teach branches required to be taught in the school, accord- JJ^j^w^"^ ing to the terms of his engagement with the trustees, and according to the provisions of this Act and the regulations of the Education Department ; (2). To keep in the prescribed form the general, entrance, and the daily class, or other Registers of the school, and to record therein the admission, promotion, removal, or otherwise of the pupils of the school ; (3). To maintain proper order and discipline in his school, according to the prescribed regulations ; (4). To keep a Visitors' Book (which the trustees shall provide) and enter therein the visits made to his school, and to present said book to every visitor, and request him to make therein any remarks suggested ))y his visit ; (5). To give the trustees and visitors access at all ^" ^^^® times, when desired by them, to the Registers and registers Visitors' Book appertaining to the school ; *"4 ^t' To keep the regis- ter of the school. To main- tain order and disci- pline. To keep a visitors' book. i IS' h' '\\ il: fi ! il i I-.' 246 SCHOOL LAW. p :i ft d '■ I IK 4 f S L I ? 1 • In case of refusal. To hold public quarterly- examina- tions. Deliver up (6). To deliver up any school Registers, Visitors' and key. Book, school-house key, or other school property in his possession, on the demand or order of the majority of the corporation employing him ; (7). In case of his wilful refusal so to do he shall not be deemed a qualified teacher until restitution is made, and shall also forfeit any claim which he may have against the said trustees ; (8). To hold 'during each term a public examination of his school, of which he shall give due notice to the trustees of the school, to any school visitors who reside in or adjacent to the school, and through the pupils to their parents or guardians : To furnish (9). To furnish to the Minister of Education, or to don'to^the ^^® School Inspector, from the trustees' report or other- i Minister wise, any information which it may be in his power spector. *^ ^^^® respecting anything connected with the oper- ations of his school, or in any wise affecting its interests or character. To prepare (10). To prepare, so far as the school Registers supply repor s. ^j^^ information, such reports of the corporation employ- ing him as are required by the regulations of the Edu- cation Department. (11). To notify the Medical Health Officer of the Municipality, or where there is none to notify the Local Board of Health, whenever he has reason to believe that any pupil attending school is affected with or exposed to small-pox, cholera, scarlatina, diphtheria, whooping-cough, measles, mumps, or other contagious disease, and to prevent the attendance of all pupils so exposed, or suspected of being exposed, until furnished with the written statement of the Health Officer, or of the Local Board of Health, or of a physician, that such contagious diseases did not exist, or that all danger from exposure to any of them had passed away. 48 V. c. 49, s, 154; 50 V. a 39, s, 29, , Visitors' operty in e majority 3 he shall ititution is h he may :amination lice to the sitors who rough the ition, or to rt or other- his power L the oper- ts interests ters supply on employ- of the Edu- 5cer of the notify the s reason to ffected with , diphtheria, contagious ill pupils so til furnished )fficer, or of ^sician, that or that all had passed TEACHERS. 247 154. Every qualified teacher of a Public School P/oportion employed for any period not less than three months to which shall be entitled to be paid liis salary in the proportion teacher which the number of teaching days during which he *^" ^ has taught in the calendar year, bears to the whole number of teaching days in such year. 48 V. c. 49, s. 155; 50 V. c. 39, s. 30. 155. All matters of difference between trustees and Pro\idion teachers, in regard to salary or other remuneration, difference shall be brought and decided in the Division Court by between the Judge of the County Court in each County, subject ^n^ trus- to an appeal, as provided by this Act. [48 Y. c. 49, s. tees. 156. 156. In pursuance of a judgment or decision given issue of by a County Judge in a Division Court, under the ®^®*'"^^°"' authority of this Act, and not appealed from, execution may issue from time to time to recover what may be due of the amount which the Judge may have decided the plaintiff entitled to, in like manner as on a judg- ment recorded in a Division Court for a debt, together with all fees and expenses incidental to the issuing thereof and levy thereunder. [48 V. c. 49, s. 157.] 157. In case of sickness, certified by a medical man, Case of every teacher shall be entitled to his salary during such ^i^^*'"®^^* sickness, for a period not exceeding four weeks for the Four entire year; which period may be increased at pleasure of the trustees. [48 V., c. 49, s. 158.] +V,p weeks ^^^ allowed. 158. Every teacher shall be entitled to be paid at Protection the rate mentioned in his agreement with the trustees, ?^ teachers even after the expiration of the period of his agree- to salary, iiient, until the trustees pay him the whole of his salary as teacher of the school, according to their engagement with him, provided alWays that an action must be commenced within three months after such salary is due and payable by the trustees. [48 V. c. 49, s. 159.] > ::f! m ii I i 248 i SCHOOL LAW. Certificates. Three clas8e» of certi- ficates. 159. Every certificate to teach a Public School shall he ranked as of the first, second, or third class, and shall be issued under the retjulations of the Education Department, only to such persons as (a) furnish satis- factory proof of good moral charactei", (b) and, if males, are at least eighteen years of age, or if females, seven- teen years of age, (c) and are natural born or natui'al- ized subjects of Her Majesty, and (d) pass the exam- inations prescribed by the Education Department. [48 V. c. 49, s. 160.] First and 160. Everv certificate issued under this Act shall class certi- entitle the holder thereof to teach a public school in ficates. any municipality in the Province, but only those of the first and second class shall be valid durinjj sfood behaviour. [48 V. c. 49, s. 161.] 'ts &" The same. 161. First and second class certificates of quali- fication shall be granted to teachers by the Minister of Education on the report of the Central Committee of Examiners, and third class certificates shall be granted by the County Board of Examiners according to the regulations of the Department. [48 V. c. 49, s. 162.] Third class 163. Third class District Certificates may be tificates. granted, subject to the regulations of the Education Department, to be valid only in the territorial and remote districts following, namely : Rainy River, Thunder Bay, Nipissing, Algoma, Parry Sound, Mus- koka, Haliburton, and the counties of Victoria, Peter- borough and Hastings, and all counties lying east thereof. The Board of Examiners for any such district certificate shall consist of the judge (where one) and stipendiary magistrate, with the Inspector (if any) in the territorial and other districts ; and in counties, of the County Board of Examiners. [48 V. c. 49, s. 163.] IP' I ^''^ TEACHERS. 24d cIk)o1 shall (.'lass, and Education ■nish satis- d, if ma]<^s, lies, seven- n' natural - the exaiii- cpartment. s Act shall school in y those of uring goo i titicato for ^^ coiniiion Inw with a Board of Trustees, and wlio breach of wilfully neglects o" refuses to carry out such agret;- ment shall, on the complaint of any Board of School Trustees, be liable to the suspension of his certificate by the Inspector in whose jurisdiction he may be engaged for the time being. [48 V. c. 49, s. 166.] s agree ment Hion to Ite reported. Same Hubject. To ex- amine teachers and give certifi- cates. 166. When the teacher whose certificate is sus- pended holds a certificate issued by the Chief Super- intendent or Council of Public Instruction, or by the Education Department or Minister of Education, the Inspector shall forthwith report to the Minister of Education, and such suspension shall continue until the case is decided by the Minister. [48 V. c. 49, s. 1C7.] 167. When the teacher holds a certificate granted by a County Board of Examiners, the Inspector shall forthwith call a meeting of such County Board of Examiners for the consideration of the suspension, of which due notice shall be given to the teacher con- cerned, and the decision of such Board shall be final. [48 V. c. 49, s. 168.] County Boards. 168. The County Council of each county shall appoint a Board of Examiners, (a majority of whom shall form a quorum,) consisting of the Inspector or Inspectors having jurisdiction within the county or any part thereof, and not more than two other competent persons whose qualifications shall be prescribed from time to time by the Education Department, for the purpose of granting third class certificates of qualifi- cation to candidates as teachers of Public Schools, according to the regulations of the Education Depart- ment, and for such other purposes as may be pre- scribed by this Act [48 V. c. 49, s. 169.] COUNTY MODKL SCHOOLS. 251 i, aiul wlio iich ttgn.' Only one examina- tion for third claHs certiticatoH to be held yearly. Signature on certifi- cates. 172. Where there are two Inspectors in ar^ l i J.I M :• ' 252 w SCHOOL LAW. u ■ ii h^l '• ' ' School for the training of candidates for third class teachers' certificates, and the County Council shall provide and levy in each year, in aid of each County Model School, within the limits of the county an amount at least equal to the amount apportioned or paid by the Education Department, in support of County Model Schools out of any grant annually voted by the Legislature for that purpose, but the amount to be provided by the County Council shall not be less than the sum of one hundred and fifty dollars in one year, unless the County Council should see fit to provide a larger amount of aid. [48 V., c. 49, s. 174.] Teachers' Institutes. Appor- tionment 174. It shall be lawful for th3 Minister of Educa- ofTundTto tion to apportion out of any moneys voted by the Teachers' Legislative Assembly for the training of teachers the sum of twenty-five dollars for every Teachers' Institute established under the regulations of the Education Department, and it shall be the duty of the County or City Council of each city or county to pay to the order of the President of each such Institute within the county or city a sum at least equal to the amount so apportioned by the Minister of Education. [48 V. c. 49, s. 175.] . Inspectors. 175. No person shall be eligible to be appointed an Inspector who does not hold a legal certificate of quali- fication as Inspector, granted according to the regula- tions of the Education Department, and no person who is a teacher or trustee of any Public, High or Separate School shall be eligible for an appointment as Inspector so long as he remains such teacher or trustee. [48 V. c. 49, s. 176.] Number of 1 76. — (1) Each County Council shall appoint one or ^°''^*®*'**'"' more persons, holding legal certificates of qualification, Inspector or Inspectors of the Public Schools cf such (Qualifica- tions for appoint- ment as inspector. INSPECTORS. 253 ihird class incil shall h County ounty an rtioned or upport of annually !e, but the jncil shall and fifty cil should 8 V, c. 49, of Educa- sd by the achers the 3' Institute Education County or o the order vithin the amount so [48 V. c. pointed an e of quali- be regula- >erson who r Separate I Inspector [48 V. c. oint one or ilification, Is cf such County, providing always that one Inspector shall not have charge of more than one hundred and twenty schools or less than fifty. (2) It shall not be necessary to appoint more than one Inspector in each riding of a County. (3) In Counties containing any Municipality wherein French or the French or German language is the common or pre- '^^'^"**"- vailing language, an Inspector may have charge of any number of schools not less than forty. (4) In Counties where there are more than fifty Pub- lic Schools, the County Council may appoint two or more Inspectors, and prescribe and number the terri- torial limits of each, and change or remove the Inspec- tors from one circuit or riding of the county to another. [48 V. c. 49, s. 177.] Counties may ap- point addi- tional Inspectors and change Inspec- tors. 177. The County Clerk shall notify the Minister of The Clerk Education of the appointment and address of every aniSin? County Inspector. [48 V. c. 49, s. 178.] ment. 178. In the event of a vacancy occuring in the Warden office of the County Inspector, the Warden of the ™*y ^"P" County within which such Inspector held office may cies in the appoint, from the list of those legally qualified, a fit ^^^^ ^^ and proper person to the office vacated, until the next ^^^° "^' ensuing meeting of the County Council. [48 V. c. 49, s. 179.] 179. The Lieutenant-Governor in Council may con- Lieut. - stitute any number of Municipalities or other portions Governor of territory, in the rear or remote parts of Counties, remote dis- and in Judicial or Territorial Districts, to be a district ^^^'^^^ ^9^ j.,.irt,i i»vi* i.' 1 inspection. or districts tor the purposes 01 school inspection under this Act, upon such terms, and subject to such regula- tions as the Lieutenant-Governor in Council may from time to time determine, and the County or Provisional Council concerned, shall provide their proportionate i'i 254 SCHOOL LAW. share of the salary of the Inspector, and also of his travelling expenses. [48 V. c. 49, s. 180.] ^f'di^***'"^ 180. Every County Inspector shall in case of mis- missal of conduct or inefficiency, be subject to dismissal by the Inspector. Lieutenant-Governor, or by a majority of the mem- bers of the Council appointing him, or without such cause by a vote of two-thirds of such Council, and no such Inspector shall be re-appointed without the con- currence of the party who dismissed him. [48 V. c. 49, s. 181.] Additional ±^± jt shall be lawful for the Lieutenant-Gover- by Lieut.- nor to direct the payment, out of the Consolidated Governor. Revenue Fund, of a sum, not exceeding five dollars per school per annum, to each County Inspector, and the County Council shall pay quarterly at the rate of not less than an equal amount per school, and in addition thereto the reasonable travelling expenses of such County Inspector, the amount to be determined by the County Council. [48 V. c. 49, s. 182.] Additional 183. Any Inspector, or other duly qualified person, tfon"to^In- appointed to inspect schools in new and remote town- spectors ships, or to take charge of a special examination for DisSTcts. teachers, or to advise and encourage settlers to establish schools, under the regulations and with the aid pro- vided by law, or to report on any school matter, shall be entitled to such additional or other remuneration out of any moneys appropriated by the Legislature or County Council for that purpose, as may be deemed just and equitable, considering the nature and extent of the duties to be performed. [48 V. c. 49, s. 183.] 183. It shall be the duty of every County Inspec- tor — To visit (1) To visit every Public School within his jurisdic- ^^ 1 ^^^^ ^^^^® ^^ e&ch term, unless required to do so oftener once a by the County Counpil which appointed him, or for the term, tNsl»ficfORS. S55 adjustment of disputes or other purpose, and to see that every school is conducted according to law and the regulations of the Department. (2) To examine at his visits of inspection, iiitc the Examine condition of the school, as respects the progress ci* the *f ^^g***^ pupils in learning ; the order and discipline observed ; school, the system of instruction pursued ; the mode of keep- ing the school registers the average of attendance of pupils ; the character and condition of the building and premises ; and to give such advice to the teachers, pupils and officers of the school as he may judge proper. (3) To deliver from time to time, under regulations Deliver prescribed by the ^ Minister of Education, a public lee- ^®^*^"'^^^- ture or lectures in his county or division, on some sub- ject connected with the objects, principles, and means of practical education. (4) To withhold his order Tor the amount appor- ^^^^y^*^^; tioned from the Legislative or Municipal Grant to any for grant school section: (a) When the school was kept open for less than six months in the year ; (h) When the trustees failed to transmit the annual or semi-annual school returns properly filled up ; (c) When the trustees fail to comply with the School Act, or the Regulations of the Education Department ; (d) When the teacher uses, or permits to be used, as a text book any book not authorized by the Education Department. (5) In every case where, from any cause, the School Grant is withheld, the inspector shall forthwith report to the Trustees an.d to the Education Department. in certain cases. (6) To give any information in his power, when To give desired, to the Minister of Education, respecting any J."on''™^' Public Scliool matter within his jurisdiction, and to to report to prepare and transmit to the Minister of Education on Minister, or before the first day of March, an annual report in tlie form provided by the Education Department. Stl* .' ill t' I i- J 'i[Hm I f i ; ! t f. S I [ if I- » if 11 ■> 256 Aid tu poor schools. Deliver up papers on retiring from office. Call special meeting. May give temporary certificates to teachers Appoint- ment, re- munera- tion, dis- missal. Payment of Inspec- tor's salary in towns not separ- ated. SCHOOL LAW. (7) To recommend to the County or Township Coun- cil such special or additional aid as he may deem advisable to be given to new or needy school sections in the County. (8) To deliver over to his successor, on retiring from office, copies of his official correspondence, and all school papers in his custody, on the order of the County Council or Public School Board, as the case may be. (9) To appoint, in his discretion, the time and place for a special school meeting, at any time, for any lawful purpose. (10) To give at his discretion any candidate, on due examination, according to the programme authorized for the examination of teachers, and subject to the regulations of the Education Department, a certificate of qualification to teach a school within the limits of the charge of such Inspector until (but no longer than) the next regular meeting of the Board of Examiners of which such school Inspector is a member. [48 V. c. 49, s. 184.] 184. The Public School Board of every city or town shall from time to time appoint an Inspector from those pf)ssessing the requisite qualification, who shall receive such remuneration as the Board may determine, and be subject to dismissal by a majority of the members of the Board, in case of inefficiency or misconduct, or by a vote of two-thirds of the Board without cause, or where it is resolved to place the Town schools under the County Inspector. [48 V. c. 49, s. 185.] , t 185. When the Public School Board of any town not separated from the County appoints an Inspector, other than the County Inspector, to take charge of their school, the County Treasurer on demand shall pay to the order of such Board a sum of money equal to any amount collected within such town for the payment of salary of the County Inspector. [48 V. c. 49, s. 180.] Of INSPECTORS. 257 186. In case the Public School Board of any town Town not separated^ from the County with the a^i oval of ™h^(Sa**'^* the Education Department and subject to the prescribed under regulations, places the schools of such town under the ?^^"*^qj. jurisdiction of the County Inspector, the Inspector shall be entitled to the like salary and remuneration as he receives for rural schools. [48 V. c. 49, s. 187.] 187. It shall be the duty of every City or Town Duty of Inspector to visit the schools under his charge from Jo^^n^fn. time to time, and as often as he may be required by spector. the Board, and to discharge such other duties as the Board may require, or are required of County Inspectors under section 183 of this Act. [48 V. c. 49, s. 188.] 188. No Inspector of schools shall, during his Inspector tenure of office, engage in or hold any other employ- "jJe^ ^^^ ment, office, or calling which would interfere with the offices. full discharge of his duties as Inspector as required by law. [48 V. c. 49, s. 189.] 189. In cases where an Inspector requires the testi- Inspector mony of witnesses to the truth of any facts alleged witnesses in any complaint or appeal made to him or to the i" certain Minister of Education or the Education Department, *^*^^^' it shall be lawful for such Inspector to administer an oath to such witnesses, or to require their solemn affirmation before receiving their testimony. [48 V. c. 49, s. 190.] Superannuation. 191. Every teacher * or Inspector whose name is Super- entered as having paid into the fund for the support pund*!^^^ " of superannuated teachers, may contribute to such fund in such manner as may be prescribed by the Education Department, the sum of at least four dol- lars annually. [48 V. c. 49, s. 192.] 1913. On the decease of any teacher or Inspector, Repay- his wiie, her husband, or other legal representative, ^^^^ *** shall be entitled to receive back the full amount paid m il« ■i! : iS f i i 1- ' ; • I H fi. ;i 1 ^*§: . 258 w SCHOOL LAW. wife, etc., into the Superannuktion Fund uy such teacher or ofdeceased Inspector with interest at the rate of seven per cent. '■ per annum. [48 V. c. 49, s. 193.] Right of 193. — (1.) Every teacher or Inspector who, while teacher to engaged in his profession, contributes to the Super- reaching auMuated Teachers' Fund as provided by this Act, shall, sixty years q^ reaching the age of sixty years, be entitled to retire from the profession at his discretion, and receive an allowance or pension at the rate of six dollars per annum, for every year of such service in Ontario, upon furnishing to the Education Department satisfactory evidence of good moral character, of his age, and of the length of his service as teacher or Inspector. Supple- (2) Every pension payable under this Act may be mentary supplemented out of local funds by any Municipal Council, Public School Board or Board of Education, at its pleasure. (3) To remove doubts, nothing in this section con- tained shall be held as applying to any person who, prior to 1871, had ceased to be engaged in his pro- fession as a teacher, and had not, prior to the 30th day of March, 1 8 s be T3 o c • ^ Q 02 b inches inches inches 3(5 18 12 36 18 12 3(> 20 13 40 22 13 e . js a bos » inches 22 23 24 2(5 (7) There should be one blackboard at least four feet wide, extending across the whole room in rear of the teacher's desk, with its lower edge not more than two and a half feet above the floor or platform, and, when possible, there should be an Is two or Hoor in passages, e outside I a space, plati'orin (Igc may The desk I the seat I be pro- inarily in iwo chairs ses. Tl le KS. -ij X i/ c . • «:3 JZ M IS. ^3 •53 a. ?: w inches inclies 12 22 12 23 13 24 13 2(5 feet wide, hers desk, feet above )uld be an EDUCATION DEPARTMKNT. 205 additional blackboard on each Hido. of the room. At the lower edge of each blackboard there should ha a shelf or trough five inches wide for holding crayons and brushes. Tho following directioiiH for iimking a blHckb'>Hrcl may bo found useful : (a) If tho walls aro brick tho plaster should bo laid upon the brick and not upon tho laths as olsowhoro ; it" frame, the part to bo used for a black- board should bo lined with boards, and the laths for holding t^he plaster nailed firmly on the boards. (h) Tho plaster for the blackboard should be composid largely of plaster of Paris. (c) Before and after having received the first coat of colour it should 1)0 thoroughly polished with fine sand ] taper. (rZ) The colouring matter should be laid on with a wide, flat varnish brush. (e) The licpiid colouring should be made as follows : — Dis.solvo gum shellac in alcohol, four ounces to the (juart ; tho alcohol should be J)5 per cent, strong ; tho dissolving process will re i I 5 a ■3 a « u SO < o -.• fa g- p< V to EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 267 General Directions. (2) First Three Forms. (a) Reading and Literature. — The First Part of the First Reader should be taught from the Blackboard and Tablet Lessons. The pupil should practise reading by phrases with the first lesson, and such explanations should be given as may enable him to read intelligently, and in the easy natural manner which characterizes good ordinary conversation. Clearness, fluency, force and naturalness are essential to good reading. As pupils learn to read principally by imitation, the teacher's voice should direct in the matter of accent, inflection, emphasis and pronunciation. Pupils in every class should be required regularly to commit to memory selected passages in prose and verse, to give the meaning of what they read, and to make, from time to time, a summary of the reading lessons, in their own language. (6) Geography.— The School House and its surroundings, with which the pupils are familiar, should be taken as the first subjects of lessons to give correct ideas of boundary and direction. Map drawing should be practised from the begin- ning. Definitions in Physical Geography should be fully illustrated in all cases by blackboard drawings or otherwise. The teacher should teach this subject in the first and second classes by means of familiar talks about tho natural phenomena of different countries, the peculiarities of different races, the birds and animals of different zones, etc. (c) GraTnniar and Composition. — Grammar should be taught at first mainly as the basis of composition. The essential parts of the simple sentence; the functions and definitions of the parts of speech, and the rules for inflection, should be arrived at by induction ; sentence building, and the correction of common mistakes in English. Every school exercise, whether oral or written, should be made an exercise in Composition. The teacher should use especial care in requiring good English from his pupils in all their answers in class or in conversation. '} It ir? ! 1 III' H 268 REGULATIONS. (d) History. — The principal events in Canadian history, with their bearing upon the progress of Canada, should be discussed. Care should be taken to explain thoroughly our Municipal and Federal forms of Government, and the principal events of English history, without unnecessary details or unimportant dates. A comprehension of leading facts and general princi- ples is more valuable than the most accurate knowledge of details, if unaccompanied by ability to distinguish what is important from what is not. Throughout the course the teacher should bear in mind the interesting and valuable lessons that may be deduced from the lives of the men and women who have played a prominent part in history. (e) Arithmetic. — Systematic training in mental Arithmetic should prevail in all the classes. Accuracy and expertness in performing elementary operations are of the tirst importance. Problems based on the elementary rules should be given from the commencement. Great stress should be laid on the solution of questions by the Analytic Method. (/) Writing. — Neat and legible writing, and the proper formation of the small and capital letters should be aimed at. (g) Drawing. — The drawing exercises in Parts I. and II. of the First Reader, or the Kindergarten Drawing course, should be used for the First Class. In the junior Second Class the pupils should be encouraged to expand these exercises into original designs. In the other classes the authorized Drawing Course should be followed. (3) Fourth Form. (a) Reading. — A general knowledge of the elements of vocal expression, with special reference to emphasis, inflection, and pause. The reading, with proper expression, of any selection in the Reader authorized for Fourth Book classes. The pupil should be taught to read intelligently, as well as intelligibly. (6) Literature. — The pupil should be taught to give for words or phrases, meanings which may be substituted therefor, with- EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 269 itory, with discussed, licipal and events of important ral princi- wledge of 1 what is lourse the . valuable B men and Arithmetic ertness in nportance. iven from le solution ,he proper aimed at. and II. of 'se, should Class the rcises into 1 Drawing ts of vocal ction, and y selection The pupil elligibly. for words :ifor, with- out impairing the sense of the passage ; to illustrate and show the appropriateness of important words or phrases ; to dis- tinguish between synonyms in common use ; to paraphrase difficult passages so as to show the meaning clearly ; to show the connection of the thoughts in any selected passage ; to explain allusions ; to write explanatory or descriptive notes on proper or other names ; to show that he has studied the lessons thoughtfully, by being able to give an intelligent opinion on any subject treated of therein that comes within the range of his experience or comprehension ; and especially to show that he has entered into the spirit of the passage, by being able to read it with proper expression. He should be required to memorize passages of special beauty from the selections pre- scribed, and to reproduce in his own words, the substance of any of these selections, or of any part thereof. He should also obtain some knowledge of the authors from whose works these selections have been made. (c) Orthography and Orthoepy. — The pronunciation, the syl- labication, and the spelling from dictation, of words in common use. The correction of words improperly spelt or pronounced. The distinction between words in common use in regard to spelling, pronunciation, and meaning. (d) Writing. — Besides writing the regular copy-book exer- cises, the pupil should be taught simple business forms, letter writing and how to keep simple accounts. ' • (e) Geography. — The form and the motions of the earth. The chief definitions as contained in the authorized text-book : /:; General Directions — Forms I.-V-. (a) Agriculture. — The authorized text-book on this subject should be introduced into every rural school. Special atten- tion should be given to such points as, how plants grow and what they feed upon, how farms are beautified and cultivated, the value of shade trees, what trees to plant and when to plant them, the relation of agriculture to other pursuits, the effect of climate on the habits of a people. Poetical selections on rural subjects, talks on natural history, should form part of the instruction of every Friday afternoon. (b) Temperance and Hygiene. — These subjects should at first be taught in the form of familiar lectures. The nature and effects of alcohol upon the system and the importance of temperance and a strict observance of the laws of health, as set forth in the authorized text-book, should form part of the regular instruction of the school from the Second Form upwards, and should be taught, either by the use of text- Ijooks, or otherwise, as thoroughly as any other subject on the frogramme. (c) Drill and Calisthenics. — The different extension move- ments prescribed in the authorized text-book on the subject should be frequently practised, not only during recess but during school hours. Accuracy and promptness should characterize every movement. In addition, the boys should be formed into companies and taught the usual squad and company drill, and the girls should be exercised in calisthenics. {d) Music. — As in the authorized text-book. In forms I. and II., pupils should be practised in rote-singing, obtaining in the last part of the course the elements of musical notation. In the other forms they should be practised in song-singing, sacred and secular, continuing aLso the course in musicaj notation. (e) Moral and Religious Instruction. — No course of moral instruction is prescribed. The teacher ia expected, however, by his personal example as well as by the jxercise of his authority t \ II H M w '( '^' N i i' k \ i hi i m^^ J! ii I ./■' 272 RKOULAttONa. and by instruction, to imbue every pupil with respect for those moral obligations which underlie a well formed character. Respect for those in authority and for the aged ; courtesy, true manliness, reverence, truthfulness, honesty, etc., can best be inculcated as the occasion arises for referring to them. The religious exercises of the school should be conducted without haste and with the utmost reverence and decorum. ?»v ,^ , (/) Reviews and Recitations. — Every Friday forenoon should be devoted to a review of the week's work, and the afternoon to exercises tending to relieve the usual routine of the school- room., while promoting the mental and moral culture of the pupils. The teacher should encourage the pupils to prepare dialogues, readings, recitations and songs for the Friday after- noon school- sessions. He should also choose some topic for a familiar lecture, or read some literary selection, making such comments as are likely to promote a love of reading, and quicken the interest of the scholars in the work of the school. The girls should receive suitable instructions in plain sewing. Duties of Pupils. 7. The following are the duties of pupils in Public Schools : (1) Every pupil whose name is entered on the register of a Public School shall attend punctually and regularly every day in the school term in which his name is so entered ; he shall be neat and cleanly in his person and habits, and diligent, truthful, honest, kind, courteous, respectful, and obedient, and shall conform to all the rules of the school. (2) Any pupil not present at the time prescribed for open- ing the school may be required to furnish forthwith a written excuse from his parent or guardian, or be denied admittance to the school for the day or half -day, at the discretion of the Principal. (3) Any pupil absenting himself fx^m school, except on account of sickness, shall forfeit his standing in his class, or shall be liable to such oth«^r punishment as the teacher may lawfully inflict. jt for those character, rtesy, true ^n best be bem. The 3d without .?\^i; 'J-' 4.1 oon should ) afternoon bhe school- ure of the to prepare iday after- topic for a aking such ading, and the school, siin sewing. ic Schools : igister of a every day d ; he shall id diligent, ^dient, and 1 for open- 1 a written admittance :ion of the except on lis class, or gacher may EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 273 (4) No pupil shall be allowed to leave school before the hour appointed for closing, except in case of sickness, or on the request, either oral or written, of the parent or guardian. (6) Any pupil, once admitted to school and duly registered, shall attend at the commencement of each term and continue in attendance regularly until its close, or until he is withdrawn by notice to the teacher to that effect ; and any pupil violat- ing this rule shall not be entitled to continue in such school, or be admitted to any other, until such violation is certified by the parent or guardian to have been unavoidable. (6) Any pupil guilty of any of the following offences, viz.: — (a) persistent truancy ; (6) violent opposition to authority ; (c) the repetition of any offence after being warned ; (d) habitual and wilful neglect of duty ; (e) the use of profane or improper language; (/) cutting, marring, destroying or defacing any part of the school property ; (g) writing any obscene words on the ffences, water-closets, or any part of the school premises ; (h) general bad conduct, injurious to the moral tone of the school, may be suspended by the teacher for one month, or until such suspension is removed by assurance of better conduct, or by order of the Trustees. (7) Whenever a teacher suspends a pupil for any of the causes herein named, he shall at once notify the parents or guardians, and the Trustees stating the reasons for such suspension. (8) The parent or guardian of any pupil suspended may appeal to the Trustees against the action of the teacher, and the decision of the Trustees, or of a majority of them, shall be final. (9) Any pupil who shall be adjudged so refractory by the Trustees or by a majority of them, and by the teacher, that his presence in the school is injurious to the other pupils, may be expelled, and no such pupil shall be readmitted to any school without the written consent of the Public School Inspector. V-. |! iins 274 HEGtLATtOHS. if i I ■''. (10) Pupils in cities, towns and villages shall attend such school or department as may be designated by the Trustees, and no transfer from one school or department to another shall be allowed without the consent of the Trustees and the Inspector. (11) No pupil who is affected with or exposed to any con- tagious disease, shall be permitted to attend school until he produces the certificate of a medical man that there are no sanitary objections to his re-admission. (12) Any pupil absenting himself from an examination, or from any portion thereof, without permission of the teacher, shall not be admitted to any public school, except by authority of the Inspector, in writing ; and the names of all such pupils shall be immediately reported by the teacher to their parents and the Trustees. '"- (13) Pupils shall be responsible to the teacher for their con- duct on the school premises, or in going to or returning from school, except when accompanied by their parents or guardians, or by some person appointed by them, or on their behalf. , ^ (14) No pupil shall be allowed to remain in school unless he is furnished with the books and other requisites to be used by him in school, but it shall be lawful for the Trustees to supply him with such books and other requisites. ;; - (15) No pupil shall have the right to attend school unless, and until, he has paid all the fees imposed by the Trustees for the current month or quarter, as the case may be, and for such books, stationery and other supplies as are authorized under the Public Schools Act. / y-s. rV',',' (16) Any school property or furniture injured or destroyed by a pupil, shall be made good forthwith by the parent or guardian, under penalty of the suspension of the delinquent. (17) Every pupil entitled thereto shall, on application, when he leaves or removes from a school, receive a certificate of good conduct and standing. snd such Trustees, ;her shall and the any con- until he •e are no lation, or i teacher, xcept by nes of all eacher to their con- ling from :uardians, lalf. . f unless he e used by to supply ol unless, astees for i for such zed under destroyed parent or nquent. ion, when ,te of good -> EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. School Hours. 275 8. The school hours shall be from nine o'clock in the fore- noon till four o'clock in the afternoon, but the trustees by resolution may, for the purpose of affording facilities for religious instructions or for other suitable purposes, prescribe a shorter period. In Kindergarten Schools, the hours of study should not exceed three hours per day. 9. There shall be a recess of not less than ten minutes each forenoon and afternoon^ and at least one hour shall be allowed for recreation during the middle of the school day. . •^ Jif Duties of Teachers. 10. In every Public School in which more teachers than one are employed the head teacher shall be called the Principal and the other teachers Assistants. 11. The Principal shall prescribe (with the concurrence of the Trustees) the duties of the Assistants, and shall be respon- sible for the organization and discipline of the whole school. 13. It shall be the duty of every teacher in a Public School — ; (1) To see that the school-house is ready for the reception of pupils at least fifteen minutes before the time prescribed for opening the school in the morning, and five minutes before the time for opening in the afternoon. ,,»...,. ,,;^ . .^.v: . (2) To classify his pupils strictly according to the programme of studies prescribed by the Education Department, and to make no departure from such classification without the consent of the Trustees and the Inspector. (3) To prepare a time-table to be posted in some conspicuous part of the room for the guidance of himself and his pupils. 1 1 I { m \ 1 :! ^ 1 1 1 1 , ( • ; '■ 1 i 276 REGULATIONS. (4) To prevent the use by the pupils of unauthorized text- books. (5) To make at the end ot* each school term or at such other time as may be approved by the Inspector, and subject to revision by him, such promotions from one class to another as he may deem expedient. (6) To practise such discipline in his school as would be exercised by a kind, firm, and judicious parent ; to reprovt^ his pupils with tenderness and becoming deliberation, and to aim at governing them through their affections and reason rather than by force ; to encourage his pupils to cultivate kindly feelings towards one another, respect for one another's rights, politeness in and out of school, habits of honesty and truthful- ness, and obedience to all persons in authority over them ; and to discountenance quarrelling, cruelty to animals, and the use of profane and improper language. . . ., . .. . (7) To give strict attention to the proper ventilation and cleanliness of the school-house ; to make and enforce such rules as will ensure the keeping of the school grounds and outbuild- ings in a neat and cleanly condition. ^ .. (8) To see that the school grounds, sheds, and water-closets are kept in proper order; that no damage is done to the furniture, fences, outbuildings, or other school property ; to give notice in writing to the trustees of any necessary repairs or supplier , " , ,< . (9) To employ (unless otherwise provided for), at such compensation as may be fixed hj the Trustees, a suitable person to make fires, sweep the rooms, dust the walls, seats, desks, and other furniture ; but no assistant teacher or pupil shall be required to perform such duty unless regularly employed for that purpose as herein provided. ^ .^ ?u ii (10) To make up all returns to the Inspector or the Educa- tion Department, as far as the information required can be supplied from the school register, and to furnish such other EDUCATION DEPAHTMENT. 277 •ized text- such other subject to mother as would be to reprovt^ 3n, and to lid reason ate kindly er's rights, d truthful- ver them ; Is, and the ilation and such rules d outbuild- ater-closets one to the operty ; to ary repairs '), at such ible person , desks, and il shall be iployed for bhe Educa- i*ed can be such other information affecting the interests of his school as may from time to time be required by the Department or the Inspector. (11) To attend regularly the Teachers' Institutes held in his county, and to contribute; from his experience and observation to their general usefulness. (12) To give immediate notice to the Trustees and Inspector of his absence from school through illness or other unavoidable cause. [See also Revised Statutes, section 153, (1887)]. ■ ^ Collections — Presents — Lost Time. 13. In no school shall collections l)e taken up or subscrip- tions received from the pupils, nor shall any bills or other advertisements be distributed by the teacher for any purpose whatever without the consent of the Trustees. 14. Except when severing his connection with the school, no teacher shall receive any presents from the pupils, nor shall he give any medal or prize to any pupil without the consent of the Trustees. 15. No teacher shall make up lost time by teaching on a holiday or during vacations, and any attendance during such time shall be disallowed by the Inspector. Inspectors. Qualifications. 16. Any person holding (1) either a first-class Provincial certificate, grade A, or a degree in arts from the University of Toronto with first-class honours in one or more of the recognized departments of examination in said University, or an equivalent standing in any other University of Ontario, (2) and furnishing evidence of having taught successfully for five years (of which at least three years must have been spent in a Public School) shall be eligible to be appointed a Public School Inspector. 1' .1 ij IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // <. M &-. A %' z. ^- 1.0 I.I 1.25 ISO 1^ 1^ lAO 2.0 ill u 1^ n t Hiotographic Sciences Corporation ■-SS.V' 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)873-4303 '^ !>' <> . o^ f 278 REGULATIONS. County Inspector's Duties. 1 7. It shall be the duty of every County Inspector — (1) To spend at least half a day each term in each school. — Where a school has several departments, the Inspector should devote half a day to each department. When, however, from the character of the work done, an Inspector thinks it would be in the interest of the school to extend his visit over the whole day, he should do so. The half day limit is the average time required for each visit. (2) To satisfy himself as to the progress made hy the pupils from time to tim^e. This cannot be done without many memo- randa of the standing of each class. It will therefore be necessary for the Inspector to make copious notes in regard to each recitation, showing the condition of each class and the proficiency attained in the several subjects of the curriculum. This part of the work should be thorough and searching ; and the conclusions arrived at should be based on the Inspector's ov/n observation. (3) To examine into the methods of instruction pursued hy the teacher. To do this the Inspector should require the teacher of the school to teach several lessons in his presence. In this way the teacher's methods can be observed and hints given for improvement should he evince any faults of method or of manner. Great attention should be paid to methods : the pro- per and logical presentation of a subject is so important that success is impossible without it. (4) To teach a few model lessons himself The proper method of teaching subjects that are found to be neglected or badly taught by the teacher should be exemplified by the Inspector. Here all the qualities which go to form the model teacher should be exercised. His methods of questioning and of receiving answers, of rousing the enthusiasm of the class, of securing attention, of reaching by apt illustration ihe judgment of the pupils, are all eagerly watched by the teacher and should serve both as a model and as a stimulus to him in the future. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 279 3tor — sh school. — ctor should vever, from ks it would dt over the the average f the pupUs lany memo- iierefore be n regard to iss and the curriculum, •ching; and Inspector's pursued hy the teacher 36. In this ts given for sthod or of s : the pro- (ortant that rhe proper leglected or led by the I the model tioning and fche class, of e judgment teacher and him in the (5) To ascertain the. nature of the discipline exercised hy the teacher. This no doubt will appear from the attention and diligence of the pupils, without special enquiry. The tnanner of the teacher will very soon indicate the nature of the disci- pline. It would be well, nevertheless, to ascertain whether corporal punishment is frequently resorted to, and if not, what are the punishments (if any) usually inflicted. (6) To examine the registers, maps, seats, and all the internal and external equipments of the school-house. He should see (a) that the register is properly and neatly kept, and ascertain whether or not entries are made therein daily ; (6) that the maps are suitable and well preserved ; (c) that black- boards are in proper repair, and that crayons and brushes are fully supplied ; (d) that the furniture is generally adequate ; that proper attention is paid to the heating (e) and ventilation of the rooms ; (/) that the fences and out-houses are in proper repair ; (g) that the school library is suitably cared for. *) To report to Trustees in regard to such matters as require their attention. This duty the Inspector should never neglect. The Trustees of a school expect to be informed and directed as to many matters coming under the cognzance of the Inspector, who is, in a certain sense, their officer, and is appointed for the very purpose of aiding them in the discharge of their duties. His report, therefore, on the school should be full. Every necessary change coming within the scope of the duties of the Trustees should be mentioned in detail, and in no case should the school grant be withheld, until they have had an opportunity of removing any defect to which their atten- tion has been called. (8) To give such advice to teachers as may he deemed neces- sary. This part of the Inspector's duty should be performed with tact and delicacy, and perfect frankness. Whatever defects in the teacher's manner, or in his discipline of the pupils, or methods of instruction are discovered during the inspection of the school, should be plainly pointed out. Wher- ever the Inspector has reason to believe that there is any defect in the organization of the school, or in its classification, ■ ; »' i| 280 REGULATIONS. or in attention on the part of the pupils, it should be referred to, and the proper remedy suggested. This, of course, should be done privately — not in the presence of the pupils. (9) To see that no unauthorized text-hooks are used in the school. No text-books should be placed in the hands of the pupils, except those authorized for their use. Under the disguise of recommending certain works for " home study," many unau- thorized text-books are introduced into the school. This should be prevented by the Inspector in the exercise of his authority as an oflBcer of the Education Department. (10) To withhold the school grant in certain cases. Before the school grant is withheld : (1) An opportunity should be afforded the Trustees to remedy the wrong complained of. (2) A full statement of the case shoujd be sent to the Depart- ment, and the consent of the Minister of Education obtained. As the grant can be withheld for any violation of the School Act or Departmental Kegulations, the power thus conferred should be exercised judiciously, and only when other remedies fa^ (11) To divide the school grants. Care should be taken to see that the semi-annual returns of the Trustees are properly added up, and if any doubt exists as to their accuracy they should be compared with the school register. When the division of the grant is made, as required by law, it will be sufficient for the Inspector to send a statement to the Township Trea- surer of the amount due each school section, and at the same time to notify the Secretary-Treasurer of each Board of Trus- tees of the amount due its section. The Board of Trustees oan then give an order either to the teacher or to some other person to whom it desires to have the money paid, and on this order the Township Treasurer is authorized to pay the money. (12) To decide complaints made within twenty days in regard to the election of Trustees and other matters. In dis- charging this duty the Inspector should remember that he is exercising judicial functions and should accordingly proceed with due deliberation. He has a right to withhold his decision until such evidence is produced as he may deem necessary in regard to the question at issue, ;,: ;i n }x -^t .^>^;. g«> WJl ' " '' ^W * EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 281 e referred rse, should I. ised in the ids of the tie disguise lany unau- his should authority !8. Before should be plained of. be Depart- V obtained. School Act red should lies faij^ e taken to 3 properly iracy they he division 5 suflScient ship Trea- the same d of Trus- 'ustees can her person this order >ney. \y days in '8. In dis- that he is ly proceed lis decision ecpssar^ in (13) To grant, on examination, temporary certificates. These certificates should only be granted (1) when petitioned for by a Board of Trustees, and only for the school over which such Board has jurisdiction ; and (2) until the date of the next ensuing Departmental Examination ; and (3) when it appears that a teacher holding a regular certificate is not available. The consent of the Minister is also necessary in every case. (14) To suspend a teacher's certificate. This should be done only when he is fully satisfied that the teacher is incompetent or immoral, or has wilfully violated the school law or the regulations of the Education Department. In the final investi- gation by which such suspension is to be confirmed or set aside, the fullest opportunity should be afforded the teacher to vindicate himself. Judicial fairness should in this instance also characterize the conduct of the Inspector. (15) To visit the Goiinty Model School at least twice in each term. It is very desirable that the Inspector should be present at the opening of the Model School and assist the Principal in its organization. He should also visit the school at least once during the term, and by his presence and counsel encourage the teachers in training in the pursuit of their studies. For such two visits he should be paid by the Coimty Council at the same rate as he is paid for Public School work. City Inspectors. 18. The Inspector of every city or town shall, as far as circumstances admit, be governed by the regulations respecting County Inspectors, and shall, in addition thereto, perform such other duties as may be imposed upon him by the Board of Trustees. Powers of Inspector. 19. The Inspector, while officially visiting a school, has supreme authority in the school, and has the right to direct teachers and pupils in regard to any pr all of the exercises of if :> I 11 il ! J 282 HEGULATIONS. the school-room. He may either examine the classes himself or direct the teacher to do so. He is at liberty to give such advice to pupils or to the teacher as he may deem necessary. All his counsels, however, should be given in a spirit of kind- ness, and his authority should be exercised, not with a view to over-awe or intimidate, but to reform abuses, correct mistakes, and inspire confidence and respect. He should be courteous and considerate and when reproof is necessary it should be tempered with gentleness and sympathy. "^ COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. General Conditions. 63. The County Board of Examiners for each county or group of counties shall set apart at least one Public School as a Model School for the professional training of Third Class Teachers, subject to the approval of the Education Depart- ment. 64. In order to entitle a Public School to be ranked and used for Model School purposes, the following conditions must be complied with : — (1) The Principal shall hold a First Class Departmental Certificate and have at least three years' experience as a Public School teacher. (2) There shall not be fewer than three assistants holding at least Second Class Provincial Certificates. (3) The equipment of the school shall be at least equal to that required by the regulations for the fourth form of a Public School. (4) A room for Model School purposes, in addition to the accommodation required for the Public School shall be pro- EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 283 sses himself ;o give such I necessary, rit of kind- h a view to ct mistakes, e courteous ; should be *)*('< . ■ ■•'^Wv i county or 3 School as 'hird Class 3n Depart- anked and itions must partmental as a Public ts holding st equal to form of a ion to the bll be pro- vided either in the same building or elsewhere equally con- venient. (6) The Principal shall be relieved of all Public School duties during the Model School term, and the assistant provided for this purpose, shall, under the direction of the Principal, take charge of Public School work only. 65. The Principal shall report to the Chairman of the Board of Examiners, at the close of the session, the status of each teacher in training, as shown by the daily register. 66. The teachers in training shall attend regularly and punctually during the whole Model School term, and shall be subject to the discipline of the Principal, with an appeal, in case of dispute, to the Chairman of the County Board of Examiners. 67. The teachers in training shall be subjected to an examination in Practical Teaching at the close of the session, and also to a Written examination on papers prepared by the Central Committee, the results of which, on the percentage fixed by the County Board of Examiners, shall determine their final standing. 68. In any county where there are two or more Model Schools the County Board shall distribute the students equally among the different schools, and in cases where there may be a deficiency of room in any Model School, the County Board may give the preference of admission to such as have obtained the highest number of marks at the non-professional examination. 69. Boards of Trustees may impose a fee of not more than five dollars on each teacher in training, and in addition thereto the County Board of Examiners may impose a fee on each teacher in training not exceeding two dollars per student as an examination fee in lieu of the amount chargeable against the county for conducting the professional examination. . ^S4> tlEGtJLATlONS. .'f t ii * ' :■ ... * -'i !ff:i 70. There shall be one session of thirteen weeks in each Model School during the year, beginning on the second Tues- day in September. 71. Each Model School shall be visited at least once dur- ing the session by the Departmental Inspector, and twice by the County Inspector in whose district such Model School is situated. Course of Study. 72. The course of study in County Model Schools shall embrace the following : — (1) The Theory and Practice of Education. — School Organi- zation and Management, and Methods, of Instruction in all the subjects prescribed for Forms I.-IV of the Public Schools. (2) ProAitical Teaching. — Such practice in teaching as will cultivate correct methods of presenting subjects to a class and develop the art of school government. (3) Hygiene. — A course in Hygiene based on "The Manual of Hygiene for Normal and Model Schools," omitting chapters I., VII., VIII., IX., and XVI. (4) School Law and Regulations. — A knowledge of School Law and the Regulations, so far as they relate to the duties of Public School teachers and pupils. (5) Music. — As prescribed for Forms J.-IV. of the Public Schools. (6) Drill and Calisthenics, — Houghton's Physical Culture. Text Books. 73. Every teacher in training shall supply himself with the text books prescribed for use in the first four forms of a Public School ; Baldwin's Art of School Management (Cana- dian Edition) ; The Manual of Hygiene ; and Houghton's Physical Culture. fit>tJCATION DDPARTMENT. 285 Final Examination, 74. The final examination shall be conducted by the County Board of Examiners on the following subjects : — Theory of Education, 100 marks ; Methods, 200 marks ; Hygiene, 60 marks ; School Law and Regulations, 50 marks ; Music, 60 marks ; Drill and Calisthenics, 50 marks ; Practical teaching, 400 marks (200 on the report of the Principal and 200 by the Board). In the first four subjects papers will be submitted by the Education Department. In Music and Drill and Calis- thenics the Board shall accept the results of an examination held by the Principal or conduct a special examination as it may deem expedient. The Board shall have power to reject any candidate who may show himself deficient in scholarship. TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 76. In each county or inspectoral division, a Teachers' Institute shall be formed, the object of which shall be to read papers and discuss matters having a practical bearing on the daily work of the schoolroom. 76. The officers of the Institute shall be a president, vice- president, and secretary- treasurer. The < jhall also be a man- agement committee of five. The officers ' f the Institute and the management committee shall be elected annually. 77. There shall be at least one meeting of the Institute each year, extending over two or more days, to be called the annual meeting, for the election of ofl&cers and the discussion of such matters as may be submitted by the management com- mittee. 78. The session of the annual meeting on the first day shall be from 10 a.m. to 12 m., and from 2 p.m. to 5 p;m. ; on the second day from 9 a.m. to 12 m., and from 2 p.m. to 4 p.m. J i 286 REGULATIONS. . A public meeting shall always be held on the evening of the first day's session. 79. The time and place for holding the annual meeting will be arranged by the Education Department on consul- tation with the Inspector or Insjjectors of the county or inspectoral division. A copy of the programme should be sent to evety teacher in the county or inspectoral division, at least one month before the time of the meeting. All questions and discussions foreign to the teachers' work shall be avoided. 80. A portion of the afternoon of the second day at every annual meeting should be set apart for discussing such matters as affect the relations between the teacher and the Trustees, of which special notice should be given by the Secretary to every Board of Trustees in the county or inspectoral division. The actual travelling expenses of one representative from each Board of Trustees shall be allowed by the Board for attend- ance in all such cases. 81. Another meetinef, arrangements for which should be made at the annual meeting of the Institute, for the county or inspectoral division, may be held during the year ; or in lieu thereof a series of Township Institutes may be held in the townships or union of townships in the county. 8!8. It shall be the duty of every Public School teacher to attend continuously all the meetings of the Institute held in his couYity or inspectoral division, provided the time so spent shall not exceed two school days in each half year, and in the event of his inability to attend, to report to his Inspector, giving reasons for his absence. 83. It shall be the duty of the Inspector to furnish the secretary of the Institute with a list of the teachers in his county or inspectoral division. From this list the roll shall be called at the opening of each session. He shall also report to the Department on the form prescribed. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 287 ning of the lal meeting on consul- county or )uld be sent ion, at least lestions and voided. ay at every iich matters Trustees, of -ry to every ision. The from each for attend- should be B county or or in lieu leld in the teacher to ite held in le so spent and in the Inspector, ■urnish the tiers in his •oil shall be 10 report to NORMAL SCHOOLS. 84. There shall be two sessions of the Provincial Normal Schools in each year : — The first, opening on the third Tuesday in January, and closing on the third Friday in June ; the second, opening on the third Tuesday in August, and closing not later than the twenty-second of December. » 85. The hours of daily work shall be from 9 a.m. to 12, and from 1.30 p.m. to 3.30 p.m. The daily sessions shall be opened and closed as prescribed in the Regulations for Public Schools. 86. The students shall lodge and board at such houses only as are approved by the Principal ; and shall not be out of their boarding-house after 10 p.m. Ladies and gentlemen shall not board at the same house. Communication of every kind between the sexes is strictly prohibited, except in the school-room by permission of the Principal or one of the Masters. 87. The Principal shall be responsible for the discipline and organization of the Normal School students; he shall prescribe the duties of the Masters, subject to the approval of the Minister of Education ; he shall cause such examinations to be held from time to time as may be deemed necessary, and keep a record of the same; he shall give such directions to the officers of the Normal School as will secure the efficiency of the service. 88. The Masters shall be responsible to the Principal for the discipline, and general progress of their classes ; they shall report monthly to the Principal the standing of each student in the subjects of their departments, and, daily, the absence of any student from their classes. 89. Every student shall attend regularly and punctually all the classes during the term; he shall conduct himself with % 288 REGULATIONS. becoming courtesy towards his teachers and fellow-students ; he shall make re[)aration for all damage caused by him to fur- niture or other property belonging to the school ; he shall submit to such discipline as may be required by the Principal or Masters of the Normal School, and shall conduct such classes in the Model School, and teach such subjects as may be directed under the supervision of the teachers of the Normal and Model Schools. 90. The course of study and training in the Normal Schools shall be as follows:— (a) History of Education; Science of Education ; School Organization and Management ; the study of the best methods of teaching each subject on the programme of studies for Public Schools ; (b) Practice in Managing Classes and in Teaching in the Model School ; (c) Instruction in Hygiene, Agriculture, Reading, Writing, Drawing, Music, Drill and Calisthenics ; (d) Lectures in such subjects as may be pre- scribed by the Minister of Education. 91. At the close of each term an examination shall be con- ducted by the central committee, in the History of Education, the Science of Education, School Organization, and Methods of Teaching. An examination in Hygiene, Agriculture, Read- ing, Writing, Drawing, Music, Drill and Calisthenics shall, unless otherwise ordered, be conducted by the Principal. There shall be no written examination in the subjects on which lectures are delivered simply, but any student reported as inattentive and negligent shall forfeit any honours he may be entitled to in other subjects. 92. The final examination shall be adjudged according to the following schedule of marks : — History of Education, 75 ; Science of Education, 125 ; School Organization and Manage- ment, 125 ; Methods in English Mathematics and Natural Science, 400 ; Practical Teaching in the Model School, 250 (on report of Principal and Masters) ; Practical Teaching in Model School, 250 (on report of central committee); Hygiene, Agri- culture, Reading, Writing, Music, Drill and Calisthenics, 50 each. At the final examination in Practical Teaching, each EDUCATION DEPAUTMKNT. 280 >w-student8 ; ' him to fur- ol ; he shall he Principal such classes Y be directed Normal aiid fmal Schools ; Science of ; ; the study s programme .ging Classes struction in Music, Drill may be pre- ihall be con- \ Education, nd Methods Iture, Read- lenics shall, 5 Principal. sts on which reported as 3 he may be candidate shall teach at least two lessons, the subject of which shall have been selected by the examiner, sufficient time b , 2)39. In order to be entitled to any portion of the Legis- lative Appropriation for Superannuated Teachers every teacher of a High, Public or Separate School, and every Inspector, must have contributed $4 annually to the Superannuation Fund during the whole time of his professional service. !330. Arrears, if any, from 1854 inclusive, (if the applicant was then teaching,) shall be charged at the rate of $5 per annum, and must be paid before the applicant ceases teaching. All arrears must be paid before 1st July, 1886. 331. In the case of Inspectors, or Local Superintendents, who are now Inspectors, services as an Inspector shall be con- sidered equivalent to services as a teacher. , y ! 1 232. In the case of teachers or Inspectors under sixty years of age, proof of disability must be furnished annually to the Department. The retiring allowance shall be withdrawn whenever the disability ceases, and the recipient shall annually present himself to the Inspector, in order that he may report thereon to the Minister. 233. Teachers or Inspectors, sixty years of age, are entitled to Superannuation, without proof of disability, provided the regulations aforementioned regarding payment and arrears are complied with. In all cases evidence of good moral charac- ter is required. li 'ill ■: U ]>i i ^^ 1 ;,' 1 292 HEGtJLATlONS, Text Books. .K y )■■ 334. No book shall be authorized as a text-book in any Public School until the copyright thereof has been vested in the Education Department. , , • . ^' * ; v 235. Every text-book for Public or High Schools printed and published in Canada, shall be subject, at any stage of its manufacture, to the inspection and approval of the Depart- ment in regard to printing, binding, and paper ; in case of using any book not published in Canada the English edition shall be preferred to any other. , -, • , - 1 236. A sample copy of every edition of every authorized book shall be deposited in the Education Department by the publisher, and no edition of any book shall be considered as approved without a certificate from the Minister of Education approving thereof. . . ,. . 237. Every authorized book shall bear the imprint of the publisher, and shall show upon the cover or title page the authorized retail price, and no part of the book shall be used for advertising purposes, without the written consent of the Department. ^ ' "■' ; ■ 238. The Education Department may require the publisher of any text-book to make such alterations from time to time as may be deemed expedient ; but no alterations in contents, typography, binding, paper, or any other material respects, shall, in any case, be made without the approval of the Edu- cation Department. >|v :*4 fi f? 239. Every publisher of an authorized text-book shall, before placing any edition of such authorized book upon the market, execute such agreements and give such security for the due fulfilment of these regulations as may be required by the Education Department. , EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 293 240. All authorized text-books may be published by any firm of publishers in Ontario on the payment to the original publishers of such sum or sums of money as may be agreed upon by arbitrators to be appointed for that purpose by the publishers concerned and the Minister of Education respectively. r ,? ; 341. The Minister of Education may, at his discretion, after making full enquiry into the cost of manufacture, reduce the retail price of any authorized text-book ; he may also remove such book from the list of authorized text-books, if the pub- lishers fail to comply with the regulations of the Education Department, or if it be considered to be in the public interest so to do. 24:2. In case the Education Department shall at any time recommend any books as aids to the teacher, for private refer- ence or study, it is to be distinctly understood that such books are not to be used as text-books by the pupils, and any teacher who permits such books, or any other books not authorized as text-books for the public schools, to be used as such, shall be liable to such penalties as are imposed by the School Act. J Care of School Property. 348. Trustees should appoint one of their own number or some responsible person to look after petty repairs, such as fixing fences, outhouses, walks, windows, seats, blackboards, and stoves. . ,. , -book shall, 349. No public school house or school plot (unless other- wise provided for in the deed), or any building, furniture, or other thing pertaining thereto, shall be used or occupied for any other than Public School purposes, without the express permission of the Trustees acting as a corporation. 350. Provision should be made by every school corporation for scrubbing and sweeping the school house regularly, for y I r r rji'i I 11 If 294 REGULATIONS. whitewashing walls and ceilings at least annually during the summer holidays, ahd for making fires one hour before the time for opening school, from the first of November until the first of April in each year. Arbor Day. 251. The first Friday in May should be set apart by the Trustees of every rural school and incorporated village for the purpose of planting shade trees, making flower beds and other- wise improving and beautifying the school grounds. ••- •' ?> Fire Drill. ; - r>!' • 252. In every school house consisting of more than one story the pupils should be regularly trained in the fire drill, in order to prevent accidents from the alarm of fire. i'*^' r.a;;,; .^ .:;-'*< J !-) •,'V"' : '■■'■'■J..:' **■':•;"■'* -a,;.... if ■ during the before the 3r until the part by the llage for the Is and other- a. ce than one le fire drill, •e. iii 5 .,■ X- APPENDIX II. COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. PROFESSIONAL WORK, SYLLABUS OF LECTURES, &c. .\;)'":." -r- ;.-' HINTS ON MANAGEMENT. Fi/rst Section of Termn. — Two Weeks. 1. Opening of School. — In opening, the Model School the Principal should explain to the teachers the organization and classification of the Public School with which it is connected ; the necessity of observing carefully the methods of teaching practised by himself and assistants ; the points on which they are marked in the Training Register ; the importance of care- ful preparation for each day's work ; £he necessity of regularity and punctuality, with such other bints in regard to their deportment towards each other, towards the teachers on the staff", and the pupils with whom they come in contact, as may be considered requisite. r-i r ^ -'x! IL Teaching by Principal. — For the first two weeks of the session the Principal should teach, in the separate room provided for this purpose, those subjects which he intends the student-teachers subsequently to begin with. This is prefer- able to an introductory course of lectures. In teaching a class as above, the Principal should first lay clearly before the students the plan of the lesson, and illustrate this plan by his method of teaching. He should also require them to take notes of his methods, and in the " criticism " hour these notes [2951 ill til 296 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. 5 ill ' ■, >' .;! (] ! i « :i: I! 1 :i will furnish a basis for many practical hints. In this way, (say) ten lectures, combined with illustrative teaching, may be given on the best method of teaching reading, arithmetic, spelling, and geography to a primary class. During this time the student-teachers should not be required to visit the dif- ferent departments of the Public School for observation, as no person can observe intelligently, or with profit, until he has first some idea of the object to be attained by the teacher. III. Teaching by Students. -^The student-teachers having observed and taken notes of the Principal's methods of teaching, are now prepared for actual teaching, as well as for more extended observation elsewhere. It will be well, therefore^ during the second two or three weeks of the session to employ them in teaching a class as above, in the separate room used for the purpose, the subjects previously taught in their presencij by the Principal. IV. Observation. — The Principal should next prepare the student-teachers for taking observations in the difterent rooms set apart for training purposes. They should have learned at least by this time that no lesson can be well taught unless both the matter of the lesson and the method of presenting it to a class have been carefully considered. The assistant teachers should explain, in the presence of the student-teachers, the purpose and plan of the lesson to be taught, before they begin to teach. Attention should also be called to points in the progress of the lesson, and the work should be sunmiarized at the close. The student-teaqjiers should not be mere visitors in a room, but should observe methods of teaching and discipline. They must therefore be taught to observe intelligently. The following hints on " observation " are suggested : — ,„r < ' .f-'v'-r^ -^ -: .. /• 1. Matter. (1) Whether suitable to the class ; proper amount fdr one lesson ; whether exercising observation, conception, reason or j all of these. PROFESSIONAL WORK. 297 tn this way, bing, may be f, arithmetic, ing this time visit the dif- vation, as no until he has } teacher. chers having ds of teaching, as for more rell, therefore, 3ion to employ ate room used their presenc(> t prepare the lifterent rooms ave learned at it unless both senting it to a 16 presence of he lesson to be should also be and the work rudent-teaqjiers lould observe it therefore be rgested : — mount f6r one )tion, reason or i (2) Lesson — whether bearing on one point ; into what haads divided.^ :r-::.^:y, >(■:-•-';;%. j,^..»;.^Hvf,;Ai',f.' •>«.*; ifi i;,>i, '•■"•,■ ;'i":' <;!•:,»««;«;■/ ?^i.iv(^^ (3) Whether in a lesson involving a moral lesson, the proper applications are made. ^ 2. Method. • V ' (1) Whether the purpose of a lesson was properly outlined at the beginning. (2) Whether the connection between the lesson and previous work was shown when possible. (3) Whether the error of telling too much was guarded against. (4) Whether good illustrations were used, specimens dis- tributed, aud diagrams drawn. (5) Whether appropriate and definite questions were given! (6) Whether the blackboard was used, and new terms written upon it. , "^ '.!-= I. (>r\. (7) Whether errors in answering were thoroughly corrected,' and special attention given to pupils who were backward. (8) Whether pupils were allowed sufficient time to think. (9) Whether the attention of all the class was secured, or of only a, few forward pupils. (10) Whecher the lesson was properly summarized. ; , i 3. The Class. ■ ^^ ; (1) Whether respectful, attentive, interested, and, if so, how secured. (2) Whether pupils seemed weary, if so, why ? ' (3) Whether likely to carry away the lesson as a whole. .A i). , I m iil ill ■'i! r?! * ' ■!! 298 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. ^ Each student should be required to enter his daily observa- tions upon a sheet similar in form to that given below : — '■**.■■■ , Name of assistant teacher.. .7. Date y Subject of lesson Notes by student-teacher as follows : — ^ t 7' i ' '^ > • , . • ' ',..'■''-■ -'--^' •■ ^^ Signature of Student. These " observations " should be submitted to the Principal for consideration during the "criticism hour," who will find ample material in the notes made, and in the discussion of the more theoretical part of the course, such as " management, discipline, organization," etc., to occupy all the time at his disposal. . Second Section oe Term — Three Weeks. Observation and Glass Teachivg. — During this section of the term, one-half of each day should be spent by the students in the Model School room: — a*v v ♦^n'^ 1. In observing class teaching by the Principal. 2. In class teaching before the Principal and their fellow- students. 3. In criticisms. During the " criticism hour " the students should be required individually to read their notes with reasons, and all should be encouraged to express their opinions freely ; the Principal directing the discussion and closing the criticisms. PROFESSIONAL WORK. 299 During the second half of the day the students should be engaged in observing teaching in the different rooms and taking notes. In order to secure uniformity and definiteness, the following form is recommended : — Report of lesson on Taught by :; 'J he faults most worthy of notice were : — 1. Your position 2. The plan of lesson 3. Your management 4. Your language was for instance ■ 5. In energy you 6. Your mode of questioning was for instance . Besides the above, other matters worthy of criticism should be reported. Date Aasiatant Teacher. . . . . ......... The assistant teacher should make entries on the form •luring the progress of the lesson, and at the close hand it to the student-teacher, who should hold himself ready to be criticised on the points noted, by the Principal, whenever necessary. The marks assigned by the assistant teacher for the lesson should be given immediately after the lesson is concluded, and may be communicated to the student- teacher, at the option of the Principal. All lessons should be assigned to the student- teachers by the Principal, on consultation with the assistants in whose rooms the lessons are to be taught, and a record kept of each lesson in the Training Register, so as fairly to afford equaJ practice in every subject in the Public School curriculum. 300 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. Third Section of Term — Seven Weeks. 1. Teaching by Students in the Divisions. — The student- teacher having already seen the Principal teach a number of subjects ; having taught the subjects himself under the direc- tion and criticism of the Principal ; having observed how classes are taught by the assistant teachers ; and having some idea of the " matter" and " method " of a lesson, should now be able to take charge of a class in the subjects already illustrated. As preliminary to this step, the lesson to be taught should be assigned the previous day, and thoroughly prepared, the assis- tant teacher, with whose class the student is entrusted, should leave him as much as possible to his own resources, and should take notes for subsequent entry in the Training Register. Assistant teachers should not be reticent in reporting criticism, particularly if the work has been badly done. The criticism should be thorough, definite, just and kind. 2. Number of Lessons to be taught by Students. — It is desir- able that not less than thirty lessons shall be taught by each student. By the course suggested, at least seven weeks will be available for teaching in the different divisions. Taking twenty students as the average number in a Model School, and allow- ing one half -hour lesson per day to each student, we have ten hours per day for teaching by the student. Taking four divisions as the number used for Model School purposes, with a senior and junior section in each division, we have eight classes for ten hours of teaching, or an average of one hour and a quarter for each class during each day for seven weeks. When the number of students exceeds twenty, more than foui- divisions should be used if possible. The students should be properly distributed among the different rooms, and while one teaches, the others will observe and take notes. Lessons by students should not immediately follow each other. It is also strongly recommended that the students assigned to a division should remain a week in one room. By this means the correc- tions made by the assistant teachers will be more effective, th(! students and the pupils will become better acquainted, there SYLLABUS OF LECTURES. 301 KS. rhe student- i a number of der the direc- hI liow classes r some idea of low be able to ustrated. As ;ht should bo red, the assis- rusted, should es, and should ling Register, [•ting criticism, The criticism 8. — It is desir- Eiught by eacli L weeks will be [aking twenty 3ol, and allow- ,, we have ten Taking four irposes, with a ve eight classes le hour and a weeks. When 3re than foui' mts should hv and while one Lessons by ler. It is also id to a division sans the correc- e eflfective, the juainted, ther will bo less change, and consequently the regular work of the division will be less disturbed. Fourth Section ov Term— On£ Week. Hevieiv and Exaifninatwu. — Stuch'nts should not be required to do any school work during this week, but should be allowed to review the work of the term. 'C Syllabus of Lectures. Opening Lecture by the Public School Inspector. It is very desirable that the Inspector should be present at the opening of the Model School and address the students. In his address the following should be considered : (1) The importance of the teacher's work in the school room and in the school section. (2) His opportunities for doing good. (3) The need of giving proper attention to his health. (4) The need of availing himself of every means whereby he may rise in his profession. (5) Proper attention to the instructions given by the Principal of the Model School and by the assistants. (6) Careful attention to teaching witnessed by students. (7) Proper deportment during the session. (8) Preparation of lessons assigned. (9) Necessity for continuing his professional reading. (10) Reward of the faithful teacher, , . * ^ f 302 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. 1 1' '■ 11 : Lecture I. Characteristics of a Good Teacher, 1. Mental Characteristics. — I. Professional spirit. — 2. Sym- pathy. — :i. Tact. — 4. Earrujstnoss. — 5. Energy (not donionstra- tive). — 6. Enthusiasm. — 7. Hopefulness. — 8. Patience. — 9. Watchfulness. — 10. Definiteness. — 11. Thoroughness. 2. Characteristics of Manner. — 1. Quietness. — 2. Cheerful- ness. — 3. Calmness. — 4. Self-possession. — 5. Uniformity of temper. — 6. Politeness. — 7. Kindness. 3. Habits. — 1. Speaking in a low tone. — 2. Orderliness. — 3. Punctuality. — 4. Cleanliness. — 5. Neatness. I n •'1'-i \ m i • aSl Lecture IL Primary Reading. 1. There are two steps in learning to read well : — (a) Word recognition. (h) Expressive reading. II. Methods of teaching reading. — 1. Expressive reading can only be taught to junior pupils by giving them good examples for imitation. It should be taught to senior pupils by' giving them proper rules for pausing, emphasis, inflection, etc. 2. Word recognition may be taught by either of the follow- ing methods : — (a) The alphabetic, or naming method. (6) The word, or " Look and Say" method. (c) The phonetic method. ' " ■ '\ (<^) The phonic method. SYLLAHLTS OF LECTUUES. 303 •it— 2. Sym- (t (l(Miu)nstra- Patience. — 9. [less. -2. Cheerful- niformity of 3rderlincss.— ive reading can good examples ipils by giving ion, etc. of the follow- .■,."V^ 3. The alphabetic method has been generally discarded, because in most cases the namivs of the letters in a word are in no sense suggest! \ «• of tli** fwmnd of the word itself. The oidy plea urged ^'ov its uhv is that it teaches spelling, by com- pelling pupils to sp«'ll words before naming them. It does this only to a limited extent, and in direct opposition to the recognized rult; that spelling should be taugnt by reading, instead of trying to teach reading by spelling. 4. The phonetic method requires a new alphabet with a letter to represent each sound m the language, and is therefore impracticable with our present alphabet. 5. The word, or " look and say " method gives the name of the whole word to the pupils. The objections to its use are: — (a) It depends too nmch on the memory. (h) It does not make the pupils do independent work soon enough. (c) The pupils can make very little, if any, use of knowledge already gained in acquiring more. (d) It makes the pupil a receptive rather than a constructive agent. (e) It does not compel such scrutinizing inspection of words as to lead to correct spelling. 6. If the English alphabet had but one sound for each letter and only one letter to represent each sound, the phonic method alone would be the best plan for teaching children to recognize new words. It gives the pupil the sound of the letters and trains him, first, to combine these sounds to form words; and secondly, to recognize new words by sounding the letters which form them. 7. To avoid the mental confusion of children, teachers should use a perfectly self -consistent alphabet, with only one sound for each letter, during the first five or six weeks of a child's experience in learning to read. By using the short sounds only of the vowels a very large number of words may be formed. COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. ! 1( ' 8. The Phonic, combined with the word method, will be found to lead to the best results in teaching word-recognition. III. General Suggestions. — 1. Use slates and the black- board in teaching reading from the beginning. Let the pupils write script from the first. 3. Teach the sounds of letters only as they are used. It is a great mistake to teach the alphabet as a whole, either by names or sounds, before putting these to a practical use. 4. Pupils should not be allowed to try to read a sentence until they know all the words it contains. 5. Simultaneous reading should only be allowed when the pupils are imitating the teacher, or when they are reciting something that has been committed to memory. 6. Bright pupils are certain to engross most of the teacher's attention so long as they are in class. Dull pupils should get most teaching. In order to secure this result, when the new work of a lesson has been taught, give review test words or sentences, and let those who read them first go to their seats and work there. 7. Backward pupils rely on those more advanced to lead them, and it is of the utmost importance that they should be compelled to make independent effort. It is therefore very much better to let the pupils whisper the new words or sentences to the teacher after he has written them on the black-board. 8. Pupils should be required to do a great deal of word- building. The following are illustrations of an infinitevariety of problems which may be assigned to them : — (a) When they know the sounds of at, in, ing, on, etc., let them make as many new words as possible'by prefixing letters to them, (h) Give them two consonants, one for the beginning and the other for the end of a series of words, and let them form words by writing vo''"^els between them. SttJiABUS OF LfeCTURfeS. g05 lod, will be ■recognition. the black- j used. It IS le, either by jal use. d a sentence ved when the r are reciting £ the teacher's )ils should get when the new Itest words or to their seats ^anced to lead hey should be therefore very ds or sentences e black-board. deal of word- infinite'variety ng, on, etc., let refixing letters I. jinning and the em form words (c) Give a single consonant, and let the pupils form as many words as they can, beginning o^' ending with it, and containing the number of letters fixed by the teacher. (d) Write a certain number of letters on the black-board and let the pupils form as many v/ords as possible by using only these letters. (e) If the word method be used, it is a good plan to set the pupils to count at their seats hc^.v often certain words occur on a certain number of pages. 9. Lessons in reading to primary classes should be brief and lively. Two fifteen minute lessons are much better than one lasting half an hour. 10. Vary the method of conducting the lessons as much as possible. 11. In order to correct or prevent the habit of sounding "a" and "the" separate from the words following them, let the pupils first use them in speaking of some object held by the teacher. He holds up a book, for instance, and the pupils say correctly and naturally " a book," or "the book." They will do so with- out fail. Then these words should be written on the black- board, and repeated by the class, the teacher pointing alter- nately to the object and to the written words. It is also a good plan to join such words, as well as adjuncts, by bracket- ing them when they are written on the black-board. Lecture III. Language Lessons. This subject should form a part of the every-day work in the school-room. It should precede the study of grammar. Correct forms of speech must be placed before the pupils. Induce pupils to speak freely. Talk with them rather than to them. I Hi m -—I -fs "^TT — 306 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. PI ^ ■ Mi! : M Order of teaching. — 1. Place some familiar object, as a chair, before the class. 2. Ask pupils to name the object, and tell its use. 3. To name its parts. 4. To describe the different parts, or tell something about them. 5. To tell the use of the different parts, etc. Hints. — 1. Require answers in the form of a sentence. 2. Do not criticize answers. 3. Give correct form, write it on the board, and require class to repeat several times. 4. If pupils cannot form correct sentences, aid them by suitable questions. 5. Endeavour to form correct ideas in the pupils' minds, and then require these ideas to be properly expressed. 6. Take subjects with which the pupils are familiar. 7. In receiving oral answers distinct articulation and correct pronunciation should be required. 8. Answers should frequently be written on the slate. 9. In written answers proper attention should be given to capitals, periods and interrogation marks. ' Subjects for lessons. — The different objects in the school-room. Colour, form, size, weight, etc. Animals, plants and minerals. Specimens or pictures should always be placed before the class. i, as a chair, thing about itence. require class id them by ' minds, and iliar. n and correct slate. be given to school-room. ;nd minerals. d before the SYLLABUS OF LECTURES. Lecture IV. 307 Composition. Pritnary objects. — 1. Correct and free use of language. 2. Correction of common errors of speech. 3. To increase the pupils' knowledge and use of words. 4. Variety of expression. 5. Cultivation of observation, perception, memory, and imagination. Cautions. — 1. Ideas must precede words. 2. Objects and subjects must be furnished to evoke the various powers of the mind, and the pupil must be taught how to accumulate, arrange, and express his ideas connected with them, and finally how to criticize the whole. 3. First exercises must be very simple and constantly repeated. 4. They must be carefully graded. 5. Errors must be corrected, but not criticized at first. 6. Do not expect too much. The following outline of lessons is suggested : First Class. — 1. Elementary language lessons in this class will serve as preparatory work for the teaching of oral and written compositions. 2. Correction of colloquial errors. Second Class. — 1. Systematic drill in the correction of collo- ((uial errors ; no reasons should be given. 2. Oral and written descriptions of actions and of objects. m III m I h If m ' f't ■i ' -i 308 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. 3. Recital of the story in the reading lesson by paragraphs, and as a whole. 4. Letter-writing of the simplest kind, giving special atten- tion to form of opening and closing. Third Class. — 1. Correction of colloquial errors continued. 2. Continual training in polite, courteous forms of speech. 3. Elliptical exercises to teach the correct use of saw, seen, did, done, went, gone, etc. 4. Oral and written reproduction of short stories, and sub- ject of reading lessons. 5. Letter-writing. 6. Simple business forms, accounts, and receipts, separate and combined, order for goods, order for money, promissory note, negotiable and non-negotiable. Fourth Glass. — 1. Elliptical exercises to teach the correct use of such words as may, can, shall, will, would, should, lie, lay, laid, rise, raise, come, came, sit, sat, set, etc. 2. Oral and written reproductions of stories and lessons on animals and plants. 3. Transposition of stanzas of poetry in prose. 4. Biographical and historical sketches, oral and in writing. 5. Letter^writing. 6. Business forms, notes payable on demand, at bank, joint, and several, with and without interest, drafts payable at sight, at time after sight, at time after date, etc. Fifth Class. — 1. Changing passages from the direct to the indirect order, and from the grammatical to the rhetorical order, and vice versa. (See Morrison, pp. 75 to 87.) 2. Elliptical exercises, Morrison, pp. 88-91, paragraphs, »ecial atten- continued. of speech, f saw, seen, es, and sub- 3ts, separate promissory the correct should, lie, d lessons on in writing. bank, joint, able at sight. iirect to the le rhetorical SYLLABUS OF LECTURES. 309 3. Analytic and synthetic exercises in narrative composition. Morrison, pp. 111-127. 4. Abstracts of reading lessons. 5. Paraphrasing. 6. Business correspondence. Lecture V. Grammar. 1. Develop a sentence on black-board. 2. Develop the idea of subject and predicate. 3. Teach the use of words and of phrases in the sentence. 4. Group words and phrases around subject and predicate. (Slate exercise.) 5. Classification of words according to use in sentence. 6. Nam^es of these classes, i.e., of the parts of speech. 7. Definitions of ditto. 8. Sub-divisions and inflections of do. in the same order : — example, use, compa7'ison with others, classification, name, definition, or rule. No analysis of a sentence should be attempted until the teacher is certain the pupils understand the meaning of the sentence as a whole, and of all the words and phrases. The analysis of complex sentences should be developed from simple sentences, and pupils should be required to change a complete sentence into a simple sentence and vice versa. Great care s hould be taken to guard against merely mechanical analysis. I, t J ': 310 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. Lecture VI. ?»';' Spelling. 1. How Spelling isLearned. — 1. Pupils learn to spell through the eye. 2. Correct spelling depends upon seeing with precision. 3. Spelling is learned through reading. 4. The ear may aid in spelling words spelled phonetically, but the eye alone is the best means of learning to spell. (Deaf mutes spell accurately.) II. How Spelling is Taught. — 1. As correct spelling depends on accurate seeing, the great aim of the teacher should be to train the pupils to look definitely at all parts of the words. 2. Young pupils should copy largely from primers and from the black-board. 3. Transcription is the best means for committing a spell- ing lesson to memory, as it compels the most careful and scrutinizing examination of the words. 4. Pupils should never see words incorrectly spelled. III. Testing Spelling Classes. — 1. There are two methods, oral and written. (Although spelling has to be learned through the eye, a knowledge of spelling may be shown orally.) 2. As spelling has to be used practically by writing words, it is undoubtedly best to test spelling classes by making them write the lessons assigned. 3. Writing a word impresses its form much moie than spell- ing it orally. IV. Examining Spelling Lessons. — 1. In review lessons and in small classes the teachers should correct the lessons. SYLLABUS OF LECTURES. 311 ers and from 2. Pupils may exchange slates, and mark the words wrongly spelled, the teacher spelling the words slowly. 3. Pupils may retain their own slates, and the teacher may call on different pupils to spell the words orally. Those who agree with the spelling given must indicate this by raising their hands before the teacher decides as to its correctness. 4. Slates may be exchanged and the corrections made as in No. 3. 5. While the teacher writes the correct spelling on the black-board, each pupil may correct his own work, and slates or books will then be exchanged for revision only. Note. — In all cases when slates are exchanged the p pil owning the slate should have the right to appeal against the marking done by his neighbour. V. Correcting Errors. — 1. Each pupil should write the words he misses five times to impress their correct forms on his memory. 2. It is better that he should write these words once a day for five days than five times on the same day. 3. He should keep a list of his errors at the end of his dictation book, and copy it occasionally 4. From these lists the teacher should prepare review lessons VI. General Suggestions. — 1. The teacher should articulate clearly and pronounce correctly when giving words for spell- ing. 2. Only one trial should be allowed in oral spelling. 3. In oral spelling, ne divisions into syllables should be marked by a slight pause. 4. Spelling should be taught to a considerable extent by means of composition, in order to give pupils practice in spell- ing their own vocabularies. m I ■I f 312 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. Lecture VII. Elementary Arithmetic. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 1. Arithmetic is taught for the sake of its (a) value in discipline, (b) value as knowledge, i.e., its utility in the affairs of life. 2. To secure these values as thoroughly as possible, all arithmetical study is to be a training in thinking; all merely mechanical work is to be banished. There must indeed be mechanical drill, but this must be founded on intuitions (from material objects). 3. For this training in thinking, systematic training in Mental Arithmetic, from first to last, is absolutely indispensable; and, therefore, so far as Arithmetic is concerned, the principal task of the • ..acher in the Public School is to practise the children in Mental Arithmetic. 4. At each and every stage Mental Arithmetic nmst precede, and lead up to Written Arithmetic. 5. In every stage abstract and applied calculations are to go together ; e. g., when a pupil has learned (say) through intui- tion the combinations oifive, he is to be practised in "practical problems," involving familiar things of life. 6. In mental work, rapidity, correct language, and logical order of thought and statement must be constantly aimed at. 7. In Mental Arithmetic it is desirable that the teacher should follow the sequence of some book. Otherwise the "course" is likely to be without logical method; desultory problems are of but little use in mental training. At the out- set children need no book ; when they have advanced to division, and its applications (" analysis"), they may prepare assigned lessons in some text-book. But a book supplies only type-questions ; many similar questions should be framed by teacher and pupils. 8. In Mental Arithmetic there should be frequent written epoaminations, as well as oral. indiscipline, s of life. possible, all r; all merely st indeed be litions (from training in idispensable ; ihe principal practise the nust precede, ons are to go irough intui- in "practical , and logical y aimed at. the teacher therwise the d ; desultory At the out- advanced to may prepare supplies only »e framed by uent written SYLLABUS OF LECTURES. 313 Number-Picture, e.g., oijive : — * * *, * A. — First Stage 1. The numbers 1 to 10, inclusive, taught intuitively by Number-Pictures and by counting — these "pictures" being presented through (a) dots or points on black-board, slate, etc. , (6) arrangement of balls of abacus, (c) arrangement of cubes, etc., used as counters. Picture-Numbers are to be used because the intuition of a number of objects in a group is comparatively easy if there is a symmetrical arrangement, e. g., the con- ception oijive is easier from this arrangement it * * than from this ♦ » * * ♦ 2. On the principal which underlies the law of repetition, it will in general be well to make more than one presentation of a * « iK « « It ) # > • 4f * * « « 3. Practice is to be had in all the combinations of the several numbers {see table below) ; and every number is to be mastered before the next number is taken up. This means (a) the addition of pairs of numbers, by Number-Pictures in various ways (see above), and by "practical problems," (6) subtraction or the resolution of numbers into pairs by similar means, (c) the multiplication and division (exact) of pairs, as e. g., three times two are six ; the twos in six are three. Note — (c) Map be left till the combinations of 20 are learned. Praotisk in COUNTING BACKWARD AND FORWARD. 4. Practise in the corresponding written exercises as soon as the children have mastered the mental processes. Note.— The above points are to be kept in view in teaching every number and its combinations and partitions till ten has been well mastered. B. — Second Sta^e. The numbers 11 to 20 inclusive, to be taught intuitively, all the steps given in the first stage being followed. This includes especially — (1) Practice in the addition of two numbers whose sum is not greater than twenty ; see table given below. Practical problems as before. 1 u\ ' I I'fl I I |!i '-^i f il I » M ¥ 314 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. (2) Subtraction. Practical problems. (3) The multiplication and division of numbers within the above-named limits. This practice means — (a) The multvplication table of numbers from 1 to 20; this supposes (as before) much "drill," but drill grounded on intuitions. (b) Divi8io7i of the products obtained in (a) by an abstract divisor; (b) division in the sense of distribution, the converse of the operation in (a) ; in (a) the factors are given and the product is to be found ; in (b) the product is given and the factors are to be found. It cannot be too often repeated that these processes are to be rendered vlsible — there must be intuitions through number-pictures. (c) Measurement of the products of the multiplication table, i.e., division in the sense of being contained in ; e. g., 2 is con- tained in 4, 6, 8, etc. (4) Practice in the corresponding written exercises as soon as the children have mastered the processes mentally. The following table, which exhibits all combinations of numbers from 1 to 20, shows substantially the work to be done in these two stages, and is fundamentally the basis of all com- binations. Table of Combinations of Numbers from 1 to 20. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 1 10 1 1+1 2 + 1 3 + 1 4 + 1 5 + 1 6 + 1 7+1 8 + 1 9 + 1 1 + 2 2+2 3 + 2 4 + 2 5 + 2 6 + 2 7+2 8 + 2 11 1 + 3 2+3 3 + 3 4+3 5+3 6+3 7+3 12 1 + 4 2 + 4 3 + 4 4 + 4 5 + 4 6 + 4 10+1 13 1 + 5 2+5 3 + 5 4 + 5 5 + 6 9+2 10+2 14 1 + 6 2+fi 3+6 4 + 6 8+3 9+3 10+3 16 1+7 2+7 3 + 7 7+4 8 + 4 9 + 4 10+4 16 1+8 2 + 8 6+5 7+6 8 + 5 9 + 5 10+5 17 1 + 9 5 + 6 6 + 6 7+6 8+6 9+6 10+6 18 4 + 7 5+7 6+7 7+7 8+7 9+7 10+7 19 3+8 4 + 8 5+8 6+8 7 + 8 8+8 9 + 8 10+8 20 2+9 3+9 4 + 9 5 + 9 6+9 7+9 8 + 9 9+9 10+9 1+10 2 + 10 8+10 4+10 6+10 6+10 7+10 8 + 10 9+10 10+10 s SYLLABUS OF LECTURES. ::•» rs within the 9 10 8 + 1 9 + 1 7+2 8+2 6+3 7 + 3 5 + 4 6 + 4 4+5 5 + 5 3 + 6 4 + 6 2 + 7 3 + 7 1+8 2 + 8 1 + 9 19 20 10+9 9+10 10+10 1. The upper part of the table gives the combinations oi he numbers to ten inclusive ; the lower part, the combinations of the numbers from 11 to 20 inclusive. The ways of forming are : — 4 and 1, 3 and 2, 2 and 3, 1 and 4. In all there are 100 combinations, and no more. 2. Each of these combinations is to be visibly represented by NUMBER-PICTURES, as suggested in (A, 1), Each picture will be formed from the immediately preceding one by the addition of a single point, and will be made up of elements previously mastered, e. g. 12 3 4 6 « * * * * * lit * « * 3. As already suggested, slightly different pictures of the same number will be given, e g. : — for 3, , * , * * * ; for 4, , * * ; for 5.. * , * * ; etc. From 5 * * , * * *^* we get 6 — * * ; from 6 we get 7 — * * ; etc. 4. (a) This table includes the usual forms : — 1 plus 2, 3, 4, etc. ; 2 plus 1, 2, 3, etc. ; 3 plus 1, 2, 3, etc. (6) It is applicable to the higher combinations of numbers, e.g., take those of 6 ; 4 + 1 leads to 14-f-l, 24-}-l, etc. ; 2 + 3 leads to 2 + 13, 2 + 23, 2 + 33, etc. NoTB.— Call attention to the fact that thirteen is three-teen, i. c, 3 and ten ; fourteen, 4 ayui ten, etc. C. — Thvi'd Stage. 1. The genesis of numbers from 1 to 100, inclusive — the method of intuitions being followed as in the preceding stages. 2. Make the pupil familiar with combinations of tens as units ; e.g., as in the combinations of five, 4 tens + 1 ten ; this by visible and tangible objects. Call attention to the fact that thirty is 3 tens ; forty is four-ty, i. e., 4 tens, etc. 3. Teach the intermediate numbers, e.g., 21=2 tens+1 ; 22=2 tens+2, etc,; 31=3 tens+1, 32=3 tens+2. Give H ^MJ I' hi 31G COUNTY Mf)r>EL SCHOOfX practice in counting backwards and forwards. Give notation and numeration to 100, inclusive. 4. Give practice in the addition of a number of one digit to one of two digits ; the higher number to be exhibited as so many tens and unitfi. Form series of numbers, e. g., give two or three terms, and have the children continue the series, as 12, 14, 16, etc. ; 9, 12, 16, etc. ; 21, 25, 29, etc. 5. Practice in the subtraction of a number of one digit from one of two digits. As in the preceding exercises, intuition is necessary, especially in such cases as 43 — 7, 62 — 9, etc. 6. Practise the multiplication table till the pupils have obtained a ready knowledge of it, but, in every instance, give by intuition a clear insight into Uie meaning of each comhina- ation ; e. g., the meaning of 4 times 7 is 28, must be made perfectly clear by means of the " ball-frame," etc. But this clear insight being had, drill till the children can give the com- binations with scarcely an effort of thought In written work the order should be (a) multiplication by a number of one digit ; (b) do. by 10 ; (c) do. by a multiple of 10 ; (d) do. by a number formed of units and tens. 7. Give practice in the division of the products of the multi- plication table (as in Stage B, 1 b), (a), by an abstract divisor, %. e., division in the sense of distribution ; and (b), measure- ments of the products, i. e., division in the sense of being con- tained in. In written work the order will be (a), division by a number of one digit ; (b), by 10 ; (c), by a multiple of 10 ; (d), by a number consisting of tcTis and units. 8. The children are now prepared to deal formally with (a), the factors of a number ; (b), the factors common to two or more numbers ; (c), the G. C. F., of do.; and (a) with the multiples of a number ; (b), a multiple of two or more numbers, and (c), the L. C. M. of two or more numbers. The course of work above exhibited shows, in the main, the whole course of instruction in elementary arithmetic, and con- stitutes the basis of all subsequent work. Unless, therefore, the work outlined has been thoroughly mastered, subsequent progress will be uncertain and unsatisfactory. SVLLAiiUS OF LECtUllBS. ai7 D. — Fourth Stage. This stage Is mainly a continuation of th(5 preceding stages, which rover tlje groun«l of tlie first seven sections of Mental Aritlin otic, Pt. I. Details, therefore, are not necessary. A few hints may be noted. 1. Children must understand the value of numbers before they use them. This is the fundamental principle in the pre- ceding stages, in which intuition has the first place. In Stage D. when intuition is no longer expedient, the numbers should be clearly analyzed into hundreds, tens, units, etc. 2. In written work with larger numbers — i. e., numbers too large for mental operations, note the following points : — (a) Avoid working with very large numbers. Don't waste nervous force in dru 4. Sketch the history connected with each topic successively through all the periods, after having taught each period independently. \ ect for home ivestigations lung children results, is to *rater, so that le nature and better than departments rely with the institutions, nay be sub- constitution ; ommercially, people. ssson give a and divide it of the com- ivith the first- with each successively each period SYLLABITS OF LECTURES. 325 5. Show the advantages of this plan (a) in giving connected ideas regarding the progress made in each department of national life, (o) in facilitating the remembrance of historical facts in their relation to their effects ; and (c) in affording natural and incidental reviews of the history already taught. IV. Training Pupils to Study History. — 1. Tliis is the most important of the teacher's duties in dealing with this subject. History should be learned chiefly after school life has ended. 2. Assigning lessons wisely is the means for training to study. 3. Do not assign answers (notes) to be connnitted to memory. 4. Assign questions, and let pupils prepare answers by read- ing their histories. 5. All questions should not relate merely to isolated facts or dates. 6. They should compel a comparison of facts and exercise the pupils' judgment. 7. A good outline or plan of the lesson is better than questions for advanced classes. V. General Suggestions. — 1. Chronology is not history. 2. Epoch men and women should receive a large share of attention. 3. Striking scenes and great events should be vi\ idly pictured to awaken interest. 4. Pupils should write historical abstracts and biographical sketches for compositions. Lecture XI. Writing. The following method is recommended : — I. Illustrate on the blackboard — (a) The formation of the elements or formative lines enter- ing into any letter, and the mode of combining these lines either angularly or by shorter turns. 326 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. !i ' .1 '( li^ i. -I (h) The slant of the main and the connecting lines. (c) The relative width of each letter an: 330 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. The Art of Questioning. I. According to the purpose for which they are u.sed, (questions are : * 1. Tentative or preliminary. 2. Teacliing or developing (Socratic). 3. Testing in (a) repeating, (6) recalling, (c) reviewing. II. According to the method of asking them, questions may be divided into : 1. Those requiring simultaneous answers. 2. Those requiring individual answers. 3. Elliptical ; sentences with parts omitted, to be filled in by the pupils. 4. Suggestive ; indicating the answer bj'' form or inflection. 5. Alternative ; answered by " yes " or "no," "old" or "young," " large " or " small," etc. NoTB.— Classes 3, 4 and 5 should be used sparin^i^Iy. Simultaneous answers mav be used in repeating, or recalling, and then chiefly in connection with elliptical and alternative questions. III. Rules for questioning : — ' . 1. Do not ask questions in rotation. 2. Do not name the pupil who is to answer a question until after it has been stated. 3. Do not indicate by pointing, looking, or in any other way, which pupil has to be called up to answer a question until after it has been stated. In review or repetition questions, do not wait an instant for the answer. When a question demands independent thought, wait a sufficient time after stating it, before naming a pupil to answer it, but pass rapidly to some one else if the first named cannot answer. jd, (luestions lewing. tions may be )e filled in by or inflection. " or "young," Itaneous answers on with elliptical uestion until ly other way, uestion until n instant for ight, wait a Dil to answer amed cannot PROFESSIONAL WORK. 331 6. Give easiest questions to backward and diffident pupils. 7. Give most questions to backward and diffident pupils. 8. Do not form the habit of repeating the answers given. 9. Give a question promptly to an inattentive pupil. 10. Stat(vevery (|uesti(m to the whole class, and then call on one pupil to answer it. School Organization. This subj(^ct includes the suitability and adaptability of everything which has to do with the school work. Proper Organization — includes : — 1. School-room and its appointments. 2. Apparatus and books. 3. Classification of pupils. 4. Apportionment of time and subjects. 5. Registration. School-Room. 1. Should be substantial and commodious, properly heated and ventilated. 2. Seats should not face windows, 3. Should be kept clean and decorated. 4. Should be furnished with hooks, maps, globes, blackboards, crayons, erasers, numerical frame, tablet lessons, weights and measures, thermometer, clock, etc. Text-Books. Pupils should be furnished with all necessary books, and teacher should have a full set of text books used in school. ■WWa 332 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. i- i I n< • . ■ II 8 >» ^i' Classification Is the grouping of pupils for school work according to age, ability, and scholarship. The following points must be considered : 1. Uniformity. — The several branches should be kept as nearly abreast as possible. Pupils should be so classified as to give the greater part of their time to subjects in which they are deficient. 2. Adaptation. — Every pupil should be placed in the class best suited to his ability and advancement. 3. Age, Ability, and Scholarship. — Other things being equal, older pupils should be classed higher than younger ones, and strong, bright pupils, higher than delicate, dull ones. 4. Reading and Arithmetic. — These subjects may be taken as a basis for classification. In ungraded schools the classifica- tion should be suflBciently flexible to provide for the circum- stances of the school or pupil. 5. Number of Glasses. — As few classes should be formed as is consistent with good grading. Numerous classes fritter away the time. 6. Size of Classes. — Medium sized classes are best. Very large classes prevent individual teaching. Small classes make it difficult to sustain interest among the pupils. Time Table. It must be adapted to the school, the school is classified. It cannot be drafted till It must provide : — 1. Specific employment for each pupil during the entire school day. 2. Adequate time for each recitation. 3. Proper rests and recess. 4. Due attention to each pupil. (Jit »rding to age, I be kept as lassified as to [1 which they d in the class rs being equal, iger ones, and les. may be taken the classifica- )r the cireum- be formed as s fritter away best. Very classes make 3e drafted till ig the entire I PROFESSIONAL WORK. 333 5. Proper distribution of studios of the same kir.d. 6. Alteration of study and recitation. Registers. Kinds — Daily and Class. The use of each should be explained, and copies placed in the hands of the students. School Government. . This subject includes all the means employed to accomplish the best results with the least waste of time and labour. Objects to he secured. Order, attention, diligence, prompt and cheerful obedience, a healthy tone and good habits among the pupils, the correction and prevention of misdemeanor. Qualities necessary in the teacher. System, energy, viligance, will-power, self-control, confidence, ability to punish judiciously, culture, heart-power, teaching power, managing power. - ; The following hints may be given : 1. Have but few rules and abide by them. 2. After giving an order wait to see it obeyed. 3. Your language should not imply that your pupils desire to violate your orders. 4. Commands should by given in a quiet, firm tone, without shouting or repetition. 5. Seldom reprove. 6. Keep your pupils employed. 7. If necessary, explain the reason of your command. 8. School government should be regular, natural, self-sus- tained, unobtrusive, kind and just iHt 334 COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. ;. i f, f^' '.fA Class recitation. 1. As to pupils. Proper mode of advancing to position ; position itself ; supply of materials — books, slates, pencils, etc. ; mode of holding books and slates ; attention ; dismissal from the school-room. 2. As to teacher. Position of teacher, whether sitting or standing ; manner during recitation ; animation ; attention ; division of attention between class and pupils ; economy of time ; recitations should not encroach upon each other ; should have some specific object ; every error should be corrected ; lessons should be made interesting ; frequent reviews necessary ; mode of assigning subsequent lesson. Motives to he placed before children. Perception of utility, emotion, love of approbation, duty of obedience to constituted authority. Rewards, — as changing places, appointment to offices of trust, merit cards, certificates, prizes, etc. Punishments, — as censure, demerit marks, corporal punishment, suspension, expulsion. Ofences. Give hints on how to deal with the following : — (1) want of punctuality ; (2) irregularity ; (3) truancy ; (4) indifference to study ; (5) neglect of home work ; (6) quarrelling ; (7) whis- pering ; (8) copying; (9) tattling; (10) lying ; (11) communi- cating with other pupils ] (12) use of bad language. Rules for the infliction of 'punishment. 1. Punishment should be reformatory, not vindictive. 2. Should not be administered in anger. ' 3. Teacher should not manifest pleasure. 4. Should be a natural consequence of the offence. 5. Age and health of the offender must be considered. 6. Should be deliberate and seldom infiicted. v 7. Should not excite public sympathy. . to position ; pencils, etc. ; smissal from ir sitting or L ; attention ; economy of ther; should )e corrected ; vs necessary ; tion, duty of -as changing s, certificates, irks, corporal — (1) want of ndifFerence to ng ; (7) whis- 1) communi- ge. dictive. nee. 3idered. '■^# PROFESSIONAL WORK. 336 School Law. General Hints. Form of applying for a situation as teacher ; agreement with trustees ; must be signed by a majority ; what constitutes its validity; its reservations; visiting days; holidays; absence on account of sickness ; agreement how dissolved ; resignation ; suspension of certificate ; salary how payable ; school grants how paid ; on what conditions can teachers claim pay for holi- days. School lioom Duties. Must be at school certain time before opening ; opening reli- gious exercises ; who are exempted from attending, and on what conditions ; authority of the teacher as a public officer ; no per- on to interfere with him in the discharge of his duty ; power .o suspend pupils and for what offences : limitations of this power ; expulsion, on what grounds legal ; duty in regard to school property ; out-premises, fences, well, and playgrounds ; fires and sweeping ; school reports ; registers. Duties as to Pupils. Instruction according to programme ; constant employment of his time ; discipline, nature of ; when too severe ; kind of government desirable ; merit cards ; absence from school ; pres- ents ; subscriptions ; time table ; quarterly examinations ; visitors' book ; visitors. ' Duties of Pupils. Punctuality ; cleanliness and good conduct ; leaving before closing; absence; excuses; absence from examination; going to and from school ; supply of books ; property injured ; con- tagious diseases ; effects of expulsion ; certificate of good conduct. > \ m COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS. Hygiene. In Hygiene, the student will be examined on the " Manual of Hygiene for Normal and Model Schools," authorized by the Education Department, omitting chapters I., VII., VIII., IX. and XVI. f *. i V , *=* ' ExaTnination Papers. The examination papers will be based on the Syllabus of Lectures and the text-books recommended. In Music and Drill no papers will be issued by the Department. Marks may be awarded by the teachers in charge of these special sub- jects, and the Board of Examiners may require an additional examination in their own presence, if deemed expedient. •*«-.»» \ \ - V ■ -' APPENDIX III. FOEMS OF PRAYEK. (Authorized under Regulation, 249.) OPENING. Let U8 Pray. Our Father, who art in Heaven, hallowed be Thy name, Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done in earth, as it is in Hea- ven ; give us this day our daily bread ; and forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us ; and lead us not into temptation ; but deliver us from evil. Amen. CLOSING. Let us Pray. ^ Most merciful God, we yield Thee our humble and hearty thanks for Thy fatherly care and preservation of us this day, and for the progress which Thou hast enabled us to make in useful learning; we pray Thee to imprint upon our minds whatever good instructions we have received, and to bless them to the advancement of our temporal and eternal welfare ; and pardon, we implore Thee, all that Thou hast seen amiss in our thoughts, words, and actions. May thy good Providence still guide and keep us during the approaching interval of rest and relaxation, so that we may be prepared to enter on the 7 . [337 \.\ 338 FORMS OF PRAYERS. !• il nr Hi ' -! '■ duties of the morrow with renewed vigour, both of body and mind ; and preserve us we beseech Thee, now and forever, both outwardly in our bodies, and inwardly in our souls, for the sake of Jesus Christ, Thy Son, our Lord. ATnen. Lighten our darkness, we beseech Thee, O Lord ; and by Thy great mercy, defend us from all dangers and perils of this night, for the love of Thy only Son, our Saviour, Jesus Christ. Amen. Our Father, who art in Heaven, hallowed be Thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done on earth, as it is in Hea- ven ; give us this day our daily bread ; and forgive us our tres- passes, as we forgive them that trespass against us ; and lead us not into temptation ; but deliver us from evil. Amen. The Grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the Love of God, and the Fellowship of the Holy Ghost, be with us all ever- more. Amen. \ •J:'^'i-;5::\-';:^y^ 8 'i- ■-(-- m.. , '■:. I \ )th of body and md forever, both iir souls, for the Lord ; and by nd perils of this ur, Jesus Christ. be Thy name, 1, as it is in Hea- give us our tres- li us; and lead il. ATYien. e Love of God, th us all ever- \ ^::