iH^ ".^a> 1^ ^J^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // 1.0 I.I 1.25 1^ i^ IIIIM 1^ 12.2 2.0 us 1.4 1.8 1.6 7 ^/C^^ ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. U580 (716) 872-4S03 iV V ^\ k 4? \ c> CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microroproductions institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques 1980 Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. n Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur r~l^ Covers damaged/ UlI Couverture endommag^e D D D D D D D D Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaur^e et/ou pellicul6e Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque Coloured maps/ Cartes g6ographiques en couleur Coloured inlt (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Relid avec d'autres documents Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La reliure serr6e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge intdrieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches Qjout6es lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela 6tait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6t6 film^es. Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppldmentaires: L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la methods normtile de filmage .sont indiqu6s ci-dessous. I I Coloured pages/ D Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommagies Pages restored and/oi Pages rastaurdes et/ou pelliculdes Pages discoloured, stained or foxe( Pages d6color6es, tachet6es ou piqudes I I Pages damaged/ I I Pages restored and/or laminated/ I I Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ □ Pages detached/ Pages d6tach6es Showthrough/ Transparence I I Quality of print varies/ Quality indgale de I'impression Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du matdriel supplementaire Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une peiure, etc., ont 6t6 film6es A nouveau de fapon d obtenir la miiilleure image possible. ^i 10X This item is filmed at the reduction natio checked below/ Ce document est film^ au taux de r6u JCtlon indiquA ci-dessous. 14X 18X 22X r^ 26X 30X 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: Library of the Public Archives of Canada The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. L'exemplaire filmd fut reproduit grdce d la g6n6rositA de: La bibliothdque des Archives publiques du Canada Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettet6 de l'exemplaire film6, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimde sont film6s en commen9ant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernidre page q; i comporte une empreinte d'Impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont film6s en commen^ant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'Impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol —^ (meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol y (meaning "END "), whichever applies. Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbols — •► signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbols V signifie "FIN ". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film6s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsqufl le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 6 partir de Tangle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images n6cessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 i\ 1 ? 1 H E2A H i Ho ? ] s, .0 ■s ii Bo m SI ^ S P* ft bI V93y —if 43: Paper II.— SUPERFICIAL GEOLOGY OF THE VALLEY OF THE OTTAWA AND THE WAKEFIELD CAVE. BY J. A. GRANT, M.D., F.O.S., M.P. {Read be/ore the Socitty, November 25th, 186S.) ^^■^ To-night I purpose occupying your attention for a short time by a consideration — first, of the superficial geology of this locality, and secondly, of the Wakefield Cave. Few parts of the Dominion of Canada are more interesting and attractive, in a geological point, than the surrounding country, taking a view from any tower of the present Parliament Buildings. Here, Upper and Lower Canada of old are seen at once — merely separated by the Ottawa Hiver in its course to the St. Lawrence. On the Hull side, the beautiful Laurentian Hills grace the scene, and in almost every other direction the country presents a level appearance, only occasionally interrupted by moderate and gentle undulations. &o far as the pLysical history of this country is concerned, it has been erroneously denominated the Neio World. By Agassiz, it is termed, '' first-born among the continents, though so muoh later in culture and civilization than some of more recent birth." " Hers was the first dry land lifted out of the waters, hers the first shore washed by the ocean that enveloped all the earth beside ; and while 18 TRANSACTIONS. Europe was represented only by islands rising here and there above the sea, America already stretched an unbroken line of land from Nova Scotia to the Far West." There are some subjects on which the philosopher is obliged to exercise as much license as the poet. Such is exemplified in the study of geology, a science the direct object of which is to unfold the sol"d crust of the earth and explain, as far as possible, the agencies at work in the formation and compilation of the Great Stone Book of Nature. The records of this Stone Book can only be perfectly understood by patient and careful observation, and a moderate acquaintance with the most prolific of all languages, the languaye of nature. In the study of geology, every thing has been photographed and preserved for use and reference, in a manner far exceeding in interest the records even of the historian. Each year that passes, brings to light new discoveries in this department of science, and the material yet unknown is so great that it will afford ample opportunity for the development of the intellectual power of man for many years to come. .' Nature offers many of her books for our perusal. Every depart- ment of such knowledge may be considered a volume. Astronomy supplies not a few, Chemistry many. Zoology and Botany a more than ordinary share. Notwithstanding the attractions of geology, the history of the earth, what it is and how it became so. having as it were wrapped up in its crust the remains of many strange animals and plants, still how few comparatively study this interesting department of science. To understand anything of rocks, we must learn how they have been formed and to thoroughly master this we must observe the nearest approach to such formations at the present day. Such, also, is the case with fossils ; for in order to understand them, we require to familiarise ourselves with the plants and animals now living. In all cases where the book of nature is to be studied it matters little where or how that study begins. In every locality there is enough, yes, more than enough, to amuse, suggest thought, interest and instruct. '■ ^ GEOLOGY. 10 The limestone foundations now being excavated at the Ghaudi^re, the strangely water-worn for^^ations in almost every direction about the same locality, the pits formed on Sandy Hill, the remains of life exposed to view by the microscope and the naked eye ; these are a few of the points of immediate interest, and the various appearances form a part of that hieroglyphic language in which so great a part of aature's stone book is written. The are certain appearances so familiar to every person that they are seldom made the subject of enquiry. By searching out the meaning and object of small and seemingly unimportant changes, the result of the ordinary action of familiar causes and known modes of operation, such as the nature of a deposit of mud, the conversion of mud into stone, the change of stone into some other substance, we learn a history, wliich forms a key to the history of ages long past. Of the familiar causes of change in the physical appearance of country, moving water and changes of temperature, without doubt, bring about the greatest. Some are occasional, but these are unceasing, operating at all times and in all places. Like influences have pro- duced wonderful changes in our midst, and such as cannot fail to interest and instruct even the most ardent admirer of nature's works. There is, perhaps^ no part of the world where the earlier geological records can be studied with greater ease than in both Ca'aada and the United States. On their northern borders are to be seen the low line of hills known as the Laurentian, which rise nowhere more than fifteen hundred or two thousand feet above the level of the sea, and these are the first mountains that broke the uniform plain of the earth's surface, and elevated their heads above the waters. Their low stature, compared with other lofty mountain ranges, is in accordance with the invariable rule by which the age of mountains is estimated. The oldest mountains are the lowest, while those of more recent date are of more gigantic dimensions, and usually present greater indications of force in their formation, such as fractures and dislocations. Plutonic action has strangely transformed many parts of the 20 TRANSACTIONS. earth's crust. In studying that crust we must free our minds from the idea that it is a solid steadfast foundation. It is constantly heaving and falling, but the oscillations being less regular than the tides of the sea, escape our observation. The ocean is tossed into great billows by the storms, but what are these compared with the forces sufficient to raise such vigorous giants as the Alps, the Him- alayas and the Kocky Mountains. Think of mountain ranges rolling up 20,000 feet, lasting monuments of the force by which they were elevated. Such formations are the result of upheavals, and Ihe violeni^e of the outbreak is invariably in proportion to the strength of the resistance. Thus we are enabled to account for the moun- tain elevations — great and small, on the face of nature. The rocks which compose the crust of the earth are, in general terms, divided into the stratified and unstratified. The former occur in layers or strata parallel to each other, and the latter are devoid of layers, only pres ting a massive appearance. These two classes of rocks evidently iiad a ''.ifferent origin, or in moderate terms, have under- gone different influences, the stratified rocks being doubtless of aqueous origin, and the unstratified which present a melted appear- ance, of igneous origin. The latter may be sub-divided into rocks melted and unstratified at first and rocks changed from the stratified to the unstratified by the re-melting of aqueous rocks, frequently much changed by crystallization, and termed metamorpMc rocks- The rocks which compose the Laurentian Mountains were shown by the Geological Survey of Canada in 1846, to be a series of metamorphio sedimentary strata, highly crystalline, and underlying the fossil-bearing rocks of this Province, '^ * The rock formations occurring within the limits of Canada, and defined by Sir William Logan, comprise representatives of the Azoic, Lower PalsBozoic and Post-tertiary series. The rocks of the Azoio series, are supposed to be formed of sedimentary matters deposited in ancient seas prior to the creation of organic types and subsequently rendered crystalline by metamorphic forces. These h?ve been divided into the Laurentian and Suronian. The Lau- ' GEOLOGY. 21 rentian'rookg consist chiefly of highly crystalline beds of micaceous and hornblendic gneiss, hornblende rock ; dolomite and crt/staUine limestone, oxidized iron ores; quartzite and anorthosites, or rocks, as defined by Dr. Hunt, as being largely composed of lime and soda feldspar. In an economic point of view, this formation is chiefly characterized by its extensive beds of iron ore, magnetic and specu- lar, and extensive formations of graphite or plumbago, such as seen in various parts of Hull. The Laurentian formation is of great thickness, over many thousands of feet, and covers an area of over 200,000 square miles, from Labrador northwards. The Huronian formation is chiefly developed along the shore of Lake Huron, and is the higher division of the Azoic series. In it arc to be observed chiefly slate conglomerates of a green and greyish color, interstrati- fied with green stone masses, and traversed by numerous trap dykes. It contains quartz veins, holding copper pyrites, and recently extensive discoveries of silver ore have been made near Thunder Bay, now being worked by the Montreal Mining Company. The total thickness of the Huronian formation is considered about 20,000 feet. " ' '""'^ Within a short period of time a considerable degree of fresh light has been thrown upon our knowledge of the formations pre- viously considered Azoic, tending very materially to subvert our preconceived ideas of matters and things in general, as to the Laurentian system of rocks. Sir William Logan, with that untir- ing zeal which has ever characterized lis labors in connection with the Geological Survey of Canada, travelled over hill and dale in order to confirm his geological diagnosis, of a new formation, of great thickness and lying below those rocks previously described. He has now traced over a tract of country larger than France, a formation consisting of rocks of a highly crystalline character, which, in times past, would have been set down as the Jirst crust of this earth, as it parted with its heat, in the transition from plutonio fluidity to its present crystalline state. This formation has so far been defined, as constituting two distinct divisions, the one lying 22 TRANSACTIONS. upon the upturned edges of the other and of vast thickness. It is considered a great stratified belt, shaped out of the waste of rocks formed in a previously undreamt o' . ^^e. In this crystalline lime- Rton3, Sir William Logan discovered the remains of the fossil, designated by Dr. Dawson as the " Eoxone Canadense." This opinion is also confirmed by the highest ^British authority on the microscope, Dr. Carpenter. So far as known, this peculiar fossil is supposed to have grown in masses like the coral reefs of the present day, and is it not a subject of wonder and astonishment when we reflect that the great Laurentian formation of metamorpMc moun- tain magnitude rests on a quasi coral reef of unparalleled extent and intense interest? Thus have we great reason to feel gratified with the result of the combined labors of the able chief of the Dominion Qeological Survey and his worthy staff, and more particularly, in so new a country as Canada. The stratified formations, as hereto- fore known and described, are as follows, from below upwards : — Potsdam Sandstone; Galciferous Sand Eock; Birdseye, Black River and Ghazy formations ; Trenton Limestone ; Utica Slate and the drift formation. :; i Potsdam Sandstone is a term given by the New York geolo- gists to a formation which is well developed at Potsdam, in northern New York, and is there considered as forming the base of the palaeozoic series of rocks. Sir William Logan considers this forma- tion as a member of the Potsdam Group. It crosses from St. Lawrence County, New York, into Canada ; the greatest develop- ment on this side being at the County of Beauharnois. It is said to fill up the inequalities of the underlying Laurentian series. This formation is met with to the eastward, between Lake Chau- di^re and a spur of Laurentian rook, from three to five miles removed from the right bank of the Lac des Chats, to Nepean, a distBDce of fully thirty miles. In Nepean the reck dips north- ward, and thus sinks beneath the calciferoui formation. By means of a dislocation, the south side of the band, after leaving the gneiss, V.I OEOLOOY. 23 is brought against the Ghazy and Trenton formations. The con- tinuation of the dislocation on tho south sido of the Laurantian spur, accounts for the absence of Potsdam sandstone in that par- ticular position. In the '•' Geology of Canada" it is here stated as constituting tho south sido of a synclinal form, on the north side of which it rises in Hull, from beneath the higher members of the Lower Silurian scries. In Hull it is observed about five luilos north of the Ottawa, and about two miles east of the Gatineau, wnere it is also brought into view by a dislocation which branches in Osgoode and Gloucester, from the one previously mentioned, and, passing in a direction somewhat west of norUi, crosses the Ottawa at the Little Chaudi^re Falls, and shows a downward throw on the east side. According to Professsor Dana, during the first half of the Lower Silurian era, the whole east and west were alike in being covered with the sea, and that in the first or Potsdam period, this continent was just beneath or at the surface. After- wards, in the Trenton period, the depth became greater, and aiForded pure waters for the very abundant marine life. r; .rvn.! :i I I '.''i TM,.| f! .1 1- Galoiferous Sand-Rook succeeds Potsdam sandstone, and the characteristic portion of this formation, in Ganada, is a granu- lar magnesian limestone or dolomite, of a dark bluish-gray color, crystalinc, strongly coherent, weathering yellowish brown, and frequently containing small geodes, filled either with calcareous spar, quartz crystals, sulphate of barytes, sulphate of strontia, or sulphate of lime. Its fossils are very imperfect, and in most cases only moulds of these are to be found. In some places the upper part of this formation is of a bluish-gray calcareous argilite. When exposed to the air, it turns yellow or brown, and frequently develops a bituminous odor. The calcareous beds in many districts yield a poor description of lime, and hence the term bastard lime- stones is applied to them by settlers and others. Galcif erous Sand- rock forms part of the great series of p.trata called the Quebec Group. It is seen along the south shore of the Ottawa in many localities /^ 24 TRANSACTIONS. from Carillon to the Ghats. At Aylmer it occurs on both sides of the river, and from the Alumette Island extends south to Prescott, at which point it crosses the St. Lawrence into the United States. A little below Prescott, on the spot where the battle of the Wind- mill was fought, gentle undulations are to be observed in the strata of this formation, but more particularly on descending the river from Maitland to this point. According to Sir William Logan, the total thickness of this formation is about 300 feet. Chazy Limestone overlies the Calciferous formation, and derives its name from Chazy, in the State of New York, west of Lake Champlain, where it was first described by the New York geologists. In Canada it is associated with sandstones and shale, and is here described as Chazy formation. It is exposed in the cutting of the Grenville canal, and there crosses the Ottawa to Hawkesbury. In its geographical distribution, it forms a zone around the geological depression between the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence. It fjrms two patches on the calciferous outlier of the Lac des Chats, also of the lowest outlier of the Alumette Islands. The arenaceous part of the Chazy is seen at Alymer, in Hull, and in the eleventh range of Eardley, on the north side of the Ottawa. It is also found in the Townships of Huntly and Ilamsay. The great mass of limestone which overlies the Chazy formation is divided into three portions by the New York geologists. The divisions are supposed to have been characterised by peculiar fossils. However, in Canada, a separation of this kind cannot be definitely carried out, owing to the circumstance that the Birdseye and Black River formations become very indistinct ; they are, in consequence, grouped together. Not only are the strata blended together, but the fossils characteristic of the one are also found in the other ; thus the difficulty of division. Acoordiug to Sir WJlliam Logan, the Birdseye, Black River, and Trenton formationci constitute one of the most persistent and conspicuously marked series of the strata of the Lower Silurian period of North America^ GEOLOGY. 25 >d of fk le, he to me St. he ds. nd a. he 13 he Us. ely lack ce, Ibut p.r J the of ata The limestono of the Trenton group is found extensively in Canada East and West, and particularly between the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence, but more especially al^)und the capital of Canada, — Ottawa. The limestones of this locality are a£feeked by two parallel dislocations between five hundred and six hundred yards apart, west of the Eideau. '' One of these dislocations comes to the Ottawa a little below the exit of the canal, in a small up- throw to the south j and the other about six hundred yards above it, beyond the Ikrrack Hill, is a downthrow of seventy feet in the same direction." Farther west this series of limestones come up against the Gloucester and Hull fault, extending from the wst side of the junction gore of Gloucester across the Ottawa to the front of the sixth lot of the fifth range of Hull. Owing to these various faults it has been found diflScult for the Geological Survey to estimate the thickness of the series in this neighborhood. It is, however, computed that the total volume of the limestones of this locality will not fall short of six hundred feet. Utica Slate (so termed from Utica in the State of New York). — It comprises a series of dark-brown, bituminous shales, interstratified here and there with a few beds of dark limestone. It is found in considerable quantity near this city, and is seen cropping out directly across the Eideau Bridge, near the General Protestant Hospital. In lie Townships of CoUingwood and Whitby this shale is sufficiently bituminous to produce mineral oil in considerable quantity. ::uhhsd^ynti&<» Tub Daif t or Bouldee Formation, of which wo have ample evidence in this locality, comes under the Post-pliocene or Post- ; tertiary period. The clay, sand, and gravel of the valleys of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence, containing sea-shells or the skeletons of marine fish, are also referred to it. Owing to the manner in which drift is supposed to have been formed (that is, transported by ancient 26 TRANSACTIONS. glaciers), it is termed Glaeial Drift. '' The greatest development and extension of these glacierp is said to have been during the in- terval between the close of the Gainozoio period and the commence- ment of the existing epoch, properly so called." It forms the sur- face of country over a great part of the triangular area included by the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers. Stratified clays and sand fill up depressions of great extent over this surface, and erratic boul- ders of great size are to be observed, in localities the most unexpected. A granitic boulder of considerable magnitude is to be seen just above, and to the right of the Suspension Bridge, on the table of rock lying below; and one on the island immediately abovo the Ghaudi^re Falls, of much greater size. Dana states that nothing but moving ice could have transported the drift, with its immense boulders. In the glacial regions of the Alps, ice is performing this work at present. In that locality there are evidences of stones of great size, which have, in former times, been borne, by a slow moving glacier from the vicinity of Mont Blanc across the lowlands of Switzerland to the slopes of the Jura Mountains, and left there, a height of 2,208 feet above the present level of Lake Geneva. The channel of the Ottawa Eiver is contracted at various parts by ridges of glacial drift, of boulders running north and south. The nearest of these is to be seen above the mouth of Green's Greek, between seven and eight miles below this city. In this locality a well-marked line of boulders runs quite across the river, and forms a considerable obstruction to navigation during low water, such as we have had this season particularly. Professor Dawson divides the eastern post-glacial beds into two scries, the lower a deep-sea deposit, named the Leda Glay, from one of its characteristic shells; and the upper, for a similar reason, the Saxioava sand, formed in shallow waters. On the south bank of the Ottawa Eiver, from this city to Hawkesbury, the lower clay formation of Dr. Dawson is to be seen in banks from twenty to forty feet high. " The overlying he liver and conceals i generally approachf clay except GEOLOGY. 27 sea lis J in this to ting jept along tte streams.'^ Wherever these clay formations exist hlong the river the shells Saxicava rugosa and Tellina Grcenlandica are to be found, and in a bed of clay at Green's Creek nodular masses exist in considerable abundance. The most common fossil embed- ded in these, is the Mallotus villoius or capeling of the Lower St. Lawrence. This capeling is also found in nodules, in clay, on the nhaudi^re Lake, 183 feet ; on the Madawaska at 206 feet ; and at Fort Coulonge Lake, at 365 feet above the sea. This formation contains also various other fossils. On the north side of the Ottawa, from Hull to Isle Jesus, this clay formation covers a con- siderable breadth between the Laurentian Hills and the river. It can also be traced in considerable abundance along the banks of the Gatineau and River Rouge. In the former locality it is well known to the lumberers, who in wet weather describe it as the sticking clay of the Gatineau. A well-defined hill of clay exists on the front and to the left of the General Protestant Hospital, facing the Rideau River, and to the rear an extensive mound of sand, both of which are drift formations. The boulder formation or glacial drift, both in the British Isles and North America, is referred by Lyell to the age of the newer pliocene, of which it marks its close ; while the stratified deposits which overlie it, con- sisting partly of bcmlder formation re-arranged by water, are placed among Post-tertiary strata. The records of the drift or boulder period extend over North America, north of parallel 40°, as well as over all the northern counties of Europe, and the vari- ous boulders have been moved from the north towards tha south. Throughout the regions occupied by the drift, the rocks in place are more or less polished, striated, or grooved. These marks are observed on the consolidated formations that appear at the surface, and constitute a very essential part of the records of this period. These sedimentary rocks, the result of aqueous action, are deter- mined by occurring in beds or strata) by exhibiting a sedimentary structure and containing the remains of animal organization. — (Se« Plate.) 28 TRANSACTIONS. Cave. — Cave or cavern is the term adopted to signify a hollow place under ground or rock, and generally having an opening either on the surface or in the brow of a hill or rock, as the case may be. They are usually divided into two classes, the artificial and the natural. Caverns are most usually observed along the courses of rivers and on the coast line of the sea. Such is not unlikely, par- ticularly as the whole stratified system of rocks results from the same denuding and wearing away by water and subsequent harden- ing of the materials through time. Moving water, carrying with it sand and gravel through rock crevices, by the very attrition, may gradually transform even a small fissuro into a cavern. Limestone is the great centre for such excavations, and the largest so far described are the Caverns of Adehherg in Carinthia^ on the road from Vienna to Trieste^ and the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. As objects of curiosity, these two caverns particularly are visited from all parts. Eocks of purely igneous origin frequently contain caverns. An example of such is the picturesque Cave of Fingal, in Staffa, formed in basalt. In South America and in Iceland large caverns have been formed in modern lava. In Canada, such curiosities of nature have not so far attracted any particular atten- tion beyond the brief descriptions of the Geological Survey, and the paper published by Sir Duncan Gibb in. 1861, on Canadian Caverns. These number thirty, and are arranged as follows : — '< One in the sandstone of Magdalen Islands ; two in the carbon- iferous formations at Gasp6 and Bay oi Chaleur ; two in the Devonian, Gaspd Bay and Bass Island, Lake Superior ; seven in the limestones of the Upper, Middle and Lower Silurian formations. " Upper Silurian : — Perforations and Caverns of Michilimacinac. The Old Woman, Cape Gasp6. Flower Pot Island, Lake Huron. Mono Cavern. Eramosa Cavern. Niagara Caverns. Subterranean Passages, Manitouliu Island, lu: si«' m GEOLOGY. 29 " Middle Silurian :'~- r •/ > . Pillar Sa:>d3tone, North Coast of Ga3p6. Bij^sby's Cavsm, Murray Bay. ^' Lower Silurian : : ,- . Gibb's Cavern, Moutreal. Probable Caverns at Kings Ijn. Murray's CavernSj Arched and Flower Pot Rocks, Mingan. Probable Caverns at Chatham. The Pictured Rocks, Lake Superior. " Huronian Rocks : St. Ignatius' Caeerns, Lake Superior. Pilasters of Mammelles, Lake Superior. ■ Thunder Mountain and Pie Island Pilasters, Lake Superior. " Laurentian Rocks : The Steinhaver Cavern, Labrador. "I'V Basaltic Caverns of Henley Island. ' . ' Empty Basaltic Dykes of Mecattina. ' • Bouchette's Cavern, Kildare. ., /. j i,? Colquhoun' 8 Cavern, Lanark. ;;.j . . .,, ,, .^ Quartz Cavein, Leeds. , ^ .,,.- Probable Caverns, Iron Island, Lake Nipissing." I.'';',' . I J' > '.i'> ri;'K. To this list may now be added the Wakefield Cave, forming the eighth in Laurentian E.ocks, and by far the most interesting and attractive so far explored ; being, in fact, the largest cavern in the entire Dominion of Canada. " o; o^p^.rJiit^ '. ' North from Ottawa, in an almost direct line, vid the Portland Road, distant eighteen miles, on the farm of Mr. Pellessier, is the " Wakefield Cave." It is situated on the side of one of the Lau- rentian Mountains and faces the north. The mouth of the cave is fully eighteen feet in diameter, of an oval shape, beautifully arched and having overhanging it pine and cedar trees of considerable size. The entire height of the mountain is about 300 feet, and the entrance to the oaye is about 100 feet from the summit. At the 80 TBANSACTIONS. base of the mountain i? a small lake, which diBchargeH into the Gatineau River through a mountain gorge of exquioite beauty. Looking inwards from the mouth of the cave it is fannel shaped, directed obliquely forwards and downwards a distance of 74 feet, at which point it is contracted to a height of five feet and width of fifteen feet. This contraction forms the entrance to the first " Grand Chamber" 80 feet in length, 21 feet across and 9 feet in height throughout. At the posterior part of this chamber, in an oblique direction to the left, is an opening five feet in height, form- ing the entrance to the third chamber, which is about 18 feet in diameter and 5 feet high. The floor, however, is covered with calcareous breccia to a depth of three feet or more. Looking out- wards, two openings are to be seen to the left of the first chamber, one anterior, broad and elevated, and one posterior, contracted and shallow, passing obliquely upwards and backwards, a distance of fully 25 feet. This chamber is entirely encrusted with carbonate of lime of a cheesy consistence, and in the centre a perfectly white column reaches from the floor to .ae ceiling, about siz inches in diameter, formed by the union of a stalactite and stalagmite. The antero-lateral chamber passes in an oblique direction upwards, a distance of 30 feet, at which point the ceiling is fully 50 feet high, of a gothic shape and beautifully ornamented with stalactites and fringed like encrustations of carbonate of lime. About 60 feet from the mouth of the cave to the right, is a narrow passage, rough, uneven, and forming the entrance to a chamber the floor of which ascends obliquely upwards a distance of 30 feet, the height of this point being about 50 feet. On the way up a beautiful arch is to be seen, above and beneath which this chamber communicates with the one entered by the antero-lateral opening from the '' Grand Chamber y'^ and the light reflected from a lamp through the opening below this arch illuminates the entire ceiling of the adjoining cham- ber and presents a rich appearance as seen through the opening above th3 uroh. To the right of the oblique floor of the antero-lateral GEOLOGY. 31 cavity, is an opening, horseslioe shaped, Bcalloped, about five feet in diametei", anrl considerably obscured hj the overhanging rock. From the body of the cave the passage leading fVom this opening takes a direction at an angle of about 25° to the right. Its entire length is about 270 feet, height between ± and 5 feet, and width the same. The floor is rough and covered with small fragments of rook of various sizes and from the ceiling hang many small stalactites. At the inner terminus of this passage is an opening more or less cir- cular, about 20 feet in diameter and the rock over it is concave, and fully 15 feet in height. Stones thrown into this well or cavity give rise to a loud, rumbling noise. Its depth is 37 feet, and the bottom measured 9 feet by 30 feet, on either side of which are two openings, one 5 feet by 12 feet, 22 feet in depth, the other 2 feet by 3 feet and 45 feet in depth. The floors of these lower cavities are covered with fine sand and on every side are to b« seen beautiful stalactites. On the right and left of the main passage of this well are to be observed several smaller passages which, from their narrowness, are entered with difficulty. The entire cavern presents a water-worn appearance more or less smooth on the sur- faces, of a light gray color, and considerably excavated at intervals. Here and there in each chamber, particularly from the ceilings, are to be seen rough projecting portions of rock of various shapes and composed chiefly of quartzite, pyroxene, serpentine, iron pyrites, and various mineral ingredients peculiar to the Crystaline Lauren- tian limestone formations. In many parts of the cave, the walls, particularly those to the right of each chamber entered, were covered with moderately uniform sheets of carbonate of lime. The cavern is entered by descending on talus or broken rock ; this is succeeded by a floor partly flat, smooth and presenting also a water- worn appearance. Generally speaking, the floor is uneven and strewed with fragments of rock of various sizes, more or less mixed up with broken stalactites and shelved portions of carbonate of lime. The entire cave, excepting the entrance, is perfectly devoid 32 TRANSACTIONS. of light; the atmosphere moist, but exceedingly pure, even to the extent of our explorations, and a uoiform temperature of about 45° Fahrenheit. The only organic remai ns so far discovered were those of the Vulpes Vulgaris or common fox, Castor Liber (Lin) or Beaver, Lutra Vulgaris (Lin) or Otter, and a few drift shells. From the purity of atmosphere in the entire cave, the opinion formed from that fact is, that any accumulating carbonic acid is absorbed by water in some part of the unexplored portion of the cave, and it is not unlikely that parts already visited arc only an entrance to vast labyrinths yet to be explored. , . In the consideration of this cave, two points of enquiry arc sug- gested : first, what proofs have we of subsidence and elevation of great portions of the earth's surface, and secondly, what facts can be adduced to substantiate the eroding action of water. In the formation of this British North American Continent there is noth- ing particular in cither of these respects, nothing more in fact than has been observed in the shaping of contineiits of transatlantic notoriety. Stratified rocks were undoubtedly deposited originally as sediments under water, and owing to the organic remains which they contain the inferonce drawn is that they were deposited at the sea bottom. Such was exactly the case with the very strata on which this city rests and when that foundation was formed the " Great Silurian Age" flourished. Marvellous then must have been the condition of life, when there were few mountain tops elevated above the level of the vast ocean which covered this continent. As we gather shells, barnacles, starfishes and such like at the seashore in our summer rambles, so we examine for the remains of molusks, radiates, crinoids, &c., &c., which flourished in the Silurian period of the world's history, in the strata of this neighborhood. From a consideration of these facts one of two things must have taken place, either the land must have gone up or the sea must have gone down. Of the latter we have so far no well defined instance, whereas of the former ample and wide-spread evidence exists, such as observed on the Pacific coast of South America, where, within I GEOLOaY. 33 the present ccntnry consideraV'^. portions of country have been elevated above the sea. So with the northern parts of Sweden and Finland a slow rising is constunily going on, and at the same time the Scandinavian Peninsula towards the south-east shore is sinking. The west coast of Greenland is aliO gradually sinking, and these changes are brought about without any apparent earthquakes. In Canada there arc many fossil-beariog strata hundreds of feet above the present sea level, as seen in our own immediate neighborhood. After the formation of our stratified rocks it is supposed that this continent; being exposed for an unknown length of time, was again dipped beneath the great oceanic waves, when the present mantle of clays, sand and boulders (termed drift) was thrown over our firm rock foundations. Ansted, of Cambridge, hjis written, "water is the life of the earth, as blood is the life of man ;" and certainly there is ample proof of its extensive operations in the formation of the earth's crust. It is, in fact, the great agent in bringing about the vasi. circle of changes which form the subject of geological investigation. Judging of what has taken place in our midst, viz., the manner in which the great bed of rock at the CJiaudiire has been cut or channeled out by water j also at Niagara, where the river has cut a channel through the solid rock, 200 feet deep, 1,200 to 2,000 feet wide and fully seven miles long. It is evident that the waters are thus carrying both land and rocks in their course, and the amount yearly transported is truly wonderful. On a small scale we can observe this same action exemplified at the " Gatineau Point," where the land is rapidly being removed; At the mouths of the Mississippi, the Amazon and the Nile, im- mense deposits of material thus carried, are to be observed as the result of th 3 abading action of water. Of the Ganges, Sir Charles Lyell says, "that if a fleet of eighty vessels, each freighted with 1,400 tons weight of mud, were to sail down that river every hour of every day and night for four months continuously, it would only transport from the higher regions to E 34 TRANSACTIONS. the sea, a qudAtity of matter equal to that carried by the Ganges in the fonr months of the flood season." In this same manner many changes have been brought about in the Ottawa and its tributaries. Thus alluvium, drift, and even the solid rock founda- tions, give way under the eroding action of water. In this same manner water flowing rapidly through the fissured " Laurentian Mountain Limestone" has produced the Wakefield Cave. ; ?'. In such formations have we a history pregnant with facts des- tined to throw light on the Geological Records of this continent. In considering the various facts we are carried back for ages to a time when rocks were fearfully disturbed by volcanic action j when the crust of the earth was folded as paper in the child's hands. Out of the mighty deep rose our Laurentian Hills, and on their foundation was slowly deposited the vast layers of rocks entombing in their very substance the remains of organic life. Thus has a history been handed down, which cannot fail to be an inex- haustible source of enquiry ; and, at the same time, fix more indelibly on our minds the accuracy of the sentiment, " Sermona in stones, hoohs in runnim/ brooks , and good in every thing** ■.■■ ,, . S I .A .1. ,' ■■-3 h^:iiii'if\Ui^i','. t ^^ . ; ,,,; N',; v-r H.> -j^:;;; ■ ^- ■■■' ■ ■ ' '' i-'l.r. :i.:-7 " ': ■ ■