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Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre fllmAs A des tsux de rAductlon diff Arents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul clichA, 11 est filmA A partir de I'angle supArieur gauche, de gauche A drolte, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images nAcessaire. Les diagrammes sulvants lilustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ! REPORT (»N JIIK FORESTS OF CANADA, I.N wnirii tH HiiBWN THE PHKSSING NECESSITY WHICH MXISTS FOR TllKIR MORE CARE- FUL PRESERVATION AND EXTENSION BY PLANTING, AS A SURE AND VALUABLE SOURCE OF NATIONAL WEALTH. WITH AN APPENDIX. ■ «r J. H. /VIORGAN, FORESTRY COMMISSIONER. / t OTTAWA J PRINTED BY MACLEAN, ROGER & CO., WELLINGTON STREET. 1H8C. Wr" rinr »!>■; ■ r--r.>^« j-y-^-srw ^r-^-tp ':(>!■■ ,''jj*. v"'- ii^^^'M . V' ■"»iii«P.ui.V " "''•'IP»''^i5!ip'ffllf5'WP^lWWP' \ ^- % ON THB FORESTS OF CANADA, IN WmOH U SHIWN \ THB;PBESSING necessity which exists for THBIB MOBB OA.BB- PUL preservation and extension by planting, AS A SURE AND V/LUABLB SOURCE OP NATIONAL WEALTH. WITH ^N i^PPEISTDIlS. BT J. H. yVLORGAN, FORESTRY COMMISSIONER. OTTAWA J PRINTED BY MACLEAN, ROGER & CO., WELLINGTON STBKBT. 1886. CONTENTS. Letter to Hon. Sir D. L. Maopherson, K.C.M.G. Preface. Paoi. .... ft .... 6 Introdnction ' Alarm caused by the rapid ezhaastion of pine and sprace in the United States.... 8 Probable duration of Canada's supply ^ Foreets an immenee source of wealth 10 Preventive enactments 10 The loss sustained through neglect 10 Climatic influence of forests H Enquiry as to how forests act as fertilizers li* Gtereral view of the interest now manifested in the protection of foiost?* 13 Destruction caused by forest fires 1^ How torest fires are dealt with in France i^ How forest fires are started 1*^ Summary of the causes of forest fires European systems ol forestry Forestry in India and Australia Proper extent of forests Necessity for tree-planting on our prairies and plains Necessity for immediate action 40 Conculsion 41 Appendix 4» 19 20 2b 26 HO ^; €h)Ri>OR P.O., Bmiz Ck>., Ontabio, 6th Maroh, 1884. Sib,— In oomplianoe with the oommanioation from your Department, bearing date the 2'7th February, 18H3, instraoting me to prepare a preliminary report for the information of His Ezoellenoy the Governor General in Oounoil, upon the snbjeot of the protection of the present forests of the Dominion, and also the planting of forest trees upon an extensive scale, I have the honor to submit the accompanying report. I would observe that this report being, in accordance with your express inatrno- tions, of a preliminary character only, I have been obliged to condense it as much as possible, and have thus omitted much interesting and important detailed inform* ation, some of it the result of my own personal observation and experience, and much that I had gathered from a careful research among the works of eminent writers on the subject in England, France, and the United States. As a result of my special inquiry into the matter, I am deeply convinced of the necessity for a more specific and general investigation into the question involved. The increasing and rocklens waste of our forests, brought about as much by the destructive carelessness of individuals as by accidental fires, has not received that attention from the Government of the Dominion and the Governments of the several Provinces which the future will show to have been necessary. The inevitable consequences of further nogleut will be, among others, climatic changes, droughts, varied by sudden and disastrous floods, and a great deterioration in the quality of the soil. I feel it my duty to press these facts upon your attention, and I most respectfully beg to suggest that a joint cammission should be appointed by the Governments of the Dominion and the several Provinces to deal with the whole question of the pre- servation of existing forests, and of the planting of forest trees on an extensive scale, with a view of systematizing some practical measures for the attainment of these most desirable objects. Appended to the report are copies of the statutes which have been enacted in certain of our Provinces, and also iu some of the States of the United States whoso condition is similar to our own as regards the need for protection of forests. Appended, also, will be found condensed accounts of the most disastrous forest '\ fires that devastated our country and the States immediately adjoining us. I have the honor to be, Sir, Tour most obedient servant, J. H. MOBGAN, Forestry OmmsMner, Hon. Sir D. L. Maophxbson, K.C.M.G., Minister of the Interior, Ottawa. m PREFACE. aiK (ilU As valuable aids to iniormation while engaged in preparing the following report, I beg gratefully to aoknowledge the receipt of books and papers from the Hon. H. G. J0I7, Qaebec; Mr. Stuart Thayne, Ottawa ; the Hon. G. B. Loring, United States Commissioner of Agriculture ; Professor Franklin B. Hough, Ph. D., of Lowell, New York ; Professor N. H. Bgleston, Chief of Forestry Department, Washington ; J. L. Bttdd, Professor of Botany, Iowa University ; V. M. Spalding, Professor of Botany, Michigan University ; Hon. B. G. Northrop, of Clinton, Con. ; Professor Adolphe Lene, Secretary Ohio Forestry Association ; P. P. Baker, Forestry Commis- sioner, Topeka, Kansas ; and the Hon. B. W. Furness, Governor of Nebraska. I also aoknowledge indebtedness to the works of Messrs. J. 0. Brown, A. Bryant, Humboldt, Hooper, Gray, Loudon, Mechan, Marsh, Michand, and to the very valuable reports of Dr. Selwyn and Dr. Bell, of the Dominion Geological Survey. li t of of ab no uU wi INTRODUCTION. lowing om the United [ioweil, ngton; ssor of ofeasor ommiB- wn, A. le very rey. The following poam appoaroi Ham) monthti ago in tho ^ew York Sun, Its words and itH HontimonU oeom ominoa^ly prophotic, and are most appropriate as an intro- duction to a report on a subj)ct of Huoh importanoe as the Pbotiotion or oub FoacsTS : — «A TaBBLBSS OOUNTaT. "/Aai a dreitm which wat not all a drtt til. " A K>°eat State w&a s denert, aud the land Lny bare and lifeless under sun and atom. Treeless and shelterless. Spring came and wenti And came, but brought no joy ; out, in its stuad, The deiolation of the ravening flood "! That leaped like wolres or wild cat. ^<)m the hills, And spread destruction over fruitful farms, Devoaring, as they went the works of man, And sweeping seaward Nature's kindly eoils. To choke the water-courses worse than waste. " The forest trees, that in the oldun time— The people's glory and the poet's pride - Tempered the air and guarded well ihe earth, And, under spreading Donghs, forages kept Oreat reservoirs to hold the snow l extent of our forest treasure seems to give us neither pleasure nor satisfaction, and it is only wheaits rapid destruction is becom- ing apparent that we wake up to what rau^t absolutely be the consequence of our carelessneas. Dr. James Brown, the eminent forester, speaking, some fourteen years ago, about our forests, said : — « Were those vast forests properly dealt with, they could not fail to be a great source of revenue to the country, and continue to yield annually, for an unlimited time, as much timber as they do now; but, unfortunately, we find indiscriminate felling going on everywhere, and in time this must lead to the exhaustion of the best timber, and render these yet valuable forests comparatively of little consequence." 11 I I The past cannot be recalled, bnt it is not yet too late to arrest the evil The opinions of men like Dr. Brown are well worth regardinp^, and we ehoald lose no time before steps are taken that would seoore our remaining woods from the oonsequenoe of carelessness and waste. We have eccn largo money appropriations wisely and liberally devoted to the encouragement of agriculture ana the propagation and protection of our fisheries ; and it is time that something were done for our foreBts. Hitherto, they have been* looked upon by the Government as a means of revenue, by the lumbermen as a soorce of wealth, and by the pioneer as a foe, and devoted to destruction. Our timber interests have been in the past, as they no doubt must be in the faturo, closely identified with those of the United States. I will adduce some further evidence in support of the estimate of the probable duration of the great lumber- producing States on our border, as the supply in those States will, of course, always exercise a marked infiuence on our lumber markets. The Hon. V. M. Spalding, Professor of Botany in the University of Michigan, who has given special attention to the subject, says that, " at the present rate of exhaustion, the supply in Michigan will give out in seven years." The Hon . Mark Daniel, who is a representative of the State of Minnesota, in a speech full of Btatistics, made recently by him in Congress, says that, " at the present rate of consumption, seven years will exhaust the supply in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan." These notes of warning, given to our nearest neighbors, should be taken to heart by us. With these competing markets removed, the price of lumber will be greatly enhanced, and the temptation to further denudation of our remaining forest lands greatly augmented. CLIMATIC INFLUENCE OP FOEESTS. Great as the loss of our timber supplies would be— much as we might deplore the reduction of revenue to our treasury — inconvenient and expensive as it would be to have to send abroad lor our timber for our home wants — there are other and more all-absorbing interests that should irapol us to protect and conserve our forests, such as climatic changes consequent thereon, our public health, our agricultural prosperity, our exposure to floods and torrents— in fact, our very existence as a grep* noople. History gives innumberablo instances in ancient, meditoval, and modern times, of the unfortunate results of the wholesale removal of entire forests without any steps being taken for their reproduction. The people know well enough that they wore indispensable to their welfare, from a commercial as well as an estbetical point of view, but they made no effort to pi-oserve or reproduce them ; neither the Greeks nor llomans, notwithstanding their great attainments, seemed to be aware of the final consequences of the destruction that would follow the removal of their noblo forests; and the student of history learns mth amazement that the rich and glorious groves that once crowned the hills and mountains of these clansic landn exist nc longer, and that the rugged Cxags and sterile plains which succeeded arc the heritage of wastefulness and improvidence. In Greece — beautiful Greece — the noble groves that threw shade over the rippiing streams exist no longer, neither do the streams which the grateful shade protected. One of the most renowned of the ancient patriarchs, forsaking the noise and turmoil of Athens for the calm and peace that seclusion affords, Basil the Great, writing to his friend Gregory of Nazianzum, from a place in Asia Minor, that is now a desert, said : " I believe that I may at least flatter myself with having found the end of my wanderings. The hope of being united with thee — or I should say my pleasant dreams, for hopes have been justly termed the waking dreams of men — have remained unfulfilled. Gou has permitted mo to find a place such as often flitted before our imaginations ; for that which they have shown us from afar is now made manifest to me. A high mountain clothed with thick woods is watered by overflow- ing streams. At its foot is an extended plain rendered fruitful by the vapors with which it is moistened. The surrounding forests, crowded with trees of various kinds, enclose me as in a strong fortress." Further on he says : — " Shall I describe to you the fructifying vapors that rise from the moist earth, or the oool breeze wafted over 12 the rippled fMo of the waters ? Shall I speak of the sweet song of the birds, or the rich lazutianoe of the flowering plants? What charms me beyond all else is the calm repose of this spot." It was from this lovely retreat that he described the constantly clear nights, and called the stars, " those everlasting blossoms of heaven." The forests that sheltered and charmed the great patriarch exist no longer ; conseqaent on their loss are barrenness and desolation ; floods to be succeeded by malaria, malaria by droughts, and droughts by famine. All this because the people were reckless in the destruction of their forests, and in ignoring the con> sequences. One of the speakers who addressed the recent Forestry Congress at St. Paul said : " The entire coast of the Mediterranean, once the garden of Europe, has been blighted into comparative barrenness by the denudation of its forest lands. The gradual denudation of the once fertile islands of the West Indies, St. Thomas and Santa Cruz, is the result of the primitive forests having been destroyed. ' The great discoverer of America, Christopher Columbus, writing from one of these islands, says : " The beauty of the new land surpasses the beauty of the Campagna of Cordova. The trees are bright with an ever verdant foliage, and are always laden with fruit. The plants on the ground are high and flowering. The air is warm as that of April in Castile, and the nightingale sings more melodiously than words can describe." How sad is the change since the great navigator wrote ! The Hon. G. P. Marsh, United States Minister to Rome, says : " There are parts of Asia Minor, of Northern Africa, of Alpine Europe, and of Greece, where causes set in action by man have brought the face of the earth to a desolation as complete as that of the moon, and yet they are known to have been covered with luxuriant forests, verdant pastures, and fertile meadows, and a dense population once inhabited those now lonely districts. The faii'est and fruitfullcst provinces of the Boman Empire, formerly endowed with the greatest superiority of soil, climate and position, «»re completely exhausted of their fertility, o so diminished in their pro- ductiveness as, with the exception of a few favored cases that have escaped the general ruin, to bo no longer fit for aflfording sustenance for civilized man. If to this realm of desolation we now add the wasted and lonely soils of Persia and the remoter East, that once fed their millions with milk and honey we shall see that a territory larger than all Europe, the abundance of which, sustained in bygone centuries a population scarce inferior to that of the whole christian world of the present day, has been withdrawn from human use, or, at best, is only inhabited by tribes too few, poor and uncultivated to contribute anything to the general or natural interests of mankind." Mr. Marsh also alludes to the physical deterioration of many parts of Europe, which, in some localities, has been so rapid that a single generation has witnessed the beginning and the end of the melancholy revolution. He says : — " A desolation like that which has overwhelmed the once beautiful and fertile regions of Europe awaits important parts of the United States, (might not Canada be included?) unless prompt measures are taken to check the action of the destructive cause already in operation." In Canada we have many bleak and rugged hills that once were covered with valuable and beautiful forests. The early navigators of our rivers and lakes were charmed and surprised at the extent of the luxurious forests that reached without limit far away from the banks and shores. Could the spirits of Cartier and Champlain return from the spirit-land and visit the banks of that most beautiful of rivers, the St. Lawrence, they would be saddened to see that civilization had not guarded from destruction the beautiful groves and woodlands with which the Great Architect had ornamented the land. The luxuriant vines and clustering grapes that festooned and adorned the woods on the beautiful island of Orleans, which lies in sight of the citadel of Quebec, impelled Cartier to baptize it " Isle de Bacchus." Vines and groves have disappeared from islands, capes and shores, and there are neither wood^ nor forests to check the nhilling sweep of the north-oast gale, as in its ruthless fierceness it comes up the valley of the great river from its home among the icebergs. the the and for ; by the Icon- prnz. 18 The Hon. H. 6. Joly, to whom we owe mnoh for the valaable aid and informs- ^ tion which he is always willing to give in the interests of forestry, commenting on oar wastefolnesB, says: "The result stares as reproachfully in the face, especially in the Province of Quebec, the oldest Province of the Dominion. The old sottiements are painfully bare of trees ; you sometimes go miles without seeing a tree worth looking at, and the passing stranger fancies himself in a country more denuded of trees than the older parts of Europe. There is a large district of good agricultural land 8oath*of Montreal, where the scarcity of firewood, which is a matter of life and death in a climate like oars, has compelled many a farmer to sacrifice a fine farm and leave the country. There are many other parts nearly as bad, and, unfortunately, the process of destruction is going on even now in more places than one." What Mr. Joly says of Quebec is, unfortanatoly, applicable to all the other Provinces. The scarcity and high price of fuel, the difficulty of obtaining material to replace the worn-out fences, together with short crops, often caused by the want of sufficient tree-shelter in winter and the absence of moisture in the summer, has caused the discoaraged farmer to abandon land that he, unwittingly, had impover- ished. But, under the light which ozperionco is giving, it is to be hoped that further destruction will be checked, and that many of the old places will be restored to their prestine beauty and verdure. ENQUIEY AS TO HOW FORKSTS ACT AS FERTILIZERS. It may be proper here to inquire how the removal of the forcHls, in the countries we have alluded to, could have caused the disasters and desolation which bofel them. These lands, like the western part of this continent, were subject to pjriodical droughts — had their wet and dry seasons. The forests, with wliich the hills and mountains were covered, acted as reservoirs to hold, retain, and economize the waters which the rainy season showered upon them. The soil in the forest is loose and spongy. The roots and rootlets are as so many pipes penetrating the earth, leading the water into the deeper soil. The heaps of leaves, the layers of brambles, the beds of moss, all combine to hold and retain the waters, while the shade afforded by the foliage protects the ground from the parching rays of the sun, and prevents too sadden evaporation. The waters thus retained percolate slowly through the ground, to feed the numberless springs, creeks and rivers which, in the old time, flowed perpetually. Remove the forests I what happens ? The plants that throve and flourished 'neath their grateful shade, all die ; the moss withers ; the parched leaves are blown away by the winds. Then comes the rainy season. Rain fulls in torrents, and washes down the sides of hills and raouotaia^, carrying off the rich mould, the deposit of ages, the life of the land ; overflowing the valleys, obstructing river channels, and often destroying life and property in its resistless force. It is not difficult to see that the results arising from the denudation of hills have been, and will continue to be, disastrous. GENERAL VIEW OF THE INTEREST NOW MAJTIFESTED IN THE PROTECTION OP FORESTS. Many parts of Europe are suffering from floods more than in former generations, from causes similar to those which deluged the Ohio valley. The experience of Hungary, Prance, and northern Italy has boon very unfortunate. Even many of the German States, although more careful in their efforts at prevention, have suffered Beverely. In 1816 Herr Gustavo Wex, Oouacillor of State, an 1 Director of G>ivernment Works for the regulation of the flow of the Danube, in a papor read to the Geogra- phical Society of Vienna, affirms that in the last fifty years the decrease in the average level or comparison between the highest and the lowest flow of the Rhine, has been 2i inches; the Vistula, 26 inches; the Danube, at Orsova, 65 inches. These measurements aaqaestionably show thit the floods are higher than in former 3'oars, and the difference between the highest and the lowest levels is much greater. Many '4] 14 of the msnnfaotorieB have ezperienoed great difficulties, and have been, in many instances, compelled to substitute steam for their diminished water supply. This remarkable change in the water level of these rivers is ascribed to the clearing away of the foreets, especially in the mountains, where inundations occur more frequently. The correctness of these conclusions is sadly illastrated by recent floods in the valleys through which these rivers flow. Several learned societies, sunh as the Boyal Academy of Science, of Vienna ; the Imperial Academy, of St. Petersburg, and others, appointed a commission to report on the statement of Herr Wex, and it was substantially confirmed. The commissioners say : " Forests exercise a beneficial influence which cannot bo esti- mated too highly, in an increased humidity of the air, a reduction of the extremes of temperature, a diminution of evaporation and more regular distribution of rainfall — while in their destruction is seen the injurious effects of an alternation of periods of drought at one time and floods at another." Of the climatic influence of forests there can be little doubt. Many theorists claim that they cause rainfall, but I think experience will not sustain these theories. As before stated, they retain it, economise it, and distribute it more regularly, causing a more equable temperature and more humid atmosphere. Dr. Brandis, Superintendent-General of Forests in India, in a paper on the geo- graphical distribution of forests in India, which w:-s read before the British Associa- tion for the Promoiion of Science, considered India as divided by the rainfalls into arid, dry, and wet districts, and in the west corner of India was what might be called the arid tract. The average rainfall in this district was luna that 15 inches. In this region the work of the forester was limited to thoso tracts that stretched along the Indus and its tributaries, watered by the annual overflow of the river dur- ing the summer, or which could bo otherwise irrigated. Thus there wer«j in Scinde 352,000 acres of Government forests maintained by the overflow of that river and by protection. The result of the deflection of a river from its course was that the forest near the old bed frequently perished. In the southern dry zone, comprising part of the Deccan, where the ancient irrigation works, tanks and stone dams across rivers existed, vegetation was most vigorous. Dr. J. C. Brown, who is the most voluminous writer, and perhaps one of the most reliable, on the subject of forestry, in his excellent work on " Forests and Moistures," in which he shows much reseai'ch, and gives a larger quantity of testimony than we find elsewhere on the subject of forests and rainfalls, says : — " From what has been advanced, it appears to be established as a fact that there are cases in which an extensive destruction of forests has been followed by a marked desiccation of soil and aridity of climate, and some cases wherein the replanting of trees has been followed by a more complete restoration of humidity, or the planting of trees where there were none has been followed by a degree of humidity greatly in excess of what had been previously observed ; that there are oases in which the rainfall within forests, or in their immediate vicinity, has been perceptibly greater than in the open country beyon J ; but that there are also cases in which it is &lltiged that bebauso of desiccation some lands, once clothed with forests, and fertile, are now treeless and barren and dry. This may be attributed in part, if not in whole, to other causes besides the destruction of the forests ; and there are cases in which the extensive destruction of forests does not appear to have extensively aff^eoted the quantity of the rainfall over a wide expanse of country. •' These facts, by a little latitude in the uee of language, may be characterized as antagonistic or conflicting, but they may, nevertheless, be accepted as facts, and that, with the admission that, if facts, they must be perfectly compatible with each other, and not only compatible, but consistent with each other, in the actually existing con- dition of things, and necessary to be known, in order to a correct conception of this system as a whole. " The effects of forests in retarding the flow of the rainfall, after its precipitation, has been established, I consider, beyond all question; and not less so their effect in maintaining a general humidity of atmosphere and soil." Sir Bichard Temple, Bart., in his interesting work, " India in 1880," says :— ai ai nc a b ii a f 8 1 \ ( any r ** Many beliere that the rainfell is oopioos and seasonable, or otherwise, aoooiding as the woods and forests and the vegetation subsidiary to them is preseryed or destroyed, while others disbelieve this view, which, at all events, mnst admit ofmnch Jaalification. Bat after all due statements have been made, this view is generally eld to have some truth. The total rainfall of the whole country cannot possibly be affected by the forests. The average quantity of vapor must come from the ocean, and must be oondonKcd somewhere ; if it be not discharged in rain as it crosses the plains, it will pass to the mountains and be transformed there. This, indeed, is a matter of common experience ; moisture-laden clouds float over the Deccan, leaving it arid, and move on to the Satpura range ; and, being condensed there, fill the torrent beds with rain water, which rushes into the runs and returns ultimately to the plain, in the shape of inundations. Similarly, clouds sweep over Hindostan's thirsty plains, and being condensed in the Himalayas, return in the form of floods in the great riverst The hope is, that if forest tracts were distributed over the plains there would be cool surfaces to attract the clouds, and arrest them, as it were, on their way." This would be very desirable, but a residence for several years on the western side of this continent would not lead mo to look for any such results. For example, in California, for about eight montiis in the year, there is no rain, yet the vapor- ladcn breezes come in every day from the illimitable Pacific Ocean. They pass acrops tho grand forests of the Coast Eango Mountains, thence over the rich and fertile valleys of Sacramento — over ice-covered peaks that glisten daily in the sun; but never, daring the dry sc' son, does a cloud lira the lustro of their glory. Nor do the valleys of Colorado anJ Utah, whiclr lie to the eastward, got refreshed by showers, th;it ought, according to theory, to bo the result of these vapors having come in contact- with the snow-covwred Sierras. In South Americsa climatic phenomena aro still more remarkable. In Bolivia, west of the Andes, no rain has fallen for many years; nor has there been rain but onco in the memory of tho oldest inhabitant. East of the same great mountain range, on the great plains known as tho Pampas, while some parts will bo for years without rain, others will be refreshed with showers every day in the year. Professor Arnold Gurgol, in a paper read before the National Academy of Sciences, to illustrate the great dryness to which tho great plains of the Pampas are subject, east of the Andes and l)etween latitudes 20 to 30 degrees south, mentions the grand sec, or groat drought of neai-ly thrco years' duration, which occurred in the present century, and is still remembered as having cost the lives of millions of cattle, which came to die along the few rivor courses which vetaintoi some water, antl whose bones accumulated in places whore thoy died, just as fosil remains of ci'eaturcs of an earlier zoological period are found on these same grout plains. " All signs fail in dry weather," and theory is as futile as signs. Tho author just quoted says : — "It ;s romemberod that throughout tho world those regions which possess rich vegetation receive abundant rain, while those that aro denuded of vegetation are rainless. It is remarkable that those regions in India which ordinarily receive rain, but which have been parched by a long drought, aro plagued afterwards with immo- derate rain." The theory of Sir Bichard Temple is not sound, so far as this continent is con- cerned. Abundant rain, if the soil is good, will bring rich vegetation, but rich vegetation will not bring rain. Tho Mormons, in Utah, have succoodod in covering their hills and valleys with the richest kind of vegetation, but havo not succeeded in increasing the rainfall. Pizaro found in Peru hundreds of square miles of groves of lemon, orange, olive and other trees — all the result of irrigation ; bnt tho rain never came in what was known as the dry season. Last season tho pooplo of Manitoba complained of long drought, bat I never saw anything to surpass tho richness of the vegetation of thoir wheat fields and meadows, when I visited them in August last, although rain had not fallen in the part of the Province I have made reference to for over two months. Nor would his theory be sustained by results, even in India. It has been shown that the extensive tracts of forests on the lands watered by the overflow of the Indus, never could indaoe clouds or rain to approach, except in the rainy aeaaon { if 16 and large tracts perished of thirst when the river, as it sometimes did, altered its course. DBSTEUOTION CAUSED BY FOREST FIRES. In all that has boon written thus far, and in the oztraots taken from anthers of note, I boliovo it has boon established that the denudation of a country by stripping it of its woods may bring irreparable calamity ; but it is only fair to say that man is not respon-^iblo for all tho evils. Judging by the experience we have had in this country, and in conformity with tho opinions of men competent to form sound con- clusionH on tho subject, iiro has buon a greater foe to the forests than man. The desolation which cow overspreads Pornia and other eastern and southern lands cannot all be fairly put to man's dobit. Those countrion labored under the same climatic disadvantages that now affect every State on tho west of this continent, from Oregon to Chili. They wore plagued with long periodical droughts. At the close of a pro- tracted dry season a 6re might take, from no fault of man. A gale or a hurricane that was altogether beyonfl his control might ensue, and drive and spread the flame that would blight the fortunes of tho inh:ibitant8 of a district or a province. Tho great losses that have been entailed by the numerous disastrous fires that swept iway many of the finest forests of America impel us to give the subject a largo sliaro of attention. Laws for the preservation of our forests and proteotion against their destruction have been enacted in all our Provinces, and also by the Government of the United States, and each of tho individual States and Territories, and in the appendix to this report will bo found copies of such enactments as seem most worthy of attention or adoption. At all events, they will afford ready assis- tance in the preparation of new or the amendment of existing statutes upon the subject. Up to the present time, fire has boon the greatest enemy that our forests have had to contend with. The Hon. Mr. Joly, in his valuable and very able " Report on the Forests of Canada," says : *' It is estimated, by those who are competent to form an opinion on tho subject, that more pine timber has been destroyed by fire than has boon taken out and destroyed by the lumberman ; not only is the ripe timber destroyed by fire, but all the young trees, too, upon whose growth we must depend for the restoring of our forests. It is not practicable in our Canadian woods to plant trees to take the place of those that are cut down." Tho difficulty of guarding against fire in such immense and distant forests as ours is enormous, and as for extinguishing a forest fire when once fairly started, the power of man cannot succeed. It will sweep onward, so long as it can find food, leaping at one bound over such rivers at the great Ottawa and Miramichi, and will only stop when brought to bay by the large lakes, or when it reaches rocky or barren ground, with nothing to burn ; it will riot for weeks, until starved for want of food, or chool boys to explanations of modes and methods adopted, and the reasons therefor. Thoso open-field lessons wore finished with fine-object lessons at the propagatory beds and in tho foreistry plots, under diflferent management and In dilleront stages of growth." Mr. Budd visited many oi tho forest plantations. Of his visit to Jula, which is situated 200 miles south of Moscow, ho sayn : — ''Wo were favored with a letter from tho Minister of Public Domains to the Governor of the Province. Our visit occurred at a time fixed for a visit to one of tho largo forest plantations of tho Province, 14 vorsts distant. I should say the Province of Jula is one of the smallest of Russia in Europe, and it has little timber of native gi'owth ; but it has seven largo Government plantations, ranging in size from 18,000 to 21,000 acres each. During each season tho seven directors of these forests meet tho gonoral director, or goveinor, at each forest in succession. The object is to compare notes and to arrange for changes, or new modes and methods. An afternoon und evening with the head forester of the Province, and a stroll through tho many spoiios of trees planted forty years ago, gave us quite a clear idea of some things relating to tho system of forestrj'- that wo did not gather at tho great con- vention in Moscow. For instance, Russia has 762 largo Govornraout forestry stations, under tho general cliargo of an equal number of educated directors, most of whom are college graduates, who havo taken lessons in the forestry schools in a post- graduate way. These forests contain 300,000,000 of acres. These are divided into 12,602 named forests, which arc under 7(i2 directors. A part of these Government forests, in the north, were of native growth, but all of the central and southern Pro- vinces have immense plantations of trees best suited to the somewhat varied steppes. In some places the plantations are almost exclusively of Scotch pine ; in others, of oak, birch, basswood, elm, &c., &c. Mixed planting is not considered best, as a rale. " In the steppes tho planting has been done with the main idea of modifying the climate, and new stations are now being organized in portions where the present rainfall is only 6 inches per summer, and even drifting sands are now being planted ^i 21 with taUx eetititcUa (OMpian willow), to be followed, an Houn us the lorfkoe is covered, wiUi Siga pioe." *'It is well that the GoTernment are awake to thii prairie planting;, as the people destroy but never plant; and nothing can convoy the idea of attor desolation more fnlly than a ride over these RoBsian steppes." Much as bas been done in Rassia, rorestry Ih stili very imperfect, but they are making rapid strides in improving their syntem. The sohoolH of forestry in Germany have exorcised a remarkable influence on the people, difftising amongst them a great intorost in forestry and arboriculture. They have a great love for nature, and delight in frequenting their beautiful groves and parks, that are to be found near every German town and city. The rural and suburban adornments, now the pride of so many beautiful towns, are largely due to the influence of the literature and training of the schools of forestry. The history of schools of forestry goes back, in Germany, more than a century, and there we find the best endowed, and, in some respects, the best managed institu- tions of this kind everywhere. There are at present nine such establishments in the German Empire, vis., two in Prussia, and one each in Bavaria, Saxony, Wurtemburg, Baden, Hesse*Darmstadt, Brunswick and Saxe- Weimar. In all the principal countries in continontal Europe the woodlands belonging to the Government, to local municipalities and public institutions, are under the care of a special branch of administration, which not only looks after their management, to prevent injuries or waste, but has for its special duty the restoration of forests when out at maturity, or at appointed times, and this by moans which should most effectu- ally secure the greatoHt possible benefit. This management requires a well organ- ised staff of agents, properly adapted to the duties of their profession. All these agents have been educated at forestry schools, where every branch of science essen- I tial to the cultivation and care of woodlands is taught, and illustrated by excursions into the forests, and by practical labor in the nurseries and plantations connected with the esiablishment. Students at these schools have thoir attainments tested on entering and upon leaving, as wel t as at various stagos of their progress, and at the end of the prescribed course they may, upon Buccessfully passing their examination, enter into the forestry service in a subordinate grade, from which they may rise to more important stations. The range and extent of the course and a list of the professorships, and of the studies taught by each, in the Forestry Academy, at Tharanadt, in Saxony, will illus- trate what the student has to study. Dr. Hough says of this academy : " The student must show, upon entering, besides certain qualifications as to ago, means of maintonanco, &c., tho attainments implied in a full course of study at a gymnasium or a " Eoal Schule," and if he aspires to the Saxon service, ho must have ^\ orked half a year, under approved instruction, in a forest. " The course is divided among ten instructors, as follows: — (I) Tho director, who teaches the history and literature >f forestry, forest regulations and improvement and police, and leads in excursions aud practical exorcises ; (2) u profesHor of arith- metic, algebra, and geometry, and their application to fort^t work, and mechanics, accompanied by mathematical exerciseii; {A) a professor of chemistry and choraical technology, agricultural chemistry and laboratory work ; (4) a professor of physics, minerology and geology, who leads excursions in the application of these studies; 9(6) a professor of forest cultivation, protection and administration, hunting and forest taxation, with practical excursions and exercises; (G) a professor of forestal and general botany, and vegetable physiology, and microscopy, with exercises and excursions in natural history ; (7) a professor of surveying, road-making, draining, the calculus, &c., with excursions in surveying and measuring ; (8) a professor of general forest industries, forest finance, and an encyclopedic view of agricultural pasturage, &c. ; (9) a professor of zoology, and especially of entomology ; and (10) a professor of law and forest jurisprudence." The academy at Tharanadt is exclusively devoted to forestry in its fullest oom- prehension, 3 I J 22 li" At Hohenheim, the Boyal Wartemburg Academy is a school both of agrionltore and lortibtry. The lion. £. (i. l^orthrop, CommisBioDer from the State of Connecti- cut, who rvcenily viiuted this and other celebrated forest academies, says: "Its immonHe editico, tbrmurly a summer reHidenoe ot the Wurtembarg kings, is delight- iully situated on a very high ground, nine miles from Stuttgart. Near the building is a fine park and experimental botanic gardens, groves, and arboricultural nursery. Tbe botanic gurdon, covering over 12 acres, contains some 2,000 species and varieties ol plants, important in lorest and naval ecoDomy, and an exotic gnixlen of 20 acres, upeciallv a'lapttd to forest botany. Near by, upon the same mountain range, is a forest dib ' . of about 6,000 acres, embracing a variety of soil and trees. The institution has an extensive collection of implements used in practical forestry, with models of machines and studies pertaining thereto ; a museum of forest products, and herbarium, containing over 10,000 species, and a very interesting collection of mioro- Bcopio preparations, more extensive than I had elsewhere seen, with a various collec- tion of pathological specimens, illustrative of diseased malformation, and some 7,000 specimens of fruits and seeds. Great varieties of fine wood, showing the texture and grain, are exhibited in tbe museums of all forest schools, bat this one is a remarkable collection of ' microKOopic specimens,' transverse sections of wood, thin as the finest paper, ariangcd in nooks, as photographs, are set in the spaces of an album. Held up tu the light, these thin sections are translucent, almost transparent, and show the most delicate bhaues in the grain of the wood. Here is also a collection of noxious int-ects, and ali animals harmful to trees. The insects are shown in all their projres* bi\e btutt'H — ah eggp, lane, pupa, or chrysalis, caterpillar, and moths, with their nests and picloiutionts in the btems or branches, and with samples of the trunk, bark, luaich, ro(jt, ' mf, cone, or fruit, both oound and injured. For a careful comparison, -tb ^ healibiul and diseased (^j^ecimens are placed side by side. 'ihe curiiculum fills two years, and in tbe forost department embraces, among others, the loUowing topics : —Forest economy ; history and literature of econou^y ; forest produce ; tylv^-culture ; forest protection ; technical properties of timber ; uses of lorebts, and forest technology ; forest administration, including mensuration of trees aiid forests ; partition ot forests, for exploration ; valuation ot forests, and practical muiiugement of forests ; forest excursions in different forest districts ; botanic garden and muceum 01 forest products; cubic measurement of trees and cubic contents of wood ; land suivoying and levelling, and mensuration of forests with Iheodolito. i-or beard, lodging and tuiiiou, the native students pay about $40 per annum, but foreign siudents are charged about $120. Many foreign (especially iii giish) siudenls attend these academies, and Mr. Northrop says: "Dora Pedro t:pj»ieciattb the national importance ol forebtry in Brazil. I was much interested in an inielligent anil ainbitioub young Brazilian, who is hero training himself for a lorthl aj.j.oimnient in his native country." A bti iking iliusiiaiion of the iiifiuenco of forest schools is seen in the number of woiks in toiebtry that are pubiibhcd in thft country. Most of these have emanated fiom ilio })!•( lefcbors and grttduates of these hcboolb, and there are catalogues of over 2,50U voliiiueb on the subject of toredtry, tree culture and botany, and over one hun- dieU mw Looks ap})tar annually in tbe Germtin language; while the liteiature in the Sf anibb lunyuuge, on the same subjects, amountb to about 1,200 volumes. There aie albo publibhed, in both thebu languages, very able journals, devoted to the subjects we have noted. 1 regret much that the workw in the English language are very tew, and that tbe only periodical in America " The American Journal ol Forestry," devoted to the intercbtb ot forestry, has been cviiged to suspend for want of sufficient encour- agement. One of the oldest and best schools of forestry in Europe is at Nancy, an old and very interesting city of France, in the department of Meurthe. The city is beauti- fully situated on the bank of a river, at the foot of a long range of wooded and vine- clad bills. Both the city and department are noted for their rare rural beauty, and they owe much of this to the influence of the famous school, which is now very liberally supported, and is very complete iia all its appliances. Instruction is given gratis to those who prepare for the State forest service, the importance of which may be inferred from the fact that the State forests oover about 23 three millions of acres of land, with a gross revenue of about seven millions of dollars a year, or deducting expenditure, a net revenue of about five millions of dollars a year. A good many English students, who were preparing for service in the forestry department in India, were graduates of this class of 1881. The expense for uniform, tuition, &c., is about $500 per year. The course occupies three years, of about ten hours daily work. In winter, the session lasts f''om 1st November to 1st of May. Seventy-five lectures, of one hour and a-half each, are given on forest ecouomy, and the same imount of time is allotted for the preparation of the subject of each lecuire. The course comprises the exploration of forests, relation of forests to climate, natural history of difTorent kinds of trees, management of forests, conversion of one form of forest into another, and desirable qualities and defects of woods. The same number of lectures and the same amount of study are devoted to botany — the structure, organs, physiology and geographical distribution of plants. Of the seventy-fivo lectures on mathematics, twenty are devoted to land surveying and levelling ; fifteen are given to the preparation of plans, under a professor. There are lectures on road and bridge-building, such as may be required in forest exploration ; on forest law, and on the German language, together with instruction and drill, and practice in horsemanship. Of the summer session, which extends from Ist May to Ist September, thirty days are given to excursions into the mountain forests of the Jura, Yosges, and other ranges in which trees and shrubs are seen in all stages of treatment, and the student has practical lessons in the measurement of wood and trees. Six days are occupied ir preparing a report of the tour of observation. Seven days are given to the making of diagrams, with report, calculations and topographical plan, including levels, wiLh drawings of the same. Time is also given to the study of imaginary projected roads, with drawings and specifications, and estimates relating to embank- ments, masonry, &c., &c. About a week is devoted to military tactics, comprehending shooting and sketching. Land surveying is also a prominent study during the summer term. In the second year the courHos vary some, and are more extensive. The season for cutting timber ; the ages of the dilteront kinds of trees to bo felled; the proper time for a revolution of forest crop and its lestoration ; mineralogy, lithology, and the geological features of the country explored. Saw mills, gauging, water courses, mill dams, water wheels, and the lime required in the work of sawing, are all included in the course of studios. In the winter course of the third year, the advanced student, in addition to the branches already ^-amerated, takes in zoology, with special attention to entomology, the ravagps committed by insects upon forests, the moans of recovering of Ibrests thus ravaged, the reclaiming of barren wastes and the reforesting of denudod mountains, and the best moans of preventing or lesnening damage from mountain torrents. We shall notice one more of the groat forest s( hools of Europe, the far-famed Vallanabrosa (shady valley), foimorly a Benedictine monastry, founded in 1070 by St. John Gualberto, and winch wa? visited by Milton, in 1637. It i-* btautilully situated in a valley of the Appohinc.-i, about 20 miles from Florence, and overlooks the lovely pcenery of the Val d'Arno. The prosoiit magnificent buildings wcro erected in 1637 by Pope Urban Vlll. Beside.- Milton, Byron, Danto aid other pocH loved the inspiration of the lovely grovof, many of which hixd been planted by the monks, centuries ago, who understood well the economic value of ticc j)!anting. Professor Northrop, who visited the place lately, says ; " It is duo to their sagacity and foresight that these vast lands aro now densely covero 1 with pines, larch and chestnut. The very position of the trees, standing in exact rows, shows that tree plant- ing on a large scale has been hero suocossfully carried on for centuries. The property was appropriated by the Italian Government in 1865, and opened as a school for forestry in 1869, by royal decree. The system is not essentially different from that of Nancy, and the institution is under the direction of Senor Adolphe de Bdrenger, Director-General of Waters and Forests." 8i 84 Italy baa experienced the iDJnrioos effects of forest denndation, in spring torreots aiid a great diminution in her water-courses, so essential to her fields for irrigation. For some time there was considerable discussion as to whether forestry schools should be isolated, or connected, as an additional department, with existing universi> ties or other institutions of a more comprehensive character. This was a prominent quehtion for discussion at the Congress of Foresters held at Frieburg, in Baden, and attended by about 400 members, representing all parts of Germany, Switzerland, >\ustria and Eussia. Loading writers on forestry were there, as well as leading Govirnment officials in the management of forests. The president of the convention was Dr. Naulinger, the eminent Professor of Forestry at Hohenheim. The discussion awakened great interest and lasted over six hoars. A brief summary of the leading arguments shows the feasibility of connecting a department of forestry with established universities, schools, or colleges. I quote from Mr. Northrop's report: — " The discussion was opened by Professor Danokolmann, of Bbarwald, in Prussia, defending the separate ' Forester Akademie.' He contended that universi- ties are intended to aid thorough investigation in the abstract rather than in the cuncreie Though rich fountains of knowledge, they do not teach practical skilL Tlie Ibrest academies, on the other hand, keep the practical ever in view, and the utiaiument of knowledge is always combined with practice. Four things are essen- tml : first, instruction in the technical work of forests ; next, in the management of forests; thiidly, in scientific researches; and lastly, in the practical application of theories. Special schools are best fitted to secure these results. The ' Hochschulen' are located fur awuy from any forest, and the professors are therefore less acquainted with piacticul f>>restry, and the students, though more varied in their attainments, will lull to know thoroughly the things most essential to their profession ; they will remain strangers to forests, and will not learn how to question trees ; they may see cases of doud iijsects,and yet learn nothing of the lives and habits of insects, To be a means of instruction, the forest must be a demonstration ground, and should be so situated that it can be visited daily without fatigue or expense. Though the university is the Centre of cultui'e and aristocracy, each of these is of secondary importance in the training of forest technology. The professors of the accessory sciences are out of symijathy with, and busy themselves with problems, irrespective of their relations to forest science. If it be said that the universities have produced more eminent thinkers and writers than the forest academy, the remedy should be found in the academy, and in the enlargement of its course of studies, with 0|)portunity for the BtudtiiL to rosoii to the tore^t every day, proposing and solving his questions on vegetable physiology and zoology." The speaker who opened the discussion on the other side. Dr. Von Seokendorf, from Vienna, atiribuied the origiu of isolated schools of forestry to the former state of lot e^t.s, and the limited education required for forest service in a bygone day. Bui now a more scionlidc meihod of research in forsest matters has been intro- Uured, und a higher testing examination is demanded of students in forest science. A liberal eoucaiiou is essential here as well as in other professions. The advocates of separate st hools ol fjiestry claim two points of s})ecial superiority. — First, that their siudontsare bolter trained in practical forestry; and, second, that in these only are the studies conducted with duo reference to the requirements of the forester. They assume that in the vicinity of the university there are no forests suitable for the proper instruction, und that a purely theorectical education must only here prevail. The assumptions are unfounded : The number of university and 'Hochschule' towns in Germany richly sur- rounded with woods is very great. It is not the extent of a forest which decides its suitability as a means of instruction so much as its variety of trees and modes of treatment and exploration. The second assumption will not bear examination. Science and practical work are not anta^^onistic to each other. In the universities instruction does not go beyond what is desirable for the educated man. And there ought to be no grounds for the suspicion that any students of forestry choose that department because it makes the SB least demand apon them. Situated near railways, the univerBities have the best facilities for forestral excursions and fullest demonstrations in the field. As a matter of fact, the special schools do not turn out more practical men, and are not Bapi)lied with better districts for excursions ; while, on the other hand, in the All^iraoine Hochschulen the instruction in the necetssary science can bo more complete and extended, and be given at no additional expense to the State. After a long and lively discussion, on a vote being taken, it was shown that a majority wore in favor of combining forestry with other de[)artraontH in tho university or • High Sohulen.' It will be seen by this that the latest experience in Europe is in favor of organizing a forest department in connection with some existing collegiate institution. In Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Norway and Eussia, forestry schools are mostly in connection with schools of agriculture. The standard of education in these latter countries for students of forestry, is not so high as in the former. In Sweden, also, a system of forest education has been established on a very liberal scale, although over 40 per cent, of the country is covered with valuable forests. FORBSTEY IN INDIA AND AUSTRALIA. In India steps are being taken to organize a system of forest schools. Owing to the dense population who, from time immemorial, enjoyed rights of usage in culti\ i- tion and pasturage, wholly inconsistent with successful forest culture, and yrhot 9 ancient prejudices had to be respected, and various abuses conciliated and overcome , the Government, at the outset, found itself surrounded with difficulties that scemca insuperable. These difficulties were grappled with and surmounted, and after ages of improvidence, waste and destruction have been arrested. A forestry department has been established, and the Government has sent students, at the expense of the State, to France and Germany, to learn the most improved systems of forestry, as taught in the schools of these countries. There are now sixty millions of acres of forests under supervision and control of the forestry department, with a net revenue of over a million and a quarter of dollars per annum. As soon as the heavy outlay for surveys and plantations, essential in the first stage of the work, is lessened, the net revenue will greatly increase. In South Australia, for many years, the woods and forests had been under the control of a board of supervisors, but recently their management has been transferred to a department, under the Commissioner of Crown Lands. At the end of the last year there were nineteen forest reserves in a most satisfactory and prosperous condi- tion. In fact, in the matter of forest conservancy. South Australia displays the most systematic and rapid progress of any portion of Her Majesty's dominions. The old board was comprised of gentlemen who took a deep and intelligent interest in the work committ'>d to them. The report for 1880-8 1 is now out, and in it may be seen the results of the skill and indefatigable zoal of the officers in charge of the works. Much progress has been made, and large areas have been planted with suitable trees, many of which are exotic. It is also stated that farmers and land owners in the colony are giving much attention to the subject, encouraged by the excellent example of the Government. It is believed they will find a profitable mode of investment. Many interesting details of the work in progress, and excellent suggestions regarding the future management of the forests, are given in the report by the conservator of the forests, J. E. Brown, F.L.S. There are nineteen forest reserves, comprising a united area of 239,386 aores. There are four well-established nurseries in connection with the department. Planting and other oonservanoy operations have been conducted on eight reserves. The revenue from the plantations during the past six years has been in excess of the expenditure. The long season of drought which occurs yearly in Australia is very detrimental to tree planting, and it is only with dilligenoe and great oare that snooess is possible, J— J-. J ! 11L.1 ■ - ■■ - ■»■ III It is hopod that when a roasoaable proportion of the acreage of the colony is covered with trees that the climato will be much ameliorated. The other Australian colonio.s, following the good example set by the Govern- ment of South Australia, are now devoting much attention to the conservancy and protection of forests. What success may have attended thoir efforts I have not been able to ascertain. The physical history of every country proves that a reasonable extent of forest promotes, in t\ high degree, both its agricultural and manufacturing interests, as well as the j)roduclivo resources of the country at large, and tha beneficial influence of the forests, in a physical, economical, and healthful aspect, is now receiving more of that attention which its importance deserves. PEO PER EXTENT OF FORESTS. The next question which suggests itself to us is, what proportion of a country should be occupied by trees? Economists claim that from 25 per cent, to 30 per cent, of a country ought to be covered with trees. This, of course, varies with the position, climate, physical character, and commercial interests of a country. A country with a humid atmos- phere has not the same need of forests as one that is dry and arid. Then there are some districts of country that are not suitable for any other purpose than timber raising, and others which are of little value for agriculLural purposes, and that might be advantageously used for the purpose of tree planting. Countries thus situated might increase the percentaije of their forests as they like, but it is generally con- ceded that no country should have loss than one-fifth of its land in forests, The following table, obtained from most reliable statistics, shows the proportion of woodland in the different countries, as estimated at the various dates: — Date. 1870 1872 1874 1874 1875 1816 1875 1876 1876 1877 1877 1881 1881 Country. Norway Russia in Europe France Italy. ..~ , Austria .. Hunfi^ary Sweden Denmark , Prussia Great Britain .... Ireland United States .... Oernian flnipire Ontario (about) Total Acreage Per- Acreage. Forests. centage. 77,627,766 17,200,000 22-30 1,244,367,631 627,426,610 42-38 130,675,286 20,641,953 16-79 73,187,335 9,031,310 12-31 74,176,000 23,284,174 31-40 68,799,000 19,425,000 28 '24 100,514,9.!6 40,636,883 40-43 8,67 ',929 3)4,474 4-25 85,8M,703 20,047,074 23-36 55,802,300 2,187,078 3 92 20,527,190 328,413 1-26 2,093,600,000 7T3,U6,000 35-00 25-04 33-00 The estimate which gives Ontario 3i per cent, is, I think, excessive. It is taken from the report of the agricultural commission, and they relied upon the returns of the assessors. In Ontario it has boon customary to assess bush land much lower than cleared land, and under such circumstances, lands not entirely fit for cultivation are returned as bu-h land-". Assessors, as a rule, do not go over a farm to find out for themselves ; and the small remuneration which the township assessor gets would not encourage him to make stricter investigations. As before stated, there are no data that enable us to estimate the extent of our Dominion forest Ian Is. Tho magnificent primeval forests of Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick, are in a very redujed condition, as far as known, and it is a well rooognlzod fact, that as one advances towards tho arctic circle, trees become stunted, untilt tey finally turn scrubs. In our newly acquired territory in the North- West 2'r ern- and >een there is an acreage of about 380,000,000 of fertile land, almost entirely destitnte of trees. The area of the United Kingdom is only equal to about ono-fitth of these lands, and it has been estimated that they are capable of maintaining, in comfort, an industrious population of over 120,000,000 people, that number being equal to the combined population of Germany, France, Italy and Spain, in 1871, and the acreage of land much greater than that of all these States. The climate of this vast territory is one of the healthiest in the world ; but it is very dry, and ought, therefore, to have a large proportion of its acreage in woods. Woods would have a mont beneficial and ameliorating effect on the climate. They would temper the cold winds of the spring, and retard autumnal frosts. It is a well- established fact that the atmosphere of the woods in summer is much cooler as well as moister, during the day, than in open field, and that the reverse is the case during the night. As soon as the sun's rays leave the surface of the earth it chills very rapidly, and often, in a dry climate, while the air at say 5 feet from the rrnund is moderately warm, the temperature of the earth is chilled by radiation, ai.d often goes below the freezing point, while the air at an elevation of 5 or 6 feet is several degrees warmer. The presence of woods would often arre4 those early frosts, more especially if the woods occupied the higher grounds. The moist, warm air from the woods would spread out over the fields, after the sun had gone down, and act as a protecting mantle to the unripe crops, and thus become the means of arresting what otherwise would be an almost certain danger. Professor John Tyndal made some very interesting experiments on radiation — and in a discourse or lecture recently delivered at the Boyal Institute, in London, gave his hearers the bout^ut of a description. I shall, in the professor's own words, give such parts of his discourse as sustain the theory of the difference at the earth's surface and at 4 feet above it. He says : " I wished much to instruct myself a little by actual observation on this subject, under the open sky, and my first object was to catch, if possible, states of the weather that would enable me to bring my views to a practical test. About a year ago a little iron hut, embracing a single room, was erected for my benefit, npon the wild moorland of Hind Head. From the plateau on which the hut stands there is a free outlook in all directions. Here, amidst the heather, I had two stout poles fixed firmly in the ground, 8 feet asunder, and a stout cord stretched from one to the other. From the centre of this cord a thermometer is suspended, with its bulb 4 feet above the ground. On the ground is placed a pad of cotton wool, and on this cotton wool a second thermometer, the object of the arrangement being to determine the differ- enoe of temperature between the two thermometers, which are only 4 feet apart. " Permit me, at the outset, to deal with the subject in a perfectly elementary manner. In comparison with the cold of space, the earth most be regarded as a hot body, sending its rays, should nothing intercept them, across the atmosphere into space. The cotton wool is chosen bocause it is a powerful radiator. It pours its heat freely into the atmo-iphere, and, by reason of its flooculence, which renders it a non-conductor, it is unable to derive from the earth heat which might atone for its loss. Imagine the cotton wool thus solf-chillod. The air in immediate contact with it shares its chill, and the thermometer lying upon it partakes of the refrigeration. In calm weather the chilled air, booau.se of its greater density, remains close to the earth's surface, and in this way we sometimes obtain upon that surface a temperature considerably lower than that of the air a few feet above it. On the other hand, the earth's surface, during the day, receives from the sun more heat than it loses by its own radiation, so that when the sun is active the temperature of the surface exceeds that of the air. " These points will be best illustrated by describing the temperature for a day, beginning at sunrise and ending at 10:20 p.m., on the 4th of Kfarch. " The observations are recorded in the annexed table ; the elevation of the place is 850 feet above sea level ; the sky is cloudless, with a hoar frost and a light north- east wind. The first column in the table contains the time at which the two thermometers were read. The oolumn under " Air " gives the temperature of the air ; the column under " Wool," gives the temperature of the wool ; while the fourth gives the difference between the two temperatures. It is seen at a glance that from 88 sanrise to 9:20 a.m. the ootton-wool is colder than the air ; at 9:30 the temperatures are alike. This is the hour of intersection, which is immodiatelj followed by inver- sion. Throughout the day, and up to 4 p.m., the wool is warmer than the air. At 4 5 p.m., tho temperatures are again alike ; while, from that point downwards, the lOBS of torrestial radiation isinezcessofthegain derived from all sources, the refriger- ation receiving a maximum at 7:30 p.m., when the difference between the two thermometers amounted to 10° Fahrenheit. " When the observations are continued throughout the night the greater cold of the surface is found to be maintained until sunrise, and for some hours beyond it. Had the air been perfectly still during tho observations, the nocturnal chilling of the surface would have been in this case greater ; for you can readily understand that even a light wind swooping ovor the surface and mixing the chillea with the warmer air, must seriously interfere with the refrigeration. h Ci V a Course of Temperature, 4th March, 1883. ill: Time. 6 7 8 8. 9 9 9 9. 10. 11. 11. 12. 12. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3 4. 4. 4, 4. 4. 7, 7 8 9 10 >f watorp, for example, is a gas as insensible as the air itself. It isevery- wliere difTused through tho air, but, unlike the oxygen and nitrogen of the atmoB- f)here, it is not constant in its quantity. We have now to examine whether meteoro- ogioal observations do not clearly indicate its influence on terrestrial radiations. " With a view to this examination, I will choose a series of observations made daring the afternoon and evening of a day of extraordinary calmness and serenity. The visible condition of the atmosphere at the time was that which hasj hitherto tares iavor- '. At 8, the riger- two grees. 6 8 8 6 2 1 1 ?♦ 8 9! II 10 7 4 1 2 4 5 9 10 P been considered most favorable to the oatflow of terrestrial heat, and therefore best calculated to establish a large diiference between the air and wool-thermometer. The 16th of last January was a day of this kind, when observations recorded in the annexed table were made. " JanuaiT 16.— Extremely serene ; air almost a dead calm ; sky without a cloud ; light southerly wind : — Time. 8'40 p.m 3 -SO " .....~.. 4-00 " m^ 4' 16 «« 4-30 " 6-00 " 6-30 " e-oo " 6-30 " 7*00 '« 7-30 " 8*00 '« 8*30 «' 9*00 '« 10-00 « 10-30 •' Air. Degrees. 43 42 41 40 38 37 37 36 36 36 36} 36 34 3^ 36 36 Wool. Degrees. 37 36 36 34 32 28 30 32 31 28 28 26 26 27 28 29 Difference. Degrees. 6 7 6 6 6 9 7 4 6 8 ? 9 8 7 6 "During these observation!] there was no visible impediment to terrestrial radiation. The sky was extremely pure ; the moon was shining ; Orion, Pleiades, Charles' Wdin, including the small companion star at the end of the shaft, the north star, and numbers of others, were already visible. After the last observation, my note book contains the remark : ' Atmosphere exquisitely clear ; from zenith to horizon, cloudless all around.' " A moment's attention bestowed on the column of difference in the foregoing table will repay us. Why should the difference at 6 p.m. bo fully 6^ less than at 5 p.m.? And again, 6** less than at 8 p.m. and at 8.30 p.m. respectively? There was absolutely nothing in the aspect of the atmosphere to account for the approach of the two thermometers at 6 o'clock— nothing to account for their subsequent diver- gence from each other. Anomalies of this kind have been observed by the hundred, but they have never been accounted for, and they did not admit of explanation until it had been proved that the intrusion of a perfiectly invisible vapor was competent to check the radiation, while its passing away re opened a doorway into space." It will be noticed that the wind, during the observations recorded in the above table, was light south-westerly, and therefore charged more or less with vapor from the Atlantic. On the 10th of December, while the wind was in an opposite direction, he made another series of observations. " At 8:5 a.m. the two thermometers were taken from the hut, having a common temperature of 3b°. The one was rapidly suspended in the air and the other laid upon the wool. I was not prepared for the result. A single minute's exposure sufficed to establish a difference of 5° between the thermometers, and an exposure of five minutes a difference of 15" ; while, after au exposure of ten minutes, the difference was found to be no less than 17°." Here follow some of the observations : M December 10.— Deep snow; low temperatare ; sky clear ; light, north-east air. Time. Air. Wool. Di£ference. 8 10 a.m ••••.•••M Degrees. 29 29 27 26 26 27 29 Degrees. 16 12 12 11 10 11 11 Degrees. 13 8'16 <' , 17 8-20 " ~ 8-30 " „ , 15 15 8-40 " 16 8-46 '« 16 8-60 " ■ 18 Professor Tyndall continues : " I will limit myself to citing one other case. On the evening of the Slst of March, though the surface temperature was far below the dew point, very little dew was deposited. The air was obviously a dry air. The sky was perfectly cloudless, while the barely perceptible movement of the air was from the north-west. At 10 p.m. the temperature of the air thermometer was 37*, that of the wool thormomoter being 20°, a refrigeration of 1*7° being therefore observed on this occasion." These experiments show most remarkably an extraordinary difference of tem- perature within a space of 4 feet above, and at the earth's surface, and will, to some extent, account for what has often been inexplicable— the blighting of fields of grain while thermometers indicated a temperature considerably above the freezing point. Tbe drier the atmosphere the more liable are we to this remarkable refriger- ation of the earth's surface; consequently, the greater and more imperative the necessity for planting forest trees on our North- West plains. The earth is covered with a screen of aqueous vapor ; this screen is densest near the equator ; at the sea level it diminishes as altitude and latitude increase. It is, however, claimed that the presence of large bodies of woods store up the warm, humid atmosphere during the hours of sunshine ; and at night they mingle this with the dry atmosphere of the adjoining plains, preventing such results as the observations of Professor T7ndall exhibit. NBOESSITY FOR TREE-PLANTING ON OUR PRAIRIES AND PLAINS. Of the great necessity of tree-planting on our prairies and plains there cannot be a particle of doubt. Fuel and bhelter are among the first wants of the settlers. With these wants supplied, the country would be all that could be desired to make a people happy, healthy, eelf-reliant and respected. Some scientists say that the character of the soil of the high plains is such that trees will not grow theroon ; but the experience of the pioneers of the adjoining Territories and States affords promise of unquestionable success. In Dakota, Iowa and Nebraska the condition of soil, climate and physical aspect resemble, in a remarkable degree, those of our prairie lands ; and, more than that, there are good grounds for believing that all these plains were once covered with forests ; that they are treeless because the Indians, taught by their necessities, made it a practice to burn the grass annually, which made the growth more luxuriant, and consequently more inviting to the vast herds of buffalo on which they depended greatly for their subsistence. It has been conclusively settled that no herb but buffalo-grass will grow on ground over which fire has passed until another season, so that the yearly prairie fires spread over the plains until they became almost measareless in their extent. The Indians have a tradition that it was only after the introduction of the horse that prairie burning began. The horse progressed gradually from Mexioo towards the north, and the burning of the forests was resorted to in order to seoure good 81 nee. ees. 13 17 15 15 16 16 18 On the The was efore hnntin^ gronnds, and that fires were kindled annaally to make the pastares more attractive to buffalo and other large game. Mr. Mechan cites several instancea whore trees had grown again, when fires had been discontinued. Dr. Kobert Bell, in the Geological Eoport for 1875, says:— " Bearing upon the question in reference to the formation of prairies, and the causes which prevent them from becoming covered with trees, I may mention the fact that on the second steppe, at least, the character of the soil, locally, has an im- portant relation to the wooded or open conditions which wo find provailing at the present time. In this region the distance of trees eooras to dopond upon the capacity of the soil for recovering and retaining the proper amount of moisture. The clayey loam of the Touchwood Hills supports a continuous, thick and strong growth of trees ; whereas the gravelly and sandy soil of the surrounding country produces little more than scattered clumps of aspens and willows. On entering the Five-Mile Woods in the Severn valley, the change from light sandy to a stiff, clayey soil, is at once observable. The bolt of heavy timber whioh I passed through between Big Boggy Creek and the upper part of the Shell River corresponds with a stronger soil, and, generally, in the Duck Mountain region, whore the couotry presents a mixture of prairie openings and woods, the fr"mer correspond with the lighter, aad the latter with the sti-onger soil. Another instance of a thick growth of trees uj)on a clayey area is found in the Bad Woods, near the western boundary of Manitoba, on the middle trail to Fort Bllico, and many more examples might be mentioned Con- versely, the drier sand and gravel areas are usually dovoi;l of timber, although the depressions among the sand dunes and ridgos seora to bo the favorite habitat of the scrub oak. Near Fort Bllico, the bouldery clay of Baavcr Creek, and of the north- facing slopes of the Calling River, are thickly covorcd with poplarn, whilo thcgravelly and sandy area above the banks, stretching for some twenty miles to the wobt, and fifty to the north, is destitute of timber, except here and there, where some local change allows the trees to take root. The gravelly and sandy plain to the north side of Fort Felly, and the set of open ridges, of which Beautiful Plain is one, are similar examples. The geological history oi the lowest steppe has probably been different from that of the others; yet, even here, examples of conditions resembling the fore- going are not wanting. On both the second and third steppes the northern slopes of valleys are wooded, while those facing southward are quite bare. The banks of the Calling River form a good example of these conditions, which are, no doubt, due to the infiuence of the sun — first, In melting away the snow in the early spring, and afterwards in parching the bank during the summer ; while on the northward slope suflicient moisture is obtained to admit of the growth of trees. Although the surface of the barren, treeless district along the foot of the Cotoau, from near the head of the South Saskatchewan to the head waters of the Souris River, consists of clay instead of sand, the absence of timber hero also is duo to the same cause, namely, want of suffi- cient moisture. The surface of the ground is here formed of the almost undisturbed stiff clay or marl of the tertiary formation, which resists the water, and is incapable of retaining, throughout the hot, dry summer, any moisture which might enter it during the winter or spring. As a consequence, the grouud has become deeply fissured and baked as hard as uaburned bricks." The character of the soil and the condition under which tree* were found grow- ing by Dr. Bell are similar to those found south of the boundary line, in Dakota and Nebraska, There is no djubt, however, if wo may judge from the experience which has been obtained south of the 49th parallel, that with proper care and due attention to the requisite protection from weeds, cattle and tire, trees will grow well on these sand dunes and gravelly hills, that are not much use for anything else. One of the greatest barriers to success is the want of moisture. The hills of these rolling prairies, in their normal condition, shed the water like a house roof, often causing fioods in the valleys and declivities that are dangerous to the lives of unwary travellers. Some ten years ago a detachment of American soldiers were encamped in a dry creek in Western Kansas. During the night a heavy rain fell. The water in the creek and runs rose so rapidly that the men had to decamp and ran for their lives. UnfortuDately, six of them perished in the flood that overwhelmed them. The waters Bubsidcd almost as rapidly as they rone, having all ran off withoat moislening the parched earth to any perceptible extent. As soon, however, as these prairies are broken up, ho that the rains can pene- trate and remain in the soil to a much groator extent, trees will grow. In Nebraska and Dakota millions of trees have been planted, and I saw last summer n883) magnificent groves of trees, where ten year^ ago, nothing ooald be scan bat a areary waste. There is a Menonnite settlement in Manitoba where, in seven years from the turning of the first sod, these settlers are enjoying the shade of large groves of trees which they had planted. Many similar instances of success are found in Iowa and Nebraska. I give some extracts from a report made by ex-Governor R. W. Pornesa, of Nebraska, in December, 1882. It throws much light on what has been done, as well aa what may yet be done in that State. The report was made by direction of the Com- missioner of Agriculture for the United States. He says : — " This paper is intended only an a brief presentation of experiences and results concerning the culture and tree-growing on the western plains, made by and coming under the immediate observation of the writer, during a residence of twenty-seven years west of the Missouri River, in the Territory and State of Nebraska, the princi- pal object being to hKow what has been done practically, is being, and may be done, converting a naturally timberless portion of country into a tree-growing region. Taking the geography of boyhood's days, together with oflScial reports of Captain Miles, U. S. A., and the western explorer, Colonel Fremont, relating to that portion of the national domain situated between the Missouri River and the Rocky Moun- tains, as a basis for conclusions, there was nothing at the date (1834) enticing to enterprising adventurers seeking now homes in the far west. The thought that the then naked plains would ever be transformed into groves of valuable timber was not entertained." Governor Furness describes how the early pioneers discovered that when prairie fires were kept out there was a spontaneous indigenous growth of valuable varieties of timber. Still later, it was found that native seedings transplanted into carefully prepared soil did well on high uplands out on the open prairie — not only did well, but grew with remarkable vigor and rapidity. To those of indigenous growth were added, in time, varieties of foreign origin. While success followed em>rts in this direction, only the most sanguine experimenters had faith in ultimate practical results. In time the Territorial, and later the State Legislature, made liberal appro- priations, and timber-growing in Nebraska is now universally conceded to be a success. From 1854 up to and including 1882, covering a period of 28 years' reliable official statistics, it is found that there have been planted within the borders of what is now the State of Nebraska no less than 244,306 acres of forest trees. This includes seedlings, seeds and cuttings, planted in forests, groves and by highways. It is also estimated that since precautions have been taken against fire the spontaneous indi- genous growth is eqnal to one-half of that area. Personal observation would warrant a larger proportion. J. T. Allen, of Omaha, ex-secretary of the American Forestry Association, now an official of the Union Pacific Railway Company, a close observer, in a letter to Governor Furness, says : — " I have watched the spontaneous growth of young elms, oaks, walnuts, asb, hickories, &c., since fires have been kept back, and seen their growth among the hazel bush, which is the fringe in the border of native timber, dividing it from the prairie. I hardly think thai I am out of the way in setting the spontaneous growth at double the amount of timber planted." The fact noticed by Dr. Bell, of the Geological Survey branch, that trees are found growing on the sides of river banks facing to the north, and also on the northern slopes of hills, is noticeable everywhere on the plains, and is accounted for by the positions being less exposed to the sun's rays and the hot winds that come all the way from the Stano-Estacada, or Staked Plain. The winds that come fh>m this Stano- Elstaoada have a parching and withering influence on all the vegetation of the plains— 88 is, in fact, almost as bad as the siroooo of the Lybian deserts, that desolates the fields of Malta, Sioily and rortbern Italy. It has been found that on the north Hide of plan- tations spontaneous natural ^owth in frequently the result, shoitor from the sun and hot winds being a most essential factor in the early struggles for life in the young trees on the plains. Governor Furness, in concluding his valuable paper, says :— " Thus far, few ills have attended timber culture in this State. The grunt losses, or failures, have been from careless handling, planting and after neglect. Whore ground had been well and deeply prepared, good healthy plants used, care exercised in handling und planting, followed by attention and proper cultivation, until able to care for themselves, there has been no good cause of complaint. " Too much importance cannot be attached to spontaneous timber growing. Nature, in this respect, is both accommodating and bounteous in her provisions. Waste places, as a rale, are utilized. Lands which, if at all adapted to other uses, could onljjr be prepared at extra expense, are those nature occupies and renders of value. This growth comes of its own accord, so to speak, without preparation or labor by man, other than to guard against fires. A belief is freely expressed that greater proportionate saocessf\il tree growing, and at comparatively no expense, bait been done Dy nature than by planting. As stated before, by far the greater proportion of these stand and succeed than those of artificial processes. Losses are rare, and only from occasional invading fires, and where too thick on the ground the stronger kill out the weaker— no loss, in fact— simply adjusting or equalizing. Personal knowledge is had of many instances where lands, twenty years ago considered worthlo^n, are now valued at from S20 to $100 per acre, solely ibr the timber naturally grown." In Dakota experimental tree-planting has been attended with considerable success, and settlers are very sanguine of ample reward for their labors in that direction. The railroad companies are alive to the necessity of putting shelter belts along their roads, as well as providing for a future supply of cross-ties and sleepers for the repairs and extension of the tracks. The Northern Pacific Bailroad Company, in 1882, expended over 170,000 in tree-planting. Thoy oxpeot to be more than recouped in 12 years, for outlay and interest, by the thinning oat of the plantations. They are still extending their work of tree-planting, and soon hope to have shelter belts that will secure them against drifts. In the winter of 1882-83 the loss by wear and tear of locomotives in bucking against snow drifts, together with the other contingent expenses connected therewith, entailed a loss to the company of over $100,000. Their forester says that, in five years from the time of planting these shelter belts, the road will be secure against snowdrift obstructions. The success attending these plantations gives strength and color to the belief that these plains were at one time covered with trees. Mr. F. P. Baker, in his report, already referred to, says: "The theory that the high plains wore once covered with forests, and that at no remote period, is sustained by some remarkable facts. It is certain that the trunks of largo trees are found in the bluffs and hills miles away from the water courses, and that not many years ago these giants oi centuries* growth were quite numerous." Professor F. B. Hough, in the first volume of his report, says : " It is evident that within a comparatively recent geological period timber grew on portions of Nebraska now entirely destitute of natural forests. Professor Auglioy found, in 1868, in Cedar county, a log over 60 feet in length, and many others of various sizes. The charred roots of pine trees are often found sticking out of the ground, along the Nebraska River, on the northern border of the State, more than 50 miles distant from the nearest forest of to^lay. The cause of the disappearance may fairly be ascribed to the destructive summer fires in exceptionally dry seasons, and this charred appearance of the roots helps to confirm tnis theory, which is further supported by obecure Indian traditions." The late gallant General Custer, who had more than ordinary opportunities for acquiring knowledge on the point, and of observing the peculiar character of this remarkable country, in his interesting work, "My Life on the Plains," says: " Eavoriog the theory that the plains were at one time covered with forestis, is the faot that eutiro trunks of bugo trcoH havo been /oand in a Htato of potrifaotion on olovated positions of tho country, and far removed from water-courses." One of tho most interoHtin^ works thut I find anywhere on tho eubiect of tho Kreat prairies of tho " Dosorts of America," is by tho Abbd Dorainich, published by Longman & Co., of London, lt68. His pen-painting of this groat and wonderful land is beautiful, llcforring to tho absence, or rather scarcity of trees, he says: — " Wormwood and artemis plants are Uiu predominating productions of the great plains, as likewise of all tho other (lonerts; tho origin of forests imagined bv our novelists, aro only to bo met with in fortilo grounds, and do not grow on arid soil. It is only towards tho north that tho prairies are dotted wiih forests, the existence of which has never been explained in u satisfactory manner, for they aro sometimes exposed on heights where tho wind would bo apt to destroy them, and nevortheless they do not appear to suffer from its influence. To the north of the Nebraska these vast plains are less diversified, but more even, and are constantly refreshed by the breeze. Turf, bespangled with odo-iferous and bright-colored flowers, adorns the dells and hills on which buffaloes and deer graze peacefully. It is evident that those regions wore formerly wooded, for trunks of treoB, and even entire trees, petrified, are often seen. Some savants attribute the disappearance of the ancient forests that heretofore covered the western prairies to the action of fire; others, to the change that tho climate underwent, or to the natural sterility of the soil." His description of tho great overland trail, though not absolutely bearing on the subject of forestry, is, nevertheless, worthy of reading : *' In the groat prairies, the undulations aro formed by either hills of sand or of different kinds of soil or rock, which have often a most picturesque efifeot ; they vary from 60 to 400 feet in height. Tho ground rises as it advances towards the west ; for instance, tho Kannjis, at its junction with tho Republican, is 930 foot above the Gulf of Mexico, and 150 miles more to tho west it is 1,590 feet above the sea. The uniformity of theso solitudes is only interrupted by a few hills or cf-lcarious or sandy mountains, united in confused masses, cut up by ravines, and having the appearance of a fallen w( rid. At other timoo they are intercepted by arid and rockv heights, which aro almost im)»assablo. In 'he middle of this ocean of verdure, wnoso enor- mous waves ever follow one another in their eternal mobility, winds, perhaps, the proudest road in tho world, tho one that tho immigrants from Europe and the United States traced out, that they might tho more easily go to enrich themselves at the gold mines of Califomiii, This immense avonuo is like an area continually swept by the winds. The caravans that havo passed and that still pass on this road are so numerous that tho grass has no time to grow there. The savages, who had never seen any other thoroughfaro but the hunting trails in the wilds, fancied, when they eaw this road, that iho entire nation of tho whites had emigrated towards the setting sun, and that a vacuum was to exist in tho couptx ios where the sun rises. The graves of travellers succeed each other on tho right anO. o. the loft of this great path of life and death, and the solitude around, like a fuii'uu) veil, overwhelms them with the image of repose and of tho infinite. Numerous remiu'.ats of divers objects from exhausted caravans— on lire families dying, cut down hy aiscaso, fatigue and misery — then tho ground, whereon lie side by side and for evermore, whole populations of emigrants. Hero and there funeral stakes aro planted in the desert, bearing tokens of some great warriors or old sachems renowned for their wisdom. Extensive bono heaps indicate where entire droves of buffaloes wore slaughtered by improv'dent Indian hunters. Rivers of all sizes roll their muddy waters over their beds of sand. Clumps of willows, or poplars, sparsely eot on their banks, tlirow their melancholy shade over the silent waters. Roobucks and antelopes timidly brouse on the green sward of the prairie, with stretched-out ears, and ready to take flight at the least noise that may occur, for in these places a noise is always the signal of danger." Reference has already been made to tho baneful efiTects of the hot winds that frequently prevail on the plains; but it is only by experience that one can appreci- ate the intensity of their suffocating and parching heat, that exerts such a pernicious influence, not only on vegetable but also on animal life. I have seen men and animals remain for hours exposed to alltherigois of an afternoon's sommer sun, ander the lee of a^blaff, which afforded shelter from the sickening blast, although the delay entailed hunger and thirst, rather than encounter its blighting boat. Bad as these siroccos are, they uro harmloHs when compared with the terrible and destructive " blizzards " of the winter season. So destructive of life have tboae blizzards been, that people thoroughly conversant with western lit'o assort that dread- ful as have been the tomahawk and uculping knife of the Indian, ihu blizzards have caused greater loss of human life on thoHo desolate ])lains. The follo«ving description of one of these blizzards appeared in the Iowa Horti- cultural Report of 1872, from the pen of Mr. J. T. Mott : — "I have oftentimoir) wondered how it could be that peojile wore so easily lost in these storms — why it wus that a man in good health, strong in limb and well clad, could not go a few rods from his house to the burn to oaro fur bis stock without danger of death ; why whole sleigh loads of people were frozen to death within a hundred vards of dwellings, and this in the same location whore I was living. But lately it has been my fortune (or, as I thought at the time, misfortune) to be caught in one of these storms in Minnesota; and it took only a short time for me to see throoffh the whole thing. I first felt the wind blowing gently from the south; in less than thirty minutes it changed to a fierce gale from the west, bringing with it a bank of snow, compared to the rush of water as the flood gates are opened in a mill race, and with a force that no man or team could travel against it for a mile, as steady as a bellows run by machinery, being filled with snow as fine as the finest dust, and so thick one could not see 10 feet, fUling the eyes and nostrils of man and beast. The storm lasted three days * * * and the news is of hundreds of dead Eeople, frozen in stage coaches ; whole sleigh loads frozen to death while returning ome from town ; men standing dead, with a hand on the stable duor lutch ; others that saved themselves by burrowing in snow banks; little children lost going home from Echool ; passengers in railroad cars two days wiibout food, &c., &c. " More people have been frozen to death within tlu> la^t yoar in north-west Iowa and west Minnesota than are now murdered by Indians in these countries since their settlement. * * * The people are now petitioning their Legislature for some kind of protection from these storms, aisking that fences and storm-houses be built along the travelled roads— auking them to do something for their safety. 1 see nothing that would do but tree-plannng. It alono would do to stop thoise terrible winds, modify the climate, and furnibh land marks to the truvollcr." An American officer has told me of his experience in one of these blizzards. He was in command of a regiment of United States cavalry, and in pursuit of tin Indian war party, and the scene wus western Dakota. The command was goin,^ north, travelling slowly, waiting the return of scouts. Suddenly a black wall began to loom up in the west ; its blackness and its vastness began to increatha11, upon conviction thereof, be fined in a sum of not more than 8500 or less than 850, ana imprisoned in the county gaol not more than 6 months nor less than 30 days, or both, at the discre- tion of the court, and shall be liable for all damages done by such fire. Section 2. If any person or persons shall negligently or carelessly sot on fire, or cause to bo set on fire, any woods, marshes or prairies, the person or persons so offending shall be fined in a sum of not more than $100, nor less than $10, upon con- viction thereof, and shall be liable to the injured parties for any damage oocaslonod by any fire set or caused, as aforesaid, to be recovered by civil actions. Section 3. That any person or persons setting on fire, or causing to be set on fire, any woods, marshes, prairies or lands owned or occupied by him, or her, or themselves, for the purpose of securing his, her or their own property from damage or destruction by prairie fire, shall be held liable for all damage occasioned thereby : Provided, that nothing in this Act shall be so construed as to prevent any person or persons from firing against fire when his, her or their own property is in imminent danger of damage by the near approach of prairie fires. Section 4. It shall be lawful for any person or persons to set on fire, or cause to be sot on fire, any marshes or prairies owned or occupied by him, her or themselves, during the months of March, April and May : Provided, that the person or persons desiring to set such fire shall give at least twenty -four hours' notice to all persons occupying lands within one mile of the place where such fire is to be set. Section 5. No property, real or personal, shall be exempt from seizure and sales on execution issued to satisfy any judgment obtained under the provisions of this Act. Section 6. All Acts and parts of Acts in conflict with the provisions of this Act are hereby repealed. Illinois has laws more exacting in their provisions than those of Dakota. The third section holds servants, unable to pay fine, liable to be publicly whipped, to the extent of 39 lashes. There is also an Act relating to fires caused by locomotives. It reads : — Section 1. That in an action against any person or incorporated company for the recovery of damages on account of any injury to any property, whether real or personal, occasioned by fire communicated by any locomotive engine while upon or passing along any railroad in the State, the fact that such fire was so communicated shall be taken as full primd facie evidence to charge with negligence the corporation or person or persons who shall, at the time of such injury by fire, be in use and occupation of such railroad, either as owners, lessees, or mortgagees, and also those who shall at such time have the care and management of such engine, and it shall not, in any case, be considered as negligence on the part of the owner or occupant of the property injured that 'he had used the same in the manner, or permitted the same to be used or remain in the condition it had been used or remained, had no railroad passed through or near the property so injured, except in cases of injury to personal property, which shall be at the time upon the property occupied by such railroad. This Act shall not apply to injuries already committed. The laws of Indiana, in regard to setting fires to woods, prairies or marshes, much resembles those of Illinois. In Iowa, an Act passed in 1862, and which has since been incorporated in the code, provides : " That if any person set fire to, or burn, or cause to be burned, any prairie or timber land, allowing such fire to escape from his control, between the first day in September, in any year, and the first day of May following, he shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be imprisoned in the county gaol not more than thirty days, or punished by fine, not exceeding one hundred dollars." This Act was modified in 1878, so as to hold any person who wilfully sets fire to any field, prairie or timber, to be liable to a fine of §500, or to be imprisoned in the county gaol for not more than one year. Michigan has suffered more from fires than any State in the Union. In 1846 it was enacted that if any person should wilfully or negligently set fire to, or cause to be fired, any woods, pi'airie or other grounds not his own property, or should wilfully or negligently permit fire, kindled by himself or by his order or permission, t( b ii c u b tl C 1 4t on firo, SODS BO )on con- iasioDcd cause her or person ce to all set. 3d sales /his Act. this Act , The to the es. It to pass from his own lands to the injury of other persons, he should, on conviction, be found guilty of a misdemeanor, punit^hable by a fine not oxcooding $1,000, or by imprisonment in the county gaol not over one year, or both, at the di&crotion of the court. Section 2. Wherever the woods or prairies in any township shiU bo on fire so as to endanger property, it shall bo tho duty of the justices of the peace, the sapor- visor and the commissioner of highways of such township, and oath of them, to order buch or 80 many of the inhabitants of such township, liable to work on the highways, ar.d residing in tho vicinity of tho place where the fire shall bo, us they shall severally deem necessary, to repair to the place where such firo shall prevail, and there to assist in extingaishiP;?: the same, or in stopping its progress. Section 3. If a. / person shall refuse, or wilfully neglect to comply with such order, he shall forfeit a sum of not less than five nor more than fitty dollars. The General Bailroad Act of Michigan contairs the following wise provisions. It was approved Ist May, 1873 : Article 4, section 16. Any railroad company building, owning, or operating any railroad in this State shall be liable for all loss or damage to properly by fire origin- ating from such railroad, either from engines passing over such road, fires set by tho company's employes by orders of officers of said road, or otherwise originating in the construction or operating of such railroad: Provided, that such company snail not be t^ld so liable if it prove to the satisfaction of tho court or jury that such fire originated from fire by engines where machinery, smokestack, or firo-boxos, wore in good order and properly managed, or fires originated in building, operating, or repair- ing such railroad, and that all reasonable precautions had boon takoii to prevent their origin, and that proper efforts had boon made to extinguish the same, in case of their extending beyond the limits of such railroad, when the existence of such firo is com- municated to any of the officers of such company. Maine, like Michigan, has been a great sufferer from forest fires, and experience has taught her the necessity of caroiul and vigilant legislation. An Act to protect forest and timber lands from firo, and to punish the careless and unlawful kindling of fires, was passed in 1855 : — Section 1. No person shall kindle a firo on land not his own, without the con> son t of the owner, under a penalty of ten dollars and costs, and to stand committed till the fine and costs are paid. Section 2. If any person shall kindle a firo in any fluid, pastuio, or onclosuro, forest or timber land, not his own, without the consent of tho owner, uiid the samo bhall spread and do damage to any buildings, fence:, crop^^, cordwood, bark, or any other personal property, or to any wood or timber lai.d, ho shill, on conviction, bo punished by a tine of not loss than ten or more than five hundred dollars and costs, according to the aggravation of tho offence, and shall stand committed till the fine and costs are paid. Section 3. If any person shall maliciously, with intent to injure any other person, by himself or any other person, kindle a fire on his own land, or on tho land of another person, and by means of such fire the buildings, fences, crop-*, or other per- sonal property, or woods or timber lands, of any other poi^)'; shall bo destroyed or injured, he shall, on conviction, be punished by a fine of l >i *>'ss than twenty dollars nor more than one thousand, or by imprisonment in tho common gaol or house of correction not less than throe months nor moro than twelve month'), or in tho State prison not less than one or more than three years, accorJiog to tho aggravation of the offence. Section 4. If any person shall, for any lawful purpose, kindlo a fire on his own land, he shall do it at such time and in such manner, and shall take such care of it, to prevent it from spreading and doing damage to other persons' property, as a prudent and careful man would do, and if he fail so to do, he shall be liable in an action on the case to any person suffering damage thereby, to the full amount of such damage. Section 5. Any person who shall enter upon the lands of another person, tor the purpose of hunting or fishing, and shall, by use of fire arms or other moans, kindle any fire thereon, shall be liable to the penalties of the first, socoiid, or third sections of this Act, as the case may be. 48 Section 6. PorHons engat^ed in driving lumbor upon any wators or gtroami^, may kindlo fires whon nocossary for the purpose in whiob tboy are engaged, but Hhall bo bound to uHo tbe utmost exertion to prevent tbe same from Bproadinf? and doing damage; and if tbey fail so to do, they shall be subject to all the liiibilllioH and Eenaltios of this Aot, in the same manner as if the privileges granted by this section ad not boon allowed. Section 7. The common right to an action for damages done by fiu is not taken away or dimini(>hod by this Act, but it may be pursued, notwithstanding tbe fines and penalties set forth in the first, second and third sections of this Act ; but any person availing himself of the provisions of the fourth section shall bo barre<' in hi8 action at common law for tho damages so sued for. And no action Nbal brought at common law for kindling fires in tho manner prescribed in tho t>. . Bcotion, but if any such fire shall spread and do damage, the person who kindlod tho same, and any person present and concerned in driving such lumber, bv whoHo act or neglect such fire is suffered to spread and do damage, shall be liable in an action on the oaHo for the amount of damage thereby sustained. Sections. When a building or other property is injured by fire communicated by a locomotive engine, the corporation using it is responsible for such injury, and it hm an insurable interest in all property along the route for which it is roHponsible, and may procure insurance thereon. MINNESOTA STATUTilS 1. That If any person or persons shall willingly and intentionally, or negligently and carelesbly, set on fire, or cause to be set on fire, any wood, prairie, or other ground whatsoever, in any part of this State, every person so oflfonding shall forfeit and pay not less than five dollars nor more than one nundred ; and, in default of pay- ment of said fine, shall be committed to the county gaol for a term of not less tb thirty days nor more than three months : Provided, that this section shall not ex to any person who shall set on fire, or cause to be set on fire, any woods or pr on his or her own farm or enclosure, for the necessary protection thereof from accident by fire, by giving to his own neighbors one day's notice of such intention : Provided further, that the nc' ;hbors come together and participate in the burning of any woods, pruirios or grounds, the notice in this section shall not be necessary or given : Provided also, that this section shall not be construed to take away any civil remedy which any person may be entitled to for any injury that may bo done or received in consequence of such firing. 2. Tho penalties provided in the foregoing section shall bo recovered by action of debt before any justice of the peace in the county where such offence shall have been committed, upon the complaint of any legal voter residing within the county whore such offence has been committed. 3. It shall be the duty of any person who shall have any knowledge of such offence, or of any legal voter of the county where such offence has been committed, to prosccuto such offender in the name of the State of Minnesota, and all fines and penalties so received shall be applied to the rise and support of the public schools in tbe lownsbip iu which such offence shall have been committed. 4. All Acts and parts of Acts inconsistent with the provisions of this Act are hereby repealed. ft. This Act shall take effect after its passage. The statutes of Minnesota empower county commissioners to appoint persons to burn tbe grass (in every county invaded by grasshoppers) within their respective counties ; but in no case before the fifteenth of May in each year. In Missouri the penalty for wilfully setting on fire woods, prairies, or marshes, is from $100 to $500 ; half the fine goes to tho person who gives the information. In Nebra&ka the Revised Statutes contain the following provision in reference to fires : — Section 160. If any person or persons shall hereafter, at any time, wilfully acd intentionally, or negligently and carelessly, set on fire, or cause to be set on fire, any woods or other grounds whatsoever, in the inhabited parts of this territory, every El 49 pcrBon so oiTondiDg shall, on conviction, bo liable to a ponalty of not loss than ^\e nor more than one hundred dollars: Provided, that this section shall not extend to any person who shall set on fire any woods or prairies adjoining his or her farm, Elantution or enclosare, for the necessary preservation thereof horn, accident by flro, otweon the firHt day of March and the fast day of November, by giving to hiH or her noighbors two days' notice of such intention : Provided also, that this seution Hhall not bo construed to take away any civil remedy which any pcrHon may be entitled to for any injury which may have been done or received in oonHoqiionoo of Huch firing. New Hampghiro, by an Act passed in 1862, provides that any person kindling fire on land not his own shall be punished by a iioe not exceeding ten dollars ; and if such fire spreads and does damage to the property of others, he shall bo punished by a tine of not loss than ten dollars nor more than one thousand dollars, or by imprisonment for not less than one month nor more than throe years, according to the aggravation of the circumstanoes. The general laws of the State provide as follows in relation to damage dono by railroads :— Section 8. The proprietors of every railroad shall be liable for all damage whUh shall accrue to any person or property by fire or steam from any locomotive or otb^jr engine on such road. Section 9. Such proprietors shall have an insurable interest on all property sitnate on the line of such road exposed to such damage, and may elTect insurance thereon for their own benefit. Suction 10. Any insurance effected by the owners of such property thereon, so far insure to the benefit of the proprietors of such railroad that in case of loss such proprietors shall be entitled to a deduction from the damages of the amount loceived tlioroon, except the premium and expense of re oovery of the same. New Jersey's code resembles that of Michigan, in part, having reference to fires. The Act has some good measures for the government of railroad companies : — Section 15. It shall be the duty of every railroad company in this State, and of every company or person operating or using any railroad in this State with a locomotive engine or engines, to provide such engine with a screen or screens, or cover or covers, on the smokestacK or smoke-pipe of such engine, so as to prevent, as much as practicable, the escape of fire from the smokestacks of such engines. Section 16. In any action brought for the recovery of damages for any injury done to the property of any person or corporation by fire communicated by a locomotive engine of any person or railroad corporation, in violation of the preceding section of this Act, proof that the injury was so done shall be prima facie evidence of such violation, subject, nevertheless, to be rebutted by evidence of the taking and using all practicable means to prevent such communication of fire as by said section required* Section 17. If any company or person shall refuse or neglect to comply with cither of the foregoing provisions of this Act for preventing the communication of fire from locomotives, they shall forfeit, for every such refusal or neglect, the sum of one hundred dollars, to any person who may sue for the same, to be recovered with costs in an action for debt in any court having cognizance thereof, one-half of the sum received to go to the person suing and one-half to the State, for the public school fund. Pennsylvania has an efficient Act, passed in 1871, to protect timber lands from fire : — "iVhereas it is important to the people of the State that timber lands should bo protected from fire, which, owing to malicious conduct and carelessness ot individuals, is causing great havoc in the young growing timber, especially upon our mountains; Therefore, — Be it enacted, &c., that it shall be the duty of the commissioners of the several counties of this commonwealth to appoint persons under oath, whose duty it shall bo to ferret out and bring to punishment all persons who, either wilfully or otherwise, cause the burning of timber lands, and to take measures to have such fires 60 oxlingaiHhod, where it can be done, the expenE"'s thereof to bo paid out of the county treasury, the uaexbansted land tax to be first a r for all industrial purposes, such as the manufacture of tar, turpentine, charcoal, or the making of ashes for the manufacture of pot or pearl ash, provided that the obligations and precautions imposed by the following sections are observed : 4. Every person who shall, between the fifteenth day of May and the fifteenth day of October, make a fire in the forest, or at a distance of less than half a mile therefrom, for the purposes mentioned in preceding sections, must — 1. Select the locality in the neighborhood in which there is the smallest quan- tity of vegetable matter, dead wood, branches, brushwood, dry leaves or resinous trees. 2. Clear the place in which he is about to light his fire, by removing all vegetable matter, dead trees, branches, brushwood and dry leaves from the soil, within a radius of twenty-five feet, as regards tiros made for the necessities of anj' industry, as mentioned in section thieo, and a radius of four feet as regards fires made for other necessary objects mentioned in said section. 3. Totally extinguish the fire before quitting the place. 6 Any person who shall throw or drop on the ground, in any place whatsoever, whether in the forests, the open fields or other place, any burning match, ashes of a pipe, cigar or part of a cigar, or any other burning substance, or who shall discharge any fire-arm, t-hall bo bound, under the pains and penalties of this Act, for his neg- lect to completely extinguish before leaving the spot, the fire of such match, the ashes of i pipe, cigar or part of a cigar, or wadding of such fire-arm. (). Any person contravening any of the provisions of this Act shall be liable, upon conviction before any justice of the peace, to a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars, and in default of payment of said penalty and costs of suit, with or without delay, to be imprisoned in the common gaol of the district wherein he shall be con- victed, for a period not exceeding three calendar months, unless the said penalty and costs of suit, together with the costs of apprehension and conveyance of the said offender to the eaid common gaol be sooner paid, or be imprisoned in the said common gaol not exceeding three calendar months; or to be condemned for each such offence to the said penalty, and further, to the imprisonment, herebefore men- tioned, with costs of suit in all cases. T. Any person of full age may prosecute for any contravention of this Act, and one-half of the penalty, in case of conviction, shall belong to the prosecutor, and the 51 county iros, but ebrubs otber half to the Governmont of this Province, to form part of the consolidated revenue of the same. 8. Every puit for contravention of this Act shall be summoned within the three calendar months immediately following such contravention, and not afterwards. 9. Any justice of the peace who shall view any contravention of this Act, may impose the penalty therefor without other proof; and for the purpose of this Act, all agents for the sale of Crown lands, all sworn surveyors, all employes of the Department of Crown Lands, and all wood rangers employed by the Department of Crown Lfirds, shall be ex o/^cvo justices of the peace. 10. The Act thirty-three Victoria is hereby repealed. PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. An Act to preserve the Forests from destruction by Fire. [Passed March, 1878. Whereas large quantities of valuable timber are annually destroyed by fires, which are, in many instances, the result of negligence and carelessness, it is therefore necessary to provide stringent regulations for the prevention of such fires: Therefore Her Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario, enacts as follows : — 1. The Lieutenant-Governor may, by proclamation to be made by him, from tic . time, issued by and with the advice of the Executive Council, declare any portiou or part of the Province of Ontario to be a Fire District. 2. Every proclamation under this Act shall be published in the Ontario Gazette, and such portion or part of the Province as is mentioned and declared to be a Fire District, in and by the said proclamation, shall, from and after the said proclamation, become a Fire Dibtrict within the meaning and for the purposes of this Act. 3. Every such portion or part of the Province mentioned in such proclamation nhall cease to be a fire district upon the revocation by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council of the proclamation by which it was enacted. 4. It shall not be lawful for any person to set out, or cause to be set out, or started, any fire within or near the woods, within any Fire District, between the first day of April and the first day of November in any year, except for the purpose of clearing land, cooking, obtaining warmth, or for some industrial purpose; and in case of starting fires for any of the above purposes, the obligations and precautions imposed by the following sections shall be observed : 5. Every person who shall, between the first day of April and the first day of November, make or start a fire for the purpose of clearing land, shall exercise and observe every reasonable care and precaution in making and starting of such fire, and in the management and care of the same after it has been made and started, in order to prevent such fire from spreading and burning up the timboi aad forests surrour.d- ing the place whei'o it has been so made and started. 6. Every person who shall, between the first day of May and the first day of November, make or start, within such Fire District, a fire in the forest, or at a distunco of less than half a mile therefrom, or upon any island, for cooking, obtaining warmth, or any industrial purpose, shall : (I.) Select a locality in the neighborhood in which there is the smallest quantity of vegetable matter, dead wood, branches, brushwood, dry leaves or resinous trees. (2.) Clear the place in which he is about to light the fire, by removing all vege- table matter, deadwood, branches, brushwood and dry leaves from the soil, within a radius of ten feet from the fire. (3.) Exercise and observe every reasonable precaution to prevent such fire from spreading, and extinguish the same before quitting the place. 7. Any person who shall throw or drop any burning match, ashes of a pipe, lighted cigar, or any other burning substance, or who shall discharge any fii-o arm within such Firo District, shall bo subject to the pains and penalties imposed by this Act if he neglects completely to extinguish, before leaving the spot, the fire ot such match, ashes of a pipe, cigar, wadding of the fire-arm, or other burning substance. 62 8. Every person in charge of any drive of tiaaber, survey or exploring party, or of any other party requiring camp fires for cooking or other purposes, within such Fire District, shall provide himself with a copy of this Act, and shall call his men together and cause said Act to be read in their hearing and explained to them, at least once in each week during the continuance of such work or service. 9. All locomotive engines used on any railway which passes through such Fiie District, or any part of it, shall, by the company using the same, bo provided with and have in use all the most approved and efficient means used to prevent the escape of fire from the furnace or ash pan of such engine, and that the smoke stack of such locomotive engine so used shall be provided with a bonnet or screen of iron or steel wire netting, the size of wire to be used in making the netting to be not less than number rineteen of the Birmingham wire gauge, or three sixty-fourth parts of an inch in diameter, and shall contain in each inch square at least eleven wires each way at right angles to each other, that is, in all twenty-two wires to the inch square. 10. It shall be the duty of an engine driver in charge of a locomotive engine passing over any such railway, within the limits of any such Fire District, to see that all such appliances as aro above mentioned are properly used and applied, so as to prevent the unnecessary eecapo of fire from any guch engine, as far as it is reason- ably possible to do so. 1 1. Whosoever unlawfully neglects or refuses to comply with the requirements of this Act, in any manner whatsoever, shall be liable, upon conviction before any justice of the peace, to a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars, over and above the costs of prosecution, and in default of payment of such fine and costs, the offender shall be imprisoned in the common gaol for a period not exceeding three calendar months ; and any railway company permitting any locomotive engine to be run in violation of the provisions of this Act shall be liable to a penalty of one hundred dollars for each offence, to be recovered, with costs, in any court of competent jurisdiction. li. Every suit for any contravention of this Act shall be commenced within three calender months immediately following such contravention. 13. All fines and penalties imposed and collected under this Act shall be paid, one-half to the complainer or prosecutor, and the other half to Her Majesty, for the public use of the Province. 14. It shall be the special duty of every Crown lands agent, woods and forests agent, and bushranger, to inforce the provisions and requirements of this Act, and in all cases coming within the knowledge of any such agent or bushranger, to prosecute every person guilty of a breach of any of the provisions or requirements of the same. 15. Nothing in this Act contained shall be held to limit or interfere with the right of any person to bring and maintain a civil action for damages occasioned by fire, and such right shall remain and ozist as though this Act had not passed. PilOVINCB OF NEW BRUNSWICK. (TAe Consolidated Statutes, Chapter 107.) Section 10. Any person who shall kindle a fire in any woods or open place, and leave llio nanio burning, without being properly secured, whereby damage may be caused to the property of any other person, shall forfeit a sum not exceeding eighty dollars, ard bo liable to an action for the damages sustained in addition thereto. APPALLING CALAMITIES CAUSED BY FOBEST FIRES. GREAT FIRE OF MIRAMICHI. McGregor's " British America " contains the following description of the great fire of Miramichi : — In October, 1825, about 140 miles in extent and a vast breadth of the country on the north, and from 60 to 70 miUs on the south side of the Miramichi Biver, became 63 and a scene of perhaps the most droadfal conflagration that has occurred in the history of the world. In Europe a conception can scarcely be formed of the furv and rapidity with which fires rage through the forests of America during a dry, hot season, at which period the broken underwood, decayed vegetable substances, fallen branches, bark and withered trees are as inflamable as the absence of moisture can make them. To such irresistable food for combustion we must add the auxiliary of the boundless fir forests, every tree of which, in its trunk, bark, branches and leaves, contains vaijt quantities of inflamable resin. When one of these fires is once in motion, or at least when the flames extend over a few miles of the forest, the surrounding air becomes highly rarified, and the . wind consequently increases until it blows a perfect hurricane. It appears that the woods had been, on both sides, partially on fire for some days, but not to an alarming extent until the ^th of October, when it came on to blow furiously from the west- ward, and the inhabitants along the river were suddenly surprised by an extraordin- ary roaring in the woods, resembling the crashing and detonation of loud and inces- sant thunder, while at the same time the atmosphere became thickly darkened with smoke. They scarcely had time to ascertain the cause of this awful phenomena before all the surrounding woods appeared in one vast blaze, the flames ascending to from 100 to 200 feet above the tops of the trees, and the fire rolling forward with indes> cribable celerity, presented the terribly sublime appearance of an impetuous foaming ocean. In less than an hour Douglastown and l^ewcastle were in a blaze ; many of the wretched inhabitants perished in the flames. More than 100 miles of the valley of the Miramichi were laid waste, independent of the north-west branch, the Battiboa and the Nappan settlements. From 100 to 200 persons perished within immediate observation, while thrice that number were miserably burned or wounded, and at least 2,000 were left destitute of the means of subsistence, and were thrown for a time on the humanity of the Province of New Brunswick. The number of lives that were lost in the woods could not be ascertained at the time, but it was thought that few were left to tell the tale. Newcastle presented a painful scene of ruin and devastation ; only 14 houses out of 250 remained standing. The court house, gaol, churches and barracks, with ships on the stocks, were all reduced to ashes. The loss of property is incalculable, for the fire, borne upon the wings of a hurricane, rush(d upon the wretched inhabitants with such inconceivable rapidity that the preservation of their lives could be their only care. Several ships were burned in the harbor, while others were saved from the flames by the exertions of their owners, after having been actually on fire. At Douglastown scarcely any kind of property escaped the ravages of the flames, which s\'^ept off the su'-face everything coming in contact with it, leaving but little time for the unfortunate inhabitants to fly to the shore ; and there, by means of boatp, canoes, rafts of timber, logs or any article, however ill-calculated for the purpose, they endeavored to escape from the scene, and roach the town of Chatham, numbers of men, women and children perishing in the attempt. In some parts of the country all the cattle were either destroyed or suffered greatly, for the very soil was parched and burned up, while scarcely any article of provision was rescued from the flames. The hurricane raged with such dreadful violence that large bodies of timber on fire as well as trees from the forest, and parts of the flaming houses and stores, were carried to the river with amazing velocity, to such an extent affecting the water in such a manner as to occasion large quantities of salmon and other fish to resort to land, hundreds of which were scattered on the shores of the south and west branches. Chatham was filled with miserable sufferers; every hour brought to it the wounded and burned, in the most abject state of distress. Great fires raged about the same time in the forests of the Biver St. John, which destroyed much property and timber, with the Governor's house and about eighty private houses in Frcdericton. Fires raged at the same time in the northern parts of the Province, as far as the Bay do Chalear. 6 64 It i8 impossible lo tell how many lives were lost, as many of those lumbering in the woods hud no friends or connections in the country to note their non-appearance. Five hundred has been computed as the least number that actually perished in the flames. The destruction of bears, foxes, tiger-cats, martins, hares, squirrels, and other wild animals, was very great. These, when surprised by such firos, are said to lose their usual sense of preservation, and becoming, as it were, either giddy or fascinated, often rush into the face of inevitable destruction ; even the birds, except those of very strong wing, seldom escape. Some, particularly the partridges, become stupefied ; and the density of the smolio, the rapid velocity of the flames and the violence of the winds, ofl'tctually prevent the flight of others. In Murray's " British North America," it is stated that the benevolent contribu- tions received after this calamity were so ample that the surplus was employed in founding a school in the chief seat of the calamity. GREAT FIEE IN WISCONSIN. In 18*71, a fire broke out in Wisconsin, which was very disastrous in its results. Like the Miramicbi fire, it occurred after a season of protracted drought, and, like it, too, it took place in the early part of October. The scene was the northern part of the State, and the results in lobs of life and property far exceeded anything hitherto known in the western States. The " Legislative Manual," of 1872, gives an account of it, written by C. D. Robinson. The great fire of the summer and fall of 1871 will long be remembered by the people of Wisconsin. With the exception of a slight shower, of only an hour or two in duration, in the month of September, no rain had fallen between the 8th of July and the ninth of October — some three months. The streams, swamps and wells dried up, the fallen leaves and underbrush, which covered the ground in the forest, became so dry as to be as ignitable almost as powder, and the ground itself, especially in the cases of alluvial or the bottom lands, was so utterly parched as to permit of being burned to a depth of a foot or more. To use a poetical expression, which became almost a reality, " The sky was as brass, and the earth ashes. For weeks preceding the culmination of this state of things in the terrible con- flagration of the 8th and 9th of October, fires were sweeping through the timbered country, and in some instances the prairies and openings in all that partof Wisconsin lying north of Lake Horicon, or Winnebago Marsh, which was itself on fire. Farmers, saw-mill owners, railroad men, indeed all interested in exposed property, were called upon for constant and exhaustive labor, day and night, in contending against the advancing fire. The saw mills in the pine region of Brown, Shawano, Oconto, Manitowoc, Keewaunee and Door counties are, many of them, located in the very midst of the pine forests, surrounded with a dibris of slabs, edgings, shingles, refuse, &c., forming a ready conductor for the undermining fires in the forests adjoining to the mills and houses around them. The work of protecting these mills was long, harrassing and exhausting, the ground being so dry that water could not be obtained from the wells, and the means of defence wore mainly by circumvalating the property with ditches. These were, in main, ettectual, so long as the fire presented the ordinary character of previous forest fires, not fanned by gales and supplemented by a long-hei^ied and ignitable condition of the atmosphere, which, as we shall see, followed later on. In this labor of fighting fire the mill men, farmers and others were engaged throughout October, the exhausting work going with good cheer, in the constant hope that either the welcome rain would come or that finally the ground would be wholly burned over, and leave nothing further for the flames to feed upon. Still no rain came, and a gloom seemed to settle on the doomed region. The long-continued labor of fighting the fire exhausted all energies, and an over- hanging smoke permeated the atmosphere, sometimes so dense as to prevent seeing objects a few rods distant, seriously afiecting the eyes and lungs. This was not alone the case in the forests, but also in towns and in largely cleared settlements. In Gieon Bay, Depore, Apploton, Oconto, Monomone, Keewaunee and other places, enng in carance. d in tho d otbor to loso cinated, of very upefied ; Be of the iontribu- loyed in results. I, like it, 1 part of hitherto account 1 by the :r or two of July id wells le forest, specially permit of ID, which •ible con- timbered risconsin Farmers, ire called linst tho initowoo, Jtof the forming aills and sing and ho wells, ditches, racter of K'^i and on. In •oughout 3,t either r burned Lmo, and an over- t seeing was not iements. r places, 55 tho Bmoko was so dense that buildings at the distance of a square wore invisible; and on the lake and bay the smoke assumed the dimensions of an immense fog, obscuring the shores and rendering navigation difficult. The fire also made travel on the roads difficult and often dangerous. Trees, fallen and burning, obstructed the highways, and bridges in every direction were burned. It was a compensation in these cases, however, if it could be called one, that where bridges were gone the streams were dried up, thus allowing them to be passed without much difficulty. The Chicago and North- Western Eailway ran for fifty miles through this burning region, between Oshkosh and Green Bay, and it was only by the services of a large force of men stationed along that line that it was kept in passable couditioui The fires approached tho track so closely in many places that trains had to run at increased speed to prevent their taking fire. As an illustration of the narrow escapes on that fatal Sunday of the 8th of October, we may mention that Older's Circus, a long and heavy caravan, composed of eighty horses and twenty waggons, passed safely along that day over the bridges between Green Bay and Manitowoc, some of which were burning at the time, and nearly all of which were destroyed before night. If anyone of the bridges which spanned the deep and impassable ravines on that road had been burned in advance of the progress of tho caravan, it would have been hemmed in and destroyed. Many devises were resorted to for the protection of life, excavations were made in the earth, with earth-covered roofs, in which people sought refuge. Many resorted to wells, which, from the long drought, had become dry. And much property which had boon taken from the houses and placed in the open fields for safety was destroyed. But time drew on, the ground was burned over, and tho long-harrassed people began to take breath, believing that the worst was past. This was the condition of things on Sunday, the 8th of October, The air was dense with smoke, and fitful blasts of hot air, so stifling that at times it was difficult to breathe. All these northern towns had kept ready, as well as they could, for the emergency. In Green Bay the fire-engines had been kept at work wetting the buildings, and an extra police force was detailed to keop watch. The buildings wore so dry that a spark would set them on fire ; flakes of ashes from the smouldering timbers fell in the streets like a snow storm ; and the citizens were as anxious as if ia the face of some impending calamity. A hot southerly gale was blowing, and in tho midst of it a house took fire in the central part of the city. The interior was only slightly burned, however, and the fire was extinguished bofore it reached the outer air. Had it obtained headway imagination fails to comprehend the result. The country on three sides of the town was on fire, and on the fourth, where lay the only apparent outlet, were the waters of the bay, into which must have swarmed the population to a death only preferable to that which followed at their backs. It was the same gale that swept over Chicago. That city was then burning, though we did not know it; and that day and night the deadly blast was sweeping through the country northward, filling the land with death and destruction, unknown, as well, to us. A few miles, in a north-weaterly direction from Green Bay, lay the village of Pishtigo, having a population of about 1,500. Tho place was a hive of industry, principally in the manufacture of wooden wares, lumbering, &c. There was a railroad (C. and M.W.) in course of construction, and it is believed that there was an additional transient population of 300 people on that terrible Sunday, 8th October. 01 those people only 1,000 are accounted for since the fire, while all over the desolated plain and in the forests, and in the rivor bed, human bones attest the fearful loss of life. The people all day seemed to have a dreadful premonition of some dreadful calamity impending. About eight o'clock in the evening an unusual and strange sound was hoard— a gradual roaring and rumbling approached. It has been likened to the sound of an approaching railroad train — to the roar of a cataract — and men who had been through the war of the rebellion likened it to the roar of battle, with artillery booming in the distance. The poor people, worn out with incessant watching for weeks, were panic-stricken at this new feature, the glare of which approached rapidly, but the fire came not in the usual way, along the ground, as they had been accustomed to see it, but consum- 56 ing tho trcc-top8, and filling the air with a whii'Iwind of flame — tho stoatest heart quailed before it. There have been many theories in explanation of this phenomenon, bat it is more reasonably attribated to the formation of gas in the long heated pine forests. Hundreds of people threw themselves into the rivers, others prostrated themselves on the ground, believing the last day had come, and that all the conditions of the prophecies had been fulfilled. Of the village of Pishtigo there was not a vestige. The river was crowded with people, horses, cattle and swine ; many were drowned at once; others sunk after oxhaustation, while others survived the dreary long night's watch. The subject is too painful to dwell upon. Next morning the remainder of the heart-stricken people made their way to the nearest villages ; all doors were open with generous hospitality, and in the words of Mr. Eobinson (from whose report I have condensed), "If there never was such a fire, there, also, never was before such a healing of its tears." The fire extended over an area of 600 square miles. The Abbd Pernon, a Catholic missionary, then in charge of a church atPishtigo, has published a small book on the subject (" Le doigt de Dieu est 14 1"), in which he graphically describes the terrible scenes. " Picture to yourself a country covered by a dense forest growth, in the midst of which, here and there, along the roads, a clearing of greater or lees extent — some- times half a league wide, to make room for a young city ; and at other times, three or four acres, the beginning of a farm. Except in these little spots where the trees had been cut and burned, the whole country was a rude, vast, but majestic wilder- nefs — woods, everywhere woods, and nothing else, as far as one might wish to go, from the bay towards the north and west. The surface was generally uneven ; in valleys grew the cedar and the spruce ; and on the sandy hills evergreens, and in the places where the land was dry and rich were all kinds of hardwood, oak, maple, beech, ash, elm and birch. The temperature of this region is generally quite regular, and propitious for all kinds of grain. The rains are frequent, and seldom fail in seasonable time. But the year Ibtl had been exceptionally dry, and tho farmers, availing themselves of this opportunity for enlarging their fields, had made larger cuttings for burning ofif. Some hundreds of workmen were also at that time employed in opening a railroad, and they used the axe and fire freely in advancing their work. The hunters and the Indians roam continually through these woods and forests, especially in autumn, at which season they follow up the streams to fish for trout, or scatter through the woods in hunting deer. When evening coraes, they kindle a great fire, wherever they happen to be, cook their supper, spread down their blankets, and rolling themselves up, they sleep in peace, well knowing that tho fire will keep off the wild animals that might be passing in the night. In the morn- ing they depart, leaving behind tho embers that have protected and warmed them, without a thought about extinguishing them. The farmers do the same thing them- selves, so that in autumn these woods are everywhere filled with fires that have been kindled by the hand of man, and finding an abundance of dead leaves and dry branches, the flames spread to greater or less extent. When the wind rises, these fires sometimes take fearful proportions, and sweep everything furiously before them." The fire around Pishtigo had been burning for weeks, and the town had more than one narrow escape. The AbbS says :— " It was a grand spectacle to observe the fire in the night. It shot up to the summit of the largest trees, the flames coiling around them like immense serpents, and leaping from branch to branch, they illuminated the whole country, darting tongues of fire into the midst of the green foliage, they created a moaning through the forest, as in a fearful tempest. " Every few moments some ancient firs along tboir enormous trunks suddenly became so many columns of flames, crackling for a time, and then falling with the noise oi thunder, raising great clouds of sparks and dense volumes of resinous smoke. The sombre contrast of these volumes of black smoke above seemed to announce the speedy death and desolation of everything below. at heart omenoD, ed pino ostrated nditions crowded ink after these before no one could see measures were, being employed are 6t " Thousands of birds, aroused from their porch as, flow about, not knowing what direction to take, uttering cries that made the night still more hideous, as they called to their mated, turned a few times in the air, and then disappeared in the fur- nace of flame below them. Thus the night passed, all hearts praying lor rain, but it came not. " On Sunday morning the wind fell into a calm, the fires seemed to be dying out, and we began to hope that the danger was past, fiut about 11 o'clock, while many people were in church, a gust of wind made the edifice crack, and the whole congre- gation rushed out to see what was about to happen. The fire had a new start in a log cutting in the woods, and the wind was blowing strong from the north-west. The forest fires were raging worse than ever, and were approaching directly towards them. The air was literally filled with cinders and sparks of fire ; the engine was brought out, and hundreds of buckets were got from the factory, and everything possible was done to prevent the fire from getting into the village. But suddenly there appeared a new danger, for the wind changed to the west, when the fires were rapidly advancing, and it seemed that nothing but a miracle could save the whole from destruction, and clouds of smoke filled the air so densely that what to do or where the danger was greatest. The most energetic however, adopted for arresting the progress of the fire, all hands that could be brought to the work." I have seen the prairie fires run with the speed of a locomotive. They grand and t'^rrible, but insignificant in comparison with a fire in the forest. In pro- portion as th'/. woods are more dense and high and large than the prairio f^rass, by so much are the forest fires more intense and grand. The fires on the pr iirie, when driven by the winds, glide over the dry and dead herbage, but they sojn leave no trace of fire behind, except the blackened surface ; but in the woods fires travel quite as fast, but they hold out longer and produce a heat that is infinitely more intense. It is no easy matter to withstand a sweeping forest fire, for if you try to fctay its progress you run an imminent risk of being surrounded by the flames. The agony of suspense which these people endured during that dreadful after- noon was terrible. The wind from the west, accompanied by a black sutfocaiing smoke, seemed to get red and redder, until suddenly there came an immense glowing red light, accompanied by a heavy roaring sound . The atmosphero became heavy and oppressive, and in a few minutes the unfortunate inhabitants became panic stricken. Amongst other remarkable features of the occasion ho notes the electrical condition of the atmosphere. He says : — "The phenomena that struck me as remarkable was a flashing light that shone suddenly, like grains of powder touched by fire, and that flew from room to room. It seemed as if the atmosphere were saturated with some gas." The scene at the river, to which the people fled in their terror, he describes " The vortices of wind, in their constant rise, had, so to speak, pumped up smoke, the dust and the ashes, so that we could see clearly. The river bank, as as the eye could reach, was crowded with people, upright and motionless, along edge of the water. Some had their eyes open and raii^ed to heaven, but most of them had no idea that they could do anything to save themselves, and some believed, as they afterwards said, that the end of the world was come. * * * * Being out of breath I could not speak, but pushed into the river those that were nearest and plunged in myself. An instant later I heard a splashing all along in the water, and it was none too soon, for one could scarcely breathe; the intensity of the heat increased, and in a few moments nothing could withstand it. * :*: * Once in the water up to the ears, I thought myself safe from the tiro, but it waa not 60. The flames ran upon the water as upon the ground ; the air was filled with them, or rather the air was fire. It seized our heads, and we were obliged to throw water continually with our hands upon our hair and the parts necessarily exposed for breathing. Many persons had thrown olothirg and bedding into the river to save it, and whenever any of this came within reach it was seized and used for covering, but it dried so quickly by the heat that though wet continuously it would take fire. " The horrid whirlwind that had bkwn so fiercely when I left my place had, as I have remarked^ clarified the atmosphero ; the river was bright — brighter than the far the 58 day — and looking up and down I saw every whoro heada just abjve the level of the water, some bare and others covered, but all oontinually throwing water upon their heads. Looking from the river, either to the right or to the left, the firmament showed nothing bat fire— the houses, the trees^, the atmosphere itself. Above my head, as far as my vision could penetrate space, alas I too clearly, I could see nothing but flames— immense billows of flame that covered the whole sky, and rolled one upon another, as if violently agitated, as we see clouds driven in a storm — a sea of waves and a horrible tempest of fire. " After about an hour's stay in the water such as survived crawled out, chilled and scorched." Further on, in his book, the au'hor again refers to the condition of the air, just before the great outburst of fire. He says : — " It is hard to doubt that the atmosphere was at that time saturated with inflamable gas, destructive to human life. I have mentioned the flashes of light leap- ing in my rooms just before I left my house. On going to the river I met, in some ])luces), strata of air, in which I could hardly breathe, and where I had to stoop almost to the ground to catch breath, although the violence of the wind would almost throw me down in spite of my efforts to prevent it. While I was in the river, and on looking up, I could see, as it were, a sea of fire violently agitated by the wind, and immense waves of flame rolling one upon another, mounting to a prodigious height in the air, and, of coarse, far above the reach of all inflamable materials. How can this pheDomena be explained without admitting that there wore great bodies of some such gas collected in the air ? " It was passing strange, but some dead bodies showed no marks of burning, and although their pockets were untouched, their watches, copper coins, and other metallic objects were melted. How, again, did it happen that some human lives, here and there, on farms and in the woods, were saved ? This is a difficult question to answer, except that the tempest did not rage everywhere alike." In many places where valuable articles, such as books and other treasures, were buried one foot under the sand, they were entirely consumed. GREAT FIRE IN MICHIGAN FORESTS. The year 1881, like the years of the Miramichi and Wisconsin fires, was remark- able for a long sumnrer drought. All through August and September fires had been burning in many places in the woods on the western shore of Lake Michigan, and in many places the settlers had fires going on to clear their lands; but no alarm or lear of di-astors was entertained till about the end of August; the smoke caused the atmosphere on Lake Huron to become so thick as to make navigation dangerous. This state continued all through September, except slight variations caused by changes of wind. The Detroit Tribune, of Uth October, 1881, says: "From every direction come tidings that the surrounding fires, for the past four weeks, have been lashed into fury by the recent prevailing high winds ; the woods are blazing on every side, and the parched earth itself furnishing a free conductor for the harrowing and burning element that ran underneath, and thus, as well as on the surface, spreads far and wide. Farm buildings, fences, and stacks of hay and grain have fallen a prey; and the damage that has been inflicted on woodlands and farm fields is incalculable." This great fire covered about 1,500 square miles of ground, and it is estimated that about 15,000 people lost their homes, crops and live stock. The number of human lives lost in these terrible fires will never be known, as in many places the heat was so intense that it consumed bones and all. Sailors on Lake Huron felt the heat 6 mites away. It withered the leaves on the trees 2 miles from its path. A lady, escaping with her little girl through the woods, met with some deer, which came up to her and walked cloae up to her, as if seeking her protection. Fields of corn and potatoes, not touched by the flames, were roasted by the heat. A report, published under ihe direction of General Haz)n, signal service office, says : — 59 " Tho speed with which the wind and flames travelled is almost incalculable. Large boulders were rolled along the ground as if thoy were pebbles. The oonflagra- tion is described as roaring like a tornado, and as giving fourth loud explosive sounds that were terrifying. As the storm advanced it uprooted great trees, blew down buildings, lifted people from their feet." An anonymous writer says :" Dark and .rloomy sWamps, fllled with pools of stagnant water, the home of mid-cats, bears, and snakes, were Btruck and shrivelled and burned almost in a flash. In the signal service report, already referred to, among other causes given are tho protracted drought and strong winds (natural causes). • ,p „ .1 i u Acres of dead timber left standing from former forest fires, windfalls, • slash- ings," pine-tops, and other inflamable materials, distributed over hundreds ot miles. Carelessness of settlers in the management of local fires. , . r^ . ^onnn nnn The estimated value of buildings and live stock destroyed is about «2,000 OOO while the loss in fences and forest timber is variously estimated at from «50,000,000 to $100,000,000.