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PREFACE. ..e author has undertaken this work in the hope that it may be iful to those teachers who are struggling in what, to them, is a paratively new field of study. It is hoped that those, who have yet taken advantage of the opportunities which Nature-study ,rds, may be induced to consider the benefits of this subject ;he pupil and to the general work of the school. .he general purpose of the book is to set forth the true aim of iture-study and thus to lay the foundation for correct methods bonducting it. In tliis it will be noted that emphasis is placed the education of the child through his self-activity and by and lugh the realities of nature. .'art I deals with the Pedagogics of Nature-study. It endeavors show that the best education can be obtained not by studymg n alone-his history, language and literature-nor by studying ural science alone, but by taking a stand, as it were, midway ween them, and uniting the two. In other words, it is to be gained by studying man in relation to his environment— physical, ellectual and spiritual. Nature-study deals particularly with the ild's physical environment, and, if properly conducted, relates Is environment to his intellectual and spiritual needs, and thus es him a higher conception of life. [part II endeavors to show through "type-lessons" the mode of jaling with different departments of nature and the method of irrehting Nature-study with the expressive work of the school- awing, modelling, composition, literature and reading. Indivi- lal rather than collective work is prominent ; at every step, the >ow " and " why " of the child are emphasized. It will be readily •nthat "cr.m" is impossible in true Nature-lessons, since many the type-questions will require months of observation before !y can be answered. _Part III must not be regarded as Nature-study. It is intended I give teachers who have not had a scientific traming, and are, IT PREFACE. therefore, not familiar with the work, an insight Into the difft helds of study. The most important parts of these different t,. considered from the child's point of view, are outlined It i.| intended that this pnrt should take the place of text-book- the different sciences or that this information is to be niej imparted to the pupils under the guise of Nature-study. A list of the most helpful books at present on the marks g.ven in Chapter VIII. The teacher should have as man. possible of these at his command \fi guide and confirm him ir,. observations. ^ The author takes this opportunity of most gratefully than^ the following gentlemen who have so kindly given their assist in the preparation of this book :-Professor Coleman, of Tora Lmversity, for help in the mineral section; David White IJ Scierice Master Niagara Falls Collegiate Institute, for help I the drawings ; P. W. Currie, B.A., Department of the Inte and Roderick Cameron, horticulturalist. Queen Victoria Niai Falls Park, for help in the botanical sections ; C. C. James imI Deputy Minister of Agriculture and the members of the EntoJ logical Society, for the use of illustrations and cuts ; and Mcintosh, Head Master of the Provincial Model School, for aij proof-reading. ' ^ CONTENTS. LRT I.— Pedagogics of NATrRK-SxuDY. Paok CiiAP-iKR I.— Nature-Study 1 CiiAPTEK II.— Nature-Study of the Paat 3 CiiAPTEB III. —Plea for Nature Teaching 10 Chapter IV.— Place given to Nature-Les-sons 21 Chaiter v.— How to Present Nature- Lessons 24 Chapter VI.— Selection of Topics 29 Chaitkr VII. —Relation to other School Subjects 33 Chapter VIII.— Nature-Study and Self- Expression 39 Chapter IX.— Equipment for Nature-Study 44 LRT II.— Life-Histories and Si^ogestive LEjisoNS. The Cabbage-Butterfly 49 The Cecropia Emperor-Moth gg The Bee 5- Tlie Grasshopper _ gi The Potato-Beetle go The Trillium 65 Horse-Chestnut Buds gg The Maple-Twig, Flower and Fruit 7I The Apple-Twig 75 The Apple i-g The Codling-Moth ^g Wood i-n The Potato gi The Cat oi> The Domestic Rabbit gg The Hen ci Thto Robin m The Snake qij TheFrog .. ^'.'.' .'.'^\/^'. .'.'..'.'.'...'.[' ' M V JNl-^JF CONTENTS. The Fish The Earthworm.. Soil Clay and Sand Plantain— A Weed. . . The Sun The I'oon Temperature Evaporation". Condensation Fog, Mist and Clouds. Rain Hail Dew The Lever and Fulcrum. Leaves Seeds Ice and Mica Limestone Gold Quartz ] ] The Human Body Its Divisions Feeling Hearing Tasting Seeing Smelling Correlation of Different Subjects through Nature-Lessons Topics for Study PART IIL— SuooESTiONs for Tkachers. Chapter L— Birds General Stnzcture of Birds in Adaptation to Habits The Covering of Birds Flying Migration of Birds Language of Birds Kindness of Birds to one Another ' " Our Winter Birds CONTENTS. ▼u Vxan The Eye of the Bird igg Hornet of Birds 19S Binl-Day 201 Notes on Birds— Robin, Redheaded Woodpecker, Blue- bird, House Wren, Bam 8wallow, Crow, Song Sparrow, Wilson's Thrush, Chickadee, Meadow- Jafk 201 II.— Flowers 206 Plants 210 Notes on Plants— Hepatica, Trillium, Bloodroot, Spring- beauty, Blue-violet, Golden-rod, Dandelion, Bur- dock, Thistle 212 Weeds 221 Grass 224 Observation on Trees 228 General Forms of Trees 229 Trees of the Forest 232 Notes on Trees— Hard Maple, Red Maple, Beech, White Oak, Elm, White Ash, White Birch, White Pine, Scrub Pine, White Spruce, Hemlock, Balsam Fir, Tamarack, White Cedar, Red Cedar 233 Seeds 245 Germination 246 Roots 248 Stems. 250 Buds 253 Foliage Leaves. 256 Reproduction. 262 The Flower 263 F™>t 266 Dispersion of Seeds 269 School Gardens 270 Chapter III. — Insects 274 Collecting and Preserving Insects 275 Larva or Caterpillar. 278 Sub-class»»s nf Tnseeti 281 Different Orders of Insects 282 '^^^'^■■>' -> VIU CONTENTS. ""'""cricTet'rf '";'^'""' May-beetle; Gmsshopper. Cncket, Ants, Dragon-fly. Giant Water-bug Apple ZZTT'^T^ ^'''''' Tent-eaterp.l£.^S: weed or Monarch Butterfly, Cotllinjr Moth Pol, phemus Moth, Mosquito. fIL... * ' ^"^^^ Spider Chapter IV.— Fish Classes of Fish Amphibians Chapter V.— Minerals Chapter VL-The Heavenly Bodies... 1 he Starry Heavens The Solar System The Moon The Stars September October November December ' January February March April May and June . . July and August Chapter VIII. -Books and Aids GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. PART I. CHAPTER I. NATURE-STUDY. The beauty which old Greece or Rome Sung, painted, wrought, lies close at home ; We need but eye and ear In all our daily walks to trace The outlines of incarnate grace, The hymns of gods to hear ! — Pf^tttier. The object of all education, of all training, is to teach 5 HOW TO LIVE. Unless we have knowledge of the things concerning jr life, we cannot live life in its broadest and deepest nse. The kind of training that shows us the things 3out us— the things of Nature— must certainly be the 2st kind of training, for upon these things are we lependent, not only for life, but also for happiness. Not *3 know sr^mething of the laws and love that bind all reation together in harmony and order, is, perhaps to Dse life s greatest pleasures and to be haunted by super- titions and fears. Through direct contact with the things of Nature, the iild, if introduced to them properly, unconsciously |ecomes a student and is likely to continue as such for |is individuality has a basis on which to work and |ecomes his power. He feels himself being evolved out |f himself. Only in the natural world has the imagina- ^on of the child free scope. To put anything in the 2 GUIDE TO NATURP-STUDY. way of the full and free development of the chil BecLt'^o??h^ '^' ?"r^*T '^ '"^^^ ^<^tive.. WhJ isecause of the spirituality of the child. "Exceot become as a little child, ye shall in no wise enreHn?o ti kingdom of heaven." Unless crushed this spidtial J haTdTh?thLtr^".''^ ^'"^ develops. ''on'theo7 reaHties to h "-' which are unseen and eternal beco -&;?!etJ^^^^^ symbols that unlock and interoret the H^l ,, c • . ' m which this loving Father is Sed to ui"^ "'""" Go forth, under the open sky, and list EarS^nH^' teachings, while from all around- r^™i .Mf ' '^^'*"' *"d the depths of air- Lomes a still voice. TU —Bryant. , stories. Nature-study alone can rTeafl T^\ T°' markedly on the history and culture of these oeooi secrets untold There i^ n^f ^ ^V- ^ ^*'" P°^^^^H u uoia. mere is not a nation or a people GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. * 3 pm she has not revealed some of her secrets, and, as pe always ^ak truth, there is not a people or a nation jrhich we do not find some glimmerings of truth, i, the power which a nation possesses to discover manipulate the forces of Nature makes her place 3ng the nations. The secrets of Nature are soonest ;aled to those who love and search her. Whether Canadian children will love Nature, and how much ker they will acquire to discover and manipulate her "rets, will depend to a great extent on their teachers. CHAPTER II. NATURE-STUDY OF THE PAST. Nature is but the name for an effect Whose cause is God The Lord of all, Himself tTirough all diffused Sustains, and is the life of all that lives. — Cowper. . or many centuries the value and necessity of Nature- ^dy have been recognized by the leaders of education. lOUgh thus recognized, little has been accomplished. iny and varied have been the methods by which the cher has struggled to educate the child in Nature's >ad fields. Method after method has, from time to e, been cast aside as unsatisfactory. The probable ise of the confusion and unsatisfactory results attend- the teaching of this subject was no doubt the fact that aim was not really definite, or the real object of the ining— TO OPEN UP LIFE— was lost sight of, and aims ich are now regarded as of primary importance were en a secondary place, if thought of at all. Never was Id nature understood as it is to-day. Never before I the educator recognize as he does to-day the extent which the child lives his life in the world of Nature. It he now knows that the child finds, not only his ■•<^-|*&ri-.jr.5«liM*.?. xr-r-j [ OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. Hii: wish tVr4 f :^> .^x^th^XM^ ^^ and hence are unable to l^o^ ♦u u.^. °* *^^ P»'esf if possible, the^to show te4'':ht^ -'ght. i" "^ open up the new wav ■> .^r k n '"^^ *'*"d and the oMiii^e -.epr-sLU-i^-, tr^- -- a re. teaching of isoS"Lf:rTob]:^.3't'chTs '"^r^'' sugar, sa t, coa], etc Fa«» „f j ' ^ . *^ ""o'- <^ott| the only guide the teach^ h i ^=''f 'P"on seemed to old text-books of our l^.?? '" 'i'"'!: ^<='^«'°n- In i' isolated obiects T^ . i '^f *^ ""'' '°ng "sts of sl uses o? thte things :« the .\''?''^'''='' P^P^t'est The dead thing alfne was studied "yy^f '"^ H of the thing al a livin? wh^l. "^ """= "o 4 whole, in its%res!.„Sn ' "' *' ^ P^« "^ » "« witM&,t1o7a?\rW" llror' ="'='i °''^'"'^' \ we recognize fully thLt the rMM °^ ^"^ experien living things of Natnr^ .1 '''• *'""• ^^ ^<= 's, to t hencS much more inteSsL"'"'!*"''^^''^ ^V th«m a things TheTvi„g"tWn J':^ T whoT 'k'" "^^ *^^' ^H tohiiT, , ..ceanohi.itiJ' """o'e. has most meanij wouk. darb^oXa!S='"*''f''*'^"""g'h« peril per. Itwou'Idt l^o^Sof °/?,^t:'"T'^'-" H instance, a lesson on ]J^liZ , f ^^^we-lesson. F| isolated es on at a^^ ior « ,7"^1 "°* ^^ g'^^" ^^ ^ the child had" as^t were al'nl^' 'T'I' "P°" "" with the sheep The^?f^ 'm .^"^ i'^'f^ ^'^^ the cow 1 least one of Them wouW h^^^^^^^ these animals, or J to-day. He wouM then have to f ''"^'"^ ^^ '^' '4 the skin. Hand in hand .1 u^'" ^^^ething abol go the life history of a tret''Th'^ f"^'^ V"^^°" ^^"'1 the tree would th^n l^T,J^^^[^^\l GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 6 the bark and the tanning of the skin would thus outcome of such a lesson. Another phase of Nature-teaching through object- is was to emphasize unduly the things of Nature bpntribute in a special way to the personal use of Uas wheat, milk, beef, eggs, etc. Much information ig to these things was gathered, but there was no ^ht of presenting them as a dependent part of a ^ whole as useful and as necessary to Nature's other |en as to man. For instance, wheat was studied \y as grain. The process by which wheat was made loui and bran, and then into bread, was carefully kt. But the grain as the result of the work of the and Its dependence during its work upon its )nment were not noticed at all. Nor was any com- 3n of wheat made with other members of the same y. Whether the lesson was on an isolated object one useful to man, considerable attention was given 5 language of the child in order that he might be to give a written description of the objects under . The child was merely a receptive agent and made [or no use of his own powers of observation, teach the utility of things has its place, but more tessary. There are depths below the surface. To- the teacher is seeking not only to emphasize the te most useful to man, but also to show use in eveiy- The beautiful has its uses. "Each thing in |ace IS best." To-day he will show that each living is an organism governed by fixed laws and espe- adapted to its environment ; yet while apparently Ixistent, each is dependent upon every other |ing m Nature really stands alone, but each is nhened by the work of the other. Nor is the [ng of the child's language neglected. It is not ly accurate description stated in definite form. It is mguage of a full soul seeking words to express 1 his attitude of the mind is necessary to good in composition. 6 GUIDE TO NATUUE-STVDY. iii ful to m.n K P^r.°^ ^^'"-'' «^^"°f things! es ed t^P An^^T burdensome. Useful things i striking things— the wonderful thincrs of Nat>^ were substituted for the useful in Sie^hope thad aTthe staf fist '.h' ''"' "^ .^-ommon'obS frnffc ' ^^^ '^^ "'■^^'"' *he cotton pod and fol fruits were examined and described. Such sto J "Giants of the North," and "Wonders of the Troi as well as those descriptive of birds flowers and'^ marked y different from those the' child Sas"n| habit of seeing, were told and read to children gain to the child through the descriptL o funTo J Thl i' T^r ^^'^ *^^" ^^'■^"-h objects especiaHy uJ It Z'^T^ "^^^ ^''^^ ^^""'^ the child and hel him did not respond to the dead things before' The value of the stories, notwithstanding the won. ch Id tr^'^'^- ^"''"^"^' ^^^ oftentimes lost on1 chi d. the descriptions not being vivid enough to J rea pictures before his mind. Instead of te| children of wonders such as the giant trees of s ?rooen''tf ^•"'"'' "^ °' ''^' fi^h, tlie aTm t\ IS to open their eyes to the wonders evervJ "tSanVa t''-"fP^^' ^^^ beech or'thq I e also to IL IT^^i ^'^^ ' *° *h« ^"^^^ and i-^e also to show that the more closely we exan^ the things in Nature the more wonderful thev Everything in Nature is wonderful. We ^ not be seeing eyes The seeing eye and the hearing ear ca be produced by any mere description, but Ua b by "e:kii;rtrr''p m"'? ^^^ ^^^"^^ °f ^'^^ -^ b^l by seeking to know Nature in her real form—as sM "One of the few, the immortal names, 1 hat were not born to die." The opening of the eyes of the people of Scotland to aUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 7 fers of Nature everywhere around them— to the y at their own doors— was, says George Macdonald, scret of Burns's great power. This poet put his life lis song And he lived his life through the common \s about him. , In time the study of isolated object-lessons on things was supplanted by the study of living ts, birds, fish and trees. Little discrimination, how- ! was exercised concerning the animals and trees ted for study. The tendency was, indeed, to Int those foreign to the child. Pictures of living is were frequently substituted for the living things selves. This did not satisfy the child. Then, too, 'eld was so extensive that to avoid confusing the scientific classification was introduced. Hence and system were emphasized at every step, and re-lessons became purely elementary science-lessons, did these lessons attempt to show unity in the 2nt sciences. In fact, so dry did they become they neither interested nor instructed the child any cases they imperceptibly became, in the hands le very teachers aiming at progress, the old-time It-lessons. [the light of the present, teachers recognize the fact lo become acquainted with the many, the few must la-stered hence types with which the child can le tamiliar are now selected for special study, js foreign are presented to the child through com- )n with things at home. Then, too, Nature-study ^day, aiming as it does to preserve life, and to [the LAWS that underlie it, must be truly scientific It It leads each to become a searcher of truth To- ve do not gather facts from one field of science and »y these, but we collect facts from every field in a way that in time the mind correlates them and them in the different fields to which they belong [s way the foundation of classification will be laid bcample : In studying the life history of an animal, 8 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. Its home and its food must be considered ; hencel mvade the sciences of botany, geography and prob geology, entomology, meteorology, physiology, i Then, too, without the knowledge of certain nat phenomena during the different seasons, only part o\ life can be studied. These sciences, however do? stand out alone before the child, but as related dependent on each other, each reacting in its own i on the life under special observation. Hence we that scientific classification will, in time, come to the c as a natural outcome of his work. The primary d cannot generalize sufficiently to be able to make a cl] fication and hence this should not be forced upon! by the teacher. In the light of the present, classified IS treated as an incidental— as an outcome of a syJ that uses scientific facts as mere speaking tubes throl which so to fill the child with the spirit of Naturd love Its laws, its truth, its beauties, as to make him 1 for daily companionship with it. In time the resul training will react en the child's character. It will na him as true to his life as the things of Nature are to th 1 his and this alone, can be the true aim of Natl teaching. ' In every lesson the teacher should be conscious a definite purpose. The well-intentioned purpose maJ of accomplishment on account of inadequate or inco/ method. This IS particularly true of Nature-study wi central aim is the exercise of the pupil's powers in discovery of truth-practice in philosophical observa/ The first essential," writes Prof. L. H. Bailey positive, direct, discriminating, accurate observation' second essential is to understand why the thin^ is i\ what It means; the third essential is the desire to k more— this comes of itself; and the final result is development of a keen personal interest in every nat object and phenomenon." Many a so-called Natl study lesson, although it may have had some human! lan value, or afforded opportunity for language pracl ill GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 9 [increased a second-hand knowledge of Nature, has s (No answer.) T. — Does it live alone } P.— No ; it lives in a hive with other wasps. J"-— Yes ; bees and wasps are said to be social in«=e Ihey live in communities. Each community of w IS started m the spring by a single female. Who seen a wasp s nest ? It 'rf*^*.'"''.'?--?^ GUIDE TO NATURE-HTUDY. n ["hree or four pupils raised hands, to one of whom a Jon was given to draw a nest on the blackboard, fairly good drawing of a hornet's nest recalled the ct to several other pupils, who correctly answered Itions about the size, colour, material and chambered nor of the nest.) L— This nest I have in my hand is made by a dif- ht kind of wasp from the one that makes the nest ^ed on the blackboard. I'll pass it round, that you ^ see the number and shape of the cells, and the srial of which it is made. (The nest was that of bmmon species of Polistes.) L— How are wasps' nests different from bees' ? I — There is no honey in them. I.— That is right ; but h' v else do they differ? l"^')-,*^'^ ^'^^ '^ ^^^ °^ ^a*» but a wasp's is made tuff like paper. I.— Where do bees get wax ? 1 — Out of flowers. [.—Where do wasps get their paper? lo answer.) L— They scrape the weathered surface off old boards I work It in their mouths into a pulp. This, when ad on the edge of their nest and dried, becomes paper. Wasps were the first paper-makers. • — What do wasps eat ? To answer.) L— They get honey out of flowers like bees, and they 8ond of sucking the juices of ripe fruits. They also las scavengers, and eat flies and meat and greasy stances of various kinds. I have read that they have known to strip the flesh off the bones of a dead Ise. I— Now take your books and write an account of the ^ under the following headings :— It OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. •1 Comparison of the Wasp and the Bee. Home of the Wasp ; make a drawing of the n( showed you. Food of Wasps. The foregoing, which was misnamed a Nature-st^ lesson on Wasps, is reported from memory. If, whicl doubtful, it interested any pupil in these insects, and him to investigate their habits, it served to that ex« one of the purposes of a Nature-study lesson, l, modicum of investigation was insured by the directior draw the nest that was passed round. A few meml of the class had seen wasps and wasps' nests, and tli did all the original answering. It is not far wrong to that it remained to the practice in English composi! to redeem the lesson from being a waste of time. U, ' ' K/^ o<. KJl. >vCi II. Each pupil is supplied with a chloroformed vvi The teacher by judicious questioning leads the pupil: examine the specimens, and to record that : (a) The insect is four-winged ; (^) The wings are membranous and all of sim texture, unclothed ; '. (c) The front pair is folded, and larger than the li pair; (e used for comparing structure in one or more of ies of Nature-study lessons on the grasshopper, >beetle, house-fly or other insect. Or in a series' iture-study lessons on insect homej, the nests of ts, yellow-jackets, Polistes, mud-daibers, miners ther kinds of wasps would surely be ooserved. ler the direction of a skilful teacher, with sufficient * ?e of practical entomology, genuine Nature-study :an be done with the wasp. The insect's dangerous 14 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. temper, instead of beintr p„ ^u- .. the observations ^ " objection, may gh^ ^^, elsewhere. ^ ^^^*^^" 'or similar structS How is the nest suspended? \ constracted^efor^theSr^^^^^^ "lany central cells' How does the waso '! r "^'^^^^ '' "^"^"'^"^ andhow does itl^ /T SSt^p^^^ "^^ -te. What IS the shape and size nf f K • ^ • • , ' Wl-t is deposite": in each eel f '"""""''' «"^'=* Describe the differeL I ? '^""der of the colo di<5re„t forms of ^sps hall' °''?"' *"'' '-"-H to distinguish que^s d 'n« T^^ ^'°'" ""eni. lJ Cage a fewlas" fn a b'otl.''""'"' ''"""y- covered with wire net^h.^ plj^u"^ "^^ '°P ^io^ door in the side of the k£ T "'?'" "'"'"g'' » J of meat, house-flies and oVhT"".""' ^ugar, little what they will «; »" ^ ^^' ^'"^^ °f food, to ij Observe tL:i"o:"oV?heir:Sf "' '"/" P^M the.r food. Discovef wteLrthey fre'Sf a'n"" '"^^ 5 On a cool evening in earlv l»l ? ^ "'"^ '° "^ 't as above, placinf ^hesla'j'""'* ?""'«"'' 1 position in the box. Suoolwh^ '"""'^ '" '"^-^^ solutions for the adults anVh;7^f' """' f°°^ -^«( Xoung ones-and ohse^rL^^hf J^rnfliy five zesi ting a 1 3. ind ei| structi cells I imenci mate^ cells ?, GVIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 15 lyery pupil is required to make a tniflif.,1 a^^-^a re being entered in his Native study S''*^' ^''^ ontini 1 can be devised • th^ Hr^I u "^ ''' ^ definite .onth ahead thevfi/'. ''I" ^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^k or nary school as nJ, '"'° 'u^ Programme of an >k. and soT And veTthA"^'''^ °^^" ^°"'' "^^* school organiza^on Idl^ f^^^^'^V ^'^^^^ "^^^hods |e. 'way 'of real ^N^^^^.^™"" serious 'diffieultv in >to^w1rW%utdTfThlVaeh« %T"' °^ '^^^ for stuHu K I required for Lessons I and II Illone^neeL'totrolT";:]' investigation, as iri lake boxes to nroc^f°f A aT' ^^'^ '^^ children, Anticipated duLrThi?K ^^^J^v^n^ to do various p f CO auties. Then there is the resisting of the 16 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. temptation to tell the pupils interesting bits of kn« l?dge that they should be left to discover, and restrair the impatience of the quick pupils to announce t discoveries prematurely, in the hearing of their fell( CHAPTER III. PLEA FOR NATURE-TEACHING. Earth is crammed with Heaven, And every common bush afire with God But only he who sees takes oflF his shoes. * —Elizabeth Barrett Brownii By reviewing the past and looking into the fut the leaders in the child world to-day feel that lL I Po^i^'O" for the teacher is by the side o] child. A little child must be set in our midst must become as a little child. We must be led tl great extent by a little child. The whole realr Nature is the child's birthright. It is his native air i materials in Nature belong to the child as truh they do to the greatest scientist", and, indeed, what nl . v"., "iR!?^"''^ '"' ""^""^ ^^v^^y intercourse than thai a little chi d and a great scientist walking hand in hi in the world of Nature, learning, as each may learn, lessons of truth and worship. All's love, yet all's can be made plain alike to each. To those who are surprised at the recommendatiol such a course, and regard it as chimerical, we 2 rep'v : The greatest scientists cannot fully unders the flower of the crannied wall," and yet from same flower the child can learn much of love beauty. The meanest flower that blows can thoughts to the child, as well as to the scientist must ever say — ' GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 17 Behold, we know not anything ; I can but trust that good shall fall At last— far off— at last, to all, And every winter change to spring. So runs my dream ; but what am I ? An infant crying in the night ; An infant crying for the light ; And with no language but a cry. — Tennyson. kt the child is perfectly at home in Nature's great Ihop IS constantly shown by the pleasure he takes rambles and mvestigations as he seems to seek for r insight into all kinds of attractions that charm |i the way and call out his best energies, physical iental. Not to lead the child out into the world of le IS to deprive him of his birthright. He may take *sion of his own from the time he begins to take \. Birds, flowers, trees, bugs, dogs, cats, ow, ice, are his earliest companions, and a teacher has no I to deprive him of this birthright after entering 1. In any case these are the only things that at KlZT .t"",V ^^ty ^'' '^^ °"^y *h^"g^ he can stand— the life in him responds to the life in them. Jrest is the key to all progress— "Ai„ntion is the iiemory ,s made of" From the very beginning lool-hfe the teacher should make use of those tials which are an expression to the child of his Ind which attract his observation and appeal to his Tit u^^/'''"' ^'""^ *° *'"^^ h^ '^ to use them to Hnl''^^ ? ^""-P'^"" ^'>, *^°"^h*^ ^y s"^h means as lling, and drawing until the more abstract expres- Ihrough words has a real meaning for him ; and, ton ue^ ' P^" becomes as responsive thing else seems to make the child so gentle, so athetic. so compassionate, as this direct contact I Mature. Then, too, where are we to go but to fe to learn reverence and law-abiding qualities, as 18 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. and with a W forlhe' ^ud "?f Kat'uJe'li'""' °' 1 better scientist than h,..„Ll. "*',"™. becomes a r study. He has learnl5^ . ™ ^"^""^ "''*out: direc'; from the his tL°e Crl^tor' a^H " .*?^ - expression of that Creato^s'ov; ''f^^I^L' crelj abo"rthe^thr^f:ifo ^- ''""'?;,°^ '"^ -"■-"! "Formany'yeaSit hTk^ """ ^how :_CarIyle regrets ftaVno schoS^.'^r" T ?^ '"y ">°« H of natural histoAs^faf/,"'^ "'"^ ''^d ^ ^"°4 the grasses th7'srowbv,hr' "" ?.° ''^"^ ""-gl winged and winJe^^ "^ Ju *ayside, and the -efing ^i wTh^i^fut t^t'XhrcJILT'l heavens which ar^»l„ ™! " ''°™« ''n the J half know to1wsday7^' °"''^'''^- '""^ ^^'''^ ' 4 lei^e^orTadeX^t^jf r' ':r"^^ "'4 would be no dearth of Ti ;^°' ''"""™ genius, J But I feel bound to sav that tt^' ■"'""^ '^ ""A than the influence nrL. "T* '^ something dJ all other production^ n?" °'^ *"^ ""^ "^ *" M which the Se " «„^ """~? ''"'^"'y "f '•"^■•4 libraries doTot hold Tk— 'T^"^' *"'' "-hicl author, previous to hl„ ■'' " '^* absorption bl throughThe "v 3mie' oSTcU^ oTtt'"^ ?P'"' °^ ^1 affiliation with them sSivdv and "or'?' H more surely is the bloorqufckened arid ™'^. 1 contact with the imK-^o^-u j 4^'CKened and purified ,ius ana sounds, the night and GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 19 of stars,— to have really pursued these, especially jchildhood onward, till what there is in them possible |fine finds its full mate and echo in the mind — this the lore which breathes the breath of life into all 2St." Edward Herrick Chandler says: "To lead a I child into this beautiful world and open his eyes to larvels which await him, is a most precious privilege, could stumble along without leadership, and he A see many things. But how much a guide is ! Parents may well put themselves to great pains |he sake of introducing their children to Nature, sffbrt will bring any greater reward. They may these young eyes to the colour of the birds, to krieties of the trees, to the delicate beauty of the honest wayside flower, to the intricate traceries of a brfly's wing, or the grace of a clinging vine, to the > of the sunset and the grandeur of the lightning. Iren may be taught to distinguish bird notes and i the common birds. Their eyes may be trained to karmonies of colour and the marvellous detail in the ! and the snowflake. No child will be cruel to birds Isects or animals of any sort, if he is properly intro- to them and learns their true place in God's mar- |us universe. A sensitiveness to the beauty of the and the infinite love manifested in its wonderful irces, means much to develop the mature character, is wanting in many a man and woman because was no one to guide their early years." srbert Spencer says: "Whoever has not in youth :ted plants and insects, knows not half the halo of ;st which lanes and hedgerows can assume. Who- has not sought for fossils has little idea of the poetic :iations that surround the olace where ?mbedded fures are found. Whoever at the seaside has not la microscope and aquarium, has yet to learn what highest pleasures of the seaside are." 20 OTHDE TO NATURE-8TUD7. National A§ H. H. Ballard, President of the Association, Pittsfield, Mass., says: '' The most natural study is the study of Nature.' " Sensible training trains the senses." ' •'Scientific training is the antidote for superstitioj ferencesT ^^ ^*'"^^' *™^ perceptions plus righj stimlbnf ""^^ °^ ^^^"'^ '■' ^ physical tonic, a ni, stimulant, and a moral anti.septic." morals.'"'^ '^""^^ '""^"^^ ''"'P^^ "^^""^^« ^"d Nature' and "^ "f 'Y '^''°"^^'' P^^^ ^^' ^^e stud thTlA i u *^^'^x°"^ ^'°^*hy o"r considcratio Zurich Tn" ^^r?^- J"''"^ ^^"'' °f *he Univers HaTD^^eT.""^''-^ -'V^'?"' ^""'"'•^^ °" "Alcohol Happiness. It is in brief as follows :— The fact th ScoTorbrin.'' K"'r ^f'^^^f^^V ^^ek the pleasures u a cohol brings, but aiso value and prefer them to c pkasures must have deep psychological ground does alcohol increase the feeling of happiness? The uponlt'^T" % "f *'"^ the%utsi§e^orces Jhi enWroLi^^ ""ty^ ^^^'^ '^ ^ ^^^^"^« between bodj" and our happiness grows. Alcohol dulls our apDreciJ a fee^nf of \^f T '°"^"^'" *h^"^' ^"^ so we ^ a feeling of satisfaction and superiority. Can sureTvient'/Tvf ''^^ ?/? ^ '" "P°" ^im a^nd mak" tl subservient.? Ah, yes, if he will but use his ntellid not""thrn?^ *'''"'' '"^'.^^^ °^ ^^"P^fy'"S himse!r^ revealed T ^PP^^^'?^»°" «f Nature in this ceni know ? Thr"'''?^^^ H ^.h'"*^ °"'- forefathers did ^n.,t St.^^°'''^/'f"ll°fp'^as"'-esthat charm il will but lift the veil which hides its secrets. Who could have knov.n formerly that a glimpse of die stronr.n^rP^-'u°"'^ ^^^ P^^^^"'-^ ^hich really mi strong and furnishes recompense for trouble and tii OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 21 new insights into the secrets of Nature, the general .mination of art so that even the masses may enjoy orks--these are worth much more to alleviate care anything known of old. But it comes so slowly le say. It takes the masses so long to acquire the er to appreciate these things. This fact should make iu u-^J"!!^ ^^f * ^^ '° *^^ ^^ys a"d means of teach- the child how best to become acquainted with Nature ■ she may help to alleviate the cares and troubles will inevitably be his m the future. ith such testimonies before us, and with the experi- of the last two hundred years, both in Europe and menca, who can doubt the fact that real instl^jction ns with things as found in Nature rather than with a iription of them as found in books ; or who would in aceof these testimonies and experiences, deprive the I of this real instruction by presenting first to him a rtT.n"TKT'' ^[^""/"t^lligible words and phrases r than the living book of Nature where things alone >e seen m their true setting? « Open the living book- ing book of Nature-to the child': should be the cry \ the whole of our land. ^ CHAPTER IV. PLACE GIVEN TO NATURE-LESSONS Nature never did betray The heart that loved her ; 'tis her privilege Through all the years of this our life to lead Je rom joy to joy ; for she can so inform 1 he mind that is within us, and so feed S .i° '^\''?"^u ''T-''^^- "^"g^' ^»»a" e'er disturb P"; cheerful faith, that all which we behold Is full of blessing. — Wordsworth. ■m'^^f f ^ '^''"^'^ ^^''^ ^ P^^^^ "" °"r ^^hool cur- m equal in importance to mathematics, reading or iture. Indeed, in the primary department, it should :-^'j0W'' 22 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. li have first place. The systematic study of Nature s be begun in this department and should be contii through all the grades. Nor should there be any y ing gaps either between babyhood and school between one grade and another. The work of form should be made to blend gradually and natu with that of the next. Then, too, Nature-study sh not only have a place on the programme as outline each grade, but it should receive due attention each in every class. When we say t':at Nature-study inc the same broad territory in the physical world as natural sciences (botany, zoology, physical geogra chemistry, physiology, meteorology), and that su study must have a place on our school curriculum, n may be dismayed and ask if a university course is completed in the primary class. Such an attitude such a question would certainly be justifiable, were field of investigation not viewed from the standpo the child, who regards it as including things with \ he is now more or Jess familiar and which he Ion understand more fully. It must be remembered, too, that Nature-study only unifies the sciences, but it is also the root-o from which many of the other subjects spring, Nature-study has its right place on the prograi of the different grades, and its just allotment of other subjects will not require so much attention example, Nature-lessons on the squirrel could no taught without teaching more or less geography, bo and zoology. Such lessons must certainly lead child to visit the home of the squirrel, both wintei summer, and to observe its habits durl ig these This necessitatjs the teaching of geography again, the surroundings of the home as to trees! plants must surely be observed, hence a certain a of botany must be taught. Nor will the teachir zoology be limited to the squirrel himself. The am associated with the squirrel in any way will al 'M JJS^- GUIDE TO NATURE-STVDY. 23 by the child The lesson should now take [r turn. Heretofore the child has been gathering ation and receiving impressions. Unless he is Mo give expression to the thought within, through M signs, much very much, of the value of the will have been lost. In no other way can this b^ [done than through drawing. (See Nature sudy blf-expression. Chapter VIII.) Too much looking ^ression, tends to make the child stupid and kentres where Nature-study has been given its I place, educators have been surprised^ at the ful developments and revolutions in the child's U i^r^^uM.^."* '^^ ^°^Jd °f Nature is a big vet uX\'^i k"' t ^'^ "^^"^^- E^"^-tors fee! I yet little land has been possessed. The question bh teacher to ask himself is. how shall I move ^ to possess more of this land? This is an import- tstion for the pedagogical world. - VlT' '1^^7. ^t ^^^^' ^^^^ '^e child look ar t that h™ "" ^"^^'^^ '' ''""P^y '' '^^^^rcstiug kJrL^ ' iT 5^ every where-tum which way hi 1 V Jv ^%^°"&^to understand, for through it i^ing his life. Instead, then, of giving a plafe to itudl? 7' ""^^T' '''■' r '^' P4ramme of studies give a place to the broad divisions of Id h^^^Hr^xJ" ^".Probability be made by v^rTHFP Jhese might be noted as follows: I WEATHER (including natural phenomena). 2. P (trees, flowers, fruits, seeds, etc.). 4. The earth oil, stones, forms of land and watt). 5 Phen FARl^'^Mrc'l'' ^'''' ^"^^^^^ 7- The processes FARM AND STREET. 8. ThE CHILD HIMSELF. ..'•<-"W!»"iif°^^*B35^'»''3S*r^*?^ S4 OUIDE TO ^ATVHE-HTUDY. CHAPTER V. HOW TO PRESENT NATURE-LESSONS. The meanest flowerets of the vale, rhe simplest note that swells the oale. The common sun, the air, the skin. I o him are opening paradise. tnis axiom of the ancients as his guide viz th who knows one truth knows all truths let he tJ aim at the following :— ' ^ ^^^ ^'\ 2. To show Nature as she is. (a) The fish I swims and breathes, {b) The bird al \t sings ad {c) The squirrel in its home, (d) The flower ' grows, {e) The bud as it forms on the plante 7/ ' snow as it falls, etc. "n me plants. (/,, 3. To keep life the central thought. 4. To discover the laws underlying life. 5. To see that the common things of the neiVh hood first receive attention. ^ ' ^ 6. To allow the season of the year to be one influences to determine what is to be studied. 7- To endeavour to have the child use the best; study!"'^'''"" elucidating the particular subject In Ti!"^ ^km! for outdoor exercise, for fresh air, is id in the child and the teacher must meet the chi d own ground. He should plan outdoor excur ^ his class, accompany the children and be a feliow-J also. He should have a definite aim in view f„r excursion and direct the energies toward that! >«A«'^:4m ^;' T«^ QUIDS TO NATURBSTUDT. n should also be directed before the lesson as to Jiey should observe. A number of questions might iren to the class on Monday, the answers of which ,ot to be taken till Friday afternoon, thus giving Bays between for observation. The observations d becontmued until the child is actually acquainted the pomt m hand. Knowing the class as individuals bacher should anticipate questions and be prepared iect the child on his own. ground. Information Ired should be made to tell on the schodl-room work fery possible way. Long excursions are not neces- I indeed they are often inconvenient and impracti- L Ari excursion or a walk of a few blocks, even in jwded city, can be made to furnish plenty of nal and ample scope for the Nature-teaching dur- term. If children cannot be brought out of the room for even a few blocks (this may be the case school IS in the crowded part of the city), the tr should endeavour to bring as much as he pos- can of Nature mto the school room. A small tree kvho e plant, root and all, can be brought in. Seeds ^e planted in window boxes. Pet animals may be ^K^Ilf*w iv ^"^^^ ^*" ^ ^^«Pt >" boxes. It is hoped that the time will soon come when a garden I collection of animals will be considered as neces" -quipments to a school as are our black-boards and (See equipment. Chapter IX.) A basis for rea- if .nHT^^'M""",'* ^""""^ ^•"°"' observing Nature as is, and should always precede school-room instruc- |To Study Nature in her WnoLES—Only by hng Nature in her wholes can the laws that govern hrf • ^t^ '^^ ''^^"^^^ °f " the whole" £ con" ly kept in the mind of the teacher. To deal with U !ST* ^^^'^^r^" a^e "ot as prone to look on the A 1 ?P. ^^ '^ generally supposed. The «whv and the "why that" of the child can only L sS 26 QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. fied by showing the laws that govern the partii thing under study. "The why" of the chiUl sh always be treated with respect. ^ In children a great curiousneu is well, Who have themselves to learn and all the world. — Ten '/!i Only by understanding Natur- in her wholes can parts be understood, (a) The , jdy of buds should end with separate lessons on this particular part oil plant, but the buds of a certain tree should be stu in connection with the whole life history of the (d) A feather should not be studied simply as a feal but as the feather of some particular bird. {c)\ home of the beaver should not be studied as a i of skilful workmanship of a certain animal callcdl beaver, but as only one thing in connection witlf whole life history. By understanding the relation of the parts ta, whole and the laws underlying them, the world, al child looks out upon it, will be to him a related, whole, the gloiy of the Great Cr ator. Nature wil him the great workshop of the world. Each tliiri Nature will be one of the machines of this great worki the parts of which he will see working together to pel the special work planned for that particular machini the manager of the workshop. The more thorou a child can be made to understand Nature, the gn will be his realization of life. The more real love hj for Nature, the more interest will he take in it. I greater his interest, the more rapid will be his proJ The more real progress he makes, the more truh] his character be built and strengthened. To build\ acter is the aim of ail true education. C. To Comprehend the Underlying Law) Nature.— Since, then, the child becomes edu} through Nature in proportion as he is permeated] its spirit through understanding its laws, the te' acJDB TO NATVnS-aWDY. 27 strive to sit below the surface and cause the child ^g e to see what is to be found there. Some of 'lre"^Vrf.lf'J''*""' '"u'^'J" "•* '">»""« 'hilrf- I T K .1 ' '? comprehend and can be under- only by the scholar; while others again, a" the U we>l knows, are still in her own keeping »i laivs as the following are within the comprehen- |f young children. Indeed very few Nature-lessons taught without showing one or more of them ^taptotJon of Stmctiir* to Habit and BnTiroimiMt _ . Shape of its body, and by its different oreans to w and where it does. The form of the bSv undlr .conditions changes to fit its environme^*^ " M»i«iOB of Labo«r.-The greit work of the world is lo Hn '*p^"i:"« '" "■' "°'-'<' has its own partTcuIa? Lt :^ P"' °^*«'y*ing has its woTto do t?m'rt"fv'^p7pJ:sj;rh«'''----n K^iaLtin're^Trk" o?\V"f "'^"i' '", Is, and in the b«^auty of coTstrarH. ^ a\. ""'' °' fur in Nature. construction and harmony |.t came isTccrm^^'^'Jiirs'" ""= P"^P°=^ "^^ Js'^STind^Sem**'^-^"?'"^ '" '■■- 't. Animals are XS^L'^t"" ""^ '^ing is self- indent upon enWronment. etc P°" -P'""'*' ^°* ^ta;s;T'fi,si"educat"'1 '■' "''"'^- F-e>-' al wa;, FrcSeP, 1 °' '" '?'=°g'"'^e this in a hid show how ull^f r'' '°"g^ '"<>'• mother pgs appeal to the child in "''T"^ *'= ™P"'«- •hm Of the so„/ittl'f^;:a ^settVr^; "^L^ arwi w»'J»7.i-#j 28 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. tion of the life in Nature which they seek to represe.i Beauty of form, colour, proportion, all indeed that api peals to the aesthetic part of the child's nature is reallJ a part of rhythm or number. Kindergarten rhyme should, in the public schools, give place to beautifu, gefns of literature. These should be selections from th] best poems of the greatest poets of our own and othe lands. Children do not look as much on the surface is generally supposed. There is bread for the bal bread for the workingman, and also bread for thJ thinker. The bread is the same in kind. It is, howevel served m different quantities and in varied forms. It \ not too much to ask a little child of seven to commit tj memory "Flower in the Crannied Wall." Gems q literature should bear on the Nature-subject in hand Thus after a lesson on the robin, teach one of the rnanj beautiful little poems written on thip bird. Songs alsl should supplement Nature-lessons, and should, like thl gems, bear on the subject. Nature-stories that appeal directly to the imaginatioi of the child should have a place in every school Thej appeal to him and reveal Nature to him as nothinl else can, for they speak to him through his own lif] The teacher should allow this faculty full, healthful pla/ both in himself and in the little child. Fairy-storie myths, and fables should be encouraged on atl side but meaningless babyisms should be far beneath boti teacher and child, nor should the point in hand eve be strained to impersonate this or that for the sake « presenting a living form to the child as is done at tiraq m referring to the letters of the alphabet as animal^ nor should it be strained for the sake of analogies thj may exist, but which are far beyond the reach of th child's mind. The imagination should always have iJ dwelling in a certain truth, the knowledge of whic would be helpful in the development of :he child an only the fable, the parable, or the metaphor that teachd that truth and impresses it upon the child hould OUIDB TO NATVRB-STUDT. 2» led. Nature-lrasons dea! particularly with facts and Us out L fact in^lril'in °tftj„Sbt'°" '"=" btoriesand fables relp ,n2- to V;^^"r*' ;i>;. emphasising the side tf ^H^^^t \^^ tn mm ao GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. fi^inT f i\ ^"^ '^L^''* *°P'" properly, the differ fields for Nature-study should be kept before ' mind and selections made from each suited to grade, tach school must select its own topics selection will depend somewhat on the locality ii teacher alone can judge for his class the order which the topics from the different fields shoj follow one another. Nature-lessons will have to taught upon particular subjects when material can I obtained and when observations can be made. Si pupils are usually promoted in September, the top as outlined in this book begin in autumn. Ti topics are so arranged, however, that the teacher m If he deem it wise, begin in the spring with spring topics. ^ ^ II.— In order to deal with the topics chosen, in way to be most beneficial, certain types have h selected for special study. Those selected should those that can be most conveniently watched by i child and those that appeal most to him. In Natu study It IS not zvhit we study, but how we study it tj IS important. These types should become centres roii which work can be done. They should reprcsi a large class of more or less similar objects, so 3 from the beginning the comparative method mayf H' f • u^wu*^?.^,?.""^"^ ^ ^ connecting link betvv that which the child has studied and that which he i) study. The types should be milestones pointing out! way. For example :-The cat has been selected as type of quadrupeds ; the hen as the type of birds- maple as the type of trees, and the bee as the ty^ insects It is intended that each type taken fronT different classes selected should be studied in its i v/\' ^"^ '* ™"^' ^^ remembered that to comp a lite history may require several seasons of obseif tion. It will require study in several grades. ' example :-If the study of the apple is begun in i autumn m the first grade all its parts are examin »4 •v-''-l'jA'-K*'>- £?*&w.^'-- v_,;jf^^if??t.. Ivva GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 31 uses are discovered; it is modelled, drawn and imted. In tf , spring the tree as it buds and ooens d « "Xhtnlhe" h''?°"^^ examined "ted lu paintea. ihen the development of the aoole itsplf ratched dunng the holidays!^ Autumn is heS a^fn sS"' a"de%h? Ff' ?T >-" P™-otS"to harror^:aniI^^?"t L°'i^evT^';r"{r '• ""younT S: d"""'," ?'^"' ''PPk Xerand wat"h I vl^ ,F■^ developmg ; also study the aoole «h -2? tf 'di&H^j :i ^z^the^f ? II more can be grasped aCtIhe ap^and thei;^' tl s Pi k r thirst '"*""'' g^^f'-'g. kinds of PJlfTn tt-^iurthgradrrThf-V'" ^'^ fcained should be sumSed^un and It !!f ™^"°" Observed placed deariy befo?; ?he cWU ''% '"''°'^ faputin''?f tLat rhlbif'T r' '^'^">' ^ erent types .•^Re^g,;mo'n^''of -otL^Kr^an^e' ^ part'^f^t'lf^^K- f"'' ^^'™- Beside the a£v^ -part of the hfe history that does not lie direcflt the surface should be carefully studied % ITf^ nets; Its adaptations to surroundings ite intend,? ans ; ,ts food in winter and summer Its' voun^T^ tera^^lr^"^^'- "i^^S. ItshouKf^^dtd erent points fhouW b^d'St wTth7e'^;^dre:ti± o'n' le s'^cfr'" ""'f "?'^'' observaS: arlmade pr^^L-u^eris^LttiiS^^ w M 9 38 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. by animals in the fertilization of the soil • the effert 4 ram on the soil ; man's use of the things n Nature aj fnnnHof^ ; ^° 'f^ ^^^"''^ ^" ^^is light is the be foundation for morals and religion. ^ N^f!!'-^^^ *yP^^ '^^^^*^^ f»"om the different fields and to report wi? ?^^^ ''"^'y and accurate! designTio tmin tt^^it'^'T' ""^ ^^ain especial!; world, f EfenT'rSmrand^t'i"^ ■" *" "«'- opportunkf for i™4^«lPth.'^ ^."PPly ^^'^- tjonal principle ofT^^^,rudf ^ '^J^t t^"LX ^: *^ifi 'i ^.^ciaVTa; • These are lesson^n 5!^!f^*"*.*« *** J>>"P<»M hose body Nature U, and God the souL — fltpg. Reading —Since it is true that no one subject in the h7n ^J^H ^^";^^^"S"; ^^. '^ ^"^^^^^ '^ further obs:;la"ion a TK .!f f ■^'"' "'^^•^^'^<'^'^« still further increased J strenllenedf "'*",'■• °^^ "^L^^ ""' ^^^^h is weakened i i-sa ffctth/f ^'"°.'^'"& to the kind of books he read IS a fact that requires no proof. Yet few teachers J 'm^^^mww GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 36 knowledge of this fact, and also with the knowledge t a taste for good reading at a very early age can implanted are as careful as they should be of the le reading-lessons they prepare, from time to time their classes or of the kind of prepared lessons they ^ce before them. From the beginning, the reading- sons should not only be such as to interest the > but they should also be such as to instruct him ley should open h,s eyes to the life around him, in Ber that he may profit more from life. In fact, thev uld embody the great truths of life he sees exempir- a m the common things around him. That the eve I only what it has the power to bring with it is as le in reading as in anything else, and especially is this le with little children. The subject for reading mut ome way or other be related to the child's own fxperi- k or It must be within the range of his imaginadon. ^ suitable Nature-story for a child must be written in Ih a way as both to instruct and to please. In addition feeing true, t must always keep the beautiful and the mon.ous in Nature in the foreground. It must g ve j imagmation healthful play, while behind all it should Ik to illustrate sonie great truth which the child cannot nnHT^^-f ^"n ' ^"?"'^ ^^ ^'" "*^^* it on his own kind and it will speak to him in his own language COMPOSITION.-In the average schoo , the subject of .position is a difficult one. ^The pro^r teacSng ^f ture will open up many avenues through which the lid can be led in a gradual and natural way to thought- >ression in writing A full soul always longs to find rTf'r'J' '"^^^ T --«t f-quent/thVough rds If the ideas are clear and definite, the words re^ b7w llT ^'" ^ '"'""'^'■•^'^ ^"^ the written aT one ^^ ^^^ ^°'' ^^^ "^^"^ ^^ t*^« xEOGRAPHY.-Whether considered from a physical I commercial standpoint, the principles of Geography 3end upon the laws of Nature. The laws, for instance '''Si'lk^^ ' -wm'^m^M W QUIDS TO NATUhE-STUDT, fre th^lTJ^^ ^ V r^* slopes-primary and secondarjj are the keys which open this study, not as isolated Q but as a science, before the child. On them dend the great equalizing force of rainfalls. They also gl direction to the drainage, hence to a certain extent r^ late temperature and soil. On temperature and soil pend animal and vegetable life. Man depends upon animal and the vegetable world for his life. Hirod ^fn^HK k'-'° *^.'^^* ^^*^"^' ^'^ life history are det mined by his environment. In teaching Nature, hi easy ,t is for the teacher to get at these root princi J at once. No special excursion is required. Obser] tions on the general surroundings, where any speJ observations are being made, and on the natural phe3 mena at this particular time and season, should be d sidered animportant part of the work. For the child] become fully acquainted with his immediate neighbo l^'" Ta^-1^1 *" P°f «s«'on of the means to beco "Thrr*'':i'"°°"K*."''*'' *" '»^ ^^^^ cirele tells, The limitless within art's bounded outlines dwells." This acquaintance, however formed through I senses, must be such as will enable the pupil to fo] form<; ""TTT^^T' '"^"*?' pictures-of'^the diffe J forms of land and water he has seen ; then throi^ the imagination he will form correct id;as of land L water he has not ^n. During these observatiol aS f L'^f "^""'^^ ^.°P^" *° the effects whi rain, frost snow, etc., produce in the way of preparJ soil for the support of life in his own little SeL" bourhood. Then through imagination he will underst their power and effect in lands far away. The cle percepts of a neighbouring little brook, studied actual observation in all its particulars, firm the ba of book knowledge can prepare the child for sul conceptions. Preparation must come from actual con J GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 37 I the thing to be studied Thus we see Nature-study Geography must go hand in hand. In fact, in the nnning they are the same thin- Geography studied |ough Nature not only gives a basis for reasoning, but lo provides subjects for t xpression. Hills, valleys, .Ids can be moulded in the sand. Outlines of them be made on the blackboard arid on paper. Manual Training.— So closely are Nature-study i manual traming cunnected that the one blends most urallymto the o*her ; indeed, at times, they are the iinterpart of each c-hcr, and must work hand in hand oking at manual training from the educator's point of Iw, Its object is far other than that of industrial training IMS, training to prepare the child for gaining a liveli-' i. Manual traming is not, as in technical schools, a fparation for gaining a living, with little thought of its ture value; it is a means to an end, and that end is the Vcatton of the whole child. It is only one factor in the Iny factors of his education. It aims at the training of \ mmd through a series of exercises involving the _ of tools. The materials upon which these tools are Ibe used are carefully selected and the exercises \om- lly arranged. They are carefully graded in difficulty le muscular movements are definite, hence the mental' lotion »s definite also. Thus manual training is one Ithe subdivisions of Nature-study whose central idea is Igive power over environment, and whose special duty Ito increase the power of self-realization by expression, lanual training schools recognize as, perhaps, no &er schools do, the importance of preparing the child self-expression through making, and for the training Ihis intelligence while making. In order to do this >er subjects of necessity must have a place. Perhaps' t most important of these subjects, and that most pely connected with manual training, is Nature-study. Knovving the object of manual training, and the rnean^ of Nature-study, the relation of the two is self-evident e senses can be trained only through environment I 38 GUIDE TO NATUr^-STUDY. ;*•< -i to record, through draw^n^ mn. ^l ^"^°"'?g'ng the ch form and^hape^f dStnTtu^^^^^^^ environment Such tra?nlnt • ^J,*'''*^''°"'"'«" to preparation for manual t a 1^^^^^ ^'' ^'A and should precede griderexfrd^^^^^^^^ °^ A IS neglected, there must certain/^ ^ Nature-stu cation of the child Nature ^.^^..^ \ ^^P '" ^^^ ^d else can. Naure-studv^^^^^^^ by way of «X^S,7i i^^^ '^'^^^^Z /r«/;/ knows^vell the ll^^rylfthT^^f ^^ "'"'^^^«- planes. He looks at it with a se^nt "^^7^'' ^"''"^ S more to him than rip^rl^ol • ? "^ ^^'^^ ^t means m J So with th^meta, and Se' dai "^"h" ^"'^ ""' '^ ^° ^^ balance, beauty of curve .n ^" ^^^"' *°°' P'-oportiJ are all familL to k^!; 2, "^'l'^^'^ '" ^"ch wo Manual training is condu. vJ^r^V^'l Nature-stuJ mental development of the S^ 'u"^ 1 mg. and vrH enjoy it very nJuch n.. v"J''^f '"^^ '"-^l work of Nature he has tC u • '^ '^'^^ *^^ ^^'-o^"'! knowledge, sel^retrtce'^^^^^^^^^^^^ 4u' when know edee anH *»vr,^..; seir-control. It is onBjo expect the hXt'^sirbKufts'"" "^""^ '"«« - * of Nature; yet one 1^ bL » f!!^ *" **™«' »«"* before he s capable S V. *."'"<'«'" °f Nature la children a« tfu^gli^ toltS^yT^u^rthTn"™' be prepared whin thev arp nlj^. ',? ^ """ "°t "i ture as a science, but Tr^t^^^^^K^^ ^'"^^ ^g"-: aspect; they will hat rre^^^J' ' It "T %,"' longer appear to them as » lifc „f j n i ,"~" """ ' have attra^Hons equ\Tto tUl^t^^^'^fe-J^- '' :x?ai.i- aUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY, ^ CHAPTER VIII. NATURE-STUDY AND SELF-EXPRESSION. T?^**' *;''^***'" <»nd«»c«ids to write in be»ms of inextinguUhable light fSf^^irt-^^s::- .0... H« graaous attributes, and proved .hare Hu oftpriDR hold in Hi. paternid aire use he h^'?«^T^,;p^^»hou'd speak and write Jt not only has the tendency been to emphasize un ^ the spoken and written word, but it harnk^Kl ttme'Yh'^r^ of expression t"o such\f L^n" m some schools their place in the tra.'nfn !.r fu ' has scarcely been recog'J.ued a" alt FeTlealh'e'S I- yi ^'■. Mj- t^m-^^-^-m -s'-^ismjm.'ymx; sO QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY, even to-day are fully alive to the fact that their skil- teaching Nature and subjects related to it depends il great extent on their knowledge of how to use diff( kinds of expression to illustrate the particular pha« truth being taught. To cultivate this many-sided p should be the aim from the beginning. The ic gathered from each Nature-lesson should be exprci in as many different ways as possible. Expressio] the real test of knowledge. r Supposing the Nature-lesson be on the different kj of roots, which are very suitable for first lessons as show variation of form ; these are examined and tall about. They should be modelled ; sketches should! made of them on the blackboard and on paper ; i they should be painted. If the child is sufficiently vanced he should state in writing certain facts about th Modelling.— By examining a thing with a to modelling, the senses of touch and sight are ca- into play. Through sight we generally know the f| of an object as well as the nature of its surface. knowledge, however, is really the result of the fuj of the products of sight with the remembered imj of touch. Constant association has establisheci mental habit, by which the sensations through, one medium complete themselves by reviving imj previously received through means of the other. sight may deceive owing to the effect of light and sli upon form. A thing may appear rough or smooth L child if he depends on his sight alone, or if he has] had enough practice to give distinctiveness to prod already in mind. By way of judging the clearnes the child's percepts of the form of an object, ask 1 to model it without looking at it Much discovered the child in his Nature-lessons on fruits, roots, leJ flowers, fish, birds, etc., can be well expressed thr^" modelling. Each form has a charm peculiar to itsdB ^ the child. Only the simpler forms should be attemB^"^ in the elementary classes. ■cht QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. 41 UeUing in sand is an excellent means -r expres- . JTJ!'T' '^ '^'u ^^ ^"^^"^^ '^'^ different s of land and water. By means of sand he can r **'l^.,f'?'''"'- "^. ^^" also show their relative ion. Skill m expressing forms through sand-model- iepends to a great extent on accuracy of seeing. ^'dT^'ir^^-"''^"*"^^ ^"^ '^''*^'"& a*'^ «o closely U.r TK T^m'''^'^ ^° *^^*^^ ^he one without i>ther. Through Nature-study the child gets ideas lethmgs about him; through drawing he expresses fhoughts and Ideas gathered. Thus^ thought and tss,on are united and he gains therefrom Accuracy rception. But this is not the only gain, fo? the accurate the perception, the more power he pupil ave to express himself in both spoken and wS jage. I'u *l!f u*"^^' ^'■^'^'"g as a means of thought expres- tS f ^v"'P.^^'^'^- ^^ '^^ ^^''d knows that it ks ble for him o express in drawing certain facts It the object being studied, his interest in it wi 1 be nd 'hi'' '^" °l- "'^''"- "^ ^'" *hink more about r In ^^'^K '°"« 5°"«rning it will be much lr;ilv h;!f '.^•n'^u"^ *° ^^P'«^^ h's thoughts Inally his eyes will be opened, as they could not hw.se have been, to the perfection and variation of to the beauty, the symmetry and the proportion khere m Nature Then, again, it is impSble ach drawing, in the true sense, without coming o re for subjects and for guidance. Nature has p been the true artist's guide. . hawing as a means of thought-expression, can be kaby taught to young children before writing A will draw the outHne of a fish or of a butterfl/long l-e he can write its name. This fact is yet far Srm lef/'^^""?^ and pupils are kept hours^'rying [rm etters and words, with a view to express n| kht m writing, instead of spending at least a^par o^f K 42 GUIDE TO NATURBSTUDT. li ' -I this time in free-hand and arm movements, practi hnes and curves, in order to gain control of the mus with a view to expression through drawing. When* It IS at all possible, che child should be required to dt from Nature; even moving objects in Nature will a the child has had considerable practice, not be di'ffi to draw. Movement changes position and appear but not the proportion. The first natural objects selected for drawing shi be as simple as possible. They should be such as be drawn with a i^^ff lines. The following migh mentioned as good examples : beaks of birds, butte fish, leaves, simple flowers. In drawing, as in Nature-study, type-forms sh be emphasized. They should be drawn in as different positions as possible. For example : a might be drawn in a sitting posture, in a standin- ture, swimming, in the act of taking food from ground. Botanical forms, particularly flowers themselves most readily to simple drawings in diffe positions. The drawing of typical forms shoul repeated until the child can readily draw them memory. Such drawing sharpens the observation. Outline and Colour.— In connection with ou use colour, and show how form can be developec means of colour. The different forms of roots ma brought out by means of shading. A flat disk ma made to appear spherical in the same way. A ( simple picture in outline can be brought out in stril relief by colour. Flowers, leaves and fruits have a attraction to the child when he has attempted to expression to his thoughts about them through pain Children in the primary grade can sometimes ex more with their brush, or with a very soft I coloured crayon, than they can in words. Making is one of the simplest forms of expression too, which receives the least attention. Possibly th fc" -flL X' aUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 43 ■ this is the fact that there is so much inconvenience btam.ng the material. This mode of exprSn lid be encouraged at every possible opportunTy^ Ing furnishes a standard to thTteachcrTthrna^ure LTonTd ^''^^ P^P''- ^.^^'"^' -' ^ means of self- fession, had a good start in the kindergarten and pd be contmued. i. Patterns of simpll garments t be outlmed on the blackboard. Pape^ Ss c t in^tir' thl'""?^:;^ P"^ °' *^^ garm'ent have cut in paper, the child may paste them together )n book. 2 Making paper flowers in tissue oaoer firm pasteboard for models of the different^prrts owT' AfferThe '"!r\ ^^^^ ^P^ ^^^ 'he fcidll^Uo'd^^^^^^^^^ 'l-^ ^ TertowT '^ ^^''^ it'bSongsSt ?h ^an Mearn how to conventionalize leaves and flowers t birds flowers, animals from magazines or pa^rs each picture on cardboard, and cut out Ihe form' I hese patterns on coarse white paper ; outHne cut s bre^^i h o-n''"'' ''^" 5^'°^ <- true?o NatSre ssible) with o.Ied crayons. This is both a profitable nteresting exercise in coloring for children^ Tre\!t^fn Tif ^"' °^ f^P^^s^'on which are more J.f}^ • ^^^ ^niations of the child. These se (woK ^k"^- ^ °^ .^°'"& ^h'^' Whole classes i «nH ^7'^^*^^'[ *^^^^^^' ^^'^ s«"t to public pa and gardens for observations. This was found to g break a single twig nor to pluck even the small w.^^^K-.K^^'?'^'''^"^^ '^^y ^ ^^"^ often enough ^ watch the plants and flowers developing. Such i penments in some centres of education, led in ti] to the establishment of school-gardens. The nearn of the school-garden was found to be one of its m Sin mtdf f ''^''' ^"u^^^^^ ^^^^^"«' "o attempt been made to arrange the plants in ornamental b sinpe they cannot be studied so well in that arrar ment. In many places in Europe not only have school . dens been establ^shed. but^hool authoride^ hivrairi to impart clear ideas of horticulture and related Lcul Tv! u^, J^"?"' "'^^ of ^^"d connected with the sch| iWth^linr-™"''^ jn ploughing, in hoeing, !nt S in rifJ^n J ^" P'-""'"g ^»d grafting trees f in hi^^ Dees, in raising silkworms, etc. chiWr?rr'ir"-^'J°"^.^^°.^' '^71. twenty-two thousa children received instruction in horticulture and ti pbnting, and each of two thousand schools had a nil acres. Since iS;; the public schools of Berlin have t JJ^ularV supplied with plants for study evetyv The gardens m connection with these schools are considerable distance from the school. ^ chfldj OUIDE TO NATV RE-STUDY. 47 Jom visit them. The teachers, however consult luted. During the summer, at about six o'clock in morning, the gardener from the school-garden^tarts ^Z for Thrdi^'^f t^^ i^""'"^^' packed ':j^d Jied, tor the different schools. Each elementarv |ool receives four different species every we^k S fc'lJl'SId 'wh""^^.k"^^ Plants'^and cutting! knt^e. v^ Vk P"P''^ '"^^' *^^ following dis- ^antages. viz., they cannot watch the growine plant h^l'^'^T^.u^^'' °J^°"' ^'ght, heatlnd mofstuil' ' h^?.T;rfl- '^telf " ^^^y ^^^^»^ the habits and worT butterflies, beetles, ants, and such insects asTre bys foun.i where plants are growing. ^ M-S^d^^^^^^ ^^^Kr ^'^^ ".^^"-'y ^'g^'* thousand pooi-gardens. The public school law there demands t m every school, according to the circumstances of > community, a school-garden be estawS The fcher IS also required to be skilled in givin/instruc Pari:i.^ol^/" ^' '''' '^'^'^ '^ '^^ soTb^t^r S [n France, no one who is not qualified to dve oracti L7T1 n""J "":"' l^" '-^hool-garden has been Pusions- Thf^'^T ''*^* '°""= t° 'he following ncmsions .—The structure, uses and functions of olants ■ Nature ,h',HO • r '^y^'"g °f elementary science, o^ '. tne cycle of plant hfe from seed to seed furnishes a 48 » ; f OUIDH TO NATURE-STUDY, lesson in biology that is unsurpassed in value T .J !'f PART II. LIFE-HISTORIES AND SUGGESTIVE LESSONS. THE OABBAOE-BUTTEBFLT. •t he cruciferous family. The butterfly wilfSepSh ts ejs ^nXi feav.? •f leSre put Kom d'; trday''""" """ ''' '"''"• ^" ^*'^' ^due time the pupal stage will be reached, the insect will attach it«.1f a t«,.g or side of the box. and pupate in thi form «Ued a chmalis If ept m a cool place the butterfly will annmir Tk-^i-ff ^^nQ'sa'JS. it '. closely watcLd from day toTay^y thradrel ®'"°' '^S** «" The Egg. Mak^observations in a cabbage-patch, also on the insects as preserved Why do SO many butterflies visit the cabbage-patch? ^On which side of the leaf does the butterfly deposit its Why do the eggs not fall off the leaves ? ^ Are the eggs in clusters, or are they scattered here and ! Does this b^tt^rfly ever deposit its eggs on any other hnd of plant than the cabbage-plant ? ^ Examine the leaves of radish, turnip, mignonette, and other vegetables. Make a drawing of one of these eggs. Has it a shell? What color is it ? Is its color any protection to it ? Investigate and report. * 49 w QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. fii'l Note I. V Draw a leaf showing several ^gs upon it n. TheLarra. How did the larva get out of the egg } Describe this larva. Draw it Note 3, had wteSlI tl^7'^ '" ^ ""•" «-"8 A Wrea,tuMion, ilKcm^r,, to th. l,olM«rf r.n«l «lj«of tUle.. fm^it?*^ ''* *' ''*''■''''"« °' ^l" «^ey sTck the ^ Make obsenrations and icport Describe the way in which this larva eats. Note 4. Why did the larva make these holes ? wh!tr^;^s;^Lii£^ chiS;Sl t.^^TlJt'^^ ~-^'~'-° - »«^ • -7 that How many l^s has ihis larva ? Do all the legs look alike ? Introduce the term proUr» Notes. On what part of the body are the true legs ? On what part of the body are the prolegs ? How many segments are without legs? What has caused the death of the larvs ? to ^rdSS'rt^/n'^tf " "" ' "* °' '•'^ ^ "^' watd .Vi^':-^V'^".'-' OUIDM TO NATUB^STUDT. d If these breathing-holes become cte^ what will Ippen to the larva ? >-'"BB=a wnat will Describe the way in which the larva breathes. nt^'"^hata"l''5,L"e^ '»'' ""^^ *' '^-^ - I Why does the larva cast its skin ? I Introduce the term tno/fs. jTry to find how many times each larva molts. h\^ ^' ■«»•**»•• «JJ«l the Ohrmllfc |u ItisnowXutaninchlonl^ P I» '^fuses to eat and is slug- Describe the change in the form of the larva. p?£SSiS?".roS';St*^^-^' ^» Ilsthca>3e thick or thin? Can you see any definite ■Note 7. JDraw the pupa-case. jOpen a pupa-case, fo'rm"'*' <^'osely to see whether t In^about elewn dap the ch7«d».batterfly chrysalis clmnges will emei^e as a perfect 63 OVIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. m Examine the empty case Notes. ' ^What are th. different stages through which it h^ Draw the butterfly i„ diflerent positions, divid^}'""' "^"y P*"^ '» 'he body of this new fo, How many wings has it ? How many legs has it ? How many antennae ? How many eyes ? ^.r ...d, .„h. buuert., show ,h, H i. . ^. ,^, „^^ ^__^^^J IV. The Butterfly. bu«X°st:rd'rco«iJ!i:d'f ''^ t^ ^«™«— ^ -^ teacherWins to stuTth^tns^rast B^'"'' ""'"^ * V. OomiMulsoii. buSZe/ti'd' mo*?. """ ''™^'"- -th '"o- of otK _^NoT. ,.-M.„y wo,^ i„^_ y^^ ,_^ ^__^.^^ ^^ pieced I, ,„, fe™,??l,mr'^ *" •'•'»"•«' •'»<> » l«.v» of „p, .„d other on. h.«Tsu'p;;^?f'r.K;^",Uro°„' ST"d"' "" """" °" °f "»<« isfd. ^ '"'• »'■'■ » '•"• « »°* .ttshSy'^rS's Note 4— These larvae eat the leaf-tissue. XVOTE 5.— The body of larva (t\ tk- t. j ... nouth parts-jaws (mIndibMt (2 hJ^Li.'^l' 7^ iu eye» and bki, body, (a) the three pairs of true leL o„ tT fi ! °[''''"'^'"*"e P»rts of thi GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 53 ■ fluid comes to the air it harH^na «r.m.»t.:- .t. I i. boiling to the point when rro^**'""« '" '*"* "'•^ '" ^^^^ »«£«r .^ f- -. »bi«. JSey-^Ss :;;5 ;r ni. dli.".s*.To B. The Butterfly. Jutterfly first observed among the flowers LchlorofoJor carbon bUuTpfideo? i«tUne"'in'^l,T-'""'"^ ^ "''^ ,nide of potassium The-Insf mlT.!; J""'?? •" 0"e or more lumps of i>la.stcrorParis""-the£,Vo™ "f7h'e°ia*? P?*°"» f^*e flower.,? JUpon wh,ch flowers did you see these white butterflies I and report. Note 2. Jhat part of the flower does it use for food ? How does it get the nectar out of the flower ? ITry to observe the butterfly on the flower. I. TheTonfae. [Examine the pinned insect Do you see anv narf r.( N head that might help the insect to get X "ectaT? ^ K a straw in a bottle containing water and ailol the Im^ZLv Ipescribe the tongue. give information. ^ * '''* ^^^^^' »' **>« point, may have EkWd.'" """' '"'^'' " "■'"='' °f 'he tongue on the ^"ni. The Antenna, Describe the antennae. butterfly |t mc »ThS;i.zs^Sir* "'"■""'"■""<""«"'" •»'""•)• iNi •* flT/Djr TO NATVRE-aTUDY. Of what use are the antennae to the butterfly? nr. The Bycf. Where are the tyts of the butterfly situated ? sr^U^"^ "^''^ '^' ^'^ °^ '^^ »"^-' are they large. How many eyes has the butterfly? Direct attention to the top of the head ^D«w the he«l of a butterfly.and mark .he position, Note s. ▼. The Legs. How many legs has the butterfly? w!lZ„'™' ^ ' '""'"•'>' -■* -y °*er numl How are the legs placed ? Does a butterfly use its legs in the s^me way ks a fl Watch closely how it uses iu legs and report. Into how many parts is each leg divided? Draw a leg. oUh!7^'' ^y "' ">* """'""y. ""d 'ho* the positij VI. The Whica. How many wings has the butterfly? How are these wings placed ? Are they all the same size? tm'^ '^" appearance of the wing after it has be What has come off" the wing ? t:!:'S^ ""'^ «""es differ from those of a fl^ QUIDS TO NATURB-aWDT, 06 ►raw it in thii podtion. Tile Bftnnta. '^e over the o^ningTn the fraL^%^^' ""^ ^^^^^^h ^ the food-plant in fhe box s?uffl„ ^""^ "'^[^ °'" ^"^^s neck of the far to prev^'nt"?"^ ^^"'^th.ng around ng into the water. ^ '^^ ^**^* accidentally '^f.'— Sometimes butterfliM k- ,"i '"^earing and sn^! ^ antennas are not known ti. :;^.'iiffi iS-.---; I ^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. THE OEOBOPIA EMPEBOB-MOTH. The caterpillar of this moth is a general feeder. ,, apple-tree is a favorite with it but it is also found feedil on various other fruit and shade-trees. Collect a number of larvae, place them in the breedir cage and have the pupils feed them until they form cocoon. Describe the cocoon, its shape, color, length breadth. Note how it is attached to the twig. Teach the term cocoon. Examine an empty cocoon. Describe the outer wall. Remove this and describe what is underneath. Remove the second covering and describe the inj cocoon. What are the advantages of such an arrangemeiiJ the coverings ? Compare the way in which the fibres are woven at i small and large ends. Open a tenanted cocoon. Describe what it contains. Teach the term chryialit. Watch a moth escaping from the cocoon and desJ what is taking place. At which end of the cocoon does it escape ? How are the fibres softened to allow the moth to the threads aside ? What advantage to the insect is it to have the fiH of one end more loosely woven than at the other end] Which part of the moth is first protruded ? Describe how little by little the entire insect e?ca from the cocoon. Describe the insect in its first appearance. '•^zr^.w: GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 57 )escribe it after its wings are dry. :ompare the insect with the cabbage-butterflv .nM hguish a moth from a butterfly. ^ ^"«erfly and The larvae of other insects should be collected and ated in a similar way to those of fhi • 3eror-moth. ^ °^^ ""^ ^^^ cecropia rhus those of the promethea-moth may be collected I the wild Cherry-tree and those of the^p^yphe^^^^^^ L Obs'^;lrh; *^^^°^^b'"«' grapevin^esTd Tla - mes Observe how the cocoons are fixed on the leaf m the case of the former how the leaf is fixed to the THE BEE. order to get the fall nefit from the study of «• The B«. » ! beehives must be i ewihU »« Jj •. u^ V ^ "** °^^ or fmens of bees are also ne;;dS ^^ '^"^ P"P"^- ^^"""^ The Bee among Flowen. b^'rXe^the t 'h ^'!r^L ^°^^ ^* -^^ °" the E /.? **1^ ^'""^ ^"^ the color of the flowers >d and the order in which they are visited. Make a lof flowers visited by bees. I Imitate the sound made by the bee. When does e'L"}'uh^r7.';'i ^^"^P^^*^ '^ withVhe sounds |e by (^) the fly, (^) the grasshopper. Discover how |.sound is produced in each case. Describe the action of the bee as it approaches dif t flowers. With what is its body frequemircovered ; |s the bee make any use of this powder for kself? |-s It lose any of that gathered ? Observe he ^e as loves from flower to flower. Then follow it home and Ken '''""' ''"'• '"'^^ *^^ "- -' the bL to } :xamme the leg of a bee. Describe the basket the I plrts ^'" '^" "'" '^^ ^' "'''^^' °f «^ch of 58 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 5. Does the bee get anything else out of the floj besides pollen ? j Taste the lower ends of the different peUls, especially of the flowers! quented by the bee. ■ 6. Does the bee eat all the honey it gathers ? \^' it as it goes to and from the hive. Infer the reason | Its activity, and discover how it carries the honey. 7. Observe the bee on a flower too small for it enter. Infer from its actions how it uses its.ton^ With a lens observe the little scales between the ments of the abdomen. If possible observe hov plucks out these scales. What use does it make! them? Introduce the term wax. Where does the bee get wax ? 8. Does the bee ever visit the blossoms of fruit-tra (Observe and report.) At what time of the day dol find the greatest number of bees at work among flow( Infer the reason of this. ^ (i) Draw the different parts of its body. (2) Draw the bee on a flower. (3) Model the bee in clay : thr« rii^>°"7./ HlLrTJrl "P**!"*^ ?' ™«**')- (^' Chest (mzi mreenngi). (f) Head, (rf) Legs (in joints). (/) Cut wines in and pin with tmy pins. {/) EywT 1 \'t '-«« wings in ^ive the term insect and its meaning. Infer why the bee is call« n. Tbe Bee at Home. If possible have a glass plate put fn one side of a 1. Observe any difference in size of the bees ; in I shape of their bodies ; in their legs. Infer the reaso this difference. Introduce the terms gueens, drones, and workers. 2. Draw a bee of each kind and discover the partic kind of work it has to do. Infer the advantage (d ISE^; GUIDE TO NATURB-STVDY. 09 .s'^houithord.'"^ ^'°"' '^'' '^''^"'°" °^^^^'' •" the j. Observe the comparative number of each kind of Observe the worklnir-bee building the cells. Describe Ih^l^^V^^'^'^'r °J ^^'^^ ^°^ •' g^ts the wax off My ; the shape of the cells ; how the single partition , £1*^^/°"^'^ ^^^^ ^"d "^fer from this the skTl lie bee and its intelligence in economizing time and Kid?g1t;1rhl%'^^^^ ^-^^ ^- t^« »>ee by Observe the different uses the bee makes of these L 9[y'^^\^^ to the bee is the honey and pollen red m the cells. Teach the name bee-bread ^ Observe the work of the mother or queen-bee ^ce l?I/i ,'jother-bec. Describe the appearance of cells after the eggs have been deposited i^n^I^''\^^^'^^ '*'^''- ^"^^'' *^<^ '•«ason for the £ toVd ff' ^^n^T''^. ^^^^"'^ the treatment ten to the different kmds of larvae by the nurse-bees. 10. Observe the change that takes place in the larv« scnbe the young bee as it comes out of thecelL How ^he workmg-bees treat it ? Where does it get its fZ t ;• Describe the way in which the queen-bee treats .young queen." and how this new qu^een is pToteSed the young queen dies how do the bees act ? • Observe the way in which bees treat such for- KTs as caterpillars, moths, flies and slugs. 1 'A ■,f- H r.vtes*'.' \ ^ta^XkUr . >^ eo GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. ni. Bees leaving the Old Home. 1. Describe the actions of the mother-queen when hears the first song of the young queen ; observe i attempts to use her sting in order to kill this quee note how she is defeated by the workers. Observe flight from home followed b}' a number of bees • thi appearance as they hang together in a bunch on a vine I branch. '■ 2. Observe how the bee-owner treats these bees a note how actively they proceed to build a new home. IV. The disturbed state of the Old Home. I. Describe the actions of the workers to the nl queen ; the battle between the new queens shoj more than one appear; the action of the workine- towards the fahen queens ; and their loyalty to the queen. ' V. Other Suggestive Lessons. 1. Natural swarming. When? Why? How? 2. Artificial swarming. How to find the queen- 3. Hiving. Comb formation. Brood and the staJ of transition PJoney-collecting and storing. Lar other than that of the hive-bee to be found in the h Wax-moth, an enemy. 4. Harvesting honey ; quantity ; how harvested. 5. Extracting honey (necessary apparatus), stoi and packing honey. 6. Wintering bees. Keeping them fed, warm and and free from all enemies. OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. THE OEASSHOPPEE. ITS STRUCTURE. ei ;^ii!^tr^:'^^;^r'' '^"" ^'^^^^ ^- t^e .^^y of insect. 'S^:!^^^:^^^^^:^^ in the field confine a fe. » light slau ; cover thL whh flv n.Ihn . ''W*' ***''« ''°" Barnes |top with th; netting, ^h^n takr* shSfow*;^ """" '•'«'''*'" *"d cover rth. In it plant both lone and \&.f ^"^ containing a few inches Such a £.ge wU al low^frjf drclr!"^'*^/ -^^^ '^'^^ ^"^ «' 'he ^ssary to the lifl of the g^.ho^r! °" °^ ""'' *'^*='' « absolutely Cteneral Descriptioii. rn^rni^ ^?- &''^^shoPP«r. the shape of the bodv " 1^ fK°^''' Pu^'^^' ^°^ ^^^ head iJlet on the b^v Teach the terms thorax and abdomen i'Suse' ""^^ °" *^ '»^^- Count them and Its Movements. ^- Its Legs. )escribe the legs, their position and parts Comn;.r. hind-legs with the front-leffs with rJ^vAlr. cf iF ^ fV. Its Head. 'escribe the head. Infer why it is so h;,rH r„f ^^ the eyes are so large. Siscover'the^ t o/te^ Its Month. 'Wf' «9 GUIDE TO NATUBS-aiUDY. VI. lU Heck. Vn. Its Wlnci. y.^^T.^ "^^^ ^^^ °"*^'* Pa^'*- of wings are so to. Tn^ \ u "•'*■ P^'*" ^'« ^ dedicate. Delcribe the win the tZ^::J^'^r ^"^^ '" -^^ 4 to the S «i?J^'*' * grasshopper (i) with folded wines (2) w wings spread out for flying. ^ ' ^ -^ 1 Compare its wings with those of a cricket Vm Its Bespintioii. y^TJttf^^^^^^:^:^^''^ What evidences ha ^^ntrtc'tio W;"hX^ ^JsTn^, ^ ^''P^ °" side. How many of these openings are there? qU them m the drawings you have male ^ j wiJSoHorvS '" '^^^•>^'"-» by covering thj Teach the terms j/,^:«a and stigmata, fir^V'iJIf^*^^ microscope observe the opening on fmm''?hi;"i "1' P^J^t'o"' on some of the individui ^ibl"'th'e"u'se"ofI^°' "«= '"^°-"- °--H Teach the term ovipositor. str^ctuTo? tfe P"' '^ °^'"^*^ *^ ^^^* ^'^t^nt b2^ he hoL fl ^'^f'^'P?^' agrees with that of i GUIDE TO NATURBSTUDY. m I. ObMrvations for Advanced Olaas. Immerse a partially anesthetized form in alcohol observe that small bubbles of air are expelled from stigmata. The contraction of the body will force Ibbles of air, which can readily be seen by the child. km the openmgs on the abdomen and thorax. Remove 3art of the body near these openings ; with needles fc out and examine under a microscope the spirallv- bund trachea. r j In. Remove the crystalline covering of the compound- •e and examine part of it under a microscope. Make iwmgs representing the appearance. Explain that ch of the hexagonal spaces represents a single eye. THE POTATO-BEETLE. I Into a box-an empty chalk-box will do-put an inch or two of soil. 1 ,..«„%"."*• ''"^l" °^*egs ; place them in the box ; cover the top |1. a pane of glass. When the eggs hatch feed the larve with fresh leav«S 01 ten as necessary. I Pupils should, if possible, study the beetle in the potato- I The Bgf. On which side of the leaf are the eggs found ? Describe the cluster, also a single ^gg. Into what do the eggs develop ? J How long is it from the time the eggs are laid until |ey hatch out? U The Lanra. Describe the larva. How does the larva eat ? i low long does the larval state continue ? When the larvae are transformed what becomes of I'ln ? •* GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. Describe the pupa. How long does it continue in the pupal staae ? I grottn^^r^^^^-^^^oungheeL'l^^^^^^^ pot"°o"bi:S!/^ '' "^'^^^ '' ^— a fully-develop bee";?: w"h liiLTtKr'"^ °' ^'^ ^""^-^-^o, IV. The Beetle. .__ Describe the beetle, its covering, its color and ™ark th.X° of tch"'"^"'" >"''' of '■'» '-'y -d descril areXSt^^; "^ " ' O" ^^-h Part of the bo dj Describe the head, eyes and jaws. the hS;"' '^" "'* "'°- °f the grasshopper a j Draw the head and eyes. Describe the legs and feet membranous wing. ^ ^ ^^^ ^^^ ^"d discover thj Observe how the beetle flies Infer the u.^ofthe hard wings. Describe the under parts of the body Discover how the insect breathes. Draw a fully-grown beetle in various positions. aUIDB TO NATVRBSTUDY. 66 jExamine the mouth of a beetle. jinfer how it eats. ICompare its mouth with that of the butterfly and bee lObserve the amount of leaf eaten. jinfer whether the potato-beetle is injurious or other- [se to the potato-plant. I Discover other kinds of beetles. Note the different habits of each kind. (Make notes and drawings of each kind THE TBILUXTIC. 1 1. The Home of the Trilliam. The teacher will show a trillium feteT, and"".!""""" ""' *'^ "" '°-"'— >• I Each pupil has a plant in hand. Describe the place where you collected your plant Describe the position in which the plant grew If necessary introduce and teach the term erect. I n. Parts of the Plant. J Show and describe the different parts which make the vll^^!"' '"'=''" '''» «'- '"^^ »'«-. root, roct-stock. sten,, ' in. Boot and Root-atock. Describe the underground -parts. Make a drawing of these parts. 5 66 OUIDE TO NATURE^STUVT. n "' How were these parts protected during the winter? M rec«,„ from ,he g,«„ f^ „„„ „, f^ . autumn ""* '""'••Sround paru late in tj w.-tte"ai''ob^"^^r the^'r-" "«? ■•""- "«- early bloomi-j rf'S.e tiVum. ^""^^ ^"'"'" ^'" "^ !▼■ TlMBtan. D«eribe the stem of the trillium. Draw it What are the uses of the root-stock ? and gSm'" ^""" °' "^ '"'«•«". "ap'e. butterc. Introdua and teach the terms /^ and ArrW«„ totem''Tt£e1„Xrttf,"'^^«-^ cnc. in hark and L" tai^^jgrlTrth^tq diaJ^Te!:nTrcrX're,'Ze'^i^^ \ the colored fluTd P"^"^ "'^ "«= movement ^ V. The Leaves. arran^Vo^Thllr^ ^ ** '"■"'■"■» ' "<>« - tH, Introduce and teach the term whorls. ;**.» OmDB TO NATURE-STUDY. 07 JOn what part of the stem are they situated ? fc ^^^'^ -^ "P ^^-^^ the P^^^^ -^^^ enables Hold a leaf up to the light, and looking through it bscnbe the netted appearance ^ Introduce the terms biadt, vein and netted-veined. J Draw a leaf. I Note 4. VI. The Floww. I What is the color of the flower ? Who have flowers of a different color ? Trillium, of different colon majr be brought to the cUu. Is every part of the flower of the same color ? How many parts are white? Draw one of these white parts. Describe it Where o»„»enient the child may cut the* form, out of white paper Give the name petal. Direct attention to the green parts of the flower. Distmguish between the green leaves of the flower nd the green leaves of the stem. How many green leaves has the flower? Draw and describe a green flower-leaf Give the name sepal. Compare sepal and petal. fbove? '' *' "'P"' "'''' **'""' »"•* "'« P^'"' «■'« ' 70 V f ^^! GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. ni. The Bnd« Davelopiiif , Observe the buds developing Draw it in its swollen state Discover thi ^~>2 „ ,h^ =. " """'*'■ »"<< P<>«'i" ■ea^in the ,„r.!rd oute^who'r'"'"' °^ *<^ ^^ while thoHe^t are lon^,^^!^ *"'' *'<='' ^n'' '™^ texture, and .helnrr-S^g^a-n'S T^t^ 'A fT . /.V \ • ^'^'^ '^^ inner pair of Ieavf*e /'y.^ «.i,^ »ul they fell. ^ ^^""""^ °^ ^^« scales, and infer wt Teach terms lea/let and w/^/n^. IV. The Leaf. ^^"t u^i-j,° /;:: ^^t^ ^^^ „u.ber of p. Draw a leaf in different positions. V. The ••Thick" Buds. Examine the " thick " hnri- r*- or fat." Describe th^f in, discover why so « thii Infer whatT is and wSv ^^^^'^"^ ""^^ '" '^^ ^^'^' around it when it is deXing.'""" ^'""" "'^" " GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. n I. The Markiafs in the Twic ^-shoe marks, also for the rings of scale-leaves lontinue the observations of the tiny grape-like cluster jug May and early June. ^ cluster \l !!°''^:^^«stn"t bud illustrates in a marked wav r Nature protects her children. '"drKea way THE MAPLE-TWIO, PLOWBR AND PBUTP fefrom\P"Pi-*^ ^''^^ ^ maple-twig broken by Imtion P^"*'""^^^ ^--^^ ^hich he ha! selected fo^ The Markinci *nd Their Sicniflcance. i^hat markings are found on your twig? jhow the bud-scale scara [Imw the part which grew last year. |)escribe the other markings. nfer the cause of these marks lake a cross-section of the part which grew last year f^necessary the term cros^-section shoul.l be taught. ^ describe the cross-section. '^ith a pin or sharp-pointed knife examine the central p>nipare this part with the layer next to it i ti GUIDE TO NATURR-STUDY. Peel off the outer part. Using a lens compare the cross-section of a ste,,- year old with that of a stem several years old Make longitudinal sections of parts of twius of \ m ages ; compare them and draw them. n. The Kedollary Sayi. rfli!?*'*"^ *n^ radial markings to be .seen in the I .„o dmal as well as m the cross-sections of the twigs " Where are they found ? Give the term medullary rays, ateutTem.*^ ""^ '" "" '""'"""y '^^^ *'" in. TIi« Lflotiecls. tw^^'*"'"'*' '''*' '^*'''' '^^'''^ ^'^ ''^""^ '■" ^he barj How are they formed ? How are they arranged ? Give the term lentictl, IV. TlM Bark. Make a cross-section of a twig of basswood. twj'"'^*''*' '*""' <^'*"ss-section with that of the ^^^^ its partr"*" '*''' ^'^ ""^ '^' basswood-twig to d.scj ^Discover if the maple-twijr has the same part. i« mI:;^:'^' '""' °^ ''"'^ '^^'^ ^-« ^"-^^ aUJDB TO NATt/RB-STUDY. 79 Make a cross-section and a longitudinal section of the ms of the tulip and adder's tongue and as soon as SMble make similar sections of the stems of Indian 'n and asparagus. lake a drawing of these sections. :ompare them with similar sections of the maple- :ontrast the arrangement of the woody part in the bm of the Indian corn and in a branch of the maple. When trees and shrubs are in full leaf discover where ere is much sap in the branches. Infer where growth is taking place. I Give the terms exogrfns and endogens. I Advanced pupils will be interested in observing the following- 1(1) The development of the medullary rays j(3) The bast and parenchyma cells of the inner bark. V. The Airaogement of the Buds. Point out the position of the various buds. Give the terms terminal and lateral buds. Mnr ^*^^ *^'*"^'"** ^"^ '^"'^ discover into what it is k>nrthr^tem''' '" "^''^ '^' "'" '^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^"^^^ I Compare this arrangement with that of the leaves of ther trees in the neighborhood, as the horse-chesinut [m, basswood and beech. *«=^i"ui, ^^^r»f' ''^^ 'i"-^ ^^'^''^' ^""^^ °" t*^^ stem of last years f-outh and discover what they will become. );crvl''fKr?'t ^^T '^'^'^M.^P' ^"^ ^^^ ^*^^"" advances Jscrve the lateral, or axillar>' buds. llou does the new stem differ from that of la.st year? ( 'inpare the structure of the new stem with tha» of a inilower or flax. 74 OUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. VI. The Flower. Examine the flower-cluster i VIL The PruJt. Watch the development of the fruit Give the term ^O'. or .a«ar* Uraw a maple-key Find a sprouting maple-seed Vm. Tha iMt. Where do the new twigs grow? Of what use are twigs to trees? Count the leaves on a single branch. ,^ D,scover how the twigs are enabled to support .1 ^.Try to discover how twigs are able to resist gust,. , Jh^ollcin, «P'-e„. ,„, M, ,„ .^„, „, ^^^_ __^_^^ ^^^^_^^ ^^ ;?'"«™Bl'> by mean, „r „ clu,^i„^' ; i™™ '""'I' ihesame r. thM before, r.i„ ,h, ^^ J? "^'^ ^^^ «nd by ., jerk, e,e„ „„„ J„ OUIDE TO NATUBB-araDT. *HB APPLE-IWIO. 76 2. Compare branches of different ages. ^ ^f'^^t^ a branch showing two years' growth. Ob- nc the difference n the markings of the two years' 'owth. and discover if possible the cause of the difference 4 Examine the terminal bud. Observe the bud unfold* s io?o?the"i:; ""' '^' '"'^ '^"^*^^- observe the .sition of the leaves. Compare new buds forming in le axils of the leaves with older buds ^ ove^ttT n^ ^^^^""?'"' ^""^"^ '^^* y^^' ^"d the buds ove them. Discover into what these buds will de- Teach tenns /a/.n,/. a^^ry and /^,Wif pupil, have not had them •vcr why these develop much more readily than do iose lower down. Discover also why some ar^dormant an ^theT' ^^ '"""^ °^'^' ''''^' ^''''' '^ "^"<^h longer ^arl growTf '^''""'^ °"'' ^'^ ^ *'^'& °f ^^^t Observe the broken ends on some of the twi^s or I aL f^und^'r """'' ^'t ^^^ °^ ^^^ part on ^fhich W whv th^H-S""" *hese broken ends with buds. ^tover why the difference. Do any of these ends >Pcar as terminal ? Infer the reason. Tftich the name Jruii-sturf, J f OVIDE TO NATUBBSTUDY. Hi"'Si-;->' ■■Steffi; m^SVofXS""' *'*''■'»«" 'PP"' • 'P«i.l .nd p^aubl. ^, „„, apples each bore fO th^ '%*??%« "-e number' year. (4) wherTh.^bl'XrS.^'„':e ™t'»e f "" o^' ^ "k"" \PP'" <■«" before the^'te're tllvT a^/ittnTr^JTh-'teac^^^^^^^^^^ were injured and laTeralbujjT' l^'""? '"•■"'"»' b" <9) accidental markings of any kSf'**' '"'° '""«•''" 14. Make drawings of tl,e different parts of the bran MB APPLE. work IS process and effort. N^-,h, !, -2 "*"* ^•'''"dalUccomp,,.! himif''from'a'trel"v'"= ^'""^ ■«" - W'e taken the tr«"f:t' J'^rd "yoS'li" ^'^^ ^™*' Des.ri your appie. Discteo^'fj^Cen^^P'^ thttre' aUIDE TO NATURK-8TUDT. everything ,n nature, is the best way to Hvi I'-^olT^l^i^^^^ g«ft. the beautiful point of 4. How long does it take the apple to grow? 5. How old are apple-trees before they begin to bear ? 6 How does the tree get itself ready for fruit-growing? Ehcu from obsenrations mvle heretofore • ^ (a) The work of the different part, of the tree in orfer that it maygrow (Note the kind of help each of the abore give.. ) I U) The help pven through man's cultivation. I S'o?';^«riL7nS.^'''* P^^"***"* •'^^ '^^^ -d destruc 7. Describe your apple, its color, shape, hollows, size. / ^ 8^ D^escnbe the stem. Discover why it is so hard and ^rZt^'^l^!'^,^^^^^^^ - nourishment bings. J ^ ^''o '"* *'"y ^"ed thread-like I 13. How can you tell when an apple is rir^? nr rnat use is th«» c lb me skm ? the fleshy part or pulp ? S 14 Cut your apple crosswise. Draw one half ck »lor. What does the color of the seed indicate? I* OCriDB 70 NATITKBSTUDT. pockets, their central M-itJ?"': .?««">» these J placed in the cen?reX thrir inMh th" "PPj' ('"f" H tough walls, so smoilh aid !hf„y' ^' *""*• **«> '7: Wm"ne°L""""='"''° •"'-<'• nature? Examine thf^, '"ft.T''""^ protected i ness. Discover how thisTalm, ^ ''°*"' "^ """'li 18. Observe sev^^Hi Protection to the seed. ' pare theirTualit?^""'' *'^'"™' '''"ds of apples. Cc« Note.— ^ (*) How to .tore them. ' W)^!^''''"*^°^"PP'-f''^ 'hipping. I/) Cultivation of wU in orchard.. IHB OODUKO-MOTH. '•7^^"^^^^^ -»-ed a larva of- Describe it E^e your ^^^^^^^^ Observe the in S' sible how it got in o fhf *PP^^ ^"^ discover if pos^ the apple? S?me applesVo^^^^^^^ ^'^ '^ So ^ made their homes in them nj-^ u^ °^'"'*^^*^ ''^^ Observe the brown castl In^er hril°^ '^^^ ^^^ °"1 eye or stem of the apple ^""^ '^^>' ^^^ in at th^ how '^XtjZ'^^:^^^^^^^^^ al^ut thelarva .J » nk^ , "^ spend the rest of its h'f#» I ^Observe the different means taken to, des';; -J OUIDE TO NATURB-STVDY. f 4. Draw a part of an apple showing the tunnel made [by the larva. Draw the larva and the moth. There are generally two broods of codling-mothi. The first brood de- Do,.ts eggs in (he b!o«om. As the apple develop, it bores irto the app e Z^i-""' Z'l^' "J' ^""y B"'own and iSves the apple-!,2 i cocoon-seeking shelter wherever it can. In about two H«ks the moth ( api^ear^ Thu brood generally deposit, egg. in the eye of thVapple! WOOD. Study of til© strnetim Mid growth of wood with the for- mation of the grain. Provide each pupil with cylinder, of pine, maple, oak, etc., which have been cut from small trees with a fine saw, and with a part of the Krk Some should be split and the wirface polished. Each pupil should have a simple lens. There dioald be »1«) a com. pound microscope and a set of bench tooU. •"" «« ««o a com- L Kind of Wood. What is the material of which each block is com- posed r From what kind of a tree has each been taken > (Write the name of the kind of tree on the block.) Examine and describe the different surfaces of the pine block. Teach names fuartwood^ sapwood. Compare the surfaces of the other blocks, noting re- semblances and differences. Examine the circular surfaces of the pine-block more closely. What is there in common about both areas? Infer the way in which these rings have been formed, and the reason why the two areas are of different colors. During what season of the year does a tree grow ? What conditions of the growing-time are the most favorable for growth } Infer then the reason why some of the rings are thickc • tl an othcfs. 80 OUIDB TO HATURBSTUDY, In all probftbilitv • li*.i. • ^ ' I^nte"^ ?r :h'^fe'5? „"« -•-'- -'face, Tryr to split thi. hi Ju • "*"* *''^ *^*^'«d rays. strong knifr ^ ^^^^ ^" ^*"«"^ directions using a Along what lines do the block, •,.1;* l^y .0 split .he blocic ^th^„:,f' '"°« "«•'>" difficX^sA' '""* """"'^ "«' "P'-n «hy it ua. Cut slabs from the cylinders. «oI';-„g^?'^X« «- on the split surface, be. thcpinl tX ^a f^t^: "^ ^""^ -<' ^-P- (. TO. ,^n.r „, u,«. ri^ i„^ (4 Th. pmence o, .hK,.« of knoo. Cut sor^T^h' "™"' °"'" '™«''»«^ f«.n. these in%^Zu7l^ ''ZT'''"1 "»''• "'^ the several cases. ^ ^ Compare the graining in Which do you consider the most handsome grains? aUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. 81 ^Mt the different woods. Which arc hard to cut and lo ork ? Which are easy to cut and to work ? Polish the surface by rubbing the slabs with fine sand- jper. From your observations suggest uses for the different kinds of wood and discover why they are thus used. The odt, for exampV-, has wood that takes a high polish : theeraininif is Encourage pupiU to study and make collections of different kmds of wood for themselves. TEE POTATO. Observations are to be made in a potato-patch when the planU are in m,ous stage, of development. Have al«, tubem. young ani ol " ,n th" I. Plaatiiiff. Observe how the ground is prepared before the pote- toes are planted. Observe how potatoes are cut for planting. What must be on each part ? How deep in the ground are potatoes planted ? What is the proper time for planting ? Dig up plants at various stages of development and observe how the roots spread. Distinguish the roots from the underground stems. Determine how many tubers form on each under- ground stem ^ What is the use of heaping earth around the growing U. Th« Flower and Tnit. Observe on what part of the plant the flower is found. Describe the flower. Draw it 6 A r- ?;v :1 Viai**."-"*"*^ -*rt »•?»'. V -^'^1'^ MIOtOCOPY RESOlUTiON TIST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 1^ 12^ ISO ^^" IK IS u ■luu 14.0 2.0 1.8 ll.h E A APPLIED IM/IGE Inc 1655 East Main Street Rochester, Near YorK 14609 USA (716) +82 - 0300 - Phone (716) 268 -5989 -Fox 82 OVIDBTO NATVnB-STUDT. Observe the fruit if it can be found, describe and draw it Into what does it ripen ? Distinguish between a tuber and the fruit than'rhrSe?^ =" P°'«° "' P""^ of one is planted rather ^^Compare with the growth of onions fron, seeds and ni. The Tuber. vigorous ^^'"^ P^'^ °f ">= fber the buds are most <^^^!Z.t^ '•""' -* 'hose on sten,s growing ofwlr':;d^I^^f&/'°<'ine in an ounce or two potato. ^P *° *^^ ^'-eshly cut surface of a Observe what takes place. ■•^ £- fSrtht;-?;^ J?-\e color reaction (bi.e, Why is the potato a valuable food? them mtoboUing water to c^k. ^"'^ ^'"'"^ them cook and putting THE OAT. ^^^^^f^^:L:riL ?°^^ ^- thereat and dri, . ; them; their various moveSts? as wdknJ°"'^'?^". ^°^ '''O" who caefo lessons are given. ^ ^' ***^' ^^^^'^ a cat m school at the time the GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 83 I. Its t'ood and Drink. What kind of food and drink does the cat like? How does it get meat off a bone? How does it drink milk ? II. The Month, Teeth and Tongne. Notice how far back its mouth is extended. Infer the purpose of this to the cat. Examine the teeth and infer the purpose of the four lonff ones near the front of the mouth. Draw the open mouth of a cat. Examine the tongue. Use a lens and discover why the tongue is rough Give the cat a bone with very little meat on it ; observe It eatmg ar^ infer the use of the roughness of the tongue to the cat. Draw the tongue. Note how the cat laps its milk. Compare the ways in which cats and dogs eat. m. Its Eyes and Eyesight. Examine the eyes— note the lids and the shape of the pupil m light and in darkness. fk^^uMj ^^^ "P ^^^ ^ ^^°^ *'"^® *" ^ ^^^^ place and let the children observe the eyos on being brought into the light and for a short time alterwards. What change has taken place in the pupil of the eye? Infer the use of the enlarged pupil in the dark, the^d^lk^^^ ^ye as it appears {a) in a strong light, {b) in IV. Its Whiskers and Peeling. Touch the whiskers of the cat and observe how sensi- tive they are. Trail a piece of meat tied to a string along the floor, and observe how the cat carries its head when following It ; also the position of the whiskers. 84 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. ]^nfer the use of the whiskers to the cat. V. Its Ears and Hearing. Examine the ears. Note their shape and position. Discover why they are placed where they are Scratch with a pin near the cat. ^ Observe its actions. VI. Its Peet and Claws. Examine the feet. eac^^i^lh'e^u^^^^^^^^^^^^ toes on and their shape DiscovirTh '^ '^^'^ ^''^ ^'■^"^^ed, and why they^an b^rpll sharp^ "^'^ °^ *^« ^^--' dimbs. ^^ ^ P°'^ °*' t'-^e- Describe how it Vn. Its Legs and Joints. Examine the legs. Notice how the fore-legs are hinged to the body the°pX» *•= ''^' ""■■""'•'^ of '■' «>e joint^^d infer ground ?" ''"'■"■°" '^ '"^ f°^-'^g -hen the paw is on the Draw it in this position of \t «f ^'^^'' °f '"- P°-«on upon the movements obfe^ranfoS^V^TfHeZ it ™'l^ "' f^.-f"" ' " posT^las^L'ri';s''!ftl';V°" =■"" o"-- *« "'' GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 85 Notice (a) how close the body is to the ground (b) the movements of the legs as itSteals fomard '(^f the quickness with which it springs, and {d) th^ way in V hich It grasps the ball. ^ Discover if possible why cats are so attracted by moving objects. -^ Vra. Its Prey. Teach the term prey. Discover upon what the cat preys. Observe how it catches its prey and how it treats the prey after being caught. Point out how the legs, the claws and the teeth of the cat are spec-ally adapted to its habits. IX. Its Covering. Examine the covering of the cat. thJnf iV^t ^i^^^^«"^/ between the outside part and that next to the body of the cat ? f ^ lon^'f T' "^^7 ^J^. '^'^"-' P^'^ "^^t the body takes so long to dry after being wet. Infer why the cat dislikes water. ^^ Notice the change in the covering during the early Infer the reason for the change. X. Its Tonng. Observe how the cat treats its kittens, (a) when t^^"^/i^^''"'/^ u^^"" ''•"'"•"^ ^h^'"' (^) ^h^" washing them (^ and when protecting them from danger as from dogs, {e) and when carrying them. it/kSen"!^^^^^' '^^ ""^^ ^^ ''°"'*^^^ ^""^ affection for an^ther""^ ^°*^ '^^ carrying its kittens from one place to 86 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. XL Its Lancuage. ill. Its Habits. Observe a cat after eating. Describe how it cleans itself Observe it when asleep it7-',r,t '"^^ ^"^ '^ f-'' °f -Tm.h or not of the slightest dancer ft f. Ik "' \'*^ «ceedingly sensitive "Th. senses i„ ttTcat. ' """ ^'''-""S - better developed than any of the other THE DOMESTIC BABBIT. I. Its Pood. ^""' '"■»''«■ Discover what kind of foorf H,. uu- grasses, carrot-tops cahhl„ i ''*'''"* relishes. Trv stumps of cabbJeturni^s*^;"™'' '"'"'^<=' "■'■•ots, i the day do the/feed"S &'?''" ^' """ "■">' '■' D.scover what the rabbit lil.J.o drink. OUWE TO NATUliE-srUDY. gj Describe how it drinks and compare its manner of [drinking with that of the cat. '^^ mannu ol ' Note I. II. Its Home. Why are the rabbits kept in a house or cage ? Allow them freedom and observe their movements. Where do they hide themselves ? Notice how they burrow. m^nf '?^ ^r 9^y "^"^^^^ *^^ ea»-th. noting the use made of the fore-feet and of the hind ones. III. Its Movements. toI^t^Vbtr'"' ^'" ''' ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^-^ - ''"'e room How does it move its legs in zvalking? Compare this movement with that of the cat Let the rabbit loose in a room or yard Observe how it moves when not frightened Describe how it hops. Frighten the rabbit when it is in the yard Notice how it jumps. act'Sjumpfnl. '"°'""^"' °' "'^ '"'"''■'^g^ -"en in the How far does it jump ? placeT ""^"^ ^"-^^ ^^ '^" '"^^^•^ ^^^^•"& f'-^"^ place to Discover which is its favorite way. Note 2. IV. Its Structure.-(l) The Head. " '■ ^t'shor"'^' '^' "''^- ^''^^^^ "^^'^^^•- '^ '^ l°"g Notice the shape of the head and its size. 88 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. {^)Ears. Where are the ears on the head? ^'^ It .^^"f^' '^" P^^'^'«" «f the eyes infer the advantage to the rabhit JZ'- Observe how the rabbit turns its l L' ^"'■"" is made behind it ^' ''>'^'' ^^^" » .x.ise Discover whether its eyesight is keen r with the cat's. ^ ^^"- Compare (^A^ Co^pa. the.V po.,,o„ and len^hSLof "^ ^S^t iPp^^^ "•« ">• Note an, peculiarities Give the term hare-lip. is) Jaws. Observe the diffpr^^f jaws. How man V mo "movements of the Jaw? De^crilJ^Te ^rbuTmo '" ^'^ "^^'^^^ lower jaw. Infer the ,^1 ? "movements of the (/^) Teeth Fv.n, !u °^^^^^"^°^^"^ent ^ ) Jeem. Examine the teeth of a rabbit Compare with the teeth of a cat or of a child "::chTa7p^^"^ ^^'--^-^^^pec^ teet/Lf ;! What is next to these teeth ? Where are the broad flat teeth placed? How many of these an- f i,- • ^ ^° ^ y ui unese are there in each jaw? in GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 89 Infer the use of each kind of teeth ^^^rfnTr^^u^^^'* ^^^'"^ ^ ^^'■'•^t «'• cabbage-leaf and infer the purpose of the cleft upper-lip Examine an incisor tooth of a dead rabbit with a to^rl^T'*^'" ""^'"^ '' ^^^ h^'-^^'- part of the tooth, the front part or the back part '"teefrs'har^'^ ^""^ gnawing tends to keep these Draw the head. (2) Its Feet and Legs. hin^dtVs!"" ^''''°" ^"^ "''" °^'^^ ^°^^-^^S^ ' ^J^° °f the hirSl^gr ^^^ '''^ ^""^ '^"^^ °^ "^°^'°" ^'^ 'h^ ^°^« a"d How many toes are on the fore-foot? Describe a fore-foot. Describe the fore-leg. Point out the parts of a hind-leg. Describe each part. Infer why the rabbit can jump so well. Describe a hind-foot. Note the number and position of the joints in each le- hoppS.^^'^ *^^'^ •'°'"^' "^'^^ '^°'^ °^ th^ ^at and grass- Draw a fore-leg, also a hind one. (3) The Body and its Covering. What is the shape of the body ? Compare its size with that of a full-grown cat. Notice the covering. 90 GUIDE TO NATUIiE-STUDY. Describe it. Is there any part without fur? Observe the color. V. Its Habits and Disposition, tio^arsumed.' "''^^ "'^^" ^^'"^ ^-"- Note the posi- Where and how are the legs placed? How does it hold its ears then ? Are the eyes tightly closed when asleep? Compare its way of sleeping with that of a cat or do, Draw It when it is asleep. Observe its position when sitting. Draw it in this position. Observe the rabbit clean itself. Describe how it washes itself. Compare its mode of washing with that of the cat Observe a number of rabbits together Note what they do to and for one another. Note whethe. they are gentle or rough. Give one a cabbage- leaf. Note whether it is selfish. ar/S*lLTd""" ""^ °' ^^"'"S '"f^' ""ether .hey Infer whether they appreciate kindness. How do they show that they are trustful and grateful? Observe them playing te^ether. Describe their actions while playing othemise"''*"'" ""^ ''*'''"' ''' '"""""'' *° ^ '°^'^' <" "thX-n^P 'wVt'rit?.rrp..f -" -"'- ■; on 'ittic OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 91 Note 2. -In jumping the hind-legs are in advance and outside the fore- t«t. I he rabbit covers about one yard at a jump. . !'"^''v^lJi '']" ^^ •*"'"'^'' '° '**°*' V^a\XTts of rabbits in their wild su e. Wood's descnpt.o.1 of "The Rabbit at Home." as given in hU Natural History, may be read to the class. t. ^ »« nu Note 4-— The habits and disposition of rabbits can only be explained bv knowing that they did not always live a domestic life ; that they have manv enemies, as hawks and owls, wolves and foxes, wildcats and weasels etc • and that their only protection against their enemies is furnished by their THE HEN. A hen and chickens can be kept in a coop in the school-yard, or thev can be brought to school in a box covered with slats. A number of heads and legs which butchers usually chop off may be procured. These should k well washed. A stuffed specimen is very useful. A hen should be set in a quiet place some time before the observation of the eggs and chicks is undertaken. When possible pupils should also observe hens at home. I. Eating. Discover what kind of food the hen will take. Feed her grain, bread, bits of meat, and observe her finding food for herself or her chickens. How does she get food out of the ground ? Infer her use in this respect to the farmer. Examine the bill of the hen to discover how it is adapted to pick up grain. Describe the bill and draw it. Discover whether the hen has teeth. In addition to food what else does the hen sometimes swallow ? There may be no answer to this question, in which case show a cizzard open It, explain its use, and have the use of the small pebbles inferred' Aid pupils m this by suggesting that they grind a few grains of wheat between two flat stones. ""cai Show the crop and have its use inferred. n. Drinking. Give the hen some water and observe how she drinks. Why does she raise her head when she drinks ? fef 92 ol'IbE TO NATt/Rf-srUDr. m Th* OoTariaf . Select featliers from different nart« nf .i,_ i. . serve a large quill-feather fmm ,^ ■ "'=,'»^y- Ob. the c«,tra/s/mTflT,h^, . the w.ng and note :-( , ) (5) the CS' ^^ ° """• <^> ""= '""'■ (4) the iTr/J. ^lr.r::::'''"^'^'<'"«'-f-hersout, fea^h'^rs g\o:i„g." " """= '"°"'""e """ ""serve the new Teach the term pin-feather co^n^roTattrfJ^r'"- -•"' »"' change of IV. Care of the Feathers. fea?heS.' *' ^"""^ '° *^'°^^' •«>" *"« hen cleans her Describe her actions when doing this wa^;rr1ndi.^^X:rr?nrS^^^^^^^^ infer'^e^'rp^s^r"' arrangement of the feathers and V. Plight Observe how a hen gets on her roost l^nghten her and observe her fly anJinK: S^eTfl^^",^ °^ ^^^ ^^^^^ '" the wi,; ^^Ilhmrate by cutcin,, pieces of paper with teeth so that they may at aUWE TO A'ATlJJiK-STUjJY. 03 VI. Feet. Kx.iminc the feet of a hen. Describe these as to shajxi, position of the toes, number )f toes, protection of toes. "umocr L)raw the foot. Observe the hen walking, scratching and roostinL^ I noting the form of the toes in each of these '''°'^'"^' I'f .r'S-V^'^ ^""^ °^ ^ ^^" ^"d discover why she docs not fall off her roost when asleep. ^ Draw the bones of the leg and show the position of the hgament which bends the toes when the weight of the body rests on the bent leg. vvci^nt oi me Vn. Hearing. How do you know a hen can hear? Examine the head of a hen to discover its ears Describe their position and appearance. VUI. Smelling. Discover the nose of the hen. IX. Seeing. and Sr",^si«o:''" '"" '''^°'" ""= ■"•"■"- "' "d^- Describe and draw an eye. X. The Language of the Hen. Observe sounds made by the hen when she calls her : bTeLf Vrn ' "'^" ^'^ l^ ^"'^^'"^ them folded int" ner breast by her wmgs ; when she has laid an een ■ when she is disturbed on her nest ; when a cat or do- ^"s interfermg with her chickens. ^ " reel&tK'aTthelfml'^^"^ ^^""'^^'^"^ ^"^^^^^^ XI. The Nest. ml!tTJ\Z^u^iV'''' r"*'^ ^^^'■^ 't '^ built, the material of which it is made, the use to which it is put. 94 GUIDE TO NATUUE-STUDY. ZH The£gg. Observe the shape and size. Draw an egg. shoJTdr^otr "^'^ P"'"'™ '" » "-' -f" why CKgs ob?^:'t z°^^. I'ji.lts.""'" =* ''^'^ "^ '-^ -^^ -^ Note the contents and their position. Teach the terms albumen and yolk. detet ''""' *' '"°*"-''^" •■«d'' it and how she Zm. The Usos. whefdeld ""' °' *^ ''^" '° "■"" W '-hen ahVe,(*) THE ROBIN. thelon'tnterPnnl'^rrJ'r^ ^''"^^ *° ^^^""^ '-^^er retumfnd to not. iT f ""^"^ ^ ^'^^^ *° ^^^^^ fo-" '^s bi d In contrnufni ^1,'^- '■'''^?''^''"^ °^ ^^'^ interesting r^ood reoa^r " i^ the mvest.gation a last year's nest m gooa repair and a stuffed bird will be helpful. I. Its Eeturn. ear?y :pTng.''' '""= °' *^' ^^'"'" °' '"e first robin in ,he ^^ Register it and compare it with the time other birds Describe the marle shape of (2) r-4^ Teeth. Examine the teeth. Where are they situated? ro<;^te?tTf o'tes .ttr ^-^ -''"-^ ■•" (3) ^-^ Tongue. whrr:retv,-r '^ "'' '•--'-<'-■ Drawtheopermoutt of thf f "''""^ ""' *°"Sue. and the teeth.' ""^ ''"S- "'^"'ing the tongue tongu^ to the'ct"'" '"^ """^ ^"'^•""g - ='"g draw the (4) The Eyes. f5i'nroVf^„st''d\ot^Th?r:r 'i^r^^--'" '"= hds are there ? Where ar^ Ihl u "°^ "^^"X e> c- serve the shape o7tt7up^&,:|:f ™n «« , 3.- (5) The Nostrils. D^cover whether the frog can hear. Where is the ear-drum placed ? GUIDE TO NATUliE-STUDY. 101 {b) The Legs. Examine a fore-leg. Of how many parts is it composed ? How many toes are there ? Draw a fore-leg. Examine a hind-leg ; note the parts of which it is nec"ted """'^' ""^ ^°^' ^""^ ^""^ ^^^^^ ^'"^ *^°"- Contrast a fore and a hind-leg.' Draw a hind-leg. {c) The Skin. Observe the general shape and appearance of the frog. Where is the neck of the frog? Note the color of the upper surface of the head and DciCK* « the^y^^ *^^ ''°^°'' °^ *^^ "PP^' ^""^ ""'^^'' surfaces of color ^fl'tdy.'"" "''^'^^ ^'^ '^°^ ^^" ^^^"^^ *^« Infer the purpose of the color and color-markings. Discover whether the skin is sensitive or not. in. Its Movements. Notice how the frog sits when at rest. Draw it in this position. When on land how does it move from place to place? What particular feature of its structure fits it for this kind of movement ? Observe a frog swimming. pri^fT °"! '"i^^ ^""^ °^ swimming, when the hind-legs are tully extended. ** Note the peculiarities of structure that fit the froe for swimmmg. ^ 102 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. IV. Its Breathing. What process is indicated by these actions ? V. Its Home. Discover where frogs are commonly found What do they eat at this time? Give the term hibernate. VI. Its Language. Imitate the sounds made by the frog quFnlly LIrdf """= °' '"= ''^' '= '"e sound most fre- VII. Its Spawn. Describe the mass of eggi, ^^f^^""'"^ a single egg. Describe it. Draw it What are the first signs of life observed in the eggs? VIII. The tadpole. bre^ks'"^' '^' ''""'"'" '^^' ^^"^^^ «"^ °f -n egg as it How does it swim ? you r;fi;5^rhl'- ^•'"^- ^^^^^^^^ ^-^ ^pp-^^^- Discover what the tadpole eat«? Trxr .'noo^* hr*>nH or^oii i. ^ '^"'jp^ic cdcs. 1 ry msects, worms, Dread, small water-p ants, etc. » » . OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. IO3 Describe the changes which gradually take place in the tadpole as it develops. Which disappears first the tail or the gills ? Which develop first the fore or the hind-legs ? Introduce the term metamorphosis. Draw tadpoles illustrating various stages in their development. Note I.— Place one of the tadpoles on a piece of glass with a little water, and examine the gills with a microscope. The How of the blood can be readily seen. Note 2. -Procure a thin piece of board as a shingle, cut a V-shaped notch m one end, wrap a frog in a wet cloth, with a leg projecting, and tie It to the board with a part of the web stretched not too tightly over the \ shaped notch. Examine with an objective of low power. Arteries, veins and capillaries will be plainly visible. With a higher power the cor' puscles can also be distinctly seen. f t^ THE nSH. In addition to observing fish in a neighboring stream a number of min- nows or other small fish should be placed in an aquarium. A tub partly e!er d ^^^" *""'*" "^'^ '^*'"- "^^^ "^^'^ ^^"""^^ ^ chinged I. Its General Appearance. Notice the shape of the fish. Point out the head, the body, the tail. Draw a fish. n. The Head. {\)The Mouth. Examine the mouth ; note its shape when closed and when open. Discover whether the fish has teeth ; where thev are situated; how they are pointed, and infer their use to the hsh. Discover the tongue ; feel its surface with the tip of the finger. Can it be protruded ? 104 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. (2) The Eyes. Note the shape and position of the eyes. Discover whether there are eyelids or not. What provision is made for protecting the eye-ball ' Discover whether the eye-ball can be turned in various directions. Observe the pupil. Draw an eye. (3) The Nostrils. Discover the nostrils, note their number, exact Loca- tion and arrangement. (4) The Ears. Discover whether a fish can hear. (5) The Gill-Covers. • Observe the flaps along the sides of the head Note which edges are free and where they are attached u.^A^'Tl ^^'u f^'^^ openings along the sides of the head. Note their extent. (6) The Gills. Raise a gill-cover and observe the red structure Ix- neatn it. Of what does a gill consist ? How many gills are there ? How many gill-clefts ^ Observe the movement of the lower jaw and gills. Discover the connection between the rhythmical arch- ing of the gills and the opening of the mouth. Discuss the reason for this. Remove a fish from the water for a short time nd observe how this affects the fish. m. The Body. Note the outline of the body as seen from above, from the sides, and horn below. GUIDX TO NATURE-STUDY. 105 Make sketches showing these outlines; mark the lateral line. Observe the covering ; note the arrangement of the scales ; their size ; their thickness ; their shape and color. (iive the term sca/e. Sketch a scale. Infer the advantage to the fish of having the scales arranged as they are. IV. The Appendages. Point out the appendages to the body. Point out those nearest the head. How many are there ? Compare their position on opposite sides of the body. Give the term ptctoral fins. Sketch a pectoral fin. Observe another pair of fins situated farther back and more nearly on the under surface. Give the term ventral^ or pelvic fins. Sketch a ventral fin. Observe the fins extending along the middle of the back. Stretch them out and observe the number of bony structures forming the frame-work. Give the term dorsal fin. Examine the fin forming the tail of the fish. Spread it out and note its appearance. Give the term caudal fin. Draw the caudal fin. Compare the upper and lower halves of this fin. Are they symmetrical or not ? Examine the fin on the middle line of the lower sur- face of the body, just in front on the caudal fin. Give the term anal fin. Point out the fins which grow in the middle line of the body. m 106 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. In what direction do they extend ? Do they occur singly or in pairs? Point out the fins which grow in pairs. How many such pairs are there ? loglusf rrK;;/\\t^„r ^^^' '''-''' «- ^--- Draw a fish and mark the name of each fin shown V. Its Pood. worms, crumbs, etc.. and discover which kind it likes Describe how it eats. VI. Its Movements. fis? anTn;.^!?^ ^^Y' "°''^^^''' S'^^^^»l movements of the nsh, and discover how it makes them. Point out how the shape of the head and body facili tate rapid motion through the water. ^ aTbubble wUl be n^ti^ on fh« for" t^'tube of unshaken boiIe= -"^ »- P-ven.od Draw a plan of the home of the worm. y''i^eJi»m,:'mi^KieiStm3i GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 100 Place a few worms in a small water-tight box partly filled with earth, and after they have burrowed a home for themselves pour a little water into it. Observe the actions of the worms. Infer why there are so many worms to be seen just after a rain-storm. Observe whether worms live alone or are social. Collect the worm-casts for a few days from the same square yard of earth. Weigjh them and then estimate how much would be brought to the surface during one day on an acre. Do worms bring up as much earth during the day-time as they do at night ? Infer the effect of their work upon the soil. What service is this to the gardener and farmer ? Examine the roots of the plants in the box and note whether worms are injurious to them by eating their roots. In which kind of soil are worms found most abun- dantly? If possible discover what becomes of worms in very dry weather; also in winter. V. Its Senses. Touch a worm gently and decide whether it has feeling or not. Present substances of various odors and decide whether the worm can smell. Place the worm in a strong light and then darken the room and decide whether the worm can distinguish be- tween light and darkness. Experiment so as to decide whether it can see objects or not, VI. The Young Worm. Where are the eggs deposited ? Describe the bags which contain them. i 110 OVIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. SOIL. sauaihol lT"^r°^ ^^^ ^?^^' '^ ^"^^ make a nearly square hole, like a fence-post hole, about two feet dcen Pare one or more sides with a sharp spade,To as to show a clean perpendicular surface. Make exac? records of subsS;!" '"' '^^^^^ °' ^^^ ^°" -^ the' cobr'of the Teach the terms wiVand j«^w//. «.if;^f ^P^2^ ^^'^ operation in different places, ez in the snn'.S*"'?^'^/^!^*'^"'' '^ ^"y- in color and depth of soil and color of subsoil in the different excavations made Account so far as possible for each variation noted. T K / '' *^^ '"'^^^^ '^y^^ '" ^oods composed ? I each the terms organic, inorganic and yi«w«f. 5. {a) At a selected excavation carefully take off about of ^ u. ^ ^^^ ^''"' *^""'"8^ from the surface straight down to the subsoil. {b) By hand or with a trowel break up and thor- oughlystir and mix the soil on a board to obtain a true sample. ^'^ ^nW°"^ \P°""^. ^"^ 'P^^^'^ it o"* thin on a board or sheet of paper. Put it in a drying- 6. («) Weigh the dried soil. {b) Compare with the weight before drying {c) Observe any change in color. {d) State your conclusions. {a) Place the air-dried soil on a flat shovel or spread for thr^" ""f ^l^ °" ^ ''t°^^' °r in ^ hot oven /M «r °'" °"'" ^""""^ *° " kiln-diy » it (^) Weigh again and compare as before 7. '^*^m^'^^-j'^m!^-x -3-.'w-^ipp^ -Jii^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. Ill 8. Return the kiln-dried soil to the shovel and put it on the fire — not on the stove. When it has burned and smouldered until it ceases to smoke remove, cool, and weigh it. From this determine the quantity and propor- tion of inorganic matter in the soil. o. Determine the properties and proportion of the orijanic matter in the soil as outlined in the lesson on " Clay and Sand." 10. {a) From the soil as mixed in No. 5 take enough to fill one-third of a tall wide-mouthed glass vessel. Fill the vessel nearly full with water. Stir thoroughly and shake. Set the vessel aside to settle. (d) Observe the material floating on the water and the layers forming the sediment. (c) Investigate the nature of the " .scum." (c^st^^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. lis Which has increased most in weight ? Which has increased the least ? Compare these increases in weight with those in the last experiment. VVhat kind of soil would be best for plants in dry weather? In wet weather? ^ Why is it easier to walk or drive on a sandy road after rain than before it ? ^ Why does moist clay adhere to one's boots? ^^^Why_^is a clay soil called "heavy" and a sandy one 5. Put an equal quantit- of sand and of clay in similar dishes and place on a stove. Observe which heats more rapidly. heS^lorer^'°"' ^^'^ ^*°''^ ^""^ ""^^^'^^ '''^''^^ '^^^'"' '^^ Infer with reasons the soils that can be earliest tilled PLANTAIN-A WEED. fK.^°"T * "»?"'^^of plantain-seeds and sow them in a box Ob.en«. L The Boots. Dig up a number of the plants both from the box and lawns or waste-places. Describe the roots and infer why these plants are vi- orous growers. ^ "'^ ^'t. n.L"I?r !k^ ''^?''* °^ ^^'^ vigorous growth upon the rich- iits*) oi tne soil. IL T^iO Leaves. describe a leaf. vVhere do they grow upon the plant ? 114 OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. ■ Teach the term weed. ni. The Rower and Prult. Observe and describe a fiowering-stcin. Teach the tenu spike. How many spikes may a plant produce ? mo^i"!*^^ "T^^' °^ ^°^^^^ °" a spike and hence esti- mate the number on the plant How many seeds are in one seed-box ? ^^ Estimate the number of seeds produced by a vigorous dra^;^;^V;^^^^^^^^^^^ -^ -Ke enlarged form oFtrleed''ST.t''"^?I\.'^*' ^'5*=^*"^ ^P*='«^ of plantain by the lonn ol the seed-pod, the form of the seed, and t£e number of seeils ina IV. Its Extermination. tinlr^'TK* ^u^ ^'"T*^ °^ y°""S plants what precau- tions must be observed regarding old plants ? nd^^T^ P|f "^^ ^'^ prevented from growing why will not the lawn become cleared of plantain ? Teach the term perennial. How are perennial weeds exterminated ? V. Its Uses. Discover, if possible, the uses of plantain. -c^t^:. . GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. THE SUN. 115 Proeore a stnp of board two inches wide and two feet long, and to one end nail a stnp of the same width and six inches long at right-ancles (o the ^^Ia L^^J^'?^^t ^^l '^^ P"P" «'*''« o*- obtain one of these shadow-boards for himself. At noon each clear day have the length of the shadow cjKt by the upright piece marked on the long strip by pbcing ihx^ horizontally on a north and south line. Write the date on the 21st of each month along the Ime marking the length of the shadow at that time. What causes a change in the length of the shadow? During which months does the shadow grow longer ? During which months does the shadow grow shorter? When is the shadow longest ? When is the shadow shortest ? When does the shadow reach about half-way between its longest and shortest positions ? How often in the year is the shadow a mean length between its longest and shortest lengths ? At the time when the shadow is a mean length compare the length of the day with that of the night. These observations are continued for a year before pupils are required to make generalizations from them. ^ Give the terms vernal and autumnal equinox at the appropriate times. In what direction from the school-building does the sun rise above the horizon at an equinox ? In what direction does it then set ? When the days and nights are of equal length observe two points on the horizon where the sun appeare to rise and to set, and fix each by some landmark, as a tree or house. This should be done by each child at his own home. The teacher may make thes ,• observations at the school-house. Imagine the points marked by these landmarks joined by a line. In what direction does this line run ? When the shadow is shortest compare the length of the day and night. Where does the sun rise and where does it set when the shadow is shortest ? Observe these two points on the horizon and fix each by some landmark. h I* 116 GUIDE TO NATURE-HTUDY. Give the term summer solstice. da^an'd *g\f ""^ ''' '""^'^ "■"?- the length of ,„e the'^hadlwTlot"? "■" "' '^'"^ """^ '•' -' '^"- Give the term zc^^tW^r solstice of the circle at the poin? rSchS bv S f/,?'" ° '° ?°- ^'^^^^ ^''^ ""'-^e and the circumference towaSs the UDr^.h^ n ^""^ u" J[^* "shadow-board " the upper edge of the hoS^ntai ffl .nd^ndTh^ '^' ?°''"' '""''*^ ° -^^ sun is above the horizon. ^"** '*'* ""'"*^<^'" of degrees the noS,"/''" '^^'''^ "" '"" '"•Sh«t in the heavens at What do we get from the sun ? Explain the reason for your decision Ma^r^h^i^Il^neTnH^^^i^' 7'^'^'' ^^°^'« ^-^"^er fron, March till June and colder from August till Decembe. ^--^W^W^'-i'^-J^'^iSrlf ^ GUIDE TO NATVRE-STUDY. 117 THE MOON. In lessons on the inoon some facts will have to be told : for example thit the moon reflects light from the sun. that it is a sphere and hat ufe vol ve ar..und the earth, and that it revolves on its own axis once in each linat on Reflection may be illustrated by the use of a mirror ; an orange stHppeUf ?b vr.tradni\Phr''"^r'"^ r^'""^ °" ^ knitting-needieirvesKir- ably in illustratmg the motion of the moon and of the circle of its illnm- ma:.on by the sun. But these objective illustrations wiH succeed no p™ r'l nH St'hf 'I"' ,° u '^^ ™°°" J'^elf- A strip of paper long enough to pIL rTJ^l i^*"^ ^'n - °' '"""l^ '^"y ^^" "^«^ '° «P««nt the celestial con^ cave-the sky-wiU suggest how the path of the moon may be mapped ou". Draw two parallel lines about an inch apart across the full width of the open exercise-book. Mark the band off with tanitly-mled vertical lines into 28 equal spaces. Write "west at the right-hand end of the band and "east at the left. The preferable time to begin observation is on the first evening the n*w moon IS visible, usually the third or fourth day of its agle ^ The moon will be visible this evening in the west shortly after sunset. Go out and observe it. Note the shape, relative width and length of the visible part and the direction in which the horns— or cusps—point Note two or three bright stars in the neighborhood of the .moon. Go into the house and make a careful drawing of what you observed— the curve and width of the cres- cent and the relative position of the stars. Verify your drawing by observing and comparing again and again if need be. After submitting your drawing to the teacher's inspection copy it in the right-hand space of the band in your exercise-book, and over it place the date and hour at winch the observations were made. Repeat the observations every clear evening so lon^as J'ou can see the moon, and similarly enter each in the band. Leave the space blank or in it write the cause qn each date when you did not make any observation. In some of the waning days of the moon it will be visible after the chil- W.S faleTni" Sr""™"^' Observations may be made, drawn and ent^^ The exercise should be repeated with he next moon, and, if the children are young, with yet another before they are asked such questions L? II 118 QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. Which way is the moon moving ? How many days does it take to go round the earth ? It IS 1 1 a.m.; point to where the moon is now. evSl?^^'? u^ moon will be seen next Saturday evenmg at 9 o clock. Make a drawing of the part of the moon that will he visible next Monday evening. nl,?" "^Yl^^^ "^'^ ^""^^^^y ^^^ ^^-^t ^^^^ of the hemis- phere of the moon towards the earth be visible, and ourtads?""' °^ '^'' ^'^ ^"^ '^ ^ "^^^^ nearly' over Many questions, of which these six are types, should be given no^tlnnc^'^f ^Jif' '^' ""^y ^ ^^"^^' ^^ "^^P *he relati^ e positions of the sun moon and brightest fixed stars. Ihey may also be led to observe how closely its path follows the ecliptic, the variations in the daily difference ofli^^toTa^dlhrsul '"' ^'^ ^^"^^^"^ ^°"--^>^ ^' --^ TEMPERATURE. Procure the following :— I. Four beakers (tumblers) of water at temperatures iVdr'"'''"' ^" ^°° ^" '°° ^- ^""^ ""^ C respect- n?. ^. ? ^^^"'"P^' ^^ ^°"'"^ P°'"t- A much larger ilce of 'i ^""^""^ ^^ tea-cupfuls), at 40° C. and a 3. A thermometer. 4. A Bunsen burner or a spirit lamp or a hot stove. GUIDE TO NATUHE-STUDY. 119 I. Meaning of trnrm "Temperature" and distinction from quantity of heat. Place the four beakers with contents named in No. i. before the class and require the pupils to thrust their fingers into the first beaker. Describe the condition of the water. Thrust the fingers into the fourth beaker. Describe the condition of the water. State the difference (in condition) between the two quantities of water. Now test similarly the second and third beakers of water. Which water has the greater degree of heat, that in the second beaker or that in the third? State the general results of your observations with reference to the degrees of heat of the water in different beakers. The teacher may now give the term temperature and explain that the term means the degree of heat possessed by a substance. Require the pupils to touch the ice. What is the nature of its temperature? Compare with the temperature of the Bunsen flame or hot stove. The teacher will here introduce and explain the terms low temperature and high temperature. Give practice in the use of these terms by having the pupils touch or feel bodies of different temperatures, as air from the register, air through the open window, the door-knob, a slate, the blackboard, etc. Use the beakers described in No. 2. Which water is at the higher temperature ? Place equal pieces of ice in the two beakers. Compare what takes place in the one with what takes place in the other. What causes the ice to melt ? lao GUIDE TO NATUHE-STUUY. Which quantity of water produced most melting? ^Jh.ch. therefore, possessed the greater quantity of Does temperature mean the same as quantity of heat > 1 ace a piece of ice similar to above in a beaWr»r r tammg twice the quantity of water at 40" C u^e HnT'; experiment. Compare the re ult with \i ^ u ''' with water of similar teml!Sa[:;e use'd abo've'^ °'""^' ^Upon what does the quantity of heat of a body .le- ^yt^'.t,^^:t^T''' ''' --P^-ureora as hot as you can bear to hold yiur fincers in • n,lt n of >e temperature of your hand, TthS Tt'wTlf neuherhot nor cold, and n,ake c've^'c^^VLy^^ilttt;;! oth^eX^d'K"' ^ZtJ ■„" A -d a finger of „,e minute, then withdraw a^d'hLl'lmrto' b" H^ " toTha't^taC frlVr ^"' *° '"= ^"^""^^niroJ^Z bep„Til%Sy-;j-^^4-,t^rinT^^^^^^^^^ placeS'fn C """""'^ '"^ temperatures of the finger bef^eXng pltcedTB'"" °' ''' ""^^^ ™"-'-'ei.v fin^!;^Sr^,',^ed ^17"^^ '•" '"^ ^^"-"°- '" "^^ '"o Is the water in B hot or cold ? Other observations should be made, as:— aUJDB TO NATV RE-STUDY. 121 Determine, by touch, the comparative temperatures of dificrcnt articles subjected to the same temperatures for some time, eg., the iron head of a hammer and its wooden handle ; the slate and its frame ; an iron ink- stand and a lead pencil beside it ; a piece of oilcloth on the floor and a <>• >ce of carpet— each of the above pairs of articles when ., .ng in the heat of the sun in summer. Is touch an accurate test of the temperature of a body ? NoTE.-After * lesson on conduction of heat has been taken the causes of these apparent differences in temperature of bodies of really the «S^ temperature may profitably be examined. ^ Of tSli^tSj""'*"'***' ^ "'** *° *^* "^**« determination Since the thermometer with Fahrenheit markings is more generally used for domestic purposes it is more appropriate for use in these experiments. In a lesson on the thermometer the centigrade may be introduced and Its markings compared with those of the Fahrenheit. Require the pv, Ms to thrust the thermometer into cold water. How does the column of mercury act ? Now thrust it into hot water. How does the mercury act ? Hold the bulb against a piece of ice. Compare the observation with that in the first case. Hold the bulb near a flame. Compare the observation with that in the second experiment. State how the mercury column acts under the infli nee 01 nigh and low temperatures. Place the thermometer in contact with substances of amerent temperatures. Note the height of the column in each case. From your observations state the relation between the cnange in the mercury column and the temperature. m m^p^ 122 OUWe TO NATURE-STUDY. obf^s'7s'^Ai&VL^Z'^ the temperature of different Exercises for further observation : 1. At what temperature water freezes. 2. At what temperature water boils. 3. At what temperature the room is kept. 4. The temperature of the body. 5. How temperature is affected by evaporation. n,ixtu"eTfro^;::."7ait ^^^"^' '' ^"^^^" -^^'•"^- EVAPOEATION. place. °' *"* '"" °' °f '•'« "-oo™. and to observe what takes What has become of the water ? Where is it now ? What caused it to disappear ? cM?^'T^ '^^ '^°°'^^" '"^^^ o^ buildings when the sun shmes strongly on them after a shower. What do you notice ? Where else have you noticed evaporation taking place? Why are wet clothes hung on a line ? Wliat becomes of the water ? Why are wet clothes sometimes placed near the stove' poradont^' '"''^^'' ^" temperature affect rate of eva- ^^When does the dew on the grass disappear? V\ hy ??.,* QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. 123 Since the water in the saucer disappeared into the atmosphere what necessarily becomes of part of the water of our rivers, lakes, swamps, and seas? Observe patches of snow in the fields during cold et stormless winter weather. How do the patches now compare in size witl i!ie same when first observed ? What caused the difference ? Where does all the vapor from these sources go ? Place over a flame a test.tube half filled with water and fitted with a cork,through which is inserted a piece of elass- tubmg, Its lower end being above the surface of the water. What takes place almost immediately after the appli- cation of the heat ? ^^ What caused these to rise ? While boiling is taking place require pupils to describe the condition of the water. How do the bubbles now seen compare in size and action with the bubbles first observed ? Observe the bubbles bursting and determine what they contain. What do you observe issuing from the glass-tubing ? Observe carefully where it is first visible. Do you see the vapor at the mouth of the tubing ? Do you see it in the test-tube ? How far is the point where you first see it from the end ot the tube ? . What must be above the water in test-tube and issu- ing from the end of the tubing? What is the nature of its temperature ? How does it compare in temperature with the vapor nsing from a w .t roof, or from an exposed saucer con- taining water? Teacher will explain .at this invisible, highly-heated vapor is called i| 124 OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. ■■ i OONDBNSATION. waS'fs bom:,y'°" '° "" ■"°''"' °f 'he tube while the What do you observe on the slate ? Where does it come from ? ^^ Compare the temperature of the slate with that of the taa^UhUt^^'"" "' "■"= ™P°^ "'^-'^d by cc.„. with^h^te "" '"'""^ •" "•= ^'-" by it. contact the"t7b^w1.^^t^hrfX^-o°fX^^r '^^"'"^ ^-™ What effect upon the temperature nf fKo contact with the air ? '''"P^*^^^"'^^ of the vapor has its What was the visible pfiT^ri- «f «.u' i temperature of the iapor? *^" ^°^^""& ^^ ^he Jhce a pitcher or tumbler of cold water in a warn, What do you notice on the outside of the vessel ? Where has it come from ? In what form did it exist in the air ? atmosTer^ I'dTt^vTo^'-^ "'""^ ^'^ -«' '^at of the co„?ct'wifrt'he°"coJ5;;s5"r' ""^ ''"""^p"- "="' ■•^ Th,s change in its condition is called c.n^ensa,.„„. denied T """" — ™=tances is invisible vapor co-. Breathe against a cold slate Explain the effect produced on the surface of the slate. -r-j--,! .3| :!^. -*,;'•- GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 125 J^^^z::::^^^ - ^ "■" — -g ' why Is it found on the inside or on the outside ? Why ? rurther Obseiratiois. lamrdor'rf ""^"'* "^"'"^" P'^^^ the flame of the V^' «"^ ""^7^ '^" ^^P^"" ^'■^t b^^^'"-^ visible. W hat effect is produced ? What caused this effect ? How far from the tube can you see the vapor ? What becomes of it after this point ? FOtt, MIST AND CLOUDS. ^^^ What^becomes of all the vapor constantly forming on Does it all remain invisible? cJirlrt^H T' K ^^ ''^P^/' '^^" '" ^^e places you were directed to observe rather than at other places ? Why was it seen at those particular times of the day? What was the condition of the atmosphere ? When and why did it disappear? times'^r ^^a^cSf '"' '^'^^ '^^"^ "' ^^P°^ ^^ -^ ^^^^ The child will certainly refer to clouds. ^^:o:i:^\ '°"'""°"'' '= '^^ '"^^le vapor of the Wi- 126 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. M 11 m :3i W Infer the origin of clouds in the upper air What is the cause of their movement ? Observe the different kinds of clouds. />^/y5r^r-clouds (cirrus), When clouds are verv far wh^orte^ '-'' '''' ^"^ ^-^^-^- ^^Vm^'e J?^/«-clouds (nimbus). When low and heavy some times covermg the whole sky like a grey veil lVoo/-pcu:^ clouds (cumulus). Resembling ereat oack-. tl'othl" ''' appearance ol hills piledT'^nl 'upo^ Layet-douds (stratusV Seen most frequently in the mormng. m layers one aW the other, or^n layers side Observe the beauty of the different kinds of clouds Discover their uses ; sun." ^" P'^^^'^'"^ *^e e^rth from the burning rays of the 2. In helping the earth retain its heat at other times 3- In producmg rain and snow. .BAIN. Frequently during spring and fall and occasionallv seT?hVsmaTwIt' '^^ ? f' ^^ '^^ Pupils c^n Ta^ y' see the small water-particles of which it is comoosed On such occasions they should be encouraged tTmake close observations of the phenomenon. ^ Of what is fog composed ? Of what are clouds formed ? yc":"obsetfdT^.lf* '^''' ""^" water-particles which ^ith etSr; whtwoulli ^Xm'S^^ ''"^^ ^^^^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 127 What would become of such drops when formed in the upper air ? Did you ever see them fall ? What do we call them ? (iive the term rain if necessary. Describe the general appearance of the sky when it rains. Discover why it has this appearance. Observe and describe the different ways in which rain falls and note the different sounds it makes. Note.— Opportunities must be seized when such can be observed. Thus it falls straight down, slanting, slowly, quickly, steadily for several days, for a few minutes. The sounds may be noted thus— dripping, pattering, ro-iring, gushing. How does nature use rain to serve her purposes ? HAIL. This lesson is well taken after a hail-storm has occurred. It may however follow the lesson on rain. Suppose a hail-storm has very recently been observed. What was the condition of the atmosphere with refer- ence to clouds (their nature), wind, temperature ? Was there any lightning ? What was the nature of that which fell from the cloud? What would you infer from this as to the temperature of the upper air ? Give term Aail if necessary. How large were the hail-stones ? When opportunity offers cut through the centre of a large one and with aid of a magnifying glass infer from its concentric layers the nature and cause of its formation. vm GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. DEW. When does it disappear? Wliy does it disappear? When was it formed ? How was it formed? Such moisture as this is called Aa, oronaTlournii"ht?'"ona'''"r''''"^* "" " ^'*" "fe'>t Which hA, th. . " °' °" » "'"dy night ? lawn or the gJavefwafr? "^hy ?" ""= ""P*"""' ' '^= During what time of year do we observe dew ? Under what conditions is it formed f aftfr'nooa ' *"'' '°"« ^''^ « "°<>" - 'during the early ^^^Do you observe any moisture on it? Can this be Give your reasons for answering thus freSn^S of'wlrerw^" "'S T^ '°'^' ^'°- ">c as it fomed ? ' "''*' "°'''<^ "^o-n^ °f the dew Where have you seen hoar-frost? Of what color is it ? When did you see it ? Under what conditions is it formed? -!» .fl■»■;^ie«f*^i:,*"ix.2 ." >■■ 3' ..IB GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY, 129 THE LBVEB AND FULOEUM. I. Apparatus :— {a) A stout pry. with a triangular block to serve as a fulcrum. {b) A flat ruler twelve inches long. {c) A number of equal weights. Ask several pupils to raise the teacher's desk, or a cup- board, or any other heavy object. ^ Next require them to raise it by using the pry. What difference was observed ? What do we call this apparatus ? The teacher may find it necessary to give the names /«^ and fulcrum. n. To Discover the Principle of the Lever What distance is each weight from the fulcrum ? Place two weights side by side on one end of the ruler and one weight on the other end.and balance the weights Does the ruler balance at its centre now ? To which weight is the fulcrum nearer? How far is the fulcrum from the greater weight ? how far from the less weight ? weignr f now Compare these distances. Compare the weights. Combine in one statement the relation betwpf-n th- the^xr,^ sir^'oXitri '■" """' -'" ^°™ - "One weight is twice as great as the other but it is only half as far from the fulcrum as the lighter weight" rtwj'^^ami ■'" 130 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. m g.ve verbal expression^o^eg^erl?id^^^^^^ *"^ ^«^« »»>« pupiU m. Applications of the Lever, a Snt^j^ct '^''.hT^ef^^ ''' -'^'" '■' o-^- to lift fro?the:b•J^^^^?-' °' "--"S ">e fulcrum farther the|J:^S I- ^>;-- ,!l;xt^-^ «- -' wel^ft ;: ITf^^: o'Sj^i'tf "' "■^'"^ - '"« fi-t put his toplret^^ -J-rrr/aTel-,- ^ - from the fulcrum, Tnd'.hewdggt "'' ^'"^ '"" '""' Other easy problems may be given. For additional work n^nniri^ tu •, different objects and usii'g^rtn t'^Sv » ^^^^'"^ ^'^^ » '«^". moving also be required to observ! ord'nai mSn^^' f P°f ''^'*- '^^ should - these as many practical appliSnTofeeMr T^^^ ""^ ^-°- Other ordinary examples aro'—sci^Z. i -r blades and pump-handles —scissors, pen-knife LEAVES. elm'^Hd^:;* ettl't."' '"^ ""P"^' ''P-''^ "^ -P>e, Sffsne^l^^" GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 131 L BeUtion to Sunlight. On what part of the plar t were these leaves found? Where were they growing, with relation to the ground ? What is their color ? Examine grass-leaves that have been covered bv a board for a few days. What is their color? Place a house-plant (geranium) in darkness for --ight or ten days. Observe the changes that take place. From these observations infer the relation of the green color of the leaf to sunlight. Compare the form of leaves with that of the stem of the plant. In house-plants, shrubs and trees observe what posi- tion the leaves generally take relative to sunlight. From observations of the position, color and form of leaves infer the one essential condition of their healthful activity. The teacher should emphasize the fact here that the life-work of the leaf depends on sunlight. Examine a spray of the maple. Compare the different leaves on the spray as to (i) shape , (2) size, and (3) laia^th of petiole. Supposing all the leaves on this spray were of the same size and with petioles of equal length, what would be the effect on some of them relative to sunlight ? Assuming sunlight to be necessary to the life of the leaf account for the varying sizes of the blade and the difference in length of the petioles. Examine* the leaves of a house-plant, as a geranium or shamrock grown in window light What is their position relative to the sunlight entering the window? Turn the pot around and after some days note changes in the position of the leaves. Infer the cause of this change of position. II nimii^i w T,3S»«F»'-ai»3Uf>r -TtX-L 132 ODIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. n. The Life-Work of the Leaf »• VAAW 4J9AX contained in a tumbler CoterrMT''^'f'"*''''r tumbler inverted and restinTnn »k ''''«'l«'"h another -e time examine ^^t^^^ Z^ -^^^-d^^ Ait„ What do you observe? Where has the mofsture come from? Where does the leaf on the stem oKf • Observe the effect nn .k T *^'" ^^^^'•^ from a potted plant '^" ^""""^ °^ withholding water From the above evn/»t-;r«<. .. What do you Ibscrve "Lw ^Z °' f ««!"■■"<= thet"a{ the leaf? "^'"S »rom and on the surface of an W^^4':;|'raS]h the leaf in darkness and after ..^S7ea?!:e°tT-i- --'h '"^ -^^ when the ^^'^?^iXll°tr''''°"' ■■"^- "-^ conoitio'n To; this GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 133 Have a couple of fruit-jars with closely-fitting topa Burn a candle in one until it will burn no longer Re- li-l>t It and again place it in the jar. What is the result ? riace in this jar, containing a little water and the pro- duc. of the burned candle, a few sprays of mint Seal jt and set It aside for two or three days in the sunlight. Then test the gas within the jar by lighting a candle and placing It in the jar. What is the result ? Is the gas in the jar the same now as that in the jar when it was set away ? What leads you to this conclusion ? I ™th» meantime experiments should be performed, wch as testine the pro= developmc, nr. Th. E.l.tl«n of tt. PosiUon of th. L«rf to the U^, as ?h?mi,ire?n.'= ''"'"' °' "" ""'■ ""''--"^■d P'ant such ^^ What is the position of the lower leaves relative to ,hc stem?"' "" '"" P°^'"°"^ "' '"e leaves higher up ,he What would L he effect relative to sunlieht of ill t^e^leaves havng the horizontal position of fhe lot^l thirpranf?'"'""" °' '"' ''^' '° ^""'ight is effected ^. ampare the leaves on the same mullein stem as ,o di&lrs'Sr '° -"^n^ent is evident in this Make similar observations upon the shepherd's-pur^e ^l^£\^.^L^r.t'"'' '■" ^"'^ >'°" '^-^ ^'— ^ letfuce."""' the leaves of the prickly-lettuce or wild- n -'^;-(*-|f^A-r »?SF'"^ tlic OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 135 How does their position relative to sunlight compare dth that of the mullein ? or Account for this modification. The teacher should impress at each step in plant-study that all m«'"• ^'^- -« -„. Have pupils plant several seeds of the kinds examin«l ICE AND MIOA. minlrifs" "' '*"•"" ^" "^^ f- --"^ connected with rocks and Each pupil will have specimens of the minerals before him In wnat respects are ice and mica different from ill animals and plants that you have seen ? twfmTnerat""''"" "P°" ^'^ ^°"^^^ "^ ^^^^ «^ these Are they solid or liquid ? Which is the more glittering or shining ? Teach the terms lustre and imirom GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 139 Compare the color of ice and mica. Which is more transparent ? Try to scratch mica with ice and ice with mica, and [from this mfer which is harder. Try to break each, and infer which is more brittle If possible bend each, and judge which is more flexible. By bending twisting or altering the shape in any way ascertain which returns to its original form more readily and more completely, and infer which is the more elastic. Note the difference in the way in which they split. Give the term cleavage. Place both in water to find out which is heavier. Apply heat to each, and infer which can be melted [more easily. t"«icu I eac^h °"^ ^^^ qualities you have tested infer the uses of LIMESTONE. rt.,??if ^^''''^" ^''**"'^ ^?^*^ specimens of limestone to show the ouoils. so that they may recognize it in their outings. ^ ^ ^ J^LTf '\''''^^^y distributed in Canada, and may be found almost everywhere in southern Ontario, either as boulders m the fields or in "place" along some ' stream, lake shore, or in some quarry. ^ When pupils are directed to look for specimens of 2n:L'^% '^^"^^ ^ ^"j°'"^^ ^° obser^ve tTe situ ation where the specimens are found. If a limestone quarry IS in the neighborhood the teacher should vLTt it ^ mit .if "? ^'"^ ^'^?' ^' ^^'' ^^ circumstances will ^d/Lr/ ^trattficatton, fault, outcrop, dip, strike Can you scratch limestone with your finger-nail ? Draw the point of a pocket-knife forciblv over a piece of nmestone Does the knife scratch the s'tone? Fr^ this mfer which is harder, limestone or steel. 140 QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. Examine the specimens to discover fossils r«,« f possible with similar forms now iS Are tf' shells, corals, trilobites, etc. ? Describe thff.c Mr ^"^ Are any of these for^s still S? Whl i ^T'^ nearest relatives now live ? ^ ^^^'^ "^^ ^^^"1 Infer whether limestone was formed under water I note the differed eTwdght" W^^Sf '" T'" f"^l place in the hmestohe ? '=''*"S' ''*' *"'<«> I Teach the lem futii/imt. a little Euric add anrf »hTv°^*™PJ"'"'^- '^'''« Note what haplns Whl? wtr" ''"'^°f ""•" te.pe«tu.e wSS watrradd^Votr^^^.S'"' .^^ Jt^-1--SL- Xt"h~i Give the term slacked-lime. Where have you seen slacked-lime used ? What use was being made of it ? Have you ever seen limestone burnt on a large scale. Give the term lime-kiln. ^ ^ ' What use is made of unburnt limestone? pupL sl^'^u^^HsfeoTh:^' '".K*'' neighborhood linTestone is now t^ V^T"" '"'" ^° ^'"^^^^ '^ of Jmhem Omi^o.'"'"' '"^•" " ^°"°«* ''y -^^ springs in most part, "M-x^'- fr.:f^^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDt. 141 Describe the appearance of such limestone. Compare jt with the old limestone. Discover whether there are |s!niil^™- B ote tne different complexions, the differ.nt i OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 143 colors of the hair. etc. Notice (a) that eadi person has ^uull^u-^^^^ ^^''^u-1^ \^^^ ^ P'^^^ "^^th^r <^a» fill ; tliou htfu/^ responsibihty should make us dignified and .rt^JiJ^. 2. -Different countries have different races of peoples with char- acteristics markedly different from those of our own country Show if possible, a picture of these races. country. v,how, if Note 3. -The skeleton of the body, if available, may be shown. m. Its divisions. Observe the four natural divisions of the body— head trunk upper extremities, lower extremities. Discove^ how the head and extremities are joined to the trunk and the most apparent use of each. Empbasize the beauty of the body, and the adapti- bihty of part to part, and of the whole body to the work of man. ^ The body will grow and strengthen only through exercise. Note different kinds of exercise. (a) Head. Exainine the head. Note the different curves; how the arch shape at the top gives strength ; discover what is considered a finely-shaped head; name the different parts and the special use of each. Observe the hair on different heads. Note the different colors, textures. Infer its use. Note the best means of preserving it. Discover how one can tell the root-end of the hair. If pos ible examine a hair with a microscope and determine how the parts are arranged Examine different faces. Note their shapes. Compare these, if possible, with pictures of faces of different races 01 peop e. Discover (a) the only movable part ; (d) the bones that give the most marked outline to the face Name and give the position of the different parts of m - ^\^if^:t^X'=B "_L ■ 144 GUIDE TO NATUBJi-iiTUDY. 3 W Trunk. Observe its general shape. Note the suggestiveness of the name. Infer its use. Describe its framework be.^^S.""'^' P^^™"'' '"- part of .ho body fron,; W Upper Extremities. Move the ^rrn iTa/ '''**■ ''"■''' "=""""y &"» Move the arm m different ways. Feel the joints (^ Hand. Not^ ,h Zcr ' ^ '° °"^ another. Compar: thl?"' '"°""'^"'= °' '"^ -"»' -^ finger.,. Examine the finger-nails. Discover their use. •_ )^ ?!.t,':_,. GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 145 {e) Lower Extremities. Observe the divisions of the lower hmbs— thi^rh lea Joot. *» ' »' Discover how these parts are joined to one another. Teach little cliildren— hip, knee-pan. Teach more advanced pupils the names of the bones. Observe the way in which the different joints move. Discover the advantage in each case. Compare the knee-jomt with the elbow-joint. Observe the erect position given to the body bv the position of the lower extremities. Discover how this position is the best for man. Note how it tends to give dignity and superiority. (/) Foot. Observe the divisions of the foot, the ankle, the hecL the sole, the arch or instep, and the toes. Compare these parts with those of the hand. Examine the joints of the toes. Compare the number, position and movement of these joints with those of the fingers. Examine the toe-nails. Infer their use. IV. Its Covering. Examine the skin and note the following: ''a) its beauty, {b) its work. Infer why it should be kept clean. V. Its PraUty. From observations made infer {a) the frailty of the body, {b) the necessity of knowing how to keep it healthy. ^ VI. How to Take Care of the Body. Have simple talks on the following : 10 146 \:i #1 if GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. bathing. ^ °'^^' '^^ >mportance of rest after rofsll^J^^^^^^^^^^ (f ror winter, (, How to make porridge^ howVtol^ !f '^ °" ^^''^ eggs, how to niake f cup of tea ho^'^to 'h^^ *" ^"^^ how to cook beefsteak, h^w to ^ook °^^^^^^^ ^''''^^'' wh^2^^t^;?j^-P^^;;;^ ^^^ir efr.. on the body W If a child cuts his finger. (^) If he breaks his' arm. W If he faints. (^ Ifhe bleeds at the nose, (f) If he fails into the water anH ;. 4. i ently drowned. ^""^ '^ ^^^^^n out appar- Feeling. I. Sense of Tonch. n. Nerves of Touch. tou'^tec^ri?; 'w the'Tvll'''^'-^/ *^ -"- of body where the sense of to,,.h ' V "'^ ?"«' °f the most delicate. I„fef the adv.n,""'^ "^^ <^°n5idered the this location. advantage gained because of m How to Cultivato th. Sense of Touch. "we^ea^rby'd^inV.V"'"^"- "^ "'her talents or powers, GUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. 147 I. Have a number of objects of different degrees of smoothness and let the pupils find {a) the smoothest, (b) the roughest, {c) two of the same degree of smoothness. 2 Place a number of objects of various shapes on the desk each shape being represented by two or more objects. Blmdfold a pupil and place one in his hand and have him find another of the same shape. 3. Have the child put his hand behind him and place objects of various shapes in it and have him tell their names. 4. While looking away or with his eyes blindfolded let a child tell the number of objects by feeling them. 5. Have thread and cord of various degrees of fine- ness i:nd have pupils discover by the sense of touch which IS the finest, which the coarsest, etc. 6. Blindfold a pupil and lead him to different objects in the room and ask him to name them from feeling them. 7. After the leaves of the more common trees are studied by mea-^ of both eye and hand, have the pupils blindfolded ana let the leaves be identified by touch alone. How does a blind man learn to read ? What is the effect of practising any art from day to day? Note I.— The hand is the most perfect instrument known : indeed, it may rather be called a set of machinery. Instruments or tools, as a spade, saw, axe, chisel, gimlet, do only one tning. 1 he hand can do many different kinds of work. The same hand that ran wield a blacksmith's hammer can handle a pen, or can use the tools of an engraver. No machine made by man can do both coarse and fine work. The hand can grasp a rope firmly, or take between finger and thumb a thread so fine that it can hardly be seen. ' Only man has a hand. A monkey has something like a hand, but th«» limmb, especially, is different. So delicate is the sense of touch in the finger-tips that the blind make hands serve the place of eyes. ^°J.* h~^y ^^y of adding interest discover where the sense of touch ii most highly developed in different animals. 148 OUIDB TO NATURB^TUDY. mi 1 1 Mil W The elephant-^nd of trunk, if ^''« "'•ect-antennu;. Hearing. 1 How we Know Sonnd. are'fa^lP"^ •■" ^° ''^^•"^"-h sounds with which they Ob^vTtLarthe Z:^-^"^ ""^-••"•- -nds. **s in the other. ^^""8: is as acute in the one case Infer that another power fK« • ^ the sense of hearing. a^ndThlT „ ,r'"'^~^°'"^^ through -md had not the rfqul^edtUm^L^^^^^^ ^"^^^^'- ^^^ tt How Sound Travela at Ihf ottrtd"' °''*'= ^""'^ while the child listens ■4 Ser r^d put" the'X' '"""h ^"'^ "' '^ ™'- <>' Have the child note the efflct '' '° " "^^^'^ ^ar. Puta^rS ofllrrst'C"- '° *\^ ■"■'''"- "^ « s,nns swing the »ixx>n untfl it fouch^'^'l "":i ^hen shghSy Note the eflCt '°"'''"=^ 'h' edge of the tabl!^ •9'^^ 1^-f ^•^ -i.'x^r ^Wi^ _ GUIDE Tf) KATU HE-STUDY. 14^ 4. Procure two opened cylindrical fruit-cans. Pierce a hole in the bottom of each. Connect the cans with a strmg sixteen or eighteen yards long by passing it through the holes and fastening it on the inside. Speak into one of the cans and let a pupil listen with the other at Ins ear and note the result. In each of the above cases observe the following :— (rt) The point at which the sound was pr-^ 'uced. ip) The distance at which the sound was hoard. {c) How the sound must have reached the ear. m. VibrAtions of Sound. Note a large bell when ringing. 1. Observe it with eye and state what you discover, lout 1 It ; note what you observe. 2. Fix a flexible steel needle firmly in a cork which will give It sufficient support. Then fasten at tne upper extremity a ball of sealing-wax or a piece of paper about the size of a pea. Hold the cork firmly in one hand and strike the needle till you cause it to vibrate Describe the movements of the wax or paper. Strike the needle with greater force and state what you observe. 3. Throw a stone into the water. Observe the eflfect. 4. Move the hand quickly through the air. Observe the effect. Compare the effect on air with that on water. Discover from the above experiments the power of vibrations to move particles of different kinds. Discover also that the wave- vibrations grow smaller and smaller until they die away altogether. rV". Sound can be Collected. I. Observe that sound can be heard better in a build- ing than in the open air. Discover the reason. WL_. 160 GUIDE TO NATUIiE-STUDY. 2. Listen for the echo. Note places where the echo is best heard Discover the cause. Infer the purpose of the shape. 4- Place the hand behind the ear. Listen for different sounds. Note the effect. Discover why the nearing is better. 5. Examine different kinds of ear-trumpets Discover why they are thus formed. V. Time Necessary for «onnd to Travel a „°^"' " '"P^"'^^ =" " ""or. distance away drivin. Note that a certain time elapses between the tim^ m VL The Ongan of Hearing. Examine the outer ear. rA^^^^'"^"" ^''^ '^^ ^^""^y ^"^ adaptation of its form* • (6) Its shape as seen in different people ' ent^rr t^ pToS. '° ''' '""^^ ^-' -^ ^- this or?i::^^.:t^:;!r'''''' •" ^^^ ^--Pt- .iven, each Draw the outer ear. The teacher should draw an inner ear and describe th. followmg parts : (a) drum ; (6) chain of bones t) the second drum, with small bones attached ; .vTthe'w ndin^ passage containing fluid ; (g) nerves. vvindmg GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 151 Lead pupils, after the above instruction, to discover [the use of each part. VII. Power to Hear. Observe that frequently sounds are within our hearing I but we do not notice them. Discover the reason. Vm. How to Hake Hearinc more Acnte. I. Endeavor to distinguish different sounds. Observe that the more intent the mind is on the sound the more likely we are to distinguish (a) The rustling of leaves. (b) The singing of a tea-kettle. (c) The patter of rain. (d) Different whistles. (e) Different calls. (/) Songs of birds. 2. Try to imitate the following :— The different sounds made by the cat, dog, lamb duck, hen, crow, robin, cow. 3. Try to learn by ear simple tunes. 4. Try to imitate the voices of different people. Strike the same object with hammers of different weights with equal velocity and note the effect. Which hammer caused the loudest noise ? Let a pupil place his ear at the end of a long piece of timber or board. Scratch the other end slightly with a pm. Note what happens. Let him remove his ear while the scratching is continued and note the difference. When an approaching train is yet a mile or more distant place the ear against the iron or steel rail. What IS observable? Stand up and notice whether the train can be heard. 162 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. \%i ii Jll'lZo^'l fohU '" ^°"^^^^^ "^- -^^^y thro J twenty thousand feet from the cround h„» °°-"'» '"'^« ^"«1 ^ou^ distance, as across the river thfZ„H ''°"'«t"n« even in a sl,ort« b«ten on the opposite Sde 'of a rTveJ co;e"r^' ^.^'"^- ^^ » ^""" " the atmosphere is thick »».- L j covered with snow and ice uh« the vibn^tiLs havens aJisVZ" '^*""''' ^ ''^'^ - '»•« otSe'r '!" TO - Tasting. I. Sense of Taste. apples, sour applet etc ' ' ^^^- **'• ^""^ agfJwe ^^r"'"'*"''''^ "^'"^'' """g h"" the „,os, standarrforc^^turrr.^" "''^"'^' *-« - -^ n. Organ of Taste. taken into the mouth ^'^ '^'^^''^"t substances Draw the palate. Draw the tongue. ni. Pleasures of Taste. W Wholesome food may often be tested by this sense nL ';f„ " f?""^""^ '='-'«<' '-«"« of Us u^te NOTlL-A„™.u fr.,„,„,|, choo« >hei, f«K, b, ,„,i„j i,. rv. Oompariaoni of Durennt TutM W Compare different kinds of acid fruit GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 163 {b) Different kinds of sweets. ( «">' bring the „,ind S^ar^LiS;: tlT ' "^^"^ "' "" ""■ (*) Our sight must be trained. (c) The eye has wonderful powers of adaptibilitv cannot ^ * ^^' <^an see where we VI. How to Train the Sense of Sight haie r n^uXfe^rnStmtito^r '"^ ^'^^ =>- number of^e^t:°1nrg^:n"= """'""<' -"^ >•- '"^ thinumUr'^w" °' "^""^ "P"" '"^ ^-^ -d have have teamed""""" °' ^^"■^'^'^ '■°-" -*-' and 5. Have objects observed on the way to school named. QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. 155 Discover from the above that the more intent the mind IS upon an object the more the sight can find in it. The more we know the more we see in things, or We see through that we have already seen." Infer from the above that by constantly trying to IrX^^n"^'''''-*"!'"^"^^^' ^« ^^«' ^^ <^^" train ourselves to perceive better. Smelling. 1. Sense of Smell. thi!;^s b^theivSr^ "" '^"°^"^'^ "^"^^^ '' ^°-^ 1 ■'^P^-^'' "*'"^, ^^''**'" *^'"&s used for food— sugar, dried fruit, oatmeal, pickles, onions, oranges, toast 2. Try to distinguish certain flowers (the flowers to be used may be shown to the children first). ^ Note the relation between the sense of smell and the n. Oivaa of Smell. Observe the noses of different people and note. (tf) How the nose adds beauty to the face. W How the shape and size differ on different people. m. Uses of Smell. Allow pupils to smell certain things (a) that have an agreeable odor, {b) that have a disagrleable odor. 'Jji^^^\^^'^ '^"'^ frequently protects man in select- ing food and m warning him against danger. Note also the enjoyment we get from this sense. knIi*' "^ Particlis, air, and going wUh the afrTnf' ""^ "'"'" '" "> are a griat many folds In fh. ''°'"' "??'"'^- There present a great deal of surface ^l^""^^^' "" "'"' In the lining of the noL?r. , ,:"'* ""* Particles. jttle particlis stimularthe ^e.^^' Th "'™^ '^"'^ the stimulus to the brain Th.^ j . "*"« 'onvey sensation of smell comLj^J^r'' u''™ ''"°»" " »= > finally becomes co'nr^ST:? lls'^ctt^u'"""""' "■«■ V. SeiiM of Smtu in Animala ^^Observe how the different 'animals make use of this bj- followng u„ p,id,„„ " of pupils, resoectivelv opiKMite thoughts expressed by them. *^ ' "^^I^nveiy, THE OAT. The cat has five toes on each of her fore-feet The cat has a soft fur coat The cat has little cases for her claws. The cat's tongue is covered with hooks. Some cats are grey. (Willie.) (Ella.) (Sara.) (Charlie.) (Grace.) 168 OVIDE TO HAlUltE-STUDY, Some cats are black. The cat can lap up milk (Ethel.) to i^^r"" *'■"' '" '^' "^ -" thought as is:l ChiVi#s\h^oughter ™"''' «'°''eht. Willie to re^ wI^-^-L:!!*""- «° the order of the above and „. Jc::htatr:-rta:ir-- The cat is covered with for. oome cats are blart ^«v a are DiacJc and some are ffrev shecr;;r^''°''''^^^'^h<^ks. ^he can lap up milk. She is covered with fur. Some cats are blarL- a«^ Composition Aff*»r r above the following might'be7equ^"!:!'»«»'» '*» the abiut^rS " "'""■"S "- 'b°"S''ts giving i„fo,^,,„„ B. a question about the cat or t)^^f ^ ^^"^y («) to ask cat. or (.) to express surpnse'lU°ut^ h^car "*"" '" ""^ 2. Proceed as in reading-lesson ■■ A^" QUIDS TO NATURB-8TXTDY. i^ Write several questions or several commands down Fmnh-.i, tuation and expression. «""»"«nu» aown. l!.mphasise punc* folfoZ^f"'""-^"" ••"= "^ding-lesson -B" give the tiol.-atehecV""''^ "'' "■"*"«' '"'"■"S '•"'■''™»- comZd'in" ear*"'" ^'""^ ^°"' P-''^ » *«=" c. The Reading-lesson may be still more limited. 1. Let each httle child frame a thought about {a) The habits of the cat, or ib) The structure of the cat, or {c) The relations of the cat. ana B emphasizmg consecutive thought, the oara- graph and the title of the lesson. ^ f.if; ^^P'lfss.in writing two thoughts on each of the foUowmg habits of the cat : («) eating and drinking, {b) sleeping, {c) washing, {d) hunting. («) its covering, (^) its feet, {c) its head— eyes, teeth, whiskers, tongue. in 100 OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 11 D. turl'^'hl'fcril S^i^ "^'^. ^° ^^'^^ «tni anothc. play. "'^ ^^" *^« imagination of the child imo in words :— ^ "^" ^*"e" "pon to express it («) Pwjy is wit/tout a hntm, cu u , streets of a crowded citv hT • ^^^ ^*' ^^" '^ft on the for holidays. ^ ''">^' ^'^'^ '"'^^'-^^ leaving gone away ^c^^V'/"''^' ^h^t she does. cliJ^lXt^rSIdef ^^ ^^^^'^ «»^^ ^'-b-how she food-the kind she .e^':!Ut%'i?e' ea?,7""''"' ^""^ ««'^ hefr""-^^'"'-*'- Whe„, Who takes car. of son'; '''X^b'° ■■ c""" ''"■ *''°"Sht in writing as in les riven calling the imaiiat on imo'''r *"^^'"Ss maybe Th'"«f ^°r '"-S^'-" the" follt^g'^l^ ^-E-"-- chased th:?;*''^^''^^^"!,']^ her Ki„, W A dog found them. « Horshe carrL ^t""' W Where shI place she hid them. "^ *''*■" home. (V) The E. nformat'Sn no^dcti eT/dS.rw'lS'rfl - 'his^d^ somi proper, but information wVri.L "l* Nature-lcs- prepared to receive and S S '' ""' f '"'''' has been ana wh,ch he can gather for himsel£ GUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. THE 80BB0W7UL OAT. 161 •' My child! what's the matter? ' said Mrs. Puss to her little black kit. " O mamma, the calf hurt my foot I mew, mew." •• Hush, my dear! mew, mew," said the mother, lickine the sore foot " I told you not to go to the field alone." The little puss was quiet for a moment and then said •• I ran after a little mouse, mother." "Children should obey their parents, mew. mew," was all the wise old parent said. " Mamma, am I a child ? " " Of course you are. You are my dear baby child." " Is a calf a child, mamma ? " "Yes, my dear." " But, mother, a calf is not like me. I don't like that old calf." " O you silly child. Why do you not think ? A calf IS a cow's baby. A calf does not belong to our family at all. ' " Is bunny one of our family ? We live with him." " No ; all our family have claws in little cases. They have long, sharp teeth. Their tongues are covered with ittle hooks. Your cousins the lion and the tiger live a long way from here in the woods. They do not like home life." " Bunny is the calfs cousin, isn't he, mamma ? " " No, no. dear. Bunny is the pretty squirrel's cousin He does not look like the calf in any way. Nor does he act like the calf. Sheep and goats are the calf's cousins. 1 he calf will have horns like the cow and the goat when It grows up. It will eat grass and roots too. The feet of all the calf's cousins have parted nails (hoofs)." " O yes, I know," said little Puss. " The nail is called hoof Mamma, can you chew like a cow ? " 11 in w --mi u QUIDS TO NATVRB-aTVDT, " I am a cat, and I eat like a caf r«*- a . . " A ct i. th. be, Jt it irher?" "^ '" "°' '■""•" G. -S' f^^llf ^*"'" Leaves."- fT^^^^^rt. " The Retired Cat"— Coo^w. H. cat^"1er'fd±-,'''i^"" '" '•"<' »">"•« about the aH^iwirte^":'^ ^ ^irestte\„^S;-f courage the pupils to critiri,*. fK« ^-Z ^' ^"' i»2«j/f. — 1 each songs about " The Cat " of N;r:fe;ron""*"'" "^"'"^ "-""e the teaching pofc' ''°" "'°"«'"' '" «'""^"e on the following ^ _ GUIDE TO NATURB^TUDY, 103 (a) Pussy sees a bird in the tree. ib) She climbs the tree. (^) The cat springs, but the bird flies away ^^^^«/»fty.-Pussy has moved with her httle mistress to another part of the town. She does not like ths new hon,e and fnds her way back to her dd one The new home is on Street. The old one is °" i^treet. Streets familiar to pupils pu:sy':^o;.fd' re^if ^^^^^^^^ ^»-''o-) by which 2. Draw a map Showing the different blocks passed he position of the homes. Mark any homes thaTwe familiar to you on the different streets. * 3. Take the globe ; show the original home of the cat 5A///y.— Pupils who have thoughts and a knowledge ? d the'?;^;' n ' '^. ^"P^""^ •" written compos t'^t.^l::'^r1^'':^!!!? ^° ^P^" comparatively ?^y for is iltimulutttU^rn^o'^^^^^^ ^'°"^»^^^ '" ^"^-^ thfw n^f '^ '*'°'''* "'^^'^ ^" ^ ^^fi"''e "leaning and is thus no longer an empty thing. ^ Thul :^°'''^' ""^^ '^ presented with order and system. (1) Write the names of the parts of a cat. (2) Copy the following :-The cat has sharp, cut- ting teeth Some of the relatives of the cat are vn vtK.'!'^ *'^^''' the leopard, the panther, the lynx, the jaguar, and the American panther M«a ISZM^i.l'taraMajl'^ . -id-jian, ir iU GUIDE TO NATURB-STUDT. TOPICS POB STUDY. J.^It i. -^m^u. .o ™ake a stereotyped .'Table of Topic " for N... - The ..owing ta„.e. give suitable topic for the different g^des i„ Public *" ( K>l*. 3. T e, ar« to be used ji„p|, „ , . . , lie question to cover .fi fh. .™i5?'..fj?'. ''" '«"='■" «.. of .Ije question to ~..,Xh."„'piS't;2,jS' '"""'• " "^ ^ ^:^^ J-. -ji -^' '^#;..(*^' : /!• -^^ Cmu.«. wo«„,» ., O.OI.. PuxK ".«, Jl'Jli;^ eUIDB TO NATVRSmSTt/Dr. IM III i8z Q o (I) s h O (0 u s il Z a D h < i O fa M C M Q •< H Q (4t^ tn at H of ft- C < ? H o I". c p SB H ^ 8 S •2- 8- o^^ ^ S !P > .2 V 1"^ s. 2 u I -^c *:; I «« CJ ^ !9 J. C r- E C S 5 "5 B "o '5 "S « E «U S.2. " »5 S x^S s - I a, il "2 1 >•« e J a ^ s 2 Si.E ft, > S| si ^ O III. - = « t: c O S J 3 e«. M S..S MO, h£2 25 £•2 t 2..S ft, u rj it. '1 D V H fa G fa 166 OUIDE TO NATVRB-8TVDY. c » a OUIDE TO NATURE-STDDT. m " SJ g^g <«-g gj3 3 i! .: w-2 gj^ o^ »« pl-Sji 3 <" 0*2 a f ® •« B U^§J|1| 8 •^1 I la* ** a g t/5 •-] o 'tis >> o 9 C i-* I «- J w pi ^ 0-gO 5-Si ii 311 1 i owoJJ ill si gc^lsi 168 OmDB TO NATURE-STUDY. ';i l! - |f I c OUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. IW 11' (0 Q II] (0 If 3 fci^ d I 0. ^ > J Si a* =1- H « & a i = 2 S2 I 3. To • • 111 2 -sis n ® 5 Si si Crt" 2^8 V o n ti ^1= si"? 2x2 .a o go B 1 o2 VI ii I & T ll 2'0 ^1 « 2^ 1.^ ^3 e 170 OUIDB TO NATURB-arUDT, m ill aUIDS TO NATUBB-arUDT, in ? 5 w^ -S 2 a M O S 8.2-2 C •J Cm** ^ 8 Il-S3llil s 172 OUIDK TO NATURBSTUDT. m m OUIDB TO NATURSSTUDY. 173 m ^^; 9' 174 OUIDB TO NATVRE-aTVDY. k- QUIDS TO NATURK-HTVDY. 175 W B X » a «^ M v'C £*& k gjl I :^ '^w^^i^'^m^ "t^m^w. >^ MICROCOPY RESOUiTION TiST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. ') 1.0 |4J Its IS U S - \7A 13.2 13.6 1 4.0 ■ 2.2 1.8 ^ APPLIED IM/1GE inc 165:3 East Main Strmt RochMt«r, New York U609 USA (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone (716) 288 -5989 -Fax 176 GUIDE TO NATUBE-STUDY. GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 177 CO m Q o X h o b CO u •-4 8 a (0 s Q a u u h td Q < H h o I 03 bJ O =J fci t« z c 2 J rt as CAM Q O C Q ^ Pi w s »-■ z ^ H ei u a ■< u Pi C/l •§ J Pi 2 O J H < c o o U o ^ a o o Ul a: C IS 2 I Q O o <2 s" •• « •• *j 5 S3 5« >j ■ z ^w o 2 S> «> c 5 si « C o u o it. 2ii 1 u ♦-> to V •« e z S2 M k ^ iid a* o S.2 O i-t s, u i V M •c u ♦J o o o u o sa X S M u JJ.S OT o o MS - « ; Ji u o i; " « *(l - S ss V ^ ■t-t .o >> ca.fi S 3 2 o. *-« a Ilia's ui o k. "J^ 's-i a.«c ^j: aqs a. •« 3 -I'' s e §•- .c * 2 -c <" — ^VB O CO.© a " *j •* O S «' =~ 'So in V < S Q Z < Z o > ai u (/) ca O H s u s i-^ < .S «-* et M >. .a « 1 § t. U) § O B 4>J JS 1 i3 r .2 &. « O b. O td s ■< 2; B rt o •-• J I "E o u o o .J o u s B Z o H •< > M (/) O •c a & s o = d o « B > is' 3 ^ a. c« § t: '3 ^ o B Ji a. s c > I - 8s *4 J c< S o . JO u ■« 3 S-2 3 PART III m CHAPTER I. Birds. Nat?e'?sT: :;n^eh :r'^ -3^ to study 7ut2- guide M« '^" ^hem. No K,^«i ^ "^ thingrs fn Natu%. ^N°.ffr7 "" '■""y reve^Mo"" ''' * P«^fe« of Nature if, ^- *'°"= <=»" do tWs for ^°" =="«s of brings its re^aS**'^ ^"^ °">er kind of "tin" 'V^^ '"'■•<'■ does here ^o '"°''* ^"'^'y and mor^ "f-^ "'^^'■* "-ork have e,S andrr74l°'«V'^ ^"'^ o^nt^^s'^^ toTfelt^^"' "'-^'^ -y driven a'wav b^T"'' »"d ■"•■•ds is to havt» ° ^ '«'"ed to hear f^ *' "'"gl^ one. *"'" « "^« avenue for eniovri f rounds of John Burroughs ,avs •., ""''""'"' ''^"^ ^or removed Th„ ^ *''^<''' 'o the ear Li ^P^ • ^ome ^'we do^orU'Sf' ""'^ -'les^uroro^'^™"-" "- - do not heS; fe:- -i« f n Z %«' ^ 180 ^ * "°' ""S'c. properly GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. i8i speaking but only suggestions of music. A great manv people whose attention would be quickly arreSed bv the same volume made by a musical, or by any artLial means, never hear them at all. The sound of a bo^^ s^pTr^;:SlT;" '\^r'\ °^ *^^ -eadlfw^Sfld separate itself more from the background of Nature and be a greater challenge to the ear, than is the strain of the thrush, or the song of the sparrow. There is someth n^ elusive indefinite, neutral about bird-song thaTmakI them stnke obhquely, as it were, upon the ea and vve are very apt to miss them. They are a part of Natun and Nature lies about us, entirely occupied with her ow„ affairs and quite regardless of our presence. Hence k NaTure ThT^' "'J' '' ^'^^ "^^"^ ^^^^ things in Nature They are what we make them. The ear that hears them must be half creative " this^conSuTon 'tf ""' ^'''" '""^I ^'- ^"^^•"' " ^ ^"^ Greatest th.w" K ^^ '^pressed upon me~that the greatest thmg a human soul ever does in this world is to see something, and tell what \t cn^., .•« ^ i • u^^nA»^A c . wHat It suw lu 2i plaitt wav Hundreds of people can talk for one who en thTnk but hundreds can think for one who can see To s^ clearly ,s poetry, prophecy and religion-alUn one ° But people in general are not only blind, thev are also unconscious of their blindness ; hence thev have "^ desire to have their eyes opened.' No other study tenSs more directly to make one conscious of imLrfert sf^ht andjo create adesire for clear vision. thanTefthI s"^ Let a person but once experience that real thrill of iov hat comes when he is able to identify a bird, a s ranier life wTlMn^Ln '*"°K '^r ^/°^^' ^"^ ^'^ inte;est1n b"?d lite will, m all probability, be established. Such exoeri wTt^W'dThTbird i''-^ ^°/""^ °"'>' '^ one' wh^Ti fT^nc ? .u . ^^^*" ^"^ ^ga'" under varying condi- a?ts which"!^. "^ "" '' ¥' '°'^ '' ^^^ chlracteSti^ traits which are necessary for its identification While getting such experience he will, doubtless, feerWs powe^ 183 •I OVIDS TO IfATTnm-STVDT. "ip^^f^^^.ZX\,l\^, ^ -.-d that „e when it departs, is bt,f a 'small'T r^'V'''^^'^ and nec^sa^, ^ ^°- ac^a.-r^'^rthl t^, ""^'^^^^ to tell h,s name, whe.'erifvi"^'''';: *?" '» be abie One should know something aCuf.^'C ''* '^ « ho^e. i iJ",' """"ghts and his habfe ^ tu*^" *"<< *"'' dis- should know his personalL »nH '• " °^^" "'"■•ds, one manner, the bird i?ouM &"wn ""-^h'T *■''" ^'■'""•" edge .s by far the most imrortrnt ^'^}"'"^ °f knou- th'ng Itself and not its ^.p^,'^'' '' '^ '° know the such°a^;'aTntttlte^V^^<' *^ ^''■'^ '" -tiva.e N^ "I. '"sZ^ noXnTl^i" r"-* ^"f- -'"--"■=■ spher^wi.houtearnestnefsrde'^thrr'^''^'' in this and\^Cerortfe-C---wi;h his pupi., wilt f"fthTr:V"o'rnopfcr *°, '.^' ">« P-Pi'^ covenes may be made^'^the chiM r'^K^'' ^ew di.- as well as by the teacher ' °' ''>' ^"yone else, a.^ut^itKes't„7rht''hl™|?s"r f° «-• '•" -" w.n certainly require patfence and n""^ "°'^<'- This teacher must encourage inevSv"^ Perseverance. Th, .n th.s outdoor obsefvaS,r Vr,!f„S, tk^"^^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 183 whole class on an excursion to the woods. If not con- venient to take the whole class, a few pupils may be taken at a time. The child should be encouraged to make observations when he is alone, and as the child will, in all probability, have much more time than the teacher to ramble about, he may see much that the teacher has never seen. He may also ask mv \y reasonable ques- tions the teacher cannot answer. No question should be cast aside^ simply because it cannot be answered at the time. It is the teacher's business to guide the pupil, if possible, to find an answer to all such questions ; and if he will but keep his eyes open this will generally not be a difficult task. 5. In seeking to make the acquaintance of our feathered friends, we must remember that they are very shy. We must learn to approach them gently. It is always best to be quietly dressed— olive brown or dark grey are very suitable. Little girls should not wear bright colors nor hanging ribbons. It is best also to have the hands perfectly free. The least thing strange disturbs or distracts our shy neighbors. If we would see these little friends as they are, we must keep ourselves in the background. 6. Always carry a pencil and a note-book. An opera-glass is also a very great help. You must look very sharply, observe carefully, and report correctly and truthfully, if any progress is to be made. The eye and the mind must be trained to work together 1 his will come only through repeated effort. The eye always images accurately. The reflex on the retina is always a correct one, but oftentimes when we try to tell what we have seen, there is more or less confusion. 7- Note its general size and shape. Look very care- fully at the coloring of the bird above and below Observe its markings, the color and shape of its beak, its feet and its legs. 8. Next note its manners— whether it is quiet or rest- less—whether it jerks its tail or its head— whether it IM ouwe TO XATVBe-sTaDr. or Peking them amo^g°^flot^?.ng thejn frcS thefroS «s call and its sone fnt^Z ™ '^ves. Then not. note-book, your thIugC ts7hdJ"'"' '">' Point in y,™ observations <;*»f ^ -j ^ ^"^>' are evolved frAr« fi hours for ^^^ij^' ^'fj^ « definite time ^r^g^^^ ^>^To - ■'^LrS S-^^^^ arS S'otl^eVt-SSxr^teTrl.' look among the flycatcheTr , ir''^ *° '^' P^'-^h again look among the fir ches ^' ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^« eating sfed"; tlonltZ l?ott o?'^ti7-^^^^^ noting descnp- »t mark the names of'hed'ffere^^^ '^^ biackboid o'n a more accurate and intenXenf^^''^^^ % these means carried on, and a more deS J* c?nversation can be httle about them has an ^ff K ."?,«' even if we learn associated with fio!ien ^ ^fZ:'^:^^ '- that of befn^ ^ving seen and loved them / ^"^^ ^"^ happier fo? Passmg by. '^"^ ^^^"'' even ,f we do so in merdy GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 185 To give definite direction as to the family of the bird on which the teacher should first fix his attention is almost impossible. Yet he should not be altogether without system or plan. A person who is not interested in birds sees few, if any. A person beginning the study ot birds IS apt to become bewildered, and consequently lost in confusion, and he will find himself little ahead of the uninterested observer unless he has some definite plan. But, again, suppose the teacher had planned to study the oriole, and observations have led the pupils to become interested in the thrush, generally speakin? it will be wise for the teacher to be led by the pupils and to be interested, for the time, in what interests them A time will doubtless come when the teacher can in turn lead the class in his own way. The neighborhood should 186 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 1- I "^n^^^^^ ^---on as to the b.d or as possible evcryth " that r- k'^ '^" '^^^ ^' ^'o^^'y As the robin and tieVn^Lh " '^""""^ ^^^^"t ^hca birds, it will be found con?entnr''Tur/^'>' ^°"^'"-n other birds with the^sl^S?; L" tMf ^ *° ^^"^P''^^^ fi-t'i:?„V4^ tik:^^^^^^ i^^: r'r ^'r^^ ^'- according to their color is helofu t "" fT'^^ ^'''^^ serve as a guide-— R.r^l ^. '• The following u ill 2. Birds blfck and uii '' 'S'"°"'^^ ^^^i'^ °' ^»^'t 4. Blue and bluish l^rdL ?' c R^ ^'^^'.^"^ ^'^^« *^o-'o- I brown.grayand brown 6 Gr^T""' °' "! °^ ^'^y^^^ I yellowish olive ; 7. ConsvicunuS ' ^T""^ ^'"^y* oJ've. 8. Conspicuousiy^red of any'shade''^^^ ""^ °^^"^^' ' tim?o^r fheX' wh?. tt^^^^^ --^-^ to the helpful. ,. Permanent resldems Tw^^^'P'^^^"^ '^ ^'^° vifitors. 3. Summer rSSlntf ^f^ZV'^'l'"'''''''' migrants, or rare summer visitors.' ^ ^ ^""^ ^"'""^" It is not necessary to study one or tu,« w ^ more, to the exclusion of all tL nfl ^""1"' ""' ^^^" around the types as Sr pi ^ k? °*^^''^- ^"t group chance to co'^S^ underoSerS'' M^ '^'^^^ ^^^^ may' thHt are interestin^and wfthrn ^h" ^°t' °^ '^^ ^^'^^ ' ^'long to the perch^ers rTeri", ^ f^"^ °^ ^he child that do interest hh^ It is verl °'^''" 'yP'' ^^ birds helpful, to teach the child the ?X£7' if"^ °^'"" ^'^^ the eight great classes of birds Sf^'^^'^l^'^^tics «^ classification should come na'uJallv c""^" '^'^ ^""^'"^^ IS interested in the roWn ^n^fK ^* ^"PPO'^e one child in the wren • each chiM* f °*''^'' '^ *^^ ^"^J^. anothe>- something com^n'tolhe "re"n and' L" V'^l ^^^^ '^ to the duck and the robin Th.f.l 'u^'" ^^^^ is nof trasts, the marked char^iteriSn/^^^^^^^^^^^^ "^ ni:o At U^4 FIG. 8 no. 10 Fia.e FI6.II FIG.I3 FIG.I2 FIG; 14 FIG. 16 PIG. IS FI6.I7 FiG.19 '^^■^ FIG.Id FIG.2 riG.2| n I ! GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. I87 can be readily shown:— i. Birds of prey (raptores fi ,V',«?'. '?'rt- ^P''*'°^!' °»- Perchers (passeres, Figs.' 0, 12, 18); 3. Climbing birds (scansores. Figs 4 11 19; ; 4. Doves and pigeons (columbae) ; 5. Fowl-like birds or scratchers (gallinae, Figs. 2, 9, 15); 6. Running birds (struthiones. Figs. 7. ,7, 2,); 7'; Waders (graTi f«gs. 5. 13, 20); 8. Web-footed birds, or sw mmeS (anseres, Figs. 1, 8, 14). ' dimmers The general characteristics of the above orders of birds might be briefly stated thus :— I Birds o/Prey.-These are strong birds, of consider- able size, with closdy-knit bodies. The legs and feet are sinewy and strong ; the toes have sharp talons. The organs of smell are highly developed. Vision is keen and °".^i J^^"PP^' P^""* °^ bill is hooked. They have great skill in flying, and live to a great age. Their aspect IS fierce. Examples: Hawk, ea|le, owl, falcon^vSe tha'n ^ZtZTu^i^f °^/^"'" ^"^' ^^^ '"^re blende; ^iJff ^^^ ^"f^ ^^ ^'^y ' th^y are especially adapted for grasping the branch of a tree. Of the four hf nlh^ ^?' '' l"'"'^ backward, placed on a level wkh the other toes, has a long claw, and can be perfect y opposed to those in front. The covering of ^the b U IS always hard and homy. These birds^are prudent blackbW ^^'- ^^^"^P^^^= Thrush, swallow^ finch, 3. at'mdfrs.— Two of the toes turn backward: the two others turn forward The tail feathers are stiflf and sham pointed. The bill is chisel- like. Examples :Wo^^ pecker, cuckoo, parrot. ^ • w 00a ^f^J^'Y'' Pig^ons.-These birds form the transition to the fowls. They are social, gentle, tame ; voice is ducking and cooing. Their flesh is eatable. Exampfes Wood-pigeon, passenger-pigeon, crowned-dove ' 5. Scratc/iers.—Most of these birds have a crest of bare skin on the head. The males have spurs on the mner side of the tarsus. They have stilt-like legs and 188 OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. hatch on the grounrf P^ turkey, hen. ^'°""^- ^^^'"P'^^ .• Peacock, pheasai 6. Runners. — The fiv»f «r 4.1. ■""scalar; suited for rln.l rt ^"^^ "« »t™ng a. "O adapted to fly.ng.^ExaSp.e^^JsTleh''" ^""^ *' from whence they'^^ 1^%^,^^^ -ater and swamp birds are web-fooied. Examn L Sf " S°"^« o<" the5 stork, snfpe, moor-coot. ^""^"^P^^^ •' Plover, crane, heroi o. SwitHfners Th<» kj is web-membrane co„„e«rr,r?hi' .'~'"-»''»Ped ; ther clumsy, waddling gait ExfmS *"?? ■ ""^y have , gull, s«ra„, pelican. ^""""Pl^ : Goose, duck, sea li"^^^'^^l'^%i:^^l^\l-^rf-'^ is base. of families and thbse mnfff ^"^^ *^^ ^''eatest numbe ^-11 note so.ron?eteXTn» -I have large, horny, but sH^htlv ^ "^fmbers of this family front of the shinVsusX rivTi'^P?^ ^^"'^^ °" the that ,s. large feathers attached^ m.k^^'^u '"'^ P""^aries, segment of the wing. The first. '^^ ^^"^ °'' ^"ter always much shorter than the nfi, '' °"^^'' P""^ary is thrush, bluebird, catbird "'^''- ^'" '"PJ^s : Robin' 2. Z/^/ Swallow Fanti/'u tu tof *°^' 1'™'"^- «=«'. wijJar bm?'t-\°f '■'■■^ '■^'"■■'y to a point almost beneath the eves T^"''°P*" ""''«•>' >«- swallow, clifl^s:X,^3^^7„;rrten'^''™-y '-"-• include all perching b?ds haWni""""^^'^ °^ ^^'^ family n»ne primaries. Exarnoles I ^^"f 'Shaped beaks anf goldfinch, song sparrot ^ * Rose-breasted grosbeak, GUIDE TO NATV RE-STUDY. 189 ClJkti9^$ SkCLCTON OrCHICKCN. fbtMVnv Tom .]^^ FlOUItB 1. 190 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY, famil/"lvf tnfl/nf rThe members of thi edges. They are^mo"e adan./d f ''''^'■' ?""' ^""P*-"' crushing. The corners of 7h»' '^^<^""'ng than fo, ward droop. ExarSpks R^h VT"""! ^""^ « doiv„. bird, oriole "^^P'" • Bobohnk, red-winged black- brLftlHr^J^e-upi^r mTn^^K-f °'""^ ^^""'3' have over the lower. They ha^ aT r ^ 't f ^'"'y hooked out suddenly from a Ls^ or li^ r " ''*'"'' °'' ''^*'ns jnsect with Tloud sna^of the teak andTh '"'"""^ »" TO Habits. («) Rrmly united bones of spinal column. meVt oT^rtX';,t^.,t^ P-.-nent keel for attach- W Long wing, with its strong bones. W The ploughshare-shaped bone of the tail W Bon^s of, eg divided into three parts "■ S Anrrs'-rrr;--^'^^'-- from the body "*' ^"'' *°'"e ^'stance ,-^^.];nna;°---H^^^^^^^^^^^ from injury by the wing stroke! °'^^"' °^ ^^^ b^^^' ,.^) The several laree sart<= fin ? ■ , different places in the body cavifv v u^ ^"'""^ ^' ^t the specific gravity of the bird ^' ""^ '^"^ '° ^^^^^ aUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 191 (/t) The high temperature of the blood and the four chambers of the heart, this structure serving to maintain a uniform temperature of the body. Bones. — Most of the bones of adult birds are hollow and filled with air. Hence, the lightness of the body of birds. For this reason, also, diving birds can remain a long time under water, inasmuch as respiration then is aided by the air in their bones. Bones of animals, on the other hand, are heavy. When not solid they are filled with marrow. The Covering of Birds. The special mark of a bird is its feathers. All feathered creatures are birds. Feathers, like hair, grow from the skin, and are really made of the same material as it is made of. Birds' feathers look, at first, like little pimples on the bird's skin. From these little pimples 192 N OUIDB TO NATVSB-STUDT. '^r.p:'J,t^ ^tee^atHer can Be seen . Is arranged as to lie smoothly on? ovfl °^^"'^' ^re so Each has its own l>ro^r' Tc^ {Y^l'^'^r ^^^ '''^^'' riiffled. It takes great oain^ f " ^^^ fathers get they get worn or broken n^ '^f'^"^^ ^^^^- I through the skin, and the oiH " "^ h*^^*"^ P^^h up not only serve as a covering fe w^^'T' ^^^thers strong feathers of the win^fn^asSt',^^ ^^^ ^^ Tr ?hf^l;:j • J„^-idd,e pa^tailed each side of the shaft we have thf k^ **l^ ^^^'^^'' ^n same width on both sWes fiv str^f^u-^^'^^ '« "°t the you can separate it into litile nL ^""^'J^ °"t the web a barb By passing the foL?^.'^!^'^^ P'"^^ '' called top of the featherlunder tTe Lf *^^ °"^ "^^r the the feather; the barbs wiH null °"^' ^^^ ^^n smooth holds fast to the one in fron^of 1?^ ^^^ '^^' ^arb By being thus closely united the Lr ^ "'^l? ^'^ ^^^^s. the feather; the body of he ^rH '^S""^' blow through dry. Then, too. in fly?ng the biH I "' ^'^' ^^^"^ ^nd aside much in the sanie w;v a^ th. ^' *° ^'^'^ the air the water aside; this it^oT.W '^'f fwimmerhas to press not formed so as\o pr^le^t he ^1^° '' '^' feather'^was cave shape of the feat ler fl tr ^"^P^n^- The con- Feathers that protect the b^^^,i'°\^"^fit '" flying outside part Th^p^nl^^y^^^^^^ by the overlapping fUeTfsVoft and'^d'^^^^^^^ ^°"^^^^-^ of the robin are bright bav?i^^^^^^ ^'^^'* ^^^thers Srey. At times thfs bright cl?"'' ^^^^^^pped is dull bird seems to change h^!LoelrL7^'' u^^^>'' ^nd the his feathers. The tail fepfh^?^ ? "? without changing ney swift and woo^eSct a^^^^^^^^ ^s thech'im? extends beyond the tfo of th. f .r^* 'P'">^' the web support the bird when Si^?^^ ^'"^^^- These feather GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 193 Flying. The whole structure of a bird is wonderfully adapted for flying. The smallness of the head, feet and viscera ; the lightness and strength of the bones ; the lightness, elasticity and strength of the wing-structure of the feather; the hollow quill; tapering shaft, are all fitted for making it easy to fly. Then the vane is composed of barbs clinging together by elastic hooks, and one side of the web is wider than the other and overlaps, thus mak- ing a flexible and impermeable plane. In the down stroke the feathers by overlapping do not allow the air to pass through, but in the up stroke the air passes through freely. This gives great effectiveness in down stroke, and least possible loss in recovery for the up stroke. The bird's wing has two distinct functions, viz.: — TAat of a propeller and that of an aeroplane. In ordinary flight both of these functions are performed in different relative proportions according to the size of the bird and the extent of its wing. In large birds the wings (except in 13 m OUIDE TO NATURE-STUD r. rising) act as an aeroplane. In small birds and insects the Wings act almost wholly as DroDeIler« r « - a- , /foverin^.~ln hovering the body of the bird ;« .•„ ^i^w^llTd^lrar^^^f^^^^ tained in the air by 'vigol^ousXping '' """" in ^Tai'fi7i"fi^H '"^ ^^.^ ^y °^ *^^ ^^''•d »« maintained m the air in a fixed position, the wing being outstretched h?.^r.''°"iru ^^^^'"^ PJ^^^s itself fi^ng^he ltd n^fn^ ''^ ^^.^''°r °^ ^ ^•"- its wings and^taif So-' plane) are inclined slightly downward, but not <^^uke ?o much as the slope of the hill, so that the wind wiU strike the underside of the wines and fail i„ lu- • • the fo.e of gravity 3 to"'ar^- it twnwa'rd 'anS forward while the force of the ^nd tenTsTo carrv It upward and backward. Hence the bird Is steadied soari!^rH;7t°!['"^ '' ^" ^"'y' erraceful motion. In soar ng the bird sweeps about in wide circles with iTs levlrbur'-''^^^^^ "^"^^' "°^ °">y ma'ntainTn'g Its level but rising in ascending spirals until it dis appears from view. The bird always drifts wi^h tZ wind in spirals inclining to leeward ^ SatVin^.—With great ease and with very little aooarent expenditure of energy, the bird is able tTgambKThe coS wi?hthJ'%'"' f .'"^ ^^^"^^ alfng'dmist in faces thrlin^S^ '"^^l^ °^**^^ ^^rth. then wheels about. W?h as fiftv ?.l r^"^ '':°°^' "P '" *^^ ^^' oftentimes as nigft as hfty feet, then turns again with the wind swnnnc down a steep incline and Igain skims Te'surfece except' or'LT"- "'^ ^S^ "^"^^ remain motbntS Sse -n th. ^"*^^T^ fl\P. "^ade necessary by a oeciease m the strength of the wind. ' aUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. 196 Migration of Birds. The happy birds that chanjje their sky To build and brood ; that live their lives From land to land. — Ttnny son's " In Afemoriam." The migration of birds is, even to the keenest observer, still an unsolved mystery. It is now known where each species goes to spend the winter and the summer, the rate of travelling, the time they arrive at their destination, the stopping places on the way, the route by which they travel. But little is known, however, about the marvellous instinct that guides and directs them on their way, that tells them when to leave their sout» ;rn home, and that directs them where to select a sui ible nesting.place. Even in this twentieth century, men stand in wonder— as from time immemorial— and ask "why?" Language of Birds. 'Tis love creates their melody, and all This waste of music is the voice of love, That, even to birds and beasU, the tender arts of pleasing teaches. — Thomson's ' ' Smsohs. " iiT^T?* ^^'^°" ^- ^°*^' °^ *^^ National Museum at Washmgton, says :—" Although not a language for -on- tmued talkmg like our own, yet by many and various sounds the birds express a great many different feel- ings ; their calls and cries are always understood by those of their own kind, and frequently by birds of other kinds. Indeed, in cases of danger or need, birds seem at times to speak a common language, so well do they understand each other. Such feelings as a/arm, love jealousy, contentment, pain and pleasure are expressed each by its own definite sound. "The Common Crow has a vocabulary more expressive and wider in range than that of many of our finest song- 196 OUIDS TO NATURB.8TUDY. Jli * ' " The American Wild Turh^ u^ least a dozen words or sound, t?? t.v?<^abulary of at peril from half a dozen source- i' ^'^ " '" "°"'*^"^ therefore, its different sound, 21*''^^^'^ ^"^ ""^^^ ^^^'> «fety. When in danU from n^T^^ "ecessa^^ for its or eagle, it has a low note Z I H^' ^' ^'^"^ ^ '^^^'^ fvery member of a flock wLf '• '" • °"'' ^^ich warns «t has an entirely differen; n)^ '" /nimediate danger, When danger hreiferfrnm"^ '^^''P' tremubus different silnalTsS wh?.^ *• '^^^ ^^ ^°^' ^ ^'^tinctly the turkey! that helr"t blnfT •^''. '^^"^^ ^'"g'' ^nd feeding in a field where he f^J "'"/" '^/ ^•'•- When is that of contentment untn IZV'a ^u^"''^"'' ^^^ ^^"nd the flock, and then "h^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ Patriarch of t-sS' te^lf^as':h^ee'H"^•^^^'^^• «-^ *h- the for three different purpost o'ne"? ^°^"^!: ^^^^ used a nest or when calWnrr T v "^ '* uses when seeking frightened; and one of^ verd': •"'"'"J °"^ ^^en it"? flies to and from the nest ^hrr^^"'.^'"^ ^^en it songs-the /ove song a haool r " ^^ ^^'^^ '^'"ds of song- of indiff^r^lr. t PP^ response to its mate • the /«/^6^songf;7o^^^^^^^ hunting for food, and the young chicken, to 'sli^"'"^' ^'^'^'''^ "°te hushing the Kindness of Birds to One Another b J;ToTn7jn"o1h:?'' tTJ' "^^^^^ °^ th- J^-dness of yourself MakeanoisJhklT'"'"^ Many birds-indeed a^fl JLo ^ j;""^ b'rd in distress, what is the matter ^\IZIZ ft! P"^'" *=°"^« ^o see trying to drive cruel robb^rs^^^^^^^ '° ""'^e in young. They have even t nVH T u' "\'^ °" ^'"^'^ ^beir pecking at hi^ fece and eve iV^^"^* ^^'r enemy by s^^Tet^eVX^r r f:- --^-r^^ Chickadees and^TthSs" w^^l^l^ "^.^-^1 ^^ GUIDB TO NATURE-aTUDY. 197 uncommon sight in the bird-world to see birds which are unable to take care of themselves, being waited upon with food of helped to a drinking place, by other birds. Such care is generally bestOwed upon birds that are blind, lame or otherwise disabled. Birds are not only kind to one another, but they are also very susceptible to kindness from man. Scatter a kw crumbs at the door, or place a cup filled with water on a window; these little comforts will soon be dis- covered by our sharp-eyed friends, who in turn will become, by way of showing their gratitude, quite tame. These attentions are appreciated most in the winter, when food is scarce and water frozen. If you would be kind to birds never speak to them in an an^ ' <:one of voice. So sensitive are they that such tone? have been known to frighten them to death. Our Winter Birds. Most people associate birds with summer. But many birds of different kinds not only remain in the north during winter, but they seem to take almost as much pleasure out of their life during this stem season as dur- ing summer. Indeed, facing the difficulties of winter seems to impart new life and bring fresh joy to them. But where do our little feathered friends live during the cold frosty days and nights ? And what is their fooa ? They do not always live, as many suppose, among the thick branches of the evergreen trees. A brush pile left by a woodman often affords the necessary shelter. A inound of sod furnishes a temporary home for the tiny snowbird. The junco frequently takes possession of the forsaken home of a field-mouse ; while a hollow tree is the home of such birds as woodpeckers and nuthatches. Blackbirds are often contented with the shelter which dried grasses can give them. The food of winter birds consists chiefly of seeds from weeds and grasses, and berries of the dogwood tree. The partridge lives almost entirely on buds. The following 196 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. are among the birds found during the winter • r . kinglet, chickadee, screech-owl /olrlfin^K^^'^°"'^' the red-poll snowflake r«5 * ^J°"« 'Parrow. with owl. and'^in'e.g°:beat' "°'"""' '^'''" '"■•''• ^"°"y The Eve of the Bird. also have the oower of rL!iT u '"■''" °'^ P-^^. "h'ch condition of%S^M°e^„^P t^tTnlinSrJr » strucSJwh^H gife Sj^^ atlSr*l°' ^tSfF"'^-^^^^"'*^^^^^^^^^^ focus than the less convex cornea of other animak ^^^^Z^r^X:^ sS3« I^r: Tr'rr"^^ «' » distant :;?!,ri';^^' is the case ?n all Xr^fnV^" r°* ^^ *^^ involuntary, as ^her.hns^.^p^-Z4hr„L^-,^,-:,^^^^^^^^^^ Homes of Birds. O blessed Bird ! the earth we pace Again appears to be An unsubstantial, faery place That IS fit home for Thee ! — IVordsworth. GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 199 So closely connected is the life of the bird with its home and Its surroundings that the one cannot be studied without equal interest being taken in the other bo many and so varied are the different types of birds that they seem a very part of earth itself, for everywhere they are found, and everywhere their song is that of freedom, and their attitude that of trust. Away above the world, on the top of some lofty peak of a mountain or giant tree, we find the homes of the eagle and the condor. Little care these birds, with their expansive wing and keen sight, for the world beneath. Still farther from the haunts of men— on the solitary ocean— and at times, too, when all is tumult instead of calm, we find the frigate-bird, a creature above all ordinary wants, and one which never alights on the water nor seeks land, except to rest and rear its young Here, also, we meet the albatross, a bird still stronger and more powerful ; the sea-gull, that flies in the face of the wind ; the guillemot, that plunges into the water and seeks its food; and the petrel, that skims its surface. Another solitary place frequented by birds is the -T"^ -rl" ^^^"""^ ^^^ *^*"& "^^ed is the thing pro- vided. The desert needs scavengers, and willing workers are found in the vultures. Along the nV^r, pond and iake shore we find such birds as the kingfisher, the sandpiper, the bank swallow, and other species, each of which has some special attraction peculiar to its home life. Swampy places afford shelter for still another type of birds. Among such may be mentioned the heron, the swamp sparrow, the marsh-hawk, the wood-duck, the red- winged blackbird, the veery, the coot and the gallinule. In busky pastures sha.^. eyes can find many a snug little home. Such surroundings are preferred by the following birds :— The field sparrow, quail, indigo-bird, night-hawk, chestnut-sided warbler, junco and brown thrasher. 900 GUIVB TO NATURE-STUDY. tea I, thJ'me^^k^S^rr' '*' P'^^^'"'"^ ^y *^« bobolink, me meaaow-lark, the savanna-sparrow, and the buntina Again hosts of birds seem to like the protection t at comes from the trees of the woods. Amongsuch b j Dier, black and white creeper, nuthatch, owl. tanater sharp-shinned sparrow and pigeon-hawks. ^ ' fi 95^"^' t^M?.' ^^"^ '^"^ of the society of man for we find them building homes in orchards, LngT street and near houses and barns. To this class^ beloni the rose-breasted grosbeak, cuckoo, chipping sparrow kTiur bird, catbird yellow warbler, goIdfinchfhSmmk^ff b d chimney swift crow, blackbird, house wren, C^swallow purple finch, house sparrow, bluebird, co^bfrS] scrS ^Zl^ . t^*l ^"-^3 themselves. Some birds con- I few stS^r. r "^''^ ^"^ "'"^P^^ ^^^^^"'•^^ consisting f a few sticks, leaves, or mosses (crow) ; others again are skilful weavers (the oriole). The chickadee dlfs a ho m a dead stump or tree, and lines it with mS grat tw^^t^foS fe^T-d ^^^ ""r^ ^"^"°" ^'^' - tunnelTo:' two to four feet d^p ; at the end of this he drops a few a nest The kingfisher makes a tunnel three to four feet long and builds a nest similar to that of the bank swallow young bird before it gets its feathers. A bird spends comparatively little time on its nest before the eg^ ar ^tion ^ Wit^'-^'' "^^^ ^"^ '^^^'^ assist If inc" ^aL1r;s Z^ Ik ''^ a covering as feathers it seldom requires any other protection from the weather. * Thus, then, to man the voice of Naf«re spake Go from the creatures thine instruction take. ' I-eam from the bird to build. %.-^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. SOI Note i.-Birds' nests may, without cruelty, be collected after the birds have migrated. They make a most interesting collection. N*"?„^-.-.^eSS may be modelled in wax. If wax is placed in warm water tiH it is soft « can be evenly and cleanly worked into any shape. S T^^^r^'^^'H."?,"^, '*•/'' ^i"* *^ "^f"'* '» ''*«»ens will give it a surface like that of eggshell. It also fits it to receive color, for which use oil paints or oil crayons or powdered colors. Varnish when dry with while spirit varnish or copal varnish. '^ Bird-Day. Ten thousand warblers cheer the day and one The live-long night ; nor those alone whose notes Nice finger'd art must emulate in vain, But cawing rooks, and kites thr* soar sublime In still repeating circles, screati..jg loud, The jay, the pie, and e'en the boding owl That hails the rising moon, have charms for me. — Cowper. It is well to have a Friday afternoon set aside for reviewing all the information gathered about birds. The teacher might call this day bird-day. Many simple httle devices might be resorted to by way of adding charm to this day, so that the children would look forward to it with pleasure. The following are suggested :— Stories about birds ; short essays on birds ; drawings of birds, charts previously rnade, put on exhibition (charts of different kinds of feafhers are interesting to young chil- dren) ; songs about birds ; beautiful gems of literature on birds. . /wl'u following: .'Wake-Robin," "Birds and Poete," "Locusts and Wild Honey," by John Burroughs. ^^uau, Notes on Birds, the robin. Adove.— Dull brownish olive-gray. Jfead.— Black. -ff///.— Bright yellow. Fee/.— -Flesh colored. Tor/.— Brownish black, with exterior feathers ; white at inner tip. Wings.— Tiairk brownish. Throat.—SircaVitA with black and white. Eyelids.— -Whxit. 90t GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. ' Hi Breasf.— Bright rusty red. FEMALE—Duller, with pale breast, resembling male in winter. Jitze.—b rom nine to ten inches. ir.5''"'^""'" ^I'^c' ^ffquenfy an apple-tree; large and rough look- ^^;?^f-— From four to five, pale greenish blue. t.ifl^Jl^K~5TP°'^'?:, P"""«^ excitement nervous jerking of tail over the back; rapid, direct flight; hops lightly over the gfass. ^on,!?.^^*"^ V°?v ^^o^'nate* birddom with his strong, ag£ressive per- sonaluy. Mr. Parkhurst, in his '• Bird Calendar," says, •' ^ bird U Sle to give so many shades of meaning lo a single Ue rannine throuLh e arnwn^T"' °^ ''' ^''^^"^ '''Si^'"-" Robfns are foXffniit . Afu 1 fToH^?**'" *^'^*' ™*'?y ^ ««ty-eight earthworms daily. Indeed some ^^; „JI"*'k''^"'^ """^^ '^y "° «"«*"« «^''sfi« it- A growing rSnw^i! RED-HEADED WOODPECKER. /[''^farf, A^^r^ and TAroaf.— Crimson. Breast and Underneath.— ^h\ie. ^oc^.— Black and white 7i?.— About as large as a robin. Note.— An expert flycatcher darts out from the limb of a tree at a Ciro ireT^rt^r;- ' fT^ 'Y. 'r^-t season ; pecJl iSsS! f^om hSurious to te rei! P*'''*^"'*'-'^ "^'^^^ '" ^^'^y'^Z insects that are BLUEBIRD. MALE. u4<><7t/,?.— Uniform sky blue. ^i'/tTtt/.— Reddish brown. Belly.— Whiit. Female — Duller than male. Ktf.— Half the size of a robin. |f£:.'o.^^^Lr„r-d"lT^^^^^^^^ ^5^'~r T °'" '^.''^ '^''"''^ 'P°"^^' ^"*^ reddish-brown tint. |me;do'waTa7a?e"i' ral' £fn™"'"' -"^' solutions ; skims over to right or left afJeriSw^DeSu^nr'" I""."' "'''" suddenly darts Ityplca, bird of the air^^Tdest;?^, t^:.^^:^ iS^'ra^rnS.^^^ .'* .-^r .€^^' fS^^BraBs&«s" -jji> taK^y* -.2£-:-; •». GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. COMMON CROW. Body.— GXos^y black, with violet reflections. Wings appear toothed when spread, and almost equal to the tail in length. Female. — Less brilliant than the male. Nest.— In trees, built of sticks and twigs, lined with strips of bark and fine grass. Eggs.— TroTa four to six, green spotted, and blotched with blackish brown. Siz^' — Much larger than the robin. From sixteen to seventeen inches long. Note.— This bird is looked upon as a nuisance. Perhaps, however, if more were known about it, its good deeds would overbalance its bad ones. While it eats eggs, chickens, sprouting corn, fruit and v^etables, it also destroys mice, grubs, caterpillars and grasshoppers. All are acquaintetl with its familiar cry, caw-caw-caiv. i SONG SPARROW. //eMi.—Brown, striped with three gray bands underneath, gray shading to white, heavily streaked with darkest brown. Wings. — With dull bay edgings. 7a/7.— Much longer than wings ; pale brown, with darker shaft linings on the middle feathers. Size. — Smaller than robin ; about the size of English sparrow. Nest.— On ground or low bush ; composed of rootlets, lined with fine grass and occasionally horse-hair. •^iJfJ-— Variable in marking ; grayish, or greenish white, spotted with brown. Note.— The song sparrow seeks the society of man. Found everywhere where human dwellings have been raised within its range. It is at home in our gardens and hedges. Decidedly a bird of good cheer. Not at all retiring, though never bold. A simple, hcmely sweet melody, heard at all times during the day. Heard also in darkness of midnight and just before dawn. In flying it pumps its tail and acquires more than ordinary sparrow velocity. An all-year-round resident of Ontario. These birds are ravenous insect-eaters. Even the young feed on insects. WILSON'S THRUSH (veery). Above. — Uniform tawny. Below. — White. Sides. — Olive shaded. Breast and Side of Neik.SmaiW dusty spot. Size. — A little smaller than the robin. •M "W^:'- GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 206 y«/.— On or near the ground ; composed of leaves and rooUets. rather loosely put together. "«"cw, Eggs.— V out or five greenish blue. «Sm I'h" mh?n"'" w.'''* ""^7 " ^K ™°'^ numerous of all the thrushes except the robin. Its song has a sharp, metallic ring. At first it is pheasant but it afterwards becomes monotonous. As soon as ncstme k.ns the clear, loud v.ay is heard at all hours of the day. It "a tend"? It oSlnJT^ '^^ '^'^1 '° '~7 •" ""= ^"- I» » * '««f'>l ""!« l^w[ favori?e ^ " underground grubs. The cut-worm U a special CHICKADEE. ^*ir';- ^'«<="'"' *»" different parts of each tell Zn"^'° V™" "'o And the the convenience of the mL"? ^^ ^! ?' '? =«'y' '» '° there may be no delav In^\, ^?'"i*f»">. "i order that kinds of in^cu are afLr?^? meffic ent work, certain ally of the color of the lelf ^ An /k coverings gener- hey break forth m glory. Bring flowers, bright flower, f n^iuS' st't ?'""-" trin-fpSrriirf The lesson for us is that plants are not dSd formsTut a'tTa rs!-' Efe:;;Ti:iir*houldT '"'r ^P^' there is more in rpTaSuhan he Is' ""'""= '° ''"' ""' 'b^tan1s?/''°"''"'The"flr "° '""Serwith being me,« 's^-f^^ -tirw^L' cotr'r:^^r;Lu' stamens and mnumerable technical attributes Th^ h^Ls «^L? ^^*' 5"' '•*"'^'- ^ »n«ious being, S wdcome [t, rnl "^r^g^^"'' '^ but a perfumed whisper of I GUIDE TO NATURBSTUDT. " I want to know the inner meaning and the under- standing of the wild flower of the meadow. I want to know the soul of the flower."— ^if/far yohn Lubbock. " There is not a single hair without definite design."— Sprengel. Flozvers as Symbols.— '' In all ages and among almost every people, flowers have been adopted as symbols, types and emblems of human affection and loyalty." The national flower of China is the chrysanthemum. The special flower of the Hindoo has always been the marigold. Among the Romans the lily and the oak were emblems of power; the myrtle and the rose of love; the olive and the violet of learnin'^; the ash of war. Every Canadian knows the meaning of these words — "The thistle, shamrock, rose entwine The maple leaf forever." The emblem of the United States of America has not yet been chosen. The arbutus, com and golden-rod are rivals for the honor. 1*^ ■ V ■ .-~& '. Si ^^M . ,, :m m ig «i; 210 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. Plants. Comes not by casting i„ a formal moS But from us owi. divine vitality. 1? t_M t — Wordsworth purpose. lUs however w^l .^"^ ,P^^"' ^'" ^^^^^ the do^Vtt^tit S"e',r? °' *^« P'-* -d flower, such are n«es'sa;^i;?:l)S^^elchT„'^ "r?" "''«" should always beLsociated^with Se Ss ff ^^ "T'' under the observation of the dlild '^ *' P'*"* unlou^t^Vt I'Ji'^olf- "1?'^ I?'^"* ""= ^Wld will and the Md A lit^e car^r., "' ^i""'' "^ ""^ B'^'^™ on the part of the teacher wm.^"K\T* *' ""'^ ^'»g« of the child for the re^t of his 1,?, ^^l'' 7*" "'^ ^^^ ttr^t-e-rS-HH^r^^^^^^ dition necessaVt?rr'dtli:;l:i;f.r^«Jll*''' - GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 211 Seeds of different kinds often thrive under similar conditions ; hence we often find different kinds of plants living in colonies. In such colonies one kind of plant generally predominates. On such waste places, for example, as a common, the flower coloi cs may Ix. composed chiefly of dandelions or burdoc' ^'. l-Parta of TriUinm: (s) Caljrx; (c) CorolU; (at) Stamens: MPiatil; 2-TrilUuin 3— Flower; 4— Plan of Flower; 5— Stamen; 6— Stamens and PkUL Take the child to visit different colonies of plants, or direct him in such a way that he may make observations for himself. Aim to show that each plant colony has environments peculiar to itself: thus — (i) In the dry^ open field we find such plant colonies as the dock and muUen. (2) The roadside has such plant colonies as burdock, thistle and rag-' eed. (3) The swamp has such plant colonies as cat- taili, grasses and buttercups. (4) The forest has its overgrov .as and its undergrowths. (5) And so different colonies may be noted on the meadow^ the river-bank m If "3k.-„: OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. and the hillside • earh ,^f *u mentioned, hafitsTwnlr.Seri^^'- '1''^ *°- ''•x've- »t"dy.ng plant colonies for a Hmlfu'' Pi^.^' («> After ^socale different //« J with their '""'" "'■" '''^g'" '» too, with a ittle h,.lr, >, """'"eir environment. Thpn kind of plantithattri^: ^ STh '^ ^''^ ^^ *^'^ th 'n dry soil or in wet so^ r7UrL ^^ '""' '" ^^^ ^hade a list of the different Plants ^TT^^ '^^^ ^^'^^ to make !^udied. Note the p^ t'cula^ n?"^ T u^'^ P'^"^ colony Dry and mount this rfutt%&'„^^^ Predominates' t^ui J s?. 1x?n^^H^^ ^^r^r ^/ -- p- abundance in the neighborhood so th ^""1,g'-«wing in obtam a specimen frequenTv tu-^"^^ ^^ ''^"'^ '"^y •on. the burdock, the ^i^fkweed Sf ^-^'f^'"' ^^^ ^^"de' subjects. ""Kweed, the violet, are all gcod ' HEPATICA. ~' '^-tL^r^ '::^/Zl^f'^^ - .-er walk mSS,°co s"c1oI tv' 1??™- ^-^ enthusiast will should his hopes Zrea&J^''°y°'" expectancy, and admiration for thenrthathelhro^f""' '"^ •"'' '°^e and to them virtues and chanfrT.!- .-^ frequently, attributes human beings. '"aractenstics that belong alone to deHcate^iKep'a"tlrtt"flP™^''"=^ °f Canada, the color from blue "^r p^ 'fe """'"I °'" '^''ich vary i„ general favorite It, \^^' *? P'^k and white is a special joy. I'r i3 '^LTTh^e 'L^T = "^''°""=<5 with appearance after the late sno«.fnf "e**'^.''' make its This accounts, no doubt in sZ? """'" ''*^e melted. Indeed, as if ,o defy wh,d ^Z.Tl'""' ^"^ '"' welcome to be the first harbS of .?"""; °' "^ «" anxious pushing its way up Eh ,heT^' " " "'''en found for the young green leaves to Z.^^' """■ ^°^ '' wait to work-seemingly eagert'°.-rr^;^^„^"4^g<^s ^i^::.' GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 213 Its blossom — while the rusty leaves of last year's growth still adhere to it The flowers of the hepatica are single, borne at the end of a furry stem or scape. This scape is from four to six inches high, and rises directly from the crown. The calyx is composed of from six to twelve petal-like sepals, and may easily be mistaken for a corolla, as underneath is an involucre of three little green leaves. Each of these flowers generally has numerous stamens and several pistils. The name "hepatica" is from the Latin "hepaticus, pertaining to the liver," and was given this little flower because of the fancied resemblance of the shape of its three-lobed leaves to the liver. That nature marked it thus in order to indicate its use, which was to cure all cases of liver complaint, was the prevalent belief. The sharp-lobed hepatica, hepatica aaitiloba, differs from the above in having the lobes of its leaves pointed. Those of the involucre are also acute. The hepatica thrives best in light soil, in open woods or on hillsides. LARGE WHITE TRILLIUM OR WAKE-ROBIN. Among the finest of the early spring blossoms is the beautiful white trilHum. Whether found growing alone or in a clump, side by side, with its companions, or scat- tered irregularly over the open wood, its delicate beauty cannot fail to attract the eye of the observant. This singular beauty is due in part to the large, pure white petals, and in part to the marked regularity of the plant itself, all the parts of which are in threes ; hence the name "trillium." The name "wake-robin" was given this flower because it was supposed to bloom about the time the robins waked into full song after their return from their southern home. The trillium is a solitary flower. It is borne on an erect or curved peduncle from a whorl of three larger jmicmmasys^^ammm^'^ ■whmi.i^^vv 214 :. 1 . * M GUIDE TO NAIURE-STUDY, narrow, oblong leave? "l^h. i" *"%".""= "''"' '^^ three of iti six stamens rrealmlf^''; ^''^ *""'=^^ °''««'^h The P,s.i, has .^rl^.^'^^ :^,^°^, ^ ^^e filaments. energy by first puttinlforth ,>i m ^'' "'^ '""'""g "^ leaves it lays up in L t^il '''°''°"' ^"'^ ^en its nourishment'^suffi'iirnt to supoTv hoTf °''' * ""--^ °f som, which appear above D-r^^*^ J u"" 'f *^^' *'"' Wos- spring sunshiKds^heJf come ?or7f"' 'T''''' "><= quarters. '"^ *°^'" ""om their winter at other times ta.y are dITh^ „ *''^ P^'^"'^ ^''e g^en ; The flower is often dX ^nd a?r "'* P""'^ '^hite.' three blossoms are found o„ the stem ' ^ """^ =•' BLOODROOT. Wild' Ltrs'^^^iVb^^^^^^^^^ ^" -r early this beautiful but fraine b^- ^^ ^'' " '^^ ^^'^ °^ beauty that even thi m^roh^l '^^ ruA^^""? is its chance to enjoy its ^rfect ovel n^T' A%' ^^!?°'" ^ spring sunshine is sufficient fo k • -l ^ ^^"^ ^^V^ of a fewgusts of w nd "s sufficJn. .""^ '* ^° "maturity, and tremble and fall ^^^c^ent to cause every petal to V^^nVt.^^:Tk{^^^^^ ^ --t carefully such beauty f^de so st>n ? '' ^fe."/^*^"^ ^'\ " Why does this blossom carefdirwraoneH •r.r^^"^'"S:, ^^^ ^^^ itself in papery SsL^fh. I r^^ leaf of the plant through the dark 2rfh u u ^^^^ P"^'^^^ its way up come^forth!the biTri^^^^^^^ -^ '"^ri ^""^^'"^ ^'^^ ^ rounded, d^eply-lobed oUnM r "u''"'^ -'"^P^ ^^ove the Pings,ande-ni:^l^^^^^^^^^ aUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 215 with from eight to twelve snow-white petals, twenty-four golden-yellow stamens, and one pistil. The sepals fall as the blossom expands. Ju^ "5""^ "bloodroot" is significant. The plant has a thick, red rootstock. It is also charged with a red^ orange juice. Wound the plant in any part and this ju.ce will ooze from it freely. As this liquid stains deeply care should be taken in plucking the flower. The Indians prized this juice most highly Tl ay used .t for painting their faces, and also for painti^g^ thefr weapons of war. ^ ^ Because of its acrid, emetic properties the thick root- stock of the bloodroot is used in medicine to st'mu^te expectoration. "muittic SPRING-BEAUTY. nfT!l! V^'^r ""l ^^\ ^°'^^' '""^^ ^""-^Jy be suggestive of beauty of character rather than beauty of form or thin'' ?K i'r ^'"P^""? »'t with other wild flowers and then with Ideal standards of beauty it cannot be said to rank first among the beautiful flowers of spring as one might infer from the name. ^ ^ The great charm of the spring-beauty lies, no doubt, in Its simple, shrinking modesty. Pluck t and the dainty petals, as if shrinking from"^ the rude touch close almost at once. A little water and sunshine may revive hem and induce them to re-open for a short time! bu? o sensitive are they that, under any circumstances if foord/^^^an^d dir^^ '^"^^ (unless^transplanted) tLy^ To know these pretty blossoms as worthy in any sense of the name "spring-beauty." one must vis"t ?hem at he,r home on a day full of bright spring surshine On tAtT ^"^.^^".•ght they close and remain doseS until the sun again shines bright. The spring-beauty grows in a loose raceme in moist woods and m open groves. Its corolla is pTnk orTose I I i 'i' 216 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. colored with veins of a deeoer hup T<- »,oo c fcroL"» S^-I'-^V™™ ^- '° '«" '-hS long a rises from a small tuberous root. The leavw of ,i ^ant^are long and narrow; they ar« al^^an'^Top-jlost som^^^!r,^ "claytonia,"by ,vh!ch this plant is known i, :OMMON BLUE VIOLET. general' fetrTte'' "wh"' "'" ";°'?' '^ P^°''^'''>' ">e most Pc:^rLd artktsha^ee^Tin'th'^'"''"' " '^ '"'°^'=^- its beauti« Qt,. i '"^"' """ "'»y expressed chosen i>« i ? "^r ^"'' """°" have repeatedly sion. It prefers low ground, somewhat moist In color t varies from pale violet blue to deep purple The deeDe ^oLrJ""' ''^^^''\'''' ^° b^ seen when the violet^ ?e:f slLdrfurn'n:i''''" ""' ^-'^ ^^^'^^ ^rows ofd i^^ Sze in th. ch P^Je. even at times to white. In its var^s Th. fi^^ ^^/ts leaves and sepals this flower also fouTd^nTh^shad;.'''"'^- ''^ ^'^ "^^^^ -^°-' - to be The common blue violet is borne on a scan** frnm a'r Thrco™t\"'^S- "'"'^ -P^'en^hrs t^t" Tie lower%?etVur red \r rttinTr^' P^'^"'^; nature, as it assurL cross-fert ,i l^on T^h:3T':pu? serve as a foothold to the insects that visit iUnsS GUIDE TO NATDBE-STUDY. m J petals,! is three 3 ovate,! ften rp. >ng and of thej 'Pposite j lovvn in ' -layton I lof its nectar. They are thus enabled to remain long Icnough in the best position — head downward ; pollen- collecting hairs directly under the anthers — for the body to become loaded with pollen. The calyx has five sepals extending into ears at the [base. The short, broad, golden-yellow ''tamens are somewhat united around the pistil. The style of the I pistil is club-shaped ; the stigma is bent. The leaves of the plant are heart-shaped, varying to kidney shape. When young they roll in at the base. The rootstock is thickly dentate. GOLDEN-ROD. This attractive flower, conspicuous on many roadsides during August and September, is admired not only because of its rich golden-yellow color, but because of the graceful appearance of its slender wand-like stem. The species known to botanists as Sc 'idago Canadensis is the most common. In the United States there are over eighty native species and when in season whole fields are to be seen in many different parts of the country thickly covered with their beautiful golden blossoms. In Europe the golden-rod is rare, but it is so much admired that many of the American species are most carefully cultivated. Solidago Canadensis grows from three to six feet high. Ihe stem is stout, somewhat rough and hairy. The upper part of the stem is branched. Along these branches cluster the small golden-yellow flowerheads. These flowerheads are composed of both ray and disk flowers. The leaves of the plant are lance-shaped, pointed and sharply serrated. DANDELION. The dandelion may be considered one of the common gifts that is both useful and beautiful ; but like many of _ WT'^-au, 918 OVIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. the other common gifts of nature, because so commr.. It IS seldom appreciated as it should be ' itTnir„t"ai? SnXtr ^i^JSoTii; STe'^l^riKr felt- ''-•' -H "--.t gria? rur^m"^'*' 'a ^'T^^^:^'^ ""^ l*™^. but s, great IS Its vitality and adaptib ty that it will ^ ^P""^ till late in thJ The dandelion is looked upon by the gardener as one of h.s worst enemies.^ It is one of the Lcalled weed that are hard to eradicate. So deep does the thick fim root penetrate into the soil that it can be pulled uno dug up only by much patient labor. Then too bv mak ing Its way so deep down into the soil, the root is noi Ts alHrof 1 hT '"^^^"^^ ^' h^^^ -d cTd but IS also protected from most of the animals that {eed upon roots ; hence it is always in a condTtion readv u the slightest favorable opportunity, to springTnto TctMtt To attempt to destroy the dandelion by cuUing its op I P^ ^^^"^^^ °^ *^« plant are pinnately cut with the &°and'"^ "^'''T^'^- '''''y^'' cieepVand rougJi; nl.^ • T», ^^fanged rosette-like around the root of the pant Thus, they are specially adapted to collect «nH direct to the root all the moisture thatl^s upon them thereby aiding the life of the plant. ^ ' ^Jr^l^ ^i""'?"" '^/^"^Posed of one hundred and fifty to two hundred perfect ray florets. Possibly each of these tiny florets was once a blossom of five sVrate pltaTs They rest on a slightly convex receptacle a? the top of . hollow, milky scape. The blossoms close at n ght as also by day in rainy weather, in order to prese^e the G UIDE TO NA TURE-8TUD T. 219 pollen and save it for insects that aid most in cro'^s- corolla tubes being filled with sweet nectar. After flowering ,t bows its head to mature its seed ; again it rises on a lengthened scape as ii proud of its work. It is now globular, white, airy, set with scores of tiny para- chutes, to each of which is attached a tiny scod. These are ready to sail away with the slightest Wh.d. The seeds are not easily killed ; they have been known to ravel many miles m packing cases with other seeds : they can even float on the water for many days without being destroyed, The roots and flowers of the^dandehon are used m making bitters. COMMON BURDOCK. of?/„I'c"'^°J'^ 'I ""^^T *H"^^^' °f ^^ one of the meanest of plants, and yet so beautiful and so perfect is it that it can give, would one but look at it with the seein«»»"; ^--. ^-^^V^-^.M^':*?^- GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 283 Others, again — Perennials — last from year to year and after they begin, blooming and seeding annually. These are divided into two classes, viz.: — 1. Those with underground creeping stems, *^., Canada thistle. 2. Those with roots that do not spread underground, e.g., plantain. In considering the best means of eradicating weeds, the class to which the weed belongs must be considered Canada Thibtlb. first, as the method must depend to a certain extent upon the way in which the plant works. Perhaps the best way for the teacher to deal with this part of the work is to encourage the child to make observations for 224 aUlDE TO NATURE-STUDY. felrli-„t-."£a-Z KstS; I Si sfe«, - Pl^NTAtK iPU^ntaoo laneeoUua), . pe«„„w weed. Grass, On the sunny hillside, ^'ose by the sunny brook In every shady nook I come creeping, creeping, everywhere. r— , • i- —SaraA Roberts. frifnl?-' 'it'Xstrwr °'''' ""'^ -«h'' -failing the marsh,UX MsXanlTnThJ'' ™cky height, if these p,a«. it stand. o^uri^.^rol^Srin.^",,^^^^^^^^^^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 225 to cover that which would otherwise be harsh and bare or to support life as it does on the plains where we find great herds of horses and cattle dependent upon it. Even in the desert this " unfailing friend " springs up to welcome the weary traveller, if only the shadow of a rock shelters it from the rays of the burning sun. The beautiful, i it has been said, is as useful as( the useful. But grass is not only' useful because it is beautiful, but it is useful for many other reasons. It is from the plants of this family^ that we get a great portion of thei food we use. The bread we eat is made from wheat, which is one of the grass family. Our common oats, Indian-corn, barley and rye are grasses. Rice, which forms the chief food of the people of China and the East Indies, is a grass. Sugar-cane, broom-corn and the beautiful bamboos of China are grasses. The Roots of grasses are usually fibrous, that is, formed of bundles of threads. The wisdom of this can be seen. If grasses had a strong central root like a carrot, they could not be so firmly attached to the ground, and hence they could not resist the usage they are apt to receive. These little roots extend downward into the ground to a greater or less depth. The deeper they grow, the better the plants withstand drouth. Some- times the roots are so numerous, and so much branched, that the soil is bound by them into a matted turf. At other times they creep along beneath the surface and throw up underground shoots, which take root and send up stems. Sbup's Fiscub. (Roots— p«Nn- nial, deep, fioroua.) 226 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. generally cylindrical ll^lW u n ^ ^^^^ sterns are eve. as[„ i^^^^^J^^^^^ - ■' ' Stems ofgrasses are divided at intervals by thickened solid portions, called nodes or joints. The nodes were at one time supposed to strengthen the stem. It is now, however, thought by some that their only^se is to lift up stems that have been beaten or trodden down. Leaves and some- times branches start from these points. The stems of grasses are divided into three parts. The lower part, which is procumbent and producesroots.isdistinguish- ed from thetrue root by bear- ing scales,and not only roots (Root^ r.lL""'^^''^''^""^ branches,' ^(R2»t.-pe«„. called rootstocks. In the ocean beach, these rootstock«fhtif 1 *^^^ f'"^ °" the and resist the force of tt ^t^^^^^^^ one of the strongest of simc Tit. ^^^ rootstock is rapidly multipliefthe pfanT ' Th '^' T ^^'^^ "^^^t proper. There is also thi ^*^^" ^^ have the stem -the flowerll aSehed ^S^n' "^f'"' ''\'^ thespikele^ bulbous formation at the L^^TT"' '^^ ^^«'" bas a food, to be used by the pt, ^^^^^ "^^^^^ « store of is known as erect Lcendfnll 5^" "^^"^^^^ The stem when the sheaTh' ::itri't'rrtal^^^^ ^-^^' no leaves on the upper portion ' ^^" ^^^'"^ ""^ '^"'"O" Bl-UB.aRA88. (Boot. WL.W GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 227 Leaves of all grasses consist of two parts, namely, the blade and the sheath. A few tropical species have petioles. The upper part of the leaf is called the blade. It is long and narrow with parallel edges. The lower part which folds around the stem is called the sheath. It usually extends around so far that its edges overlap each other. It matures more quickly than the stem. Its stifTer tissues serve as a protection to the culm in the earlier stages of its growth. The length and breadth of the blade vary considerably. Very narrow blades are described as awl-shaped, and comparatively broader ones are described as sword-gjiaped. In some instances the apex of the leaf is acute. In others it is tapering or blunt There is one central rib running down the leaf, called the mid-nerve, or mid-rib, and numerous fine ones running parallel on each side. In corn, for instance, the firmness the mid-rib gives to the leaf can be easily seen. If the mid-rib is not strikingly marked we say the leaf is flat. The surface of the leaf r>ay be smooth, rough, downy, or hairy. The margin is spoken of as plain, downy, hairy, or saw-shaped. Much of the value of grass depends on the quality and quantity of the leaf. Sedges are closely related to the grass family. They are often mistaken for grasses, but they can be easily distinguished. Beginning with any leaf on the stem of a true grass, one will find the next leaf exactly on the opposite side of the stem and the next directly above the starting point. In sedges, however, the leaves are not so arranged. It is the third leaf from the first that is directly above the first. In the daytime, the leaves stand out from the stem with the upper surface turned upward, and at night they lie quite close to the stem. These sleep movements are due to the influence of light, and are shown in leaves of many other plants. Tke Flower, — The small flowers or flower clusters of the grasses are called spikelets. The spikelets together make up what is called the inflorescence. They are arranged in a compact or diflused form. When the flowers ^^ifv;' wt. . ' m^ftr^: : ^"^ ' =: 228 OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. have no pedicels or stalt*: fi,« ^^"■*^ ' ^ together on the axfs or ste,, .spike. If the flowers are equal stalks at intervals on the stem, the cluster is called a raceme. If they are on compound, branching pedi- cels, they are called pLfdes nn5 ^P^'^^^^t consists of one or more flowers together br.^f'V';'"^^^ scales or bracts, called glumes. The othTr'n? "?^ P'^'"^' ^^ '" all other plants, serve for repro- :^,-^^rJon'its*^,S ^'^f.'^'a^d thereby scatter the Each little particle of this dowh".^'^"'^ r^"'^ ^'^^^V- 't is spherical. The oist I of '^ P^''^^^^^ in itself • three styles, each having a feath?T? ^"^ ^^*^"^ «"e to IS usualb. curved and w!vel fef ^!"2- . ^his stigma |t may be able to catch ^il^n %l "^'""^ '" ^''^er that I 's usually round. The fru^i ^^! °^a''>' '" grasses or young plantlet. He! feh thr^^^- /rhe e^br^^ the front side at the bas? ^^^ "'"'" ^^ the seed on Observation on Trees There lives and works W here no eye sees them. ^^ ^ ''^' B.B.V.K. 0„.^^ ,R^,_,„,^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 229 clothed anew in their fresh beauty, to take a h'ttle time to look around. The sudden change is to all so great, so delightful, so mysterious, that we really require time to get our balance in relation to the new season and the beauties it unfolds to us. Every one, and more particulaily the child, likes to go here and there in the spring. Let us meet the child on his own ground, and teach him a little here and a little there, encouraging him to ask questions, and to note what phenomena he can. Keep the type trees in view. When a child asks a question about any tree that may attract his attention, comparison should be made with the type already studied in its life- history. General Forms of Trees. Thou hast not left thyself without a witness in these shades Of thy perfection. Grandeur, strength, and grace, Are here to speak ^f thee. — Bryant. Year after year, the attention of the pupils should be drawn to the forms of the different trees about them. The beauty of form and the differences of appearance can be appreciated only by com- parison with other trees and after several seasons of ob- servation. There are almost as great differences in the general forms of trees as there are in any of their other features. The broad, round- topped apple-tree bears a: striking contrast to the pointed -shaped Lombardy poplar. The compact top of the maple with its wide base contrasts strikingly with the weeping willow. The straight, upright shape among many evergreens con- trasts most markedly with wuitk ■^^^P-mSi^L'^^^^^w^mM^ 230 ■! i ■I'! GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. have many bra„rero?c^ffl °n?-3hI^Ttt th" ^^J? stem always remains distinct. In the^X h,^„ K soon merges intot^^d^^pr^L | ta h%s""'" '''" hanging shoo"ts of th^'we^pi^g'^ JlSl''an^d''tt"' ''^ vert,can..„ Hes o^ „4 f,, afeill^.^'SrS^-;; <.e.icatf tha°pL;Tr:e.f !TrW.r^X have slender tips. The ash and the maple are not so dehcate, while the tips of the sumach are heavy in comparison. All these dif- ferences are very interesting and should not be passed by unnoticed. Flowers.—Very few people are sharp enough to notice the blossoms of different trees. The modest blossoms of the pine and spruce are often passed unnoticed. The bloom of most fruit-trees can hardly be unseen. It is striking in its beauty. The blossoms of other trees however, are perhaps equally as beautiful, though not so striking. The. blossom of NoawAT 8p«po»-BT«g«en Tree ^S?!IB GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. mam 231 the elm has great attractions \{ closely examin d The bright blossom of the red maple is also beauTifii Sap.~ln spring it is easy to secure sap. Sap is best s ud.ed m spring. Draw attention ro ?he foHow,'^' ;\ f Zu^'^ appearance and the taste of such sap Is ulc°h ''ArM^^", ^'^ ^"'-^ ^^P' - that of 'tl^ and the sp^rL^""^'^"°"^ ^^P' ^^ ^^^^ ^' the pine caf Dots'i^lv h^^il""'^?' P[^'^"*' 't^">^' ^•' '^ a ramble can possibly be taken m the woods, select first for this study barks that show a marked contrast It is not at all incon- venient to obtain samples of the different kinds of bark. These could be taken into the school- room, but bark shows its character- istics better when seen on trees Contrast the clinging dark-colored ash, with its netted gashing, with the regular peeling and almost snow- white bark of the paper birch Contrast the thick, deeply-gashed and dark-colored bark of many willows with the thin, smooth and light-colored bark of the beech Then we have the shaggy, light- b°I-k^f te"^^^'"H °^ the hickory and the. close-clinging bark of the beech or balsam fir. In studying the life- history of the tree the different layers ofLrIc and its formation from year to year will, of course, be carllTy kfnK*'~^T"S^^ P;P"' *° ^""S P'^^es o^ different kinds of wood. Have them cut so as to show the Prain of the wood. Show the pupil how this is done^?^ otW. F ^•^''t "!, *^^ ^^^'"^*- E-^Periment with others Examine hardwoods-oak, hickory. Examine the soft woods-basswood. willow, pine. Note 0) thi cl.fference m graining of the maple, the pine and he Wkipino Bibch. S39 |: I ' ! i It] -. GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. the bird s-eye maple. "^ctn. (4; 1 he spots walnut, the^hitf mal the Lni; "I'^c?^' ">« d' take a much higher ^Sh tharl^Xt ^""^ "~ kef;thf'fx:.;;fss:.*i^^''^' -"■<' "<> ^e.. oth';:':^^. ^>i*'~-For™, s,V, comparison wi Roots.—SizG, kind. Sf'iie^d""?'''' ''^'■'='"' ''^"«"e- doping- f^Iw .'"'"'''• ""-ehness, looseness, color f^rlpar' """"*'• ~'*"'"^' ^'^=' ^°™. intent, ne. s^Sac^^^Sridle^-^aSt^. -. thic ^W Position, color, shape, size, odor. »'W.-Hardness, color, grain, durability, weight Trees of the Forest. Hnmh I for the boratiful tree Hurrah I f„, the forest „,„i -?i.P""'°?'"''«"""ies. The Barden of God's o>™ land. plan""^ ^hrj.SWtr'S '" ^"^ "'"^ ^'•"'°'" "^fi-'^ teacher interested in M I '^° exception. Everv hint a list oTtets'for'' ^^^'", t^,f ^'i, X^P befo,c trees that the child will kf . ,^' , ^^^^*-^' ^'"st the eve.x day. I„ ti„;'e^^",^,HS^S,-tV°a ^:^, ?.|Wj?f^>-5- '^''''^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 233 Every time anything new is learned about the tree, jot it I down ; compare these observations with those of a good text-book. The following list will perhaps be helpful to teachers of the first three grades in making a selection : HARD MAPLE. ROCK MAPLE. SUGAR MAPLE. Of all the trees of our forests the sugar maple is in many respects the most noble, the most majestic. It is also one of the most useful. When found growing in the open with its branches exposed on all sides to the light. Its beauty and symmetry can scarcely fail to arrest attention. It is then a dense mass of beautiful deep- green foliage, generally round-topped and broad-based, bometimes, however, it is pyramidal in form. The aver- age height of this tree is from fifty to sixty feet. Under very favorable conditions it sometimes reaches seventy feet. The bark is light grey, rather smooth when the tree is young, but getting rough and scaly as the tree grows old. As an ornamental tree the sugar maple has no equal, for besides its perfect shape and rich verdure it is attrac- tive on account of the cleanliness of its foliage Of all our deciduous trees it is the least subject to attacks of insects. It IS also hardy and can be easily transplanted. The favorite habitat of this tree is steep and shady banks of rivers. It thrives best in deep, rich soil that is not too moist It blooms as early as April or May. The flowers, which appear with the leaves, are pale greenish yellow borne m clusters and suspended by slender, drooping The seed is contained in two capsules, winged and united at the base. To all appearance each of the keys IS perfect, but on close examination one of them will always be found empty. They ripen in October. The fruit of this tree usually matures once in two or three years. 834 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. other on tf/^ a^Vatth J'^ .t"^ Z." '':,!? The wood of this tree when newly cut is wh.>^ k :t^^^ Hi -^^^^^^^^ mapie, so named because of the small »,uu- * -' occurring about everv tenth of -l ^'"^'^'^ ^P^'- mills anH^o ^ ^ houses; foundation pieces for Srrcari-rre:^- ^'^'^-^^ spokes^andaxt This tree is also valuable beranse ^f fK» i. • qualities of its sap. A l^g,^??e"e1s tb L tr^^^^^^ from two to four pounds of sugar annually. ^ RED MAPLE. SOFT MAPLE. This tree resembles the suear manle ir, .>. i form and appearance and -^IL^^^Vls^^::] which are more striking than those of any other tr^.' GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 235 In April, and often before the snow is entirely off the ground, these beautiful, showy blossoms burst forth 35 .f to announce the return of spring. They grow on short pedicels, in drooping, umbel-like clusters, and are always in advance of the leaves. Lwl\\^.''T.^u*'[*K^ '°^^ "^*PJ« »s '""ch more rapid than that of the hard maple. Because of this fact it is more frequently planted as a shade-tree than the hard maple, although it is not considered so fine when full grown. The growth of this tree has a wider range than the sugar maple. It is found both farther north and farther I south. Its preferred habitat is low, rich, moist soil. The fruit of this tree closely resembles that of the ! hard maple. Its wings, however, are farther apart and It is also somewhat smaller. The seeds begin to ger- minate as soon as they fall. AMERICAN BEECH. This ir one of the most important and one of the most widely distributed of our forest trees. Its beauty though of a different type from that of the maple is equally marked. ^ This tree is compact in shape, rounded at the top. In midsummer the foliage lies in great shelving masses. This effect IS due to the horizontal arrangement of its branches. The real beauty of the tree, however, is seen in the winter Then its bluish-grey bark, by exposure to the weather, becomes bright and beautiful Its strong smooth stem, which frequently rises as high as sixty feet, is visible to the top, while the structure of its massive head and its delicate branches are also plainly visible and at times striking in their uniformity. The beech blossoms in April or May according to the weather and locality and when the leaves are about o!ie-third grown. Both staminate and pistillate flowers are produced by the same tree. The staminate flowers S36 OUIDE TO NATURBSTUDY. of the leaf in two-flowered clusters only and coarsdy serrate. '^ ^"^^ ^'^ feather-veined The fruit is a burr covered with Drickle''th whitest" r'i'f '"^ ^'>'"'^- peel readily f"rthet,^'„°H^? *"!''""'"'• " «"" N GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 239 The leaves are simple, alternate, serrate, rounded at the base and pointed at the apex. The flowers are imperfect and grow in scaly catkins on slender stalks. The tiny nuts have rather broad I wings, frequently fringed. This tree is associated with the Indians of America. Their canoes were made out of the bark, which is light, tough and durable. They also made a kind of syrup out of the sap of the tree. In later years the white man followed the Indian's example, and used the tree for the same purpose. WHITE PINE. The white pine is the tallest and most stately of the cone-bearing trees. Its height ranges from eighty lo one hundred and seventy-five feet. In the '^rest the stem usually grows as straight c, an arrow. K iS bare. The branches, until the tree nears its top, fall off. On reach- ing the top, however, they develop, spread out and form a shapely head. In the open this is a rather graceful tree. The hori- zontal branches, which are in whorls, remain on the tree and lengthen. This formal regularity and the deep, rich green of its delicate foliage is most effective and gives the tree a marked individuality. The three-sided, needle-shaped leaves are from three to five inches long. They are arranged along the branches in clusters of five. Each cluster has a short sheath. The cones are narrow, cylindrical, slightly curved and from four to six inches long. Their .scales are thin and blunt. The white pine is one of our most valuable timber trees. Its wood is light, soft, free from knots, and of a light yellowish color. It takes a high polish. It is used chiefly in cabinet-making, for carpentry and for the masts and spars of ves.sels. 240 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. RED PINE. CANADIAN PINE. a J':.rt| rraUrr! ^'^kT" ~- The inches Th^n tJ^.I ^ '^"^th from five to eigh along the branch^ anTi^''th- 'r^'.'' ■" ^'"''^'^ °f «» the branches ' '" *"=''• ^f' "■«» at the end o whTte\'n°e""Tt,- *"" ""'"'" "■°''='- ^an those of th, ^Tof'z wSrp,^r ^h^oie'orthrred""^" '^ ""■''< clusters at the end^ the bSichel ' ^ •""" S'°" '" It .fprS/e'tl^r^fes'^S ^^^ ='"" """"^ bridges, to that of the white pMe *" '^^^-'uction of its"tSbr.fa?-if- Asi^r^^B^r- '^-^'^ SCRUB PINE. GREY PINE foI't\;\:^tU'cta£""i:L';?" °; ^ -"-"ic Macoun says, " Wherevertl,^^ "f .°^ ""» '--^e P'of- or both, th^eBaSTi„f,,oSes"anTl^°/ ""■'>'• from east to west it lo^^i it, , """'"5 ■ "° *^ 't Passes as is the case along hfst ? i *"'' ""^^^^ character, ^ough it is a m°u"c? fin'er 'tr^Tt^e Tattif S' f"*"™!;' '^^hrfe^^rott:::— -°"^'^^^^^^^ with a sheath. They iTan'^r^hT" '" 'i""^'^ "^ '*"■ along the branches '°"«^ *"'' g™* thicldy the^'^^eTt^o^ :rtlltehi "t? ""«' ™- 3hgh.ly i„ tipiJed with a spine '^'"'^^ ^^ scales are thick and I. SfJ:aoVra^g''ch"ar^o:j^-''>- '^^ ^-■'' - GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 841 BLACK SPRUCE. The black spruce grows abundantly in central and eastern Canada. It thrives best in moist soil, in swamps and in cold mountain woods. Hence we find it flourish- ing in the Maritime provinces in place of the original hardwood forests of maple, birch, and ash, that once clothed the soil. The sea air is uncongenial to these trees— the birch excepted — and a new race of cone- bearing trees, the spruce, fir and tamarack, has sprung up m their stead. The best specimens of the tree are found in Prince Edward Island. In the sub-arctic forests of the West, the habitat of the black spruce changes. «As it approaches its northern limit," states Professor Macoun, " it, too, seems to enjoy the drier ground, and vies with the white spruce in occu- pying the last oases before the forest ceases altogether." In wilds congenial to it, this tree grows better than it does under the most skilful culture. When found grow- mg in a dense forest or thicket, the tall, slender stem is branchless until it reaches tue open. On lawns Dr in places where the tree has plenty of room to develop Itself on all sides, it is clothed in branches almost to the ground. As age approaches, however, these lower branches become ragged and unsightly. The needle-shaped leaves grow thickly on all sides of the branch. Their color is dark blue-green. When in mass, they appear almost black ; hence the name " black spruce." The ovoid cones are from one-half to one and a half inches long. They are clustered close to the stem and branches. When young they are purple, but turn to reddish brown as they mature. Most of them cling to the tree for a very long time. The wood of this tree makes excellent timber. It is used for masts and spars of vessels. For making pulp, it is one of the most valuable of woods ; its texture is soft and fibrous. Beer is made from its branches. Gum is made from its resin, u Mi GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. M n WinXE SPRUCE. the btc*;%r"t'lrr:1iw'"T,f '?f=',"«f"' '- *"- ts bark and it, fo ia^e"re a 'n r''^''^''''"' "■■• B""' its cones are. at the Z. o' .hi K ^'"■f '" '="''"• while deciduous Then t^P' thev art"?"''"' ''"^P'"S ""'I HEMLOCK. branch. Th^leLes a'e /^H?^ ,°" ^^'^ ^'^^^ °f the white underneath ' '^^'■^' ^"'^''^^S' g'^een above, ^re':Utl':;'^^^^^^^ They The wood is not vei^^A K. '^f.°^'*^^^'-^"^'^iet« weather, it has nether stret^^'^' ^^J^'P^''^ ^o the much used for thrstuddinL nf^^ ""^ ^"'"^bihty. It is in tanning. ^""^"^'"^^ °^ ^°"ses. The bark is used BALSAM OR BALM OF GILEAD FIR 1 nis resembles the SDriiPf* •> k«.. 4.c i -».,t"der, pyramid o'^dSk ^«n foiLT 'T':^" y"""? rapidly from the base ud Intulf ".^^ ''*' *»!»" die. In the open afthe trll °T'' "'^ "'^e^' "mbs lous, sweeping^h^ trou^d ^'^"•/''^>' '«™™ P^ndu- damp wo,Ss or swlmos ^'1^'""'?^ habitat is cold, The leaves are fl^^'^ J ^'°°"" '" April or May '".nini, gr"„Tbot\"nr ,T4t'ld"""\i;' '"^ <"«' They Iffi*f5 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 243 Because of their elasticity the boughs of this tree make good beds for the hunter. Pillows are made from the leaves when dried. They have an aromatic odor. The gum is used in medicine. It is sold under the name of Canada balsam. The wood is used as cheap lumber. AMERICAN OR BLACK LARCH. TAMARACK. The tamarack is a singulariy beautiful and graceful tree. In general outline, it is pyramidal. Its stem, which is perfectly straight, frequently grows to the height of ninety feet. Its preferred habitat is cold, deep swamps. In Nova Scotia and in New Brunswick the cutting away of the forests has let in the sea air. This has caused such a change in the climate that the tamarack flourishes in places once possessed by the hardwood trees of the original forest This tree blooms in May before the leaves appear. The pistillate flowers are red. The staminate ones are yellow. The leaves, which are needle-shaped and about half an inch long, grow in bunche.«^ on short twigs along the branches. They are light green, soft and delicate, and fall in the autumn. The cones are from one-half to three-quarters of an inch long. They grow on short peduncles at the ends of the branches. When young, they are green ; but, on reaching maturity, they become brown. The long, towgh, stringy roots of this tree, as found growing in the swamp, are characteristic. The wood is strong and durable. As a timber it is valuable. ARBOR \\T/E, WHITE CEDAR. This tree grows best in swamps, on rocky banks of streams, or on the borders of rivers, ponds, etc. It grows from fifty to sixty feet high. Its foliage is so dense, and it stands the knife so well, that it is used as hedges. .. ■*i"^"^'f^J% Ui III «: OCrWB TO yATUBS^UDr. iv/°r„.* ^'°^^V-'-^ — than any of the othc, opSjte'^;:r;r.„^!;ntn''?,-/rb "i!- ■■" «"-»'e, scale-like. When bmised Thl '"t"?'''*^- They are aromatic odor. The nami "arterll?' ^ *" "^-^^We supposed to have been g^en it L ^' '^^= °'" ''fe. '» twigs of the tree yield a pun Jnt^*""* •*''= ^"^ »nd m medicinal preparations ^' "°"'*"« °" valuable in 5^"Sotrirgsn?nct'^hf s^-- ' ?- >«- "-< «?''f"^"-M«/«,fmm theGrSk X"r"^' "*■"' ^''«> Th.s tree and C*;,^^^ /ij;,.^,^^''. «gn^ -^.te cedar. Because^oftirco'«!iXlo^„= ^^tem lake shore. ^ "*'"**' '« peat-bogs or by the Although so distinct in habit r,^„ appearance, there is no clear char»^r''1f""y. '"^""rt m be separated into t«-o spades '''*™"='' by which it may green l^v^i'^^-tlP'-" or ^^ ^'^ --ute olive- and close to the b™ h' ^ '"fi^r h T' " ^°*' ««ct It can be easily separa.!^'l„ JJjf,^^'< '^ "^'^>^ browa P^'-^ISW GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 245 The wood is used for posts, rails and rustic work. Its chief use, however, is in the manufacture of lead pencils. THE COMMON JUNIPER OR GROUND CEDAR. This tree is considered by some to be the most widely distributed tree in the Northern hemisphere. It is a native of both the Old and New Worlds. Compared with the jumpers of the Old World, the American variety IS simply a straggling shrub. ^ The European variety is frequently cultivated in this country. Under favorable conditions, it grows as hijrh as twenty feet. . *» This tree may be readily recognized among the ever- greens by Its awl-shaped leaves, arra;.ged in whorls of three up and down its slender branchlets. The long bluish-grey berries are sessile, glaucous and fragrant when dried. They are used in medicine and as a navoring for gia Seeds. Prior to the study of germination, there should be a lesson on seeds for the purpose of noting the parts. The functions of these parts will not be given the pupils, but will be for investigation during the progress of germina- tion in the seeds planted at home and in the school or window garden. The intensity of the study on the seed will depend on the status of the class. The follow- ing is a fairly complete outline : — L FartB of Seeds. 1. Covering or Coats.— ThQ outer coat is called the testa ; the inner coat when present is called the tegmen. 2. The Seed'/eaves.— There may be but one, as in the corn, or two, as in the bean and pea, or more than two, as in the pine. These are the cotyledons. 3. A small stem-like appendage connected with the cotyledon or cotyledons, and consisting of two parts (a) the plumule, a small bud which develops into the aenal parts of the plant, and {b) the caulicle, from which IS developed the root II 846 aUlDB TO NATVRS-STUDr. abte'paSTstoS':f'!;r '' '"""'^ '" addition ,o tl,, at which the moS Jt^s „T" """ """"^ "-« P°'"' will "^VoUd c^vS^T^^? """■■L"'' '"<' f°"°-nK corn, the castor b2an the~l„l,^r'' "t^"' "«= P"- 'h^' horse-chestnut. ^P'^ '''>'• *•"= P'ne and the Aff. ,u Germination. and mi,:'^^,P:P;^,'';f- ^'"d-d ;h« parts of the seed. Planfn, of ...r^^/J^TZ: I^ThoIlt^;:"- ^ r ^ OlSNINATION, GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. Uf and others such as the radish and the onion. Some of '/h? :?r' warmtf^'"^"^ under varying conditions "s to light, air warmth and moisture, for the purpose of dis- afcw ofi*""."''""!!"^ "°"^'*^°"^ °f germination Plant LZlf -A'" ^ ^"^ containing six inches of sawdust and place it m a warm place in the sunlight Moisten the sawdust dailj. Each day one of the deveSg seeds may be carefully taken out and examinedX Sf purpose of noting what changes have taken plac^ The successive stages in the development of th^ bean oef and com. should be subjected ^to the closest scrutiny and drawings made in a permanent note-book. These di^w^ngs should be numbered and accompanied b^ planting.^""^ """ '^°^'"^ ^^ ^'""^ *^^^P^>"g ««nce invl^SlonT'ri ^""'""^ ""^ ^'^ ^^^ P"P"^ - their 1. At what point did the seed-coat first break? 2. Which part of the kernel first emerged? surfacY?*"'"*" ^*'' °^ ^^ '^^ ^''' ^PP"^'«^ ^^ve the surface"? "^^'^^ '"^^ ^^ *^^ ^°** ^"^^""^^ ^^^« *>»« thi*c.^''''°""V^?'* ^i"^ seed-coat of the bean rising above the surface, while that of the pea remains under. 7. What is the function of seed-leaves? com s^JS'?*''^' "^^^^ '^ ^''^ "^ °^ t^^ albumen in the 9. What has become of the plumule ? 10. What has become of the caulicle? ca^iidl?^^ ^^ *^*^ function of the plumule and of the win^«^.^T^" '""" •°" '**^ *"^ germination may be taken during winter and Uius preparation made for the work of apring: ' : !. t ill' If :ms 248 OUID£ TO NATURE-STUDY. Roots. easily "bserifd But tte cK,lo„' T '''''"' ' form is better taken in the fall ^*"°" °' '•~'" " '■ £ Otidn. T^^ori^siirtsroU^'otiif;!!:^ times, as in the Indian-cnm th- : ^ . '^"^^^ ^°"^e- they originate in .htt;Zh*^S h^^ ^e^*"*"^' n. Kinds a« to Orlgla. * ^^.. /'„««o'.-When developed directly from the cauli- ae^lf '(:itt^7t-.?c^a7.Ta^ -. are i. 5W«^._When developed from a primary root m. Ponctlon^ '^^* fh>mL°e:or' "''" ^"' "^^* ^*^ ^o^d3 in solution. 2. To fix the plant to its place 3. To store up food, as in the carrot roo?L"hol? %TZl' r '^^ °" "°^ *»^rough the These are shg^^^^^^^^ ^T^ ?'""te root^hairs parts of the r^t Thev m?T'^' ^•"^'^ ^'^^ "^^est lens and are Sd a veX T^.*!!- '^" *'^'"°"&h a good minute tip of each root!e[ '' ^'''""'^ ^^^'^ f'°"» the Js'oVb^trgtri^^^^^^^ ^° penetrate the tip and pfeven^ nor til ;» .^^"'^^"^'^ ^^P' covering destruction P'*'^^"^'"& ^^e delicate inner part from QUJDB TO NATVRB-STDDY. 849 bean whose cauHcle is about one Inch long, and markine Z *^k' "Tu*^ Indian-ink W .es a milhrnetrr apart N^x? a tach a thread to the upper part of the seed and set the plant in an open-mouthed bottle with sufficient water to I just cover the caulicle. Observe for a few days the mcreasing distance between these marks and infw wljere the greatest lengthening is taking place. ^t^^Pu^."'°." ""^^"^^ »" t'^e'*" form and direction of growth to their function in the life of the plant, offers a subject of study for pupils of the higher forms/ at once .nspinng and helpful in an apprehension of the' --nlty of life. The multiplied, elongated and tubular proc^ses are especially fitted to penetrate the soil and conduit nourishment, while at the same time they are sensitive 0^ lareSTr^wt?' ""^^""' " ^'°"" ^^ ^^^ ^~«^ Contrast the flattened and expanded leaf-form with the form of roots, and look for the cause of this differ- ence m the difference of function and environment of these organs. Some roots grow for the most part laterally, while others grow deeply downward. Examine the position of the leaves on many plants with a view to discover the direction of flow from them of rain water relative to the axis of the plant, and then account for the two classes of roots as to the direction of their growth. ly. Forms. ^rylHl^L^C-"- *"""'«' ="<* P^'-Sed prim- {a) Conical, as in the carrot. {b) Napiform, as in the turnip. {c) Spindle-shaped, as in the radish and beet 2. Clustered, as in the peony and sweet potato. 3. Necklace form, as in the white clover the plant may be determined through observing the life of a biennial, such as the carrot, from seed to fruit iii SM aUIDS TO NATURB^TVDT. I. OriilB. ^""^• men. and germina "on ,hfu d'b^^^r^X ''' "T'-P elongate, and at intervals sendfoutTeavel '"^*'' *' " II'. Appendages. anf r^L""" ''"'^' ''""=''«• '«-«• "owers. tendrils in Fonetiona. I. To convey nourishment to leaves. is n%ed:;?7butd^T;Ssur^^^^^^^^ 'rr *° -^- '^ a T^ . • , r "^' ^'^ ^° ^ stored for future use 3. To ra.se leaves and flowers to the light 4. To store up nourishment, as in the potato. 5. To support the appendages named above. acroS th'e^S'o^'the^:^^ '"^ ^°"'"^*'- P°-«^. -t immediately plTcethsr.f'^";"!" °^ ^'her plant and with some ^ed dye L*^?"'^ Tu-'^"!^ ^^^^^ <^°l°red from this curend afte^soml'".^ ^^i" "''^^^ ^* '"^^'^-'s haveelapsedNhe rate of °^/.;^^"^y °'" '^'^^^ '"'""^es water from the r^t mav hi « "^"^^'^ niovement of the conduction. ^ ^ '^^"' ^^ ^«" ^s the means of rv. OlMses as to Strnetnre do^nT^tl^^'^-l^l^ittle or no wood, and dying cofdinftftle^'^ste anS T" ?^™^"'^ -'■"■'i^^. «" viz.. shrubs and t^l '"*"'='""& 'nto two daises, V. Stmctnre of the Btoa. tng parts will easily be seen .--1 ^**^ ^°^^°'^- C«) The bark (cortex and epidermis). GUIDE TO NATURE-RTUDY. 251 (b) The darkish dotted wood-bundles (fibro-vascular tissue). {c) The pith (soft, thin-walled, fundamental tissue). VL Kind! of Stemg Accordinf to Arnwgemont of Wood- BundiM. Examine cross-sections of the maple, oak, elm, beech and pme ; also those of Indian-corn and sugar-cane. In the former, the wood is found to be arranged in concen- tric circles, each circle representing one period of growth, whi e, m the latter, the wood-bundles are not arranged in circles, but occur irregularly throughout the soft tissue c<" the stem. In the former, will also be noticed at the centra the ptth, and radiating from this to the bark numeroi - hnes formed of tissue similar to that of the pith. Tht ,c are called the medullary rays. These rays are for the pur- pose of keeping up communication between the pith and the bark, m very young trees, and in conjunction with the concentric layers of the stem, give the grain to woods. The stems of the maple, elm, oak, beech and pine, are said to be exogenous. Those of the Indian-corn, sugar- cane and the trillium, are endogenous. A comparison of XxoonrouB Snu BmxmsHoira Stsm. •^r7i?ji f^\^^^^ 268 aVIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. U 9 the seeds of these two classes of plants will show that those having but one cotyledon (monocotyledons) will produce endogenous stems, while those having two or more cotyledons (dicotyledons or polycotyiedons) wiU give rise to exogenous stems. VU Olaiaot of Stemi Accordiaf to Podtion. I. Subterranean. These live underground, as in the fern. Solomon's seal, and early spring flowers. Such stems usually produce few, but large leaves. This position is one of good protection against cold and drought. Such stems are frequently covered with a woolly covering. This under- ground position is taken advantage of for storing food and hence they ai;e more or less thickened on this account .J^) ^^ ^^«>^«/ or Rootstock.—An elongated and thickened underground stem, and readily distinguished from the root by the presence of buds and scale-leaves as in Solomons seal wild ginger, couch grass, bloodroot, and wild cranes bill. (J) The Tuber.^A subterranean shoot, consisting of a short, swollen stem, bearing small scales and buds as in the potato and Jerusalem artichoke. (0 TheBulb.^K short, underground stem giving rise to many buds. Bulbs may be scaly, as in the lily and tulip or truncated, as in the onion, or solid (corm); as in the Indian turnip. Since the scale-leaf does not serve as foliage it does not develop the necessary green coloring matter (chloro- phyll), and, therefore, does not need exposure to the light 2. Aerial, vJ"^ ^«r Ji'''"'??'^ "^ ^«»«iV Tf^.— As in the straw- berry. While this type has an advantage in facility for migration and for propagating new plants, yet this is off- set, to some extent, by a loss in power to display leaves GUIDE TO NATURESTUDT. 253 Have the pupils examine the strawberry and the five- finger to discover how they vegetatively reproduce their kind and how they place the new plant in new soil. (d) The Climbing 7>/«r.— These climb either (i) by twining, as in the hop and morning glory, or (2) by tendrils, as in the pea and the grape. This type is found mostly in the tropics, where the foliage is so dense as to exclude the light Thus by climbing trees they expose their leaves to the light It is interesting to have the pupils discover the direction in which the hop twines about its support Note simi- larly the morning glory. Note, also, if there is ever any variation in their respective modes of climbing. {c) The Erect Type.— As in the maple, the oak. Suggestion — A most interesting and profitable work for rural schools is the making of a collection of all the different kinds of woods in the section or district. This can be done by securing branches of the larger trees, about two or three inches in thickness, and the largest stems of the smaller trees and shrubs. Cut from each a sample about one foot long, being careful to preserve the bark. Then carefuHv shave from three inches of the upper end a slice juit deep enough to parallel the heartwood. Oil and varnish the whole piece ; label and hang in a suitable place in the room. Buds. A careful examination of vegetative buds in the spring as they develop will discover the fact that buds are but incipient shoots with their internodes condensed. This fact should be emphasized by requiring pupils to examine twigs of several years' growth to determine the amount of development from a single bud during one year, and the nature of the appendages from the position and forms of stem-markings. I. Potition. 1. Terminal.— Ax. end of branch, eg., horse-chestnut, beech, birch. 2. Lateral. — On the side of the stem, eg., horse-chest- nut, maple. 254 OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY, (a) Axt//ary.— Growing in the axil nf o i r apple, maple. ^ "^ **" °» « leaf, /^., ash, p>w above the a^fla^^^ Tn ,h/''^ ; <>'■ ^hcy may butternut. ^* ^ *" *"<^ walnut and the 3- Adventitious. — Produr^vl ;».« i * , trunk or root, being o^ d«ri^'*'i^ '^'L" ^"""^ " arranged buds havf ^t^^^^^^'^ '«f "'"ly NoT£.— A'^i^iy., ^^v/, . "«iroyea, as m the wi ow. (u/uai?;^^;;;d'^?;7^1^„^S;e™T. '"t""' '*y- chestnut, maple, appK "'''"' =''"«««), ,^., horse- nu?: wlillaTeT"""'" ^'^ ~^«"''e. '^.. sumac, butter- Thi. '^- *'"°"'- Pop'ar. waJding'oTwrter"''^" '' '"<'*""'' "" ^ purpose of Ti.-'*''**''';:^"*'- """»=> »■"' hickory .ur™,.„di„g the ieaves ^Tir.^7Z'^r^\^-£ the osage orange and in the slac '" '""""' '" m. Kind* «■ to OoBtents. .. ^«/*»*^-Containingonly leave* 3. ^a-*rf-Conta,„ing both leaves and flowers. OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. A careful dissection of buds in the late fall or during Ithe winter will show their contents. If the lesson is I taken in the spring, the buds may be observed as they [develop, and the contents may then be noted. IV. Um. {a) To develop aerial parts of plants, (J>) to develop fruit. 7. Ckmditions olM*,_RoIIed from aivv f„ k Buds develoD into h„ i. "^V ^^' '■^■•. "«« fer their intemSS. U th""wAi'T'lI^''y ''"e«'>e„,„ inflorescence, the on" ard Jo[J?h^J ^^ •'°"«*'"' °"l 'atera. buds for. be.o'wit We °^<^- jf -PP^ - I. Podtlm. ^°"*°^ ^^-^^^s- Above ground and in the light n. Color. of sSl.r^a,furs"of I!^„^^:;j^^ fl,' *° the P-esence cells of the leaf The^een r^l i^^'°™P''>'"> '" "'<; when the plant is rcXf^^om X^"^" «''«"«^'>' ni. Porm. adal.tl'^l'r^'ret'';:^ "Panded organ, and thus well to sunlight. ^'^Posu'-e of the largest possible surface IV. Shape. form of the pine and ?he circub? / ^'^^T ^''« "^edle besides a diversit3^•n Snil ''^i ^^'^^'^ "^^"^«""». endre. through the^o^d a„f cfJft'"to^r"" ''''"' '^^ The above characteristics of I v ^^"°"^P°""d• ^;i^A are not accidenti? piooerH^f 'f' "^'^^' ^''^ «"d the plant, as a iiv.W orSm ' "^ '**^^'* '"^^^^^ that •tself to its cnvironmfnt T« ' •?'""'^" '" ^^^pting well fitted to secuHor it 1 ^h.^Tr ^^'^ ^'^^^^ ^^ , expansion of the org[n fi^^^''" f^^^^"^"'"^ and chlorophyll bodies can perf±%?l^''V^''. ""^- ^he the presence of sunhVhtTK ^^"i '^""^tion only in their lobing andcotLuItr''"''^ '^''^' '^^ '^^ves. length of ^petiole an^'^elativf ^' "^^'^ ^' ^^^^' «'^e trolled by tK neces^.^ for'll\ ' ThT'"'"''..^^^ ^°"- a careful examination of a irav^r' "^^^ **? ^^^" ^y "' a spray of maple in which GUIDE TO NATURB-8TUDT. S87 \^f^!T^ f f^^^u ^""^ *^'^ ^'^^ *"d position of the leaf arc controlled by conditions of light. V. Pwti. I. The bl&de. 3. The petiole. 3. The stipules. The only essential part oftheleafis the blade. Many ^ves have neither petioles nor stipules. Stipules may be seen in the round-leafed mallow and in the appTe ^ VI. Fnnctioiia. (a) In the presence of sunlight, the green part unites the carbon d.ox.de taken in by the leaf from the air wUh water earned up by the stem from the root or inhaled by the leaves as vapor, forming starch and liberating oxygeih Jnd%f ^ '' '^'^'"^^ ^y 'i" P'^"* ^° t>"»d up its tisfues and the oxygen is given off to the air. njiS ^''^ '?^' "''^. *"'"^aJs. is constantly, during both night and day takmg in oxygen from the air and uniting ,t with the tissues, forming carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide is given forth to the air. This process is called respiration. J^? fif** °^ *?*" "^^^f absorbed by the roots is given off to the air after it has served the needs of the plant This process is transpiration. Vn. Ytnation. (a) Net-yeined.-yNhtn the leaf has one or more main nbs each in turn branching and rebranching in smaller ribs or veins until the blade presents the appearance of a network, as in the maple. {b) Straight-veined.-yNhtn the veins are in parallel hnes either from the midrib to the margin, as in the calla nly, or, where no midrib is present, from the base the vlllT'' ^* '" ^^^ grsiss&s, and the lily of 17 268 GUIDE TO NATUnS-STUDT. '^l fuF fX f^««J or 5/ra«^._(,) They give support to tl'^'\ '^"^°^r '^^ '^^^- (^) TJ^^y serve to ?Snduct materials to and from the green substance. Vm. Kinds of Blade. (a) ^m/Af.— Consisting of but one part, however deeply cut. e^., maple, oak and dandelion "^^^^o*' (*) CVw/w^ifj/.— Consisting of several distinct leaflets. e^., horse-chestnut and pea. ' A compound leaf is only a simple leaf, so deeply cut ribs are the secondary ribs of the simple form. Simple leaves are of two kinds {a) pinnate, where there IS but one mam rib. as in the pear and elm ; (b) paimaie where there is more Ihan one main rib. as in thfrnapll' C>>«/»««^ leaves are classed as pinnatefy compound or pmmately compound, accordmg as the leaflet are ar^^^ pinnately or palmately. -rrangea h„I"Hll?''^\°/^*'''''^' ^^"'"'^ ^'^^^^ *^« entire and large, but little light can pass ^ween them, to the lovS? strata, and as a consequence the leaves on such a plant are fewer than on a plant o similar size with its leaves small or much cut or compounded. In the latter case Uie sun ight can penetrate the interspaces and give 1^-' power to the leaves beneath, and, therefore, a greater number of leaves will be found throughout thi stemT On erect stems in plants whose leaves are undivided tooL r f>^^^'- g^"«''«"y diminish in size towards the top or the lower leaves develop longer petioles In thi! case the contour of the plant is conicaf Burgeneralt where the leaves are much cut or branched the olan of the plant will be cylindrical. ^ °*^ Observe the general contour of trees, like the maple and elm. on the one hand, and the poplar, balsam aSld GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 259 larch, on the other, comparing the general branching of the trunk with the varying length and position of the petioles of the leaves in the simple herb. Z. Instrtion. (a) Petiolate.—Udiwmg a petiole, (b) Sessi/e.^Whert there is no petiole. Generally a wide-based leaf has a long petiole, e.^., maple, buckeye. Leaves near the ground on simple, erect herbs, usually either have long petioles or long blades narrowing towards the point of attachment. Note the varying lengths of petioles of the leaves on a maple spray ; also the varying sizes of such leaves for the purpose of securing exposure of greatest leaf-surface, without shading. XL Arrancement. (a) Alternate. — Only one springing from a node, as in the elm. (b) Opposite. — Where two spring from a node, as in the maple. (r) Whorled. — Where more than two spring from a node, as in the trillium and catalpa. (/^ Bundled. — Several in a bundle, as in the pine. On erect stems, when leaves are broad, there are few vertical rows ; the narrower the leaf the more numerous the vertical rows. Xn. Snrfoce. (a) Smooth, as in the maple. {Ji) Rough, as in the elm. {c) Hairy, as in the geranium. \d) Spinous, as in the thistle. These hairs and spines are doubtless for protection against too intense light, heat or cold, or against insects and other animals. lao auiDs TO NATvs^aruDr. Zm. PMtttoB ia ithUoB to U(kt .nd ob«„. iy^l^l.'ttXl'l^^^' '" ""''"'<*- laj^r,"^".'*'"'"" "'™''^'' »•» '«f 'how, usually five for the p.o^. If ^'e' JS?Se t;.'rU^'^?r^ m^iarfai^^'ici^"-^ n,^.-G„e„ cells 'J^Mt' which the leaf transpires and «rrles o^ .h^'^J "^r^'' of gases. These ope'^ings are Sf^s^omatV """"«' XV. Leaf Protection. anJXts!?,iiro"ii;xrTh:r^^"^ ''-«-• - ■" =-"=^ ««a irom rain. ~ ' aUIDB TO NATURR-arUDT. 861 These dangers are met in two ways. Firsts by the development cf protective structures between the air and the delicate inner tissue • second by a lessening of exposed surface. Under the first kind of protection there are : — {a) Development of cuticle. ip) Development of palisade tissue. {c) Thickening of the epidermis. {d) Development of hairs and spines from the epider- mis. Under the second form may be noted. {a) Diminution of leaf-size in hot regions, eg., the sage bush. (b) Reduction of leaves to mere spines, as in the cacti. {c) The rosette grouping of leaves for purposes of shading, or of checking too great radiation of heat in plants growing in exposed situations. (d) Protective positions, as the edgewise position of the leaves of the prickly lettuce; the night and day positions assumed by some cotyledons in early stages of germination, eg., the bean ; and the winter and summer positions of the leaves of the juniper. ZVL Leaf Fall. The primary cause of leaf fall is the drying up of those sources from which the transpiring leaves derive their water. This cessation of the absorbent function of the little rootlets is brought about in temperate climes like southern Canada, by the lowering of the temperature of the soil. When the soil temperature is lowered to about 38** F. the rootlets cease to absorb, and the leaf in consequence of the fact, that its loss of water through transpiration cannot be replaced, discolors and withers. The separation of the leaf is (effected by the formation i)f a transverse layer of soft walled cells across the petiole where it joins the stem in most simple leave? as vveli as across the stemlets of each leaflet of the compound. M2 QUIDS TO NATVRE-aTVDY. ■a - ' 3 This layer of separation begins to form immediatel, on the cessation of transpiraViSn from lack of wafer ' Irvl.; !;*^ °^ ''?*'' °^ '*^*^ s*'"*^ «P«c»es. but in differcn locations, do not change their color and fall at the sam" Tu ^^^'^ ^^ °^ ^'^ J'ke the maple birch as^^ and beech the discoloring and falling WilikveH accomphshed much earlier when located on a sJn, hillside than when in a shady, humid glen ^ abivl.^''°""' ^°' ^'' '*" '^^ "«*** °f ^»^*^ '■a^s giver {b) Observe the falling of the leaves of the horse chestnut map^ elm ash, grape, Virginia creeL? ami foiiiJJ^'^a hearfj:>sirr ^^" °" ^ --- --^"^' (^ Why do the leaves of a branch torn from a tree in summer, wither and fade? Do they separlS^fJom th" branch? Give reasons for your opinion. Reproduction. t Kethodi. I. Vegetative.-{a) By bulblets-tiger lily, onion. W By underground stems-raspberry. Solomon's seal. {c) By runners— strawberry. {d) By slips or cuttings-willow, ivy, geranium. W By leaf-buds (buds formed in the notches of the margins of the leaf, or at the cut ends of the ribs i tuberous begonia. nos;— (/) By bulbs— crocus, lily. | Uf^'S-^fh'''^^^'^^'''—'^^'' *^"^ ^"<^ purpose of the I life of the p ant seems to be to repr^uce its kind - To this end it works by storing up nourishment bv ' vanous modes of growth, and by protect"4 provi^io^n agains unfavorable conditions and animals. The struggle for existence will explain the variation in plant structure and habit «"i«*uon m -5ia .'SiK, i"-I*i4'"TV,-:-«! lo produce seed. OUIDB TO NATVRESTVDT, The Flower. n. Parte.- I. Protective Organs. (a) Calyx (scpals)t {b) Corolla (petals). Perianth. 2. Essential Oi^ans. (a) Stamens. {b) Pistil. Anther (pollen). Filament. Stigma. Style. Ovary (ovules). IZL Kindt of Flowtn. 1. /*«:/5r<:/.— Having both stamens and pistil. 2. C calyx and of the receptacle, while the fruit of the straw berry consists almost wholly of the swollen receptacle. 1. Kinds of Fruits. {a) As to compaction, i. 5/>«//^.— Resulting from the ripening of a single pistil. The matured ovary may h\ either accompanied or unaccompanied by other floral parts, e.g., plum, peach, pear, gooseberry. 2. Aggregate.~R.Qs\x\Wvi^ from the crowding into a mass, of the carpels of the same flower, e.g., blackberries. n»r; ;f/^t'T-^^^" *^^ ?'y^ °' receptacle forms part of the fruit mass, e.g., the strawberry 4. Multiple or Collective.-yNh^n formed from several flowers collected into a mass on a common receptacle mulberT '"^ ^^'^ °^ ^^ ^'^^'' ''^" ^'^'""^^^'^ $. Stone Fruits, Drupes, or Fleshy Fruits.— A berry- Iike fruit with a stony, nut- like centre, e.g., the peach. ^'£^, .^'^///j.— Without any pulpy surrounding mas.^ e.g., the hickory. ^ (j) As to opening of fruit for purpose of liberating its thefiea ^^'^"''^''^•— OP^"'"g to discharge seed.^r.^., th^'peaff"^''^''''~^''^ opening to discharge seed, eg, Vr.'iH^,, ■i^'.-:m> GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 267 It will be observed that the fleshy fruits are all in- grape, orange and pumpkin ; the drupe, or stone fruit e.g., peach, cherry ; the pome, e.g., apple, pear. .h School Gardens. Situation.—ScYiooX gardens should be {a) within th school grounds or near enough to them to make i convenient for the pupils to visit them frequently i order that they may watch the development of plant from their first signs of germination to the perfectioi of blossom and fruit. {b) If possible, they should be in the rear of the schoc or in a part of the yard where the child's attention wil be least distracted. Size^u) In graded schools, they should be larg( enough to keep a class of about twenty, at work at th< same time, examining the different plants as arrangec for study. ** {b) The size of the George Putnam school garden Boston— the first school garden in the Eastern States- was forty-eight by seventy-two feet. Where the space IS limited, however, or where the bed has to be cut out of the lawn or playground, the most convenient size has been proved to be beds of four feet by twenty feet ^ Arrangement.— {a) Plants must be arranged as grow- ing naturally. No attempt should be made, as in our public gardens, at arranging plants to bring out designs such as symbols of trades, mottoes, portraits of discin- guished men, etc. Nor should any attempt be made to establish so-called "fine gardens" with ornamental flower-beds. {b) The best arrangement for many kinds of plants is in rows in long, narrow beds. They can then be exam- '.'n^.^^l^.: GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 271 ined by the pupils standing on each side of the bed. The rows ought to be from four to five inches further apart than the width of a narrow rake. (c) By arranging along a wall or a fence in a serpentine border plants that require the sunlight and plants that require the shade, considerable ground may at times be economized. The part of the curve nearer the fence should be reserved for plants requiring shade. Tall plants and those requiring the full sunshine should be planted in the part of the curve which is farther from the fence. This serpentine border has also other advantages. More pupils can be kept at work than if the border were straight. The practical can also be strengthened by preserving the artistic. The curve is always more attractive and effective than the "straight line." ^ {d) To arrange the different species of the same genus in irregular clusters has been found to have advantages. {e) In the Botanical Gardens in Edinburgh, Scotland, a long, narrow bed with the different families of plants, arranged in alphabetical order and in clusters accord- ing to the initial letter of their name, no other basis than the family being considered when classifying them, is reserved especially for the students of the Edinburgh University. (/) Plants should be distributed so as to use every available inch of ground, e.g., ferns thrive well in an angle of the school building, in a shady, sheltered position or in a fence corner, and gourds, as melons, pumkins, may be planted between tall plants. Cf) To reserve a square yard of ground for each of the ordinary grains — wheat, rye, oats, barley— will be found sufficient for all practical school purposes. Kind of Soil.— Th\s must be such as the school-yard affords. If the plants do not thrive, the pupils should discover the cause. Should the soil require enriching, 272 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. in I' ^ ■ r 1 w.?l. !!!""!'' ^"^e'^^^"* *° fi"^J o"t the kind of food tl weak plants require. ^^ Children should be encouraged to brin? wild nlani for the school garden. Before transplantfn.^ hem t o?^ont°"^t^ 'l"^'^* '° "^^^^^"^ the^situatiSn and k n same rn"nH v"^ '^"^ "'" ^^°^^'"^ ^"d t° "°te that th velopment of the plant m the school garden. Preparation of Soil for Seeds and Plants —The dip s^oSlH '^r^^'" ""^.^I^^ P'^"^>"^ °f «<^-d[s and plan? should as far as possible, be done by the pupils bu generally under the supervision of the teacher Eacl ^fThlstrk' '^ ''^' "'P°"^''^^ ^°^ somf dtliite^;;; ^tetU(f&'f ^^'f ^'^^^-Plants cultivated by a florisl are not the kmd of plants most suitable for a school gar den. The main contents of such a garden should be plants especially suitable for teachin| purposes Th following are recommended:— Hurposes. ihe su^tv^f "' /^-^--hepatica, trillium, violet, aster, (b) Economic //a«/j-grains, garden vegetables, pease beans, melon and cucumber. ^ ' , When arranging the dififerent plants in beds and r^cte^'a^c/.'' -''^^^ '°^ W(/«/V^/., colorS^Zt receive a certain degree of consideration. If a little thought is given in planting flower-beds, it is possible to keep them bright throughout the season, ^/ plan s a^H°T^ •" September should be planted tw^ f^i Tpart should be n T:f I '" '^^ T^y P^^* °^ ^he summe snould be planted between these. should' t tt ^A^f'^'-T^t^ "^'^^ ^""^'•^^ management snould be the duty of the teacher. The svmoathv nLessU'tfcall^'^^^'.^ ^"^•^^^^- '' ''^ ^'^^ necessary to call upon them to meet the consenuert running expenses. Many advantages are to begS GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 273 by keeping in touch with the horticultural society of the district. {b) The xveeding and watering should be done by the pupjls. If at all possible, each pupil should have a plant, or a group of plants unJer his special care. He should also be encouraged to make a garden at home. The weeding and the watering should not be done in an entirely mechanical way. The different kinds of weeds, how they propagate themselves, and how best to eradicate them, should always be kept before the minds of the pypils. The difference between sprinkling and watering a plant, how to save the water already in the soil, and the amount of water required by the different plants, are considerations that should constantly appeal to the mtelligence of the child. (<:) In the fall, seed-vessels should be collected for wmter study, and bulbs, corms and tubers stored away for spring planting. Mounted Specimens.— Tiwrxv^^ the summer, the children should collect specimens of leaves, ferns, flowers and fruit from the garden. These should be mounted on sheets of paper. The standard size of mounting paper is eleven and a half by sixteen and a half inches. The spec mens should be labelled 18 llv - 274 QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY, i ' If" CHAPTER III. Insects. Ah look thou largely, with lenient eye., On whatso lieside thee mav rr».*n ITa r For .he pouible glory IL^^X^vl"''^ *=''"'^' The passing phase of the meanest thing ! —A. D, T. WAitHty. The study of insects seems to have had a r^r^^^- place even asfar bade as the time ofloll^n'^FGo t fc^ ^ES^ ^^^ *"'' *^°" sluggard X.^ ^y^ consider her ways, an, t*^ ^l\ Until recent years, how ^ever, such a study wa considered altogetherou of the province of th( child. In schools where th< study of nature has a definite place, teachers nave noted that the study of the life-history of insects can be easily p«*«cTiN8Eor-ORA«ifo»«K(t,«,, camcdon. The gather- i-.na"p:::r„^ ingofeggsandthewatch. J-3'lf p»irof Leg., '"g ot their development K-_Abdo«.e. through the larval and pupal stages to the per- charm for children In ^AAi,- . ^P^^^^ ^^^^ ^ special of the stud., ^'^sJz^isi::^^^^:^^- of 'naluJ::lLt'^,S''i''',:°„^^i;^^^^^^^^^^ truer conception A— Antennw, B-Eye«. DEH-Thorax. L-Tibi». F-l8tp»,rofW,ng». M-Tamu. 0-2nd pair of Legs. ^W^ i-'-i GUIDE TO NATURE-STODY. 275 2. It gives knowledge, necessary to success in agricul- ture and fruit-growing. Sometimes fruit-trees, clv-ine in sprmg prospects of a rich harvest, fail to produce tny crop Had the owners been acquainted with the mode of life of the insect that caused the disappointment of their hopes, the loss might have been prevented. Collecting and Preserving Insects. He, out of nothing, made sky, earth and sea, And all that m them is— man, beast, bird, fish, Down to this insect on the parapet. Look how the marvel of a minim crawls ! - — Robert Brnoning. Thb OABBAOI-BumRFLT. SbowiDC iu Lifa-HtotoiT. 278 !1 <^^IDB TO NATURE-STUDY. -u^crttTt"-^^^^^^^^ the child observ ^very step, he feels that »h^ ,^«cape his attention ^ by seeing." '""^^ ^e learns by doing," "he se< So work the honey bees. The world is teemino- w.-fK • —^^akespMre ff'^-' to Collect Insects T„ **™™^1 bottom. #asten ">f " "^^ va„.-.edw,>enr„",rbo:,tg^; m diameter. In -r.oi • , i-« s;?^ It to a handle A ^^! ,'^" bu^h or the liSb of th.'^S: h"?.^-" ""^ '^^^. =hake the . Insects that live in wS, "'"'"^^ ">« net u„der1t s.eye having a long hanJlepr "l?' ""«='ed w ti, a syrup smeared on f, " ^ easily baited Jfh "" -ear a .indo. oT/JaTm S'^- ^«-t^ b^a^p' GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. PoJaon Bottle. {Riley.) a dry 277 potion .ha^.h:»,^^?:S^^^^^ insS: L^htifr'^-'^P'^^ "P°" ""= ch d that irud to k?ll^h?^-""™"' "^••"•"■" «"^r.1Xl.Se^.t' J^ozvto Preserve Insects.~A\\ insects ^^^'»Tcl^o^., except beetles should be pinned through the part of the 278 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. thorax just back of the head, with insect pins. If thes, are not available, use japanned pins. Common pin are apt to corrode and consequently to injure the soec mens wjth v;erdigris. Beetl^should be p nTed thrC make good Immg for the bottom of boxes in wh?r^ insects are kept. These boxes should be made ven tight and umps of camphor or naphtha should £ always kept m them to prevent the destruction of th^ specimens by museum pests. th.^^^ xr""'"^ butterflies stretch the wings and dry them. This may be done in the following Tvay • Take ^-L. . two strips of thin wood ; tack them ji inch .apart at one end, y^ inch apart at the^other on two crdsspieces. Line the groove beneath B-«--ed he bXrflf h.f ""' Tk^- ^"^"^^ '^' body of fk- A '^®.°""erfly between the strips and pin it to the underlining cork. Spread the wings with naJrow strips of cardl^ard and pin them so that fhe line between the front and hind wings will be nearly perpendiculr to How to Label Insects.— Cxxt the labels «« n*»-.f ,« j small as possible Finished laWs, if desi?;i mL'^ obtamed at a druggist's. Slip the paper up^fth^ pm with which the insect is pinned and place ft Selow S^g'hTd) dlfe'^Jcttu;:^'^ •"'""' °^'"^"- (^^ ^^ Tortoise-shell Butterfly, Toronto, Ontario, July 2Sth, 1901. Larva or Caterpillar. How to Rear Larva or Caterpillars.—Durme August collect a number of larv^ of different kinds. Pufon^e of each kind ,n a box covered with netting. In the bottom of the box. put several inches of sand and chips ^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 279 careful to keep in the box plenty of fresh leaves of the plant upon wnich the larva was found. SUgea in deTelopment of the caterpiUar of the Milkweed-Butterty. [ROey.) (a) Pir«t Stage. (6) Second Stage. (<•) Third Stage. By September or before the end of Au-u.st many of these larv^ will be fully grown. They wifl probacy have changed their skins several times. This is a process that will be most interening for the children to note. Some of these larvae will transform them- selves into chrysalids and suspend themselves from twigs, which should also be put into each box. Others r/wf '"iiTT? °^ f^ ^"^ °*'^^'- substances, while others will doubtless burrow in the ground. Possibly dZanT^ I^nTti^r ^ "^^' ^" ^'^ ^^ ^"^ ^--" By early spring or probably during winter, the pupils may experience the great delight of seeing the imago emerge from its prison. ^ 280 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. I HI 1*1 if fr. '" ^P""&' t'^e ^'i«^ae of many different kinds will found feedmgr on the young leaves. Each p ant Tt m be said, has its own peculiar species of caterpnian And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean 1 o l>e some happy creature's palace. ^ —Lowell. borne of these larvae have been hatched from ecr deposited at a previous time, doubtless during the p, — -aMM^ ceding summer or autumn, by the full •grown insect ; while others, which we hatched last autumn, have come out their winter hiding-places. These lar^ may be treated similarly to those cc lected- during the autumn. Potato-beetles are particularly inte estmg, as the whole potato-plant can 1 Ch^o,u,eMm.4DZnt'^W°''H"r^ the entire deve weed-Butterfly. PP™, , ^^^s^^^ed ^om the time tl- ritile,., beetle lays its eggs upon the leave larv^ become S^tles. ""^^^ '"'" ^"''"^ ^"^ *»^ Caterpillars that live in companies such as t*.ni caterpillars, can be studied with satisfact on on a brine transferred to a large box and kept in a bott" of waJe, Ihe larvae of the clothes-moth furnish a useful anr ts'risTnV?'"'''."^ ^*",^ T^'^ Httle nXde^si tS^ l^LolX." '°"^^- ^-^-"P^ols^ere. theYr eee^ tmW '" v2f T "^"^^^ ^"^ imprisoned thSr J^^^'^^ ^ deposited where the pupils can watcl their development from the very beginning! tW of fl;I« ^"^"^'^ 'P°^^" ""^ ^' ^^'■^••s or grubs those of flies as maggots; those of erasshoDoers as TS'^^'r ?.' *^""^^- -d -othfStTe^niar" youngus„.U,rei;L?IeThr5°„,-^^^^^^ ■iS^ifel^ GUIDE TO NATURE-SrUDY. 281 JH'Ta "* "^l Aquarium.^Get a lai^e glass globe from a druggist or get a glass box or globe for the purpose from a store where entomological supplies are kept Put a few mches of sand in the bottom Plant in the sand weeds and moss that grow in water; then spnnkle some fine gravel over the sand and among the plants. Fill the globe or box almost full of water By dragging a pond with the insect sieve, specimens will be secured for the aquarium and thus a most interesting field of study for the child will be provided Frogs and fish thrive well in an insect aquarium. Frogs eggs or the tadpoles can easily be obtained. To watch the development of the tadpole is a most delight- ful study Goldfish are very beautiful and easily fed; their food can be obtained at almost any drug store. Sub-Classes of Insects. The insecta contains three sub-classes, viz.:— beetles ^te) ^'^''^''—'^'^^ insects (bees, butterflies, {b) The AracAnida— not true insects, though having certain characteristics common with true insects (spiders). (c) The Myriapoda (centipedes, scorpions). secare, to cut. True msects have -^ir bodies divided nto three parts, viz., the head, thorax .d abdomen. The .^r^'u^f ^^'f^ sub-divisions, each bearing a pair of legs, while each of the two posterior segments usually bears a pair of wings, though many insects are wing- in^' ,f ^^^°."™^" has nine or more ringed divisions and small openings, called spiracles, through which the insect breathes. The blood is white and cold. The eyes are compound Some have also secondary eyes, called oceih or single eyes. The metamorphoses are more 282 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDT. or less complete, the typical stages being the eg^ tl arva {larva, a mask), the pupa {pupa, a doll), and tl imago (ma^, an image . Generally speaking, the larv condition lasts from two to six weeks, but there a many exceptions. The wire-worm and the white en remain in this condition for a year or longer X there are other species of larva that remain for se^r fnfii TK • P"P!i^. '>^^.i' '■^^"y *^^ '««t»"g time of th insect This condition, if entered upon in the summe Tth^Mf' '/i;r *^° '? '^'^ ^•^^•^^ If entered u^ in the fall of the year, it usually lasts till the foUow^n When the young caterpillar or larva comes out of th ^g, its body is more or less elongated and cylindrica It IS made up of a 'usually distinct head and twelveZd thorax, the remaining nine form the abdomen, Generall 3iW^* w J'^./^^^P'^ «yf . a pair of solid, horny man dibles, which It uses to bite its food, and a spinnin, apparatus in the middle of its under lip. On the^tC and abdomen are the spiracles ; also the legs and variou other appendages. thil°1 ^^''^f ^^""^ ^""r J°'"*^ '^^- I" addition t( these, some larvae are furnished with from one to fiv( pairs of soft appendages, called prolegs. The members of the second sub-division differ fron true insects by having eight legs and other characteristic- which are not marks of the true insects. Different Orders of Insects. I. Ooleoptera {koleos, a sheath ; pteron, a wing). The members of this order have a hard shell-like covering of the head, thorax and abdomen. The upper wings are horny ; the under ones membranous. Thev have scissors-like mandibles and a masticatory mouth! 1 ne metamorphosis is complete. QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. 393 The order consists of the beetles. the^r.'J?K^!i*'°"'"'°" examples suitable for study are he may-beetle common whirling. beetle, stae-bLtle l^y^ird, St. John's-bcetle (glow-worm)' and^j^t^ n Orthoptera {orthos, straight ; pteron, a wing). These are straight-winged insects having four wings • he antenor pair ,s small and narrow and cover thTX- ¥rieSa'Jfilted'f '■'^%'^" ^"' ^'^ membranruL ine legs are fitted in some for runnng; in others for tes pi;Sar"^^ '- "'-'''^'^^' ^^^ -ta-- roa^ches."'"'^"' '"''"'^'' '"'^"''' grasshoppers and cock- The following examples are suitable for study •— a"nn;t;dtd!' ^"^'^"^^'' ^^"^^°PP^^' walking^ick m. Hymenoptera (Aym^, a membrane;//^r(7«,a wing) These are membranous-winged insects with four transparent wings. The females have usually piercer^ s'lKtoriff- Tu' ""T^ '' r^'^y -^ticatory a^nd"^ partly suctonal. The metamorphosis is complete. The order includes bees, wasps and ants. Common examples for study are the honey-bee waso ant and ichneumon. ^ ' ^P' IV. Neuroptera (neuron, a nerve ; pteron, a wing). These have four membranous wings furnished with numerous vdns. They have both primary Tnd second ary eyes. The mouth is masticato^. Their foS con s.sts of insects and flesh. In some cases the S^moP phosisis complete; in others, incomplete. ^^^""""^ The order includes ant-lions and aphis-lions. Common examples suitable for study are the dragon- fly and lace-wing (aphis-lion). ^ i .1*1 284 OUIDB TO NATUHE-STUDY. V. Hemiptera {hemi, half ; pteron, a wing). J>ome of the suborders are double-wintrpH Jnc-^ meumorphosis is ^rtT^I. """'"' " '""o"*'- 1 The order includes bugs, lice and aphids. %hrg«;Knrci.^Sdf -' -"""-^ («-- VI. L.»ido,t,r. (&/^, a scale ; puron, a wing! The members of this order have four ,...«,T,u covered with scaly dust In thtrerfect foJ^ /f T" suctorial mouths The mrt7,^i^ i • • ''''^y ''^ These are most attractfveTnslcT'' ~" " ^'"P'" The order includes butterflies, skippers and moths. i he followjng examples are suitable for studv • r=.i ^^'e■mme^cr'^'?'''=™"t-™*■"A"Si^^^^^^^ -Se larva of on' •^y«'"°" """"X ^', sphinx-mot wot/aT/thl a;;ie're^f "n^inf "''-""•"' '^ *' '-- snapes, terminating in more or less acute tips. Vn. Diptera {dis, two ; pteron, a wing). paris are suctorial. The metamorphosis is complete. 1 his order includes the flies. The following examples are suitable for studv Mosquito, house-fly and syrphus-fly. study.- noS^ classification of the different orders of insects as noted above is based upon the wings. In sub^Tvidin| sects and ilong the al. The [electric- ir wings ley Iiave ^mplete. GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 286 the orders into famihes, the number and arrangements of the veins of the wings are taken into account^ '"'' 1 he following classification is based on the fact th^f some msects are useful and some injurious to man _!' [a) Insects that are useful. {b) Insects that are injurious. . J^)Jnsects that are neutral, neither useful nor in- The following useful insects should be soeciall., Jii^^'^""'"'^ ^'"^ /-^//..-conveying insects-bees „r^^ fw'^","""' '"sects — lady-beetles, ticer-bcetles SorSdieT-^b^-"- ^^'P-^-mesZ/nS {c) Parasitic insects — I. -J^««.^^«-//«_Parasitic upon caterpillars. \^t\LZ^^T^^'Z^^'^^''' "P°" ^^'^^ of "^oths, upon oeetles, cnckets and grasshoppers. ^ Give pupils direct.ons to aid them in obs^rvin? the (a) Cut-worms. (c) Codling-moth larvae, plum-curculio. (^ Maple-borers, apple-tree borers. (e) Pea-weevil. C/) Clothes-moths, buffalo carpet-beetles. (^) Squash-bug, scale-insects, plant-lice. For the purposes of remedial treatment teach the moK^A?' ^"riri-^'.^^^"^^^^ ^°^™ o?';heTnse rs mouth. Any and all kmds of insects can be destroyed 28J OUWE TO NATUUE-lsTUUY. Notes on Insects. BEETLES. frnnfT'^iT^^^ **'°'''''' ^^"sists of three segments The front one bears a pair of jointed legs ; the seTond a oa^! of wings and a second pair of legs • the thJrH Tko' ^ ^ pair of wings and the third pair of 'legs -.tS'-J, 5- (a)E«r.: (6) Grub.; ,c)Pupa: (rf) Ad.UU; W Wu^^^r; (/, I^ GUIDE TO NATURB-8TUDY. 287 Wtn^s.—T\ni fore-wings form a hard case over the true wings and fit closely over the back ; these are not used for flying but for protection. During flight- they are spread at right angles to the body. The covers of some beetles are shorter than the body. Undenvings.^The second pair of wings are very fine and silken and are neatly folded beneath the covers when not in use. Feet and Legs.—Thesc are hairy and do not spread out so far as those of flies or spiders. /fead.~Vpon the head are a pair of antenna, a pair of compound eyes, and the mouth-parts. Moui/i.—The mouth-parts consist of an upper lip r /adrum, a pair of mandibles which are fitted either for seizing or for gnawing, a p^ir of assistant jaws, or maxi//a and the lower lip, or /a /. ^^^^•f— Different kind., of beetles place their - -s in different places. They are placed in water, in the .. ot dead animals, in holes in trees, etc. Zjzrz^a.— The larva is a white grub, with scaly head and toothed mandibles. The larva of the different kinds closely resemble each other. Pupa.— The legs are folded over the front of the body • the wings are packed into its sides ; the jaws and feelers are laid on the breast. There are many kinds of beetles, as the rose-bee 'e which lives on rose-bushes and flowers, the sexton-beetle which buries decaying animals, the whirling-beetle which whirls round and round in water. MAY-BEETLE. Imago.~An inch long. This is a large, plump, brown beetle. During late May and early June, it may be tound buzzing about on almost any warm evening It feeds upon leaves of the cherry, plum, strawberry -tc m f I 288 OUFDE TO NATURE-STUDY. ^Z^. -lii^rrpeX' 'J^^et' Thb Mat-Bbbtu. 1-Pui*. 3-Pem.to. (JtUcy.) ] I pastures. Sometime ?J 1" verv T , '"..e"^«"» and 4er..-Thcse are laid at the roots of grasses and t^, GRASSHOPPER. *iIyZy2 'L%t^Tl^^:V'?'^^°P^'^. but (short-horned-grLho^irt aS f? ''!''~"'^ «"dida horned-grasshopper) '^'^Se mL ^ locustid* (long. Ontario is the red-li-H fommon species in cable only to the " shoSn^ "'„"" TP*''^ W"' sis-7 ti:i'-SerV£/ - ^^-«4^^ they do not roid ^ ^^°S.S.'^K ?;i- GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 289 of this order are sometimes classified as runners k'rasix-rs, walkers, jumpers. The grasshopper is one of the jumpers. Tbb Locvr. J/ea^.— There is a knob on the forehead. Between the eyes are the feelers. The mouth is large, the jaws strong, and the eyes prominent ^ ^ „i ''^r—^^*^ common locust is brownish grey ; some Hve uZ^'V?'- ^T " ^'* '^^ ^°^«'- °f the leaf thTy live upon. Their color seems to change in flying The thigh IS st.ong and long ; it enables this insect o inTtheXTth'f^^r^ ''^•^^"^^' Between ?hefo^? have fo^ur pirts ^"^ ^^ P^'"*^ "^^ '^^'^' The feet \n^!T''~7^^ "P?^*" P*'" ""' wing-covers are large and TOe'n shut fhf .!^" ''P^ '"^ "^^^•^h •" the i^idSle wnen shut the upper ones overlap he lower ones The mot' ^'"^■^^^^'•^ the hind wing^s are laid Tn pE The most common species of grasshopper, or locust in Ontario, makes ts notes by vibrating^'ti wing co^^^^^ upon Its spiny hind leg. In most of the "long horns" the vibrations are caused by the combined act^^n of the upper and under wings. tne 19 290 ^•Ifll GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. so^t ^^Sftet-f/oung fruit-trees, grasse OEDtt ObtHOM««A-«»a«HOPP«b. surrounded by';™oThy„tjf°y'Ps>'^'%'w.wni&^^i"'M'iiif uMiitiiifti' iwiifii tm*j>Av 292 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. ha^Y^Tafr^ '"^ *°"'' "« ^- '^^i the s,x fee byf frnloTnToMh^^eT" " ■"*•'' *■-' '° *« '"era, mid'Sf paTtT'&i^^in^!: °" »"« "PP^^ -de of th, ones and fo d teckTver hfm*\'*''«" **" '^e lowe, the upper wings'l^lst";: Vlo^^on^t ^ '" "^'"^ OllD»E HyMENOPTBBA-ANTS. totf;7i:^''t!'^'i:^\^^^ ""V"' ^°"^« ^^« pressed sticky sortTfXe or r^-T? ^^^^ ^'^ lined with a fallingin xL^re areth^^^^^^ 'i^^P ^^^ ^^--th from viz. : (I) queen Lrr^rdrn'f^. ^"'' '" ^^^^ home. buildeW, n'uies, servUs^X^^^ (3 workers, including in a home they swarm u^A 7 *°° ""^"^ ^"^^ are queen selects the home then she'S. ^ "^^. ''°"^"- "^^^ begins to lay eggs ' ^'^^' °^ ^^^^ ^i"gs and ^«^^» -<4«/j.— These ar*» f»,^ *.L colonies. Their bodlS .rl ^^^ ^'"others of the ant wings and strngs ' '^ '°""^ ^"^ ^^''J^ ^nd have ha^'wSgl^^'' "'^' '"'' ^° "° "^--^ ' have no stings; GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 293 Workers.— Their bodies are dark ; there are two sizes of them ; they have neither stings nor wings. Larv(Z.— Ants dig holes two or three inches in the ground, then make kinds of halls and cells of them. The queen lays her eggs in a cell. The larvse, small white grubs, are kept clean and fed by the nurses. Pupa. — The larval-case is a fine net, resembling a little white bundle. The cases are of three different sizes, the largest for the "queen," the next two sizes for "drones" and "workers." The food of ants is honey, sugar, etc. They suck up the food with their rough tongues and press out the oil and juice with their jaws. They store away food for winter. In very cold weather they are torpid. There are many different species of ants, as mound-building ants, carpenter-ants, slave-maker ants. DRAGON-FLY. Several names ai . applied to thjs beautiful insect. It IS called flying-flower because of its shape, color, and lovely motion. It is called little-lady because it is so neat, graceful, delicate and pretty. It is also called air-jewe' because its wings and body flash and shine like precious gems. The following inappro- priate names are often applied to it: horse- stinger, darning-needle, spindle. This beLJtiful, harmless creature lives two lives, each of which, unlike the two lives lived by many other insects, seems complete in itself, and each of which it seems to enjoy equally well. The first life is that under water and includes the egg, the larval and the pupal stages. The second is that : i the air, the insect being now known by one or another of the names mentioned above. Mal« J)ngon-V\j. •wvmts.^x' t«. 294 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY, I Female Ursgon-Ply. still, shkllow S1^ a =un ,1^" °^* water-pUnt. Coo grubs, leeches, shrimps It waits patiently for it; prey at the bottom of tht pond or in the shadow of a leaf, or, perhaps on the stem of a leal under water. If prey passes within reach, it darts forward a singular jointed arm. This arm represents the h^"^"i^^ TTf^ JT'^ "™'y *»" 'he larva. It nas SIX legs; each foot has strong hooks Its ca.» ll ^7^- 1^ ''[°*"' ='^" »"<» shining On JL^e^t '' of the body there are homy spikes. ^Upon thTchesJff thanT^t^ ^n'^2;:M; ''-' -' ^^ ''^ '^^- and longs, apparently, for sun and air. It loses iTs fierce appetite; ,t breathes slowly. It seeks a stem or t.n reed creeps slowly up it a^nd hooksLVetlrm y f^ h^u ? ^""'^'^ '* &^*« between two reeds and tw£ rnd'oull^ T'*;^,^ '°'^ '^^"^ betweenThem. U foJS n .K P""^-head, legs, wings and long body come forth as the pupa-case splits. It hangs on agreed to reTt aUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. 295 In about fifteen minutes it lets eo its hold and flj^= S '~""« '" "'-^ "-» ='"«h^ to the°ld"by1h: of 'f bSh/'h ""'Pi??'"''' '"S<=- Its body is long and ot a bright hue. It has six lees and four win?s Ik eyes are exceedingly bright and flash like /e3 It L Nymph eeizing its prey by iu extended lower lip. Draoon-Ply. Imago emerging from pupa. Strong, active and hungry. It needs no net for seizins >ts prey now, it flies so quickly When fllincrL^^ show spots and lines of bright color " ^ '' ""'"^^ oth^er^inrorfnU^^^^^ °" ^^^'^^' "^P'^-' «-• -^ GIANT WATER-BUG. anfT£7i;I?" •' ^ ^'°T" ^"Sr, with boat-shaped body and leathery wings overlapping each other on the brck It .s the largest insect found in our fresh-water ponds 296 OTHDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 1 It is also frequently found under electric lights • this reason it frequently gets the name electric-li, bug. « Z^^j.— The legs are fitted for aquatic life, havi fnnges along the sides for swimming. They are thi and also fitted for grasping and clasping victims, the front leg is a longitudinal groove for the recepti of the next joint ; this is a distinctive mark of t] insect. Giant Watkb-Buo. (Betoctoma ^owricoiMiii.) Beak.— The beak is short, powerful and dagger-lil< It serves a double purpose— to strike prey and to e tract the juices from it. It is supposed to have a poise gland. *^ E£^gs.—Thc eggs are deposited in clusters of froi forty to sixty, in pieces of wood or reeds along th margm of ponds. They are about one-fifth of an inc long ; are of a brown color, spotted with black, and ai darker above than below. Thtre is a whitish crescer near the top, with a black spot at the apex. The larv crawls into water as soon as it is hatched and feeds o aquatic insects. Nymph.— It probably remains about a year in th nymph stage. It has no wings ; otherwise it resemble the adult. When ready to emerge, the skin splits dowi the back and the perfect insect appears. These bugs cai easily be studied by keeping them in a vessel of watei mmy^t ...^^^'^■■■■''^ GUIDE TO NATDBE-STUDY. vn jhts; for :tric-light !, having ire thick ims. In 'eception of this APPLE-TREE TENT-CATERPILLAR. Moth. — The moth is reddish brown. Its front wings are crossed by two obhque, parallel, white lines. When fully expanded, the wings are from one and a half to one and three-quarters inches across. The hollow tube with which butterflies and moths suck up food is want- ing; hence the moth has no power to take food. It (o) The Caterpillw; (6) The C»terpill»r; (e) Ecgs; (d) Cocoon. remains at rest and in concealment during the day, but is very active at night. It is attracted by a glare of light; which generally bewilders it. Eggs.—Tht eggs are laid about the middle of Julv upon twigs about the size of a lead-pencil. They are ^"^^^^^M- Mil :^ S c^-i^- GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. placed side by side round the twig, in clusters of f iTh ^?wt *° .'^7" *^""^''"^- They are then cov. with a thick coat of tough varnish, which renders tl water-proof. In shape each egg is cylindrical. Cat€rpiilar.~.ThQ caterpillar is fully matured in Ggg, but remains in a torpid state till spring. It eei ally emerges about April. Its first meal h taken f, the gummy substance that was upon the egjjs; thei begins to feast greedily upon the young buds. ' apple and the cherry are its favorite trees. It reac maturity in about six weeks ; and is then about i wh^^? °"^- Tu ^ black body is covered with hairs white stripe with yellow longitudinal lines on each s runs down the back. On the sides are also spots i streaks of pale blite. ^ Web.-.ShoTt\y after they are hatched, these te wf f T^f.u '^^^* °^ '"^^" ^^b across the near large fork of the twig upon which they were hatch As they increase in size they enlarge their tents. Wh completed the tent is generally from eight to ten incl m diameter. The entrance is at the angle of the fork. Into this tent the caterpillars retire during the night a in stormy weather. They also rest in it during the di They leave It reguiariy, however, in the daytime, or 1" f " r ? ^T'T"" -f "^ °"^^ ^"'•'"g the afternoon, search of food. In order not to lose their way home, ea caterpillar spins a silken thread after it wherever f^^ 1 ? y?""^'. *^^y "'^y °^^^" be seen crawli, from place to place in single file hi close procession. Cocoon.— The cocoon is a double web; the outer cove ing is closely woven anr filled with a powderv substan uke sulphur. It is generally hid in such out'-of-the-wj places as under rails, boards or rubbish. Within the cocoons the tent-caterpillars change to chrysalids of brown color. In about two or three weeks the moi escapes. A*^- rs of from m covered ders them ;d in the It gener- iken from s; then it ids. The [t reaches .bout two hairs; a each side spots and ese tent- QUIDK TO HATURE-STUDY. FOREST TENT-CATERPII.LAR. 299 a'^ow of dirLX':;^d°u.t rr' Ar^"' " serve to distinguish if frr.^ lu ^? ^"^^^ sp^^s forest tent-catefp lar is a"^^^^^^^^ The special fondness for the mar^etLeh''' ^"^ '^°^^ poplar. The ecres of t5V,« «^ •' ^asswood, and the cluLrs which 'frelXn^^^^ '^T^ aTprtreeX^aUl^^^^^^^ hanging to ?Se Tree" The '^e'nt of "th" "'*''" ^'^>^^^^ against the side or branched of thff ' ^^""'^l '" "P"" are hatched. "'^anches of the tree upon which they >e nearest I . ^'^^^^^D OR monarch butterfly. hatched. I „ T*^'s butterfly is truly a beaufifnl or«of i. . When I «°f ing majestLlly ,/the summe T'u t"" '^" .„^nchesNjij^«'ssom of three tc colored J air proj pe GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. aoi ?S"7l^^u "'^''? ^T^"^ P^^'^S*^ *^''0"&h the apple. Ihey let themselves down the branches and trunk of the tree by silken threads, if their apple-home does not drop to the ground Then they creep into crevices or under the rough bark of the stem to spin a cocoon. r«»^«.— The cocoon is a papery-looking silken case attached to the walls of the device or the bark by threads and concealed by small bits of bark. In three i days or thereabouts, a chrysalis containing the puoa forms. In two weeks afterwards, the pretty mo\h emerges. '^ ^ "'v^m uIJ"^ TZf ^T^u'"" :?" *^^ ^'"^ ^^"t the end of July. A little later they deposit their eggs. The larva mature m late autumn or early winter. They soin t'h°^^" n ^.u"^ r,?^'" '" ^^^ ^^^^^ '^^'^ concealed in them till the following spnng. About the time of the blooming of the apple-tree, the moths appear. 309 m GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. POLYMIKMUS MOTH. pa., w^ ./e„ oB^^tV-lV:^^^^^^^^^ a tubercle, at times tinted oranp^ Tn fu« jj, . fret ft^^Th": ,j:.^-^''r^ ^p°'-^'i a'Ltai:";ttin°; ^^<^<^--This is pale brown nut and the hazer ' ** "'^'""'' ">= "^P'^ "-e butter- change, to a cr^ry^s'' oc'l^X:^^' '^"" ^"syBs^neieissar^iir^v^'' j|.i OVIDB TO tfATVKS-STaDT. 303 red. ThX oX maf± ^^f, '^".'''> T^^'"^ -ith white. bordc«d wi^JKn'o^/d^LpU' S';.'""P""' CocooK or VoLvrumuvB Moth. OAMEi-ai^ or PotTWDuro. Mora. spoes are margined with yeLw and edg^d wS bUck Uttle differennn shap^td^j^^X in ^Ta^; ^^^ ^ are^Sn^^e^'^air '■^'"■'"^'' '■" ■«"• -«■ >>« Ieaf%7,Illv tP ^" '"T"'"'' °" 'he underside of a _ TElf '^»» lil II 904 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. MOSQUITO. To those who are curious to know the wonders ol Nature, there is no more interesting study than Vie mosquito. A barrel or a bucket of water, if left ^ uui mg for a few weeks in warm weather, will afford mol'= opportunity. ^^^•— The body is long and cylindrical. PF/«^j.— These are generally crossed when in repose ; they appear very beautiful when seen through a micro- scope and are covered with scales. Antenna. — The antennae of the males are fine and feathery. (A) PnU-«rown larra. (B) Pupfc (C) Anal aesmeiit. (Howard.} Eyes. — The eyes are very large, covering nerrly the whole head. They are brilliant and at times change color. . Proboscis. — This is the instrument used for puncturing the skin of its victims. It is a cylindrical case covered with scales. It contains the sling. Sttnjsr. — T te sting is really a miniature sword. The wounds made h the sting are impregnated with an irritating fluid wnich exudes from the proboscis. "i mm^j^^w^mmt^^imm'nm:^^ \i?. GUIDE TO ^ATUBE-STUDT. 'J06 Larvce. — These are found in stagnant water. They are very small. They come to the surface of the water to breathe. The breathing pipe is attached to the abdominal segment next to the last. In some species .'he body hangs down when breathing ; .in others, it is nearly horizontal. The digestive tube ends in the orifice of a short tube at the right of the last segment. Abdomen. — There are tufts of hair on each segment. Thorax. — There are three tufts of hair on each side. Head. — Round the mouth are wattles furnished with hairy-like filaments. These move quickly and cause tiny currents of water to flow to the mouth of the larva This water contains microscopic insects and particles of vegetable and earthy matter. Pupa. — When the larva has changed its skin for the fourth time, it becomes a pupa. It does this in three weeks. Body of Pupa. — The body of the insect is now short- ened and rounded. The pupa does not eat iri this condition, but moves and swims. It is now as neces- sary as ever for it to breathe air. The first breathing apparatus was lost when the skin was shed. It now breathes through the two ear-like appendages on the head. It develops little by little. Its principal mem- bers can be seen under the transparent skin which en- velops them. It comes to the surface of the water when ready to change again ; raises its thorax above the surface and straightens its body. The skin then splits between the breathing tubes and down the back, and the perfect insect emerges. ^SS^- — A few days after the insect enjoys its liberty, it deposits its eggs on the surface of the water. Many generations are born in a single year, each generation requiring from three weeks to a month to bring forth a new generation, ao 306 OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. FLEAS. sence of w.ngs in the adult insect. The Cl^ is^'oltl and' ttnTeWlSr/ni-, ^ IX i H ■t .s also vep, hard and smooth, enabling it to slip away ■ ' ' ■■ from between the fingers ^of its captor or the teeth of a dog. Its escape is alsofacihtated by its long and powerful legs, which enable it to leap an im- mense distance when compared with the size of its small body. Its ^gs are laid between the hairs of the infested ani- mal, but are not fastened animal moves about or l.Vc a^^ ^^fm.so that when the fesS~^h7^,^-i'^ ^ ''.y °-- » <=»' ^ f°"nd to be in- sleeping-place turned out Ih tJP°".''^''' *"'' "* it f fafn upor?h1urd'b:"burmT„'d frth^ m'^l^'T ADULT FI«a: (a)egg-(eiiUrged). '^^mssim^^^itmr^y^'?^ "w imw ;i^!^:^w GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 307 SPIDER. The spider is not a true insect Its body is in two parts. The head and thorax are united in what is called a cephalo-thorax. The front part of the body is always smaller than the hird part. It is to this part that the eight seven-jointed i :s are attached. Each of the legs of the spider terminates with three toothed claws or with two claws and a brush. DiiTKRKNT Types op Spiders. Projecting from the head are two six-jointed palpi which are so large that they might be mistaken for a pair of legs. Between the palpi, are toothed mandibles ftirnished with fangs connected with a poison-gland. Behind the mandibles on the under side, are the maxillae or chewing organs. The eyes are two, four, six or eight m number and are variously but always symmetrically arranged. The spinning organs are situated near the hind part of the body. They consist of a number of glands and tubes connected with them. The glands are in six clusters called spinnerets. In spinning, the threads from all the tubes unite. The thread thus formed is, how- 308 euiDS TO XATUBX-S'^lvr. !i »«1 ever, finer than the finest .ill, c_-j adapted for either h^pS^ b ndin!*^ '''" "* ^P"«"3 Spiders that spin X ™akT?h ^' j^'-'"^ °' "^"'"S the web pn.per.'^Se ;:S" h. sna^ h'nT'°W 'l! '^*'"- various shapes, as circular fr,-,„ i ' ^"^^ »« ol When the spider wishes fn"^"^""' 'T'"''" oblong, end of its spinnfng.rte It tV "?' " P'«^ «l« to a wall, feaf or stem U T'^ " ''"P °' e'"* fast As it go^s, the Blue Tnini ^ " T"™' <" ^'^^^ away, unite i^ on'e and turn Tilk" ik" f."" '\"^'- ^hei webs, the rays are .Jm 111 threads. In circu: .r line;ith its TitTndTuUinel; t^„' '"'!'' ?'"'^'"e 'he It then spins a thread roufn I 5^' '""J"'"' 't«>ng- ray till the work ifdone It i?, , T"** /''r "^ *« the silk thread cross^ L «yC ""'"P °^«''" "^ere siii^ 'ftlrLSl'.l^-^'rj.I^^i-"^ .-3 of close, fine In this silken nest^Hkys ts';!'^^?*^!.^ ""'"-fhaped. near the web, but attached fn^?\ ^\ "^'' '" '»"'•* snare-Iina If prey eet^ in tt,. W-^ }°"S "ne. the The spider runs^^^fte "are I^^-n'^i'"" "■'" *»''*• fine thread around'lt an'dS^t'to fe n«t''"^- "'"''^ quf„^tts;7tSXl?x'''=«^t*-^ ^^^fr- If dirt of any kind sticW to .h^"' T*? *'* their feet piece out aniput a new piece in * ""^ *'" ""'^ *"« ban"-n'"C!;^'hte''^"f atlS? air^ T* t'"^ «•"'«> ^^nrstr^fifSH^f?--^tt the weaver, that weaver^ h-PelTic Mn. E— Pectona Fin. Xi— Lktenl line. 1. Direct the observation of the child in such a way that his attention will be drawn to the easy, noiseless, graceful movements of the fish. 2. Though fish may vary in shape and size, their gen- eral shape is especially adapted for cutting through the water. (a) Head. — The head is sharp and wedge-shaped, serves, like the prow of a boat, to divide the water. It '■■^mmk^M^im^f^miif^mE^mira. '^M^^'^ 310 3 i^.i ■iv "^ 70^, CWD^ ro NATURE-STUDY. always away from the head ^'* ^''S^' "«" ™ad'f rr rC' " -*= -^ '-'>e'".;i^e r;- .i and write'on it the nam! ofte rffe«m*fi' """f '»^" °^ °"'- ^""•O" fish .here are seven fin? '" """^ the back. «»■— Situated near the middle oi bro?d, nlh^d^'fi^ """-A' '"' --J of the body ; a of Se1Xf''~'' ""^'' "" "■'"^'«' °" 'he ventral line no^t Stclf2'Sre''a"na*1n''"'*:?L''"''^ °' '"^ «»"• ^ut fins whicH are sometime"s''catd 5,eTg^t ''"^°'"'^- Po|^ri-^-'^-„P^--/ar?hehead.i„. e4^':^n-iS'sfeh\"t^'"1h*^ ">°«'' - the With lids. A few fish th^f Y- • ^^^y '''■^ "°t supplied Hght penetrates are'tt^^^^^ ^^ "o or the eyes are the eiUs and ^ni^ ^i""^ ^"^ '^ack water in at their mouths the? h''^''- ^''^ '^^^ ^he lowing, they drive it out ;h!.^'K?C^ '"°^'°" ^'l^e swai- out the oxy'^en Is t passes th-"^^ S ' ' '^^ ^'"^ «'ft necessary to the life o^f fish F^h^ in ^''"- ^^^^^" '« die, nnless the water is r^n., J u ^" aquarium will of oxygen. '^ renewed, because of the lack *.7 ^:'*^«" aUIDB TO IfATUBBSTUDT. gu air; thus the b«£?s ruts;' rx"I £J«i liiri?lli'J-v^'t^.'"^#^^W»«lH^B 312 QXnVE TO NATXTRB-STUDT. m 8. Scales.—The scales of different fi-h vary in • f^e^»,*"fi ''°^°'''m ?*=""^"y speaking, they are ho like the finger-nail, but thinner. Their shape is gei ally rounded or with a jagged hinder edge. The forr ca ed cycloid, are typical on lake herring. The lat called ctenoid, are typical on scale or rock bass Tl are fastened by the smaller edge to the skin of the f Each scale laps over the one next to it They are set that they overlap from the head to the tail, 'j number of scales in a line is often used to distingu the species. In the middle of each scale on the late A. B. Two KnrM of BoALn-*■> '•J '1 GUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. Kr^^tu^"^'!^""^'^^ °^«" keep together and f« onjy cattish , m others, only trout. Herring are nft^ iS. Dtsfiosttion.—Sovnt fish are so t\m\A fK,* *u shghtest sound will niake them hide. OthTr^ aga^ wil he ,n plam view, or boldly follow their prey Y^h Irt on the whole, not really very intelligent, ffikose keo? h aquanums and ponds learn to know' those who ?^ them. They become great pets. 1 6. Wherg Fish Live in Winter <;«,«« a u unlike cany of our birds "n^^^t:^:JtrZ.^ flies, .n regard to their habits of passing the winter Thtv migrate south to places whereth-if fn^ . k I* ^ Others, again. si„k?o the tottom o>"tl^?^tream "ojtke so"rin.":"'T, """^ '■" ^ """-dormant cSion tm becoming chilled, they will'Wmrart^rsL-m atouT existmg, as best they can, on whatever fnS f^ u.*' rt''el^n"Ste^4?To ^T'^"- -ionler ^nd^% %gr x~a^"f l7eaV:hi!:''io,rr''°'"'"'^ °; d^^.£^S^^?e|-t^ adhere to the sind after si^kingViffltl'JS*" '"'' QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. 316 The block bass makes a smooth bed for her cpm ThJ« size of thVegg. Effes laS?n Ortnl^ ^"J^f ^' ^".^^ ^'^^ Classes of Fish. Zoologists divide fish into four sub-classes. 1. The sharks and rays. 2. Bony-fish and ganoids. 3. The chimaeroids. 4- The dionoi or lung-fish. K-i^2ar 816 GUIDE TO NATVRB-STUDT. ^ m =*=• t^ Sub-Ciass (^).— The name, ganoid (^anos, splendor), i taken from the enamelled scales which are well develope on these fish. There are few living species of this grou| In Ontario, ganoids are represented by the lake stui geon or rock sturgeon, valuable for food, the gar-pike and mud-fishes, worthless as food, but highly interestin to study. Most of our fish belong to bony-fish, the cat fish or bullhead, herring, trout and bass being commo typical forms. Bony-fish as distinct from ganoids are called Teleostc {teieos, perfect ; osteon, bone) and may be sub-divido again into soft-rayed and spiny-rayed bony-fish : — HZUUMO. llfc Skklkton or HiBRnro. I. Soft-rayed Bony-flglL— These have soft finrays, wit! the exception of one or more anterior ones which a« modified into defensive spines ; their scales are usuallj cycloid. The air-bladder opens into the alimentarv canal. {a) The most primitive of these are the following families: Catfish, minnows, suckers. Closely allied tc the suckers are chub, dace, shiners and two introduced genera— the goldfish from China and the carp proper, also an Asiatic fish. ':.,iv ^ I m-ris^^^^^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 317 {b) Another natural group of this division are the r^n-eyes or toothed herring, the sea-herrtn^, an5 the s/iad These fish are covered with silvl^ scales usually cycloid sometimes deciduous ; the 17al fin 7s long, the caudal one forked. The gaspereaufo? alewife •s one of the sea-herring introduced to fVesh water It is ^thles«,, they have, however, very long eill-rakers They are gregarious fish; swim in immensf schoSs many ascend to fresh-water streams and spawn t^re ^ some return to the ocean ; others become land lock'd'^ The abdomen ,s keel-shaped and has small bony plates ihf\ ^K^ '^^"'°" P°"P '** ^>' ^""^ t*»« 'nost important of Uje J^es_h.water teleosts. The following beloS^ to thl 1. Tfu Whitefishes, including the common white- fish ; the long-jaw of Lake Ontario, known as the CISCO in Lake Michigan ; the lake hernng and the Uke Ontario cisco. 2. The Grayling. 3. The Salmon, including the salt water salmon trou ^* °" ^^^ *^® ^^"^^ *"^ '^''^ arilhf ^mmTn'^^-r'^^^.'T ^^^'^' ^°"^'"°" '" Ontario nfh Vu ?^°",P'^^,^"^ the great pike, ormaskinon^e n Spiny-rayed Bony-flsh.-These are not only marked by the absence of a duct between the air-bladdTand the alimentary canal, but also by the far fo,!ward position of the ventral fin. Spines largelv replac7the ooft rays of the dorsal and anal fins. asThe%Sng :!£"""'^' ^" ^^"^^^ ^^ -<=^ ^-"- 318 OUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. '.f^fV- A.l. ^^^ ^r^^f* including the pike-perch and th darters, or dwarf perches. " 2. The Sun~fishes, including the sun-fish and black has; ficK* ^^^^^ ^^^* including the striped bass, or rock nsh and the white bass. 4. The Sticklebacks. 5. The Drums. and I^.^h'-^'^'' including the ling, haddock, hak< 7' The Mackerels. Study with the children the following fish :-Thc common catfish or bullhead, the common sun-fish, the earn th^"'"'. I'J^'' f ^ ^^^' '^^ "^»""°^' ^^e darter the carp, the goldfish (from aquarium). Notes on Fish. MINNOWS. The minnows are a distinct group of fish. Thev are fre quent y considered undeveloped fish Sf diflFerem spedes. ThS The chub is commonly spoken of as "the kine of the brook » fie^cefv In^r' ^'^- 'i ^°*^ ?°^ ^'"•^^^ if hSngr,;; to ^ack lIvS LweverThilfl'^^^^^ ?"^ ^'^^ H^' '* '"^y come across. It lives, nowever, chiefly upon msects and worms. The shiner is about the size of the chub. It has, however much Wr scales and, unlike the chub, has a humped.&ckTppearrce h?lnHn7:i^ ° *^%*'^^n'°" "f the back in front of the dorsalfin In spring, the lower fins of the male have a decidedly reddish cast At other times of the year, its sides are steel-blue. STICKLEBACKS. Two species of sticklebacks are common in our Great Ukes- the mne-spined stickleback and x^^ fiv.-spined .tickhb^k ^^, these species eat the spawn of other fish. They are very voracic^s and pugnacious too ; hence they may be considered oneVthe S enemies of our more usefiil fish. ^ m vmf^- _^«F,M,.-a« GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 819 Few fish, however, are more interesting as a study, for there are not many so skilled in home-making or have better domestic qualities than the little stickleback. It builds a nest of weeds and grasses. These are cemented together by glandular secretions of the male. After the eggs are laid, the brave little male will defend the home with great vigor. The body of the stickleback is slender and extremely narrow at the tail. They belong to the spiny-rayed fishes, and are of no economical value. DARTERS. The darters are closely related to our common yellow perch and pickerels (pike-perches), for darters are really dwarf perches that have taken to live in small and rapid streams. The largest of the species is only six inches long, while the land darter and others rarely exceed two or three mches in length. In becoming dwarfed, they seemed to have lost none of the characteristics of their ancestors. They are bright, active, and, in proportion to their size, powerful little fish. To see them as they dart about, hiding now under a stone or a leaf and then resting on or near the bottom of the stream, their heads up-stream, is, indeed, an interesting sight The body of a darter is compact. It tapers gradually from a short head to a narrow tail. The eyes are situat^ near the top of the head. The coloring of some darters is very beautiful, partajcing of all the colors of the rainbow. Others, again, have a very plain ground color, broken here and there by a few brown markings. In swimming, the darter uses his pectoral fins much more than does the average fish ; hence his power to fly, as it were, through the water. They are an interesting and suitable fish for an aquarium. GOLDFISH. These beautiful little creatures are natives of China. For cen- turies they have been domesticated in many different countries. They vary greatly in form and coloration, but, as their name indicates, the golden cast is their distinctive mark. CATFISH OR BULLHEAD. The catfish is one of our most common fishes. It is not only prolific, but takes care to protect its young. For these reasons, no doubt, it may be found in almost any pool or stream during sum- mer. Then, too, it will thrive in water too impure for fish of almost any other species ; indeed, it seems to prefer streams, the bottoms of which are muddy and weedy* 7l*«BI-<- . sao GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. m 3 other WnH^yfil T*l' °^ ^" 5'^ ^'■*» ^^^ Comparison with many ?ill ci '''*'' '^S^'"^ .'" •■efinement. The catfish moves in a lazy, sleepy manner It enjoys food that other fish would pass in hcT »Li Animals livmP or dead, are relished alike by it It uses Its barbels m searching for its food. "uses The catfish has not the ordinary scaly covering of a fish. This and his barbels are his own distinctive marks. The ears are also peculiar. They are entirely sheltered within the skull, and have no communication with the outside. mZ!\L^^*''^^ '^ ?"f ',*^T? Jy '"^"y * ^'^ *»<^ fish, a is recom. mended as a profitable fish for pond ciUture. BLACK BASS. There are two kinds of black bass-the large-mouthed and the small-mouthed. Though found in the same body of water they prefer and seek diflTerent surroundings. The small-mouthed bass are found m rocky stredms and about gravelly shores ; the laree- Sinken fo "^ *" ^^^^^ ^°°'* ^'^^^ ^^^^^ bottoms, and around rrl^l ^"^^^H ^5"lt bf s is crayfish, frogs, water-snakes and minnows. The food of the fry, however, is worms, tadrx)les. minute larvae and tiny young fish. ' The nest of this fish 19 fashioned with great care and skill by the female. It is generally formed on a gravelly or sandy bottom in about two or three feet of water. It is circular in form with a diameter twice the length of the fish. The tinie of spawning varies with the temperature of the region and the depth of the water in which the spawn is deposited Shallow waters reach the suitable temperature more rapidly than do deep waters. *^ ' The hatching process requires from eight to ten days. Durinjr all this time both parents devote themselves to the protection of the nest against spawn-eaters. The fry are also most carefully protected by these fond and vigilant parents. For the three days they remain m the nest before making oflF for deep water it is covered and the water in it i" aerated with their fins. The fry grow rapidly, reaching maturity at the end of the second year Their average length is then about twelve inches. The limit weight of a large-mouthed adult black bass is from six to eight pounds and of a small-mouthed one from four to five pounds. These fish hibernate during the winter season. When possible, they bury themselves deep in the mud near a sunken log, and leave these comfortable quarters only a few weeks before spawning time, when they find their way up stream and begin home-building. .■■a».'i«K.v--.'Siir'* GUIDE TO NATURE STUDY. 321 IS SUN-FISH. The sun-fish and bass are members of the same family. They all show more or less of the same kind of home-making traits. The sun-fish prefers quiet streams and may be easily caught in such just about sunset any summer evening. This beautiful fish is frequently called pumpkin-seed ; possibly because its thin, flat body is shaped something like a pumpkin-seed. No doubt it was dignified with the name "sun-fish" because of its brilliant colors. Its back is olive green, shaded with blue ; its belly is bright yellow ; its sides are spotted with orange ; while a bright scarlet spot marks each side of its head. AMPHIBIANS. This class of animals includes frogs, toads and newts. Although not strictly aquatic they spend more or less of their existence in the water. " Their Lfe-history is as full of romance," says Fur- neaux, " as is that of some insects." They begin life as little fish-like creatures. The whole of their infant period is spent in the water. They breathe by means of external fringe-like gills during all this time. While in this stage, amphibians also resemble fish in the following particulars : They have a two-chambered heart and a pair of air-sacs. These sacs correspond to the air-bladder of the fish. As these little fish-like creatures advance in life, a series of wonderful changes takes place. They gradually lose their fish-like form and develop into creeping or jumping animals. The external gills disappear. These give place to an internal pair hidden in clefts behind the head. These, in turn, soon give place to lungs that have been gradu- ally evolving from the air-sacs. The two-chambered heart develops into a more complicated organ with three chambers or cavities. Limbs have also been slowly making their appearance, first one pair, then another. The tail in some species is absorbed ; in other species it develops and gives sym- metry to the body. 21 '■WTi'KlSflriKjr 322 OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. tf^ '^ m mtd. MA 5i»t\'»e.afmfcMi n form mouths bUrMinJllia. Ho«lh«4li„pof«v thK.phtM rwcmbles th« d •rotiWmchiate «>nph!biir •«tfu«ienarw«ter. bnitSTiVta pi &o"mI'"""'"'**'^ sSSf,TOS3K5;"» 'ranlM. Wndliwfc. 5*f'j/;i""'«'»i»l». ''^limbisdbMlopii^ DwxLonnn or Fao«. Jil^^#rff■f^;^:Im*^,S*^ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 323 The skeleton of the higher amphibians closely re- sembles that of the highest animals. The ribs, however, are either very short or entirely absent. The blood of amphibians is cold like that of fish. It is remarkable for the large size of the blood corpuscles, which in the blood of the frog are one eight-hundredth part of an inch in diameter. With a microscope of low power the circulation of the blood can be easily observed in the web of a frog's foot CHAPTER V. Minerals. Observations on minerals may be begun by compari- son of the qualities of two or more common species ; for example, water and clay, clay and chalk, mica and an- thracite, mica and limestone, limestone and copper, lime- stone and quartz. A cabinet of standard specimens for comparative determinations of lustre and hardness is desirable, and, although u indispensable for the purposes of nature- study, it is necessary for even elementary study of mineralogy. The extent to which a study of minerals may be carried in a school will depend on its equipment for heating, crushing, weighing and otherwise manipulating the specimens. The following is intended to suggest lines of investi- gation and points of comparison. 1. Distinguish minerals from animals and plants. 2. Make observations on the following points : — ap^w 8S4 n ii; GUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY. (a) The sources and uses of minerals. (d) Their condition, whether solid, hquid or gaseous. (c) Their form, whether massive or crystaUine. (— r —Brittle. — Sectile. {i) Tenacity -Malleable. —Flexible. —Elastic. — BasaL — Cubical. — Lateral. — Octohedral. — RhombohedraL (5) Related to Cleavage if crystallinf — DiagcmaL — Prismatki (6) Related to Fracture— — Conchoidal. — Etoi. —Rough. ^:i1F^1^VW^ff»-'i9 326 GUIDE TO NATUR£~aTUDY. (/) Their spedfic gravity W no„':^:S"'""""'°'^"'" subdivisions:-(.) Metals. CHAPTER VI. THE HEAVENLY BODIES. luJS;o^r1p£•:>l f^ of God ; and the finnament shcweth hi. .^•'^ GUIDB TO NATURE^TVDT. 827 attraction for him m L J^?^ have had an indefinable they have sroko, to h,v^ ' "^'P*' "^ "«'' silence. able^oTnde^teJ;^partS^"' '™"" '^ "^ '^" Chaldeai, s^he^ a A'=^ uVXX'?s"lhe It ^r;- ne^r L^ °h:i^„ f -^ rf S '"1 sf s:rvr„«- *' --' »pe^«cia.^t' :et?;r£ leas, a gene^lK-Sge^^Z SS:,;''^?.^- « ■ The Starry Heavens. « «.. —Tennyson. abyss ? Wb," kre th^ k' -^ ."" °/ **' ""fathomable able surs iShfch niv^J? ^.' P°'"t»-tl>ose innumer- the d^cpSd T'^'cS^Sr °" ""'^"^y f«»» 3S8 GUIDE TO NATURB-8TUD7. Even the greatest astronomical genius, with the mosi powerful of telescopes, cannot answer Cuillemin's firsi question. In attempting to do so, the finite mind is losi m those unspeakable depths and cries, "What is mar and his inventions 1 Answer Thou ' who coverest thysel with light as with a garment: who stretchest out the heavens like a curtein.' " (Psalms civ, 2.) With reference to Guillemin's second question, it ma> be said that, though most of these brilliant points are sc far distant that the most powerful instruments can dis- tinguish them only as the faintest specks, yet some ol them are accessible to the investigation of man, and his diligent research has been rewarded with a partial answei to the question. ' The stars that light the heavens to their limitless shores are suns with characteristics similar to ours. This vast multitude of suns forms the sidereal universe. The ancients imagined the stars to be grouped into fanciful figures resembling at times a human being, an inferioi animal or oth-- object These groups of stars are known as the *-onstellations. The Milky Way, that whitish glimmer that encircles the heavens, is by some regarded as nothing more than a zone of stars crowded closely together, most of them being so distant that they are not separately visible tc the naked eye. The stars are not scattered broadcast without ordei m the heavens ; each is related to the other and regu- lated in its movements by immutable laws. Order and harmony everywhere prevail. ** Tnou hast made thy creation all anthems, Though it singeth them silently." So far distant are these stars that their movements were formerly not discerned ; hence they were called fixed stars. GUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. 329 The Solar System. Thou, Lord, in the beginning hait laid the foundation of the earth ; and the heavens are the work of thy hands. (Heb. i, to.) The group of heavenly bodies to which our earth be- longs has for its centre the sun. Around this centre and at various distances from it, revolve the planets. These bodies are not like the sun, self-luminous. They have no light of their own and would be invisible to us, if the light they received from the sun was not reflected towards the earth. This reflected light makes them appear to us as stars. As these bodies are near enough to the earth to allow their movements through space to be noted in a comparatively short interval of time, they have received the uamQ planets, or wanderers. The planets arrange themselves naturally into three groups. First : — The smaller planets. These are in order of their increasing distance from the sun: Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars. Second: — The larger planets and those most remote from the sun: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Third: — The minor planets or Asteroids. The Asteroids occupy the space between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and thus separate the two former groups from each other. About five hundred of these are now known. Some of the planets are accompanied by satellites, or moons, such as the one that accompanies our earth. Mars has two such moons ; Jupiter, five ; Saturn, nine ; Uranus, four ; Neptune, one. Besides the planets and their satellites, a number of comets have been observed to return periodically and revolve round the sun. These are called periodic comets. There are about thirty of them now known. The group of celestial bodies, of which our earth forms a part, is perhaps the most important member ; it is called the Solar, or Planetary System. The direction of the movement of revolution is the same for all the members of the Solar System. Their orbits are elliptical. The planes of their orbits do not ■r-^-.iTtr-r'm a- • gjt; '^^asn\t^f^i%rM, I!' in sdo GUIDB TO NATURB-STUDY. coincide with one another. If the plane of the orbit c the earth IS taken as a standard of reference, that of ear of the other planets is differently inclined to it. Thes inclinations, as seen from our earth, are very small am the zone in which the planets revolve very narrov This zone is called the Zodiac. .J^A ll""^ taJ^cn by each of the planets, in journeyini round the sun, differs greatly. Our earth makes th journey in three hundred and sixty-five c'- vs, or om year, Jupiter in twelve of our years, Saturn .n twenty nine, Uranus in eighty-four and Neptune in one hundre< and sixty- five. To show the comparative sizes of the planets, an< their relative distances from the sun, Agnes Giberne hai made the following calculations. Let us suppose the sun to be nine feet in diameter 1 he planets would then be represented thus :— Mercury, by a ball >i inch in duuneter placed loo yards fro i the K«a Venus, The Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, ■I I M " iJi II 11 lO II •• 8'A 11 II 4 •' 4H I. II II II II II II •I 200 X mile H " I 2 4 6 II II miles II Idea of distance IS best shown by the time it takes to travel a certain distance. Our earth is comparatively near the sun. But if one were to travel in an express train at the rate of thirty miles an hour, it would take three hundred and sixty years to complete the journey from the earth to the sun. J » '^/ The Moon. « Soon as the evening shades prevail The moon takes up the wondrous tale. And, nightly to the listening earth, Kepeats the story of her birth." Who does not love the moon ? To those who are at all sensitive to the beauties of nature, the moon with her soft, calm light is restful and inspiring. OUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY. 331 IJLF^ u-^^^'^ ^'°°° "^'•es distant. An express S thT":2f ".' '^,l^"'^°^ ^»^'^'V miles an hour would reach the moon in about eleven months. fhi^m '"^ intervals of about twenty-nine and a half days ire S oh:::: "t^ ^ r •*" °' -PP-arances whTh h-JJ'toT?". ^"'■"' °" '^^ ^'''^ '" the same length of T^J^ '* '^''^^ *' to journey round the earth Hence ThT^Ll!l°^"' ''n^ ^^^. P'*"*^'^' '* '"uminatcd by the sun ml't;;iiS:rr^°'" ^'^ '"^'^ '^ ^^^ -^'^ -^* sid!l'of°?i!l'^^?K*!'u '"". *"^ "^°°» a--^ on opposite sides of the earth that the whole of the illuminateH hemisphere is visible. When the moon is be wTen the sun and the earth the dark hemisphere of the mc^n i^ turned towards the earth and. so. Z moon is v.siSr Ihere is a new moon at the time when the moon and the sun are on the same meridian in the skv Tt^nf ^heT^tThe'^r"^'? *'^ disappearancVc!:^the mt"n wel? a mtl'afte'^u"^^^^^^^^^^ ^"' ''' -appearance in the form':? a' vLrsL"er":::«Tr • Th °'^^"^ '' J" '""^ this crescent it^ "l^^ l'%^TLx^^ ,?ii honzon occupied by the sun. As the moon DroceeS: IS seen until it reaches full moon. At its fir«t ouarter half of the illuminated hemisphere is visibk and the moon sets about six hours later than thT sun " elao^r^At^fi.n^'''* '^''•'^^' ^"^ >^^ '«^^«. ^ven days :irSb ;. t "'°°"' '* '" °" *h« opposite side of the h-^H K- J^^ f""' °" * P^*"e usually a little lower or a little higher than that of the orbit of the earth As the 3S2 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. % i illumined part is approaching a complete circle, the cir- cular portion of the disk is always turned towards the western part of the heavens. From the time of full moon till the^next new moon, the circular form of the visible disk diminishes by degrees, until the moon appears again as a slender crescent This time, however, the convex side, being still turned towards the sun, is directed towards the eastern part of the heavens. As the moon journeys onward in this, its last quarter, the crescent disappears altogether, and the moon is lost once again to our viev . During the first and last quarters, the dark portion of the moon's disk is dimly visible. This part is seen by light which is reflected from the earth to the moon and then reflected from it back to the earth. The Stap^' How distant some of these noctamal suns I So distant (says the sage) 'twere not absurd To doubt, if Beanu, set out at Nature's Birth, Are vet arrived at this so foreign World ; ^ Tho nothing halfso rapid as their Flight. — Young. In the middle of a large sheet of pasteboard, place a small sphere, half of it above and half below the sheet, to represent the sun. At a little distance from the sun, place the earth with its axis slanting, half above and half below the board. If the other planets travelled on the same plane as the earth, they too could be placed in the board, but as the plane of the paths of none of them coincides with that of the earth, they must not have a place in the board. The pasteboard divides the space above from the space below. In a similar manner, the path or orbit of a planet divides space in the heavens. The heavens, as we have noted before, are lit everywhere by millions of stars. The people in the northern latitudes of our earth see an almost entirely different set of stars from that which people, living in southern latitudes, see. GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 333 The stars, visid/e to the naked eye, have been mapped and numbered. There are from three thousand to four thousand in the northern heavens and from four thou- sand to six thousand all round the world thus visible. Sir William Herschel calculated roughly that twenty millions could be seen with his telescope, and the number within reach of our present telescopes may exceed one hundred and twenty-five millions. Some stars are brighter than others. The degree of brightness of a star is termed its magnitude. Stars can be seen with the naked eye to the sixth magnitude. All stars are not of the same color. Some of them are white, like the sun ; others are golden or orange ; others, again, are red or ruby, and some are blue. There are stars, which to the unaided eye look like single ones, but become separated into two or more when viewed through a telescope. These are called double, triple, quadruple, or multiple stars, according to their number. A group or cluster of fixed stars is generally called a constellation. In most cases, constellations are designated by the name of some animal or mythological personage within whose outline, as traced upon the heavens, the group is included. In order to obtain a knowledge of the constellations, it is necessary to follow the apparent revolution of the heavens for a year. In consequence of the journey of the earth round the sun, the whole heavens appear to make one revolution in that time. Beside the annual revolution of the heavens, there is a diurnal revolution caused by the daily rotation of the earth on its axis. The complete circuit made in each case is three hundred and sixty degrees ; hence in two hours of daily revolution, the stars will change their places to the same extent as in one month of the annual revolution. If we could watch the heavens for ilb^„- 334 QUIDS TO NATURE-STUDY I twenty-four hours without being interrupted bydayh'cht we would behold the complete circuit of the sta^ just as we would if for a year, we could look at the heavens at a particular hour every night. An important constellation in the northern sky is that of which the Pole star is the chief member. This con- stellation is called the Little Bear {Ursa Minor). There are also two other conspicuous stars in this group, called the "guards." The Pole star is the most important one in the northern heavens, because it marks very nearly the position of the North Pole in the sky. This star remains almost m the same place in the sky, while the other stars change their places from hour to hour. Around the north celestial pole as a centre, the different constellations seem to revolve. The move- ments of the ring of constellations within forty degrees of the Pole star can be easily marked They are visible the whole year round. By facing directly north and looking up forty-three d^rees at Toronto, forty-five at Halifax, fifty at Winni- ^^*u^1u xr"' ?*^^ "^y between the norizon and the zenith, the North star will be noted. This star may be more readily found by noting its position as related to the constellation, the Great Bear-seven bright stars of which. are called the "dipper." The two stars in the outer edge of the bowl point almost directly to the North star. These two stars are called the "pointers." Alpha Centauri is supposed to be the nearest fixed fu^r^'l^?'' ^^1^' ^* **^^^ ^°"'' a"<^ a third years for the light from this star to reach the earth. Sirius is the brightest fixed .star. Light reaches the ^rth from this star m eight and a half years ; from the Pole star, m forty-seven years and, from Capella, in thirty-two years. *^ ^ The distance of the fixed stars from the earth is so wiormous that a new unit of measurement is required Astronomers use the light year, j>., the distance travelled GUIDE TO NATURESTUDT, 336 by a light wave in one year, as the unit with which to measure the distance of the fixed stars. Some shght conception of the enormous distance of these stars may be obtained from knowing that the velocity of light IS about 186,000 miles per second and in a year that it travels about 5.880,000,000,000 miles. By observation of the heavens, the position of all the important constellations, visible from the olace of the spectator, may be discovered and their names readily found m a chart of the stars. CHAPTER VII. Suggestions for the Months. O what a glory doth the world pat on For him who, with a fervent heart, goes forth Under the bright and glorious sky, and looks On duties well performed, and days well spent ! Weather.— By weather is meant the state of the air, or atmosphere with respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness, or other meteorological phenomena. For the sake of convenience, however, the subject- matter classed under this head will not only include the weather proper, but will encroach upon the provinces of astronomy, physics and chemistry, which are required to explain many phenomena connected with the weather. Soffastioiis for Obserring the WMthar. 1. Make daily observations. 2. Record observations each day at a special time set apart for such work. The period directly after dinner is a good time for recording observations. Before the pupils go home for dinner, the teacher should remind them to take obser- 'r^mm'u -y. m^.'mfn^mf:^i^.m^^mf^sMm 336 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. r^h!^?' V ^^^y are formed into lines before entering tTt\Z n !?'7*^«>P^":a''r observations and talk at that time will be found profiteble. 3. Encourage individuality. Truth is many sided and power to discern even one of the many sides does not come at once. One phase of truth may be seen by one child ; another phase, by another child. 4. Endeavor to make the pupil accurate in his state- ments concernmg his observations. rJ;^^^"^''''*' possible, teach the child GEMS OF thJw ff"""^.^ °' 1"°''^ ^^^'^S- *^^""& particularly on the different months or on any special phenomena. ^ Ba^oulhs. " ^°'"^ '** ^•"'" •" ^^'' "^ ^^ »o**^> by John Emphasize the particular beauty of each season. AUTUMN. Season of mists and mellow fraitfulness, - Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun, Conspinng with him how to load and bless ^ With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run. c^ —Keats. September. Weather.—yi^]^^ observations on winds, clouds, rain and temperature. In what respects does the weather of this month differ from that of July and August? Mammals. — OhsQxMe^ the cat, the cow and other quadrupeds as to their preparation for the different seasons Has the cow made any preparation for winter by way of storing foods? Has any prepara- tion been made for her? If so. in what way? Has the cat stored any food ? VVhat preparations do wild quadrupeds make for winter? Note the following: Rebuilding and repairing of summer homes, or building winter homes ; storing food ; becoming fat in the autumn; growing an extra coat of fur or hair. Why do not domestic animals make the same preparations for winter as wild ones ? ^*V^j.— Observe the migration of birds. Note those which leave this month. Which birds remain with us? 'fj^i0f^--'. GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 337 Plants.— GeneraA observations are to be made by the pupils. Take up the life-histories of such plants as the apple-tree, the maple, carrot, wheat and golden-rod. What have the plants been doing all summer? How are the seeds in the apple protected ? Compare the manner of protecting apple-seeds with that of other seeds and the apple with different kinds of fruit. Do all plants produce seeds each year? Compare annuals with biennials. Leaves.— PiTG there any new leaves coming on the trees ? Are there any new buds ? Are any leaves fall- ing off the trees ? ^w^^.— Observe what seeds are sown during the month. Why are these sown at this time ? October. Weather.— ^vtry day, have observations on the fol- lowmg pomts : (a) Direction of the wind, (b) Velocity of the wind— calm, light, moderate, high, {c) Kinds and names of clouds, and the weather indicated by each. Compare the direction and temperature of wind in October with that in September. ^<««.— Observe the general appearance of the sky. Why the dark appearance? What kind of clouds usually bring rain ? How does the wind affect clouds? Observe the effect of rain u m the ground. Mammais.—Ohscryre'whAi mammals store winter food Note the kind of food stored. Compare the present covering of the cow, horse ana sheep with that last month. Birds.— Note the birds that migrate during this month. Discover whether birds of different kinds travel together. What forms the food of those that remain ? /meets. — What insects are stili to be seen ? Plants.— Note the following: Fruit yet maturing; fruit seemmgly wasted; roots used for animal food; how fruits -WfC^ -:tJ«r--'.3.^^!TS«iB gg GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. •and roots are gathered ; how they are stored Dro-, «T '"L* '^^ "■'"<' ''^'P' them. XrS «St fi«h ^growth, and the circumMances under wWchj!^ ZMi««._Why are the leaves faHing? Are the &II«. th^^r^;r,!^isr„„?sro74'4^?ilr "-' ^- fc^°^t7 T^JJ""*' r*^. 'h'n'^elve, by storing luoa eirner in fleshy roots, or in their stem« Ho,.- ttt.^"^ ^"«5»ies. in their strugg^ for !^ep Nole the following : Loss of seed when the flower ^s pi uS ominrrare^' 7.^^ ^^"^'^"^ ^^^ flowersTre'^.' TOs"! a^^ t^L*°? .r*"^ *•■* carelessly plucked, of l!f • ^^ **'"*^ °^ '^^ y«^ to note such enemies nutfS. '""" " *' codling-moth, the gaIl-fl;,T November. ^»^^;15? GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 339 Wning and shipping of animals at this time of year si'Jer the value of fur-bearing animals ; where these are now with those in September. thif time ;^^he'^^^^^^^^^ " ^^*^^'"^" ^^ ^ ^-"^ -* P/ants—Examine the twigs of different trees. Com- pare them With those of the beech and maple. Note the whh ih ?' '°^°' °^ l^" 'T^ ' ^^>^ '^^ "-^ buds forr^ shiS, ?. 1"^^°"^' "^^^^ ^'^^y f°^"» 5 ^*^><=h kind of tr^ sheds ts eaves first. Speak of the effect of sunlight on the colonng matter in the leaf-cell. Press paint and sk^ch leaves. Why do herbaceous plants not'^rorm n^w buds on their stems? Note the difference between the stems of plants that form new buds and of thoS that 5^^^._Gather as many seeds as possible. how^lKi^*" dependence of certain animals o, nuts ; also hZ.I f ^ '^^^^ r*^^ ^'^. '^•' »*^ ^°^ by finding new homes for many of its seeds. ^ 5'^'^Tt^''^'".'"® ^ "'^"y fall flowers as can be SS^'Sf- ^^^a^'"' ^°'°'' ^"d arrangement. Com^ pare them with flowers studied in the spring. WINTER. See, Winter comes, to rule the varied year. Sullen and sad, with all his rising train : Vapors, and Clouds, and Storms. Be these These, that exalt the soul to solemn thought. December. mj theme : — TlkamsoH. f»^'''^^''\^^'^l7 '^'''^' ^^°"ds, rain, frost, tempera- m^tk ^^ ^"^ "^"^ P^*^ appkrent this •■^ii"-^!£,-VT->'::.- SiO GUIDB TO NATURE-STUDY, .h. Shad *»^ :;; 'oter'n-^-Von^^ ,«'««* ""x .-. me'tedsnow. What effect tm th?"""/ °l "*'" '"»» earth? Consider Vhc eff«t of tte JS^^t „"/' "•"" "'• ^™r^o7?sfrr'^^frch-H Srw-'d'l^'he t„\r b^ " *"' sheep?"cowJ^^^''°!^'^ Which is placed under our care. ' "*** aUIDS TO NATURB-STUDY. 841 Observe the following: The coverings of different quadrupeds; their movements, their weapons for pro- tection, the general structure of their bodies, and the different kinds of food they use. Birds. — Do birds ever sing at this time of the year ? When do they sing their best songs ? Try, if possible, to get where the winter chattering of birds can be heard. Compare their dread of man now with that in summer. Be on the lookout for the screech-owl, the chickadee. Insects, Worms, Fisk.—St\xdy, as circumstances allow, collections made in autumn. Piants. — Begin the study of evergreens. Observe the pine and cedar. Continue the study of nuts. Note the effect of December weather on trees in general. What is the advantage to a tree of being leafless? Compare the pine leaf with that of the beech or maple. What is the effect of snow on each kind of leaf? Observe how buds are protected from frost Notice the general beauty of form of trees when stripped of their leaves. How has the tree protected itself against cold weather ? Observe how plants serve animals in winter. Note the following : Birds looking for clinging seeds, also for insects buried in the bark ; insects making their homes in trees; squirrels finding their homes in trees; ever- greens protecting hosts of birds and their seeds forming the chief food for many of them. Roots. — What roots useful to man are left in the ground during the winter? January. The ye«n> like clouds, they come and go ; Some d«rk and tearful, drench the heart ; Some bright and warm, are hope's glad dart And all are tent from friend, iK>t foe. mi ^ QUIDS TO NA TURB-arUDT, And all Dlrlne in ui reocw. ^* K« !I! P"«»*«» •killed and keen. From ■ho.lt Md tides to tet uT&e. . . T° «"«*« «• '^ the open .««, "*^ And leave lu there with iTe IWn. The TMn an pilot,, kind and blett. J>«cttre in Heaven'i untroubled rest. ^* Wh.!".«^^ the coming year, Whate er its months and days ma* hrin- Of io^^r **• ^°^ »''«• thee WJ,^'*,'^- wi joy and hope, in smile or tear. ^ respect to these ,^,h other momh,"''" ~"'P"'«'»' «' s:ittfti;nL^if?---^^--"^r:^" the .empel:;e"d;.^S'gSe"',Sw'''?:r:r.°^f ^k' *^^ man and beast * ®"^*^' °^ ^aw on the^'fSI^-^ThlTt^ 'J"l^ t "rFr"'- «=<""P»« Note ho^ the ?1ha^, adanti^'f„°^ ''?1''"°'" '^^ why the leaf has not'^allen oR ^^^1170^0? S" ' X;''f~'?i,"'« 'P^'"' Prote;:t]oroS ^J^^Z effect of wind, snow and frost on them. * UIDE TO NA TVRB-STUDY. 313 It i. too thin to pro|;^( t '" '~ ""P °" " °' '^ February. ture colder or\vjrr«-, «.u -^ Kept.; is the tempera- chiS'SjTlKtmTcl''"';"'''^,'* 8-Ven to the Teach fhet^LL heel "k^H^r./" " H'T *<"''• face of the clock t«^ .k ^"^ P^P''' <*'^* the thrkphcmta? Fry ^"''"'" ' ^""y °" *« OaSand thefr'iSi7iiJ'I'if'* "?° ""^ ''''■'^' 'hat remain with us get quail, hai^ ^oo,^i^X:.,.X^,ZoZ°°' '"' /^//?«/j.— Continue the study of evemrM.n« a^^ ne«r l.fe.hu,o,y. say the balLn,' spr'aS""- conUnu^ 344 QUIDS TO NATURK-STVDY. the study of those already introduced. The study o seeds may be begun in the school-room by way of pre paration for watching spring growth. Study seeds by planting them in boxes in the school room. SPRING. I come, I come I ye have called me long— I come o'er the mountains with light and long I Ye may trace my steps o'er the wakening earth, By the primrose-stars in the shadowy grass, By the green leaves opening as I pass. —Mrs. Htmam. March. This is the first spring month. Nature is still in her winter garments, although some of the sounds of sprint are heard. , * It is a most opportune month to begin the study of out-door life. The world of nature, it has been said, is the month of March. This is a month of expectancy and surprise. While one is bidding good-bye to winter, spring often bursts out without warning, and with a miraculous suddenness that quickens every sense. This stetement is more true, generally speaking, of our April than it is of March, though these two months frequently cross hands and the weather of the early April days in one year is frequently the weather of the last days in the March of the preceding year. Be on the lookout for returning life. Winds.— 'WhBX. marked change is there in the winds ? From what direction do they come? Compare the direction of the prevailing winds with those of February Note also winds on cloudy days, on wet days. Clouds.— ^o\G the clouds at different times during the day. Note clouds during high wind ; when the tempera- ture IS warm ; when the temperature is low. Rain and Frost- Compare these with the rain and frost of previous months. Light. — Watch sunrise and sunset aUIDM TO NATVRB-8TUDY. 345 Afammals.^fiote the effect of spring weather on quadrupeds already observed. Which of the hibernating ones have awakened? How do mammals chance their coats ? ** Birds.— As soon as possible observe the following — The crow; the song-sparrow and phoebe singing and callmg to their friends ; the robins hunting for food and horn.- , the tree-sparrows filling the thickets ; the blue- bir. . anr) purole finches singing here and there. How c.n y c -M .'ift -rds that migrated last fall? Did they return dn^j]y or ,1. flocks? ' /«.ry'i. -Arc >re any signs of life in cocoons? i e any ut ,//. a come out of their winter homes? VVa' h. . i>> .,»b:j, bees at the sap of the maple. /-.afi^.^ Notice the effect of March weather on plant .ift. alroajy .-.Ir^r observation. Begin new life-histories, as \hi..- or Lue dm and the willow. How do twigs or buds .h „v si-n.s of fresh life? During the last days of this month, the willows may frequently be seen to grow green an-! 'ellow and the poplars tawny and shining The sap shows fresh signs of life. The light has chang<3 and even the bare twigs seem to know it and rejoice in the fact Note the effect of light upon plants kept in a cellar. Foran£^ Blossoms.— The study of the blossom may be begun this month. Put a few twigs in water in a warm place. In a short time they will burst out into full leaf or into blossom. During the study of plants the following should be noted : Oxygen given out by plants IS breathed by animals ; the carbon dioxide exhaled by annuals is used by plants. Hence to keep plants in the house and the school-room during sunlight is conducive to health. April. Wtather.—Mdke observations on rain, light and heat CompaHson of April with other Months.—Note the difference in the following :— Temperature, winds, rain, 'v«p. IT di.'rm^. if SM OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY, general appearance of sky, the time of the risine and the setting of the sun, the height of the sun 7nLn 7i«w.— Observe that the length of day is increasing- note the advantages of this to animal and vegetabkTife.' ^^.-^Observe fog to discover what it is and its cause. Mammals.— Oh^^rwe the cattle in the fields What t^^A ^r r" "°*^^ '" *heir coats? Upon wha food do they live? How do they treat their yoiTne Note particularly lambs, calves, colts, little pgs^SI a^n^th^nars'-^^^ ^ ^ '^^'^^ ^^^ thei^Tove^n^g a^of Vhem*'"'^^'"? ''^"^ '^ build^iheir nes^s ?''SI any of them occUpy last year's nests? How do the H't ^r'^K'- ^ '^' red-winged blackbird, the meadow! hd^'retuTnp"' l!;' it'.'^^^''!^'' ^e^ave 'them.re^esTn dJi^ht? ^' "^^ ^^^y ^^"^ '° ^ke most flyfn^fwV^ AreTh '"^^^11 doing when you saw them nying about? Are they of the same kind as those vou the work of the earthworm benefit plant hfe? FisA and Sross.~mim do fish begin their work? g.^'Si'VA°Se'X!^: '- -^'^"— Note the there any change in the generaf appea.i,ce of ev«- ^' ' '-i^W'' -'^''1»-3£*«>«I "'■ GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 347 ark? vork i greens ? Where are the buds on evergreens situated ? Observe the flowers of evergreens ; note their situation and appearance. Zja/— Which tree sends out its leaves first? Note Y^fJo\\owmg points :— The way in which the leaves are folded in the buds; how the leaves spread out to the sunlight; why some plants put forth leaf and stem sooner than others. 5/^w.— Observe how the stem is fitted, in every way, to support the branches and leaves ; note the coverings of diflferent kinds of stems. May and June. Wpgnt; (4) in the evening light. Select spots particularly beautiful. Why do we say they are beautiful? What agencies are at work changing landscapes? Note running and standing water. If possible, trace a brook from its source to its mouth. Observe how it is enlarged and the work it accomplishes. Family Z«>.— Particular attention should be given, during May, to young animals. Observe the kindness of the male and female to each other and to their 348 OUIDB TO NATURE 9TUDY. liii? s entT-^^K"""*^ ^^if ^^P«?^«"^« Of the young on their p^ ents ; observe the provision which nature has taught th« mother to make for them. ^ Mamtna/s.—Ohservt the kindness of the cat to hei kittens; of the cow to her calf; of the shtep to her lamb tn^rlT.^rl'^^Tl**'^ particular use of the following animals to man: The cow-milk, butter, cheese, meat; the offffTh"^''^!? *? t' ^^'^ ' *^^ sheep-the wool kken off at the end of this month or the be^ning of next hom^'"^?^u'^A- ^^%f«"o^'nfi::-Selection of their nomes, the building of nests; the different kinds of materia s used; how they are protected against enemies wjln'l'''"' ^nd coloring of eggs ; how a bird is f^' when sitting on the ^^^^. Emphasize the use of the following birds:— Birds. Marsh-hawk. Screech-owl. Crow. Meadow-lark. What they Destroy. Meadow-mice. Grasshoppers, may-beetles, wood- borers. Cut-worms. Cut-worms, wire-worms. Baltimore-oriole. Leaf-eating caterpillars and beetles. rJZ'!t^f'~^''^'f^ ^^"^ '^^ ^^e" ^'^ protected. Com- pare the eggs of an insect with those of a bird. Review d^ffe^ent stages of insect life. Observe how the young Note the following insects useful to man :— The bee the house-fly, the dragon-fly, the beetle and the ant. ' mohZT~^''^'^'' ^"""^ ''°''^"' ^ protected from n^fi^^tt'rl"'^'^'^^'''^. "^^ ^ Srrowth and change. tion A^^^"^^ /.? '^^ P^*"^^ ""^^^ ^P^i«» observa- tion Add new 1, e-histories, as those of the oak and the hepatica. Mark the effect of May rains, sunshine OUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 349 *nd wind, on plant life in general. Note planting co.n and roots, and cutting clover. Special Study of the Z^^Z-Note the number of leaves on a small apple, oak or maple tree. Place the leaves side by side and show the large surface exposed to the oil. Blossoms of 7>«j.— Observe the individuality of diHerent biossoms. Note their color, durability, etc. Interest the child in watching the fruit develop, also in watching the enemies that attack it. ,,,^^^'^ /i<>y^'^s.~\^\i^x^ are wild flowers found? Where do they grow in greatest profusion ? Trans- plant some and observe how each flourishes in its new home. Observe the habits of different kinds. Notice what insects frequent them. Emphasize. -Everything in nature has a destiny to fill, a life to work oat. Onless there is growth and change there musf be sU^ii -i^°h July and August. After looking back upon the work for the year, note the weak pomts and direct the pupils what observations to make during July and August. Pupils may be asked to keep a note-book, jotting down anything that is new or strange to them Dur- ing the first week of school, after the summer vacation attention may be given to observations made during the holidays Some of the children may have the advantage jf spending their holidays in a part of the country^- tirely different from that about their homes ; hence, such observations can be made very interesting and verv instructive to the class as a whole. Plants.--]M\y is the month of the song of the reaper— the month of hay-making and wheat-harvesting. August •.s the month when wheat, barley, pease, etc.. are gath- ered in. Encourage the children to watch these different operations during tlu holidays. 360 GUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. If CHAPTER VIII. Books and Aids. .^"^/'^'f^-y (general).— Many so-called Natui*. study books have been published in recenryears bTt the authors of several of them have mi-^onS ^he purpose and the method of the subject. Whrn?hrb<^k comes between the child and the object of invest.eaJSn tTe^K^ldia d"^ P'^^"If -^II^P''^^^^^ knrred^Ta by the teacher. foE Ty ou Sne l^Z . ' '""i!: '"'^'"•al and preparation goldfish, moth and sS ' °" ^J^' ~'*' ''«»• «"«''«. f^g. m«?l^i'"^^"- ,^y ^*^''' Salmon. Pages 3i8 • orice «• ae r mans. This ,s one of the best EnglUh bookf^ fhesuR*^^' "** Biology. Soc net. And StudiW of Plimt S U . ""^ J-"«*''' '°^ • J'"«^« well. Pages 96 . nri"Voc nl,T!., i • k , t '*^ ' 5P^". Mitchell and Max- useful laiS^rry' Zl^ "'' ''"'^''''*'^ ^^ ^- ^- Heath & Co.; these ai« GUIDJi TO NATUhE-STUDY. 361 Zoology. DrS^J?^n,^:T°^"i?°f'*»nr- «yJG. Needham. Page, 3,0; Animal Life. By Jordan and Kellogg. Pages 120 • price Si so n*» App eion & Co. An Tllustrated animafSrolog^ -^S;SLT""^XS' Ornithology. Handbook of the Bird* of Eastern North America. By F M Chapman Page, 437 ; price $3.00. Appleton & cT tS, book con! tarn, systematic key, for identification, ^^ good de«:rip ioL Cwi Key to North American Bird, ($7.50) i, a standard work? *^ «,^TK-*"*«^,^ ^'^^ «y ^'^ A. Merriam. Page, 406- price $2.00. Thi, IS entitled •• A B rd-Book for Beeinners " but iff i. rU«.r»^Il? pppu ar with advanced students as weU 1 1 gTves* a color keffoT^h^ Identification of birds in the field. ^ color-key for the Birdt of Ontario. By Thomas Mdlwraith. and ed. Pace, ^26- with descriptions of egg, and nests, but lacks a key for identificatYon iu dS^aiJftS*"^ in the Art Of Ta«dermy is a manual of the art Entomology. Mamial for the Study of InMcta. By T. Ii. Comstock Paw* 701 ; price $3.75. Comstock Pub. Co. This is the »«Jst manual of i;^ for Canadian students. The same author's Inaect S iw Z^ treat, ttttsfactorily of the general anatomy, collecUoTand prei?Jatb5^f insects and of the life-histories of a large number of commnn?!^. arranged on the basis of their habitat.. ^ *^°'"""*" *"'*^'*' w^f'jT*!? ®®**'^ ^"f \ °- "*"~«J' ""d The Butteriiy Book, by ,.^""^::^if:ftS«:^boo?'^^ p^- Jo ^P* .°" *"* Economic insects. Reirorts for tlie vears 1806 and 1898 contain paper, on Entomology in the Public School ^ ^ a52 aUWE TO NAlURJt-aTUDY, i! 1 1 Botany. Systematic nunuali for the identification of plants are : Spotton'. C««di«, WUd PiMt.. 3rd ed. ,897. Page. 308. Crmy't Mamul of Boteny. 6th «l. 1890. Pages 76a Gray's Field, Forest and Garden Botanv p.o«. *.« tu i i-ages 272 + 519 ; pnce $1.80. American Book Co. ClOLOOy AND MlNIRALOGV. Elementary Geology. By R. S Tarr Beautifully illustrated, readable and reliable. Pages 499 ; price $i.4a r^K***"/®' **** Petermination of Common Minerals. Bt W o tea?bSi? '•"'^ "** "*^ *° Study Them. $,.50. is a popular Microscopy. Astronomy. A New Astronomy. By David P. Todd. Pages 480- nrice $1 10 ma";SeSiS"' "-" "" *'"" ''«' "=''«" •"*-'^^' nJtoCeK J 'wS pri^rsr^^tr,??^*^^ ByGarretP.Serviss. Pages .58; ^^A^onomy by Obserration. By Eliza A. Bowen. Pages 90 ; price Star-Land. By Sir Robert Ball. This author has written several other popular, mterestmg and thoroughly reliable work, on asti«,omy Nora.— TTje above pricM an »ubj«ct to change. OUJDB TO NATURE-STUDY. 363 last- •alory M. study Sar- with liter's silent ' W. t.4a . O. linly field mlar 19; 30. rith 58; nee her For the School Library. Rab and Us Friendi|. and Beuttfol Joe are two fine biographies Nntliraliat on the Aouumm U a classic Interesting, sympathetic and reliable accounts of animal life will be found in all or nearly ill the booS S"!1?"J'^T?''""' H:;^°? Thompson, Dr. C. C. Al>lH,tt, J..lm BurrouKh^ Bradford Torrey, Richard Jeffries, II. D. Thoreau. Arai^^lia BuckC Ne^Jj^BIanchan, Rev. Wm. J. Long. Jane Andrew., Mabel Osgoii Poems. Unless the student of nature has through his studies been led from nature up to Nature's God and thereby enabled to realize the significance of root and rock, of life and function which are everywhere revealed in the "manuscript of God," the study of nature has been pur- sued to little purpose. The poet often helps the student to a higher appreciation of the book of nature. Hence the following list is given to suggest where the teacher may find references to any particular part of the work under consideration. From the very necessity of the case the list is only a partial one : — Bird-Life. Lord Teni^ion. The Dying Swan. Soig to the Owl. The Biackbini. The Throstle. VTMua CaUen BrTsnt To a Water Fowl, Robert of Lincoln. William Wordawoith. To the Cuckoo. The Green Linnet. To a Skylark. The Wild Duck's Neat Robert Btinia. The Woodlark. 23 Henry Wadaworth LonfffeUow. Description of Mocking Bird (Evangeline). The Bird and the Ship. The Bird of Kellingworth (The Poet's Tale). John Greenleaf Whittier. ITow the Robin Came. The Robin. Mrs. Hemana. The Messenger Bird. The Bird's Release. Percy Bysshe SheUey. To a Skylark. John Keata. Ode to a Nightingale. 364 QUIDS TO NATURh-arUDY. lln. HcnuuM. TheDialofFlowen. Bring Flowen. John GraenlMf WUMw. The May Flowen. lack in the Pulpit. Linet Writtm for Horticnhnml Societjr, 1858. The Trailing Arbntoa. Robert MootgofMTjr. The Daisy. Robert Bum*. To a Mountain Daisy. Jean In|^ow. Seven Timet One. > Flowers amd Trees. Lord TenaTMO. The Flower. The Lotus-Eaten. William Wordaworth. The Daflbdib. To the Dauy (No. i). To the Daisy (No. a). A Flower Garden. To a Snowdrop. Jamea RnaaeU LowdL Violets 1 Sweet Violets I There never was a Flower Pair ia Vie^'-Sonnet xi. With a Prea««l Flower. The Oak. To the Dandelion. The Seasons. Henry Wadaworth Looffellow. Vniliam Cowper. * JI»e Winter Evening. S* ^!"**' Morning Walk. IheWmterWalkatNoon. ("llMTadL-) Autumn. Spring. Woods in Winter. An April Day. Mra. Hemrna. The Voice of Spring. Harvest Song. Breathing of Spring. The Parting ot Summer. Lord Teni^aon. The Progress of Spring. In Memoriam cxv (Spring). Winter. John Keata. Ode to Autumn. Williani Wordsworth. Summer Ebbs. It Was April Morning. The Longest Day. ThomaaHood. Ode to Autumn. Departure of Sununer. Robert Buma. Up in the Morning Early. The Wmter is Paat. Archibald Lampmaa. Winter Uplands. Winter Break. In November. A January Morning. John Greenleaf Whtttier. Autumn Thoughts. Easter's Flower Gift. The Peace Autumn. For an Autuat.n FesUval. aUIDE TO NATURE-STUDY. 366 Ths Heavens. liria Henry Wadtworth LoogftUow. Hjrmn to the Night D»> break. Twilight The Eveniag Star. The Ocxultation of Orion. A Da^ of SunahiDe. A Kamjr Day. Mra. Heaans. The Sunbeam. KlrkeWhHe. To the Moon. On a Survey of the Heaven*. Thomas Hood. Ode to the Harvest Moon. Ode to the Moon. Thooiaa Campbell. The Rain)x>w. The Evening Star. William Wordsworth. It it a Beauteous Evening. Fair Star of Evening Spiendur of the West lUlph Waldo Emerson. The Snow-Storm. Pttcj Bysshe Sbellej. The Cloud. Ode to the West Wind. To the Night. Archibald Lampman. Evening. Heat. James Russell LoweU. Midnight. The Fir«^ Snow- Fall. Summer Storm. The Frost at Midnight. William Collins. Ode to Evening. ■k.")