THE CANADIAN FLAG AKD COAT OF ARMS. 
 
THE HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA 
 
 BY 
 
 W. H. P. CLEMENT, B.A., LL.Il 
 
 Prrscribed by the Board of Education for use in the PuIAic Schools of 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 Authorized for use in the Province of Qtichec. 
 
 Authorized htj the Education Department of Ontario for use in Hif/h Schools 
 
 and Colleijiate Institutes and in the Fifth Form of Public Schools. 
 
 Aiithorizcd for use in the Province of Manitoba. 
 
 Authorized for use in the North-West Territories. 
 
 Authorized for use in the Hi<jh Schools of British Columbia. 
 
 TORONTO : 
 
 WILLIAM BRKUiS. 
 THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED. 
 
 PROVINCIAL PUBLISHERS : 
 
 Nkw RarNswH k : J. & A. McMillan, St. John. 
 
 (Quebec: William Drysdalk & Co., Montreal. 
 
 Manitoba: Tub Consolidated Stationery Company, Limited, Winnipbo. 
 
 Bkitisu Columbia: T. N. Hibben & Co., \i- oru, 
 
 1897. 
 
^'^^^^ 245858 
 
 Efltered, according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand 
 eight hundred and ninety-seven, by Thk Corr, Clark Company, Limited, and 
 William Brioqs, at the Department of Agriculture. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The subject of Canadian history has been usually treated in the text- 
 books authorized in elementary and secondary schools from a Provincial 
 rather than a Dominion standpoint. Such works at best do not meet 
 oiu' present need, as they necessarily fail to give ado(^uate recognition 
 to all sections of the country, and as they often contain exaggerated 
 notions of provincial matters. It wrs tbouglit by many teachers that 
 this mode of treatment should be changed and a wider view presented 
 of the history and consolidation of the Dominion. 
 
 In 1889 the Quebec Provincial Associiation of Teachers discussed the 
 feasibility of preparing a history of Canada with this object in view, 
 and in the following year the Teachers' As80(nations of Ontario, Prince 
 Edward Island, and Nova Scotia, also considered the same subject. 
 In July, 1891, representatives of the different provinces met at the 
 Education Department in Toronto, f(jr a further consideration of the 
 (juestion. Nevertheless, it was not until July, 1S9'2, at the meeting 
 of the Dominion Educational Association in Montreal, that a scheme 
 was formulated for the preparation of a text-book by competition, and 
 a committee was appointed to examine such manuscripts as might bo 
 offered. The committee consisted of Hon. George W. Ross, LL.D., 
 Minister of Education for "Ontario, Chairman ; and W. Patterson, 
 M.A., B.C.L., Principal of Royal Arthur School, Montreal, Secretary, 
 and the following representatives of the provinces and territories : — 
 R. E. Gosnell, Esq., Provincial Librarian, Victoria, B.C.; D. J. (xog- 
 gin, M.A., Superintendent of Education, Regina, N.W.T. ; D. Mcln- 
 tyre, M.A., Superintendent of Schools, Winnipeg, Man. ; W. J. 
 Robertson, B.A. , LL.B. , Principal of the Collegiate Institute, St. 
 Catharines, Ont. ; Benjaniin Suite, the well-known historian, Ottawa, 
 Ont. ; S. P. Robins, M.A., LL.D., Principal of McGill Normal School, 
 Montreal; G. U. Hay, Ph.B., Principal of Victoria High School, St. 
 John, N.B.; J. B. Hall, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of the Normal School, 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 Truro, N..S., and Alexandc'r Anderson, LL.I)., Principal of Prince of 
 Wales Col lego, Charlottotown, P.E.I. 
 
 In 1893 tlio goverinnentH of the provinces unitedly contributed the 
 sum of two thousand dollars to cover the expense of tlic undertaking, 
 each paying in pro])ortion to the nunihcr of schools under its control. In 
 July of that year the " Dominion History Conij)etition" was opened. It 
 was limited to British subjects who could produce satisfiwtory evidence 
 of literary ability. Though ninety pers(»ns volunteered, only forty-six 
 were permitted to write. When the com|H'tition closed on July 1st, 
 1895, fifteen had completed their task. The committee spent the next 
 ten months in selecting the best manuscript, and this volume is the one 
 to which it awarded the first place. 
 
 It will be observed that, while substantial prominence is given to 
 imjwrtant facts of a provincial cliaracter, the object of the author has 
 been so to converge his narrative as to direct the mind of the reader 
 to the federation of the provinces xindcr the British North Ani'nica 
 Act of 1807, and in this way unite the various currents of provincial 
 history into the broader channel of the Dominion. There was in some 
 respects a community of interests between the provinces even long 
 before Confederation. Now, since they are happily united luuler 
 one system of government, they share more intimately in a common 
 destiny. To that union of the interests, as well as of the patriotic 
 sentiments and as])irations of all C*anadians, attention is thoughtfully 
 directed, with a view to impress u})on our future citizens that we 
 not only have a united country, but aie a miited people. It is to be 
 hoped th-.t the story of our Dominion, which in the follov/ing pages 
 we believe is simply and faithfully told, will help to convey a fair and 
 inspiring impression of the grandcnu' and impoitance of the heritage 
 committed to us as Canadians and as citizens of the British Empire. 
 At no more fitting time could this book be introduced to the schools 
 of Canada than in this Jubilee year. 
 
 VV. PATTERSON, 
 
 Secretary of Committee. 
 Royal Arthur School, 
 
 Montreal, June 2^nd, 1S97. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTKR PAQH 
 
 I. "The New Fonde Londb Quhar Men Goetii 
 
 A-FiscinN({" 1 
 
 IT. The Indian Tribes of Canada 9 
 
 III. The Founder of New France 14 
 
 lY. The Hundred A.s.sociates— Jesuit Missions . . 23 
 
 V. Talon (1()()5-1()72) 32 
 
 YI. Threatened Destruction . 40 
 
 YII. The Great Onontio 45 
 
 YIII. Queen Anne's War 52 
 
 IX. Thirty Years of Uneasy Peace 56 
 
 X. The War of the Austrian Succession .... 63 
 
 XI. On the Edge of the Storm 66 
 
 XII. New France in Danger 74 
 
 XIII. The Fall of New France 81 
 
 XTY. Military IIule 90 
 
 XY. Government under the King's Proclamation . 94 
 
 XYI. The Quebec Act, 1774 99 
 
 XYII. The Maritime Provinces (1758-1774) . . . . 102 
 
 X>^III. The American Revolution 106 
 
 XIX. Canada Under the Quebec Act 117 
 
 XX. The United Empire Loyalists 121 
 
 XXI. The Constitutional Act, 1791 128 
 
 XXII. Increase of Population (1791-1812) 131 
 
 XXIII. Fur Trade and the North-West "Passage . . 136 
 
 XXIY. Lower Canada (1791-1812) 143 
 
• • • 
 
 Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 CiiAPTKa Paob 
 
 XXV. Upper Canada (lT»i-1812) 149 
 
 XXVI. TiiK Maritimr Provinckh (1788-1812) ... 154 
 
 XXVII. TiiK War of 1812 158 
 
 XXVIII. Material I^rocress (1815-1840) 178 
 
 XXIX. The Rule of the Executive .... . 185 
 
 XXX. Executive Abuses 1915 
 
 XXXI. The Strug(jle for Religious Liberty . . . 20() 
 
 XXXII. Lower Canada to 1837 207 
 
 XXXIII. Upper Canada (1815-1837) 21G 
 
 XXXIV. New Brunswick (1815-1837) 222 j 
 
 XXXV. Nova Scotia (1815-1837) 225 ' 
 
 XXXVL The Nortu-West and New Caledonia . . . 230 I 
 
 XXXVII. Outbreaks in Canada 237 
 
 XXXVIII. "A New and Improved Constitution". . . 244 ' 
 
 XXXIX. Prince Edward Island (1815-1840) , . . . 249 i 
 
 XL. Union of the Two Canadas 252 i 
 
 XLI. Responsible Government Inaugurated . . . 255 
 
 XLII. A Time of Trial 265 
 
 XLill. Increasing Autonomy 274 
 
 XLIV. Commercial Expansion 278 
 
 XLV. Political History (1848-1864) 284 
 
 XL VI. Prince Edward Island (1840-1867) . . . .294 
 
 XLVIL "The Great Lone Land" (1835-1867) . . .299 
 
 XL VIII. Confederation 305 
 
 XLIX. " From Ocean TO Ocean " 314 
 
 L. Our System of Government 324 
 
 LI. On Trial (1867-1878) 328 
 
 LII. United Progress 333 
 
v.^^*'' 
 
 
 II IJ I) S () N 
 
 %^ " ^ "" f-\ 
 
 
 CNCnAVCO CMPWtSSLV F0« THE DOMINION HlSTORY OT CanAOA 
 
„,.'''^'--^i-A""'f^ 
 
 
 
 MAP TO ILLUSTRATE 
 
 HI STORYof GANiUM 
 
 I500 - 1763 
 
 ▼HC CO^^. CLAAK CVLIMITCO LlTHQ TOdONTQ. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 "the new fonde londe quhar men goeth a-fisching." 
 
 Europe in the Middle Ages.— The period from the fifth 
 to the fifteenth century is known in European history as the Middle 
 Ages. During all these years, petty nobles with their bands of 
 feudal retainers fought continually with each other for possession 
 of the soil of Europe. Might was right. Those who were weak 
 were despoiled of their lands ; those who were strong became hjrds 
 of extensive domains. All who tilled the soil were tenants of 
 some such lord, and were in duty bound to follow his banner 
 to the wars. In any interval of peace, they were ground down at 
 home. Of learning there was none, save in the quiet cloisters of 
 the monasteries. Only to a learned few had the notion cone of a 
 round world. To the ignorant many the earth was flat, and the 
 sun sank each night beyond an impassable waste. Of a land to 
 the west beyond the Atlantic they had no conception. 
 
 The Northmen— Marco Polo. — In the ninth century the 
 Vikings of JNorway took possession of Iceland. From tnis island, 
 early in the eleventh century, two adventurous sailors, Lief and 
 Bjom, made a voyage far to the south-west, and, it is claimed, 
 planted a colony on what is now Rhode Island. The hostility of 
 the Skraelings (natives) led to the breaking up of this settlement, 
 and soon its story became a mere tradition among the Northmen. 
 In the thirteenth century a young Venetian, Marco Polo, jour- 
 neyed east from Europe, and, after many years' absence, brought 
 back (about 1295) a tale of fabulous wealth in a far country which 
 he called Cathay. After his death his written narrative was known 
 to monkish scholars, and the story was told as an old "sailor's 
 yam " among the mariners of the Mediterranean. 
 2 ■■■■■■■■■•■■■■'^ ■■■-■ "■■■""■■■■■"■■^ 
 
2 
 
 HISTOKV OF CANADA. 
 
 The Renaissance. — During the latter years of the fifteenth 
 century wo.storu Europe slowly euiorged from the mists of the 
 Middle Ages. Out of the confused strife of the feudal nobility 
 certain families had risen to power — the Tudor in England, the 
 Vahjis in France, and the united houses of Aragon and Castile 
 in Spain. In these separate kingdoms the lesser nobles were 
 put down. Government was centralized, and intestine strife 
 gave place to larger national wars. Men breathed more freely. 
 Learning became more general, and a sjjirit of in([uiry was 
 abr<jad. It was the era of the Renaissance — the "new birth" 
 of the arts and sciences. 
 
 Discovery of America— The North Neglected.— In no 
 dei)artment was this new-born zeal f<jllowed by more startling 
 
 results than in the department 
 of maritime discovery. The 
 nations lying around the Med- 
 iterranean led the van. The 
 discovery of America by Chris- 
 topher Columljus (A.D. 1492) 
 was the result of an attempt 
 to-reach the "Far Cathay" of 
 Marco Poh^ by sailing west. 
 This golden Orient lay — so the 
 rumor ran — in southern seas, 
 and the tide of exploration 
 which followed Columbus tend- 
 ed, therefore, to the south 
 rather than to more northern 
 latitudes. For more than 
 thirty years after Columbus 
 first landed on one of the out- 
 lying islands of the New World, what lay to the north was 
 largely mere conjecture. 
 
 John Cabot. — At first, it is true, some attention was turned 
 to the north. Henry VII. of England was unwilling that Spain 
 should reap all the glory and profit of western discovery ; and so, 
 in 1497, he- commissioned a Venetian navigator, John Cabot, then 
 a trading citizen of Bristol, to sail north-westerly, in the hope that 
 iij. that direction perchance a way to Asia might be found. But, 
 
 CHEISTOPHER COLUAIBUS. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 SEBASTIAN CABOT. 
 
 though phiin John Cjibot became Sir John Cabot in requital for 
 hi.s servicer ui)on this voyage, it liaH never been made quite clear 
 wliat part of <nir coast he visited. The same uncertainty surrounds 
 ^he voyage of his son Sebastian in 
 the following year. 
 
 Cortereal. — Portugal, too, 
 turned her attention toward the 
 nortli, and in the year 15(X) sent 
 thither Cortereal, one of her most 
 renowned sea-captains, upon a voy- 
 age of discovery. His route also is 
 (l(>iil)tful. The name Labrador 
 (slave land) has come down to us 
 from hi, time, for he carried back 
 with him irom that region a cargo 
 of Indians and sold them into 
 slavery. The story of rock-bound 
 C(jasts, of fog and cold, brought 
 
 back by Cabot and Cortereal, contained little to favor the notion 
 that Cathay — a land of golden warmth — lay in the direction they 
 liad gone, and accordingly English and Portuguese navigators 
 joined those of Spain in more southerly voyages. 
 
 The Fishermen of the Banks. — There was much national 
 rivalry in the race for the new lands in the west. Columbus, the 
 Cabots, Cortereal, and many others sailed under royal commis- 
 sions. They were official explorers. Each was under orders to 
 take possession for his sovereign of all the lands he might discover. 
 A very different class of men soon found their way into those 
 "mists of the mighty Atlantic" which lie off the coasts of New- 
 foundland, Nova Scotia and Capo Breton. In the north-western 
 seaports of France lived Norman and Breton fishermen, who plied 
 their hazardous calling lipon the rocky coasts of the French pro- 
 vinces of Picardy, Normandy and Brittany. To them came tidings 
 of the new lands to the west. In a spirit of hardihood born of 
 their daily life they put out to sea in search of this new shore. 
 Some say they reached it even before Cabot. This nuich seems 
 clear, that at least as early as 1504 the cod fishery of the New- 
 foundland Banks — our oldest industry — had its beginning. 
 
 A Growing Industry. — The French king, Louis XII., was 
 
4 
 
 HISTORY OV CANADA. 
 
 at this time nuicli occupied in Italian wars. While he and his 
 nobles were thus engaged to the south-east of his kingdom, the 
 fisliermen of the ncjith- western coasts were free to pursue their 
 calling in peace, and the fisheries of the Banks soon became an 
 established industry. English and Portuguese lishernien, and 
 fishermen from the Basque provinces lying around the south-east- 
 ern angle f)f the Bay of Biscay, joined in this pursuit. The history 
 of Canada during the sixteenth century is but the story of the 
 toil, year after year, of the fishermen who frecpiented its shores. 
 
 
 ^tCXTEftWVQ^ 
 
 Fishing stations and harbors of refuge were established. Various 
 places on the coast of Newfoundland still bear the names then 
 given them. The Bretons gave their name to a headland of one 
 of the islands, and the island itself is now known as Cape Breton. 
 On one old map the new region is quaintly described as "The 
 New Fonde Londe quhar men goeth a-fisching." 
 
 Early Knowledge of the St. Lawrence.— Within the 
 Straits of Belle Isle was the fishing station of Brest, and before 
 long the shores of the gulf behind Newfoundland — which we know 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 as the Gulf of St. Lawrence — becaTiie familiar to these hardy 
 sailors. It is claimed that at lea ,t two of them — Denys and Aubert 
 — had found their way well up the St. Lawrence before 1610. 
 Certain it is that knowledge of the gulf had in some way reached 
 the map-maker Sylvanus in 1511, for in his map of that year the 
 "Square Gulf" (Golfo qnadrado) is outlined, lying to the west of 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 Verrazano. — In 1515 Francis I. came to the throne of France. 
 He was ambitious to gain for her a share iji the golden stream 
 which was flowing into the ct)flers of Spain from her new discoveries 
 in the west. In 1524 he commissioned Verrazano to voyage into 
 those parts and secure a portion of this western world for France. 
 Verrazano coasted ah )ng the shore from Florida to what is now the 
 State of Maine, and called it all New France. He reported that 
 the streams flowing into the Atlantic were all small. Hence, it is 
 supposed, arose the notion of a narrow barrier of land with, behind 
 it, the Sea of Verrazano — a notion which lasted f(^r many years 
 among the map-makers and scholars of Europe. 
 
 The Master Pilot of St. Malo.- To find a way through to 
 this Sea of Verrazano and so reach Cathay was the ardent wish of 
 Francis I. His conflict with his great rival, Charles V., King of 
 Spain and Emperor of Germany, 
 gave him, however, but scant 
 leisure to turn his thoughts be- 
 yond the Atlantic. Not until 1534 
 was he able to send another official 
 explorer to investigate the waters 
 behind the new-found land off" 
 which his subjects fished. What 
 more natural than to choose a 
 leader for the expedition from 
 among the men of St. Malo, whose 
 fishermen knew the region well ? 
 And who more capable than Jacques 
 Cartier, master pilot ? In 1534 Car- 
 tier sailed through the Straits of 
 Belle Isle, and coasted down the 
 western shore of Newfoundland. From its rugged sterility he con- 
 cluded that "this must be the land which God allotted to Cain." 
 
 JACQUES CARTIER. 
 
6 lllSTOllY OF CANADA. 
 
 Circling around to the Now Brunswick .shore, ho was delighted 
 with the Hoil and climate there. In July he viHited, and from 
 its heat named, the Bay of Chaleur. At Ga.spe he set up a huge 
 crosH in token of French sovereignty over these regions. There 
 also he kidnapped two Indians, natives, as he aflorwards learned, 
 of a region higher up the St. Lawrence. These ho carried with 
 him to France. 
 
 Tn some way Cartier, on his first voyage, failed to find the 
 entrance to the St. Lawrence River. His fellow-townsmen, the 
 fishermen of St. Malo, aided perhai>s by the two Indian captives, 
 were able to ccmvince him that although he had missed the passage 
 through to the west, the passage was nevertheless there. Next 
 year, accordingly, with three ships he again headed for the Straits 
 of Belle Lsle. Tliat his aim was to find a salt-water passage 
 through to Yerrazano's sea and so on to Asia is clear ; for when, 
 after passing Anticosti, he learned from his two Indians that 
 higher up he would reach fresh water, he turned back along the 
 northern shore to find perchance an overlooked salt-water passage. 
 Finding none, he again turned westward. 
 
 Cartier discovers " Canada." — Above the Island of 
 Orleans — called l)y Cartier the Isle of Bacchus, from its luxuriant 
 growth of grapes — was the Indian town of Stadacona, situated just 
 behind the site of the present city of Quebec, on what is now the 
 St. Charles River. Here dwelt Donnacona, king (as the French- 
 men called him) of the surrounding country, and from him Cartier 
 learned that farther west lay the still larger town of Hochelaga. 
 The territory from Hochelaga to the gulf was apparently divided 
 into three districts — Hochelaga, Canada and Saguenay. Here first 
 we meet the name now borne b}' our Dominion. It is a word of 
 Huron-Iroquois origin, meaning a town or collection of Indian 
 dwellings. In Cartier's time it was used to designate a small 
 inhabited region on the north shore of the St. Lawrence. After- 
 wards it was applied to the entire valley watered by that stream 
 and its tributaries. Now it brings before the mind our great 
 confederation of self-governing provinces, stretching from the 
 Atlantic to the Pacific, fitted we know and destined we trust to 
 be the home of many happy millions. 
 
 Hochelaga. — During the autumn of 1535 Cartier with a 
 number of his followers visited Hochelaga. This Indian town, 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 7 
 
 (upulous and strongly defended after the Iro(iuois fashion by a 
 
 riple palisade, lay where now lies a city, of more than 250, (XXI 
 
 uhabitauts, hearing the name given l)y Cartier to the h)fty hill 
 
 )ehind it — Montreal (Mont Royal). The Indians of Hochelaga 
 
 wore of Huron-Iro(iuoi8 stock. Cartier and his friends, being 
 
 leemed of celestial origin, met with a very hospitable reception. 
 
 Returning to Stadacona. they spent the winter in a rude fort on 
 
 ;he shores of the St. Croix, that being the name given by Cartier 
 
 (I the stream which we know as the St. Charles. Scurvy carried 
 
 iir many of his men, and in the spring of 1536 he returned to 
 
 France with a sadly diminished crew, taking with him, however, 
 
 Chief Donnacona and some of his tribe, whom he had treacherously 
 
 Koized. 
 
 Pioneer French Settlers. — The French king was again at 
 war with his great rival, and not until 1541 v/as Cartier a}>le to 
 revisit tho new world. In that year Francis I., with a view to a 
 more forn.al assertion of his claim, planned to settle a colony in 
 New France. Roberval was appointed vicen^y, with wide powers 
 for its government. Cartier was named as captain-general to lead 
 the cohjnists to their new home. Roberval delaying, Cartier sailed 
 witliout him in the spring of 1541, i)lanted the colony above Quebec 
 near the promontory of Cap Rouge, and called the place Charles- 
 bourg Royal. Donnacona had died in France, and in conse(iuence 
 his tril)esmen of Stadacona looked with some distrust upon the 
 P'renchmen. After another visit to Hochelaga — doubtless to 
 iu<[uire further for a passage-way to Cathay — Cartier and his 
 colonists settled down for the winter in Charlesbourg Royal. 
 K()])erval failed to appear with supplies; and cold, disease and 
 famine so discouraged these pioneers that with the opening spring 
 those who survived tied with Cartier back to Fi'ance. Roberval 
 came out with other colonists in 1542 ; but, after two winters 
 spent among the now unfriendly Indians, they, too, returned 
 home (1544). 
 
 Growing Importance of New France.— During all the 
 remaining years of the sixteenth century Old France was torn by 
 war, and no man in public life there had nmch time to think of 
 the New France across the Atlantic. But New France was not 
 abandoned. Year after year the Norman, Breton and Basquo 
 fishermen spent the season on the Banks of Newfoundland, and 
 
8 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Engr.sh, .Spfinish and Portugiieso fishermen also j)lie(l their calling 
 there. In the opening months of the year sometimes as manj 
 as two ships a day would sail from P'rench ports for the fishing 
 grounds, and several liundred vessels of various nationalities might 
 be counted at one time in some of the harbors of refuge along the 
 Newfoundland shore. Before the close of the centuiy the Atlantic 
 coast of Nova Scotia and the sliores of the Bay of Fiindy had also 
 become fairly well known to these hardy fishermen, who, in imita- 
 tion of the Indians, called the region Ac<t(lie. 
 
 The Fur Trade Opened. —Gradually there grew \ip a traffic 
 in furs with the Indians whom these fishermen met along the 
 coast from Belle Isle to the Bay of Fundy, and on the shores 
 within the gulf. From as far south as the P(»tomac the Indians 
 came to the fishing regions to exchange their peltry for gaudy' 
 trinkets from Europe. Ivory, too, from the tusks of the walrus 
 was much sought after. The trade was very protitable, and ))ittt v 
 hostility was shown toward all who attempted to procure from 
 the king a monopoly of it. Even Cartier's nephew was forced 
 to surrender a monopoly granted him in 1588, under which the 
 Oartier family carried on a fur trade far up the St. Lawrence.; 
 The knowledge gained by the fishermen and fur traders did not,- 
 however, find its way to the map-makers of Europe. Until the 
 close of the sixteenth century, Jac(iues Cartier's narrative, with 
 its accompanying charts (since lost), was the sole basis of those 
 curious maps of the St. Lawrence gulf and river region whieir 
 have come down to our time. 
 
 England's Oldest Colony. — Ever since the time of the; 
 Cabots, England had claimed Newfoundland as her own, and had 
 exercised a mild protectorate over the fishing stations there. In i 
 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert took formal possession of the island 
 for Elizabeth of England, basing her claim upon its discovery by 
 the Bristol navigator eighty-six years before. Sir Humphrey was 
 lost on the return voyage. 
 
 The Paciflc Coast. — Meanwhile, to the south, Spam had 
 been pushing her search for the Southern Seas. In 1513 Balboa 
 crossed the isthmus of Panama and, first of Europeans, looked 
 out upon the waters of the Pacific Ocean. In 1518 Mexico was 
 discovered, and three years later Cortez overturned its ancient 
 civilization and made it a Spanish vice-ioyalty. Magellan, a 
 
HISTOUY OF CANADA. 9 
 
 PortugucHo navigator in tho service of Spain, passed in 1820 through 
 the straits w)iich bear liis name, tluis opening a western way to the 
 Orient and a route by sea to the Spanish possessions on the Pacific 
 coast of North America. Tn 1637 California was discovered by 
 Cortez, and Spanish captains exph)red its coasts. 
 
 Early Voyages North"ward. The great English navigator. 
 Sir Francis Drake, visited this region in 1578-1579. Inspired by 
 love of booty and liatred of the Spaniards, he j)hindered and burned 
 their cities, and took and rifled their galleons. He then sailed 
 along the coast from the Spanish possessions northward'as far, so 
 some claim, as Queen Charlotte Islands and called it all New 
 Albion. Drake's success inspired other Jlnglish adventurers, 
 notably the famous Cavendish, who in 1687 followed Drake's 
 course aroinid tho Horn, and again ravished the "Spanish Main." 
 But, with the exception of the voyage (1692) of Juan do Fuca, a 
 Gieek pilot in the service of tho Spanish viceroy of Mexico, to the 
 straits which bear his name, no authentic record remains of any 
 visit to what is now the coast of British Columbia prior to Captain 
 Cook's third voyage in 1778 ; so that for many years to come 
 attention may be confined to the Atlantic coast and the progress 
 of discovery and settlement there. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE INDIAN TRIBES OF CANADA. 
 
 Indian Tradition Vagiie. — The history of the Indian prior 
 to the discovery of America rests on more tradition. To him the 
 art of writing was unknown. Even for what took place between 
 Cartier's visits and the end of the sixteenth century we have only 
 vaguest legend. From the year 1600 onward, however, we have 
 records, more or less trustworthy, of the various conflicts between 
 the European and the Indian in the different regions into which 
 settlers, fur traders and explorers pushed their way. 
 
 Eastern Groups.— Two main groups, speaking languages 
 radically distinct, were found by the earliest northern colonists. 
 These were the Algonquin and the Huron-Iroquois, the latter so 
 named from its two most important members. In each of these 
 
10 IIISTOUY OF CANADA. 
 
 groupH thcro wero iiuiiiurouH ti'n)c>H, difR^rin^, HoiiiotimoH Hlightly, 
 soinotimcH vory iiutrkt'dly, in dialect. Tho iluron-InxjuoiH Htood 
 at tho top of tlio Indian Hocial Hcalo. Tlusy lived within woU- 
 inarkud liinitH, had a rudu political Hy.steni, and took Hoino part of 
 thuir living from tho Hoil. Tho Alj^oncpiinM, almost without 
 oxception, lived hy tho chaHo alone, and were in conHo<iuonce more 
 nomadic in their hahits. 
 
 Huron-Iroquois Group— (1) The Iroquois. Tho TroquoiH 
 occnpied a Htretch of country from the llud.s(»n River westward 
 up tho Mohawk, and across what is now tho State of Now York, 
 nearly to tho Niagara lliver. They wero of tivo distinct triboH, 
 named (in order from tho east) Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, 
 Cayugas and Senecas, all joined together in loose political union, 
 with a counnon council-Hro at Onondaga. They wero further 
 interiaced by a system of clanshi[>, running through all the tribes 
 and yet distinct from tho tribal connection. Each of tho seven or 
 eight clans bore the name of some animal, a picture of which 
 was frecpiently rudely daubed upon tho houses of its members. 
 This was known as tho totem of tho clan. Wo road of the clans 
 of the Bear, the Wolf, tho Turtle, and others. 
 
 These five tribes together are sometimes called "Indians of the 
 Long-House," their wide stretching confederacy being likened to 
 a typical lro(piois dwelling, Tho sides of these dwellings were 
 formed of two rows of upright saplings bent over at tho top to 
 form an ai?h, and bound strongly together with cross saplings. 
 Al<mg tho whole of this framework a covering of bark was laid 
 nearly to the top, nuich after the modern clapboard fashion. 
 These dwellings varied in length from 30 to 150 feet, and were 
 usually about 20 feet in width. In each of them lived a number 
 of families, each group of fcmr having a comm<m tire. Thus down 
 the centre there would be a row of these fires, the smoke from 
 which found escape through the space left open along the top. 
 
 At a time when rivers and creeks were the only highways, and 
 the canoe was the <mly carriage, the natural advantage of the 
 Iroquois* position was very marked. They occupied a central 
 watershed, the streams from which gave them outlets for hunting 
 or war in every direction — westward to the valley of the Ohio, 
 southward and south-eastward to tho Atlantic seaboard, and north- 
 ward by Lake Ontario and the water system of Lake Champlain 
 
llIsroKY OF CANADA. 11 
 
 () tho entire valley of the St. Luwronco. Along the northoni 
 iliuii) of Tijtko Ontario, uiid down both HidoH of tho St. Ijiwrenco to 
 lie rapitls of Ijiichinu, thuro was priiiiuval foroHt to tho wator'H 
 (ii^c!. In fact, tho country of tho TrrM|uoiH was Hurroundod on all 
 ;i(lr.s by a Htrotch of wildornoHH through which thuy huntud in 
 i;ivii;^'o niastory. 
 
 (2) The Neutrals.— Of kin to these wero tho Indians of tho 
 S\ iitrul nation, whoso homo lay along tho north shore of Lake Erie 
 11(1 stretched eastward across tho Niagara River into tho State of 
 S^ow York. Their name doncttes the position they occupied when 
 irst l)rought into contact with the French. They stood neutral 
 jt'twoen tho Iro(|uois c(tnfedoracy and the Huron tribes. 
 
 (3) The Hurons. Those occui)ied the region l)etweon Lake 
 Miiicoe and the (Jeorgian Uay. They lived in [)alisaded villages, 
 ,11(1 in population are sometimes plactid as high as .'iO,(MM). They 
 illfd the soil, and carried on a rude traffic as middlemen between 
 hv Neutral and Tobacco nations on the one hand, and tho tribes 
 (f the Ottawa valley ^on the other, exchanging tho corn of tho 
 
 •nner for the furs of the latter. The Tobacco nation lived among 
 u! Blue Mountains to the west of tho Hurons, and wore in close 
 illiiuico with them against the Irixiuois, their connnon foe. Indian 
 (irn was the chief agricultural product of all these tril)os, and we 
 i.ive many anuising accounts of the different styles in which this 
 ureal was served. The usual form was "sagamite," a kind of 
 )(>iridgo mixed with scraps .of game or fish. 
 The Algonquin Group.— The other main group of eastern 
 ndians was the Algoncjuin, the numerous tribes of which lay in a 
 
 wide circle around the Huron-Iro(|uois centre. Beginning as far 
 (iiitli as Virginia, they occupied the Atlantic seaboard and stretched 
 lirough New England, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, along tho 
 
 iitntliern heights of the lower St. Lawrence valley, thence up the 
 
 Ottawa, past Lake Nipissing, and across the head of the Georgian 
 3ay and Lake Huron to Lake Superior ; thence down the western 
 mre of Lake Michigan, through Illinois, Michigan and Ohio, they 
 
 extended in a wide circle even into Kentucky.* With tho exception 
 
 * Tkihal Divisions. — They were known by various namca— Abe nakig in Maine, 
 Mii'mam in Nova Scotia and eastern New Brunswif'k, Etchemiiis or Malaeiles in 
 western New Brunswick, Mnnfagnnu between tho lower St. Lawrence and Hudson 
 Bay, Atticamegucs behind Three Rivers, La Petite Nation and Nation de PIsle on 
 
12 HISTOUY OF CANADA. 
 
 of tho moro Houthorly tribes of Now Eiij^ljind and a fuw in Acadis 
 tho whole of this Alyon<[uin group lived entirely by tho chaKe 
 Their dwellingH woro mere temporary wigwaiiis, ea.sily put up am 
 easily aban<loned. To gorge in Hunnuer and starvo in wintii 
 HooniH to have been their usual lot. In conseciuence of tho furioii 
 enmity of tho Ir xjuois, tho llurons liadJ)een forced into allianct 
 with tho Algon(piin tribes to tho north and north-east of tlit 
 Huron country. To these the River Ottawa (then called tlit 
 River o? tho AlgoiKpiins) was tho great highway by which tho fup 
 of these northerly regions were brought to tho rendezvous a 
 Montreal or to Three Jiivers. 
 
 "Western Groups, lieyond the groat lakes wore variouj 
 groups of Dakotah stock. On tho head waters of tho Mississippi 
 were the Sioux, a group of fierce tribes sometimes called the 
 Iroquois of tho Plains. North uf these, in what is now Manitoba, 
 wore tho Assinil)oels. Farther west, the various tribes of th« 
 Croes hunted the buffalo over our north-western ])rairies. Tht 
 Chippowyans occupied tho more northerly region around tho Great 
 Slave Lake and Lake Athaba.ska. Beycmd tho Rockies were 
 numerous tribes, forming a group to which, of late years, tho name 
 Mongoloid has been given to denote their likeness to tho Mongoliaiu 
 of northern Asia. Many years, however, were to elapse before 
 Europeans came into contact with these western groups. 
 
 The Esquimaux. — On our Arctic slope, living in snow-built 
 huts, are tho simple but picturescpio Esquimaux. Through the 
 opening up of tho Hudson Bay region they became well known 
 early in our history. Being of a very peaceful disposition, they 
 offered no oppo.sition to European exploration and settlement. 
 Their stout, fur-clad figures, their dog-trains, and tlie "])lubber' 
 (walrus fat) on which they live, have become familiar to us througli 
 stories of Arctic adventure. 
 
 Character and Habits. — To the early Europeans tho Indian 
 was not an attractive figure. They describe him as^of unclean 
 habits and without morals. Master of woodcraft, he was seen at 
 
 and north of the Ottawa, and Nipifisings around tho lake of that name. To the west, 
 at tho outlet of Lake Superior, were the Ottaicas and Ojihways. Dovn the western 
 shore of Lake Michigan were many tribes, Foxes, Sacs, Menomenees, Winnebago!. 
 The Illinois and Miamis through Michigan and southern Ohio completed tho circle. 
 The name Algonquin is sometimes given to a single tribe on the upper reaches of the 
 Ottawa, but it belongs properly to the entire group. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 13 
 
 lis best whon Iniatiiij^. U[)<m tho war-puth ho was cruol, toma- 
 i.iwkiiig, HCfilpiii}^ iind tortiirinj^ witli tioiidish inj^onuity. A stoic 
 uititiiilo when liim.sflf tortuictl whh uhoiit liin only huroic ({uulity. 
 II his own vIIIh^u uiiiong IiIh own clanHnion hu Hpcnt Iuh time in 
 ;;iiiil)liMg, Htory-telling, .»r taking part in H(»nio rudo fuaHt. In h'm 
 loiiii'stic lifo tho Indian was iiot without virtuoH, and his scjuaw and 
 jjipooseH woro troatod with a soniowliat rough and caroluss kind- 
 it'ss. To his triho ho was usually faithful, thougii to his f<joH falso 
 
 INDIAN VILLA(iE, WITU TOTEM POLES, BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 and crafty. Indian religion was purest superstition, peopling 
 forost, stream and air with supernatural beings, both good and 
 evil. Every manifestation of nature was the work of some par- 
 ticular deity. Of one God over all he seems to have had no idea, 
 and his notion of heaven was of a happy hunting-ground where 
 dejjarted spirits would have full enjoyment of every sensual and 
 savage desire. 
 
 Wampum Belts. — As already stated, the Indians knew not 
 tho art of writing. Rough pictures, drawn on the bark of trees, 
 
14 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 served to convey ideas when this coidd not be done by word o! 
 mouth or appropriate gesture. Wampum belts, however, were 
 their official documents, by means of which comnmnication bt 
 tween tribes was carried on. In earlier years a wam[)vuu belt was 
 made of many-colored shells sewn together, often with extreme 
 skill and nicety. Afterwards, cheap beads from Europe took the 
 place of the shells. These belts varied in width, and were often 
 many feet in length. By the arrangement of the beads a meaning 
 was given them. Every savage embassy carried its message of 
 peace or war portrayed upon a cluster of wampum belts. Treaties 
 were thus preserved, for, as has been said, each clause and almost 
 each sentence of every treaty was punctuated by one of these 
 belts. Men skilled in their interpretation stood high in honor 
 among the Indian tribes. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE FOUNDER OF NEW FRANCE. 
 
 Renewed Efforts Toward Colonization.— With the return 
 of peace to France toward the close of the sixteenth century, public 
 attention was again turned to the New World. Henry IV., better 
 known as Henry of Navarre, determined that another effort should 
 be made to colonize New France, and to that end he offered a 
 monopoly of the fur trade to anycme who would undertake to jjlant 
 a French colony there. The first attempt to establish a settle- 
 ment was made (1600-1601) at Tadoussac, at the mouth of the 
 Saguenay, to which spot the Montagnais Indians long resorted, 
 even from the shores of Hudson Bay. But the rigor of the 
 Tadoussac winter prevented any permanent European settlement 
 there, and the place became a mere summer trading-post. 
 
 Champlain. — In 1603 an expedition was sent out to find, if 
 possible, a suitfible site for settlement farther up the St. Lawrence. 
 With this expedition went one who has been well called the 
 Founder of New France — Samuel Champlain. He was first of 
 official explorers after Jaccjues Cartier, and by his published narra- 
 tives and charts he soon made kno^vn to Europe the geography of 
 that New France to which for so many years the traders of the 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 15 
 
 SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN. 
 
 north had resorted for fish and fur. But hia ambition went far 
 beyond the mere making of maps of known regions ; his ever- 
 cherished hjpe was to find the long-sought passage through to 
 China. On his first voyage to 
 Canada in KJO.'i Champhiin made 
 a survey of the river as far up 
 as Jacques Cartier had ventured 
 over sixty years before. Stada- 
 C(jna was gone, Hochehiga had 
 vanished, and Indians of Algon- 
 quin stock roamed over the coun- 
 try which formerly the Huron- 
 Iroquois had ruled from their 
 palisaded towns. Champlain 
 heard from these Algonquins 
 vague stories of the streams and 
 lakes beyond the rapids of La- 
 chine (Sault St. Louis). But, 
 although he was delighted with 
 
 the region through which he passed, he made no attempt on this 
 occasion to establish a settlement. 
 
 Acadia Pounded. — Meanwhile a Frenoli noble named de 
 Monts had secured a monopoly of the fur trade. His scheme of 
 colonization was planned for Acadia (Acadie), by which name Nova 
 Scotia, New Brunswick and a great part of the State of Maine were 
 for many years known. Champlain was again sent by the king 
 with the expedition, which was led by de Monts in person. 
 There were also on board others of the French noblesse, besides 
 artisans, laborers and clergymen, both Catholic and Protestant, 
 for the colony was to be founded on the principle of religious 
 freedom. Along the soutlurn shore of what is now Nova Scotia, 
 a trading-ship in command, of one Rossignol, trading in breach of 
 do Monts' monopoly, was taken as lawful prize, and to this day the 
 name of the unlucky captain appears upon the maj) of Nova Scotia. 
 Poutrincourt, one of the gentlemen of the expedition, was par- 
 ticularly pleased with the scene which lay before the ship's com- 
 pany in Annapolis Basin (called by them Port Royal), and he 
 persuaded de Monts to grant to him the surrounding country. 
 
 The colony itself, however, was first planted on the rocky island 
 
16 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 of St. Croix (now Doucett's or Neutral Island), at the mouth of 
 the River St. Croix, which fonns part of the present boundary 
 line between New Brunswick and the State of Maine. Here a 
 somewhat pretentious array of fort, barracks, and officers' quarters 
 was constructed. Here, too, after a sununer spent in exploring 
 the coast, Champlain wintered (1604-1605) with de Monts and 
 his coloniss. Penned in upon the small island, the little company 
 fell a prey to scurvy, and nearly one-half of them were dead before 
 spring. After a vain search southward along the New England 
 shore for a spot to their liking, it was determined to remove the 
 colony to Port Royal, where, after erecting the necessary buildings, 
 the diminished colony passed the next two years. 
 
 f-nMaj^jgg|5E 
 
 champlain's sketch of port royal. 
 
 Life at Port Royal. — In the summer of 1607 Port Royal was 
 enlivened by the coming of one Marc Lescarbot, to whose pen we 
 are indebted for a graphic picture of life in this the only white 
 settlement then in North America. Champlain explored all 
 summer, making charts of the bays and harbors. Lescarbot tilled 
 the soil, and wrote his book. When winter came (1606-1607), 
 tho company was organized into the "Good Time Club" with 
 the result, as Lescarbot tells us, that the little colony fared as 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 17 
 
 sumptuously a.s if in Paris on the fish and game with which the 
 district abounded. 
 
 The Colony Abandoned. —With the spring of 1607 bad news 
 came ; de Monts' monopijly had fallen before the attacks of the 
 angry merchants of St. Malo. As the profits of this monopoly 
 were the sole supp<jrt of the colony, tlie colonists had perforce to 
 abandon Port Royal and return to France. In KilO, however, 
 Poutrincourt again came out to Acadia with a fresh supply of 
 colonists, v'iio fcjund the old buildings still standing and the 
 Indians delighted at the return of the French. Port Royal once 
 more became the scene of much activity until, in the sunnner of 
 1G12, its prospects were again rudely blighted. England claimed 
 all this region by virtue of its discovery by the Cabots more 
 than one hundred years before ; and now Samuel Argall, from 
 the colony lately established on the banks of the James River 
 in Virginia, uprooted Port Royal as an encroachment on British 
 soil. Poutrincourt in despair abandoned the task f^i colonization. 
 His son, however, and a few of the '^(jhmists remained in Acadia, 
 where they carried on for some years a trade in furs with their 
 Micmac friends. 
 
 Champlain Pounds Quebec. — Meanwhile de Monts had 
 secured a fresh monopoly for one year on condition that Cham- 
 plain should plant a colony on the St. Lawrence as a base for 
 further exploration westward. At the mouth of the St. Charles, 
 where Jac(][ues Cartier had first wintered more than seventy years 
 before, Quebec, oldest of American cities, was founded in 1608 
 under the shadow of Cape Diamond on the narrow strand between 
 rock and water. The name "Quebec" signifies a strait, for here 
 the St. Lawrence pours its rapid fiood through a contracted chainiel 
 between Cape Diamond on the north and the rocky heights of P(jint 
 Le'vis on the south. Down at Tadoussac rival Bas({ue and Spanish 
 fishermen fought with the French for a share in the fur trade. 
 Champlain had scarcely landed his colonists at Quebec before he 
 discovered that some of his men were plotting to kill him and to 
 hand the colony over to the Spaniards. The ringleader of the plot 
 was hanged, and his chief accomplices were sent to France to 
 expiate their crime in the galleys. The winter of 1608-1609 was 
 one of extreme severity, and scurvy so thinned the ranks that out 
 of twenty-eight men only eight survived until spring. 
 3 
 
18 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 First Encounter "with the Iroquois.— Champlain has 
 been much blamed for allowing himself to be drawn into the 
 Indian wars. Ajjparently there was no lielp for it. If he would 
 have the friendship of the Algoncpiins of the Ottawa, up which 
 he meant to pursue his westward search, ho had to take up 
 their quarrel with the Ircxjuois. So it came that, in 1609, Cham- 
 plain with some of his men accompanied a party of Hurons and 
 Algoncpiins up the Richelieu River and out into the lake which 
 ever since that time has borne his name. On its western shore, 
 near the site of the future f(jrt Ticonderoga, the Frenchmen met 
 for the first time the fierce warriors of the ccjufederacy. These 
 came on bravely, but the French arqueljus spouted death and 
 inspired such dismay that Champlain and his dusky allies gained 
 a complete victory. 
 
 A Trip up the Ottawa. — In 1610 Henry Hudson sailed into 
 the great bay which honrH his name. A young man, who had been 
 sent to spend a winter with some of Champlain's Indian ^riends up 
 the Ottawa, came l)ack with a lying tale of a trip he h..d taken from 
 t' Uj)per Ottawa through to Hudson Bay, and of an English 
 wreck he had seen there. Champlain hastened up the Ottawa 
 (1613), to Allumette Island, only to find that the rascally youth had 
 taken no such journey, and that the Indians knew not of any 
 passage through to Hudson Bay. On this, his first trip up the 
 Ottawa, Champlain lost the astrolabe which, in 1867, was turned 
 up by the plough near Muskrat Lake in Renfrew County. 
 
 Early Missions. — In 1615 the Recollet fathers arrived in 
 Canada with a royal patent for the mission of New France. It is 
 said that one of them, (m his journeys among the savages of the 
 Saguenay, reached the Esquimaux. Another joined a party of 
 Hurons at Montreal and returned with them to the Huron country 
 by their well-known route — up the Ottawa, across to Lake Nipissing. 
 down French River to the Georgian Bay ; then southward through 
 the labyrinth of rock-ribbed islands that stud its eastern shore they 
 paddled to the landing place in Thunder Bay. Champlain with 
 another party followed shortly after, arriving in time to take part 
 in the first celebration of the mass in a Huron village. 
 
 A Raid on the Iroquois. — Champlain had promised to lead 
 another expedition against the Iroquois, and soon the Huron braves 
 and their French leader were on their way over Lake Simcoe (1615). 
 
20 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 By the valley of the Trent River they reached the Bay of Quinte. 
 CroHHing the eastern end of Lake Ontario from where Kingston 
 now lies, the little band landed in the lro<{Uoi8 country on the 
 south shore of the lake, and after a long march through the wooded 
 wilderness attacked an Irocjuois village near Lake Oneida. The 
 Oneidas, however, were on their guard, and a sh(jwer of arrows 
 greeted the assaihmts. Champlain, hitherto deemed invulnerable, 
 was wounded l)y an arrow, and had to be carried from the tield, and 
 in dismay his savage allies fell back. Unused to the slow process 
 of a siege, they soon gave up the attack and retreated to their (^wn 
 country, hunting leisurely by the way when once Lake Ontario had 
 been recrossed. 
 
 Monopoly Retards Settleraent. — From this time Cham- 
 pla'n'a attention was devoted chiefly to the colony at Quebec. Of 
 further exploration by him westward we have no record. For a 
 time, after de Monts' monopoly expired, the trade of the St. 
 Lawrence had been free to all comers, and in IGll Champlain 
 had met as many as thirteen rival trading vessels at Montreal, a 
 favorite rendezvous for the Algonquins of the Ottawa. But a 
 trading company was soon formed, and to it a new monopoly was 
 given. Champlain found that this monopoly was a sore hindrance 
 to colonization, for none but the company's employees found a 
 welcome at Quebec. During sunnner all was life and bustle; 
 during winter all was stagnation and ofttimes nearly starvation 
 among the few settlers. He'bert, who came in 1617, was the only 
 one who tilled the soil to any puri3ose, using oxen first in 1628. 
 That Champlain himself was honestly eager for the colonization 
 of New France is shown by the fact that in 1620 he brought 
 out his young wiie, who lived at Quebec for four years. On the 
 heights behind the little settkxiient Fort St. Louis was built, 
 facing the river from the edge of the rocky plateau on which 
 now lies the Upper Town of Quebec. 
 
 The Iroquois Retalip.te. — The Iroquois, who had now lost 
 their terror of the French, soon began to be troublesome along the 
 upper St. Lawrence, to which they had ready access by way of 
 Lake Champlain and tlie Richelieu. At times they entirelj?^ 
 blocked the way to and from the upper OttaAva, leaving the 
 mission among the Hurons in dire straits for lack of the usual 
 supplies from Quebec. The RecoUet fathers had built the mission 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 21 
 
 house of Notre Dame den Anges on the meadows near the mouth 
 of the St. Charles close to Quebec. This the Iroquois braves 
 actually attacked in 1622, and only with difficulty were they 
 beaten off. 
 
 The Hundred Associates. — The great Cardinal Richelieu 
 was now the ruling spirit in France. The Huguenots had broken 
 into open rebellion, and in 1()27 Richelieu was besieging their 
 great stronghold, Rochelle. In camp before that city a new plan 
 was devised for the government of New France. The exclusion 
 of the Huguenots was decieed ; none but Catholics were to be 
 admitted to the colony. Upon this condition the soil of New 
 France, with full power of government and a monopoly of trade, 
 was granted to the "Company of New France," usually known 
 as the Hundred Associates. 
 
 England Captures the Colony, 1629.— For some years 
 the Hundred Associates were not able to take possession of their 
 domain. Charles I. of England took up the Huguenot cause and 
 declared war against France. A great naval force sent to relieve 
 llochelle fared disastrously. Better fortune followed the fleet sent 
 out under David Kirke in 1628 to take possession of New France. 
 Sailing up to Tadoussac, he sent a courteous summons to Cham- 
 })lain to surrender Quebec. Though the colony was nearly starved 
 and its puny fort but a poor defence, Champlain put on a bold 
 front and sent so determined a message back to Kirke that he 
 refrained that year from attacking the place. Off Tadoussac, how- 
 ever, he met a powerful French fleet, which had been sent out 
 by the Hundred Associates with supplies and colonists for Quebec. 
 In the battle which followed Kirke was victorious, capturing many 
 of the ships and destroying the rest. Satisfied with his booty he 
 sailed for England. Quebec, reduced to feed on roots, dragged 
 out a miserable winter ; and when Kirke returned next year (1629) 
 Champlain in despair surrendered the colony. Its total popu- 
 lation at this time scarcely reached one hundred, so blighting 
 had been the eftect of the monopoly. For the next three years 
 Quebec was occupied by an English garrison, who made much 
 profit out of the fur trade during their stay and gained some 
 knowledge of the regions to the west. 
 
 Rival Claims in Acadia. — In Acadia, meanwhile, fishing and 
 the fur trade had been actively carried on by the French. At 
 
22 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 the mouth of tho St. John River, in what is now Now Brunswick, 
 Fort St. Jolui had heon l)uilt. It whs tho centre of the fur trade 
 of the district watered by tho river and its tributaries. Miscou, 
 at the entrance to the Bay of Chaleur, was the main tishing station. 
 The sovereignty of France, however, was not un([uestioned. 
 England pressed her claim to Acadia, and in 1()21 James I. granted 
 it all to William (afterwards Sir William) Alexander, under the 
 name now borne by part of it — Nova Scotia. Wide powers of 
 government were also conferred, but for many years the lord of 
 this wide domain was content to send out an annual trading 
 expediti(m. With a view to aid this enterprise the order of Nova 
 Scotia Baronets was established. The i)rice of the title was a 
 liberal subscription to the scheme of coloniaition. In 1028 Kirke's 
 fleet, on its way to Tadoussac, landed a number of Scotchmen 
 near Port Royal, and for some time the Scotch settlement and 
 a French fort (St. Louis) near Capo Sable existed side by side. 
 
 New France Restored. — During this war between France 
 and England, the first fort on Cape Breton was built by the 
 English as part of Sir William Alexander's enterprise. It was 
 almost immediately captured by the French and demolished. 
 With the Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye (10.'i2), New France, 
 including Acadia, was restored to the French king. The English 
 king received in return the promise that some £10,000 of arrears 
 of his wife's dowry should be no longer withheld ! 
 
 The Last Days of Champlain. — Champlain's life-work was 
 nearly done. He returned indeed to Quebec in 1G33 as governor 
 for the Hundred Associates, built a fort at Three Rivers (1634), 
 and set on foot plans for further western exploration. His health, 
 however, failed and he asked for his recall. Before his successor 
 could be named a kindly fate closed his eyes in death on Christmas 
 Day, 1636, while he was still governor of that New France to 
 which his life had been devoted. 
 
HISTOUY OF CANADA. 23 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE HUNDRED ASSOCIATES — JESUIT MISSIONS. 
 
 A New Beginning. — In lO.'J.'J tho Hundnid AHsociates took 
 posHossioii of Ciuifula. Iii ruturn for their hugo land g^'ant, thoir 
 monopoly, and tho right to govern tho country as they might see 
 tit, they engaged to settle four tlunisand colonists in New France 
 within ten years. They undertook, also, to protect these settlers 
 and to support missions. For some years the temporal concerns 
 of the colony were managed by the governor alone,* acting under 
 instructions from tho comjjany in Paris. The solo spiritual care 
 of the colony was confided to the Jesuits. 
 
 Settlement Neglected. — The company made some sliow at 
 first of performing their promise to bring in settlers. Two hundred 
 colonists came to Canada with Champlain (10.3^?), but many oi these 
 afterwards returned to France. Large tracts of land called 
 Seigneiiries were granted to members and friends of the company 
 on condition that settlers should be put upon them. Up to 
 l(i63 there were over sixty of these grants, but no attempt was 
 made to enforce the condition. Tho full enjoyment of their 
 monopoly would be lost to the fur traders if the wilderness were 
 to give place to settlements, and so the Hundred Associates 
 quietly ignored the obligation imposed upon them by their 
 charter. For the next thirty years (1633-160,3) the history of 
 Canada is but tho history of the fur trade and tho Jesuit missions, 
 and of the struggles of both to hold their own aj_,,iinst the 
 aggressive Iroquois. 
 
 The Fur Traders. — During this period the population of 
 New France consisted of four distinct cLasses. The first, for 
 many years the largest, consisted of the fur traders connected 
 
 * Early Governors.— Champlain was the first governor of New France under 
 the Hundred Associates. He was succeeded by Montmagny, a pious Knight of Malta, 
 who held office for twelve years (1636-1648). His name, translated into the language 
 of the Iroquois, Onontio ("great mountain"), was used to describe all future gover- 
 nors. D'Ailleboust (1648-16r)l) was the third governor under the company. He was 
 followed by de Lauson (1651-1658), an active fur trader and land speculator. In 1658 
 d'Argenson became governor. He was recalled (1661) owing to Jesuit influence 
 brought to bear in France by Laval. D'Avaugour (1661-1663) was the last of the 
 governors under the Hundred Associates. He, too, fell before the influence of the 
 Jesuits. 
 
24 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 witli tho conipHiy. TIioho woro not colonists. They wore tl 
 nioro tlojitinj^ population j^athorod at tho tra<linj^ posts during tlul 
 Hununur months. All of thuni roally livod in Franco. Thoy cainej 
 to Canada to niak" money, and most of them returned to Fiance] 
 to H[)end it. 
 
 The Jesuits. Tho second class consisted of tho Jesuits and! 
 those connecrul with their work in (.-anada. At Quebec a seminary 
 for tho traininfj; of priests, a hospital (Hotel Diou), and a c(mvent 
 of Ursuline ninis were estahlishcd, and life there was marked 
 by much religious zeal. At the other trading posts, too, the 
 priests of the order looked after tho spiritual wants of the little 
 comnuuiity. To them was entrusted also tho task of converting 
 the savage tribes to Christianity, and thoy at once entered again 
 upon that mission work which the ca{)turo of Quebec by Kirko 
 had interrupted. In their prosecution of it no obstacle was too 
 great to be overcome. With a zeal beyond all praise, these heroic 
 priests were over ready to face a lonely life in remote and filthy 
 Indian villages or to meet d(jath in shape of direst torture, all — 
 in the words of their order "to God's greater glory." 
 
 The Coureurs de Bois.— The third class were tho pictur- 
 esque conreiirs de hois (bushrangers). The company's monopoly 
 of the fur trade and tho strict religious life of tho settlements 
 drove these adventurous spirits to seek freedom of life and trade 
 among the Indians of the west. Thoy adapted themselves to the 
 Indian mode of life, and soon became as skilled in woodcraft as 
 their dusky friends. Many of them married Indian maidens, and 
 to this day their half-breed descendants are to bo found in northern 
 Ontario, Manitoba and the North-West. Their hooded blanket- 
 coats, girt with a red sash, and their snow-shoes, are familiar to us 
 through many a tale of Indian adventure. 
 
 The Habitants. — The fourth class were the real colonists — 
 for many years few in number — who settled on the land of New 
 France. The name given to them, habitants (inhabitants), indi- 
 cates that they were looked upon as permanent residents. Tho 
 Hundred Associates failed to provide any military force as a pro- 
 tection against the inroads of the Iroquois, so that, for many years, 
 the settlers lived in much dread of their prowling bands. Apart 
 from this, the habitants found little difficulty in making a comfort- 
 able living from the rich soil of the St. Lawrence valley. 
 
HISTOIIY OF CANADA. 25 
 
 The English and the Dutch. — Duriiif^ tho occupntion of 
 (^)ui'Ik!1! by tho Kiij^UhIi they h.id oHtuhlislunl h triwlo with tho 
 lihliiius of tho St. Lawroncu. ChaiuplHiii put an ond to Uuh by 
 Imiltling tho fort at Throo Rivers to inturoept tho Indian canooH 
 beforo thoy could roaoh tho wider river }<elow Quebec. But, 
 while tho population of New Franco increaHod very Hlowly, New 
 En^Jlaujl was ra{)idly filling up with thrifty T*uritan HottlerH. The 
 Dutch also had, at tluH tiuio, a North Auierican colony, which 
 they called New NetherhmdH, alojig both h'uIvh of tho IIudHon 
 Kivcr. Thoy had already a po.st at Orango (now Albany), from 
 which til ir tradia.s carried on an active traffic with tho Mohawks 
 and tho other nieud)ers of tho Jroipiois connnunity. In return 
 fur furs they Hupplied these fiorco warriors with tiro-arnis ah>ng 
 with other less harmful wares. 
 
 The Upper Lakes. As early as 1634 Jean Nicdlet, first 
 (if the conrenrs de boisy had penetrated to tho region beyond 
 Lake Michigan. Had Chauii)lain lived, this feat would, no doubt, 
 have been eagerly followed up. For Homo years, however, the 
 work of exploration was left to the Jesuit fathers. Tho centre 
 of tho Jesuit mission anumg tho Hurons was at Ste. Mario (»n tho 
 little River Wye, which empties into Matchedash Ray at a short 
 distance east of tho ju'esent town of Midland. Hero tho Jesuit 
 fathers lived within rude fortifications, dispensing a generous 
 hospitality to their savage flock. From this centre tho zealous 
 priests were spread through all the surrounding country. Some 
 of them even travelled as far north as Sa.Jt Ste. Marie, at tho out- 
 let of Lake Superior. Tho fur traders soon followed, and thus 
 tho geography of tho upper lakes became w«dl known before the 
 St. Lawrence from Montreal to Lake Ontario was travelled by 
 a white man, and while tho regions to the south around Lake 
 Erie were, as yet, known <»rdy through vague Indian rumor. 
 
 Montreal Founded (1642). — Quebec and Three Rivers 
 were long the only settlements and — with Tadoussac — tho chief 
 centres of the fur trade. Tho trading post at the foot of tho 
 Lachine Rapids was merely a summer rendezvous where the fur 
 traders met the Indians from up the Ottawa. Here, in 1642, 
 Montreal was founded. The enterprise was a purely religious 
 one, undertaken by two pious gentlemen of France — the priest 
 Olier, better kno^vn as the founder of tho Sulpician Order, and the 
 
26 IIISTOIIV OF CANADA. 
 
 iiiorchant DauvurHiiro. With oUiur kindrod HpiritH they plunnod a 
 town to bo known ftH Ville Murle de Montmil. Horo, in honor 
 »>f tho Holy Fjiinily, ii hospital, convont, an<l Hominary woro to 
 be built, and around thi.s rtili^iouN uHtabliHhnient a Huttloniuiit 
 was nxpoctod to grow up. Tho Imder of tho ox[)odition was the 
 Holdior Maisonnouvo, who continuod to bo for many yoars tho 
 governor of Montreal and its bravo defender. Tho llunamd 
 AHHociates looked upon this onterpriHo with littlo favor. Thoy 
 thought it a scheme to rob tliem of part of their fur trade. 
 Montreal, however, had influential support in Franco, and soon 
 ac({uired weight in tho atiairs of the colony. 
 
 La Compagnie des Habitants.— Until 1645 tho Hundred 
 AsHociates' trade monopoly was in reality tho monopoly of some 
 eight merchants living chiefly in Franco, who had come to tho 
 help of the company in its eaily days when tho war botwoen 
 Franco and Fngland had brought it to tho vorgo of bankruptcy. 
 Complaint being now made to tho king that no colonization was 
 taking place, he ordered that tho monopoly should bo given up to 
 the people of the colony. Thereupon cortjiin Canadian traders, 
 agents of tho old c()m[)any and others, formed a combination 
 (1645), and by wdling themselves "The Habibmts' Company" 
 (La CompiKjnie des HahitanU)^ secured control of the fur trade. 
 In their hands it still continued a close monopoly. Tho Hundred 
 Associates, moreover, still remained lords of the soil of New 
 France, and still received a share in the profits of the fur trade. 
 In this same year (1645) tho first Canadian council was formed, 
 to assist the governor in carrying on tho aftairs of the colony. 
 The inhabitfints of Quebec and Three Rivers were, for a time, 
 represented in this council by their syndics, but this step toward 
 popular government was very soon retraced, and the council 
 became the mere mouth-piece «f the company. 
 
 The Huron Mission Attacked.— During all these years 
 the Iroquois were the relentless foes of tho French. They infested 
 the St. Lawrence valley and entirely cut off at times the fur trade 
 with the Hurons and Algonquins of the upper Ottawa. Their war 
 with their Huron kinsmen was carried on with varying success. 
 Upon the whole, however, the balance inclined very clearly to the 
 side of the Iroquois, who, in 1649, determined to close in upon 
 the Huron country and put an end to the war at one stroke. At 
 
UISTORY OK CANADA. 27 
 
 Huh time thuro wuro at Sto. Mario-oii-tluj-Wyo, in H(l(liti(m to tho 
 rt'sidoiit fHthoi-H, a nuiiihur of dovotud luymt-u, mul n. fow HoUlicrs, 
 who hfid iniwiugc'd to curry with thoiu from Quebec h hiiuiU CHimon 
 for tlio protection of tlio fort. Tii tho HpriuK <'f l'>4*> the onsliiii^,'ht 
 caiiH'. Tho Iro<iuois cuiiio in upon them from tho Houtli, and the 
 outlying poHt of St. Ignaco wuh tho tirst to fall. Hero Father 
 Daniel, bravely administering tho last consolationH of religion t<» 
 his falling Hock, was Htruck down. Tho Irocpioiw then attacke<l 
 St. liouis, and after a vigorous defence it, too, was taken. Here 
 two Jesuit fathers, Brelxeuf and lialemant, wisro captured and 
 put to death with fiendish torture. Then, alarmed by a rumor 
 that tho Huron braves were gathering in force to repel them, tho 
 Iro(|Uois rapidly retreated ; only, however, to return next year to 
 complete their work of destruction. 
 
 The Mission Abandoned.— Meanwhile Ste. Marie-on-tho- 
 Wyo was sorrowfully abandoned, and the Jesuit priests, with 
 rt'fugeeis to tho number of seven thousand from all the Huron 
 villages, spent a winter of misery on ('hristian Island. Nearly 
 oii« -half of them died before spring, and the survivors fled in 
 terror on learning that the Irotjuois weie again on the war-path. 
 From over thirty villages the Huron country sank to a desola- 
 tion. Some of tho flying Hurons were led by tho Jesuit fathers 
 by way of the Ottawa to Quebin:, and their descendants are 
 now to be found — harndess guides and basket-makers — at New 
 Lorette, not far from the ancient capital. The remainder fled to 
 the north. For a while they were to be found in the neighbor- 
 hood of the Sault Ste. Marie. Gradually they were driven farther 
 west by their relentless foes until, finally, the few survivors settled 
 in the neighborhood of Detroit. There we find them at the time 
 of tho Pontiac war (170.3), a hrave tribe under the name Wyandots. 
 
 The Iroquois Attack the Settlements.— After the 
 destruction of tho Huron villages, tho Iroquois were able to 
 devote more time to harassing the French settlers along the St. 
 Liwrence. Montreal, lying directly in their path, was an object 
 of continual attack, and pious historians aftirm that it held its 
 own ''only by a continuous miracle." At Three Rivers the 
 settlers were practically confined within the village palisades. 
 Iroquois vengeance pursued the Hurons even to their new home 
 on the Island of Orleans, opposite Quebec, and the terror of the 
 
28 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Iroquois name spread througli all the country north of the Stj 
 Lawrence. Not only was settlement disaj)y)caring ; the fur tradtj 
 itself was constantly interrupted and its profits lost. 
 
 " The Heroes of the Long Sault." — Montreal was icl 
 constant alarm. One year numerous Iro(juois bands wintered oj 
 the Ottawa River, intending to make a combined attack ocl 
 Mcmtreal in the spring (1600). The ])1()W was averted only by thel 
 heroic self-sacritice of Dollard des Ormeaiix. At the head of al 
 volunteer ])and of young men and a few Indians, he ascended the! 
 Ottawa, and took up his station in a rude entrenchment at the footj 
 of the Lt)ng Sault. As the Iroc^uois shot down the rapids, Dollard I 
 opened fire upon them from the bank. Pressed by increasing! 
 numbers, he was driven to the shelter of the fort, where for 
 eight long days he and his little band stood "savagely at bay." 
 In the end they were overpowered and ruthlessly slaughtered; 
 but in their death they mflicted so severe a loss upon the Iroquois 
 that the latter withdrew at once to their own covaitry, leaving 
 Montreal unmolested for a time. 
 
 Laval. — Up to this time New France had no bishop. The! 
 Jesuits were now all-powerful in France, and Francois de Laval 
 
 de Montigny, their nominee, 
 was sent out to Canada in 1659. 
 He was ultimately appointed 
 bishop in 1674. Throughout his 
 career in Canada, Laval was a 
 strong upholder of Jesuit princi- 
 ples. He insisted that the officers 
 of the State should give prece- 
 dence to him as the head of the 
 Church in Canada. He was 
 almost constantly engaged in 
 contests with the governors upon 
 this question. Laval, however, 
 was a man of great force of char- 
 acter, and during his time the 
 „,_^--._-^-— Church was undoubtedly exalted 
 
 over the State. His private life was one of severe simplicity. 
 His revenues were large, and from them he gave most gener- 
 ously toAvard the endowment of various religious institutions in 
 
 BISHOP LAVAL. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 29 
 
 Xt'w France. Ijiival University is a standing monument of his 
 geuorosity. 
 
 The Liquor Trafl&c. — Another cause of dispute between 
 T.;iviil and the governors was the question of selling liquor to the 
 Indians. The white man's "fire-water" had already l)egun its 
 deadly work among the native tribes. The fur traders deemed it 
 a necessary part of every canoe-lcjad of supplies sent into the 
 interior. The Jesuits looked upon the traffic as the devil's most 
 potent weapon for the ruin of their missions through the moral 
 de«n-adation of their flock. Laval tc^ok strong ground against the 
 trafiic. Church and State (the latter represented by the fur 
 traders) were thus in violent collision, and the governors were 
 forced into opposition to Laval's policy. A very violent earth- 
 ([iiake in 1663 was interpreted as a sign of Heaven's anger at the 
 sins of the colony. 
 
 The Colony in Danger. — The Iro(iuois at length became a 
 menaco to the very existence of the colony. The habitants com- 
 plained that the company neglected to provide any proper defence 
 against their skulking war parties. Pierre Boucher was sent by 
 the settlers to France to lay before the king the state of the colony. 
 Laval, too, went home to advocate a change. At this time there 
 was nuich interest taken in France in the Jesuit missions ; the 
 "Jesuit Relations" — a series of letters written l)y the brave 
 priests of the order from the scene of their daily toil — were much 
 read, and the feeling grew strong that the Iroquois nmst be put 
 down. 
 
 New France Made a Royal Province.— The result of it 
 all w{»s that in 1663 the H'niared Associates were obliged to 
 surrender their charter. New France was made a royal province, 
 to be governed thenceforward as the provinces of Old France 
 were governed, directly from the king's palace. After thirty years 
 under the rule of the Hundred Associates the populatit)n of Canada 
 did not exceed 2,000, of whom not more than live hundred were 
 real habitants. Through fear of the Irocpiois, even this scant 
 population was gathered closely around the trading centres — 
 Queljec, Three Rivers, and Montreal. The king therefore deter- 
 mined to send out a sufficient military force to put an end, once 
 for all, to Iroquois aggression. 
 
 A New Colony in Acadia.— Meanwhile stirring events were 
 
30 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 transpiring in Acadia. After the peace of St. Germain-en-Lay 
 (1()32) the Company of New France had at once taken possession, 
 sending out for that purpose one of their most influential members, 
 Isaac de Razilly, a relative of the great Richelieu. With fortv 
 families, the progenitors of the French Acadians who to-day 
 inhabit various portions of our Maritime Provinces, Razilly landi i 
 at Port Royal. The few Scotch settlers there soon became mergei 
 in the new French population. In Canada, furs were the objic 
 chiefly sought })y the Hundred Associates ; in Acadia, while 1 1n 
 fur trade was not neglected, much attention was given to the coast 
 fisheries, and a station was esta})lished at La Heve on the Atlantic 
 seaboard. Here indeed Rjizilly had designed to plant his colony, ' 
 but the soil was less fertile than in the Annapolis valley, and Poll 
 Royal soon absorbed the larger part of the population. 
 
 The Two Rivals. — Besides Razilly there were in the colony 
 two men whose later strife for leadership gives a color of romance 
 to this period of Acadia's history — La Tour and d' Aulnay-Charnis.i} . 
 Razilly was in supreme connnand during his life. La Tour was 
 lieutenant for the king on the Nova Scotian side of the Bay (f 
 Fundy, while d'Aulnay held Penobscot and was in control of the 
 west shore of the bay. Strange to say, the Hundred Associates 
 granted to La Tour a seigneurie, five leagues by ten, on the St. 
 John River, in d'Aulnay's territory. On the other hand, a 
 seigneurie, erected in La Tour's territory and comprising Port 
 Royal, afterward became the property of d'Aulnay. A third 
 seigneurie was granted by the Hundred Associates to Nicholas 
 Denys, the first governor of Cape Breton, who, aftt." an active 
 career in Acadia, returned to France and wrote a history of the 
 colony. His domain was to the east, along the gulf shore from 
 Cape Canso to Gaspe. 
 
 The Champlain of Acadia.— Razilly has been called "the 
 Champlain of Acadia." When he died in 1636, Port Royal h;id 
 been re-established ; there was a trading post at La Heve and a 
 settlement at Cape Sable (Fort St. Louis) ; d'Aulnay was in 
 coniiuand at the fortified trading post of Penobscot ; and La Tour 
 was living in much state upon his seigneurie at the mouth of the 
 St. John River. Both of them were carrying on an e,ttensive 
 trade in furs with the Indians, the posts being admirably situated 
 for that purpose. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 31 
 
 D'Aulnay Triumphs. — Very soon their trade rivalry became 
 oi)en war. D'Aulnay had the sujjport of the French court, while 
 La Tour received aid from certain Boston merchants who were 
 intercHted in his fur trade. The conflict was long. The end came 
 in 1()46, when, after a vigorous defence by the gallant Lady 
 La Tour, her husband's stronghold (Fort La Tour) at the mouth of 
 the St. John was captured by d'Aulnay while La Tour was absent 
 in Boston. Tlir lustre of this achievement was tarnished by the 
 brutal treatm^ii f Lady La Tour, who was forced to see her 
 garrison put to death, and, it is said, died of grief. From this time 
 until his death by drowning in 1650, d'Aulnay was lord of all 
 Acadia. • 
 
 Acadia Captured by New Bnglanders.— La Tour, who 
 since the capture of his stronghold, had been in Quebec, hastened 
 at once to France on hearing of his rival's death. There he 
 succeeded so well that he obtained a commission as governor and 
 lieutenant for the king in Acadia, and he followed up this success 
 by niarryin^i' d'Aulnay 's widow. But his enjoyment of his posses- 
 sions was soon rudely interrupted. In 1654 a force from Boston 
 under Major Sedgwick captured Fort La Tour and Port Royal. 
 There was no war between France and England at the moment ; 
 the attack was simply the outcome of a dispute over the boundary 
 line between Acadia and New England. Cromwell was at this time 
 protector in England. Although the Treaty of Westminster (1655) 
 provided for the appointment of commissioners to settle the boun- 
 dary dispute, none were in fact appointed until after Charles II. 
 came to the throne. Meanwhile Acadia was held by the English. 
 In this crisis La Tour, with much diplomacy, became a British 
 su])ject, and on the strength of his rank as a Nova Scotia baronet 
 procured a grant of both shores of the Bay of Fundy from Lunen- 
 burg to the St. George River in Maine. Two Englishmen, Temple 
 and Crowne, were associated with him in this grant, and to the 
 three a monopoly of the trade of the Bay of Fundy region was 
 given. 
 
 Acadia Restored to Prance. — After much negotiation, 
 England, by the Treaty of Breda in 1667, gave up all claim to 
 Acadia, Charles II., in his desire to stand well with the French 
 king, coolly sacrificing the rights of his own subjects. Temple, 
 however, to whom the order to deliver up possession was sent, 
 
32 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 to<jk objection to the description of the territory to be surrendered, 
 and in this way managed to < ijoy his monopoly until 1070, when 
 he reluctantly gave up possession to a French otticer, Grandfoii- 
 ta'ne. Seven years before this time the Hundred Associates, as we 
 have seen, had surrendered their charter. Henceforward Acadia, 
 as i)art of New France, was to be governed directly from Paris. 
 
 Other Early Settlements in Acadia.— Between Canada 
 and the post at the mouth of the St. John, through what is- now 
 New Brunswick, lay the primeval forest, broken only by scattered 
 Indian villages. Medoctec, on the St. John, was the chief fastness 
 of the Malacites of this region. Out on the gulf shore were the 
 trading and fishing posts of Nicholas Denys, who for many years 
 carried on an active traffic. At the mouth of Miramichi Bay was 
 another trading post, established as early as 1642. To this spot, 
 in 1672, came a number of French settlers from St. Malo. There 
 was also in early times a small French settlement on the Bay of 
 Chaleur, near the modern town of Bathurst. The total white 
 population of Acadia in 1670 did not exceed five hundred. 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 TALON (1065-1672). 
 
 Governor, Intendant, Bishop. — Under the new system 
 of Royal Government the three most important persons in New 
 France were the governor, the intendant, and the bishop. The 
 governor occupied the position of highest dignity. He was the 
 official head of the colony, and through him all negotiations with 
 the Indian tribes and with the English colonies -.vere conducted. 
 He was usually, too, in command of any military force there might 
 be in the colony. In addition to the governor-in-chief there were 
 also local governors at Montreal and Three Rivers. After 1678 
 the governor of Acadia also held his commission from the governor 
 at Quebec. The intendant now appears for the first time in New 
 France. His full title was "Intendant of Justice, Police and 
 Finances." He may be called the king's business manager for 
 the province. Upon him, more perhaps than upon any other 
 officer, the welfare of the colony depended. The head of the 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 33 
 
 Church in Canada at this time was Laval, afterwards its first 
 Insliop. 
 
 The Conseil Superieur.— These three, together with a body 
 (if councillors — at first five, afterwards seven, and finally twelve — 
 formed the Sovereign Council {Conseil Sonverain). This name 
 afterwards seemed to the French king too suggestive of supreme 
 power, and it was therefore changed to Superior Council (Gotiseil 
 Superieur). This council was at once a legislative body and a 
 court of justice, but in whatever capacity it acted it was subject 
 to the will of the king, whose edicts it was bound to enforce. 
 Sul)ordinate to it were royal judges at Quebec, Three Rivers, and 
 Montreal. The Canadian seigneurs were also entitled to admin- 
 ister justice upon their domains, but in nearly every seigneurie 
 this power was carefully limited to the settlement of petty disputes 
 and the punishment of trivial offences. 
 
 The Intendant's Wide Powers.— The intendant had 
 power, as the chief administrative officer of the colony, to pass, 
 without consulting the council, ordinances dealing with all such 
 matters of civil government as in his opinion required regulation. 
 He was also authorized to withdraw cases from the ordinary courts 
 , and decide them himself, if he should think it in the king's interest 
 to do so. As might be expected, disputes many and bitter arose 
 between the intendant, the governor and the council as to their 
 respective rights and duties. The king, three thousand miles 
 across the Atlantic, was the only one who could decide between 
 them with authority, and in the then state of ocean navigation 
 many months of strife would pass before his will could be made 
 known to his quarrelling officers. 
 
 De M(^zy. — De Mezy was the first governor under the new 
 system. Councillors were, at first, to be appointed by the governor 
 and Laval jointly. As the two could not agree in filling the 
 council, de Mezy proposed that there should be a popular election. 
 This proposal gave Laval a strong weapon to use against him at the 
 French court, where everything that savored of popular govern- 
 ment was frowned down. De Mezy was accordingly recalled (1665), 
 and de Courcelle was sent out to succeed him. 
 ~ The Intendant Talon. — The first intendant was Talon, a 
 man to whom New France owed much for such progress as was 
 made during this period of French rule. The ^reat Colbert was 
 
34 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 TALON. 
 
 head of the colonial departnioiit at Versaillos, Ho was determined 
 to uphold the supremacy of the king's government against the 
 
 claims of the Church, and in this 
 view his choice of Talon as intend- 
 ant of New France was a wiso 
 one. Henceforward the right of 
 the Church to interfere in matter>" 
 purely secular was denied. Laval 
 in one of his letters complains that 
 the royal officers in Canada, in their 
 zeal for material yirogress, were 
 "perpetual rivals and contemners 
 of the Church." 
 
 Laval's Educational Efforts. 
 — Laval was earnest in his efibrts 
 for the establishment of educatitmal 
 institutions, all, however, to be car- 
 ried on as part of the work of the 
 Church. In 16G4 he established at Quebec a seminary for the 
 training of priests, for the education of children both French and 
 Indian, and also for instruction in such handicrafts as were neces- 
 sary in the then state of the colony. To support this seminary the 
 system of tithes was established, and, in addition, Laval endow^ed 
 it with three rich seigneuries. Out of the seminary so established 
 has grown the well-known Laval University. 
 
 Preparations for the Iroquois Campaign.— The inten- 
 dant Talon reached Canada in 1605. In that year there also 
 arrived at Que})ec the Marquis de Tracy, with an imposing force 
 designed to put an end to Iroquois aggression. De Tracy was 
 viceroy over all the king's North American possessions, and he 
 brought with liim the Carignan-Salieres regiment, renowned in 
 Turkish wars. They were the first regular troops sent out to 
 Canada. De Courcelle, the new governor, yielded place to 
 de Tracy during the viceroy's stay in the colony, and for a time 
 we hear little of him. De Tracy at once prepared for his Iroquois 
 campaign. Three forts, Sorel, Chambly, and Ste. Ther^se, were 
 built on the Richelieu. The first military road in Canada was laid 
 out to connect Montreal and Chambly. Isle aux Noix, on the 
 Richelieu, was afterwards fortified, and remained a post of impor- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 35 
 
 tiince through all the subsequent wars between the French and 
 the English. 
 
 De Courcelle Meets the English. —Early in 1606 de Cour- 
 celle made a preliminary raid uptm the Mohawk valley. He entered 
 it too far to the east, and found himself, at the viHage of Schenec- 
 t;uly, face to face with the English, and had to retire without 
 striking the intended ])low. The English had taken New Nether- 
 lunds from the Dutch in 1()64. The Treaty of Briida (\m7) after- 
 Wiuds contirnied them in their possession. They called the country 
 New York in honor of the Duke of York, afterwards James TI. 
 
 The Iroquois Humbled. — ITnder Ijetter guidance, de Tracy 
 (U'sciiuled on the valley later in the season with a force of about 
 eleven hundred men, burned the Mohawk villages, one after 
 {mother, and destroyed their crops. Dismayed at this martial 
 display and threatened by famine, the Mohawks joined with the 
 western confederates in humbly seeking peace. With much 
 ceremony and many wampum belts a solenni treaty was made at 
 Montreal the following sunnner (I6()7), and for twenty years 
 thereafter New France was left in comparative quiet. 
 
 The Great Immigration. — During this ])eriod New France 
 received its greatest innnigraticm. The seminary of St. Sulpice 
 had already sent out many colonists for Montreal and its vicinity. 
 ( )f the French seigneurs, GifFard was almost the only one who had 
 iiiiule any effort to bring in settlers ; he had placed a few on his 
 seigneurie of Beauport, just below Quebec. The increase of 
 Ito[)ulation which now took place was almost entirely due to 
 state-aided innnigration. The young king, Louis XIV., and his 
 minister Colbert entered into the work with connnendable zeal. 
 The new colonists came, some from Paris, but more from those 
 north-western and western provinces of France to which Canada 
 was already indebted for its somewhat scanty population. Not 
 many families came out ; but, to make up for this, bounties were 
 offered in New France on early marriages. Fathers with un- 
 married daughters were fined, and bachelors were made uncom- 
 fortable by being denied trading licenses. Peasant girls were 
 sent out by the shipload, and very anmsing stories are told of 
 the rapid way in which they were provided with husbands upon 
 reaching Quebec. Apparently an earnest and successful effort 
 was made to get good girls. 
 
36 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Military Settlement. — After the HucceHsful termination «>f 
 do Tr;icy',s c.unpHign a<j;ainnt tho Ir<)(|iioi8, tho Carignun-Saliens 
 regiment was disbanded. With a view to forming a bulwark 
 against further invasion, the soldiers were settled in largo nund)ers 
 around Montreal upon seigneuries (!.' tho St. Lawrence and along 
 the Richelieu River, granted to officers of the regiment. Many 
 towns in that locality were named after these officers — Sorel, 
 Chand)1y, St. Ours, Varennes, Vercheres, Rerthier, and many 
 others. Very few of tliem ever resided on their seigneuries ; 
 nearly all returned to France. Many well-known families, how-' 
 ever, in the Province of Quebec are descended from tlie solditr 
 settlers of these early days. The less warlike peasants were 
 settled on seigneuries lower down the St. Lawrence and around 
 Que])ec. So rapid was the inunigration that tlie population 
 increased from 2,(X)0 in 10().S, to nearly 10,000 l)y tlie year 1680. 
 Owing to European wars Louis XIV. was unalde after 1672 to 
 spare his subjects from France, and inunigration rapidly fell off'. 
 
 The Seigneurial System. — The system adopted to advance 
 settlement was a mild form of feudalism. Although many of tho 
 grants made by the Hundred Associates were revoked by the king, 
 the seigneurial system was cimtinued. Louis XIV. desired to 
 create a Canadian noJdesse, but without the oppressive privileges 
 enjoyed by the same class in old France. To make up the 
 required num])er, patents of nobility were from time to time 
 conferred upon men of mark in the colony, to whom seigneuries 
 were granted to be held of the Crown u})on the tenure of faith 
 and homage. They, again, were to receive as tenants all who 
 would settle upon their seigneuries and perform the duties arising 
 from the relation of seigneur and censitaire (landlord and tenant). 
 
 System of Settlement. — The grants to the censitaires were 
 usually of a narrow strip fronting always on the river and running 
 back sometimes as much as two miles. Near Montreal and along 
 the Richelieu the danger of the situation compelled the colonists to 
 congregate in palisaded villages around the manor-houses of tho 
 seigneurs. Elsewhere the habitant naturally preferred to live on 
 his own land and as near as might be to the river, for many years 
 his only highway. Thus were formed those long settlements 
 known as "c6tes," which to-day give to the banks of the St. 
 Lawrence below Montreal the appearance of an endless village. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 37 
 
 Conditions. — To his seigneur the ceiisitftire paid rent in 
 money, grain or live capons. If ho sold his land he i)aid to the 
 sei},'nour one-twelfth of the purcliase money. If a stigneur s(>ld 
 his seigneurie, the tine due to the king was onetifth, but a much 
 sni.iUer amount was usually accepted if promptly paid. Both 
 seij^neur and censitairo were under obligation to clear the land, 
 but the censitaire's clearing satisfied the obligation of l)oth. There 
 wcv',' other l)urdens usually mentioned in a censitaire's grant. 
 Many of these, however, the seigneurs were for many years in no 
 position to exact, such, for instance, as the grinding of his wheat 
 ill the seigneur's mill. The seigneur, of course, was to have as his 
 toll a specified portion of the Hour. The seigneur had a claim, 
 too, upon the labor of his censitaire for one or more days in the 
 year and to a proportion of all fish caught in the seigneurial stream. 
 But during all the history of New France the intendant, under 
 instructions from the king, made it his special care to protect 
 the censitaires from oppression, and seigneurs very often found 
 themselves unable to enforce the terms of their contracts with 
 tlieir tenants. 
 
 The Fur Trade. — The fur trade was no longer a monopoly. 
 A new company had, it is true, secured exclusive trade privileges, 
 but these were very soon ab.widoned. They retained for a time 
 the exclusive right to carry all cargoes to and from New France, 
 but in 1674 even this right was surrendered to the king. From 
 the licenses for the fur trade a revenue was derived which was 
 for some years more than sufficient to defray the expense of 
 governing the colony. Many of the conreurs de hois, however, 
 continued to trade without troubling themselves about licenses. 
 
 ^he French on the Great Lakes.— In all that tended 
 to strengthen French power in America, the intendant Talon was 
 the master-spirit. He wanted the interior of the continent for 
 France, and he strongly urged that New York should be pur-- 
 chased from the English in order that no rival power might push 
 into the region of the great lakes. The Jesuits following the 
 fur traders into Lake Superior (called by them Lac cle Tracy) had 
 founded a mission on its south shore. They had also missions to 
 the west of Lake Michigan on La Grande Bale (corru[)ted by the 
 English into Green Bay), and the Fox River. Michillimackinac, 
 a most commanding position on the strait between Lake Huron 
 
38 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 and Lako Michigan, was occupioil a))out tills time. Th was after- 
 wards tho Hcuno of uxnny Htining ovonts. Througli all those 
 regions the vagahoiul court nrfi de hol.t H(»uglit out the Indi;in tribes, 
 and by their easy jidopt ion of the Indian mode of bfe g.une<l a Hrin 
 hohl of the fur trade. Some, liowever, were accused of taking tho 
 pelts to Albany, and of thus urousing a desire among tho Dutch 
 and English traders to visit this western region. 
 
 Talon Takes E'ormal Possession of the West.— To 
 forestall them. Talon iji 1071 sent St. Lusson with an imposing 
 force to take formal possession for New Franco of tliis great 
 region. Ho was mot at Sault Ste. Marie l)y representatives of no 
 loss than fourteen distinct tribes, brought together by Nicolas 
 Porrot, a leading spirit among the <'o}irenrH.de hois. With solemn 
 ceivmony a cross was planted, ami tho Jicur-dc-lis of Franco was 
 Hung to tho breeze in token of French supremacy. A short time 
 before there had been another formal "taking of possession" on 
 the north shore of Lake Erie. Jcdiet, the first white man to 
 make the passage from Lake Huron to Lake Erie, liad coasted 
 eastward along he north shore of the latter. He entered the 
 Grand River, and, after going some distance up stream, portaged 
 across to Lake Ontario, emerging near where Hamilton now lies. 
 Here he met La Salle, the famous western explorer. With La 
 Salle was a Sulpician priest, Dollier do Casson, who has given 
 us a history of Montreal up to his time. De Casson retraced 
 the course Joliet had taken, and, after spending a winter on the 
 north shore of Lake Erie, took formal possession of the region 
 for France. 
 
 Discovery of the Mississippi. —Stories of a great river to 
 the west of Lake Michigan were from time to time told l)y the 
 Indians to the Jesuit fathers. Talon was eager to find this stream, 
 in hope that it might be found to flow into the Pacific, and so 
 aft'ord the long-desired passage to tho South Sea and Cathay. In 
 1673 tho explorer Joliet and Father Manjuette pushed up the Fox 
 River from Green Bay, crossed the divide, and descended the 
 Wisconsin to the long-sought river, the Mississippi. They 
 followed its course to the south for many days. Returning at 
 length, they reached Lake Michigan by way of the Illinois River 
 and the Chicago portage. It seemed now as if France would 
 secure the whole interior of the continent from Quebec around to 
 
HISTORY OV CANADA. 39 
 
 tho Gulf of Moxico, whilo tho English would Imvo only tho narrow 
 strip of Ifind along tho Atlantic, to the oast of tho Alloghanios. 
 
 The French and the English on Hudson Bay. — 
 Two cnterpriHing tradorH of ThruoRi\orH, (irosoilliurH and Radis- 
 suii, roturning from ono of thuir trips to Lako Supoiioi, wore 
 fiut'd for trading without a lioonso. In disgust GrosoilliorH wont 
 to lioston, and, with Ca})tain Zachary (lillani, niado a V(»yago l)y 
 wator to Hudson Bay. Afterwards the two Canadians f<»und 
 their way to England. There they succeeded in inducing Prince 
 Rii|K!rt and other intluential men to enter upon the fur trade of 
 the Hudson Hay region. In 1()70 Charles IT. granted a chauor 
 to Prince Rupert and his associates. They were called "Tho 
 Coiii[)any of Merchant Adventurers of England trading into Hud- 
 son's Bay" — a company still in existence and popularly known as 
 tho Hudson's Bay Com})any. Trading posts were established on 
 the shores o" tho hay, and a lucrative traffic was soon opened up 
 with the tribes oi tho interior. Talon heard of all this, and in 1672 
 Father Albanel, sent by him, struggled through from the head 
 waters of tho 8aguenay to tho shore of Hudson Bay and took 
 formal possession of tho region for Franco. Across the Atlantic 
 formal protests were made by each of tho rival powers against the 
 otlier's trespass. 
 
 Talon's Domestic Policy. — Talon encouraged the colonists 
 to engage in the manufacture of such articles as they needed — 
 rough cloth, rope, hats, shoes, soap. Ho also tried, but with poor 
 success, to open a trade in fish and lumber with the West Indies. 
 He himself (operated a brewery in order to supply the settlers and 
 traders with a less harmful beverage than brandy. He made house- 
 to-house visits and counselled the inliabifemts *'in all their little 
 affairs." His rule in New France was a fatherly despotism, well 
 meaning indeed, but most destructive of all self-reliance on the 
 part of the colonists. Talon left Canada finally in 1672, having 
 Hl)e?it five years of active service in it during his term of office 
 (1665-1672). 
 
40 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THREATKNEI) J)E8TRU(;TI0N. 
 
 Frontenao. — In 1(572 thoro arrivod at Qtio])OC tho most 
 fiimouH of all tho ^ovurnorH of NtJW Fmncu— LouIh de iiuade, 
 Count do Frontenac, oalK'd l>y tho IndiuiiH tho (iroat Onontiti. 
 
 Ho waH j)oor, and bont on rotrioving 
 his fort' iioH out of tho proHtn of tho 
 fur tr-do. Proud and ovor-hoaring 
 t(t liis 0(|ualH, with tho Indian tribes 
 ho was at onco familiar and niastor- 
 ful, and soon acquired umch influ- 
 enco over thoni. Tho English woro 
 trying now to gain a share in tho 
 fur trade of tho west. To this end 
 thoy put a higiier price u])on tho 
 beaver skins and a lower price upon 
 tho wares to bo given in exchange, 
 so that an Indian, it was said, could 
 still his furs to tho English for twice 
 as much as ho could got from tho 
 ' French Frontenac wanted to sto}) 
 all this. Accordingly, in 1673, he built Fort Frontenac, where 
 Kingston now sbmds, to intercept the traffic which the Englisli 
 desired to divert to Alljuny. To the same end he planned to 
 esta)>lish a foi-t at the mouth of the Niagara River. 
 
 A New Intendant.— For three years Frontenac had no 
 intondant to interfere with his plans. He undertook to assemble 
 the inha))itants of Quebec and to divide them into the three estates 
 of nobles, clergy, and burgesses. This act was T)romptly rebuked. 
 Frontenac was told by Colbert that there nmst be no jjopular 
 assemblies; that "each should speak for himself and no one 
 for all." Frontenac's fiery temper caused him to deal somewhat 
 arbitrarily with Perrot, local governor at Montreal, whom he 
 imprisoned for ten months for preventing the arrest of certain 
 coureurs de bois, charged wdth illicit trading. Frontenac quar- 
 relled, too, with Laval about appointments to the council. All 
 these things combined to lead the king to send out another inten- 
 
 FRONTKNAC. 
 {After Statue by mbert.) 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 41 
 
 (liinl, DuchchiioHU, HH a chock upon Iuh hwulHtronK {^ovonior. IIo 
 also to<)k tlu) »ip|»ointinont of councillors into Iuh own IuukIh. 
 
 La Salle and the Great West. Louis \1V. oagorly 
 desired to hold tho west, but not by colon iwit ion. Tlio nioro 
 wisily to govern tho colonists ho would Imve tiieni within ousy 
 distiuco (»f Quebec ; tho west ho would iiold by u chain of 
 giirrisoned forts. In 1()7H ho 
 1,'r.iiiled to tho famous oxidoror, 
 bi Nuile, a patent entitling hini 
 to exjdore toward the Missis- 
 Hijtpi (»n conditiitn that La Sallo 
 sJKtuld build forts to command 
 tho interior. Lii Sallo had 
 owned, at one time, a seigneurio 
 at Ij;u!hino--a namo given to it 
 in grim humor by his enemies 
 to iudiwito their o])inion that it 
 was tho only China {la Cliine) 
 he would ever roach. This 
 Heigueurio ho had sold in order 
 to raise funds for western ox- 
 ploration. A little Liter ho pro- 
 cured a grant of Fort Frontenac, 
 
 and from it made long trips to the west. He visited the Ohio val- 
 ley, and some even claim for him the discovery of tho Mississippi. 
 Ho and his lieutenant Tonty many times crossed and recrossed the 
 low divide which, at the south end of Lake Michigan, separates 
 the two largest water systems of North America — that of the St. 
 Liwrence from that of the Mississippi. The first vessel to ply 
 on Lake Erie, the Griffon, was built on tho banks of the Niagara 
 River })y La Sallo in 1079. It was, unfortunately, lost on Lake 
 Michigan in that same year. Li Sallo and Tonty also built forts 
 on tho banks of tho Illinois River, and, in spite of every dithculty, 
 opened up trade with the Indians of the Illinois valley. 
 
 Frontenac Recalled. — Frcmtenac's tr<»ubles during his first 
 term (1672-1682) arose largely from his quarrels with Laval as to 
 the bishop's position in affairs of state. Duchesneau, the inten- 
 dant, who had his own causes of complaint against Frontenac, 
 sided with the bishop. The disputes were long and bitter, and 
 
 LA SALLE. 
 
42 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Colbert and uis successor Seignelay were deluged with complaints. 
 At this time, in order to keep the fur trade in hiwful channels- 
 that is to say, to bring all furs to the great mart of Montreal or to 
 the lesser one afc Three Rivers— the death peufdty had been 
 decreed against all who traded in fur without a license. Even 
 this, however, failed to bring the courenrs de bois to the regular 
 life of the settlements. It was charged against the governor that 
 lio was carrying on a lucrative traffic in furs from I'ort Frontenac, 
 and that he i)i-oscjuted only those courenrs de bois who were not in 
 his own service. There were, in truth, two warring factions 
 among the fur traders. The one was headed by the governor, and 
 numbered among its members La Salle, Tonty, and that most 
 noted of conreiirs de bois, du Luth, after whom Duluth, at the 
 head of Lake Supe.-ior, is named. The other comprised the mer- 
 chants of Montreal and the neighboring seigneurs, and was sup- 
 ported by the bisliop and thf) intendant. To end the feud, both 
 Frtmtenac and Duchesneau were recalled in 1682. 
 
 La Barre. — La Barre, who succeeded to the governorship, is 
 described as a rapacious old man. In comparison wdth hini, 
 Frontenac, in spite of his illicit trading, was "a model of official 
 virtue." La Barre became head of the faction which had been 
 opposed to Frontenac, and La Salle fared badly at their hands. 
 Fort Frontenac was seized while he was on his memorable trip 
 (1682) to the mouth of the Mississippi. Tonty, who was in com- 
 mand on the Illinois, was displaced by an officer friendly to the 
 ruling faction. La Barre and his friends wanted to monopolize 
 the fur trade of the upper lakes. In order that it might not be 
 interrupted by the Iroquois, who were again becoming trouljle- 
 some, these fierce warriors were allowed ^o wage war upon the 
 more southern allies t)f France, the Illinois and Miamis. 
 
 English Claim to the Iroquois Country.— During La 
 Barre's time, Dongan, governor of New York, claimed the whole 
 country south of the lakes as British territory. Wlien La Barre 
 boasted of the chastisement in store for the Iro(|uois because of 
 their renewed hostility, Dongan warned them of the intended raid. 
 But his messenger assumed rather too high a tone with the con- 
 federates, who were very jealous of any suggestion of dependence, 
 and in 1684 they made peace on their own account with La Barro. 
 The terras of this peace, however, were sc humiliating to the 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 43 
 
 FieiK'h tliafc tho governor was promptly recalled. He had actually 
 ii.rrcod that if the Iroquois would only refrain from war upon the 
 French, they might continue their attacks upon the western 
 
 tribes. 
 
 Denonville. — Denonville, the new governor, had, therefore, 
 as his task, to humble the Irocpiois, to protect and so regain the 
 wavering allies of tlie west and the north, and to oppose the 
 English movement tc^ward those regions. Tho governors of the 
 rival colonies wrote to each other with some heat. Denonville 
 charLTcd Dongan with inciting tho Iro(iU(jis to attack the French. 
 '\ Dongan denied this, but claimed the right to trade with the Indians 
 of the upper lake region and the west. To close the pathway 
 thither, du Luth in 1680 established a rude fort on the banks of 
 the St. Clair, near the south end of Lake Huron. 
 
 A Raid on the Senecas.— The time had come when the 
 Ir()([Uois nuisfc be again vigorously dealt with, and a largo force of 
 regular troops was therefore sent out to Denonville. The wily 
 savages could see the advantage of standing neutral between the 
 English and the French, as by so doing they could trade with 
 both. But their war with the western tribes was to the death, and 
 they could not be brought to include them in any peace v/ith the 
 French. At this time tliey were engaged in exterminating the 
 Mianiis and Illinois. The tribes around Michillimackinac felt that 
 thuir turn would come next, and the French leaders at the posts 
 on the upper lakes were therefore able to induce them to join in 
 tho campaign against the Irocpiois. By strange good-fortune the 
 troops from Quebec and the Indians from the north-western posts 
 reached on the same day (July, 1087) the rendezvous at Irondequoit 
 Bay, near the modern city of Rochester. From this point an 
 Indian trail led to the villages of the Senecas, the tribe which had 
 been the most refractory. The Senecas, after a vain attempt to 
 ambush the advancing force, abandoned their villages, which 
 Denonville destroyed. But, as vas said at the time, the wasps 
 wore not in their nests and were still left to sting. On his way to 
 tho Seneca country Denonville had been guilty of a grievous 
 outrage upon certain neutral Iroquois living at this time in two 
 villages on the Bay of Quinte. Their chiefs, invited to a feast at 
 Fort Frontenac, were there treacherously seized and tied to stakes, 
 and tho Algompin allies of the French were allowed to torture 
 
44 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 them. Some indeed were afterwards taken to France to becoii 
 galley-slaves. 
 
 The Massacre of Lachine. — This outrage and the attar 
 upon the Senecas so incensed the Iroc^uois confederates that tin 
 at once prei)ared to take vengeance. In their first dismay at tli 
 display of force they did, it is true, send an embassy to mak 
 i:)eaee. But a wily Huron chief, Kondiaronk, or "The Rat," was 
 shrewd enough to see that, if peace were made, his tribesmen 
 would be, as before, left to the mercy of the Irocjuois. He there- 
 fore waylaid and attacked the embassy, pretending that he did so 
 at the instigation of the French governor. The Ircnpiois, enraged, 
 began once more to infest the St. Lawrence valley. In 1089, after 
 an August storm, a band of these fierce braves descended in the 
 darkness upon Lachine and massacred many of its defenceless 
 inhabitants. Many more were carried away captive. Montreal, 
 expecting an attack at any moment, was almost paralyzed with 
 fright. The troops in garrison were badly handled, and the 
 Iroquois were allowed to get safely away. In a spirit of cruel 
 bravado they tortured some of the captives on the south shore of 
 the river, in full view of friends at Lachine who were powerless 
 to aid. Then they scattered in small bands, infesting the country 
 in every direction. At this crisis Frontenac was once more sent 
 out to Quebec as governor of New France. 
 
 Growth of Acadia. — Of the many immigrants who came to 
 New France, only some sixty were sent to Acadia. When Graiid- 
 fontaine received this region from Temple in 1670, the total 
 population was 441, including the garrison at Port Royal. The 
 adult males were probably not more than one hundred. Around 
 Port Royal w^as the only real settlement, the stations on the gtilf 
 shore being mere fishing and trading posts. Very soon, however, 
 other settlements were begun on the Basin of Minas and at 
 Chignecto, and by the year 1686 the population of Acadia had 
 doubled. The settlers were kept busy dyking the marshes and 
 tilling the rich soil thus reclaimed from the sea, and these years 
 were with them years of quiet progress. Large portions of Acadia 
 were granted in seigneuries by Fnmtenac and his innnediate suc- 
 cessors, but in most cases these grants were afterwards revoked or 
 abandoned by the adventurers to whom they had been made. 
 
 Mercenary Governors.— The fur trade, here as in Canada, 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 45 
 
 was ii source of endless corruption. The chief centres of this 
 trade were Jemseg, about fifty miles up the St. John, and Penob- 
 scot. Ensign de L'Abadie, of the Carignan-Salieres regiment, 
 established himself at Penol)sc()t, married the daughter of an 
 Indian chief, and became a leader of much influence aniong the 
 tribes of this region. His fur trade was extensive, and he is said 
 to havo amassed an enormous fortune. As Baron de St. Castin, the 
 New Kngland settlers leai-ned to know him to their cost. After 
 Cirandfontaine's death (1073) corruption ran riot at Port Royal. 
 The local governors monopolized the fur trade, sold brandy to the 
 Indians, .tnd demoralized the garrison. Instead of preventhig the 
 ' New Knglanders from trading upon the- coasts of Acadia, these 
 officers illegally sold them trading licenses at high prices. Meneval, 
 who took ofhc& in 16<S7, was governor of Acadia when Frontenac 
 returned to New France. His instructions were to projjagate 
 religion, put down the coureurs de bois, and stop the carrying on of 
 the coasting trade by foreigners. There seems to have been a 
 spasmodic interest taken in Acadia at this time, but it scarcely went 
 beyond these energetic instructions. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE GREAT ONONTIO. 
 
 England and France at War.— In 1688 James II. was 
 dethroned, and William of Orange became King of England. In 
 the next year began the war with Louis XIV. of France, which, 
 with but slight intermission, lasted until the Peace of Utrecht in 
 1713. James II. had been anxious to stjind well with Louis XIV., 
 whose aid he had expected in his ccmtest with the Protestants of 
 England. He had, therefore, instructed Dongan, the governor of 
 New York, to avoid giving offence to the French. Now there was 
 open war, and all this would be changed ; the m<jre aggressive 
 the English governors in America, the more sure would they be of 
 ottivial favor. In America the contest was threefold— between 
 Acadia and New England, between Canada, and New York, and, 
 thirdly, for supremacy on Hudson Bay. It was Frontenac's task 
 to check the English advance at all these points, east, w^st and 
 
46 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 north, and to chastise the Iroquois. The faults of Frontenac in 
 his previous government oi New Franco had been those of a strong 
 character, too self-asserting, })erhai)s, for a time of peace ; these 
 same traits laarked liim as the very man who was needed in tlie 
 crisis which had now arrived. 
 
 The Rival Colonies.— New France was governed by one 
 master s])irit,, with command over a warMke race trained to 
 implicit obedience. The English colonies were, as the Lords 
 of Traded complained, "crumbled into little governments." In 
 population they far outnumbered the French. The individual 
 settler was hardy and full of courage in defence of his homestead, 
 but there was no unity of action and no uiilitary leader. Until 
 the outbreak known as " King Philiji's War " there had been peace 
 between the New Englanders and their Indian neighbors. That 
 war, called after an Indian chief who was prominent in it, had 
 called forth much stubborn courage oi the part of the pioneers. 
 It had ended some years before (1678), .- nd the settlers had returned 
 to their peaceful warfare upon the surrounding forests. The 
 trading station of Baron de St. Castin, at Penobscot, had been 
 from time to time raided by the authorities of New England .is 
 being a trespass on English soil, but its half-savage head had 
 always returned to his post, and through his influence with the 
 Abenakis had kept alive a feeling in favor of the French and 
 against the English settlements. Jesuit missions, too, were estab- 
 lished on the ui)per waters of the Keruiebec, and on the St. John the 
 R^collet missionary. Father Simon, also exercised great iniiuence 
 over the savages in behalf oi the French. 
 
 The Iroquois Join the English. -Frontenac found New 
 France in wild alarm. The Iroquois had followed up the 
 massacre of Lachine, and their jjrowling bands infested tlie 
 neighborhood of Montreal. At its very gates the hamlet o* La 
 Chcsnaye was pillaged. There was but one ray of light in the 
 darkness. On the Lake of Two Mountains, du Luth met a lar.^e 
 band of these marauders and routed them with much slaughter. 
 A formal alliance was made between the English and the Irociuois 
 m spite of Frontenac's efforts to prevent it. So low, indeed, had 
 French prestige fallen that only through the influence of the 
 
 * See page 186. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 47 
 
 coinrnrs de hois were the tribes around Michilliiuackinac kept from 
 jdiiiing their ancient enemies in the war against .New France. 
 
 Frontenac Attacks the English Colonies.— Frontenac, 
 though in his seventieth year, took up his task with characteristic 
 oiievy. Three war parties were promptly sent against the English 
 colonies. One marched from Montreal against Schenectady on 
 the Moliawk, another from Three Rivers against the New Hamp- 
 shire settlements, and the third from Quebec against the villages 
 of Maine. Each of these was connnanded by men Canadian-born 
 ;iiul skilled in forest warfare. Averse to farming, and receiving as 
 yet no inc(nne from their forest seigneuries, the Canadian noblesse 
 were fur traders. Many of them had been led to adopt the wild 
 free life of the coureurs de bois, in many cases drawing the young 
 men of the settlements into the same path. These were now 
 their followers in the raids against the English settlements. 
 
 These raids were a complete success. Schenectady was taken 
 utterly by surprise. In the excitement of the onslaught many of 
 the inhabitants were cruelly butchered ; the village was given to 
 
 I the tianies ; and with a long train of captives the victors returned 
 
 ; to Montreal. 
 
 The second party attacked the hamlet of Salmon Falls, on the 
 borders between Maine and New Hampshire, and left it a smoking 
 and l)loody desolation. They then joined the third body, which 
 had marched overland from Quebec to the head waters of the 
 Kenne'jec. The Abenakis of these regions had broken out the 
 year before against the English settlements. Now, with Baron de 
 St. Castin at their head, they, too, joined the war party. The 
 combined bands, some five hundred in all, swooped down on Fort 
 Loyal (now Portland), on Casco Bay, and after a stout resistance 
 the stockaded fort was taken. 
 
 The Iroquois Driven Back. — Encouraged by these successeu: 
 Frontenac, during the summer of 1690, vigorously attacked the 
 Iroijuois. He protected the upper settlements with troops, and 
 broke the fur blockade which the Mohawks had established by 
 their continual presence on the upper Ottawa. News of the French 
 successes reached the tribes of the west and confirmed them in 
 their allegiance to France. It was a day of rejoicing when a fur 
 flotilla — the first for many summers — came do^vn from the upper 
 lakes to the old rendezvous at Montreal. , 
 
48 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Port Royal Captured by Phips.— ' asaachusetts vas 
 aroused by tlie attack upon the Now Englund settlements, and Sir 
 William l^hips was sent on an expedition against Acadia. Th^ 
 Acadian governor, Meneval, had no surticient garrison at Port 
 Koyal to withstand an attack, and reluctantly cai)itulated. In 
 breach of the terms of surrender the settlement was given over 
 to plunder. St. Castin's i)(;st of Penolwcot and the fishing stations 
 at lia Hove and Chedabucto were also captured. After exactin» 
 from the settlers an oath of allegiance, Phijis returned triumphant 
 with the captured governor and many other prisoners. 
 
 
 THE CASTLE OF ST. LOUIS AT QUEBEC (1694-1834). 
 
 Phips Fails to Take Quebec, 1690.— He found on his 
 return to Boston a still larger project on foot. New France was 
 to be taken by a combined attack by land and sea — by land, on 
 Montreal; by sea, on Quebec. The attack by land ended in a 
 petty raid on Laprairie, opposite Montreal. The attack on Qui bee 
 was a more formidable matter. Phips with a force of about ; wo 
 thousand sailed up the St. Lawrence in Octol)er. Frontenac had 
 strengthened the already strong natural defences of the capital, 
 and when Phips arrived before it he found the staunch old 
 governor in a well-fortified town at the head of a strong force of 
 regulars and Canadian militia. A land attack from across the St. 
 Charles was poorly supported by the fleet, and the assailants, 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 49 
 
 hcing vigorously mot, were comitollod to reiiro to their boats. The 
 Heut itself then opened fire on the town, })ut so well directed and 
 |M>wcrful was the answering fire from the fort that the ships were 
 K<M)!i driven in disorder l)ey()nd range. After a week's stay before 
 QiUihec, Phi[)S retired discomfited. 
 
 The Iroquois War. — The next three years (IfiOl-lfiO.'i) were 
 occui)ied in fighting tlie Irocjuois, who, despite all efforts to dislodge 
 them, closed in again upon the Ottawa. (-rops along the St. 
 L;i\\ rence settlements were jdanted and reaped l)y l)odies of men 
 iiiider militaiy protecti(m, for the settlers dared not scatter. 
 Among the tales of heroism with which these years a})ound, is 
 one recounting how, during the absence from his home of the 
 seigneur of Vercheres, his little daughter Madeleine with a puny 
 garrison successfully defended his stockaded manor-house for 
 several days against a band of Iroijuois. The fur trade was 
 once more cut off, and not until the sunmier of KJO.'i were the 
 traders of the west able to bring down another flotilla laden 
 with the accumulated furs of three seasons' trade ;it the upper posts. 
 In that year Frontenac received a small reinforcement from France 
 and by vigorous efibrts the fierce confederates wx're beaten off. 
 The English of New York, while eager to incite the Iroquois 
 against New France, gave them at this juncture little active 
 assistance. A desire for jjcace began to grow, particularly among 
 the western tribes of the confederacy where Jesuit influence was 
 strong. Their refusal., however, to include the western allies of 
 France in any peace which might be made, led to the continuance 
 of the strife. In 1697 Frontenac, with an imposing force, invaded 
 tlie Onimdaga country by way of the Oswego River, but 
 again the lro(juois abandoned their villages, leaving Frontenac 
 the ))arren glory of a few captives and devastated cornfields. 
 
 The Jesuits Oppose Western Extension. — The Jesuits 
 Were much opposed to Frontenac's plans for western extension, 
 and the intendants were inclined to take the same view. The 
 Jesuits complained that their mission work among the Indians was 
 rendered of no avail by the evil practices of the fur traders and 
 tlie soldiers of the outpost garrisons ; and the intendants 
 complained of the difficulty they had in keeping young men in the 
 settlements. Toward the close of Frontenac's second term, the 
 king, yielding to Jesuit influence, actually decreed the abandon- 
 5 
 
50 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 ment of tho westorn p(wta and tho oHiicuUutiou of all trade licenses. 
 The ducruo wa.s, however, H<jon withdiiiwii. Tta etfect would have 
 been, as Froiiteiiac pointed out, to throw tho weHtom tribes into 
 the arms of the British traders from Albany. 
 
 Acadia and New England— Border War.— After Phips' 
 capture of l*ort Royal (lO'.M)), Acadia was allowed to fall (quietly 
 into the hands of Villebon, an able Canadian whom Frontenac sent 
 to take charge of the war against the New England settlements. 
 To avoid a rei)etition of the disiist«}r which had overtaken his 
 brother Meneval, Villebon built a fort at Nashwaak well up 
 the St. John River, opposite the site of the modern city of 
 Fredericton. From this safe retreat many war parties of mingled 
 French and Abenakis were despatched against New England. 
 Tliere is a strange monotony of horror in the story of these raids 
 upon scattered villages and isolated farm-houses. Women and 
 children were frecpiently the only victims. Frontenac, to his 
 credit be it said, offered his savage allies a ransom for prisoners, 
 and as these border wars went on this more humane policy had a 
 marked effect. As a bulwark against these attacks, the New Eng- 
 landers built a strong fort (Fort William Henry) at Pemaquid, ])at 
 even this was captured and razed to the gi-ound in 1696. By way 
 of reprisfil an expedition was sent that same year to capture 
 Vilkbon's stronghold at Nashwaak, but the leaders quarrelled, 
 and Villebon with little difficulty succeeded in driving off the 
 attacking fijrce. Wliat with war vessels both French and English, 
 with jirivateers and pirates, the coasts of Acadia were thoroughly 
 patrolled during these years, and settlements and fishing stations 
 suffered from numerous raids. 
 
 Hudson Bay. — The history of the Hudson Bay region during 
 this period has been described as a bewildering story. The 
 Huds(m's Bay Company had built a fortified trading post, Fort 
 Nelson, at the mouth of Nelson River. To the south, on James' 
 Bay, were three other posts. Fort Albany, Fort Hayes and Fort 
 Rupert. A rival company — La Compagnie du Nord — had been 
 organized in Canada, and to it Louis XIV. had granted a monopoly 
 of the trade on Hudson Bay. Posts were established to intercept 
 the Indian canoes on their descent to the English forts. The 
 rivalry was keen and not always pea jeful, and in 1685 the Canadian 
 company finally determined to expel the English intruders by force 
 
HISTORY OP CANADA. 51 
 
 of fti'iiiH. Though there whs peace in Europe ))etweeu Franco and 
 Kiigland, Denonvillo authctrized tlio Chevalier do Troyes to lead 
 an expedition overland again.st the forts of the English company. 
 Forfc Nelson was not reached, but the otlujr three posts Wisro taken 
 ill (juick succession. At Fort Rupert the governor of the Hudson's 
 Bay Couii)any was taken prisoner. 
 
 When formal war broke out, those noted Canadians, the Le Moyne 
 brothers, took charge of the operations on the bay, and in l()t)4 
 captured Fort Nelson. Father Gabriel Marest, who was with 
 tills exi)edition, describes the captured inmates as " fifty-three in 
 iiuiiil)er, all large men and well made ; but those who couunanded 
 tlioiii were nuich more skilful in ccnumerce than in the profession 
 of arms, in which they had never been exercised." An English 
 force retook the fort in 1696. Next year, however, the brothers 
 again returned, won a naval battle on Hudson Bay, and again 
 cii[)tured Fort Nelson. Little wonder, therefore, that on an old 
 map the posts on Hudson Bay are marked ''Sometimes held by 
 tlu! French, s(^iuetimes by the English." The Treaty of Rysw'ck 
 (l(i!)7) left the rival claims unsettled. Meanwhile, the French 
 retained possession of the captured posts. 
 
 Death of Frontenac. — The treaty also left unsettled the 
 question of the boundary between Acadia and New England, and 
 between Canada and New York. The growing frequency of French 
 raids into the Iroquois country led the confederacy to respect New 
 France and seek peace with her. Frontenac told them sternly that 
 the western allies of Franco must bo included in any peace, and 
 threatened another attack upon them if they declined these terms. 
 Bellomont, governor of New York, protested that if Frontenac 
 carried out this threat he would march his whole available force to 
 protect the Iroquois, whom he claimed as British subjects. But 
 the intrepid governor of New France did not live to put his plans 
 in order for this campaign. He died at Quebec in November, 1698, 
 in his seventy-eighth year. 
 
 Peace with the Iroquois. — In the following year his 
 successor, de Calli^res, and the governor of New York both 
 received instructions to let the boundary dispute remain in abey- 
 ance and to join hands in repressing the Iroquois. Learning 
 that the English had thus abandoned them, the Iroquois made 
 peace with de Calli^res (1701). There was a grand pow-wow at 
 
5t HISTORY OP CAKAT)A. 
 
 Montruul, hjkI with imich Hpuoch-umkinj,' find iimiiy wuinpuni bolts 
 till) Irocjiiois, tho French, iiiid tho tvil)i;.s <»f tho woHb joined in 
 burying tho liatchet. Tht! lr<K|Uois, now much reduced in tiglitin^,' 
 strength, wero never again very forniiihible. In tho Hubne(|uont 
 wars ])etween tho Frencli and tlio British, they played but a 
 secondary, thougli (tften cruel, part. 
 
 CHAPTER A'TTl. 
 
 QUKKN ANNE's WAR. 
 
 De CalliiTes. — After Frontenac's death de Calli6rea secured 
 tho gcnernorship of Now Franco. Ho had boon tlio local governor 
 at Montreal, and in zeal for tho colony ho has been described as 
 second only to Frontenac. There was now a short breathing space 
 in tho conflict between Franco and Fingland. Do Callieros took 
 advantage of it to make more secure tho foothold of Franco in tho 
 west. Ho saw that tho ofi'ort to concentrate settlement (nx the St. 
 Lawrence by refusing licenses for tho western fur trade was merely 
 causing the C(>}ircitrs de. hois to soeV other markets. They would 
 go down the Mississippi to Louisiana, or, worse still, to tho Knglish 
 at Albany. In spite therefore of nnich oppositioD^ do Calliorcs 
 managed to got tho half-hearted consent of the king to his plans 
 for western extension. 
 
 Detroit Pounded.— In 1701 La Motho-Cadillac, who had 
 been in c(jnnuand of tho garriscm at Michillimaokinac, founded 
 Detroit in order to intercept the flow of the fiu' trade toward 
 Albany. Up to this time Michillimackinac, haunt of coitreiirs de 
 hois and chief Jesuit mission in tho west, had been tho centre of 
 the fur trade of tho upper lake region. Tho founding of Detroit 
 was against tho interests of tho older post; and tho people of 
 Montreal, most of whom lived by tho traffic in furs, wero also 
 averse to the project, as it would draw off some portion of 
 their trade. Tho new post was nevertheless established, and was 
 named Fort Ponchartrain, after the colonial minister at Versailles. 
 To offset this Fi'onch advance the English quietly procured a grant 
 from the Five Nations (as they usually styled the Iroquois) of their 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 63 
 
 heavor-ljuntin^ ^roundH, inodo.stly tloHcrihod as ^nnhnvcingthoontiro 
 rL';,'i<>M .south of tho f^rrat lako.s wiistward t > thu MissisHippi. 
 
 Virtual Peace in the West. Du Callit-ros diod in tho 
 spriiif^ of 170.'i, just as tho war known in Aniorica hh "Quoon 
 Aiiuo'h War," and in Europo as tho " War of tho Spanish Succoh- 
 sioii," fairly opened. In America this war was carried on mainly 
 in tho east — by tho French against New England, and hy tho 
 Kiiglish against Acadia. I>o (Jaliieres had received instructions 
 not to trouble New York, but to make war on tho New Engluid 
 villages by means of tho Abenaki tril)es. His successor, do 
 Vaudreuil, was instructed to pursue tho same lino of action. 
 There was another reason for the virtual truce between (Janada 
 and New York. An e\ i;nsive contraband trade was growing uji 
 between the fur traders of Montreal and Albany. Tlie cheap goods 
 of the English made this illicit tratHc more pnttitablo to tho French 
 tiian their own lawful trade. Even tho governors of New Franco 
 were accused of making profit out of it. Tho Iro(jU(tis shared in 
 it and tho Albany traders, too, found it lucrative. Thus, on both 
 sides, there was an intluenco potent for peace between New York 
 and Canada, while Acadia and the New England settlements were 
 experiencing all the horrors of war. 
 
 Raids on New England Settlements.— Tho Abenaki 
 tribes, naturally uneasy at the spread of English settlement in 
 Maine, were encouraged to harass tho frontier villages. Tho 
 Acadian Indians also took part in these attacks, and the governor, 
 de Vaudreuil, sent to head their war ])arties some of tho most 
 noted of the Canadian partisan leaders. These frontier raids 
 continued with "little variety and little interruption" all through 
 Queen Anne's War. The details, however, belong more particu- 
 Lii'ly to the history of the New England States. So hard to catch 
 Avere tho raiding bands that direct reprisal was ditticult. 
 
 New England in Revenge Attacks Acadia.— On 
 Acadia tho avenging blows fell. Villebon had just made arrange- 
 ments to remove tho garrison from Nashwaak back to Port Royal 
 when, in 1700, death cut short his career. Villieu, who succeeded 
 to temporary command, carried out the removal, and the St. John 
 River region was f(jr thirty years abandoned to its aboriginal in- 
 habitants. In 1704 a Massachusetts force under Colonel Church 
 ravaged the Acadian posts from Penobscot around to the settle- 
 
54 * HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 inontH in tho AnimiMiliH vivlloy. TTo Hpuied tho Hvoh of tho Acarlian 
 poHwintH, lint nut tluiir ^«to(lH. Ifo cut tho <lykt!M and throutonml, 
 inoroovor, tlmt if tluTo 'viiri' any nioro raidH on tlu) Now England 
 frontier tho Indian.s fri«!n(lly to tho English \v<»uld l)o lot looso to 
 work thoir will on tho AcadianH. On this oxpodition Port Royal 
 was not attackod. In 1707 two attoni{)tH wore inadu to ca[ituro it, 
 l/oth of which failod throngh had nianagoniont on tho part of thoso 
 in command. During thoso yoarH Acadia was much nogloctod hy 
 tho French court. Tho colony, it was ro[)ortod, was in great 
 distre IS, "wanting everything;" and tho otHcials generally wore 
 too ])usy trading with tho English to trouble about tho welfaro of 
 tho Hottlors. In all tho attacks upon tho Acadian Hottlemonts, 
 FroMch prisoners wore taken in order to exchange them for FiUg- 
 lisli prisoners cajiturod in the frontier raids. It is charged that 
 on pretence of ett'octing these exchanges there was nuich going to 
 and fro between ]iost(tn and Acadia for trading purposes. 
 
 A Plan to Take Canada.— By the year 1708 the New 
 England colonies had ])ecomo so exasperated at tho [)orsistent 
 raiding of their frontier settlements that an expedition was 
 jilanned for tho following year against Can;ula. Samuel Vetch, 
 who afterwards ])ecamo tho first governor of Nova Scotia, wont to 
 L(mdon and returned with promise of lielp from Old P^ngland to 
 New in tho intended attack. A fleet with tho promised troops was 
 to follow, and tho colonies accordingly gathered their rough militia 
 at Boston awaiting its arrival. A land force, under Francis 
 Nicholson, an (jliicer of nuich colonial experience, was t(j co-operate 
 in the cipture of Canada by marching upon Montreal Ijy way of 
 Lake Champlain and tho River Richelieu. There was some futile 
 skirmishing between Nicholson's littlo band and a Canadian force 
 under de Ramezay, governor at Montreal ; but this, with the 
 building of a British fort near the head of Lake Champlain, was 
 all that resulted from the land attack. W(U'd reached Nicholson 
 that the British fleet had been sent to Portugal instead of to 
 America, and that in consequence the capture of Canada must 
 be deferred for a seascm. 
 
 England Acquires Acadia. — Some vent for jdl this martial 
 zeal oi the New E?iglanders h;ul to he found. Next year accord- 
 ingly (1710) an expedition was despatched to take Acadia. 
 Nicholson was in command. With him was Samuel Vetch hold- 
 
IlISTORV OF CANADA. 66 
 
 ini|{ ft commiflfiioii as governor of Acftdin in case of itH capture. 
 Sul'orcHHo, ill coiiiinHn<l at Port Tloyul, was in no ponition, with 
 his },'Hirison of loss than tlirno hundrt)'' men, to withHtan<l the 
 (It'tt'iiiiintMl uttack of thu largo force Hont /igainst him. He made, 
 however, Hoiue hHow of reHi.stance and Hecured honorjiblu terniH of 
 capitulation. The cajjture of Port Royal, the oidy garriHon in 
 Acadia, meant the capture of all Acadia, which thus paHStsd f(»rever 
 out of the handH of the French. Port Royal was rechriHtened 
 Aiina[»oliH R(»yal, after the Rriti.sh Queon. It is known to us aa 
 AiiiiapoliH .simi)ly. Vetch waH left in command of the British 
 gHrrison, and the fort, though often threatened, was held through- 
 out the remaining } tars of the war. 
 
 An Attack on Quebec Pails. — Tn Eiirope this war is 
 noted for the brilliant victories (»f Marlborough at Blenheim, 
 I^imilies, Oudenarde and Malpla((uet. The VVhigH were in powjr 
 during the earlier years of the struggle, but in J 710 they were 
 driven from office. Anxious to offset Marlborough's victories by 
 Home notable exploit under their own auspices, the new Tory 
 ministry planned the cajjturo of Canada. The old method of 
 attack was again adopted — by sea upon Quel)ec, by land upon 
 Montreal. Nicholson with a force of over two thousiind men 
 again took up his station at the head of Ij^ike Champlain, ready 
 to advance against Montreal t)n receiving news of the arrival of 
 the fleet before Quebec. Sir Hovenden Walker was admiral in 
 coimuand of the tleet. When, toward the end of July, 1711, he 
 Hjiiled from Boston he had on board a force of nearly twelve 
 thousiind. General Hill, known in court circles in England as 
 Jack Hill, brother of Mrs. Masham, the Queen's favorite, was in 
 command of the land forces. Both admiral and general were 
 utterly incompetent for the task they had undertjiken. Through 
 bad steering the fleet ran upon the north shore of the 8t. Lawrence 
 shortly after entering the river. A number of the ships of war 
 and transports were wrecked, and nearly a thoufmnd men were 
 drowned. Though the force remaining was amply sufficient to 
 have taken Quebec, a retreat was ordered and the enterprise 
 ul'and(med. Nichols(jn, at Wood Creek, swore roundly when ho 
 heard the news, burned his forts, and disbanded his army. 
 Canada once more breathed freely. 
 
 The Peace of Utrecht, 1713.— The Peace of Utrecht (1713) 
 
66 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 cloHod thi.s war. If by it England gained less in Europe than her 
 brilliant Huccesses in the field .should have secured to her. 'n 
 America hvv gains were marked. Tlie French abandoned ;,.! 
 claim to the Hudson Bay region. The Five Nation, or Iroquois, 
 Indians were acknowledged to be British subjects. Acadia Avas 
 wholly given up. Newfoundland was ceded, with a reservation, 
 however, of certain fishing privileges on a portion of the coast. 
 The Island of Cape Breton (Isle Royale), then entirely uninhabited, 
 was left t(j France witliout conditions, and she proceeded at once 
 to plant a fortress u[)on it. Isle St. Jean (now Prince Edward 
 Island) was also left t(j her. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THIRTY YEARS OF UNEASY PEACE. 
 
 Rival Claims in America.— In Europe, England and 
 France remained at peace for thirty years after the Treaty of 
 Utrecht. In America, during the same period, they were con- 
 stantly on the verge of war. The able officers to whom the 
 government of New France was entrusted were fully alive to the 
 situation. Their policy had at least the merit of consistency, while 
 their English rivals had almost as maiiy different policies as there 
 were colonial governments. De Vaudreuil, governor of New 
 France during Queen Anne's War (1703-171H), remained in office 
 for twelve yeais after its close. On his death in 1725, de Beau- 
 harnois became governor, holding the position until 1747. Their 
 one object of foreign policy was to push forward the frontier line 
 of New France as far as possible, and so prevent the spread of 
 British rule in America. To this end they interpreted the Treaty 
 of Utrecht as ceding to the British under the name of Acadia only 
 the western end of the Nova Scotia peninsula. What is now New 
 Brunswick and much of what is Maine they claimed to be still 
 French territory. To shut the British out of the west, they 
 claimed the whole interior of the continent from Quebec to the 
 mouth of the Mississippi. To make good this claim they pro- 
 ceeded to occupy with their fortified trading posf/S the entire chain 
 of water conmiunication. To the north the same policy was pur- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 57 
 
 sued. French cxplorern and fur-tradors pushed in from Lake 
 Su[)onor to secure for France the great north-west behind the 
 tcnitory of the Hudson's Bay Company. 
 
 The Acadians Cling to their Homes. —The little garrison 
 at Anna])olis contained all there was of British blood in Acadia. 
 TIk- Treaty of Utrecht secured to those Acadians wh(> chose to stay, 
 iuul to become Briti' li subjects, their lands and the free exercise of 
 tlK'ir religion. Those who chose to go had leave to sell their lands ; 
 a sdiiiewhat doubtful privilege, however, as there was no one to 
 l)iiy. To guard the southern gateway to the St. Lawi'ence, the 
 Froiich, in 1714, founded Louisl)ourg upon Cape Breton island ; 
 ami around the town a fortress, as strong as French engineers and 
 New England stone and wood could make it, was constructed. It 
 was at first intended that the island should be settled by the 
 French inhabitjuits of Newfoundland and Acadia. The former 
 were, indeed, removed to their new home ; but, despite the efibrts 
 oi French officers from Louisbourg, the settlers of the Aiuiapolis 
 valley were unwilling "to leave their rich farms and risk starvation 
 on a wild and barren island," and few only, from the immediate 
 iiei^^hborhood of Annapolis, tvent to Louisbourg. At first the 
 British were aj^parently as anxious as the French to induce the 
 Acadians to migrate, but in ,*?, few years there was a change on 
 both sides. The French of Cape Breton drew supplies freely from 
 tlie region of the Annapolis valley and the Basin of Minas. They 
 grew to believe that the recapture of Acadia would be a nmch 
 easier task if a French jjopulation were there to rise in revolt 
 when tlie proper time should come. The British garrison at 
 Annapolis were left in almost complete neglect, and, when they 
 found that no settlers were to be sent tt) take the Acadian farms, 
 they naturally desired to retain the old owners, to whom they 
 looked for supplies and provisions. At the same time, every 
 efi'ort was made to induce the Acadians to take the oath of 
 allegiance to Queen Anne, or after her death to King George, but 
 for many years without success. 
 
 A "Mock Go vernment "— The Acadians Prosper.— The 
 garrison at Annapolis seldom amounted to more than one hundred 
 men, and this poor fort and a small block-house at Canso were 
 the sole guardians of British power in Acadia during this 
 period. Those in command did not hesitate to call it a "mock 
 
58 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 government." Nicholson was governor until 1717, bub left the 
 duties of his office largely to lieutenants. His successor, General 
 Richard Philipps (1717-1749), spent not more than six year;; of 
 his long term in the i)r()vince, and that at very irregular intervals. 
 Doucette, Armstrong, and Paul Mascarene were in turn his lieu- 
 tenants. During the time of Armstrong the Acadians apparently 
 were inclined to accept the situation and become British subjects; 
 with a saving clause, however, that they should not be called on 
 to bear arms. In 17i'0 General Philipps, after one of his short 
 visits to the province, reported that they had taken the oath of 
 allegiance, but the Acad "ins claimed that Philipps on his [jart 
 promised that they should occupy the position of neutrals in any 
 war with France. Hence arose the name by which, during the 
 latter part (^f this period, they were known — "the Neutral 
 French." They multiplied greatly and had prosperous settle- 
 ments, not only along the Annapolis and around the Basin of 
 Minas, but also on the isthmus at the head of Chignecto Bay. 
 They paid no taxes and were subject to no military or other state 
 service. Taking no part in the fur trade, they stayed at home 
 and knew little of the world beyond their fruitful valleys. Had 
 not war again broken out between their kinsmen and the English, 
 it is probable that they would in a short time have accepted uncon- 
 ditionally the position of British subjects. 
 
 Canada and New York.— By the Treaty of Utrecht, as we 
 have seen, the Five Nations were acknowledged by France to 
 be British subjects. Nothing, however, was said as to the 
 boundary lines of their territory. New York claimed the entire 
 region to the shores of Lake Ontario, and, in common with the 
 other British colonies in America, she contended that her boundary 
 to the west was the Mississippi, if not, indeed, the Pacific Ocean. 
 For New France to allow this claim would be to lose command of 
 the Niagara, portage and the southern waterway to the western 
 regions. One aim of the French, therefore, was to secure this 
 portage. 
 
 Rival Posts on Lake Ontario. — There had already been 
 several attempts during La Salle's time, and at the time of 
 Denonville's march against the Senecas, to establish a fort at the 
 mouth of the Niagara, but the rude structures had been soon 
 abandoned. Now a stockade was built, near where Lewiston 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 59 
 
 stands, to command the portage past the falls. A few years later 
 (1725) a fort was erected at the mouth of the river, and armed 
 vessels were built at Fort Frontenac to control Lake (Jntario. 
 To otiset this movement of the French, a fortified trading post 
 was built by the British at the mouth of the Oswego, which the 
 French in vain incited the Iroquois to destroy. Oswego threat- 
 ened to draw off from Montreal that portion of the fur trade from 
 the north which was wont to come down from the Georgian Bay 
 by way of the Toronto portage, and to meet this danger a post 
 was established at Toronto on the north shore of the lake. 
 
 The Lake Charaplain Region. — After de Beauharnois 
 became governor, the French in 1731, by a brilliant movement, 
 advanced their frontier into New York by fortifying Crown Point 
 on Luke Champlain — always a post of danger, as (Hie may judge 
 from its French name, Pointe d la Chevelare (Scalp Point). There 
 was nuich angry correspondence about these matters between the 
 officials of the rival colonies. In Euro[)e, however, not much 
 attention was paid to what were deemed trivial disputes. The 
 governors on both sides were enjoined to keep the peace and to 
 let the Indians harass the new posts. The Oswego post excepted, 
 the advantage of position was gained by the French. Their weak- 
 ness was that the garrisoned trading posts had no settlements to 
 support them. 
 
 New Prance Secures the "West. — Still farther west the 
 French during these years materially strengthened their position. 
 Detroit slowly grew into a settlement. To-day, along the east 
 shore of the river are many descendants of the French pioneers 
 who at that time migrated, some from France and some from 
 the banks of the St. Lawrence, to this western post. On the 
 upper Mississippi was another settlement around Fort Chartres, 
 while, toward the mouth of the river, Louisiana gradually acquired 
 stability. A famous Canadian, Le Moyne d'Iberville, had founded 
 this cidony in 1700 ; his brother, Le Moyne de Bienville, was long 
 its governor. Before the middle of the century there was a com- 
 plete chain of posts — fortiiied trading stations with small garrisons 
 under officers experienced in Indian diplomacy — all the way around 
 from Quebec to Louisiana. From these, adventurous voyageurs, 
 conreurs de hoisy and officers with a leaning toward exploration, 
 pushed up the rivers which empty, into the Mississippi from the 
 
60 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 west. Others, however, reaped the ])unetit of their western 
 travels; it is left to us merely to note that the earliest opeuini,' 
 up of the Western Sbites was largely the work of Canadians. 
 
 North -Western Exploration. -We have a more direct 
 interest in the exploration northward. The route from Lake 
 8ui)erior to Lake Winnipeg had become well known to the fm 
 traders, and posts had l>een established on the Kaministi(|uiii 
 River, the Lake of the Woods, and Lake Winni{)eg. The Jesuit 
 father, Charlevoix, to whose pen we are indebted for a history 
 of New France, was staticmed (about 1725) at the western end of 
 Lake Superior. The Indians there told him of a stream wiiich 
 flowed t(fward the west to a great body of water where the title 
 ebbed and flowed. At his post on Lake Nepigon, north of Lake 
 Superior, the famous de la Verendrye heard similar stories. He 
 formed the opinion that the way to the western ocean was through 
 the country of the Assiniboels — the modern Manitoba. He otiered 
 to flnd it, and was granted a monopoly of the trade north and west 
 of Lake Superior to aid him in the search. Between the years 
 IT.'il and 174i) de la Verendrye and his sons explored an immense 
 tract of country behind the territory of the Hudson's Bay Company. 
 They estal)lished no less than six fortitied ])osts to counnand the 
 approaches to this great North-West, ])esides two smaller posts, 
 one on the site of the present city of Winnipeg and the other at 
 the mouth of the Saskatchewan River. Two of de la Verendiye's 
 sons penetrated in 1742 through the country lying to the south- 
 west of the Missouri River to the foot of a s[)ur of the Rdcky 
 Mountains. One of these sons, known as the Chevalier de la 
 Verendrye, also went as far west as the forks of the Saskatclio- 
 wan. The story of the Verendryes is very like that of La Salle. 
 Their toil was ill recpiited. The father, indeed, received the cross 
 of the Order of St. Louis, but very little else. The sons, after 
 incurring heavy debts, found themselves ousted from their jiosts 
 and their mono})oly given to one more in favor with a new 
 governor. Tlie march of events on the St. L;iwrence prevented 
 much attention being paid to this north-western region, during 
 the remaining years of French rule in Canada. 
 
 Commercial Monopoly Retards Settlement. — The 
 spasmodic zeal for manufactures which the intendant Talon had 
 aroused, died away almost immediately after his departure from 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 61 
 
 the colony, and the fur trade again engrossed tlio whole energy 
 of Krw France. The king drew a largo revenue from this trattic, 
 certain duties on si)irits and tobacco forming his only other income 
 from the colony. The right to colhict all these revenues was from 
 time to time farmed out to trading partnerships and companies, 
 who paid a fixed sum for the privilege. To make sure that all 
 furs should pass througii their liands, their ships only were allowed 
 to carry goods from Canada. This numopoly of export had natur- 
 ally drawn with it the monopoly of import, and Canadians were 
 
 A CALECHE. 
 
 thus denied all share in commercial enterprise. Even agriculture 
 went no further than the raising of such crops as the colony 
 could itself consume. Little wonder, therefore, that settlement 
 Rjjread but slowly and that, to escape the mcmotony of life on 
 the St, Lawrence, active men plunged into the fascinating freedom 
 (if the western fur trade. 
 
 An Improvement Takes Place.— With Queen Anne's War 
 (17().'i-1713) a change came. British cruisers cut off the colony's 
 supplies, and Canadians were driven to make for themselves many 
 
62 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 articles which liad proviously })een iinportcd. Tlie effect of the 
 impetus thus given continued after the war closed. Population 
 grew with increased rapidity along the St. Lawrence valley. In 
 1734, for the first time, one could travel in a wheeled cart from 
 Montreal to Quebec. Agriculture and its allied industries— the 
 manufacture of cloth from wool, hemp, and nettle lil)re, tanning 
 and shi[)-])uilding — tended to the growth of a more settled popula- 
 tit)n. Though fur was the chief article of export during all thu 
 years of French rule in Canada, and, indeed, for many yt-ars 
 thereafter, a modest export trade grew up in fish, timber, wheat, 
 and the plant called ginseng, then nuich in favor as a cure-all. 
 
 The Canadian Habitant. — There was no landlord class, as 
 in France, to take the lion's share of the fruits of the habitant's 
 labor. He paid no direct tax to tlie king. To the Church he liad 
 to contribute his titlies. The Catholic Church in Canada, however, 
 was largely maintained fnjm France, so that the tithe was" never 
 during the French regime much of a burden upon the settler. 
 He is described as essentially superior to the French peasant; 
 as honest, civil and obliging; as indefatigable in hunting, travel- 
 ling and bush-ranging, l)ut slow in tilling the soil. All writers 
 of the time describe the Canadians as extravagant, particularly in 
 dress. Very few could read or write. The seminary at Quebec 
 and the nuns' schools at Quebec, Three Rivers and Montreal were 
 the only regular educational establishments. The aires instructed 
 the young of the parishes in their duty to the Church and the 
 king. Beyond this the settlers had little means of acquiring 
 knowledge. 
 
 No Self-government. — In government, neither seigneur nor 
 censitaire had any part. New France was under the absolute 
 rule of the French king, who, through the colonial minister at 
 Versailles, gave directions in all matters to his officers in Canada. 
 The governor, the intendant, the judges, and all lesser officials, 
 were sent out from France. It was the settled policy of the 
 French co' rt that Canadians should not be allowed any share 
 in the government of the country. There was hesitation, it is 
 said, about appointing Beauharnois to the governorship, because 
 his wife's relatives were Canadian. The most to which even a 
 Canadian seigneur could aspire was the command of a western 
 post or the leadership in a raid on New England. Even m 
 
HlHTORY OF CANADA. 63 
 
 municij3al affairs there was no self-government, aiid the small 
 detiiils of every-day life in the settloments were regulated by 
 ordinances of the intendant. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE WAK OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. 
 
 The French Attack Annapolis.— Early in 1744 news 
 rciiciied Cape Breton that war had been declared in Europe l)etween 
 England and France. During the past twenty-live years the 
 fortifications of Louisbourg had slowly grown to completion, and it 
 was now, beyond all ({uestion, the strongest fortress in Amei'ica. 
 Its commandant, on hearing the news of war, at once despatched 
 an expedition under du Vivier to recapture Acadia. The 
 block-house at Canso was captured and burned. At Annapolis 
 Paul Mascarene was in command. Himself of French descent, 
 he had gained the esteem of the Acadians by his mild g(wernment ; 
 80 that, when du Vivier arrived before Annapolis, he received 
 so little aid from his compatriots that, after much bluster and 
 a little skirmishing, he deemed it prudent to raise the siege. 
 
 New England Plans to Take Louisbourg. — Massachu- 
 setts alone seemed alive to the necessity for looking after Acadia. 
 Her interest in it was largely mercantile, and so, when news came 
 of the destruction of Canso and the attack on Annapolis, an 
 intense desire was expressed for the capture of Louisbourg in order 
 to prevent the destruction of New England commerce })y French 
 privateers from that port. Shirley, the governor of Massachu- 
 setts, was eager for military glory, and, taking advantage of the 
 feeling among the merchants, he persuaded the assembly oi the 
 colony to vote an expedition against the redoubtable fortress. 
 New Ham])shire, Connecticut and Rhode Island, with more or less 
 zeal, joined in this "project of wild audacity." Puritan New 
 England looked upon it as a crusade against idolatry ; Parson 
 Moody figures largely in the campaign. The raw levies of the 
 colonies, to the number of about four thousand, were commanded 
 by officers almost wholly unskilled. The commander-in-chief was 
 a merchant, William Pepperrell. From England orders were sent 
 
64 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 to Adiiiiiiil WiiiTon that his Huet should co-operato in tlio attack. 
 Tho expoditioii, thuroforo, waitod for him at CauHo, Popperrcll 
 utiUzing tho time diilHnj^ his awkward S(|uads on shore. 
 
 The Fortress Taken. — Lato in April, 1745, tho unitod forces 
 a[)poarod off Louisbourg, which was dofondiid by al)out two thou- 
 sand regulars. Tlw. tivx'.t at onco procuodcd to blockado tho harhor, 
 while tho Nisw Englandors landed and laid siege to tho town. For 
 nearly sevtni weeks the siege continued. Tho attacking forcus 
 gradually ac(juired disci[)line and drew in npon tho defences of the 
 place, while Warren kept watcli outside tho harl)or, to cut off any 
 succor which France might send to the beleaguered fortress. On 
 tho Ifith of .Time, just as tho Now England army and tho Hifct 
 wore about to make a combined assault both hy land and sea, 
 its connnandant capitulated. This most noted exploit has 
 been claimed by some New England writers as tho work of the 
 New England land forces alone. On tho other hand,. English 
 historians treat it as a victcny for the British fleet. Tho truth is 
 that neither alone could have takcm Louisbourg. At tho tinio, 
 however, the New Englandors complained that while tho fleet got 
 prize money in abundance, glory was all that fell to the army. 
 Shirley, with nuich pride, came over from Boston to receive the 
 keys of the cai)tured fortress. 
 
 A French Fleet Shattered. — Elated with this success, the 
 Now England colonies made ready a largo force for an expedition 
 against Quebec, but tho weak Newcastle ministry in England faihid 
 to send the promised fleet to svqjport the enterprise. Shirley 
 then i)lanned a campaign against tho French fort at Crown Point, 
 but this, too, was dropped when news came that a powerful 
 fleet had sailed from Franco to recover Louisbourg, and capture 
 An7iai)olis. This fleet, under tho Due d'Anvillo, was sufticiently 
 powerful to have carried out all its designs, but a successicm of 
 Atlantic storms worked such havoc upon it that it reached tlie 
 hai'bor of Chebucto (now Halifax) in a very badly shattered 
 condition. Tho Due d'Anvillo died suddenly, and his successor, 
 despairing of accomplishing tho object of their coming, committed 
 suicide. Do J(m(iuiere, to whom the command fell, had come 
 with the fleet to replace Boauharnois as governor of New France, 
 but, after another storm off Cape Sable had nearly completed 
 the destructicm of the fleet, he returned with the shattered rem- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 66 
 
 nnut to France. He Htarted ii},'<iiii next year (1747) in conunand of 
 another Htrong t'oico, but ort' JiochoUo ho was met and vanciuiHliod 
 by a British tluut under Anson and Warren. Du JoiKniiere being 
 taken prisoner, tlio French king liad to chooso another governor 
 for New France, and tlio Man^uis de la Galissonniero was 
 jipjxiinted. 
 
 Grand Pre. — To aid d'Anville's campaign against Acadia, do 
 Boauliarnois sent overland from Quebec a body of men of the very 
 pick of the Canadians, under the leadership of de Itamezay of 
 Montreal. To prevent the Acadians from joining him, »Shirley 
 sent a small force under Colonel Nol)le to occupy (irand Pre 
 {;n tlie shores of the Basin of Minas. On his approach de 
 Riniczay retired to Beaubassin, on the istlnnus l)etween Nova 
 Scotia and tlu^ present province of New Brunswick. Noble, 
 iuiticipatiiig no attack, (quartered his forces in the scattered houses 
 ar(»und Grand Pre. De Rame/-ay, learning of this, planned a 
 winter assault. After a long and tiring march around the head 
 of the Basin of Minas, a select body under Coulon do Villiers, at 
 night and under cover of a snow-storm, surprised the settlement. 
 The numerical superiority of the British coimted for nothing 
 in their scattered cimdition. Colonel Noble was killed while 
 fighting bravely in his nightshirt. A small body managed to hold 
 the central block-house until daybreak; then, finding further resis- 
 tance useless, they surrendered on honorable terms. They were 
 allowed to march off to Annapolis, under promise to serve no 
 further in the war. De Villiers retired again to Beaubassin, 
 while Shirley sent another force to reoccupy Grand Pre. 
 
 "La Petite Guerre." — The Assembly of New York, largely 
 under the influence of the Albany traders, was half-hearted in 
 talking measures against Canada. The Iroquois lost much of their 
 res])ect for British prowess when they saw the unguarded state of 
 the New York frontier. The garrison at Saratoga being withdrawn, 
 the partisan leader Marin, with a band of mission Indians, swooped 
 do^ni very early in the war (1745), and destroyed the fort and 
 settlement there. At this time a young Irishman, known in 
 Canadian history by his later title of Sir William Johnson, was 
 stationed on the Mohawk River, where he acquired great influence 
 with the Indians of the district. At his suggestion raids were made 
 toward Montreal in order to draw off the bands of Canadians who 
 
66 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 were ravuf^inj? New Englund. This '*])otito fj;norro," as tho Caim- 
 diaiis culled it, biHtud all through tlu; war. It druw forth the Inst 
 Hkill and liiidiiraiico of the (.•oiiihataiitH on hoth Hides, but the details 
 of these niovenients would lill voluniea and tho results wero 
 unirnj)ortant. 
 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748.— This ♦♦ War of tho A us- 
 trian Succession," as it is called in Europe, is noted chiefly for 
 the })rilliant naval victories gained by the liritish over tho fleets of 
 France and Spain. After the cajjture of Louisbourg, not much 
 interest was taken in the conduct of tho war in America, where, as 
 we have seen, the New England colonies were left to do the fighting. 
 The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) ])ut an end to the strife for a 
 time. By it Cape Breton, including the captured fortress of Louis- 
 bourg, was restored to France, much to the disgust of N(!w 
 England. In return, France surrendered Madras, which hor 
 troo|ts in India had captured. There Clivo was just beginning his 
 illustrious career. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ON THE EDGE OF THE STORM. 
 
 Galissonniere. — The Peace f>f Aix la-Chapelle settled none of 
 the boundary disputes in America, and Galissonniere, during his 
 short term of ofhce, earnestly urged the colonial oftice at Versailles 
 to take prompt and vigorous measures to make New France strong 
 for the next struggle. Now that the peace had left the British in 
 possession of the Hudson Bay country, he supported the Vercn- 
 dryes in their efforts to maintain a line of posts to shut the Hud- 
 son's Bay Company out of the country west of Lake Winnipeg. 
 He urged that, to the east, Louisbourg should be strengthened, 
 and that a neutral belt should be established along the gulf shore 
 of Nova Scotia, in order to keep open the communication between 
 Canada and Cape Breton. He turned his attention also to the 
 British colonies to the south, and took steps to confine them to 
 the region east of the Alleghany Mountains. This ablest of all 
 the governors of New France seems to have put his finger at once 
 on the weak spot in French policy with regard to the west. He 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 67 
 
 pleadod eamostly, Init vainly, that settlurH might 1)o sont out from 
 Franco, to occupy the honk-r lands u[)on which British Hettlenient 
 was presHing, nnil to HUpixtit tho garrisons at and })eyond Detroit. 
 
 The Ohio Valley. ~Vi> to this timo Now Franco had not 
 coino into direct conflict with tho nioro southorn British coh»nio8, 
 Pennsylvania, Virginia, and tho Carolinas, whoso wostorn ])ordor8 
 rt'-ichod tho Alloghanios. Beyond this range, to the west, lay the 
 valley of tho Ohio, part of the groat interior valley of the Mis- 
 sissippi which Franco claimed as her own. Into tho Ohio valley 
 traders from these liritish colonies had ])»ished their way over tho 
 iiMtuntains. GalisMonniere found that the turbulent spirit, which 
 of late had lioen marked among the Indians of the west, was owing 
 largely to tho influence of these traders, whoso wares were better 
 and cheaper than those to bo had at the French trading posts. 
 The governor therefore decided that a force must bo sent to show 
 Ixitli British and Indians that France had not abandoned her claim 
 to any part of tho region traversed by La Salle. Accordingly, 
 Cchjron do Bienville with a force of about two hundred men landed 
 ill the summer of 1749 on the south shore of Lake Erie. Crossing 
 tt) the little Lake Chautaucjua, he descended tho Alleghany to the 
 main stream of the Ohio. He then followed that ^ttroam to where 
 the Miami enters it, ascended tho Miami, crossed f)ver to the 
 Maunieo, and so passed out again to Lake Erie. A notary accom- 
 panied the expedition to make a formal record of this "renewal of 
 possession." Bienville reported that the Indians of this region, 
 who were relatively numerous, were inclined to tho British, whose 
 traders were to be found in nearly every village. Do Bienville also 
 reported that he had driven off the interlopers and had given them 
 written protests to be handed to the governors of the British 
 Colonies. In this same year, in order to strengthen the line of 
 communication with the west, a garrison was sent to the trading 
 post at Toronto, and a fort was built there, called, after the 
 colonial minister, Fort Rouille. 
 
 The British traders of Pennsylvania and Virginia declined to 
 admit the right of the French to exclude them from the Ohio 
 valley. A company was formed in Virginia to acquire land for 
 settlement west of the AUeghanies, and, had the assemblies of 
 Virginia and Pennsylvania supported their proposals, British 
 settlers would have acquired a foothold in the valley before the 
 
G8 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 noxt French oxf)0<lit,uni cnmo. Ah it was, tmnsiont traders woro 
 tor Hoiim tinui t ho only rivals of thu Froiich. 
 
 Halifax Founded, 1749. -Rousod to action by Shirley's 
 rt!itoi)itod ui»j)ual8, tlio Kritisli niiniKtry ut lenj^th decided to plant 
 a British Kuttloniont in Nova Scotia as an oflsot to Loui.sbourg, as 
 well aH a check upon the Acadians. The founding of Halifax 
 (July, 1749) was a state enterprise, and the first settlers were 
 largely disbanded soldiers. Over 2,500 (men, women and cliildron) 
 were induced to cast in their lot with tliis first British-Canadian 
 colony. They were promised a free passage, free land, one year's 
 maintenance, and a government like that of the other "planta- 
 tions" in America. Edv/ard Comwallis, whom Wolfe describes 
 as "a man of approved courage and fidelity," accomi)anied tho 
 settlers as governor of Nova Scotia. Before winter all were roughly 
 housed, and by tho year 1752 Halifax was a flourishing town of 
 about four thous;ind inhabitants. About the same time nearly 
 two thousand Germans were settled to the west of Halifax, and the 
 county of Lunenburg now contains many of their descendants. 
 
 The Acadians. — The Acadians at this time numbered about 
 nine thousand, living along the Annapolis valley, around the 
 shores oi the Basin of Minas, and at the head of Chignecto Bay. 
 Comwallis now called upon them to take an oath of unconditional 
 allegiance to King George. Jonquifere, who bcauno governor of 
 New France in 1741), used all his influence to prevent tho 
 Acadians from becoming British subjects. With his approval, a 
 vigorous effort was put forth to induce them to migrate to tho 
 north shore of the Bay of Fundy or to Isle St. Jean. The effort 
 was only partially successful, for in 1754 there were still six 
 thousand Acadians to the south of the isthmus. The Abbd Le 
 Loutre, missionary to the Micmacs, was the most active agent 
 in carrying out these instructions. Ho did not scruple to threaten 
 that he would let loose his Indian converts upon the Acadians 
 should they accede to the demands of the British. We can 
 understand, therefore, how, under such ever-present influence, the 
 simple peasants hesitated to take tho oath of allegiance. 
 
 At a saw-mill near Halifax four men were killed at their work 
 by Micmacs. This, following other outrages upon the British 
 settlers, determined the governor and his council to insist upon 
 jiothing less than an unconditional oath. Other measures were 
 
HISTORY viF CANADA. 69 
 
 also hikiMi to Ht-ronRtlion tho British poK'tion. Foit p]<hvar(l was 
 l)uilt wlioro Windsor now Htfuids, on an nrni of tho Hii.sin of MinftH. 
 At Ik'duliHHMin, Fort Luvvri'iuio was planted in spito of opjxisition. 
 Ffon* Jjo lioutro, on tlu) advance of tho Jiritish, burned tliu Hottlors* 
 Ikuihoh and thus c'oini)ullod thoni to niovo over to tho north sido 
 of tho MiHsi;^uash, which huro enters Chij^necto liay. On this 
 nido was the French fort, lieausejour, and tho Acadians were pub 
 to work t<» strengthen its defences. This region was all disputed 
 territory, and thoro was chronic hostility between tho two forts. 
 It was here that a l?ritish oiHcer, Howe, decoyed to tho odge 
 of the stream l)y a flag of truce, was treacherously shot. A 
 French vessel, conveying su[»i»lies to the post at tho mouth of 
 the River 8t. tJohn, was cai)tured by Ca[)tain llous, and, when 
 Franco complained of this as an outrage, answer was made that 
 the vessel had no right to trade with British territory. Colonel 
 Ifopson, whom tho French authorities at the time described as n 
 mild and peaceable otHcer, succeeded Cornwallis in 1752. 
 
 French Forts on the Ohio. — In tho year 1752 Jonquiijre 
 (lied at Quebec, and was succeeded by another naval othcer, 
 the Maniuis Du(i[uesne do Meneval. In spite of all the efforts 
 of the othcers at tho western posts, tho Indians of the Ohio 
 region were falling more and more under the influence of the 
 British traders from beyond the Alleghanies. DiKpiesno promptly 
 deterniined to secure tho upper valley by regular gairisoned })osts. 
 To this end ho sent an imposing force of one thousand men under 
 the able and energetic Marin, who in tho last war had headed the 
 raitl on Saratoga. A fort was })uilt at Pre:«iu'ilo, after which the 
 portage was crossed to the head waters of tho Alleghany, and other 
 forts, Le Bcouf and Venango, were planted along itt. course. 
 The British traders were driven out, and the fickle savages took 
 ii(»te that no soldiers were sent to oppose tho French. The 
 colonial assemblies begrudged the spending of any money to 
 secure the control of the country beyond the mountains, so that 
 the traders were left without military support. 
 
 Fort Necessity. — Finally, however, Dinwiddie, Governor of 
 Virginia, succeeded in getting a grant of £'10,000 for an expedition 
 to expel the French. He had previously sent Colonel George 
 Washington with a message to Fort Le Bceuf, demanding that 
 the French should leave the country. The messenger was hos- 
 
70 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 pifcihly entertained, hut the French commanflant, of course, 
 declined to comi)ly with the demand made upon him. Washington 
 was now placed in command of the foi-co which Dinwiddis* sent in 
 1754 to enforce compliance. The French had anticipated his action, 
 and at the junction of the Alleghany and the Monongahela, where 
 Pittsburg now stands, they had huilt and garrisoned a fort which 
 they called Fort Duquesne. Washington, finding his force too small 
 for an attack, entrenched himself at a jilacc which he called Fort 
 Necessity, Ijut was obliged to surrender to the superior force of the 
 French. He was allowed to march out with the honors of war, and 
 at once withdrew to the eastern side of the mountains. 
 
 "A Startling Programme." — When word reached England 
 of the disaster at Fort Necessity, the British parliament voted 
 liberal supplies for America. Maj(jr-General Braddock was sent 
 to take command of t' ■ forces there, which were now reinforced 
 by about 1,400 regular troops. After Braddock's arrival (1755), a 
 council was held at Alexandria at which were present the governors 
 of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Nortli 
 Carolina. What has lieen described as a somewhat startling 
 programme for a time of peace was there decidu-'. on. Braddock 
 was to march on Fort Duquesne and drive the French from the 
 Ohio valley ; Shirley, of Massachusetts, was to lead an expedition 
 against Fort Niagara ; William Johnson was to take Crown Point 
 and secure control of Lake Chanii)lain ; while, in Acadia, Monckton 
 was to attack the French position at Fort Beause'jour. These 
 mo\ements tliey justified on the ground that the places to bo 
 attac^'^^ed were all on British ground. 
 
 Braddock's Defeat.— Braddock's campaign was a disastrous 
 failure. There was much delay in getting off, owing to the want 
 01 wagons to transport the artillery and supplies. The total force 
 which at length started on the long march over the mountains 
 was about 2,200 men. The difficulties of the way considered, the 
 march was made quickly and in good order. On the 9th of July 
 Braddock was on the banks of the Monongahela, within a few 
 miles of Fort Duquesne, when suddenly a force of French and 
 Indians, numbering in all about nine hundred, attacked the 
 British column. Beaujeu, who led the attack, fell at the first 
 fire, and the British jjushed forward with a cheer as the enemy in 
 front disappeared. Their assailants, however, had merely spread 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 71 
 
 themselves along the side of the hill which here bordered the 
 trail by which Braddock was advancing. From among the trees 
 wliich hid them from vieAv^ they poured a deadly fire into the com- 
 [);ict masses in the valley below. In whatever qualities Braddock 
 niiiy have been lacking, he did not want for bull-dog courage, but 
 that very quality now stood him in bad stead in fighting Indians and 
 Frenchmen who fought like Indians. Instead of allowing his men 
 to si)road in open order among the trees, he made them keep their 
 ranks. The British volleys buried themselves in the trees, while 
 every shot from the hillside found its human victim. Braddock 
 himself fell mortally wounded ; and, finally, the order to retreat 
 was given. The retreat soon became a headlcmg flight. Every- 
 thing was abandoned to the enemy, who returned in triumph to 
 Fort Duquesne. Braddock died on the 13th, and the forlorn 
 remnant of the British forces toiled painfully back to the eastern 
 side of the Alleghanies. 
 
 Beaust^jour. — Meanwhile the campaign in Acadia had been 
 energetically pressed. Before starting upon his own expedition 
 ayainst Niagara, Shirley had sent off two thousand of tlie New 
 England nxilitia to aid Monckton in his attack on Beausejour, the 
 strongest fort in Acadia. Its defences had been strengthened by 
 the forced labor of the expatriated settlers from the Annapolis 
 valley, who, to the number of twelve or fifteen hundred, were now 
 .settled in the neighborhood of the French fort. Vergor, however, 
 who was in command at Beausejour, made but a weak defence. 
 Monckton, with his garrison of Fort Lawrence and Shirley's New 
 Eiiglanders, pushed the siege vigorously. A shell exploded in 
 Vergor's quarters and in a very short time the fort capitulated. 
 Fort Gaspereau at Bale Verte, on the gulf side of the isthmus, 
 was also surrendered, and the fort on the St. John River was, on 
 the advance of Captain Rous against it, burned and abandoned. 
 
 Expulsion of the Acadians, 1755. — Acadia was now 
 entirely in possession of the British. What was to be done with 
 the French Acadians ? The authorities at Halifax did not, i:)erhaps, 
 niake sufficient allowance for the influences which had been at 
 work to draw these Acadian farmers to the side of their compa- 
 triots. Colonel Lawrence, a much less patient man than Hopson, 
 was now at the head of affairs at Halifax. He and his council, 
 exasperated by the conduct of the Acadians at Beausejour, deter- 
 
72 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 mined that they should be given one more chance to take the oath 
 of allegiance ; if they refused they sliould be removed from Nova 
 Scotia. They did again refuse, and Monckton wiih accordingly 
 directed to carry out the decree of the coinicil. At Annapolis, 
 Grand Pro, Windsor and Beau])assin, nearly six thousand Acadians 
 in all were assembled, put on board ship with such household 
 effects as could be carried, and transported to the other British 
 colonies. Many, however, managed to evade the troops sent to 
 remove them. Many more afterwards succeeded in finding their 
 way back to their old homes from the other col(-)uies. There are 
 to-day in the Maritime Provinces more than one hundred thousand 
 descendants of these early French Acadians. 
 
 Lake George. — While these events were in progress at the 
 two extremes of New France, a change had taken place in tlio 
 governorship. Duquesne was replaced by the Marquis de Vaudreuil 
 Cavagnal, the last of the French governors. He was a son of the 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 73 
 
 former governor, de Vaudreuil, and by birth a Canadian. France, 
 le.aiuiig of Braddock's departure for America, sent out to Quebec 
 with ihe new governor a force of three thousand regulars under 
 Baron Dieskau to uphold her claims. It was at first intended that 
 they should attack Oswego ; but letters found on the field after 
 Briidd(3ck's defeat revealed the plan for Johnson's expedition 
 against Crown Point, and Dieskau therefore was sent to meet the 
 threatened attack in that (juarter. On the British side there was 
 much delay, as it recpiired the action of half a dozen different 
 colonial assemblies to get the men into the field. At length, 
 however, Johnson found himself at the head of three thousand 
 provincials, undisci])lined, without uniforms, and provided only 
 with a rough hunter's outfit. About three hundred Indians, 
 chiefly Mohawks, also joined him. Advancing from Albany toward 
 Lake Champlain, he decided after some hesitation to take t^ie 
 western route by way of Lake George. Leaving a portion of his 
 force at Fort Lyman (afterwards Fort Edward) to guard his rear, 
 Johnson advanced late in August to the southern edge of the lake. 
 Dieskau's Defeat. — Dieskau meanwhile had reached Crown 
 Point with a force of over 3,500 men, regulars, Canadians, and 
 Indians. The French leader was a veteran soldier and had a 
 supreme contempt for the rustic warriors against whom he was 
 ..ent. His jjolicy was an aggressive one ; therefore, leaving most 
 of his force at Crown Point, he pushed forward with about fifteen 
 hundred men. Of these some two hundred only were regulars, the 
 rest Canadians and Indians. They took the eastern route by way 
 of the southern arm of Lake Champlain and Wood Creek, and 
 thus got between Johnson and Fort Lyman. Their destination 
 was Fort Lyman, but, learning of Johnson's camp on Lake 
 George, Dieskau turned north to attack it. The presence of the 
 French in the neighborhooc? had become known, <ind Johnson 
 sent a force of one thousand men under Colonel Williams to 
 reinforce Fort Lyman. This force marched into an ambuscade 
 prepared for them by Dieskau. After a short conflict known .as 
 the "Bloody Morning Scout," the provincials were driven back 
 upon Johnson's camp, which Dieskau at once-fittacked. All after- 
 noon the fight went on. The New Englanders lay close behind 
 their defences and repulsed every attempt to take the camp. The 
 French regulars, unused to forest warfare, suffered severely ; 
 
74 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 otherwise the loss on either side was snmll. As evening fell, tlie 
 ardor of the men in camp hurst all restraint, and they broke 
 thnnigh their own barricades and drove all before them. Of tliis 
 battle of Lake George, Dieskau — himself wounded and taken 
 prisoner — afterwards said that the New Englanders fought in the 
 morning like good boys, at noon like men, and in the afternoon 
 like devils. 
 
 The French were allowed to retreat without molestation, and 
 were soon entrenclied at Ticonderoga (or Carillon), where Lake 
 George empties into Lake Champlain. After much vacillation, 
 Johnson determined to proceed no further with the expedition 
 against Crown Point, pleading in excuse the lack of transport 
 facilities and the want of discipline in his force. The victory of 
 Lake George wjis all that came of this part of the Alexandrian 
 programme. Much, however, was made of Dioskau'a defeat as 
 an ofiset to Braddock's disaster. Johnson for his victory received 
 £5,000 and a baronetcy. 
 
 Shirley's Expedition Abandoned. — Shirley's expedition 
 against Niagara never got farther than Oswego. There it was 
 learned that de Vaudreuil had been able, from the regulars 
 sent to Canada, to despatch strong reinforcements both to Fort 
 Frontenac and to Fort Niagara. If Shirley should leave to 
 attack the latter, a force from the former might take Oswego in 
 his absence. He therefore, after waiting long for additions to 
 his army, was reluctantly compelled to abandon the enterprise. 
 Leaving a strong garrison to hold the Oswego forts, he returned 
 with the remainder of his men to Albany. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 NEW FRANCE IN DANGER. 
 
 OflO-Cial Corruption. — During these years Canada was the 
 prey of a band of official thieves, headed by the intendant Bigot, 
 an energetic, capable, but thoroughly dishonest officer. If the 
 governor, de Vaudreuil, did not share personally in the plunder 
 of his subordinates, he at all events failed to put a stop to their 
 notorious wrong-doing. Supplies necessary for the carrying on of 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 '7K 
 
 the war wore allowed to pass through several hands before they 
 became the property of the king. Their price increased at each 
 tninsfor, until the king, finally, paid for them many times their 
 value. The drain upon the resources of the coh^ny during the 
 year just past had been very great. Supplies from France had 
 been cut off, and, to increase the public distress, the crop had 
 been but scanty. Exce[)t in high places amcmg the officials of the 
 colony, the condition of the Canadians was becoming desperate. 
 Tlu'}' liad been forced to sell their produce for the king's service 
 at low prices, fixed (as often happened) by ordinances of the 
 intendant ; now, for what they needed to sustain life, fan.ine 
 prict!s were charged. 
 
 Montcalm Arrives. — De Vaudreuil had taken vigorous defen- 
 sive measures against the British. He had fortified Ticonderoga 
 and had garrisoned it with a force of about two thousand men 
 to repel any advance by way of 
 Lake Champlain. Fort Niagara 
 had l)een rebuilt and strengthened. 
 On Lake Ontario two armed ves- 
 sels were prepared to waylay any 
 British force which might attempt 
 to leave Oswego. For offensive 
 war de Vaudreuil had made no 
 large plans, pref < x ring, apparently, 
 as his father before him, to wage 
 "^« petite guerre." Louis XV., 
 on the eve of war in Europe, could 
 spare but few troops, but he sent, 
 to take command of his little army 
 in (*anada, a distinguished soldier, 
 the Marquis de Montcalm. Mont- 
 
 cahu arrived in May, 1756. The French regulars now in Canada 
 ninnl)ered about 6,400. After allowing for the garrisons necessary 
 to bold the various forts, Montcalm had a force of about three 
 thousand men available for offensive operations. Sending the 
 Chevalier de Levis, his second in command, to hold Fort Carillon 
 (Ticonderoga), Montcalm determined to attack Oswego. 
 
 The British Inactive. — On the side of the British colonies 
 Shiiley was in command, and with his usual zeal he planned an 
 
 MONTCALM. 
 
76 HISTORY OV CANADA. 
 
 aggressiv^e campaign. Ho had, however, made enemies, throu^li 
 whose intrigues he was now sui)ersede(l ; tirst by Abercrombio, 
 and, finally, by the P]arl of Loudon, who was sent from England 
 as conunander-in-ehief. Loudon did not arrive in America until 
 July. The plan of campaign which Shirloy had adopted was set 
 aside, and nothing in the way of offensive war was done that year 
 on the part of the British. 
 
 Oswego Captured. — Montcalm vigorously carried out his 
 plans for the capture of Oswego. With a force of about thioo 
 thousand men and al)undant artillery he crossed the lake from Fort 
 Frontenac, jjitched his camp to the east of the river, and at once 
 laid siege to the [)lace. Fort Ontario, on the east bank, was 
 abandoned, and the raw recruits who comjuised the garrison 
 gathered in Fort Pepperrell, on the west bank. There was a 
 third fort on the same side, but it was so useless for defence that 
 it was nicknamed Fort Rascal. By a flank movement Rigaud (a 
 brother of de Vaudreuil) forded the river at a point up stream and 
 opened a cross-fire upon Fort Pepperrell. The garrison held out 
 bravely against the dt)ul)le fire until their commander, Mercor, 
 was killed. Then they surrendered as prisoners of war, tlie 
 French obtaining nuich booty. Montcalm made no attempt to 
 hold Oswego ; after demolishing the forts he recrossed the lake. 
 The fall of Oswego (August, 1756) gave the French the undis- 
 puted mastery of Lake Ontario and rendered secure their position 
 at Niagara and their posts to the west. 
 
 Loudon Fails to Attack Louisbourg.— For the ywir 
 1757 the British planned an expedition against Louisbourg. 
 Loudon gathered all his available forces together and set sail for 
 Halifax, where he was ti) meet a British fleet sent out to aid in 
 the capture of the Ctxpe Breton stronghold. There was great 
 delay in England, and July Avas well advanced before the fleet 
 had gathered in Halifax harbor. Then, instead of proceeding at 
 once to Louisbourg with the combined forces (amounting to over 
 twelve thousand), Loudon sent a single ship to reconnoitre the 
 foitress. Meanwhile the dilatory commander employed his men 
 at Halifax in "cabbage planting and sham fights." Finally in 
 August, learning that Louisbourg was in a strong condition for 
 defence and guarded by a French fleet, Loudon weakly abandoned 
 the enterprise and returned to New York. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 77 
 
 Fort William Henry Taken.— The dosign upon Louisbourg 
 had ili'iivvn off tho British Htieiigtli from tho Luke Champlain 
 country. Lieutoiiant-Oolonel Monro held Fort William Henry with 
 only 2,400 men, Montcalm was (juiok t(j take advantage. With 
 a force of over seven thousand, largely regulars, he came up from 
 Ticonderoga and laid siege to the fort. He pitched his camp on 
 the west side of the lake, where a jutting [nnnt shielded him 
 from the fire of the enemy. De Levis marched around and t(jok 
 up a i)ositi()n behind the fort, thus connnanding the Avay to Fort 
 Edwaid, wliere Webb lay in command of a small force. Gradu- 
 ally the French batteries were advanced by Montcalm, until his 
 guns were planted under the very shadow of the fort. After 
 a week's gallant defence, Momo, despitiring of reinforcement, 
 cajjitulated. The garrison marched out with the honors of war, 
 anil under promise not to serve for eighteen months set off for 
 Foit Edward. 
 
 But their difficulties were not yet over. The events of the 
 two past years — Braddock's disaster in the west, the capture of 
 0,swcg(i, and the general lack of energy in the movements of the 
 British — bad drawn the Indians almost without exception to the 
 side of Ne V France. Montcalm had with him at this time about 
 1,80(1 of th'jse dusky warriors, from over forty distinct tribes or 
 hands. They had done little during the siege beyond shouting 
 their warwhoops, but when the fort was taken they were anxious 
 for plunder. Unfortunately they found liquor. Under its influ- 
 ence their passions became inflamed, and they fell upon the 
 disarmed garrison as they were about to march for Fort Edward, 
 and a cruel massacre ensued. Montcalm used every effort to stop 
 the outrage, risking his life to rescue the British soldiers. The 
 only blame that can attach to him is that he did not provide an 
 escort sufficiently strong to put down any outbreak on the part 
 of tlic fickle savages. 
 
 1758— A Grave Situation. ^Notwithstanding the success 
 whicli thus far had attended their eftbrts, Montcalm and his 
 officers recognized, as the year 1758 opened ui)on them, that 
 their position was becoming dangerous. British fleets shut them 
 off from all possibility of effective aid from France. Supplies for 
 the colony were intercepted. Commerce had well-nigh ceased. 
 Everythmg was dear. The Canadians, forced to sell to the king's 
 
78 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 officurH at priecH fixed by thu intoiulHut, received tlioso prices in 
 *'card niDiiey," that is, in writtei promises to pay, which were 
 afterwards dishonored. Through all this public distress and 
 discontent, othcial plundering went on. M(»ntreal was gay with 
 dinner parties amongst those who were growing rich while Fniicli 
 rule in Canada was drawing to its close. From this time forward 
 Montcalm was put more and more upon the defensive, lack of 
 men and supplies preventing ofi'ensive o[)erations. 
 
 Pitt's Vigorous Policy.—In England, William Pitt had 
 risen to the head of affairs, and at t)nce a change t<jok jjlace in the 
 conduct of the war in America. Merit and not fauuly ccmnection 
 was made the test of fitness to ctjnnuand. Loudon was rec.iUed 
 and to Major-General Sir Jefi'rey Audierst was entrusted tliu 
 carrying out of the vigtirous campaign which Pitt planned against 
 New France. 
 
 The Pall of Louisbourg. — First of all Louisbourg must 
 be taken. Admiral Osborne barred the straits of Gibralfcir to 
 keep one French fleet in the Mediterranean. Admiral Hawke 
 drove another ashore at Rochefort, Thus secured from inter- 
 ruption, Admiral Boscawen (" Old Dreadnought " his saih^rs 
 affectionately called him) sailed for America, carrying with him 
 a force of over twelve thousand men. Amherst was in coniuuiud 
 
HISTOllY OF CANADA. 79 
 
 of tho land forces. With him wjih the futuro hero of Quebec — 
 .TiUiioH Wolfe. The Chevalier de Drucour held JiOui.sl)ourg with 
 a {^Mirisoii of regulars numbering .'i,80<J, and in the harbor was 
 n French fleet whose lighting strength was al)out three th«)us}ind 
 more. The fortress was even stronger than vdien Pepperrell 
 jind liis New Englanders had attacked it thirteen years before. 
 Thu harbor was guarded by three strong batteries as well as by 
 tho guns of the fortress itself. Wolfe led the landing party, 
 iiiul with slight loss the shore was gained at Freshwater Cove, 
 Hoino four miles west of Louisbourg. In reading the story 
 of this siege one is struck ])y its likeness to the siege of 1745. 
 Seven week- were again si)ent in reducing the fortress (June 8th- 
 .Iiily 2()th). Now, however, there was more of military precision 
 in tile gn^dual advance of the British entrenchments closer and 
 t'loKcr to the walls. Two of the French batteries (Grand and 
 Lighthouse Point) which commanded the harbor were (juickly 
 captured. The third, on an island at the mouth of the harbor, 
 was afterwards silenced by the fire from Lighthouse Point. Some 
 of the French ships had been sunk to Ijlock the harl)or's mouth. A 
 fire l)roke out and destroyed others, and in the confusion British 
 ships got in and captured the rest. A band of Canadians and 
 Micniacs threatened the British rear, but was quickly driven back. 
 Every sortie by the garrison was repulsed. Breaches began to 
 apj)ear in the walls under the constant fire of the British batteries 
 from entrenchments close up to the f(jrtress, and finally, on the 
 26th of July, Drucour capitulated. The French of the garrison 
 were sent prisoners of war to England, and before the war closed 
 the renowned fortress was dismantled. It long remained a valu- 
 ahle stone-quarry. 
 
 Further Expulsions.— With Cape Breton, Drucour sur- 
 rendered Isle St. Jean, which at this time was inhabited by 
 Acadians who had migrated during the late troublous times from 
 the sliores of the Bay of Fundy. They are described as a flourish- 
 ing population of over four thousand. Lord Rollo was sent to 
 takt; possession, and to drive out all who declined to take the oath 
 of allegiance. Wolfe was sent to mete out like treatment to an 
 Acadian settlement at Ga8i)e ; while Monckton, without resistance. 
 took possession of the St. John River region in what is now New 
 Brunswick. Much time was consumed in thus taking safe charge 
 
80 HISTOHY (3F CANADA. 
 
 of the portiils of the St. Lrfiwrence, and it was deemed unwise to 
 proceed so late in the season a<i;ainst Quc'l)ec. 
 
 British Repulse at Ticonderoga.— Meanwhile Aborcrombie 
 had attempted, with an anny of fifteen thousand, to cany out the 
 second i)ait of Pitt's phin the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown 
 Point and (if the conditions should then favor the project) an 
 advance on Montreal. Wolfe (lescril)es Ahercroniljie as "a htiavy 
 man." The militia th( ught him wanting in decision of character 
 and nicknamed him Mrs. Nabby Cromby (Nal)by being the New 
 England abbreviati(m for Abigai'). It is said that Pitt intended 
 that Lord Howe, Abercntmbie's second in command, should l)e 
 the real head of the expedition, l^nfortunately this able oHicer 
 was killed in an accidental encounter with a scouting party shortly 
 after the Britisli forces had landed at the foot of Lake (ieorge. 
 Montcalm himself was at Ticondei'oga with a forc^ of nearly four 
 thousand men, entrenched ]>ehind a strong ])arricade some distance 
 in front of the fort. Before the barricade the trees had been cut 
 dt)wn and their branches left lying Avith sharp ends sticking out- 
 ward. Abercrombie might have brought up his artillery and bat- 
 tered the barricade to pieces. Instead, he ordered his men to 
 carrj' the positiim by assault. This they bravely tried to do over 
 the fallen timber, but, after gallant ellorts repeated at intervals 
 during all the afternoon of a hot July day, they had to abandon 
 the attempt. The British loss was heavy, that of the French 
 trifling. Something like a panic seized Abercrombie's army, and 
 soon it was in full I'etreat southward up Lake George. Montcalm 
 made no attempt to follow, contenting himself with sending out 
 small war parties to cut off stragglers from Fort William Henry. 
 
 Bradstreet Destroys Fort Frontenac. — In August, 
 Colonel Bradstreet performed a notable exploit. With about three 
 thousand men he crossed from the mouth of the Oswego and 
 surprised Fort Frontenac. The garrison of 110 men surrendered 
 themselves as prisoners of war without resistance, and a great 
 quantity of stores destined for the western posts was captured. 
 The fort was destroyed, the ships with which the French had 
 hitherto held control of Lake Ontario were burned, and, without 
 the loss of a man, Bradstreet recrossed the lake. 
 
 The French Lose Fort Duquesne.— The loss of the stores 
 for the westera posts seriously weakened Fort Duquesne. Over 
 

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HISTORY OF CANADA. 81 
 
 the mountains Brigadier Forbes was slowly advancing against it 
 with an imposing force of over six thousand men. Of these some 
 1,600 were regulars, chiefly Highlanders. Ever since Braddock's 
 defeat the frontier settlements of Pennsyh'ania and Virginia had 
 been scourged by the Indians of the Ohio valley, upon whom the 
 French depended to repel any attack from that quarter. The 
 stoppage of the supplies left them without the means to support 
 tlie Indiars around Fort Duquesne, and they were left alone to 
 defend the fort against Forbes. The impossibility of a successful 
 stand was evidently realized; for, when a picked body from Forbes' 
 Jinny made the last quick advance upon Fort Dutjuesne, they 
 found it a smoking ruin. It was at once hastily re})uilt and named 
 Pittsburg, in honor of the great minister. Leaving a small gar- 
 rison to hold it, Forbes marched back to Philadelphia. The 
 French, however, still held the posts toward Lake Erie, to which 
 they had retreated. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE PALL OF NEW FRANCE. 
 
 Montcalm's Defensive Measures.— Though the outlook 
 was dark for New France, and the enemy was surely drawing in 
 upon her, Montcalm addressed himself to the task of her defence 
 with courage and ability. He knew that this year the citadel 
 would be attacked, and he determined to conduct the defence 
 tliere in person. The chain of conanunication with the west had 
 been weakened by the fall of forts Frontenac and Dui^uesne, and 
 Niagara was now much exposed. Here Pouchot was placed in 
 command, and proved himself a brave soldier. At Ticonderoga 
 iJourlamaque was stjitioned, with instructions to keep back the 
 British advance in that quarter as long as possible. St. Luc de la 
 ( 'orne took post near Ogdensburg to oppose any force which mi<;ht 
 attempt to descend the St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario. 
 
 British Plan of Attack. — England prepared for a supreme 
 
 effort. New France should be assailed by overwhelming armies. 
 
 Major-General Amherst, the commander-in-chief, was to march 
 
 upon Montreal, while Wolfe undertook the capture of Quebec. 
 
 7 
 
82 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 First, however, Amherst sent Brigadier Prideaux to reoccupy 
 Oswego and take Niagara. This done, Prideaux was to descend 
 the St. Lawrence and join Amherst before Montreal. Amherst 
 himself, with the main body of the army, was to advance by way 
 of Lake Champlain and the Richelieu. Montreal taken, the 
 com])ined forces were to descend to join Wolfe at Quebec. As we 
 shall see, two years were tjikon in carrying out this comprehensive 
 programme, and the final junction of the British forces was not at 
 Quebec, but ])efore Montreal. 
 
 The British Take Niagara. — Prideaux advanced from 
 Albany by way of the Mohawk portage to the mouth of the 
 Oswego, and, leaving Haldimand there in connnand of a strong 
 garrison, proceeded to attack Niagara. Pouchot defended the 
 post with great resolution. The premature bursting of a cohom 
 killed Prideaux, and Sir William Joluison took command of the 
 besieging force. The British garrison at Pittsburg had been 
 too weak to drive the French from their forts at Yenango, Le 
 Boeuf and Presfiii'ile, and from these posts a force now set out 
 to relieve Pouchot. This party was met and overcome near 
 Lewiston, and with its defeat all hope of a successful defence 
 was given up by Pouchot, who shortly afterwards surrendered. 
 The posts south of Lake Erie were at once abandoned by their 
 French conmiandants, who retired to Detroit. This post, with 
 Michillimackinac and the far west, was now completely cut ofi', 
 and could take no part in the defence of Canada. Fort Rouille', 
 on the north shore of Lake Ontario, was also abandoned by the 
 French and burned. Gage, who superseded Johnson in the 
 connnand of this left wing of Amherst's army, made no attempt 
 this year to descend the St. Lawrence. He rei)orted that his force 
 was too small to risk the dangers of navigation past La Gome's 
 position. 
 
 Amherst's Cautious Advance.— During all this time 
 Amherst was advancing slowly and cautiously toward Montreal at 
 the head of an army of over eleven thousand men. July was 
 nearly over when he reached the outlet of Lake George. Bour- 
 lamaque retired l)efore him ; first from Fort Carillon, which the 
 French tried but with only partial succsss to blow up behind 
 them ; then from CroAvn Point, after demolishing that fortress ; 
 until, finally, he entrenched himself in a strong position on Isle 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 88 
 
 aux Noix on the Richelieu, determined to hold the inland to the 
 l;ist. Amherst did not reach him. The British general spent 
 the summer in repairing Fort Ticonderoga (as the English named 
 Fort Carillon), in erecting a strong fort at Crown Point, in opening 
 roads along the lake all the way to Fort William Henry, and in 
 building vessels to overcome the small French flotilla which 
 guarded the approach to the outlet of Lake Champlain. When 
 this last task was ended and the opposing vessels were destroyed, 
 it was too late in the season to risk any further advance. The 
 army went into winter-quarters, and a messenger was sent to 
 apprise Wolfe before Quebec that he need look for no assistance 
 from Amherst in the attack upon that famous fortress. 
 
 The Defences of Quebec. — Montcalm had taken vigorous 
 measures for the defence of Quebec. Tlie militia were ordered 
 out to the last man, and bravely and cheerfully they responded 
 to the call. Regulars and militia included, Montcalm had an army 
 of fourteen thousand men encamped behind a line of earthworks 
 wliich stretched from the St. Charles River to the falls of the 
 Montmorency. There was little fear of a direct attack from the 
 8t. Lawrence upon the town itself ; for, from the river's edge to 
 the topmost sunnnit of Cape Diamond, Quebec ])ristled with artil- 
 kny, and strong walls, strongly maimed, barred all access in that 
 direction. The Chevalier de Riimezay was in command oi the 
 garrison, which numbered between one and two thousand men. 
 Above the town stretched for miles a line of precipitous clitfs, 
 broken, eight miles from Quebec, by a deep ravine, commanded 
 by batteries planted on Cap Rouge. Where Montcalm's army lay, 
 facing the river from the meadows of the St. Charles, was 
 apparently the only possible landing i)lace, and here every pre- 
 caution was taken. To the east the ground rose again, fnmting 
 the river with steep declivities to where the chasm of the 
 Montmorency formed a natural barrier agr.inst attack. 
 
 Wolfe's Arrival — Montcalm's Tactics. — The fleet which 
 boi'e Wolfe and his army reached the Island of Orleans toward the 
 end of June. The troops were landed upon the western point of 
 the island. In full view, across the basin of Quebec, was the 
 fortress they had come to capture, and Wolfe saAV at once that he 
 h.ui a dithcult tiisk before him. His land force amounted to less 
 than nine thousand men, but they were, as he himself afterwards 
 
84 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 said, 'Hhe best soldiers in tlie world." If he could only bring 
 Montcalm to battle he had little fear of the result. Montcalm 
 deliberately declined to give the British general any such siitisfac- 
 tion. His position was well-nigh inipregnal)le ; he feared to pit 
 the Canadian militia against regulars in the open field ; in short, 
 
 he was too good a general not to see that 
 his best policy was to stand strictly up')n 
 the defensive. During eleven anxious 
 weeks he guarded the northern shore so 
 well that nowhere, in the long stretch 
 from the falls of Montmorency below <o 
 Cap Rouge above, could Wolfe effect a 
 landing. 
 
 Position of the British Forces. 
 — Wolfe's first movement was to take 
 possession of Point Levis, on the south 
 shore, opposite Quebec. Here Monck- 
 ton was stationed in charge of strong 
 batteries which, all through the siege, 
 poured a hot fire across the narrow 
 channel. Churches, warehouses, and 
 private residences were destroyed, and the inhabitants were driven 
 to seek refuge under the shelter of the northern declivities toward 
 the St. Charles. Early in July Wolfe sent a force to take posses- 
 sion of the north shore of the St. Lawrence, beyond the Montmo- 
 rency. This was done with but slight opposition. Here Wolfe 
 established his headquarters and strongly entrenched liimself. The 
 British army was thus divided. The right wing, under Wolfe's 
 inmiediate connnand, faced Montcalm's left across the beautiful 
 falls of the Montmorency. The centre rested on the point of the 
 Island of Orleans under the more immediate shelter of the fleet. 
 The left wing was at Point Le'vis. Admiral Saunders, who com- 
 manded the fleet, loyally supported Wolfe throughout the siege. 
 Soon after his arrival in the basin of Quebec fire-ships and fire- 
 rafts had been sent down against him. Late in July the attempt 
 was repeated, only to be again foiled by the intrepidity of the 
 British tars, who swarmed out in small boats, grappled the burning 
 craft, and towed them where they could burn out without danger 
 to the fleet. 
 
 WOLFE. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 85 
 
 Attack on the French Camp Repulsed.— Before the 
 
 end of July Wolfe had secured control of the south shorn of the 
 St. Lawrence to a point above Cap Rouge. A number of ships 
 from the fleet had safely passed the batteries of Quebec and were 
 now prepared to support any movement against the enemy above 
 the city. But, beyond the capture of some prisoners on the north 
 shore above Cap Rouge, nothing had come of the operations in tliat 
 quarter. Bougainville was sent to meet the threatened danger, 
 and from his post at Caj) Rouge he guarded the northern shore as 
 fcir as Quebec with tireless vigilance. Wolfe therefore determined 
 to atbick Montcalm's camp. On the last day of July, after taking 
 every precaution, he landed a strong force on the shore in front of 
 tlie French entrenchments, about a mile west of the falls of 
 Mojitmorency. The detachment of grenadiers and "Royal 
 Americans" who first landed rushed to the assault without 
 waiting for their supi)orts, led by Wolfe himself, to come up. 
 The result was disastrous. The redoubts on the beach were 
 carried with a rush,, but the hot fire from the entrenchments above 
 drove the British soldiers back just as a storm of rain burst upon 
 the combatants. Wolfe, seeing that the attempt was now hopeless, 
 withdrew his forces. The British loss w^as heavy, and Wolfe 
 wisely forbore any further attempt upon this Beauport front. 
 
 "Wolfe's Cove. —August wore on, and Wolfe apparently was 
 no nearer the capture of Quebec than when the siege began. 
 Toward the end of the month he fell ill. His "slight carcase," 
 as he himself once described it, had never been strong, and now 
 the anxieties of the siege brought on a fever from which he did 
 not recover for some days. During his illness he requested his 
 three brigadiers, Monckton, Townshend, and Murray, to consult 
 together as to the conduct of the siege. Upon his recovery he 
 adopted the plan they suggested as a final attempt to capture the 
 city. While Admiral Saunders should bombard Montcalm's camp 
 along the Beauport front, as if to cover a landing there, the real 
 attempt should be made up the river. If possible, a f(jrce was to 
 be landed upon the north shore at a point about a mile west of the 
 city, where a narrow gully led slantingly to the top of the cliff. 
 The place was called Anse du Foulon by the French ; it is now 
 known as Wolfe's Cove. 
 
 A Landing Bflfected. — Before making this last effort Wolfe 
 
8() IlISTOKY OF CANADA. 
 
 withdrew his right wing from tho j)OHition at Montmorency Falls, 
 and tlie Fronoh began to think that tho siege wan to be abandoned. 
 Instead, a strong body was landed behind Point Levis and sent 
 along the south shore to join the forces a])ove, who had l)eeii 
 threatening Bougainville's ])osition at Cap Rouge. Admiral Holmes 
 was in connnand of the tileet above Quebec. After the troops had 
 been taken oiij board he began a series oi maiKeuvres in the 
 neighborhood of Cap Rouge which led J5ougainville to think that 
 a serious attempt was to be made upon his batteries there. Bad 
 weather postponed the real enterprise until the night of the 12tli 
 of September. Then Wolfe came up to t;ike connnand of it in 
 person. About 1,600 men were put on board of boats and barges, 
 and the little flotilla was allowed to drift (|uietly down with the 
 ebbing tide. Twice as they drew near their destination they were 
 challenged by French sentries on the shore. Twice the sentries 
 were deceived by a Scotch officer (who sj)()ke French fluently) into 
 the belief that tho boats were French supply-boats from beyond 
 Cap Rouge, which, as Wolfe had learned, were expected down that 
 night. The landing reached at length, a volunteer band under 
 Howe climbed in silence tho steep way to the top of the clifl'. Tho 
 guard stationed there was tjiken by surprise and (piickly over- 
 powered. At once those left in the boats landed and clambered 
 up to join tly?ir comrades above. Holmes dropped down opj)osite 
 the landing place, and before morning a little army of about 4,500 
 men had reached the heights. As day dawned they stood ready for 
 battle on the Plains of Abraham. 
 
 The Plains of Abraham. — Admiral Saunders, the evening 
 before, had vigorously ])ombarded Montcalm's camp at Beauport. 
 Soldiers had been kept in boats, moving up and down the river in 
 front of the French works as if in search of a good landing place. 
 Montcalm was completely deceived as to the real point of attack. 
 When, in the early morning, as he rode toward tho St. Charles, ho 
 caught sight of the red-coats on the plains beyond the city, he 
 knew at once that there w^as serious w^ork before him. By ten 
 o'clock, a force at least as large as that under Wolfe had gathered 
 beyond tho western w^alls of Quebec. Then, without waiting either 
 for further reinforcements from beyond the St. Charles, or until 
 Bougainville could march from Cap Rouge to attack the rear of 
 Wolfe's army, Montcalm impetuously gave battle. The French 
 
IIISTUIIY OF CANADA. 
 
 87 
 
 kept firing as thuy adv.'iiiced. The Britisli ro.serveil tliuir fire 
 until the enemy were nearly upon thini. Then, at the word of 
 coiuniand, from end to end of the line a erasliing volley rang out ; 
 then, another; and then, "Charge!" Ah, with a cheer, the 
 Britinh troops svvej)t forward, the French lied in wild confusion, 
 staying not until safe within the city's walls or beyond the 8t. 
 Cliarles. 
 
 Death of the G^erals. 
 — The joy of the British over 
 their speedy victory was damp- 
 ened by the loss of their be- 
 h)-ed leader, struck down in 
 the hour of victory while })ress- 
 ing forward at the head of his 
 men. He lived })ut a few 
 minutes after receiving the 
 fatal shot ; long enough, how- 
 ever, to know that the battle 
 he had desired so long was 
 won. Montcalm, too, had been 
 mortally wounded, and died 
 early next morning within the 
 walls of the city he had so ably 
 defended. To-day, in the an- 
 cient capital, a stately cohnnn, 
 bearing the ecjually honored 
 names of victor a)id van- 
 quished, looks down from the 
 cliff upon the busy river below. 
 This is the inscription : "Valor 
 gave a common death, historj' 
 a common fame, and posterity 
 a connnon monument." 
 
 De Levis. — But the city 
 
 k Teas'.'"- '''i ' . 1---1. 
 
 MONUMENT TO WOLFE JLND 
 
 was not yet taken. De Vau- Montcalm. 
 
 dreuil, upon whom the com- 
 mand fell, had still an army much superior in numbers to the 
 British forces on the Plains of Abraham. He proved, however, 
 to be utterly unequal to the task which devolved upon him. Hur- 
 
88 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 ricdly a))an<loning the camp at, Beauport, he crossed the St. Charles 
 to the north of the city and retreated to the River Jacques Cartier, 
 thirty miles to the west of Quebec. Bougainville, on learning of 
 the landing at Wolfe's Cove, had marched in haste to the Plains of 
 Abraham, but, before he arrived, the battle was over, and he at 
 once retired again to his ])ost at Cap Ilouge. I'he ho})e (»f Canada 
 was now centred in the Chevalier de Levis, who at this time was 
 in Montreal. Do Yaudreuil, feeling doubtless tlie need of his 
 counsel, had sent for him on the afternoon of the battle. Upon 
 his arrival at Jac(|ues Cartier, de Levis at once resolved to m.iich 
 again for Quebec. VVliile he pressed forward, a message was sent 
 to dt> Hamezay to hold the city at all hazards. 
 
 Quebec Capitulates. — Tlie messenger arrived too late. 
 Quebec had capitulated. By the terms of caj)itulation (September 
 18th, 1759) the garrison were to march out with the honors of war 
 and be sent to Prance ; tho inhabitants of the city were to be 
 protected in person and property and in the free exercise of their 
 religion. In the ca})tured citadel Murray took connnand of a 
 British garrison of between six and seven thousand men ; the fleet 
 sailed down the river, bearing the embalmed remains of Wolfe to 
 find their final resting place in Westminster Abl)ey ; de Vaudreuil 
 departed for Montreal; the few Canadians still in the field dispersed 
 to their homes ; while de Le'vis settled his army in winter-quarters, 
 determined to retake Quebec when spring should open. 
 
 The Winter in Quebec. — During the winter Murray ruled 
 Quebec wisely and firmly. The city was carefully guarded from 
 spoliation, all disorder among the troops was promptly suppressed, 
 and courts of civil jurisdiction were established to protect the 
 rights of the inhabitants. The Canadians, from Cap Rouge 
 easterly, took the oath of allegiance to the new government and 
 sold supplies to the garrison. There was, however, some little 
 skirmishing at Point Levis and at old Lorette, up the St. Charles. 
 Parties sent out from Quebec tc gather firewood were obliged to 
 provide themselves with a military escort. There was so much 
 sickness among the troops that when spring came not more than 
 one-half of the garrison were fit for duty. Nevertheless, when 
 news came that de Le'vis was approaching, Murray prepared to 
 defend to the last the post so dearly won. 
 
 Battle of Ste. Foye. — De Levis embarked from Montreal 
 
HISTollV OF CANADA. 89 
 
 witli a force of ahoiif, seven thousand men. As lio sailed down the 
 ri\"<.'i' his army was further increased fi-om the garrisons of Three 
 Rivera and Jacques Cartior, so that he reached Loretto toward 
 the end of April in connuantl of nearly ten thousand men. 
 Murray, with more daring than prudence, advanced from Quebec 
 to give battle. On the 28th of April, ]700, the opposing armies 
 met at Ste. Foye, a short distance to the west of the Plains of 
 Abraham. Murray had only al)out three thousand men, ])ut his 
 force was well supplied with artillery, and he had, besides, the 
 advantage of position upon a rising ground. For two hours the 
 battle was hotly contested. Murray lost the advantage of position 
 by a too inqjetuous advance and was tinally driven back, aban- 
 doning much artill',-iy to the victorious enemy. 
 
 A British Fleet Relieves Quebec. —Murray at once retired 
 into Quebec, which de Le'vis jn'omptly prei)ared to besiege. His 
 prejjarations were well advanced when, early in May, a British 
 fleet sailed into the basin of Quebec. That much anxiety for the 
 fate of the city had been felt within its walls is evident from the 
 exuberance of joy with which the arrival of the fleet was hailed. 
 As the red cross of St. George rose slowly to the masthead, the 
 garrison mouiited the walls and cheered for hours in the face of the 
 disappointed foe. De Levis unwillingly raised the siege and 
 returned again to Montreal. In July a French fleet coming to 
 the rescue of New France was attacked by Commodore Byron in 
 the Bay of Chaleur. The village of Petit Rochelle, under whose 
 fetible batteries the fleet had sought shelter, was laid in ruins, and 
 the fleet itself was entirely destroyed. 
 
 The British Close In on Montreal.— The final blow was 
 struck with that extreme deliberation which had throughout 
 marked Amherst's movements. Murray sailed up the river, and 
 by the middle of August was in camp at Sorel with a force of over 
 3,500 men. Amherst came slowly down from Oswego with an 
 army of about eleven thousand men Chiuniey Island, below 
 Oydensburg, had been fortified, and the gallant Pouchot now held 
 the post (Fort Le'vis) with three hundred men. Amherst would 
 not leave it behind him untaken, and a week was spent in its 
 caj)ture. At length, on the 6th of September, Andierst landed 
 his army at Lachine. General Haviland meanwhile had advanced 
 from Crown Point with over three thousand men. De Bougain- 
 
90 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 villo abandoned IhIo hux Noix after a short siege, and without 
 further opposition Haviland arrived on the south shore of the St. 
 Lawrence o[)[)osite Montreal early in September. 
 
 Capitulation.— The French force now consisted almost ex- 
 clusively of regulars, hemmed in on the Island ol Montreal. The 
 Canadians had been kept in ignorance until the previous year of 
 the desperate condition of the colony. They had resjumded with 
 alacrity to the call to gather for tlie defence of Quebec ; but 
 Montcalm's defensive attitude, and the lack of provisions toward 
 the close of the siege, had tended to discourage them, and as the 
 weeks wore on they had deserted in ever-increasing numbers. 
 With opening s[)ring Ste. Foye had restored their confidence, but 
 as the British armies closed in on Montreal tliey again lost hope 
 and dispersed to their homes. Many of the regular troops caught 
 the infection and deserted, particularly those known as colony 
 troops, who had come out expecting to settle in Canada when 
 discharged from service. So it was that when, on the 8th of 
 September, de Vaudreuil c:i])itulated to Amherst the defending 
 force scarcely exceeded 2,400 men. Dy tlio capitulation, de Vau- 
 dreuil gave up to the British the whole of Canada. Tc ^'u; 
 Canadians the same protection to person, property and religion 
 was accorded as when Quebec was taken. By the Treaty of Paris 
 (1763), which closed the Seven Years' War, Great Britain was con- 
 firmed in her possession, and Canada has ever since remained a 
 British colony. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MILITARY RULE. 
 
 British Government on the St. Lawrence. — After the 
 capitulation at Montreal, Great Britain held Canada by purely 
 military rule {regne inilitaire) until peace in Europe should 
 determine her ultimate destiny. Amherst, as commander-in-chief 
 of the Britisli forces in America, was the official head of Canada 
 during this period, with headquarters at New York. Canada was 
 divided into three military governments — Quebec, Three Rivers, 
 and Montreal — with General James Murray, Colonel Ralph 
 Burton, and General Thomas Gage as their respective heads. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 91 
 
 France made no further attempt to recover her loHt colony. In 
 October, 1761, an Acadian settlement on the Bay of Chaleur, the 
 reudezvouH for a fleet of privatcerH, was Hurprised by a company 
 of 1 1 igldanders under Captain Roderick McKenzie, who carried otf 
 i\ },M-uat number of the inliabitants to Halifax. In June, 17G2, a 
 French fleet captured St. John's, Newfoundland, but in September 
 the place was retaken by the British. These events, however, did 
 not disturb the peaceful progress of the St. Diwrence valley, where 
 the rule of the British otticers was mild and conciliatory. 
 
 A Policy of Conciliation.— By the suunuer of 1761 the 
 official class who luid formerly ruled New Franco had all departed, 
 the harpies who had pi eyed upon her in her extremity had van- 
 ished, and the Canadians, seigneur and censitairc alike, were left 
 to work out their own destiny under British rule. The military 
 officers in Canada were instructed, ot only to administer the old 
 French laws, but also, as far as possible, to leave their enforcement 
 ill the hands of the Canadians tliemselves. The soldiers were par- 
 ticularly forbidden to comment unfavorably upon the habits and 
 customs of the Canadians, or, worst of all, to cast reflections upon 
 the religicm they professed. "Rtmember," wrote Amherst to 
 Giigc, "they are as much His Majesty's subjects as any of us." 
 Crime was of course p'mished by martial law, but for the trial of 
 civil causes regular courts were established in a way well calculated 
 to secure the confidence of the Canadians. The old militia parish- 
 captains (capitaincs'de paroisses) were commissioned anew, and in 
 each district they formed a court to which the habitants miglit 
 resort for the enforcement of their civil rights. There was little 
 call for legislation. Such few regulations as were from time to 
 time required were announced by proclamation in the French 
 language, much after the fashion of the intendant's ordinances 
 under the old regime. 
 
 The Canadians Contented.— That the Canadians felt at 
 ease under their new rulers is shown by their address to Gage on 
 the occasion of his proclamation that by the death of George II. 
 George III. had become king. They punned on the governor's 
 name, saying that he had been placed over them as a pledge 
 {(jwje) for their kindly treatment. A few years later (1773), when 
 a small English-speaking minority was striving to deprive them 
 of all share in government and of the laws to which they were 
 
92 HISTORY OF CANADA, 
 
 accustomed, they thus described this period of military occu- 
 pation : *'The wise and gallant general who overcame us left us 
 in possession of our laws and customs. The free exercise of our 
 religion was accorded us, and this was confirmed by the treaty of 
 peace. Our old compatriots were made the judges of our civil 
 disputes. The gratitude we feel for these favors we will transmit 
 from age to age to our latest descendants." Of the old inhabitants 
 few left Canada except the army and the official classes. 
 
 The Western Posts Transferred. — At this time popula- 
 tion along the St. Lawrence practically ended at Montreal. From 
 that point until Detroit was reached not a genuine settler could be 
 found. Detroit and the other western posts had been included in 
 de Vaudreuil's surrender, and Major Rogers, a noted New England 
 ranger, was sent by Amherst to receive possession. On the south 
 shore of Lake Erie, Rogers met the celebrated Ottawa chief, 
 Pontiac, who questioned the right of the English to the western 
 country, but upon this occasion he and Rogers parted amicably. 
 Toward the end of November, 1760, Rogers reached Detroit, which 
 its commandant gave up with very bad grace. Here a thriving 
 settlement extended for several miles along both sides of the river 
 below the fort. Its population Rogers placed at 2,500 ; others say 
 it did not much exceed 1,000. Rogers also took over the posts on 
 the Miami and Wabash, to the south-west of Detroit. Autumnal 
 storms prevented him from reaching Michillimackinac, and this 
 and the other north-western posts were not transferred until the 
 following summer. 
 
 Pontiac. — The methods of the French and the British in 
 dealing with the Indian tribes were widely different. The French 
 treated them in the main generously, adapted themselves to the 
 Indian mode of living, and made no attempt to despoil them of 
 their lands. The British colonists begrudged them presents, bul- 
 lied them with rough contempt, and, worst of all, sent settlers to 
 occupy the lands which the Indians claimed as their own po'uliar 
 hunting ground. That the French king should cede their country 
 to the English was too much to bear ; and now, when the new 
 lords of the soil prepared to take possession, Pontiac gathered 
 all the Algonquin tribes of the west into a fell union to drive back 
 the invaders. From an Indian standpoint Pontiac was a distin- 
 guished patriot. His designs were far-reaching, and though, on 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 93 
 
 tlie whole, the end was sought by truly savage methods, his siege 
 of Detroit was marked by a jjatient persistence unequalled in the 
 annals of Indian warfare. 
 
 The Pontiac War.— So well were Pontiac's plans laid that 
 within six weeks after the first outbreak at Detroit early in May, 
 17H3, of all the British posts west of the Alleghanies, Pittsburg, 
 Detroit and those on the Niagara River alone remained untaken. 
 From Michillimackinac in the north (vhere the wily red men gained 
 access to the fort on pretence of chasing a lacrosse ball) to Fort 
 Ligonier, on the eastern slopes of the Ohio valley, nine fortified 
 posts in all were captured. At many of them the little garrisons 
 were cruelly butchered. Colonel Bouquet, advancing through 
 Pennsylvania by the route Forbes had followed five years before, 
 was met early in August at a place known as Edgehill, or Bushy 
 Run, near Fort Ligonier, by a savage host, whom it took him 
 two days of hot fighting to defeat. In September, on the Niagara 
 River, at a spot known as the "Devil's hole," near Lewiston, a 
 provision party was attacked by a band of Senecas (the only 
 Iroquois who took part in the uprising), and a small force which 
 marched out from Lewiston to the rescue was ambuscaded and 
 nearly annihilated. During the entire summer of 1763 Major 
 Gladwyn, at Detroit, resolutely held his post against both force 
 and guile. In the fall Pontiac made peace with him, intending, 
 however, to renew the war in the following spring. 
 
 Early in 1764 two columns advanced into this western region, 
 one under Bouquet by way of the Ohio, the other under Brad- 
 street by way of the lakes. Bradstreet, on this expedition, did 
 not add to his laurels. He failed to punish the Indians on the 
 south shore of Lake Erie for their share in the outrages of the 
 year before, and, contrary to his instructions, made peace with 
 them without exacting any guarantee for their future good be- 
 liavior. Bouquet, with more judgment, boldly pushed his way 
 along the northern slopes of the Ohio valley as far as the forks of 
 the Muskingum. Here in the very heart of the disaffected district 
 he forced tlie Indians, not only to make peace, but to make it upon 
 his terms. He exacted hostages for its o))servance, and secured, 
 too, the release of a large number of white prisoners captured 
 during many years of frontier raiding. Pontiac in vain sought 
 aid from the French of Louisiana. A desultory war was waged 
 
94 . HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 for a time from the Tllinois country, but in 1765 Pontiac entered 
 into a formal treaty of peace. A few years later he was killed 
 (some say treacherously) in an obscure quarrel on the banks (jf 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 GOVERNMENT UNDER THE KING's PROCLAMATION. 
 
 The Treaty of Paris, 1763.— By the Treaty of Paris France 
 gave up to Great Britain all chiim to Nova Scotia or Acadia "in 
 all its parts," and also ceded "Canada with all its dependencies, 
 the Island of Cape Breton, and all the other islands in the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence." The little islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, 
 lying to the south of Newfoundhmd, were ceded to France "to 
 serve as a shelter to the French fishermen." The French king 
 engaged not to fortify the islands, to erect no buildings upon them 
 except for the convenience of the fishery, and to keep a guard 
 there of fifty men only for police protection. These two islands 
 were all that now remained to France of her once vast North 
 American possessions ; all else east of the Mississippi became 
 British territory. Louisiana was ceded to the Spanish king, who 
 thus became lord of all the known country west of the Mississippi, 
 and claimed as well the unknown regions through to the Pacific. 
 Louisiana now forms part of the United States. France still 
 retains St. Pierre and Miquelon, and zealously upholds the Frenrii 
 fishermen in their rights upon the Newfoundland coast. In ceding 
 Canada the French king stipulated that the inhabitants should be 
 granted the liberty of the Catholic religion, the British king 
 promising on his part that his new Catholic subjects might profess 
 the worship of their religion according to the rites of the Roman 
 Catholic Church as far as the laws of Great Britain permit. 
 
 The Province of Quebec. — By proclamation dated 7tli 
 October, 1763, four new governments were established by Great 
 Britain in America — Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and 
 Grenada. General James Murray was appointed govemor-in-chief 
 over the new province of Quebec. The limits of the province, as 
 fixed by the king's proclamation, were very indefinite. The western 
 boundary was given as a line drawn from Lake Nipissing to lake 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 95 
 
 Cli.implain, thrs leaving the greater part of what is now Ontario 
 and all the great west without any settled form of government. 
 To the east Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island were annexed 
 t< Nova Scotia, which then included what is now New Brunswick. 
 Mumy's connnission directed him to call a " general assembly, " 
 and to govern the province according to laws to be passed with 
 the consent of his council and assembly. No such assemblies were 
 ever called by Murray, and in consecjuence the validity of the 
 ordinances which he and his council passed from time to time was 
 seriously questioned. 
 
 Indian Lands. — Another important provision was contained 
 in the proclamation and repeated in the commissions to the 
 governors. Private individuals, greedy traders and land specu- 
 lators, had from time to time, sometimes by fair means but 
 oftener by fraud and a free circulation of brandy, obtained huge 
 grants of land from Indian tribes. The colonies, indeed, claimed 
 in the king's name the right to the entire soil, and, without 
 asking the Indians' consent, grants of land on the outskirts of 
 settlement were freely made to favored individuals. This policy 
 had resulted in frontier raids along the slopes of the Alleghanies 
 and in western New York, and had culminated in the Pontiac war. 
 By the proclamation it was ordered that this must all be stopped. 
 Any lands, within or without the provinces, which might be 
 re(|uired for purposes of settlement, must be fairly purchased from 
 the Indian tribes, not by individuals, but officially by the govern- 
 ment. These land regulaticms were the result of the represent- 
 ations of the Indian Conmiissioner, Sir William Johnson, who had 
 seen the evil effects of the old system along the Mohawk, where, 
 it is said, he himself had not been guiltless in the matter of 
 trading brandy for land. In Canada the policy laid down in the 
 proclamation has ever since been followed. The older colonies 
 upon gaining their independence abandoned it. The result has 
 been, that while the western borders of the Unit<^d States have 
 seldom been without an Indian war, our relations with the 
 aboriginal tribes have been, almost without exception, very 
 friendly. 
 
 Civil Government Organized.— Murray's commission did 
 not reach Quebec until August, 1764. He at once appointed a 
 council of nine members, largely, if not entirely, men who had 
 
96 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 come out to take puLxic positions in the colony. At first it was 
 determined that English law should be administered in the 
 courts. Then this enactment was modified so as to restore 
 the old French land-laws, but this concession, apparently, was 
 afterwards withdrawn. There was, in fact, much uncertainty and 
 vacillation about the whole question all through this period. The 
 courts established during the time of military rule were of course 
 abolished, and the Canadians were thus left without any part in 
 the government of the country. They could, indeed, after a time, 
 serve as jurymen, but under English law as it then stood they, 
 being Catholic, were ineligible for appointment to any public office 
 or for election to the assembly, had one been called. 
 
 The English-speaking Minority.— Up to this time there 
 was practically no English-speaking population in the province, 
 the military forces excepted. With the peace, however, many 
 soldiers in Canada had been discharged from service, and there 
 was also a small influx of traders from the neighboring colony 
 of New York, and from New England. To these must be added 
 the large number of officials who were sent out from England. 
 All told, the English-speaking residents of the province amounted 
 to about two hundred when the new system of government took 
 eflfect. Ten years later Carleton (who was then governor) put 
 the number at 360, which was probably an underestimate. Of 
 this English-speaking population both Murray and Carleton speak 
 in far from flattering terms. The officials are described by Murray 
 as men of doubtful character, and quite uncpialified to fill impoi-t- 
 ant offices. Of the others, a few were half -pay officers, the rest 
 "traders, mechanics and publicans, who reside in the two towns 
 of Quebec and Montreal. Most of them were followers of the 
 army, of mean education, or soldiers disbanded at the reduction of 
 the troops." In another place he speaks of them as "450 con- 
 temptible sutlers and traders." Carleton describes them in 
 equally harsh terms. We need hardly wonder that these two 
 governors, having this opinion of those from whom an assembly 
 would have to be selected, declined to call one. 
 
 French-Canadians. — As it was, this small English-speaking 
 minority necessarily monopolized all public offices. From them 
 alone could magistrates and bailiffs be appointed, the religion 
 of the "new subjects" (as the French-Canadians were called) 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 97 
 
 (k'hairiiig them from all share in tho jalministration of pu}>lic 
 atfairs. The otticials engaged in the ? Iministration of justice were 
 paid by fees, and magistrates and bailifts were in league, not only 
 U) stir up law suits, but also to make them as expensive and 
 tedious as possible. When Carleton succeeded in 1770 in getting 
 ;iii ordinance passed curtailing some of their privileged a})uses, 
 the cry for an assembly to curb the governor was vehement and 
 hitter. The sympathies of Murray and Carleton were all with 
 the "new subjects," whom they describe as frugal, industrious 
 find moral, and well disposed toward their new rulers. Murray, 
 though warm in upholding the French-Canadians against oppres- 
 sion, was at the same time anxious to cut them off from all con- 
 nection with France. The navigation laws, which restricted all 
 colonial commerce to British ships, were strictly enforced, and a 
 siimggling trade, which the fishermen of St. Pierre and Miquelon 
 tried to carry on with their compatriots of the 8t. L^iwrence, was 
 rigorously put down. 
 
 Energy of the "Old Subjects." — Doubtless there were 
 some good citizens among the new-comers. To them at all events 
 the province was indebted for the first printing press set up in 
 Canada. From it issued the Qiwhec Gazette, a semi-official organ 
 which strongly supported the claim of the English-speaking 
 minority to rule the province by means of a Protestant assembly. 
 The "old subjects" from New England and New York soon 
 secured by their energy the control of pr(jvincial commerce. 
 They opened up again the fur trade of the west, which had died 
 out during the war. They began, also, a commercial intercoui'se 
 with England, securing in this way tin'ough London merchants 
 an iuHueu/^e in the British parliament. Montreal was the chief 
 commercial centre, and here lived most of ^he traders who had 
 come from the neighboring provinces. 
 
 Close of Murray's Term. — A i)etition for Murray's recall 
 was very soon sent to England by the English-s[)eakiug minority, 
 tlio chief cause of comi)laint being that he had failed to call an 
 assembly. To meet the charges made against him Murray left for 
 England in June, 1766, and he did not again return to the 
 province. He retained the governorship until 1768, when Sir Guy 
 Carleton, who in the meantime had been acting as lieutenant- 
 governor, succeeded him. 
 8 
 
98 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Sir Guy Carleton. — Murrjiy's policy in Canada was continued 
 by his HucceHHur. Carletttn found the province much divided 
 upon the question of calling an assembly, and as to what law, 
 French or English, should govern the judges in their decisions. 
 He s(»on I'anged himself <.n fjie side of the P^rench-Canadiaii 
 majority. He saw that their exclusion from all enijiloymciit 
 under the Britisji government tended to perpetuate a feeling of 
 
 alienation, and that the ad- 
 ministration of justice was 
 being made an instrument nt 
 op{)ression by fee-paid dH- 
 cials. He saw, too, that the 
 English-spwiking mi nority 
 were anxious for an assembly 
 in order to prevent his inter- 
 ference with their exclusive 
 privileges rather than to im- 
 prove the constitution. He 
 experienced the same dith- 
 culty as had Murray Ijefore 
 him in inducing the council 
 to do justice to the French- 
 Canadians. As an instance 
 of his own desire to prevent 
 wrong being done them, the matter of "card UKmey " maybe men- 
 tioned. This had l)een issued in large (piantities l)y the intendant 
 Bigot in [)ayment for supplies furnished l)y the hohitdnts during 
 the last years of New France. It ap[)eared likely, at one time, 
 that this "cai'd money" woidd ]h) redeemed l)y the French gov- 
 ernment. Carleton thereu[)on issued a proclamation warning the 
 liaJntants against speculators who were trying to buy it up at low 
 figures. 
 
 State of the Province. — In a report which he sent to 
 England, in 1769, Carleton gives a statement of the industrial 
 condition of the province. Much flax was grown and worked 
 into coarse linen for home wear ; mixed with wool it produced the 
 rough cloth known as linsey-woolsey. One-third of the jjopulation 
 v'ere clothed with goods of home manufacture. Caps, it seems, 
 were imported. Everything else could be obtained in the jjro- 
 
 SIR GUY CARLI.TON. 
 
 (LORD nORCIIEtSTER.) 
 
HISTORV OF CANADA. 99 
 
 vince, though leather was badly tanned and the better kinds 
 f.f hoots and shoes were lirought froni the neighboring colonies. 
 At the 8t. Maurice forges edged tords were made. Pearl ashes and 
 jK.tash were obtained in the course of clearing away the forests, 
 though the amount produced was as yet small. With the coming 
 of peace the hahilants had l)een left free to devote their time more 
 rlnsely to the soil, and the clearing and cultivation «»f the land was 
 rapidly extended. There was apparently a fair amount of farm 
 stock — horses, cattle, sheep, and swine— in the province, and, 
 though ready money was scarce, the people were "at their ease 
 ■lud comfortable." 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE QUEBEC ACT, 1774. 
 
 Political A.gitation.— As already mentioned, the English- 
 speaking minority in the province of Quebec C(Hitinually clam- 
 ored for an asseml)ly. From time to time they sent petitions 
 to England praying that the governor should be directed to call 
 one, or that, at all events, a larger council, exclusively Protestant, 
 should be appointed to act with him. They asked, also, that the 
 governor should not have power to dismiss the members of this 
 council. In 1770, Oarleton himself went to England to lay his 
 views before the British ministry, remaining there until 1774. 
 A j)etition was sent by the French-Canadians in 1773, asking that 
 no assembly should be called and that the old laws should be 
 entirely restored. This petition had Carleton's hearty support. 
 
 Passage of the Quebec Act. Tlie British jjarliament pro- 
 ceeded with extreme deliberation. The former governed' (Murray), 
 the present governor (Carleton), the Canadian chief justice, the 
 attorney-general, and Lotbiniere, a Canadian seigneur, were exam- 
 ined as witnesses before a conunittee, and every effort was made to 
 ascertain what was best for the new colony. It was finally decided 
 that the British minority ought not to be allowed to set uj) an 
 assembly of men selected from themselves to rule the country, 
 ami that the laws to which the Canadians were accustomed should 
 be again restored. By talking this course Great Britain, as we 
 shall see, gained the hearty support of the most intelligent and 
 
100 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 iufluentiHl of the French-Canadian.s in her struggle with the oklor 
 American colonies, then on the point of revolt. The Act which 
 WHS passed to carry out this decision is known as "The Quol)uc 
 Act, 1774." ft came into force on May 1st, 1775. 
 
 Provisions of the Act : (1) Boundaries.— To the west 
 the province ^vas extended to the Mississippi, including all the 
 regions north of the Ohio to the territories of the Hudson's JJay 
 Company. To tli<) east, Ij;vl)rador, Anticosti and a number of 
 other small islands in the (Julf of St. Lawrence, which had pre- 
 viously been under the government of Newfoundland, were added 
 to Que]:)ec, and vemairicd part of that prcjvince until 1809. The 
 people of the added regions, both east and west — other than 
 Indians — were of the French race. 
 
 (2) The Old Laws Restored. — The Quebec Act states in its 
 preamble that the provisions of the proclamation c)f 1763 had been 
 found upon experience to be unsuited to the circumstances of the 
 province, "the inhabitants whereof amounted at the conquest to 
 above (>5, 000 persons professing the religicm of the Church of Rome 
 and enjoying an established form of constitution and system of 
 laws by which their persons and property had been protected, 
 governed, and ordered for a long series of years." Accordingly, 
 the proclamation and all ordinances passed since 1763 were 
 annulled, and it was enacted that in all matters relating to pro- 
 perty and civil rights the old laws and customs of Canada should 
 prevail. Power was given, however, to the legislative council 
 (created by the Act) to alter this provision, if it should be found 
 expedient. The Quebec Act also recites that the certjiinty and 
 lenity of English criminal law, and the benefits resulting from 
 its use, had been "sensibly felt by the inhabitants"; and that 
 law was therefore continued. 
 
 (3) An Assembly Refused. — The reasons for not calling an 
 assend)ly are not stilted in the Act, but can easily be gathered 
 from the evidence given before jjarliament. More than fifty yeare 
 were to elapse before the harsh laws against Roman Catholics were 
 struck from the British statute })ook ; but even in 1774 it was 
 thought unjust to the French-speaking population of Canada to 
 impose upon them an assembly so long as those laws precluded 
 them from being elected to it. The state of affairs, too, in the 
 neighboring British colonies made it, to some extent, a matter 
 
HISTORY OB' CANADA. 101 
 
 of expediency to conciliate the Canfuliun nmjoiity. The British 
 {xirliament, ut all events, was not anxious to create in Canada an 
 assembly to be composed of those who were suspected of favoring 
 the claims of the older provinces. 
 
 A legislative council only was therefore provided. Its members 
 were to be appointed by the Crown from persons resident in the 
 province. In numl)ers it was not to exceed twenty-three nor to 
 he less than seventeen. This council was evidently intended to 
 be but a temporary contrivance until attairs in North America 
 should become more settled. Its powers of legislation were 
 limited. The right to levy taxes was withheld, with this exoep- 
 ti(m, however, that the towns of the province might be allowiul 
 to tax themselves for purposes of local improvement. Tt) defi-ay 
 the expense of governing the colony, the old French duties were 
 abolished and in their place duties were imposed upon spirits and 
 molasses im})orted into the province. License fees were als(^ 
 collected from persons keeping taverns or houses ot public enter- 
 tainment. No ordinance of the council touching religion was to 
 he valid until assented to in England. Other limitations, too, 
 indicated that for the present the British parliament desired to 
 retain a large measure of control over the province. 
 
 (4) Religion. — The Quebec Act further provided for the free 
 exercise of their religion by those adhering to the Church of 
 Rome. The Roman Catholic clergy were authorized to collect 
 "their accustomed dues and rights" from members of that 
 Church. This of course refers to the system of tithes. A few 
 years later the Bishop of Quebec wrote that in Canada tithes were 
 never so rigorously exacted as in Europe. They consisted of the 
 one-twenty-sixth of wheat, pease and oats — direct annual products 
 of the soil. What were known as mixed tithes (on milk, wool, 
 hogs) and personal tithes (on the products (►f purely manual labor, 
 fishing and the like) were not collected. ]iy the Act Roman 
 Catholics were also relieved from taking certain oaths required 
 of those who held public positions in England ; and by this 
 means it became possible for Canadian seigneurs to accept ofhce 
 in the legislative council, and a number of them were at (mce 
 appointed. Their right to share in the adniinistration of ])ublic 
 affjiirs being thus admitted, the Canadian noblesse stood firm in 
 their allegiance to British rule during the American I'cvolution. 
 
102 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIT. 
 
 rilK MARITIME I-ROVINCES (1758-1774). 
 
 The First Canadian Parliament, 1758. —Wo imiHfc nr)w 
 turn ajjiaiii ti> tlu^ east, to Nova Scotia. Shortly after tho founding 
 c»f Halifax (I74W), attt-ution liad been drawn hy Chief .luslict' 
 Belcher to the fact that the governor's coinuiission directed him 
 to call an assenil)ly. Ijawrenoe jtleaded the small and scatten-d 
 population as a reason for [lutling oft" this step as long as possil)le, 
 feeling doubtless that an assembly would only hamper oi)erations 
 during the war tluMi apparently inevitabh;. Finally, liowever, he 
 was told by the Lords of Trade that the settlers had been promised 
 an assembly and that one unist be called. The law otiicers of the 
 Crown, moreover, had given tluiir (tpiniou that the governor and 
 council could not pass laws for the c»dony witlumt the concurr(!nce 
 of an assiMiibly. Accordingly, in the autunni of the year in which 
 Louisbourg fell, the first parliament ever assembled in Canada 
 met at Halifax (7th Octolier, J7oH). It consistt-d of twenty-two 
 mend)ers ; and the governor, in letters to Kngland, expressed 
 himself as agreeably surprised ab the way in which they performed 
 their duties. 
 
 New Settlers in Nova Scotia.— Lawrence, though himself 
 a soldier, was shrewd enough to see that disbanded soldiers did 
 not lufike the best settlers, lie therefore caused a proclamation 
 to be circulated through the New England colonies (then of course 
 still British) promising liberal grants of land to all who would take 
 up their abode in the n w province across the Bay of Fundy. Tl\e 
 result was a large influx of hardy yeomen, who proceeded to settle 
 in fourteen new townships from Halifax around to the St. John 
 River. Between 1759 and 1765 about seven thousand in all 
 arrived from the New England colonies. A number of settlers, 
 too, were brought out from Ireland by a somewhat noted colonizer, 
 Alexander McNutt. The gulf shore of Nova Scotia was apparently 
 not settled until a few years later (1767), when the Philadelphia 
 Company took up the work of sending colonists to what is now 
 Pictou County. There was afterwards a large innnigration of 
 Highlanders to the same region, and in 1784 its population was 
 given as five hundred. To tlie east toward Cape Breton, there was 
 
HISTORV OF CANADA. 103 
 
 f.ir many yeurs no Hettlenient wluiti'vor. Ah l.ito as 17H7 there was 
 Kilt, one settler an the Nova Scotian side of the (iut of Canso, and 
 iK'iu! on the Capo lireton side. 
 
 The Early British Settlers of New Brunswick.— Of 
 the fourteen tovvnsliijtH taken up l)y tlie settlers from New Kii^hmd, 
 tive were situated within what is now New Mrunsvvick four around 
 the head of Chigneeto liay, the tifth un the St. .lohn River. By 
 the census (tf 1707 it ai>pears that these tive townships liad a 
 jtupulation of eleven hundreil souls, chietiy "Americans" from 
 Rhode Island, Massachusetts and iVmisylvania. The last-named 
 colony, through the agency of AlexamU-r McNutt, also furnished a 
 number of (Icrmans, wh<» settled (17<)r)) along the hanks of the 
 I'ttitcodiac River. During these same years small settlements 
 were begun around Passamaipioddy Bay, at Bathur.st on the Ray of 
 (.'haleur, and at Miramichi on the bay of that name, iiy the year 
 17H.'i the po[)ulation of what is now New Rrunswick had reached 
 a total of about two thousand.* Settlement ahmg the St. John 
 River t was somewhat retarded. Large grants of land there were 
 made to military othcers, who made no effort to bring in settlers as 
 their patents reipiired. For this reason these grants, fortunately, 
 were afterwards forfeited and the lands given to the Ijoyalists from 
 the revolted colonies, who, after 178.'i, settled in large nundjers 
 al<»ng the rivei. 
 
 Representation in the Assembly. ^The settlers who came 
 in response to Lawrence's proclamation had been promised that 
 when their nundjcrs warranted it they should have mend)ers of 
 their own in the provincial asseud)ly. Accordingly, when in 1760 
 the death of George II. diss(jlved the first assembly, the represen- 
 tation was at once readjusted to carry out this pr<tmise. Instead 
 of sixteen of the mend^ers being chosen, as f(;rmerly, by the 
 pro\ ince at large, two members were elected in each of the newly 
 
 * Of these about nine hundred were settled alony the St. John, tin equal number 
 occupied the townships around Chij^necto Bay, and tho remaining two hundred inaflo 
 up the other settlements, which were lai^'ely nieie fishing stations and posts for the 
 Indian trade. When the American revolution broke out, some of the settlers from 
 New England returned to their old homes, but the loss was made good by an influx 
 of settlers from Yorkshire. 
 
 t The township there, above mentioned, was secured for the earlier settlers by the 
 efforts of Joshua Mauger, M.P., a fonner Halifax merchant who had become a member 
 of the British parliament ; hence its name, Maugerville. 
 
104 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Hettk'd (listrictH. In IT^iii u furtlier roHdjuHtineJit, took place. The 
 county (»f Cimiboilfintl, couiin'ising the new HuttU'iiu'iitH nt the he.-id 
 of ('hignocto Jiuy, whs ullowed two nu!iiil)eis, tlie townHhij) of 
 Suckville in tho .same lej^ion was given one, while the remainder 
 of what iH now New Brunswick was made the county of Sunhury, 
 represented hy two memhers in the asseml)ly. 
 
 Peaceful Progress. The closing years of the war with 
 France did not disturb the <{uiet of the Maritime Provinces. Tho 
 fortress of Louisbourg was demolished (1700) and the tro(j[)R there 
 were sent to join Murray on his march up the St. Ljtwrence. 
 While British armies were closing in on Montreal peaceful settlers 
 were tilling up the rich valleys which open upon the Bay of Fundy. 
 Lawrence died in 17<)(). A[)art houi the ([uestion as to his treat- 
 ment of the Acadians, his government of the province was admit- 
 tedly beneficial, and it resulted in the firm establishment of British 
 authority. From a report sent to England shortly after his death it 
 a})i)ears that the various settlements were in a thriving condition, 
 though dyke repairs were needed along the shores of the Bay of 
 Fundy. A road had been opened h'oni Halifax to the Basin 
 of Minas which could be travelled in " an easy day's journey in 
 the sunnner time." There was ship-building at Liver[)ool, and 
 favorable refjorts had been received of the state of the fishing 
 industry along the coasts. Education was largely in the hands of 
 the Anglican Church. The Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel sent out missionaries from England, who established private 
 schools at various places throughout the settled districts. In 1780 
 the Nova Scotia assenddy established and liberally endowed a 
 public school at Halifax. 
 
 Manufactures Discouraged. — Lieut. -Governor Francklin, 
 about the year 17B6, rej)orted that although in Nova Scotia some 
 clothing was manufactured from wool and flax, it was only for the 
 personal use of those who wove it. The settlers around Trurc^, 
 many of whom were of McNutt's company from the north of 
 Ireland (the home of the linen industry), still exercised their old 
 handicraft, but very little t»f the product was sold, and that little 
 only "to the neighboring towns." "This government," wrote 
 Francklin, "has at no time given encouragement to manufactures 
 which could interfere with those of Great Britain, nor has there 
 been the least appearance of any association of private persons for 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 105 
 
 that THirpose, nor uro thuro any puiHunH wlio pn.foHH themselvea 
 wi'fiverH HO HH to nmku it tht!ir employ nu'ut or liiisiiuiSH. They 
 (.Illy work »it it in their own ffiiiiilie.s tliirinj,' Mu; winter uiid other 
 leisure time. AU the inlmhitunts of this coh.ny are employed 
 either in husbandry, fishing or pn.viding lumber, and all the 
 manufactures for their clothing and the utensilH for farming and 
 tishing are made in (Jreat ]5ritain." 
 
 Prince Edward Island Land Monopoly. -Prince 
 Edward Island was known during these years as the Island of 
 Saint John. It received its present name in 17JHJ in honor (.f the 
 Duke of Kent, who, as connnander-iu-chief of the British forces 
 in America, built a fort and established a garrison at Charlotte- 
 town. When the island was ceded to Great Britain (J7(i;{) its 
 population consisted of "a})<)ut thirty Acadian families," described 
 by Cajjtain Holland, who made a survey of the island, as extremely 
 poor and as living by "gardening, tishing, fowling, etc." In 17()7 
 the British government adopted a plan for the settlement of the 
 island. "Nearly the whole island," wrote Lord Durham in 18.S8, 
 " was alienated in one day by the Crown in vei-y large grants, 
 chiefly to absentees, and upon conditions of settlement which have 
 heen wholly disregarded." The aHotment was .nade in England 
 by ballot. The grantees were men, military otticers and others, 
 who had claims upon the govennuent. The island was divided 
 into sixty-seven townships of twenty thousand acres each, with 
 small reservati(ms for military, religious, and educational purix.ses. 
 There was no co-ojjeration on the part of the proprietors in peopling 
 the island ; each acted on his own resixmsibility, and while a few 
 showed energy in the work, the great majority did nothing. But 
 they had great influence in England, and for over one hundred 
 years they were able to thwart every eflfort of the island asseml)ly 
 to effect such a change in the land system as would further settle- 
 ment and improvement. 
 
 A Separate Province.— Their first step was to have the 
 island set apart as a separate province. In 17G9 this was 
 accomplished, though there were only five i)ro])rietors and (me 
 hundred and fifty settlers on it. Walter Patterson, one of the 
 proprietors, was the first governor. Provision was made for an 
 assembly, which met for the first time in 1773. It was at first 
 contemplated that the expenses of government should be met by 
 
lOG HISTORV OF CANADA. 
 
 the "quit-rents" — that is, the small sums payable annually by the 
 proprietors as rent to the Crown. On one pretext or another pay- 
 ment was evaded, and after a short time the salaries of tlie officials 
 in Prince Edward Island (as in the other British colonios in 
 America) were ])aid by the Imperial authorities. 
 
 CHAPTER XYIII. 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLTTTION. 
 
 The Older Colonies. — For a long time there had been 
 friction between Great Brikiin and her colonies in America. Those 
 who left England to seek new homes across the Atlantic — some 
 through a spirit of adventure, as in the case of Virginia, ; others 
 to escajie religious persucuti»)n, as in the case of the New England 
 colonies — were self-reliant men, and from early colonial days they 
 had shown a desire to manage their own political affairs without 
 outside interference. Their assemblies had long been in a state 
 of chronic antagonism tov/ard the governors and officials sent from 
 England. In notliing was their right of contnd more jealously 
 guarded than in the matter of taxation. They held fast the purse- 
 strings, and the governors often complained bitterly of their 
 parsim<my. 
 
 Wars "with the French. — During the last two wars (1744- 
 1763) there h;id been more interc(jurse than ever before between 
 Great Britain and her colonies. She had sent out regular troops 
 for their defence against the French and their Indian allies. But, 
 instead of resulting in an increase of kindly feeling, the mingling 
 or the regular troops with the citizen soldiers of America had added 
 a feeling of personal injustice to the grievances of the latter. The 
 colonial officers complained that regular officers, of inferior rank 
 and unaccu.stomed to ft^rest warfare, were put over their heads. 
 In their dealings with the colonists generally the British trijops 
 assumed a tone of easy superiority, which seems to have rankled 
 deep in the breasts of the democratic comnm lity. All danger 
 from the French having disap[)eared with the fall of New France, 
 the colonists became more outspoken in their complaints. 
 
 British Navigation Laws. — There was one particularly 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 107 
 
 • 
 
 active and energetic class in the New England colonies with 
 whom the British navigation laws were a standing grievance. 
 Under these laws all commerce by sea, including evtii the 
 coasting trade of America, had to be carried in British ships. 
 There was in consequence much snmggling, and many of the New 
 p]ngland merchants were interested in these illicit ventures. The 
 navigation laws were rigorously enforced in the interest of British 
 merchants, and much ill-will was the result. 
 
 Revenue Taxation. — Tlie coloi ists were in the very mood to 
 push their constitutional rights to the utmost limit, and the 
 British parliament was so ill-advised as to touch them in their 
 tenderest spot. U{) to this time such customs duties as were 
 collected in America had been imposed sim{)ly as part of England's 
 trade policy to keep out foreign goods. The colonists had, though 
 with much grumbling, submitted to the system. But no attempt 
 had ever been made by the British parliament to levy a tax in 
 America for revenue purposes merely. Now, however, the cele- 
 brated (Stamp Act was passed (1705), under which such a tax was 
 to be collected in the colonies without the sanctitm of the colonial 
 assemblies. The Act, it is true, was repealed in the following 
 year, but the experiment was repeated in 1709, when an Act was 
 passed for the levying of a revenue duty *)n tea and certain 
 other commodities U[)on their importation into the colonies. 
 
 The Outbreak. — The colonists protested, and, uinm the 
 arrival in Boston of a vessel witli a cargo of tea, what is known as 
 the "Boston tea party" took place; the vessel was visited and the 
 tea was thrown overboard. Great Britain was at this time badly 
 governed. George III,, during the tirst lialf of his reign, was 
 almost an absolute monarch, and at this crisis he would have as 
 his ministers none but those who would undertake to humble 
 the contumacious colonists, who now gathered in "Congress" at 
 Philadelphia to discuss measures to redress their grievances. 
 George III. would not give way. The port of Boston- was closed, 
 and other irritating measures were adopted to coerce America. 
 Armed conflict soon followed. At Leyington, on the 19th April, 
 1775, a band of New Englanders attacked a body of regular troops, 
 and the American Revolution began. At the outset it was the 
 work of an energetic minority, whose personal interests were 
 involved. The course of events, however, and the substantial 
 
108 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 justice of the claims put forward by "Congress," finally drew the 
 majority to support the rebellious movement. 
 
 The Peeling in Canada. — At this time Carleton had at his 
 command in the province of Quebec not more than eight hundred 
 regulars. The trou])les between Great Britain and her colonies 
 had not excited much interest in Canada excejjt among the few 
 English-speaking people at Quebec and Montreal. The majority 
 of these, being immigrant traders from the older colonies, sym- 
 pathized with the American Congress. The Canadian noblesse and 
 clergy, grateful for the Quebec Act, were all for PJngland. The 
 habitants^ brought up under an absolute monarchy, were naturally 
 on tlie side of authority as euibodied in the governor and his 
 troops ; l)ut, weary of war, they now desired to stand neutral. 
 
 Canada Urged to Join the Rebellion. — The Philadelphia 
 Congress had ncjt overlooked Canada. In October, 1774, they had 
 issued an address to the Canadians in which they characterized the 
 Quebec Act as "a specious device, a painted sepulclire for burying 
 your lives, liberty and property." "We are," they said, "too well 
 acquainted with the liberality of sentiment distinguisliing your 
 nation to imagine that difference of religion will prejudice you 
 against a hearty amity with us." Unhappily for them, however, 
 their address to the i)eople of England of a few weeks' earlier date 
 (5th Sei)tember, 1774) was placed in the hands of the Canadians. 
 In this address Ccmgress had bitterly complained of the Quebec 
 Act as a concessiim to the French Catholic jjojiulation of Canada, 
 whose religicm they denounced in most insulting terms. Putting 
 these two addresses side by side the Canadians could hardly place 
 much C(^nfidence in the utterance^ of Congress. 
 
 Preparations for Defence. —Early in May, 1775, a band 
 of "Green Mountain boys," under Ethan Allan, seized Fort 
 Ticonderoga ' ' in the name of the Great Jehovah and the conti- 
 nental congress." The capture of Crown Point followed. Bene- 
 dict Arnold, with a schooner and some bateaux, came down Lake 
 Champlain and seized St. John's on the River Richelieu. Ho 
 retreated, however, when Major Preston advanced against him. 
 There was much excitement in Montreal. One trader who was 
 strongly susj)ected oi sending messages to Arnold narrowly escaped 
 being hanged by the soldiers, and thereafter there was no out- 
 spoken sympathy for the cause of Congress, The seigneura 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 109 
 
 promptly offered to enrol volunteers ; the Roman Catholic })ishop 
 published a pastoral address in favor of British rule ; Carleton 
 issued an order calling out the militia, and a force was soon 
 collected. 
 
 Mwm while an emissary from Congress had come to Montreal. 
 Tlie seizure of Ticonderoga, Crown Point and St. John's l)y the 
 Green Mountain boys was repudiated, and peace toward Canada 
 was i)roclaimed as the policy of Congress. Tranciuillity being 
 thus restored, Carleton returned to Quebec, where he formed the 
 tirst legislative council under the Quebec Act. Among Its mem- 
 bers were many well-known men of the Canadian noblesse. They 
 were all deep in the discussion of the means to be adopted for 
 carrying out the Quebec Act when news came that the troops 
 of Congress had again invaded the province. Carleton at once 
 hastened Ijack to Montreal. 
 
 Canada Invaded.— Congress had indeed hesitated to engage 
 in aggressive war. The great n.ajority still hoped for a peaceful 
 solution of the difficulties with the motherland; but, after the 
 l)attle of Bunker's Hill (June, 1775), it was decided to attack 
 Canada. In September, Montgomery, who led the exi)edition, Liid 
 siege to St. John's, where Major Preston was now in connuand of 
 nearly seven hundred men, many of them Canadian volunteers 
 from Montreal. For nearly seven weeks Preston kept Mont- 
 gomery out of St. John's. Carleton was unable to send him 
 succor, as the Congress troops had control of the south shore of 
 the St. Lawrence and drove him back when he made an attempt 
 to cross from Montreal. Carleton also tried to send Preston help 
 from Quebec, but, as the habitants of the south shore refused 
 to supply provisions, the detachment turned back. 
 
 Allan Attacks Montreal.— Ethan Allan with 150 men 
 rashly attempted, toward the end of September, to take Mont- 
 real, then a place of over twelve thousand inhabitants. Most of 
 the regular troops had been withdrawn to garrison St. John's. 
 Allan took possession of some houses on the outskirts, but was 
 dislodged by Major Carden, who attacked him with a force of 280 
 men, of whom only thirty were regulars, the rest being Montreal 
 volunteers. After five of his men had been killed and many others 
 wounded, Allan surrendered. He was put in irons and sent to 
 England, Carleton deolming to treat him otherwise than as a rebel. 
 
110 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 St. John's Surrenders.— Below St. John's there was a 
 stone fort at Chambly defended by Major Stopford with a force (-f 
 about eighty men. This fort the Congress troops had not yet 
 attacked. Learning that it contained artillery, in which the force 
 before St. John's was deficient, Montgomery sent a detachment to 
 capture it if possible. After a few hours' siege the fort was 
 weakly yielded up, and Montgomery used its artillery to batter 
 down the defences of St. John's. Preston nevertheless held 
 out for two weeks longer, and only surrendered when all ho|je 
 of succor was gene, and he and his men were threatened with 
 famine. They were accorded the honors of war in recognition of 
 their brave defence. In settling the terms of capitulation, 
 Montgomery inserted a phrase expressive of regret that the defence 
 had been maintained "in so bad a cause." Thereupon Preston 
 told him that, sooner than submit to such a reflection, he and his 
 garrison would die sword in hand, neither giving nor taking 
 quarter. The phrase Avas expunged. 
 
 Congress Troops Occupy Montreal.— There was now 
 nothing to bar the way to Montreal, and on the 13th of November 
 Congress troops took possession of that town. Carleton had 
 already left by boat for Quebec, escaping however with difficulty 
 through the enemy's lines near Sorel. He reached the capital on 
 the 19th of November and hastily prepared for a vigorous defence. 
 
 Arnold Before Quebec. — He found Benedict Arnold already 
 encamped before it. Arnold, with about eleven hundred men, 
 had started for Quebec from New England. He took the old 
 route — up the Kennebec, across the wilderness portage to the 
 head waters of the Chaudiere, and down that stream to where it 
 enters the St. Lawrence, nearly opposite Quebec. By reason of 
 the hardship of the long march of six weeks many had to be sent 
 back, and Arnold's force had dwindled to eight hundred before he 
 reached his destination early in November. He crossed to the 
 north shore of the St. Ljiwrence without opposition. Deeming 
 it impossible, however, to capture Quebec with his small force, 
 he pitched his camp some distance up the river and awaited 
 Montgomery's coming. 
 
 The Siege of Quebec. — After the occupation of Montreal, 
 Three Rivers sent its submission to Montgomery, and the entire 
 province, apparently, Avas at his feet, with the exception of the 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. Ill 
 
 citadel. He joined AriKjld before Quebec very early in December, 
 their united forces amounting to less than two thousand men. 
 Carleton had a mixed garrison of about 1,600. He had impressed 
 seamen from vessels in the basin of Quebec, and he had also some 
 blue-jackets from a war vessel then in the harbor. The regulars 
 did not exceed three hundred ; the rest were volunteers, largely 
 French-Canadians. Carleton had issued an order that all those 
 liable for militia duty should enrol witliin four days or leave the 
 town. Those who left Avere largely English-speaking sympathizers 
 with Congress. The population of Quebec was at this time about 
 five thousand. The town was well provisioned for a siege, and 
 the walls were manned with 150 pieces of artillery. Montgomery 
 bombarded tlie town during the whole of December, all the 
 time anxiously on the lookout for a chance to carry it by assault. 
 Carleton refused to hold any communication with men whom he 
 deemed rebels, and resolutely held out. 
 
 Montgomery's Attack Repulsed. — At length a plan was 
 matured by which it was hoped the town could be taken. While 
 feigned assaults should be made at all the gates which faced the 
 plains, Montgomery was to march along the strand from Wolfe's 
 Cove and storm the barricades erected at the western end of the 
 lower town ; Arnold was to enter at the north-eastern angle, by way 
 of the parish of St. Roch and the low lands along the St, Charles. 
 After carrying the barricades there he was to join Montgomery at 
 the foot of the street leading to the upper town. They never met. 
 In the early hours of the New Year morning (1776), amid falling 
 snow, Montgomery marched to carry out his part in the assault. 
 Contrary to expectation. Captain Chabot, in charge of the first 
 barricade, was on the alert, and a murderous lire greeted the 
 Congress troops. Montgomery fell at the first volley, and his 
 detachment withdrew in confusion, leaving the dead body of their 
 leader behind them. Arnold, too, had met with opposition. The 
 first barricade was carried, but Arnold was wounded, and he had 
 to be carried to the rear, the command falling to Captain Morgan. 
 Fighting bravely, the Congress troop*' worked their way well in 
 toward the rendezvous agreed upon, but were finally surrounded 
 and forced to surrender. Killed, wounded, and prisoners, the 
 besiegers lost nearly five hundred men, and were therefore in no 
 condition to attempt a further assault. 
 
112 HLSTOUY OF CANADA. 
 
 The End of the Siege.— But they still ruiuHined encamped 
 bef(n-e the whIIs. During the siiring Congress troops kejit coming 
 into the province, and some of tJiem joined the army before 
 Quebec. There were rumors of intended attack uyum the city, 
 entailing constant vigilance on the part of the garriscm, who, 
 however, were in good health, while there was much sickness in 
 the camp of the besiegers. Toward the end of April, General 
 Thomas arrived to Uika connnand of the Congress troops. Prejta- 
 rations for an active renewal of the siege were in progress when, 
 early in May, Quebec was relieved a second time by the opportune 
 arrival of a British fleet. There w ere over nine thousjind regular 
 troops on board, and General Thomas left the neighborhood of 
 Quebec so (piickly that his uneaten dinner was found upon his 
 camp table. His artillery and camp stores were left behind. 
 The British troops marched <|uickly toward Montreal, and by the 
 l)eginning of June there were no Congress troops east of Sorel, 
 at the mouth of the Richelieu. 
 
 The Winter in Montreal. — During the winter, feeling had 
 run high in Montreal. Wo(jster, who was in connnand there, 
 had insisted that the Canadian seigneurs should give up the com- 
 missions they held under the British Crown, offering them new 
 appointments under Congress. With much difficulty he obtained 
 the old connnissions, but the majority of the Canadian noblesse 
 of Montreal declined to serve in the militia under Congress. 
 Some were so outspoken in their expression of loyalty to British 
 rule that Wooster threatened to banish them from the city if 
 they did not moderate their tone. The failure of Montgomery's 
 assault upo)' Quebec had not been without eflect upon the habi- 
 tiDits. They had not rei ived very kindly treatment from the 
 Congress trooi)S. For supi)lies sold they were offered Congress 
 ])aper money ; when they objected, forced c<mtributions were 
 levied upon them. Wooster, too, had obliged them to work 
 without pay. Ail these things inclined them to listen to the 
 advice of the noblesse and the clergy, who had steadily adhered 
 to the royal cause. 
 
 Commissioners from Congress. — The progress of events 
 in Canada had excited much interest in Congress. Washington 
 was anxious that the province should fall into line with the older 
 colonies. Otherwise, Canada might be made the base for an in- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 113 
 
 v.-ision of New York ))y British troops by way of Lake Cliamplain 
 and the Hudson llivor. Such an inroad, if successful, would cub 
 the revolted colonies in two. S<> inii»ortant was the matter deemed 
 that in the spring of 1770 three connnissioners were appointed 
 by Ccmgress to proceed to Montreal to see what could be done to 
 secure the adhesion of the Canadians to their cause. One of these 
 commissioners was the celebrated Benjamin Franklin ; another 
 was Charles Carroll, who as a Catholic might, it was thought, 
 liave weight with his co-religionists of Canada. The mission was 
 a failure. The commissioners reported that tlie Congress troops 
 were in bad plight ; tliat their credit was poor ; and that, by 
 their exactions and frequent failure to fulfil their contracts, they 
 liad estranged the Canadians from the cause of Congress. 
 
 End of the Invasion. — In a rash attempt to regain losfc 
 ground, General Thomjjson early in June advanced from Sorel 
 against Three Rivers, which was now again in the hands of British 
 troops. After landing above the town the C<3ngress army losb 
 its way, got into a marsh, and in this plight was attacked by the 
 British. General Thompsim was taken prisoner with about three 
 hundred men, the rest escaping back to Sorel. The British now 
 advanced upon the camp at this point, only to find that it had been 
 abandoned and that tlie Congress troops were in full retreat for 
 Lake Champhiin, Arnold, from Mcjntreal, joining them on the way. 
 As nine thousand veteran regulars were behind them, their rapid 
 departure from the province is not, perha2)s, a matter for sur])rise. 
 
 Carleton's Energy. — Montreal was at once garrisoned by a 
 British force; St. John's was reoccupied; and Carletcm took post afc 
 Isle aux Noix, intending to carry the war into the enemy's country 
 as so(jn as the necessary supplies and transports could be collected. 
 This he found a work of extreme difficulty. Three vessels sent 
 out fiom England had been taken to pieces and carried overland 
 to the upper waters of the Richelieu, and there put together again ; 
 l)ut, with this exception, Carleton had no boats and no material 
 ready to build them, no stores, and no covering fcjr the tr<x)ps. 
 Nevertheless, he went vigorously to work. No one was allowed 
 to stand idle. While boats were being built the troops were 
 drilled in forest warfare, and councils were held with the Indians 
 and their favor was gained. 
 
 Naval Battle on Lake Champlain.— It was October 
 9 
 
114 History of canada. 
 
 before Carloton was ready to advance. Then with his three larger 
 veHHuls and a medley (»f sniall craft, eighty-seven in all, he 
 embarked upon Ijake Chain})lain. There he found that the 
 enemy meanwhile had not been idle ; Arnold was in command of 
 a fleet as strong as his own. No such marine forces had ever 
 before been seen on those waters. On the 11th of October 
 Carleton encountered Arnold's fleet <m the west side of the lake. 
 Shutting it in between Valcour Island and the mainland, he so 
 battered it that when night came Arnold was glad to steal past 
 him in the darkness and sail for Crown Point. Carleton overtook 
 him next day, before he could get under cover of the guns of that 
 fortress, and conipletely destroyed his fleet. Crown Point was 
 abandoned by the Cimgress troops and the British took possessicju. 
 It was too late now, however, to advance farther, and Carleton, 
 deeming Crown Point too far away from his base of supply, 
 returned to St. John's. 
 
 Burgoyne Surrenders at Saratoga.— Though the pro- 
 vince was not again invaded, some of the events of the war to 
 the south had their eff"ect upon Canada, and it will be convenient 
 to deal with these before turning again to the internal att'airs of the 
 province. In the spring of 1777, Carleton, much to his disappoint- 
 ment, was superseded in the command of the troops by Burgoyne, 
 who had been his second in command during the year just past. 
 Nevertheless he exerted himself to the utmost to forward the 
 expedition which Burgoyne was to lead against New York. 
 Burgoyne proved himself utterly incompetent. By October he 
 was only a short distance down the Hudson ; and at Saratoga he 
 allowed himself to be henuned in by General Gates and was obliged 
 to surrender with his entire army. 
 
 Prance Aids the Revolted Colonies. — After this disaster 
 France recognized the United States by secretly making a 
 treaty with Congress. Great Britain, learning of it in March, 
 1778, promptly declared war. Barcm d'Estaing sailed with a 
 French fleet to aid the revolted colonies. He issued a proclama- 
 tion to the French-Canadians calling on them to put themselves 
 once more under the protection of the French king. There was 
 much excitement in Canada when copies of this proclamation 
 were found affixed to the doors of the parish churches through«^ut 
 the land. Some writers have even affirmed that if a French 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 115 
 
 force had then inrnded the province the Freiicli-siJL'Jvkini,' inhiihi- 
 tuiita woukl not h;ivo oppit.sod thuni. Hut no invasion took 
 place. Congress liad no detsiro to see France gain a fresh footh«»kl 
 on the American continent, and therefore eniph)yed d'Kstaing 
 elHe\vh(^re. 
 
 Haldimand's Precautions. —The fear of invasion, however, 
 led Haldiniand, who liad become governor of Quebec in 1778, 
 to adopt measures for repressing disatiection which had been 
 complained of as arbitrary, though even liis critics admit his 
 sincerity of purpose. To guard against attack he constructed a 
 block-house on tlie upper waters of tlie Chaudiere, l)y which 
 stream Arn(»ld had descended upon Quobec ; lie also established 
 a i)ost at St. Francis and strengthened the forts on the Rioiielieu. 
 The settlements ah)ng Lake (niam])lain as far as Ticonderoga 
 were raided and destroyed in order that they might not serve as a 
 base of supply for the enemy in case of invasion. 
 
 The. War in the West.- To the west, British garrisons 
 were maintained at Oswego, Niagara, Detroit and Michillimackinac 
 during the war, but these appear to have been nnich neglected. To 
 the south and west of Lake Erie a noted Kentucky ranger, named 
 Clark, took possession for Congress of the Illinois settlements. 
 He also captured the post at Vincennes on the Wabash. To 
 secure Niagara from attack, as well as in reprisal for outrages 
 counnitted upon L<tyalists in western New York, Major Butler 
 in 1778 attacked the settlements on the Wyoming, and, after 
 defeating a force which oi>posed him, laid w te the entire 
 valley. This has been called Ijy American writers "the massacre 
 of Wycjming," but Loyalist writers emj)hatically assert that none 
 but armed men were slain. At this time the Iro(|u«ns or Six 
 Nation Indians, as they were now called (the Tuscaroras having 
 joined them), were living in much comfort in western New York. 
 These tribes, largely through Joluison's influence, had sided with 
 Great Brit/ain in her struggle with the colonies, and som,e oi 
 tliem had taken part in Butler's raid on the Wyonnng valley. In 
 1779 General Sullivan marched against them and left their country 
 a blackened wilderness. 
 
 The War in the East.— In Nova Scotia there was no 
 movement in oppc^sition to the Stcimp Act or to the other mejisures 
 which caused the revolt of tin? older colonies. Wh,en a cii'cular 
 
116 IT 'STORY OK CANADA. 
 
 urrivud from MjiKsucliUHott.s askiufj; thu Novh Scotia asHcmbly to 
 join ill donifinding a lodivHs of giievancu.s, Liuuteiiant-Governor 
 Franuklin did iio<^ duuin it exjiodicnt to lay tho circular hcforo the 
 aHHombly. liiHtead, he sent it to England with the most loyal 
 professions on behalf of tho colonists. The early settlers around 
 Halifax wv^re British soldiers, who reineiubered their generous 
 treatment by the governuuiiit upon their first arrival. The city 
 then, as now, was a chief military and naval centre, and the [)eoplo 
 ap])arently were not disi)osed to trouble their heads a))out strict 
 rights in the matter of taxation. The progress of the struggle 
 ■was doubtless eagerly watched, for British men-of-war were often 
 in Halifax harbor and along the coast. 
 
 Buccaneers. ^ — American privateers (many without any license 
 from Congress) infested the Bay of Fundy. Many of the settlers 
 at Passania(j»oddy and along the St. John, who stood firm to their 
 allegiance, were in consequence plundered and kept in a state 
 of constant alarm. At one time the raids became so freciuent 
 that the settlers were obliged to seek refuge in the backwoods. 
 In 1776 two American armed vessels landed at Charlotte town 
 (P.E.I.), and carried off, along with other booty, the acting 
 administrator and some other officials, who, however, were at 
 once sent back by Washington with an apology for their capture. 
 Early in the war, Fort Frederick, at the mouth of the St. John, 
 was taken and destroyed by a raiding party from New England 
 ports. Some of this party crossed the isthmus and carried off a 
 vessel from PictoiL The settlements on the gulf shore of what is 
 now New Brunswick suffered also from similar raids. The arrival 
 of a British fleet to patrol the coast prevented any extensive 
 repetition of such attacks until the war was nearly over, wlieii 
 (1782) Lunenburg was attacked and plundered by New England 
 privateers. 
 
 Independence Acknowledged— The Boundary Line. 
 — In 1783 Great Britain gave up the contest, and by the second 
 Treaty of Paris, commonly called the Treaty of Versailles, acknow- 
 ledged the independence of the "United States of America." This 
 treaty made certain changes in the soutlnn-n boundary line of the 
 province of Quebec, which may be shortly stated. The boundary 
 between the United States and what is now New Brunswick was 
 fixed as the River St. Croix to its source ; thence it followed a line 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 117 
 
 miming duo north to tho " highl.inds" which divicUUho streams 
 flowing into tlio St. Lawrencu from those flowing south to tho 
 Atlantic Ocean. Fr<»m this point the southern boundary line of tlie 
 province of Quebec (as laid down by the Quebec Act) was followed 
 until Liike Erie was reached. Here was tho most marked chan<'e. 
 Under the Quebec Act, all tho region north of the Ohio find west 
 to the Mississippi had l)een })art of tho province of Quebec. 
 This region was now transferred to the United States, although 
 it had first boon oi)ened up by tho hardy Canadian royaffcjira and 
 coiirrnrs de bois. Tho Treaty of Versailles tixed as tho south- 
 western boundary of Canada tho middle line of the great hikes 
 from Lake Erie to tho north-west angle of tho Lake of the Woods. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 CANADA UNDER THE QUEBEC ACT. 
 
 Reorganization. — Owing to the invasion of tho province, it 
 was not until the spring of 1777 that the new council was able 
 to proceed to the regular despatch of business. Courts wore 
 established upon a system nmch like that then in force in 
 England. The trade of tho province being largely in British 
 hands, English conunercial law was introduced. In other respects 
 the provision made by tho Quebec Act for restoring the old French 
 laws was not disturbed. It has been truly said of this first council 
 that it was composed ot ofticials, seigneurs, and the leading traders, 
 juid that the interests of other classes of the population were 
 ignored. No serious comphiint, however, was made on this point 
 (luring the remainder of Carleton's first term. His trouble was 
 with the new chief justice, Livius, who, with little regard for the 
 difficulties of Carleton's position at a time when friends of Con- 
 gress were numerous in the province, (juestionod the governor's 
 right to imprison persons suspected of treasonable designs. 
 
 Absentee Office-holders.— As the Quebec Act annulled all 
 the old commissions, and all offices therefore had to be refilled, 
 Carleton had hoped that absentee office-holders would disapjiear. 
 There had been many such, the work of whose ofticos in Canada 
 was done by incompetent deputies. To Carleton's disgust, Lord 
 
118 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 (irernmin Kuizud the opportunity to reward his politicnl frieiKls in 
 Kiij^lftiid. In many cases, far from Hi)pointiny good resident 
 ortieinis, he sent out inferior men to take the j)lace of old othccrs 
 who had done their work in ]K'rson and had (h»ne it well, 'riiu 
 evil Ciirleton desired to see tliminished was thus rather increased. 
 The governor also com[)lained (h.it the fees and »daries were 
 ulttH^ether too high for a young colony. 
 
 Sir Frederick Haldimand. Carleton was succeeded In 
 J77H hy Sir Frederick Haldim.md, a Swiss by l)irth, who h.td 
 rihien hy merit alone to Ids present position. His instincts were 
 those of a soldier, aiul he was inclined to deal somewhat sum- 
 marily with tliose who were suspected of intriguing with Congress. 
 Tlie number of those who were im[)risoned has, however, hecn 
 nmch exaggerated. Kven 1 faldimand's critics, us already intimated, 
 accjuit him of all j)ersonal malice in the ptu-formance of what, in 
 v<U"y trying tim(!s, he conceived to ])e his duty in defence of 
 the province. Congress agents were undoubtedly a})road in the 
 parishes stirring ui) disatlection, and Haldimand's "rough hut 
 honest a]>s<»lutism" was not out of place in a time of war, when 
 threats of further invasion were being constantly reported. 
 
 Traders in the Council. — The council, very early during 
 Haldimand's term, gave proof of its selfish character. Taking 
 advantage of the need for large supidies to maintain the troops, 
 a ring of traders by clever manipulation created an artifici;il 
 scarcity in wheat. A bread famine was tho result. Haldimand 
 endeavored to have laws ])assed to prevent forestalling (the buying 
 up of wheat in large ((uantities in advance), but the traders in the 
 council rejected the proposedOrdinance. Fortunately the promise 
 of a good harvest and rumors of peace hrt»ke the ring, and prices 
 came down to thcdr ordinary level. There was much activity 
 at this time among Montreal merchants in carrying on the western 
 fur trade, and supi)lies much greater than were required for 
 purposes of barter with the Indians Avere being shipped in that 
 direction. Fearing that these might find their way by roundabout 
 channels to the Congress troops, Haldimand curtailed the issue 
 of passes for the Indian trade, and thus incurred the further 
 displeasure of Ids councillors. 
 
 Agitation for Further Changes.— Upon the return of 
 peace in 1783, the intern.il affairs of the province began to attract 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 119 
 
 mf»re attention, und a movement f«ir a further cluiiij^o in the 
 conKtitution H(M>n Hpnuig np. Petitions iK-gan to oroMS tlk« Atlantic, 
 some for ami H«)me against HUeh change, and Nome for and Home 
 jigainHt the continuance of the oUl French lawH. Opinion in the 
 province waH nmch divided. The memhers of the council were 
 naturally averse to any change hy which they w»>idd lose their 
 poHitiouH. The ofticial.s were of the wmie mind ; in fact, the most 
 intluential of them were memhers of the council. The French- 
 Cuiiadian population had hitJi«-i-to )>een opposed to an assemhly, 
 while the small Fnglish-speaking minority had vehenuuitly desired 
 one. Ah the agitation went on there was nnich changing of sides 
 upon the (piestion. The various sections of the population were 
 intiuenced n<tt only hy local causes hut by the varying reports 
 which from time to time reached Canada from England as to 
 the nature of the asseud»ly to be set up in the province. Before 
 Tialdimand's de])arture (1785) the council jjassed a resolution 
 against any change in the constitution. Several of the British 
 members sup{)ovted it because, it is sfiid, they feared that FjUglish- 
 speaking candidates would not be able to secure election to an 
 assembly. They evidently realized that the British parliament, 
 oven of that day, would not cn^ate in Canada an assembly to 
 which French-Canadians c>\i\d not be elected. 
 
 New Settlers Favor the Movement. — During Haldi- 
 mand's governorship a large addition was made to the English- 
 speaking population of Canada ))y the influx of Loyalists from the 
 revolted colonies to the south. The new settlers were in favor of 
 a more popular form of government than that attorded by a Crown- 
 iij)pointed council. They desii'ed, too, to have English law, under 
 which they had always lived, introduced into those parts of Canada 
 where they settled. It was with the intention of gra'iting them 
 this boon that Ujtper Canada was tinally set apart as a separate 
 province. To render the Loyalist settlements more easy of access 
 Haldimand interested himself in the improvement of the naviga- 
 tion of the St. Lawrence above Montreal, and rude canals were 
 constructed to overcome the rapids. 
 
 Lord Dorchester. — In the autumn of 178G* Carleton re- 
 
 * On Ilaldiniand's retirement in 1785 the government was administered for a time 
 by Lieutenant-Governor Hamilton, and, upon his recall, by Lieutenant-Governor 
 Colonel Hope. 
 
120 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 turned to the province to assume for a second time the poHition 
 of governor. He was sent again to Canada because there seemed 
 to be danger of trouble with the United Status, and because lus 
 well-known popularity among the French-Canadians was relied 
 upon to keep them in content. He was now Lord Dorchester, and 
 his commission appointed him governor of Nova Scotia and New 
 lirunswick, as well as of Canada, tho government of those pro- 
 vinces being henceforward administered ])y lieutenant-governors* 
 
 Committees of Inquiry. — Tn view of the divergence of 
 opinion in Canada, Lord Dorcliester was instructed to report 
 fully on the state of the province, and to that end committees 
 of inquiry were aj^pointed. From their proceedings we learn a 
 great deal tliat is of interest concerning the ])osition of affairs 
 in the years innnediately preceding the division of Canada into 
 two provinces. For example, it apjteared that some of the English- 
 speaking judges inter[)reted the Queliec Act as restoring the«old 
 Liwsof Canada only as between French-Canadians, leaving English 
 hiw in force as to the English-speaking ])opulation. What law 
 should govern in case of a dispute between an English-Canadian 
 and a French-Canadian depended largely upon ihe views- of the 
 particular judge who tried the case. On the other hand, some of 
 the French-Canadian judges were inclined to limit unduly the 
 ordinance whicli had introduced English commercial law. There 
 was, in conse({uence, much uncertainty in the administration of 
 justice, to say nothing of ])ers(mal ill-feeling between the judges. 
 
 Land Laws. — The Connuittee on Lands advocated the aboli- 
 tion of the seigneurial tenure and the introduction of English 
 real estate law. In this they were supported by one- seigneur, 
 de Lanaudiere, who was wise enough to see that feudal burdens 
 would retard settlement in the seigneuries. Under tlie Que])ec 
 Act provisicm had been made for the granting of hinds "in free 
 and common socage" — in other words, according to tlie English 
 system — to th(\se who preferred that system, and to such lands 
 the old French laws were not to apply. But there was much differ- 
 ence of opinicm as to the meaning of the (Quebec Act upon this 
 point. Not until a later period, however, when what are known 
 as the Eastern ToT/nships of Lower Canada were being settled, 
 did this uncertainty give rise to serious difficulty. 
 
 Education. — The Committee on Education reported in favor 
 
•-•• 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 121 
 
 of a system of public instruction, to include elementary schools and 
 !i non-sectarian college, which should in course of time become a 
 university, but this comprehensive scheme was never carried out. 
 The committee, however, collected much valuable informati<jn 
 !is to the positi(m of the province in the matter of education. 
 The Jesuits had formerly c<mducted a free school or college at 
 Quebec, to which all might resort for instructiim in the elei ontary 
 branches. The British government had refused to recognize the 
 iTcsuit f)rder, and had taken possession of their Canadian estates. 
 It was at fiv-,t intended that these shouM be given to Sir Jeffrey 
 Amherst for his services in the taking of Canada; but the law 
 otticers reported that the Jesuits had held them in trust for 
 educational purposes, and the grant to Andierst was, therefore, 
 never made. The Crown, nevertheless, still held the estates, and 
 the Jesuit school had ceased to exist. The seminary college at 
 (Quebec, which Laval had established for the training of priests, 
 had since the cession of Canada to England given free instruction 
 (tf a high grade to all who chose to attend it. The Sulpicians of 
 Montreal also conducted a seminary college, at which no charge 
 was made except for board. There were other schools at Quebec, 
 Three Rivers, and Montreal, under the control of the Church. 
 Missi(m schools also were scattered through the pari.ihes, and of 
 these, in most cases, the various Roman Catholic sisterhoods had 
 charge. There was no public system of education, and through- 
 out the country parishes very few could read or write. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS. 
 
 A Trying Situation. — When the thirteen imerican colonies 
 threw off their allegiance to Great Britain and declared tlieir inde- 
 pendence (1776) there was no longer jjhice for constitutional agita- 
 tion. The new government demanded the uncpialified support of 
 all within its borders ; those who declined to give it were treated 
 as being outside the pale of citizenship. The position was a trying 
 one for many who had up to that tinie liorne their part in the 
 agitation for a redress of grievances, but who had, at the same 
 
122 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 time, hoped to achieve their end by constitutional means. Now 
 they were obUged either to foi-swear their allegiance to the mother- 
 land and take up arms againist her, or Ih) declared enemies of the 
 new republic. There could be no neutrals. Believing that under 
 the British constitution the grievances of the colonists could, sooner 
 or later, be removed, thousands of loyal men decided to sbind liy 
 that ccmstitution and the cause of a united empire. Hence to tliia 
 day they bear the name of United Empire Loyalists. 
 
 A Bitter WTar. — Obliged to abandon their homes, their 
 property contiscated and sold, little wonder their hearts grew 
 bitter. It can serve no good purpose now to dwell upcm the 
 details of the war — the tiendish outrages conniiitted u{)on ])(tth sides 
 — with a view to striking a balance against either king or congress. 
 Civil war at the best is proverbially bitter. It was the niore so in 
 this case because the difterences of opinion permeated each separate 
 community, dividing people of the same neighborhood into hostile 
 camps, and thus giving rise to guerilla warfare from one end of the 
 country to the other. 
 
 The Victors Act Harshly. — At the close of the war, there 
 was on the part of Great Britain — at least, of her plenipoten- 
 tiaries — a lamentable failure to secure protection for those cohmists 
 who had fought on the losing side. On the part of the successful 
 United States, tliere was an utter absence of generosity to their 
 vanquished opponents. By the treaty of peace, indeed. Congress 
 engaged to reconnnend to the State legislatures that the property 
 of all British subjects who had not borne arms against Congress 
 should l)e freely restored, and that all otheis should receive 
 back their estates on ])ayment of the price for which they had 
 been sold. This article of the treaty was practically a dead 
 letter. Those who had cheaply purchased the property of Loyal- 
 ists were not inclined t(j give it up, and the State legislatures 
 declined to repeal their various confiscation Acts. There aeems, 
 in short, to have been an angry determination everywhere to 
 prevent those who had opposed the setting up of an independent 
 national existence from now becoming citizens of the new republic. 
 
 Loyalists Emigrate to Canada.— Unable to recover their 
 property, themselves the object of insult and suspici )n, the Loyalists 
 soon found that the prospect of making a livelihood in the vicinity 
 gf their old homes was not bright. The result, therefore, of the 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 123 
 
 short-sighted policy then pursued by the United States was that 
 in the British provinces to the north there settled a host of 
 refugees, in whose breasts for many years dwelt the renieiiibrance 
 of wrong. After the first tide of innnigration had somewhat 
 abated, the claims of the later-comers to the generous land grants 
 bestowed upon those who had upheld tlie cause of a united empire 
 were ii>'>re closely scrutinized. Those who could establish their 
 right * be so classed had j)laced after their names the magic letters 
 "U.E. Hence the sluirt title by which these settlers and their 
 children are still kn<jw'n — the U. E. Loyalists. 
 
 Earlier Arrivals.— When Boston was abandoned by the British 
 troops in 177t), about eleven hundi'ed refugees embarked with the 
 army for Halifax. Many of these settled in Nova Sctjtia. Loyalist 
 refugees also began to arrive in the province of Quebec at a 
 very early period in the war. The disastrous termination of 
 Burgoyne's campaign (1777) left the Loyalists of the upper Hudson 
 and Mohawk valleys to the tender mercies of the Congress troops, 
 anc many of these Loyalists, particularly those who had borne 
 arms, were obliged to seek refuge in Canada. From them were 
 recruited the various "provincial cor[)s" (as the loyal regiments 
 raised in the colonies were styled), while those who were unfit 
 for service — men, women and children — were cared for by the 
 British government at St. John's, Chambly, and other points 
 along the Richelieu. Before the close of the war there were in 
 the province about three thousfind of these "unincorporated 
 Loyalists," so Ciilled to distinguish them from those who were 
 enrolled in the various provincial corps. Haldimand made pre- 
 paration for the newcomers by having surveys made of the various 
 districts in which it was intended they should locate. In anticipa- 
 tion of their wants a government mill was erected at Cataraqui — 
 the old Fort Frontenac, the modern Kingsttm. 
 
 Loyalist Settlers in Nova Scotia. — After peace had been 
 declared there came a great influx of Loyalists. The city of New 
 York had remained in the hands of the British from a very early 
 period in the struggle, and at its close many tht>usands of Loyalist 
 refugees were c<»ngregated there. Most of these came to the then 
 province of Nova Scotia. In Septend)er, 178Ii, Lieutenant-Governor 
 Parr reported that thirteen thousjuid refugees had arrived in the 
 province "during the last few months," and that there had been 
 
124 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 much suffering on accounf of tlie insufficient preparation for their 
 accouunodation. All tola, the immigration during these years into 
 the Maritime Provinces amounted to about thirty thousand. Of 
 these the majority were h>cated in what is now Nova Scotia, tilling 
 u}) the already settled townships and spreading into the adjoining 
 wilderness. The population was about doubled by this loyal 
 addition. 
 
 In New Brunswick. — Very many, however, went to the 
 northern shores of the Bay of Fundy — to the fertile valley of the 
 St. John, and to the region around Passamaquoddy Bay. The 
 new settlers in the St. John valley — largely disbanded soldiers of 
 the various "provincial corps" — to the number of about nine 
 thousand, were given lands along both Iwinks of the river to a point 
 al)ove the present capital, Fredericton, then known as St. Ann's 
 Point. Parrtown (now St. John), at the mouth of the river, soon 
 became a thriving town. Around I*assama(iuoddy Bay some seven- 
 teen hundred were located, while about four hundred took up their 
 abode in the townships at the head of the Bay of Fundy. As the 
 result of this large immigration the country north of the isthmus 
 was, in 1784, set apart as a separate province under its present 
 name, New Brunswick. 
 
 In Cape Breton. — Cape Breton, too, was made a separate 
 province in 1784, to be governed l)y a council only ; but in 1820 it 
 was reannexed to Nova Scotia, of which it has ever since formed 
 part. This island was long a victim of the connnercial policy of 
 Great Britain. In order m prevent the establishment in America 
 of manufactures which might compete with those of England, the 
 working of the Cape Breton coal deposits was forbidden. For the 
 same reason, even when the great L'>valist innnigration came 
 settlers were not allowed at tirst to locate on the island, but this 
 restriction was almost at once abandoned, and many hundreds of 
 L<)yalists did in fact settle in Cape Breton. 
 
 In Prince Edward Island. — Owing to the failure of the 
 proprietors to bring in settlers, the population of Prince Edward 
 Island remained almost stationary until the arrival of several 
 hundred Loyalists in 1783-1784. The governor, Patterson, acted 
 treacherously (it was said) toward his fellow-proprietors, both 
 those on the island and those in England. He caused i)roceedings 
 to be taken under an early Act of the assembly for the sale of the 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 125 
 
 lands of thoso proprietors who had not paid thuir (juit-rents, and at 
 these sales he was liiniself a large purchaser. Popular opinion on 
 the island was strongly against Patterson, although he had the 
 support of the Loyalist settlers, to whom free grants were made out 
 of the forfeited lands. In the end the sales were not disturbed, 
 l)ut the influence of the pri>prietors in England was suthciently 
 strong t(j procure the governor's peremptory recall in 1787. 
 
 In Canada. — At the peace the various provincial corps were dis- 
 banded, .ind from all parts of New York, New Jersey, and Penn- 
 sylvania they now came flocking into Canada to join their friends 
 already there. Fixed })hices of rendezvous were appointed — Islo 
 liux Noix, Carleton Island (near Kingston), Oswego, and Niagara — • 
 and by various routes the refugees arrived at these different ] joints. 
 One party from New York under Captain Grass came to Canada 
 by way of the St. Lawrence, and after wintering at Sorel joined 
 the settlers for the Bay of Quinte. Haldimand, apparently, 
 was averse to settling the frontier t(jward Lake Champlain, 
 fearing strife between the soldier settlers and their neighbors 
 across the line. The majority of the Loyalists gathered along the 
 Richelieu valley were therefore sent up the St. Lawrence (1784) 
 to people its northern banks. St. John's, Chambly, Sorel, and 
 the other villages along the Richelieu retained, however, many of 
 the Loyalists, and Montreal doubtless drew many thither. 
 
 The Pioneers of Upper Canada.— The first settlement of 
 Ui)per Canada was largely military. The townships on the St. 
 Lawrence, from Lake St. Francis westward, were settled by s( >ldiers 
 from Sir John Johnson's regiments, many of whom were from the 
 Scotch settlements on the Mohawk. Many of their kinsmen from 
 the Old Land afterwards joined them in this new home in the St. 
 Lawrence valley, and to this day the population of the district is 
 largely Scotch. From Kingston westward for some distance along 
 both sides of the Bay of Quinte the region was taken up by others 
 of Johnson's soldiers, and by other companies, including some 
 Hessian regulars. In these Quinte settlements there was a largo 
 admixture of the old Dutch families from the banks of the Hudson 
 and Mohawk rivers, and not a few of the same stock settled on 
 the Niagara frontier. Captain Grass' comi)any secured township 
 number one, afterwards Kingston township, including the town 
 site of Kingston. The other townships, both along the St. Law- 
 
126 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 rence and the Bay of (^uinte, were imined after the numerous 
 pn>geny of George HI. — Williamsburg, Elizjibethtown, Ei'iiestown, 
 So})hiasl)urg, etc. — although long known to the .settlers by their 
 numbei-s only. The Niagara district was lai-gely settled ))y Butler's 
 Rangers ; and at Amherstburg, on the Detroit River, there was 
 another settlement in this same year (1784), some of Butler's 
 Rangers going there. 
 
 Liberal Treatment. — To these first settlers, both in Canada 
 and in the Maritime Piovinces, liberal giants of land were made. 
 In Canada f)tiicers received frc^ni live thousand to two thousand 
 acres according to rank, while every private was given two hundred 
 acres. At a later date a free grant of two lauidred acres was 
 also bestowed on children of U. E. Loyalists, to a daughter 
 U}>on marriage, to a son on coming of age. The grants in the 
 Maritime Provinces were on a smaller ])ut still liberal scale. In 
 addition to free lancl the first settlers were provided with tools 
 (not always of the best), and with clothes, grain, and provisions 
 for three years. The British parliament voted a large sum (over 
 three million })ounds sterling) to pay the losses sustained by the 
 Loyalists during the war, and the distriV)uti<m of this fund and 
 the half -pay of the otHcers provided the settlements with a little 
 ready money — a much-needed article in those days. Among 
 soldier settlers unused to the work which now fell to their lot 
 there Avas naturally nmch improvidence, and the year in which 
 the govennnent supplies were stopped (1788) was l(»ng known as 
 "the scarce year." Speculators, too, taking advantage of the 
 needs of the earlier settlers, secured nuich land at Icjw figures. 
 
 Life of the Early Settlers. -When the various companies 
 arrived at their respective townships they found them a ])rimeval 
 forest. Many pictures have been drawn of the lives of these early 
 settlers, — of the slow clearing away of the woods around the l<»g 
 cabins ; of gradually increasing crops ; of long trips to the govern- 
 ment mills ; of home grinding of grain u{K)n the " hominy block " 
 and in the "plumping mill" to save these long trips ; of " bees " 
 for house and bam raising ; of corn huskings followed by merry 
 dancing; of "sugaring off" in the maple woods; of abundant 
 game ; of the cultivation of flax and the rearing of sheep to provide 
 home-made clothing ; of how every man was his own thinner and 
 boot-maker ; and — to sum up the story — of how the hardy settlers, 
 
HlSTOllY OF CANADAa 
 
 127 
 
 becoming skilled in their tHsks, fought their Avay tlirough much 
 discdurageinent to eonifr'rt and even affluence. One evil they 
 were spared : no hostile red man lurked on the outskirts of settle- 
 ment. The worst enemy they had to dread was a prowling bear, 
 wolf or wildcat, but these have long since disappeared to northern 
 wilds. 
 
 Indian Settlements in Canada. —Many of the Six Nation 
 Indians of northern New York who had taken sides for England 
 were also settled in Upper Canada. 
 The Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, or 
 Timyendanegea (to give liim his In- 
 dian name), had distinguished him- 
 self in the war. He now secured 
 blocks of land for his tribesmen, 
 Cine upon the Grand River on the 
 n(jrth shore of Lake Erie, another 
 near Deseronto on the Bay of 
 Quinte. Though large portions of 
 these grants have since been sold 
 or surrendered by the Indians, 
 there are still large Indian reserves 
 in these two localities, Avhere the 
 descendants of the once powerful 
 and ferocious Inxjuois now live, 
 largely upon the bounty of the 
 Canadian government. 
 
 Upper Canada before the Division.— The first influx of 
 1784 was followed for several years by a gradually decreasing 
 stream of Lcjyalists, who took up the townships adjoining those 
 already settled. The desire of these English-speaking settlers for 
 English law had a potent influence in bringing about in 1791 the 
 division of the province of Quebec into l^pper and Lower Canada. 
 Before the Act of 1791 the newly settled regi(jn was divided into 
 four districts — Eastern or Lunenburg (the St. Liiwrence settle- 
 ments), Midland or Mecklenburg (the Bay of Quinte region), 
 Nassau or Home (the Niagara frontier), and Western or Hesse 
 (the Amherstburg district) — with a judge and a sheriff for each. 
 As a first step toward the education of the rising generation Dr. 
 Stewart opened an academy at Kingston (1786), and here and 
 
 JOSEPH BRANT. 
 
128 IIISTOU/ OF CANADA. 
 
 thero schools — usually for tlio wiiitor months only — wore started 
 through private enterprise. In 17')1, when the division of the 
 old province took place, the population of tlie upper province 
 was placed at about twelve thousand. The total inunigration 
 into the Maritime Provinces and Canada during the years imme- 
 diately following the peace has been comjnited at about forty-five 
 thousand. The majority went at first to the Maritime Provinces, 
 but after 1791 many of these removed to Canada. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 THE CONSTITUTIONAL ACT, 1791. 
 
 Divided Opinions. — The English-speaking ])opulation in 
 what is now the jjrovince of Quebec had greatly increased, 
 and in 1791 it numbered about five th(^usand out of a total 
 population of about 125,000. The majority of this class had 
 always desired an assembly, but they wanted the representation 
 so arranged as to put them on a footing of ecpiality, at least, 
 with the French-speaking Canadians. Among the latter there 
 had gradually taken place a marked change of opinion, and 
 they were now about c<pially divided ujjon the (question, tlie 
 division showing itself "even in the bos(jm of families." Those 
 who advocated an assembly did so of course in confidence that no 
 religious test would limit their right to elect as members men of 
 their own race. The new settlers in what is now Ontfirio were not 
 ^^nly in favor of an assembly ; they also wanted the province 
 divided in order that they might relieve themselves from the old 
 French law, to which they were entirely unaccustomed. To this 
 division the British party (as they were called), in and below 
 Montreal, w^ere opjjosed, as it would leave them in a hopeless 
 minority in the lower province. Thus we see that the various 
 classes who favored an assembly were actuated by widely different 
 motives, and that there was little agreement as to the details of 
 the change which should take place in the government of the 
 province. The council and the officials were throughout opposed 
 to any change, and they of course had friends and adherents^ 
 particularly in Quebec, to support their views. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 129 
 
 The Constitutional Act, 1791.— At longth, in 1791, Pitt 
 deemed the time ripe for conferring on CnnadH a permanent form 
 of government. To that end tlie Constitutional Act was intro- 
 (hiced by him into the British parliament, and after a warm 
 (lobato became law. Under it the two provinces of Upper and 
 Lower Canada were governed for nearly fifty years, 
 
 The boun(biry line between the two new provinces was fixed 
 by royal proclamation, and, although it has since been found 
 necessjiry to define this line more accurately, it is still the dividing 
 line between the provinces ol Ontario and Quebec. Nothing 
 on the south shore of the St. Diwrence was included in the neW 
 province of Upper Canada. The line began on the north shore 
 of Lake St. Francis, at the western end of the seigneury of New 
 Longueuil ("at the cove west of Pointe au Baudet"), and followed 
 the western limits of the seigneuries to the Ottawa ; thence ife 
 followed the Otbiwa to Lake Temiscaming ; thence it was drawn 
 due north <-o Hudi:on Bay. 
 
 Provisions of the Act.— (1) The Two Parliaments.— 
 By the Act the council, which for the last sixteen years (1775- 
 17!)!) had passed such laws as were deemed necessfiry for the 
 province of Quebec, was dissolved, and for each of the new 
 provinces a parliament was provided. It consisted of (1) the 
 Crown, (2) an appointed legislative council, and (,'^) an elective 
 legislative assembly; with power to pass laws' "for the peace, 
 welfare, and good government" of the province. 
 
 The Crown would of course be represented in each province by 
 the governor or lieutenant-governor, whose assent was necessary 
 to all Acts of the provincial legislature. The legislative council 
 (»f Lower Canada was to consist of not less than fifteen mendiers, 
 that of Upper Canada of not less than seven. In each the 
 niond)ers were appointed by the Crown and held their seats for 
 life. The Act indeed provided for the creation of hereditary 
 titles in Canada, to which the right to a seat in the legislative 
 council should be annexed, but this clause happily was allowed 
 to remain a dead letter. Public opinion in the provinces has 
 always decidedly condeamed the idea of a Canadian House of 
 Lords. In addition to the legislative council there was in each 
 province an executive council to advise the governor in the 
 conduct of public affairs. 
 10 
 
1.30 HISTOHY OF CANADA. 
 
 The legislHtive assembly of Lower Canada was to consiHt of not 
 less than tifty nieniberf^, that of Upper Canada of not less than 
 sixteen. The electoral franchise was what was known in England 
 as the forty Hhilling freeh<»hl for connti(>s and the £5 freehold and 
 £10 leasehold for towns. K»»ughly speaking, tluise figures hud 
 reference to the annual rental or income of the property in respect 
 of which the right to vote wwi claimed. No member of the 
 legislative council and no clergyman was to be eligible to a seat 
 in the assembly. The f)aths required, as well from voters as 
 from members of the council and assembly, contained nothing in 
 the nature of a religious test to debar any citizen from voting at an 
 election <jr from being elected. 
 
 The provincial parliaments were to meet at least once a year. 
 Their legislative power over certain matters was restricted, not by 
 way of absolute prohibition, but by rcfpiiring certain formalities 
 to be observed. L^iws relating to religion (including tithes) were 
 among these, and the restrictions were imposed apparently in order 
 to prevent hasty legislation at any time of religious excitement. 
 The porver to pass laws relating to the granting of Crown lands 
 was also restricted as these were relied on to provide a revenue, 
 and in the interest of the Crown their too rapid sale was not con- 
 sidered desirable. The greater part indeed of all the re vermes i>f 
 the provinces continued to be collected and spent by the officials 
 under Acts of the British parliament, so that for many years the 
 assemblies were able to exercise very little control over them— a 
 defect in the system of colonial government which was remedied 
 only after a long struggle. 
 
 (2) Tithes -Clergy Reserves.— The right of the Roman 
 Catholic clergy to collect tithes from adherents of that Church was 
 confirmed, but provision was also made for the setting apart of a 
 certain part of the Crown lands for the supjjort of a " Protest<»nt 
 clergy." Out of this enactment grew, about thirty years later, the 
 celebrated "Clergy Reserves" question, which for many years 
 created intense political excitement, particularly in Ui)per Canada. 
 It was not finally set at rest until the year 1854. 
 
 (3) Legal Systems. — The only other provision of the Con- 
 stitutional Act which need now be noticed is the clause which 
 ctmtinued all existing laws in Canada, subject, however, to future 
 repeal or variation by the provincial assemblies. What would 
 
HISTORY OF CANAbA. 131 
 
 take place whk well uTKlei'Kfood. Ijnwcr CHiimla stnod fast by the 
 old laws, tapper Catmda. as we fihall see, at once iiitroduceil English 
 law as the basib of the legal system of that province. 
 
 CHAI'TRR XX IT. 
 
 INCREASE OF J-OITLATION (1791-1812). 
 
 The Various MigrationH. During this period there was 
 a marked increase in the ])opulation »»f hH tlie provinces, and just 
 at its close (1812) the foundations of the present |>rovince of Mani- 
 toba were laid. Of this increase a few came from Enj^land and a 
 large num})er from Ireland, ))ut the great sources of supply during 
 these years were the United States and Scotland. An attem]»t, 
 indeed, was made early in the century to settle about five huntlred 
 Marxms — a race of reliellious bhicks from .Faniaica in Nova 
 Scotia ; but, after a short stay, they were removed to the west 
 coast of Africa, to which region, at an earlier date, a nund>er of 
 negro Loyalists had been sent. After the tirst great Loyalist 
 migration there was a decided falling off in the movement from 
 the United States to the Maritime Provinces, an<l it was toward the 
 Canadian provinces that the tide of American migration set in 
 most strongly. Of the flow from the Britisli Isles all the f)rovinces 
 received some portion, but the provinces by the sea were the 
 chief gainers from this source during the period before us. 
 
 "Highland Clearances."- -To deal first with the Scotch 
 migration. The latter half of the eighteenth century, following 
 upon the failure of the Stuart uprising of 1745, saw the breaking 
 up of the half-feudal clan system of the Highlands f>f Scotland. 
 A powerful factor to this end was the formation by Pitt of those 
 Highland regiments whose achievements, from the Plains of 
 Abraham to the helds of the Crimea, have shed lustre up(m the 
 British army. But the severest blow to the system was given l)y 
 its own chiefs, who, upon taking the ofith of allegiance to the 
 British Crown, were now given an absolute title to the soil occu- 
 pied by their clans. Many of them soon began a wholesale eviction 
 <»f their clansmen, whom they now treated siniply as their tenants, 
 and vast stretches of the Highlands of Scotland were thus turned 
 
132 HiSTOllY OF CANADA. 
 
 into Hhoo[»-riinH. Tho iniHory which followed upon thcHO "High- 
 land cluumnceH" was oxtienio. With .. view to ruliuf, colonization 
 ju'ojcctH wuro adopted toward tho close of the century, which re- 
 Bulted in the migration of thouHand.s of Highlander.s to the Uritifsh 
 provinctis in America. 
 
 Scotch Migration to Nova Scotia.— Their rtrst Hettle- 
 nients in l*ict<»u (^»iuity, Nova Scotia, as early as 177«i, have 
 already been mentioned. Further arrivals t«K^k i)lace, s[)reading 
 eastward toward and into Cape Breton. During the earlier years of 
 the present century the migration into these regions wjis enormous. 
 As many as two or three ships a day sailed frt)m Scotland during 
 the summer season from 1801 to 1805. In one year not less than 
 1,'M)() settled in the county of Pictou alone. There was so much 
 Buttering and discomfort on board the badly- ventilated shi{)s that 
 the movement gained the unenviable name of the *' white slave 
 trade." Once settled, however, in their new homes, these Scotch 
 innnigrants entered upon an era of comfort and even prosperity, 
 very ditterent from the distress then prevalent in their old homes 
 in the Highland glens. As early as 1791 the Uiovement into Cape 
 Breton began, first from Nova Scotia, afterwards directly from Scot- 
 land. Between the years 1791 and 1828, not less than twenty- 
 five thousand Scotcli settlers found their way to this beautiful 
 island, where their descendants still form the chief element in the 
 I)opulati(m. 
 
 Scotch Settlers on the St. Lawrence. — The shore of the 
 ui)i)er St. Lawrence was another great gathering-place for Scotcli 
 Hettlers. After the disbanding of the Glengarry Fencibles, who 
 had taken part in putting down the rebellion in Ireland (1798), as 
 many as 1,100 of them, including friends and kinsmen, came at 
 one time (1804) to the St. Lawrence townships. They were largely 
 RKinan Catholic, and their leader, Alexander Macdonell, whs 
 afterwards well known as the tirst Roman Catholic bishop of 
 Upper Canada. 
 
 Selkirk's Prince Edward Island Colony.— The place of 
 honor among those who took the lead in bringing out the Scotch 
 Highlanders must be given to the Earl of Selkirk. The character 
 of this nobleman has been the subject of much question. In 
 connection with his Red River settlement he came into conflict 
 with the North- West Company, at that time a most potent factor 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 183 
 
 EARL OF SELKIRK. 
 
 in tlio government, c»f the Ciumdiun ]»r<»viiicoH. If we are to l»elievo 
 what the friends of that oom[)any wrotu of Selkirk, liu was actuated 
 solely by motives of Ht;lf-aggraMdizement ; if we take the euhtgies 
 of his friends, he was a luadur 
 among ])hilanthropistH. Motives 
 apart, his schemes of colonization 
 were vigorously executed, and re- 
 sulted in the introduction of a large 
 number of hardy settlers, whoso 
 influence for good upon the com- 
 nuuiities where they were located 
 has been )iiost n'arked. Selkirk's 
 tirst design was to tak.) liis colon- 
 ists to the Hudson Bay country ; 
 but the British government in- 
 sisted that the vacant lands of the 
 older provinces should first be 
 taken up. Selkirk's earliest settle- 
 ment (1803) was, therefore, upon 
 Prince Edward Island. About 
 
 eight hundred was the number of this first company, and their 
 prosperity was innuediate. Their descendants form to-day a large 
 element in the populaticm of the central portion of the island. 
 
 Selkirk in Upper Canada. — Selkirk also owned much land 
 in the western district of Upper Canada, and in this same year 
 (180.3) his Baldoon settlement on Lake St. Clair was founded. 
 The land was low lying, malaria thinned the ranks, and the colony 
 was not a success. In Upper Canada, indeed, Selkirk appears to 
 have met with but scant encouragement. The litigation which 
 afterwards arose between him and the North-West Com})any was 
 itkrgely conduot'xl in Canada, and Selkirk complained bitterly of 
 the partiality shown to his opponents by the authorities in both 
 of the Canadian provinces. It was not, however, until 1811-1812 
 that Selkirk, having secured a controlling interest in the Hudson's 
 Bay Company, sent out the first settlers to his lands upon the Red 
 River. The events connected with that settlement fall, therefore, 
 within the next i)eriod of Canadian history. 
 
 Talbot Settlements. — The same i)erhaps may be said of the 
 Talbot settlements in the townships in rear of tlie Lake Erie 
 
134 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 frontier. Their founder was Colonel Tlionia.s Talbot, who, as 
 Siincoe's aide-de-campy accompanied hiui upon his western trips 
 in Upj>er Canada. He afterwards obtained a grant of many 
 townships in the district just mentioned. Active settlement, 
 however, did not begin until 1809, and Colonel Talbot's career in 
 Canada is more closely identified with the period following the war 
 of 1812. Twenty-eight townships in all owe their first settlement 
 to his somewhat eccentric energy. 
 
 The Eastern Townships. We turn now to what may be 
 called the Stn'Utl gieat migration from the United States to 
 Canada. Very shortly after the division of the old province of 
 Queltec proclamations were issued in Ijoth Ijower and Upper 
 Canada in-iting settlers from the I'nited States to take up their 
 ab(»de in Canada. Those who chose the lower province settled 
 chiefly in what are known as the Eastern T<>wnships. The method 
 pursued by the government (jf Lower Canada was thus described 
 many years afterwards (1828) by John Neilson, the well-known 
 reformer vi that province: " Fritm the year 17^H) down to a late 
 period there was a practice of granting an immense tract of land, 
 called a townsliip, to a leader ; that leader gave in a number of 
 names which were put in the patent, and he managed beforehand 
 to get deeds of conveyance from them so that he became possessor 
 of the whole." After the war of 1812, when Sir G(jrdon Drummond 
 desired to reward those who had taken pnvt in the defence of the 
 province, he fecund that there were no Crown lands available in 
 this region. Over three million acres were helJl by "a couple of 
 hundnd lucky grantees," — the leading officials of the province and 
 their friends. For a time this policy to some extent retarded 
 settlement. Not all, however, of the "leaders" were of the 
 character described by Neilson. Many of them were leaders in 
 reality, who brought with them into Canada an ir^'^stricus arid 
 intelligent class of settlers. The first-comers were largely Loyal- 
 ists ; the subsequent influx was an overflow into Canada from the 
 settlements in northern Vermont and New Hamjjshire. 
 
 Sinicoe in Upper Canada. — In Upper Canada this second 
 migration from the United States began during Simcoe's tenure 
 of office (17'.)2-1790). This energetic lieutenant-goverm)r rejoiced 
 to see men forsaking the old coloaiies and returning to British rule. 
 All that he required was that the new-comers could show that 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 135 
 
 they were likely to prove good settlers, and that they were willing 
 to take the oath of allegiance to King Ge(n'ge. As a rule these 
 new inunigrants, many of them Loyalists, were of a desirable 
 class. With the good sfsttlers, however, came many of the idle, 
 discontented, and even vicious of the population of the United 
 States, who were long a source of annoyance to their more 
 industrious neighbors. This secontl immigration tilled up the 
 gaps between the earlier settlements — particularly in the western 
 part of the province — and spread back into the rear townships, 
 Simcoe's policy was to jdaee tlioso (»f approved character and 
 loyalty upon the frontier as a living barrier against invasion. 
 Along his military highways he carefully reserved blocks of land 
 for actual settlers, but after he had gone these were parcelled out 
 among the members and friends of the othcial class, and the 
 interests of settlers were ignored. 
 
 A Large Increase. — The tide of immigration, however, 
 flowed steadily on, and the forests along the frontier t^lowly dis- 
 appeared bef(jre the settler's axe. Following the troubles in 
 Ireland (1798), there was a considerable influx of Irish settlers into 
 Canada during the early years of the present century. Toward the 
 close of the last century a number of French emi(jres — many of 
 them of the nobility — driven from France during the storm of the 
 revolution, found an asylum in Upper Canada. Tiiey were settled 
 upon what were railed the Oak Ridges, north of Toi'onto. But the 
 soil proved unyielding to their unaccustomed hands, and before 
 long they had almost entirely disapj)eared. The extent of the flow 
 of population toward Upper Caziada may be gathered from the 
 fact that by the year 1812 the population had increased to about 
 75,000, spread along the entire frontier from Lake St. Francis to 
 the Detroit River. The more thickly populated regions were the 
 original seats of settlement — the St. Lawrence townships, the Bay 
 of Quinte region, the Niagara frontier, and the Amherstburg 
 district — to which was soon added the neighborhood of the capital, 
 *' Muddy York," now Toronto, 
 
136 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER xxrir. 
 
 FUR TRADE AND THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. 
 
 The Hudson's Bay Company.— For nearly one hundred 
 years after securing their charter in 1()7<), the Hudson's Bay 
 Company had been content to let the Indians bring their furs to 
 the company's trading posts on tlie shores of the great bay, and 
 had done nothing toward the explorati(»n of the vast region 
 which lay to the west. The French had done battle with them 
 on the shores and waters of the bay for a share in the fur trade ; 
 and the encroachment of Frenchmen u})on their rear, the cutting 
 off of their traffic at its fountain-heads by Ve'rendrye and his 
 successors, at length drove the c<)mi)any to penetrate the interior 
 in order to preserve their monoi)oly. Complaint, too, was made 
 in England tliat the couipany were allowing the Frencli to secure 
 the region covered by their charter. A parliamentary investigation 
 was had (1749) and, altliough the company's charter was not 
 revoked, the outcry evidently stirred them to increased activity. 
 
 The Nor'-Wefc. 'jers. — The loss of Canada by France did not 
 cut off rivalry. Only once again, indeed, were the company 
 molested upon Hudson Bay. During the American War of 
 Independence, when France came to the assistance of the revolted 
 colonies, a French fleet, under La Perouse, entered tln^ bay and 
 committed havoc up<m some of the com{)any's forts (1782). But 
 even before that time the fur trade which tlie French had carried on 
 from Montreal had been taken up by Scotch merchants tlusre, wlio, 
 a])out 1780, joined to form the North- West CV)mpany, or, as they 
 were connnonly called, the " Nor'-Westers. " These new rivals t»f 
 the Hudstm's Bay Company were, e(|ually with the "adventurers" 
 of that company, British subjects, and, therefore, resort coulu 
 not be h. d to force of arms to expel the intruders. The charter 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company gave them exclusive jurisdiction 
 (subject only to their allegiance to the British Crown) over all the 
 country watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay. What was 
 really covered by this descri[)tion was at this time largely a matter 
 for conjecture. The Nor'-Westers, all the while, vigorously pushed 
 their operations north and west of Lake Superior, and the older 
 company were compelled t<> net with ecj^ual energy, not only t<> hol<;l 
 

 id 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 «-«>. 
 
 ^-ysji^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4<l-^ ^."^■^i.^c'. / i^asif^c^'. 
 
 ^'v^ 
 
 r-^ / ,/^ -^ 
 
 
 CNCnAVKD CX^NLSSLV ^OR THft DOMINrON HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 

 
 ^^15?^^: 
 
 
 
 THC CO^P. CLANK C9 LlMITttO L )TMO. THNONTO. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 137 
 
 thoir traffic, but also to oxploro tlio interior in order to determine 
 the limits of the territory over which their sway extended. The 
 result was that, through the efforts of the rival explorers of tliese 
 two Companies, the shores of the Arctic and Pacific oceans were 
 reached overland before the coitury had ended. 
 
 Search for a North-West Passage.— Though Europeans 
 had long since found the Southern Seas and Cliina, the way thither 
 around the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn was long and 
 ditticult. Could not a more direct route be found north of the 
 American continent? This problem occui)ied the attenti<m of 
 European navigators down to a, very recent time. The story of 
 the various expeditions taken to find a "north-west })assage," 
 of the noble lives lost, the hardshi[)s endured and the diHiculties 
 overcome, would fill volumes. It would throw light, liowever, on 
 the geography rather than <m the history of Canada. In tlie end 
 the passage was found, only to make })lain tliat it was useless as a 
 uonnnercial highway. The practical solution of the question of a 
 short way to the Orient was found by the enterprising traders of 
 the North-West Com})any, who, by various passes of the Rocky 
 Mount^iins, found their way to the Pacific coast. One t)f the 
 routes which they thus opened 
 up is followed to-day by the 
 Canadian Pacific Riiilway, the 
 great commercial liighway be- 
 tween Europe and Asia. 
 
 Captain Cook. — British 
 navigat<jrs had again found 
 their way to the Pacific coast 
 of North America some years 
 before this time. On his third 
 voyage, tfiken with a view to 
 finding a *' north-west passage " 
 by sailing in from the Pacific, 
 the celebrated Captain Cook in 
 March, 1778, drop})ed anchor 
 ( iff Vancouver Island. He called 
 the place King George's Sound, 
 
 but it is known to-day by its Indian name, Nootka Sound. Here 
 he remained only so long as was necessary to reppir liis two ships, 
 
 CAPTAIN COOK. 
 
188 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 * 
 
 the Resolution and tlie Discovery, and then siiiled again to the 
 north. He explored the coast to a point beyond Behring Straits, 
 but was finally obliged to turn back as solid ice barred further 
 pr(jgress. While wintering at the Sandwich Islands ho met his 
 death at the hands of the natives. 
 
 The Pacific Coast Indians. — Captfiin Cook reports in his 
 journal that the Indians whom he met at Nootka and along the 
 coast were very friendly and dispitsed to trade. All sorts of furs 
 were freely ottered, particularly that of the sea-otter. In appear- 
 ance the natives are described as under the common stature, 
 "pretty full and plump, though not muscular." I'he men and 
 women were so encrusted with })aint and dirt that their color could 
 not with cei'tainty be determined, but the cliildren, he says, were 
 nearly as fair as JOuropeans. These Mongoloids, as they are now 
 termed, were spread in villages all through the coast region. 
 Unlike the Indians of the Atlantic seaboard, they oiiered but little 
 resistance to the encioachment of the Euro[)ean — largely, however, 
 because they were fairly and kindly treated by the traders of the 
 North-West Company. To-day the Indians oi British Columbia 
 number only about twenty-live thousand souls — a decreasing people 
 divided into many tribes. 
 
 The Pioneer Traders. — The fame of Captain Cook's dis- 
 coveries was soon noised abroad, and in 1786 no less than four 
 expeditions were fitted out in difi'erent parts of the globe to 
 engage in the new fur trade. British merchants in China and 
 India, as well as in England, were concerned in these ventures, 
 and the flags of the great chartered companies — the East India 
 and South Sea companies — floated over the ships. A British 
 captain, James Hanna, was the first to arrive at Nootka (August, 
 1785), and it is said that from his season's trade he netted, in 
 China, a profit of $26,000. Others soon followed. The flag cf 
 the United States appeared for the first time in these waters in 
 1788, a company of Boston merchants having decided to take up 
 the trade. The names of many of these early traders still appear 
 upon the map of British Columbia ; in Cape Scott, Barclay Sound 
 and other localities. Queen Charlotte Islands were visited by 
 Captain Dixon in 1787. They were named after the Queen-consort 
 of England, whose name Dixon's ship also bore. 
 
 Captain Meares. — In 1788 Captain John Mearcs, formerly a 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 139 
 
 lieutenant in the BritiHli n;ivy, arrived at Nootka with two ships 
 iuul ninety men, including European artisans and Chinese sniith.s 
 and carpenters, "shipped as an ex{)erinient, " A grant of land 
 was obtained from the chief of the Indian village near by, and 
 up<jn this land a "two-story" house was constructed " sutticiently 
 spacious to contain all the party intended to be left at the Sound." 
 Captain Meares, after describing with evident pride this lirst house 
 put up in British CVdumbia, says: "On the whole, our house, 
 though it was not Iniilt to satisfy a lover of architectural beauty, 
 was admirably well calculated for the purpose to which it whs 
 destined, and appeared to be a structure of unci>iumon magni- 
 ticence to the natives of King George's Sound." Around it a 
 strong breastwork was constructed, and a camion was mounted to 
 command the Cove and village of Nootka. During the sunnuer a 
 forty-ton vessel was built, the North- West u4.iiu'n('ay which was 
 launched that same fall, amid loud cheers and bot)ming cannon. 
 
 Spaniards Capture Nootka. Spain at this time claimed 
 the entire Pacitic coast, although her most northerly settlement in 
 California did not extend beyond San Francisco. She still, too, 
 held Ltjuisiana, that indefinite region west of the Mississippi 
 v/hich France had ceded to her in 1763, and she claimed that the 
 nt)rthern part of this territory extended to the Pacitic Ocean. In 
 assertion of this claim, a Spanish ship of war "from the port of 
 San Bias in the province of Mexico " sailed into N(»otka Sound in 
 1789, captured Captain Meares' ships, confiscated the cargoes, and 
 took possession of the post on shore. Great Britain and S[)ain 
 nearly came t(j blows over this affair. Finally, in 1790, Spain 
 abandoned her claim to exclusive ownership and agreed to sur- 
 render the post, as well as to indemnify Captain Meares for his 
 losses. Thereafter the subjects of either power were to be at 
 liberty to settle upon unoccupied territory. 
 
 Captain George Vancouver. — Captain George Vancouver 
 was sent out by Great Britain to receive possession of Nootka. 
 Instructions to the Spanish captain in connnand there did not 
 arrive in. time to allow Vancouver to carry out this part of his 
 mission. He was, however, also under orders to make a close 
 examination of the coast, and this he did during the years 1792, 
 '93, '94, returning to England in October, 1795. His survey 
 extended from the Columbia River to beyond the north end of 
 
140 
 
 HISTOllV OF CANADA. 
 
 CAPT. GLO. VANCOUVER. 
 
 Vancouver iHlaiul, iiicliulin<( the in.sido cliiiimclH. Mount Rikor 
 takes its name from one of his lieiitonants, who vas the liifit to 
 
 catcli a glimpse of its anow-chid sum- 
 mit. Pugut Sound was named after 
 anotlier lieutenant who had in charge 
 the survey of its sinuous shores. 
 Nootka was finally handed over to a 
 representative of Oreut Britain in 
 171^5. No attempt was ever again 
 made to plant a settlement there, 
 though for some time it c<)ntinued 
 to be a summer rendezvous for 'le 
 fur traders. 
 
 Samuel Hearne. — Meanwhile 
 the rival companies l)eyond the Rocky 
 Mountains had heen pushing their ex- 
 ])l()rations westward. Samuel Hearne 
 led the way for the Huds(m's Bay 
 Company. From their posts on the great l)ay he made several tri{)s 
 into the interior, and in the year 1771 finally succi^eded in reaching 
 the Arctic Ocean by way of the (Joppermine River. Afterwards he 
 led a party up the Saskatchewan, and, in 1774, established a post on 
 that river — Fort Cund)erland. He has been called "the Mungo 
 I*ark of Canada," his extensive explorations rivalling those of the 
 celebrated traveller in Africa. He was followed ])y many others of 
 the most skilled officers in the company's employ, and, before 180<), 
 posts had been established at various points on the Saskatchewan, 
 from Liike Winnipeg to Fort Edmonton, not far from the Rocky 
 Mountains. There were also posts on Lake Winnipeg, on the Red 
 River, and on its great affluent, the Assiniboine. 
 
 The X. Y. Company. — All through this same region the 
 North- West Company had built its posts, the rival establishments 
 often sttinding side by side or facing each other across some 
 stream. At one time indeed a third competitor appeared in the 
 field. In 179t) there was a division among the Nor'- Westers, and 
 a new North-West Company, conmimily called the X. Y. Company, 
 was formed by the outgoing partners. At many points three rival 
 posts took the place of two. In 1804, however, the X. Y. Company 
 was again mergt i in the old North- West Company. 
 
JIISTOUY OF CANADA. 
 
 Ul 
 
 SIR ALEXANDER MACKENZIE. 
 
 Mackenzie Reaches the Pacific- The most diHtinguislied 
 of. the niaiiy exphtroiH in tho Hurvice of the Noith-VVust C'oni|).iny 
 wiis AlexjiiuUr "UftorwHids Sir Alexander — Mnckeii/ie. In 17H!), 
 loHving the conipany's ])()st, Fort 
 C'hippewyan on Lake Athabasca, 
 Mackenzie, hy way of the river 
 wliich bears his name, reachtul the 
 Arctic Ocean. Again, in 171)2, lie 
 ascended to the head waters of the 
 Peace River. Then, after s])ending 
 the winter trading with the Indians 
 of this region, he crossed the Rockies 
 and made his way to the coast of the 
 Pacitic, ])roudly inscribing npon a 
 rock which faced the sea, " Alex- 
 ander Mackenzie, from Canada by 
 land, Jidy 22nd, IT'.Ki." While on 
 the coast he heard from the natives 
 
 of Vancouver's presence in that region. Fort Chippewyan was 
 again reached late in August, after an absence of eleven months. 
 
 Simon Eraser— David Thompson.— Others so(m followed. 
 In 1805 the North- West Company decided to take possession of 
 the region beyond the Rocky Mountains by planting their trading 
 posts there. To Simon Fraser the task was assigned, and in that 
 same year the first post in what is now British Columbia was 
 established at Rocky Mountain Portfige, In the following 
 years other posts were planted, and in 1808, by the river which 
 hears his name, Fraser reached the Pacitic. David Thompson, 
 the astronomer, after wlunn the Thompson River is named, is 
 another notiible figure among tiiese pioneers of British Colundna, 
 or New Caledonia, as it was then called. By a more southerly 
 route than that followed by Fraser, he crossed the Rocky Mountains 
 in 18(X) by the Bow River Pass, through which the Canadian Pacitic 
 Railway now enters British Columbia, He continued his exjjlora- 
 tions during the years foHowing, and, in 1811, by Avay of the 
 Cohniibia River, reached the Pacitic Ocean. 
 
 Astoria. — At ^^he mouth of the Columbia, Thompson found a 
 post being planted by a new rival. This was the Pacitic Fur Com- 
 pany, of which John Jacob Vstor, of New York, was the leading 
 
14^ HlSTOllV OF CANADA. 
 
 spirit. In his Imiior tlio pdHt had been called AHtoria. In 1808 
 the United States h;id purchased Louisiana, and, to strengthen 
 their claim to the region beyond the niount^iins, Ijewis and Clarke, 
 two noted rxploicrs, were sent in 1H()4 to find a passage through 
 to the Pacitic by way of the head waters of the Missouri. This 
 they successfully accoinjdished in the following year, reaching 
 the Pacitic by way of the Columbia lliver. In 1811, as already 
 mentioned, Astoria was foinided. It had a che»|uered history, 
 and in the jtages of NN'ashington Irving's "Astoria" may be 
 read a graphic account of its doings and sutlerings. In 1813 the 
 North-VVest Company purchased the post, then in a greatly reduced 
 condition. It was a time of war, and liritish cruisers were on the 
 coast. The warship Ria-ixtii, indeed, s«iiled in to capture the jdace, 
 only to iind it already iti the hands of a British company. There- 
 after for many years the North-West Company alone carried on 
 the interior fur trade, establishing many ])osts along the C'olumbia, 
 Fraser and Thompson rivers. Astoria became Fort George, the 
 comi)any's h(nid(|uarters west <tf the mountains. 
 
 Russian Claims. Away to the north, a Russian expedition 
 under Behring had discovered and explored the Ahiskan coast as 
 early as 1741, and at a later datr^ K >ssian settlements were made 
 at various points. These were mere trading posts for the prose- 
 cution of the fur trade. In 17^9 the territory was granted to h 
 Russian -American fur company, which established about forty 
 stations. The chief post Avaa New Archangel, now Sitka. Russia 
 afterwards claimed the whole Pacitic coast as far south, at least, 
 as 49°— the present southern boundary of Canada — but no settle- 
 ments Avere established that far south, and meanwhile the inde- 
 fatig?,ble traders of the North-West Company were fast taking 
 possession. 
 
 The Nor'- Westers a Power in Canada.— If the Hudson's 
 Bay Company was powerful in England, the North-West Company 
 was all-powerful in Canada. In Lower Canada a majority of the 
 executive and legislative councils, if liot actually partners in the 
 company, were at least interested in it. Selkirk did not hesitjvte to 
 charge that even the judges were not beyond its intiuence. Once a 
 year a gathering of the partners took place at the company's chief 
 northern depot, Fort William, on Lake Superior, at the moutli 
 of tlie Kaniinistiquia River, where the town of Port Arthur now 
 
HISTOllY OF CANADA. 14,^ 
 
 standH. Here the pliiiis for the year were discussed and settled, 
 ufter wliicli the partners dispersed, some to return with the 
 vo\i(Vj€iits by way of tlie OttHwa to M<»ntreal ; while others — the 
 '* wiiiterinj; partners " struck again tlirotijjh the wilderness with 
 their ronri'iiyn dr />f»<,s to the va*'ious posts of the conipiiny in the 
 fui" regions, St>lkiik's settlement on the Red I^iver lay right 
 across the path of the Nor'-VVesters, and would almost cert^'iinly 
 increase the friction between the rival companies. What did 
 hajjpen we shall see later. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 LOWER CANADA (1791 1812). 
 
 The First Parliament of Lower Canada.— The division 
 of the old province of (^)uebcc took eti'ect. on the 2Hth of December, 
 i7*M. Lord Dorchester was at this time absent in England, and 
 it devolved therefore upon the lieutenant-governor, Sir Alured 
 Clarke, to organize the new goveviirnent in Lower Canada, 
 Lieutenant-Governor Simcoc performing the like duty in the 
 upper province. Claike at once formed a legislative council of 
 fifteen, giving nearly one-half of the seats to French-Canadian 
 seigneurs. His executive council was composed of the leadnig 
 otHcials, most of whom were also given seats in the legislative 
 council. The first parliament of L<^)wer Canada met at Quebec on 
 the 17th of December, 1792. The French-Canadian populaticm 
 had not been illiberal, and fifteen out of the fifty meml>ers of the 
 assembly were English-speaking. The assembly cliose as its 
 s])eaker Mr. J. A. Panet, a French-Canadian lawyer who spoke 
 French and English with e(|vud fluency. It was resolved that 
 both languages should be used in the proceedings of the House, 
 an eminently fair arrangement which was never afterwanls 
 disturbed. Loyal addresses to the king were passed, one of 
 gratitude for the boon of a popular assembly, and another ex- 
 pressing horror at the excesses of the French revolution and the 
 hope that in the war wiiioli had begun between France and Eng- 
 land His Majesty's arms would be successful. The session was 
 further marked by a Quaker Toleration Act, and by a re(|uesb 
 
144« HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 from the assembly that the Jesuits' estates should be applied for 
 ])urposes of education. 
 
 Slavery in Canada. — A bill against slavery was introduced, 
 but f^;r some reason failed to pass. A few years latv (1800), 
 the Court of King's Bench in Montreal held slavery in Lower 
 Canada to be illegal, but we hear of slaves there as well as in 
 the other provinces for some years after that date. In Upi)er 
 Canada an Act was passed in 1793 to put an end to slavery in 
 that province. In all the provinces the few slaves who were 
 ])rought in by Loyalists from the United States were apparently 
 content to stay and share their masters' lot. The unhallowed 
 institution, liowever, never took root in our soil, and it hardly 
 needed legislation to bring it to an end. An Imperial Act passed 
 in 1833 abolished slavery throughout all British dominions. 
 
 Political Calm.. — Lord Dorchester returned to Canada in 1793 
 and so long as that able governor remained at the head of affairs* 
 the French-Canadians seem to have had full confidence in his 
 government. As a result, the first parliament of Lower Canada 
 (1792-90) performed its work with scarcely any friction. For 
 some years after 1791 the taxes collected in the British colonies 
 in America were insufficient to pay the expenses of their govern- 
 ment, the deficiency being met out of the Imperial exchecpier. 
 The people, therefore, during these years were naturally not 
 inclined to criticise very closely the executive government of the 
 provinces. 
 
 A Reaction in Europe. — Other influences were at work 
 to strengthen the position of the official classes. The French 
 revolution was in progress at this time, and the outrages com- 
 mitted in France in the name of "liberty, e(iuality and fra- 
 ternity" led to a marked reaction in other countries in favor of 
 a stnjng executive government as opposed to popular rule and 
 
 * From 1791 to 1812 the yoveiniuent of Lower Canada was administered by the 
 follow! iifjr officers: 
 
 (1) Lord Dorchester Governor (1784 1797). 
 
 Sir Alured Clarke Lieut.-Governor (1701-1793). 
 
 General Robert Prescott .... " " (1796-1797). 
 
 (2) General Roljert Prescott Governor (1797-1807). 
 
 Sir R. S. Milnes Lieut. -Govtrnor (1799;1805). 
 
 Hofi. Thos. Dunn Administrator (1805-1807). 
 
 (3) Sir James H. Craig (iovernor (1807-1811). 
 
 (4) Sir George Prevost " (1811-1816). 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 145 
 
 individual li>)orty. Voluntary associations for repressing sedition 
 were formed throughout England, The right to hold pul)lic 
 meetings was largely curtailed. Men who ventured to criticise 
 government ofiicials or to pronmlgate theories of popular govern- 
 ment were prosecuted for criminal libel or for sedition. Not, in 
 fact, until after the Napoleonic wars did the reaction spend itself, 
 and progress toward civil and religious liberty again begin. 
 
 A Similar Peeling in the Provinces.— Knowledge of 
 these events f(»und its way across the Atlantic and inspired among 
 the colonists in all the provinces a feeling favorable to the growth 
 ftf a strong executive. In Lower Canada, among the influential 
 classes of the French-C-anadians, there was no sympathy whatever 
 with the French revolutionists. In the other provinces the feeling 
 was even stronger in favor of giving a loyal support to those in 
 authority. In the United States there was, among certain classes, 
 a marked sympathy with the revolutionary party in France, and the 
 French ambassadors did their utmost to strengthen this sentiment 
 in order to embroil the young republic in war with Great Britain. 
 
 Friction with the United States.— At this time die 
 relations between the Canadian provinces and the United Sbites 
 were somewhat strained. Owing to the failure of the latter to 
 carry out the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles in reference 
 to the Loyalists, the British rebiined possession of a number 
 of frontier posts — Oswego, Niagara, Detroit, and Michillimack- 
 inac. For a time it seemed very probable that war would 
 break out afresh. The loyal settlers in all the provinces were, 
 therefore, inclined to give the executive government a free hand 
 in the suppression of every symj)tom of disaffection. In Lower 
 Canada the Englisli -speaking minority took advanbige of this 
 feeling, and succeeded in quietly securing a firm hold upon the 
 executive government of that province. Even after the frontier 
 posts were given up, early in 179f>, the intrigues of the French 
 ainl)assador at Washington kept Lower Canada in disquiet. kSome 
 of t) e lower classes, especially in the towns, desired to imit^jite 
 the loings of the Sdns-cnlottes of Paris, and an enthusiast from 
 the United States named McLane was hanged, drawn and 
 qua tered at Quebec for endeavoring to stir up a rebellion 
 against those in authority. 
 
 Commercial Activity. — The commerce of the province was 
 11 
 
146 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 largely in the hands of the English -.speaking traders living in the 
 towns of Quebec and Montreal. At Quebec the ship-building 
 industry was becoming extensive. Great Britain, in those days, 
 took much Canadian timber for her navv. Montreal was the 
 centre of the revived fur trade. For a few years after the fall of 
 New France the traffic had languished, but traders from the older 
 colonies and from Great Britain (particularly from Scotland) had 
 soon taken it up. After a short period of individual etibrt they 
 had, as already mentioned, formed the celebrated North-West 
 Company, for many years the great rival of the Hudson's Bay 
 Company for the fur trade of the North -West. The Canadian 
 voinKjenrs and coHre}irt> dv hois fell naturally int<» their okl life, and to 
 this day, though the glory (tf the fur traile has long since departetl 
 from Montreal and the furs find their way to Europe chiefly liy 
 way of Hudson Bay, the half-breed descendants of these French- 
 Canadians still bear a large part in the traffic. At this time, too, 
 the W'holesale trade of Montreal had its beginning, the Loyalist 
 settlements of l^pper Canada drawing their supplies largely from 
 the merchants of that town. 
 
 Land Policy. —Governor Prescott, during his four years' 
 active tenure of office (175H)-17^0) took a stand in reference to 
 the land-granting ])olicy of the j)rovince whicli drew ujxui him 
 the strong opposition of his executive council. The dispute 
 attracted much attention, and for this reason the gradual 
 concentration of power in the hands of the English-speaking 
 })opulation was not very much noticed in Prescott's time. The 
 shores of the St. L{iwrence and the Richelieu were occupied by 
 the old seigneuries, which extended inland to a depth varying 
 from ten to forty miles. To the east of the seigneuries of the 
 Richelieu lay a rich tract of country known to this day as the 
 Eastern Townships. Up to the time of Pre.scott's arrival no 
 patents had been issued to the new settlers in this region, many 
 of w!iom iiad "squatted" upon the lots for which they had 
 applied. Prescott's council, ignoring the wide invitation contained 
 in the proclamations, desired to exclude all but a|)proved Loyalists. 
 It was charged that their action was due to a desire to secure largo 
 blocks of land for themselves and their friends, rather than to any 
 real concern for the character of the iuunigration. Prescott insisted 
 that the spirit of the proclamation sliould be observed, and that 
 
HISTORY OP CANADA. 147 
 
 those wlio, upon the faith of it, had begun to clear the land should 
 get their patents. The council in the end managed to have its 
 own way. 
 
 Growing Friction.— The dispute between Prescott and his 
 council led to the governor visiting England in 1790 to make 
 explanation. He never returned to Canada, though he continued 
 to hold othce until 1807. The lieutenant-governor, Sir R. S. 
 Milnes, seems to have fallen completely into the hands of those 
 who desired to see the French-Canadians excluded from all part in 
 the government of the province. In 1801 an Education Act was 
 passed, apparently with little objection at the )noment, which 
 placed the control of })ul)lic education in the hands of the execu- 
 tive council, which was empovvei'ed to create a sciiool board to 
 manage the schools. Though nothuig was done under the Act 
 until 1817, its existence on the statute book bai-red the way to 
 further legislation on the subject of education for many years. 
 The causes of complaint during Milnes' time do not very clearly 
 appear, nor does it appear that the critics of the government were 
 disposed to push their views. The granting of land in large tracts 
 to officials and their friends ; the eftbrts of these large land-owners 
 and of the traders to iiave t;ixes laid upon land in the settled t)arts 
 in order to escape t/^ixation themselves ; the exclusion <^)f French- 
 Cauadians from office — all these are mentioned as causes of growing 
 friction. That the French-C'anadians at tliis time were loyal to 
 (ireat Bribiin, and out of all sympathy with the c(»urse o< events 
 in France, is shown by their enthusiastic celebration of Nelson's 
 victory at Trafalgar (1805). At this periixl he Canadien news- 
 paper was established. It was o'its[)()ken in its condemnation of 
 tlic policy of the government in excluding French-Canadians from 
 otHce. At the same time it dwelt stnmgly upon the merits of the 
 British constitution, and laid the blame for tiie st-ate (»f ;ifiairs in 
 the province to the failure of the ruling faction to observe the 
 true spirit of that constitution. 
 
 The "Reign of Terror."— Amcmg the French -Canadians 
 Governor Craig's rule (1807-1811) is described as the "Keign of 
 Terror." His secretiiry, Ryland — who had been secretary to each 
 succeeding governor since Lord Dorchester's time— was well known 
 for his antipathy to everything French and Catholic;, and Ci-aig's 
 policy niay be inferred from the fact that Ryland wrote of him as 
 
148 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 "the very mnii for this country." At this time the relations 
 between (Jreat Britain and the United States were becoming more 
 and nu)re strained, the troulde linally culmhiating in the war of 
 1812. Craig, under the hifluence of his advisers, put no confidence 
 in the French-Canadian populatii^n and treated all criticism of the 
 officials as evidence of disloyalty. 
 
 Conflict with the Assembly. -To lessen the influence of 
 the officials in the assembly, a bill was passed by that house to 
 e.vclude the judges from mend)ership, but the legislative council 
 threw out the bill. Le Canadien was very free in its criticism of 
 this action, and as the speaker of the assembly was supposed to 
 have a share in the paper, he and others were dismissed from their 
 positions in the miUtia. The natural result followed. At the next 
 election (1808) an asseml^ly was chosen which proceeded at once 
 to pass wdiat was practically a vote of want of confidence in the 
 governor's executive council. The debate is noticeable by reason 
 of the demand then made l)y M. Bedard, the leader of the 
 majority in the assembly, for an executive council which should 
 conduct the government of the province in accordance with the 
 views of the majority and not of the minority. Craig promptly 
 dissolved parliament — the first instance of the exercise of this 
 prerogative in Canada — and thus brought on a new election. As a 
 result a still more hostile assemldy C(mfronted the governor. With 
 a view to securing control of the officials the new assembly offered 
 (m behalf of the province to undert;.Ae the payment of the wliolo 
 expense of government. Craig was somewhat at a loss how to 
 answer this proposition. The assembly having insisted, however, 
 upon its right to exclude the judges by its sole vote— in which it was 
 clearly in the wrong — the governor again dissolved the assembly. 
 He followed up this action by closing the office of Le Canadien, and 
 arresting Bedard, Papineau (senior), and others. This high-handod 
 outrage was not calculated to appease the French-Canadian electors, 
 and tiie elections again resulted adversely to the executive. 
 
 Moderation Counselled.— Craig apparently succeeded in 
 giving the British ministry an unfavordble impression of Canadian 
 loyalty, but, as the outlook toward the United Strifes was threat- 
 enhig, the governor was counselled to use moderation. His action 
 in the matter of the arrest of the French-Canadian leaders was 
 tcondennied, and they were finally released without trial. Even 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 149 
 
 at. this time some few English-speaking Canadians strongly 
 supported their French-Canadian feUow-citizens in their opposi- 
 tion to the tyranny of the executive faction. The extreme views 
 entertained by Craig are shown in his des[)atches to Enghmd, in 
 which he gives the Frencli-Canadian members of the assembly a 
 very bad character and lauds the legislative council. The governor 
 advocated the repeal of the Constitutional Act of 1701, or, as an 
 alternative, such an adjustment of representation in the asseml)ly 
 as should give the English-speaking nn'nority a preponderance in 
 the House, The union of the two provinces was also favored by 
 him as likely to lead to the same result. 
 
 Pre vest's Policy of Conciliation.— His successor was Sir 
 George Prevost, a veteran Swiss officer, who was now promoted 
 from the lieutenant-governorship of Nova Scotia. There the 
 mildness of his rule had won for him golden opinions. He at 
 (»nce adopted in Canada a policy of conciliation, appointed Bedard 
 to a judgeship, and other leading French-Canadians to positions of 
 trust. In a short time he was as po]ndarwith the people of Lower 
 Canada as his predecessor had been unpopular. The result was 
 seen during the war of 1812, when the French-Canadian militia 
 fought side by side with their fellow-coiintrymen of British origin, 
 and exhibited e.i[Uii\ ardor in defence of home and native land 
 against the foreign invader. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV, 
 
 UPPER CANADA (1791-1812). 
 
 The First Parliament of Upper Canada.— The first steps 
 toward organizing the new government of Upper Canada were 
 taken at Kingston, For the time being, however, Newark (now 
 Niagara) was fixed upon as the most central point for the seat of 
 government, and here the first assembly was called together on 
 the 17th of September, 1702, The very first Act of this first 
 U})per Canadian parliament introduced English law as the rule of 
 decision in all matters relating to "property and civil rights." 
 Trial by jury was also provided for. After a short session of four 
 weeks, duiing which eight Acts in all were passed, the assembly 
 
150 
 
 HISTOllV OF CANADA. 
 
 was prorogued by Simcoe, who delivered upon the occaf3ion a 
 speech in which he asked the memljers to exphiin to their constitu- 
 ents "that this province is signally blessed, not with a nnitilated 
 constitution, but with a constitution which, has stood the test of 
 experience and is the very image and transciii)t of that of (Jreat 
 Britain, by which she has long established and secured to her 
 subjects as nuich fieedoiu and happiness as is possible to be 
 enjoyed under the sulxndination necessary to civilized society." 
 
 The Settlers Contented.— The members dispersed to their 
 homes well satisfied, no doulit, that the province was now properly 
 e<pnpped with a system of liritish laws and a government like that 
 of the motherland. The scattered pioneers were too busy in the 
 hard woik of hewing out for themselves new homes in a forest 
 country to pay nnich attention to the details of administration. 
 80 long as the government was strong enougli to leave them to 
 pursu(i unmolested tiieir peaceful tasks, they wtae content. Their 
 natural instincts were in fav<»r of respect foi- authority, and the 
 events of the time, as already pointed (»ut, tended to strengthen 
 rather than diminish this feeling. The early settlers of l^^pper 
 Canada, lightly taxed, were not inclined to criticise too closely the 
 conduct of the oHicials. 
 
 Simcoe Prepares for W^ar. — Simcoe was above all things 
 
 a soldier, and his government was dis- 
 tinctly military. The Indians of the 
 Ohio region to the south of Detroit 
 were in a ferment over the encroach- 
 ment of settlei'.s ui)on the district, and 
 Simcoe was luttb' accused of stirring 
 up the savages to resist the advance 
 of civilization. In view of possible 
 war, Simc(»e dealt with the pr<)vinc'e 
 as a milit«iry district whicl! it was his 
 duty to put into tiie strongest possible 
 c«>idition for defence against invasion. 
 He went about the work most ener- 
 getically, and so constant was he in 
 his appeals for an increase of the military force in Upper Canad.i 
 that Lord Dorchester felt com j)elled to remind him that there were 
 other parts of the British colonies in North America which required 
 
 LIEUT. (iOVERNOK SIXUIOE. 
 
HTSTOr.Y OF CANADA. 151 
 
 protection as well aa the upper province. There was at this time a 
 naval force on Lake Ontario consisting of six vessels, two of them 
 Hiuall gun-boats, under command of (!?aptain Bouchette, who pre- 
 pared the first char's of the harbors on the lake. 
 
 Military .Roa.ds. - Simcoe undertook the opening up of mili- 
 tary higliways to facilitate commiuiication between the military 
 stations in the province. Vonge Street, running north from York 
 (now Ton»nto), was projected to connect Lake Ontario with the 
 military j)ost at IVnetanguisliene on the Georgian Bay. It was 
 opened as. far as Lake Simcoe by the Queen's Rangers, of which 
 troop the lieutenant-governor was colonel. Dundas Street was 
 also projected as a great military highway to traverse the entire 
 jtrovince from the Detroit River to Montreal. Only a small [)art, 
 liowever, westward from York, was opened during Simcoe's time, 
 and not until the war of 1812 was road eomnun ication opened 
 thrt)Ugh to the lower province. Goods for the l^pper Canadian 
 settlements were carried in bateaux and flat- bottomed "Durham 
 boats" up the 8t. Liwrence to Kingston, and there shipped on 
 bojird vessels for the upper ports. 
 
 York (Toronto), the Capital. — One of the frontier posts 
 delivered up to the United States in IT^W) was Niagara on the 
 American side ; and as it was not thought fitting that the capital of 
 the province should be under the guns of a foreign power, it wag 
 determined to remove the seat of government from Newark. 
 Simooe, on one of his western toui-s of exploration, had been 
 much impressed with the site of the present city of London, and 
 strongly urged that it should be made the capital of the province. 
 Lord Dorchester favored Kingston. By way of compromise York 
 was chosen — largely on account of its fine harbor — and here the 
 assembly met in 17t'7. 
 
 The Assembly Asserts Itself. —During Russell's term of 
 office (1790-1799),* the practice, which became afterwards so notori- 
 
 * Upon Simcoe's departure (1796) the senior executive councillor, Peter Russell, 
 bicanie administrator and conducted the affairs of the province until 1799. In 1799 
 Major-General Hunter, the conunander-iii-chief of the British forces in North America, 
 became lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada. His military duties required his fre- 
 quent presence at Quebec, and very little is known of his government at York, though 
 it lasted for si.\ years. He was followed by Commo*lore Grant, who held the position 
 of administrator for one year only. In 1806 Francis Gore became lieutenant-governor, 
 holding the ijosition until 1818. 
 
152 HISTORV OF CANADA. 
 
 OUH, of grunting large tracts of land to momlberH of the two councils 
 and to their friends became connuon. Peter llussell, administrator, 
 grunted many such tracts to I'eter Russell in his private aipacity ; 
 and other ofticials fared equally well. In Grant's time occurred 
 the first serious dispute between the assembly and the executive. 
 There had been some little friction between the assembly and the 
 legislative council at different times, but the causes of dispute 
 were trivial. In 180<J, however, the assembly took exce})tion to 
 the iniauthorized ex[)enditure by Grant of certain provincial funds. 
 The dispute was ended by Grant giving way to the assembly, but 
 the debates were bitter and the general conduct of the government 
 was much criticised. 
 
 Power of the OflBcials. — Robert Thorpe, an English lawyer, 
 was at this time a judge in Upper Canada, and he encouraged 
 the grand juries at the different C(nirts throughout the pro- 
 vince to find fault with the way in which public business was 
 carried on. In those days a judge could sit in the provincial 
 assembly. Thorpe became a member, pursuing in the House the 
 same line of criticism in which he indulged on the bench. The 
 official classes were, however, too strong for him, and he was 
 dismissed from his judgeship. Wyatt, the surveyor-general, 
 and Sherifi' Willcocks were also dismissed from their positions, 
 their criticism being visited with all the harsher punishnient for 
 being, as it were, treason within the official camp. Willcocks 
 subsequently went to the United States and joined in the invasion 
 of the Niagara frontier in 1812 ; and the official party in later 
 years were not slow to impute like disloyalty to all who ventured 
 to complain of their arbitrary and selfish government. From the 
 beginning the executive council and the government officials, 
 with their families and friends, formed an exclusive social circle 
 to which none were adnutted who failed to recognize their right 
 to monopolize all public positions in the province. With the 
 lieutenant-governor as the head of this official aristocracy in a 
 place like York — a mere village at that time — the power of the 
 executive faction was hard to overcome. 
 
 Material Progress, — During this period, as already seen, 
 the population of the province was largely increased. There was 
 also a steady advance in material prosperity. The assembly gave 
 liberally toward the opening up of roads to connect the variou,'^ 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 153 
 
 settlements. There were no large towns ; Corn wall, Kingston, 
 York, Newark and Amherstburg were hut villages in which the 
 official classes formed as yet the predominant clement. An active 
 trade grew up with the United States, and the "pedlar's pack" 
 became a well-known visitor at the settlers' clearings. This traffic 
 became so extensive that it was found necessary to estaldish custom 
 houses at various points ujjon the frontier. 
 
 Early Newspapers. Man's natural thirst for news was not 
 It'it wholly unsatisfied. As early as IT^^J, Simcoe established an 
 official newspaper known as The Upper CamuUi (razette or American 
 Oracle. After the removal of the seat of government to Y(.)rk it 
 became the Yoi'k Gazette, and was for many years the only news- 
 paper in the province. It was the organ of the official class who 
 during these years were almost supreme in the government of the 
 province. Willcocks, for a short time, jjublished an o{)i)osition 
 pa[)er. The Kingdon Gazette dates from 1810. Delivery was 
 difficult, i)()stal charges were enormous, .ind our early newspapers 
 liad a hard struggle to gain a foothold. 
 
 Education, — The assembly was not unnundful of the educa- 
 tional interests of the province, and in 1807 a Grannnar School 
 was established in each of the fcmr districts into which Uppor 
 Canada was divided. Simcoe, who was an ardent Anglican, 
 desired that the Church of England should be recognized as the 
 "Established Church" of Canada, and that to it, as in England, 
 the control of education should be given. At his instance, the 
 Rev, John Strachan, afterwards so well known as the first Bishop 
 of Toronto, came out to Canada to take charge of a state school. 
 From the first, however, the Anglicans were but a small minority 
 of the population, and the plan failed of adoption. Dr. Strachan, 
 therefore, started a private school at Kingston, removing it after- 
 wards to Cornwall, and finally to York, In this school many of 
 the men most distinguished in the history of Upper Canada during 
 the first half of the present century received their education. 
 
 Marriage Laws. — There was "a sad lack of religious instruc- 
 tion " during these early years owing to the small number of 
 clergymen in the province. Many irregular marriages had been 
 entered into from the same cause, and one of the earliest Acts 
 of the provincial assembly was passed to validate marriages per- 
 formed by the nnlitary officers, For the future, in places more 
 
154 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 than eightoen miles distant from an Anglican clergyman, magis- 
 trateH wore empowered to perform the marriage ceremony after 
 due notice had heen posted up. The law of Kngland at this time 
 did not recognize the right of ministers witjiout the {^)ftle of the 
 estviblished Church to baptize, marry, or bury even the members 
 of their own congregations. The Presbyterian clergy in the pro- 
 vince, relying upon their fK>sition as the estat)lished ('hiu'ch of 
 Scotland, [>etitioned for an Act em[)owt!ring them to perform these 
 necessary cei'emonies. Simcoe professed his astonishment ami 
 regrt^t that tht(y should have [rt'tsferred a request which, in his 
 o|)inion, could (»nly be the outcome of a spirit «>f tlisaft'ection ! In 
 17'W, after Simcoe had gone, an Act was {)assed by which regidarly 
 ordained ministers of the Chui'ch of Scotland (the language of the 
 Act practically conHntid its benefit to these) might, after going 
 thr(nigh very rigorous formalities, secure jKirmission from the 
 Courts of (Quarter Sessions to {lerform the marriage ceremony ; 
 only, however, in case one of the parties had been for six months 
 at least a member of the minister's own congregation, and then 
 only aftei' ])ublication of the banns upon three successive Sundays. 
 Thus the law stood for over thirty years. 
 
 CHAPTER XXYI. 
 
 THE AIARITIAff: PROVINCES (1783 1812). 
 
 Steady Progress. — The Maritime Provinces during these 
 years were also steadily progressing. Here as in the two Canadas 
 government was in the hands of an official class. The settlers 
 were busy making new homes. The awsemblies confined them- 
 selves to passing Much laws as the necessities of the provinces 
 called for, and interfered little with th'^ work of the otticials. 
 
 New Brunswick. — As already mentioned, there was a 'great 
 influx of V. K. Loyalists into the old county of Sunbury, Nova 
 Scotia, after the close of the American revolution, the valley of 
 the St. John receiving the greatest addition to its population. 
 The new .settlers immediately asked that they should be allowed 
 more representatives in the Nova Scotia assembly. This being 
 denied them, and there being trouble as well in getting their land 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 155 
 
 jKitents from the uHicialH at llalifjix, a vigorous demand was made 
 fur a separate govemmont. This was almost at once granted by 
 the home authorities, and in 17H4 a new province was set apart, 
 iiiiuied, in honor of tlie royal house, New Brunswick. Ft included 
 not only tiie old county of Hunlnny, but also the older-settled 
 districts at the head of the liay of Fiuidy as far as the istlnnus 
 uliich comuicts the provinces of Vova Scotia and New lirtuiswick. 
 j'rovision was also made for the calling of an as,si!ml)ly, which luet 
 for the th'st time in 17H(). 'I'he Maritiiue l*i-oviuc*; aMMcMublies, it 
 .sli(»uld be noted, were cireattul by royal authority and lutt by Act 
 (if the British jtarliament as in the two (.'anadas. 'I'hey continued 
 in unbroken succession until Confedeiation. 
 
 Thomas Carleton. -The first lieutenant-governor of the new 
 province was Thomas Carleton, a brother of Sir (iny Carleton 
 (Lord Dorchester), lie arrived at St, John in November, 1784, 
 and at once organi/eil the new government. At the first election 
 all males twenty-one years »»ld aiul n^sidcnt three months in the 
 province were allowed to vote, a sonunvhat radical extensi(»n of 
 tliti franchise for whieli ('arleton was mildly rebuked by the home 
 auth<irities, Likt; his brother in Canada, Thomas Carh^t<»n was 
 voi-y po))ular with all classes, excepting ])erhaps the otiicials. 
 During his nineteen years' residence in the i)rovince (1784 J8()Ji) 
 he did nmch to help the settlers in the work of improvement. 
 He refused the fees of ottice to which he was entitled upon the 
 issue (jf their land patents, and in many ways encouraged them in 
 their tasks. In other respects, too, he was a vigorous adminis- 
 trator. As connnander of the forces both in Nova Scotia and 
 New Brunswick, during the war with France (17tK{-18(J2) he 
 (iiganized "King's regiments" for home service. These were 
 connnanded by half j)ay otticers, and in the ranks were many 
 \t'terans of the revoIuti«mary war. Tn March, 178S, Carleton 
 made a trip <tn snow-shoes to (Quebec to visit his brother. Lord 
 Dorchester, who was reported to be ill. Though Carleton and his 
 party passed eight nights in the woods, he refers to the journey as 
 a "pleasant trip." He left New Brunswick in IHOli, but retained 
 •he lieutenant governorship mitil his death in 1817. 
 
 The Assembly Peaceful Progress. The city of St. John 
 was incorporated in 1785, and the assembly held two session.s 
 there. In 1788 the seat of government was removed to Fred- 
 
156 HFSTOUV OF CANADA. 
 
 ericton becHii.se it whs a pluco lesH exposed in Cdso of hostile 
 iuvHsioii uiul less subject filso to the conui)ting iiiriuence of u 
 more populous centre. 'I'he liunber tnulo at «>nce took a foremost 
 j)lace among the industries of the province, anil, down to 1812, 
 little is heard of New Brunswick beyond the individual exi)eriences 
 of the early settlers, the various changes among the oftlcials, and 
 the progress of the tisheries and of the hnnber and shi|)ping indus- 
 tries. There was one notable dispute, howtn'er, between the 
 assend)ly and the council, arising out of a bill passed by the 
 former to pi'ovide for payment of a small sessional allowance to 
 meud)ers. The council rejected tlie bill, and a dead-lock was the 
 C()nse(|uence, lasting for three yoirs (171H)-179J0- '^^^^ assendjly- 
 men tinally gained their [)oint. 
 
 The Maine Boundary. — As already mentioned, the Treaty 
 of Versailles (178.S) fixed the River St. Croix, tl\e scene of Cham 
 plain's first attem{)t at settlement, as the bounc ary Hue (in part) 
 between Maine and the then province of Nova Scotia, Tiiere was 
 in 178.S no river so named, and a dispute at once arose as to what 
 stream was meant. The Ignited States claimed the Magaj^uadavic 
 as the old St. Croix ; New Briniswick u])held the claims of the 
 Schoodic, For ten years the bickering went on, and there W!'s 
 some fricti<m amcmg the settlers around Passama([ noddy Bay. In 
 17i>4 a joint connuission was agreed upon between (Jreat Britain 
 and the ITnited States to settle the question, and in 1708 the 
 decisitm was given in favor of the British. The Schoodic (now 
 the St. Croix) was found to be the St, Croix of Champlain's time, 
 and that stream to the head of its eastern branch was fixed as the 
 dividing line between Maine and New Brunswick. The question 
 of the further boundary to the north and as to the islands in 
 Passamacjuoddy Bay remained unsettled until later. 
 
 Prince Edward Island. — In Prince Edward Island the 
 populatiim was as yet small, and the action of the proprietors 
 did not much tend to increase it. In 1779 the assend)ly of the 
 island j)etitioned that those proprietors who had failed to perform 
 the conditions as to settlement should forfeit their lands. From 
 this ])etition it appears that twenty-three townships out of the 
 original sixty-seven had not a single settler. On twelve others the 
 total population was 21() souls. Spread all over the island were 
 large tracts of wihl land owned by absentees who put no settlers 
 
lllsroUV OK CANADA. l')7 
 
 iipoii them, but, woro coiiteut "to Kjio'nilutc (tii tlio imliistry of 
 )lio colony." 'I'ho p '[nit'toi-H in Kiiglfind wuru nhki, not only to 
 |»rocure tho diHallowancu of ovory Act pHHwud liy the iHlimd luj^is- 
 liituru to remedy the grievance, but oven to Hecuie a large 
 jibatemunt in the ({uit-rontH due to tho Crown. 'I'liis last measure 
 of relief turned indeed to the benefit of the island. Some of the 
 lands, thus relieved from a heavy charge, were sold to men who 
 linni'stly endeavorcMl to bring in settlers — notably the Karl <»f 
 Selkirk. Apart from the land (piesHon, tlu? history of the island 
 during this jteriod is one of gradual growth through individual 
 ed'ort, agriculture an<l lisliing being the chief industries. 
 
 Nova Scotia. -Sir .J«tlm VV^entw(»rth was lieutenaut-governor 
 of Nova Scotia for sixteen yeais (17')2-18()8). lie seems to have 
 lidd somewhat arl)itrary ncttions, and was much opposed ti» public 
 meetings. On one occasion (IHOtJ) he went no far as to refuse to 
 ac:ce[)t the assend)ly's choice of a speaker, on account, it is said, 
 of his pers(jnal dislike of the gentleman chosen. The assembly, 
 strange to say, submitted to this encroaclnnent upon its privilegeti 
 and chose a new speaker. The loyalty of the inhabitants was con- 
 spicuously exhibited in 1793, when it was reported that a French 
 tloet was about to make a descent upcm Halifax. A numerous 
 militia was collected with connuendable celerity, and one comjjany 
 marched overland from Granville t«> Halifax — 1.S5 niile.s — in thirty- 
 four hours. The alarm proved groundless, but of the spirit dis- 
 jtlayed by the young men at this juncture nothing was heard but 
 the highest praise. Wentworth was succeeded by Sir George 
 Provost (1808-1811). Upon his promotion to the governorship 
 and consequent removal to Quebec, Sir J. C. Sherbrooke becaine 
 lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia. During Prevost's time the 
 assendjly showed a disposition to assert its rights against the execu- 
 tive, but the subjects of dispute were not of sufficient importance 
 to call for further mention here. 
 
 The Duke of Kent. -For about five years, 1794-1799, Prince 
 Edward, afterwards Duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria, was 
 in command of the troops at Halifax. During his stay he became 
 very popular in the province, though his discipline is said to 
 have been somewhat strict. Prince Edward Island, as already 
 mentioned, was, in 1799, named after him. He also visited 
 Quebec, where he publicly expressed his regret that any such 
 
158 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 distinction as "old subjects" and "new subjects" should have 
 been allowed to arise. All, he said, were equally loyal citizens of 
 one common province. 
 
 Trade. — The embargo placed upon trade b}' the United States 
 — one of the events which preceded the war of 1812 — gaye a great 
 imj)etus to the trade of the Maritime Provinces and the lower 
 St. Lawrence with England. Pi'evost reported that in Nova Scotia 
 there was a marked improvement in agriculture and the fisheries ; 
 that much luuibur was supplied t(» England, atl'ordiiig "uncjuestion- 
 able ])r(H»fs of the prosperity and rapid increase of the province." 
 
 Education. In all tl»e Maritime Provinces the assemblies gave 
 lib(U'ally in aid <»f education, but there was little yet in the way of 
 systematic eiiort. The nnssi<maries sent out by the Society for tlie 
 Propagation of the Gospel loiig contiiuied to do good work in thei'* 
 schools. Such other elementary schools as then existed were the 
 result of local or individual enterprise, stimulated by legislative 
 grants. Following upon the establishment of the public school at 
 Halifax in 1780, an agitatitjn for a college sjnvmg up, and in 1787 
 the assembly established a seminary at Windsor, which afterwards 
 (1802) received a charter as a university under the name of King's 
 College, Windsor. 
 
 CHAPTER XXYII. 
 
 THK WAR OK 1812. 
 
 Napoleonic "War " Right of Search."— The war of 1812, 
 as it is poi)ularly called, between (ireat Britain and the United 
 St,<ites was a side wind from the storm of war in Eurojie. Napoleon 
 was now at the zenith of his career. All Em-ope, save Great 
 Britain, Russia and Spain, lay prostrate Ijcfore his victorious 
 armies. The British navy had become the mainstay of Euro- 
 pean liberty, and Briwiin neglected no pi'ecaution to preserve her 
 su[)remacy upon the sea. She liad hmg insisted upon what is 
 knowr. as "the right of search," that is, the right to board neutr;il 
 ships in search of deserters from her navy. There were imhapjiily 
 many such, for it was the time of jjress-gangs and haish discipline. 
 The mercantile marine i»f the United States had jirofited largely 
 by these desertions, and for some years American vessels had 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 159 
 
 submitted v.'ith very bad gmce to the exercise by British nien-of- 
 war of the right of search as then recognized among the powers of 
 Europe. But at tliis crisis in European history, Great Britain 
 decUned to forego any right the exercise of which could strengthen 
 her hands in the contest with Napoleon. At the same time she 
 desired to keep within her rights as then recognized. Therefore 
 when, in 1807, H.M.S. Leopard boarded the U. S. frigate Chesa- 
 peake in search of deserters. Great Britain promptly made repara- 
 tion, adiuittnig that the right of search did not extend to the 
 national ships of a neutral nation, but only to private vessels. 
 
 Neutral Rights. —The chief cause, however, put forward by 
 the United .States to justify the war of 1812 was the passing of 
 what are known as the British " Orders-iii-Uouncil." The British 
 navy hud estiiblished a bl(»ckade of the French coast in ord^r to 
 cut ofl' France from supplies by sea. To offset this, Napoleon 
 in 1806 issued his celebrated " Berlin Decree," declaring the British 
 Isles to be in a state of blockade, and forbidding all trade with 
 or through British ports. There was no pretence of an actual 
 blockade. The decree simply attempted to establish a "jtaper 
 blockade," which international law does not recognize. Neverthe- 
 less Napoleon's cruisers rigorously enforced the decree against 
 neutral ships wherever they wei-e found, and the commerce of 
 iJreat Britain and all who traded with lier sutlered in conse(|uence. 
 The Orders-in-Council were passed in January and November, 1807, 
 as a measure of retaliation on the part of tlie British. French 
 law had for many years denied to foreigners the right to trade with 
 French colonies. Now, debavred by British cruisers from herself 
 carrying on the colonial trade, France had allowed neutral nations 
 to take it up,''and it was mainly to ))ut a sto[) to this, which was 
 really a French trade, tliat the Orders-in-Council wore passed. 
 Na[)oleon retorted by the "Milan Decree" (Deceuiber, 1807), by 
 wliich any ship submitting to the Orders-in-Council was made 
 ill effect a British .ship, and as such liable to seizure by French 
 cruisers. 
 
 Retaliatory Measures by the United States.— The 
 United Sbites was now almost the only neutral nntion, and the 
 eflect of the "Decrees" and " Orders-hi-Council" u{»on lier com- 
 merce was undoubtedly severe. Jefferson, who was then president, 
 was decidedly opposed to war. He endeavored to retaliate upon 
 
160 . JllsrollV OF CANADA. 
 
 the European powurfs ])y an enibaigo by which foreign trade with 
 tlie United States was entirely cut oil". This proved the severest 
 blow of all to New England counuerce, and the obnoxious measures 
 were soon repealed. 
 
 Real Cause of War. — If the proceedings of the European 
 belligerents justified the United States in declaring war to niain- 
 t^iin her rights as a neutral nation, France as well fis Great Britain 
 should have been attacked. "The injuries we h;ive received from 
 France," said a New York convention, called to protest against the 
 war, "are at least e(iual in amount to those we have sustained from 
 England, and have been attended with circumstances of still greater 
 insult and aggravation." In fact, as a distinguinhed writer has 
 said, American connnerce had adjusted itself to the risks, and 
 trade was very prohtable. The war, wlien it did come, was the 
 act of a political party, and was determined upon in face of the 
 strongest ojjposition from those for whose protection it was 
 ostensibly designed. Madison, who had in 1809 succeeded 
 Jefferson as president of the United States, confined himself to 
 diplomatic protest until the time for the next election — the autumn 
 of 1812 — approached. He was a candidate for re-election, and, as 
 a party manceuvre, Henry Clay of Kentucky, the leader of the 
 "war- hawks," succeeded in inducing Congress to vote in favor of 
 war with Great Britain. The vote of the northern states was as 
 two to (jne against the war. The west and south persisted in 
 protecting the mercantile interests of the eastern states against cho 
 will of clie latter. Clay made no vsecret of his desire to drive 
 Great Britain from the American continent, and to this end the 
 war was to be directed against her colonies to the north. 
 
 War Declared— Plans for Invasion of Canada.— War 
 was declared by the United States on the 18th of June, 1812, and 
 preparation was at once made for the invasion of Canada ])y three 
 "Grand Armies." Brigadier-General Hull, in command of the 
 Grand Army of the West, was to cross the Detroit River ; 
 General Van Rensselaer, at the head of the Grand Army of the 
 Centre, was to attfick the Niagara frontier ; while the commander- 
 iii-chief. General Dea''born, was to lead the Grand Army of the 
 North by the old route of the Richelieu against Montreal. 
 
 Preparation in Canada. — Sir George Prevost was com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Brit )h foices in North America. The 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 161 
 
 regular troops in Canada wuro few. Great Britain, straining every 
 nerve against Napoleon in Europe, was o])liged during the first 
 two years of the war to leave her North American colonies largely 
 to their own defence. Newfoundland contributed a corps of Fonci- 
 bles to aid the Canadian provinces, and the Loyalists of New 
 Brunswick sent detachments to help their brethren in the west. 
 Everywhere enrolment in the militia proceeded ra[)idly. Tha 
 assemblies of Upper and Lower Canada did all in their power, by 
 liberal grants and the passing of Militia Acts, to strengthen the 
 hands of the British officers who were to lead the provincial forces 
 against the invader. The Maritime 
 Provinces were equally prcjmpt in 
 their liberality. In Lower Canada, 
 Lieutenant-Colonel do Salaberry, "the 
 hero of Chateauguay, " organized his 
 French-Canadian Voltigeurs ; on the 
 St. Lawrence, "Red George" Mac- 
 donell drilled his Glengarry Fenci- 
 ])les ; while in the west, at York and 
 along the Niagara and Lake Erie fron- 
 tier, militia companies of young men 
 were formed. Throughout the war all 
 these did valiant service in defence 
 nf their native land. At this time 
 Major-General Sir Isaac Brock ^vas 
 in command of the forces in Upper 
 
 C'anada. He was also the civil administrator of the province during 
 the absenco in England of the lieutenant-governor, Francis Gore. 
 Hull Crosses the Frontier. — The Grand Army of the West 
 was ready first. There had been continuous war with the Indian 
 I ribes t(j the south-west of Detroit, and the LTnited States forces 
 there were soon gathered for an attack upon Canada. On the 12th 
 of July, 1812, Hull crossed from Detroit with a large ft)rce. From 
 his "headquarters" at Sandwich he issued a proclamati(jn calling 
 u[)()n the inhabitants of Canada — at this point largely French- 
 Cauadians — to observe a strict neutrality. He apparently antici- 
 pated that the Indian tribes would flock to the British standard, 
 ;iud he therefore announced that no (juarter would l)e given if they 
 A-ere allowed to take part in the war. The only British regulars 
 12 
 
 SIR ISAAC BROCK. 
 
162 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 on the Detroit frc^ntier formed the small garrison at Fort Maiden 
 (Amherstburg), and Colonel Proctor was at once despatched thither 
 by Brock with reinforcements. The approaches to Fort Maiden 
 by land were carefully guarded, and on several successive days 
 detachments from Hull's invading army were repulsed at the little 
 River Canard. The British naval force on the Detroit proved 
 superior to that of the United States, and Proctor was therefore 
 
 a])le to send detachments across the river, to the south of Detroit. 
 With the assistance of the Indians he thus cut oft' that fort from its 
 source; of sup}>ly. 
 
 The British Take Michilhmackinac. — Meanwhile, acting 
 under orders received from Biock, Captain Roberts with a small 
 detachment of regulars from the block-house on St. Joseph's Island, 
 one of the Manitoulin group at the head of Lake Huron, had per- 
 formed a noble exploit — the capture, witliout bloodshed, of the 
 important ])ost of Michilliinackinac. It was the western centre of 
 the fur trade. In this trade the North-West Company of Canada 
 were largely interested, and, as the retention of Michillimackinac 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 163 
 
 by the Americans would tend to drive them from the traffic, the 
 local agent of the comi)any zealously assisted Captain Roberts in 
 his enterprise. One of their vessels conveyed the attacking force. 
 It consisted of the company's own vo\iafjeurs and a number of 
 Indians, led by Captain Roberts and his small detachm(;nt. The 
 
 ^'^^^''^Mi^i^ W' 
 
 -7 
 
 American commandant, not having received notice of the declara- 
 tion of war, was taken entirely by surprise, and surrendered with- 
 out resistance (July 17, 1812). The post remained in the hands (»f 
 the British until the close of the war, in spite of a vigorous etlbrt 
 in 1814 for its reca])ture. 
 
 Detroit Captured. — To return now to the Detroit River. 
 Brock had Ijeen detained at York by the session of the assendily, 
 called to concert measures for defence. At once upon proroga- 
 tion he crossed with the York militia to Fort George — his military 
 liead(iuarters — at the mouth of the i»Jiagara, and, with such of 
 
164 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 the reguliir.s as could he spared from the garrisons along the 
 Niagara frontier, proceeded by way <»f Lake Erie to Fort Maiden. 
 Here, too, gathered the militia from the Loyalist settlements along 
 the north shore of Lake Erie. Hull, seeing that the tables were 
 being turned upon him, withdrew his f<jrces from the Canadian side 
 of the river and prepared to defend Detroit. Brock, with character- 
 istic vigor, at once laid his plans for its capture, though his force was 
 much inf eri< )r in number to that under Hull. A battery was secretly 
 erected on the Canadian side opi)osite the fort, and when, on the 
 16th of August, the British tr'^ops were ready to cross the river, 
 the concealing trees were cut away and a destructive fire was 
 opened upon the American position. Brock crossed with his forces, 
 including a large number of Indians under tlie Shawanoe chief, 
 Tecumseh, some dist^mce south of Detroit. Upon his approach 
 toward the fort he was agreeably surprised by the appearance 
 of a messenger from Hull with an offer of capitulation. The 
 whole territory of Michigan was included in the surrender. The 
 American general was sent a prisoner to Montreal, and the Grand 
 Army of the West was heard of no more for this year. Leaving 
 Proctor (now Brigadier-General) in command at Detroit, Brock 
 hastened back to the Niagara frontier, for there he expected the 
 most formidable invasion. 
 
 The Niagara Frontier. — Meanwhile Sir George Prevost had 
 learned that the British " Orders-in-Council " had been revoked 
 before news of the dechu'ation of war had reached ^England. 
 Thinking that the war would now proceed no further, he and 
 Dearborn arranged an armistice, and there was in conse(iuence 
 a cessation of hostilities until early in October. Congress, how- 
 ever, declined to withdraw the declaration of war, and Brock 
 prepared for a resolute defence. The delay was favorable to 
 General Van Rensselaer, who was thus enabled to concentrate 
 his Grand Army of the Centre upon the Niagara frontier. Brock 
 was not idle, and from Fort George at the mouth of the river to 
 Fort Erie at its head, every point where an invading force might 
 land was carefully guarded. 
 
 Queenston Heights— Death of Brock.— General Van 
 Rensselaer finally determined to attempt a landing at Queenston, 
 o])posite his own head<(uarters at Lewiston. Before dawn on the 
 13 th of October a small force succeeded in landing on tho Canadian 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 165 
 
 side. Though hotly assailed by the British detachment stationed 
 in the village, it managed to maintain its position. Somewhat out 
 of the line of the British tire, an unguarded path was discovered 
 leading to the lofty heights which here look down upon the river, 
 and in a short time a strong body of Americans held this point of 
 vantage. Brock, hastening from Fort George, placed himself at 
 
 idchHock 
 
 the head of the few regulars and York militia then at hand, and 
 Avith rash impetuosity charged u[) the si')pe in face of a hot fire, 
 determined to drive the Americans from their position. Forced 
 once to take cover, he advanced a second time to the assault. His 
 commanding figure, over six feet in height, drew upon him the 
 attention of those who defended the heights, and i>ne of them, 
 taking d(;lib',rate aim, shot him througii the left breast, killing 
 him ahuost instantly. Though slaui thus early in the war, his 
 
166 
 
 HISTOllY OF CANADA. 
 
 enorgotic mojisuros for the defence of tlie province and lii.s hi<,di 
 perHonul courage, i)lacing him ever in the van when danger threat- 
 ened, had endeared him to the Canadian militia. To all dme 
 
 Maj(jr-General Sir Lsaac 
 Brock nuist occupy a fore- 
 most place in our afl'ec- 
 tion, not only because of 
 his heroic death in de- 
 fence of our soil, but also 
 because of the animating 
 eft'ect of his resolute spirit 
 through all the remainder 
 of the war. A few days 
 after the battle, as his 
 mortal remains were 
 borne to their burial at 
 Fort George, minute guns 
 were fired by the Ameri- 
 can troops along the oppo- 
 site shore as a mark of 
 respect for a Ijrave enemy. 
 Surrender of the 
 Invading Army. — 
 After Brock's fall the 
 attempt to dishxlge the 
 enemy was for a few 
 hours abandoned. Gen- 
 eral Van Rensselaer him- 
 id=^^-^^^ self crossed from Lewis- 
 ton, reviewed his forces 
 upon the heights, and re- 
 turned to his headquarters across the river apparently satisfied 
 that a permanent foothold had been secured upon Canadian soil. 
 He reckoned without his host. Major-General SheafFe, upon 
 whom the command of the British forces now devolved, marched 
 from Fort George to a point upon Queenston Heights west of the 
 coveted position. Here he was joined by reinforcements from 
 Forfc Erie, by enthusiastic militia from all the surrounding coun 
 try, and by a large body of Iridians. In the early afternoon the 
 
 BROCKS MONUMENT. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 167 
 
 American force, now nearly one thou.sand strong, under General 
 Wad.sworth, was completely hennned in upon the rocky plateau 
 overlooking the river. Mingled cheers and Avarwhoops heralded 
 the British attack. Charge after charge was made upon the 
 American position, and it was finally carried at the point of the 
 bayonet. After a gallant defence, General Wadsworth was obliged 
 to surrender with all his men. 
 
 "Proclamation Smyth" Retires to Winter-quarters. 
 — An armistice was again agreed ujjon between Van Rensselaer 
 and Sheafl'e, and not until tlie end of November was the Niagara 
 frontier again menaced. General Smyth — sometimes sjioken of as 
 " Proclan'.ation Smyth," from the bombastic tone of the prochima- 
 tion with which he began his invasion of Canada — was now at the 
 head of the Grand Army of the Centre. A small force succeeded 
 m landing on the Canadian side near Fort Erie, captured a battery 
 and spiked the guns, but, being unsupported, was in the end 
 obliged to surrender. The further proceedings of General Smyth 
 (legenenited into a farce, and the army was finally marched into 
 winter-quarters. The braggart general was promptly dismissed 
 from the service. 
 
 Lake Champlain — General Dearborn also Retires.— 
 The Grand Army of the N(jrth under the connufinder-in-chief had 
 this year done practically nothing. The Lower Canadifin frontier 
 was crossed near the foot of Lake Champlain, but, after suHering 
 a repulse from a mere handful of militia at LacoUe Mill, General 
 Dearborn, plOading the rawness of his own trooj^s, recrossed the 
 border and took up his winter-ijuarters at Plattsburg. 
 
 Naval Operations in 1812.— During this year the British 
 naval force upon the lakes met with little opposition, but active 
 [)reparati()ns were being made by the United States to turn the 
 scale in the next year's campaign. Upon the ocean the result of 
 the operations of 1812 was upon the whole decidedly favorable to 
 the United States. She had thus far utterly failed where she had 
 confidently expected an easy compiest, and had succeeded where 
 she had scarcely hoped to hold her own. 
 
 1813 — Western Frontier— Prenchtown.— For the year 
 1813 the American plan of campaign was the same as that for the 
 preceding year, except that there were different leaders and that 
 the Grand Army of the Centre was divided. Its right wing was to 
 
168 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 operato by way of Oswego and Sackott's Harbor, and its loffc upon 
 tho Niagara frontier. The year was crowded with incident, and it 
 will conduce to clearness of view to disregard tho strict order of 
 events and treat separately of the operations in each locality. And 
 first we turn to the western frontier. General Harriscjn* was now 
 in command <jf the Grand Army of the West. He had distin- 
 guished himself in the Indian wars, and much was expected (jf 
 him in the present campaign. Proctor was still in command at 
 Detroit. Toward the end of January Harrison despatched (Toneral 
 Winchester to drive the British from their outp(jsts to the south- 
 west of Detroit. Frenchtown on the River Il<iisin was taken, 
 but l)efore Winchester had time to strengthen his position there 
 Proctor advanced against him from Detroit and retook the post. 
 Winchester himself was captured together with the greater i)art 
 of his force. After this disaster General Harrison decided to hold 
 his position on the Maumee until the fleet which the Americans 
 were then fitting out at Pres({u'ile could co-operate with him in an 
 advance upijn Detroit. Proctor meanwhile besieged the American 
 fort at Sandusky, but was ()])liged to withdraw. 
 
 Perry Defeats Barclay on Lake Brie.— The British naval 
 force on Lake Erie was commanded by Captain Barclay, who for a 
 time maintained a strict watch outside Pres(]u'ile har])or. When 
 the American fleet was ready to sail, it was found that the ships 
 could not cross the harbor bar with the guns on board, and to 
 venture out without them meant a speedy capture by Barclay. The 
 latter, unfortunately, left his post to pay a visit to some friends 
 on the north shore. In his absence the guns were shipped over 
 the bar in lighters and then transfei-red again to the ships, 
 which had in the meantime sailed out of the harbor. Barclay was 
 obliged to make for the Detroit River, leaving the conmiand 
 of Lake Erie to Commodore Perry and his new fleet. Proctor 
 was thus cut oft' from his supplies, and, in order to reopen com- 
 munication with the Niagara posts, Captain Barclay finally de- 
 cided to risk an engagement. Off Put-in Bay the two fleets met 
 (September 10th, 1818), and an obstinate battle ensued. At 
 one time it seemed as if the British fleet must win ; but a 
 change of wind and a skilful manoeuvre by Commodore Perry 
 
 * Afterwards President of the United States, and ^^'randfather of a, recent President, 
 Benjauiin Harrison, 
 
UISTOllY OF CANADA. 169 
 
 turned tlio scale, nnd Cjiptaiii Barclay was finally obliged to 
 .strike his flag. 
 
 Moraviantown. — General Harrison now embarked for Fort 
 Maiden. I*roct(>r deemed it useless to attempt to hold his 
 position at Detroit against the forces now brought against him, 
 ;uid therefore gathered his own troops together and retreated 
 eastward up the Thames. He neglected, unfortunately, to destroy 
 tlie l)ridges behind him, and Harrison t)vertook him near the 
 Indian village of Moraviantown (October 5th). Proctor turned 
 and gave battle. A cavalry charge by Kentucky woodmen l)roko 
 the British line, and though Tecumseh, on the right wing, 
 fought bravely to retrieve the disaster, the result was a decisive 
 victory for the American troo{)s. Tecumseh himself was shiin 
 with many of his bravest warriors. Proctor escaped with a small 
 part of his force, the remainder being taken prisoners. Harrison 
 returned again to Detroit, and for the remainder of the war the 
 Americans held C(mtr()l of the western frontier and Lake Erie, 
 lieyond some petty raids upon the north shore of Lake I{Irie, 
 their control advanced them very little toward the conipiest of 
 Canada. 
 
 Capture of York. — During the winter and spring (1812-1813) 
 tlie United States had made vigorous efforts to ec^uip a fleet which 
 luight secure control t)f Lake Ontario, and thus cut off the Niagara 
 district. Sackett's Harbor was their navy-yard, and in April a 
 well-appointed fleet sailed out, having on board a large force unt^or 
 Generals Dearborn and Pike, destined for an attack upon the Upper 
 Canadian capital, York. Major-General Sheafie was in counnand 
 (if a small force of British regulars there. The Americans effected 
 a landing (April 27th, 181.S) in Humber Bay, to the west of the 
 tiiwn, drove back those who opposed them, and, marching east- 
 ward, captured the fort at the harl)or's mouth. By an unfortunate 
 e\i)losion just as the final assault was about to be made, a large 
 ninnber on both sides were killed and many wounded. Among 
 tlio latter was General Pike, who died on board ship a few hours 
 later. Sheafte abandoned the town and marched with his regulars 
 for Kingston, leaving the local authorities to arrange terms of 
 capitulation. American historians gravely assert that the Ameri- 
 can troops found hung up over the speaker's chair in the legislative 
 Ufsembly chamber a human scalp, which so incensed them that 
 
170 HISTORY OB^ CANADA. 
 
 they proceeded to bum a nuin})er of tlie j)ul)lic buildings. Deeming 
 York useless as a strategic point, the American fleet sailed again 
 for 8ackett's llarljor."^ ' 
 
 Stoney Creek. — Toward the end of Ma^ the Ainerican fleet 
 again ascended the lake, this time with intent to capture Fort 
 George. Under cover of the guns of the fleet the land forces 
 seciu'ed a foothold to the west of the fort. The Ihitish general, 
 Vincent, des[)airing of holding out against a com])ined assault 
 by sea and land, blew up the works (May 27th, 1811^) and 
 retreated ; first to Queenston Heights, and then, having gath- 
 ered all his forces from the Niagara frontier, to Burlingt(»n 
 Heights, near the western end of Lake Ontario. He was j)ursued 
 by a large body under Generals Chandler and Winder, who, 
 on the night of the 5th of June, pitched camp on the east 
 bank of Stoney Creek, a few miles from Vincent's position. 
 Here Adjutant-General Harvey — afterwards Sir John Harvey — 
 made a night attack u])on them. In the ccmfused melee which 
 followed, both of the American generals were captured. Chandler, 
 it is said, was trying in the d<i,rk to manceuvre a BritisJi regiment ! 
 Next morning the American army retreated. In a short time, 
 General Vincent reoccufjied all the other frontier posts, and the 
 enemy was confined to the immediate neighborhood of Fort 
 George. 
 
 Beaver Dams. — There w^as considerable skirmishing betw^een 
 the opposing forces. At Beaver Dams, some miles to the west 
 of Queenstcm, a small British detachment Avas stationed under the 
 connnand of Lieut. FitzGibbon. By interrupting C(>unnunicati(;ii 
 and cutting ott' supplies, this little band made itself so obnoxious 
 to the Americans that, toward the end of June, a force of five 
 hundred men with two guns was detailed to effect its capture. 
 Learning of the intended movement, Laura Secord, wife of ;i 
 militia-man wounded at Queenston Heigiits, made her way through 
 the American pickets, find toded on foot all liie way from Queens- 
 ton, a circuitous journey of some -'»venty miles, to give warning of 
 the enemy's approach. FitzGibbon at once set out to reconnoitre. 
 He foimd the Americans drawn up in an ojien field, subjected io 
 an annoying fire from a band of Indians, who, under Captain Kerr 
 
 * During the sununer York was visited by the enemy a second time (.Fuly 3l8t), and 
 again aliandoncd after some stores had been captured. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 171 
 
 and the younger Brani-, had hung uj)C)n thoir rear during the entire 
 march. Seeing that they appeared to l)e undecided wliether to 
 advance or retreat, Fitz(jiil)l)on rode out from the woods under a 
 Hag of truce and demanded their surrender. In terror of the 
 Indians, and ignorant of the real strength of the British, the whole 
 American detachment, after a brief parley, surrendered. The 
 her<»ic exploit oi Laura Secord and clie bold stratagem of Fitz- 
 (iibbon are among the memoralde events of the war. In duly, 
 Fort Scldosser and Black Hock were caj)tured by British troops, 
 who, however, made no etlbrt to hohl tlieni. Thus matters re- 
 mained on the Niagara frontier until the year was nearly ended, 
 each side maintaining a defvusive attitude. 
 
 Americans WithdraV:' from the Niagara Frontier.— 
 In Deceml)er (the year's operations in the east having, as we shall 
 see, resulted gloriously for the Canadians), General Drummond 
 was sent to the Niagara frontier with instructions to take the 
 otfensive. The American general, McClure, determined to abandon 
 Fort George, but l>eft)re doing so he perpetrated an act of wanton 
 barbarity in burning the town of Newark (Niagara), exposing the 
 iiiha])itants to the rigors of a winter night. He then withdrew 
 to the American side. The British, exasperated by this outrage, 
 laid waste the opposite shore from Fort Niagara to Buffalo, cap- 
 tuiing at different dates various positions on that side. General 
 Diuunnond afterwards issued a proclamation ccmdenuiing this 
 savage warfare, justifying it only as a retaliation for McClure's 
 brutality. 
 
 Naval Movements. — Events this year in the Niagara dis- 
 trict had ])een nuich ali'ected by the naval movements on Lake 
 Ontario, where, upon the whole, the American fleet, under 
 Commodore Chauncey, proved superior to the British fleet under 
 Sir James Yeo. While the former was absent from Sackett's 
 Harbor forwarding the attack u[)on Fort George, Sir (ieorge 
 Provost led in person an expedition to ca[)ture the American 
 naval stronghold. The British fleet, undei- Yeo, conveyed the 
 troops thither from Kingston. At the moment when victory 
 seemed assured, when the enemy liad set tire to their stores to 
 prevent them from falling into the hands of the British, Prevost 
 recalled his forces from the attack and returned to Kingston. He 
 Was alarmed, it is said, by a movement made by the enemy as if 
 
172 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 to capture the boats, and he feared for the safety of the troopH 
 on shore. During the summer there was much manceuvring and 
 little fighting l)etween the two fleets. Late in Septeml)er, however, 
 a more decisive encounter took place off York. After a hot fight, 
 Yeo was defeated and forced to seek shelter under Burlington 
 Heights, leaving Chauncey free to capture a fleet of transports 
 with nearly three hundred troops on board destined for Kingston 
 
 SUohns ' 
 Napiervillt • U X/^ '^ 
 5^ Lacc'i'e • . 
 
 '^£^ . 
 
 ^nternai'ioharBoundary \ 
 
 N E VNC 
 
 T A ^^ E 
 
 Plattsburg 
 
 
 RifTK^ 
 
 from York. The approach of winter soon put a stop to further 
 naval operations. The Americans, deprived of the support of the 
 fleet, were unable to hold Fort George, and the year's operaticns 
 on the Niagara frontier ended with Canadian soil intjict in that 
 
 (juarter. 
 
 Upon the ocean the tide had turned, and the Atlantic seaboard 
 of the United States was under an almf)st complete block.ule. 
 In this year took place the famous enct)unter off Boston harbor, 
 between the U. S. frigate Chesapeake and H.M.S. Shannon, in 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 173 
 
 which the British frigate won the cLay, carrying her antagonist a 
 prize of war into Halifax. 
 
 St. Lawrence Frontier and Lake Champlain. — We 
 must now turn to Lower Canada and the St, Lawrence frontier. 
 During the winter of 1812-1813 raiding parties from both siiles 
 had from time to time crossed the ice and committed petty depre- 
 (lati(ms. In retaliation for a raid upon Brockville, Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Macdonell crossed from Prescott toward the end of 
 February, and, after a sharp conflict,''^ captured Ogdens])urg, 
 retiring to the Canadian shore with nmch booty. During the 
 summer there was fighting on Lake Champlain, in which the 
 small British fleet was completely successful. This was followed 
 n[) by raids upon the American towns along the west shore of 
 the lake — among others upon Plattsburg, the headquarters of the 
 Grand Army of the North. 
 
 Chateauguay. — This army during the summer had been 
 diligently drilled, but autumn was 
 well advanced before it was deemed 
 ready to take the field. A decisive 
 Movement was then planned. Gen- 
 eral Wilkinson, called from the 
 south to take command, was to 
 lead the east wing of the Grand 
 Army of the Centre from Sackett's 
 Harbor down the St. Lawrence 
 against Montreal ; while General 
 Wade Hamptcm should lead the 
 Grand Army of the North to join 
 ^^ iikinson above that town. Hamp- 
 ton advanced upon the Canadian 
 hMiitier -loar Lacolle Mill, but, 
 meeting with opposition, turned to 
 the west, intending to reach the St. Lawrence by way of the valley 
 of the Chateauguay river. To Lieutenant-Colonel de Sahil)erry 
 w;is entrusted the task of checking Hampton's advance. On the 
 
 COLONEL DE SALABERRY. 
 
 * In this affaii Captain JenkiriH, late of the 101th (New Uruiiswick) Rejj-iniont, 
 greatly ihstinjruished himself at the head of his company of Glcniu'arry lA<^ht Infantry. 
 With one arm ahot off and the other disabled, he cheered on his men until, through 
 loss of blood, he fell exhausted. 
 
174 
 
 IIISTOIIY OF CANADA. 
 
 northern bank of the little river, de Saluherry chose his position, 
 and, having made all necessiiry aiTangeiuents, awaited Hampton's 
 coming. The Canadian forces were a mere handful — Voltigeurs, 
 Fencibles, a few regulars, and a score of Indians — but the position 
 was well taken, and de Salal^erry was a host in himself. The 
 attack was made on the 2Cth of October, and the action lasted 
 
 for several hours. De Salaberry's 
 ruse of the ])ugles is often men- 
 tioned. By scattering his buglers 
 through the woods he impressed 
 upon the enemy the idea that they 
 were opposed by a numerous force. 
 An attack upon de Salaberry's rear 
 by way of a ford on the river was 
 rejjulsed ; the main body of the 
 Americans on the north bank 
 were unable to force the position 
 in front of them; and finally 
 Hampton withdrew his entire 
 army. The wh(jle affair was after- 
 wards spoken of by one who took 
 part in it as a farce, so completely 
 was the attacking force deceived. 
 '^ii/lf None the less, however, must be 
 CHATEAUGUAY MONUMENT. the praise bestowed upon the 
 
 Canadian mililia iov their steady 
 defence '»! their position against such overwhelming odds. Hamp- 
 ton, apparently satisfied that he could make no headway against 
 such vigorous opposition, withdrew his army to winter-quarters. 
 Chrysler's Farm.— About tliis time General Wilkinscm av;is 
 on his way down the St. L;iwrence with a large force. Gener.il 
 de Rottenberg, at this time in command of the British troops in 
 Upper Canada, was at Kingston, where during all the sununer 
 an attack had been expected. Learning of Wilkinson's endvirk- 
 ation u[)on the river, he sent a detachment of troops under 
 Colonel Morrison to harass the rear of the American army. A 
 strong body from the latter, under General Boyd, had landed 
 upon the Canadian shore below Prescott. At Chrysler's Farm, 
 some distance above Cornwall, Morrison overtt)ok the enemy, 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 175 
 
 
 forcing thorn to turn and give battle. This conflict is spoken of 
 by niihtary critics as the best contesteu battle of the war. The 
 British hold their ground 
 against the attack of a supe- 
 rior force, and finally drove 
 Boyd from the field. Far- 
 ther down the river Wilkin- 
 son heard of the disaster at 
 Chateauguay and of Hamp- 
 ton's retreat, and he there- 
 upon decided to abandon the 
 enterprise. His forces were 
 withdrawn to the American 
 side of the river, where aii 
 entrenched winter cjui'ip was 
 formed. 
 
 1814— British Regu- 
 lars Sent to Canada.— 
 Meanwhile the war in Europe 
 had ended for a time in Na- 
 l)oleon's im})risonment up(m 
 J]lba. Great Britain was 
 now free to turn her atten- 
 tion to the war in America, 
 
 
 Chrysler's farm monument. 
 
 and, as a result, the year ;1814 was one of disaster to the United 
 States. Before the sunnner ended she had almndoned the 
 attempt to conquer Canada, and from the assailant had become 
 the assailed. Hitherto the Canadian militia had borne the brunt 
 of the conflict, but now British regulars were sent out in large 
 iiundiers to assist in the defence of Canada. Sir George Prevost 
 detained the greater part of these regulars in Lower Canada, 
 intending to invade New York. The number sent to the Niagara 
 frontier was nevertheless large. Discipline, too, was l)eginning 
 to tell upcm the American troops, and the concluding battles of 
 the war in Canada were very different from the skirmishing engage- 
 iiuuits of the previous years. But, before speaking of these, men- 
 tion should })e made of the earlier events of the year in other 
 parts of Canada. 
 Plattsburg. — On the Lake Champlain frontier an attack was 
 
176 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 made early in the season (March), but again the Grand Army of 
 the North found it difficult to got beyond Laoolle Mill, and soon 
 retired again to Plattsburg. Upon receiving his reinforcements 
 Sir George Prevost determined to attack Plattsburg by land and 
 sea, as a first move toward the invasion of New York. The 
 British fleet, however, was completely defeated oft' Plattsburg, 
 in siglit of the contending forces on shore, and Pr»\'ost deemed it 
 prudent to draw oli' his army. For this he was much blamed, 
 though Wellingt(m, it is said, approved of his decision to resume 
 a strictly defensive attitude upon losing command <m the lake. 
 
 Naval Operations on Lake Ontario. — During the winter 
 the British fleet upon Lake Ontario had been strengthened, and 
 the American fleet Avas kept shut up in Sackett's Hjirbor during 
 the sunnner of 1814, Oswego was captured by Sir James Yeo 
 early in May after a short resistance, but the military stores for 
 Sackett's Harl)or, which were the object of the expedition, had 
 been renu)ved up the river. During the sulisecjuent Idockade of 
 Sackett's Harbor supplies for that point were intercepted, but on 
 one occasion a British party, venturing up Sandy Creek in pursuit 
 of a supply flotilla, fell into an ambuscade, many being killed and 
 the rest captured. 
 
 Niagara Frontier—Chippewa Creek.— On the Niagara 
 frontier, General Drummond at Fort George was first-in-command 
 over the British forces. General Brown was at the head of the 
 American army which was gathered at Buffalo f(jr a further attempt 
 upon Canada, Early in July a crossing was eftected, the British 
 garris<jn at Fort Erie abandoning that position and falling back 
 upon General Piall's camp at Chippewa Creek (Welland River). 
 On the 5th of July a battle was fought on the south side of that 
 stream, in which Riall was finally forced to give w^ay before 
 superior numV)crs, He retired across the stream to his entrench- 
 ments upon the northern bank, and finally retreated toward Fort 
 George. 
 
 Lundy's Lane. — Further British reinforcements arriving, 
 General Brown, who had advanced to attack Fort George, retired 
 again toward Chii)pewa Creek. It is said that Brown's retrograde 
 movement was taken in order to draw Drummond out. However 
 this may be, Drunnnond did follow. Late in the afternoon of the 
 25th of July, 1814, he v» .,s tjiking a position at Lundy's Lane, a 
 
IILSTOKY^ OF CANADA. 
 
 177 
 
 short di.stuiico below the FhUh of Niagjira, when Brown mi do a 
 furious assault upon his lines. Late into the night the battle 
 raged. The high ground toward the river was the key of the 
 situation, and 
 charge after charge 
 was made ujjon 
 the British posi- 
 tion there. Drum- 
 mond, however, 
 res(jlutely held his 
 ground, and the 
 American nrmy, 
 tliough superior in 
 numl)ers, finally 
 withdrew from the 
 Held. This has 
 ))een claimed as a 
 drawn battle, but, 
 as the Americans 
 failed to oarry tue 
 coveted British 
 position and after 
 the battle at once 
 withdrew into Fort 
 Erie, the victory 
 must clearly be 
 
 conceded to our troops. Considering the number -engaged, the 
 carnage had been frightful. 
 
 The Invaders Retire. — Drummond at once laid siege to Fort 
 Erie. In an attemi)t (August 15th) to carry the place by storm, 
 an exploding magazine committed frightful havoc upon one attack- 
 ing column. Its leader, Colonel Drummond, brother of the Gen- 
 eral, was killed, and the assault failed. A month later (September 
 17th) a sortie in force was repulsed with sf)me difficulty, and 
 Drummond decided to raise the siege. He withdrew his forces 
 to Queenston Heights, hoping to draw out the American general 
 to battle in the open. Brown, however, declined further combat, 
 evacuated Fort Erie, and withdrew to the American side. 
 
 Peace of Ghent. — The year 1814 had completely turned 
 13 
 
 lujhDY s lane monument. 
 
178 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 the Rcalo against the United States. ]Ier connnerco was almost 
 completely cut off. A IJiitish army had landed upon her coast 
 in August, and with little dilHculty had marched inland and 
 cai)tured Washington, the American ca[)ital. In .luly a liritish 
 fleet under Admiral Hardy ca[)tured Kastport, and in Septendier 
 Sir J. C. Hherbrooke sailed from Halifax, captui'ed Castine, and 
 received the submission of the military connuandant of the Maine 
 iJistrict. The New England States, on whose ])ehalf the war 
 had been })egun, had never had any heart in the conflict and 
 now threatened to secede if it were not stopped. The war, as has 
 been said, was not a national l)ut a political-party war, and the 
 Peace of Ghent (December, 1814) which closed it was hailed with 
 satisfaction by the greater part of the American ])eo[)le. By this 
 trej ty all captured territory was restored, and the boundaries of 
 Canada were left as they had been before the war began. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 MATERIAL PROGRESS (1815-1840). 
 
 An Important Period. — From every point of view, the 
 twenty-live years following the close of the war of 1812 form a 
 most important epoch in the history of the British provinces in 
 America. The British Isles poured out of their abundant popula- 
 tion to fill up the vacant lands in all the older provinces, and the 
 various elements which — ^with the original French — go to make 
 up the Canadian people were firndy fixed upon the soil. Material 
 progress was marked. The principle of religious eciuality was 
 established. Finally, after a bitter struggle, the hold of the 
 official faction upon the goverinnent of the various provinces 
 was loosened, and Great Britain conceded to her colonies the 
 inestimable boon of self-government. 
 
 Immigrants from the British Isles.— First, ther, of 
 grc>wth in numbers. For more than twenty years prior to 1815 
 Great Britain's commercial activity had been upon a war footing. 
 Napoleon's final overthrow upon the field of Waterloo brought 
 peace to Europe, but it also brought on an industrial crisis of 
 extreme severity. Those who had been engaged in the various 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 179 
 
 iiidiiHtrius to which war gives riwc wero left without occupution, 
 !ind tho (lislKiiuliug of nuuiy regiiuontH added to the army of the 
 uiieuiployod. '^Fho liritish government at once ado|)ted a com{)ro- 
 Iiensivo .scheme of state-aided emigration to relieve tlie diHtress. 
 ^rhe colonies wero the chosen Held, A free jiassage was ])rovided 
 for all persons of good character, to whom settlers' tools were 
 also [)romised and pi-ovisions for their support until the first crop 
 should he rea])ed. < )f the settlors who, under these inducements, 
 came to Canada, a large nund)er were from EngLuid. These, as a 
 rule, came singly or in family ]»arties, and spi-ead themselves 
 through the okler settleme-nts. The Scotch inunigration, (»n the 
 contrary, partook largely of the character of an organized 
 movement on the part of those who joined in it, as well as on 
 the part of tho British government, under whose auspices it was 
 conducted. Tho same may bo said of tho Irish innuigratit)n which 
 shortly afterward set in. 
 
 Tho Scotch innuigration of this period was so largely composed 
 of disbanded soldiers and their families and friends that it was 
 taken in charge by the British Quartermaster's Department, and 
 was known as the military settlement. Tho district, scnith of 
 tlie Ottawa River, in which tho main body settled was called the 
 liathurst District, after the British minister of that name ; and the 
 various townships of the district still bear tho names of the chief 
 Jiritish ofhcials connected with tho movement. A region, of which 
 the town of Perth is about tho centre, was occupied by these 
 settlers (to tho number of nearly two thousand) as early as 1810. 
 During the following years they wero joined by a largo number 
 of operatives from tho manufacturing towns of Scotland. In one 
 year, 1820, as many as eleven hiuidred, it is said, arrived in 
 this "Perth settlement," which very soon became a populous and 
 thriving region. The banks of tho St. Francis River in the Eastern 
 Townships also received some portion of this Scotch immigration. 
 To this same period belongs tho .settlement of tho clan McNab in 
 the township of McNab on the Ottawa River. Their chief made 
 a vigorous effort to maintain a foudjil rule over his clansmen, but 
 tlie system never took root, and soon all trace of it even in that 
 township died out. During this period, too, the Scotch settlement 
 ai-ound Gait, on the Grand River, was begun on land purchased 
 from the Indians. 
 
ISO HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Tho noxh stuto-uidud inmiij^ifitioii which horo n woll-markod 
 riJitioiifil churactor was tliab of tlio Irish, coiiinu-'ucing in the 
 year 1H2.'{ and contiiuiiug f<»r Hovural years. Great coimuercial 
 (liHtroHs ill Ireland was the cause. The tirst year's arrivals were 
 htcated in tlie rcigioii lying between the l*erth settleineiit and 
 the Ottawa River. In J825 waH settled that jxirtion of the 
 Newcastle District on the north shore of Lake Ontario, of which 
 the town of IVterhorough is the centre. Nearly live hundred 
 Irish families received hind there. Tluiy were generously treated, 
 and a good }ni]l was built for them by the Tin[)erial authorities, 
 who s[)ent £4.'?,()00 upon this one movement alone. 
 
 Crown and Clergy Reserves, liy the Constitutional Act 
 of 17t)l provision had l)een made for the setting apart of a certain 
 portion of the land in both provinces as Crown Reserves, and of 
 another portion as (Jlergy Reserves. Both classes of reserves 
 proved a most serious hindrance to settlement. Shortly after 
 17i)l blocks of land in the immediate iieighlxn-hood of the earliest 
 settlements had been set apart as Crown and Clergy Reserves. 
 But, in course of time, these had been granted to fav(H'ed 
 individuals, mein])ers and friends of the ruling faction, and Luids 
 in the l)ack townships had ])een substituted for them. Lying as 
 they did, often in great blocks, between settlers, both the Crown 
 and Clergy Reserves were an im[)ediment in the way of all im- 
 provements, particuhirly of road making. If to these reserves we 
 add the lands granted, often in large tracts, to these same 
 favorites in the regions now being opened up, it would appear 
 that fully one-third of the Lmd was thus withheld from settlement. 
 
 The Canada Company. — The most potent factor in the 
 settlement of the inland districts of Canada was the famous Canada 
 Company, which obtained its charter in 1826. It was at first 
 intended that the whole of the ungranted Crown Reserves and 
 one-half of the Clergy Reserves should ])e sold to tho company 
 at a low price, upon terms which would necessitate a speedy 
 settlement. Owing, however, to the refusal of the Clergy 
 Reserves Corporation to accept the price fixed for their lands, 
 what is known as the *' Huron tract" was taken by the ccmipany 
 in their stead. This tract consisted of about one million acres 
 of land, covering a region stretching from Goderich on Lake 
 Huron nearly to Hamilton at the head of Lake Ontario. The 
 
IirSTOllV OV CANADA. 181 
 
 uiignintcd down Ri'sorvi'H jiniounted in over J,M(M»,(KM) (icrcs 
 more. Tho town <»f (Jalt takoH its name from iho .secretary of tlio 
 com[)any, the well-known writer, John Gait, father of Sir Alex- 
 ander T. (ialt, and of ('hief JuHtiuo Sir Thomas Gait. In 1827, 
 (iiielph and (ioderich were fonnded with nuich ceremony. To tho 
 extent that the pnrcha.se of the (-rown Reserves by tho Canada 
 Comjtany threw them o[ten to immediate settlement, the company 
 proved a l)le.ssing to the conntry. When it l)C!<^;in its operations 
 immigrants were arriving " hy thon.sands," and the company's 
 lands scattered throvigh tho more .settled distiicts were rapidly 
 taken U[). lint in the Huron tract, where their land lay in one 
 huge block, .settlement i)roceeded but slowly, and tho company's 
 monopoly was for many years a standing grievance in western 
 Upi»or Canada. 
 
 A Large Influx. — By tho year 18.*iO the innnigr;i "on from 
 the Briti.sh Isles into Canada, particularly into the upper province, 
 had assumed very largo proportions. In IH.'U ifc amounted to 
 .'U,000, while during the period from 1825) to 18.'{.'}- it reached a 
 total of ir)(),(MM). KnglLsh, Scotch and Iri.sh, all were represented.'* 
 The migration from Ireland was the most marked during the 
 years after 18.S0. Tho Adelaide settlement in the western part 
 of U})})er Canada was begun l)y a nund^er of Irisii S(»ldiers, ofiicers 
 and men, and this .soon became a Avell-known and prosperous 
 region. A nund)er of Iri.sh immigrants also settled at Quebec 
 and in the country south of it, at Montreal, and in the PJastern 
 Townships. 
 
 Cholera Checks Immigration. — In 1832, an immigrant 
 ship brought Asiatic cholera to Quebec, and in spite of all 
 precautions tho epidemic spread through Canada. In 1834 it 
 broke out again with increased severity, and tho mortality, 
 particularly in tho towns, was appalling. The result was an 
 outcry against further .state-aided inunigration, and for some 
 years there was a marked falling otl' in the flow of population to 
 the Canadian provinces. 
 
 * TiiK Increask in Canada. — Tho extent of tho incroiiso in tlio populution of th(> 
 two Canadas duriri}^ this period may he feathered from tiio following" fij^nrew: Tho 
 ni)per province, uhich had in IHl'i a poimlation of 7r),()()f), had increased hy ^s-it to 
 157,000, and hy 1841 to 470,<)(X). I^ower Canada, meanwhile, increased from 225,000 in 
 1812 to 430,000 in 1824, and to 630,000 in 1841. 
 
182 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 The Maritime Provinces. — Of tlie Maritime Provinces, 
 New Brunswick, sparsely jjopulateil and with much fertile land 
 ungranted, received during this period the greatest additicni to her 
 population. The year 1811) saw the counnencement of the move- 
 ment thither, and at the port of St. John ahjne there arrived 
 during the sunnner of that year over seven thcnisand souls. Of 
 these about twelve hundred were Scotch and Welsh ; the rest were 
 Irish. The Irish movement, particularly after the cholera visita- 
 tion, was largely directed to New Brunswick, and between 1834 and 
 1840 as many as thirty thousand settlers arrived in the province. 
 The Scotch migration to Cape Breton, already mentioned, took 
 place chiefly during this jxjriod. With the Irish and Scotch came 
 also many English. Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island also 
 received their share of this large immigration, as we may gather 
 from the statistics of po})ulation in those provinces.* 
 
 Industrial Advancement. — Desi)ite the political ills of the 
 provinces, tliere was also a steady advance during this period 
 along the line of material improvement. The log cabins of the 
 early settlers gradually gave place to more commodious dwellings, 
 often of stone or brick. The assemblies were very liberal in 
 grants to aid agriculture, as well as road building and other public 
 works. Communication became easier as the r< )ads improved, and 
 the social life of the people was materially broadened. Individual 
 enterprise was not lacking, and the face of the ci^untry underwent 
 a marked change from the days of 1812. Then wheat, potash and 
 fur were the chief Canadian exports, and fishing was still almost 
 the only industry of the Maritime Provinces, though the lund)er 
 trade was beginning to show signs of activity. By the year 1840, 
 though wheat was still the chief article of export from Upper 
 Canada, the culture of other grains and of fruit had made marked 
 progress, and there were also a few manufactures. In Lower 
 Canada and the Maritime Provinces agriculture was not neglected, 
 and the fisheries were in more active operation than ever before. 
 
 * Between the years 1824 and 1847 tlie i>opulation of New Brunswick was more 
 than doubled, or, as the statistics put it, had increased from nearly 75,0O() in the 
 fonner year to over lf>0,000 in tlie latter. Nova Scotia, with a population in 1814 of 
 "not over 100,000" had in 1827 nearly 144,000, and in 1844 over 250,000, while Prince 
 Edwaitl Island, which at the close of the war of 1812, had probably not over 15,000 
 inhabitants, had in 1827 over 23,000, in 1833 over 32,000, and iu 1848 not less than 
 62,000. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 183 
 
 Ship-building. — But the chief advance was in the lumber 
 trade and its allied industry, ship-building. New Brunswick and 
 Nova Scotia suj)plied themselves with all the ships necessary for 
 carrying on the tisheries and the coasting trade, and had still much 
 lumber left for export. Quebec, owing to its situation, attained a 
 recognized position as a ship-bujlding centre. Between Quebec 
 and Montreal the first steamboat in British North America — the 
 Aecominod(itio)i— had begun to ply as early as 1809, and it was 
 not long before there were many steamboats on Canadian waters. 
 The General Sm[ith made her first trip on tlie St. John in 1816. 
 The American Eagle plied between St. John and Eastport in 1825. 
 In 1829 a steam ferry was in operation between Halifax and 
 Dartmouth, and in the following year there was a steamboat 
 running between Pictou and 
 New Glasgow. The first 
 steamship to cross the Atlan- 
 tic was the Botjal William, 
 built in Quebec (1830-1831) 
 by a company composed 
 largely of Halifax and Pictou 
 merchants. She sailed from 
 Pictou in August, 1833, and 
 the passage to London was 
 made in twenty-five days. 
 
 The first steamship to enter the Pacific Ocean was the Beaver, built 
 in England for the Hudson's Bay Company, and employed for 
 many years in the carrying trade of the Pacific coast. She rounded 
 Cape Horn on her first voyage in 1835. iNot until about 1838 was 
 the problem of transatlantic steam navigation practically settled. 
 One of the first to enter systematically upon it was a Nova Scotian, 
 Samuel Cunard. In 1839 he entered into a contract with the 
 British government for the carriage of the mails between England 
 and A ucrica by means of a steamship line. The first ship of 
 the line — the Britannia, a paddle-wheel steamer — sailed from 
 Liverpool in July, 1840. Out of this venture has grown the well- 
 known Cunard Line of ocean steamships. 
 
 Attention Given to Canals. — The application of steam to 
 land traffic was yet in its infancy. Tlie first locomotive in Canada 
 was used in 1837 on a short tram-line between Laj)rairie (opposite 
 
 THE "royal WILLIAM." 
 
184 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Montreal) and Clia^nl)ly. In 1839 there was another in use in 
 hauling coal from the Albion mines in Nova Scotia to the loading 
 grounds near New Glasgow. Not, however, until 1850 was there 
 any serious attemjjt at railway construction. Attention was more 
 particularly directed, during the period before us, toward the 
 imi)rovement of the water connnunication of the St. Lawrence 
 valley ; and the Ltichine, Welland, Chambly, and other canals 
 afford striking evidence of the public spirit of the Canadian 
 
 THE "beaver." 
 
 people during these years. The Lachine Canal was designed to 
 overcome the rapids immediately above Montreal. It was built 
 (1821-1824) by a private company, but the enterprise was liberally 
 aided by the legislatures of both j)rovinces. The Welland Canal, 
 which owed its inception to the enterprising spirit of William H. 
 Merritt, was built (1825-1829) to connect Lakes Erie and OntJirio, 
 between which nature has imposed the barrier of the Niagara Falls. 
 It, too, was largely stjite-aided. Lower Canada giving generously 
 toward its constructicm. The Chambly Canal was designed to 
 improve the navigation by way of the Richelieu to Lake Cham- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 185 
 
 |)l;iiii, which \v;i.s <>bKtructt(l \)y the Chainhly Rai)i(ls. Among the 
 enterprises of tlio period the Desjardins and Burlington canals, at 
 the head of Lake Ontario, should also be mentioned. The Rideau 
 Canal, between Kingston and Bytown (now Ottawa), was an Impe- 
 rial undertaking. It was built (1827-1834) in order to open a 
 conmnmicatioh between Montreal and Lake (hitario which W(juld 
 Ite free from danger of interruption in case of war with the United 
 Sbites. The old Carillon canals on the Ottawa Mere part of the 
 same enterprise. For many years this was a fa\'orite passenger 
 route between Kingston and Montreal, but it fell somewhat into 
 disuse after the St. Lawrence canals were opened for traffic. It 
 still, however, aflforda a delightful trip during the suuunef months. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 THE aULE OF THE EXECUTIVE. 
 
 The system of government in the British provinces in America 
 nuist now be examined as a first step toward a proper understand- 
 ing of the various phases of the struggle for civil and religious 
 liberty. For the present, attention may bo confined to the five 
 provinces possessed of representative assemblies. 
 
 Political System of Great Britain. — Government in 
 England at this time was, as at present, divided into two branches : 
 (1) the legislative or law-n)aking branch, and (2) the executive or 
 law-enforcing branch. In theory, the two were entirely separate. 
 Tarliament, the law-making body, consisted of the King, the House 
 of Lords, and the House of Commons, the latter (often called the 
 "people's house") being composed of meml)ers elected by the 
 people of tire various towns, boroughs, and counties of Great 
 Britain. Parliament had no power to interfere directly in the 
 (liiily routine of adnnnistnition. It could pass lavs, but the 
 enforcement of those laws nnist be left to the king and his 
 officers, the executive branch. In truth, however, parli.iuient had 
 secured even at this time complete C(mtrol over jjiddic afl'airs. The 
 khig could levy no tax witliou*: the c<msent of parliament, and 
 from very early times the House of Commons had claimed the 
 right to determine what moneys should be granted for the i)ublic 
 
186 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 service and how such money should he spent. In times long past, 
 when the revenues frt)m Crown lands and other sources sufticed 
 to pay the various officials, English kings were able to govern 
 without much regard for the wishes of i)arliament. But when (as 
 frequently hapi^ened) they had to apply to parliament for money, 
 the House of Commons was able to enforce the redress of griev- 
 ances, to procuie the dismissal of incompetent officials, or, in 
 short, to insist on any line of public policy being followed as 
 the price to be paid for the money. Taking advantage of the 
 frequent necessities of the Crown, the House of Commons gradu- 
 ally secured complete control of the public purse. The heads of 
 the chief departments, who formed the king's executive council 
 or cabinet, had to be men possessing the confidence of the 
 "people's house"; otherwise supplies for carrying on govern- 
 ment might be refused. 
 
 The Colonies Governed from Downing Street. — For 
 many years the British colonies were not looked upon as suffi- 
 ciently important to need a special department m England to 
 watch over their affairs. The Board of Trade and Plantations — 
 often styled the Lords of Trade— was entrusted witn this duty. 
 In 1768, however, a Secretary of State for the Colonies, usually 
 spoken of as the colonial secretary, was appointed. The office 
 was abolished in 1782 (after the loss of the American colonies), 
 but was revived in 1794. It at once became, and has ever since 
 continued, an active and important department of British govern- 
 ment. So far as Great Britain was concerned, the government of 
 her colonies was long looked upon as a part of her own executive 
 government, and, though in many of them represent;itive assem- 
 blies were established, all the officials, from the governor to tlie 
 youngest clerk, were held responsible for the proper discharge 
 of their duties only to the colonial office in Downing Street, 
 London. 
 
 The Colonial Ofl9.ce. — The attitude of the colonial office 
 toward the colonies may be shortly stated. To the very end of 
 this period (1815-1840), there was an absolute refusal to admit 
 that the officials in the colonies were answerable for their conduct 
 to anyone but the colonial secretary. At the same time a strong 
 desire was often expressed to remedy any and all abuses of whicli 
 the colonists; could justly complain. The colonial office said, in 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 18? 
 
 eftect: "If the governor does wrong blame him to us, a"d if we 
 agree with you we will recall him or instruct him to do better in 
 future. If he retains in office men against whom you have just 
 cause of complaint, lay your conjplaints before us, and if we agree 
 with you we will see that the delinquent officials are dismissed." 
 In the last resort, therefore, what policy should be pursued in the 
 government of the provinces was determined by the British min- 
 istry. No doubt each succeeding ministry honestly desired that 
 the colonies should be governed in harmony with the wishes of the 
 colonists ; but, so long as the local officials were held responsible 
 to Downing Street instead of to the cohmial assemblies, just so 
 long were the provmces without real self-government. 
 
 The Governor.— In each of the provinces the head of the 
 official staflF was the governor (or lieutenant-governor), the repre- 
 sentative of the Crown. His powers were : (1) to sunnnon, 
 adjourn, prorogue and dissolve the provincial parliament ; (2) to 
 a[)point the members of his executive and legislative councils, 
 judges, magistrates and all other officials ; (.3) to pardon offenders ; 
 (4) to grant Crown lands ; and (5) to perform all other necessary 
 acts of executive government. These wide powers were to be 
 exercised subject to instructions from the colonial secretary, so 
 that the governor was in reality one of the staff of the colonial 
 department. 
 
 The Executive Council.— Associated with the governor in 
 the government of each province was an executive comicil. In 
 each of the Maritime Provinces one council combined both execu- 
 tive and legislative functions : — as an executive council, advising 
 the lieutenant-governor in the work of executive government ; 
 as a legislative council, having an equal voice with the assem})ly in 
 passing all laws. In the two Canadas the councils were distinct, 
 bi Upper Canada the executive council was a very small body, 
 Cdmposed exclusively of the heads of the chief public departments. 
 In Lower Canada it contained (in 1828) eleven members, including, 
 hi addition to departmenfad heads, the chief justice and cme other 
 judge, tl;e Anglican bishop, and one leading partner in the North- 
 West Company. The powers of the executive council were very 
 ill-defined. Some few acts of the governor were required to be 
 done "by and with the advice" of this body, and in some of the 
 provinces the governor and his council constituted a court of 
 
188 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 appeal. In the performance of most of his duties, however, the 
 governor was under no obligation to consult the members of his 
 council. Downing Street held him alone responsible. 
 
 Colonial Officials. — In the early history of the provinces all 
 appointnients to oflice in the colonies were made by the colonial 
 office in England. Sir Thomas Erskine May, a well-known writer, 
 says: *'The colonies ottered a wide held of enqdoyment for the 
 friends, connections, and political })artisan8 of the home govern- 
 ment. The offices in England fell short of the demand, and 
 appointments were accordingly multiplied abroad. Of these many 
 of the most lucrative were executed by deputy. Infants in the 
 cradle were endowed with colonial {ippointments to be executed 
 through life by convenient deputies. Extravagant fees or salaries 
 were granted in Downing Street and spent in England, but paid 
 out of colonial revenue. Other offices, again, to which residence 
 was attached, were too frequently given to men wholly unfit for 
 employment at home, but who were supposed to be equal t<» 
 colonial service, where indolence, incapacity, or doubtful character 
 might escai)e exposure." 
 
 A "Family Compact" in the Provinces. — Gradually 
 the officials of the colonies became niovc^ settled. Colonial 
 appointments though nominally "during pleasure" were practi- 
 cally for life, and the office-holders and their families became 
 permanent residents. Living chiefly in the larger towns in eacli 
 province, they formed an official aristocracy, with the governor (or 
 lieutenant-governor) at its head. There was naturally much 
 inter-marrying among them. Social and business ties drew them 
 together, and it was not long before in each province there was Ji 
 tacit "family compact" to work together to hold a monopoly of 
 place and power. The executive council was composed of the 
 leading members of this Fp.mily Compact, and as the years went 
 by they secured an ever-increasing control of the patronage of the 
 Crown. Although they are usually spoken of as an "official" 
 aristocracy, they embraced, particularly in the Maritime Provinces 
 and in Lower Canada, the most influential of the mercantile class, 
 those interested in trade with England, and the magnates of tlie 
 North- West Company. New ofticials, as they arrived from 
 England, naturally fell within the circle. Those who failed to 
 adopt and uphold the views of the ruling faction found that 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 189 
 
 faction scrong enough in influence with the governors and the 
 colonial olHce to secure their disniiss<il. 
 
 Colonial Parliaments. — Let us now turn to the legislature 
 in each province. In form, as ►Saiicoc said, it was the "very 
 image and transcri[)t " of the Tiritish parliament. It consisted of 
 the Crown (roproseuted by the governor), a legislative council, 
 sii{)posed to take the place of the British House of Lords, and a 
 iei)resentiitive assem])ly, chosen by popular election. The assent 
 of all three branches was, of course, necessary to the passing of 
 any Act. The governor, in giving or withholding the Crown's 
 assent to bills which had passed the two Houses, was responsible 
 to the colonial office. The legislative council was, in theory, a 
 body of superior citizens. The fact that its members held their 
 seats for life was considered a guarantee of independent action ; of 
 freedom, on the one hand, from subserviency to the Crown, and of 
 immunity, on the other, from any sudden impulse of po[)ular 
 j)assion or prejudice. The assem,>ly was the sole representative 
 of the wishes of the people. 
 
 Colonial Revenues. — ^The power conferred upon the colonial 
 l)arliaments to make the laws })y which in local matters the colonists 
 were to be governed must not be lightly valued. That it did not 
 carry with it proper control over the executive government of the 
 provinces was owing to the fact that for many years the colonial 
 revenues were largely derived from sources over which the assem- 
 blies had no control. Even in the matter of legislation, the 
 officials long retained a dominant influence, for, through the legis- 
 lative council, they could defeat any measure tending to weaken 
 their hold upon the government of the province. For many years^ 
 therefore, the only remedy for executive misrule was an appeal 
 to the British ministry through the colonial seci'etary. 
 
 Financial control by the "people's house" would have pre- 
 vented all this, and reforms would speedily have been forced upon 
 tlie executive without the necessity for an appeal to Downing 
 Street. After years of practically useless struggle to remedy par- 
 ticular abuses the popular leaders became convinced — to use the 
 Mords of Joseph Howe, one of the most noted of them — that 
 the touchstone of liberty was the control of the suj)plies. The 
 colonial revenues may be conveniently classified as follows : (1) 
 The "casual and territorial" revenues of the Crown, arising from 
 
190 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 the sale of lands, mining royal* les, fees of office, finoj and the like; 
 (2) duties pajvablo under Imperial statutes upon goods imported 
 into the colonies ; und Q^) duties levied and moneys collected 
 under Acts of the provincial parliaments. The salaries of the 
 majoi'^y of the officials were paid out of the first and second 
 classes, and over these the assen\blies had nr) control whatever. 
 The "Civil List," as the officials' pay-roll was called, was settled in 
 England. All the assemVjly c<juld do, if mey thought the salaries 
 too high, was to complain to the colonial office in Downing Street. 
 They could, of coui-se, pass Acts granting mt)neys for road-making, 
 bridge-building, and other public works, and could control the 
 raising and spending of such moneys. These formed the third 
 class above mentioned. To "withhold supplies," therefore, might 
 inflict great injury ujjon the country by stopping public improve- 
 ments ; it could not aifect the officials. They held their positions 
 and drew their salaries regardless of the censure of the people's 
 representatives in the assembly. 
 
 Election Laws Favor the Family Compact. — Even in 
 the composition of the legislative assemblies there was much which 
 tended to give due weight to the wishes of the official class. 
 The towns, in which that class was the predominant element, were 
 allowed representation in the assemblies out of all proportion to 
 their population. Placemen also were eligible to seats in the 
 assembly. Many of them held official positions which brought 
 them into close contact with the people in the different towns 
 and counties. It was in the power of the government to advance 
 or retard progress in any particular region, and the individual 
 settler, too, could be helped or hindered by government officials, 
 who frequently used their powers, with little scruple, to secure 
 their own election to the provincial assembly. Every effort to 
 effect reform in this direction was in every province long frus- 
 trated by the legislative councils. 
 
 Control Through the Legislative Council. — It was in 
 the composition of the legislative council that the hand of the 
 Family Compact was most apparent. It was essential that this 
 branch of the provincial parliament should be secured for the 
 ruling faction. It would have been well-nigh impossible to prevent 
 the legislative redress of grievances had the two branches concurred 
 in passing biUs for that purpose. The governor, no matter how 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 191 
 
 well disposed toward the social oligarchy of which, indeed, ho was 
 the head, W(»uld have hesitated to withliold the assent of the Crown 
 t(. such bills unless well assured of the support of the colonial 
 office at home. But, with a friendly legislative council, all measures 
 obnoxious to the Family Compact could be quietly defeated in that 
 cliamber. How well they succeeded in securing control oi this 
 l»ranch of tiie legislature will appear from a glance at its 
 ctjiiiposition in the dillerent provinces. 
 
 In the Two Canadas.— The legislative council of Lower 
 Canada, as described by John Neilson in 1828 to a conunittee of 
 the British House of Connnons, consisted of twenty-seven members, 
 seven of whom, he said, had ceased to attend its sessions. Eighteen 
 were either office-liolders or pensioners. Members of the executive 
 council were eligible for appointment to the legislative council, and 
 in Lower Canada seven of them had seats. Two, at least, of the 
 legislative council were partners in the North-West Company, while 
 several others were described simply as British merchants. Four 
 were French-Canadians, two seigneurs and two office-holders. The 
 chief justice and three of his brother judges were members, the 
 cliief justice being the speaker. The Anglican Bishop of Que?. - 
 was ex-offi,cio a member. Nine only of the council were natives of 
 Canada. 
 
 In Upper Canada, in the year 1835, thof?& who usually attended 
 the sessions of the legislative council numbered about fifteen. 
 Six of these were executive councillors, four others were govern- 
 ment officials, and two— Archdeacon Strachan and Bishop Mac- 
 (lonell— were church dignitaries. Here, too, therefore, the Family 
 Compact had a safe majority. 
 
 In the Maritime Provinces.— In the Maritime Provinces, 
 where one council exercised both executive and legislative func- 
 tions, advocates of reform thought for a time that an improvement 
 might be effected by a division of the council. This was done 
 in New Brunswick in 1832, in Nova Scotia in 1837, and in Prince 
 Edward Island in 1839, but, as Joseph Howe expressed it in some- 
 wli;it robust phrase, it was but "cutting a rotten orange in two 
 in order to improve its flavor. " The Family Compact controlled 
 the two councils as they had before controlled the one. In 
 Ne\r Brunswick, after the separation, three families formed a 
 cljar majority of the legislative council, and the same invidious 
 
102 HISTORY OP CANADA. 
 
 pro forencos— local, commerciiil and roligious— were shown in its 
 coinpoHition jih in tlio other i.r«»vinccH. lieforo itw cUviHion the 
 council of Nova Scotia consiHtod of twelve iiieinher.s, all resident 
 in Halifax. The Anglican bislioi) was a nieiiiher ex-opicio, and 
 eight others were of that Church. The chief justice presided, and 
 around the board were the heads of departments and other in- 
 fluential nienj])ers of the Family C(»mpact. Two families were 
 represented hy five niem})eis. One mercantile partnership whs 
 also represented by live members. The result was that whilo 
 needed measures of civil and religious reform were prevented, 
 the interests of the outlying parts of the province were sacrificed 
 to benefit Halifax mercliants. 
 
 Strongly Entrenched. — This then was the position in all 
 the i)rovinces. The official class had at its command all the 
 executive machinery, all the jjatronage of the Crown, a subservient 
 legislative council, and, as a rule, a friendly governor. Tlio 
 executive machinery was harshly and arbitrarily used to put 
 down critics; the patronage of the Crown was used to reward 
 friends or buy ofi" opponents ; the legislative council prevented 
 legislative reform ; while a friendly governor dissolved a too 
 hostile assembly and reported to the colonial office that all 
 was well. If the long-sufiering colonists carried their comjjlaints 
 to the colonial secretary they found, as Howe said, that '* there 
 was hardly a public servant in the province who could not by 
 his representaticms and mfluence tiiv/art any resolution or address 
 which the assembled representatives of the whole country thought 
 it their duty to adopt." 
 
 The System at Fault.— Out of such , system grave abuses 
 were sure to arise. But, while we must strongly condemn the 
 system, we must not forget that even among the ofticials. there 
 were very many able and upright men, to whom we owe mucl. 
 for the material progress of the country during those years. 
 Colonial government was then in its inffmcy, and many men hnt]\ 
 in England and on this side of the Atlantic conscientiously believed 
 that to give entire control to the colonial assemblies would be but 
 a step toward separation from Great Britain. We know now 
 that they were mistaken. We have long enjoyed a full measure 
 of self-government in Canada without any loosoning of the strong 
 tie of affectionate attachment which binds us to the motherland. 
 
HISTORY OB^ CANADA. 193 
 
 But tlio inon of tlio Fiiiiiily Coinpact li.icl ii<»fc our oxporience. 
 They lookeil rutliur to the loss of the older Auiencan rolonies, 
 jiud numy of them honestly thought that the [)oj)ulur le.ulens 
 here were pursuing the same coiu'se as had l^een piu'sued there, 
 and that the same results would follow. We repeat, therefore, 
 that while we nuist condeuni many of the pul)lic actH of the 
 Family Compact, we nuist give credit to many of its members 
 for uprightness of life and sincerity of motive. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 EXECUTIVE ABUSES. 
 
 Growing Discontent.— Even before the war of 1812 there 
 had been, as already seen, mcrked evidences of popular discontent 
 in Lower Canada, where the French-Canadian majority were not 
 disposed to look (quietly on and see the whole machinery of govern- 
 ment used to further the interests of a small English-si)eaking 
 otticial and trading class. In the other provinces there had been 
 only slight symi)toms of dissatisfaction l)efore 1812. Shortly after 
 the close of the war, however, when the tide of innnigration had 
 well set in, complaint of executive misgovernnient became more 
 frequent and (jutspoken. In this chapter will l)e descriljed briefly 
 the doings of the Family Compact in all the provinces, l)oth in 
 creating abuses and in repressing those who complained of them. 
 
 Official Favoritism. — From the favors shown U) the mem- 
 ])ers and friends of the ruling class the greatest abuses arose. 
 Pensions were bestowed with a lavish hand. The construction 
 of public works was made a means of public corruption, and 
 even incorporated banks were used as political machines in the 
 interest of the government. Large grants of land were made 
 to executive favorites in return for public services of the slightest 
 character — sometimes even without that pretence — and these 
 tracts * proved, as we have seen, a serious impediment in the way 
 of settlers. In the disposal of timber limits in the lower provinces 
 
 * In Lord Durham's celebrated report may be foimd statistics showing' the amount 
 of Crown Lands held by members and friends of the provincial governments, and the 
 figures are certainly startling. 
 14 
 
194 HISTORY OP CANADA. 
 
 tho Bamo favoritism was hIiowu and tlio samo results followed. 
 The niercantilo nuunhersof tho Family (Compact managed to socuro 
 for themselves trado advantages of which the assemblies lung tried 
 in vain to deprive them. They were a})le, for instance, to dictate 
 what ports should he ports of entry* for foreign produce, and 
 tlius to retain a iiionoijoly of foreign trade. 
 
 Local Improvement. — In those days the executive govern- 
 ment of each province controlled the local affairs of every com- 
 nmnity within its borders. Local taxation was fixed in quarter 
 sessions by the magistrates — all Crown-appointed ; and thus road- 
 making, bridge-building, and all the other necessary work of local 
 improvement were, in their hands, under executive control. The 
 influence which the government was thus able to exert in all 
 parts of the yet sparsely settled provinces was very great. In 
 Lower Canada there was a somewhat pecv.liar system (a relic of the 
 old regime) for making and repairing roads and building bridges. 
 This work in each of the three districts of Quebec, Three Rivers 
 and Montreal was under the control of a grand voyer, who, though 
 he could act only upon petition of the inhabitants, was the sole 
 judge of the route to l)e followed and of the share to be paid by 
 each of those benefited by the work. In the case of the main 
 highways, for which grants were freely made by the assembly, 
 complaint was made that the course of these highways was fixed 
 with a selfish view to the improvement of the vacant lands held by 
 large proprietors. 
 
 Road Grants. — In the effort to control road expenditure the 
 assemblies frequently came into collision with the executive. 
 Proper accounts of this expenditure were insisted upon but were 
 long refused. When the assemblies, particularly in Lower Canada, 
 declined to make road grants unless upon conditions which would 
 ensure to them some control over their disposal, they were 
 represented to the colonial secretary as factious drags upon public 
 improvement. In Nova Scotia, from very early times, the 
 assembly insisted upon giving control of its road grants to the 
 members for the constituency in which the money was to be 
 
 * In the Maritime Provinces, Halifax, Pictou, Sidney, St. John and St. Andrews 
 were lonjj the only ports of entry. It was only as the result of persistent petitioning 
 to the colonial office that such important shipping towns as Liverpool and Yarmouth, 
 and, afterwards, Lunenburg, Windsor and Arichat, were added to the ist. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 195 
 
 expended. This nuturjilly resulted in p.-itchwork, often unevenly 
 jmt on ; nevertholt'HM, when, in 1K20, Lord Dulhou.sio iirgod that 
 some regiilfir Hystom should ho fi(l<)j)h!(l juid plucod under the 
 control of tho uxocutive, his suj^'gestion wus "coldly received" 
 hy tho Hssenihly, and no change wa;- made. In Lioutunant- 
 Govornor Kenipt's time (1828) they so far yielded as to agree to 
 the appointment of permanent connuLssioners for the main 
 highways. 
 
 Municipal Government.— This control over matters which 
 are now left to local municipalities, the Family Compact were very 
 loath to relincpiisli. Even the larger towns were denied control 
 of their local affairs. St. John, N.B., long remained the only 
 incorporated town in British North America. In Lt)wer Canada 
 the legislative council continually rejected bills passed by the 
 assembly to confer nmnicijjal institutions upon the larger towns. 
 Quebec and Montreal were at last incorporated in 18.'32, with the 
 provision, however, that their local regulations should be sub- 
 mitted to the judges for approval. In Quebec the judges rejected 
 these regulations because they were drawn up in the French 
 language ! In Upper Canada, York was incori)orated under its 
 present name, Toronto, in 18.34. Though the cajjital of the 
 province, with a population of several th(jusand, its government 
 l)y the executive had not been very satisfactory, for "there was 
 not a sidewalk in the town." Kingston tried in vain to procure 
 an Act of incorporation ; the assembly passed the bill but the 
 legislative council rejected it. It was not until after the advent 
 of responsible government and the union of the two Canadian 
 provinces that a general Act was passed for the establishment 
 of municipalities with large powers of local self-government. 
 In Nova Scotia, Halifax did not succeed in securing incorpor- 
 ation until 1841. As Howe said, "There was not an incor- 
 porated city in any part of the province. They were all governed, 
 as Halifax was, by magistrates who held their commissions from 
 the Crown, and were entirely independent of popular control." 
 
 Executive Oppression.— The methods employed by the 
 executive to stifle complaint and put down opposition give to this 
 period a somewhat tragic interest. In the Maritime Provinces, 
 however, while there was the same vicious system and the same 
 exclusive spirit as in the Canadian provinces, there was a marked 
 
196 HISTORY Of CANADA. 
 
 absence of thfit active oppression to \vhic;i the Fnniily Compact 
 resorted in order to maintain their position in Upper and Lower 
 Canada. The battle for reform was, as a natural consequence, 
 Avell advanced in the two Canadas before it began in the Maritime 
 Provinces ; and in the latter, where executive ojjpression had been 
 less felt, it was fought with less bitterness. 
 
 The Family Compact in the Courts.— It was in the 
 harsh use of harsh laws that the executive factions of the two 
 Canadas became prominent. That in the sujjerlcjr courts there 
 was actual corruption has been freely charged ; but proof is want- 
 ing. That there was a disposition to uphold a strong executive at 
 the expense of popular rights is undeniable. Even had such bias 
 been wanting, the close family, social, and even political ties 
 existing between the judges and the Crown officers g.ave rise to 
 a distrust in the administration of justice. The court, from 
 judge to crier, was of tlie Family Compact. The laws then in 
 force left too much discretion to the sheriff in the selection of 
 juries, and the jury-box, it is said, was often "packed." In the 
 subordinate tribunals — quarter sessions and magistrates' courts — 
 matters were even worse. 
 
 Public Prosecutions. —But, apart from the composition of 
 the courts, there were harsh laws to be invoked, if need be, by 
 the Crown officers against "libellous and seditious persons." As 
 some of the prosecutions under these laws called forth much 
 popular sympathy and materially helped vo create an organized 
 opposition to Family Compact domination they merit special 
 attention. 
 
 Robert Gourlay. — Among the many who came to Upper 
 Canada in 1817 was Robert Gourlay, the son of a Scotch laird who 
 had fallen upon evils days. Gourlay went into business as a land 
 agent, and thus became familiar with the many grievances under 
 which settlers labored. He was outspoken in his condemnation of 
 the abuses of the land system, and soon incurred the enmity of the 
 authorities, who looked upon him as a grievance-monger. He was 
 twice prosecuted for libel against officials and twice acquitted. 
 Finally under an old statute of 1804, respecting alien immigration, 
 he was taken bt^fore two members of the legislative council. 
 Although it seems clear that his case was not within the stfitute, 
 they declared him to be a seditious person and ordered him to 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 197 
 
 leave the province. Failing to ob(^y the judji^ment pronounced 
 against him, he was again arrested, and, after a long and harsh 
 imprisonment, was brought to trial at Ni;igara in August, 1819. 
 We are told that his confinement had so impaired his reason that 
 his trial was a solemn mockery. He w;^s found guilty of dis- 
 obedience to the order previously pronounced against him. It 
 was new repeated and this time obeyed. At the same assizes 
 a local editor was found guilty of seditious libel and sentenced 
 to eighteen months' imprisonment and to pay a tine of 2o0. His 
 fault was tiiat ho had publislied a letter, written by Gourlay, in 
 which the governor, the Duke of Richmond, and the lieutenant- 
 governor of Upper Canada, Sir Peregrine Maitland, were severely 
 criticised. 
 
 Criminal Libel. — The law of libel was perhaps the most 
 powerful weapon in the hands of the officials, and it was used — 
 in the two Canadas particularly — with merciless severity against 
 political opponents. On the other hand, the most outrageous 
 attacks by newspapers which supported the government, upon the 
 character and motives of the leading reformers, were quxetly 
 ignored by the Crown officers. Words spoken of those in authority 
 were treated as criminally lil>ellous, which, when spoken of their 
 opponents, were even applauded. 
 
 Editors Prosecuted. — In the year 1828 a committee of the 
 British House of Commons inquired into the civil governmen'j; of 
 Canada. The reformers of Lower Canada had been active in 
 preparing petitions to be laid before the committee, and in hold- 
 ing public meetings at which strong resoluticms against the ruling 
 faction were passed. The libel laws were at once resorted to 
 against newspaper editors who ventured to report these proceed- 
 ings, while at the same time the government press teemed with 
 the most scurrilous abuse of those members of assem])ly who were 
 taking pnrt in the agitation. To make this harsh i)roceeding still 
 more hai; h the prosecution was conducted, not where the defend- 
 ants lived, but at Quebec, the seat of government. 
 
 In 1828 an editor at York named Collins was brought to Lrial for 
 a libel upon the attorney-general — a gentleman known to a later 
 generation as n, learned and upright judge. Sir J. B. Robinson. 
 Collins was found guilty and sentenced to one year's imprisonment 
 and to pay a fine of £50. The persistent refusal of the lieutenant- 
 
198 
 
 HISTORY OF C:.NADA. 
 
 HON. JOSEPH HOWE. 
 
 governor, Sir John Colborne, to extend executive clemency fco 
 this unfortunate man was attributed to vindictiveness on the part 
 of the officials, and did much to excite public sympathy. 
 
 The prosecution of Joseph Howe (1835) for libel upon the magis- 
 trate's who governed Halifax resulted 
 in his triumphant acquittal. Though 
 the law of criminal libel did not allow 
 a plea of justification (that is, a plea 
 that what had been written was true 
 and therefore no libel), Howe boldly 
 set up that his article was written 
 without criminal intent, in a fair and 
 legitimate attempt to procure the re- 
 fv)rm of n(itorious abuses. These he 
 desci'ibed to the jury, and the strong 
 light thus thrown upon the conduct of 
 municipal government finally resulted 
 in the passage of the Halifax Act of 
 Incorporation already mentioned. 
 Mackenzie's Printing OflBlce Raided. — While active in 
 enforcing the law against their opponents, the Family Compact 
 of Upper Canada were guilty of a most flagrant act of lawlessness. 
 The victim of their violence was that "peppery Scotchman," 
 
 William Lyon Mackenzie, editor and 
 proprietor of The Colonial Advocate, at 
 that time the most pronounced and 
 uncompromising exponent of popular 
 grievances. Mackenzie had already 
 felt the weight of executive displea- 
 sure. He had started his newspaper 
 at Queenston, and upon the occasion 
 of the laying of the corner-stone of 
 Brock's monument in 1824, a copy of 
 it had been placed under the stone. 
 Sir Peregrine Maitland ordered the 
 stone to be lifted, and the obnoxious 
 sheet was removed. Mackenzie after- 
 wards moved his printing office to York, and his outspoken 
 utterances there made him an object of extreme dislike to the 
 
 WILLIAM LYON MACKENZIE. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 199 
 
 officials In 1826, in open daylight, a gang of young men, 
 all of the Family Compact, marched into the Advocate office in 
 Mackenzie's absence, wrecked the furniture and threw the type 
 into Toronto Bay. The perpetrators of the outrage were nob 
 only not prosecuted ; they were the lions of the hour with the 
 official society of the capital. When Mackenzie recovered by civil 
 action a large verdict against them, the amount was raised by a 
 private subscription, to which even the leading officials contributed. 
 
 Petty Tyranny. — To the abuses in the administration of 
 justice were added others equally glaring in the exercise of the 
 ordinary powers of executive government. Pressure was brought 
 to bear upon all would-be reformers over whom the Family Compact 
 could exercise any authority. Those settlers, including even some 
 of the men of 1812, who complained of grievances, found the patents 
 for their land withheld upon one pretext or another for many years. 
 By way of contrast, the eve of an election — notably the critical 
 election of 1836 in Upper. Canada — saw a wholesale distribution 
 of patents among those whose votes were deemed safe for govern- 
 ment candidates. There had been a decision in England that all 
 who had remained in the United States after the Peace of 1783 
 were, in the eyes of English law, aliens, and as such incapable of 
 holding land in a British colony. This decision affected the title 
 to many farms in Canada and the right of several members of the 
 assembly to seats in that body. The law was in some cases harshly 
 enforced, while in others it was allowed to remain a dead letter. 
 Effi^rts on the part of the assembly of Upper Canada to remedy 
 this grievance were long resisted by the legislative council, and 
 not until 1828, and then ^..ily after a misision had been sent to 
 England, was an Act finally passed to remove it. 
 
 Free Speech Denied. — In 1818 a Seditious Meetings Act 
 — popularly known as the "gagging bill" — was passed in Upper 
 Canada by a House friendly to the executive. It gave magis- 
 trates power to forbid meetings to discuss grievances, or, as the 
 authorities described it, to talk sedition. Colonel Beardsley, who 
 presided at a meeting called in this year to appoint a delegation 
 to England to lay the state of the colony before the colonial 
 office, was deprived of his commission. On New Year's ICve, 1825, 
 some American actors gaye a performance at York. Some of the 
 members of the assembly were there , among others was Captain 
 
200 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Matthews, the Reform member for Middlesex. He, in rather 
 hilarious mood, called upon the orchestra to play "Yankee 
 Doodle." He was a half-pay officer in the British army, and, as 
 a result of representations from the York officials, his pension 
 was stopped. To secure its restoration Captain Matthews was 
 obliged to go to England, which, it is said, was what the Family 
 Compact wanted. About the same time Fothergill, king's printer, 
 was •dismissed for venturing to criticise the government. The 
 dismissal of Mr. Justice Willes, who in a rather too public way 
 found fault with the Crown officers and belittled his brother 
 judges, was also ascribed to the influence of the ruling faction. 
 
 In Lower Canada the same course was adopted, and French- 
 Canadian militia officers were, without previous notice, dismissed 
 from their positions for taking part in the agitation for reform. 
 At the same time the list ox magistrates was revised, and all who 
 were friendly to the reform movement were deprived of their 
 commissicr«. 
 
 Friendly Ass mblies. — The officials were quick to make use 
 of a friendly assembly to secure the passing of laws to strengthen 
 their authority, knowing well that Acts of this description, once 
 passed, could not be repealed without the concurrence of the 
 legislative council, in which their influence was predominant. 
 Nor did they scruple, as we shall see, to turn to their own advan- 
 tage the well-known tendency of popular assemblies to insist upon 
 their privileges. This, however, is part of the parliamentary his- 
 tory of this period, which it will be convenient to reserve for a 
 later chapter. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 THE STRUGGLE FOR RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 Church and State. — In the early years of the present cen- 
 tury the Anglican Church enjoyed in all the provinces many 
 advantages over other religious denominations. An efl'ort, indeed, 
 was made to secure its recognition as the " Esta))lished Church " 
 of the colonies as well as of England, but from the beginniiv.; 
 its adherents had been in the minority in the colonies, and tin; 
 home authorities declined therefore to make it a stfvte church out- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 201 
 
 m 
 
 side of England, In the two Canadas alone was there anything 
 in the nature of a state endowment of the Anglican Church, and 
 there the efforts of that Church to retain this advantage gave an 
 added bitterness — particularly in Upper Canada — to the struggle 
 for religious equality. Some of the advantages,' however, enjoyed 
 by the Anglican Church were common to all the provinces, and 
 to these reference should first be made. 
 
 The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. — One 
 advantage possessed by the Anglican Church in America arose 
 from its connection with the Established Church in England. 
 Other denominations supported their ministers and met the 
 exj)ense of maintjiining places of worship out of the voluntary 
 contributions of their mem))ers. The Anglican Church in the 
 colonies was sustained almost entirely by that great missionary 
 society of the Established Church, the ' ' Society for the Propa- 
 gation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts," which was in early times 
 (1814-1834) in receipt of large annual grants from the British 
 parliament. The Anglican clergy were thus for many years 
 better paid than the ministers of the other churches. Objection 
 was naturally raised to the granting of further state aid to a 
 Church which already occupied a position of advantage ; whose 
 members, moreover, were at least equally as able as those of other 
 denominations to support their own Church. 
 
 "Dissenters." — The law of England at tlie beginning of the 
 present century placed "dissenters" under many disabilities. 
 English law as it stood in 1792 had been introduced into Upper 
 Canada ; and English law of a still earlier period formed the 
 basis of the legal systems of the Maritime Provinces, There 
 was no law to secure to religious bodies other than the Anglican 
 "a foot of land on which to build parstmages and chapels, or in 
 which to bury their dead ; their ministers were not allowed to 
 solsmnize matrimony, and some of them had been the objects of 
 cruel and illegal persecution on the part of magistrates and others 
 in authority," That these persecutions, as a result of which several 
 ministers were actually imprisoned, were illegal under the laws 
 in force at that time may perhaps be doubted ; that they were 
 cruel will not be denied ; they certainly gave rise to an agitation 
 which, in spite of opposition, was finally successful in securing an 
 amendment of the law. 
 
202 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Marriage Laws. — The Act of 1798 passed in Upper Canada 
 in relief of Presbyterian ministers has been already mentioned. 
 The benefit of the Act was much lessened by the rigorous 
 conditions under which only could a license to perform the 
 marriage ceremony be obtained. It was not until 1831 that an 
 Act was finally })assed giving all Christian ministers power to 
 perform the ceremony. Prior to that date marriage fees formed 
 no inconsiderable portion of the income of the Anglican and 
 Presbyterian clergy. An Act empowering religious bodies to hold 
 land soon followed. In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick similar 
 Acts were not obtained until a few years later (1834). In all the 
 provinces the long delay was attributed to the intolerance of the 
 ruling faction. 
 
 Sectarian Schools. — Through their influence in England the 
 dignitaries of the Anglican Church in the British provinces in 
 America procured royal charters for sectarian colleges which were 
 liberally endowed with lands and generously supported by parlia- 
 mentary grants. The first of these was King's College, Windsor, 
 in Nova Scotia. Its charter was, as already mentioned, ob- 
 tained in 1802, thrijugh the exertions of Dr. Charles Inglis, the 
 first bishop of Nova Scotia. The governing trustees were all 
 Anglican, and in spite of the protest of the bishop (in which 
 he was supported by the Archbishop ot Canterbury), subscrip- 
 tion to the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England was 
 made a condition of matriculation. The result of this exclusive 
 policy was a strong popular aversion to the college. All efforts 
 to open its doors failing, other denominational colleges and 
 academies were established. To these, grants were from time 
 to time made by the proviinjial assembly. Though religious tests 
 have long since disappeared, the early establishment in Nova 
 Scotia of a number of denominational schools for higher ec'acation 
 has so far barred the way to the creation of cue central provincial 
 university. 
 
 In New Brunswick a royal charter was obtained about the 
 year 1800 for a college at Fredericton which received a liberal 
 endowment. In 1828 it was remodelled under a new charter, 
 becoming "King's College, New Brunswick," with university 
 powers. The same exclusiveness was not shown here as in 
 Nova Scotia. The Anglican bishop was visitor, the president 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 203 
 
 and staff were Anglican, but no religious test was required of 
 students. Not, however, until the year 1860 was the college 
 made entirely non-sectarian and provincial. There were also 
 complaints in this province that the "school reserves," which 
 liad been set apart at a very early date, were largely granted to 
 church schools, either Anglican or Presbyterian. 
 
 In Upper C.mada a royal charter for a King's College was 
 obtained in 1826 by Archdeacon (afterwards Bishop) Strachan. 
 Lands for the support of schools had been set apart as early as 
 1797, and a great part of these — over 225,000 acres — was now 
 taken to form a land endowment for King's College, supple- 
 mented by a liberal money grant. Members of the college 
 council — of which Archdeacon Strachan was the first president 
 — were to subscribe to the Thirty-nine Articles. No religious 
 test, however, was to be imposed upon matriculants. King's 
 College charter was from the beginning an object of unceasing 
 attack, but not until 1849 was this institution finally made 
 entirely non-sectarian under the name of the University of Toronto. 
 
 In Lower Canada the refusal of the French-Canadians to attend 
 the schools founded under the Education Act of 1801 was based 
 upon their objection to the exclusive control of those schools 
 by the Anglicans. Apart from this, the province was very free 
 during this period from purely sectarian disputes. John Neilson, 
 speaking in 1828, said : " No country was ever more exempt from 
 religious animosities than Lower Canada has generally been during 
 the thirty-seven years I have resided there." The non-sectarian 
 McGill College, Montreal (chartered in 1821), owes its existence to 
 the liberality of a merchant of that city whose name it bears. 
 
 An Anglican Oflficial Class. —Above every other cause 
 it was owing to their position in reference to the executive 
 government of the various provinces that the Anglican minority 
 were long able to hold their advantages. The head of the govern- 
 ment in each province was an Anglican, members of the executive 
 and legislative councils were for many years largely Anglican, 
 and the majority of the government oflicials were of that de- 
 nomination. Every vacancy was, as a matter of course, filled by 
 the appointment of one of their own social and political friends. 
 The natuj:al result was the concentration of power in the hands of 
 the Anglicans. Every effort of the popular assembly to pass laws 
 
204 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 to put. other denominations upon an equality with them was long 
 made fruitless by the negative voice of the second chamber. The 
 assemblies, indeed, were for many years provided by the govern- 
 ment with Anglican chaplains. When objection was taken, the 
 service ceased but the salary continued. It was this invidious 
 religious distincticm, carried to the extreme of social ostracism, 
 and the denial to "dissenters" of all share in the patronage of the 
 Crown, that gave to the battle for political equality during this 
 period its peculiar })itterness. 
 
 Prince Edward Island. — Prince Edward Island appears to 
 have been singularly free froui agitation arising out of a claim on 
 the part of any one denomination to monopolize state favor. The 
 Roman Catholics liave at all times formed a large element in the 
 population of the island. Up to the year 1820 there was only 
 one Protestant clergyman upon it. Though freedom of con- 
 science was denied to Roman Catholics by the terms of Patter- 
 son's commission, there was apparently no interference with their 
 right to worship God in their own ruanner. Not, however, urtil 
 1830 were those civil disabilities, to which they were subject under 
 the unjust laws of England prior to the Catholic Emancipation 
 Act (1829), entirely removed by the island assembly. In this 
 matter it declined (by the casting vote of the speaker in 1827) 
 to proceed faster than the Mother Country. If any feeling of 
 jealousy was entertained by the various religious denominations 
 on account of the executive officials being exclusively Anglican, 
 it does not appear in the island records. The land question 
 overshadowed every other grievance. The necessity for combined 
 effort against the influence, so potent in England, of the absentee 
 proprietors would seem to have stilled sectarian strife. As early 
 as 1829, when the "Central Academy" at Charlottetown was 
 established by Act of the island legislature, it was expressly stip- 
 ulated that no religious tests should be imposed upon either 
 teachers or pupils. 
 
 The Clergy Reserves — In Upper Canada the battle for 
 religious equality largely turned upon questions of state endow- 
 ment — the Clergy Reserves and Rectories questions. By the 
 Constitutional Act of 1791, as already mentioned, provisi(m was 
 made for setting apart a portion — one-seventh — of the Crown 
 lands in each province for the support of a "Protestant clergy." 
 
HISTOllV OF CANADA. 
 
 205 
 
 The Act further provided th;it the governor might erect within 
 every township or parish one or nutre [)arsonages or rectories 
 according to the establishment of the Church (»f England, and 
 might endow the same with lands chosen from these "Clergy 
 Reserves," ns they were called. 
 
 Claim of the Church of Scotland.— Though the Clergy 
 Reserves were a great hindrance to improvement in the various 
 settlements, the income derived from theui was for many years so 
 tritling in amount that no question arose as to its distribution. 
 At length, in 1819, the Presbyterians asked that a grant might 
 be made out of the Clergy Reserves fund to assist them in 
 rebuilding one oi their churches which had been destn^yed by 
 lire. The law officers of the Cr(;wn in England, to whom the 
 retjuest was referred, gave their opinion that the words — "a 
 Protestant clergy " — included the ministers of the Church of Scot- 
 land as well as those of the Church of England, but that they 
 (lid not include those of any other denomination. The Anglican 
 Church in Canada declined, however, to admit the claim even of 
 the Church of Scotland. About this time a Clergy Reserves Cor- 
 poration was formed, consisting exclusively of Anglican clergymen, 
 to whom power was given to lease the reserves and collect the 
 rents. The balance, after paying ex- 
 penses, was for many years very small, 
 but the Upper Canadian assembly sup- 
 ported the claims of the Church of Scot- 
 land to share even in this small balance. 
 
 Rev. Egerton Ryerson. — In the 
 years 1826 and 1827, certain events 
 occurred which brought other religious 
 bodies into the controversy, and turned 
 the contest between the Churches of 
 England and of Scotland into a cam- 
 paign for "secularization" pure and 
 simple, that is to say, for the appro- 
 priation of the reserves to the general 
 improvement of the province. At this 
 
 time Archdeacon Strachan was exerting himself to procure the 
 charter for King's College, and also to secure for the Anglican 
 Church in Canada pecuniary assistance from the British parlia- 
 
 REV. EGERTON RYERSON. 
 
206 
 
 HISTOIIV OF CANADA. 
 
 BISHOP STRACHAN. 
 
 ment. To this end he preached a sermon — afterwards printed 
 for use in England — in which other denominations were attticked. 
 
 This attack brought into the lists to do 
 battle, not «»nly for his own Church, 
 l)ut for the larger cause of religious 
 eijuality, a young MetlKxlir.t minister 
 of vigorous intellect and marked per- 
 sonality, Rev. Egerton Ryerson, 
 known to a later generation as the 
 Superintendent of Education for 
 Upper Canada. His published "re- 
 view" of Dr. Strachan's sermon was 
 Wp but the beginning of an agitation 
 which united all "dissenters" to 
 make common cause for seculariza- 
 tion. 
 
 The Assembly Supports "Secularization."— The first 
 fruit of this agitation was the Act of 1831, already mentioned, 
 extending to all Christian ministers the right to perform the 
 ceremony of marriage. The ctmflict over the reserves was long 
 and bitter. In 1828 the assembly recommended that the proceeds 
 of the sale of the Clergy Reserves should be used to promote 
 general education, and this course they advocated down to the year 
 1831. By large majorities they passed resolutions in which the 
 legislative council refused to concur ; they passed bills which the 
 legislative council year after year rejected. In 1832 a bill was 
 introduced in the assembly to revest the reserves in the Crown 
 freed of all trusts, that is to say, to turn them into Crown lands 
 pure and simple. In 1832 and 1833 this bill passed its second 
 reading by large majorities, but for some reason proceeded no 
 further. In 1834 it passed in the assembly in spite of vigorous 
 opposition from the executive, but was rejected by the legislative 
 council. The action of the assembly during these sessions is the 
 more remarkable, as it was the same House whicli time and again 
 expelled the well-known reformer, William Lyon Mackenzie. 
 
 Rectories Created. — In 1835 the legislative council again 
 rejected a bill passed by the newly-elected reform assembly to 
 apply the reserves to purposes of education. The power to create 
 and endow rectories had, up to this time, not been acted upon ; 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 207 
 
 but now, in the very heat of the dispnto, Sir John Colbome created 
 forty-four rectories and on(l()we(l them with laiuls from the Clergy 
 lleserveB to the extent of seventeen thousand acres. This natunilly 
 added fuel to the flames, and the agibition went on with increased 
 bitterness. Shortly afterwards (181^7) came the outbreaks in the 
 two Canadas, and for a time the Clergy Reserves question was 
 overshadowed by other issues. 
 
 A Compromise Act. — Various efforts were made to settle 
 it, but without result until 1840, when what was intended as a 
 compromise Act was passed ])y the Tapper Canadian parliament 
 at the instance of Lord Sydenham. By it the proceeds of the 
 sale of the reserves weie divided as follows : one-third to the 
 Anglicans ; one-sixth to the Presbyterians ; and the other half to 
 such other religious bodies as should apply for a share in it. The 
 Act, however, was disallowed, the judges in England having given 
 an opinion that, so far as it had assumed to deal with lands already 
 sold, the provincial parliament had exceeded its powers. An Act, 
 which modified the disi)()siti(m made of the reserves by the pro- 
 vincial Act so as to meet this objection, was introduced by Lord 
 John Russell and carried in the Imperial parliament. It dividec. 
 the proceeds of past smiles between the Anglicans and Presbyterians 
 exclusively ; the proceeds of future sales were to be divided in the 
 manner provided by the diwiUowed provmcial Act. Here the 
 matter rested for some years. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 LOWER CANADA TO 1837. 
 
 Charges Against Judges.— Even while the war of 1812 
 was in progress, and while the assembly of Lower Canada were, 
 as Neilson put it, "giving all they had and more than they had" 
 to aid in the defence of the province, they still kept up the 
 attack upon executive abuses. Stuart, who afterwards himself 
 became chief justice of the province, formally impeached the chief 
 justices, Sewell and Monk, for usurping legislative power. He 
 charged that, on pretence of regulating the practice of the courts, 
 they had increased official fees, thus making law-suits a means of 
 
208 
 
 History of Canada. 
 
 oppression and ronderinj^ it diHiciilt for huinble suitors to o})tain 
 justice. Tlie ussunibly (1814) sustained Stuart and voted funds to 
 pay his expenses to p]iigland to support tlie charges before the 
 coloni;;! office. The k^gislative council threw out the item. They 
 also rejected a bill jtasscd by t)ie assembly to appoint a permanent 
 agent for the [)rovhice in Lond«)n. This bill was i)assed ahnost 
 annually by the asscudjly and as regularly rejected by the legis- 
 lative council, who took the ground that the governor was the 
 only proper channel of connnunication between the i)rovince and 
 the home authorities. There was thus a one-sided investigation 
 by the coh)nial secretary into the charges against the judges, and 
 they were accjuitted of all wrong-doing. When a message to this 
 effect was cor.nnunicated to the assembly by Sir Gordon Drum- 
 niond, much dissatisfaction was expressed. Drunnnond thereupon 
 dissolved parliament, with an expressicm of regret that after the 
 decision of the colonial office the assembly should "again enter 
 on the discussion." 
 
 Papineau — Neilson. — In 1815 the newly-elected assembly 
 chose as its speaker a young man, twenty-six years old, who was 
 destined to take a foremost place in 
 the history of his [)rovince — Louis 
 Joseph Papineau. He had a hand- 
 some face and a striking figure ; and, 
 through his fiery ehxpience, he soon 
 became the idol of his compatrit^ts. 
 For many years he had associated 
 with him in the assembly the warm- 
 hearted Scotchman to whom reference 
 has frequently })een made — John Neil- 
 son. Papineau was impatient for im- 
 mediate reform of all abuses. Neilson, 
 e([ually earnest for reform, had greater 
 political sagacity, and was content to 
 advance step by step. For many years 
 they w^orked together, until finally, 
 
 when Papineau declined to accept concessions from the colonial 
 office because they did not, in his opinion, go far enough, Neilson 
 withdrew his support, and Papineau rushed into rebellion. 
 
 Sherbrooke Conciliatory.— In 1816 Sir J. C. Sherbrooke 
 
 LOUIS JOSEPH PAPINEAU. 
 
niSTOHV OF CANADA. 209 
 
 bccamo governor. Tho eilnctioiis hud resultod in tlui rt'turii of 
 an HH.s(.!nil)ly l)unfc ujion Httju'kinj,' otHcial iihusi's, |»;irtii;ulfirly thoso 
 connectod with the adininist ration of juHtico. The governor waa 
 instructud to dissolve the House again if necessary, but, in pre- 
 ference, to interpose "the tinuness and go(»d dispositions of the 
 legislative council." Sherhrooke reported that there was no hoi)e 
 (»f a ch/inge. lie urged, therefore, that Chief Justice Sewell 
 should be superannuated ; that a colonial agent should bo ap- 
 pointed ; and that Papineau should be niado a member of the 
 legislative council. This, he saitl, would gain for that body some 
 measiu'e of ])ublic contidence. Sherbrooke's policy of conciliation 
 was not entirely adopted, though the elder l*a[)ineau and the 
 Roman Catln)lic Jiishop of Quebec were ap[)ointed to the legis- 
 lative council. Attacks upon the judges still continued, and the 
 governor apparently despaired of reconciling tho dis[)utes. At 
 his own rocpiest he was recalled (1817), and was succeeded by 
 the Duke of Richmond. 
 
 The Civil List.— Meanwhile offices liad T)een multiplied in the 
 jn'ovince, and the revenues at the side disposal of the executive 
 were not now sufficient to pay all tho officials. When called up<m, 
 in 1811), to make up the deficiency, tho assembly insisted upon 
 revising the whole civil list, in order, as they said, U) see how it 
 was that a deficiency had arisen. They pruned vigorously, and 
 adopted a "Supply Bill" which, if accepted by tho legislative 
 council, would have wiped out several sinecure offices. It would 
 also ha\^o reduced the salaries of many other officials. The upper 
 chamber, however, rejected the bill upon a ground wdiich sounds 
 strange to us in these days. Tho assembly, they siiid, had no 
 right "to prescribe to the sovereign the number and (quality 
 of his servants, and what exact wages he should pay to each." 
 
 This financial question was for many years the chief bone of 
 contention in Lower Canada. It Avas no mere theoretic reform 
 the assembly desired. The more tho expenses of tho executive 
 staff could bo reduced, the more would there be available for 
 purposes of public improvement. Year after year they attacked 
 tho estimates, cutting off here and reducing there, and year after 
 year tho legislative council rejected their bills. It would take too 
 long to follow this contest through all its phases. The remedy in 
 the hands of the assembly was to refuse supply altogether when 
 15 
 
210 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 their views as to how that supply should be spent were contempt- 
 uously ignored. The Duko of Richmond died in 1819. Next 
 year the Earl of Dalhousie came from Nova Scotia to assume the 
 government, holding office until the year 1828. During all this 
 period the financial question was ever to the front. The assembly, 
 indeed, several times refused supplies. In their anxiety to carry 
 their point, they even neglected, at times, their proper legislative 
 functions, and works of puljlic im})rovement were delayed. 
 
 The Union Project of 1822. — Upper Canada was a loser 
 by this strife. She was entitled to a portion of the duties collected 
 upon g(jods imported into the lower province, many of which were, 
 of course, simply on tlieir way to the upper. The existing agree- 
 ment was allowed to expire and no new one could be arrived at. 
 The English-speaking minority in Lower Canada were not slow 
 to attribute the troubles of the province to the French-Canadian 
 majority, representing them as hostile to British immigration 
 and British trade. The ruling minority would have been glad 
 to join hands with the English-speaking inhabitants of Upper 
 Canada. To this end a bill for the union of the two provinces 
 was (clandestinely, it is said) introduced into the British House 
 of Commons in 1822. Though rejected in that year it was ap- 
 parently the intention to re-introduce it in the following session, 
 and there was in consequence great excitement in Lower Canada. 
 Neilson characterized the bill as most unfair in several particulars. 
 On the basis of population Upjjer Canada was to be given too 
 large a number of members in the union assembly ; the property 
 qualification was too high ; and the use of the French language in 
 the proceedings of the assembly was to be abolished. Strange to 
 say, the legislative council by a narrow majority disapproved of 
 the union project. Upper Canada, too, opposed it, and the bill, 
 theref'n'e, was not again introduced. 
 
 Fin&.ncial Legislation in England. — But, although the 
 Union Bill was dropped, the British parliament came to the rescue 
 of the executive in L )wer Canada in a somewhat high-handed 
 way. Several revenue Acts of the provincial assembly, which 
 were about to expire, were continued for five years by an Ira- 
 jjerial enactment — the "Canada Trade Act." The result was 
 that the executive of Lower Canada had at their command all 
 the revenues under these provincial Acts in addition to the other 
 
HISTORY OF C\NADA. 211 
 
 regular revenues. True, they had no right to spend these moneys, 
 as the assembly had passed no appropriation bill, but they did 
 spend them nevertheless. By the Canada Trade Act the division 
 of the revenues between Upper and Lower Canada was also tixed. 
 
 Crisis of 1827. — The financial battle went on, session after 
 session, with little yielding on either side. In 1827 there came 
 a crisis ; the assembly refused all supply, and Dalhousie dissolved 
 parliament with strong expressions of disapproval. The elections, 
 conducted amid much excitement, proved disiistrous to the execu- 
 tive. By an overwhelming majority Papineau was again chosen 
 by the new House as its speaker, though his opponent was a 
 French-Canadian friendly to reform. Dalhousie declined to recog- 
 nize the assembly's choice. The assembly insisted and was at once 
 prorogued. Public meetings were held and committees appointed 
 in every district to procure signatures to petitions to England. 
 The executive, in a vain attempt to stop the agitation, resorted 
 to those oppressive measures — dismissals of militia officers and 
 press prosecutions — referred to in a previous chapter. They also 
 procured counter-petitions from the Eastern Townships, signed by 
 about ten thousand persons, who complained (1) of the want of 
 courts within their own limits, as a result of which they were 
 obliged to go for legal redress to Quebec, Three Rivers, or Mont- 
 real, where French law was administered in the French language ; 
 (2) that they had not as many representatives in the assembly as 
 their territorial extent should entitle them to send to that body ; 
 and (3) that the roads to the townships were bad through the fault 
 of the assembly, who did not want to encourage British settlers. 
 Their prayer was for union with Upi)er Canada. 
 
 Inquiry Before the British Parliament.— In 1828 a 
 committee of the British House of Connuons inquired into the 
 grievances set out in the petitions on both sides. As to the com- 
 plaint that French law was administered in the Eastern Townships, 
 the committee reported that ever since J 774 there had been great 
 uncertainty as to the real estate law there. An Imperial Act 
 passed in 1826 ("The Canada Tenures Act") had finally deter- 
 mined that English law should govern lands held "in free and 
 common socage." In the opinion of the committee, it was desir- 
 able that local courts should be established in the townships to 
 enforce that law. Every facility, too, should be given to those 
 
212 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 who desired to change the tenure of their lands from the seigneurial 
 to the English freehold system, and to this end the rights of the 
 Crown in seigneurial estates should l)e relin(j[uished. At the same 
 time, the conmiittee strongly disapproved of all attempts to deprive 
 Canadians of French extraction of their laws and privileges, as 
 secured to them by British Acts of iwirliament. 
 
 Representation. — Upon the questi(jn oi representation in the 
 assembly, the connuittee repn'ted in favor of the petitions from 
 the Eastern Townships. The double basis, of population and 
 territory, was, in their opinion, best suited to a young country 
 where various districts, as yet sparsely settled, were being rapidly 
 filled up. They pointed out that this system was in operation in 
 Upper Canada, and worked well there, as it gave the new settlers 
 a larger voice in i)ublic affairs. 
 
 Roads. — In reference to the complaint as to roads, the com- 
 mittee supported the provincial assembly. Large tracts of land in 
 the Eastern Townships had been granted to officials in the pro- 
 vince, who had bound themselves to provide for their cultivation, 
 but had entirely neglected to do so. The legislative council had 
 persistently rejected bills passed by the assembly to lay a tax on 
 these lands to aid road-making in the townships. The assembly 
 had, in fact, Neilson said, voted nearly £100,000 since the war of 
 1812 for road improvement, but "it all did no good." " The road 
 commissioners," he added, "constructed useless roads, all since 
 grown over, and roads to benefit their own large grants. The 
 executive had the spending of the money, and no account was 
 properly kept. Some of these roads back into the townships 
 might have done some good had it not been for the reserves and 
 the absentee owners preventing settlement.". Neilson somewhat 
 warmly denied that the assembly desired to prevent British sub- 
 jects from settling in the province. 
 
 Charges against the Family Compact. — The other 
 petitions were signed by about eighty-seven thousand persons, 
 resident in the seigneuries — largely, of course, French-Canadian, 
 though by no means entirely so. They compLiined of the arbitrary 
 conduct of the governor, of his having applied public money 
 without legal appropriati<m, and of his violent prorogations and 
 dissolutions of the asseml)ly. Above all, they complained that the 
 Family Compact of Lower Canada had, through the legislative 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 213 
 
 council, persistently rejected useful measures passed by the 
 assembly. A short statement of the bills rejected will serve to 
 show the various measures of reform for which the assembly had 
 contended, thus far unsuccessfully. Theso were (besides numerous 
 supply bills) bills for education ; for municijjal government ; for 
 law reform — particularly as to juries ; for increasing the repre- 
 sentation ; for securing the independence of the judges ; for the 
 trial of delinquent ofticiil« ''so as to insure a just responsibility 
 in high public offices v in the province;" and, lastly, for 
 appointing an agent for the province in London. 
 
 A Favorable Report. — The committee, in their report, did 
 not attempt to deal with the merits of the various bills rejected 
 by the legislative council. They struck at once to the root of the 
 matter by earnestly recommending (1) that the second chamber 
 should be reformed and made independent of the executive ; (2) 
 that all the revenues of the province (excepting the casual and 
 territorial) should be placed under the control and direction of 
 the assembly. That body, however, should first vote a permanent 
 Civil List for the governor, the members of the executive council, 
 and the judges, so that these officials should have fixed salaries 
 assigned them, and not be dependent upon annual votes. The 
 action of the executive in spending moneys without legal appro- 
 priation w^as severely criticised. 
 
 Attitude of the Assembly. — Upon this report nothing was 
 done by the Imperial parliament, but the colonial office evidently 
 tried to carry out its spirit. Dalhousie was transferred to India, 
 and Sir James Kempt came from Nova Scotia to take his place. 
 The press prosecutions were stopped. The dismissed militia officers 
 and magistrates were restored to their positions. Papineau's elec- 
 tion as speaker was recognized. To crown all, the assembly was 
 informed that control of the revenues would be given them upon 
 the terms mentioned in the report. This last measure of reform 
 could only be eflected by an Imperial Act, and, pending such legis- 
 lation, the Lower Canadian assembly passed an address to the 
 British parliament asking that various other reforms should be 
 granted before they should be called on to vote a permanent 
 Civil List even for the officials menti.med. In the meantime com- 
 parative harmony reigned, and many useful laws were passed 
 (1829-1830). The representation in the assembly was increased 
 
214 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 from fifty to eighty-four. Liberal provision was made for the 
 public service, but with the intimation tha it would not be 
 repeated if the reforms asked for were not conceded. In grants 
 for public improvetnents the assembly was almost lavish — for 
 docks at Montreal, for improvement of the navigation of the St. 
 Lawrence, for lighthouses, for public buildings, for road improvs- 
 ment (£38,000), and for education (£8,000). 
 
 Revenues Control Act, 1831.— In 1830 Lord Aylmer 
 became governor. A fresh election resulted in the return of 
 many English-speaking members, some of whom were on the 
 popular side. In the matter of reform in the legislative council. 
 Kempt had reported against any organic change. He suggested 
 merely that a few independent members should be added — 
 one or two of them from the popular party. The assembly, 
 in the spirit of the report of 1828, passed a bill to exclude 
 judges from both councils, but the legislative council rejected it. 
 This, apparently, led the assembly to take a firm stand against 
 settling the Civil List until the reform in the council had been 
 carried out. In 1831 the necessary Imperial Act was passed to 
 transfer control of all provincial revenues (except the casual and 
 territorial) to the provincial assembly. The colonial office, how- 
 ever, insisted that before assent could be given to any provincial 
 bill to appropriate these revenues, a Civil List should be voted 
 which would place about £26,000 per annum at the disposal of 
 the executive. At the same time, the legislative council was 
 changed ; certainly for the better, though the executive still 
 controlled a clear majority. 
 
 A Division in the Reform Ranks. — At this point, a 
 difference of opinion showed itself clearly in the reform ranks. 
 The extremists, headed by Papineau, and forming a majority ii 
 the assembly, insisted upon a full measure of reform at once. 
 The moderate wing, headed by Neilson, and comprising a number 
 of influential French-Canadians, favored the immediate acceptance 
 of the Crown's offer. They urged that such a large measure of 
 control over the revenues would enable the assembly to enforce 
 reform from within the province, instead of taking it as a boon 
 from the Imperial authorities. The extremists, however, declined 
 to yield ; and the contest with the executive and the colonial office 
 became at once decidedly bitter. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 215 
 
 A Five Years' Deadlock.— The change in the composition 
 of the legislative council had not resulted satisfactorily, for that 
 body still persisted in rejecting bills passed by the assembly by 
 large majorities. An agitation, therefore, sprang up in favor of 
 making the second chamber elective. This innovation the colf)nial 
 office lirmly refused to sanction, and the action of the legislative 
 councii in rejecting sup})ly bills passed by the assembly without 
 a Civil List provision was approved of. The result of it all was 
 that for five years (1832-183'7) no supplies were granted. Lord 
 Stanley, who in 1833 replaced Lord Goderich as colonial secretfiry, 
 was more unyielding than his predecessor. He refused peremp- 
 torily to accede to the demand for an elective council, and 
 intimated that it might be found necessary to recast the consti- 
 tution of Lower Canada if the deadlock continued. 
 
 The Ninety-two Resolutions. — In 1834 the assembly 
 passed the famous ninety-two resolutions, the burden of which 
 was that a systematic exclusion of French-Canadians from office 
 was carried out in the government of the province, and that the 
 only satisfactory remedy for grievances was the making of the 
 second chamber elective. The governor, Lord Aylmer, reported 
 that the country was quiet and that the clamor was confined to the 
 politicians. A new election, however, kept up the excitement, 
 and the new assembly was more with the extremists than the 
 old. Even the constituencies of the Eastern Townships declared 
 for Papineau, who now went .so far as to advocate a boycott of 
 British goods as a means of putting pressure upon the colonial 
 office. At this same time an election was in progress in Upper 
 Canada, and committees were appointed to conduct a correspond- 
 ence between the reformers m the two provinces. 
 
 An Imperial Comniission Sent Out. — In 1835 the 
 Melbourne ministry again took office in England. It included 
 the leading men who had been instrumental in passing the great 
 British Reform Bill of 1832. The subject of colonial grievances 
 was taken up, but it soon became apparent that the British 
 parliament was not yet prepared to concede the principle that 
 the officials of a colony should be responsible to the people of 
 the colony. Nor was the idea of an elective second chamber then 
 acceptable. Lord Aylmer, however, who had been altogether too 
 overbearing in his dealings with the Lower Canadian ac^cmbly. 
 
216 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 was recalled. Three commissioners — Lord Gosford (governor), 
 Sir Charles Grey, and Sir James Gipps — were sent out to investi- 
 gate and rejjort upon the state of the province. Somr xeform in 
 details was effected by the new governor ; some officials were 
 dismissed ; and some appointments to office were made from 
 among the more moderate reformers. But the assembly decided 
 to await the commissioners' report, and declined to grant supplies 
 for more than six months. Should the conmiissioners' report 
 be unfavorable to the views of the extremists, a crisis seemed 
 inevitable. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 UPPER CANADA (1815-1837). 
 
 Rise of a Reform Party. — In Upper Canada the Family 
 Compact endeavored to stem the rising tide of opposition by a 
 harsh use of all the terrors of the law and all the powers of 
 patronage. For many years, indeed, their influence was such as 
 to ensure the return to the assembly of a friendly majori^ y. Thus, 
 to a large extent, the control of legislation was added to iheir 
 other powers. In 1822 they secured the passing of a law to 
 disqualify the elder Bidwell, whose opposition in the assembly 
 had angered them, from being elected to that body. They also 
 tried — for a short time, indeed, successfully — to extend the dis- 
 qualification to his more celebrated son, Marshall S. Bidwell, 
 afterwards speaker of the assembly. At the general election of 
 1824 a majority of the members elected were of the popular, or 
 Reform, party. 
 
 Efforts for Reform Thwarted.— In Upper Canada the 
 revenues at the disposal of the executive were quite sufficient to 
 pay official salaries and provide for the administration of justice. 
 This first Reform assembly, therefore (1824-1828), could do very 
 little beyond passing resolutions upon grievances. They adopted, 
 amongst others, an address to the Crown upon the question of the 
 Clergy Reserves and King's College charter. At the general elec- 
 tion of 1828 the Reformers were again successful. Bidwell was 
 chosen speaker, and a vote of want of confidence in the executive 
 government of the provmce was passed ; without any effect, how- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 217 
 
 ever, upon the ruling faction. In this assembly William Lyon 
 Mackenzie appears for the first time as a member of parliament, 
 and his energetic prcjbing of aliases soon brought him into promi- 
 nence. One of the reforms persistently urged by him was in 
 respect to the posted service. This dei)artment was not considered 
 ;i colonial department at all, but was controlled directly from 
 England. Postage charges were high, as Mackenzie had found in 
 connection with the distribution of his newspaper, and the service 
 was very poor. This assembly, like its predecessor, could effect 
 no legislative reform. It was the exception rather than the rule 
 that a bill passed by it passed also in the legislative council. In 
 1829 a committee on the state of the province adopted thirty-one 
 resoluticms, from which can be gathered what reforms were par- 
 ticularly dt sired. The Upper Canadian assembly, like that of the 
 lower province, wanted an agent in England. Entire control of 
 the revenue, religious equality, the independence of the judiciary, 
 libel law amendment with a view to stopping the too frequent 
 prosecutions, a check on pensicm abuses, these were the chief 
 reforms mentioned in the resolutions. 
 
 The "Everlasting Salaries Bill."— The death of George 
 IV. having dissolved the House, a new election (18.30) resulted in 
 the return of a clear majority favorable to the Family Compact. 
 Among reform leaders Robert Baldwin was beaten in York, and 
 Rolph and Matthews in Middlesex. Mackenzie, however, was 
 re-elected. To this assembly came the offer— of which, as we 
 have seen, Lower Canada failed to take advantage — to surrender 
 to the assembly control over all revenues (excej^t the casual and 
 territorial) in return for a fixed Civil List. In Upper Canada the 
 offer was accepted and a permanent Civil List of £6,500 was voted. 
 The increased control thus gained by the assembly does not seem 
 to have been fully appreciated at the time, for the Civil List Act 
 was denounced as the "Everlasting Salaries Bill." An Act 
 which met with a larger measure of popular approval was one 
 providing for the establishment of district agricultural societies, 
 to each of which a grant was promised of £100 for every £50 raised 
 by local subscri})tion. 
 
 Petitions to the Reform Ministry in England. — At 
 this time a Reform ministry held power in England, and much 
 was evidently expected of it by colonial reformers. Public 
 
218 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 meetings were held throughout T'^^pper Canada, and petitions were 
 largely signed asking the Imperial authorities to provide a better 
 system of colonial government. Lord Durham afterwards in his 
 celebrated report gave the reform leaders of Upper Canada credit 
 for their appreciation of the true point for attack, namely, the 
 irresponsible executive council. In the petiticms now carried to 
 England by William Lyon Mackenzie, the various reforms desired 
 in the province were set forth : — control of all provincial revenues ; 
 reform in the Crown Lands office ; secularization of the Clergy 
 Reserves ; municipal government ; law reform ; and the exclusion 
 of judges, ecclesiastics, and placemen from both branches of 
 parliament. But, as a means to these ends, it was insisted that 
 responsible government should be established. 
 
 Mackenzie Expelled from the Assembly.— During the 
 last parliament the g(wernment newspapers had indulged in 
 the most violent attacks upon the assembly. The lieutenant- 
 governor, Sir John Colborne, a staunch supporter of the executive, 
 had publicly acknowledged "with thanks" the receipt of an 
 address from certain "gentlemen of Durham " in which the reform 
 majority in that assembly were spoken of as "a band of factious 
 demagogues." Now, in order to get rid of their most formidable 
 opponent in the House, the privileges of the assembly were 
 illegally invoked by the executive party, Mackenzie had pub- 
 lished in his paper two articles criticising the action of the 
 majority of the House. Compared witli articles in the govern- 
 ment press of that day, or even with articles which now appear 
 daily in our newspapers, Mackenzie's attack was mild. It was, 
 nevertheless, voted a libel upon the House and a breach of 
 privilege, and Mackenzie was expelled from the assembly (Decem- 
 ber, 1831). 
 
 Four Tim.es Re-elected. — York County promptly re-elected 
 him and presented him with a gold medal. He again took his 
 seat, but soon published another article in general condemnation 
 of the neglect of the assembly to further measures of reform. 
 Thereupon he was again expelled (January, 1832), and declared 
 incapable of sitting in the House. He was a second time re- 
 elected, but the session closed before he could take his sent. 
 When parliament next met, Mackenzie was in England. Tlie 
 assembly, nevertheless, declared his seat vacant (November, 1832), 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 219 
 
 and a third time he was re-elected, this time by acchimation. 
 Again a new election was ordered and again he was returned by 
 acclamation. Upon presenting himself at the House he was not 
 at first permitted to take the oaths, and was ejected as a stranger 
 ))y the sergeant-at-arms ; afterwards, although allowed to take the 
 oaths, he was forcibly ejected in pursuance of a fresh resolution 
 of expulsion. 
 
 The Family Compact Protests. — Mackenzie so far suc- 
 ceeded in his mission to England that the colonial secretary, 
 Lord Goderich, sent instructions to the lieutenant-governor (1832) 
 to concede certain of the reforms asked for, and to dismiss the 
 ('rown officers (Boulton and Hagerman) for insisting up(m the 
 expulsion i)roceedings after having received official notice that the 
 colonial office did not approve of them. In hot anger the Family 
 Compact threatened that "a new state of political existence " would 
 have to be sought for if Downing Street persisted in interfering 
 with their management of the afl:airs of the colony. Having the 
 assembly with them, they displayed a zeal for self-government 
 which would have done credit to the most advanced reformer. An 
 Act respecting the Bank of Upper Canada — a thoroughly political 
 machine in which the government and its officials held most of 
 the stock — had been disallowed in England, and the language of 
 the protest against tliis disallowance is admirable. It indicated 
 the true relation which should exist between Great Britain and 
 her colonies, as recognized at the present time. * ' We humbly 
 submit," they said, "that no laws ought to be, or rightfully can 
 be, dictated to or imposed upon the people of this province to 
 which they do not freely give their consent through the consti- 
 tutional medium of representatives chosen by and accountable to 
 themselves." Had the Family Compact been equally anxious to 
 see the will of the assembly carried out when it differed from their 
 own, the struggle for political liberty would never have been 
 necessary. 
 
 A Retrograde Movement.— By other methods, of a less 
 open character, the influence which Mackenzie had gained wdth 
 Lord Goderich was undermined. Lord Stanley, who in 1833 
 became colonial secretary, restored Hagerman to his position, 
 and appointed Boulton to the chief -justiceship of Newfoundland. 
 Lord Stanley's policy was also in other respects less favoiable 
 
220 IIISTOllY OF CANADA. 
 
 than that of his predecessor to the cause of colonial reform, 
 and, though the election of 18.'i4 resulted in favor of the reformers 
 of Upper Canada, they were unable to make any headway against 
 executive misgovernment, which now apjiarently had the support 
 of the colonial ofHce. About this time the British radical, Hume, 
 wrote a letter in which he sj)oke of the evil eft'ect upcm the colonies 
 of the "baneful domination" of England. Mackenzie published 
 the letter in his newspajjcr with api)arent approval, and at once 
 the cry of disloyalty was vehemently raised against him. 
 
 The Celebrated "Seventh Report."— At the general 
 election i^f 18.'i4 Mackenzie was of course re-elected, and the new 
 assembly expunged the whole record of the proceedings against 
 him from the journals of the House as subversive of the rights 
 of electors. In the first session, also, the famous "Seventh 
 Report of the Committee on Grievances " was adojjted by the 
 House, and an address founded on it was sent to England. It 
 discussed at length the various grievances under which the province 
 labored. It pointed out that it was useless to withhold supplies 
 as a means of forcing reform The large civ'l list granted in 
 perpetuity some years before (1831), added to the casual and 
 territorial revenues, supplied the executive with all the means 
 necessary to pay the official stafl:', over which, therefore, the 
 assembly could exercise no control. The composition of the 
 legislative council was also complained of. The prayer of the 
 address was that the legislative council should be made elective ; 
 that municipal government should be established throughout the 
 province ; that the post-office should be surrendered to colonial 
 control ; and that, above all, the executive council should be made 
 responsible to the assembly. 
 
 A Favorable Reply. — The reply to this address came in 
 the shape of instructions from the colonial secretary to the new 
 lieutenant-governor, Sir Francis Bond Head. Upon the vital 
 question of executive responsibility there was no concession, but 
 in some other respects the instructions gave satisfaction to the 
 reformers of the province. In the exercise of the patronage of 
 the Crown, natives and residents were to have the preference. 
 Appointments to offices worth over £200 per annum were alone to 
 be reserved for Imperial approval. All useless offices were to be 
 cut oflf, and the salaries attached to others reduced. While pen- 
 
mSTOllY OF CANADA. 221 
 
 sions already gruntod .sliduld bo hold inviolate, tlio scale for the 
 future .should be settled upon a moderate basis. The a[»i)ointnieut 
 of a board to audit j)ublio accounts was authorizod, though the 
 governor was allowed a discretion as to laying those acccnnits before 
 the assembly, if to do so would, in his opinion, bo dotrimentid to 
 the public service. 
 
 Sir F. B. Head Disappoints Reformrrs. — The reformers 
 of upper Canada expected nuich from Sir Francis Bond Head, who 
 had been appointed by tlie Melbourne ministry in England, and 
 was described as himself a "tried reformer." Toward the end of 
 February, 18,'30, he appointed to the executive council three well- 
 known members of the popular ])arty, Baldwin, Dunn, and 
 Rolph ; and men began to think that a now era had dawned. 
 The lieutenant-governor, however, insisted that he alone was 
 responsible for the executive government of the province, and 
 that he was, therefore, under no oljligation to consult the members 
 of his council. Early in Marcli, without any i)revious intiniaticr: 
 to tlioni of his intention, he refused the Crown's assent to a bill 
 which had passed both }>ranchos (jf parliament. Thereupon the 
 executive council resigned ; the majority, it is said, availing them- 
 selves of this means of getting rid of their reform colleagues. The 
 Family Compact vigorously applauded the lieutenant-governor's 
 firm stand, and he at once threw himself into their hands. A new 
 executive council was appointed, exclusively from that party. The 
 assembly promptly passed a vote of want of confidence in the new 
 council and refused to grant supplies. Amid much excitement the 
 lieutenant-governor dissolved the assend>ly. 
 
 The Election of 1836. — Into the election which ensued 
 Sir F. B. Head threw himself with the utmost vigor, and, as 
 was afterward said, "adroitly turned the issue." In reply to 
 tlattering addresses he delivered the most inflammatory harangues, 
 denouncing Mackenzie and the other po})ular leaders as traitors to 
 British ct)nnection. Hume's letter was paraded as the platform of 
 the reformers. Actual grievances were quite ignored. We have 
 Lord Durham's authority for saying that the election was unfairly 
 conducted ; that all the powers of the executive were brought into 
 play to secure a favorable result for the ruling faction. The con- 
 stituencies were told in the most unblushing fashion that their 
 claim to receive benefits from the executive would depend upon 
 
222 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 thoir olecfcing govenunent cundidjiteH ; hunco tho name by which 
 tho aHHombly, thuH olocto<l, whh known — "tho broud-and-hutter 
 l)ailiaiiiont. " Tho losidt was that the lofonnerH were utterly 
 r(»utod. Mackenzie, liidwell, Lount, I'erry, MatthewH, and other 
 leading men of the party were defeated, and in the new aHsenibly 
 the Family Compact held complete control. An Act was passed 
 (18.'i7) to prevent the death of the sovereign operating as a 
 dissolution of parliament— a })erfectly proper measure in principle, 
 but one which, in the j)recarious stiite of the king's health at that 
 time, was regarded as an attempt to lengthen the existence of this 
 friendly usaembly. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK (1815-1837). 
 
 "Military Settlements. "—In New x^runswick and Nova 
 Scotia there was very little agitsiticm for radical reform in the 
 system of government until after 18.30. Tliere was, indeed, on 
 tlie part of the assemblies in both provinces a contiimal effort to 
 remedy individual abuses which grew out of the rule of the Family 
 Compact, but as late as 1836, Joseph Howe, of Nova Scotia, com- 
 plained that very little had been effected. Tlu record of events 
 in New Brunswick still continues meagre. The province had no 
 resident lieutenant-governor from Carleton's departure in ISOli 
 until the appointment of Major-Gcneral George Stracey Smyth in 
 1817, the government in the interval beins^ administered by the 
 successive presidents of the council. At the close of the war of 
 1812 a large number of disbanded soldiers were settled on the 
 St. John River in what is now the county of Victoria. These 
 "military settlements," as they were called, were formed not only 
 to forward the development of the country but also to protect the 
 frontier of the province and to facilitate communication with the 
 two Canadas. The census of 1824 showed the total population of 
 the province to be nearly 75,000. 
 
 The Assembly Asserts Itself. — During the time of 
 Lieutenant-Governor Smyth (1817-1823) the assembly showed a 
 strong disposition to assert its right to control financial matters. 
 In a commendable effort to prevent the too rapid exhaustion of the 
 
HlSTOllV OF CANADA. 223 
 
 ]»ine timber of the province, regtilutioiis were framed by the 
 lieuteiumt-governor and Iuh council, under which a duty of one 
 shilling j)er ton was laid upon all pine cut upon Crown lands. 
 The aHHcuibly j)rotented that tluH waH a moHt injurious tax upon 
 one of the stajjle counuo<lities of the Province. 'Diis was in 1819, 
 and from that time until his sudden death in 182.'^ the lieutenant- 
 governor was in perpetual dilHculties with the assend)ly over 
 iiKiney matters. For his efforts on behalf of education, however, 
 he received the thanks of the assend)ly. Both in New Brunswick 
 and Nova Scotia what was known as the Madras system was 
 introduced, and the results are reported to have been phenomenal. 
 
 Agriculture Improved.— In 1824 Sir Howard Douglas 
 hecame lieutenant-governor. He was an energetic officer and 
 did much to encourage agrictilture, road-building and other public 
 improvements. Before his time the fisheries, lumbering, and 
 shi[)-building had so engrossed attention that agriculture was 
 neglected, and the province dei)ended upon foreign huids for 
 its food supply. The lieutenant-governor's protest did much 
 good in bringing about a change in this respect. Sir Howard 
 Douglas was also a man of letters. It was largely owing to his 
 efforts that the college at Fredericton was placed upcm a more 
 etticient basiK. 
 
 A Destructive Fire. —In 1825 occurred the great fire upon 
 tile Miramichi. The lumber industry had drawn many immigrants 
 to this region, and for one hundred miles along the river bank 
 there was a thickly populated strijj of territory backed by dense 
 forests. It contained four thriving towns and many villages. All 
 were wiped out by the conflagration. Nearly two hundred people 
 perished, and the j)ecuniary loss was not less than a milli(m dollars. 
 The calamity caused great distress, and an appeal for aid drew 
 forth a generous response from the other provinces and from the 
 United Stiites. 
 
 Boundary Trouble with Maine.— In 1827 there was much 
 excitement in the province over the attempt of ohe governor of 
 Miiine to assert the jurisdiction of the United States over the 
 territory then still in dispute between Maine and New Brunswick. 
 Commissioners had been appointed under the Treaty of Ghent 
 (1814) to settle the ownership of the islands in Passamaquoddy 
 Bay and the boundary line beyond the head waters of the St. 
 
224 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Croix. The dispute as regards the islands was settled in favor 
 of the British contention, and all the islands, except Moose (now 
 Eastport) and Frederick, became indisputably a part of New- 
 Brunswick. As to the line beyond the head of the St. Croix the 
 connnissioners had failed to agree. Now apparently the goveriKn- 
 of Maine was about to occupy the ground in dispute to the utmost 
 extent claimed by the United States government. A band (-f 
 filibusters, under one Baker, entered the Madawaska region and 
 hoisted the Stars and Stripes. Baker was promptly arrested, taken 
 to Fredericton, and lined. The difficulty was settled for a time by 
 an agreement between Great Britain and the United States to refer 
 the boundary question to the King of the Netherlands. 
 
 The Assembly Desiree to Control all Revenues.— In 
 1831 Sir Archibald Campbell became lieutenant-governor of New 
 Brunswick. He upheld the Family Compact of that province in 
 their most extreme pretensions, and during his time the opposition 
 in the assembly was regularly organized. The chief cause of com- 
 plaint was the management by the executive of the Crown lands 
 and the timber upon them. From these, large "casual and terri- 
 torial" revenues were derived, out of which extravagant salaries 
 were paid to government officials, leaving, however, a balance for 
 
 general jjurposes. The assembly do- 
 sired to reduce official salaries and to 
 improve the management of the Crown 
 Lands department. In both of these 
 ways the proceeds available for pur- 
 poses of general improvement would, 
 in their o})inion, be largely increased. 
 With the control of the revenues, the 
 vexed questicmof "quit-rents," which 
 here, as in the other Maiitime Prov- 
 inces, had long caused much agitati< »n, 
 would also find speedy solution. 
 
 Control Conceded. — For some 
 years the officials were able by secret 
 influence iii England to thwart the 
 efforts of the assembly. In 1834, how- 
 ever, Lemuel A. Wilmot became a member of that body, and soon 
 made his influence felt upon the popular side. In 1836 he and 
 
 HON. L. A. WILMOT. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 225 
 
 William Crane were appointed delegates to the colonial office to 
 press the views of the assembly. Lord Glenelg settled with them 
 a civil list, in return for which the casual and territorial revenues 
 of the province were to be surrendered to the assembly's control. 
 This civil list, though extremely liberal, was voted by the assembly ; 
 l)ut the executive coinicil, dissatished with the scale of salaries, 
 induced the lieutenant-governor to withhold the Crown's assent to 
 it until one of their number could visit the cohmial office. To 
 counteract such influence, the asseml)ly reappointed Crane and 
 VVilmot as delegates to England. They succeeded so well (m their 
 seccmd mission that Sir Archibald Cam])bell was recalled and Sir 
 John Harvey aj)pointed in his place, with instructicms to assent to 
 the Civil List Bill. 
 
 "Responsible Government" not yet Demanded. — Ifc 
 is remarkable that while the New Brunswick assembly was thus 
 making rapid strides toward securing control over the administra- 
 tion of public ritfairs, the idea of a "responsible" executive council 
 was not favorably received. In 1837 a resolution was ado{)ted 
 by the assembly repudiating the claim "set up by another colony, 
 that the executive council should at all times be subject to 
 removal at the instance of the ]»opu]ar l)rancli." But, almost in 
 the same brca;h, they declared that "the executive council should 
 l)e composed of persons ])ossessing the confidence of t)ie country 
 at large." Evidently tliey were troubled by the same theoretical 
 difficulty which troubled many honest men, as well as the Im|)erial 
 authorities : the difficulty, namely, of a divided responsibility — 
 to the colonial office i>n the one hand, find to the provincial 
 assembly on the other. When convinced that ' ' responsible gov- 
 ernment " could be practically carried out in a colony, the reform- 
 ers of New Brunswick were cpiick to claim it. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA (1815-1837) 
 
 The Bar] of Dalhousie.— In Nova Scotia Sir J. C. Sher- 
 brooke was lieutenant-governor when the war of 1812 closed. 
 Upon his ap[)uintment to the governorship in 1816, and his 
 16 
 
226 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 consequeiib remoral to J,)uebec, the Earl of Dalhousie succeeded 
 hhii in Nova »Scotia. Four years later he, too, was in turn pro- 
 moted, and we liave ftlnaily seen what a stormy eight years ho 
 si)enb in L(»wer Canada. His four years in Nova Scotia (1810-1820) 
 were nuich less troubled, lliougli even here he evinced toward the 
 close of liis term great impatience with the assembly because of 
 its refusal <o ndo[)t his views on tlir (|nestion <»f road grants and 
 a provincial survey. Notvvitlistaiiding this little friction, D;d- 
 housie Avas regarded in Nova Scotia as a most able and useful 
 ofticer. The deitression in the trade of the Maritime Pn)vinces 
 which set in after the close of the war of 1812 led to a movement 
 for the improvement of agricultnre. Here, as in New Brunswick, 
 it had been somewhat neglecti-d for hnnbering and the coast 
 fisheries. The letters of the Hon. John Young, written under the 
 •nom (/(' phime of "Agricola," are frequently nuMitioned as atr^inLf 
 brought about tlie formation of an agricultural s<»ciety, of which 
 Dalhousie was patron, and to which the assembly made a liberal 
 grant. 
 
 Higher Education.— In 1805, after King's College, Windsor, 
 had received its charter as a sectaria ' college, the Rev. Dr. 
 Thomas McCulloch proposed that the college should l)e open to 
 all, but failed to secure the adoi)tion of his plan. He therefore 
 founded Pictou Academy as a private enterprise. In 181() an 
 Act of Incorporation was jirocured from the assembly, but in the 
 legislative council a clause was inserted that the trustees should 
 be either Anglican or Presbyterian. The etlect of this was to 
 make *'Pictou Academy" a Presbyterian institution. In 182(l a 
 provincial college was established at Halifax, and named, after 
 the lieutenant-govern* »r, Dalhousie College. An effort was made 
 to unite Dalhousie College with King's College, Init the Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, it is said, disapproved of the idea, and the effort 
 Avas unsuccessful. 
 
 Sir James Kempt. — In 1820, when Sir James Kempt became 
 lieutenant-governor, an order-in-council was passed iji England 
 re-annexing Cape Breton to Nova Scotia. This caused a gi-i-at 
 outcry ujxm the island, particularly from those officials for whom 
 satisfactory positions could not be found upon the amalgamatid 
 HtJifl". Legal redress was sought before the Privy Council in 
 England, but there the order-in-council was declared valid, and 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 227 
 
 the agitation at length suljsidod. During Keiupfs time tlie popu- 
 hition of No\a Scotia increased so rapidly that Boards of Location 
 were established t(j facilitate settlement, and there was a marked 
 effort to improve the road communicaticjn throughout the province. 
 Kempt, whose administration is described as "most eflicient," was 
 in 1828 promoted in his turn to the governorshij^, and of his rule 
 in Lower Canada mention has already been made, lie was suc- 
 ceeded in Nova Scotia by Sir Peregrine Maitland from Upper 
 Canada. 
 
 The Question of Quit-rents.— For many years the sub- 
 ject of quit-rents caused much agitation in the province. There 
 liad been no regular attempt by the Crown othcers to collect 
 tliem, and they had ceased to be considered a charge uj>on the 
 lands. In 1811 Receiver-General Uniacke took steps to enfovt^e 
 payment of arrears, which in many cases amounted to as nach 
 as the land was wortli. The assembly at once vigorously pro- 
 tested. In reply it was informed that the claim to (juit-rents 
 would be abandoned if a suitable endowment were voted to the 
 Anglican Church. This the asseml)Iy declined to do. During the 
 war of 1812 and for some years afterwards no active ste|) was 
 taken to enforce collection, though the claim was not relinquished. 
 Tn 1827, however, it was announced that all arrears were aban- 
 doned, but that, for the futurt^ payment wouhl l)e enforced and 
 the rents applied to local improvement. The assend)ly insisted 
 that the claim shoidd be abandoned in its entirety. After several 
 years of warm dispute the Crown in 1834 agreed to accept £2,000 
 per annum (to be a[)plied on tlie lieutenant-governor's salary) as 
 tlie price to be paid for the relincpiishment of the claim. It 
 was during the disputes over this question that the opposition 
 to the Family Compact became well organized. 
 
 The Barry Case. -In 1821> a somewhat exciting contest took 
 jilace between the assend)ly and Bany, one of its members, on 
 a t|uestion of privilege. Barry in debate used str(»ng hinguage 
 t'lwarl •> brother member, and was called upon by the House to 
 apologize. Declining to do so, he was suspeniled, and afterwards 
 was connnitted to gaol for attacking in the news})apers the action 
 of the assembly. Then was nnich popidar feeling over the matter, 
 paiticularly among Barry's constituents. H(;we in his newspaper, 
 the Nova Scotian, warmly defended the acti«.<n of the assembly (of 
 
228 illsToUV OF CANAbA. 
 
 vhich ho was not then a iiiuni))er) so far as Barry was concerned. 
 With equal warmth he disapproved of its action in reprimanding 
 at the bar of the House two editors who had in their papers 
 commented on the proceedings. Howe claimed for the press the 
 fullest liberty to discuss all public questions. 
 
 The Brandy Dispute. — In the following year a dispute 
 arose between the council (then both legislative and executive) 
 and the assembly. It was discovennl that owing to a clerical error 
 in the provincial Customs Act of 1826, a lower duty was being 
 collected upon brandy than had actually been voted. The assembly 
 passed the necessary bill to correct the error, but the council 
 declined to concur unless the duty upon ;i. number of other articles 
 was at the same time revised, manifestly in the interest of Halifax 
 merchants. The assembly insisted upon its right to sole control 
 over money bills. The council remained obdurate. The result- 
 was free trade in brandy and a loss to the province of £25,000 
 in revenue alone. The appropriation bill, moreover for the year 
 was not passed, and public improvement was thus ^itopped. 
 
 A Reform Assembly. — Just at this time a general election 
 (caused })y the death of George IV.) came on. The action of the 
 council was discussed throughout the province, and the people were 
 awakened to the necessity for a radical reform in the system of 
 government. An assembly was elected distinctly hostile to the 
 executive, and although Howe complained of a want of vigor 
 on the part of the popular leaders (S. G. W. Archibald, Beamish 
 Murdoch, and others) the line of reform was clearly laid down. 
 On the brandy question the council wisely gave way, and, in 18.S1, 
 passed the assembly's bill without amendment. Sir Peregrine 
 Maitland is s])oken of by Nova Scotian historians as utterly 
 wanting in decision of character and administrative capacity, a 
 view which is borne out by his record in Upper Canada, where 
 diu-ing his time the Family Compact ruled with a high hand. He 
 left for England in 1832, and for nearly two years the government 
 of Nova Scotia was administered by the senior member of the 
 council, Hon. T. N. Jeffrey. 
 
 The Question of Financial Control. — An attempt in 
 1833 to improve the banking system by estfiblishing a gold basis 
 for all bank-notes was frustrated by the council in the interests 
 of its banking members. In this same session, with a view to 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 229 
 
 putting an end to the dispute about quit-rents and to controlling 
 the coal mines of the province, the assembly passed resolutions 
 asking that entire control of the provinci^d revenues shcjuld be 
 given up to them. At this time, it nmst be remembered, the 
 Imperial government was in favor of surrendering the control of 
 colonial revenues to the colonial asseml)lies if the latter would 
 pass Acts to secure official salaries on a scale acceptable to the 
 colonial office. In U[)[)er Canada the oft'er had been promptly 
 acce[)ted by an assembly favorable to the official ])arty and with 
 little trou))le tm tlie (piestion of scale. In Lower Canada, what 
 moderate reformers had thought a fair oiler was rejected by the 
 extremists. New Brunswick, as we have seen, settled her civil 
 list in 18.'37, after a short, ccmtest. Tn Nova Scotia the struggle 
 was long and bitter. The officials of the jirovince had sufficient 
 influence with the colonial office to have the civil list arranged 
 upon so high a soale that the assembly for many years declined 
 to pass it. 
 
 Joseph Howe Attacks the Council.- — In 1834 Sir Colin 
 Campbell became lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia. In the 
 following year the })rosecution of Joseph Howe brought him so 
 prominently l)efore the })ublic as an ardent advocate of reform, 
 that at the general election o£ 18.'i0 he w as *i'eturned as one of 
 the mend>ers for Halifax County. In the assemldy he became 
 in a very short time the leader of the popular |)arty. At this 
 time the council, even while acting in its legislative capacity, sat 
 with closed doors. The assembly had from time to time passed 
 rcsoluti(ms against this secrecy, and in favor also of dividing the 
 council into executive and legislative branches. A resolution of 
 this character was passed early in the session of 1837 find com- 
 municated to the council. Their reply was so unyielding that 
 Howe determined at once to atbick them. To this end he pro- 
 posed twelve resoluticms in which the compositiim of the council 
 was gra])liically described and condemned. The council thereupon 
 threatened to stop public business if the resoluti(ms were not 
 rescinded, and, as the appropriation l)ill was not yet passed, the 
 })iisition W!W serious. Rather than cause this public inconvenience, 
 Howe moved that the obnoxious resolutions be rescinded, and 
 they were rescinded accordingly. 
 
 Reform in the Council Demanded.— Later in the session, 
 
280 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 however, uftor pecuniary jjrovisioii had been made foi- carrying on 
 the i)uhlic busine.ss for another year, an address to the Crown was 
 pji,ssed l)y the assembly reiterating the charges made against t 
 council. The prayer of the address is notaljle as disclosing the 
 uncertainty whicli then existed in the minds of colonial reformers 
 — excejtt ])crhaj)s in Upper Canachi- as to the exact method to be 
 adopt(;d to tuisurc responsible! government. "As a rcnuedy for 
 these grievances we implore your Majesty to grant us an elective 
 council; or to sei)arate the executive from the legislative council, 
 providing for .'.. just i'e|)resentation of ab the great interc^sts ot the 
 province in ii')th ; and, l)y the introduction into the f»»rmer of 
 somt! meud)e7s of the jtopuhir branch, and otherwise securing 
 responsibility to the (.!omm<»ns, confer u[)on the peo[)le of tiiis 
 province what tlmy value above all other possessions, the blessings 
 of the British const tution." However, when tmci! convinced that, 
 the British system of government through a " responsil)le" e.cecu- 
 tive Council or cabinet, was as feasible in a colony as in the 
 motherland, colonial reformers were (piick to demand it. 
 
 A Satisfactory Reply.— The rei)ly of Lc.rd (Jleuelg, the 
 colonial secretary, to tiie above address was ri'i;eived with nmch 
 satisfaction. Although he was not prepared fo concede the prin- 
 ciple <»f executive respc visibility to tiie assem!)Iy, he instructed Sir 
 Colin Cami)bell to divide the council, and to take care in forming 
 the ni!W councils to avoid all ai»[)earance of favor to sectional, 
 sectarian, or special commercial interests. The judgi^s were to be 
 entirely excluded from the executive council, and, as far as pos- 
 sible, from the legislative council. The claim of the assendily to 
 control the revenue was fully conceded, subject only to the settle- 
 ment of a proj ei- civil list. In Ni^va Sc(jtia, therefore, as in New 
 Brunswick, the reformers toward the close of 1837 were inclined to 
 be well satisfied with their prospects. 
 
 CIIAPTPIR XXXVI. 
 
 THE NORTH-WEST AND NEW CALEDONIA. 
 
 The Red River Settlement. —Meanwhile, in the great 
 North-AVest, Lord Selkirk's colony of Assiniboia on the Red 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 231 
 
 IJivor was still the only settlement. This colony — popularly 
 known jis tlie Selkirk or Red lliver settlement — hud a hard 
 struggle to establish a foothold. It was long the battle-groinul of 
 the rival fur-trading eompanies, and more than once during its 
 earlier years liad been entirely abandoned by the harassed settlers. 
 
 First Arrivals. -Tlie first settlers sent out l)y Lord Selkirk 
 arrived at lied Uiver in the year 1812, and Captain Miles 
 MeDonell, the colony governor, found himself at the head of 
 "eleven or twelve families to l)egin with." I'liese were largely 
 Irish, with a few Scotch from (jllasgow. In IHl'.i they were joined 
 by a company of Highlanders, victims of the "■Highland clear- 
 ances" alieady mcntiontxl. Fort Douglas, about a nule north of 
 flit- confluence of the Assini))oine and Jled rivers, was the head- 
 (jiiarters (»f the Huds(»n's liay Company, while the Nor'-Westers 
 had a post (Fort Uibraltar) at the junction of the two streams, 
 where Winnipeg now stands. The colonists were almost entirely 
 without the implements necessary for agriculture, but they were 
 freely su]>j)lied with arms and ammunition. This fact has been 
 [lut forward as showing that the Hudson's Bay Company — of 
 which Selkirk was now the leading member -had determined 
 to eject (heir rivals, and to this end, rather than in the interest 
 of settlement, had sent the C(»l»tnists to Red River. 
 
 The Rival Coiiipa.nies. Up to this time the rivali y of the 
 two companies, though keen, had not been unfriendly. Now, 
 liowever, the colony governor, claiming the soil of the Red River 
 country as Lord Selkirk's al)solute property under his grant from 
 tlie Hudson's Bay Company, issued a proclamati(»n (1814) f<jrbidding, 
 in the interests of the settlers, all export of provisi(jns. Several 
 seizures of Nor'-Wester stores took place, and in the fall formal 
 notice to quit the territory was given tt) the officers of that 
 Company. They retaliated by arresting Captjiin Miles MeDonell 
 and his sheriff and sending them to Montreal for trial on a charge 
 of stealing stores. During the absence of the governor, the 
 resident officer of the North- West Comi)any at Fort Gibraltar 
 induced the entire colony to migrate to Upper Canada. The 
 settlers had declined to take part in the cpiarrel between the two 
 companies and were glad to find quieter h.omes in the older 
 province. Their descendants are still to be found around LakQ 
 Simcoe and in some of the western counties of Ontario. 
 
232 HISTORY OB^ CANADA. 
 
 Seven Oaks. \n 1815 the Hiulson's Bay Company appointed 
 Robert Seiiii)lo governor-in-chief of the Northern Department of 
 Rupert's Land, and gave liim power to hold courts and to appoint 
 slierift's to enforce the com[)any'H rule in those regions. Ho arrived 
 at Red River in the autunm with a new colony governor and a 
 fresh supply of Scotch settlers from Kildonan, Sutherlandshire — 
 seventy-two in all. Fort Gibraltar and another Nor'-Wester ])ost 
 at Pembina were seized, and Duncan (\imeron, tlie resident otticer 
 above referred to, was sent a prisoner to Kngland. In order to 
 keep open the connuunication between Montreal and their more 
 westerly posts, the oflicers of the North-West Company took 
 decisive action. They gathered together a consideralde force, 
 (/anadian em})loyees of the company and half-breeds, and in .Fune, 
 1810, a lamentable collision took place at Seven Oaks, not far 
 from Fort Douglas, in which (lovernor Semple and about twenty 
 others lost their lives. The settlers, who had taken no part in 
 this aft'r.iy, surrendered Fort Douglas to the victorious Nor'- 
 vS esters, and, al)-\iidoning the settlement, started for Hudson 
 Bay, intending to return to Scotland. 
 
 Lord Selkirk Retaliates. -At this time Lord Selkirk him- 
 self was on his way from Montreal to the colony. He had with 
 him over one hundred s«ildiers, otHcers and men, of the dis- 
 banded de Meurons regiment, who were to become settlers. His 
 rivals of the North-West Coni[)any said that settlement was a 
 secondary consideration ; that Lord Selkirk's real purpose was to 
 emjdoy these soldiers in ejecting them, the Nor'- Westers, from 
 the territory. On his way up Lord Selkirk received news of 
 Seven Oak'i, and of the capture of Fort Douglas, He thereupon 
 seized the chief depot of the Nor'-Westers at Fort William, 
 arrested the leading partners, and sent them prisoners to Canada, 
 Proceeding onward tolled River, Selkirk reca})tured Fort Douglas, 
 and the Nor'-Westers in turn were driven from their })osts. The 
 settlers, on their way to Hudson Bay, heard the news and returned 
 again to their homes. 
 
 The T'wo Companies Unite. — Meanwhile the Lnperial 
 authorities had interposed to stop the strife, and, under instruc- 
 tions from Lord Bathurst, Sir J. C. Sherbrooke sent commissioners 
 to the North-West to enforce nmtual restitution. There was little 
 further friction, and after Selkirk's death in 1820 the rival com- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 233 
 
 paniea reached an agreement for union. The North- VVe.st Com- 
 pany transferred all its i)r<tf)erty to the older company, and its 
 partners became members of the latter. An Act was j)asHed by 
 tiie British parliament in 1821 by wliich all the ri_u;lits and i)rivi- 
 lefsjes of the two old comi)anies were conferred upon the new 
 company, which continued to be known as the Hudson's Bay 
 Company. All territory east and west of the Rocky Moimt-iins 
 iHtt included in the old charter was now cctuferred up(m the new 
 com})any, together with an exclusive right to trade therein for 
 twenty-one years. In 18.'J8 this exclusive trade license was con- 
 tinued for a further period of twenty-one years, i.e., to 1859. 
 
 International Boundaries. — Toward the I*acitic, New Cale- 
 donia was claimed by three groat powers — (Jreat T?ritain, the 
 United States and Russia. Hy the London Convention of 1818, 
 the boundary line between the United States and liritish territory 
 was fixed along the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude from the 
 Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. Beyond that range 
 the line was not then settled, but it was agreed that the Pacific 
 coast regitm should be "free and open" to the subjects of both 
 })()wers f(jr a period of ten years, a term which was afterwards 
 extended indefinitely. All this was to be without prejudice to 
 the claims of either l)arty to any part of the regi(m. For years 
 the negotiations went on, finally resulting in the Oregon Treaty 
 of 1846, by which the line along the forty-ninth parallel was 
 continued to the I*acific. 
 
 In 1825 Great Britain and Russia settled the line of demarcation 
 ])otween their respective territories on the l*acific coast of North 
 America. Shortly described, the line was to commence at the 
 southern point of Prince of Wales Island ; thence along Portland 
 Channel to a point on the mainland (the fifty-sixth parallel of 
 north latitude) ; thence along the summits of the mt)untain range, 
 which here runs close to the coast, to the intersection of the 
 tifty-six'th parallel with the one hundred and forty-first degree 
 i)f west longitude ; thence along this latter to the Arctic Ocean. 
 Wliere the mountain range should be found to be more than ten 
 miles from the sea, the line was to follow the curves (^f the coast. 
 In 1867 the United States purchased Alaska, as the Russian 
 territory was named, from the Russian government. Out of her 
 claims under this purchase have arisen the Behring Sea dispute 
 
234 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 and iho Alaska boundary ((uesticjn. The latter has arisen from 
 the very j,'eiieral la)i^'iia<,'e used in the treaty with Russia in 1825, 
 just mentioned. A joint boundary counnissiim is now (IHlMi) at 
 work making exact surveys of the region with a view to the tinal 
 settltnnent of our north-western boundary line. Tlie Bein-ing Sea 
 dispute nnist be discussed in a later chapter. 
 
 The Pacific Coast Pur Trade. After tlie close of the 
 war of 1812 tiie North-West Company held the exclusive control 
 of the fur trade beyond the mountains. After the uni(m of the 
 two couipanics in 1821, Fort (leorge (the (.Id Astoria) was aban- 
 doned for a better site higher up 
 tile Columbia Kiver, where a strong 
 ])alisaded and bastioned post was 
 established, and nauied Fort Van- 
 couver. It reuiained the head- 
 (piarters of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany in New Caledonia until the 
 'I'reaty of Oregon (1846) gave the 
 region <»f the lower Columbia to the 
 United States. Fort Victoria (for- 
 merly Fort (-amosun), on Van- 
 couver Island, was then made the 
 company's head<|uarters. During all these yeai.s the fur trade was 
 vigorously carrietl on, not only through the interior jjosts, but 
 also all along the coasts to Ala.skan territory. For many years, 
 indeed, the Hudson's Bay Company held a lease of the strip of land 
 at the south of Alaska. They carried on a protitable trade at all 
 times with the rival Russian- American Fur Company, to whom 
 they sold provisions in return for furs. 
 
 The Red River Settlement Acquires Stability. — At 
 the other extreme of the company's domain, Selkirk's Red River 
 settlement slowly acquired stability. While in the colony hi 
 1810, Lord Selkirk concluded a bargain with the Indian tribes of 
 the Red River region, by which, in return for an annual gift of 
 one hundred pounds of "good marketable tobacco" to each of the 
 two tribes (Crees and Salteaux), they transferred to him the 
 territory included in the colony. A free grant of one hundred 
 acres was made to each of the settlers, and Lord Selkirk promised 
 to send them a Presbyterian minister. The promise was not 
 
 BASTION, FORT VAN(JOUVEB. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 235 
 
 fulfilled, ami for many yt'ars tlu; Scotch HcttK'i'.s were without any 
 spiritual guide other than the Ant^lican chaplains of the Hudson's 
 iJay ('ouipany a..d the Kouian .'atholic bishop, l*rovenchei-, who 
 airived in JHll). The first effort toward educati(»n in Manitoba 
 was made in .1820, in which year the Jiev. Mi'. West stjirted u 
 school in the settlement. "^Fhe long rivalry hctwi-en t\w two com- 
 panies had brought them both to the verge of bankiuptcy. After 
 their union there was no longer n«'ed for the double staff, and 
 many were thus thrown out of employment The greati-r jwirt cjf 
 these — many (»f them half-breeds settled along th(! Ki-d Itiver, 
 aiul the colony moi-e than doubled its |)opulation. With liislio[) 
 l*rovenchi!r, the liist lloman Cutholic bisho[) <tf the North-West, 
 came a number of Fi'eneh-Cunadians fidui riowtu' Canada. The 
 d(! Meurons remained for a timi! in tlie colony, where they wei'e 
 joincid ])y other Swiss iunuigrants ; but after the great flood of 
 1820 they all migrate<l to the banks of the Mississii)[)i. 
 
 The Great West. -The governor of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany was now the energetic (Jeorge Simpson — afterwards Sir 
 <ji('orge Simpson — under whom the 
 ojierations of the company were [)ushed 
 far into the nol•th-w*^st, and stockaded 
 posts vviM'e built even on the banks of 
 the Yukon. Sir John Franklin and 
 other exphn'ers traversed the nortliern 
 wilds and gave to the world a larger 
 geographical knowledge of tliem. liut 
 the company made no effort toward 
 settlement, even on the fertile plains 
 of the west. On the contiary, in the 
 interest of their nKjncjpoIy they spread 
 tile report that the whole country was, 
 by reason of the cold, unfit for settle- 
 \mn\t. For many years to come, there- 
 fore, the colony of Assiniboia alone need 
 claim attention. It was now to a great extent cut off from Canada, 
 the fur being carried to Europe chiefly by way of Hudson Bay. 
 Montreal was sh<irn of its former glory, and Fort William, the old 
 storehouse and rendezvous of the Nor'-Wester partners, became a 
 mere trading post. 
 
 SIK (iKOROE SIIMPSOX. 
 
236 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Varying Fortunes The Company's Monopoly. -The 
 settlers, during tlie fourteen yefUH wliich followed the union of 
 the rival conipanieH, ex[)erienced many vicisHitudes of fortuiie. 
 During three HUcceHsive seasons (1818-1820) their cro[)s were 
 destroyed by grasshojjpers, which cai.':' u]»on them in swaruis 
 from the south. In 1821 seed wheat was obtained from the 
 Tnited States by Selkirk's executors, at great expense, and f«tr 
 some years apparently the colony [irospered fairly well. In 182<), 
 however, a griiat Hood upon the lied Uiver washed .away the 
 settlers' houses, destroyed their cro[)S, and left them to begin 
 the battle anew. But the great drawback to progress was the 
 company's monopoly, not merely of the fur trade, but of all 
 c(tnnnerce. Selkirk's executors, for a time, had supplied the 
 settlement with goods, but shortly after the unicm of the two 
 c<»mpanies this enterprise was given up, and the settlers were left 
 to procure their supiilies from the comi^any's post at Fort Garry 
 — the name by which the rebuilt Fort Gibraltar w^as thenceforth 
 known. The comp my charged what they thought proper for sup- 
 plies sold, and fixed to suit themselves the scale <^f prices f(jr what 
 they had to buy. They guarded their monoj)oly of the fur trade 
 with extreme jealousy. None but the company's men were allowed 
 to buy skins from the Indians. The He )tch settlers, who lived 
 chiefly by farming, were not much Jittected by this restriction upon 
 their fn;edt)m ; but the half-breeds, l)oth English and French, 
 chaf(;d under it, and finally, in 1835, broke out in open defi- 
 ance of the company's authority. 
 
 The Council of Assiniboia. — It was at this time that the 
 comjiany bought out the interest of the Selkirk heirs in the Red 
 River settlement. With a view to securing a more regular and 
 firm administration of affairs, they, in 1835, established in the 
 colony the Council of Assinibt)ia with legishitive and judicial 
 powers. This council was composed of the governor of Rupert's 
 Land, the colony governor, and other officials of the company; 
 but, though its members were "the wealthiest men in the colony 
 and generally well-informed," it was in no proper sense representa- 
 tive. At its firso meeting it passed law^s for the estjiblishment of a 
 volunteer corps; for the division of the colony into four districts 
 with a magistrate for each ; for regular sittings of a court to be 
 known as the Court of the Governor and Council of Assiniboia ; 
 
IIISTOIIY ot' CANADA. 2J]7 
 
 for tiiul by jury in nil criiuiiml cumos and in all civil cases 
 involving more than £'10 ; and, lastly, for thu in4)osition of a 
 duty r)f 7h per cent. \i[mu all t!X|)orts and imports. Tho pnoplo 
 of the colony, about Hvo tlKnisaml souls, looked ui)on this council 
 as but the niouthpicco of the company, and upon t.ic volunteer 
 corps as a sort of standing army to enforce the company's rule. 
 Tlie import duty was also viewed with nnich disfavor, as the 
 settlers would fain have bought goods at St. Paul, across the 
 border, rather than |)ay the extortionate ])rices charged by the 
 company. Tiial by jury and tho more orderly administration of 
 justice did much, however, to reconcile the settlers to the new 
 system. 
 
 CHAPTPJR XXXVII. 
 
 OUTBRKAKS IX CANADA. 
 
 The British Parliament Refuses "Responsible Gov- 
 ernment." — In Lower (Canada the rei)ort of the tiiree connnis- 
 sioners appeared early in 18.*i7. It was considered by all classes 
 of reformers as extremely retrogressive. Lord (losford, indeed, 
 expressed a strong opinion in favcn* of reform in the comp()siti(>n 
 of the two councils, but the report as a whole threw the blame 
 for the deadlock upcm the assembly. In March, 1837, Lord John 
 Russell introduce'! into the British House of Oonnnons a series of 
 resolutions in ■"'Li h the course the British government intended 
 to pursue was ind.cateu. No supplies having been granted since 
 1832, the arrears of ofhcial salaries now amounted to £'142, ()(X). 
 It was resolved that if the Lower Canadian assembly sh»»uld 
 persist in i-efusing to pass an Act settling the Civil List as desired, 
 the Imperial parliament should take upon itself to approjjriate the 
 provincial revenues. While it was intimated that it might be 
 jiroper to alter the composition of the two councils so as to bring 
 them more into harmony with public o])inion, the princi})le of an 
 elective legislative council was negatived. Upon the cpiestion of 
 executive responsibility the resolutions were even more emphatic : 
 ' ' While it is expedient to improve the composition t)f the executive 
 council of Lower Canada, it is unadvisable to subject it to the 
 responsibility demanded by the House of Assembly." 
 
238 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Dissatisfaction in Both Provinces. — In both the Canadfis 
 these resokitions were regarded as a death-bh^w to the hopes of 
 reformers. In Upper Canada tlie assenil)ly was with the Family 
 Compact, and now the Rrforui ministry of England had declined 
 to aftbrd any assistance. In Lower Canada, the Civil List was 
 to be settled liy an Liiperial Act and tlie assembly treate^d as an 
 erring child. Through the summer of 1837 imblic meetings were 
 held in both the [)rovinces, at which the exasperated feelings of 
 the po})ular party found expression in strong j-esolutions. The 
 newspapers were equally forcil)le in giving vent to their views. 
 But when Mackenzie and Pa])ineau, with a few of the more 
 ardent of their friends, began to threaten a resort to arms to 
 obtain redress, it soon became apparent that such a step would 
 find but little support. 
 
 Lower Canada -Revolt Threatened. — In Lower Canada 
 tlie assembly met in August, 1837, and promptly declined to deal, 
 under compulsion, with the (piestion of su|jpliey. It was forth \\ 'tli 
 ])rorogue(l. The agitation went on with increased warmth, but, 
 outside of a small district in the innuediate neigidxirhood of 
 Montreal, tliere was no thought of an armed rising. The French- 
 Canadians were prepared to elect extremists to the assembly, bub 
 rebellion was no part of their plan. When threats of revolt were 
 made, Le Canodieii, the most influential of the newspapers upon 
 the popular side, emphatically protested. The Roman Catholic 
 liisliop issued a mandenient setting forth the duty of oI)edieiice to 
 the authorities. Papineau himself for a time adv«jcated nothing 
 more pronounced than a refusal to purchase British goods. Ho 
 seems tinally to have becii, induced to tiike stronger ground by Di'. 
 Wolfred Nelson, who spoke of a trade war as a "peddling [lolicy." 
 
 Colborne's Vigorous Measures. — Sir John ('olbornc, 
 connuHiider-in-chief of the British forces in America, made 
 every prejjaration to put down any outbreak. He organized, 
 volunteer corps in Montreal and Quebec, and ordered up regvdars 
 from New Brunswick. The militia, under such officers as Hertcl 
 de Rouville and others of the French-Canadian seigneurs, were 
 drilled and held in readiness. Early in November there was ;i 
 street riot in Montreal between members f)f the Doric (Jlub ami 
 the Sons of Liberty, and shortly afterwards warrants were issucil 
 for the arrest of a number of the extremists upon a charge of 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 239 
 
 high treason. The charge was based upon the utterances of 
 I'apineau, Dr. O'Collaghan, Dr. Nelson and others of the popular 
 leaders, who at this time were holding a series of meetings through 
 th listricts lying inunediately around Montreal. The attempt to 
 execute these warrants met with armed resistance at St. Denis and 
 ►St. Chanes, (m the banks of the Kielielieu. These villages lie 
 about midway between 8orel and Chambly, from each of which 
 points detachments were sent to enforce the execution of the 
 warrants for the ca|)ture of the poj>ular leaders. 
 
 St. Denis.- Colonel (Jove, marching uj> from JSorel with live 
 C(»mpanies of regulais, a few horsemen, and one field-piece, was 
 confronted (23rd Noveml)er) at St. Denis by a nujtley collection 
 of insurgents ensconced in a distillery and a stone biiiMing adjoin- 
 ing. Dr. Nelsoji was at their head, Pa[>incau having retired to 
 St. Charles. They numbered al)oiit eight liundred, but of these 
 only about (me hundred had tire-arms (with a poor siqiply <»f 
 annuunition), the rest being armed with pitchforks, cudgels, and 
 other like weajjons. The fighting lasted several hours. The 
 insiirgents Avcre reinforced early in the afternoon by abont eighty 
 additional armed men, and Gore was finally compelled to retire 
 with heavy loss. 
 
 St. Charles. -Two days later Colonel Wetherell, marching 
 down from Clianiljly at the head of a column of about three hun- 
 dred, with a few mounted volunteers and two camions, attacked 
 the reljel })osition at St. Charles, the chief point of concentration. 
 Here rude entrenchments had Iteen thrown n}», sup[)ortt;d by a 
 stone mansion house. Tiic whole, however, was commanded by 
 a neighboi'ing hill, u|)on whicli Wetherell planted his cannon and 
 jtroceeded to batter down tiie rel)el <lefences. The conflict, was 
 short. The insurgents lost heavily, the leader (Fb'own) fled, and 
 the position was soon carried by assault. A week later Colonel 
 (lore returned to St. Denis only to And that it had been aban- 
 doned. A band of American "sympathizers" from Vermont was 
 dispersed near Lake Chnmi>lain, and the Richelieu district was 
 again at peace. Dr. Ne son was taken ))risoner ; Papineau and 
 the other insurgent lead rs sought safety across the border. 
 
 St. Eustache.— To t le north of Montreal, in the Two Moun- 
 tains distrid), Papineau s supporters had for some .ime been 
 demonstrative, and now, under Dr. Chenier and a Swiss settler, 
 
240 HiSTOilV OF CANADA. 
 
 Ai'iuury Girod, thoy broke into open insurrection. Tlieir numbers 
 have been variously estimated at from four hundred to fifteen 
 hundred. They estabhshed themselves in the villages of St. 
 Eustache and St. Benoit, and all the eft'orts of their clergy and 
 of the local members of the assembly to mduce them tt> disperse 
 failed of effect. Sir John Colborne marched against them with a 
 force of about two thcjusand men and an imposing array of artil- 
 lery. For two hours (December 18th) the insurgents at St. 
 Eustache held the village church, convent, and surrounding dwell- 
 ings against a vigorous ;irtillery hre, but at length. Dr. Chenier 
 l)eing killed, the place was carried by assault. St. Benoit was also 
 abandoned by the insurgents, and the rebellion in Lower Canada 
 was at an end. With unnecess<iry sever ty St. Denis, St. Eustache 
 and St. Benoit were given to the flames. 
 
 Upper Canada— A Plan to Take Toronto.— In Upper 
 Canada the reformers of Toronto had issued (July 31st) a declara- 
 tion setting forth the grievances of the province. Arrangements 
 were at the same time made for a series of public meetings to be 
 held throughout the prf)vince during the early fall. At these 
 strong resolutions were adopted, and delegates were elected to 
 attend a convention to be held at a later date at Toronto to 
 tjike into consideration the state of the province. Mackenzie 
 was the leading ligure in the agitation, the more moderate of the 
 reform leaders, such as Bidwell and Baldwin, holding aloof in 
 distrust a])parently of Mackenzie's rashness. Sir F. B. Head 
 and the Family Compact refused to believe that any outbreak 
 would occur, although Mackenzie's utterances in his new paper, 
 the Constitntion, were certainly becoming treasonable. After- 
 wards, indeed, the lieutenant-governor })rofessed that he had 
 known the rebel plans from the outset, and had purposely allowed 
 them to ripen in order the more eilectually to crush out disaftec- 
 tion. If so, he rather overdid his i)art. The regular troops werv 
 sent to Lower Canada, and Toronto might easily have been taken 
 had not the insurgents' progrannne been so badly managed. After 
 some hesitation it was decided (November 18th) tliat the malcon- 
 tents to the north and west of Toronto—the district most under 
 Mackenzie's influence— should be collected at Montgomery's tavern, 
 a few miles north of Toronto. From this point a descent should bo 
 made upon the town on the 7th of December. 
 
niSTUllV OF CANADA. 241 
 
 Gathering at Montgomery's.— While Mackunzie was in 
 the north makhig HiT.uigciueiits to curry out this i)hiii, word 
 reached him that owing to alarming rumor,s a change of date had 
 been decided upoii by the Toronto connnittee, and that the attack 
 .should be made on the 4th (if December. But when that day 
 came there were lews than one hundred men at Montgomery's. 
 Colonel Van Egmond, who had .seen .service under Napoleon, was 
 to lead the rebel forces, and he had not yet arrived. It was 
 decided, therefore, to defer the attack. Two men were captured 
 on Yonge Street, but one of them (Powell) managed to escape, 
 after sliooting his guard, and at once gave the ^darm in Toronto. 
 That .s<ime night Colonel Moodie was shot in front of Montgomery's 
 while trying to force his way to the town througli the rel)el lines. 
 
 Two Days of Anxiety. —Rou.sed from their beds at mid- 
 night, the loyal citizens of the capital cpiickly organized a volunteer 
 force under Colonel FitzGibbon, the hero of Beaver Dams. The 
 leading ofhcials, including Chief Justice Robinson and his brother 
 judges, took their places in the ranks. The force, however, was 
 not large, and, in order to gain time to gather in the militia. Sir 
 F. B. Head, on the morning of the 5th, sent Rolph and Baldwin 
 with a ilag of truce to the rebel head(|uarters to ascertain their 
 demands. "Independence and a convention to aiTange details" 
 was the answer. It is said that Rolph himself was deeply invcjlved 
 in the rebellious movement ; that he accepted the mission to avoid 
 .suspicion, and that he pri\'ately urged Mackenzie to advance on 
 the town at once. An advance was at all events made that ni<rht, 
 ])ut, meethig a scouthig party under Slierift' Jarvi.s, the insurgents 
 liecame panic-stricken and rrqjidly witlidrew. Next dav was one 
 of nuich anx'ety both in the town and in the rebel camp, but 
 beyond a raid on a mail-coach nothing was done. 
 
 The Rebellion Crushed.— On the 7th, the day originally 
 sot for the attack. Van Egmond arrived. A council of war was 
 held, and the rebel leaders decided to hold their position and 
 await further reinforcements. Meanwhile the G<»re militia, under 
 Cohmel MacNab, had arrived in Toronto — almost as motley a 
 crowd as the rustic insurgents, but loyal to the core. Sir F. B. 
 Head, having now, as he himself tells u.s, "an overwhelming 
 force," inarched against the rebel position. All was over in a few 
 minutes. The artillery lire was too nuich for the undisciplined 
 17 
 
242 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 malcontents and they lapidly dispersed. It appears tfi be doubtful 
 whether tliere was any loss of life, though circuiii.stantial accounts 
 liave been given of one man's death. The few prisoners who were 
 taken were dismissed by the lieutenant-governor with a caution 
 against meddling with treason. Mackenzie himself escaped with 
 some difhculty, and, by way of the liead of Lake (Ontario, reached 
 Buffido. In the following week an insurgent force, under Dr. 
 Buncombe, wliich liad collected at the village of Scotland, near 
 Brantford, disjiersed at the approach of Colonel MacNab, and 
 the rebellion in Upper Cfinada was at an end, though for a 
 time Mackenzie threatened invasion <»n the Niagara frontier. 
 
 Mackenzie Establishes Himself on Navy Island.— 
 Mackenzie had lieen received in Buiiah* with nuich [)oj»ular demon- 
 stration. On the l.Sth of Decendjer, with a few of the Canadian 
 refugees, he took his station upon the British s<iil of Navy Island 
 in the Niagara River. Here a " T*rovisional Government" for 
 Upper Canada was esta>)lished. A proclamation having been 
 issued for the enforcement of the United States neutrality laws, 
 the more reputable of the American "sympathi/.ers " held aloof, 
 and only the hiwless element joined the Canadian insurgents 
 on Navy Island. Van Rensselaer, who imdertook to lead the 
 "Patriot" army, was of disst)lute habits, and nothing was done 
 beyond spasmodic drilling. Colonel MacNab was in command of 
 the Canadian militia on the opposite shore. 
 
 The "Caroline" 7\ffair.— On the 29th of December an event 
 occurred which for some time threatened to embroil Great Britain 
 in war with the United States- the capture and destruction of the 
 steamer Caroline. She had been plying between the American 
 shore and Navy Island, carrying supi)lies and men to the rebel 
 camp, and MacNab determined to put a stop to this work. A 
 volunteer force, under Captain Drew, crossed in small boats to 
 Navy Island, and, not finding the steamer there, proceeded to the 
 American side, where they found her moored to the wliarf. They 
 boarded her, drove her crew ashore, towu>d her into midstream, set 
 tire to her, and sent her flaming over Niagara Falls. This inva- 
 sion of American territory was bitterly complained of by the 
 United States, and Great Britain afterwards ai)ologi'/ed, though 
 at the time MacNab was knighted for his exploit. Navy Island 
 was abandoned by the rebels on the 13th of January, 1838. 
 
• 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 243 
 
 Subsequent Frontier Movements. — liof ore (uniinjr .ir/ain 
 to tlie intciiifil allkiis of Ihv, (uiiadiaii i»ioviiicos, it will ho well 
 to mention shortly eertaiii frontiei' raids ))y lawless Anieiicaii 
 "sympathi/ei-s" which followed the Canadian outl»-eaks. I)unn<^ 
 January and Fehruary, J8.S8, there wtwe confused proceedings 
 al(»ng the Detroit River, and some sharp skirmishes took i)lace in 
 which the would-he invaders were roughly handled. Early in 
 March an unsuccessful raid was made fiom Sandusky upon Pelee 
 Tsland, the i-aiders ]ieing driven olf whh severe loss. These 
 incursions were [)ait of the plan of campaign agi'ee<l upon at 
 Navy Island. The Canadian refugees, however, soon saw the 
 liopi'lessness of such proceedings, and very few, if any, of them 
 were imjilicated in the sul)se(pient movements. In May, l-S.'W, 
 I lie G< n'oline exuhnt was inn"tated at Wells' Island, neai- Kin"-stoii, 
 the British steamer Sir Rolurt ]\d being burned by a lawless liand 
 from the American shore. In dune another band of marauders 
 was disi)ersed at Short Hills on IIk^ Niagara frontu'i-. During the 
 summer an attemi»t was made to organize another invasion on the 
 Detroit frontiei-, but, failing to secure arms from the United States 
 aisenal, the enter] n-ise collapsed. 
 
 Hunters' Lodges. In the autunni "Hunters' lodges" were 
 organized all along the Ame'-ican frontier from Cleveland to 
 Lake (.'hamplain, with design t.o invade Canada. A rising was 
 lomonted in the Richelieu district, and Dr. Ilobert Nelson a 
 In-other of Dr. W'olfred Nelson— led a liand from the Cnited 
 States which took possession «»f Napierville (Novend)er, 18.'}8). 
 He quickly retired, however, ui)on the approach of a force sent 
 against him by Sir John Coll)ome, under whose orders the 
 disatiected district was laid waste with nnich cruelty. 
 
 Von Schultz. — Prescott was during this same month threat- 
 ened by H somewhat formidable for«'e which had gathered at 
 Ogdensburg on the opposite shore. A small body of men under 
 ail enthusiastic Polish iiatiiot, Von Schultz, landed on the Caiia- 
 dian side, where they were (juickly obliged to take refuge in a 
 round sttnie mill. Their friends failed to send them any reinfoi-ce- 
 nients, and on the Ifith of November Colonel Dundas arrived with 
 a force from Kingston, and he at once opened a vigorous artillery 
 tiro upon Von Schultz's stronghold. After losing heavily Von 
 Schultz surrendered at discretion. He was afterwards tried at 
 
24-4 lllSTollV OF CANADA. 
 
 Kiiigstoli, touiui guilty, iuul executed. Upoil his trial he was 
 defended Witli much ability by a young lawyer who afterwards 
 became a distinguished (yanadian statesman— John A. Macd< tnald. 
 
 Raid on Windsor. —Early in December there was a raid on 
 Windsor. The invaders were vigorously repulsed by Colonel 
 Prince, who, with somewhat excessive zeal, shot some of his pris- 
 oners without trial. This was the last attempt upon Canadian 
 soil, though for some months longer alarming rumors ccmtinued 
 to disijuiet the Canadian provinces. 
 
 The Result of the Outbreaks. —Of these Canadian out- 
 breaks we may say with Josei)h Howe, of Nova Scotia, "They 
 were imjxditic, unjustitiable and cruel." In Upper Canada, the 
 honest but impulsive Mackenzie had failed to discern that the 
 rebufi" the reformers had experienced could be but temporary. In 
 Lower Canada, Papineau had unwisely declined to accept conces- 
 sions l)ecause they were not sufficiently full. The outbreaks were 
 cruel, not only to those who were led to take part in them, but 
 also to all those who were working for the cause of reform ; for 
 they gave the Family Compact a pretext for fastening upon all 
 their opponents a common stigma of disloyalty. But the troubles 
 in Canada convinced the Imperial authorities that there nmst be a 
 radical defect somewhere in the system of colonial government, 
 <ind energetic measiu-es were at once taken for its discovery. Lord 
 Durham was sevit out t(^ Canada as High Conuiiissioner, and, as a 
 result of his cele])rated report, "responsible government" was 
 jsoon conceded. One thing, therefore, may be said. If the rebel- 
 lion in the two Canadas led — as no doubt it did lead — to Lord 
 Durham's report, and ho to the enlargement of colonial self-gov- 
 ernment, then not only (Janadn but British colonies the world 
 over should have a kindly feeling for Papineau and Mackenzie. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 ** A NEW VD IMPROVED CONSTITUTION." 
 
 Dark Days. —During the winter of 1837-38 and the following 
 spring there was " literally a reign of terror " in the two Canadas, 
 find the jails were crowded with pris^mcn-s charged with complicity 
 in the rebellious movements. These, as we have seen, bad been 
 
TIISTORV OF CANADA. 245 
 
 coutinucl to a very small and extreme secti(tn in each province, 
 Imt now the Family Comi)at't, in a .spirit of vengeful triumph, 
 l)i'an{led as di.sloyal all reformerH alike. The wave of loyal fueling 
 which had .swept over the upper province wa.s treated by the ruling 
 faction there as an evidence of approval of their conduct in every 
 ]>articular. Th(»He who had never dreamed of .secm'ing reform 
 except by constitutional means were wantonly insulttMl .-mtl oj>- 
 pres.sed. So gloomy indeed appt^ared the prospect in l^|)p(a' 
 Canada, that there was a movement on the part of certain loy.d 
 reformers to emigrate in a body, a movement only checked by 
 cheering news from England. 
 
 A Promise of Improvement. — SirF. B. Head had resigned 
 early in the year because the cijlonial secretjiry had expressed 
 strong disapproval of his conduct, but of this reason for hi.s 
 resignation the refcniners were ignorant. Instead of drawing 
 cheerful conclusi<ms from it, they viewed the appointment of 
 Sir (leorge Arthur (lately governor (»f the [)enal colony of Van 
 Diemin's Land) as the new lieutenant-governor of ri)i)er (Janada 
 as an indic.itinn that Kngland intended to deal harshly with 
 Canada. The suspension of the constitution of Ijowcr Canada, 
 the recall of Lord (iosf(»rd, wlutse attitude before the outbreak 
 had been conciliatory, and the ap[)ointment of Sir John Colborne 
 as governor in his [)lace, tended to confirm the gloomy forebodings 
 of reformers. In April, 18.38, Lount and Matthews, for their share 
 in the rebellitm in l^[)per Canada, were executed in sjjite of every 
 effort by petiticm and otherwise to secure a commutaticm of their 
 .sentences. The Fanuly Com[)act in the u[)per i)rovince, by their 
 vindictive cimduct, soon cau.sed a marked revulsion of feeling. 
 Tho.se timid reformers who had supported Sir F. B. Head in the 
 election of 18l>() now found that the Family Comi)act were ni«)re 
 resolutely set than ever to prevent reform of those abuses by 
 which they profited. It wa.s ssoon learned thfit the apjxtintmenb 
 of C(jlborne and Arthur was but an arrangement for temi)orary 
 security, and that tin; British ministry had appointed the. Earl 
 of Durham governor-general of British North Amei-ica and Lord 
 High Commissionei" to impure into the grievances of the Canadas, 
 with a view to the establishment of a constitution which .should 
 remove them. The great majority in Upper Canada hailed tho 
 new anjKtintn^eiit with delight. 
 
246 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Lord Durham. — Lord Durham reached Quebec toward the 
 end of May, 18.'i8. As already intimated, the constitution of 
 Lower Canada had been suspended by the Im})erial parliament. 
 Until some permanent form of government sliould be adopted, 
 that province was to l)e ruled by the governor and a "special 
 council." Lord Durliain, »>n his arrival, dissolved the council 
 
 which Colboru'; had ap[)oiut«'d, 
 and formed one more to his 
 own liking. It consisted of 
 imiiihers of his own stall', live 
 of the judges, and two of the 
 leading otficials. Commissions 
 <»f iufjuiry were at once ap- 
 pointed, and during the sum- 
 mer and autunm of 18.*38 Lord 
 l)uiham collected a large mass 
 of information concerning the 
 state of all the provinces. He 
 C(tnvened at Quebec a meeting 
 of the lieutenant -goN'crnors and 
 leading men of the ditt'erent 
 provinces to discuss the ques- 
 tion of a union of all the British colonies in North x^merica. 
 The time, however, was not yet ripe for such a project, and Lord 
 Durham in his report merely mentions the idea with approval, 
 without suggesting its adoption at that time. It v/as not until 
 the ditt'erent provinces had separately enjoyed a short period of 
 self government that of themselves they evolved the plan of 
 Confedei'ation undta- which we now live. 
 
 Durham's Policy in Lower Canada. — When Lord Durham 
 arrived in Ijovver Canada he fomid many })olitical piisoners await- 
 ing trial. With a landahh! desire to put a stop to further political 
 excitement, he induced Dr, Wolfred Nelson and others of these 
 prisoners to ac(|uiesce in their oAvn banishment from the province. 
 Thereupon an Act was passed by the governor and his special 
 council for their trans[)oitation to Bermuda. An anmesty was 
 pr(»clainu'd as to all (»tlnis, except Papineau and some of the 
 other leaders, who at the time were in the United States. In 
 England a violent attack ^v^lM made l)y opponents of the govern- 
 
 LORD nURHAM. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 247 
 
 menfc upon Lord Durham's transportation Act. The law officers 
 of the Crown having (juestioned its legal validity, the British 
 ministry announced that it would be disallowed. Lord Durham, 
 in high dudgeon, resigned his [iosition and set sail for England 
 (N()veml)er, 18158), first, however, issuing a proclamation in which 
 lie blamed the Imperial autliorities for not sujijtortjug him. This 
 manifesto gained for him among his political opponents the name 
 of the Lord High Seditioner. 
 
 The Famous Report.- On his way home, Lord Durham, 
 witli the assistance of his secretary, Charles liuller, pjepared hit* 
 celel)rated report — the keynote of colonial emancipation. To the 
 b'rench-Canadians lus reconnnendation in favor of the union of 
 I'pfjer and Lower Canada was extremely obncjxious ; but even 
 they admit the wisdom of ids views upon the general question of 
 colonial government. His statemi'Ut of the various grievances 
 under whicli the colonies labored is very l<mg; his suggested 
 rt'uiedy may l)e shortly stated, and, as Howe said, it is "perfectly 
 simple and eminently British." Lord Durham said in effect: 
 *' Place the internal goverunK'nt of the cohtnies in the iiands of 
 the colonists themselves. They n(»w make their own laws; let 
 tiicm execute them as well. If they make mistakes they 'vill 
 find them out, and they will remedy them more quickly and 
 tlioroughly than can we in Great Britain. It needs no Act of 
 parliament to effect this change. Simply tell each governor that 
 he must govern by means of an executive council liaving the 
 confidence of the people of the colony. Tell him, too, that he 
 need count on no aid from home in any difference with the 
 assembly which does nrit directly touch the. interests of the 
 Kmpire as a whole. In short, assure each colony that its govern- 
 ment shall henceforth be carried (jn in conformity with the views 
 of the majority in the assembly. All the grievances, of which we 
 iiave heard so nmch, have arisen from the faulty system of govern- 
 ment. Reform the system as I suggest, and these grievances will 
 soon disappear." 
 
 Lord Russell's Despatches. — This report was laid before 
 t he British parliament early in 18i39. L(jrd John Russell introduced 
 a bill for the union of the two Canadas, which, after discussion, 
 \\;is allowed to lie over until the next session in order that the 
 consent of the two provinces might be secured. For this purpose 
 
248 HISTOIIV OF CANADA. 
 
 the Hon. Charles Poulett Th»»in[)S()n — >)etter known to us as Lord 
 Sydenham — was went out a.s governor. Of the ste})^ tjiken })y him 
 to this end mention nuisb l)e made biter. Just now this most 
 import,<int period of our liistory may l)e closed by stating ])rietly 
 the action taken upon Lord Diaham's report. The idea was 
 strongly held in England that it was inc(tnsistent with the 
 colonial relationship that the officials of the j)rovinces should be 
 made res[)onsil)le to the provincial assend)lies. In tlie spring of 
 1839, in the debate on the Canada Bill, L<ird John Jlussell, the 
 colonial secretary, argued that this feature of British government 
 could not be extended to the colonies. In the fall he penned 
 despatches to Lord Sydeidiam, in which he repeated, it is true, 
 the same theoretical objections, and yet these despatches are 
 rightly looked upon as the Magna Charta of cohniial self-govern- 
 ment, for in them practical instructions were given to carry out 
 Lord Durham's views. In the first of these celebrated despatches 
 (Sei)tember 7th, 18.'i9) the new governor was instructed to call to 
 his councils and to employ in the public service "those perscms 
 who, by their position and character, have obtained the general 
 confidence and esteem of the inhabitants of the province." In 
 the second (October 1 4th, 1839) he was told that the Britisli 
 authorities did not desire to make the cohmial service "a resoui-x* 
 for patronage at home." Residents of the provinces should be 
 preferred; and Her Majesty "will look to the attectionate .attach- 
 ment of her people in North America as the best security for 
 permanent dominion. " 
 
 "Tenure of OflBLce" Despatch. — One thing more was 
 needed to introduce the new system. Those officials who were 
 members of the executive council in each province, and who had 
 therefore the chief contrid over public aftairs, nuist be told that 
 they iio longer held their offices for life. This was done by a 
 circular despatch, sent to the head of the government in each 
 province. This circular announced that thereafter the chief ad- 
 ministrative offices should not be held permanently, but that the 
 holders of them should be removed whenever any "sufficient 
 motive of j/jblic policy" should require it. The judges and the 
 subordinate officials would not, of course, be affected by this 
 change. 
 
 Responsible Government. — Sir John Harvey, lieutenant- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 249 
 
 governor of Now Brunswick, hailed this (loH|mtch as conferring 
 *'a new and improved coii.stitution " upon the provinces. If the 
 maintenanue of haruiony l)et^i!un the legislatuin.) and the executive 
 was to l)o the particular care of the governor, and such harmony 
 should at any time be wanting, the desiro to restore it would 
 clearly he a "sufficient motive of pul)lic [jolicy " to warrant liim 
 in calling u[)on his executive councillors to retire and give place 
 to those in whom the as.s(3mhly had confidence. This uujant 
 "responsible government." Though a few years were to ela])so 
 and some notable conflicts were to bike place before tlie principle 
 was thoroughly estjiblishod, its final ti'iumph was never in doubt 
 after the publiaition of these despatches. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 rilTNCE EDWARO ISLANI* (18ir)-1840). 
 
 The Land Grievance. — The history of Prince Edward Island 
 during this period stands somewhat apart from that of the other 
 provinces. Her population was small, and tiiere was, as yet, no 
 demand for responsible government. Her troubles arose, not 
 from the tyranny of executive government upon the island, l)ut 
 from the repeated disallowance by the authoi'ities in England of 
 Acts of the island legislature passed with a view to removing the 
 evils of the land system. 
 
 The Question of Quit-rents. — Upon one phase of the 
 (juestion the islanders were now in accord with the proprietors, 
 both resident and ncm-resident. Payment of the (piit-rents due 
 to the Crown had never been properly enforced. In earlier years 
 a forfeiture of the original grants for non-payment of these rents 
 would have been a popular measure. Now their collection could 
 be enforced by levying a distress upon such goods and chattels as 
 were upon the land — in other words, at the expense of the tenants. 
 While, therefore, the islanders were as anxious as ever that ab- 
 sentee proprietors should have their huge wilderness tracts taken 
 from them and opened up for settlers, the claim was now put upon 
 the ground of non-performance of the conditions of settlement, 
 The collection of the <piit-rents was vigorously resisted, 
 
250 KISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 A Crisis. Thi.s ph.iHo of the liiiul (|ueHtion camo to a head 
 during t\w. tinm when ('. 1). Smith n hrothor of Sir Sidiujy Smith 
 —WHS liuuttjiiant-govenior (lHl.*i-lH24). Ho curriml on the govern- 
 ment of the inhmd with a high liand, (lispejiHing alt(»gether for h)ng 
 peiiotln (from IHlli to 1H17, and again from 1H2() until his recall) 
 with the aHsistance of the assemhly. l^pon two other occasions ho 
 dissolved it very sinnmarily wherl it failed to please him. He and 
 his (jtHcials undertoitk in IH'JIt to lollcct the arrears of (piit-rents. 
 As tlu'i'e then seirmed to he no prospect of any session of the 
 asscmhly in which this grievance could he regularly ventilated, 
 public mt'etings were called together in tlie three counties. At 
 these mi'i;tings resolutions and -in ad<lress to the Crown, strongly 
 eondeuuiatory t»f the lieutenant governor, were passed. Smith 
 treated the.se a.s criminal lihels upon the constituted authorities, 
 and caused some of the kjaders in the movement to be arrested. 
 The address to the (^rown was, however, safely conveyed to Kiig- 
 land, and procured tlu; s[)eedy recall i>f the unpojudar lieutenant- 
 gov(!rnor. No attempt was ever again made to collect (|uit-rents. 
 
 Landlord Influence in England. —On the other hand, 
 every eti'oit on the part of the assembly to force the absentee 
 proprietors to settle their lands (»r give them u[) proved unavailing. 
 Through the influence of the proprietors in I'jUgland, every Act of 
 the island legislature in any way interfering with their absolute 
 ownership was promptly disallowed. In 1837 an Act was passed 
 for levying an assessment upon wild land, in order to force some 
 slight contribution from these absentee owners toward the opening 
 up of r(»ads and the building of bridges for the improvement of 
 internal communication. Even this was objected to, but, owing 
 to Lord Durham's em|>hatic protest against interference, the Act 
 was not di.4allowed. In Lord Durham's opinion, the Act did not 
 go far enough. "It was but natural," he wrote to Lord Glenelg, 
 the colonial secretary, "that the colonial legislature — who have 
 found it impossible as yet to obtain any remedy whatever — should 
 hesitate to propose a suthcient one. Your Lordship can scarcely 
 conceive the degree of injury intlicted on a new settlement, 
 hemmed in by wilderness land \\hich has been placed out of the 
 control of the government, and i.s entirely neglected by its absent 
 proprietors. This evil pervades British North America, and has 
 been for many years past a subject of universal and bitter 
 
IIISTOHY OF CANADA. 2ol 
 
 complaint. Tn Prince Edward Islfind this evil hna attAine<l itH 
 mHxiimiin. The luiopU;, their represent^iti > u asHtnnhly, the legis- 
 liitive council, and the governor have cordially concinred in 
 devi.sing a remedy for it. All their elForts haw provo<l in vain. 
 Some intluence it cannot he that of e«|uity oi- reason has steadily 
 counteracted the measureH of the colonial l»';,dslat nr*-." 
 
 Evils of the System. When wrilinK the despatch frt.ni 
 which the above extract is taken, Konl Durham had in his 
 hands a iiiemoianduni prepared \,y a joint connnitlee of (he 
 as.seml.ly and the lei,Mslative council of the island. From this 
 it appears that t«t a total expenditure, durini,' twelve years, of 
 ahout £107, (MM) for roads, hridi^e.s, wharves and ofher local 
 improvements, the proprietors had contrihuted only the odd 
 t'7,tHK). The t'xtent to whi(!h this vicious land system delaved 
 improvement may be gathered from the fact that as late as 
 ISl'7 wo find the lieutenant-governor (Colonel Ready) congiatu- 
 lating the assendily upon the wt^stern i-oads being "now open 
 as fai- as Viincetown " n<.t half way to the west end of the 
 island. Tct this check uiton expansi(»n and improvement were 
 added all the e\ils which arisi; fiom timant holdings as con- 
 trasted with freeholds. Short leases, w ithout security for renewal, 
 prevented the tenants from making im{)rovements, for which they 
 might not only get no compensation, but even might have to pay 
 again in the shape of increased rent. 
 
 Other Pohticel Questions. - In Prince Edward Island, as 
 in the other provinces, there was a long dispute about money 1)ills 
 between the assendily and the council. It began in 1827 and 
 lasted for several .sessions. It appears finally to have been ami- 
 cably adjusted, though at one time the as.sembly resorted to the 
 extreme measure of "stopping the supplies." [n IHXi a (,)uad- 
 rcnnial Act was passed, reducing the duration <.f the assembly 
 from seven years to four, at which it has ever since remained. 
 In 1839, folh.wing the exaniple of the other Maritime Provinces, 
 the council was divided into executive and legislative branches. 
 
 Education.— In spite of the ever pressing evil of the land 
 system, the provijice made progress. As already mentioned, a 
 fair share of the great innnigration of tliis period fell to Prince 
 Edward Island. Education was a matter of some concern with 
 the assembly. In 1837 an official visitor of schools was appointed, 
 
252 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 who reportetl fifty-one schools, with over fifteen hundred scholars. 
 These scliools were the result of local enterprise, assisted by grants 
 from the assembly. The teachers, ap2)arently, were not, in most 
 cases, of a very high order, and the (official visitor complained 
 that the practice of "boarding around the neighborhood" led to 
 their l)eing treated much like menial servants. 
 
 Industrial Progress. — Agriculture and fishing were still tlie 
 chief industries of the island. Shi[)-buikling, loo, was becoming 
 an important business. After the example of the other RI:::-itime 
 Provinces, agricultur;d .societies were started about the year 1829. 
 The first newspaper was the Prince Edward Island Rejjider, whicli 
 dates from 1823 — the time of the contest with the lieutenant- 
 governor on the question of quit-rents. A Mechanics' Institute 
 was begun at Charlottetown in 1889. In 1832 the first steamshij) 
 comnmnication was had with tlie mainland, the Pocahontas making 
 two trips a week ])etween Charlottetown and Pictou. 
 
 CUAl'TKR XL. 
 
 UNION OF TIIK TWO CANADAS. 
 
 Lower Canada's Consent.— In October, 1839, the Hon. 
 Charles Poulett Thonqjson arrived in Quebec as governor of 
 British North America. His first duty was to obbiin the consent 
 of the two Canadian pnwinces to the terms of the Act for their 
 union, which was to be passed by the Imperial })arliament at its 
 next session. The Constitutional Act of 1791 was still in abeyance 
 so far as Lower Canada was concerned, and the government of 
 tin; jn'ovince was entirely in the hands of the govei'nor and his 
 special council, in which Englisli-speaking nunubers predominated. 
 Special coints had been established for the trial of those im[)licate(l 
 in the outbreak in the Richelieu district in the fall of 1838, antl 
 a nund)er had lieen hanged. The tone of the ofiicial press was 
 exceedingly vindictive and l)lood-thirsty. No secret was made of 
 the fact that a new constitution was to be im[)osed upon the 
 province without regard to the wishes of the French-Canadian 
 majority. Under these circumstances, when the new governor, 
 phortly after his arrival, conveneid his special council, their consent 
 
lilST(JUV OF CANADA* 
 
 253 
 
 \v;i,s a forogcaio conclusion, though Neilson, Quosnal and dc Lcry 
 voted nay with vigorous protest. 
 
 Upper Canada's Consent. -In Uijper Canada the gover- 
 nor's task was not so easy. The Family Compact, feeling securely 
 entrenched iji power, were opposed to the union. But their day 
 was ])ast. Moderate men were 
 disgusted with their arrogance 
 in the hour of seenung victory. 
 Their refusal to make any conces- 
 sion, particularly in the matter of 
 the Clergy Reserves, opened the 
 eyes of many who, in 18.'}(), iiad 
 sui)[)orted " Head and British con- 
 necti<m " ajiais'St "Mackenzie and 
 
 republicanism." Without at all 
 justifying rebellion, these were 
 now fain to adunt that Mackenzie 
 had m.ide u truer estimate than 
 they of the real object of the 
 otHcial pai'< ' Lord Durham's 
 coming hau [tut now life into the 
 reformers of U[)i)er C .nada. As 
 early as July, 1838, Francis Hincks 
 had begun the publication at To- 
 ronto of Tlw E.rmuiner, with the motto, "Responsible govern- 
 ment and the voluntary i>rinciple." When Lord Durham's report 
 ap))eared it was hailed with delight, and during the sunnner of 
 \KV.) "Durham meetings" were held in all part>; of the province. 
 The tide of reaction was at the full when the new governor arrived 
 in Tapper Canada. The result was seen in the vote upon the union 
 |»roject in the assend)ly, where reformers and moderate conserva- 
 tives joined to carry it against the Family Compact. It reiiuired 
 all the great tact of the governor to reconcile the legislative council 
 to the union, but in the end his efforts were successful. 
 
 The Union Act, 1840. —It now only remained to have the 
 Act passed by the British ])arliament. This was accon){)lished on 
 the 28th of July, 1840. B\it not without protest. Lord (josford, 
 in the House of Lords, declared that the Act was most unfair to 
 the French-Canadian majority of Lower Canada, to whose loyalty 
 
 CHARLES I'OULKTT TIK^MPSON. 
 
 (LORD SYDENHAM.) 
 
254) HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 lie hore strong te.sliiuony, while ho assailed what he termed the 
 "(•verweeiiiny; ))retensi(»ns'' of tlie h^nglish-speakiTiu; minority. For 
 liis services in foi-wardinj^ the iniion <he <^overnor was made a 
 j>eer, with the title of Lord Sydenhain. < )n the r»<h of February, 
 1841, he issued a |>roolamation. as recjuired hy the Union Act, 
 naming the 10th of February, 1841, as the date when the union 
 should take ettect. 
 
 lender the Union Act, the province of Canada — for by this 
 name the united j)rovinces were to be known -was j)rovided with 
 a legislative council and an a.ssend)ly. The legislative council was 
 lo consist of not li'ss than twenty meud)ers, a|)j)ointed by t/he 
 Crown for life; the assembly of eighty-four iiiend)ers, one-half 
 from e.ich of the two old divisions, C|»|>er and Ijower (-anada. 
 The nuud)er of repre.sent.itives in the assend)ly could be altered 
 or.ly by a two-thirds majority in both branches of the legislature. 
 The capital of (/annda was to be fixed fr<^m tim<? to time by the 
 governor. The assembly was to contimie for four years after each 
 election, miless sooner dissolved by the govern(»r. Any pi-ovincial 
 Act, even when assented to by the governor, might be disallowed 
 in Fngland at any tinm within two years after its receipt by the 
 colonial secretary. All wrilti'U proceedings and records of the 
 legislature W(;re U> be in tiie M'lglish languagt^ ''I'l.y- 
 
 ,\11 taxes levied in tiu; province undiu- Imjierial Acts were to l»c 
 appro[»riated by the provincial legislature, subjuci, Imwever, to 
 payment of a Civil List of £7i>,0(M) per annum as fixed by the j 
 Union Act. The casual and territorial revenues of the Crown 
 Avere at the same time siurendered to provincial control, with 
 a provision, however, that any Act dealing with Crown lands 
 should receive approval in Fngland before coming into force. All 
 revenues collected in the province were to form a (sonsolidat^^d 
 fund out of which were t^> be paid (1) the expenses of collection, 
 (2) the interest on th<' public debts of tlic! provinces, (.'}) the 
 moneys payable to the clergy of ditt'erent denomhiations under 
 the Act, passeil at the same session, to settle the Clergy Reserves 
 (piestiim, and (4) the Civil List ; and the balance was to be appro- 
 })riated as the provincial ]^irliament should determine. The wise 
 provision was made, however, that no moneys were to be voteil 
 except upcm message from the Crown — that is to say, u])on the 
 responsibility of the executive C(umcil. Lord Durhai;. had pointed 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 253 
 
 nut/ in his rejmrfc the d;in<i;tT arising fn>in "th.it scranihle for local 
 apj)r()j)riati»)ns " which would tako place so long as private nuiin- 
 hci'H were allowed to ])i-()poHo money votes. In tlie Maritime 
 T'rovinces this vicious system remained unchanged for some years 
 lijiiger. 
 
 Lower Canada Dissatisfied. This Act, as has been said, 
 was forced upon Lower Canada, and its provisions were in several 
 respects not such as to reconcile tin; majority thereto the union. 
 The population of Canada was th(Mi ahoid l,l(Mt,(KK), of which the 
 lower |»rovint'e had <»;?(), 000, and the upper 470, 'M)0. F](piality 
 of representation under these circumstances was loo|<e<l u|)on l>y 
 tlie Frenth-(\'inadiaiis as the unfair (mvdion of a majority against, 
 them in the assend)ly. Tlx; Cixclusion of the French language from 
 I he records of parliament was naturally' resented, even though 
 the use of that language in debate was not forbiddtm. Upon this 
 language question the union [»arli;uiient proved l)ettei' than their 
 fears. Another injtistice of which they rightly conijilained was 
 in respect to the jtublic debt, l^pper Canada had particularly 
 after IHIW) — entered u[)on a career of wild extravagance in jniblic 
 works, and her (Ud)t was over .1^5,000,000, while Lowtu' Canada, 
 with a larger i)o[»ulation, had but a trifling (hO)t. It was urged, 
 however, by the u|)per province that the expenditure u]»on the 
 cnnal system -for which a large part of the debt had been in- 
 ciured -was as nuich in the interest of the lower province as h 
 hi'v f)wn. A\ .latever the reason, no compensation was given to 
 Lower Canada for the burden of Upper Canada's debt, which she 
 was now compelled to share. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 RESPONSlFiLE (iOVERNMENT INAUGURATED. 
 
 New Brunswick. We must now turn again to the IVIaritime 
 Provinces, where wo left the ])eople of New Jirimswick and Nova 
 Scotia somewhat jubilant over their prospects in the autuuni of 
 lf^37. In the former jinnMuco an unyielding lieutenant-governor 
 had given place to Sir John Harvey, n'h') iiitroducc'^ into tlie 
 executive council a slight leaven of reform. For a time political 
 
250 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 }igitati(jii largely suljsided. Much inture.sfc was naturally taken 
 in Canadian att'airs ; the progress of events along the Canadian 
 frontier was eagerly watched ; and New Brunsv/ick otlered to send 
 twelve hundred volunteers to aid in repelling the incursions of 
 American ' ' synipathi/.ers. " 
 
 The Maine Boundary Trouble. —Early m 1839 it looked 
 Hs if there would be work for these volunteers upon their own 
 frontier. The King of the Netherlands had in 1831 Made his 
 iiward concerning the unsettled boundary' line between Maine and 
 New Brunswick. It was a compromise pure and simple, and there- 
 fore siitisfactory to neither party. Instead of deciding what were 
 the "highlands" menti(med in the Treaty of Vei-sailles (1783), it 
 nrbitrarily {)laced the boundary line in the bed of the River St. John. 
 The United States Hatly declined to recognize it, and the whole 
 <(|uestion was thus again at large. Rival lumbermen of the Aroos- 
 took and the Madaw;iska again ([uarrelled over their limits, and the 
 governor of Maine again threatened to take possession of the dis- 
 puted territory. Sir John Harvey at once took steps to maintain 
 the integrity of what was then claimed as British soil, and, with a 
 small force, marched to the scene of the threatened invasion. The 
 loyalty of the province was enthusiastic. Money was liberally 
 voted and the militia were ordered out both in New Brunswick 
 and Nova Scotia. A trooj) of volunteer dragoons under Colonel 
 L. A, Wilmot — the leader of the reformers in New Brunswick — 
 performed despatch duty on the border, securing counuunicatioii 
 with the provincial capital and bh)cking every forest })ath by which 
 the enemy might advance. Happily the opposing connuanders, 
 Sir John Harvey and General VVintield Scott, were sensible men. 
 They soon arranged that the region should be evacuated pending 
 further ntigotiations between the two powers. 
 
 Reformers in the Executive Council. — The personal 
 influence of Lieutenant-Governor Harvey was sufficient to prevent 
 marked friction in the carrying on of the government of New 
 Brunswick. Upon his departure for Newfoundland in 1841, Sir 
 William Colebrooke became lieutenant-governor. As he showed ;i 
 dis])osition to favor the Family (-ompact, Wilmot and the other 
 reform leaders determined to contest the election of 1842 on the 
 (piestion of responsilde government. They were utterly routed at 
 the polls, electing only two of their candidates (Wilmot himself 
 
HISTOUY OF CANADA. 257 
 
 l)eing Olio) oufc of an assembly of forty-one members. Jose[»h 
 Howe tells us that while he and his friends were fighting the battle 
 fur responsil)le government in Nova Scotia, they were fre(juently 
 "tiiunted with the ((uieKcent condition of New Brunswick." But 
 even in New Brunswick the existing executive well understood 
 that if they lost control of the assembly their fate was sealed. 
 Ill 1844, in order to increase the confidence of the people in the 
 executive council, Wilniot and other reformers were added to it. 
 
 Nova Scotia— Sir Colin Campbell Disobeys Instruc- 
 tions. — In Nova Scotia the joy of the reformers over Lord 
 Glenelg's despatches of 1837 was short-lived. The old single 
 council was, indeed, alxjlished ; but, in forming the new executive 
 and legislative councils. Sir Colin Camj)bell entirely disregarded 
 the principles laid down by Lord Glenelg. The old sectaiian and 
 sectional |)references were almost as strongly iimrked as before. 
 The proposed Civil List, too, was, in the opinion of reformers, 
 upon an extravagant scale, tciking the circumstances of the province 
 into consideration. The session of 18.38 was consequently a some- 
 what stormy one. The assembly passed a Civil List Bill u[)on what 
 they considered a liberal scale. The legislative council rejected it. 
 The assembly then passed an address to the Crown in which they 
 })oiiited out that the instructions of Lord Glenelg had ))een ))racti- 
 cally disobeyed ; that in the executive council of nine tlusre were 
 live Anglicans ; that in the legi.-:lative council eight out of tifteen 
 were of that denomination ; that more than one-half of the meui- 
 liers of the legislative council were fn^m Halifax ; and that only 
 two of them were farmers. Apparently there was some slight 
 improvement in the compositi<m of the legislative council, for a 
 <^)uadrenni;il Bill, reducing the durati(jn of the assembly from 
 seven years to four years, became law in this session. 
 
 Discouragi.ng Despatches, hi 183J) des^iatches were laid 
 before the assembly which were looked upon as decidedly retro- 
 giessive. The ofl'er to surrender control of the casual and terri- 
 torial revenues was withdrawn, and the councils were maintained 
 as they stood. A number of provincial Acts were, at the same 
 time, disalhiwed ; among others, an Act respecting the postal 
 service within the province, another respecting admiralty courts, 
 and a third granting bounties upon the exportation of certain 
 goods. All of these the Imperial authorities set aside as opposed 
 18 
 
258 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 to the policy of I>)-itisli Acts. The assembly at once appointed 
 delegates to visit England to expostulate with the colonial secre- 
 tary. These delegates went at their own cost, the legislative 
 council refusing to sanction [)aynient of th(nr exj)enses — a some- 
 what graceless act in view of the liberality of the assembly, which 
 had just voted £'I<M),()()() to assist New Brunswick in repelling tlio 
 threatened attack upon her borders. 
 
 Reformers Take Vigorous Action. Tuder these somc- 
 wh.'i.t depressing circumstances we can undorst-iuid with what 
 jileasure the news <>f Lord Durliam's reftort was received in Nov;i 
 Scotia. When Lord Kussell's despatches wvvv. received, tctward 
 the close of the year IH.'}H, the reformers of Nova Scotia deter- 
 mined to force the (piestion of responsible government to an 
 issue. The want of harmony between the executive and the 
 assend)ly was n«ttorious. Sir (Jolin (^'amjjbell's attention was 
 formally drawn to it by a want-of-contidenco motion which passed 
 the assend)ly by a vote of thirty to twelve. Thereupon the 
 Hon. ,Iame^' H. l^niacke, who for some years had l)een the ablest 
 uplidlder of the (dd system, resigned his seat in the executive 
 council, and signified his adhesion to the princi[>le laid doAvn in 
 Lor<l Russell's despatches. Sir C<din, however, expressed his ' 
 confidence in his executive council, and declined to dismiss the 
 other mend)ers, who, desjjite the vote, still clung to their seats. 
 An address to the lieutenant-governor was then passed l)y flie 
 asseuddy. It drew his attenti(»n to Lord Russell's despatches, 
 an<l reciuested him to call to his council men having the con- 
 fidence of the assembly. Sir Colin replied that he wivv nrithin^^ 
 in the despatches to in<licate any change in the system (»f e(d<»Hial 
 government, and again declined to dismiss his c<»uncil. The 
 Hssend)ly thereuj)on passed an address to Her Majesty re<piesling 
 the recall of the obdurate lieutenant-governor, because, they said 
 in efi'eet, he refused to obey his instructions. 
 
 The Principle Conceded.— During the suunuer Lord Syden- 
 ham visited Nova Scotia and for a short time administered attiiiis. 
 Howe attri])uted to the governor's penetration and tiruniess tlu' 
 change which was soon afterwards made. Sir Colin Campbell was 
 recalled, and u\ the autumn Lord Falkland became lieutenant- 
 governor of Nova Sc(»tia. Ht>we and MacNab, two of the leadint; 
 members of the poi)ular party, were called to the executive council. 
 
 I 
 
HISTORY OF CANADx\. 
 
 251) 
 
 Both in Nova Scotia and in Canada the aim was to unite the old 
 [larties luidei- a coalition government. Afterwards in New Bruns- 
 wick the Baino policy was pursued. As a result of the contests 
 (if tlie next few years this attempt to prevent the creation of 
 "party" government was abandoned, and in the year 1848 that 
 nystem— apparently iiise[)arable from popular government — may be 
 said to have bec<»me Hrnily established in the ditt'erent provinces. 
 Vor the present, however, the reformers of Nova Scotia were 
 disposed fc(j give the government a generous support, so long as 
 measures of reforni were not obstructed. After an agitation ex- 
 tending over four years, during which time, as Howe with pardon- 
 able pride remarked, "not a blow had been struck nor a pane of 
 glass broken," the principle of resp(jnsible government iiad been 
 l)vactically acknowledged. 
 
 The New Canadian Council. — Lord Sydenham had selected 
 Kingston as the capital of Canada. For the legislative council a 
 judicious selection was made of 
 twenty-four men from ditt'erent 
 jjarts of the now united provinces. 
 An executive council of eight 
 iiiemVjers was appointed, consist- 
 ing o£ certain oi the old heads of 
 dei^artments. It was decidedly a 
 "no-party" council, for in it safe 
 together such men as VV. H. Draper 
 and R(jbert Baldwin. The former 
 liad hitherto been a staunch up- 
 li(»lder of Family Compact doc- 
 tiines ; the latter had been the 
 recognized leader of the l^pper 
 Canadian reformers. Baldwin had 
 /ith some difficulty been induced 
 
 by Lord Sydenham to accept a seat in the council, which he looked 
 upon as a mere temporary make-shift until the meeting of parlia- 
 ment should disclose the real state of public opinion in the united 
 1 ir( )vinces. 
 
 Parties in the Assembly. — The first general election was 
 held in March, and the tirst jiarliament met on the 14th of June, 
 i84J. Francis Hincks, himself a member, tells us that there were 
 
 HON. ROBERT BALDWIN. 
 
200 IIISTOIIV OK CANADA. 
 
 no luHs tlifiii four (listincfc pjuties in the usseinl)ly. The Family 
 CoiiipHct Tories, (juite unreconciled to the new principle of colonial 
 government, were there in dimini.slied innnberH (some seven or 
 eight), led by Sir Allan N. MacNah. Tiie Moderate (Conserva- 
 tives, opposed to many of the reforms for which the j)opuhir |)arty 
 had long striven, were now inclined to bow to the inevitable and 
 accept the new system. Draper was at the head c^f this party. 
 The Moderate Jleformers, on the other hand, were content to give 
 the executive council a fair opportunity to establish itself in the 
 confidence of the people by forwarduig reforms. Of this wing 
 the provincial secretary for llpi)er Cana<la, S. B. Harrison, was 
 the leading member. The Extreme Reformers included the 
 Lower Canadian mem])ers of the po])ular party, led by such men 
 as Neilson, Morin and Viger, and a small body of Upper Cana- 
 dians under the leadership of Robert Baldwin. By dividing this 
 fourth party into French-Canadians and Baldwinites, some have 
 counted live parties in this lirsc parliainent of (old) Canada. As 
 Lord Sydenham declined to rec(mstrucfc the executive council 
 before the session, Ro})ert Baldwin resigned his seat in it two 
 days before parliament met. 
 
 The "Responsible Government" Resolutions. — Almost 
 at once after parliament o])ened, the Moderate Reformers insisted 
 upon a declaration by the ministers of their adhesion to the prin- 
 ci]le of responsible government. Lord Sydenham, over a year 
 before, had sent a message to the assembly of Upper Canada that 
 he hiid "received Her Majesty's commands to administer the 
 government of the provinces in accordance with the well under- 
 stood wishes and interests of the people, and to pay to their 
 feelings, as ex])ressed through their representatives, the deference 
 that is justly due to them." Did the ministry recognize this 
 principle i Would they resign as soon as it became a[)pareiit 
 that the people's representatives in the assembly were opposed 
 t( > their p( )licy ? After some hesibitic »n Draper gave an answer 
 in the affirmative, and by so doing secured for a time the su})port 
 of the Moderate Reformers. At a later period in this session 
 formal resolutions affirming the new principle of cohmial govern- 
 ment, as understood by Reformers generally, were adopted, the 
 irreconpilables of the Family Compact, to the number of seven, 
 alone voting against them. 
 
UISTOIJV OF CANADA. 
 
 201 
 
 SIR L. H. LAFONTAINK. 
 
 French-Canadians in the Assembly.— To the Fionch- 
 C.umcliaii uioiiibuis tlio course of ovunts during tho session was 
 soniewluit reassuring. A motion l)y Neilson attacking tlie Union 
 Act was indeed voted down hy a large 
 majority, but a well-known French- 
 Canadian, Mr. Austin Cuvillier, was 
 chosen speaker at the opening of the 
 session. Moreover, the rides of pro- 
 cedure adopted were those which had 
 been in force in the old assem])ly of 
 Lower Canada, and only in the official 
 records was tlie use of the French 
 language forbidden. As yet no i-ej)re- 
 sentative of the French-Canadians liad 
 a i)lace in the ministry. ( )vertures had 
 been made to Lafontj ane, the leader of 
 the Lower Canadian Reformers, but he 
 
 was content to await the reconstruction which even then appeared 
 inevitable, and therefore declined to join the ministry. 
 
 The First Municipal Act. — Upon the work of practical 
 reform this first parliament t>f Canada entered with nuich energy. 
 Before the union the special council of I^ower Canada liad passed 
 an Act esta])lisliing nnniicipal institutions in that {)rovince, where, 
 owing to the absence of any system <»f local assessment, poj)ular 
 opinion was not ripe for their ado])ti(m. A somewhat similar Act 
 was now passed for the upper province, in spite of opj)osition 
 from the extremists on botli sides. Robert Baldwin and his 
 follower thought the Act was not sufHciently liberal, because the 
 wardens were to be Crown-appoinl^Ml ; the extreme Conservatives, 
 under Sir AHan MacNal), thought the Act altogether too demo- 
 cratic. It is imp()ssi])le to overrate the importance of a proper 
 municipal system ; not merely l)e(^ause it removes from the pro- 
 vincial parliaments much work tluit can l)c more efficiently 
 managed by each locality for itself, l)ut chiefly because of tlu^ 
 training in self-government thus afforded. The Municipal Act of 
 1841, therefore, although defective in many respects, nuist be con- 
 sidered as the most notable first- fruit of responsible government. 
 
 Education. — An attempt was also made to provide a uniform 
 system of popular education, but the Act passed this year proved 
 
262 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 H'. umvoikablo that it was repoalocl in the following session, when a 
 new Act was passed, tlie provisions of which may be briefly stilted. 
 Up to this time the only schools which could be considered state 
 schools were those known as District Scliools comparatively few 
 in number for more advanced i)U])ils. These were managed by 
 Crown-appointed Boards, largely Anglican, and were supported 
 by goverimient grants. The Act of 1842 ostablisluid a regular 
 sy.stem of Common and rjranniiar Schools, to be managed by trus- 
 tees elected locally. 'I'he whole system was t(i be under the control 
 of one General Superintendent of Kducati(»n, with an assistant for 
 each section of tht; pr(»vince. The schools were to be Hupt)orted 
 by government grants, local assessment, and a rate-bill upon the 
 partMits. In otdcr to sui)ply good teachers, township and county 
 Model Schools were provided, and the ultimate establishment of 
 provincial Normal Schools was also contemplated. Tlie system 
 naturally developed many defects in its practical working; and, 
 after the Rev. Dr. Ryerson l)ecame General Superintendent of 
 Education in 1844, it was entirely recast and made more complete 
 and efficient. 
 
 Public Improvements. — Particular attention was also paid 
 to public works. The Welland Canal became the property of the 
 province, and the navigation of the St. Lawrence was improved 
 by the construction of additional canals. Liberal sums were also 
 voted ft)r road improvement, and the old "corduroy" or small log 
 roadbeds rapidly gave place to gravel and "macadam." Canada was 
 able t(» borr w money for public works at a low rate of interest, 
 because, as part of the plan of union, the Imperial government 
 guaranteed to lenders the payment of the interest upon their 
 loans. The next ten years, therefore, of Canadian history show a 
 marked improvement in road-making, Ijridge-building, and internal 
 water communication ; and this was followed in the next decade by 
 a wonderful development of railway enterprise. 
 
 Death of Lord Sydenham. — Shortly before the session of 
 1841 closed. Lord Sydenham, riding out one afternoon, was thrown 
 from his horst\ Though not seriously injured, the shock to a 
 constitution .a,lready somewhat shattered proved fatal, and tm the 
 day following the prorogation the govennjr died. At his own 
 request, he was buried in Kingston cemetery. It has been said 
 cf him that he gave but a half-hearted adhesion to the doctrine 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 203 
 
 of re.si)oiiHil»lo government; that, he w.'vh his own ]irline niiniKter; 
 iuul thfit hi.s policy of "m(»- party" <^overnnmiit was (IoohumI to prove 
 a failure. So intlot'd it turned (»ut; hut, in a tiiue of transition, 
 his skill and tact <lid nuich to (tblitcrate old feuds. At all events, 
 his policy connuended itself for a tiiue to the moderate majority 
 imt only in ('anaila hut in all the provinces. 
 
 Sir Charles Bagot. After a short interval, durinj,' which 
 Sir R. D. Jackson, conuuander-in-chief of the JJritish forces in 
 America, acted as administrator, a new governor arrived iu the 
 [(t'isoii of Sir Chai'les liagot. In Kiij^land, Tiord Mt'ihourne's 
 iiiiuistiy had givtni place to the Conservative cahinet, of Sir 
 Koitert Peel. Loi'd Stanley Avas now ai^aiu (;ol(tiii;tl seci-etary. 
 Sir Chai'les Bagot was known as a strong supp(»rter of the new 
 liiitish adndnistraf ion, and the Kamily ('<>m[)acrt in Canada took 
 heart when they heard of his appointmtuit. He, however, kept 
 entirely aloof from party strife in Canada, and gave ids advisei's 
 for the time being a constitutional sui)port. lie displayed much 
 /.eal in forwarding the work of public improvement, particularly 
 in the matter of road connmniication. The a[)[M»intment of a 
 Fiench'Canadian to the position of chief justice in Lower Canada 
 gfined for him the C(»nHdence of that section of the pi'ovince. 
 
 United States — Strained Relations. — For some time 
 
 there had been grctwing friction between (ireat Biitain and the 
 
 Cnited States, and, of late, war between them had ap|)ear(^d not 
 
 iniprobal)le. There Avere several matterr, in dispute. In her 
 
 ett'orts to suppress tht; African slave trade, (ireat Britain had 
 
 found that many Hhij)S, strongly susjK'cted, had, when pursued, 
 
 hoisted the Stars and Stri[)es. She insisted upon her right to 
 
 search such ships ; the United States o])jected ; and meanwhile the 
 
 inhuman traffic was assuming large proportions. Great Britain's 
 
 lefusal to surrender fugitive slaves was another ground of com- 
 
 [ilaint. Upon touching British s(jil or the deck of a British ship 
 
 the slave ))ecame a freeman, and Great Britain positively declined 
 
 to change her la^v in this respect. The law as to the surrender of 
 
 fugitive ci'inunals was also in an unsatisfactory condition. The 
 
 Caroline afi'air, too, had reached an acute stage in 1841. One of 
 
 the crew of the steamer had been killed by the b<»arding party 
 
 - under Captain Drew, and a man named McLeod had been arrested 
 
 in the United States charged with liis murcler. G-reat Britain 
 
264 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 accepted the responsibility for tlie attack upon the Caroline and 
 demanded McLeod's surrender. The United SUite.s refused. 
 Happily, McLeod was able to pro\'e an alibi and was acquitted, 
 HO that the danger u])(jn this score was averted. The chief cause 
 of dispute was n(jw the (question (»f the international boundary 
 line, which already upon two occasions had nearly brought about 
 a collision on the New Brunswick frontier. 
 
 The Ashburton Treaty, 1842.— In 1842 Lord Ashburton 
 was sent from England tt) negotiate, if possible, a treaty which 
 would settle all the outstanding (piestions l^etween the two powers. 
 On the part of the United States the negotiations were conducted 
 by the celebrated Daniel Webster. The result was the Ashburt(^n 
 Treaty (1842), which Lord Palnierston called the "Ashburton 
 capitulation," so manifestly one-sided did the treaty appear to 
 him. It can serve no good [)urpose now to enter into the various 
 claims put forward on each side ujjon the boundary (piestion, or to 
 discuss the charge afterwards made against Wel)ster of having 
 concealed a certain old map which su[)[)orted the British claim. 
 The treaty settled authoritatively, in its present position, the 
 boundary line not only between Maine an<l the British provinces, 
 but also that from hnka Superior to the north-west angle of the 
 Lake of the \V^)ods. In other res[)ects the treaty was satisfactoi-y. 
 Methods for sup[)ression of the African shive trathc were agreed 
 <m. Provision was also made for the delivery up, upon demand 
 by either of the contracting powers, of all [)ersons charged with 
 unu'der, piracy, arson, robbery or forgery, who should seek an 
 asylum in the other's dominions. Though this list is small, Great 
 Britain and the United States liave up to the present been unable 
 to agree upon any extension of it. U[)on the ({uestion of sur- 
 rendering fugitive shtves (Jreat Britain declined to make any 
 concession, and the United States forl)(»re to press the [)oint. 
 
 The First Lafontaine-Baldwin Ministry.— Meanwhile 
 the feeling iiad become strong i;:nong the Upper Canadian Reform- 
 ers, even of the moderate tyj)e, that the continued exclusion of the 
 French-Canadians from n, nominally Keform ministry was unfair 
 So long, however, as W. H. Draper and some others— formerly 
 leading men of the Family U'.;!!i})act— remained in the ministry, 
 Ljifontjiine and the other Lower Canadian leaders declined all over- 
 tures. When parliament reassembled (1842) Baldwin promptly 
 
HISTORY (W CANADA. 265 
 
 moved a vote of \yant of coiitidencu in the existing ministry. It 
 became unnecessary, liowevei-, to press the motion. Draper and 
 the <^)ther (jbnoxious members i*etired, and a reconstruction took 
 place. It united all parties in tlie House with the exception of the 
 extreme Conservatives, who looked with angry amazement at the 
 spectacle of a governor calling to his council men whom they 
 regarded as little better than rebels. The new ministry is known 
 as the tirst Lafontaine-Baldwin ministry. It c(»ntained such men 
 from the lower section of the province as A. N. Morin and T. C. 
 Aylwin, in addition, of course, to Lafontaine himself. He, it 
 may be noted, sat in the House as member for one of the ridings 
 of the Upper Canadian county of York, wliile lialdwin repre- 
 sented the Lovver Canadian constituency of Rimouski. Another 
 well-known member of this ministry was Francis Hincks, whose 
 knowledge of finance made him a valuable councillor. The adop- 
 tion of a double name for the Canadian ministry was followed in 
 every administration (save one) down to Confederation — typical, 
 unhappily, of the sectional difficulties which, at a later period, 
 brought about a dead-lock in public affairs. 
 
 Death of Sir Charles Bagot.— Owing to the change of 
 ministry during the co\u'se of the session of 1842, legislation was 
 somewhat limited. Sir Charles Bagot was at this time in |)oor 
 liealth and solicited liis recall. It has been said that his course 
 in allowing the formation of a distinctly "party" ministry— 
 the first in the British colonies — was criticised by the colonial 
 ofhce, and that this had something to do with his recjuest to be 
 recalled. The retiuest was granted, but before Sir Charles could 
 act upon it his illness terminated fatally. He died at Kingston 
 in May, 1843. His successor was Sir Charles Theoi)hilus Metcalfe, 
 during whose tenure of oftice "responsible government" was 
 sorely tried 
 
 CHAPTER XL! I 
 
 A TIME OF TRIAL. 
 
 A Striking Likeness. -There is a marked similarity in the 
 history of the three provinci»H, Canada, Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick, during the period from 184.'J to 1848 ; so nnich so 
 
2Q6 HISTORV OF CANADA. 
 
 that political speakers niul writers have Been a mysterious con- 
 nection between thu aetiofi of Sir t'liarles Metcalfe in Canada 
 and that of the two lieutenant-governors, Lord Falkland in 
 Nova Scotia, and (at a somewhat hiter date) Sir William Cole- 
 brook €> in New Brunswick. It is said that Lord Stanley — 
 afterwards the Earl of Derby — was at heart opposed to respon- 
 sible government in the colonies, and that he sent Sir Charles 
 Metcalfe to undo what Sir Charles Bagot had done, (^f this, 
 however, there is a complete absence of proof. We can only saj' 
 that there was a curious cf (incidence of events in the different 
 pre (vinces. 
 
 Nova Scotia — The Ministry Divided.- Tn Nova Scotia, 
 the attempt to carry on the government ](y nu'ans of a coalition 
 ministry was not a success. The reform majority in the assembly 
 com[)lained that the reform leaders in tlie ministiy were not 
 alloA\ed their due weight in the administration of ati'aii-s. On 
 tht> other hand, there Avas here, as in (Canada, a, sm;ill band of 
 irreconcilables who opposed the ministry because of the pres- 
 ence in it (tf any reform element. It is said that this faction 
 was quietly encouraged to attack, not only the reform leaders, 
 but even Lord Falkland himself for having called those leaders 
 to the ministry. One or two members of the executive council 
 itself made light (»f "'responsible government," and, t«» satisfy the 
 reforuu'rs in tlu' asseml)ly, Howe, Mai'Nalt and I'lnackt; had to 
 insist upon a formal <leclaration of adhesion to the do<:trine being 
 made by all theii' colleagues. 
 
 The Sectarian College Question. —There being this want 
 of accord in the ministry, there was very little important legisla- 
 tion. In 184.'i an Act was passed to do away with the old law 
 which re(piirtal that a mendter of the assembly should [)osses8 a 
 proi)erty (pialiticatlon in the constituency for which iu' sat. Reso- 
 lutions were also passed in favor of establisiiing one central 
 provincial university, to which end a witlulrawal of all grants 
 ti» sectarian colleges was advocated. In the debate upon these 
 resolutions, IIowi' made a stateuuuit regarding the ditterent col- 
 leges in the |»ro\ince. Fi.ich «»f the five large denominations had 
 its own College, inetlicient and expensive. Pictou Academy, 
 after "a sickly existence of tifteeii or .sixteen years," liad hnally 
 become "a wreck on the face of the province," Dalhousio Coll<;gy 
 
HISTORY (JF CANADA. 
 
 267 
 
 taking its place as the college of the Presbyterians. The Baptists 
 liad, in 1828, established Acadia College ; the Methodists had the 
 Sackville Academy in New Brunswick ; while the Roman Catho- 
 lics, "as they were taxed to maintain other people's hobbies, 
 thought they might as well have one of their own," and had 
 established St. Mary's College at Halifax. A connuittee was 
 ai)j»ointed to di-aw up a l)ill in accordance with the resolutions. 
 
 The Assembly Dissolved. — rpon this educational question 
 the lack of harmony in the ministry made itself manifest. The 
 council was hopelessly divided. The attorney-general (Hon. J. \\ . 
 Johnson; led the (ild section, whicli favored a continuation of the 
 sectarian system. The agitation throughout the province became 
 very i»ronounced, and the ministers were drawn int(» direct per- 
 s<»nal antagonism. At this juncture Lord Falkland dissolved the 
 assembly and brought on a new election. Tlu' result was to leave 
 in doubt, until the new House should meet, to which side victory 
 had inclined. 
 
 Canada— Metcalfe and his Ministry. —Sir Charles Met- 
 calfe, before coming to Canada, had spent some years in India, 
 where the w<trd of the British 
 otlicial was law. In private life 
 he was a most kindly gentleman 
 of estimable character. In the 
 conduct of [jublic ati'airs in Canatla, 
 he evinced from tlie beginning a 
 determination t(» lead liis execu- 
 tive council, instead of being 
 guided by their advice. He sought 
 counsel openly of men well known 
 to be hostile to liis ministers. 
 They had signalized their advent 
 to ottice by advising that pardons 
 should be granted to those imj)li- 
 cated in the outbreaks of 18.'i7. 
 The advice was followed (except 
 
 in thf casi' of Mackenzie), but, it was said, grudgingly. As the 
 session of 184.S progressed, it was openly reported that the governor 
 had no confidence in his ministers. Appointments to oftice were 
 imde without regard to the wishes of the ministry, and, finally, 
 
 SIR CUAKI.KS MKTrALKi; 
 
268 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 one was made in direct opposition to tlieir advice. After remon- 
 strance, the entire cabinet, with the exception of D(jminick Daly, 
 resigned. 
 
 The Question at Issue. — The principle at stake may 
 be shortly stated. The governor claimed that the power of 
 appointment to all public offices rested solely with himself; that 
 the patronage of the Crown was entirely in his keeping, and 
 should not be dispensed to further the views of the party in 
 power. The ministers, on the other hand, claimed that the char- 
 acter and standing of those subordinate t)fficials, through whom 
 j)ublic affairs nuist necessarily be carried on, was a matter of public 
 imj)ortance ; and that it was tlieir duty, as a cabinet responsible 
 to the i)eople of the province, to see that offices were not con- 
 ferred upon men whose views were hostile to those of tlie 
 majority in parliament. As the contest went on, the governor 
 further claimed that he had been reipiired by his late ministers 
 to pledge hiuiself, in advance, to follow their views. This the 
 ministers denied, stating that they had merely claimed the right 
 to resign if their advice as to the distril)ution of patronage was 
 not followed. That they were right and the goveinior wrong is 
 now universally admitted. At that time, however, many able men 
 took the view that the distribution of patronage should be kept 
 clear of party politics. 
 
 Distinguished Champions. — After the resignation of the 
 Ij<if(»ntaine-Baldwin ministry the assembly passed resolutions suj)- 
 porting the stand they had taken. Shortly afterwards parliament 
 was prorogued. Then followed a most notable contest extending 
 over many months, and liringing into the field some distinguished 
 champions oa either side. Dr. Ryerson threw his great influence 
 into the scaie on the side of the governor, and, under the lioni de. 
 plume of "Leonidas," wrote able pamjthlets supporting his views, 
 R. B. Sullivan, one of the ex-ministers, upheld their cause in 
 letters signed "Legion." Their most influential advocate, how- 
 ever, was a young Scotchman, George Brown, who, in Marcii, 
 1844, established the Glohe newH\)ii[ier. By his trenchant articles 
 he soon won for his paper a position as the leading organ upon 
 the reform side. It is also worthy of note that, in the electi(»ii 
 which came ott' in the autumn, the successful candidate in Kingston 
 was a man. who afterwards became a prominent Canadian stiites- 
 
UISTORV OF CANADA. 261) 
 
 iiuui— the Rt. Hon. Sir John Alexander Mactlonakl. He was 
 elected as a .sui)porter of the governor. 
 
 The Governor Wins. —Much difticulty was experienced in 
 forming a new government. Until after ])ro rogation Dominick 
 Daly was the ministry. Then Hon. W. H. Draper was induced to 
 take up the apparently hopeless task of forming such an executive 
 council as should be able, when parliament next met, to secure the 
 confidence of the assembly. To this extent res})onsible government 
 was never questioned ; the majority for the ex-ministers in the 
 assembly must be changed in some way into a majority for the 
 new cabinet. One notable defection there was from the ranks 
 of the reformers. Denis B. Yiger accepted a seat in the new 
 council, ar.d the ministry became known for a time as the Draper- 
 Viger nunistry. For over nine months the remaining seats in the 
 council went "a-l)egging," so hopeless a{)peared the pros})ect of 
 securing parliamentary support. In Se[)tember, 1844, three a<l- 
 ditional councillors were sworn in. One of these was D. 1$. 
 Papineau, a brother of the celebrated Lower Canadian leader. 
 With this ministry of six members. Sir Charles Metcalfe dissolved 
 parliament and appealed to the country. A stormy election 
 followed. When the returns were all in, it a[)peared that the 
 governor had secured a small majority. Lower Canada had pro- 
 nounced strongly against him, U{)per Canada even more strongly 
 for him. Li England the opinion of leading statesmen was with 
 the governor, upon the uippositicm, a[)parently, that a pledge 
 had been demanded (»f him by his ex-ministers. He was made 
 r)aron Metcalfe as a mark of approval of the course he had 
 pursued. 
 
 A Small Majority. -The political history of Canada during 
 t he next three years may be passed ([uickly over. The ministry was 
 upheld l)y a very slight majority, and little imi)ortant legislation 
 was etlected. In 184.*3 it had been decided to make Montreal the 
 c;ij»ital, and the first session of the new parliament was hehl there. 
 A resoluti<»n in favor of the use of the French hinguage, as well 
 as the English, in the records of parliament was passed by a 
 unanimous vote. As the exclusive use of the English language 
 was im])osed l)y an Imperial Act — the Union Act of 1840 — Imperial 
 legislation was necessary to carry out the resolution, and this was 
 not obtained until nearly four years later (1848). Overtures were 
 
270 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 again made to Lafontaine and others of the popular leaders in the 
 lower province, but they were cc»ntent to await the result of the 
 next appeal to the electors and declined to join the ministry. In 
 the fall of 1845 Lord Metcalfe resigned, owing to extreme ill- 
 health. He died in England in the following year. He was 
 succeeded by Earl Cathcart, the senior ofticer in counnand of the 
 British troops in America, who held the position until the end of 
 January, 1847, when Lord Elgin became governor. 
 
 The Oregon Treaty. — Earl Cathcart's appointment was 
 owing to the threatening aspect of affairs in the United States. 
 As already mentioned, the forty-ninth parallel of latitude had been 
 fixed in 1818 as the northern boundary of the United States from 
 the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. To the west of 
 the Rockies the Pacific coast region had been left "free and open" 
 to the subjects of either power. This has been called a "joint 
 occupation," although for many years the traders of the Hudson's 
 Bay Company were the only occupants. Had the question been 
 settled during those years the Columbia River, at least, would have 
 been our southern l)oundary in that region. As it was, protracted 
 negotiations took place, and the whole history of early exploration 
 wa.s studied and discussed by the contending diplomats. Mean- 
 while, settlement from the older States was now extending into 
 the Oregon territory. Friction developed, and it finally became 
 necessary to fix the boundary westward to the Pacific in order 
 to avert war. The agitation of this question had given rise to 
 a party in the United States whose motto was "Fifty-four-forty 
 or hght. " To allow this extravagant claim to the country up to 
 54° 40' was |)ractically to give the whole cofist region as far as 
 the southern boundary of Alaska to the United States. The 
 Oregon Treaty (184H) put an end to the dispute, and fixed, not 
 " tif ty-four-forty, " but forty-nine as the line westward from the 
 Rocky Mountains to the channel separating A^ancouver Lsland from 
 the mainland ; thence the line was to follow this channel soutli- 
 westerly to the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 By Way of Contrast. — The passing of a Militia Bill by the 
 Canadian parliament in the sessii»n oi 1840 was one good result 
 of the war-scare. It was the practical beginning of our present 
 militia force. In the early sununer of 1845 two disastrous tires 
 bwept over the city of Quebec, leaving twenty thousand people 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 271 
 
 homeless and destitute. Liberal aid caine hoiw all quarters. 
 When a ship-load of food and clothing arrived from the United 
 States, followed by subscriptions in cash amounting to over 
 !?irK),000, it was said that if Brother J(»nathan was not inclined 
 to be just, he at all events knew how to be generous. 
 
 The Civil List. -In 184H another stej) was taken toward 
 more complete self-goverinnent. The colonial otHc(\ as has been 
 seen, had insisted, as a condition of surrendering financial control 
 to the ))rovincial assemblies, that a Civil List Act acce[)table t(» it 
 should l)e passed in each [»rovince. In Nova Scotia the tight over 
 the Civil List was still going on. In (.^anada the Civil List was 
 settled by the Cnion Act of 1840, and, to make any change in it, 
 Imperial legislation was necessary. Li 184<i the Canadian j)ar] la- 
 ment deemed it expedient to alter the scale of salaries as fixed 
 by the Cnion Act, and passed an Act for that purpose. In the 
 following year an Imperial Act was ])assed recognizing the (,'ana- 
 dian Act, and empowering the Canadian parliament to legislate 
 u})on the <|uestion from time to time as might ]m thought 
 exj)edient. Tn Nova Scotia the (juestion was settled in 1848 l)y 
 the passing of a Civil List Act by the provincial assend)ly. This 
 Act, after sligld protest from the colonial office, was allowed to 
 go into operation. Since that time there has been no further 
 attempt on the j)art of Great Britain to dictate to her colonies 
 what salaries shall be paid to i)ul)lic officials. 
 
 Education. — In 184() Dr. Flyerson secured the i)assage of 
 certain Education Acts, l)y which the system introduced by the 
 earlier Acts was nmch improved. I'he framework of the new 
 educational structure was an ada[ttation of the system in use in 
 the Middle States; the plan (»f l(»cal assessment was taken from 
 the New Lngland States ; tlie Nonnal and M(»del Schools were 
 founded on the (lerman system ; while the tex.t-))ooks adopted 
 were those in use in Ireland. Ex[jerience has since suggested 
 many imju'ovements in this educational system. In Ontario, 
 (iranuuar Schools have become High Schools and Collegiate Insti- 
 tutes. The University (»f Toronto, which in 1840 )>ecame a non- 
 sectarian pnivincial instituti(>n, has drawn into affiliation with it 
 nearly all the denominational colleges, and is now the key-st(me 
 of an educational arch of which the province may well be proud. 
 
 A Large Immigration. — The innuigration from the British 
 
272 IIISTOHV OF CANADA. 
 
 Isles during tlio years from 1840 to 1850 waa vwy large. After 
 the potato famine in Ireland in 1847 there wa» i\t large wtate-aided 
 emigration of destitute Irish. At Quebec nearly, one hundred 
 thousand arrivals were entered. Shi j)-f ever broke out in tlie 
 vessels engaged in the work of transportationj and at one time 
 there were ten thousand sick in the hospitfils. For the ten years 
 from 1840 to 1850 the arrivals at Quebec numbered 350, (XX). 
 The Maritime Provinces received a large increase to their j)o})U- 
 lation during the same period. Fr<jm 1840 to 1850 New Bruns- 
 wick filone received thirty-seven thousand, and Nova Scotia and 
 Prince Edward Island were not without their shar \ These later 
 arrivals were distributed through the settled districts, and did not 
 form distinct settlements as the earlier innnigrants had done. 
 
 End of the Draper Ministry. —The Dra|)er ministry mean- 
 while had a hard struggle to maintfiin itself in |)ower. There were 
 fre(iuent changes in its membership. In May, 184H, .John A. 
 Macdonald became receiver-general, in the sfime month Hon. 
 W. H. Draper retired, and was shortly afterwards made a judge. 
 He died, in 1877, chief -justice of the Court of Error and Appeal 
 for Ontario, after a judicial career of singular ability. Upon his 
 retirement the ministry was known as the Sherwood-Daly minis- 
 try. It managed to survive the session of 1847, but in the elec- 
 tions held in January, 1848, the Reformers — once more reunited — 
 swept the country. 
 
 A Crisis in Nova Scotia. — We nuist now return to Nova 
 Scotia, where the election of 1848 had left it somewhat in doubt 
 which of the warring sections in the ministry had secured a 
 majority of the assembly. About this time the resignation of 
 the Ltfifontaine-Baldwin ministry in Canada and the cause of it 
 became known in Nova Scotia. Very shortly afterwards Lord 
 Falkland, without any previous intimation to the Reform mem- 
 bers of his council, appointed a brother-in-law of Attorney-General 
 Johns<m to a seat in it, thus increasing the influence of the 
 old section. Uniacke, Howe and MacNab at once (December, 
 1843) resigned, taking the ground that as they were not prepared 
 to justify the appointment in the assembly no other course was 
 open to them. Lord Falkland somewhat warmly accused them of 
 endeavoring to wre.^t from him the prerogatives of the Crown. 
 Being supported in this view by the remaining members of his 
 
IMSTOIIY OK CANADA. 273 
 
 cniiiiuil, he llircw liiiusclf into their h.iiuls, Ijccniniii^, us Sir 
 ClifirluiS MotcHlfo hud hocoiiie in (•uujida, u jKirty loader. In tho 
 nssenibly, V)y tho uso <»f overy influence which coukl l)e brought 
 to bear, a majority of one was secured to support the new 
 ministry. 
 
 Lord Falkland. — With such a slight majority the ministry 
 were unable to do much in the way of legislation during the next 
 four years (1844-1847). A Siuudtaneous Polling Act was passed 
 in 1847 with the concurrence of the Reformers. A bill to im[)rove 
 the Crown lands administration was ()pj)osed by the ministry and 
 defeated. Overtures were from time to time made to the lieform 
 leaders looking to the formation of a new coalition govermnent, 
 but these were steadily declined. L<n'd Falkhind very foolishly 
 took an active part in the contest. At one time there was read in 
 the House a despatch of the lieutenant-governor in which he wrote 
 (if the speaker of the assem))ly as "the associate of reckless and 
 insolvent men." Thereupon Howe, with lighteous indignatitm, 
 said that if such conduct were allowed to c(mtinue, some outraged 
 colonist might hire a black man t(j horse- whij) a lieutenant- 
 governor. * 
 
 A Reform Victory. — It was a great relief when Lord 
 Falkland in August, 184(5, gave place to Sir John Harvey. Kven 
 he, liowever, failed to secure a coalition. The Reformeivs, feeling 
 sure of their ground, were content to wait the issue of .i general 
 election. It came in August, 1847, and the result justified the 
 stand they had taken. In the new assembly they would have a 
 clear majority. 
 
 The Contest in New Brunswick. —Early in 1845 Sir 
 William Oolebrooke, judging from what had taken place in Canada 
 and Nova Scotia that his right to a})point whom he pleased to 
 otUce was beyond (juesticm, made his son-in-law proviiicial 
 secretary. Wilmot and some others of the executive council at 
 once resigned. The colonial ottice, indeed, refused to ratify the 
 iil)pointment, but the contest had the ettect of breaking u[) the 
 " no-party " coalition, and the Reform leaders, Wilmot, Fisher and 
 
 * There was also a humorous side to the contest. In Howe's paper, the Nnva 
 Scotian, Loitl Falkland was ridiculed in prose and verse. "The Lord of the Bed- 
 Chamber" — Lord Falkland had occupied that position in England— is entitled to rank 
 as the most amusing piece of political literature in the annals of Canadian party 
 warfare. 
 
 19 
 
274 
 
 IILSIOKV nF CANADA. 
 
 r^iklui', wont into regular .ipiJOKitii.n. It will bo loinembored that 
 ill the oloction of 1842 the olcctors ..f the province had supported 
 the executive council H<,'Hiiisl the advocatoK of rospouHihle pivern- 
 nient. The F{cfonn ]»«;idoi-s ;tu;;iin took thoir stand tipon the doc- 
 trine, and at tju' next ^ennal election so far siicceeded that by 
 formal rosolutior. (Fel)ruary, iH48) the new atibeiubly signified 
 its adhesion to it. 
 
 ( nAiTii:R XLiii. 
 
 • IN('KKASIN(; At'TON'oMY. 
 
 A Common Triumph. -When Lord Klj^in was ai)pointed 
 governor-general of British North America (lSt7) his nistructionu 
 from the colonial secretary, Earl Grey, were t,o carry out the 
 
 princi[)le of Lord Russell's des- 
 patches to its logical result. 
 LordKlgin had married a daugh- 
 ter of liord Durham, and was 
 naturally anxious to sec the 
 views expressed in the cele- 
 brated report fairly api)lied to 
 the government of the prov- 
 inces. The s|>ring of IH48 saw 
 \ the second Lafontaine-Baldwin 
 ministry in power in Canada, 
 the Tniacke ministry installed 
 in Nova Scotia, and Wihnot and 
 Fisher — two of the leading Re- 
 formers of New Rrunswick — 
 made uuMubers of an executive 
 council which o])enly avowed that it held •»tHce on the tcn»u-e of 
 l)id)lic confidence. Li this complete establishment of "respon.silfle 
 uovernment" the difierent provinces enjoyed a connnon triumph. 
 The Reformers in each province had watched with much symjwithy 
 the progress of the struggle in the others. The leaders had becni 
 in freipient connnunication, and a concession gained from the colo- 
 nial ofhce for one province had often been a gain f(jr all. 
 Further Imperial Concessions.— The right of self-go vern- 
 
 j,n!;l> l.J.oiN, 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 275 
 
 rneiit in all inatters relating to flu- infernal aH'airs «if the [trovinces 
 being now fully conceded, tlio only (incslion whicii could anse was: 
 What matterH arc to he treated as matters of Imperial concern, 
 and, as sncli, withheld from colonial contiol ;* In this <(uestioii all 
 the provinces were e<|ually interested. p]ach pro\ ince desired that 
 its s})herc of self-government should he as large as jjoHsihle ; that 
 so far as was cojisistent with its relations to the British Empire 
 it should enjoy ji fidl autonomy. T(» this desire on tiu' j)art of her 
 colonies (Jreat Britain made a most generous response. She had 
 already given up all claim to dictate what salaiies should he 
 paid to eolonial ollicials. Now many other matters, which had 
 [previously heen controlled hy the Imperial authorities, v/ere 
 handed o\er to he dealt with hy the provincial parliaments as 
 they might deem proj)er. 
 
 Great Britain's Trade Policy. Freedom of trade and the 
 right to control their own tariffs was gained, strange to say, in a 
 way which for a time was extremely unpopular in the British pro- 
 \'inces in America. To understand how this came ahout. Great 
 Britair'"' trade jxiliey in I'efeieiiee to her ("ohinies nuist he hriefly 
 descrihed. For neaily two hundred years she had mono[)()lized 
 the colonial trade. l>y thi; "Navigation Laws,' j)asscd in the time 
 of Charles IF., none hut British-huilt slii|)s could carry goods t(» or 
 from British colonies. In the interest of British trade, (Jreat 
 Britain also framed the colonial tarifls. Fven Franklin admitted 
 the difference hetween duties im{)osed as a part of her trade policy 
 and duties imposed with a view to raising a revenue within a 
 colony. The American colonies rebelled because Great Britain 
 insisted upon her right to lay a tax upon them in order to raise 
 a revenue. In the celebrated Renunciation Act (1778), hy ',>hieh 
 Great Britain declared that no such right would l)e exercised in 
 future, she expressly reserved the right to impr»se duties in the 
 interest of trade. Her right in this respect had never been 
 disputed hy the provinces, doubtless because the Act {)rovided 
 that the proceeds of all duties should be expended in the colonies 
 in which they were respectively collected. As late as 1842 a 
 eoinidete colonial tariff had heen framed in England for the 
 British colonies in America. The provinces, indeed, from the 
 earliest times had raised money for their own needs by customs 
 duties ; but all such Acts were ck)sely scrutinized by the colonial 
 
276 HISTOKY OF CANADA. 
 
 oflicu. Any tli;it were doomed lio.stilo t<» lU'itish tnulin^ intore.sts 
 wore promptly disallowed. As an ottset to this monopoly of 
 colonial trade, Groat Britain imposed upon colonial ])rodiicts a 
 lower rate of duty than was charged upon the same articles when 
 imported from a foreign country. Lumber from the Maritime 
 Provinces, for instance, had thus an advantage over Baltic tind)er. 
 When a proposal was made in England in 1830 to reduce the 
 duty on the latter, New Biiniswick was much excited. Poulott 
 Thompson — who afterwards l)ecame Lord Sydenham — was burned 
 in efligy at St. .John and Fredericton because he favored the 
 proposed reduction. 
 
 A Change of Policy. — For many years a struggle had been 
 going on in Great Britain between those who su})ported the 
 protective system — of wdiich the colonial trade })olicy was only 
 one phase— and those who desired free trade. In 184(5 the corn 
 laws were repealed })y the British parliament, and the British 
 markets wore thrown open to the world's competition. The 
 colonies were no longer given advantage there over other com- 
 petitors ; but — what ultimately proved a greater boon — they wore 
 expi'ossly empowered to repeal any and all taritl" Acts imposed 
 upon them by Imperial legislation. Throe years later (184i>), the 
 old navigation Acts wore repealed, and the colonies became free 
 to buy and sell wherever their interests might dictate. 
 
 Other Concessions.— In the same year (1849), Groat Britain 
 surrendered control of the postal service in the provinces. There 
 was an intercolonial C(mforenco held during the summer at 
 Halifax, for the i)urposo of concerting measures for post-iil com- 
 munication between the provinces, as well as to discuss the 
 possibility of intercolonial free trade. This last, however, was 
 not to bo until ('(infi'derati(»n. Of (Jreat Britain's attitude on 
 the (juostion (»f colonial freedom, George Bntwn was able to say, 
 in 1850: "Frankly and generously she has, one by »tne, surren- 
 dered all the rights which wore once held necessiiry to the 
 condition of a colony the j)atronago of the Crown, the right ovci' 
 the pul>lic domain, the civil list, the customs, the post-ofKce, 
 have all l)eon relinipiished." As early as 185H it was laid 
 down by lm})erial authority (in the regulations for the colonial 
 service): "The customs establishments in all the cohniies are 
 under the control and management of the several colonial 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 277 
 
 governments, and the colonial legislatures are empowered to 
 estHl)lish their own customs rcguhitions ami rates of duty." 
 
 The British North American League.— In tiie British 
 provinces in iVmerica, the loss arising from tlie radical change 
 in (jrreat Britain's trade ])olicy was much felt l)efore the larger 
 gain became manifest. Canada, particularly, was placed at a 
 disadvantage. An Imperial Act of 184.'i — ./)metimcs s[)oken of 
 as Die Canada Corn Act — had made it profitable to import wheat 
 inter Canada from the United States. When turned into Hour, it 
 Was imported into England at a low rate of duty. Mills and 
 w.irehouse.s had been built in Canada for the carrying on of 
 tliis industry, which the free ti'ade legishition of 184() would 
 destroy. The Canadian asseml)ly, therefore, passed an address 
 protesting against the new trade [)olicy of (Jreat Britain. By the 
 year 1849 the connuercial distress had become so [ironounced that 
 tlie discontented merchants of Montreal formed a British North 
 American League with a view to devising a remedy. The situation, 
 unlia[)[)ily, was complicated by an angry political agitation, in 
 which some of the mend)ers of the League were [)rominent, over 
 the Rebellion Losses Bill. This, doubtless, accounts for the 
 e.xtreuie nature of some of the measures proposed in the League's 
 manifesto. A return by Great Britain to the protective systeui ; 
 the adoption by Canada of that system ; a confederation of all the 
 British North American provinces ; Canadian independence and 
 free trade with the Unitcid States — all these were suggested. If, 
 ui)on consideration, noih) of these should aj)pear practicable, 
 annexation to the United States was advocated. Over three hun- 
 dred signed this manifesto. J* 'uong them woe leading merchants 
 and bankers, and some also who afterwards l)eeame [)rominent in 
 [)ublic life in Canada. 
 
 Trade Revival.- The movement was short-lived. A marked 
 revival in trade set in during the following year, and, as usually 
 hapj)ens, all agitation for political change soon died out. There 
 was a branch of the League in New Brunswick, but "the 
 spirits of the peo[)le rose with the price of tiud)er," and there, 
 tiH), the licague soon disbanded. From 1850 to 1857 the provinces 
 lujttyed unwonted pros|)erity. Railways were being constructed 
 iu all directions, giving employment to all who sought it. The 
 Crimean War iu Emctpe .sent up the price of graiii, !<• 'lie great 
 
278 HISTOHV OF CANADA. 
 
 enrichment of the farming comniunity. The Reciprocity Treaty 
 gave free access to American markets. As a result, there was 
 over-specuhition. Railways were built which could pay no divi- 
 dends. The close of the Crimean War finally brought on in 1857 
 a commercial crisis of extreme severity. This disaster, following 
 upon tlie Desjardins canal railway accident, })y which about 
 seventy were killed, and the burning of a steamer on the St. 
 Lawrence, with a loss of about 25() lives, marked this year as 
 one to be long and sadly n'meud)ei'ed. The couuuercial rec<jvery, 
 however, was remarkably i-apid, giving evidence of the stability 
 of our resources. Trade with the Ignited States reached large 
 proportions. When the American Civil War broke out (April, 
 18C1) prices rose to figures almost fabulous, and so remained 
 throughout the four years of that momentous sti'uggle. 
 
 Tariff Control Fully Conceded. — For a time, indeed, the 
 colonial office — at the insbuice of British merchants — showed a 
 desire to keep Canadian t^iritts within lines favoral>le to British 
 trade. In 1859, however, the Canadian finance niinister, Mr. 
 Gait — afterwards Sir A. T. Cialt— in answer to olijections to the 
 Canadian Taiitf Act of that year, strongly aftirmed "the right of 
 the Canadian legislature to adjust the taxation of the people in the 
 way they deem best, even if it should, inifortunately, happen to 
 meet the disapproval of the Imperial ministry." Since that time 
 no attempt has been uiade to interfere with our t;iriff legislation. 
 Even in 1879, when a tiiritf was adopted — connnonly known as the 
 National Policy or N. P. tarifi" -confessedly based on the principle 
 of protecti<m to native industries, the colonial ottice declined even 
 to sejid a protest t<j Canada. "However nuich Her Majesty's 
 government," they sjud, "may regret the adoption <jf a protective 
 system, they do not feel justitied in opposing the wishes of the 
 Canadian people in this malter, " 
 
 CHAPTER XLIY. 
 
 COMMEKf'lAL EXPANSION'. 
 
 The Victorian Age. — In ail the provinces tliere was a conmion 
 desire fo profit by those remarkable developments in tlie use of 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 279 
 
 ateam and electricity which constitute one of the chief glories of 
 the period since the accession of Queen Victoria to the throne of 
 Great l^•itain. Of the various 
 efforts in 'vhich this desire 
 found expression, the project 
 of an intercolonial railway to 
 connect Canada with the Mari- 
 time Provinces dt'serves our 
 first attention as being the 
 earliest practical movement 
 toward d »nf ederati< »n. 
 
 An Intercolonial Rail- 
 way—Early Projects.— As 
 early as 1884 there liad been 
 a project for the building of a 
 commercial line of railway be- 
 tween Canada find New Biuns- 
 wick, and Major Vule, of the 
 Royal FiUgintH'rs, had surveyed 
 a line for that purp<»se. It lay, 
 however, through the territory 
 in dispute between Maine and 
 
 the British provinces, and, tlierefore, when the Ashburt(tn Treaty 
 gave the territory to the Ignited States, n( (thing further was heard 
 of this aa an interprovincial undertaking. During the troubles of 
 18H7-1838 tlie want of communication Ijetween the provinces had 
 been felt, and Lord Durham in his reiwrt urged the n»'cessity for 
 an intercolonial railway as an Im[uri;il work. Tho project was 
 often discussed by hading men in all tlie {)rovin('i's, but the tirst 
 practical step was taken in 184(1. Then, as a result of correspond- 
 ence between the cttloniul ♦secretary, tlie governor general, und the 
 different lieutenant-governors, the tlu'ee provinces made provision 
 for tlie survey of a line at their joint .'Xpt use. It was understood 
 that if a suit^ible route could be f«»vnul, the line was to be built by 
 the Imperial government, the provinces assisting t<» the best of 
 their at)ility. Major Rol)inson and Captain Hi'iiderson, two otticera 
 of the Royal Engineers, laid out a line (184H-1848). Tlie provinces 
 in 1841) made liberal grants in land and money t(» aid i\u' project, 
 but in the end the Imperial government dt>cUned to proceed with 
 
 
280 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 the work, taking objection to the expense and to the route pro- 
 posed. 
 
 Imperial Encouragement. — In 1850 there was a great 
 railway convention at Portland, Maine, at which delegates from 
 New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were present. Much enthusiasm 
 was manifested, and a scheme was adopted for the building of the 
 European and North American Railway from Portland through 
 New Brunswick to Halifax. New Brunswick strongly supported 
 the project, but Joseph Howe, of Nova Scotia, thought it impos- 
 sible to raise the necessary capital. Upon his return to Halifax 
 he suggested a further attempt to ])rocure Imperial assistfince to 
 an intercolonial line. With ciiaracteristic energy he visited Eng- 
 land, and Ijy addresses and pamphlets created a strong interest in 
 the British provinces in North America, whose vast resources he 
 most elo([uently portrayed. The colonial secretary. Earl Crrey, 
 was induced to promise an Imperial guarantee for payment of the 
 interest upon any sum, up to £8(X),(XK), which might be borrowed 
 to carry out the work. With such security the necessary funds 
 could be borrowed at a lov.' rate of interest, thus lessening the 
 annual burden upon the provinces. 
 
 Colonial Conference at Toronto. —Lord Elgin was in- 
 formed of these proceedings, and at once invited delegates from 
 New Brunswick and Nova Scotia to meet the Canadian govern- 
 ment at Toronto. E. B. Chandler and Joseph Howe were the 
 delegates chosen. The meeting took place in .June, 1851, and the 
 terms upon which the work was to proceed were arranged with 
 little difhculty. The adhesion of New Brunswick was secured, 
 apparently, ujxin the understanding that the European and North 
 American Railway (mentioned above) was to form part of the pro- 
 ject, and that an etiort would be made to })rocure the ado[)tion of 
 the line by the valley of the St. John i»*stead of what is known as 
 the Gulf Shore line. This latter route is that now followed by the 
 main line of the Intercolonial Rfiilway. As a gbuice at the map 
 will show, it does not touch either Fredericton, the capital of the 
 province, or St. .Fohn, its c<mimercial centre. Before returning to 
 Nova Scotia, Howe visited M<mtreal and Quebec, and by speeches 
 and interviews with leading men did much to create a cordial feel- 
 ing among the different jirovinces. 
 
 The Project Fails. Tn .lamiary, 1852, three members of 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 281 
 
 the Canadian ministry, Hincks, Tache and Young, proceeded to 
 Halifax, and a final conference was had with Howe and Ciiandler. 
 At this stage Howe grew hikewann and failed to accompany tlie 
 other delegates to England. He thought, apparently, that to the 
 scheme, as now proposed, tlie Imperial authorities would turn a 
 deaf ear. So it turned out. The otter of an Imperial guarantee 
 was withdrawn, and the project of an intercolonial railway— though 
 several times discussed between the provinces — was left to find its 
 fulfilment in tlie larger project of (>\)nfederation. Hincks procured 
 the assistance of British ca|)it{ilists, and the (Jrand Trunk Iljiilway 
 of Canada was the result. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, after 
 a short delay, took up, each upon its own account, the work 
 of constructing such local lines as the trade of those provinces 
 required. 
 
 Navigation. — In an earlier chapter a short account was given 
 of the introduction of steamboats, and of the improvement of the 
 great waterway of the St. Lawrence valley by the building of the 
 Lachine, VVelland and other canals. The estiiblishment of the 
 Cunard line of ocean steamships was also mentioned. Further 
 progress in this directicm was made during the period before us. 
 Canal construction along the St. Liiwrence went on apace. In 
 1852 the Canadian parliament ottered a liberal subsidy to aid in 
 the estiiblishment of a transatlantic line from Montreal to Liver- 
 pool. Out of this enterj)rise grew the well-known Allan line, 
 which was in regular operation by the year 1856, rinining in 
 summer from Montreal and in winter from Portland and Halifax. 
 
 Railways in Canada. — This, however, is [)re-eminently a 
 railway era. Scarcely were the Canadian canals in good working 
 order when railway comj)etiti(m in the Cnived States threatened 
 to divert trattic from them. Shrewd Canadians saw that they, 
 too, nmst build railways. As early as 1845 a charter was ol)tained 
 for the St. Lawrence and Atlantic lljiilway, to run between Mont- 
 real and Porthmd. This was afterwards made part of the Grand 
 Trunk. The year 1845) saw many charters granted, and an Act 
 jKissed guaranteeing payment of the interest on loans to railways 
 more than seventy miles in length. This gave a great impetus 
 to railway projects. In 1850 there were not more than forty 
 miles actually open for traffic ; before the close of 1853 the Crand 
 Trunk was complett^l between Montreal and Portland, the Creat 
 
282 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Western was running between Hamilton and Windsor, on the 
 Detroit River, and the Northern was open from Toronto to Ban-ie, 
 on Lrfike Simcoe. An Act passed in 1852 — the Consolidated Muni- 
 cipal Loan Fund Act — permitted municipalities to borrow money 
 on the credit of the province to aid railway enterprise. Countie.'i, 
 townships, towns and villages vied with each other in bemusing 
 rjiilway lines in all directions. The result was disastrous. Rail- 
 way construction became a mania, and it needed the crisis of 
 1857 to i)ut a stop to the bailding of useless lines. Many years 
 elapsed before the municipalities were relieved of the burden of 
 debt thus incurred. 
 
 Railways in the Maritime Provinces.— In Nova Scotia 
 an Act was passed in 1854 providing for the construction of rail- 
 ways as government works. In the following year a line was 
 opened from Halifax to ^^'indsor, and an extension of it toward 
 Pictou was well under way. In New Brunswick the work of 
 railway construction was at first let to contractors, who became 
 bankrupt, and in 1855 a line from St. John to Shediac was under- 
 taken as a government work. It was couipleted in 18f>0. In 
 1864 was passed what was facetiously called the Lobster Bill — 
 in so many directions did its vari<»us clauses point — offering liberal 
 grants in aid of railway construe Lion. Lender it many lines were 
 built. 
 
 A Pair Equipment. — By the time Confederation became 
 an accomplished fact, the various provinces were all fairly well 
 equipped with railway facilities, and only a connecting link was 
 needed between Canada and the Maritime Provinces. Telegraphic 
 communication had kept [)ace with the railways — to stime extent, 
 indeed, had ]jreceded them. By the year 1800 there was an 
 etticient service throughout the |)rovinces. In 1858 tiie first At- 
 lantic cable was laid, ])ut was almost at once broken, and it was 
 seveidl years before it was again in succe.ssful operation. 
 
 The Reciprocity Treaty, 1854. —The desire for commer- 
 cial expansion was also shown in etforts to obtain free trade with 
 the United States, by a mutual abandt»nment oi the customs duties 
 upon importations. In 1854 Lord Klgin went to Washington in 
 company with delegates from Canada, New Brunswick and Prince 
 Edward Island, and succeeded in negotiating the Elgin-Marcy 
 Treaty, popularly known as the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 283 
 
 Under it certain natural products — grain, flour, breadstuffs, 
 animals, meat, hides, wool, timber, coal, fish, poultry, and some 
 other articles — were to be reciprocally admitted free of duty into 
 the United States jviid thj British provinces. The navigation of 
 the St. Lawrence and the Canadian canals was made free to 
 American vessels; that of Lake Micliigan to all British vessels. 
 No duty ,/as to be levied in New Brunswick upon lumber floated 
 down the St. John River from its upjjer waters in tlie State «>f 
 Maine. The other provisions of the treaty had reference to the 
 sea-coast fisheries, and as these are still a sul)ject of dispute 
 between Canada and the United States, a fuller statement con- 
 cerning them must be given. 
 
 The Fisheries Question.— When the United States ceased 
 to be subject to the British Crown, her citizens lost the right, 
 which they had previously enjoyed, of fishing in what are called 
 the territorial watti-s — that is, within three miles of the coast — of 
 the loyal British provinces. In 1818 an agreement was entered 
 into between (jrreat Britiiin and the ITnited States, and upon 
 this "Convention," in the absence of any other arrangement, the 
 rights of American fisliermen upon our coasts still depend. By 
 it Great Britain agreed to allow citizens of the ITj^ityJ States to 
 fish around the Magdalen Islands and along ceitain parts of the 
 coasts of Newfoundland and I^abrador, with the privilege of 
 landing on those coasts for the purpose oi drying and curing 
 their fish. Their rights upon all other parts of the coast are very 
 limited. American fishermen are allowed to enter bays or harbors 
 "for the purposes of shelter and of repairing damages therein, or 
 purcliasing wood and of obtaining water, and f«»r no otlu;r purpose 
 whatever," For some years the cliief cause of complaint on the 
 part of the American fishermen was that they were not allowed to 
 go ashore to buy ])ait for use in the cod fisheries, which were 
 carried on almost entirely beyond the three-mile limit. After a 
 time, however, the mackerel fishery grew to large proportions, 
 and, as this fish is caught within the limit, the American fisher- 
 men felt aggrieved at their exclusion. But, in the interest 
 of their own fishermen, the Maritime Provinces resented all 
 encroachments upon their fishing grounds ; and, in 1837, the 
 British parliament voted £500 to arm small vessels to prevent 
 any breach of the Convention of 1818. This strict enforcement 
 
284 . HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 of its terms n iturally crentecl niucli ill-will. Bj' the Reciprocity 
 Treaty of 1854 an end was put for a time to all ditticulty upon 
 the (question. The liberty to take iish of every kind, excei)t shell 
 fish, upon the coasts of the British provinces was conceded to 
 American fishermen, without any restriction as to the three-mile 
 limit. They were also to be at liberty to land for the purposes of 
 drying their nets and curins/ their fish, so long as they c<jnnnitted 
 no trespass upon private jjroperty. The concession was limited to 
 the sea fishery, fishing in the rivers being forbidden. 
 
 The Treaty Abrogated. — Through some misunderstanding, 
 Nova Scotia was not represented at the negotiation of this treaty, 
 which was looked upon at first with nuich disfavor in that province. 
 Nova Scotians thought that the valuable inshore fisheries had been 
 "bartered away" for a slight return. After the treaty had been for 
 a few years in operation. Nova Scotia was fain to admit, with all 
 the provinces, that an enormous impetus had been given to the 
 trade between the United States and the British provinces; and 
 she, therefore, joined with them in the endefivor to secure its 
 ren val. The treaty was in force for eleven years (1855-1860), 
 ana ^ame to an end pursuant to notice gi'/en by the United 
 Suites, the reason put forward for its abrogation being that the 
 British provinces received a larger benefit from it than the United 
 States. The real reason was the hostile feeling toward Great 
 Britiiin on the part of the northern States, owing to British 
 sympathy with the South during the American Civil War. EffiDrts 
 have from time to time been made to secure a renewal oi the 
 reci[)rocity clauses of this treaty, and even to extend them, but 
 up to the present time these efiTorts have been fruitless. The 
 fishery clauses of the treaty fell, of course, with the otliers. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 POLITICAL HISTORY (1848-1864). 
 
 Maritime Provinces — Municipal Government. — The 
 internal aftairs of the Maritime Provinces from 1848 to 1864 nuist 
 be dealt with very briefly. In Nova Scotia tlie l^niacke ministry, 
 comjjosed (»f sudi men as XTniucke, Howe, Young, MacNab, and 
 
lilSTOKV UF CANADA. 
 
 286 
 
 lliinliiigtoii, reuiHiiiod at iliu hujul of uiDiiis until thii general 
 c'k'ction of 1855, when they w-'iu defuatcd at the jtolls. During 
 their eight years' tenure ot ottice Uiucli attention was given to 
 reform in the ])ractical working of the various departments i>f 
 government, to educational improvement, and to consolidating 
 the laws of the province. Owing to the absence of any system 
 of local assessment, every etibrt to ast^iblish a nmnicipal system 
 
 MARITIME PROVINCES 
 
 OF CANADA. 
 
 failed to secure popular support. Much of the time of the i)ro- 
 vincial legislature Avas, in consequence, spent in providing for 
 local im])roveiiients such as, in Upper Canada, were looked after 
 h;" the individual niunicipalities. The sjvme remark a})nlies to 
 Prince Edward Island. To this day no regular munici])al system 
 has been adopted in these two provinces. The chief towns indeed 
 are self -governed, but under char< ers of incorporatifm granted from 
 time to time by the provincial parliament. In New Brunswick an 
 Act was passed in 1851 under which counties were given the right 
 to adopt a municipal system if they should think tit. They have 
 
286 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 nil long since done ho, and the powerH of these county councils are 
 yearly becoming wider and more imiiortnnt. 
 
 Educational System. The same causes long operated to 
 prevent the adoption of etlicient educational systems. In 1849 
 Joseph Howe declared that there was an utter lack of system. 
 In the following year the exam}»le of Canada was followed in 
 Nova Scotia to the extent of appointing a general superintendent 
 of education. Scliool libraries were als<i prctvided, Scho(»l trustees 
 were elected by popular vote, but the schools were maintained by 
 those whose children attended them and by government grants. 
 Not until 1864 was a system of free schools, supj)orted by local 
 assessment, established in Nova Scotia. IVince Edward Island 
 had adopted the new system — nt)t very successfully, however — 
 in 1855 ; but New Brunswick continued the old system until 
 1872. The result of the estal>lishment of free schools has been 
 most satisfact(jry in all the provinces. In Nova Scotia the war 
 against denominational colleges continued during all these years, 
 but the system defied all efforts to uproot it. 
 
 Political Battles in Nova Scotia. -In the election of 
 1855 Joseph Howe was defeated in Cumberland by Dr. Charles 
 Tup|)er, who became provincial secretriry in the Johnson ministry, 
 which succeeded to office in 185t>. Dr. — now Sir Charles — Tupper 
 has ever since occupied a prominent position in public affairs. At 
 the general election of 1859 the Johnson ministry was defeated, 
 and the Hon. G. R. Young chosen jnemier. In 1863, hoAvever, 
 the electors again declared in favor of the party led by the Hon. 
 J. W. Johnson. Upon his elevat'">n to the bench, the Hon. W. A. 
 Henry — afterwards Mr. Justice Henry, of the Supreme Court of 
 Canada— took his [dace at the head of affairs in N<>va Scotia. 
 
 In jS^ew Brunswick. — In New Brunswick, during these years, 
 no very serious local ([uestions agitated political parties. Upon 
 the ([uestion of railway cimstruction opinions were divided, and 
 the relative merits of "through" lines and "local" lines were 
 much discussed. Reciprocity, law consolidation, the improvement 
 of agriculture, reform in administration and in the school system, 
 all came up in turn and provided the political parties with battle- 
 cries at the different elections. The old Reform leader, the Hon. 
 L. A. Wilmot, was now a judge ; but his former colleague, Charles 
 Pisher, was still in public life. For some time prior to Confedera- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 287 
 
 tion, a Liberal government under the leatlershii) of tlie Hon. »S. L. 
 Tilley held ottice in New Brunswick. 
 
 The Rebellion Losses Bill. —In Canada the second Lafon- 
 
 taine-Baldwin niiniKtry (1848-1851) acconipliKhed nnich in tlie way 
 
 i-f wise legislation. The session of 184U is remembered chieHy on 
 
 account of the celebrated Rebellion Losses Bill and the lawless 
 
 jiroceedings to which its |»assHgo gave rise This bill was a legacy 
 
 from the evil days of 18.'i7-1838, and mado provision for payment 
 
 of losses suffered in Lower Canada during the outbreaks tliere. 
 
 Losses in U|)per Canada had been paid under an Act passed in 
 
 1842; and in 1845 the assend)!y had unanimously adopted an 
 
 address to the governor asking that steps might ))e taken toward 
 
 {»ayment of the losses in the lower province. The difficulty was 
 
 in determining what persons should be compensated. The Draper 
 
 ministry had failed to face the ([uestion, but the new Reform 
 
 ministry took it uji. A bill was introduced under whi<'h none 
 
 wc»uld be excluded l)ut those actually banished for complicity in 
 
 the rebellion, or convicted by the sentence of a court of justice. 
 
 To take any other coiu'se was to open up the question of every 
 
 claimant's loyalty, and this in the face of an Imperial annu'sty. 
 
 'I'he bill passed l)oth Houses, and Lord Elgin, being of opniion 
 
 that the measure was o!?'3 «>f purely provincial concern, gave the 
 
 I'rown's assent to it. A mob of well-dressed young men gathered 
 
 a})out the entrance to the parliament buildings as Lord Elgin rode 
 
 away, and pelted his carriage with rotten eggs and other missiles. 
 
 Tiiat night (25th April), a mass meeting was held on the Champ 
 
 (le Mars, at which intlammatory speeches were delivered, with the 
 
 result th;it the infuriated crowd rushed to the assembly chamber, 
 
 drove out the mem])ers, and set tire to the building. It was 
 
 entirely consumed, and with it one of the best libraries on the 
 
 continent, and all the })ublic records. Next night there was 
 
 further rioting, and Lafontjiine's house was sacked. A few days 
 
 later Lord Elgin again came in from his residence at Monklands, 
 
 and was literally driven out of the city by an angry mob. Though 
 
 st,(»nes were freely used by his assailants, happily no one was 
 
 seriously injured. The governor acted with marked forbearance 
 
 throughout this unpleasant episode, and forbade the calling out of 
 
 the military to put down the rioters. In August the ringleaders 
 
 were arrested, and this was the signal for a further outbreak. 
 
288 IIISTOKV OK CANADA. 
 
 TIk! mol) H^'aiii ;it tucked Ijiifoiitaino's house, but this time he avhr 
 ])rei)Hre(l ami tliey were driven t>tt' jifter one of their nund)er Imd 
 J)een killed. One result oi' these outrageswas the removal of the 
 seat of government from Montreal. As a mark of approval of 
 Ills conduct during these trying times, Lord P]lgin was made Baron 
 Elgin of the jjeerage of the United Kingdom. 
 
 Return of Papineau and Mackenzie. — During the same 
 session (184!>) another Act was passed granting a general anniesty 
 to all who had been concerned in the out))reaks of 18.S7-18.'J8. 
 From time to time pardons had been granted or prosecuticms 
 formally aband<med in individual cases, and' many of the refugees 
 had already returned to Canada. Dr. Wolf red Nelson had been 
 a member of the last parliamont. Papineau himself was a member 
 of this, but, though for a time he showed a dis))ositi(m toward 
 agitation, he never regained his old ascendancy. He endeavored 
 to j)ut himself at the head of a movement for colonizing vacant 
 districts in Lower Canada, but was skilfully forestalled by Lord 
 Elgin, who, by himself taking up the project, prevented it from 
 assuming a political or racial character. This movement, it may 
 be noted, had a marked effect in stopping emigration to the 
 ITnited States, and in tilling up unsettled tracts ahmg the lower 
 St. Liiwrence. About the only one left to protit by the anuiesty 
 Avas William Lyon Mackenzie. He had suffered imprisonment 
 in the United Stites f<»r breach of their neutrality laws, and 
 after his release had exi)erienced many reverses of fortune. All 
 his old admiration for republican institutions had vanished, and he 
 at once took advantage of the anniesty and returned to Toronto. 
 At a bye-election in 1850 he was elected to the assembly as 
 member for Haldimand, his opponent being George Brown. In 
 the assembly Mackenzie became a somewhat privileged character, 
 but was never again an important factor in politics. He died in 
 Toronto in 1861. 
 
 Two Wise Acts. — In the sessi(ms of 1850 and 1851 much 
 useful legislation was passed. The only Acts which call for special 
 mention were two, passed in 1851. By one of these our present 
 decimal currency was introduced. By the other the law of primo- 
 geniture was abolished, so that upon the death of any person 
 without a will his land is divided among his children instead of 
 going to the eldest son or nearest heir. 
 
HlSTOllV or CANADA. ^89 
 
 A Division among Reformers.— The IjiifctntHine-Baklwin 
 ministry proved too conservative for tlie more ardent reformers 
 in both sections of the province, while the more moderate Ccmser- 
 vatives, disgusted witli the Montreal outrages, inclined t<> give 
 the ministry a reasonable support. By the year 1850 two new 
 parties had become distinctly deveh)ped, the " (^^lear Grits" in 
 Upper Canada and the " Pdiii Homjc " in the lower section of 
 the province. Both of these favored the innnediate seculari/Jition 
 of the Clergy Reserves, the abolition of the seigneurial tenure, 
 and certain radical reforms in the electi(m law. In the autunui 
 of 1851. Baldwin and Laf<mtaine withdrew from pul)lic life, and 
 their places were taken by Francis Hincks and A. N. Morin. 
 
 The Liberal-Conservative Alliance. —The Hincks-Morin 
 administration (1851-1854) was marked by great railway develop- 
 ment, by the passing in 1852 of an Act increasiug the rei)resent{i- 
 tion in the assembly from eighty-four to 130 (sixty-five from each 
 section of the province), and by the negotiation of the Reciprocity 
 Treaty with the United Stiites. After the election in the sunnuer 
 of 1854, it became evident that the ministry was no longer sup- 
 ported by a majority, if Clear Grits, Eoikjch, and Conservatives 
 were all counted against it. Tlie ministry therefore resigned. 
 No party having a majority in the House, a coalition of some 
 sort seemed unavoidable. John A. Macdonfild was the leading 
 spirit in bringing about a union between the Conservatives and 
 those who had supported the late ministry, the former agreeing 
 to accept the verdict of the people — which had been strongly 
 pronounced — in favor of secularizing the Clergy Reserves and 
 abolishing the seigneurial tenure. The result was the Liberal- 
 Conservative Alliance of 1854, and the formation of the MacNab- 
 Morin ministry. The agreement in reference to the reserves and 
 the seigneurial tenure wa» faithfully observed. 
 
 The Clergy Reserves Secularized.— And first as to the 
 Clergy Reserves. It will be remembered that by the Imperial Act 
 of 1840 the proceeds of all past sales of these reserves were set 
 apart for the exclusive benefit of the Anglicans and Presbyterians, 
 while the proceeds of all future sales were to be distributed : one- 
 third to the Anglicans, one-sixth to the Presbyterians, and the 
 remaining one-half among such other religious bodies as should 
 choose to become suitors for state aid. This arrangement, though 
 20 
 
290 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 viewed with much disfavor by a majority of Canadians, was 
 allowed to remain unquestioned for some years. The whole ques- 
 tion was reopened in 1847 by the action of those who benefited by 
 the Act. It was said that the management of the reserves by the 
 government was not judicious, and a request was made, therefore, 
 that the lands themselves should be handed over to the churches 
 to be dealt with as they might deem proper. Public attention was 
 thus drawn to the cpiestion, and an agitation at once sprang up 
 for complete secularization. At first many of the more moderate 
 reformers deprecated a renewal of the old feud. By the year 
 1850, however, the current of po])ular opinion had set in so 
 strongly th.it an address was passed })y both Houses requesting 
 that the Canadian parliament shcjuld be allowed to deal with the 
 matter, (hving to political comj>lications in England, the neces- 
 sary Imperial Act was not passed until 1853. In 1854 the ques- 
 tion was finally disposetl. of liy the Canadian parliament. Pro- 
 vision was made for the sale of the reserves, and, after setting 
 aside a fund for those clergymen who had acquired vested interests 
 in the income arising from them, the balance was divided among 
 the nnniicipalities in proportion to pctpulation. The further en- 
 dowment of rectories had been forbidden by an Act passed some 
 years before this time. 
 
 The Seigneurial Tenure Abolished. —In the same year 
 (1854) an Act was passed abolishing the Seigneurial Tenure in 
 Lower Canada. In the earlier years of British rule the seigneur 
 had desired to change his tenure into P^nglish freehold in order to 
 escape payment of feudal dues to the Crown, and in order also t<i 
 turn his obligation to accept tenants upon customary terms into 
 a right to sell the land freed of all such conditions. The habitant , 
 prizing the right to secure land u[)on easy terms, had opposed 
 the change of tenure. Now the j)osition was reversed. The 
 Crown had long since abandoned all claim uj)on the seigneurs, 
 and, as the seigneuries filled up and became more valuable, the 
 rents jjayable by the censitiiires were raised. It was contended 
 that under the ordinances of the French intendants the exac- 
 tion of an increased rent was illegal, and ujwn this question 
 the agibition first arose. In the year 1852 a bill was passed by 
 the assembly dealing only with this (]uesti()n of rent. It fixed a 
 low rate for the future, with jjrovision, however, for compenstition 
 
^TLSTORY OF CANADA. 291 
 
 to the seigneurs ,sh»juld the rents previously exacted be held legal. 
 It did not attempt to abolish the tenure. Fortunately, perhaps, 
 the bill was rejected by the legislative council, in which the influ- 
 ence of the seigneurs was strong. The result was an increased agita- 
 tion for a total abolition of the tenure. The Act of 1864 effected 
 this. It provided for the appointment of a special court — usually 
 spoken of as the Seigneurial Court — to determine what legal rights 
 and privileges the seigneurs really possessed and what compensa- 
 tion should be paid to them for their loss. Tlie amount hxed was 
 duly paid by the jjrovince, and so vanished this feudal tenure. 
 
 Lord Elgin. — Toward the close of 1854, Lord Elgin's term of 
 office came to an end. In their ett'orts for public improvement his 
 ministers had always found in him an eager ally, and by his elo- 
 quent speeches throughout the province he had done much to spur 
 the people to further endeavor. At the same time he had, during 
 a somewhat trying period, held an even balance between opposing 
 parties. His subsequent career was distinguished, and he was 
 finally made Viceroy of India, which ])osition he held at the time 
 of his death. His successor in Canada was Sir Ednr^ id Head, who 
 Avas promoted from the lieutenant-governorshi[) of New Brunswick. 
 
 Sectional Difficulties. — The alliance of parties which sup- 
 ported the MacNab-Morin ministry was sufficiently powerful to 
 retain the control of public affairs for nearly eight years, "*<■ with one 
 notable intermission to which reference will be made later. The 
 legislation of 1854 had settled the last of the great questions 
 whioh had divided political parties and a short seastm of com- 
 parative calm now followed. The strength of the goveinment lay 
 in the difficulty experienced by the opposition led by such men 
 as George Brown, A. A. Dorion, and John Sandtield Macdonald — 
 in agreeing up(»n a political platform which would find support 
 in both sections of tlie province. In Cpj)er Canada an agitation 
 had been growing up for some years against Sejiarate Scho<»]s, for 
 which provision ha<l been made by the School Act of 1841. The 
 granting of jc. blic money to sectarian institutions was another 
 subject of att;ick. Upon these cpiestions there wis little prospect 
 of agreement between the two sections of the province. 
 
 * Durint,' these years the ministry iin<Ier\v(Mit many chanpps in its conijiosition, 
 and was knnwTi l)y various names— MacNab-Morin, MacNab-Tach6, Taoh^-Mawlonald, 
 Maodonald-Cavtier, Cartier-Macdonald. 
 
292 tllSTOl V^ Ot' CANADA. 
 
 ** Rep. by Pop." — Still less prospect was there for agreement 
 upon the question of "Rep. by Pop.," as it was called, which 
 about this time began to agitate Upper Canada. The census of 
 1852 had disclosed that the position of the two sections was now 
 reversed; that the p< pulation of Lower Canada was some sixty 
 thousand less than that of Upper Canada. It was evident that 
 this difference was increasing, and a claim was put forward by the 
 Reformers of Upper Canada that in the assembly there should be 
 "representiition by i)opulation. " This had been denied to Lower 
 Canada at the union when she had the majority, and it was hardly 
 reasonable to expect that she would agree to any change now that 
 she was in the minority. The Reformers of Upper Canada con- 
 tested the election of 1857 on the platform of "Rep. by Pop." 
 and "No Sectarian Scliools," and secured a majority from that 
 section of the province. In Lower Canada, on the other hand, 
 the ministry was sustained l)y an overwhelming majority, the 
 alliance of the Parti Rottge with the Upper Canadian Reformers 
 proving fatal to the influence of the former. 
 
 The Seat of Government. —Another (juestion over which 
 sectional feeling was aroused was the question of the seat of 
 government. When Montreal was abandoned (1849) it was agreed 
 that Torcmto and Quebec should enjoy the distinction alternately, 
 four years each. This had been found very inconvenient, and 
 the propriety of choosing a permanent caj)ital was recognized by 
 all. Montreal being out of the question, no agreement was pos- 
 sible, and after some vacillation the selection was left to Her 
 Majesty. The result was that Ottawa was chosen, and there the 
 parliament f»f old Canada met for the first and last time in 1866. 
 
 The "Double Shuffle."— In the session of 1858 an event 
 occurred which is still often referred to on account of its cimstitu- 
 tional importance. The Macdonald-Cartier ministry was defeated 
 on a motion respecting the seat of government. Although after- 
 wards sustained by a small majority on a vote of want of c<mfi- 
 dence, moved by George Brown, the ministry saw fit to resign. 
 Sir Edmund Head thereupon called upon George Brown to form n 
 cabinet, but after it was formed the governor declined to dis- 
 solve parliament as advised by his new ministers. He took the 
 ground that an election had just been held, and that there was 
 no reason to expect any change in the relative strength of paities 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 293 
 
 as the result of a new election. The Brown-Dorion ministry at 
 once resigned after holding office for loss than three days (August 
 2nd to August 4th). The governor's course was much criticised by 
 . the Reform party, and it is now generally admitted that he should 
 not have called upon Mr. Brown to form a ministry if he was not 
 prepared to follow its advice. The old ministry returned to office 
 with a new name — the Cartier-Macdonald ministry — perpetrating 
 what is known as the "Double Shuffle." The several ministei'S 
 took charge of departments other than those they had before 
 controlled, and relying ui)on the strict letter of a provincial 
 statute did not seek re-electi<jn in their respective ccmstituencies. 
 Almo.st innnediately there was another change, and the ministers 
 were installed in the offices they had res|>ectively held before the 
 resignation. The proceeding was held legal, l)ut was so clearly 
 opposed to the spirit of the constitution that the sttitute was 
 amended to prevent its repetition, 
 
 A Federal Union Suggested. —In 1859 the Reform party 
 of Upper Canada declared in favor of a federal union between the 
 two secticms of the province. Each section should nave its own 
 parliament to regulate its local affairs ; while one parliament, 
 chosen on a basis of representation l)y population, should legislate 
 on all matter?* of connnon concern. This is the i)rinciple upon 
 wliicli tlie larger confederation of all the provinces was afterwards 
 esta))lished. I^he Ilef<trm party of Lower Canada also adopted this 
 platform, but there was little cohesion between the two wings. 
 When a resolution in favor of the })roject was moved in the 
 assembly in 1860, it was defeated by a large maj(jrity. The 
 census of 18H1 sh' wed that Upper Canada had a population about 
 three hundred thousand in excess of that of Lower Canada, and 
 the demand in the former for "Rep. by Pop." grew vehement. 
 
 The Canadian Dead-lock. — The result of the general elec- 
 tion in 18(51 was to give to no party a decided majority. From 
 that time until a coalition government was formed in 18(54, no 
 less than four- some say five — different ministries lield office.* 
 The position in 1864 cjinnot be better described than in the 
 
 * III 1802 the Cartier-MacdoimUl ininistry was defoattMl on a militia bill, wliich waa 
 thought too expensive a measure. It was Hucc!ee<le<l by the Matidoiuild (.F. S.)-Sicotte 
 ministry, whic^h, after a few months, was defeatcil on a motion of want of eonfl luiice. 
 Farliament was dfssolvwl att<l the ministry was re(!onstru(!te<l, becoming the Mao- 
 
294 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 language of John A. Macdonakl, when, in .18C5, he moved the 
 adoption of the Quebec resohitious, upon which our Confederation 
 is founded : ' ' Then men of all parties and all shades of politics 
 became alarmed at the aspect of aiiairs. They found that such 
 was the oj^position between the two sections of the province, 
 such was the danger of impending anarchy iu conseijuence of 
 irreconcilable ditterences of opinion in reference to representa- 
 tion by population between Upjuir and Lower Canada, that 
 unless some solution was arrived at we should sutfer under a 
 succession of weak governments — weak in numerical support, 
 weak in force, and weak in jiower of doing good. All were 
 alarmed at this state of atlairs. We had election after election, 
 we had ministry jifter ministry, with the stime result. Parties 
 were so equally balanced that the vote of one member might 
 decide the fate of the administration. This condition of things 
 was well calculated to arouse the earnest consideration of every 
 lover of his country, and I am happy to say it had that eftect. " 
 The .solution wjiS Confedtn-ation. 
 
 CHAPTER XLYT. 
 
 PRINCE EDWAKI) ISLAND (1840-1867). 
 
 A Desire for "Responsible Government." — Tn Prince 
 
 Edward Island, with its comparatively small })o{)uhition, the 
 demand for responsible government came at a nmch hiter period 
 than in the other provinces. Once demanded, it was conceded 
 Avith very little delay on the part of the colonial office, and withttut 
 much friction on the island. The disputes between the executive 
 and the asseml)ly were apparently never of a very serious char.*icter. 
 The administrativi^ staff was not large, and was supported by the 
 Imperial govennnent out of the revenues collected on the island 
 under Imperial Acts. Sir W. V. Huntley, who was lieutenant- 
 governor from 1841 (o 1847, (juarrelled bitterly with the speaker of 
 the assembly (Hon. Joseph l*ope) over a proposition, opposed by 
 
 donald (J. S.VDorion ministry ; but the result of the election was to leave matters in 
 as tanjfleti a condition as i)efore. Ajfain the ministry resij^ned, and the second Tach^- 
 Maodonald ffovernmont was formed. It in turn Wftu outvoted, and to all appearance 
 a dead -lock had come, 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 295 
 
 the latter, to increase tlie lieutenant-governor's salary. From this 
 rather petty beginning a desire grew up that all expenditure should 
 be controlled by the people's representatives. There was the hope, 
 too, that an executive responsible to the people for its conduct of 
 public affairs might urge on with more energy and more weight a 
 settlement oi tlie vexed land question. The feeling, therefore, in 
 favor of following the example of the other provinces gradually 
 acquired strength. 
 
 A Short Contest. — To this end an address to Her Majesty 
 was carried in thy assembly in 1847. It advocated the appoint- 
 ment to the executive council of four members from the popular 
 party in the assembly. These four were to be respt)nsible to the 
 assembly for all acts of government. To this address the colonial 
 secretary replied that owing to the small number and pot)r circum- 
 stances of the population (the wealth of the island being largely 
 centred in Charlottetown) it was not as yet thought expedient to 
 introduce the system of responsible government into the island. 
 It was intimated, however, that in the opinion of the home 
 authorities the island assembly should now undertake to pay all 
 official salaries, except that of the lieutenant-governor. To this the 
 assembly promptly responded 
 that it was prepai'ed to do so, if 
 control of all the revenues of the 
 island were given up, all claim 
 to quit-rents abandoned, the few 
 (Jrown lands transferred, and a 
 system of responsible govern- 
 ment introduced. All tliese 
 demands were agreed to by tlie 
 colonial secretary, with the one 
 important exception of responsi- 
 ble government. In order to 
 ascertain how far the peciple of 
 the island supported their repre- 
 sentatives in their demands, the 
 lieutenant-governor, Sir Donald 
 
 Campbell, dissolved the assembly. Upon the meeting of the new 
 House, Geoi-ge Coles, the leader of the movement for responsible 
 government, moved a vote of want of confidence in the executive 
 
 HON. OEOROE COLKH. 
 
296 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 council, which was carried. Then, in order to force the matter to 
 an issue, the assembly declined to proceed with the work of 
 legislation, or to vote any but the most meagre supplies. 
 
 Responsible Government Conceded. — Sir Donald Camp- 
 bell, in proroguing the assembly, expressed his disapproval of what 
 he called "the premeditated neglect of their legislative functions." 
 But the assembly soon bad reason to congratulate themselves upon 
 the result of their decided stand. When they next met (1851) a 
 despatch was laid before them in which the new lieutenant-governor 
 (Sir A. Bannerman) was instructed to introduce resi)onsible govern- 
 ment. The executive council was at once remodelled upon this 
 basis. Control of the interivil postal service of tlie island was at 
 the sjime time conceded as in the case of the other provinces, and 
 the island legislature at once passed an Act for the improvement of 
 this important service. The result of the introduction of responsible 
 government was very soon seen in the wiping out of the public debt 
 of Prince Edward Island, which in 1850 had amounted to £28,000. 
 
 Political Progress. — Other political events may be briefly 
 mentioned. In 1848 a Sinmltaneous Polling Act was passed, under 
 which elections to the assembly are all held on one day. In 1852 
 an Act was passed which very materially extended the elective 
 franchise. At this time there was apparent danger of a dead- 
 lock between the legislative council and the assuml)ly, a majority 
 of the former being o{)posed to the government (tlie Uoll 
 ministry), which liad l)ut a small majority in the assembly. 
 Although an election had just taken place, it had been held upon 
 the old franchise. With a view, therefore, to an expression of 
 opini(m by the enlarged electorate. Sir A. Bannerman dissolved 
 the assembly. The result was a decided majority against the gov- 
 ernment, and the Holl ministry at once resigned. While substan- 
 tially in the right, the lieutenant-governor was much blamed for 
 his action. It was generally anticipated that a general election 
 upon the new voters' lists would result adversely to the govern- 
 ment, and Sir A. Bannerman's conduct had the appearance of undue 
 favor to the [iarty wliich had a majority in the legislative council. 
 Thoro was in some respects an ap[)arent failure to jn-operly appre- 
 ciate the true workings of popular government. Thus, as late as 
 1867, there was a strong feeling on the island that the salaried heads 
 of departments should not have seats in the assembly, the provin- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 297 
 
 cial secretary being the only member of the executive adminis- 
 tration who was able to secure a constituency. In 1861 the 
 legislative council was made elective, a previous attempt to bring 
 it more into harmony with the popular branch by increasing its 
 numbers having failed of effect, 
 
 Material Advancement. — The census of 1861 disclosed that 
 in spite of the incubus of a bad land system the province was 
 making a steady growth. Its population had increased to over 
 80,000, as against 62,000 in 1848. The effect upon Prince Edward 
 Island of the Elgin-Marcy Reciprocity Treaty was most beneficial, 
 C)[»ening up for products of the farm, the forest and the sea the 
 splendid markets of the American cities on the Atlantic seaboard.* 
 Ship-building was extensively carried on, Imt of late years, owing 
 to the substitution of iron for wood in sliip construction, the 
 industry has declined. In 1855 Charlottetown was incorporated; 
 and in the same year the Bank of Prince Edward Island received 
 its charter. 
 
 Education. — An Education Act, the ])asis of the present 
 provincial system, was passed in 1852, and in 1861 there were 
 352 schf»ols upon the island. In 1855 a Normal School for the 
 training of teachers was established at (-harlottetown ; and in 1859 
 Prince of Wales College, the apex of the non-sectarian system of 
 the island, was incorporated. 
 
 The Land Question. — Mennwhile, the evils of the land 
 system remained unremedied. The position of the proprietors had 
 a[)parently become strcmger as tiie years rolled l)y. To enforce a 
 forfeiture against the present owners, who had become p(jssessed 
 of the lands in the ordinary course of law by inheritance, or, in 
 many cases, by purchase, would have been looked upon as an act 
 of spoliation. Though many huge tracts of wild land still impeded 
 settlem.ent, the most serious phase of the land question had come 
 to be the relation between landlord and tenant. Efforts were 
 from time to time made to induce the proprietors to grant long 
 leases, so that the tenants might feel safe in making improvements 
 upon their lands; but, uj)on the whole, these efforts had proved 
 unavailing. There seemed to ])e nothing left but to pass n com- 
 pulsory Ijfind Purchase Act, under which the proprietors would be 
 
 *,The censuH returns of 1801 show that there were 89 fishing estahlishnients upon 
 the Island, 141 grist mills, 170 saw-mills, 40 otirdinj^ mills, and 55 tanneries. 
 
298 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 compelled to sell the land to the tenants upon fair terms. But in 
 this matter the Imperial authorities jn-actically withheld those 
 rights of self-government which in other matters were freely 
 admitted. It was insisted that the settlement of the (question 
 must be by some voluntary arrangement between the proprietors 
 on the one hand and the island government, acting for the tenants, 
 on the other. Two large estates, aggregating over 14.'?,(X)0 acres — 
 one of them owned l)y the descendsmts of the Earl of Selkirk — 
 were, acccjrdingly, purchased l)y the government and resold to 
 settlers at a low price. 
 
 The Commission of 1860. — As a final solution of the vexed 
 fjuestion, certain proprietors — headed by Sir Sanmel Cunard, the 
 founder of the Cunard Line of ocean steamships -suggested that 
 three connuissioners should be appointed, <me to be named by the 
 British Government, one by tlie proprietors, j»!;d the third by the 
 island government. These connuissioners were to inquire into the 
 relations between hmdlord and tenant t)n the island, to fix the 
 price at which every tenant, might have the option of purchasing 
 his land, and also to determine in wliat cases arrears of rent should 
 be remitted. The islan<l legislature promptly agreed to this 
 suggestion, and named Hon. Joseph Howe, of Nova Scotia, as 
 their commissioner. The proprietors named Mr. J. W. Ritchie, 
 of New Brunswick, as their connnissioner ; and the British 
 Government appointed Mr. John H. (xray as the third. Their 
 report (18(50) depicted in strong language the evils resulting from 
 the improvident grant of nearly the whole island to a few large 
 proprietors. The remedy suggested was a compulsory Land Pur- 
 chase Act. Tlie general })rinciples were laid down upon which 
 the price to be paid by the tenants should be fixed, but the 
 working out of these principles in each particular case was to be 
 left to a Liind Purchase Court. 
 
 The Question Unsettled. — Unfortunately, their suggestions 
 were not adopted, for tlie proprietors declined to accept the 
 suggested solution of the question. In their refusal they were 
 supi)t»rted by the law ofticers of the Crown, upon the ground that 
 the proprietors had agreed that the connuissioners should fix the 
 price, but not that they sIkjuUI delegate this duty to another 
 tribunal. The result was that an Act passed by the island 
 legislature to confirm the report was disallowed in England, and 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 299 
 
 thus the wliole question was thrown again into the arena of 
 dispute. Its final settlement was not to take ])lace until after 
 Prince Edward Islai d had become a province of the Dominion of 
 Canada. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 "the great lone land" (1835-1867). 
 
 Twenty Years on the Red River. — With the exception 
 of a settlement at Portage la Prairie, amounting to nbout four 
 hundred, chietly Englisli half-breeds, the only population in all 
 the region west to the Rocky Mountains (except Indians and the 
 emph)yees of the Hudson's Bay Comi)any) was along the banks of 
 the Red River. The council of Assiniboia, formed in 18.'}5, was 
 still the governing body in the colony, and still the creature of the 
 company. For some years (18.'W-185.S), Recorder Adam Thorn — a 
 Scotch lawyer from Montreal — acted as judge in the Red River 
 settlement. But from the year IHo.'i the Court of the (Governor 
 and Council of Assiniboia alone exercised judicial functitms, in all 
 but trivial cases. The monotony of life in the settlement was 
 diversified, in 184(>, by the arrival of five hundred regulars of the 
 Sixth Royal Regiment, who were sent to Fort Garry on account 
 of the threatening as}»ect of the Oregon boundary dispute. After 
 two years they were replaced by a force of pensioners, 140 strong, 
 under Major Caldwell, who remained in the settlement until 1855. 
 As a result of po'sistent complaint, the customs duty of seven 
 and a half per cent, upon all exports and imports was reduced to 
 four per cent.; but the company's monopoly of the fur trad ^ was 
 still vigorously insisted upon. They were, however, practically 
 forced to abandon the prosecution of the French half-breeds 
 {Metis) for taking furs from the Indians in exchange for other 
 goods, and to this extent their monopoly was broken (1849) in 
 the immediate neighl)orhood of tiie Red River settlement. 
 
 Quiet Progress. — In 1849 a census was taken, from which it 
 appears that along the Red lliver from Upper Fort Garry, at the 
 junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, to the Stone Fort or 
 Lower Fort Garry, over twenty miles below, there was a total 
 population of 5,391 souls (about one-fifth of that number being 
 
300 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 adult males), living in 745 dwelling houses and having over 6,300 
 acres of land under cultivation. The French half-breeds were 
 frequently drawn into the Indian wars between the Sioux and the 
 Salteaux to the south-west of the settlement ; but apparently 
 the settlers themselves did not suffer from Indian hostility. In 
 1852 there was another great flood upon the river, which did much 
 damage ; and from time to time the grasshoppers proved very 
 destructive to the settlers' crops. 
 
 Canadian Immigrants. — About the year 1856 a large 
 measure of attention was given in Canada to these north-western 
 regions, and much credit must be given to the Hon. William 
 Macd()ngall for his persistent advocacy of Canada's claim to this 
 great territory. A counnittee was a[)p()inted by the Canadian 
 j)arliament to investigate the title of the Hudson's ]5ay Company 
 to exercise jurisdiction and enjoy a monopoly in the n(jrth-west. 
 The committee reported that this territory belonged largely to 
 Canada, having been part of that New France which was ceded to 
 Great Britain in 1763, at which time the Hudson's Bay Company 
 had scfircely ventured away from the shore of the great bay. The 
 com[)any were now seeking to secure a renewal of their monopoly, 
 and Chief Justice Draper was sent to England to uphold the 
 Canadian claim. But the company were still too powerful, and 
 were left in ccmtrol of the territory east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 Canada did not forget her claim. An exploring party was sent 
 out in 1857, and as a result of its report a numl)er of Canadians 
 Tvere induced (1859) to migrate to the Red River settlement. 
 Among them was one whose name must ever be intimately 
 associated with Manitoba's early history — Dr. John Schultz, after- 
 wards Sir John Schultz, and lately lieutenant-governor of that 
 province. A newspaper, the Nor' -Wester, was established, of 
 which for some time Dr. Schultz was proprietor. From the first 
 it took strong ground in opposition to the autocratic rule of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, and in favor of an elective assembly. 
 
 A Desire for Self-Government. -In the same year (1859) 
 the first attempt at steam navigation on Red River was made, and, 
 thougli as a commercial venture the experiment was not a success, 
 it deserves notice as an evidence of increasing enterprise. The 
 agitation for representsition in the council went on apace. As the 
 company gave no sign of any intention to grant it, memorials were 
 
UlSTORV OF CANADA. 
 
 301 
 
 drawn Up Hlid largely signed in favor of union with Canada. At 
 Portage la Prairie, the pe(»j)le set up. a local government of their 
 own, which, however, they at once aV)andoned on learning from the 
 colonial secretary that the proceeding was illegal. 
 
 The Pacific Coast- -A New Colony. -After the Treaty 
 of Oregcm (1840) a tide of immigration set in to the Oregon 
 territory. In 1848 the Ignited kStates, as a result of a successful 
 war with Mexico, acquired California. To oft'set this increase of 
 strength on tln^ part of our neighbors. Great Britain planned to 
 plant a colony on the Pacific coast. The Hudson's Bay Company, 
 with their usual enterprise, offered to undertake the government 
 and colonization of all the British territories in North America 
 beycmd the older provinces. Fortunately this large offer was 
 rejected, but, as the company had exclusive trade privileges over 
 the coast region which would not expire until 1859, the plan for 
 the new colony there was largely committed to their hands. 
 
 Vancouver Island. — Early in 1849 the whole of Vancouver 
 Island was granted for ten years to the Hudson's Bay Company 
 upon terms v/hich would, it was thought, ensure speedy settle- 
 ment. A regular form of government was established for the new 
 colony, and Richard Blan shard was sent out from England as 
 
302 HISTOKV (JF CANADA. 
 
 its first governor. There was to be a council of not more than 
 seven members, and the governor was also empowered to call an 
 assembly. For reasons which will appear, no assembly met until 
 1856. The \\hole expense of government, including the gover- 
 nor's salary, was to be defrayed by the company. When Governor 
 Blanshard arrived at P^)rt Victoria early in 1850, he found none 
 but the company's employees to greet him, and soon discovered 
 that he was a mere figure-head. As has been said, "his time 
 was occupied, and his administration consisted, in giving orders 
 which were disregarded, and in writing despatches to the home 
 government complaining of the actions of the company's officers." 
 In disgust he tendered his resignation in November, 1850, and left 
 the colony in the following summer. He reports that there was 
 "no colonization worth mentioning;" that, all told, the settlers 
 amoimted to thirty, and that the company had made but one real 
 sale of land for colonization purposes. 
 
 The Company's Monopoly. —The company, indeed, were 
 all-powerful. Besides controlling all exper ditures, they were lords 
 of the soil of the island. Settlers would interfere with the fur 
 trade, and the company, therefore, reserved the best land and 
 fixed the price of what was left at such a figure as to drive in- 
 tending settlers away. While in the neighboring ten'itory of 
 Oregon land could be bought for $1.00 per acre, the Hudson's Bay 
 Company fixed the price of theirs at £1 per acre. All minerals 
 w^ere the property of the company, unless the settler chose to 
 pay an exorbitant royalty for a mining privilege. The discovery 
 in 1849 of coal at Nanaimo - now the chief coaling station on 
 the Pacific — failed to draw settlers, as the company monopolized 
 the mines. The necessaries of life coidd be obtained only from 
 the company's stores at high |)rices. The only school was con- 
 ducted at the company's fort i»y the company's chaplain, Rev. 
 Robert Staines. After Blanshard's withdrawal from the island, 
 James — afterwards Sir James — Douglas, the company's chief fac- 
 tor, took his place as governor of the infant colony. Thereafter 
 the nominal, as well as the real, control was in the company's 
 hands. Under these circumstances settlement proceeded but 
 slowly. In 18^3 there were only some 450 white people on the 
 island, the company's employees included. The grant of the island 
 to the company had provided that if in five years they failed to 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 303 
 
 colonize it the grant should he revoked. The few settlers in 1853 
 petitioned the home authorities to enforce this provision, on the 
 ground that the course pursued had practically prevented coloniza- 
 tion, but the influence of the company in Englan<l was sufhciently 
 strong to secure the continuation of their rule on the island. 
 
 The First Assembly. Governor Dou^das was, however, 
 instructed to call an assembly, Tht^ island was divided into four 
 districts, from which seven members in all were to be elected. 
 Only those could vote who owned twenty acres, and only those 
 could be elected who held freehold land worth £30(). There was 
 difficulty in finding seven such men on the island. The members 
 finally chosen wire all officials of the company, or under the 
 company's practical control. The upper House at this time con- 
 sisted of but three members, "chief factor, chief trader and 
 ancient pensioner respectively of the Hudson's Bay Company." 
 The first parliament met in August, 1856. During the next few 
 years it framed such laws as were deemed necessary for the well- 
 being of the island, but the real law was the company's will. 
 
 The Mainland Colony. —During all this time the mainland 
 — New Caledonia as it was called — was practically known only to 
 the Indians and to the company's factors and traders. In 1857 
 gold was discovered on the Fraser River, and at once there 
 was a rush of California miners and others to the new gold 
 fields. To preserve order it was deemed necessary to establish 
 some form of government. In 1858, therefore, the mainland was 
 made a province under the name British Columbia, to be ruled 
 by a governor and a small council. ITntil 1864 James Douglas 
 was governor of both the new and the older province, receiving at 
 the close of his term the honor of knighthood. In 1859 New 
 Westminster was fomided and made the capital of the colony, "* 
 though all public business was in fact carried on from the govern- 
 ment offices in Victoria. British Columbia, during these years, 
 was a typical mining community. Its population was of an un- 
 settled character, the man who "made his pile" usually dis- 
 appearing to spend it m more settled regions. Apart from 
 preserving order, the chief work of the governor and his council 
 was to open roads to the diflferent gold fields. Vancouver Island 
 profited by the activity on the mainland, and Victoria rapidly 
 became a thriving town, much occupied in furnishing supplies 
 
304 
 
 HlSTUiiV CJt' CANADA. 
 
 to the minors. When the gold fever subsided the two colonies 
 suffered a severe relapse, and hard times had nmch to do in 
 bringing about first their own union and then th«r accession to 
 the Canadian Confederation. 
 
 End of the Company's Rule. — The charter of the Hudson's 
 Bay Company was the subject of an investigation in 1857 by 
 a connnittee of the British House of Commons. The grievances 
 of the coast settlers were laid before it, and, as one result of 
 the inijuiry, it was decided tliat the company's privileges west 
 of the Rocky Mc^untains should cease. The soil of Vancouver 
 Island was resumed by the Crown (1850) and new provision was 
 made for its government. Douglas was continued in his post as 
 governor, but only ui)(>n the distinct stipulation that he should 
 cease to be connected with the Hudson's Bay Company. He at 
 once withdrew from it and his rule thenceforth was that of a 
 wise, upright and impartial governor. The assembly was con- 
 tinued as before. The two colonies, though nominally distinct, 
 were for pvrposes of executive government i)ractical]y one. A 
 
 number of new officials arrived from 
 England, and a company of Royal 
 Engineers was also sent out to make 
 surveys axid to assist in the laying out 
 of roads to the different settlements 
 and mining camps. When this com- 
 pany was disbanded in 1863, a large 
 number of them settled in the colony. 
 The administration of justice was re- 
 modelled, and Matthew B. Begbie — 
 afterwards 8ir Matthew B. Begbie — 
 an English barrister, was a])pointed 
 chief -justice. His was a n()tal)le ligure 
 in the history of British Columbia. 
 After a long and able career upon the 
 bench he died in 1894. Owing largely to the influx of miners and 
 traders the white poi)ulation at one time amounted to about forty 
 thousand, dropping again to about ten thousand after the gold 
 fever had subsided. 
 
 The San Juan Difficulty. — At one time there was serious 
 trouble with the United States over the ownership of the islands 
 
 SIR MATTHEW IJ. BEOBIE. 
 
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 "♦ttt COPR CCARN COLIHITLD HTMO T0<OMTO 
 
HtSTUllY OF CANADA. 305 
 
 in tho channel to the south-east of Vancouver Island. Which 
 was the true channel mentioned in the Oregon Treaty ? The 
 Island of San Juan was the one chiefly in dispute, ''^he Hud- 
 son's Bay Coniijany had a post upon it and there were also a 
 few settlers there, largely from the United States. A dispute 
 arising, American troops, under General Harney, occupied the 
 island in 1859. There was much excitement and a collision 
 st':^med inuninent. Fortunately the government at Washington 
 disapproved of the somewhat braggart tone which General Harney 
 adopted, and General Wintield Scott was sent to supersede him. 
 In 1860 a wise arrangement was made for a joint occupation of 
 San Juan until the question should be finally settled. This was 
 not accomplished until the Treaty of Washington (1871) by which 
 it was left to the Emperor William of Germany to decide between 
 the two powers. By his award in 1872 he found in favor of the 
 United States, and the British troops were at once withdrawn from 
 San Juan. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 CONFEDERATION. 
 
 Earlier Union Projects. — The idea of a union of the differ- 
 ent British colonies in America was by no means new. Early in 
 the century the Hon. Mr. I'niacke, an eminent Nova Scotian, had 
 submitted to the colonial oflice a plan for such a union. Chief 
 Justice Sewell, in 1814, had written to the Duke of Kent in favor 
 (if the project. At the time of the movement in 1822 for a union 
 of Upper and Lower Canada, Sii John B. Robinson had advocated 
 the larger union. These early suggestions, however, had come 
 from men of the official chiss, and no ])opular su})|»ort had l>een 
 [^iven to them. Lord Durham's advocacy of union has been already 
 noticed ; but the different provinces were at that time (1839) too 
 much engrossed in the struggle for responsible government to give 
 the project practical attention. 
 
 Individual EfiPorts. — In each province, however, the question 
 
 continued to be discussed, and on several occasions official coni- 
 
 numication was had with the colonial office upon the subject. In 
 
 1857, for instance, tho Johnson ministry of Nova Scotia sent a 
 
 21 
 
306 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 delegation to England to discuss the question of a union of the 
 Maritime Provinces. In Canada, A. T. Gait in 1856 advocated 
 a confederatit)n of all the provinces, and in 1858 he was one of 
 a delegation sent by the Cartier-Macdonald government to urge 
 the matter upon the Imperial authorities. In 1861, on motion of 
 Joseph Howe, a resolutif)n was carried in the Nova Scotia assembly 
 refjuesting the colonial secretary to open cr»mnuuiication with the 
 different provincial governments upon the subject of union. The 
 response made to this request was, in effect, ' ' Settle it among 
 yourselves." But until 1864 no action Avas taken toward carrjang 
 out the suggestion <»f the colonial secretary. 
 
 Impelling Causes. — Meanwhile various causes had conspired 
 to impress uj)on the minds of public men the necessity for union. 
 Imperial statesmen had for some time been urging upon the pro- 
 vinces that with enlarged powers they should acknowledge enlarged 
 responsibilities, particularly in the matter of their own defence. 
 At one time the outlook toward the United States was decidedly 
 threatening. Civil war was in progress there, and in November, 
 1861, Captain Wilkes, of the United States sloop-of-war San 
 Jacinto, boarded the British mail-steamer Trent in mid-ocean, 
 and took off two confederate envoys, Mason and Slidell, then on 
 their way to England. The proceeding was entirely unwarranted 
 by the usages of war, and Great Britain promptly demanded 
 their surrender. Much feeling was aroused, and for a time war 
 between Great Britain and the United States appeared inevi- 
 table. In the end the envoys were surrendered, but the episode 
 had created in England a strong current of popular sym|)athy for 
 the South. Southern refugees amongst us felt encouraged to 
 plan raids against Northern connnerce. In September, 1864, 
 two vessels were seiz-ed and [)lundered on Lake Erie. Shortly 
 afterwards a j)arty of twenty-three men under Bennett H. Young 
 crossed the Canadian frontier and plundered three banks in St. 
 Alban's, Vermont, escajiing again to Canada with their booty. 
 Young and some others were arrested in Montreal, but were 
 ultimately discharged. As a result the feeling in the North was 
 naturally somewhat bitter. The possibility of wJlr suggested to 
 the scattered provinces the desirability of union. Steps had 
 already been taken toward a union of the Maritime Provinces 
 when the dead-lock in Canadian public afi'airs gave a sudden aiul 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 307 
 
 practical turn to the oft-mooted project of a larger confederation 
 of all the provinces. 
 
 Canada's Coalition Ministry.— Tn Canada, happily, the 
 alarming state of affairs called forth the best (lualities of her public 
 men. A conmiittee composed of men of all shades of politics was 
 appointed early in the session of 1864 to take into consideration 
 the state of the province with a view to devising some method for 
 putting an end to the sectional difficulties which had so long dis- 
 tracted her. Su' John A. Macdonald— to give him his later title 
 —tells us that when this committee met ''there was found an 
 ardent desire displayed by all the members to approach the subject 
 honestly, and to attempt to work out some solution which might 
 relieve Canada from the evils under which she labored. " When, 
 a little later, the Tache'-M;icdonald ministry encountered defeat, 
 nothing was left for them but to resign, or to bring on a fresh 
 election ; with little hope, however, of any material alteration in 
 the strength of the opposing parties. Then it was that the bene- 
 ficial effect of the committee's discussions was made apparent. 
 George Brown, who had been president of the connuittee, made 
 overtures to the defeated ministers with the result that a coalition 
 ministry was formed (June, 1864). This ministry was pledged to 
 introduce at the next session a measure for a federal union be- 
 tween Upper and Lower Canada, with provisions for the ultimate 
 admission of the other provinces and the north-west territories. 
 It was pledged also to open negotiations at once with the other 
 provinces with a view to the larger union. Of this ministry 
 George Brown, Oliver Mowat— now (1897) Sir Oliver Mowat, 
 Minister of Justice for Canada— and William Macdougall became 
 ineml)crs, and no time was lost in setting about the good work. 
 
 Conference at Charlottetown. — The Maritime Provinces 
 had already arranged to hold a conference at (Jharlottetown cm 
 September 1st to discuss their own union project. During the 
 summer a number of the ni embers of the Canadian parliament, 
 including the eloquent Thomas D'Arcy McGee (a member of 
 the Canadian ministry), paid a visit to the Maritime Provinces, 
 wliere they did much to create a cordial feeling toward Canada. 
 When the Charlottetown convention met, a message was sent 
 from Quebec asking if a Canadian delegation would be allowed 
 to attend. Upon an affirmative answer being received, eight 
 
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HISTORY OF CANADA. 309 
 
 members*" of the Canadian ministry at once embarked for Char- 
 lotte<o'',M. The result of their mission was that the convention 
 dispersed without tfiking any step toward reali/.ing their own 
 scheme, and witl^ tlie understanding that a meeting of delegates 
 from all the provinces (including Newfoundland) would shortly 
 be ctvlled together at Quebec to discuss the larger project. The 
 Canadian delegates also visited Halifax and ISt. John, and created 
 much enthusiasm by their able speeches. 
 
 The Conference at Quebec. — The Quebec conference met 
 on the 10th of October, 1804. Canada was represented by the 
 twelve members of her coalition ministry, while in the delegations 
 from the other provinces both government and opposition were 
 represented. The conference sat witli closed doors, but we have 
 the authority of Sir Jolni A. Macdonald for the statement that 
 on the first day the first res(»lution was passed unanimously, 
 "being received with acclamation as a proposition which (jught to 
 receive and would receive the sanction of each government and 
 each people," That resolution reads as follows : "Resolved, That 
 the best interests and present and future prosperity of British 
 North America will be promoted by a federal union under the 
 Crown of Great Britain, provided such unit)n can be effected on 
 principles just to the several provinces." When the conference 
 closed its sittings, on the 28th of October, seventy-one additional 
 resolutions had been agreed upon, embodying the debiils of the 
 .scheme. At one time it seemed as if the negotiations would result 
 in nothing, owing to the difficulty in reconciling the various finan- 
 cial claims. Happily a spirit of compromise, a yielding here and 
 a concession there, carried the conference through to a successful 
 termination. Our system of government under Confederation 
 nmst be dealt with in a separate cha})ter. Shortly stated, the 
 Quebec resoluti()ns advocated the creation of a federal system 
 under which each province (old Canada entering Confederation as 
 two provinces, Ontario and Quebec) should retain its autonomy in 
 local affairs, while matters of conmion interest to all the provinces 
 should be committed to a central or Dominion parliament in which 
 they should all be represented. 
 
 P'inancial Arrangements. — The opposition to Confedera- 
 
 * .John A. Macdonald, Georjre K. Cartier, Georjct' Hrown, A. T. Gait, T. D. McOee, 
 WiUtAm MacdouKall, U. L. Lanjjcvin, snu\ Alexander CauiplxiU. 
 
SIO HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 tion arose, not from any objection to the scheme of government 
 proj)08ed, but from objection to the financial arrangements, and 
 these, therefore, shoukl now be mentioned. The collection of a 
 revtmue by means of a customs tariff was to be entrusted to the 
 central government ; and out of this revenue subsidies were to be 
 paid to the different provinces for the support of the provincial 
 governments. The central government was also to assume the 
 various provincial debts. The power to raise money by direct 
 taxation was still to ]>e retained by tlie provinces. Now it so 
 happened that in the Mfuitime Provinces the revenues collected 
 by customs duties (that is, by indirect taxation) were largely 
 expended on works of local improvement — road- making, bridge- 
 building, and the like — such as were paid for in Canada by direct 
 taxatit)n in each munici[jality. By giving up to the central govern- 
 ment the power to collect a revenue by customs duties the Mari- 
 time Provinces would be driven to adopt direct taxation, unless 
 larger subsidies, proportionately, were paid to them than to Canada. 
 The public debts, too, of these provinces were smaller in proportion 
 to population than the p'd)lic debt of Canada, and this difference 
 had also to be equalized by a further addition to their subsidies. 
 The Plan Before the Provinces. — All these difficulties 
 were grappled with by the Quebec conference in a wise spirit 
 of compromise, and the scheme they adopted was now to be laid 
 before the provinces for their acceptance or rejection. Being in 
 the nature of an interprovincial agreement, the plan nmst be 
 accepted or rejected as a whole. 'After the close of the con- 
 ference the delegates made a triumphal progress through Canada. 
 There was much eating, drinking and speech-making, and every- 
 thing appeared favorable to a speedy execution of the plan agreed 
 upon at Quebec. The colonial secretary sent to the governor 
 (Lord Monck) a despatch warmlj^ approving of the project as set 
 forth in the resolutions. The British and American press spoke 
 cordially of the wisdom of the provinces in agreeing to a union 
 which would convert them from isolated communities into a pow- 
 erful nation, rich in the resources of all combined. From the first 
 there was no doubt about Canada's position. The adoption of the 
 resolutions by her parliament was a foregone conclusion. But 
 in the Maritime Provinces a determined opposition arose, and 
 two years of hot discussion were to pass before Canad^i, New 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 311 
 
 Brunswick and Nova Scofcia joined hands. Prince Edward Island 
 held aloof until 1873. Newfoundland .still remains a separate 
 colony, Canada's latest proposition (1896) having been rejected 
 by the island government. 
 
 Ne^w Brunswick Disapproves. — In New Brunswick » 
 general election was held early in 18G5, and the Tilley uiiniHtry, 
 which supported Confederation, was so utterly routed that for a 
 time it seemed as if the project would have to be abandoned. 
 The Nova Scotia assembly evidently thought so, for a resolution 
 was adopted by that ])ody in favor of resuming negotiations for a 
 union of the Maritime Provinces. The l)attle for Ccmfederation 
 was centred, therefore, in New Brunswick. A Canadian dele- 
 gation went to England to urge that pressure should be l)rought 
 to bear upon the obstinate province. The colonial secretary went 
 so far as to send a despatch to the lieutenant-governor of New 
 Brunswick, Hon. A. H. Gordon, expressing the "strong and 
 deliberate opinion" v.f the Imperial government in favor (»f Con- 
 federation. It was further intimated that, as a matter of Imperial 
 defence, it might be found necessary to unite the provinces even 
 against the will of New Brunswick. Happily it liecame unneces- 
 sary to resort to such a strong measure. 
 
 The Reciprocity Treaty Comes to an End.— With a 
 view to united action in trade matters and i)articularly in order 
 to secure, if possible, a renewal of the Ileci})rocity Treaty, a 
 " Confederated Council on Connnercial Treaties " met at Quebec 
 in September, 1865. It consisted of six delegates, two from 
 Canada and one from each of the other four prt)vinces. The 
 British provinces were prepared to make impt)rtant concessions in 
 return for a renewal of the treaty, and to that end arrangements 
 were made to send delegates to Washington. George Brown, 
 indeed, thought that too many inducements were offered, and 
 toward the close of the year he resigned his seat in the Canadian 
 cabinet. The mission to Washington eai-ly in 1866 was a complete 
 failure, and the Reciprocity Treaty came to an end on the 1st of 
 March. Another argument was thus added tt > those which were 
 already being urged upon New Brunswick. 
 
 Fenian Raids. — During the summer and autumn of 1865 
 there were frequent rumors of intended Fenian raids upon the 
 provinces. The close of the civil war in the United States had 
 
312 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 led to ^ho dislMindinj,' of her huge armies, and many rough 
 characteis were tlius tlirown upon .society. AuiongHt them were 
 many meujbers of the Fenian Jirothurhood, an association which 
 owed its existence to the Irish troubles in 1848, and which 
 from time to time had made threats of taking Canada. Not much 
 attention was now paid to their movements, until in (he spring of 
 1866 they began to congregate at various places on the frontier, 
 and it was given out with considerable tiourish of trumpets that on 
 St. Patrick's day (March 17th) a grand invasion would bike place. 
 That day, however, passed (juietly by. In April an attack was 
 threatened on south-western New Brunswick, but on the advance 
 of troops toward the scene the would-be invaders rapidly disap- 
 peared. There was, nevertheless, considerable anxiety all along 
 the frontiers, and volunteers were industriously drilled in antici- 
 j)ation of an invasion at some point. 
 
 Ridgeway. — None came until the lat of June. Early in the 
 morning of that day about nine hundred men, under "General" 
 O'Neil, crossed from Black Rock and landed a little below Fort 
 Erie on the Niagara frontier. The regular troops at Hamilton 
 and Toronto were at once sent against them, and the volunteer 
 corps of those two cities were also called out. They responded 
 with alacrity, and were soon on their way to the front. Colonel 
 George Peacock, of the regular army, was in command of the 
 entire force. O'Neil had occupied Fort Erie (a fort in name only) 
 without opposition, and was preparing to advance upon the Wel- 
 land Canal. The Queen's Own and the 13th Battalion were soon 
 at Port Colborne, on Lake Erie, and the regulars and the other 
 volunteers at Chippewa, on the Niagara River. Colonel Peacock 
 determined to effect a junction of the two divisions at a point a 
 few miles north-west of Fort Erie, and then march the entire force 
 against the invaders. The officers at Port Colborne undertook to 
 vary the plan slightly, and the volunteers there were in conse- 
 quence sent off by rail toward Fort Erie early in the morning of 
 June 2nd, in advance of the hour appointed. At Ridgeway they 
 left the train and marched toward the rendezvous. On the way 
 they met O'Neil and his motley crowd. As it was thought that 
 (Jolonel Peacock must by this time be near at hand, the volun- 
 teers were ordered to advance to the attack. This they did in 
 gallant style, and drove the Fenians some distance back. At this 
 
HISTOHY OF CANADA. 313 
 
 moment Colonel Booker, who was in conmiand, received a messfige 
 that Colonel l*eacock would n(»t arrive for Home time. A report 
 spread, too, that a Fenian cavalry force wa.s about to charge, and 
 the Queen's Own was therefore «jrdered to form a scjuare. There 
 was in truth no cavalry to charge, but the Fenians were ((uick to 
 tjike advantage of the good target jn'esented to them, and j)oured 
 in a deadly tire. An eifort was made to extend the battalion, but it 
 was only partially successful, and the vohmteers were ordered to 
 retire. O'Neil made no attempt to folhjw, and shortly afterwards 
 returned toward Fort Erie. Meanwhile a Canadian force had 
 come by water from Port Colborne, and had taken possession 
 of Fort Erie, capturing a number of stragglers from O'Neil's 
 force. The "general" managed to retake the village, but that 
 night he and his men recrossed the river and the raid was at an 
 end. To those who fell at Ridgeway a beautiful monument has 
 been erected in Queen's Park, Toronto. 
 
 New Brunswick now Declares for Confederation. — 
 It was while these exciting events were in progress along the 
 frontier that New Brunswick was called on to pronounce a second 
 time on the question of Confederation. The legislative council 
 had throughout supported the project, and during the session of 
 1866 a dead-lock was avoided only by the resignation of the anti- 
 confederation ministry. A dissolution took place, and in the sum- 
 mer of 1866 the people of New Brunswick supported Confederation 
 as strongly as they had opposed it the year before. 
 
 The Parliament of Nova Scotia Adopts the Plan.— 
 In Nova Scotia the opposition to Confederation was led by Joseph 
 Howe, who demanded that the question should be submitted to 
 the electors before the province was finally committed. It is a 
 matter for regret that this course was not taken. The Quebec 
 resolutions were adopted by an assembly, which, as the next 
 election showed, did not truly represent the opinion of the pro- 
 vince on the question. Nova Scotia was ^hus practically forced 
 into Confederation, and while she would now, without doubt, 
 decline to withdraw from the union, the original compulsion long 
 left a feeling of bitterness behind it. 
 
 The B. N. A. Act.— On the 4th of December, 1866, delegates 
 from Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick assembled at the 
 Westminster Palace Hotel in Lond<m, England. Tin y sat, under 
 
314 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 the chairmanship of John A. Macdonald, until the 24th of Decem- 
 ber, by which date the various details had been arranged and the 
 scheme of Confederation was ready tt) be embodied in an Act of 
 the Imperial parliament. The two Maritime Provinces had suc- 
 ceeded in securing somewhat better terms, but so far as the system 
 of government was concerned the Quebec resolutions were practi- 
 cally unaltered. The necessary Im[)erial Act — known as " I'he 
 British North America Act, 1867," or, more shortly, the B. N. A. 
 Act — received the royal assent on the li9th of March, 1867. It 
 provided that the union should take effect upon a day to be hxed 
 by royal proclamation. Or tiie 2'2nd of May the proclamation 
 was issued naming the 1st of July, 1867, as the birthday of the 
 Dominion of Canada, 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 "from ocean to ocean." 
 
 Westward, Ho ! — To John A. Macdonald was entrusted the 
 task of forming the first Dominion cabinet. Disregarding former 
 party lines, he called to his assistance the leading men who in the 
 various provinces lu.d su])ported C(mfederation, thus perpetuating 
 in Dominion politics the name Libural-C.Vtnservative. l)i this first 
 ministry, Ontario had five rei)resentatives ; Quebec, four; New 
 Brunswick, two; and N(»va Scotia, two— thirteen in all. It lit-Ul 
 power until November, 187.'i, by which time the Dominion of 
 Canada had reached its present territorial dimensions. It will be 
 convenient, therefore, before describing our .system of government 
 under tlie B. N. A. Act, or taking up the general history of the 
 Dominion since 1867, to show how our bounds were extended. 
 The first parliament of the Dominior of Canada met at Ottawa ou 
 the 7th of November, 1867, and attention was at once turned 
 toward the extension of the Dominion " westward to the shores of 
 the Pacific Ocean." Early in December resolutions were intro- 
 duced by the Hon. William Macdougall in favor of the innnediate 
 transfer (() Canada of Kupeii's Land and (he North-NN'i'st Territory. 
 
 The Hudson's Bay Company Bought Out. There was 
 but little opposition to their adoption, the only objection urged 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 315 
 
 being that the claims of the Hudson's Bay Company should be first 
 settled, and not left for subsequent litigation. The resolutions, 
 however, were agreed to, and an address to Her Majesty was then 
 adopted, requesting that an Imperial order-in-council might be 
 passed (pursuant to the B. N. A. Act) annexing Rupert's Land 
 and the North- West Territory to the Dominion of Canada. As it 
 turned out, the Imperial Government took the same view of the 
 (juestion as the minority in the Canadian parliament had taken — 
 
 though proba])ly for difierent reasons. The Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany must first be bought out. With this view Cartier and 
 Macdougall visited PJngland toward the close of 1808, and early in 
 18()9 the bargain was concluded. The suivi of £.'JO(),(XK) was to be 
 paid in cash to tlie com[)any. It was also to retain the land around 
 the various trading posts, and, in addition, two sections in every 
 tdvvnship — a total reservation of one-twentieth of the entire region. 
 For this cash payment and large laud monopoly the comjjany gave 
 up its trade monopoly and all its claims to government. 
 
316 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Unexpected Opposition. — Canada at once made prepara- 
 tions for the govern inent of the new territory when the transfer 
 should tjike place. Early in 1869 an Act was passed providing for 
 the appointment of a lieutenant-governor and a small council to 
 administer the affairs of the territory until a more permanent form 
 of government could be arranged. Until that time, also, all laws 
 in the territory were to continue in force, and all officers, other 
 than the Hudson's Bay Company's governor, were to retain tlieir 
 positions. The Hon. William Macdougall was appointed lieutenant- 
 governor under this Act, and in the autunui of 1869 he started for 
 Fort Garry, intending to enter upon his duties on December 1st, 
 to which day the formal transfer had been postponed. On Octobe" 
 30th he reached Pembina. There a startling surprise awaited him. 
 A French half-breed served upon him a formal notice fcnbidding 
 his entry into the territory. To understand how this came about 
 we nmst go on to the Red River settlements. 
 
 Peeling in the Settlements. —Although the Hudson's Bay 
 Company in London had agreed to the transfer, their officers on 
 this side of the Atlantic were entirely opposed to the proceeding. 
 Some time before this tlic company had been reorganized. The 
 resident officials (f.ictors and traders'^ had been made, in a sense, 
 ])artners in the company, their income depending on the amount 
 of business done. When the bargain was made in London, they 
 were not consulted. They were to receive no part of the purchase 
 money, and the giving up of the company's monopoly meant, of 
 course, a serious loss to them. It has been freely cliarged that 
 they secretly encouraged the French half-breeds in their lawless 
 proceedings. CerlJiin it is that although, until the transfer should 
 take effect, the Hudson's Bay Comiiriny coidd alone exercise lawful 
 authority, their officers took no steps whatever to restore order. 
 The settlei-s, too, thought that Canada should liave consulted them 
 in reference to the nature (»f the government to be established in 
 the colony ; and that, in particular, the claims of the half-breeds, 
 both French and English, to the lands over which they hunted 
 should have been settled before the transfer took {)lace. All would 
 be glad to escape from the yoke of the Hudson's Bay C-ompany, but 
 at the same time there was a strong desire to be admitted to a share 
 in the new government. Therefore when the half-breeds, l)ecom- 
 ing alarmed about the title to their lands, stopped the work of u 
 
HlSTOlllT OF CANADA. 
 
 317 
 
 Caiuidian surveying pnrty, and formed a "council" to insist upon 
 their rights, the feeling in the colony was at first one of sympathy 
 f<jr them. Of this "council" .John Bruce, described as a French 
 half-breed of Scotch descent, was president, but the leader of the 
 movement was the secretary, Louis Riel. It was he who drew up 
 the notice served up;»n William Macdougall at Pembina. 
 
 Half-breed Outbreak. — This notice Macdougall disregarded 
 and advanced to the Hudson's Bay Company's post within the 
 territory. A band of mounted half-breeds appeared and made 
 such a threatening demonstration that Macdougall tiiou^h^- it 
 
 ■•■;;';„.aif«».^-"-;-" 
 
 
 '":»Kiit!naaa.iu •■■■ ,. --^ 
 
 FORT GARRY. 
 
 |)rudent to retire again to Peml)ina. The Fiondi half-breeds 
 had gatliered in some force at the River Salle on tlie road 
 from Pembina to Fort Garry ; and on this same day (N(tveml)er 
 -nd) a party under Riel took p(>ssession, witliout rosistance, of 
 Fort Garry — a strong stone fort which tlie Hudson's Bay Company 
 could easily have held against any force tlie half-breeds coidd 
 muster. The "council" now issued a proclamation calling upon 
 the settlers to send representatives to a convention, in order that 
 the demands of the colony might be properly fornndated. This 
 convention met on the IHth of November, and was ct»m]»osed of 
 representatives from the English as well as from the French 
 
318 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 population. It adjourned for two days in order to allow the 
 quarterly court of the colony to hold its regular session, at which, 
 strange to say, no notice whatever was taken of Riel's pro- 
 ceedings. Upon meeting again, the convention was asked by Riel 
 to establish a provisional government, but the English-sjjeaking 
 members objected, and the convention adjourned to the Ist of 
 December in order that the proposition might be considered. 
 Meanwhile the "council" ruled the colony, and Riel took posses- 
 sion of the public records and the company's stores. 
 
 A "Provisional Government" — On the 1st of December 
 the convention again met, and a "Bill of Rights" was agreed to 
 by the majority, but, as Riel was unwilling to send a deputation to 
 confer with Macdougall at Pembina, the English-speaking members 
 withdrew. Thereupon a "provisional government" was formed 
 of which Riel shortly afterwards became president. W. B. 
 O'Donohue, private tutor to the children of the colony governor 
 (MacTavish), was the treasurer ; Ambrose Lepine was adjutant- 
 general, and A. G. B. Bannatyne, a brother-in-law of the governor, 
 had charge of the post-ofHce. 
 
 Riel Left in Control. — IVIeanwhile, with(»ut Macdougall's 
 knowledge, the date for the transfer of the territory had been 
 again postponed. Canada declined to pay over the £300,000 to 
 the Hudson's Bay Company until order was restored. In 
 ignorance of this, Macdougall, on the 1st of December, issued his 
 proclamation as lieutenant-governor, and also gave a conunission 
 to Colonel Dennis to collect the loyal inhabitants of the colony 
 and put down the half-breed insurrection. The attempt proved 
 abortive. The "Bill of Rights" — h, moderate document — had 
 influenced many ; with the exception of the Canadians under 
 Dr. Schultz, few responded to Colonel Dennis' appeal, and that 
 officer retired again to Pembina. Shortly afterwards Macdougall, 
 learning of the false position in which he had been placed, 
 returned to Canada. Riei, meanwhile, had besieged a building 
 in which Dr. Schultz and his friends were ensconced, and on the 
 6th of December the party, nearly fifty in all, surrendered and 
 were imprisoned in Fort Garry. The " provisional government" 
 established a newspaper, the Neio Nation, which advocated inde- 
 pendence as a iirst step toward annexation to the United States. 
 
 Peaceful Councils.— Toward the end of the year Vicar- 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 319 
 
 General Thibault, Colonel de 8alaberry and Donald A. Smith — 
 afterwards 8ir Donald Smith — were sent from Canada to inquire 
 into the grievances of the colony, and to assure the inhabit«.nts of 
 the good intentions of the Canadian government. Riel had 
 always been anxious to secure the co-operation of the English- 
 speaking settlers, and in the ho])e of turning the agitation into 
 a more peaceful channel Donald A. Smith suj)povted the proposal 
 to call another ccmvention. This convention met on the 26th 
 of January and continued in session until the 10th of February. 
 Another "Bill of Rights" was agreed upcm, and delegates were 
 appointed to proceed to Ottawa to lay the claims of the colony 
 before the Canadian government. The somewhat strange course 
 was taken, with the assent of Governor MacTavish, of forming a 
 new "provisional government " of ten members, five French and 
 five English, who were to be assisted ])y an elective council of 
 twenty-four members. Of this "provisional government" Riel 
 was chosen president. 
 
 The "Kildonan Rising."— Dr. Schultz had already made 
 his escape from Fort Garry, and it was now expected that the 
 other prisoners would be released. As this was not done a 
 number of men from Portage la Prairie marched over to Kildonan 
 parish to joni Dr. Schultz in an attack on Fort Garry. Riel, 
 however, released the prisoners, and at D. A. Smith's request 
 the force dispersed. As the men from Portage la Prairie were 
 passing to the rear of Fort Garry, Riel intercepted them and took 
 the entire party prisoners. Dr. Schultz, with an Indian as his 
 guide and only companion, made his way on snow-shoes to Duluth at 
 the head of Lake Siiperir)r, and thence to Canada. Major Boulton, 
 the leader of the Portage la Prairie party, was sentenced by Riel to 
 he shot. Apparently this was only a ruse to secure D. A. Smith's 
 good offices in inducing the English-speaking parishes to elect their 
 members to the new council which was shortly to meet. Upon a 
 promise being gi\'en, Major Boulton's life was spared. 
 
 Murder of Thomas Scott. ^Riel still persisted in declining, 
 as rebels against the new " provisional governmoiit," the prisoners 
 lately taken. Matters, nevertheless, seemed to be shaping for a 
 peaceful solution of all difficulties, when an unexpected exercise of 
 liis power by the half-breed leader created dismay in the settle- 
 ment, and hot anger in Canada. Among the prisoners way a young 
 
820 HISTOUY OF CANADA. 
 
 man luiined Thomas Scott, ag.ainst whom, it is said, Riel liad a 
 personal grudge. Scott was charged with striking his guard, tried 
 by court-martial on the 3rd of March, and sentenced to he shot 
 the next day. In spite of every ettbrt by D. A. 8mith and b '^he 
 Rev. George Young, Methodist minister at Fort Garry, to siiake 
 Kiel's cruel purpose, the sentence was carried out. In Canada the 
 news of this cold-blooded murder created intense indignation, and 
 preparations for a military expedition to Red River were pushed 
 rapidly forward. 
 
 Bishop Tache Restores Quiet. — During all these troubles 
 the Roman Catholic Bishop of St. Boniface (Bishop Tache') had 
 unfortunately been absent from his diocese attending a Vatican 
 Council at Rome. He had been requested to hasteii his return, 
 and a few days after the murder of Scott he reached Fort 
 Garry. He had received an assurance from the Canadian govern- 
 ment that the propositions embodied in the last '* Bill of Rights " 
 were in the main satisfactory, and that the delegates from the 
 convention would be duly re eived at Ottawa. He undersUnnl 
 further that a full amnesty vvould be granted to Riel and his 
 followers. Without taking into consideruiion thj altered circum- 
 stances arising out of the Scott nmider, he promised imnmnity to 
 all if the union with Canada wtre j^t : r.-jef ully carried out. The 
 result was that matters at once quieted down, the prisoners were 
 released, the delegates departed fo/ Ottawa, and the New Nation, 
 became particularly loyal. 
 
 The Manitoba Act, 1870.— There was a strong feeling in 
 Canada — particularly in Ontario — against receiving the delegates. 
 It waft willed "treating with rebels and murderers." Upon their 
 arrival, indeed, two of the delegates. Father Richot and A. H. 
 Scott, were arrested upon a charge of complicity in the nmrder of 
 Thomas Scott, but ihey were discharged, nt) evidence being forth- 
 coming to connect them in any way with that outrage. The result 
 of the deliberations following upon their mission was the Manitoba 
 Act of 1870. By this Act the Red River and Port^ige la Prairie 
 settlements, with the surrounding region, were erected into the 
 province of Manitoba, to which the provisions of the British North 
 America Act were to ap})ly "as if the province of Manitoba had 
 been one of the provinces originally united by the said Act." An 
 exception, however, was made in reference to the public lands of 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 321 
 
 the province, which are still under the control of the Dominion 
 parliamunt. Special provision was made, too, to satisfy the claims 
 of the half-breeds, a large amount of land (1,400, (XKJ acres) being; 
 reserved for them. The provincial government was to consist of 
 a lieutenant-governor, legislative C(nnicil, and an assembly A'. 
 twenty-four members. In 1875 the legislative council was aJf)ol- 
 ished; and Manitoba has now (181>7) a single chamber of forty 
 members. The Manitoba Act was formally accepted by the " pr(»^- 
 visional government" of Red River (m the 2.'h-d of June,, IfW.0-.Hnd; 
 on the^same day an Imperial order-in-council was issued] vrhicKi 
 provided that Rui>ert'B Land and the North- West Teriltory— 
 including, of course, Manitoba— should, from and after July 15th, 
 1870, form part of the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 The Red River Expedition.— The Hon. Adams G. Archi- 
 bald was appointed first lieutenant-governor of the province, and 
 in order to ensure a peaceful in- 
 auguration of the new government, 
 it was decided that the military 
 expedition to Red River should 
 l)e proceeded with. Accordingly, 
 in the sununer of 1870, a force of 
 about fourteen hundred (of whom 
 less than four hundred were British 
 regulars) under the connnand of 
 Colonel Wolseley — afterwards Sir 
 Garnet Wolseley, connnander-in- 
 chief of the British army — pro- 
 ceeded to the mouth of the Kam- 
 inistiquia River on Lake Su[)erior. 
 Thence, by a long and fatiguing 
 journey, partly l)y canf>e and partly 
 nn foot, the soldiers i)roceeded over the height of land to the 
 shores of Lake Winnipeg. Ascending the Red River, they 
 reached Fort (^arry toward the end of August. No anniesty 
 had been proclaimed, and for a time threats liad been made 
 that resist^uice would be offered to the advancing troops by the 
 French half-l)reeds. No steps, however, were taken to carry 
 out these threats, ;iiid upon Wolseley 's approach, Riel, Lepine 
 and O'Donohue lied to the United States. 
 22 
 
 SIR (iAUNET WOLSELEY 
 
322 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Provincial Goverament Established.— Early in Sepiem- 
 ber, Lieutenant-Governor Archibald entered upon the duties of 
 his ojffice ; executive and legislative councils were formed ; the 
 first provincial election was shortly afverwards held ; and the early 
 months of 1871 saw Manitf)ba fairly launched upon her career. 
 Within a week after their arrival at Fort Oarry the regidar troops 
 had l)een sent back to Quebec. The militia battalions s])ent the 
 winter in the i)rovince, and many of the soldiers afterwards 
 })ecame settlers."^ Inniiigration at once set in from the older 
 ])r()vinces, particularly from Ontario, and Manitoba so(mJ)ecamc 
 an inip<n't<int member of the Confederation. The remainder of 
 the territory westward to the Rocky Mountains was, until 187(>, 
 under the lieutenant-governor of Manitobfi, who, with the assist- 
 ance of a small council, passed such ordinances as were deemed 
 necoHsary for its local government. With the admission of British 
 Columbia to our Confederation, followed by the construction of 
 a transcont'nental railway, a great impetus was given to settle- 
 ment in the North- West ; but before dealing further with this 
 we umst cross the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The Coast Colonies United.— In 18«6 the two colonies 
 upon the Pacihc coast were at their own reipiest united under tho 
 name British Columbia, and the govermnent was entrusted to a 
 governor aiid a legislative council. The island assembly was 
 abolished. The new council was to C(msist of both elected and 
 appointed members, the latter, however, forming the majority. 
 An agitjition at once sprang up in favor of an elective assembly 
 and "responsible government." It was said that the official 
 majority in the C(»uncil carried on public affairs as they saw fit, 
 and that the (»nly self-government in the colony was the municipal 
 self-government of the two towns, Victoria and New Westminster. 
 The agitation very soon assumed the shape of a demand for union 
 with Canada. As early as March, 1867, a resolution had been 
 jjassed by the council in favor of Confederation, but apparently 
 the official majority afterwards repented their action. Not until 
 early in 1870, after a warm agit-ation of the question during the 
 two preceding years, were resolutions again passed in favor of the 
 
 * In 1870 tho i>oi)ulati<)n of the ri"f,'ion embraced within the limits of Manitol* 
 was nearly iVM), of whom 558 were Indians, 5,757 irrench half-breeds, and 4,063 
 English half-breeds, 1,565 being the total white clement. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 323 
 
 project. Three delegates — J. W. Trutch, Dr. Helmcken and 
 R. W. W. Carroll— were then despatched to Ottawa, empowered 
 to negotiate terms of union. 
 
 British Columbia Joins Confederation.— Their mission 
 was successful. Early in 1871 the terms agreed upon were ratified 
 by the Dominion parliament and by the covmcil of British 
 Columbia, and on the 2()th day of July, 1871, British Columbia 
 became a province of the Dominion of Canada. Before that day 
 arrived, however, the constitution of the province was altered. 
 The legislative council was abolished, and in its stead was 
 established an assembly c<»nsisting wholly of elected members. 
 British Columbia, therefore, entered Confederation with a pro- 
 \incial constitution very like that of the older provinces and with 
 tJie assurance that "responsible government" was firmly estab- 
 hshed. 
 
 A Transcontinental Railway.— One of the terms of union 
 should be particularly not: ced. The Dominion of Canada under- 
 took to commence within two years' the construction of a railway 
 to connect the seaboard of British Columbia with the railway 
 system of the older provinces and to complete the work witliin ten 
 years. When in 1885 the last spike was driven to connect the 
 two sections of the Canadian Pacific Railway— that with the east 
 with that from tlie west— British Columbia Tound herself on one 
 of the world's main highways.* 
 
 Prince Edward Island Comes In.— Meanwhile, "the 
 Barbadoes of the St. Lawrence "—as Prince Edward Island has 
 been called— still held aloof. In 1871 the island assembly, with 
 much enterprise, undertook to construct a railway to traverse the 
 island from end to end. The work was successfully accomplished, 
 but the })ur(len of debt thus incurred was very heavy, and direct 
 taxation seemed inevitable. Delegates were sent to Ottawa, and 
 
 * Rapid Growth.— Her growth since that time has heon phenomenal. Her white 
 population in 1871 was little over 10,()(K), the total population being about 36,000. 
 Victoria, the capital, with a population of about 4,000, was the onl^' town ; New 
 Westminster and Nanaimo were but villages. In 1881 the poiJulatinn of the province 
 liad increased to nearly 50,000; Victoria haviuK 6,000; New Westminster, 1,500; and 
 Nanaimo, l.liOO. In the m.^xt ctecarle (1881-1891) the population was doubled. Victoria 
 I'.ad increased her numbers to lC,fMM), New Westminster hers to 7,000, Nanaimo hers 
 to 4,50<1 ; while at the tenninus of the Canadian Pacific Railway the new city of 
 Vaiicover had sprung up with a population of over 13,000. 
 
 1 
 
324 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 without much difhculty terms of union were arranged. Wc need 
 only notice the provision made for buying out the island bindlords. 
 A large sum was set apart by the Dominion government for the 
 pur})ose ; courts were established to fix the amount in cases of 
 dispute ; and before l(Mig the evils of the land system were entirely 
 removed. Prince Edward Island entered Confederaticm on the 1st 
 day (»f July, 1873. Since then there has ])een a marked advance 
 in agriculture, 'and the dairying industry has wonderfully developed. 
 The island continues to grow in favc r as a healthy watering-place 
 during the sunnuer months. 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 OUR SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 A Self- Governing Federation.— It is impossible to over- 
 rate the importance to us of our Confederation. Our vast terri- 
 torial expanse, our great natural resources, and our salubrious 
 climate, all point to future greatness. Moreover, the federal 
 form of government which we hav*) adopted is one well calcu- 
 lated to ensure national strength and stability through united 
 effort in one Dominion parliament, side by side with an efficient 
 administration of the local aflairs of each province through pro- 
 vincial assemblies. The tie which binds us to the motherland 
 is the strong tie of affection, with no element of coercion. Our 
 gracious Queen is still content "to look to the affectionate attach- 
 ment of her people in North America as the best security for 
 permanent dominion." The British parliament has conceded to 
 us the fullest right of self-government, and legislates for us only 
 upon those matters which are of concern to the British Empire 
 as a whole. 
 
 The Dominion and the Provinces.— Our form of govern- 
 ment under the British North America Act is, as we have seen, 
 federal ; that is to say, it consists, firstly, of one general or 
 Dominion government having jurisdiction, throughout the whole 
 Dominion of Canada, over certain matters which are of common 
 concern to all the pre vinces ; and sec(jndly, of seven local or 
 provincial governments having jurisdiction, within the respective 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 325 
 
 I^rovinces, over matters of local concern. These different classes 
 of matters are enumerated at great length in the British North 
 America Act, and may be thus sunnnarized : 
 
 Domin-on Jurisdicdon. ~ The Dominion parliament has 
 general power "to make laws for the peace, order and good 
 government of Canada" in relation to all matters not assigned 
 exclusively to the legislatures of the provinces, particularly: (1) 
 Taxation (any system) and borrowing— for Dominion purposes. 
 (2) Dominion officials. (3) Elections to the parliament of Canada, 
 including Dominion franchise and Dominion election trials. (4) 
 Census (for use in settling the representation of the provinces in 
 the parliament of Canada). (5) Naturalization of aliens. ((>) 
 Military and naval service and defence. (7) Postal service. (8) 
 Supreme Court ; the appointment and payment of superior, district 
 and county court judges. (9) ''riminal law (public safety and 
 morality). (10) Interprovincial trade and commerce, including 
 navigation and shipping, light-houses, (quarantine, general fishery 
 regulations, etc. (11) General linancial and conmiercial system, 
 e.g., currency and coinage, banks, paper money, legal tender, bills 
 and notes, interest (usury laws), weights and measures, bank- 
 ruptcy. (12) Copyright. (13) Marriage and divorce. (14) Public 
 works, railway and steamship lines (interprovincial or for tlie 
 general benefit of CWiada). (15) Indians and Indian lands. (IH) 
 Performance of international obligations imposed by the British 
 parliament. (17) Territories not within the provinces, including 
 the establishment of new })i'ovinces. 
 
 Provincial Jurisdiction.— The various provincial assemblies 
 may exclusively make laws in reference to : (1) Amendment of 
 provincial constitutions (except as to lieutenant-govenun"). (2) 
 Sale and management of public lands (including timber). (3) 
 Direct taxation and borrowing— for provincial purposes. (4) 
 Provincial officials. (5) Provincial elections, franchise, and elec- 
 tion trials. (6) Municipal system. (7) License system. (8) 
 Charitable institutions (except marine hospitals). (9) Adminis- 
 tration of justice in the province ; establishment of courts (both 
 civil and criminal) ; punishment for breach of provincial laws ; 
 provincial prisons, (10) Education (with saving clauses as to 
 separate schools enjoyed by religious minorities). (11) Property 
 dud civil rights in the province. (12) Solenmization of marriage. 
 
32G HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 (18) Local works ; companie.s with provincial objects. (14) Matters 
 of a "merely private nature in a province." 
 
 Concurrent Jurisdiction. — (/oncurrent jurisdiction is given 
 to pass laws relating to agriculture ar.d iunnigration, with the 
 provision, however, that in case of conflict between a Dominion 
 and a Provincial Act upon tiithev of those subjects the Dominion 
 Act shall override the Provincial. 
 
 The " Residuum of Power."— It will be noticed that the 
 Dominion jwirliament has jurisdiction over all matters not assigned 
 to the provincial legislatures. In thus giving to the central 
 government the "residuum of power," as it is sometimes called, 
 our federal system differs from that of the United States, under 
 which all mattera not assigned to the central government are 
 reserved to be dealt with by the individual states. 
 
 Responsible Cabinet Government. — We turn now to the 
 organization of the different g(jvernmenta, Dominion and pro- 
 vincial. In all, the principle of responsible government is recog- 
 nized ; that is to say, the executive government is carried on by 
 means of a cabinet or ministry (com|x>sed of the heads <^f the 
 chief departments) responsible to the people's representatives in 
 parliament. They must therefore have the support of a majority 
 of the members in the elective branch. If they lose this support, 
 they must, resign and give place to a cabinet composed of those 
 who have the support of a majority. This is what is called respon- 
 sible cabinet government. The people elect the members ; the 
 members control the ministry ; and, therefore, the will of the 
 people is supreme in government. 
 
 Dominion Parliament. — The parliament of Canada consists 
 of three branches : (1) The Queen, represented by the governor- 
 general, who is appointed by the Imperial go\'ernment. (2) The 
 Senate,"* which now (1897) consists t>f eighty members. Senators 
 are appointed by the governor-general in council (that is, by the 
 
 * Originally, in making provision for the Senate of Canada, the Dominion was 
 di\ided into three sections — Ontai i , Quebec and the Maritime Provinces — twenty- 
 four senators being appointed for each section. The principle of equal representation 
 (in the Senate) has been abandoned so far as Manitoba, British Columbia and the 
 North-West Territories are concerned, the first two of these being at present entitled 
 to three members each and the last to two. Prince Edward Island when she joined 
 Confederation was given four senators, two being deducted from each of the other 
 Maritime Provinces, 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 327 
 
 Doniiniou niini.stvy), uiid liold thuir HuaiH for lifo. (.S) Tlio Hoiiso 
 of (Jonmions, which now (undei' tho couhuh of 1891) consi.sts of 21.'3 
 uieiiihuiH, ulcctutl oil tho piinoiijle— as lu^tvvoen the provinces — 
 of re{)ro.sent{itioii by population, as follows : (.^iiobec, ()5 — a fixed 
 nunil>or ; Ontario, 92; N(»va Sootia, 2<) ; New JJiunswick, J4 ; 
 Manitoba, 7 ; British (.olinnbia, <> ; l*rince I'jdward Island, 5 ; 
 North-West Territories, 4. 'I'hest! numbers bear U> the pojjula- 
 tion of the respective provinces the sauit( proportion as sixty-tive 
 (Quebec's lixed nuiiibtu') beais to tin; |*opulation of Quobee under 
 the census of iWU. After eaeli dectsnnial ctsnsus, the representa- 
 tion as between jjrovinces must be readjustiMl (if necessary) on this 
 basis, Tlie House of Commons is elected for a period of five 
 years (subject to being sooner disstjlved). 
 
 Provincial Parliaments. The provincial legislatures of 
 Ontarict, New Brunswick, Prince Kdwai'd island, Manitoba and 
 Mritish (Jolumbia consist of (1) the Queen, represented by the 
 lieutenant-governor <»f the province, who is apjxtinted by tho 
 DominioJi ministry ; and (2) a single " higislative assembly " 
 chosen by popular election. In each (tf the <jtlier two [irovinces 
 (Quebec and Nova Sc«jtia) there is a seeon<l chamber (jr legislative 
 council, the memb«^rs of which are appointed by the lieutenaiit- 
 governor in cc^uncil ; that is, by the provincial ministry. »Seats in 
 these legislative councils aie held for life. 
 
 Safeguards. — Any Act, Diiminion <»r Prcjvincial, which over- 
 steps the bounds prescribed I)}' the B. N. A. Act will be held void 
 Ijy the ct)urts as being ultra vires, that is, " beyond the powers " of 
 the legislature which assumes to pass it. Any Act of tho Dominion 
 parliament may be disallowed by tlie British ministry within two 
 years after its receijit by the colonial secn^tary, This power of 
 disallowance is only exercised where a Dominion Act conflicts with 
 an Imperial Act in force in the Dominion, a cimtingojicy of very 
 rare occurrence, in like manner any provincial Act may be 
 disalh)wed by the Dominion ministry within one year after its 
 receipt by the secretary of state at Ottawa. This power is now 
 very rarely exercised. 
 
328 HISTORY OF CANADA- 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 ON TRIAL (1867-1878). 
 
 Organization. — The first Dominion ministry was, as already 
 mentioned, composed of the leading men who in each province 
 had done ])attle for Confederation. The tirst Df)minion election 
 took })lace during the summer of 18G7, with the result that this 
 "coalition" ministry, as it was called, was sustained by large 
 maj.)rities in Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick. In Nova 
 Scotia, however, only <me suppt)rter of the government — Dr. 
 Tupper — was elected out of the nineteen members to which that 
 province was entitled, and in the provincial elections which took 
 place there about the same time only two supporters of Confed- 
 erati(»n found seats in an assembly of thirty-eight members. This, 
 of course, necessibited the resignation of the provincial govexii- 
 ment, a new ministry being formed under the leadership of Hon. 
 William Annand. In New Brunswick no provincial electitm took 
 place at this time as the assembly there had only l)een in existence 
 for one year. In Ontario und Quebec — now separate provinces — 
 new pi'ovincial governments had to be organized. This was 
 accomijlished by Hon. John Sandfield Macdonald and Hon. P. J. O. 
 Chauveau respectively, and in the elections during the sunnner 
 these new provincial governments were sustained by fair majorities. 
 
 The First Dominion Parliament. — The first Dominion 
 Parliament met at Ottiiwa on the 7th of November, 18i)7. Its 
 attention was largely directed toward the organization of the 
 ditt'erent departments of the Dominion government, and toward 
 the maturing of measures relating to the customs tariff, the 
 militia, and tlie postal service of the Dominion. As many of the 
 members of the Domini(>ii parliament were mendjers also of the 
 different provincial assemblies, it was found necessary to have a 
 long adjournment of the fonuer in order that the first sessions 
 of the hitter under Confederation might be held. Up(m this 
 question of "dual representation," as it was called, opinion in the 
 dift'erent provinces was divided. N()va Scotia and New Brunswick 
 nt once passed Acts to prevent it. In 1872 (Ontario followed their 
 exam[)le. Quebec, however, declined to do so. The question was 
 finally set at rest by a Dominion Act, p.issed in 187.*i, by which 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 329 
 
 members of the provincial assemblies were declared ineligible for 
 election to the House of Commons of Canada. The first session 
 of the Dominion parliament closed in May, 1868. There had been 
 little mere party warfare. The government received the support 
 of a large majority in the House, and the opposition members from 
 the diflfcent provinces had not as yet perfected their organization. 
 The'r leader was the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie. One well-known 
 tigure disappeared from the scene a few weeks before the session 
 closed. E.irly in the morning of the 7th of April, after a long 
 day's work in the House, Tlunuas D'Arcy McGee was shot down 
 in cold blood upon the steps of his lodgings — an acb of cruel 
 vengeance for his refusal to countenance the course of the Fenian 
 Brotherhood. 
 
 "Better Terms" for Nova Scotia.— In 1868 Sir John 
 Young — better known by his later title, L(H"d Lisgar — l)ecame 
 governor general, holding the position until 1872. Every effort 
 was made to reconcile Nova Scotia to her position as a [)rovince of 
 the Dominion. She had gone so far as to send delegates, headed 
 !;y Joseph Howe, to ask oi the Imperial authorities that the 
 .1). N. A. Act should ])e repealed so far as she was concerned. 
 Dr. Tupper had been sent to counteract the inlluence of the dele- 
 gates, and the colonial office had declined to interfere. Ht)we now 
 decided to submit to the inevitjible ; out, before doing so, he suc- 
 ceeded in getting "better terms" for Nova Scotia in the shape of 
 an increased provincial sul)sidy. Early in 1869 he entered the 
 Dominion ministry as President of the Council, a step which cost 
 him the support of many of his former friends. He was now an 
 old man, and soon ceased to take a prominent [)art in |>ublic affairs. 
 In 1873 he was made lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, iiis native 
 province, but died within a few weeks after his a[)pointment. 
 
 Events of 1870. — The year 1870 was marked l)y the entry of 
 Manitoba into Confederation. Taking advantage, a{)parently, of 
 the troubles on the Red River, "General" O'Neil organized a 
 second Fenian raid against the Lower Canadian frontier. Toward 
 the end of May two inciu'sions took place, one at Missisquoi Bay 
 (at the north end of I ike Champlain), the otiier into Huntingdon 
 county. Both were rt pulsed by small bands of volunteers hastily 
 gathered. The Amer jan authorities i)romptly interposed; O'Neil 
 was arrested, and tlu enterprise collapsed. Toward the close of 
 
330 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 the year all British troops were withdrawn from Canada, with the 
 exception of the force at Halifax. The Canadian provinces had 
 now reached man's estate, and could undertake to garrison with 
 their own soldiers the citadel at Quebec and such other {josts as 
 might be deemed necessary. The year was further markad V)y the 
 passing of a Banking Act, the basis of our present banking system, 
 which among linancial authorities is considered one of the best in 
 the world. 
 
 Treaty of Washington, 1871.— The abrogation of the 
 Reciprctcity Treaty in 18G0 had opened up again the ((uestion of 
 the riglit of American fishermen tt) ply their calling along the 
 coasts of the Maritime Provinces. Canada enforced the terms of 
 the convention of 1818 and seizid several American vessels, thus 
 creating mucli ill-feeling. There were other questions, too, which 
 at this time threatened to cause trouble between Great Britain and 
 the United States — the navigation of the St. Lawrence and the 
 canals, the Oregon boundary, and, abovt; all, the claiuis arising out 
 of the depredations <jf the Southern cruiser Alabama, which had 
 been fitted out in a British port. With a view to a friendly adjust- 
 ment of all these (juestions, negotiations took place which resulted 
 in the Treaty of Washington (1871). These negotiations deserve 
 particular mention not only on account of the (piestions involved, 
 but also because, for the first time, a Canadian plenipotentiary — 
 in the person of Sir Jt»hn A. Macdonald — took jjart in the settle- 
 ment of Canadian relations with a f<»reign power. By the Treaty 
 of Washington the Al.((bania claims were referred to a tril)unal 
 which afterwards sat at Gene\a, in Switzerland, and awarded to 
 the United States a very large sum, which (ireat Britain promptly 
 l)aid. The settlement of tiie Oregon bomulary by the Emperor 
 of Germany has already been mentioned. In settlement of the 
 fisheries (piestion, it was agreed that the fisheries slit>uld be thi-own 
 open for a period of ten years, and that fish (except lak»' and river 
 fish) and fish oil should be reciprocally admitted free of duty into 
 the United States and Canad?^ What sum the Ihiited States 
 shcudd pay fi»r the privilege, accorded to her fishermen, of fishing 
 in Canadian waters was to be determined by tliree arbitrators. 
 The arbitration was afterwards held at Halifax, in 1877 — A. T. 
 Gait being the Canadian arbitral »r and the sum (»f live and one- 
 half millions of dollars was awarded to Canada, and duly paid. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 331 
 
 The navigation of the St. Lawrence and the canals and of Lake 
 Michigan was also made free to both nations by the Treaty of 
 Washington. 
 
 The Fisheries Question. — The further history of the 
 fisheries (question may be sh(jrtly stated. Li 1883 the United 
 States declined to renew the fisheries clauses of the Treaty of 
 Washington. Canada was again driven to enforce the terms of the 
 convention of 1818, and again much ill-feeling was created by the 
 seizure of American vessels. In 1888, a treaty was negotiated 
 between British plenipotentiaries— -of whom Sir Charles Tupper 
 was one — and the American secretary of state, Bayard ; but the 
 United Stattis senate declined to ratify it. The fisheries ques- 
 tion is therefore still open, and, jiending further negotiations, a 
 ttwdus viveiuli, as it is called, has been arrived at by which 
 American fishermen are allowed to take out Canadian licenses 
 on payment of a reasonable fee. 
 
 A Third Fenian Raid.— In October, 1871, another Fenian 
 raid was threatened, this time on t)ie Manitoba frontier. It was 
 largely the work of O'Donohue, who, as we have seen, had taken 
 an active part in the Red Rivt-r rel)ellion. " General" O'Neil 
 was again on hand, but the whole atiair proved a poor farce, 
 the entire party being arrested by a United States marshal. 
 Some time before this Riel had returned to his home on the 
 banks of the Red River. He now ottered his seivices in repell- 
 ing the invaders, an otier for which he received the thanks of 
 Lieutenant-Governor Aicliil»ald. It is charged, liowever, that 
 Riel had liimself fomented the raid, and that liis otl'er of assist- 
 ance was made only when he had learned of its failure. Great 
 indignation was felt in Gntnrio when it ])ecame known that no 
 attempt was being made to arrest Riel for the murder of Thomas 
 Scott. T«j quiet the agitation, Riel was secretly [tuid a large sum 
 to leave the country. 
 
 Fall of the Macdonald Ministry.— In 1872 Lord Dutterin, 
 one of the most popular of our gtnernors, succeeded Lord Lisgar. 
 Toward the close of this year a general election took place, 
 with the result that the ministerial majority in the House was 
 somewhat reduced. An Act had been passed during the preceding 
 session providing for the construction of the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway by a chartered company. A company was duly formed, 
 
332 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 of which Sir Hugh Allan was president, and to it the contract 
 was let. In the session of 1873 a formal charge was made 
 against the government that the company had bought its charter 
 by means of large subscriptions to the ministerial campaign fund 
 for the election recently held. Evidence was taken before a Royal 
 Commission ; and, though the ministers denied the existence of 
 any corrupt bargain, the fact that very large sums had been paid 
 tliem for use in the elections was clearly proved. This transaction 
 — known as the Pacific Scandal — wrecked the ministry, and early 
 in November Sir John A. Macdonald resigned office. 
 
 The Mackenzie Administration. — He was succeeded in 
 the office of premier of Canada by the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie. 
 Parliament was dissolved, and as the result of the election a large 
 majority was returned to support the new ministry, which held 
 power for nearly five years. The introduction of the vote by 
 ballot in Dominion elections by an Act passed in 1874, the 
 establishment of the Supreme Court of Canada in 1875, and the 
 Canada Temperance Act of 1878 (usually called the Scott Act), 
 were among its legislative achievements. The construction of the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway was taken up as a government work. 
 The policy of the Mackenzie government in reference to this great 
 undertaking was much criticised by the opposition, but now that the 
 road is an accomplished fact nothing can be gained by going over 
 the old grounds of dispute. Britisli Columbia was much incensed 
 at the announcement that the road was to be built slowly, and 
 it required all Lord Dufierin's tact and eloquence to still the 
 outcry. A world-wide depression in trade, which set ir toward 
 tlie close of 1873 and lasted for several years, led to the ado[)tion, 
 by Sir John Macdonald and his party, of what is known as the 
 "Naticmal Policy" of protecting home industries by heavy duties 
 upon goods imported from other countries. This policy received 
 such support throughout the Dominion that in the general election 
 of 1878 the Mackenzie ministry was utterly routed, and Sir John 
 A. Macd<mald returned to power supported. by a very large majority 
 in the House. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 3B3 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 
 UNITED I'ROGRESS. 
 
 Political Parties. — As political parties are still divided in 
 opinion over many of the events of recent years, our reference 
 to them must be brief. In the session of 1879 the ' ' National 
 Policy" was carried into our tarifi' legislation, and long maintained 
 its place there. The government of the D<tminion was, during all 
 these years — until the sunujier of 1890 — in the hands of the Con- 
 servative party. Until his death, in 1891, Sir John A. Macdonald 
 remained at the head of affairs. Sir John Abbott then became 
 })remier, giving place in a short time, however, to Sir John 
 Thom])son. Upon his death, in December, 1894, Sir Mackenzie 
 Bowell succeeded t(^ the position. In 1880 the Hon. Alexander 
 Mackenzie retired from the leadership of the Liberal party, and 
 during the next seven years it was held by the Hon. Edward 
 Blake. In 1887 he withdrew from Canadian public life, and 
 Hon. Wilfrid Laurier became the Liberal leader. Early in 1896 
 Sir Charles Tujjper resigned his position as High Commissioner for 
 Canada in England, to take the leadership of the Conservative 
 party as premier of the Dominion. At the general election in 
 June, 189(>, his ministry was defeated at the polls, and shortly 
 afterwards resigned. A Reform ministry, under the Hon. V/ilfrid 
 Laurier, was thereupon called to the head of affairs. 
 
 Recent Governors.— In the fall of 1878, the Marquis of 
 Lome became governor-general of Canada, and for nearly live 
 years Canadian .society was graced by the presence amongst us 
 of Her Royal Highness the Princess Louise. In 1883 the Mar- 
 fjuis of Lome was succeeded by Lord Lansdowne, wiio, in 1888, 
 gave place to Lord Stanley of Preston, and he in turn, in 1893, 
 to the present governor-general, the Earl of Aberdeen. 
 
 Provincial Progress. —To give, with any detail, a history of 
 the individual provinces since Confederation would swell this book 
 beyond all reasonalile limit. Only those matters can be referred 
 to— and that very brieHy - which touch our progress as a Dominion. 
 In the older provinces internal progress has been very largely along 
 lines which were laid down bef(U"e C<mfederation. The laws relat- 
 ing to the administration of justice, to education, to municipal 
 
334 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 government, to the regulation of the licpior traffic, and to the 
 settlement and development of the dutlying districts of the dif- 
 ferent provinces, have from time to time been improved and 
 systematized. In social matters we have been (juick to adopt 
 those improvements which science •has of late years so wonder- 
 fully multiplied. Electricity has been put in harness, and electric 
 lighting and heating, electric street railways, and the telephone 
 have become a ])art of daily life in our cities, to^^nis, and even 
 villages. All these things, however, are before our eyes, and 
 need no extended reference. 
 
 Provincial Rights. — Various questions as to "provincial 
 rights" have been fought out in the courts, and have in many 
 cases i-eceived their final adjudication in the Privy Council in 
 England. As a result of this litigation a marked advance has 
 been made toward the determination of the true line Avhich 
 divides the Dominion and provincial spheres (tf authority. The 
 dismissal by Sir Jf)hn A. Macdonald's government in 1875^ of the 
 lieutenant-governor of Quebec, Letellier de St. Just, excited much 
 interest. That officer had dismissed the de Boucherville ministry 
 in Quebec, and had called upon Hemi — now Sir Henri — Joly de 
 Tiotbiniere to form a new government. In the election which fol- 
 lowed the .Joly ministry was sustained by a very narrow majority. 
 Nevertheless the Dominit)n ministry, ignoring the popular verdict 
 in Quebec, dismissed Letellier — a proceeding which created mucli 
 discussion as to the position and functions of our lieutenant- 
 governors and as to the control of the Dominion government 
 over them. In 1881 an Act of the Ontario assembly — popularly 
 knowTi as the Streams Rill -designed to facihtate lunibering opera- 
 tions in the province, was disallowed by the Dominion government 
 as an invasion of private rights. Ontario very v/armly ])rotested, 
 and, in the end, the Act was again passed by the assembly and 
 allowed to go into operation. S<mie years later (1888) the action 
 of the Quebec assembly in ])assing what is known as the Jesuits' 
 Estates Act, by which those estates were devoted to educational 
 purposes, was much canvassed in the other })rovinces ; but the 
 Dominion government, deeming the Act to be well within the 
 powers of the provincial assembly, refused to interfere. In the 
 same year (1888) provincial o-\vnership of lands purchased in earlier 
 days from the Indians was alhrmed by a decision of the Privy 
 
'''•'Ofld THOt*'*'' 
 
 "♦"^.'IfRTu^^*' 
 
 PRIME MlNIiSTKRS OF CANADA SINCE CONFEDERATION, 
 
''^fiO LISGl^^ 
 
 ' ^^^"^fikOF DUf?^^'"^' 
 
 
 "'^•^OUNT rA0HC»^ 
 
 ^'^^Qi/ZSOFtO^^^" 
 
 ''^-^i^I!!^^^'^^''' 
 
 ^''^f-^RLOF/vBt^^^^^' 
 
 GOVERNORS OF CANADA SINCE CONFEDERATION. 
 
HiSToUV OF CANADA. 335 
 
 Council. The power of provincial Jissoinhlies to regulate their 
 own procedure, and to enlarge or limit iha privileges of nienii)ers, 
 has been estal)lished by a still more recent decision of the saniO 
 tribunal (1896). 
 
 Manitoba. — Since Confederation Manitoba has rapidly ad- 
 vanced. Municipal and educational systems have been adopted^ 
 founded largely upon those of Ontario. Out of the clau.se in the 
 Manitoba Act, which secured to the religious minority there their 
 rights in respect to denominational schools, has arisen the cele- 
 brated "Manitoba sch<H)l (picstion," which it would be out of 
 ])lace to discuss here. A settlement has recently (1890) been 
 ari'ived at, by which the Manitoba government, while adhering 
 to the princijde of a national school system under provincial 
 control, has agreed to make provision for religious teaching 
 during certain school hours. The question as to the boundary line 
 between Ontario and Manitoba gave rise for a time to a little 
 friction between the two provinces. Its settlement involved nuich 
 historical research, as the northern limit of the old province of 
 Canada had never been very accurately detined. Another matter 
 in which Manitoba was mucl'i interested was the question of the 
 railway monopoly possessed by the Canadian Pacific Riiilway Com- 
 pany under their charter. After a warm agitjition of the (juestion, 
 the monopoly clause was revoked and Manitoba's railway develo})- 
 ment has, of late years, been marked. She is at present pre- 
 eminently an agricultural province, and her wheat has a world-wide 
 reputation. The opening up of the vast wheat areas of Manitoba 
 and the North- West Territories has caused in the older provinces 
 an increased attention to stock-raising and the cultivation of dairy 
 products. Our butter and cheese industries are making rapid 
 strides. 
 
 The C. P. R. — North-Wert expansion has, of course, been 
 largely the result of the construction of our great transcontinental 
 line, the Canadian Pacific Railway. The work of surveying the 
 line to be followed through the passes of the Rocky Mountains 
 proved one of extreme difficulty. The work of actual construction 
 was in consequence delayed until 1870, and British Columbia, 
 as already mentioned, became much incensed. In 1880 the 
 contract for the construction of the line (then partly under way) 
 was let to the present company, who took up the work with such 
 23 
 
336 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 energy that, on the 7th of November, 1885, the last spike was 
 driven to connect the two ends of the line. On the following day 
 a train from the east reached the Pacific coast. Three of those 
 most intimately connected with the construction of the line have 
 received the honor of knighthood— Sir Donald Smith, Sir George 
 Stephen (Lord Mountstephen), and the present general manager, 
 Sir William C. Van Home — a striking acknowledgment of the 
 Imperial character of the undertaking. The C. P. R. is the 
 realization of tlie old idea of a north-west passage to the Orient. 
 The company has established two steamship lines to cross the 
 Pacific Ocean. One of these runs between Victoria and Hong 
 Kong in China, and already our trade with the Orient has assumed 
 large proportions. The first steamsliip of the present line was the 
 Empress of India, which made its first trip in 1891.. The other 
 line runs between Victoria and Sydney, New South Wales, via 
 Honolulu. The first steamship of this line, the Mimvera, began to 
 run in 1893, and our trade with our Australian kinsfolk is already 
 encouraging. Other lines run from Victoria — to Alaska and to 
 American ports to the south. 
 
 The North-West Territories. — The local government of the 
 North- West Territories was until 1876 in the hands of the lieu- 
 tenant-governor of Manitoba and a small council of eleven members. 
 In October, 1876, an Act (passed under the Mackenzie administra- 
 tion in the previous year) came into force under which Hon. David 
 Laird, the first resident lieutenant-governor, was appointed. He 
 was assisted by a council of tlve members. The first session of 
 this council Avas held in 1877 at Livingston on Swan River. 
 Battleford was, however, fixed upon as the seat of government, 
 and subsequent sessions of the council were held there until 1883. 
 In that year the present cajtital, Regina, Avas chosen, it being on 
 the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway, then under construc- 
 tion. Provision was also made by the Act of 1875 for the creation, 
 n.:? populaticm increased, of electoral districts for the election of 
 additional members to the council. When these should reach 
 twenty-one in number the council was to be abolished and a legis- 
 lative assembly take its place. Population was somewhat scanty 
 until the advent of the railway, and the first election did not 
 take place until 1883. The council then consisted of the lieutenant- 
 governor, four appointed members, the stipendiary magistrates 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 337 
 
 (r,i>(;^'cio) and .six elected memliers, wlin held ofHce fur two years. 
 Ill 188<) tin Act w;l.s jtassed K'^'^o ^''♦^ Ttn-ritories rejii-esentHtiou 
 in both the Senate and the House o{ (.onmions of the Canadian 
 parliament. At the present time (I8t>7) tAvo senators and four 
 members of parliament represent the great North- West in the 
 federal legislature. 
 
 Increasing Autonomy. — In 1888 an Act was passed abolish- 
 ing the North-West Council and substituting for it an assembly of 
 twenty-two elected members. Fonr of these mend)ers, chosen by 
 the lieutenant-governor, were to form an advisory council on 
 financial matters. Three legal ex[)erts v/ere to sit in tlie assend)ly 
 and take part, if necessary, in debate ; but tliey had no vote. 
 Their chief duty was to see that no Acts were passed by the 
 assembly which would conflict with Dominion legislation. Until 
 the creation of a new province the Dominion has, of course, the 
 paramount legislative power over the Territories, a power which 
 is not exercised in respect to those matters Avhich have been handed 
 over to the control of the assembly. In October, 1888, the tirst 
 assembly met at Regina. The new lieutenant-governor, Hon. 
 Joseph Roynl, did not allow his advisory council that control of 
 financial matters which the assend)ly thought they should have, 
 and in 1889 the cc-uncnl therefore resigned. This battle for "re- 
 sponsible government" went on with considerable vigor until 1891, 
 when an Act was passed by the Dominiim parliament giving the 
 asseuibly of the Territory the control it desired, and enabling it 
 to sit apart from the lieutenant-governor. No doubt, ere long 
 other provinces will be formed out of the North-West Territories. 
 
 Marked Progress. — The pcnvers of the assembly of the 
 Territories now fall very little short of the powers of the various 
 provincial legislatures. Courts have been established ; municipal 
 institutions have been introduced ; an educational system of much 
 excellence is in operation ; li({uor license Acts have been passed. 
 The great North-West, thus almost completely self -governed in 
 local matters, is filling up with a thrifty and industrious popula- 
 tion.* Its great ranching districts, its vast areas for wheat 
 growing, its resources in timber and minerals, all give promise 
 of a prospei'ous future. 
 
 * In 1871 the population of the re^-ion wfst of Manitoha to the Rockj' Mountains 
 was computed at about 18,000. In 1801 it had increased to over 67,000. 
 
338 
 
 HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 The Second Riel Rebellion.— In 1885 occutrod wluit is 
 known us the Nortli-Wo.st Rebellion. The French half-broedH 
 near the forks of the SHskatchewan deemed themselves uggrieved 
 at the delay of the Canadian government in settling their claims 
 to certfiin land grants. They invited the rebel leader, Riel, who 
 at that time was living in the United States, to come and aid them 
 in procuring redress. The result was that in April there was an 
 outbreak at Duck Lake, where a small detachment of Mounted 
 
 Police and a few volunteers from Prince Albert were rei)ulsed by 
 a body of half-breeds. At Frog Lake a band of Indians, under- 
 a Cree chief named Big Bear, cruelly murdered several persons,, 
 including two priests in charge of the mission there. Other Cree- 
 Indians, under a chief named Poundmaker, also joined in the 
 rebellious movement. A force of volunteers was at once de- 
 spatched to the scene. The half-breed stronghold at Batoche 
 was soon taken by the main column under General Middleton, 
 with the loss, unhappily, of several of our brave volunteers. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 339 
 
 Shortly afterwurds Kiel hiinsulf wjih captured. Poundniaker's 
 band was sharply clicckud by Colonel Otter's column at Cut Knife 
 Creek, not far from Jiattleford, and i-ho chief soon afterwards gave 
 himself up. Big Bear managed to escape for a time, but was 
 subsequently captured. A third colunui under Colonel Strange 
 prevented the more westerly bands from taking part in the out- 
 break. Before the sununer was over the volunteers were again 
 at their homes. For tliis second rebellicm Riel was tried at 
 Regina, found guilty, and afterwards hanged. 
 
 British Columbia. — Since Confederation the Pacific coast 
 province has made marked progress, as the figures given t)n a 
 previous page will show. The Public School system had hjst 
 somewhat of its efficiency during the years immediately preceding 
 the union, owing to the refusal of Governor Seymour to give it 
 financial support from provincial funds. At once after becoming 
 part of Canada the system was reorganized, and, with liberal 
 assistance from the provincial legislature, has gradually reached 
 its present condition of usefulness. It is modelled upon the school 
 system of Ontario, and at its head is a responsible Minister of 
 Education, holding a seat in the provincial cabinet. In other 
 directions, too, great progress has been made. The administration 
 of justice, numicipal institutions, the management of the Crown 
 lands, and, in fact, all the departments of provincial administra- 
 tion, have been placed upon an efticient footing. The industrial 
 advance has also been marked. Coal, silver, and gold reward the 
 toil of the miner. The deposits are so rich and widely spread that 
 marked attention has been drawn to British Columbia, and a large 
 population is being attracted to the province. The salmon-canning 
 industry, which began in 1876, has attained to large dimensions, 
 and there are good prospects also for the deep-sea fisheries. The 
 lumber trade is rapidly developing to large proporti<jns, and railways 
 are being constructed to open up the fertile valleys for settlement. 
 
 The Behring Sea Question. — Within the last few years a 
 question has arisen between Canada and the United States in refer- 
 ence to the right of our British Columbia seamen to take Alaskan 
 seals. A claim w\as advanced by the United States that not only was 
 the whole of Behring Sea a closed sea (mare claimim) and, as such, 
 part of American territory, but that the seals, whose land-home 
 is t)n the Pribylofi" Islands, were an American hard, the property 
 
840 
 
 HTSTOKY OF CANADA. 
 
 of the American "Alaska Ccunimny." Acting upon this double 
 claim, American revenue-cutters seized certain British schooners 
 from A^ancouver in 1886 and 1887, and the whole matter was 
 thus brought to an issue. After much diplomatic correspondence 
 between (jlreat Britain and the United States it was agreed that, 
 instead of resorting to the barl)ar(>us arlntrament of war, the entire 
 questicm should be dealt with l)y a special tribunal appointed bv 
 nmtual consent. Of this tribunal, which sat in Paris, iHW.i, the 
 Canadian premier, Sir J. S. 1). Thomi)S(jn, was a member. Its 
 awaril was against the United States so ^ar as the claim of right 
 was concerned. x\t the same time, in order to preveuo the exter- 
 mination of the seals, certain regulations were laid down as to the 
 carrying on of the seal lisheries, and of these British (Columbia 
 is inclined to complain as unduly favoring the Alaska Company. 
 
 Our Place in the British Empire. -The prominent part 
 assigned to Canadians in connection with the Behring Sea arbitra- 
 tion, as well as various (►ther events 
 of i-ecent years, serves to em[)hasize 
 tlie high position occupied by the 
 Dttminion of Canada as a member 
 of the great British Empire. Our 
 puldic men are taking their part, 
 not merely as Canadian, but as 
 Imperial statesmen. We aave had, 
 since 1880, a High Commissioner 
 to represent us in (jieat Britain. 
 jMie Hon. Edward Blake is now 
 (1897) a leading member of the 
 Home Rule party in the British 
 House of Conmions. During Sir 
 John A. Macdonald's last illness 
 messages of sympathy came to Ottawa from all parts of the Empire, 
 and after his death a memorial service was held in Westminster 
 Al)bey in recognition of the distinguished services rendered by the 
 dead statesman to the cause of a united Emi)ire. And when in 
 December, 1804., Sir John Thompson died suddenly at Windsor 
 Castle, whither he had gone to receive the honor of ajipointment 
 to the Imperial Privy Council, Great Britain sent a ship of war 
 to bear his remains to Canada. 
 
 SIB, WILLIAM i»AWSUN. 
 
HISTORY OF CANADA. 341 
 
 ,Alpheus Todd, lute librarian of the Dominion parliament, and 
 Di. J. (jr. Bourinot, the (Jlerk of the Canadian House c)f CVjmmons, 
 have written works uptni parliamentary government which are of 
 recognized authority throughout the empire ; while such men as 
 the late Sir Daniel Wilson of Toronto University, the late Sir 
 William Logan, and Sir William Dawson of Mc(iill Tniversity, 
 Montreal, liave made the name of Canada known in the still 
 larger world of science and literature. 
 
 Closer Union. The recent colonial conference at Ottawa 
 (1805), participated in by rei)i'esentatives from nearly all Great 
 Britain's colonies, affords a marked indication of a desire on the 
 part of the various meuibers of the British Empire for a closer 
 union. Pi-ofessor >Seeley has said that the study of history sh«juld 
 end with a moral. Our recent history, our growtli from weak and 
 divided provinces to one great and united Dominion, should 
 encourage us to lo(jk forward to tlie still wider federation of all 
 the lands which tly the Union Jack. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abbott, Sir Jorix, premier, 333. 
 Ahenakis, 11 (note), 40, 47, W), r)3, 
 Aburcroiiibie roi)iilse<l at Ti<!orKleroga, 80. 
 Aberdeen, Karl of, j,'overiior, 'ASA. 
 Acacliaiis, under IJritisli rule, .')7, r.8, 63, 
 
 (i«-7(), 72, 7!) ; expulsion of, 71, 72, 79. 
 A(!a<lia, oripn of tlie name, 8 ; extent of, 
 
 1.5 ; French settlements in, 1.5-17, 21, 22, 
 
 30, 32, 44 ; fur trade of, 8; 17, 21, 22, 30- 
 32, 44, 4.5 ; ftsheries of, 4, 8, 21, 22, 30, 
 32 ; the Hundred Associates in, 29-32 ; 
 (iaptured by Sedgwick, 31 ; population 
 of, 32, 44, .58, 68 ; and New England, 17, 
 
 31, 4.5, 48, .50, .51, 53-.55, 03, 04, 60, 71 ; 
 Phips' expedition against, 48 ; taken l).v 
 the British, .54, .55 ; ceded to (ireat 
 Britain, ,50 ; French abandon all claims 
 to, 94. (See AcadiaiiH and Xova Scutia.) 
 
 Administration of Justice during French 
 rdgime, 33, 37, 02 ; diiring military 
 perio<l, 88, 91 ; under kings proclama- 
 tion, 90-98; under (Quebec Act, KK), 117, 
 120 ; under Constitutional A<;t, 1791— 
 in liower Caniula, 1.30, 131, 142, liXJ, 197, 
 2(K), 207-209, 211, 213 ; in Upper Cana<Ia, 
 130, 131, 149, 1.52, \m, 197, IJH), 201 ; ii; 
 Maritune Provinces, 201 ; in North-West 
 (early), 236, 237, 299 ; in British Cohun- 
 bia (early), 304. 
 
 Agriculture, 10, 11, 16, 20, 24, 29, 30, 36, 
 37, 44, .57, 58, 01, 02, 7.5, 98, 99, 102, 103, 
 105, 118, 120, 131-1.35, 157, 1.58, 178-182, 
 223, 220, 231, 23(i, 2.51, 252, 277, 278, 283, 
 286, 290, 297, 3(K), ;i35, 3.37. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, (Ki. 
 
 Alaska, 142, . 3, 2.34, 3,39, 340. 
 
 Albanel, Father, readies Hudson Bay, 39. 
 
 Albany, 25, 38, 40, 50, 52. 53, 73, 74. 
 
 Algon(|uins, 9-12; tribal divisions,ll(note). 
 
 Allan, Ethan, seizes Fort Ticoiideroga and 
 Crown Point, 108 ; captured at Mont- 
 real, lOi). 
 
 American Hevolution, 106-117. 
 
 Amherst, Sir Jeffrey, 78; securea Lake 
 Chaniplain, 82, 83 ; Lakes Montreal, 89. 
 IK). 
 
 Annanolis, 55, 57, 63. (See Port Royal.) 
 
 Anville, Due d', disaster to French fleet 
 under, 64. 
 
 Appointments to office, question of, 268, 
 272, 273. 
 
 Argall, Samuel, destroys Port Royal, 17. 
 
 Arnold, Benedict, seizes St. Joli'n's, 108 ; 
 besieges Quebec, 110-112; abandons 
 Montreal, 113 ; defeated rn Lake Cham- 
 plain, 114. 
 
 Ashburton Treaty, 264. 
 
 Assemblies, early colonial, KXl ; early, 189. 
 l!H), ^> • 
 
 Assembly, agitation for, in Quebec, 95-99; 
 refused, 100 ; further agitation, 119, 128; 
 settlers in Upper Canada favor, 119, 128 ; 
 of Lower Canada, first, 143 ; conflict with 
 executive, 148, 207-216 ; of l^pperCanada, 
 first, 149, 1.50; conflict witli executive, 
 216-222 ; of Nova Scotia, first, 102, 103 ; 
 of New Brunswick, fii-st, 155 ; conflict 
 witli executive, 222-225 ; of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, first, 105; of Canada (old), 
 254 ; of Canada, first, 259-262. 
 
 Assiniboels, 12, 00. 
 
 Assiniboia, council of, 2.30, 237, 299. (See 
 lied River Settlevient.) 
 
 Astoria, 141, 142, 234. 
 
 Aulnay-Charnisay, d", 30, 31. 
 
 Austrian Succ^ession, war of the, 03-C6. 
 
 Aylmer, Lord, governor, 214, 215. 
 
 Baoot, Sir Cuaples, governor, 263, 26.5. 
 
 Baldwin, Robert, defeated in York, 217; 
 holds aloof from Mackenzie, 240 ; visits 
 rebel camj), 241; resigns, 2.59; in first 
 parlianuiiit of Canada (old), 259-261 ; 
 fii-st litifontaine-Baldwin ministry, 204, 
 2fi5, 207, 268; second Lafontaine-Bakl- 
 win ministry, 274, 287-289. 
 
 Barclay, Captain, defeated on Lake Erie, 
 168, 109. 
 
 Barry case in Nova Scotia, 227, 228. 
 
 Beauharnois, de, governor of New France, 
 .50, .59, 02, 61. 
 
 Eoausdjour, Fort, 69 ; captured by Monck- 
 ton, 71. 
 
 Beaver Dams, 170, 171. 
 
 Bcgbic, Sir Matthew B., 304. 
 
 Behring Sea (|uestion, 23:{, 234, .339, 340. 
 
 Bid well, Marsliall S., 21((, 222, 240. 
 
 Bigot, the intendant, 74, 98. 
 
 Blake, Hon. Edwai-d, :^.{3, ;<40. 
 
 Boscawen, Admiral, at Louisbourg, 78. 
 
 Boucher, Pierre, mission to France, 29. 
 
 Boucherville, de, niinistry, dismissHi, 3.34. 
 
 Bougainville, at Cap Rouge, 85, 86, 88; 
 abandons Isle aux Noix, 89, !M). 
 
 Boundaries ((^lueliec), 94, 9,5 ; underQuehec 
 Act, 100; (Canailian) under Treaty of 
 Vei-sailles, 116,117; between Upperand 
 JiOwi\- Canada, 129; Pacific coa.st, 2;«, 
 2.34; Canada and United States, 116,117, 
 1.56, 223, 224, 2;{3, 234, 25(J, JJ64, 870, 304, 
 305. 
 
 Boimdary, the Maine, llfl, 117, 186, 223, 
 224, 2.50. ' 
 
 Bouquet, Colonel, puts down Ohio In- 
 dians, 93. 
 
 BouriHot, J. G., 341. 
 
 Bourlama(|ue, at Ticonderoga, 81 ; ahaij- 
 dons Lake ('haniplain, 82. 
 
344 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bowell, Sir MackcHzie, premier, 333, 
 
 Bra(i<iock's defeat, 70, 71. 
 
 Bradstreet destroys Fort Frontenae, 80 ; 
 
 expedition ajifainst Ohio Indians, 93. 
 Brandy disimte. Nova Scotia, 228. 
 Brant, Josejili, 127. 
 Breda, treaty of, 31, 35. 
 British (JoUnnhia, tlie fur trade in, 141, 
 
 142, 234, 3()l-:i04 ; (/<S'4«-2W6), 301-305 ; 
 province of, formed, 303 ; Vancouver 
 Island united witli, 322 ; joins (Jon- 
 federation, 322, 323 ; poimlation of, 323 
 (note); suhse((uent history of, 33i), 340. 
 (See I'arijic. Count.) 
 
 Britisli Empire, our place in, 327, 330, 
 340, 34). 
 
 Britisli Nortii America Act, 313, 314; 
 government under, 324-327. 
 
 Brock, Sir Isaac, Uil ; cajitures Detroit, 
 103, 1()4 ; death of, l(i5, 10(i. 
 
 Brown, Oeortfe, estat>lis)ies the Globe, 2(>8 ; 
 defeated in nal<liman(i, 288; Brown- 
 Dorion ministry, 292, 293; in (;oalition 
 f^overmnent, .307; resi^Mis, 311. 
 
 Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga, 114. 
 
 Cahot, John, 2. 
 
 ( "alli6res, de, governor New France, 51-53. 
 
 ('ampl)ell. Sir CoHn, 229, 230. 
 
 Canaila, early use of name, 0; extent of, 
 at <iitferent times, (and see map, page 
 304); ceded to (ireat Britain, 94 ; under 
 military rule, 90-94; under king's procla- 
 mation, 94-99; invutled by Congress 
 troops, 108-113; under (^uel)ec Act, U7- 
 121; Loyalist .settlers in, 125-128; mider 
 Constitutional Act, 17'.il, .see Upper 
 Canada and Lower Canada; (old), 
 {ISl^l- ISU3), 259-205 ; ( IS!,.:. IS/^S), 207-272 ; 
 (18U8-lHi:/,\ 287-294; .lead-lock in, 293, 
 294; Dominion of, formed, 314 ; ex- 
 tended, 3l4-;<24. 
 
 Canada Companv, the, 180, 181. 
 
 Canadian l\iciJii' Uii'.lwav, 137, 323, 331, 
 332, 335, 3;{0. 
 
 Canals, 119, 183-185, 265, 262, 281, 283, 331. 
 
 Cape Breton, 4, 22. 30, 50, 57, 0.3, 04, 0(i, 
 70, 78, 79, 94, 102, 103, 124 ; cede«l to 
 Great Britain, 94 ; I,o\alist settlers in, 
 124; Scoti'h settlers in, i:{2, 182; a sep- 
 arate provinc^e, 124 ; reamie.ved to Nova 
 S(!otia, 124, 220. 
 
 "Card money," 78, 98. 
 
 Carignan-Salieres regiment, 34, 36, 45. 
 
 Carleton, SirCluv. lHi-«>, 108-114, 117-120, 
 
 143, 144, 150, 151, 1.55. 
 
 Carleton, Thomas, lieutenant-governor of 
 
 New Brunswick, 155. 
 Caroline affair, the, 242, 203, 264. 
 Cartier, (ieorge E., 291 (note), 292, 293, 
 
 3(H) (note), 315. 
 Cartier, Jacijues, 5. 
 Castin, Baion de St., 45-47. 
 Cathcart., Karl, governor, 270. 
 Catholics, disabilities of, in early days, 
 
 96, 97, 10(), 201, 202, 204. (See Religious 
 
 Liberty.) 
 
 Cayugas, 10. (See Iroquoin.) 
 
 CJensitaires, see Scigneurial System, 
 
 Champlain, Lake, 10, 11, 18, .59, 82, 83; 
 Amhei-st on, 82, 83 ; Carleton defeats 
 Arnold on, 113, 114 ; war of ISi:^, 167, 
 173, 175, 170. (See Crown Point, Ticon- 
 de.ro(ja and Fort Wiliiani Henri/.) 
 
 (Jhamplain, Samuel, 14-22. 
 
 Charlottetown, 105, IKi, 252 ; incorporated, 
 297 ; confereiK-e at, 307 -.3(«). 
 
 Chateauguay, battle of, 173, 174. 
 
 Chippewyans, 12. 
 
 Cl)ip[)ewa Creek, battle of, 176. 
 
 Chrvsler's Farm, battle of. 174, 175. 
 
 tUnirch and State, 28, 34, 41, 200-207. 
 
 (^vil List, KMi, 271, 27(i ; Lower Canada, 
 209, 213-215; l'i)per Cana<la, 217 ; New 
 Brunswick, 224, 225 ; Nova Scotia, 
 229, 230, 257, 271 ; (oki) Canada, 2.54, 
 271. 
 
 Clergv Reserves, 130, 180, 204-207 ; secular- 
 ized, 289, 290. 
 
 Colbert, .33-35, 40. 
 
 tU)lborne, Sir John, governor, 207, 218, 
 238, 240, 243, 245. 
 
 Coles, lion. George, 295. 
 
 Colleg:es, see Education. 
 
 C!olonial government (British), 186-193. 
 
 Colonial self-govermnent, see Civil List, 
 Rere.iue and Renponsible Governraent. 
 
 Connnerce, see Indnxtrial J'rotjress. 
 
 Compagniedela Noiivelle France, 21 ; (see 
 Hundred AKKOciutex) ; des Habitants, 
 20; duNord, 50. . 
 
 (Jonft'deration, early sugt^estions for, 293, 
 305; imjielling causes, 3(K5, 307,311-313; 
 history of, 305-;i24 ; system of g-overa- 
 nient under, :{24-327. 
 
 Con.^eil Super ieur, 33. 
 
 Constitutional Act, 17;tl, 128-131. 
 
 Cook, Captain, 137, 1.38. 
 
 ( 'ornwalli^', governor of Nova Scotia, 68,69. 
 
 Corruption in New France, 42, 44, 45, 74, 
 75, 88. 
 
 Cortereal, 3. 
 
 ('otes, 30. 
 
 Council, Legislative, under Quebec Act, 
 101, 109, 117, 118 ; under Constitutional 
 Act, 129 ; Executive, 129, 187, 188 ; Legis- 
 lative, 1!H»-192; ofCanada(oUl), 254, 259; 
 of Nova Scotia, 229, 230, 257. 
 
 t'ourcelle, de, governor of New France, 
 33-35. 
 
 Coureurs de boin, 24, 38, 42, 47, 146. 
 
 Courts, see Administration of Justice. 
 
 Craig', Governor, 147-149. 
 
 Crane, William, 225. 
 
 Crees 12 234. 
 
 Crown Lands, 105, 130, 134. 140, 147, 152, 
 180, 187, 189, li»0, 193, 199, 212, 224; 
 colonial control of, 189-191; in Canadii 
 (old), 254 ; in New Brunswick, 225 ; in 
 Nova Scotia, 230, 257 ; in Prince Edward 
 Island, 295. 
 
 Crown Point, 69, 70, 74 ; abandoned by 
 French, 82 ; seized by Allan, 108. 
 
 Cunard Line, 183. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 345 
 
 Dalhoi'sik, Eari- of, g:oveinor, 210-213; 
 
 in Nova Scotia, 195, '225, 226. 
 Dawson, Sir William, 341. 
 Decimal currency, 288. 
 Denonville, governor of New France, 43, 
 
 44, 51. 
 DenyH, Nicholas, 30, 32. 
 Detroit, 52, 59, 82 ; transferred to British, 
 
 92; besieged by Pontiac, 93; during 
 
 American revolution, 115 ; surrenders 
 
 to Brock, l(i3, 1()4. 
 Dieskau dtfeate<l at Lake George, 73, 74. 
 Disallowance, power of, 157, 207, 219, 254, 
 
 257, 258, 270, 327, 334. 
 Dominion of Canada formed, 314 ; first 
 
 parliament of, 328, 329. 
 Dorchester, Ijord, .see Sir Gmi Carlcton. 
 Dorion, A. A., 291, 293 (note); Brown- 
 
 Dorion ministrv, 292, 29,3. 
 " Double Shuffle,'" 292, 293. 
 Douglas, Sir Howard, in New Brunswick, 
 
 223. 
 Douglas, Sir. lames, 302-304. 
 Drake, Sir Francis, 9. 
 Draj^Kjr, W. M., 259 ; first l)rav>er ministry, 
 
 200, 205; second Drajjer ministry, 209- 
 
 272, 300. 
 Dual representation^ question of, 328, 329. 
 Dutferin, Lord, governor, 331, 3.32. 
 Du(|uesne, Fort (Pittsburg), 70 ; aban- 
 doned by tlie French, 80, 81. 
 Duquesne, Maripiis, governor of New 
 
 France, 09, 72. 
 Durham, Earl, 244-248. 
 Dutch, the, in America, 25 ; lose New 
 
 Netherlands, 35. 
 
 Easter.n Townships, earlv settlers in, 134, 
 146, 147, 179 ; French iJw in, 211 ; repre- 
 sentation of, in assembly, 211, 212 ; 
 roads, 212. 
 
 Education under French rtigime, 34, 62 ; 
 in t»|uebec (carl.\ ), 120, 121; in Nova 
 Scotia, 104, 158, 202, 22.3, 220, 2(50, 2<i7, 
 285, 286 ; in New Brunswick, 158, 202, 
 203, 223, 286 ; in Prince Edward Island, 
 158, 251, 252, 297: in Upper Canada, 
 127, 128, 1.53. 203; in Lower Canada, 
 147, 203, 213 ; in (old) Canada, 261, 202, 
 271 ; in Manitoba (early), 235 ; Separate 
 School question, 335 ; in liritish ('olum- 
 bia, 302, 339; in North- Wi'st Territories, 
 337. (See Sectarian Scliooin.) 
 
 Election laws, 1.30, 190, 251, 254, 257, 273, 
 296, 328, 329, :i,32. 
 
 Elgin, Lord, governor, 274, 291 ; negotiates 
 recipr(K'ity treaty with I'nited States, 
 282 ; rebellion losses, riots, 287, 288. 
 
 Enghsh colonies in America, early, 17, 25 ; 
 English and French compared, 46-.56; 
 English and French in America, 37, 39, 
 40, 42, 43, 45-47, 50-90. 
 
 English-speaking pov>ulation of Quebec, 
 early, 96, 99, 108, 128. 
 
 Eric, Lake, early ktiowledgc of, 25, 38; 
 naval battle on, ISJJ, 16S, 169. 
 
 Esquimaux, 12, 18. 
 
 Executive council, 129, 187, 188 ; rule of 
 the, 185-200; council of Canada (old), 
 hr.st, 259 ; abuses, 193-200. 
 
 Falkland, Lord, 266, 267, 272, 273. 
 
 Fanuly Compact, 188, 189. (See Execu- 
 tine, Rule of, and Executive AhuHes, and 
 JieUgious Liberty, Strtiqgle for.) 
 
 Fenian raids, 311, 313, 329, 3;5l". 
 
 Fisheries, the Banks, 3, 7 ; of xMaritime 
 Provinces, 1(I4, 105, 1.56-1.^)8, 182, 223, 
 226, 252 (see Aeadia); in Canada during 
 French r(-gime, 62; (juestion, 283, 284, 
 .3.30, .331. . I . 
 
 Forbes, Brigadier, takes Fort Duciuesne, 
 81. 
 
 Fiance aids revolted colonies, 114. 
 
 Fianklin, Benjamin, c(mgress commis- 
 sioner, (Canada, 11.J; Sir John, 235. 
 
 Eraser, Simon, cxi)lorer, 141. 
 
 Fredericton, caj)ital of New Brunswick, 
 1.55, 156, 280; other mention of, 224, 
 256, 27(i. 
 
 French and British in America, 37, 39, 40, 
 42, 43, 45, 47, 50, 90 ; rival claims of, .50, 
 
 52, 53, .5(i, 06, (i7 ; colonies compared, 
 ^ 46, 56. ^ 
 
 Fiench-Caniulians during military period, 
 91, 92; under king's proclamation, 96- 
 99; under (Quebec Act, 120, 128; exclu- 
 sion of, from otfice, 96-98, 146, 147, 215; 
 
 ^ in first assembly, (old) Caiuula, 2(il. 
 
 French laws, agitation res))ecting, 9(i, 99, 
 117, 119, 120; restored, KMi; language. 
 Use of, in jiiirliament, 143, 254, 2.55, 261, 
 269; revolution, 143-145. 
 
 Fiontenat-, 40-42, 45-51; Fort, 40-43, 59, 
 123; taken l)y Bradstreet, 80. (See 
 Atu,7^7c;l.) 
 
 Fuca, Juan de, 9, 301. 
 
 Fur trade during French regime, 8, 12, 17. 
 21-23, 32, 37, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 52, 
 
 53, 57, 6(t, 61, 62 ; of Hudson's Bay Com- 
 luny and Nor'- Westers, 97, 118, 136, 143, 
 146, 2:50 237, 299-3(15. 
 
 (iALissoNNiERK, govemor of New France, 
 65-67. 
 
 CJalt, Alexander T., 181, 278, 3(36, 309 
 (nott), 3;{(i. 
 
 Cialt, John, 171. 
 
 Garry, Fort, 2.3(i, 299, 317-321, 
 
 George, Fort, see Xiafjara Fnuitier. 
 
 George IIL and the American revolution. 
 107. 
 
 George, Lake, battle of, 72, 73. 
 
 Ghent, peace of, 178. 
 
 Giffurd, Seigneur of Beauport, 35. 
 
 Gilbert, Sir H., 8. 
 
 Gosford, Lord, 2(K), 216, 237, 245, 253, 254. 
 
 Gourlay, Robert, 196. 
 
 Governniciit, system of, during French 
 re^gime, 23, 32,33, 39, 40, 62; during 
 military i.crio<l, 9(i, 91 ; under the king's 
 proclamation, 94 99; under (Quebec Act, 
 99-101; under Constitutional .Act, 129, 
 130; colonial system of, to LiUO, 18.5- 
 
34G 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 W,i; system of, under British North 
 
 America Act, 824-327 ; responsible, see 
 
 Jieaponnibte Goveniincnt. 
 Governors, French, powers, etc., of, 23, 
 
 32; under British rule, 120, 129, 187; 
 
 recent, 333. 
 Grandfontaine in Acadia, 32, 44, 45. 
 Grand Pr(5, the affair of, G5. 
 Groseilliers, Canadian explorer, 39. 
 
 Habitants, the, 24, 30, 62 ; La Compagnie 
 des, 20. 
 
 Ilaldimand, Governor, 115, 118, 119, 123, 
 12.5. 
 
 Half-breed outbreak on Red River, 316- 
 321 ; in North-West, 338, 331). 
 
 Halifax foundtnl, 68; incorporates 1, 195; 
 arbitration, 330 ; other mention of, 102, 
 104, no, 123, 155, 157, 158, 183, 192, 104, 
 198, 220, 228, 257, 207, 270, 280-282, 3(K). 
 
 Hanna, James, visits Pacific coast of Brit- 
 ish Columbia, 138. 
 
 Harvey, Sir John, 170, 225, 248, 255, 250, 
 273. 
 
 Head, Sir Edmund, j,'Overnor, 291, 292. 
 
 Head, Sir Francis Bond, 220, 221, 241, 245. 
 
 Hearne, Samuel, Hudson's Bay Company 
 explorer, 140. 
 
 " Highland clearances," 131-133, 231. 
 
 Hincks, Sir Francis, 253, 259, 205, 281, 289. 
 
 Hochelaga, 0, 7. 
 
 Howe, .Joseph, prosecuted for libel, 198; 
 attacks; council of Nova Scotia, 229, 230; 
 and Sir Colin Campbell, 258; member 
 of council, 258-200; struggle with Lord 
 Falkland, 272, 273; and railways, 280, 
 281; in the Uniacke ministry, 284-280; 
 other mention of, 227, 228, 298, 300; 
 opposes confe<leration, 313; enters Do- 
 minion ministry, 329 ; lieutenant-gover- 
 nor of Nova Scotia, 329. 
 
 Hudson Bay, early knowl«lge of, 18, 39; 
 French and British rivalry on, 39, 45, 
 50, 51 ; given up by the French, 50. 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company, formed, 39; early 
 posts, 50; French rivalry, .50, 51, 1.30; 
 contest with Nor' -Westers, 130, 140, 231- 
 233; and Nor'-Westers unite, 232, 233; 
 in North-West, 13(), 140, 235, 299; in 
 British Columbia, 234, 270, 301-304; 
 (tlaims of, purchased by Canaila, 315. 
 
 Hundred Assotnates, 21, 23-32. 
 
 Hunters' l<Klges, 243. 
 
 Huron-Iro(iu<)is, 9; tribal divisions, 10, 
 11. 
 
 Huron Mission, 18, 25-27. 
 
 Hurons, 11, 27, 44. 
 
 Lmmioration during French regime, 23, 
 30, 35, 44 ; Halifax, 68 ; U. E. Loyalists, 
 121-128; (1791-1812), 131-135; (1815- 
 18!,<)\ 178-182; (mO-1850), 271, 272; to 
 British Columbia, 302, 303, 323 (note), 
 3;«) ; to Manitoba and North-West Terri- 
 tories, 231, 23>. 2.35, .KM), .322, 3.37. 
 
 Imperial conces ions, 274, 277. (See He- 
 upoimible (iovfrninent.) 
 
 Indian tribes of Canada, 9-14; lands, poli- 
 cv as to, 95; treatment of, by French 
 a'nfl British, 92, 95. 
 
 Industrial i)rogress. general references to, 
 under French regime, 20, .39, 00-02, 77, 
 78; in l^uebec, 97-99; in Lower Canaxla, 
 140, 182185 ; in Upper Canada, 152, 1.53, 
 182-185; in Nova Scotia, 104, 105, 158, 
 182-185, 220, 282-284 ; in Prince Edward 
 Island, lo.'y, 157, 182-185, 252, 297; in 
 New Brunswick, 1.56, 182-185, 223, 282- 
 284 ; in Canada (old), 202, 277, 278, 282- 
 284; in the Dominion, 332, 335, 330; in 
 Manitoba, 335; in Britisli Columbia, 
 339; in North-West Territories, 337. 
 ^Sec Agriculture, Canals, Fisheries, Fur 
 irade, Ijumber, Manufactures, Mining, 
 Railwayx, SIdp-buildinff, Trade.) 
 
 Intendant, i)owers, etc., of, 32, 33, 03, 75. 
 
 Irish inunigration, 135, 180-182, 231, 272. 
 
 Iroquois, 10; wai-s, 18, 20, 20-28, 29, 34, 
 35, 42-44, 40, 47, 49, 51 ; acknowledged 
 British subjects, 50; during American 
 revolution, 115; settle in Canada, 127. 
 
 Jesuits in Canada, 23, 24, 28, 29, 49; mis- 
 sions, 24-27, 37, 40, 60, 68 ; estates, 121, 
 144, 334. 
 
 Johnson, Sir William, 65, 70, 73, 74, 82, 
 95, 115. 
 
 Joliet, Canadian explorer, 38. 
 
 Joly, Sir Henri, de Lotbini^re, 334. 
 
 Jonquifere, de, governor of New France, 
 04, 05, 68, 09. 
 
 Juan de Fuca, 9, 301. 
 
 Judges, see Administration of Justice; 
 in parliament, 148, 152, 218, 230. 
 
 Justice, see Administration of Justice. 
 
 Kknnebec River, 46, 47, 110. 
 
 Kent, Duke of, 105, 157, 158, 305. 
 
 King Philip's war, 46. 
 
 Kingston, U. E. settlement at, 125; first 
 
 capital of (old) Canada, 259. (See Fron- 
 
 tenac, Fort.) 
 Kirke captures Quebec, 21. 
 
 La Barrb, governor of New Frai.ce, 42. 
 
 Lachine, 41 ; massacre of, 44. 
 
 Lafontaine, Sir L. H., 261; first Lafon- 
 taine-Baldwin ministry, 204, 205, 207; 
 second Lafontaine-Baldwin ministry, 
 274, 287, 289. 
 
 Land policy, early, 146, 147, 152, 193, 199. 
 
 Langevin, Sir H. L., 309 (note). 
 
 Lansdowne, Lord, 3.33. 
 
 La Salle, 38, 41, 42. 
 
 La Tour, 30, 31. 
 
 Laurier, Hon. Wilfrid, 3.33, 334. 
 
 Laval, Bishop, 28, 29, 34, 40, 41. 
 
 Laval University, 29. 34, 121. 
 
 Le Moyne Brothere, 51, 59. 
 
 Lestarbot, Ki. 
 
 Letellier de St. Just, 334. 
 
 licvis. Fort, taken by Amherst, 89; Che- 
 valier de, 75, 77, 88, 89. 
 
 Lisgar, Lor<l| governor, .329, .331, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 347 
 
 Local iini>roveiucnt8, 194, (See Municipal 
 institutions.) 
 
 Lonio, Mairiuis of, 333. 
 
 Loudon, Earl of, 76, 78. 
 
 Louiit and Matthews executed, 245. 
 
 Louisbourjffounded,r)7;firHtHicj,'-eof,()3,(i4- 
 socoiifl siege of, 78, 71) ; deiuolisherl, 104. 
 
 Uuise, Her Royal Highness Princess, 333. 
 
 Louisiana, 52, 59; ceded to Spain, 94; 
 purchased by United States, 142. 
 
 Lower Caiu-wla a separate province, 129- 
 parliament of, 129, 130; first parliament,' 
 143 ; assembly of, 143 (see Responsible 
 government); legislative council of, 129. 
 143, 149, 208, 209, 212, 213, 215, 237; 
 executive council of, 143, 146; (1791. 
 ISlfi), 143-149; (ISl^-m?), 207-216; out- 
 breaks in, 238-240, 243; united with Up- 
 per Can.-ula, 252-255. 
 
 Lumber industry, 39, (52, 105, 146, 15(i. 
 158, 182, 183, 223, 226, 27(i, 283, 297, 334 
 339. (>iecShip-buildin{f.) 
 
 Limdy's Lane, 176, 177. 
 
 MAcnoNALP, Hon. John Sanofield, 291, 
 293 (note), 328. 
 
 .Macdonald, Sir John A., defends Von 
 Schultz, 244; first election, 269; joins 
 Draper ministry, 272 ; and Liberal-Con- 
 servative allia»K!e of 18r>/t, 289 ; premier, 
 291 (note); "double shuffle," 292, 293; 
 coalition ministry, 307 ; first prime min- 
 ister of Canada, 314; Treatv of Wash- 
 ington, 330; resigns, 331, 332; again 
 returns to i)ower, 332 ; death of, 340. 
 
 Macdonell, Bishop, 132, 191. 
 
 -Macdougall, Hon. William, 300, 307. 309 
 (note), 314-318. 
 
 Mackenzie, Hon. Alexander, 329, 332, 333. 
 
 Mackenzie, Sir Alexander, explorer, 141. 
 
 Mac^kenzie, W. L., printing office raided, 
 198, 199; in Upper Canada assembly, 
 217-222 ; expelled from, 218, 219 ; rebel- 
 lion in Uiiper Canada, 241, 242, 244; 
 returns to Canada, 288 ; member of as- 
 sembly, 288. 
 
 MacNab, Sir A. N., 241, 242, 260, 261; 
 MiicNab-Morin ministrv, 289-291. 
 
 Maisonneuve, governor of Montreal, 26. 
 
 Malicites, 11 (note), 32. 
 
 Manitoba, early knowledge of, 60. (See 
 lied River Settlement.) 
 
 Manitoba, Province of, formed, 320, 321 ; 
 suhse(iuent history, 322, 331, 335 ; poiMila- 
 tion of, 322 (note) ; school question, 335. 
 
 Manufactures, under French rt^gime, 39, 
 60-62; in 1769, 98, 99; in Nova Sciotia, 
 early, 104, 105; in Cape Breton, early, 
 124 ; in (old) Canada, 182. (See Indus, 
 trial Progress, Lumber, Ship-lmildina.) 
 
 Marciuette, Father, roaches the Missis- 
 sippi, 38. 
 
 Marriage laws, early, 153, 154, 202. 
 
 Matthews, Cajjlainj 200, 217, 222, 245. 
 
 M<noe, Hon. T. D., 307, 30i)(note), 329. 
 
 Miares, Captain, visits I'aciHc coast of 
 British Columbia, 138, 139. 
 
 Metcalfe, Sir Charles T., governor, 265. 
 266-270. ' • 
 
 Mezy, dc, governor of New France, 33. 
 Miamis, 1 1 (note), 42, 43, 67. 
 Michigan, Lake, early knowledge of, 25, 
 
 37. n . f 
 
 Michillimackinac, 37, 43, 47, 52, 82; trans- 
 ferred to the British, 92 ; captured by 
 the Indians, 93 ; during American revo- 
 lution, 115; taken by the British, 162, 
 163. ' 
 
 Micmacs, 11 (note), 53, 68, 79. 
 
 Military roads, 34; openefl by Simcoe, 
 151 ; settlements, 36, 125, 179, 222, 232; 
 rule, iierifHJ of, 90-93. 
 
 Militia Bill, 270. 
 
 Minas, Hasin of, 44, 57. .58, 65, 68. 
 
 Mining in British Columbia, 303, 304, 339. 
 
 Mirami(>bi fire, 223. 
 
 Mississij.})!, discovery of the, 38; valley. 
 
 38, 41, 5<i,. 59, 60, 67. 
 
 Mohawks, 10, 25, 35, 65, 73. (See Iro. 
 quois.) 
 
 Monck, Lord, governor, 310, 335. 
 
 .Monckton, 71, 72, 79, 84, 85. 
 
 Mongoloid Indians, 12, 138. 
 
 Monopoly, Lrade, 20, 26, 60, 61 ; land, in 
 Pri ice Edward Island, 105, 156, 250, 251, 
 297-299 ; Hudson's Bay Company's, see 
 Hudson's Bay Company; land, Van- 
 couver Island, 302. 
 
 Montagnais, 11 (note), 14. 
 
 Montcalm, 75-78, 80-87. 
 
 Montgomery, General, invades Canada, 
 109; takes St. John, 110; killed before 
 (Quebec, 111. 
 
 Montgomer\ 's, the affair at, 241, 242. 
 
 Montreal founfied, 25; harassed by I'-o- 
 quois, 27, 28; capitulation at, fM); at- 
 tacked by Allan, 109; o(!cupied by Con- 
 gress troops, 110,112, 113; fur trade of, 
 146; Incorporated, 195; capital of (olfl) 
 Canada, 261 ; the British North America 
 League of, 277 ; riots at, 287, 288. 
 
 Monts, de, 15. 
 
 Moraviantown, battle of, 169. 
 
 .Morin, Hon. A. N.. 260, 265 ; Hincks-Morin 
 ministry, 289; MacNab-Morin ministry. 
 289-291. 
 
 Morrison, Colonel, victory at Chrj'sler's 
 Farm, 174. 
 
 Mowat, Sir Oliver, 307. 
 Municipal institutions, 62, 63, 101, 194 
 195, 333, 334; (old) Cana<ia, 2(il ; in 
 Maritime Provinces, 284-286; in British 
 Columbia, early, 322, 339; in Manitoba, 
 335; in North-VV'est Territories, 337. 
 Murray, governor, 85, 88-90, 94-97. 
 
 Napolrox, 1.58, 159, 175, 178. 
 National I'olicy, see Tariffs. 
 Navigjition, see Ship-lmilding and Ca- 
 
 nals; laws, British, 97, 106, 107, 275. 
 
 27(i. 
 Necessity, Fort, 69, 70. 
 Neilson, John, 208, 210, 212, 214, 253, '260, 
 
 261. 
 
348 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Nelson, Dr. Wolfied, 238, 239, 243, 246, 
 
 288. 
 Neutrals, the (Iiuliaiis), 11. 
 New Hninswick, early Freiiili sctllenieuls 
 ill, 32; early British settlers in, 1(13; 
 Loyalist settlers in, 124. IM ; further 
 imniife-'ration, 182, 272; Province of, 
 formed, IM, 1.%; first assembly of, 1.%; 
 {178S-lfiU\ 1.54-156 ; ( lSir,.lS.i7), 222-22.5 ; 
 (18S/-1W*), 2.55-2.'J7; (ISU-IS/tS). 273, 
 274; (181,8 -ISo/t), 286, 287; and Confed- 
 eration, 307, 311, 313; Maine boundary, 
 156, 223, 224, 256. 264. 
 
 New Caleflonia, see British Columbia. 
 
 New En;;iland, French raids on, 47, bO, 53. 
 (See Acaditi and Nova Scotia.) 
 
 NewfoutKllaiid, 8, ,56, .57, 91, 94, KK), 161, 
 256, 301), 311 ; Hanks of. 3, 7. 
 
 New France, 5, 7, 8; under C.-hamplam, 
 14-22; luider IlundrofI Associates, 23- 
 32; Roval Province, 29, 32-9(t. 
 
 Newspapers. 97, 147, 153, 252, 253, 268, 
 300; editors prosecuted, 148, 197, 198, 
 211 213 218 228. 
 
 New York State," 35, 37, 45, 47, 49, .51, .53, 
 58, 65, tMJ; northern, French and Eng- 
 lish (claims to, 42, 43, 56. 
 
 Niagara, t'ort, 58, 59, 70, 74-76, 81 ; cap- 
 tured by the British, 82 ; frontier, early 
 settlement of, 125, 126; during war of 
 181:2, 164-167, 170, 171, 176, 177; during 
 rebellion of 18:i?, 242, 243; during Fe- 
 nian raids, 312, 313; during American 
 revolution, 115; Newark, first capital 
 of Upper Canada, 149; burned by Gen- 
 eral McClure, 171. 
 
 Nichfdson, Francis, 54. 55, .58. 
 
 Noblesse, Canadian, see Seigneurs. 
 
 Nootka, 137-140. 
 
 Northmen, the, 1. 
 
 North-West, earlv exploration in, 60, 136, 
 140-143 ; (181..'-i835), 230-237 ; {]8.i.'>-18i!7), 
 299-301. (See Bed River Settlement and 
 Hudson's Ban Conijiani/.) 
 
 North-West passage, 137. 
 
 North-West Territories, 321, 322, 336-339; 
 Half-breed outbreak in, 3:^8, 339. 
 
 Nor'-Westei-s. the, 136, 137, 140, 141-143, 
 231-233; and Hudson's Bay Company 
 ui'ite, 232, 233. 
 
 Nova Scotia, early British settlers in, 68, 
 102; V. K. Loyalists in, 123, 124; Scotcn 
 settlers in, 1.32; first i)arliament of, 102, 
 103; and the American revolution, 115, 
 116: {178.^-181.2), 1.57. 1.58; {18 If- 1837), 
 225-230 ; (LS:i7-18/,l), 2.57-2.59 ; (m l-1S/,7), 
 2Wi, 267, 272, 273; (18/,S.1.SH/,, 284-286; 
 and confefleration, 307, 311, 313, 329. 
 
 Ofku'IALS, earlv, under British rule, 9tj, 
 117, 147-149, 152, 188, 193, 194, 203, 204; 
 "temuu of office" despatch, 248. (See 
 Rcspoimble Government.) 
 Ohio Valley, 41, 67, 69-71, 80-82, 92-94, 117. 
 Oneidas, 10, 20. (See J'ro'iuois.) 
 Onondagas, 10, 49. (See Jronuois.) 
 Ontario, Lake, early knowledge of, 20, 25, 
 
 38; rival posts on, 58, 59; warfare on, 
 between French and British, 75, 76, 80, 
 82; during war of 1812, 169-172, 176; 
 proxince of, see rpjwr Canada. 
 
 (►regon Treaty, 270. 
 
 Oswego founded, 59; cai)tured by Mont- 
 calm, 7t); during American re\olution, 
 115, 125; captured by Yeo, 176. 
 
 Ottawa, capital of (old) Canada, 292; of 
 Dominion, 314 ; colonial conference at, 
 341. 
 
 Ottawa River, early knowledge of, 12, 18. 
 
 Paciffc Coast, earlv voyages to, 8, 137- 
 142; fur tnule of, 141, 142, 234; rival 
 claims on, 141, 142, 233, 234. (See Van- 
 couver Island and British Columbia.) 
 
 Papine.au (senior), 148, 209; Louis Joseph, 
 208-215 ; in Ijower Canada assemblv. 208- 
 216; and rebellion of 18.17, 238. 239, 244; 
 returns to Cana<la, 288; D. B., 269. 
 
 Paris, Treaty of, 90, 94. 
 
 Parliainent of Great Britain, 185, 186; 
 of Nova Saotia, first, 102; of New 
 Brunswick, first, 155 ; of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, first, 105 ; of Lower Canada, 
 129, 130 ; first, 143, 144 ; of UpperCanada, 
 129, 130 ; first, 149, 150 ; of Canada (old), 
 254 ; first, 2.59-262 ; of British Columbia, 
 323 ; first, 303 ; of Manitoba, 321 ; of 
 North-West Territories, 337 ; of Do- 
 minion, 326, 327 ; first, 328, 329 ; of 
 provinces, 327 ; colonial parliaments 
 (eaily) 189-192. (See Assembly and 
 Council.) 
 
 Party government. 2.59, 26,3, 273. 
 
 Phijis, Sir William, cajitures Port Royal, 
 48; attacks t,>uehec, 48, 49. 
 
 Pitt, William (Lord Chath.am), 78, 131; 
 the Younger, 129. 
 
 Plains of Abrai.' .n, battle of, 86, 87. 
 
 Pl.attsburg, 167, 173; British repulse at, 
 17.5, 176. 
 
 Polo, Marco, 1. 
 
 Pontiac war, 92-94. 
 
 Pojjulation, see J m migration. 
 
 Port Royal founded, 15, 16 ; destroyed by 
 Argall, 17; re-established, 30, 44; cap- 
 tured by Phips, 48; captured by tlie 
 British, 54, 55. (See Annapolis.) 
 
 Postal ser\ice, 217, 276, 296, 325. 
 
 Poutrincourt in Acadia, 15, 17. 
 
 Prescott, governor, 146, 147. 
 
 Prevost, Sir George, governor, 149, l.i 
 <luring war of 18 1.2, 160, 164, 171, 17.i, 
 17(!. 
 
 T*rimo<i-cnit\ire, law of, abolished in (oM 
 C.anad.a, 288. 
 
 Prince I'Mwanl Island in early times, 'I'i 
 79 ; ceded to (4reat Britain, 94 ; sei)arat( 
 l>rovince, 105 ; assembly of, 105, I;''*'! 
 2.50, 251, 294-296; TiOyalist settlers in] 
 124 ; Scotch settlers in, 132, 133; furtliof 
 immigration to, 182, 251 , 272 ; lan<l nio 
 nopoly in, 105, 15(5, 2.50. 251, 297-'.!ii;| 
 324; religious liberty in, 204; (/?W| 
 177/,), 105, 106; (1786-1812), 156, 157| 
 
INDEX. 
 
 349 
 
 (1815.181,0), 219-262; (lS!,n.m7), 294- 
 29<»; joins confederation, 328, ;i24. 
 
 Provencher, first bishop of iMaiiitoba, 235. 
 
 Provincial pro;,a'eiss since Confederation, 
 333-335, 339 ; rij;hts, 334, 335. 
 
 QtEBEC founded, 17 ; first colonv, 20 ; cajv 
 tured by Kirke, 21 ; attacked' by Phips, 
 48 ; threatened by Walker and Hill ex- 
 pedition, .55; siege of, bv Wolfe, 83-88; 
 capitulates, 88; besiejred by de Lt^vis, 
 89; besief,'ed by Muntyoinerv and Ar- 
 nold, 11(1-112 ; province of, formed, 94 ; 
 boundaries, 94, 95, 100. 117; divided 
 into Upper and Lower Canada, 129; 
 8hip-buildin«-, 183; incorporated, 195; 
 fires, 270, 271 ; capital of (old) Cana<ia, 
 292 ; conference at, 309, 310; Act, 99-101. 
 
 Queen Anne'.s war, 52-56. 
 
 Queenston Heights, battle of, 164-167. 
 
 Quit-rents, Prince Edward Island, 10(5, 
 249, 250, 252, 295; New Brunswick, 
 224; Nova Scotia, 227. 
 
 Radisson, Canadian explorer, 39. 
 
 Railways, 183, 184, 262, 277, 281, 282 ; In- 
 tercolonial, 279-281; Canadian Pacific, 
 137, 323, 331, 332, 3.35, 33fi. 
 
 llaiuezay, de, governor of Montreal, 54, 
 65, 83, 88. 
 
 Razilly, Isaac de, in Acadia, 30. 
 
 Rebellion of 1837, 237-244; Losses Bill, 
 287, 288; amnesty, 288; Riel, first, 316- 
 321 ; second, 338, 339. 
 
 Reciprocity treaty, 282-284, 297, 311. 
 
 H^collets, the, in Canada, 18, 20, 46. 
 
 Re<l River settlement, earlv historv of, 
 133, 230-232, 234-237, 299-.3'oi ; Canadian 
 immigration to, 300; transferred to Ca- 
 nada, 315; first Riel rebellion in, 316- 
 321 ; expedition to, ;i21. (See Manitoba.) 
 
 Religious liberty, terms of Treaty of Paris, 
 94 ; of Quebec Act, 101 ; struggle for, 
 200-207. 
 
 "Representation by population," agita- 
 tion for, 292, 293! 
 
 Responsible govermnent demanded in 
 Lower Canada, 148; struggles for, in 
 Lower Canada, 207-216 ; struggles for, in 
 Upper Canada, 216-222; struggles for, 
 in New Brunswick, 224, 225, 256, 257; 
 struggles for, in Nova Scotia, 228-230, 
 257-259; struggles for, in Prince Edward 
 Island, 294-296; conceded, 244-249, 29() 
 (see Appoint menu to Olficc); attitude 
 of imperial authorities towairl, 186. 187, 
 213-216, 220, 225, 229, 230, 237, 244, 245, 
 247-249, 257-2.59; under British North 
 America Act, 326; in British Columbia, 
 322, 323 ; in North-West Territories, 337. 
 
 Rtn-eiuie u'lder French regime, 61 ; under 
 <k>uebeo Act, 101 ; under Union Act, 254; 
 colonial, 189, 190, 214; Lower Camwia, 
 209, 210, 213, 214; (Tpper Canada, 216, 
 220; colonial, question of control of, 
 189, 190, 222, 224, 225, 295; in Lower 
 Canada, 209-216; in Upper Canada, 217, 
 
 218, 220; in Nova Scotia, 228, 229; in 
 New Brunswick, 222-225 ; in i'rince Ed- 
 ward Island, 295; taxation, (luestion of, 
 107. 
 
 Richmond, Duke of, governor, 197, 209, 
 210. 
 
 Ridge way. affair at. 312, 313. 
 
 Riel, Louis, 317-321, 331, ;W8, 229. 
 
 Roads, see Mllitari/ Jioads, Municipal 
 Inistititti<)n,s. 
 
 Roberval, viceroy of New France, 7. 
 
 Robinson. Sir.I.'B.. 197, 241, 3(J5. 
 
 Rolph, Dr. John. 217, 221, 241. 
 
 Russell. Lord. 207, 237 ; responsible gov- 
 ernment despatches, 247-24it, 258. 
 
 Ryorson, Rev. Dr., 205, 262, 268, 271. 
 
 Salahkrrv, Coloxkl he, 101 ; at Chateau- 
 
 guay, 173. 174. 
 Saratoga raided, 65 ; Burgoyne surren- 
 ders at, 114. 
 Schuitz, Sir John, 300. 318, 319. 
 Scotch settlers in Nova Scotia, 102, 132, 
 
 182; in Cape Breton, 132; in I'rince 
 
 Edward Island, 133; in New Brunswick, 
 
 182; in Upper Canada, 132, 133, 179, 
 
 181 ; on Red River, 231, 232. 
 Sectarian schools, 202, 203, 291, 292, 335; 
 
 college question in Nova Scotia, 266, 
 
 267, 286. 
 Seigneurial system, 23, 33, 36, 37, 44, 120, 
 
 211, 212; abolished. 290, 291. 
 Seigneurs, 33, 36. 47, 63, 101; during 
 
 American revolution. 108, 112. 
 Selkirk, Lord, 132; Prince Edward Island 
 
 settlement, 133; in Ui>per Canada, 133; 
 
 on Red River, 232, 234. 
 Senate, Canadian. 326. 
 Senecas, 10, 43, 9.3. (See I-oquoig.) 
 Seven Oaks, affair at, 232. 
 Sherbrooke, Sir J. C, governor, 157, 178, 
 
 208, 209, 225, 232. 
 Ship-building, 41, 62, 104, 139, 146, 183, 
 
 252, 281, 297, 300. 
 
 Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, 63-65, 
 68, 70, 71, 74-76. 
 
 Simcoe, lieutenant-governor of Upper Ca- 
 nada, 134, 135, 143, 150^ j^i^ 153^ j^r,^ 
 
 Sin-.jison, Sir George. 235. 
 
 Slavery in Canada, 144. 
 
 Smith, Sir Donald A., 319, 320, 336. 
 
 Spanish succession, war of the, 52-56. 
 
 Stadacona, 6. 
 
 Stanley, Lord, of Preston, .333. 
 
 Stjite endowmcMit of rectories in Upper 
 
 Canada, 2(i<i, 207. (See Clei-ffy Reserves 
 
 and Sectarian Schools.) 
 Steamboats, see Ship-builiUng, 
 Stoney Creek, battle of, 170. 
 Strachan, Bishop, 153, 191. 203, 205, 206. 
 Sulpicians, the, in Can.ada. 25, ,35. 
 Stiperior, Lake, early knowledge of, 25, 
 
 ;<7, 6f). 
 Sydenham, Lord, governor, 207, 248, 252, 
 
 253, 259, 260. 262, 276. 
 St. Castin, Baron de, 45-47. 
 
 St. Charles, rebels defeated at, 239. 
 
S50 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 St,. Denis, rebel victory at, 230, 
 
 St. Kiistache, rebels defeated at, 239, 240. 
 
 Stu. Koye, l)attle of, 88, 8!». 
 
 St. (Jenuaiiie-eri-lia.ve, peace of, 22. 
 
 St. .John, New Bruiiswiek, 124; incorpor- 
 ated, irj5 ; mentioned, 182, 194, 195, 276, 
 280, 282, 309. 
 
 St. John's, siege of, by Montgomery, lOJ), 
 110. 
 
 St. Lawrence River, early knowledge of, 
 4-6. 
 
 St. Pierre and Miquelon, C4, 97. 
 
 TACirE, Bishop, 320; Sir E. P., 281, 291 
 (note), 294 (note), 3(l7. 
 
 Tadousaac. 14, 17 ; naval battle off, 21. 
 
 Talbot settlements, 133, 134. 
 
 Talon, the intendant, 32-39. 
 
 Tariffs, colonial, 27.'>, 276, 278; the Na- 
 tional Policy, 278, 332, 333. 
 
 Tecumseh with Brock at Detroit, 164 ; 
 killed at Moraviantown, 169. 
 
 Thompson, David, explorer, 141. 
 
 Thompson, Hon. C. Poulett, sec Syden- 
 ham, Lord.) 
 
 Thompson, Sir John, 333, 340. 
 
 Thorpe, Judge, 152. 
 
 Three Rivers, 22, 25, 29, 90, 110, 113, 121. 
 
 Ticonderoga, Fort, 74, 75 ; British rei>ulse 
 at, 80; abandoned by the French, 82, 
 83 ; seized by Ethan Allan, 108. 
 
 Tilley, Hon. S. L., 287, 311; also in group, 
 Fathers of Confederation, facing 309. 
 
 Tithes, 62, 101, 130. 
 
 To<ld, Alpheus, 341. 
 
 Tonty, La Salle's lieutenant, 41, 42. 
 
 Toronto, French post at, 59, 67, 82 (se. 
 York); incorporated, 195; attacked by 
 rebels, 240-242 ; capital of (old) Canada, 
 292; other mention of, 253, 271, 280, 
 282, 288, 341. 
 
 Trarey, Marquis de, viceroy of New 
 France, 34; destroys Mohawk villages, 
 35. 
 
 Trade, see Industrial Progress ; between 
 Acadie and New England, 45, 54; be- 
 twe* Canada and United States, see 
 United States. 
 
 Tupper, Sir Charles, 286, 309 (facing), 328, 
 329, 333, 334 (facing). 
 
 U. E. Loyalists, 121-128; in Maritime 
 Provinces, 123-125; in Canada, 125-128, 
 135. 
 
 Uniacke, Hon. J. B., 258, 266, 272, 274, 
 284. 
 
 Union project of 1833, 210; Act of, 18U0, 
 253-255. 
 
 United States, friction concerning frontier 
 posts, 145; war of IHl'i, 168-178; Aah- 
 biu'ton treaty, 263, 264 ; Oregon treaty, 
 270; San Juan difficulty, 304, 305; fric- 
 tion with, during United States civil 
 
 war, 284, 3(t<i; Treaty of Washington, 
 305, ;i.'?0, 331; Fenian raids from, 311- 
 313, 329, 331; tnide with, 153, 277, 278, 
 282-284, 311 ; Bebring Sea question, 233, 
 234, 339, 340. (See American Revolu- 
 tion and Jionndaries.) 
 
 Upper Canada, pioneers of, 125-128, 135, 
 150; before 17V1, 127, 128; a separate 
 province, 129; {17y'Ji-18I:2), 149-1.54; 
 il815-18:i7), 216-222 ; outbreaks in, 240- 
 244; united with Lower Canada, 252- 
 255; parliament of, 129, 130; first par 
 liamont of, 149, 150; assembly of, i;iO, 
 151, 152, 216-222; early education in, 
 127, 128; Scotch settlers in, i;{2, 133, 
 179, 181; other earlv settlers in, 134, 
 i;}5, 178-181. 
 
 Utrecht, peace of, 55-58. 
 
 Vancouvkr, Captain Gkorok, 139. 140; 
 Fort, 234; Island, early knowledge of, 
 137-140, 234; made a colony, 301, 302; 
 first assembly of, 303; end of Hudson's 
 Bay Company's rule in, 304; united 
 with British Columbia, 322. 
 
 Vaudreuil, de, governor of New France, 
 53, 56, 73; Cavagnal, the last French 
 governor, 72, 74, 75, 87, 88, 90. 
 
 Verchferes, the heroine of, 49. 
 
 Vdrendrye, de la, father and sons, explor- 
 ers, 60, 136. 
 
 Versailles, 'treaty of, 116, 117, 122, 145. 
 Vetch, Sanniel, first governor of Nova 
 
 Scotia, 54, 55. 
 Victoria, Fort, 234, 302, 303. 
 Viger, Hon. D. B., 260, 269. 
 Villebon, 50, 53. 
 Von Schultz, 243, 244. 
 
 WAMPITM BKLT8, 13, 14. 
 
 Washington, city of, capt urcd by the Brit- 
 ish, 178 ; treaty of, 305, 330, 331 ; George, 
 69, 70, 112. 
 
 Wentworth, Sir John, .57. 
 
 Willes, Judge, 200. 
 
 William Henry, Fort, taken by Montcalm, 
 77 ; Fort, Nor' -Wester post on Lake Su- 
 perior, 142, 143, 232, 235. 
 
 Wilmot, Hon. L. A., 224, 256. 257, 273, 
 274, 286. 
 
 Wilson, Sir Daniel, 341. 
 
 Windsor, Upper Canada. raide«1, 244. 
 
 Wolfe, General James, at Louisbourg, 79; 
 at Gasp6, 79 ; at siege of Quebec, 83-87. 
 
 Wolseley, Lord, 321, 
 
 Wyoming, affair of, 115. 
 
 Yeo, Sir James, 171, 172, 176. 
 
 York (Toronto), capital of Upper Canada, 
 151 ; other mention of, 135, 152, 153, 
 197-199 ; captured (1813), 169, 170. (See 
 Toronto.)