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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film* A partir de i'angle sup6rieur gauche, da gauche A droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant la nombre d'images nAcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrant la mAthode. 1 2 3 t i 9 4 5 6 1 I ON THE Si^ PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE CENTRAL PART OF BRITISH NOliTH AMERICA, AND ON ITS CAPABILITIES FOR SETTLEMENT. BY JAMES HECTOR, M.D., F.G.S., &c. (From the Edinburtjh New Philosophical Journutl», they are necessarily absent from October till IMay. Torty miles cast of the mountains the snow-fall is much increascl, but during the depth of winter rarely exceeds two feet in dei)th. From the })rairies the snow evaporates rapidly, and excepting in hollows where it drifts, it never accumulates ; but in the woods, where i)ro- tected, it often reaches the depth of three to four feet towards spring. During the steady cold of the winter the ground freezes to a considerable depth, especially in seasons when there is a sujall fail of snow. Thus at Edmonton the limit of the frozen soil was found on the 5tli of March 1858 to be at the depth of uearl}' seven feet ; and in the same spot in the year following, on the IGtli of ]\Iarch, it was marked at six feet. Regular observations were taken during both winters, and also when travelling in the plains, for the purpose of ascer- taining the temperature of the soil at the depth of two or three feet, according to the method suggested by Dr Hooker. The following table gives the means of these observations: — 8 I III m I I Dr James Hector on the Physical Features of the 1857-8, Fort Carlton. Month. Mean Temp. Mean at Mean at of Air. Two Feet. Three Feet. November, . o 173 35-8 36-6 December, 8-9 30-4 32-8 January, 0-0 23-4 29-3 February*. 7-4 183 24-3 March, ■ 26 3 24-6 25 3 April, . 35-8 303 302 May, . 450 338 31-6 June,t . 54-9 38-6 33-8 1858 9, Fort Edmonton. November,! . 26-45 35-7 • December, 76 23-4 ID January, 9 55 20-8 s February, 125 176 m March, 23-0 252 April, . 31-1 30-3 O May,§ . 47-9 321 (The thermometers were sunk in brass tubes attached to a light wooden rod, and had the bulbs protected with flannel, to preserve them from the influence of the atmosphere while they were removed for examination.) At Fort Carlton observations were also made by M. Bour- geau almost daily, in order to determine the temperature within the trunks of large trees. For this purpose ther- mometers were placed obliquely into the heart of a Populus haUamifera two feet in diameter, and of an Ahies alba of the same size. These observations only served to show that, as might be expected, the temperature of the trees accords much more closely with the mean temperature of the atmo- sphere than does that of the soil, even at the depth of only two feet ; and further, that there is no marked difference at very low temperatures between the resisting power of ever- green and deciduous trees. The means of these observations were as follows : |] — * First 8cvente(!n days only. t First eight days only. X From 9th to 30th. § First eight days only. tl Some of these observations have been printed iu the Proceedings of tlie liinnean Societv, 1869. Central Part of British North America. I m Month. Air. Poplar. Spruco. 1857. December, o 8-9 9(37 13-63 1858. January, 0-0 0- 0-8 ■ • • February, 7-4 711 396 > • • March, . 263 2927 2093 • • * April, 35-8 35-51 • •• So long as the vegetation remains dormant during the win- ter season, the sudden changes which have been described, however great, can have little iuiiuence upon plant life; but when the mean temperature for the twenty-four hours rises above the freezing-point, and the powerful sun of each day, with the abundant moisture derived from the melting of the snows, stimulate the ascent of the sap and the germination of seeds, these sudden alternations must have a very baneful effect, and exclude from the flora of the country many plants that it would otherwise be quite fitted to sustain. From the middle of March until the third week of April is the usual duration of this critical period ; but as late as the middle of May serious damage is frequently done to the vegetation by sudden variations of the temperature. This is without tak- ing into consideration the night frosts, which are of common occurrence almost throughout the entire summer, and which, of course, must completely prevent the growth of many kinds of plants. During the summer months, even in the true prairie coun- try, rain, with cloudy weather, is much more frequent than might be expected from tbp position which the district occu- pies in the centre of a contment, and barred from the influence of the moist south-west winds by a continuous chain of moun- tains. On the prairies immediately to the west of the Ked Eiver Settlement, as far as Turtle Mount, thunder-storms, with heavy rains, are of almost daily occurrence during the months of July and August. The temperature in that dis triot was often very high, the thermometer several times reaching 95° in the shade. On the higher plains to the west, between Carlton and the llocky Mountains, which range in altitude from 2000 to 10 Dr James Hector on the Physical Features of the m 3000 feet, thunder-storms are more rare, yet a good deal of rain falls. During the latter half of June 1858, tliere were nine days of rain and cloudy weather to six of fine clear sky. The mean temperature for the same period was 58°"8, from observations taken at sunrise, 2 p.m., and sunset, the highest recorded being 72°, and the lowest ¥'f. This excludes the minimum night temperature, however, which often fell within a few degrees of the freezing point. The mean degree of moisture in the atmosphere was 0'64, saturation being 100. During the month of July in the same year there were tw^elve days of cloudy sky and rain. The mean temperature was 59°'5, the extremes recorded being 70" and 40°, w'ith the degree of humidity 0-59, or rather less than in June, In August, in the district along the base of the mountains, having an altitude of nearly 4000 feet, the mean tempera- ture was 54", and the extremes recorded as occurring between sunrise and sunset were 79° and 40°'r). Almost every night, however, we found that ice formed in the kettles, and that the ground was covered with hoar-frost. The radiation, as might be expected, is very great during the summer nights in the northern prairies, so that when the sky is clear the quantity of dew that forms is great in proportion to the degree of moisture in the atmosphere. It is owing to this — combined wdth the sharp frosts in August and September, which arrest the sap before the grasses have fully flow^ered and faded — tliat the rich pasture along the North Saskatchewan Plains is preserved green and juicy until the snow" falls, after which the hard steady w- inter keeps it fresh and nutritious as artificial Ijay until the return of spring. Along the South Saskatchewan the country is arid, and without such pasture ; but in travelling in that region no marked difference w^as observed in the frequency of rain- clouds during the summer than when further to the north ; and that a considcraljle amount of moisture passes over these plains is proved b}'^ the marked increase in the vigour of the vegetation on the high and isolated patches of table-land which are scattered over the arid country. It is probable that the jn-evalence of a hard clay soil, formed from the cretaceous strata, which bakes under the heat of the sun from Central Part of British North America. 11 1 f tlie want of moisture in early spring, is the iinmediate cause of this barrenness. The little snow which fails on the open plain is at once swept off b}' the wind and evaiwrated during tlie winter, so that in spring the clear powerful sun at once bakes the soil and prevents the germination of seeds. The weather experienced in the Eocky Mountains was very irregular, with a great daily range of temperature. Thus, in the end of August tlie thermometer during the night was as low as 14° at an altitude of 6000 feet, and almost every night it fell considerably below the freezing point, although during the day it often reached 70° to 80°. In the valleys of the eastern slope the amount of rain-fall is very small com- pared to that on the first part of the descent to the west, when fine weather is the rare exception even in September. This only applies, how^ever, to the mountains north of the olst parallel of latitude, south of which, for some reason, the rain-fall on the western slope in the valley of the Kootani River must be much less, judging both from the experience of two seasons and from the nature of the vegetation, which is of the arid type. On the eastern slope, throughout the entire summer, there are occasional falls of snow at altitudes above 5000 feet ; but snow never lies deeply at any season. It is only on the various ** heights of land" which have an altitude of from 6000 to 7000 feet, and for the first few miles of the western descent, that snow appears to accumulate in the valleys in large quan- tities — sometimes to the depth of 16 to 20 feet. The higher valleys of the central mass of the mountains are occupied by glaciers, some of which are of very considerable size, even when resting on the eastern slope. They are, however, fed principally by the snows that accumulate on the western slope, so that when ranges equallyhigh are cut off from the influence of the western moisture, no glaciers have been formed. This exactly conforms towdiat has been observed by Dr Hooker and others regarding the diminished altitude of the snow-line as the nearest seaboard to a range of mountains is approached. In the latitude of 49° the country to the west of the Rocky Mountains is very rugged and mountainous for th' whole dis- tance to the Pacific coast. South of that parallel, however, 12 Dr Jarnos Hector on the Physical Features of the \m |l!;^i there are great expanses of desert plain, owing to the influeuco of the Cascade Range of mountains, which forms ahnost an un- broken wall 4000 feet in height, running parallel to the coast, and cutting off the moisture from the interior. In descending to the westward, therefore, from the Rocky Mountains, into the depression that intervenes between them and the Cascade Range, a belt of moist climate is met with where the winds that have passed over the coast-range first strike on the higher and interior range. Then follows a belt of dry climate, increasing in aridity as we proceed westward, and get more completely sheltered by the coast range, but on crossing which we at once get into the humid climate of the Pacific coast, with its wonderful development of forest growth. Having thus briefly sketched the leading physical peculi- arities wliich influence the character of the vegetation in the region treated of, I shall next give a short outline of the manner in which authors have divided British North America into Botanical areas, and endeavour to show the position which the country explored by the Expedition occupies among them, as indicated by the collections of M. Bourgeau and by the physiognomy of its vegetation. The collections made by M. Bourgeau were forwarded to England from time to time, and were duly received by Sir William Hooker at the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew. They consisted — 1st, Of plant specimens prepared for preservation in the Herbarium ; 2c?, Seeds and roots of plants for culture, many of which have been successfully raised at Kew ; 3c?, Specimens of the vegetable products used in the country by the Indians, and which are preserved in the Kew Museum of Economic Botany. M. Bourgeau also made collections of insects and shelled mollusca, all of which were forwarded to the British Museum. Of the dried j)lants, there were in general twelve specimens of each species sent home, and the duplicate sets have been distributed to the various puliic herbaria in Europe and America, including that of our own university, each specimen having been named before its issue from Kew by Mr Black, curator of the Herbarium there, who prepared the list under the superintendence of Dr Hooker. f Central Part of British North America. 13 The collection of flowering plants and ferns consists of 819 species, belonging to 349 genera and 92 orders, which is more than two-fifths of the total flora of British North America. In the list, there are 62 species returned as undetermined, some of which will most likely prove to be new. In the relative order of their importance, from a number of species, the principal families stand thus : — Compositac form |th of the whole. Cyperacerc Gramineae Leguminosa8 Rosaceae Raimnculaceae Cruciferae Salicaceae TVth iPffth Scrophulariaceae ^'^th The following analysis of the collection will give a fur- ther idea of the general nature of the flora of the country from which it was made. Orders. No. of Genera. No. of Species. Of which undeter- mined. In British North America. Genera.* Species.* Ranunculafleae, . 11 32 ... IG 72 Menispermaceae, Berberideae, 1 1 1 1 ... 1 3 1 5 Sarraceniacea3, . 1 1 1 1 Nyraphaeaceae, . PapaveracesB, 1 1 1 1 ... 3 3 4 3 Fumariaceae, 1 2 • • • 4 9 Cruciferw, 14 31 7 25 104 Capparideae, CistineaB, . 2 1 2 1 ... 2 3 2 5 Viulaceae . 1 8 ■ > ■ 1 18 Polygalaceao, DroseraceaB, 1 1 3 1 ... 1 2 7 9 Lineae, 1 2 i • . 1 3 Caryophylleae, Paronychieae, 6 1 17 1 3 12 2 66 2 * These columns are given for comparison from Sir John Richardson's " Arctic Searching Expedition, 1851," vol. ii. p. 322. It is hardly necessary to remark, that in this and the other works of this veteran explorer and philo- sopher will be found generalizations respecting the climate and vegetation of British North America, which the results of this expedition have only served to establish and apply for a very small area of the region which be treated of . 14 Dr James Hector on the Physical Features of the Onlcra. Malvaceae, Tiliaceop, HypcricinesB, Acerinea;, Oxalideaj, Geraniaceop, Balsaiiiiiiea), Rhamneaj, Anacardiacejc, Lcguminosaj, Rosaceas, Halorageoe, Onagrariaj, Cucurbitaceae, Cactacea), Loasaceae, Grossulariaceae, Saxifragacete, Crassulaceaj, Urabelliferae, Araliaceae, Loranthaceae, Corneae, . Caprifoliaceae, Rubiaceae, Compositae, Valerianaceae, CampanulaceaB, Lobeliaceae, Vaccineae, Ericacea?, Pyrolacea^ Primulaceae, Oleaceae, Gentianacenp, ApocyneiV, Asclepiadere, Polemoniaceai, Hydrophyllese, Convolvulacea3, Solanere, . Boraginacese, Labiata3, Verbenacena, Scrophularineae, Lentibulariero, . No. of Genera. 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 13 16 3 3 1 1 1 1 4 1 10 1 1 1 6 2 40 1 1 1 2 7 2 7 1 2 1 2 3 1 1 2 8 9 1 7 2 No. of Species. 1 1 1 3 1 4 2 2 2 50 48 4 13 1 4 1 7 15 2 14 3 1 4 13 5 112 1 2 1 5 9 4 10 1 6 2 5 5 1 1 5 17 9 1 24 2 Of which umletor- inined. 7 7 2 4 8 2 2 In British North America. Genera. Species. 3 5 2 2 1 8 2 8 1 5 2 6 1 2 2 6 1 6 26 98 24 124 4 10 6 28 2 2 1 2 1 3 1 16 8 56 2 3 28 39 3 7 1 1 1 7 7 24 5 15 70 321 2 6 1 8 1 6 1 16 10 40 5 16 8 23 1 3 8 34 1 4 1 11 3 13 2 5 3 6 5 8 5 27 24 40 2 7 20 74 2 8 Central Part of British North America. 15 Orders. No. of Genera. No. of Species. Of which uiuleter- mineil. In Brit'.sh North Auerica. Genera. Bpecies. Plantagine.'y, . Nyctaginene, Polygonaceic, . Amaranthacero, 1 2 4 1 2 2 14 1 ... 1 2 5 1 5 3 34 6 Chenopodett, SantalaceiP, 8 1 17 2 1 • • • 8 1 20 2 Elaeagnea), Aristolochiaceiii, 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 1 Euphorbiaceas . 1 1 2 8 Cupuliferrc, Salicaceio, 3 2 4 31 5 2 15 48 Cannabinacero, . 1 1 2 2 Urticacefc, 3 3 4 8 Betulaceiv, 2 4 2 11 Conifera', 5 13 7 20 Typbacesie, 2 3 2 4 Aroidero, 3 3 ... \ 6 9 Naiadaceiv, 2 4 ... ! 4 14 Alisraaceiv, 3 5 2 3 Hydrocharideae, Orchideie, 1 8 1 13 2 16 2 54 Irideae, 2 2 2 8 Liliaceae, 11 20 16 45 Melanthaceoe, . 4 4 1 5 5 Juncacere, 2 13 3 2 23 Commelynacea?, Cyperace.ic, Gramineffi, 1 5 33 1 68 62 4 8 49 218 153 Filices, . 13 17 * . . 17 47 Lycopodiaceaa, . 1 4 ... 2 12 Summary of above. 1. In M. Bourgoau's collection, 819 species, 349 genera. 92 orders. 2. Of the same orders there have been enumerated by Richardson, as occurring in British and Russian North America — 471 genera ; 2155 species — ■ the total flora which he enumerates ; comprising 118 orders ; 509 genera ; 2270 species ; viz., 1725 dicotyledons and 554 monocotyledons. ir. Dr Jamos^ Hector on the Physical Features of the n i si II m f{ i ^1 In trcatiii.c: of tlie distribution of plants in British North America, Sir John Hichardson'" has divided the region into three zones, in the following manner : — 1. The Polar Zone, which embraces the land lying detached from the continent, and north of Lat. 73°. The flora of this zone consists of plants belonging to 21 natural orders, among which the Criiciferce, Ch'aminea^, and Saxifragacece, are the principal. 2. The Arctic Zone, whichextendsfrom the above-mentioned limit south to the Arctic Circle, excepting towards the eastern side of the continent, when, owing to the configuration of the land and the abnormal depression of the temperature, the characteristic Arctic flora passes for 10° south of that limit. An outlier from this flora also passes the south along the ridge of the Rocky Mountains. The number of natural families is in the Arctic Zone increased to 67, and the most marked feature is the predominance of Cyperacece. 3. The Woodland Zone, which stretches across the con- tinent obliquely, conforming to the divergence of the Arctic Zone from its proper latitudes, and thus lying between 45° and 55° of latitude on the Atlantic Coast, but between 50° and 60° of latitude on the Pacific Coast. This zone he divides into three districts — 1. The Eastern Woodland district of Canadian Forest, which extends westward as far as Lake Winipeg. The Western Woodland district, from the Pacific coast to the Rocky Mountains. The Central or Plain district, Wing east of the Rocky Mountains. The number of natural orders represented in this zone is about 117, being an increase of 50 over the number in the Arctic Zone. As M. Bourgeau returned to England at the commence- ment of the third season's explorations without crossing the Rocky Mountains, his collection only consisted of the plants gathered from betw^een Lake Superior and the eastern slope of that range. It thus represents a portion of Richardson's Eastern district, nearly the whole of the Prairie district that 2. 3. * Arctic Searching Expedition 1851, vol. ii., App. No. 3. Central Part of British, North America. 17 lies within the British territory, and the Rocky Mountains the alpine and subal- I pine district Until a thorough and critical analysis of the whole flora is accomplished, we cannot, however, expect mucli light to he thrown by the method of tabulation on the natural affinities which the floras of the different areas bear to one another ; and till then, it is therefore safer, in adapting provisional geographical groups, to rely more on the nature of the forest growth and such evident characters as catch the eye of the traveller. Such an analysis has however been recently effected for the flora of the northern part of the continent in a highly philosophical memoir by Dr Hooker (" Outlines of the Distri- bution of Arctic Plants," read before the Lin. Soc. of Lon- don, June 21, 1861). His work has yielded most important results, modifying the generally received opinion of the uni- formity of the Arctic flora throughout every longitude ; and by tracing its distribution, he has found strong grounds for sup- porting the theory first promulgated by the late Edward ForbcSjOf a southern migration of northern types having taken place during the cold of the glacial epoch, and also of Dar- win's view of the high antiquity of the Scandinavian flora. With regard to the northern flora of the American conti- nent, Hooker has modified the areas described by Richardson, in so far as not distinguishing between ?iXi Arctic and a Polar flora, but merely dividing the whole region into an " Arctic West American Flora," which extends from Behring's Straits to M'Kenzie's River, and an "Arctic East American Flora," which extends from that river to Baffin's Bay, but excludes Greenland, the Flora of which he shows to belong to a Euro- pean and not to an American type.* Bearing in view the leading physical features of the coun- try which have already been alluded to, and to the general botanical divisions that have been quoted, I shall now follow the course of the expedition, and briefly sketch tlie features of the vegetation observea along the route. The canoe route from Lake Superior to Lake Winipeg, by which the spur of the eastern axis was crossed, passes * I am indebted to the kindness of Mr Hooker in letting me have an oppor- tunity of studying tikis valuable memoir while passing through the press. B 18 Dr James Hector on the Physical Features of the through a country that is on the whole heavily timbered, but the quality of the forest varies a good deal with the soil and elevation. Thus, round Thunder Bay, on Lake Superior, the ash, elm, maple, and cedar, with a rich undergrowth of rosa- ceous shrubs, are met with, in addition to the white spruce, larch, pines of several species, birch, and poplars ; but on the high lands round Dog Lake, elevated 1500 feet above the sea, the forest consists almost entirely of the latter trees. In descending to Rainy Lake, the more valuable timber re-ap- pears, wherever the soil is favourable to its growth, and such trees as Pinus resinosa, P. Strohus, and Ciipressus thyoides, sometimes roach a large size. From Rainy Lake to the Red River Settlement, the forest becomes more varied and richer in its character, comprising elms, oaks, ash, basswood {Tilia americana), beech, and ironwood (Ostrya virginica), but still with alarge admixture of Coniforaj. In this district the under- growth is very luxuriant, many of the slirubs of the Northern States occurring plentifully. On the borders of the lakes and rivers, the Indian rice {Zhania aquatica) is abundant, the grain ofwhich, alongwith fish, forms the principal food of tliu Salteau Indians. In proceeding due west from the Red River Settlement, the Prairie country is at once entered upon, being bounded to the north by the wooded country, the limit of which nearly fol- lows the isothermal mean of 41° in a north-west direction, until it reaches the 109th meridian in Lat. 53° N.,* when it sweeps again to the south-west to intersect the Rocky Moun- tain chain in Lat. 51°. The country to the north of the 49th parallel, and up to the 55th, which was the region examined, is thus boldlymarked into two districts by the presence or absence of timber. A third district must, however, be also considered, forming a belt dividing the forests from the true plains, and which atone time wasitself forest-land, but having been cleared by the successive devastations of prairie fires, it new combines the advantages of both, having extensive ranges of open land like the prairies, which possess the rich vegetable mould, and * It is probable that this isothermal, as generally represented, does not sweep enough to the south after crossing the Ilocky Mountains from the west, when passing through Long. 114° to 0G°. '^ Central Part vf British North America, 19 fire covered with tlic nutritious grasses aiul leguminous plants (•f the forest country. The woodland country which bounds the plains clearly pos- Hosses the physiognomy of the sub-arctic province. The most prevalent tree is the Abies alba, whioli only reaches any great size in river valleys. On the dry rising grounds grows the Cijjyres of the Canadian voyageurs ; but under that name they include two dill'erent species of pines — P. Banksianay and a pine allied to the P. mops of the United States, or to the P. contorta of the Pacific coast. A few of this latter species were seen near Fort Carlton, after which they were not again met with on a due west line until near the Rocky Mountains, south-west from Edmonton. The most important though not the most plentiful tree of the wooded country is the birch (Betulapapyracea), as it is the only hard wood which the natives possess, andisused for making dog-sleighs, snow-shoes, and other necessary articles. These trees, with a few larches, balsam firs {A. balsamea), red pines, poplars (P. balsamifcra^ and P. ti'emuloides), comprise the bulk of the forest that covers the country to the north of the Saskatchewan ; but by the sides of the rivers, which have generally deeply depressed valleys, there is of course a much greater variety in the vege- tation, owing to the sheltered situation and the rich soil. The belt of partially cleared country which lies to the south of the forest-land, and stretches continuously from the Red River Settlement to the Rocky Mountains, averages 80 to 100 miles in width, but it expands very much towards the west, owing to the bend which the southern border makes to the south-west. In this district the woods are very scanty, and consist almost exclusively of the aspen poplar, which forms small groves and artificial-looking clumps that dot rich pas- ture lands. Sometimes a small clump of spruce fir has been left by the fires, but this is only in a few rare localities ; at least when at any distance from the limit of the true forest. Be- tween Carlton and Edmonton, along the Hudson Bay Com- pany's trail, for a distance of nearly 400 miles, there are not more than five or six spots where any of the Coniferas have been left. The clearing of this country is due to a very simple cause. The prairie tribes of Indians, 15,000 to 16,000 in number, B 2 ' tl 'i' =1^ i^* hip: If 20 l)r Jiiiiiurt Hector on the PhyHical Fcaturen i>/ the live wholly by tlio cliusc of the ))ullalo, and prefer, in coii- seciuencc, to i)itch their tents along the edge of the woodH, for the sake of shelter, and at the same time to ))e near tlieir game. Either by accident, or for the purpose of making signals, the prairies round their camps are generally burnt every few years, and, as a rule, where coniferous trees are destroyed, they are never replaced by the same stock ; but the rich alkaline soil is at once seized upon by the wafted seeds of the aspen poplar, to the exclusion of other trees. It is true that Rinn'hir fires take place in the thick wood country and in the for(;Hts of the Rocky Mountains ; but al- though they do much damage, the chance of their recurring on the same spot within a short enough time completely to remove the timber is small. Where the poplar seeds cannot reach such burnt spots, they are usually crowded with the gaudy plants of Epilobmm amjusti/olium, among which the young pine seedlings can gain a footing, so that the forest often reverts in such a case to the coniferous type ; but the thickets which spring uj), strangely enough, very seldom con- tain plants of Abies alba, but almost invariably consist of the pine which I have alluded to as allied to P. moj)s. The Saskatchewan and other rivers of the prairies flow through valleys rarely a mile in width, and excavated to the depth of 200 to 300 feet below the general level. The river winds from side to side of this valley, successively rounding rich alluvial flats, which sustain a rich and very ditl'erent kind of vegetation from that of the plains above. In such low situations, stragglers from the eastern flora are found to ex- tend far beyond the western limit of where they continue to grow on the general surface of the country. Thus the false sugar maple {Negundo fraxinifolium) may be found as far west as Long. 108° in the valley of the North Saskatche- wan ; and on an island in the same river, a short distance above Fort Carlton, the red elm {Ulmus fulva) was observed. The oak follows up the valley of the Assineboine River as far west as Long. 100°. Th^ true sugar-maple does not pass be- yond the Red River, in which longitude is also found the wes- tern limit of the wild plum (Prunus americana), beech, iron- wood, ash, cedar, arbor-vitse, Weymouth pine, and other more r I Ccntrul Part of British North America, 21 valuahlo troofl of the eastern forest. Sonic of tlicse wore, however, seen by Richardson in tlie wooded coiintrv as far north as Lat. 54°. A few trees of rojmhis (jramtldcntata were seen in the valley of the South Saskatclicwan at its elbow, altliongh that tree does not extend into the lower part of the valley of lied River from the Mississippi, where it grows in abundance. Within the " fertile belt" of cleared land wo have the vege- tation on the alluvial flats of the river valleys, consisting of Populua balsa mif era, which is the largest tree in that part of the country, sometimes reaching three feet in diameter, with a dense thicket of Salix tongi/oUa, S. rostrata, I'ilmr- mcm edule, Cratai(jus coccinea, Atudanchicr canadensis, the wood of which is used for making bows, and the luscious fruit for mixing with pemica?) ; Cornus stolonifcra, or '* red wil- low," the bark of which the Indians smoke alongwith tobacco. Shepherdia argcntea sometimes forms the greater mass of the thicket, and its red juicy berries are the favourite food of grisly bears. On the prairies of this district, besides the groves of the Popidus tremuloid.es, or aspen, there are dense willow thickets surrounding the swampy ground. In such spots there is an immense variety of cariccs ; and when, as is often the case, the water is saline, saliferous plants abound, and, as usual, generally of species having a wide range. On the sides of rising grounds the Eloiagnus argentea forms a low silvery copse, affording food to large coveys of prairie grouse. If the ground is high, or has a light sandy soil, it is then covered with a close matting of the Kin-i-kin-ic, or smoking weed, which is the Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi of the Scotch liills ; or by the long flabelliform branches of Juniperus virginiana var. prodrata. Towards the mountains, large expanses of plain are covered with a low birch or alder (Bettda glandulosa ?), six to eight inches high, which in winter give the appearance of a heather-covered moorland to these prairies. In June and July, in some localities, the prairies are covered with brightly-coloured flowers of the genera Astragalus, Hedysarmn, Geranium, Lilium, and others, or are completely clothed with a dense low copse of rose bushes. As the country ^*te 22 Dr Janice Hector on the Physical Features of the towards the south merges into opeu prairie, the clumps of copse and young poplars arc found only nestling on northern exposures. The last outliers of the woods to the south form " islands," as they are called in the country, which make a great show from a distance, but when approached, are found by the disappointed traveller to consist merely of a small species of willow, that "s\ ill yield neither firewood nor shelter. The true arid district, which occupies most of the country along the South Saskatchewan, and reaches as far north as Lat. 52°, acquires even very early in the season a dry parched look. In the northern district, the accumulation of liumus and the distribution of the pleistocene deposits have given rise to a great variety in the nature of the soil ; but to the south, the cretaceous and tertiary strata almost everywhere form the surface, so that the stiff clay soil, which is often highly impregnated with sulphates of soda and lime, bakes under the heat of the sun into a hard and cracked surface. This must be the principal reason for the arid plains ranging to such a high latitude, as there is quite a sufficient quantity of mois- ture in the atmosphere during the summer months to support a more vigorous vegetation. This is seen to be the case even as far south as Lat. 49° 30' N., where at the Cypres Hills, and also on the south sides of the deep valleys and other exposures sheltered from the sun's rays in early spring, pines, spruce- firs, poplars, and many varieties of the northern type of vegetation, appear under congenial but strictly local con- ditions. In tlie arid country the characteristic plants are the prickly prairie apples (Opuntia), and the shrub-sage or absinthe (Artemisia) ; and in the trough-like valleys that lie east and west far out in the bare plains, these plants may sometimes be seen in full possession of the sunny slopes on the north side, while the opposite side of the valley is clothed withgreen and arborescent vegetation; while at the same time, showing that it is not local springs that cause the difference, the stream itself is often dried up into a chain of muddy pools. The arid district, although there are many fertile spots throughout its extent, can never be of much advantage to us ''m m Central Pari of British North America, 23 ■i -'.''■1' M. as a possession. Even in June and July, the Expedition ex- perienced groat inconvenience in traversing it, from the want of vvoo'^i, water, and pasture. Along the eastern base of tlie Rocky Mountains there is much fine land with very rich pasture ; but the sharp night frosts which occur throughout the summer would render the raising of cereals very precarious. When close to the moun- tains, several trees appear which are found in greatest number on the west slope of the continent. Of these the principal is the " Prushe" of the voyageurs, which is so named by them from its general resemblance to the hemlock spruce {Abies canadensis). It is, however, a very distinct tree. Two pines were" also observed that were not remarked further to the eastward, one of which is only slightly different from the Finns monticola of Douglas. The collections obtained at the base of the mountains are not satisfactory, as, at the time of M. Bourgeau's visit, the season was too late for any plants but alpines. The valleys of the Rocky Mountains are occupied by forests, excepting in a few localities, where there occur level gravelly plains clothed with tufts of '* bunch grass" (Fcstuca). The forest consists principally of the Prushe, Douglas, white and black spruce. This mixed forest, with a very varied under- growth, extends to 5000 feet in altitude, when it is succeeded by a forest of Abies balsamea. The tree that is found highest , however, is the Abies alba ; and at an altitude of 7000 feet in exposed situations it is quite dwarfed in size, with recum- bent branches that spread like thatch over the mountain sides. Tlie altitude of the alpine region in the Rocky Mountains is very variable, and ranges from 7000 to 9000 feet. It is char- acterised by the occurrence of many plants of identical species with those found in similar situations in Europe. The following is a list of some of the plants collected by the \mter in the eastern part of the chain, in Lat. 52° north, at an altitude of from 7000 to 9000 feet. They are all from one locality, near the height of land of a pass from the South to the North branches of the Saskatchewan River, and were gathered in the end of August 1859 : — 24 Dr James Hector on the Physical Features of the M 1 1 I'li,' m. h.m ^ I , lis; Silene acaulis, L. Cerastium alpinunc, L. arvense, L. Stellaria longipes Gold. Fragaria virginiana, Ehr. Potentilla fruticosa, L. —— diversifolia, Lekm. Epilobium alpinum, L. Saxifraga bronchialis, L. controversa, Sternh. Dahurica, Pall. Parnassia firabriata, Hook. Sedura stenopetalum, Pursh. Youngia pygraaea, Ced. Seneciotriangularis, Hook. Erigeron compositum, Pursh. Valeriana capitata, (?) Willd. Menziesia grandiflora, Hook. Cassiope tetragona, O. Don. Gentiana propinqua, Rich. Castelleja minuta, Doug. Polygonum viviparum, L. Oxyria reniformis, Hook. Salix reticulata, L. var. nana, Aiidr arctica, R. Br. Allium Schoonoprasura, C. Ligadenus chloranthus, Rich. J uncus ensifolius, Wick. arcticus, Wick. castaneus, Sm, Luzula parviflora, Duv. spicata, L. Poa alpina, L. pratensis, L. Phleum pratense, L- Bromu8 ciliatus, L. Trisetum subspicatum, P. de B. Festuca ovina, L. Calamagrostis (Desyeuxia) coarc- tata, Torr. On commencing the descent of the slope to the west, the change in the nature of the vegetation is very marked, showing a great increase iu the amount of moisture which is depobited. Thus, high up on the sides of the valleys, there are dense thickets oiAlnus viridis, \7hich grows to the height of six and eight feet, with sturdy stems and ^^ranches. In the valleys, the forest is quite choked by an undergrowth of Thuja occi- dentalism Blalionia Aquifolium, Panax horridum, Pyrus ame- ricana, Vihuy^num Opulus, along with species of Vaccinium, Hibes, Pubus, Symphoricai-pos, and many other plants not observed on the eastern slope of the mountains. Wherever the valleys are rocky, the rocks are covered by a close growth of mosses and ferns, both of which groups are almost wholly wanting on the east side, excepting those mosses that grow in swamps. The forest is often impenetrable, from the inter- locking of the trunks of fallen trees, many of which are three and four feet in diameter. When travelling with horses, it is difficult, where there is no trail, to get on faster than a mile or two a-day ; and to make matters worse, amidst all this luxuriance of vegetation there is nothing that the poor ani- mals can eat excepting a scanty growth of Equiseturrit of which they are very fond, and which grows on the shingle flais ■■■;'-■*> M- '.'W- •% Central Part of British North America. 25 m .fcift f)f the mountain torrents along with a matting of Dryas and Epilobium, and otlier alpine plants, the seeds of which are washed down every spring. On descending the mountains as far as the Kootani River, which flows south-east for eighty miles through a wide valley lying parallel with the direction of the chain, a marked change is again observed in the nature of the vegetation. The forest is free from undergrowth, and consists principally of the Finns ponderosa, which in its habit much resembles the Scotch fir, and frequently reaches the size of four feet in diameter. Along with it is the Lariw occidentalism which is equal in girth, but exceeds the pine in height and symmetry. Amongst the noble forest which these trees form, a rider can gallop with ease in every direction, the only underbrush con- sisting of a few scattered bushes of the red root (C^anothns) or of the Shepherdia arcjentea. On the alluvial flats by the river, the Juniperus virginiana was found as far north as 51° 30' to occur as a large tree 25 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter. The surface of the ground, where dry and gravelly, is covered with wiry tufts of *' bunch grass," and the slopes are clothed with a shrubbery of cherry and service-berry bushes (Amelanchicr) , the fruit of which is the principal food of the Kootani Indians. Westward from the Kootani Eiver to Fort Colville, upon the Columbia, the country is very rugged, and when not confined in narrow valleys the forest generally forms open pine glades. By the sides of the streams and the low- borders of lakes the yew and arbutus are found to occur, and in favourable spots the Thuja gigantea acquires an enormous size — often ten or twelve feet in diameter. Neverth'^less, the prevailing physiognomy of the vegetation in this district is of the arid type ; and further to the south, in the Columbian desert, this character is found to reach an extreme phase, there being a total absence of timber ; and the country, even where the surface is irregular and rocky, supports nothing but a growth of dry tufty grass, or the worthless sage bush {Artemisia tridentifolia). This sterility increases as we ap- proach the Cascade Range; but on passing these mountains by the narrow chasm through which the Columbian River escapes 9 26 Dr James Hector on the Physical Features of the i t ! ■! Ivi^i IHP' i to the Pacific, the change in the character of the vegetation is very abrupt. When saihng down that river from the Dalles to Fort Vancouver, in a distance of forty miles, the traveller passes from a desert flora to a country clothed by an evergreen forest of unrivalled variety and vigour. The scenery is magnificent, precipices of basaltic rocks rising f om the water's edge tier above tier, to the height of several thousand feet, while in the distance occasional peeps are ob- tained of snow-capped peaks 10,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea-level. On the western declivity of this mountain range, and on the narrow strip of ctuntry that lies between it and the coast, are found the beautiful and stately species of ^6z6«, Picea, and rimes, which have been introduced into this country from Oregon and \\ ashington territories since the time of Douglas. The collections of that traveller, and those of Jeffrey, have made us familiar with the flora of the forest land along the Pacific coast ; and our knowledge will be rendered still more complete by the ample collections of Dr Lyall, who is at present labouring in that country, attached to the N. W. Boundary-line Commission. I am indebted to the kindness of Sir William Hooker for a memorandum which was left in his hands by M. Bourgeau, stating his opinion regarding the fitness of the Saskatchewan country for agricultural settlement, and a free translation of which I beg to append. Memorandum hy M. Bourgeau. " I submit the following remarks on the advantages for agricultural settlement in Kupert's Land and the Saskat- chewan prairies of British North America, having been appointed by Sir William Hooker to accompany Captain Pallister's Expedition as botanist. " I had especially to collect the plants which grew natu- rally in the country traversed by the Expedition, and also their seeds. Besides my botanical collection, Dr Hooker advised me to make thermometrical observations at the various stations, and, above all things, to take the tempera- ture of the earth at certain depths, as well as that of the Central Part of British North America. r ^:>?: interior of forest trees ; also to notice the richness and poverty of the vegetation of the country, and the maladies to which plants are exposed. In the second letter and notes addressed to Sir William Hooker, which have already been published,* I have treated these questions with all the care that was permitted to me by observations taken in the midst of the harassment and fatigue of a long journey, but it remains for mo to call attention to the advantages there would be in establishing agricultural settlements in the vast plains of Rupert's Land, and particularly on the Saskatchewan in the neighbourhood of Fort Carlton. This district is much more adapted to the culture of staple crops of temperate climates — such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, &c. — than one would have been inclined to believe from its high latitude. In effect, the few attempts at the culture of cereals already made in the vicinity of the Hudson's Bay Company's trading- posts, demonstrate by their success how easy it would be to obtain products sufficiently abundant largely to remunerate the efforts of the agriculturists. There, in order to put the land under cultivation, it would be necessary only to till the better portions of the soil. The prairies offer natural pasturage as favourable for the maintenance of numerous herds as if they had been artificially created. The construc- tion of houses for habitations by the pioneers in the de- velopment of the country would be easy, because in many parts of the country, independent of wood, one would find fitting stones for building purposes ; and in others it would be easy to find clay for bricks, more particularly near Battle River. The other parts most favourable for culture would be in the neighbourhood of Fort Edmonton, and also along the south side of the North Saskatchewan. In the latter district extend rich and vast prairies, interspersed with woods and forests, and where thick wood plants furnish ex- cellent pasturage for domestic animals. The vetches found here, of which the principal are Vicia, Hedysarum, Lathyrus, and Astragalus, are as fitting for the nourishment of cattle as the clover of European pasturage. The abundance of buffalo, and the facility with which the herds of horses and * Lin. Soc. Proceedings, 1869. 28 Dr James Hector on the Physical Features of the vm A VI- ■It; m oxen increase, demonstrate that it would be enough to shelter animals in winter, and to feed them in the shelters with hay collected in advance, in order to avoid the mortality that would result from cold and from the attacks of wild beasts, and further to permit the acclimatisation of other domestic farmyard animals, such as the sheep and pig. The harvest could in general be commenced by the end of August, or the first week in September, which is a season when the temperature continues sufficiently high and rain is rare. In the gardens of the Hudson's Bay Company's Posts, and still more in those of the different Missions, vegetables of the leguminous family, such as beans, peas, and French beans, have been successfully cultivated ; also potatoes, cabbages, turnips, carrots, rhubarb, and currants. No fruit-tree has as yet been introduced ; but one might perhaps, under favourable circumstances, try nut-trees, also apple-trees be- longing to varieties that ripen early. Different species of gooseberries, with edible fruits, grow wild here ; also differ- ent kinds of Vacciniacete are equally indigenous, and have pleasant fruits that will serve for the preparation of pre- serves and confectionery. The Aronta ovalis (AmelancMer canadensis must be meant) is very common in this country ; and its fruit, commonly known as the Poire, or service - berry, is dried and eaten by the Indians, who collect it with great care ; and it also serves for the purpose of making ex- cellent pudding, recalling the taste of dried currants. The only difficulty that would oppose agricultural settlements, is the immense distance to traverse over countries devoid of roads, and almost uninhabited. The assistance of Govern- ment, or of a well-organised company, would be indispens- able to the colonisation of this country. It would be im- portant that settlements should be established in groups of at least fifty householders, for protection against the incur- sions of the Indians, who are, however, far from being hos- tile to Europeans. It stands to reason, that the colonists ought to be taken from the north of Europe or from moun- tain districts, being those accustomed to the climatological conditions and culture of the soil most resembling this in- teresting country, to the resources of which I call attention. Central Part of British North America. 29 The produce of agricultural settlements thus established would yield subsistence to the Indians, whose resources for food, supplied only by liunting, tend to diminish every day. The presence of European settlers would form a useful model for this primitive people, who, notwithstanding their native apathy, still appreciate the benefits of civilization." (Signed) " E. Bourgeau." I may state, in conclusion, that the views here expressed by M. Bourgeau accord on the whole with the opinion I myself have formed of the fertile portion of the Saskatchewan country, and which I believe is also that of the otlier mem- bers of the Expedition. On the Capahilities for Settlement of the Central Part of British North America. By James Hector, M.D., F.G.S., &c.* The following remarks refer to a portion of tlie British terri- tories to which much public attention was directed a few years ago — namely, the region which extends from Lake Superior to the Pacific Ocean, lying immediately north of the boundary line of the United States, and drained principally by the River Saskatchewan. As it was, and indeed — excepting that portion which falls within British Columbia — is still, under the direct control of the Hudson's Bay Company, for the purpose of a fur-trading monopoly, a considerable amount of agitation was employed in Canada, and also at home, in order to have the country I treat of thrown open for settlement, and many statements have gone forth giving an exaggerated view of its worthlessness on the one hand, or of its wonderful qualities on the other. Itisnow,however, placed beyonddoubt, principally through the labours of several Government expeditions, to one of which I had the honour to be attached, that there do exist within the British territories that I have mentioned extensive areas, with good and varied soil, adapted for agricultural colonisation, but which, from their geographical position, are necessarily subject * Road before the British Association, Manchester. September 10, 1861. 30 Dr James Hector on the Capabiltiies /or Settlement 1 ' I'ji If '■!:' to all the advantages and defects of a temperate continental climate. Thus the winter is loiig and severe, the spring short and uncertain, and the summer tends to scorch the vegetation. But yet in this region the winter is not more severe than that experienced in Canad a ; and in the western districts, which are removed from the influence of the great lakes, the spring- commences almost a month earlier than on the shores of Lake Superior, which is five degrees of latitude further to the south. On the other hand, the higher latitude, combined with its increased altitude above the sea-level, reduces the eifectof the sun's heat in summer so much, that many crops which arc readily raised in Canada will not meet with equal success in the Saskatchewan. All common cereals and green crops have been grown successfully, however, even though night frosts are experienced throughout the entire summer. The depth of the snow is never excessive, while in the richest tracts the natural pasture is so abundant, that horses and cattle may be left to obtain their own food during the greater part of the winter; and with proper care and manage- ment there is no doubt that, as far as climate is concerned, sheep also might be reared, were it not for the immense packs of wolves which infest the country. It is only during the month of March, when the snow ac- quires a tough glassy crust from the heat of the mid-day sun being each night follow^ed by hard frost, that stock would require to be housed and fed. These remarks apply, however, more especially to what has been termed the " Fertile Belt," and the nature of which I w'iil endeavour to explain. The wonderfully fertile savannahs and valuable woodlands of the eastern United States are succeeded to the west by a more or less arid desert, which occupies a region on both sides of the Eocky Mountains, and presents a barrier to the con- tinuous growth of settlements between the valley of the Mis- sissippi and the rich states of the Pacific Coast, and at present only occupied by one spot of civilisation, the Mormon city at the Great Salt Lake. Under such disadvantageous physical conditions, it is not likely that any line of route for rapid or heavy transport across of the Central Part of British North America. 31 ■J I this desert will be remunerative, waile its construction, in the present disturbed state of American politics, maybe indefinitely delayed. Nevertheless, during the last seven years, oursharp- witted and prompt-acting cousins have been spending much money in having every possible route thoroughly explored and surveyed; and were their domestic troubles over, there is no doubt that they would revert to their attempts tobind together their eastern and western provinces. It is therefore highly satisfactory for us, as British subjects, to know that the arid region extends but a short way to the north of the 49th parallel of latitude, which is the position of the boundary line, and that even the small area of desert within our territories derives its character more from the nature of the soil than from the general climatic conditions. The British portion of the arid country is a triangular region, its apex reaching to the 52d parallel, while its base, applied along the 49th, extends between Long. 100° and 114° W. It contains, however, many varieties of land, and some limited areas that are really even good; but, on the whole, it must be described as deficient in wood, water, and grass. liound the northern border of this arid district sv/eeps the " Fertile Belt" of country which I before mentioned. It is nothing more than the ill-defined boundary of the bald plains from the gloomy woodlands of the circum-arctic forests. As it forms the favourite camping grounds of the Indian tribes, the habit which these savages have of burning the vegetation has gradually improved this country for the purposes of settle- ment, by clearing off the heavy timber, to remove which is always the first and most arduous labour of the colonist. The " Fertile Belt," which thus possesses all the good qualities of rich soil and an abundant growth of the nutritious leguminous plants of a woodland country, but associated with open ex- panses ready for the plough, or for depasturage, stretches from the wooded country at the south end of Lake Winipeg in a north-west direction continuously to the Kocky Mountains, so that the westward progress of settlement wnll not meet with the same obstacle that checks it within the United States. We thus perceive that in some respects the Saskatchewan country compares favourably with Canada; but we must not ':'!! m I SI k n f mi < 32 Dr Jainos Hector ow the Capabilities for Settlement forget that the valuable tiiiilier trees, which are such a great source of wealth to that province, totally disappear an we i)ro- ceed to the west, only very few of them ever reaching the longitude of Lake Winipeg. Beyond that, in the northern thick woods, the coarse and worthless white spruce, with a few Kinall birches, poplars, and willows, compose the forest growth, while in the " Fertile Belt" almost the only tree is the aspen poplar, which forms very artificial-looking groves and clumps, that add greatly to the beauty of the scenery, but are useless beyond giving shelter and yielding a very inferior quality of firewood. With all its disadvantages, the Saskatchewan country offers a most desirable field to the settler who is deficient in capital, and who has no desires beyond the easy life and moderate gains of simple agricultural occupations ; and it is only the difficulty of access to it that, for the present at all events, pre- vents its immediate occupation. Three routes are at present in use by which the country is entered. One is from Hudson Bay, by a broken land and water carriage, rough and cumbrous in its nature, but which has hitherto been the one principally used by the Fur Com- pany. Even they, however, have almost abandoned it now in favour of the third route I shall mention. The second route is from Lake Superior to Lake Winipeg, and also involves many changes from water carriage to land transport, and never could be used for the introduction of live stock or the conveyance of heavy goods. The only advantage which either of these routes could possess for us is from their both being within British territory. The third route, which is undoubtedly the natural line of in- gress to the country, but, unfortunately for us, passes through American territory, is up the valley of the Mississippi Eiver to the Red River Settlement by way of St Paul's, Crow Wing, and across the low water-shed which there divides the waters of the Mississippi from those flowing to Hudson Bay. A large portion of the rich fertile plains of Red River lie to the south of the boundary line, and are already being rapidly occupied by American settlers. An American of the Central Part of British North America. 33 steamer now plies on that river for a few trips each season, and a railway is projected, and the line partly surveyed, to conneet 8t Paul's with Paulina., where there is a new town situated on the frontier. This route, even at present, is ex- tremely convenient and easy for the emigrant, as it passes through prairie country, so that ho incurs no expense for the food of his animals when travelling. There can he little doubt, that if a railway is once constructed by this route, it will l)ecomo a permanent, and doul)tles8 the favourite, line of communication, and against it no other will be able to compete successfully. If there were a prospect of the western prairies being- soon occupied by a producing population, it might in tluit case bo remunerative to have a lino of railway constructed entirely within the British territory, that would have for its object the connection of Canada with our new colonies on the Pacific Coast ; but tliis would justly rank as a great national enterprise, in value much beyond the more western extension of our Canadian provinces. From the large and flourishing agricultural settlement of whites and half-breeds at Red River, the population of which is now about 8000 souls, such a line of railway might pass westward through the " Fertile Belt" without encountering any serious engineering difficulties. It has been frequently stated that in the Prairie country nothing would be required but the mere laying of the rails ; but this is a total misconcep- tion of the physical features of the region. The prairies are very rarely level, except over small areas. They have undula- tions that often swell to the height of several hundred feet, or for miles the traveller winds among abrupt conical eminences ; and it is only the general absence of timber, and the same- ness of the scenery, that deceive the eye, and give the appear- ance of flatness. IMoreover, throughout the greater part of the Prairie country, not only all the large rivers, but even small and insignificant streams, flow in valleys, with steep sides, deeply depressed below the general level ; and these valleys would require the construction of bridges, and often in districts far distant from a supply of any proper building materials. Nevertheless, I believe I can safely state, that c i I ; 34 Dr James Hector on the Ca}mhil Hies for Settlement in i)roportion to the extent of mileage, small engineering oxpenses would be incurred until the llocky Mountains are reached. We now know that tliis chain docs not present any bar to the construction of a railway, as there are several passes which will admitof easy gradients through valleys so wide as to afford great variety in the choice of ground for locating the line. Tlie mountains ])ropor are not more than 50 to GO miles broad in the latitude that would bo most probably chosen for tliG line of route, namely between 50" and 52", when, on cross- ing them to tlie west, the gold-bearing valleys of British Columbia are reached. Indeed, within the last few weeks, I have received letters from tlie Saskatcliewan.statingthat gold has been discovered in the bed of that river at the Rocky Mountain House, whicli is 40 miles to the east of the moun- tains, and quite in the plain country. Two hundred miles further down that river I have seen a few specimens of gold washed out, but I doubt much if it will ever be worked with profit on the east side of the iiocky ]\[ountains within the British territories, as there is no trace on that side of the axis of the ancient rocks from which it must have been derived. In the rugged country that lies between the Rocky Moun- tains and the Pacific Coast, I have no doubt that all the val- leys are filled with rich auriferous deposits, and every few months accounts arrive of " diggings" discovered in fresh localities. The most recent of them was in a letter from Lieut. Wilson, who is attached to the Commission at pre- sent engaged in surveying the boundary line from the Pacific Coast to the mountains, and who mentions that a rush has taken place to -x point on the Kootani River. In carrying a line of railway throagh this region of British Columbia, the difficulties to be overcome by the engineer are very great. The surface of the country is bro- ken by low mountain chains that run parallel with the coast, and the narrow valleys by which the rivers break through these are rugged in the extreme, but to develop the mineral wealth of this country will in any case require the construc- tion of roads, and would aflbrd more inducement to the laying out of money on this than on any other part of the route. of the Central Part of British North America. 35 TJio rusli of (ligp^ors iiitu tlio lunv country will ousiiro for it uii active though temporary scttloinoiit ; hut those luiiieral products which it (I wliich ily ho ilied possesses, hy steady energy and the e]u|»ltiynient of capital, will retain a considerahlo pernument poi»ulation, and give that solidity of wealth which alone would warrant the construction of a lino of railway through a difUcult and otherwise iniproductivo country. Throughout the Saskatchewan country there aro deposits of coal, which, although not to he comi>ared in ([uality with that we arc familiar with in this country, are yet of considerahlo value. Coal of a similar geological fovmation, hut of somewhat hotter quality, also occurs on Vancouver's Island and the ojjposite mainland, near the mouth of Fraser Iviver ; and at the former locality it is worked, and finds a market as ordinary fuel, for the manufacture of gas, and, ahovo all in importance to us, for the supply of our steam navy. Tt answers well for the generation of steam ; and the occur- rence of this coal on Vancouver's Island, which possesses magnificent harbourage, renders that colony a valuable link in a chain of communication with Chiiip and the East Indies, by way of a route across the North iVmerican continent. ■ * / I i *