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RICHARD MORRIS, M.A., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY, Author of ''Hidtorical Outlims of English Accidence," ** Elemntanj Lissom in Historical English Grammar," Jec. ■o- crottto : JAMES CAMPBELL & SON 1875- Pen II YAhS \%1 thousMid «gM J™ofli^^ of the Minister 01 A*nc«lt«re. I Hunter, Robe & Co., Printers, Toronto. rm TABLE OF CONTENTS. ada, in the year one | IKS Campbell jultnre. CHAPTER I. PAGR Relation of English to other Languages . . . • ' Grammar and its Divisions 7 Sounds and Letters Alphabet ^° CHAPTER II. Parts of Speech On Parsing ^"^ On Changes that Words undergo '5 CHAPTER IIL Nouns Gender Number ** Case ^ VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Adjectives • Comparison CHAFIER TV. PAGB 28 29 CHAPTER V. Pronouns , Personal . Demonstrative Interrogative Relative . Indefinite . 33 36 36 37 39 CHAPTER VI. Verbs Voice Mood Tense Strong and Weak Verlis ...... Classification of Strong Verbs ,, ,, Weak Verbs Alphabetical List of Strong Verbs .... ,, ,, some Anomalous Weak Verbs . Anomalous Verbs . . ' Be Can ........ Will Owe, Dare ...,.,. Have, Do 41 42 43 49 50 54 58 62 65 65 66 67 68 69 TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii 29 3a 33 36 36 37 39 41 42 43 46 49 50 54 58 62 65 65 66 67 68 69 CHAPTER VII. PAGB Adverbs 74 CHAPTER VIII. Prepositions • • • ♦ • • • • -70 CHAPTER IX. Conjunctions • 7° CHAPTER X. Interjections 79 CHAPTER XI. Word Making ^° English Suffixes Compounds 3 Latin and French Suffixes . . • • • • . ^5 Greek Suffixes .88 Latin and French Prefixes . . • • • .88 Greek Pretixei 9° CHAPTER XIL Syntax • • •• • '9 ! Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS, CHAPTER XIII. Analysis of Sentences PAGE lOI Model of Grammatical Parsing ii: til PAGE lOI PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. lU CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION, Relation of English to other Languages. § I. Every language has a history of its own, and it may be made to te\^ ns its own /i/e, so to speak, if we set the right way t - work about it. There are two ways of getting at this history. The first mode is by comparing one language with others that are well known to us. The second is by study- ing the literature of a language in order of time, or chronologically, beginning with the very oldest written books, and coming down to the latest and newest. The first or comparative method is one that you have no doubt tried yourselves upon a small scale, when you have noticed how closely our ord house resembles the German haus, or English ihou hast the German du hast. You may have asked yourselves, too, whether this likeness in words and in grammar proves that one of the languages is borrowed from the 15 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. M Other, as some have innocently supposed, or whether both have come from one parent, and are, so to speal^, brothers or sisters. But the EngUsh are quite as ancient a peopie as the Germans, and their language is as old if not older than German, so that it would be decidedly wrong to infer that the one language came from or was bor- rowed from the other. So we are obliged to admit that English and German are akin, or related to each other, by having descended from a common parent.^ § 2. Scholars have carried out this comparison with a large number of languages, and have shown us that English is related, not only to German, but more closely to DtUch, Danish, and more remotely to Welsh, Latin, Greek, Russian, Persian, Hindi, ^c. They have called these kindred tongues the Indo- European family of languages. They have grouped together, too, those languages that most resemble one another. The chief groups in Europe are — (1) Keltic, containing the Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, Manx, and Armorican languages. (2) Romanic or Italic, containing Latin and the dialects sprung from Latin, called the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, &c.). (3) Hellenic or Grecian, containing Ancient and Modem Greek. (4) Slavonic, containing the Russian, Polish, and Bohe- mian languages. CHAP. letlier ;peal^, as the older 3ng to s bor- admit each ent. »n with LIS that : more ;ely to Indo- iguages I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. [anx, and e dialects languages d Modem and bolie- (5) Teutonic, containing [a) English, Dutch, Flemish. ^b) Icelandic, vSwedish, Danish, Norwegian, (c) Modem German. § 3. They have proved — (i) That our language belongs to a group called Teutonic. (2) That EngUsh is most like Dutch, Frisian, and Flemish. These, including EngUsh, are called Low-German languages, because they were spoken originally along the low- lying shores of the German Ocean and Baltic Sea. (3) That our language closely resembles Icelandic, Danish, Norivegian, and Swedish, called Scandinavian languages. (4) That it is also, as we have seen, much like the modern German language which was at first spoken only in the highlands of Central and Southern Germany, and hence called High-German. § 4. History confirms the story told us by those who have studied languages in the way we have spoken of, for we know that the first Englishmen, the Angles, came from the land of the Low Ger- mans on the continent, and settled in Britain during the fifth century. England means " the land of the A^^i^o" \7^ irnnw ton that there were other Low- German tribes that came along with them, and spoke PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. I.] the same language. The Saxons were the most im- portant of these, and have left their names in their old setdements of Sussex, Wessex, Essex, and Mid- dlesex. § 5. The second mode of arriving at the history of a language by means of its literature is called the historical method. We have a very long and complete series of English works, written at different periods, and going as far back as the ninth century (to the time of Alfred). From these written documents of the language we learn — (i) How English has changed from time to time, and how many important events in the iiistory of the EngHsh people are bound up with the changes that have taken place in the EngHsh language. (2) That we have gradually lost a large number of grammatical endings or inflexions, which we have replaced by using distinct words for them, instead of adopting new endings. At one time we could translate Lat. "bib-^r^" by "drinc-fl!«," but now by to drink. (3) That though we have lost very many of our old English words, and have replaced them by others of foreign origin, yet all the *nost common and useful words, as well as all our OTnmmpr is tbnrr»nnrVil\/ TTrtrrlicVk on/^l \c nnf ^ O 7 — - '"£i"V -=— ••-^^i^uii^ tiii-_- ia iiLrt ^= borrowed. I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. 5 (4) That we have greatly added to our stock of words from various sources, of which the following are the most important ; — 1. Keltic words. We have a few words (crag, glen, pool, mattock, ^^c.) which the old English settlers took from the Keltic inhabitants of Britain, just as our countrymen in America still retain a few words borrowed from the native Indian tribes that once peopled that continent. 2. Scandinavian words. The Zfam'sh Invasion introduced some few Scandinavian words, as busk, dairy, fellow Jro, gait, ill, same, till, are, &c. 3. Latin words. The bulk of our borrowed words are, however, of Latin origin, and came mto the language at different times :— , L The old English invaders adopted the names which the Romans had left behind in Britain for a fortified station {castra), a paved road (strata), and a rampart {^vallum), which we still retain in U-^Xi-chester, Vio\^-caster, &c. ; street and wall, XL The Roman priests and monks, who brought Christianity to our forefathers^ in the sixth century, introduced some Latin words be- longing to religion, worship, &c., as bishop, priest, monk, mass, minister, &c., as well as the nam-es of a few things they brought with them '.—butter, cheese, pease, pepper, &c. PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. I.] iii. The Norman Conquest in 1066 was the means, through French, of introducing fresh Latin words much altered from their -original form, as caitiff, frail, feat {cp. captive, fragile, fact). iv. Through the Revival of Learnin^;^' the Latin language became familiar to educated men, and English writers introduced into the language very many Latin words with very little change of form. Hence we are able to distinguish between the French Latin and the later Latin words : thus poor, poison, come through Norman-French, vf\i\\Q pauper, potion, come straight from the Latin, and are due to English writers. 4. Greek words. We have also borrowed many scientific and philosophical words from the Greek language, as archceology, botany, physics, ethics, music, &c. 5. Miscellaneous words. There are miscel- laneous words from numerous other languages. Our word tea is Chinese ; canoe is American-Indian ; yacht is Dutch ; and cypher is Arabic, &c. » in.: This took place in the sixteenth century. ''i»m.muymitf''!VMi^/i>rw^>' I.] GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS, GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS. § 6. Language is made up of words. Grammar tells us about the words that make up a language : — L If we examine a word as we hear it, we find that it consists of one or more sounds. These sounds are represented to the eye by written signs called letters. il Words may be put into classes, or classified according to their distinctive uses. Words sometimes undergo change when combined with other words, or when they have some- thing added to them to form new words. iii. Words are combined according to certain laws. Hence Grammar deals with the following subjects : (i) Sounds and Letters : (Orthography.) (2) Classification, inflexion, and derivation: (Etymology.) (3) The relation of words in a sentence, and the relation of sentences to each other: (Syntax.) iM 8 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. ORTHOGRAPHY. I. Sounds and Letters. § 7. All sounds are not produced exactly in the same way. Some sounds are produced by means of the tongue and cavity of the mouth, which modify the breath before it passes into the air, as a in father, i in machine, 00 in fool, &c. These simple sounds are called vowels. Vowels were so called because they made distinct voices or utterances and formed syllables by themselves. (Fr. voyelle, Lat. vocalis, ) Two vowels sometimes unite to form a Diphthong, as oi in boil^ ai in aisle^ &c. § 8. Other sounds are produced by the direct means of the lips, teeth, &c., which are called the organs of speech. These sounds are called consonants, as b, d, &c. Z?>-sounds are called Labials; /^^//5-sounds Dentals; throat- sounds Gutturals; hissing-sonnd% Sibilants. Consonants (Lat. consonare, to sound along with) were so called because they could not make a distinct syllable without being sounded along with a vowel. Some consonant sounds seem to have a little breath attached to them and may be prolonged. Such sounds are called spirants (Lat spirare, to breathe), as /, th, &C. The other consonants, in sounding which the breath seems stopped, are called mutes or dumb sounds. Of the mutes and spirants some seem to have a flat sound, and others a sharp sound, as :— b(flat) p (sharp): z (flat) s (sharp) [chap. I.] SOUNDS AND LETTERS. I. — Consonant Sounds. in the cans of dify the ler, i in ids are voices or ?//(f, Lat. 'hongy as ; means ^ans of Its, as : throat- >o called ut being breath sounds ), as /, breath ds. have a MUTES. Gutturals Flat G hard Palatals . Palatal . Sibilants Sharp. K Nasal. NG (soft) Dental . Sibilants Dentals . Labials . D a in gnat. a in pair. a in fame, a in all. a in want. M \r\ rnpf e in meet. N M SPIRANTS. Flat Sharp. H Zh (azure) (prize) Sh (sure) S (mouse) Dh (bathe) Th (bath) Trilled V 'W (witch) '; A^U'h (which) II,— Vowel Sounds. i in knit. in not. o in note. 00 in fool, rude. 00 in wood, put « in nut. R. lO PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. / in high. ai in aisle. oi in boil. III. — Diphthongs. ou in how, bound. ew in mew. The pupil must not confound the sound with the name of the letter; ''be'' is only the name of the sign b, not the sound it represents. The Alphabet. § 9- An Alphabet is a collection ^of written si^ns called letters. The word Alphabet is derived from Alphas Beta, the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. An old name for our collection of letters was ABC. There ought to beas va^xij letters in a perfect alphabet as there are sounds in the language. We have forty- three sounds, which ought to be represented by forty- three letters. Our alphabet is very imperfect, for it consists of only twenty-six letters. Three of these {c, q, x) are not wanted, so that we have really only twenty-three useful letters. (1) One letter has to stand for more than one sound, as s in seas ; ch m ch«^ch, /«achm., chemistry ; g mgzrt and gm. (see a, p. 9.) *=* (2) The same sound is represented by different signs : as o in note, ^oa/, toe, crow, &c. (3) There are many silent letters, as in psatm, gnat, lx.ncm^^ caij. (4) c,q, X, are called redundant letters : c may be represented by s or k, q by kw, and x by ks. I.] SOUNDS AND LETTERS. II § lo. Occasional Change of Sound in English. Consonants are sometimes combined. If they are unlike, one of them assbnilates, or becomes like the other. Thus, if the first is a sharp sound, the second, if /^/, will become sharp; as weeped, \s^pt. KJlat consonant must be followed by a %t conso- nant, and a sharp consonant by a sharp one 3 as, I. — (i) slabs J pronounced slabz. (2) bathes „ bathz, (3) hugged „ ■ hugd, lagged „ lagd. IT.— (i) slap-s. (2) bath-s (gives a bath). (3) sleeped pronounced slept lacked „ Icickt. The original sound of ^ was sharp, as in mouse. (See Plurals of Nouns, § 22, p. 21.) -«ii!i^ 12 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. CHAPTER II. ETYMOLOGY. PARTS OF SPEECH. § 1 1. Words are arranged in different Classes, ACCORDING TO THEIR USE IN A SENTENCE. 1. Words used as names are called Nouns ; as, yohn saw a snake in the garden. 2. Words used for Nouns are called Pronouns ; as, / told John the snake would not hurt km or me, if he left it alone, to go its own way. 3. Words used with Nouns to distinguish or de- scribe the thing named are called Adjectives; as, The humble-bees are known by their iarge size and hairy bodies, often of a black colour with orange bands. Adjectives serve to modify the meaning of the noun to which they relate. They may easily be found out by asking, " Of what sort ?'' * « How many .?" " Which ?" 4. Words used for stating what anything does or is done to, are called Verbs ; as, One day John saw a rat come out of a hole ; he found it was hurt and could not run fast. [chap. 11.] PARTS OF SPEECH. n LASSES, E. )uns ; or me, 3r de- e and 3ands. > which :, ''Of r or ts saw a 5 Words used with Verbs to mark the when, where, ^x^d^how of what is done, are called Adverbs; as, Tne lark soars aloft, and always sings sweetly. (Vdverbs maybe used with Adjectives and other Adverbs to mark how, how much, how often, &c. ; as, My father is quite well ; he is very seldom ill ; he does not like to take too much medicine. 6. Words used with Nouns (or Pronouns) to join them to verbs, adjectives, and other nouns, are called Prepositions ; as, On Monday last, early in the morning, as John was walking along the side of the river, he saw a snake of a large size, which he killed by striking it with his whip. Prepositions join words together to show their bearing to one another ; as, side— river ; side of the river. The noun or pronoun with the preposition depends upon the word to which it is joined; as, in -aman./zm^^^^," ^^ofwi^dom depends on ^'' manJ'^ The preposition with its noun is mostly of the same value as an adjective or an adverb. Thus : » a man of'^visdom » - ;;a f'^^ man" (adj.) ; ''he came on shore»=^''\i^ came ashore (adv.). Some prepositions cannot well be separated from the words which they come before ; as, a-loft, in vain, at last m deed. We must parse these compounds as adverbs. (See 5 above. ) 7 Words used to join sentences together are called Conjunctions ; as, Birds fly and fish swim, but worms creep along the ground, for they have no power to do otherwise or else they would. 8 Words used to express a sudden feeling are called Interjections. They might be called Ex- clamations ; as, Oh I Alas I 14 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. mi There are, as we have seen, eight Parts of Speech : — I- Noun. 5. Adverb. 2. Pronoun. | 6. Preposition. 3. Adjective. i 7. Conjunction. 4. Verb. I 8. Interjection. On Parsing. § 12. When we tell to what class ox part of speech a word belongs, we are said to parse it. We must bear in mind that we cannot do this off- hand, by merely looking at a word. We must ask ourselves what duty it is doing in the sentence to v/hich it belongs, before we can pi^rse it accurately. The same word may be a noun in one part of a sentence, an adjective in another, a verb in a third, and so on ; as, John exchanged his silver watch for a lump of silver, with which he meant to silver some metal coins. The first '' silver " is an adjective, the second a noun, and the third a verb. Cp. " I cannot second you in trying to get the second place on the list without thinking a second or two about it." " I learnt all my lessons but one, but that was very hard ; had I had but more time I could have learnt it very well." The first but ^ except, is a preposition; the second joins two sentences, and is therefore a conjunction : the third = on/y is an adverb. The word //Ja/ may be an adjective, 2. pronoun, or a conjunction John said that that word that h« Y'-^ --^ ^ pronoun." 11.] CHANGES OF WORDS. IS As may be an adverb, a conjunction, or a pronoun. 'I am cm wise as my elder brother, who has had the same teaching as I have had." It must be reco'lected that some pronouns can be used as adjectives ; as, *^That^s the boy chat took that splendid book of yours off your table." Many wor' hat are often used -is adverbs may be used as conjunctions. ** Noiu all is reaciy, come now, and don't delay a moment." "John was so naughty yesterday, he would climb about, so he fell down." On Changes that Words undergo. § 13. Some words alter their form to express a change of meaning ; thus, child becomes (i) children, to show that more than one is meant ; (2) child's, to show that something is possessed by a child. " We sleep" becomes " we slept" to show that the action of sleeping is not now going on, but took place in some time gone by or past. All the Parts of Speech do not undergo a change of form, only the Noun, Pronoun, Adjec- tive, Verb, and some few Adverbs. These changes, called inflexions, are mostly brought about by putting some additional letter or syllable to the end of a word. These additions are often spoken of as endings or suffixes, I. The addition of ? letter or syllable to the end of a word often causes a change in the word itself; a'' sleep-ed becomes /t\ fiat^.rf i'>\ c/>v,./ • rn ornld and (fild-en. ■•^tzyyU and ndtionaL poose and gdsling. i6 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. 2. The ending has sometimes disappeared altogether, and the internal change does duty for an inflexion. Thus, the word men (for niannis) .';,is really lost the ending that brought about the change ; cp. / .W, led (once ledde) ; feed, fed {owcq fedde). 3. The loss of a letter in the middle of a word causes change ; cp. e'er for ever. It is this change that explains made from' maked ; stile from stigel, &c. § 14. English has lost very many endings, but it is not any the worse off on that account. It supplies their place by what we may call rel Monal words (or words that carry us to some other word in the same sentence). Thus : instead of saying " a bafs wing," we can say " a wing of a bat:' Here of does duty for the ending V. We say " a lion-ess " to show that we are naming the fma/e. We might say " a s/ie-lion," just as we do always speak of " a j//^-bear." The word s/ie does exactly the same duty, and marks the same notion, as the ending -ess. In fact, these endings, which now mean little by themselves, but modify greatly the words to which they are added, were once independent words ; as, /y in god-/y is only a corruption of the word /iJ^e in ^o^- like. III.] NOUNS: CLASSIFICATION, n CHAPTER III. NOUNS. 14 f IT I.— DEFINITION. § 15. A Noun is a word used as a name. The word Noun comes from Fr. w?/», Lat nomm, a name, that by which anything is known. II.— CLASSIFICATION. § 16. There are two kinds of nouns :— 1. Proper. 2. Common. A Proper Noun is the name of only one person or thing in the same sense; as, Hemy, London, Jupiter. Proper means "belonging to oneself," not possessed by an- other, peculiar to one thing. A C^^mmon Noun is the name of each individual in the same class or sort of things ; as, man, girl, city, tree. Common Nouns include what are called Collective Nouns and Abstract Nouns. ( I ) When a mn stands for a number (or collection) of persons or things considered as oneiiis called a Goliective Noun ; as, " a jury." (2) When a noun is the name of a quality, property y or action, it is called an Abstract Noun ", as, whiteness, honesty, love, reading. The word abstract means drawn off. Abstract nouns are so called because they are the names of qualities or states considered apart from the objects to which they belong. We see and speak of a white flozver, but we may think and speak of the white- ness alone. The form of the verb with to before it is used as an abstract noun ; as. to play cricket is pleasanter than to learn grammar. III.— INFLEXIONS. § 17. Nouns and Pronouns have inflexions to mark Gender, Number, and Case. Gender of Nouns. § 18. Gender is that form of the noun which shows whether we are speaking of Hving beings (males or females), or lifeless things. The names of males are called Masculine nouns. The names of females are called Feminine nouns. The word gender (Fr. genre, Lat. genus) means kind or class. It belongs only to words : thus the person man is of the male sex, but the word man is masculine or of the masculine gender. The names of things without life are called Neuter nouns, because they aie of neither gender. A noun that is either masculine or feminine is said to be of the Common gender ; as parent (father or When the masculine arid feminine have each a III.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 19 distiL X ending, then we have what is strictly termed grammatical gender, as — Masc. Fem. murder-er and murder-ess. sorcer-er „ sorcer-ess. But such words are now very few, and the masculine noun occurs most often without any ending to mark gender, as — Masc. Fern. giant and giant-ess. peer „ peer-ess. We then have chiefly to consider the endings of feminine nouns. The feminine is formed from the masculine by the suffix -ess. Masc. Fem. heir heir-ess. founder foundr-ess. actor actr-ess. cater-er eater-ess. This suffix comes to us from the Norman-French -esse (Lat. -issa). It is not found in the language before the twelfth century. It is now the only common mode of forming the feminine. Its use is now restricted ; it cannot be put to every masculine noun. In some few borrowed words we have feminine endings of foreign origin, as — • Masc. fem.. executor and execu-trix. hero H hero-ine. sultan .. sultan-a. m • 'iH i ^'ii 4.| If 20 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. §19. Remains of Older Modes of Marking the Feminine I. By the suffix -ster. Spin-j/^r, the name of an unmarried woman, once signified a female spinner. In O.E. many masculines in -er had a corresponding feminine in -ster : as, Masc. Fern. O. E. ^^^-(fr^=: baker, bcBc-estre-=\)2L'yi\jtx. sang-ere — sing-er, sang-estre = song-stress. In the 14th cen'ury the N. Fr. -ess took the place of the older •sfer as a feminine ending. After a time, -sfer merely marked the agent, as in songster and sempster ; then, to mark the femi- nine, -ess was tacked on to -ster^ as in song-str-esSy and semp- str-ess. 2. By the suffix -en. Vix-^;2, the old feminine oi fox (once pronounced vox in some parts of England). Irregular Forms. Bridegroom ( = the bride's man) is formed from the feminine bride. The word groom once meant man. Gander is formed from an old root, gans, a goose. Drake ( = duck-king) is formed from the old roots, endy a duck, and rake, a king. Lady is the feminine of lord. Lass ( = lad-ess) is the feminine of lad. Woman is a compound of wife and man. III.] NUMBER OF NOUNS. 21 [NG THE § 20. As a substitute for suffixes of gender we can make a compound term by putting a masculme or feminine word to a noun of the common gender ; as, ^^-goat, she-^=. ^"- •"- . oS was first s.^-as, then smM.., and finally ««M.. Hi ■,^!l a (I ^1 22 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. 11 Modifications uf the General Rule, 1. Singular Nouns ending in s, z, X, sh, soft ch, j (all containing an s sound), form the plural by the syllable es (pronounced ez) ; as gas-^J, box-^j-, brush-^j, church-^^, judg-^j. 2. Nouns of English origin ending in f, fe, having 1 or any long vowel (except oo) before f, fe, change / into V when adding the sign of the plural. Singular. Plural. loaf, loaves. wife, wives. wolf, wolves. The words life^ "wife, were once written without the final ^, and the plural es made a distinct syllable. 3. Words ending in y (not preceded by a vowel) form the plural by changing j; into i and adding es; as. Singular. Plural. lady, ladies, fly, flies. § 23. Remains of older Modes of forming the Plural. 1. By change of vowel. Singular. Plural. man men. foot feet, tooth teeth, mouse mice. 2. By the ending -en. {a) ox-^;/, hos-en, shoo-« (shoes). {b) ki-ne, childr- and the answer will be the Nominative. Thus, in the example above, if we ask ** Who sings ?" " Who likes?" The answers will ht/ohn and /, which are the x ominatives. § 28. When a noun stands for the person spoken to or addressed, it is said to be in the Vocative case. It has the same form as the Nominative, and is some- times called the Nominative of Address; as, Father come and look here ! O Sir, do not be angry. § 29. When a noun stands for the object of an action it is said to be in the Objective case; as, John killed a rat The Objective case of nouns is now like the Nominative, but it was not always so, and is not now so oi pronoum. The Objective in English includes — III.] CASES OF NOUNS. 25 lx\ The direct object after a transitive verb ; as, "He ^"^ s'Act}!!" '''He hurt his/../." -^0^;^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^bje/ask a question wUh ...^ or ^^^^^^^l^]^^ verb and the answer will give it, e.g. vvnoui Itrik;?" '■ What did he hurt?" Jams, foot, which are the direct objects. In Latin we should call the direct object the Accusative case. Ii\ The indirect object, which is equivalent to a noun ^'' i^h Se prepositioa to or for before it ; as, " Give/.^» his book." "He bears William a grudge. Bmld «, a house." miiam = to William, John = to John. ftte = for me. The indirect o.Ject answers to «ie ^..V. in La^n^nd t:^^^^^ sii^lar-tdpU, from the direct object (.. accusative). Th. form of the verb «ith t. before it. when it ,d.f""- P^'P^=; K,^ mdirect object. "What »ent ye out to He I t' «' ^M ««'*• (3) A noun after a preposiiion ; as, "He put his foot onthe^«<«rf." "He came from Xo«<&», &c- It must be recollected, that in English the ^;./<.«V«» along with a foUowing noun is equal to a .«.>r». m latm. 8 ,0 When a noun by its form denotes the pos- sessor 'it is said to be in the Possessive case; as, the boys book," " the cat's tail," " the sutis rays. ia) The Possessive case is the only form of the noun that expresses a relation by means of an endtng or suffix The difference be 'een the Nominative ^ni Objechve .. ,, i.t,,. ,1,^ cmse and position being our must De ciiuugiit Ou., «i'- — --- - guides in determining which is used. (( y iil V] J, 1 1 ^11 i 11 26 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. HI.] {h) We use the Possessive case simply to mark possession. It is chiefly used with reference to living things. The preposition of is used instead of the inflexion in other instances ; as, ** The roof of the house ," not, as we could once say, "The house's roof." In old English this case corresponded to the Genitive in German, Latin, &c. Nouns of time still keep it ; as, *'a week's supply " ; "a day's journey." § 31. Formation of the Possessive Case. The Possessive cas** is formed by adding 's to the Nominative. Singular man-'s Plural men-'s Exception,— '^omi% forming their plural by S take the apostrophe only. Singular boy-'s sweep-'s Plural boys' sweeps' In the spoken language the possessive singular does not differ from the possessive plural, bofs and boyi being pronounced alike. {a) The apostrophe is really a mere written device for dis- tinguishing the possessive case from the plural number of the noun. It came into use about the 17th century. Apostrophe means "turned away," and is so called because it shows that something has been omitted, cp. ien = even^ The real omission is the letter e ; lord^s and lords' were once written and pronounced lord-'es. I, E, III.] CASES OF NOUNS, n (6) At one time it was supposed that 's meant his, and we actually find some writers using such expressions as *' the king Ms crown." The apostrophe is sometimes used to mark the Joss of the possessive sign in the singular, as " Mosei law, for Jusike' sake." The sign ' is no real case form. § 32. Declension of a Noun. Nominative ) and > Vocative ) Possessive Objective Singular., Plural, man men man's men s man men Singular. Plural, child children child's children's child children Sing. Plural. Nominative ) , and \ boy boys Vocative ) Possessive boy's boys' Objective boy boys Sing. Plural fox foxes Sing. Plural thief thieves fox's foxes' I thief s thieves* fox foxes ' thief thieves I ''in m as PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. IV.] CHAPTER IV. ADJECTIVES. I.— DEFINITION. § 33. The Adjective is a word used with a noun to distinguish or describe the thing named or spoken of. Adjective (Lat. adjedivum) means ** added to." XL—CLASSIFICATION. § 34. Some Adjectives express quality; as, large^ tally rich; others denote quantity or number; as, much^ little, few, one, both ; a third kind point out and limit the thing spoken of; as, '^ a book," ''the man." Hence there are three kinds of Adjective^ : — 1. Adjectives of Quantity. 2. „ „ Quality. 3. Demonstrative Adjectives. Many of the pronouns are used as adjectives ; as, this^ that, each, every ^ &c § 35. The Adjectives an, a, and the are some- times called Articles. An v-)r a is called the Indefinite Article, and the the JDefifiite Article. A in f\T c« (/) 4J ^ -0 u n (U 1-, Oh Ph used Lat. xn H O u u O 1/1 p< 2 c o qj ^ bO CI 0) • r-< > csj frt A tx a M •r-l ft CTl 0) en ■i-i c3 >■ M ^_^ 'A d) ■i-( 73 — H *H N 0) 0) '13 M c3 oj ft 'd en ft N ft bo D oj JO c/l •r-( ft I ft 73 (1) •r-l ft QJ W .p-( 03 ;-( ft CO d M tH N to 03 ft CO TO O Oj . TO O '^ CD '^ •!-( ,-( W) -H Ol I— I "r^ rH t< rt 03 05 ft -^ ftin a en en •r-< en Oj tx ft o a) en JD .p-( "^ oi u ft I— I I— t 05 A en en u ft 1-1 04 O o > > (/J (/) N o • »-* O > (U > *-> o , are o the (A 48 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. It! HI b#tf. Notice that only the present and past tenses of the active voice, indicative mood, are inflected tenses. § 67. An emphatic form of the present and past tenses may be made by using do. Present I do love. Past I did love. But it is not emphatic when used in interrogative and negative sentences. Do you hear ? Did you listen ? 1 do not hear. I did not listen. (See notes on £>o, p. 72.) 4. Person and Number, § 6Z. The verb is Singular when it agrees with a subject in the singular number, and Plural when it agrees with a subject in the plural ; as, Singular : " he writes.'' Plural : " they write.'' There are three persons (as in the pronouns, see § 41, P- ZZ), the first, the second, and the third. The plural has no endings to mark person. We know the person by looking to the subject; as, " We speak," ''you speak;' " the boys speak," or " they speak." The first person singular has no ending : as " I talk." The second person, which is seldom used, has -est (-St) ; as, '* thou talk-est." VI.] VERBS: CONJUGATION. 49 The third person (present) has -s, with the old form -eth ; as, " he talk-s," or ** talk-eth." These endings belong only to the indicative mood. The subjunctive has no person-endings. We might do without any endings, because the personal pro- noun marks the person. These endings were once pronouns themselves. Cp. a-w, ar-/, &c. 5. Conjugation. § 69. Verbs may be divided into two classes : (i) Those that make their past tense by -d or-t ; as, Presenty I love. Past, I love-//. I sleep. I slep-/. (2) Those that make their past tense by changing the vowel of the present ; as, Present, I wr/te. Past, I wrf?te. Verbs of the first class are called Weak, and those of the second Strong verbs. Be careful to notice that a strong verb adds nothing to the past tense. Thus got, the past tense of get, is a strong verb ; but tol-d, the past tense of tell, is a weak verb. The change of vowel in the past tense of strong verbs, as fall, fell, &c,, must not be confounded with the shortening of the vowel, as in feed and fed {once fed-de). The Passive Participles of all strong verbs once ended in -en ; but this suffix has fallen away in many verbs ; as, drunk = drunken, &c Passive participles of weak verbs end in -ed i-d, -t) ; those of strong verbs never had this ending, and when they take it they become weak ; as, he was tot-d (weak) ; he has tfiown (strong) ; he has mowed (weak). B so PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. § 70. Classification of Strong Verbs- strong verbs are classified according to the changes of their central vowels. CLASS I. Prcs. Past. Pass. Part a, 0. e. a. fall feU fallen hold held held, holden* blow blew blown grow grew grown know knew known throw threw thrown crow crew crown* hang hung hung beat beat Forms marked thus * are archaic beaten Mow, sow, hew, once belonged to this class. Their strong participles, mown, sown, hewn, are sometimes used. Hang once made a past tense heng. Go or gang has borrowed its past tense went from wend, to go. Gom is a strong past participle. VI.] STRONG VERBS, 5] CLASS II. Pres. Past. Pass. Part 1. a, u, ou U, OU begin cling drink began clung, clang* drank begun clung drunk run ran run swim swam swum spin spun, span* spun sing shrink sang shrank sung shrunk sink ^ank sunk fling sling flung, flang* slung, slang* flun<; slung ring slink rang slunk rung slung spring sting sprang stung, stang* sprung stung swing swung, swang* swung wring wrung, wrang* wrung • win won, wan* won bind bound bound, bounden* find found found fight grind wind fought ground wound fought ground wound e help melt holp* molt* holpen molten swell • •• swollen burst burst ♦ Archaic. burst Helpt ituliy sweilf have now the weak form for past tense and passive participle. m *M i! 52 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. CtASS IIL Pres. Past. Pass. Part i a i. (I) bid bade, bid bidden, bid give lie gave lay given lien, lain* sit sat sat 1 ea, (ee), e a, (0) ea, (ee,) 0. 1 , (2) eat ate eaten 1 get i tread got, gat» trod gotten, got* trodden, trod see saw seen weave wove woven ••• quoth ••« *•« was •.• Words marked thus * are archaic. ■■ CLASS IV. > Pres. Past. Pass. Part. a O5 00, e a(o) awake awoke awoke forsake forsook forsaken^ lade • •• laden grave stand • •• stood graven stood shave • • • shaven shake shook shaken swear swore sworn take took taken draw drew drawn slay slew slain VI.] j^SaCf gravcj uiiu shave nave weak furHis fur the pa5t tense aiiu passive participle. [chap. VI.] STRONG VERBS » 53 1 • • CLASS V. Pres. Past. Pais. Part E i (loi^). O 1 (sho-t) H a-bide abode abode, abiden* 1' bite bit bitten J drive drove driven ■ chide chid, chode* chidden, chid H ride rode, rid* ridden, rid H rise rose risen ■[ rive rove riven H^ shine shone shone H I- shrive shrove shriven H slide slid slidden, slid H smite smote, smit* smitten 1' stride strode stridden H: thrive throve thriven B write wrote, writ* written ^B strike struck struck, stricken B strive strove • Archaic. striven ^^^B ^^^B Chide, rive, slide have also weak forms in the past tense and H passive particle. VI. Pres. Past. Pass. Part. ee, oo O O- • freeze froze frozen seethe sod* sodden, sod* cleave clove cloven choose chose chosen lose • •• lorn* shoot shot shot, shotten* ■ ^H fly flew flown J «*5C SliU \aoth» i'lA/tTl* In i0 havf ivpair forms i n the Dast tense and passive participle. 54 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [CH .p. § 71. Classification of Weak Verbs. We may divide the weak verbs roughly into two classes. 1. Those that have -ed, -d, or -/ in the past tense and passive participle. 2. Those that have lost the -d or -/ in the past tense and passive participle. Class I. We often write -ed, but we only sound it when the verb ends in -d or -/, as mend-ed, lift-ed. In all other cases it is pronounced -d or -/, as dragged = dragd. locked = lockt. (i) This -ed was once a separate verb and meant did, I laved =■ I love-did. {2) -d becomes -t after a sharp mute (for reason see p. li) and sometimes after /, w, w, as slept^ felt, burnt, dreamt, (3) Some verbs shorten the long vowel in the past tense and passive participle; as, hear, heard ; flee, fled ; sleep, slept (see § 13, p. 15.) (4) A few have not the same vowel in the present as in the past. {a) tell, tol-d, tol-d. buy, bought, bought. (b) teach, taught, taught. work, wrought, wrought. (5) Some have lost an internal letter ; as, made — maked ; (5a^=haved. VI.] WjEAJi: VERBS. 55 Class II. 1. Some verbs of this class shorten their vowel in the past tense and passive participle, and look like strong verbs. feed, fed, fed. &c., &c., &c. 2. Others ending in Id or nd change the d into / in the past tense and past participle. buil^, buiU, buil/. sen^, sen/, sen/. &c., &c., &c. 3. A third kind ending in d? or / have the three forms (present, past, and passive participle) alike. rid, rid, rid. set, set, set. &c., &c., &c. All verbs of Class II. had an inflexion in Old English, e.g. Past Tense. fad-de sende [= send-de] set-te Pass. Part, fad-ed = fed. send-ed = sent, sett-ed = set. As the verb in both conjugations is inflected only in th^ nrPQpnt and Dast indefinite tenses, the forms of the English verb are easily mastered. 56 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. il S 72. I. STRONG CONJUGATION. To smite. Present, sm/te. Past, sm^te. Passive Participle, sm/ten. Present Tense. Singular, Indicative Mood. 1. I sm/te 2. Thou sm/t-est 3. He sm/te-3, sm/tc-th 1. We sm/te 2. Ye, you sm/te 3. They sm/'te Subjunctive Mood. 1. I sm/te 2. Thou snw'te 3. He sm/te Plural I We sm/te 2. Ye, you sm/'te 3. They sm/te 1. I sm^te 2. Thou sm^/-est 3. He sm^te 1. We sm^e 2. Ye, you sm^te 3. They sm^te Past Tense. Singular, I. I smdTte Plural, 2. Thou sm^te 3. He sm(7te 7 . We sm(?te ::. Ye. wu sm^te 3. They sm^te Imperative Mood. Singular— %mXjt (thou). Plural— Smite (ye, you). Infinitive, /^ smite. Present Participle, smit-ing. Passive Participle, smit-^«. VI.] WEAJC VER^S, 57 173. II. WEAK CONJUGATION. To Lift Pris., lift. Past, Xiii-ed. Pass. Part., lift-^^ Present Tense. Sin^lar. Indicative Mood. 1. I lift 2. Thou lift-est 3. He lift-s (-th) 1. We lift 2. Ye, you lift 3. They lift Subjunctive Mood. 1. I lift 2. Thou lift 3. He lift Plural, 1. We lift 2. Ye, you lift 3. They lift 1. I VS.Ud 2. Thou lift-P'. 'm:. [chap. VI.] AUXILIARY VERBS. n IS now a sss duty^ **io have it is con- iSt tense, 12. Go. Go has lost its true past tense. We supply its loss by ths verb went^ the old past tense of wend^ * ' to turn. " Gone shows that go was originally a strong verb, cp. done. 13. Let, in ** let me go," is the imperative mood of the verb let, to alloWf permit. 14. The subjunctive mood of anomalous verbs, with the excep- tion of the verb ^'' to be,^' has no sufiixes to mark person. means to r its past Auxiliary Verbs. § 78. The auxiliary verbs used for ioxming tenygs are be, have, shall, will, da. The verb to be is used for forming the passive voice. To conjugate the verb in all its parts, see tables, p. 47 and pp. 56, 57. ;nse wot ; I English 2d as an rb, being dedi. d interro- elievs it ?" t," 74 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. "t : \i CHAPTER VII. ADVERBS. II I. DEFINITION. ^ 79. An Adverb is a word that modifies the mean- ing of a verlf, adjeciivcy or other adverb, (See page 13,) II. CLASSIFICATION. Adverbs may be divided into the following classes : T. Adverbs of time. When'i Then, now, often, soon, ^c. 2. Adverbs of place. Where? Here, there, whither, &*c. 3. Adverbs of lamier. Ilowf (i) Well, ill, badly. Degree, quality ; (7) little, much, quite, very, Aflir; nation, negation ; (3) yes, indeed, no, not, 4. Adverbs of cause and effect Why ? therefore, thence, wherfoie, whenoi, &^c. vn.] ADVERBS: INFLEXIONS, III. INFLEXIONS. § 80. Comparison of Adverbs well better best m worse worst much more most forth further furthest far farther . fsA'thest late later last rrathe'l rather rathest See Adjectives, § 38, p. 30. § 81. Adverbs are formed from Other parts of Speech. 1. Nouns and Adjectives : — needs (of necessity); noways, always, unawares, on-ce, whils-t. This s is an old genitive suffix. Whil-om and seld-om contain an old dative ending. 2. Pronouns : — whe-7'e, whe-n — , whence; why, the-re, the-n, &c., he-re, &c. 3. Nouns "^r Adjectives compounded v/ith a pre- position : — an-^n {at once),a'hed, a-broad, of kin, of late, of old, to-day, be-times, or by tut ts. 76 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. n CHAPTER VIII. 1 1 PREPOSITIONS. I. DEFINITION. § 82. Prepositions join words to mark certain relations. See p. 13. By means of prepositio are able to express the relation of things to other things, oi the relation of things to tlieir actions or attributes. The most common relations expressed by pre- positions are place^ Hmej manner^ cause, A preposition joins a noun (or pronoun) (i) to another noun (or pronoun) ; There is a book on the table. (2) to an adjective; He is fond of his book. (3) to a verb j John goes to school in time. II. CLASSIFICATION. %2>' Prepositions are either simple or compound. I. Simple : — "'^ ^JfJ^^y i^h y^y Wl ^'■^h i<>y ^py wUh. VIII.] PREPOSITIONS. 77 2. Compound: — (i) af'ter, ov-er, un-der^ throu-gh, b-ut, a-b-out, a-b-ove, un-tOy in-to^ be-kind, with-tn, out ofjro-my for-th. (2) a-mo?tg, a-gain, a-head, Oe-side^ in spite of^ a-thwart, be-twixt^ a-round. (3) From verbs (participles) : owing to, notwith- standing^ except, save, Nighy nmr, nearer, next, are sometimes used as prepositions. Past, the passive participle ot the verb pass, is a preposition in " I \f QVit past the church." I ; 78 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. ix. I i U. I ' CHAPTER IX. CONJUNCTIONS. I. DEFINITION. § 84. Conjunctions join sentences. See p. 13. Sometimes they join two independent words together • as, ^Uhree and three make six. " ' II. CLASSIFICATION. § 85. Conjunctions are of two kinds :— - 1. Co-ordinate Conjunctions, which join two independent sentences: amf, either, or, neither, nor, but. 2. Subordinate Conjunctions, which join a prin- cipal sentence to another that depends upon it for its full meaning : for, because, since, as, if, unless, lest, that. Scire conjunctions are used in pairs, and are called correlatives : both — andy what— and, as well—aSy either—or, &>c. We use many compound expressions as conjunctions : like wise, in order that, to the end that, so that, him be it, although, albeit, nevertheless. See Analysis of Sentences, p. loi. CHAP. X.] INTERJECTIONS. 79 CHAPTER X, INTERJECTIONS. as, § Zd. Interjections, being mere exclamations, do not stand in grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. Oh ! Alas ! Many interjections are phrases cut short ; as, good- bye I == God be with you; marry I = the Virgin Mary ; wassail =^ was (be) hale (healthy) \ cp., hail I all hail I welcome / adieu / Many adverbs^ prepositions, and even verbs, are used as interjections : how I well! out I look I behold I li 80 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. 1' II CHAPTER XI. WORD-MAKING. \ \ § 87. A word that cannot be reduced to a simpler form is called a root ; as, tnan, good, drink. § 88. Particles added to the end of the root are called suffixes ; as, man-zj^, good-;/^j-^, drink-/;/^. Suffixes are said to form derivatives ; as, man-/v, is derived from man. § 89. Particles placed before the root are called prefixes ; as, 2/;^man-ly, w/j-deed, &c. Prefixes are used to form compounds 5 ss^for-bid, gain-say, &lc. Prefixes were once independent words. Many of them are still so used: cp., mis-take — taka a-miss ; ford-know, know beforCy under -^A.axA, 8zc. § 90. Compounds are also formed by putting two words together ; as, black-bird, ink-stand. § 91. Besides. English suffixes we have very many others that we have borrowed from Fre/ich, Latin, and Greek. § 92. These suffixes mark different notions and relations. Some denote the doer or agent j others form abstract nouns ; a few express d.minution or [chap. XL] ENGLISH SUFFIXES. 8i simpler lot are nan-/v, called for-bid, liem are i^, know ng two ' many in^ and IS and others ion or English Suffixes. §93. I. NOUNS. 1. The Agent : -er (-ar, -or) ; bak-^r, do-j!o-, writ-/>2!^. -ness ; good-ness, ddirk-ness. -red 5 hsit-red, kind-r^^. -ship ; friend-s/iip, lord-sh/p. -th, -t ; heal-M, steal-//^, hvea.d-t/1, dep-//^, wid-//z, heigh-/, drif-/, sigh-/. 3. Diminutives : -en ; chick-?^, tith-/«^, shill-/«^, whit-/«^, wild-/«^. -ling ; duck-//>z^, gosding. -kin ; lamb-^/V?, nsip-h'n. §94. II. ADJECTIVES. -ed (like having) : wretch-*?^, boot-^^, letter-^'//, '-en (made of) : gold-*?/?, wood-/, fear->/. -ish (somewhat like) : girl-/y/^, vvhit-/V^. -ly (like) : god-/y, good-/v, love-/v. -like : god-like^ wsLY-like. -less (without) : sha,mQ-lesSf house-less. -y {pertaining to, abounding in) : hill-7, storm-^. -some (full of) : game-j^w^r, -win-some. -wax d (turning to) : ixo-wardy so\\\h-ward, -teen, -ty {ten) ; mne-teen, twen-Zy. -th {order) : six-th, seven-t/i. -fold (folded) : twofh/d, many fold. -ern (direction to) : jLSt-erny north-^^-w. §95. III. ADVERBS. -ly (like) : god-/v, bad-Zj', on-ly. -ling, -long (= -wise, -ways) ; flat-//>?^, head-/^«^, side-long. -meal (division) : l^mh-meal, ipiece-meal. -ward, -wards ,^turning to) : hither ward, up- wards. -wise (manner, mode) : other-wise, no-wise, like- wise. -way, -ways : zX-ways, straight-T^^j^. -s, -ce, -St : need-j-, twi-r;/, whil-^^r, hi-///^r. (Seep, 75.) [chap. m-^. ird, up- T ^ .^ 84 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. 11. ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS 1. Noun + Adjective : sky-blue^ blood-red, foot-sore, sea-sick, heart-rending, heart-broken. 2. Adjective -f Noun : bare-foot. 3. Adjective Adjective : blue-green, red-hot^ new- made, fair-hai7'ed, six-sided. III. VERB COMPOUNDS. 1. Noun + Verb : back-bite, way-lay. 2. Adjective + Verb : white-aoash, rough-hew, 3. Verb 4- Adverb : doff (-do off), don, (-do on). For Adverb Compounds see p. 75. § 98. English Prefixes. A- (on, in^ : a-bed, ^-shore, dr-b-out. A- (out of, from) : «-rise, ^-wake, a-go. A- (of, off) : dJ-kin, a-new, ^-down. After- (following) : after-noon, aftej'-wdixd, Al- (all) : al-ont, /one, al-mosi, also. At- (to) : at-ouQ, d!/-onement. Be- (by) : (i) It forms transitive and intransitive verbs : ^^-speak, ^Mhink, ^^-dew, ^^-smear. (2) It forms a part of some nouns, adverbs, and prepositions : ^5-coming, y2?r-ward. Gain- (against) : gam-sdiy (cp., contm-dict). In- : in-comt, />?-land, /«-lay, />/-to. Mis- (amiss) : w/j-deed, w/j-lead, ;/«V-take. Of- ( = off, from) : ^/fal, ^-spring. On- : on-^Qt, on-yfdiXd. Out- : out-c^st, out-\Qt, out-%\dLQ, ^^//-landish. Over- (above, beyond, too) : over-QoXmg^ over-fiow^ ^//^, nom-is/i, ipun-is/t. -fy : magni-^, signi-^, simpli;^. § loo. Greek Suffixes- I. NOUNS. -JC : log-/?, mus-ic. -ism : fsitaWsm, barbar-/>w, magnet-/!rw, -sy : drop-j^, pal-^^. -sis : paraly-i-/j-. -y : monarch-jj;. -isk (diminutive) : aster-/j>^, oheWsk, II. VERBS. -ise, -ize : civil-w^, {eitiU'se, anathemat-w^. § loi. Latin and French Prefixes. A-, al>-, abs- (away, from) ; ad-normal, aMic&te, al^s-tiSLCt, ads-staiinj < vert, ^-d-vance, &c. Ad- (to) : By assimilation ad becomes ac-, af-^ ag-, al-, am-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-j at-. ad-iom, ad'Ytrt, ac-ctpt Ante ' (before) : ante-chsimhtx, anfe-datQ. Bene- (well) : ^-cord, diiV-honour, dis- please, dis-like, dif-itx, Demi- (half) : demi-god. Ex-, e- (out of, from) : .f:i:-alt, ^-lect, ^^-mayor. Extra- (beyond) : extra-oxdm^Lry, extra^yfoxk. In-, en-, em- (in, into, on), with verbs : /«-vert, />?/-pose, //-lumine, ^«-rich, en-desix; em-halxriy -chief, /«/>-fortune. Non- (not) : «i7;2-sense, ;^^;^-existent. OL- (in front of, against) : ^^-ject, ^^-cupy, of-fex, ^-pose. Par-, Per- (through) : /(?r-force, /^r-spire, /)osf-scxipt Pre- (before j : pre-dict, Jfre-fsice. Pur (forth) : pur-cha,SQ, pur-vey. Pro- (forward, forth, for) : prc-ject, pro-pose, pro- noun. Re- (back, again) : r/ii-hious. An-, a- (not, without ; like English un-) : ««-archy, ^-pathy. Ana- (up to, again, back) : ana-toxnyj at^a-logy. Anti-, ant- (opposite to, against) : d!«A-christ, a«/-arctic. Apo- (away from, from) : «/^-logy, ^/^-strophe. Arch-, archi- (chief, head) : «;r>^-heretic, arc/t^ bishop, «r^-^/-tect. Auto- (self) : auto-gxaph, flJ/^/i?-biography. Cata-, cat- (down) : ^ata-x3LCt, ca^-htdraL Dia- (through) : dia-xxiQtQx, ///Vz-logue. Di- (in two) : ^/-syllable, di-phihong. [chap. XL] GREEK PREFIXES. 9X Dys- (ill) : ^j-peptic, ^j-entery. Ec-, ex- (out, from) : /comes before the appositional word ; as, the county of Rutland = the county Rutland. A noun (or pronoun) in the Possessivf case stands in the relation of an attribute to a*^.other noun. Sometimes the preposition of marks the same re- lation as the sign of the possessive case (see p. 26.) " Eye of newt and toe of frog, Wool of bat and tongue of dog. Adder's fork and blindr/ as, to let ^ for letting, &c. The gerundial infinitive is also used to mark a pur- pose ; as, " What went ye out to see?" The gerundial infinitive is so called because it often corre- sponds to a gerund in Latin. The simple infinitive must be either in the nomi- native or objective case; as, ''to err is human" (nom,); " he began /^; ^r^-" (obj.). [chap. Dositive 2Stions. express ibjiinc- found st, till ; dness." jpeak." P- 43-) s shally •ign to 'Q verbs metimes th the ns and " hard ' notms &c. a piir- i corre- nomi- iom,)j § 113. Participles. Participles in -ing and -ed are used as adjectives, and always refer to some noun in the sentence to which they belong. They may be used attributively or predicatively (see p. 45); as, "a loving mother;" *' a drimken man /' " a bncised reed." Participles {and Adjectives) with the before them are used as nouns ; as, "the living;'' "the dead;'' "the 'ax%\. begotten ;" "the Lord's anointed." The Participle is sometimes used absolutely with the Nominative case before it; as, "The dawn appear- ing, we rose ;" " This done, Mazeppa spread his cloak." The participle is said to be used absolutely because it stands in no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. The nominative before the participle is called the Nomina- tivG absolute, because it agrees with no finite verb. § 114. Verbal Nouns. Verbal Nouns in -ing. These must not be confounded with present participles in -ing. Verbal nouns are used either as nominatives or objectives. (i) The mending of the table will not take long. (2) The mending must he done at once. (3) The table wants mending. (4) The cost of mending the table will not be great. % I lOO PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. f^j;?. i The verbal noun mending in (4) seems to govern the noun table : but in older English the preposition of came between the verbal noun and the following noun, and the phrase would would have stood thus : " The cost of the mending of the table:' See example (i), p. 99. In such phrases as, " The house is building, " &c. ( = * * the house is a-building'% the form in -m^is a verbal noun. 3. Prepositions. § 115. Prepositions are said to govern the objective case (see p. 25.) Notwithstanding, considering, respecting, &c., were once participles used absolutely (see p. 99). They have now got the force of prepositions. m w 4. Conjunctions. § 116. Conjunctions simply join sentences. They must be carefully distinguished from (i) Adverbs, (2) Prepositions. Some words, as save, except, but, ere, arc used both as Conjunctions and Prepositions. But is used as three parts of speech (see p. 14). (1) ** I cannot but believe." Here not but must be taken together as a compound Adverb = only. (2) In '♦ There is no one but knows," but stands for the older English, that ne = that not. It must be parsed as a Conjunction. Cp., "No roof arose, butvfSiS open to the homeless stranger" = " No roof arose that was not,' &c ** V p. [chap. 1 the noun le between irase would 'the table:' "the house XIII.] ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. loi objective i^ere once )w got the I. They \dverbs, 5ed both lompound the older tjunction. Sfrr>r«rr«»i« " CHAPTER XIII. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. § 117. A complete thought put into words is called a Sentence. Sentence (Lat., sententia) means judgment, sense. A complete sentence makes complete sense. Every sentence expresses either an assertion or a question, command, wish, &c. To analyse a sentence is to break it up into its separate parts. § 118. Subject and Predicate. We can break up every sentence into two parts : — 1. The name of that of which we speak. 2. What is said about the thing spoken of. The name of that which is spoken of is called the Subject. What is said about the subject is called the Predicate. Subject. Com Rain Snow Every sentence must contain these two parts. subject is omitted ; as. Go — go [thou]. Subject. FREDiCATE, thou go Predicate. grows, falls, is white. Sometimes the f02 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [char !■ I IM § 119. The Subject. As the Subject names something that is spoken of, it must be : — 1. A Noun. (See p. 17 for the various kinds of noufis.) 2. Some word or words that may take the place and do the duty of a noun, as a Pronoun or a Sentence. Examples : — Subject. Man He He Erring To err Thai he erred An adjective with the definitive article is equivalent to a noun; as ^^the ^.«ar»= -dead man;" cp., ^Uhe wise are respected." § 120. The Enlarged subject. The simple subject IS a word in the Nominative case. We may call this the grammatical subject. Every noun, however, may have an adjective joined to It to qualify it The noun with its adjective is called the enlarged subject ; as, (i) Sharp wor . -'J'-- ■^t B. « va *-,.' a s \f finite verb it is called a Simple sentence. Two io6 PRIMER OF EivGLlSH GRAMMAR, [chap. II f simple sentences may be united together hy a co- ordinate conjunction (see p. 78) to form a compound sentence ; as, '^ Birds fly zxidifish swim'' Each member of the compound sentence makes complete sense by itself, and neither depends upon the other for its meaning. The second member of a compound sentence is said to be co-ordinate with the first. (i) Compound sentences may be contracted; as, "John re- turned home and James returned home yesterday "= "John and James returned home yesterday." (2) Aitd is often used to join two or more co-ordinate terms belonging to the same word in the sentence ; as, that new and expensive toy is spoilt. Subject. | Predicate. That new and expensive toy I is spoilt. §127. The Complex Sentence. We have seen that a sentence may do duty for (i) a Noun, (2) an Adjective, (3) an Adverb. As such sentences depend upon another sentence called the Principal one, for their full meaning, they are hence called Subordinate sentences. Subordinate sen- tences are of three kinds, Substantival, Adjec- tival, and Adverbial, The principal sentence, with the subordinate part or parts, is called a Com- plex Sentence. cution dragged them into fame," the two senterces are ; — [chap. XIII.] ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 107 (i) ** They lived unknown." (2) ** Persecution dragg'd them into fame." Each sentence as it stands makes complete sense : but (he full meaning of sentence two is not felt before it is joined and related to sentence one by the connecting word or conjunction ////. 1. Noun-SentGxices. § 128. A Substantival or noun sentence does the duty of a noun, and may be used as the subject or object of the verb in the principal sentence. It is sometimes introduced by the word that; as, (subject) ^'' That y ulius Ccesar invaded Britain is a well-known fact ;" (object) " he tried to prove that the earth is not round" Indirect questions are often objects; as, "Tell me who said so" ** Ask.him why he did so," ** Can he explain how it is done." 2« Adjective-Sentences. § 129. The Adjectival sentence does the duty of an adjective and qualifies some noun in the principal sentence. It is very often joined to the principal sentence by means of a relative pronoun or relative adverb. (i) At daybreak on a hill they stood that over- looked the moor. (2) And shall the audacious traitor brave The presence where our banners wave. In (i) the adjective sentence qualifies the noun hill in the principal sentence. In (2) the adjective sentence qualifies the noun presence in the principal sentence. Notice that where = in which. i S .'I io8 PRIMER OF ENGUSH GRAMMAR, [chap. 3. Adverb-Sentences. § 130. The Adverbial sentence does the duty of an adverb, and modifies some verb, adjective^ or adverby in thv^ principal sentence. The classification of adverbial sentences is the same as that of adverbs (see p. 74). Adverbial sentences are generally joined to the principal sentence by a subordinate conjunction (see p. 78). Examples ; — " On Linden, when the sun was low,- . All bloodless lay the untrodden snow." " V/e went where the lions were kept:' " He died as he had livedo " That man is as good as he is greats " He is taller than his brother:' " The higher he climbs the more heavily he will fall." " The weather was so cold that I ivas nearly frop^en:* [chap. XIII.] ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 109 duty of adverb^ le same ntences :e by a iied as great." her he weather . — .»_ J'Jim£Ji OF ENGLISH- GRAMMAR. TCHAP. 1 b 3 <2 • • t t • ( ~ j .^ ^ o-^ « 1> o = :S 5 •£°y • -t-> ^ w ■" 2 S • • • • • S si" 1 ^ "^* rt o i.s' 1 o r^ .S O s o o c bjo s c o tn O .a ( 2 bX) ■1-4 o ^ 1 4.< O , o 2 8 3 1 15 4iJ Q ^ -« yj ^ >% 4J ■" a> J3 1 1 o bjo . ''^ • 1 have seen a cat (wh oaouse, you may im; 1 ■ d o c 0) ■h-t .c 11 o a ID -5 2 <^ 2 •" " — > 1 CJ O -n r-. .5 3 5 o If HH en cJ o O 4) II a s QiO (U HH IH • 0-3 '^'¥ rt '•^Ji 1 a 03 6 -> O :2 C TJ ■4-> J > CO t/5 ■4-> c; • t-H 43 1 -4-1 Ti bJD 7^ G 4-t .3 O n ^ .is S C3 o o §1 &,2 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Ill t5 S IS c u o o Iff O u • iH 0^ u 3 V o s V 4-1 c o -3 cs 15 4) U u a pJ S S :=! O «- te P 0) 1) ■S O • F^ I—* o -is s 03 o a, o Ci &4 ••-1 "IsJ • i-rj -— N ■ O fO trt t« pG c o o in O G • »-, O ~ M a» ^ «« h > ^ ,2 _ ,iU "T) H_i "TJ OJ ' rt G Td o cJ o -•^ —« .^ t_ ^ ■*? c o C3 a, rt bind' .S'o G >-, c 4j Slid o w *- ^ S G f3 C/3 C TJ cl J3 flj s -G 'S 5'd H a. K" 112 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. p-^^ ' ^ § 132. MODEL OF GRAMMATICAL PARSING. I. Noun:— I. ^//^^ (Common, Proper) ; 2. Num^ oer; 3. Gender; 4. Case; 5. Syntax. II. Pronoun ;-i. KM (Personal, Demonstra- tive, &c) J 2. /'^rj-^;^; 3. Number; 4. 6^^«^^r/ 5. Ow^ • 6. Syntax. in. Adjective r-i. ^,W; 2. ^^^,-^^ ^y ^^^. partson; 3. Function (attribute of). IV. Verb :-i. Kind (Transitive, Intransitive) : 2. Conjugation (Strong, Weak); 3. r^;V^^. 4. jf^^^. 5.^ Tense; 6. P^^rx^;,; 7. yV;,;,,^^;.^. g. ^^,,^^^ (agreeing with) ; 9. i>^r/^y (Present, Past, Passive Participle). V. Adverb :— i. Kind; 2. Degree of Comparison; 3. Function (qualifying Verb, Adjective, or Adverb). VI. Preposition :-i. Kind; 2. Function (joining a Noun to a Noun, &c.). VII. Conjunction :-i. Kind; 2. ^^«r/.-^« (join- ing two sentences co-ordinately or subordinately). Example. My father lived at Blenheim then, Yon little stream hard by ; They burnt his dwelling to the ground, And he was forced to fly. ... Pronoun, personal, possessive, 1st person, singular number, common gender, attribute ^ oi father. ... Noun, common, singular number, masculine genaer, nommative case, subject of lived. My father i ?. [chap. SING. 2. Num- monstra- 5. Case; of Com- nsitive) ; .. Mood; agreeing :iple). *> art son ; i^erb). (joining n (join- y). xiii.] PARSING, "3 person, attribute asculine lived. lived at Blenheim then Yon little stream They burnt his dwelling t0 the ground Verb, intransitive, weak conjugation, active voice, indicative mood, past tense, 3rd person, singular number, agreeing with its subject father. Parts : live, lived, lived. Preposition, joining lived and Blenheim. Noun, proper, singular number, neuter gender, objective case, after at. Adverb of time, qualifying the verb lived. Pronoun, demonstrative, used as the attribute of stream. Adjective of quality, positive degree, attribute of stream. Noun, common, singular number, r.euter gender, objective case, governed by the compound preposition hard by. Pronoun, demonstrative, 3rd person, plural number, common gender, nominative case, subject o{ burnt. Verb, transitive, strong conjugation, active voice, indicative mood, past tense, 3rd person, plural number, agreeing with its subject they. Parts : burn, burnt, burnt. Pronoun, demonstrative, possessive, 3rd per- son, singular number, masculine gender, attribute of dwelling. Noun, common, singular number, neuter gender, objective case, governed by the transitive verb burnt. Preposition, joining burnt and ground. Adjective, demonstrative, attribute oi ground. Noun, common, singular number, neuter gen- der, objective case, after the preposition to, • I Pi r I' V ^i\PRmER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. And he was forced^ tojly ... Conjunction, co-ordinate, joining the two sen- tences, "They burnt," &c., to "He was forced to fly." ... Pronoun, demonstrative, 3rd person, singular number, masculine gender, nominative case, agreeing with the verb was forced. ... Verb, transitive, weak, passive voice, indica- tive mood, past tense, 3rd person, singular, agreemg with its subject he. Parts -.force, forced, forced. ... Verb, intransitive, weak, infinitive mood, in- direct object, after was forced. § 133 Examples of Analysis of Sentences not in a Tabular form. (See § 131, p. 109.) X. Oft at evening close, Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. ^"^j*^^ the village murmur Predicate ro3g Adverbial Adjunct (or Extension of Predicate) oft (time) at evening close (time) up yonder hill (place) » The rerbs v>as and>r«^may be parsed separately as follows : '^'^ " ^T.L"''T"^''' ''r°"^' ^""^"^^' '"'^i'^^'i^^ "'ood, past ^ V ^ r ' ^ ^'"°"' "''^"^^'"' ^2^^^^"^ ^"h its subject k Jorc^ .. Verb, transitive, weak, passive participle of the verb force fonninor with «..,. - : . »«-« *»jh,c, """= " Fa==ivc pass cense. [CHAP. two sen- He was singular ive case, indica- ingiilar, : force^ )od, in- XIII.] PARSING, "5 snot ise. 2. He saw our ship the day before we came to an anchor, and did beUeve we were English. Subject ... ... ••• • •• He Predicate • •• saw Object ... ... ••• • «• our ship Adverbial Adjunct • • • the day, &c (time) \Comuctive ; joining the Adverbial sentence, *' JVe came," (Sr»f., tcf the Principal Sentence] • •• before Subject ... ... ... • •• we Predicate • • • came to an anchor [Connective; joining two co-ordi- nate sentences] • •• and Subject ... .•• .•• «•• [He] Predicate • •• did believe Object • •• (the following sentence) [Connective; joining the Noun sentetKf, ^^ We were English" to Principal sentence] ••• [that] Subject ••• we Predicate ••• were EnglisK ^, past he. • force,