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The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes ou les planches trop grandes pour dtre reproduites en un seul cliche sont film^es d partir de Tangle supdrieure gauche, de gauche d droite et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images n^cessaire. Le diagramme suivant illustre la m6thode : 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 < .w s Oi C 5 1 NEWFOUNDLAND ^hc (dUitBt ^dtisk Colonn ITS HISTORY, ITS PRESENT CONDITION, AND ITS PROSPECTS IN THE FUTURE. BY JOSEPH HATTON, ACTHOB OP ..TO.I,.Vr I.V AMEBICA." "tHB KKW CBV.O.V." ".orByALIBTIC tOI^BOK." XTC. I ! THE REV. M. HARVEY, BIC. I I PBO« PHOTOOBAPHS AND SKBTCHBS 8PECIALLT MA^B POB TniB WOBK BV W F BKHKIE < ■ •'• "'^^'''^«». AND S- H. PABSOIfS (IMIOTOOBAPIIKE); DEAWlf BT P8BC1VAL SKEITOIT J AND INGBAVBD BY GEO. PBABSOy. I Supplevxented by Artistic Contributions from various other sources. LONDON : CHAPMAN AND HALL, Limited, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 1883. 52265 l4f\TlOh]^ f. CHA5I,E8 DICKBN8 AKD BViKS, CBTSTAIi FALIOB FBESS. nI KIEFACE. The value of a history of the rise and progress of New- foundland depends upon iho qualifications whicli its authors possess for the treatmen . of the subject, tho trustworthy character of the data upoa which their treatise is founded, and the literary experieuco which they bring to bear upon the exposition of the materials they have collected. As theso are tho first points that seem to challenge criticism, a few words of explanation, as to the character, purpose, and ra'ison d'etre of the present volume, will save time and may prevent misunderstandings. Apart from the many v iried sources of knowledge which have been examined in cor.nectiou with the following pages, I would lay particular st.'ess upon the capabilities of my collaborator. A scholar and a traveller, ho has probably seen more of Newfoundlmd than any man who has con- tributed to tho literature of its history. A resident in the Island for a quarter of a century, he has coasted round it, explored much of it, v'.sited its ports and cities, studied its natural history, mixed in its social, religious, and political movements, and generally mastered the subject " New- foundland " in all it':, bearings. A recognised local authority on all matters pertaining to the history of the country and its future possibilities, the Rev. M. Harvey is known to the learned societies of London and also to the general world of letters.* It will, therefore, be hardly necessary for me to say that, in the literary partnership involved in this history of * Mr. Harvey's contributions to natural history, especially in connection with tho gigantic cephalopods, or cuttle fish, which he was the first to dis. cover and describe, excited much interest in tho scientific world a few years ago. He is tho author of a popular volume of lectures on literary subjects. He has written the article " Labrador" in tho now edition of the " Euoyclopa)dia Britannica," and has in preparation for tho suuio work a descriptive essay on Newfoundland. ▼I TREFACK I I Newfoundland, the Rev. M. Harvey contributes the largest 'J share of authoritative work. For myself, I have brought I into the collaboration a careful revision of facts and '^ opinions, some special investigations of historical data, | and such editorial skill, as is necessary, for the transfer- | mation of unsystomatisod MS. into the form and shape of | a comprehensive and methodical record. I have to thank i the courteous officials of the British Museum for their 4 assistance in facilitating my examination of MSS., maps, * and other documents that make up the curious chronicles of the discovery and early government of the oldest British colony. London is the centre of stored knowledge. In the -s production of this volume it has been found important to have one of its authors engaged within hail of the British Museum ; while the other laboured amidst the scenes to be described, a living witness of many of the facts hereinafter narrated. On his side, by the courtesy of Sir William Whiteway, the Premier of Newfoundland, Mr. Harvey has g had full access to the archives of the local government; on mine I have had London as a Library of Reference. It encouraged me greatly, in regard to the necessity and profit of our joint labours, when the first results of my inquiries about Newfoundland proved to be of a very limited character. I found the Island almost a terra incognita to the majority of the persons whom I should have supposed to be best acquainted with it. The latest history was issued in 1863,* and this, though an excellent work in itself, neither dealt with the fiaheries, the agriculture, nor the mineral resources of the country ; nor did it attempt to cover the unoccupied ground of topography, physical geography, and other features of the Island, necessary to a comprehensive treatment of the subject. I do not offer these remarks as any reflection upon an admirable work, but only to emphasise the fact that its scope was limited, and that, even as an historical record, the chx'onicle ended with 1860; while to the last decade belongs the most important advance which Newfoundland has • The "History of Newfoundland," by the Eev. Charles Pedley. London : Longmans, 1663. PREFACE. Vll made during its long and singular existence as a dependency of the British Crown. The story of Newfoundland is one of the most remark- able episodes in the history of the British Empire. It presents us at our worst and at our best. Strange in- stances of official tyranny blur the chronicles of the Island's rise and progress. On a smaller field Freedom has had almost as hard a battle in Newfoundland as that which was necessary to establish her supremacy at home. Not that the islanders fought and bled for the privileges they now enjoy' They did not win their liberties with pike and gun. The pomp and circumstance of war flung no halo of glory about their political achievements. Toiling and suffering, they bore their many ills with a patient loyalty to the Home Govern- ment that deserved the quick reward which it did not receive. To-day, however, no English ministry can look back upon the maladministration of the country, without a desire to redeem a past of cruelty and neglect, by a present con- ciliatory watchfulness over Newfoundland's future interests. The special grievances of the people, the unique position and t of the colony, the attempt to make it a mere fishing my ; station and training ground for the Navy, the curious tgd M anomalies of the local and imperial laws under which the t}ie people laboured ; all these subjects are considered and illus- to ^. trated in the following pages. in I In the active efforts that were made, for more than ther I ^ century, to suppress the colonisation of Newfoundland, icral I coercive laws were supplemented by libels on its climate and the 'ijUl ^0^^' T^® English merchants, who used it as a fishing station, published it abroad as a land given over to sterility and fog. Officials of the Home Government encouraged these reports. When, in spite of them, infatuated emigrants found their way thither, they were forbidden either to build on the land, or to obtain any proprietary rights in the soil. Every summer the Fishing Admirals took possession of the Island, with incontestable power to use or to destroy any huts, has 9 stages, or buildings, which, the inhabitants might have erected near the coast. In the autumn the fishing fleets J| sailed away. On arriving in the English ports the captains "TT^ VIU PREFACE. wore punishocl if thoy did not bring home again as many men as tliey had taken out. During the pleasant days of summer the Fishing Admirals and their crows made the country a howling wilderness. Winter found it a solitude and a desolation. Yet, strange to say, there were people who clung to its inhospitable shores. Such Law and Justice as existed there at all, went away every autumn, with the migratory merchants and admirals. The Freedom of Licence reigned one half the year, the Tyranny of L'responsibillty the other. Justice was held in greater respect, when Law was absent, than when ignorant and interested skippers administered it on the quarterdecks of their commercial ships. Men flying from troubles at home, unfortunate traders, exiles for conscience sake, adventurers to whom settled government moans chains and shackles; these and such like found shelter in Newfoundland. By degrees, as the laws relaxed in regard to settlement, and the tyranny of the Fishing Admirals waned, the population grew from a few hundred families to a few thousands. With the broadening of the opportunities of labour and enterprise, it increased, from eighty thousand in 1814, to something approaching, at the present time, two hundred thousand. Little better than a mere fishing village up to the end of the last century, Newfoundland is to-day a thriving community. The time is not far distant when it may rival, in wealth and status, the most important of England's colonial possessions. Discovered three hundred years ago, Newfoundland has only, in these latter days, been explored. The result of scientific investigation proves that it is endowed with all the possibilities of mineral and agricultural wealth. The geological survey, conducted over a period of seventeen years, dissipates the libels of those conspirators of the past who wished to keep the Island as a mere curing stage for cod. Rich in useful minerals, Newfoundland has fertile belts second to none in the New World. Seventy years ago it was unlawful to build a house on the Island with- out Government permission. It is within quite a recent date that settling there and cultivating the soil have been TREFACE. IX ssions. id lias bit of lith all The mteen past stage Ifertile years with- recent bee a tolerated. Half a century ago there were no regularly constructed roads in the country, and hardly a house worthy of the name, from an English point of view. It is within a score of years that anything like commerce, outside the fish trade, has made a mark on the rising towns and cities ; and it is little more than a year ago that, in a journalistic capacity, I had the satisF.iction of fcabling from New York to London the iirst news of the closing of a doui:i*^o afjfreement for providing the Island with the one great factor of commerce which her organisation required. At that time Newfoundland had no railway. As material on which to base prediction of future success, and as an example of the rapidity of modern progress, I am informed that at the date of these introductory words to an interesting historical record, forty-five miles of road are open and at work. Furthermore, it is prol)able that the time is not far distant when this hitherto neglected English colony will bo the half- way house of ocean-travel between the Old World and the great industrial centres of the New. The resting-place of the first Atlantic cable, there is every reason to believe that it is destined to be the junction of sea-travel and land-transit between England and America, shortening the ocean voyage to four days, and discounting the present time between England and New York by forty-eight hours. Given these pi'obabilities and the certainties which are already historical, it will be seen that the Newfoundlandei'S are on the high road to that good fortune which every intelligent traveller, uninfluenced by political interests, has promised them. As a field of emigration, more particularly for investment of labour and money in agricultural pursuits, Newfoundland has advantages which are set forth on the authority of practical surveyors, mineral and agricultural, in succeeding pages. There is no doubt as to the excellence of the soil, in the interior, for the cultivation of agr' tural products; while the value of the grazing lands, that are scattered here and there over thousands of acres of fertile valleys, is equally beyond question. All that is necessary to their development is the completion of the railway system now in course of con- struction, which will bring Newfoundland farms nearer, by PREFACE. several days to the markets of England, tlian any otlier competing districts of the American continent. The mineral prospects of Newfoundland aro not behind those of agri- culture. It is already the fifth on the world's list of copper- exporting countries. Holding a foremost place among fishing industries, its coasts are tho theatre of exciting adventures belonging to the garnering of tho ocean harvests. Ardent sportsmen seek its forests and streams in pursuit of " fin and fur." Tho geologist is busy among its hills and valleys. Mining prospectors aro examining the tracks of the Government surveyors. Tho first locomotives are running from tho capital to the adjacent towns. A tide of emigration is evidently on tho eve of setting in upon its shores. No complete survey of its history and condition, its physical geography, its fishing and other industries, its mineral and agricultural resources, its government, its laws, manners and customs in the past and present, its prospects in the future, has ever before been attempted. The book now presented to tho reader is therefore a cultivation of hitherto unoccupied ground. The result may not be in all respects satiyfactory. But as a pioneer volume it is entitled to friendly consideration. Apart from studies made for it upon the spot, almost every known work, printed or in manuscript, relating to Newfoundland has been consulted in the course of its preparation for the press. These have included Parliamentary papers and Government dispatches in the archives of the British Museum and Kecord Office, iournals of the House of Assembly and Customs returns at St. John's, newspaper records, and private letters. No source of possible information has been overlooked. To gather the facts thus collected into an interesting shape, and within reasonable compass, has been no light task ; ■with which suggestion of excuse for any shortcomings the authors present to the world this new history of England's oldest colony. JOSEPH HATTON. London, January, 1883. ; CONTENTS. JJiu-t K, HISTORICAL RECORD. or la ulted have atches Office, urns No To hape, ;ask; ^s the and's I CHAPTER I. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND TO THE FIRST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. [U97-1583.] i..,QH Discovery of Newfoundland — The Cabots and Columbus — Un- recorded adventures — Royal parsimony — Sebastian Cabot's last hours — Holbein's portrait of the great navigator — Sir Humphrej' Gilbert's expedition— Taking possession of the island in the name of Elizabeth — Fatal conclusion of the enterprise — Loss of the Siiuirrel with Sir Humphrey Gilbert and all hands 1 CHAPTER 11. EARLY STRUGGLES IN PEACE AND WAR. [1583-1G97.] Famous adventures on sea and land — Raleigh and Drake — Lord Bacon declai-es the Fisheries to be " more valuable than all the mines of Peru " — Whitbourne's " Discourse and Dis- covery of Newfoundland " — Lord Baltimore's settlement — Curious association of a myth of the Middle Ages with the New World — Sir David Kirke clears tlie French out of Newfoundland and captures Quebec — Settling under difficulties — Barbaric laws — Struggles between the resident and floating populations — French and British rivahy — " Between two fires " 23 Xll CONTE^'TS. CnAPTER TIT. TYllANNY BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT. [TGi)l-17:28.] paqe A government of skippers — A colony regarded na a sliip — The British Jlinistry advised to cxcliidi' women from the island — The biuieful Act of William Til. — The first sea-captain arriving at the tishericti to bo admiral — Tho population increases in spite of unjust laws and venal judges — Inter- position of commanders of tlie Tloyal Navy — Appointment of tho first governor — French attacks on tho country and capture of St. John's — Tho Treaty of Utrecht — Supremacy of England throughout Ncwfouiullaud — Fishing rights conceded to tho French — Standing grievances CHAPTER TV. THE FISHEKY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. [1728-1793.] Fifty years of agitation — Tho pioneers hold their ground — Establishment of a Court of Oyer and Terminer — Warlike opei-ations against the French in North America — End of tho Seven Years' War — Social disoi'ders and religions per- secution — Ih-itish and Frencli concurrent rights of fishing — The condition of Labrador — Tho war between England and America and its influence on Nowfouudland — The Pence of 1782 — Chief Justice Reeves — Disputes over tho Treaty of Versailles — Land grants and mining licences . 41 CHAPTER V. "THROUGH THE FIRE." [1793-18G1.] The last French attack on tho island — -Newfoundlanders not allowed to acquire land or build houses — Strange examples of tho rigour of the law of William TTT. — Refugees from Ireland — Roman Catholic disabilities — ^Eutiny of tho Royal Newfoundland Regiment — A landmark of impi'ovemcnt — Houses built without imperial jiermission— The first news- paper — The Red Indians — A tragical expedition — Governor Duckworth's enlightened administration — Tho rise of St. John's — A period of inflation — Tho treaty of Paris — Tho great fire of 1816 — Proposals of depopulation — Agitation for local legislative power — Expansion of popular ideas — Representative government conferred on tho island in 1832 — Hostility between the two Chambers — Religious and political rancour — Tho fire of 181tj— Twelve thousand people homeless — The proposed Anglo-French Convention of 1857 — Riot and tumult — Peace and progress .... a CONTENTS. Xlll CHAPTER VT. PAQG 41 " AFTER DAKKXESS— DAWN." [1S()1-1882.] Demoralising systems of ])auper relief — Proposed confederation of Newfoundland and Canada — Important discovery of copper ore — Geological survey of the island — Mx: Alexander Murray's reports^Iniportant revelations — Opj^osition and defeat of tlio projected union with Canada — Establisl nient of steam communication witli England — Dovolopment of mineral and agricultural resources — Proposed railway — Sir John Glover on the pnssil)ilities of the country — Govern- ment charter granted to tho Newfoundland Kailway Com- pany — Turning of the Tirst sod and construction of tiio first part of the first railway in 1881 — Prosperous condition of tho colony — Final settlement of tho French Fisheries Question — New railway pi'ojccts, with perspective plans of increased rapidity of transit between the Old World and tho New — New fields for emigration — A countrj' one-sixth larger than Ireland, with a population less than two hundred thousand . VAOI 115 ' XIV CONTENTS. V IPart H. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGEAPHY. III" CHAPTER I. SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. PAGE A stepping-stone between the Old World and the New — Rank of Newfoundland among the islands of the globe — Breeding- ground of the cod — An iron-bound shore with a fertile interior — Picturesque waterways — Long range and other mountains — The Exploits River — The Grand Falls — The Humber and Bay of Islands — Lakes and ponds — Grand Lake with an area of one hundred and ninety-two square miles — Great pine forests — Red Indian Lake — Virgin lands or " forests primeval " 132 CHAPTER XL ST. JOHN'S, THE CAPITAL OP NEWFOUNDLAND. The site of the city — The Narrows — Character of the local buildings — The new dock — Water supply — Protection against fire — Churches and chapels — Government offices and banks — Population and its religious denominations . 147 CHAPTER IIL BAYS AND HARBOJRS. St. John's — The Narrows — Round about the island — Placentia Bay — Burin and St. Pierre — Fortune Bay — The Penguin Islands — Cape Bay — On the banks of Bay St. George — Discovery of lead and other minerals — Marble beds in the Humber — The Straits of Belle Is! j— The Bay of Notre Dame and Bett's Cove — " The Beautiful Conception Bay " 168 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER IV. TUE INTERIOR. P.IQB ^PHY. The harvest of the sea — The Geographical Survey — Vast tracts of country still unexplored — An adventurous traveller — First impressions of a new country — Cormack's description of the new-found country — Extinction of the aboriginal Indians — Abundance of game — Beaver and venison — A para- dise for the sportsman — A vast grazing country — A friendly mountaineer — The island crossed from east to west 168 PAGE CHAPTER V. GEOLOGY. Jukes, Logan, and Murray — Eighteen years of surveying — Coal deposits — " Tlie Quebec group " — Tiie great ancient rock systems represented in Newfoundland — More tlian half the island found to be Laurentian, and the highest series of rocks carboniferous — Geological demonstrations of the capacity of the country to sustain a large population 178 ocal tion Ices CHAPTER VI. CLIMATE. Popular fictions — The Gulf Stream and the Arctic current — Fogs almost unknown in the interior — Compared with Canada and the United States — Meteorological observations — Average temperature and rainfall — " A silver thaw " — The robustness of the people quoted by authorities in favour of the chmate 188 CHAPTER VII. THE ABORIGINES. Human relics — The American Indian skull — " Survivals " — The Bethuks— Cartier on the natives of his day — Whitbourne's description of " The Natural Inhabitants " — Early expe- riences of the settlers— Invasion and retaliation — British intervention — Indians captured and taken to St. John's — Disappearance of the native tribes— Modes of sepulture — Cormack's expeditions —Wigwams and deer traps — Indian vocabulary 200 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER Vlir. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, FACE Two famous races — Physical and social characteristics — An orderly and amiable people — The middle and upper classes — Life among the fishermen — " The credit system " — Amuse- ments and pastimes , . . 222 % CHAPTER IX. ANIMAL KINGDOM. The caribou, wolf, and black bear — The " Wolf -Killing Act" — The beaver — "Newfoundland dog" — The seal tribe — Eagles, hawks, and pigeons — The American bittern — The great auk — The gigantic cephalopod, or devil fish . . 230 I CHAPTER X. VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Forest trees — Evergreens — The Labrador tea-plant — Wild berries — Flowering plants and ferns — Wild flowers and vegetables 214 CHAPTER XL NEWFOUNDLAND AS A SPORTING COUNTRY. Fishing and shooting — The willow grouse, or ptarmigan — Opening of the season — The wild goose and black duck — Deer-stalkinr: — Caribou shooting — Lord Dunraven on ex- ploration and sport — The moose and the caribou . . . 248 CONTENTS. XVil FAGB -An iseg ise- . 222 THE FISHERIES. e — Dhe 230 'ild md 2U CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY AND CONDITION OF THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. Export comparisons — The earliest fishermen on the Newfound- land coasts — Tlie West of England men — Driving out settlors — The rivalry of France and England — French and American fishing enterprises supported by bounties — Sta- tistical records of population — The rise and progress of the cod fishery — The Great Banks — Want of organisation and scientific observation — Number of persons engaged in the staple trade— Value of the fisheries to France and England — The American catch of cod-fish on the Banks — Newfound- land and the Dominion of Canada — European cod-producing countries — The " catch " in Norway — Newfoundland com- pared with the principal sea fisheries of the world FlOE 259 !X- . 248 CHAPTER II. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD, ITS DISTRIBUTION, MOVEMENTS, SPAWNING, AND MODE OF CURE. Cold-water seas and the Arctic current — Nature's laws of com- pensation — Food of the cod — The Labrador current— An old theory exploded — A submarine plateau — The fishing season — Caplin and squids — Process of curing the cod — Operators at work — Cod-liver oil — Fishing tackle and methods of taking the cod 280 CHAPTER III. THE SEAL INDUSTRY. Ancient methods of taking seals — Perils and hardships of the hunters — The beginning of the season — Steamers and sailing vessels — Battling with the ice — Impressive scenes — The Aurora Borealis— How a sealing ship is fitted — The hunters at work— How the seals are killed and packed for port — Converting the seals for market— Oil and leather . . 295 XVIU CONTENTS. ill CHAPTER IV. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SEAL. Mother u;y1 cubs — Maternal instinct — Toacliing the young to swim — r.'n liood seal and tlie harp — Tlio " dog " seal under att;.ck — ]L.g;'ations of the harps and lioods — Localities where they art found — On the march — Danger of exter- mination — Statistics of the take of seals since 1805 FAOE 310 » CHAPTER V. " SALMON. Occasional abundance of fish at St. John's — Want of efiicienfc regulations for protecting the fisheries — Commander Knowles recommends active measures on the part of the Government — Tlie law of the salmon — Suggestions for improving the fisheries — Local laws and proclamations — Other " game fish " 317 CHAPTER VI. THE HERRING AND OTHER FISHERIES. Movements of the herring — Bait for cod — Frozen fish exported to America — The Labrador herring and the Shore herring — Chief seats of the fishei'y — Statistics of the average catch — Exports and annual value — Mackerel, halibut, haddock, and lobsters 323 CHAPTER VII. THE FISHERIES AS AFFECTED BY INTERNATIONAL TREATIES. Privileges of the French — Concurrent rights — Unfounded claims — Sir "William Whiteway's mission to London — Settlement of the " French Shore " question — Fishery rights still in dispute — Lord Palmerston and the French Government — England and the United States — Various interpretations of American rights — " The Reciprocity Treaty " and the Treaty of Washington 329 CHAPTER VIIL LABRADOR. The Fisheries — Boundaries — History of Labrador — Climate — Population — Belle Isle — The legend of the Isle of Demons — Picturesque scenery — Immense cod-fishing grounds — Esquimaux and Indians— Berry-bearing plants— Mineral products .... ... . . 339 CONTENTS. XIX g to iidcr ities ster- PAOE 310 gart IV, AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. jient ndor the for ns — . 317 )rtod 3h— and CHAPTER I. THE GEOGEAPHICAL SURVEY. DifRcultics of the past — The vagaries of Governor Milbanko — Value of the land now under cultivatioia — Now discoveries of fertile belts — Lands suitable for settlement — Two million nine hundred and seventy-six thousand acres awaiting cultivation PAOB 360 323 EATIES. lims lent in ht— s of laty 329 e — ons s — ;ral 339 CHAPTER II. THE CODROY VALLEYS ON THE WESTERN COAST. A well-wooded country — Wild grass — Grazing lands — A winter in Codroy Villa — Experiences of local farming — Building stone and minerals — Emigrants going west — A fertile oasis en route hitherto unknown 366 CHAPTER III. THE BAY OP ST. GEORGE AND THE WESTERN COUNTRY. Capabilities of the district for settlement — Mr. Murray and Mr. Jukes on the productiveness of the soil — Vast tracts of unoccupied lands — Monsignor Sears gives the result of a settler's experiences — Room for thousands of farms on "The Barrens " — Dr. Bell on the climate — The Bay of Islands and the Humber district 372 XX CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. NOTRE DAME BAY AND THE EASTERN DISTRICTS. FlOB The future of the plain that will one day unite the Humber dis- trict with Notre Dame Bay — A splendid stretch of country — Scenery equal to that of the English and Scotch lakes — Largo and small game — Red Indian Lake and White Bay — The fertile bolts of the Gandfr and Gambo country — A wilderness that might bo " settljd" — The unpeopled valley of the Exploits — Gander River 384 CHAPTER V. ON THE riiOSPEOTS OP LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. Authoritative opinions and reports— Newfoundland compared with the most favoured provinces of North America — Sum- mers and winters — Newfoundland as a grazing country — Vegetable productions — The district of St. John's — Fish as a fertiliser — Wheat, bai-ley, and hops — Report of the Joint Committee of the Council and House of Assembly — The peninsula of Avalon — The present condition of agriculture — Customs returns — Markets for farm produce — Forest timber: pine and spruce — Area of forest lands — The lumbering regions 396 CONTENTS. XZl FAOB 384 gart E MINERAL RESOURCES. CHAPTER I. PIONEER WOKK AND PKOSPECTS. FAOB Opening of the first mine— Mr. C. F. Bonnet and Mi-. Smith MacKay— Tilt Cove and Bett's Cove 409 CHAPTER II. METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS AND COAL AREAS. The Quebec group of the Lower Silurian series— Mr. Murray on the ore deposits of Tilt Cove— Areas of the Serpentine series— Newfoundland as a copper-producing country- Professor Stewart's report — The auriferous rocks of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland— Mr. Selwyn's opinion— Dis- coveries of precious metals— Mr. Murray on the prospects of gold-mining— Lead, gypsum, and slate— Mr. Jukes on the coal seams of St. George's Bay and up the Codroy River— Conditions on which land licences are granted — Exports of copper and nickel 414 XXll CONTENTS. flart 1DI. POPULATION, GOVERNMENT, ETC. CHArTER I. rOPULATION AND TRADE. PAGB Statistics of IGSt— Gradual increase of population— Religious denominations— Celtic and Saxon — Exports and imports — Charges on revenue and the Customs returns . . . 428 CHAPTER II. GOVERNMENT. Tlio constitution — Executive and public officers — The electoral districts — Salaries of officials — The judicial department — Constitution and character of the law courts . . . 443 CHAPTER III. ROADS, RAILWAYS, AND STEAM COMMUNICATION. The first highway— Postal roads and mail routes — Preliminary survey for the first railroad — Subsidy of money and lands offered by Government for construction of the road — Pro- gress of the work — Turning of the first sod, and running of the first locomotive 448 CHAPTER IV. EDUCATION. Rise and progress of educational movements — Legislative enactments — Denominational appointments — Government grants — The Colonial and Continental Church Society . 457 CHAPTER V. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. Protestant and Roman Catholic settlers — The Church of England — The early missionaries and the first bishopric — Wcsleyan Methodism and Congregationalism — Progress of Presbyterianism 464 CHAPTER VI. THE POST-OFFICE, CONSTABULARY, LIGHTHOUSES, BANKS, ETC. The mail service — Cost of the postal department — The police force — Thirty-two lighthouses and beacons — The light dues — Bank statistics . . 473 PAOH 428 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 457 473 Above Waterford Bridge— Four miles from St. John . Frontisjncco. Section of the IMaparaundi of Sebastian Cabot, 1544 ... 7 John Cabot in London 10 Sebastian Cabot 12 Jacques Cartior 13 Sir Humphrey Gilbert Heading his Commission ... 17 Sir Humphrey Gilbert 19 Wreck of the DclifjJit 21 Sir Walter Ealeigh 25 James 1 32 Heart's Content Harbour and Village 136 Rocky River Bridge 139 Wigwam Point, Exploits River 142 On the Barrens Facing p. 145 City of St. John's, Newfoundland .... ,,147 Roman Catholic Cathedral, St. John's 153 Government House, St. John's 155 Entrance to St. John's Harbour — Looking Seawards . Facing p. 168 Placentia IgO Rett's Cove Harbour, Notre Dame Bay 164 Conception Bay. Topsail, Newfoundland. Great and Little Belle Isle in the distance 163 XXIV LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOB Horns of the Caribou . Facing p. 230 A Newfoundland Fishing Fleet before the days of Steam . . 281 Fish-flake. Cod spread out. Boat Landing Cod . . .290 St. John's Harbour— Fish-curing .... Facing j). 291 Cod-fishing with Hook and Line 293 A Newfoundland Seal-Fishery Expedition— Hunters at "Work Facing p. 304 Lumberman's Camp in Winter ,407 Copper Mine, Bctt's Cove 411 First Excursion Trip on the Newfoundland Eailway; "Train about to start " .453 lY: II ng p. 230 . 281 . 290 ng J). 291 . 293 rk Ing p. 304 „ 407 . 411 rain . 453 >'-Y . . i.NlTY C:1URCH J57 :.:agL;3 3 tree I, NEWFOUNDLAND. THE OLDEST BRITISH COLONY. ?art L HISTORICAL RECORD. CHAPTER I. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND TO THE FIRST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. [1497-1583.] Discovery of Newfoundland — TI. ) Cabots and Columbus — Un- recorded adventures — Royal parsimony — Sebastian Cabot's last hours — Holbein's portrait of the great navigator — Sir Humphrey Gilbert's expedition — Taking possession of the island in the name of Elizabeth — Fatal conclusion of the enterprise — Loss of the Squirrel with Sir Humphrey Gilbert and all hands. At daybreak on the 24th of June, 1497, the welcome cry of " Land ho ! " from the masthead of The Mathew of Bristol proclaimed the discovery of what is to-day England's oldest colony. The warning of the look-out was responded to by a round of British cheers from the deck below. The tight little pioneer ship, not more than two hundred tons, was manned by West- Country sailors. Her com- B NEWFOUNDLAND. [part I, ''t\' ( 1 1 mandor was John Cabot. His first officer was his worthy- son Sebastian. At this p 3riocl Amerigo Vespucci, whoso name was to give a title to the Now World, had not yet mada iis first voyage across the Atlantic. The importance of Cabot's discovery can hardly be overrated. It gave to England her claim to the sovereignty of a large portion of North America. It inspired her first impulse of colonisation. But for the Cabots Spain would no doubt have monopolised discovery in North as well as South America. It is worth while inquiring how they were led to this great achievement. The close of the fifteenth century was marked by the grandest event of modern times — the discovery of the New World by Columbus. The news broke on men's minds with startling effect. The noblest and the most daring spirits of Europe were stirred to their depths. The impulse to explore the wonders and the mysteries of the land, the outer curtains of which Columbus had just raised, fired thousands of brave hearts. Among those who felt this kindling impulse most keenly were John Cabot and his son Sebastian. The father was born of Italian parents. Venice was probably his native city. There are those, however, who claim this lionour for Bristol. At all events, ho lived there for many years, and his son Sebastian was born and bred in that ancient port.* Of this great navigator, little ^« It"l * " What countryman originally -was John Cabot ? As we have seen, he only becomes a Venetian citizen in 117G. Was old John Stow right in calling liim a Genoese, or was ho after all an Englishman, who for some service had this honour conferred upon him, even as William Gold had? For aught that appears to the contrary, ho himself might have been born in Bristol ; and not many years since wc are assured there were several deeds in the muniment-chest of St. Thomas, in this city, of Henry VII. 's reign, which were attested by some of that name. Unfortunately, and though most diligent seai'ch has been made after them, it has been hitherto unsuccessful." — " Life of Sebastian Cabot" by J. F. Nicholls, City Librarian, Bristol. [part I. DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND. worthy i, wlioso not yet )ortaiice It gave a large impulse 10 doubt 3 Soutli yere led 1 by tlie of the n men's he most depths. oysteries ibus had Among J: $ -if: is known beyond the fact that ho was a thoughtful [man. Ambition led him far beyond the mere routine of business. The maritime discoveries of the time engrossed his constant attention. His son Sebastian, who with his father was destined to achieve a fame second only to that of Columbus, inherited his father's predilections, and entered at an early age on a seafaring life. When the news of the famous Spaniard's great discovery flew from nation to nation, filling all Europe with wonder, it inspired the ambition of these two men with a desire to rival his achievements. Pondering the sub- ject deeply they came to the conclusion that, by taking a north-west course, instead of following the track of the great navigator, which led him to San Salvador, they would discover new lands, and perhaps find a shoi'ter pas- sago to the Cathay of Marco Polo, one of the leading objects of maritime adventure in those romantic days. When the news of Columbus's discovery reached England, Henry VII. must have been sorely chagrined to find that he had missed the proffered honour of having his name transmitted to posterity, as the patron of the illustrious navigator, whose discovery would have entitled his Majesty to be proclaimed, as Spain was, master of a new world beyond the western seas. When, therefore, John Cabot and his son proposed to the king a voyage of discovery, from the port of Bristol, to regions far north of those which Columbus was then exploring, the English monarch lent a willing ear to the offer. The ambitious navigators were speedily granted " letters patent," sanctioning their undertaking. This legal instrument, however, shows that the pai'simonious monarch left the whole expenses of the expedition to be borne by the Cabots and their Bristol connections.* Being competent to meet such a heavy * The Sir Peter Thomson MSS. in the British Museum mention 1««HP NEWFOUNDLAND. [part r. M' ll'i ' I expenditure is a proof that they were not only possessed of considerable wealth, but were ready to adventure it with their lives for the glory of their adopt i d country. Early in the month of May, 1497, the Cabots took their departure from the port of Bristol, turning the prow of their vessel to the north-west and traversing seas before unfurrowed by European keels. Never, perhaps, was a voyage of discovery, the consequences of which were so far-reaching, entered upon with less pomp and circumstance. The voyage of Columbus has had thrown around it a glamour of poetry and romance. History has cai'efully gathered into her golden urn every incident connected with the great undertaking, and eloquent pens have told the thrilling story in every variety of pictu- resque detail. But of the voyage of Cabot, fraught with such vast consequences, we know almost nothing. No diary was kept on board The Mathew. The records of the enterprise which have come down to us were written long afterwards, and ai*e of the most meagre and unsatisfactory description. " The English," says Carlyle, " are a dumb people. They can do great acts but not describe a third son of .Toliu Cabot in connection with the first expedition. Tlie terms of tlie entry are as follows : "Anno 14'.ij. Ilnd King Henry VII. Letters Patent were granted to John Cabot of Venice, to Lewis, Sebastian, and Sancius, suns of the said John, and to their heirs and deputies, to sail with five ships npon their own proper cost and charges to seek out, dis- cover, and find whatsoever isles, countries, regions, or provinces of the heathen which before this time hath been unknown, to cause to set up our ensign there and reduce them to our jurisdiction." They were restricted to sail from Bristol and only to arrive at that port (" one-fifth part of the net profits of such voyage or voyages for the King's use "), while others were prohibited from attempting such dis- coveries on forfeiture of their ships and goods, and the King's subjects and officers were commanded to give good assistance to the said Jolm Cabot and his sons as well on land as on sea. [r.iHT r. [CDIP. i-l DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND. thera. Like the old Romans and some few others, their epic poem is written on the earth's surface : England, her ' mark." Without flourish of trumpets, Cabot and his ;i English seamen sailed away into the unknown waste of waters. Of the difficulties and hardships which they encountered in crossing the Atlantic in much stormier latitudes than those through which Columbus's course lay, we know absolutely uothing. The commander gave to the world but little account of what took place beyond the bare results of his voyage. We do not know much more of it than may be set forth in the laconic record that on the 24th day of June following the departure from Bristol, the glad cry of " Land ho ! " was heard, and that Cabot named the headland which he saw, " Prima Vista." A Bristol manuscript, which has survived the wrecks of time, chronicles the dis- covery in the following curt terms : " In the year 1497, the 24th of June, on St. John's Day, was Newfound- land found by Bristol men, in a ship called The ALathciv." The ancient historian does not even mention Cabot. Such is fame among contemporaries ! A new continent is dis- covered, and the chronicler of the day is careful to record the name of the ship in which the discovery was made, but of the commander, whose genius and courage directed the enterprise, he says nothing. An interesting inquiry here presents itself : What part of the New World was first seen by Cabot, and named by him " Prima Vista " ? The common account is that it was some part of the island of Newfoundland, most probably Bonavista, now the northern cape of Trinity Bay, in latitude 48" 50' N., the name " Prima Vista " having been jafterwards changed to " Bonavista." In confirmation of this view it is stated that there is a small rocky islet called taccalieu off this part of the coast, and that Cabot, accord- -».-«►«»••...«►• , l^-ui.j*..^».i^' i4 f «»».|>'.*V ^^ ^'M I* 6 NEWFOUNDLAND. [TABT I. I Si 1 1. I.' I' 15; ,' iiig to Peter Martyr, called the countries adjacent to tlio fisliing-grounJs Baccalaos, from the local abundance of codfish, for which this was said to he the native term. This, however, is now known to have been a mistake. The aborigines called codfish apage. Baccalaos was the name given to it by the Basques long afterwards. In the second chapter of "Don- Quixote^' the word occurs in the following sentences : *' That day happened to be Friday, and there was nothing in the house but some fish of that kind which in Castile is called ahadcxo, in Andalusia haccalao, and in some parts cnradillo." "The landlord produced some of his ill-soaked and worse-cooked haccalao^ The old Basque name for dried cod was therefore in general use in the days of Cervantes. Another account is that the laud seen by Cabot was part of the Labrador coast, and that " the island opposite to it," mentioned in an inscrip- tion on an old map, was that part of Newfoundland near the northern e nd of the Straits of Belle Isle. The doubt and difference of opinion regarding this point have arisen from the imperfect character of the contemporary records. Happily, however, for students of American history, all doubts on this subject have been removed by the discovery a few years since of a map made by or under the direction of Sebastian Cabot, and bearing the date of 1544. This valuable chart, as will be seen by the accompanying illustration of a section of it, places the " Prima Vista " near the eastern point of the present island of Cape Breton; and as the Gut of Canso had not then been discovered, the island on the map forms a part of the present Nova Scotia. As Sebastian Cabot was his father's companion and assistant on this voyage, and was famous for his skill in chart-making, this map must be considered as the most trustworthy of the earlier charts of the coasts. It is probable, from a letter of Lorenzo Pasqualio, a Venetian merchant then residing iu [part I. t to the lance of re terra, ce. The lie name e second in tlic I Friday, L of that Lndalusia landlord n " with to amuse himself, and he is now in llristol with liis wife, Avho is a Venetian woman, uud with his sons. His name is Zuan Cabot, and they call him the Great Admiral. Vast honour is paid him, and he dresses iu silk ; and these English run after him like mad people, so that he can enlist as many of them as he pleases." There is no record of John Cabot after this period. It is probable that he did not long survive his first famous voyage. His son Sebastian remained for a number of years in England, but at length entered the service of the King of Spain, ar.d again engaged in maritime discoveries. Explor- ing the Plata and Paraguay rivers, he discovered Brazil. When Edward VI. ascended the throne he returned to England, and was appointed chief pilot of the kingdom. For many years he was the life and soul of British maritime enterprise. In company with others he first opened up the trade with Russia. He died in his eightieth year in London, but no man knows where his dust i-eposes. The only record we have of his closing hours is by his friend Richard Eden, who tells us that when bound for that country where there is " no more sea,^^ " the ruling passion" was iu his case "strong iu death.'^ lo Avould appear from Eden's narrative as if he had loved the sea so well, and played with its wild waves so long, that even in his last moments the music of the ocean was in his ears. In the wanderings of his fevei*ed fancy he spoke of a divine revelation to him of a new and infallible method of finding the longitude, which he was not permitted to disclose to any mortal. The dying seaman was again, in imagination, on his beloved ocean, over whose billows his intrepid youth had opened a pathway, and on whose mysterious secrets he had pondered for threescore years. Then he entered the quiet haven where the storms are hushed for evermore. ) i i i 1 • \ i 12 NEWFOUNDLAND. (rAiiT I. iJ l',l '■(! n i If I I No monument has ever been erected to perpctuato tlio memory of one of the noblest and bravest men wlio ever trod the deck of an Eng-lish ship, lie f»'ave a continent to England ; and in all that wide region there is not a cape, headland, or hai-bour called by his name, except one small island off the eastern shores of Newfoundland, which, a few years ago by an act of the local government, exchanged a very vulgar name for the honoured one of Cabot's Island. The navy and commerce of England received from him their SKBASTIAN CABOT. first onward impulse, but no one can point to the few feet of earth which, in retui'n for all his services, England gave as a resting-place for his ashes. His maps and discoveries, never published to the world, were allowed to sink into oblivion. There is still in one of the private collections of England a portrait of Sebastian Cabot, painted for Edward VI. by Holbein. It was published some years ago by Mr. Nicholls, of the Bristol Library, in a tributary brochure to Cabot, and the accompanying engraving is a partial reproduction of it. w- m:- Jl;j>- ciur. I.I DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND. 13 For ulmost a century no attempts were mado by Englishmen to follow up the discoveries of their country- iiu'ii in Newfoundland. They did not even share in the harvests of the local seas. They were at that time engaged in a liu'rativo fishery on the coasts of Iceland. The l*ortngueso were the first to turn their attention to the northern regions discovered by Cabot, (jasper Cortoreal ranged the coast of North America ni I-jUO, discovered and named Conception Bay and Portugal •v > JACQUES CAKTIER. Cove, in Newfoundland, and established the first regular fishery on its shores. Seven years after Cabot's dis- covery, the fishermen of Normandy, Brittany, and the Basque Provinces were engaged in the cod fishery, on the banks and along the coasts of Newfoundland. The Basque fishermen gave the name Cape Breton to the eastern pro- montory of the island, which afterwards extended to the whole. In 1517 forty sail of Portuguese, French, and Spaniards were engaged in the cod fishery. In 1527, John ^ 14 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'Aiir t. I'nt, an English captain, wrote a letter which is still extant, to Henry VIII. , from the haven of St. John's, Newfound- land, in which ho says that ho found there eleven sail of Normans, one Breton, and two Portuguese barques. In 1 o'M, Jacques Cartier, the celebrated French navigator, whose enterprise discovered and secured Canada for France, circum- navigated Newfoundland, explored the Bay of Chaleurs, unfurled the lilies of France at Gaspe, and in a second voyage ascended the St. Lawrence as far as Montreal. It was on this second voyage that he and lloberval, his assis- tant in the enterprise, met in the harbour of St. John's. In 1578, according to Ilakluyt,* the number of vessels em- * The Hakluyt ]\rSS. in the British Museum contain the following interesting statement : " In the year 1536,28"' of K. Hen. the 8"', Master Horc and divers other gentlemen made a Voyage to Newfoundland their Names were as follows. " Master Wickes a Gentleman of the West Countrey of SOO marks l)y the year. " Master Tncke a Gentleman of Kent. " Master Tnckfeild " Master Thomas Buts the son of Sir Will'" Buts Kn* of Norfolk w^'' is yet alive, (1589) and from whoso mouth I wrote most of this relation. " Master Hardio " Master Biron " Master Carter " Master Wright " Master Eastall Serjant Rastall Brother " Master Ridley and divers others which all were in the Admiral called the Trinitie a ship of 140 Tons whcrin Master Hore himself imbarked. " In the other ship named the Minion went Master Arraigil Wade a very learned Gentleman, Father to Master William Wade now clerk of the Privie Counsell. " Master Oliver Dawbeney merchant of London. " Master Joy afterwards Gentleman of the King's Chappell. with divers other of good account. The whole number that went in the above two ships, were about 120 persons, wherof 30 were gentlemen, they embarked from Graves End the End of April 1536. In about two II' .;, hi p. I.] FlltST ATTEMPT AT SETTLKMKNT. 15 ployeil in the cod fishery had increased to four hundred, of which only fifty were English, the remainder being French and Spanish. Up to this time no attempt had been made to colonise Newfoundland or any of the neighbouring lands. The hardy fishermen of various nationalities, among whom Englishmen were now much more numerous than formerly, were in the habit of frequenting the shores of the island daring the summer, and nsing the harbours and coves for the cure of their fish, returning home with the pro- ducts of their toils on the approach of winter. Eighty- six years had passed away since Cabot's discovoiy, and we now ai'rivo at the year 1583, a memorable date in the his- tory of Newfoundland. On the oth day of August in that year, there were lying in the harbour of St. John's thirty- six vessels belonging to various nations, Portuguese, Spanish, montlis sailing they fell in with Cape Breton — from tlionce they pail'd N.E' to Pcngniii Island w"'' is very full of llockos and stones and great Birds wliitc and gray colour as big as Geese, they took some of the Birds and killed some Boar's, this Island is in the Lat of .'JO d. Master Oliver Dawbeney inform'd Master Richard Ilakluyt the follow? particulars, that after their arrival in Newfoundland and having bene there certain days at Anchor Ho saw a boat with Savages, rowing towards them to gaso upon the ship and our people, tliey manned their ships boat in order to have taken them, but they fled to an Island in the Bay and escaped our men — they found a fire and a side of a Bear on a Wooden spit, also a Boot garnished on the Calf as it were with raw silk, also a great Warm Mitten, whilst they lay thei'e they were in great want of provision and that there they found small reliefe. more than that they had from the Nest of an Osprey (or Eagle) that brought hourely to her Young groat plenty of divers sorts of fishes. But such was the famine amongst them that they were forced to eat raw herbs and Roots, which tliey sought for on the Maine : But the reliefe of herbs being not sufficient to safcisfie their craving appetites, when in the deserts in search of herbage, the fellow killed his mate while hee stouped to take up a root, and cutting out peices of his Body whom he had murthered, broyled the same on the coals and greedily devoured them, by this means the company decreased, and the officers knew not what was I'll I'll '% iJ I .I" '' ' ill' 1 ' III ■' ,1' 'It IG NEWFOUNDLAND. fl'MlT I. Frcncli, and Englisli, all employed in fishing. In addition to these there were four English war-ships, which had arrived the day before. They were the Drlujht, the Golden Wind, the Siralloir, and the N'/^nV/v/. Early on this morning boats were lowered from the English ships, and the commanders and offieers went on shore. Soon a goodly company had assembled on the beach, then lined by a few rough wooden huts, and " Hakes " or stages for drying cod. The rough inmates of these huts gathered round the com- pany that had landed from the Englisli ships ; and the captains and officers of the other vessels were there by special summons. A very curious and motley group was that which become of them— tlie reason wliorof was at last discovered. Upon which the Captain made Notable Oration, containing how much these dealings offended the Almighty &c. &c, ho exhorted them to repentance and besought all the Company to Pray, that it might please God to look on their present miserable state, and such was tiic mercio of God, that the same night there arrived a French ship in that port, well furnished with Vittaile, and such was tlu' Policie of the English, that they became masters of the same, and changing ships and Vitaling them, they set saile for England, they saw many Islands of Ice and arrived at St Ives in Cornwall the latter End of October, from thence they departed to a castle behmging to Sir John Luttrel. where M. Thomas IJuts and M. Rastall, and other Gentlemen of the voyage were very friendly intertain'd : after that they came to the Earle of Bathe, at I?athe. and thence to Bristol, so to London. M. Bnts was so changed with hunger and misery that Sir William his Father and my Lady his mother did not know him. till they examined a Wart he had upon one of his knees, as ho told mc llichard Hakhiyi of Oxford himself to whom I rode 200 rai'es to learn the Truth of his Voyage from his own mouth as being the only man alive that was in this discoverie. " The French-men complain'd to K. II(>n: the 8"' in a few months after their arrival, of this affair, and the King hearing the great dis- tresse his subjects were In. and the necessity there Avas to do as they did. paid the French-men full recompencc out of his own purse, vide pa 519. " King Edward the 6^^' for the great and acceptable service done and ta he done, nnto vs hij our heloved servant Sehast'ian Cahot. settled an Annuitic or yearly revenue of £1(30 KJs. 4d. sterling on said Sebastian Cabot, dated the first oi January in the 2" ' year of his Reign 1548." tlu'U bi'dii FriM circl llOl) dual BrA which Queer (iilbei unroll royal i'ouud i H,, riiip. I.] FIIiST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. 17 tlion stood on tlio boacli of St. John's harbour — swarthy, bronzed sailors and fishermen of Spain, Portugal, and France, in the costumes of the sixteenth century. Soon a circle formed round one commanding figure — a man of noble presence, wearing the richly slashed and laced doublet, velvet cloak, trunk-hose, and gay hat and feather SUl HUMrUUEY UILUEKt KEADlMi HIS COMMISSION. which constituted the dress of gentlemen in the days of Queen Elizabeth. This was no other than Sir Ilumphrey Gilbert, one of the gallant knights of Devonshire. He unrolled a parchment scroll, and proceeded to read the royal patent authorising him to take possession of Now- iouudland, on behalf of his royal mistress, and exercise 18 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. iuiisdiction over it and all other possessions of the crown in the same quarter. Twig and sod were presented to him in feudal fashion, and in the name of Queen Elizabeth he solemnly annexed the island to the British Empire. The banner of England was then hoisted on a ^s^^^itnii, the royal arms, cut in lead, were affixed to a wooden pillar near the water's edge, and the ceremony was com- plete. The grant gave Sir Humphrey Gilbert jurisdiction for two hundred leagues in every direction, so that the limits included Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, part of Labrador, as well as the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward Island — a right royal principality. This Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the -first settler in New- foundland, who, with some two hundred and fifty followers from Devonshire, had arrived with the view of making the western wilderness a home for Englishmen, was a son of Sir Otho Gilbert, of Compton Castle, Torbay. His mother was a Champernoun of purest Norman des'^ent, and " could probably boast of having in her veins the blood of Courtney's Emperor of Byzant." Sir Otho had tlu'ec sons by this lady, John, Humphrey, and Adrian, who all proved to be men of superior abilities. They were all three knighted by Elizabeth, a distinction which, coming from the hands of the great queen, marked its recipient as a gentleman and a brave warrior. Sir Otho died, and his widow married Walter Raleigh, a gentleman of ancient blood, but impoverished, and at the time living at Hayes, a farm in the parish of East Badleigh, Devonshire. To her second husband the fair Champernoun bore a son whose fame was destined to be world-wide ; and who, in a period more prolific of great men and great events than any before or since, played a gallant part, and was also knighted, as Sir Walter Raleigh, by Queen Elizabeth. Not many women could boast of being the mother of four such sons. Thus cini". I.] FIRST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. 19 Sir Huniplirey Gilbert and Sii' Walter Raleigh were half- brothers. Raleigh was brought up at the farmhouse of Hayes, while Gilbert and his two brothers lived in Compton Castle, near Torbay, and were trained in the simple and manly yet high-bred ways of English gentlemen. When Humphrey Gilbert grew up he embraced the profession of arms, and won high distinction in continental and Irish At length, in his mature manhood, he and his dis- wars. SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT. tinguished half-brother. Sir Walter Raleigh, formed the design of first colonising Newfoundland, and then the neighbouring islands and continent. Hence we find him on the 5th of August, 158;?, standing on the beach in the harbour of St. John's. Sir Walter Raleigh had embarked on the same expedition, but a contagious disease broke out on board his ship which compelled his return, 2 "ifli,. 20 NEWFOUNDLAND. [r\BT I, The enterprise of Sir Humphrey Gilbert was worthy of a heroic Jincl patriotic nobleman. It was nevertheless doomed to end in disaster and death. In prosecuting further explorations one of Sir Humphrey^s vessels was wrecked and the whole crew perished. The little fleet had struggled with contrary winds for many days. Eventually the Deli (jilt , the largest vessel, drifted into the breakers on a lee shore and struck upon the rocks. She went rapidly to pieces. Seventeen of the crew got into the long boat, and, after seven days, fifteen of them reached port. But the captain, Morris Browne, refused to leave the ship. Mounting upon the highest deck, says the ancient chronicler, "he attended imminent death so unavoidable." The other vessels stood out to sea and saved themselves. As winter was approaching and provisions getting low, Sir Humphi'ey deemed it wise to steer for England. He had planted his flag on boai'd the Squirrel, a little cockleshell of ten tons, and though earnestly entreated to go on board the larger vessel, the Golden Hind, he refused to abandon his brave comrades. A great storm overtook them near the Azores. The Golden Hind kept as near the Squirrel as possible, and when in the midst of the tempest the crew saw the gallant knight sitting calmly on deck with a book before him. They heard him cry to his companions, "Cheer up, lads, we are as near heaven at sea as on land ! " When the curtain of night shrouded the little barque, she and her gallant crew disappeared beneath the dark billows of the Atlantic. Thus perished Sir Humphrey Gilbert, scholar, soldier, coloniser, philosopher; one of the noblest of those brave hearts that sought to extend the dominion of England in the New World. To Newfoundland this sad loss was irreparable. Had Sir Humphrey lived to reach home, no doubt he and Sir Walter Raleigh would have renewed their efforts at w ■•'fe. CHAP. 1. 1 FIRST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. 21 nting "he colonisation ; and, profiting by past errors, ■would have settled in the island men of the right stamp. Sir Ilmnphrcy Gilbert's failure was the result of a succession of uncontrollable disasters. Fully appreciating the immense value of the fisheries of Newfoundland, he seems to have WRECK OF THE "HKLUIllT. Had II Sir s at been thoroughly impressed with the idea that the right way of prosecuting those fisheries was to colonise the country, and conduct them on the spot, whereby he would have established a resident population, who would have com- bined fishincT with the cultivation of the soil. It was ' Ij ti :^li 22 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. ;i a departure from this policy, and a determination, at the behest of selfish monopolists, to make the island a mere fishing station, that postponed for many weary years the prosperity of the colony, blighting the national enterprise, and paralysing the energies of the people. Ill CHAPTER 11. EARLY STRUGGLES IN PEACE AND WAR. [1583-1607.] Famous adventures on sea and land — Raleigb and Drake — Lord Bacon declares the Fisheries to bo " more valuable than all the mines of Peru " — " Whitbourno's Discourse and Discovery of Newfoundland " — Lord Baltimore's settlement — Curious asso- ciation of a myth of the Middle Ages with the New World — Sir David Kirke clears the French out of Newfoundland and captures Quebec — " Settling " under difficulties — Barbaric laws — Struggles between the resident and floating populations — French and British rivalry — " Between two fires." Undeterred by Sir Humphrey Gilbert's disaster, the in- domitable Raleigh (who had only been prevented from sharing in his expedition by a contagious disease which broke out on board his ship and compelled his return) was soon at work with fresh undertakings.* In 1584 he obtained a patent from Queen Elizabeth very similar to that which had been granted to Gilbert, and, having fitted out two ships, he sailed for North America, where he planted a colony, called Virginia after the maiden queen. Some twenty-five years afterwards the Pilgrim Fathers landed on Plymouth Rock, and laid the foundation of the * Sermon hy Canon Farrar on nnvolUng the Ealcigh n-indow presented to St. Margaret's, Westminster, hij American citizens, May 14, 1882. I 24 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ART I, ■ New England States. Thus was tlio work of colonisation, l>egnn l)y Sir Ilumplirey Gilbert, energetically carried fur- ward by those who followed in his footsteps. Massachnsetts, Maryland, the Carolinas, I'onnsylvania, New Ilampshire, and Maine followed in due time as seats of colonisation. Let us see, meanwhile, how Fortune dealt with Newfound- land. For twenty-seven years after the failure of the Gilbert expedition no fresh attempt was made to establish a colony in the island. During this interval fishermen of various nationalities continued to frequent its shores, attracted by tlie finny treasures of its surrounding seas. In 158 1< the bold sea-rover, Sir Francis Drake, was despatched with a small squadron to Newfoundland, where he made prizes of a number of Portuguese vessels laden with fish and oil, and carried them to England. The attention of English adventurers in connection with the fisheries was once moi'e directed to the island. There is a record of one Richard Strang, of Apsham, who in 1 593 fitted out two vessels for the purpose of taking walruses on the south-west coast, where at that time these animals were met with in gi-eat numbers, though they have long since dis- appeared. In 1597, or exactly the centenary of Cabot's discovery, we find some London merchants fitting out two armed vessels, which, after fishing for awhile on the Banks, arrived at the island of Ramea on the southern shore. Encountering here several French and Spanish vessels, they fought and took them, and carried one of them to Graves- end with a valuable cargo of fish and oil. One of the English vessels was wrecked off Cape Breton. While England was laying the foundations of the New England colonies, France Avas extending her sovereignty over Canada, together with the sea-bordering countries of Acadia (Nova Scotia) and Cape Breton. Newfoundland, lying in the immediate track of these French possessions, lii, (uu. iM EARIV STRUCJ(iLES IN PEACE AND WAU. or, and bcincf the first land usually seen by vessels sail in n^ thither, very early attracted the attention of the French, who made many attempts to plant settlements on its shores, although the sovereignty of the island right- fully belonged to Great Britain. The French were actively engaged in the prosecution of the fisheries in the neighbouring seas. Their success in this direction strengthened their desire to gain possession of Newfound- land. Hence it is that in the history of the country France SIR WALTKU RALEIUU. has always been an important factor. Having from time to time held possession of various points of the land, England's persisteti: rival in these latitudes has given names to many towns, villages, creeks, and harbours. To this day Newfoundland has not completely shaken off French iniluence, as by virtue of ancient treaties they still enjoy certain fishery rights on part of its shores. French colonisa- tion in North America began in the reign of Francis I., who gave a commission to Roberval. Sully, the able minister of Henry IV., saw the advantages likely to flow ill i^! 2G NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ABT I, IF: I '] II I, i' from colonising Canada, and ho renewed Roberval's com- mission in favour of the Marquis de la Roche, who was appointed the king's lieutenant-general in Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador, and the Bay and River of St. Lawrence. After him came Chauvin and Champlain, who in 1G08 founded Quebec, the capital of "New France." Two years later, in 1010, another attempt was made to plant a colony of Englishmen in Newfoundland. John Guy, a merchant, and afterwards mayor, of Bristol, published in 1G09 a pamphlet on the advantages which would result to England from the establishment of a colony in the island. This publication made such a deep impression on the public mind that a company was formed to carry out the enter- prise it suggested. The most illustrious name on the roll was that of Lord Bacon, the apostle of experimental philosophy, of whom Macaulay says, "turn where you will, the trophies of his mighty intellect are in view.'' The importance of Newfoundland, as a site for an English colony, did not escape the wide-ranging eye of Bacon. He pro- nounced its fisheries " more valuable than all the mines of Peru," a judgment which time has amply verified. With Bacon there were associated in this enterprise the Earl of Southampton (Lord Keeper), Sir Daniel Doun, Sir Percival Willoughby, and a number of other noblemen and gentle- men. To this company James I., by letters patent dated April, 1010, made a grant of all the part of Newfoundland which lies between Cape Bonavista in the north and Cape St. Mary. Mi*. Guy was appointed governor, and with a number of colonists he landed at Mosquito Harbour, on the north side of Conception Bay, where he proceeded to erect huts. He behaved with so much kindness to the aborigines as to completely gain their confidence. We have no authentic account of this settlement, begun under such favourable auspices, but it proved unsuccessful from some unexplained cause. Guy and a number of the settlers [I'ABT I. cnvp. ir. EARLY SXraiGOLES IN PEACE AND WAR. 27 rotnrnctl to England, the rest remaining to settle elsewhere in the Now World. Five years afterwards, in 1G15, Captain Eiehard Whitbourne, mariner, of Exmouth, Devonshire, received a commission from the Admiralty of England to pro- ceed to Newfoundland for the purpose of establishing order among the fishing population and remedying certain abuses which had grown np. Such an appointment clearly indicates that the trade and fisheries had now fallen chiefly into the hands of the English, as the Admiralty would not take cognisance of abuses and crimes committed by the subjects of another king. On his arrival in St. John's, Captain Whitbourne held a Court of Admiralty, and received the complaints of one hundred and ceventy masters of English vessels of injuries committed in trade and navigation. This furnishes trust- worthy evidence of the flourishing state of the English cod fishery at this early period. It was shown that there were upwards of two hundred and fifty English vessels, having a tonnage of fifteen hundred tons, engaged in the fisheries along the coast. Fixed habitations extended at intervals along the shore from St. John's to Cape Race. Paths cut through the woods enabled the people to communicate with the harbour of St. John's, where vessels from England supplied the people with provisions and other necessaries in exchange for the produce of the fisheries. Captain Whitbourne is a noteworthy character in English maritime history. He was one of the race of seamen who, in the days of Elizabeth and James, laid the foundation of England's naval supremacy, and opened .1 way to those distant lauds which are now the happy homes of millions of men and women of English descent. A brave man, he was just as ready and willing to fight as to sail a ship. When the Spanish Armada invaded England, he fitted out a vessel for the defence I T 28 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past I. p T' ■ ii :m of Ills native laiul iit liis own cost. Ho was one of Elizabeth's g-allunt band of Devon captains who dashed out of Torbay into the very midst of the Spanish galleons as they passed, lie had spent forty years in tradiiif^ to Newfoundland, and had formed an almost romantic attachment to the country. Ho was present at St. John's when Sir Humphrey Gilbert took possession of the island on behalf of his sovereign. Having done what ho could during the active part of his life to pro- mote its interests, on his return to England, in his advanced years, ho wrote an account of the country, entitled, "A Discourse and Discovery of Newfoundland," with the view of inducing Englishmen to settle there. The shrewdness, honesty, and good sense of the writer are apparent on every page of this book. He was almost the first to say a kind word for Newfoundland, and to make known to Englishmen the natural capabilities of the island. His book made a great impression at the time, and gave a strong impulse in favour of settling in the country and working its fisheries by means of a resident population. So highly did King James think of the volume that he ordered a copy to be sent to every parish in the kingdom. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York issued a letter recommending it, with the view of encouraging emigration to Newfoundland. Thus two hundred and sixty years ago, Newfoundland was a name on the lips of Englishmen. The island loomed large and important in the eyes of statesmen. Whitbourne, in his little book, told the people of his day, very truly, that the soil of Newfoundland would grow abundantly " corn, cab- bage, carrots, turnips, lettuce, and such like,'' when culti- vated, and that it yielded spontaneously " fair strawberries and raspberries, and many other delicate berries," in great abundance. He further told them of the immense herds of deer that roamed over its hills and valleys; of hares. 1 will hiiJ" ...^ [I'AiiT r rniP. 11. KAULY S'iuL'GGLES IN PEACE AND W\U. 20 beavers, foxes, otters, bears ; of plmnp partridges and wild "■(•esc and ducks ; but above all of the " penguin," as big an a goose, wliicli, in vast flocks, covered many of tho small islands and were met with in large numbers as far out as the IJanks. Tho last reference is to tho " great auk," now numbered among the extinct birds, but in Whitbourne's day it abounded in tho Newfoundland waters. For tho last eighty years not a single specimen of tho great auk has been se' .' and there are but a few skeletons of this singular bird in aii the museums of tho world. Of the abundance and excellence of tho fish Whitbourno wrote in rapturous terms ; and then waxing enthusiastic, he asks : " What can the world yield to the sustentation of man which is not to bo gotten here ! Desire you wholesome air, tho very food of life ? It is there. Shall any land pour in abundant heaps of nourishments and necessaries before you ? There you have them. What seas so abounding with fish ? What shores so replenished with fresh and sweet waters ? How much is Spain, France, Portugal, Italy, and other places beholding to this noble part of the world for fish and other commodities. Let the Dutch report what sweetness they have sucked from thence by trade. The voices of them are as trumpets loud enough to make England fall more in love with such a sisterland. I am loath to weary thee, good reader, in acquainting thee of those famous, fair, and profit- able rivers J and likewise those delightful, large, and inestimable woods; and also with those fruitful and en- ticing hills and delightful valleys, there to hawk and hunt, where is neither savage people nor ravenous beasts to hinder their sports." * The official circulation of Whit- * It is only during recent years tliat a geological survey of the island has been made ; and it is as curious as it is satisfactory to know that scientific investigation has substantially demonstrated the truth of Whitbourne's representations in regard to the natural resources of the country, which he gave to the world two hundred and sixty years ago. Only of late have people been convinced that i;i 30 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAET I. Pl ( I ii: ' bourne's book made a deep impression on the public mind in England, and probably led to tlie next attempt at colonising the island. A year after tlie departure of Wliitbourne, in 1G23, by far tlie most skilfully-organised effort to carry out tlie settlement of Newfoundland was made, under the guidance of Sir George Calvert, afterwards Lord Baltimore. He was a Roman Catholic gentleman of Yorkshire, educated at Oxford, and for many years a representative of his native county in Parliament. Advanced to the honours of knight- hood under James I., he discharged the duties of one of the Secretaries of State with universal approval. His capacity for business, his industry and fidelity, are acknowledged by all the historians of the period. He shared largely the popular enthusiasm of his countrymen in favour of "planta- tions" in America, and when Secretary of State he obtained a patent convoying to him the lordship of the w^iole southern peninsula of Newfoundland, together with all the islands lying within ten leagues of the eastern shores, as well as the right of fishing in the surrounding waters, all English subjects having, as before, free liberty of fishing. Being a Roman Catholic, Lord Baltimore had in view to provide an asylum for his co-religionists who wei'e sufferers from the intolerant spirit of the times. The immense the island contains fertile bolts, noble pino-forcsts, extensive coal- fields, and vast mineral treasures. To take a single example, it was not till 1871, wlicn Mr. Murray, the director of the geological survey, made it known, tliat the valley through which Hows the largest river in the country, the Exploits, is capable of maintaining in comfort a population of seventy thousand. He describes it as being seventy miles in length, and from two to ten miles in breadth ; almost free from swamps and boulders, having forests of pine, birch, and fir of the best quality, its soil, in most places, being equal to the best of Lower Canada. Mr. Murray may bo said to have discovered this fine valley, through which the railway from St. John's to Hall's Bay is to pass, for previous to his description of it no one knew or cared anything about its capabilities. ciiAi. n.l EARLY STRUGGLES IN PEACE AND WAR. 31 tract thus granted to liim extended from Trinity Bay to Placentia, and was named by him Avalou, from the ancient name of Glastonbury, Avhero, it is believed, Christianity was first preached in Britain. It is curious to find in Newfoundland a trace of one of the myths of the Middle Ages. The tradition ran that Joseph of Arimathtea took refuge m Britain from the perse- cution of the Jews, carrying with him the Holy Grail, "the cup, the cup itself, from wliich our Lord drank at the last sad supper Avith liic- own," and that ho arrived at Avalon, afterwards Glastonbury, in Somerset- shire, and there founded a church, on tno site of which the great abbey of St. Albans was subsequently erected. Here stood the ancient Koman town of Verulam. To perpetuate the memory of these traditionary events in the New World, Lord Baltimore called his Newfoundland province Avalon, and his first settlement Veruhim. The latter name, in course of time, became corrupted into Ferulaui, and then into the modern Ferryland. At this spot, on the eastern coast of Newfoundland, about forty miles north of Capo Race, Lord Baltimore planted his colony, and built a noble mansion, in which he resided with his family during many years. He also erected a fort for the protection of the settlers. The utmost care was taken in selecting emigrants, and in promoting among them habits of economy and industry. No expense was spared, £30,000, a largo sum in those days, being spent in the settlement. But the high expectations thus awakened wero doomed to disappointment. The soil around Ferryland was unfavourable for cultivation, and the settlement was incessantly harassed by the attacks of the French, who had now obtained a footing at several points in New- foundland. Lord Baltimore, at length wearied out by these adverse circumstances, quitted the shores of the island, and returned to England, He speedily obtained from King l\ 32 NEWFOUNDLAND. ti'AKi : \m'. Charles a grant which led to the colonisation of Maryland, where he founded the city of Baltimore. The charter of this new colony, drawn up by himself, showed that ia wisdom, liberality, and statesmanship he was far ahead of his age. The Catholic Lord Baltimore was the first to establish in Maryland a constitution which embodied the principle of complete liberty of conscience and the equality of all Christian sects, together with popular institutions on the bi'oad basis of freedom. What is more, the colony actually did adhere strictly to these professed principles. I ' I ! JAMES I. ii Soon after the departure of Lord Baltimore, Visccnnt Falkland, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, hoping to pei- manently increase the scanty population of Newfoundland, sent out a number of emigrants from that country. At a later date, these were so largely reinforced by settlers from Ireland that the Celtic part of the population at this day is not far short of equality in numbers with the Saxoii portion. In 1038, Sir David Kirke, one of Britain's bravest sea-captains, arrived in Newfoundland, and took up his abode at Ferryland, where Lord Baltimore had lived. Sir cnAP.ii.l EARLY STRUGGLES 11"^ PEACE AND WAR. 33 David was armed with the powers of a Count Palatine over the island, having obtained from Charles I. a grant of the whole. He took with him about one hundred men, as the nucleus of a colony. Before leaving his native land, he formed a company to carry on fishing operations in his newly-acquired territory. Several patriotic noblemen personally shared in the work and aided him with money. Sir David Kirke had previously won high honours in the service of his native country. At Gaspe Point he had, with a squadron of three ships only, captured twenty French vessels, under the command of the renowned De Roquement. In a second expedition he made a clean sweep of all the French settlements in Canada and Acadia, and took Quebec ; yet, through the imbecility of Charles 1., who reinstated the French in the possessions they had thus lost, England had to re- conquer Canada at an immense expenditure of blood and treasure, and to capture once more the city of Quebec; this time with the loss of the gallant Wolfe. Kirke's reward for his bravery was knighthood and the grant of the whole island of Newfoundland. He governed wisely, and used every effort to promote the colonisation of the country. His settlement prospered greatly. The Civil War, however, broke out in England, and Kirke, being a stanch loyalist, all his possessions in Newfoundland were confiscated by the victorious Common- wealth. By the aid of Claypole, Cromwell's son-in-law, Kirke eventually got the sequestration removed, and, re- turning to Ferry land, died there in 1655, at the age of fifty-six. At this time Newfoundland contained a population of three hundred and fifty families, or nearly two thousand inhabitants, distributed in fifteen small settle- ments along the eastern coast. These constituted the II a ' 34 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABII. resident population ; but, in addition, there was a floating population of several thousands, who frequented the shores during the summer for the sake of the fisheries, which had now attained large dimensions. As early as 1G2,'), one hundred and fifty vessels went annually to the island from Devonshire alone; and the French were even more active than the English in carrying on the fisheries. While the inexhaustible wealth of the adjacent seas added greatly to the importance of the country, in another way it proved to be locally injurious. It retarded for more than a century the settlement of the island, and gave rise to social disorder and flagi'ant misrule. The fisheries, as far as the English were concerned, were carried on by merchants, shipowners, and traders residing in the West of Eugland. They sent out their ships and fishing crews early in the summer. The fish caught were salted and dried ashore. When winter approached the fishermen re-embarked for England, carrying with them the pro- ducts of their labour. They considered it their interest to discourage the settlement of the country, as they wished to retain the harbours and fishing coves for the use of their servants while engaged in curing the fish, All settlers on the land were regarded as interlopers. The I most strenuous efforts were made to keep the resident population within the narrowest possible limits. In this way there sprang up a strong antagonism between the merchants and traders resident in England, whose servants were sent out to prosecute the summer fisheries, and the few settlers who were striving to cultivate the soil. The struggle between these contending interests forms a dreary chapter in the history of Newfoundland. The wealthy merchants, having the ear of the home government, were able to secure the enactment of unjust and oppressive laws which effectually prevented the colonisation of the island, and preserved it as a mere station for the cure of cB^p. u.] EARLY STRUGGLES IN PEACE AND WAR. 35 fish. Under the plea that the fisheries must be preserved as a nursery of seamen for the British Navy, the various successive governments, at the instigation of the fishing merchants and traders, promulgated laws prohibiting settlement within six miles of the shore, forbidding anyone to proceed to the country as a settler, and ordaining that all fishermen, at the close of the fishing season, should return to England. Mastei's of vessels were compelled to give bonds of lOOZ. to bring back such persons as they took out, and " all plantations in Newfoundland were to be discouraged." This oppressive policy went on for more than a century. Even so late as 1797, we find the governor for the time being shai-ply rebuking a sheriff for having, during his absence, permitted a resident to erect ;i fence, and ordering certain sheds, designed for the shelter of the inhabitants, to be removed, and prohibiting others to " erect chimneys to their sheds, or even light fires in them of any kind." With such laws in force, the wonder is, not that the colony did not advance, but that any resident population should have been found to occupy its shores. Progress, of course, was out of the question. The ill-used residents could not legally enclose or till a piece of ground, or repair a house without a licence, which was rarely granted. They were thus compelled to look to the stormy ocean as the sole source whence they could draw a i. nty subsistence. Yet, in spite of all these difliculties and discouragements, the sturdy settlers clung to the soil, combated the "adventurers," as the merchants were called, increased in numbers, and eventually obtained freedom of settlement and a relief from oppression. In the teeth of unjust laws, designed to degrade a fine island larger than Ireland to a mere stage for the curing of fish, the popula- tion increased tenfold in ninety years. But if, as in the case of the neighbouring provinces, colonisation had been helped and encouraged from the outset, Newfoundland D 2 '' If If c 111 4 I ill ,4 m lii^i '.i. 3G NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. would to-day be in the front rank of Britisli colonies. Only seventy years have elapsed since the repeal of the oppressive enactments under which the country suffered, and the progress of the colony in that time has been most satisfactory. Still, the injury inflicted by the unhappy policy referred to, was felt long afterwards, and in many ways. A state of antagonism and embittered feeling between those desirous of permanent settlement, and the fishing merchants who wished to keep the country and the fisheries as a profitable monopoly in their own hands, was thus fomented during a long time. Misrule, anarchy, and turbulence, spread among the people who were outside the pale of law, and all attempts at civilisation were steadily discouraged. From self-interest, thos9 who wished to prevent colonisation systematically misrepresented the natural resources of the country. They proclaimed to the world that it was a barren rock, fit only for fishermen's accommodation in drying their nets and curing their fish. Even to this day such an idea of the country is largely prevalent, and it is only of late that correct information has been obtained and diffused. The policy of repression and discouragement began in 1633, its source being the notorious Star Chamber. To this court the merchants and ship-owners of the West of England, who wanted to keep the island as a preserve of their own, addressed a petition, requesting legal enactments to preserve order and repress crime. The Star Chamber proceeded to legislate, but their enactments were altogether one-sided, being directed to conserve the interests of the merchants and shipowners. Neither the personal nor the material received the smallest consideration. The code by which Newfoundland was to be governed, among other things, enacted that "if a man killed another, or stole to the value of forty shillings, the offender was to he brought to England, and the matter was to be tried by CHIP III EARLY STRUGGLES IN PEACE AND WAR. 37 the Earl Mai'shal, and if the fact was proved by two wit- nesses, he was to suffer death. No person was to deface or spoil any stage, cook-room, or other building. The ship that first entered a harbour was to be admiral of the same for the season. No person was to steal any fish, salt, or provisions belonging to the fishing ships, or rob the nets. The company were to assemble themselves on Sundays to hear divine service. The mayors of Southampton, Wey- mouth, and certain other towns were to take cognisance of all offences or crimes committed on the soil of Newfound- land.^' This last enactment is a curious specimen of the jurisprudence of those days, and sliows how scanty was the amount of justice meted out to the resident popula- tion. In 1660 the same court confirmed the enactments of lG3o, and made the following additional j^rovision : " That no master or owner of any ship should transport any persons to Newfoundland who were not of the ship's company, or such as were to plant or settle there." In support of this provision the Lords of the Privy Council issued an order to the magistrates of the western ports to take care that no shipmasters carried any but the ship's company to Newfoundland, or those engaged in the fisheries. Repeated efforts were made to have a governor appointed for the island. The merchants and shipowners vigorously resisted the proposal, and succeeded in preventing any such appointment. It suited them much better to have the control of the fisheries in their own hands without any interference. A governor might possibly side with the resident population, or disturb their pleasant monopoly. Petitions from the mei'chants and traders, and counter- petitions from the settlers, continued to be sent to the committee of trade on this and other subjects, but without any favourable result as far as the interests of the resident population were concerned. At length, in 1696, the Board >»* ^■••►«»«'->-w->,»- .•vr«- 'II '; 38 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAHTI. 1 ■! ^)l il . ! ill ; I .-■! :!!' of Trade was constituted, and a fresh set of petitions were presented to the new authority. In answer the settlers were informed that ** planters, in a moderate number, were at all times convenient for the preparation and preservation of boats, stages, and other things necessary for the fishery, but that they should not exceed one thousand." Such was the utmost concession that this Board, in their wisdom, were prepared to grant. The existence of a resident popu- lation to the extent of a thousand was to be sanctioned, but only for the purpose of taking care of boats and fishing gear during those winter months when the true owners of the island were in England. Another source of trouble to the resident population, and one which greatly retarded the prosperity of the country, was the presence and continual encroachments of the French. Their rule at this time extended over Nova Scotia (Acadia), Cape Breton, and Canada, and their ambitious commandants and governors in America boasted " that they would soon be able to drive the English colonists into the sea.'' The struggle between England and France for dominion in North America now commenced in earnest. It soon became evident that one or other of the contending powers must be driven from the New World. The conquest of Newfoundland had long been a favourite object with French statesmen. Not only would the possession of that island have enabled the French to control the valuable fisheries, but it would have placed in their hands the key to their transatlantic possessions, as it commanded tlie narrow entrance to Canada, the most valuable of them. lu 1635 the French obtained permission from the English to dry fish on the shores of Newfoundland on payment of a duty of five per cent, on the produce ; and in 1660 they founded a colony at Placentia, an admirably-chosen site for such a purpose. They fortified the place with powerful n- ■11 !l 1 CHAP. 11.] EARLY STRUGGLES IN PEACE AND WAR. 39 works, and they occupied other positions along the southern shore. With Capo Breton in their possession thoy com- manded both sides of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In 1G75 Charles II. was induced by Louis XIV. to relinquish the duty of five per cent., which had been paid hitherto as an acknowledgment of the British sovereignty. From this date the encroachments of the French grew in boldness. Within a few years they had established their dominion over a territory of two hundred miles in extent, their head-quarters being at Placentia. On the accession of William III. to the throne of England, hostilities broke out between the rival nations. In William's declaration of war against the French, New- foundland holds a prominent place among the alleged causes which led to the rupture of pacific relations. The grievance was tersely set forth in the royal manifesto : " It was not long since the French took license from the Governor of Newfoundland to fish upon that coast, and paid a tribute for such licences as an acknowledgment of the sole right of the Crown of England to that island; but of late the encroachments of the French, and his Majesty's subjects trading and fishing there, had been more like the invasions of an enemy than becoming friends, who enjoyed the advantages of that trade only by permission." Newfoundland now became the scene of military skir- mishes, naval battles, and sieges by land and water. The first operation was an attack on Placentia, by an English squadron, under Commodore Williams, in 1692. The French were strong in numbers and fortifications, and the attack was unsuccessful. Four years later, in 1694, the Chevalier Nesmond was ordered, with a fleet of ten .ships, to join the Rocheford squadron to proceed to Newfoundland. They were instructed to drive the English out of the island ; and, having accomplished this part of their programme, they were to sail for Boston and destroy 40 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part I. I,! I iir I J • 111 it, together with the neighbouring settlements. Nesmond arrived at Placentia. From thence he made a descent on the hai'bour and town of St. John's. He was repulsed, and mstead of going on to lioston he returned to Franco. A more determined effort at conquest was made later in the same year. The new expedition was under the command of Ibberville and Urouillan, the former being at tho head of a Canadian force. The gai'rison of St. John's was weak in numbers, and, in want of military stores, could only make a feeble resistance; capitulating on easy terms, they were shipped to England. The fort and town were burned to the ground, and the victors next proceeded to destroy all the other adjacent English settlements; Car- bonier and Bona Vista alone proved too strong for them. The English Government at once commenced dispositions for dislodging the invaders ; but before anything was attempted, the Treaty of Ryswick was signed in 1G97. This treaty proved most unfortunate for Newfoundland. It revived in the island the same state of division between France and England which had existed at the beginning of the war. The enemy retired from the rivers of St. John's and the other settlements which they had forcibly occupied. Their claims upon Placentia and all the other positions on the south-west coaf were, however, confirmed. The British inhabitants of Newfoundland were, therefore, once more left open to French attacks should hostilities be again renewed between the rival powers. 'i I J if, CHAPTER III. TYRANNY BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT. [1691-1728.] A government of skippers — A colony regarded as a ship — The British Ministry advised to exclude women from tlio Island — The baneful Act of William III. — The first sea-captain arriving at the fisheries to be admiral — The population increases, in spite of unjust laws and venal judges — Interposition of commanders of the Royal Navy — Appointment of the first governor — French attacks on the country and capture of St. John's^The Treaty of Utrecht — Supremacy of England throughout Newfoundland -Fishing rights conceded to the French — Standing grievances. The thirty years which followed the Treaty of Ryswick con- stitute the darkest and dreariest period in the annals of Newfoundland. The difficulties and sufferings of the resi- dent population were such that it seems marvellous they were not driven to settle in some more favourable region. Their miseries arose partly from the Government system of rule, and partly from the attacks of the French, who never ceased to hai*ass their British neighbours in con- tinuous acts of plunder and destruction. Before referring to the various skirmishes and naval engagements of which Newfoundland was the see at this period, we propose to glance at the internal condition of the island, and endeavour to convey to the reader some idea of the social and political struggles which characterised this season of anarchy. 42 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ABT I. 1:1 i< II" I- I; I (' I !'<■ M' 1" P. !!i ' :i K! f In tho last chapter we touched upon the notable enact- ments of the Star Chamber in the reign cf Charles I., by which it was ordained that if a person in Newfoundland killed another, or stole to the value of forty shillings, tho offender was to be sent to England, and, on conviction of either offence, to be hanged. Another memorable enactment of this arbitrary tribunal was that the master of tho first ship entering a harbour was to be admiral therein for the fishing season, and have judicial powers over the district. Groaning under the rule of these chance-appointed, ignorant skippers, who decided all questions regarding property and all other disputes, without any responsibility, and often for their own private benefit, tho inhabitants petitioned tho Home Government for the appointment of a governor and civil magistrates. The shipowners and mex'chants had, how- ever, sufficient influence to prevent the passing of a measure which would have been a recognition of the island as a colony and a direct encouragement to settlers. Blinded by self-interest and a short-sighted policy, these men strenuously endeavoured to keep the country in the state of an unreclaimed wilderness ; while the delusion (for such in the end it was discovered to be) of training seamen for the Navy by means of the Newfoundland fisheries, induced the rulers of Britain to repress colonisation by legal enactments, and to attempt to drive out by harsh and oppressive laws such as had obtained a footing in the country. Another method by which the shipowners sus- tained their monopoly was by representing the country, in regard to soil and climate, as incapable of successful cultivation. They described it as a barren rock fitted for nothing better than a depot for curing fish. In the graphic language of an Under Secretary, in his evidence before a committee of the House of Commons, at a later date: "The island of Newfoundland had been con- sidered in all former times as a great English ship, moored ■!i!) cHir.iii.l TYRANNY BY ACT OP PARLIAMENT. 43 near the bunks during the fishing season for the convenience of tho English fishornion/' Tlio governor was regarded as the ship's captain, and all thoso concerned in the fishery business as his crew, and subject to naval discipline. To prevent tho increase of iHliabitants on the island, positive instructions were given to tho governors not to make any grants of land, and to reduce the number of the people who were already settled there. A certain Major Elford, Lieutenant and Governor of St. John's, oven many years after the period wo are discussing, strongly recommended to the ministers of the day, "to allow no woman to land in the island, and that means should be adopted to remove thoso that were there." This was, indeed, going to tho root of the matter. No moro effectual method of averting colonisation could have entered into the fertile brain of the most rigid obstructionist. In l(Ji)8, the ]3ritisli Parliament turned its attention to Newfoundland and its fisheries. The result was the passing of Acts 10 & 11 William III. c. 25. This Statute, memorable in the annals of the colony, was entitled* "An Act tc encourage the trade to Newfoundland." It might, with better show of reason, have been entitled, "Au Act to discourage Colonisation." All its provisions were directed to the maintenance of the island as a fishing-station. The baneful effects of this Statute of William III. were felt for nearly a century. It constituted the charter of the monopolists, on the authority of which they resisted every attempt to introduce any measure calculated to secure the rights and liberties of a resident population, or to grant them the same privileges as were eiijoyed by other British colonists. Every improvement had to be fought out in the teeth of this Statute; every successive amelioration in the condition of the people was bitterly opposed as being inconsistent with the principles of this oppressive law. We have seen that, previous to this m 44 ^'KWFOUNDLAND. (pa III I. V m ! li r^i time, the country was ruled by a set of regulations which rested on the questionable authority of orders in Council from the Star Chamber. The effect of the Statute of William was to give the force of law to these tyrannical regulations, under which' the resident population had suffei'ed so long, and to embody in an Act of Parliament (the Parliament of the Revolution), nearly the whole of the old bai'barous code. No wonder that the monopolists, year after yeai', were loud in their praises of a Statute which secured for them complete ascendency over the resident population, who had no choice but to submit to their hard fate. The provisions of this Act seem to us almost incredible in the present day. The fishing admirals of Star Chamber origin were reinstated, and with almost unlimited powers. Not only was it enacted that the master of the first ship arriving at the fisheries from England should be admiral of the harbour in which he cast anchor, but the masters of the second and third following vessels were to be vice-admiral and rear-admiral, the first having the privilege of reserving to himself so much of the beach as he required for his own use. The arrangement was evidently based on the principle of ignoring a residenv. population, and providing merely for the fishermen who aninially migrated from England. Each autumn, at the close of the fishery, the admirals, and all under their immediate charge, disappeared. The in- habitants were left without even the semblance of law or order to pass the winter as best they could. As a class, these masters of fishing vessels were rude and ignorant men, utterly unfitted to be the judges in matters so vitally affecting a large and important trade. Moreover, as servants of the merchants, they were themselves pei'sonally interested in the questions which arose regarding property. They were closely identified with the capitalists who carried on the fisheries from England, and were for this and other c.vp.in.J TYRANNY BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT. 45 reasons utterly unqualified to dispense justice between their employers and the people born or resident in the country. Inquiries, instituted afterwards, have shown what kind of justice was meted out to the poor inhabitants, who were reo'arded as interlopers by these rough sea-captains. Under their rule the most frightful abuses were perpetrated, and the most tyrannical practices were universal. The powers with which they were endowed enabled them to drive the inhabitants from their houses and fishing-grounds and ;.» h I . i; !! !t!i 1 i r ^ I 1 j, iii (1 >! I i)fS* G4 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PVBT I, the spirit of religious persecution, when wo remember how little the principles of religious freedom were understood or practised in Great Britain at the same period; and how, under the penal laws in Ireland, Roman Catholics were prohibited from educating their children, or acquiring freehold property, and were excluded from all the libonil professions ; while, if the son of a Catholic became a Pro- testant, he could dispossess his father of the fee-simple of his estate as a reward for his conversion. Persecu- tion was the vice of the age, and was practised by all parties in turn when the opportunity offered. This licensed hostility towards Catholics in Newfoundland con- tinued for nearly half a century, and was at length ended by a royal proclamation in 178t, whereby liberty of conscience was granted, and the free exercise of modes of religious worship. But the spirit of religious intolerance did not die out at once. Six years after this proclamation, in 1790, we find Governor Milbanke making the following reply to the Rev. D. O'Donnell, who applied for leave to build a Roman Catholic chapel in an outport: "The Governor acquaints Mr. O'Donnell that, so far from being disposed to allow of an increase of places of religious worship for the Roman Catholics of the island, he very sei-iously intends next year to lay those established already under particular restrictions. Mr. O'Donnell must be aware that it is not the interest of Great Britain to encourage people to winter in Newfoundland, and he cannot be ignorant that many of the lower order who would now stay, would, if it were not for the convenience with which they obtain absolution here, go home for it, at least once in two or three years ; and the Governor has been misinformed if Mr. O'Donnell, instead of advising his hearers to return to Ireland, does not rather encourage them to winter in this country. — On board the Salisbury, St. John's, November 2nd, 1790." Such was the condition of society in New- fh > CIIll'. IV. THE FISHERY 11I(;HTS OF FRANCE. 65 foutulland only ninety-two years ago ! Settlers were still regarded in the light of intruders, religions toleration was only beginning to dawn. The stormy ocean alone was free to the people, and on its precarious harvests they had to subsist. The wealth which their toil won from the deep did not remain in the island, but went to enrich other countries. ~\Ve cannot but admire the energy of a people who, amid these discouragements and tyrannies, continued to cling to the soil, bravely pioneering the way for happier generations to come. The years following the Treaty of Paris in 1763 were marked by a decided increase in the products of the Newfoundland fisheries, which in 1 7G5 amounted to 49o,G5 i qniutals, being an increase in two years of 145,3(30 quintals of codfish. In 176 i, Newfoundland was fortunate enough to have appointed to the governorship, Captain, better known as Sir Hugh Palliser, who presided over its affairs for four years. A man of capacity and conscientiousness, he devoted himself earnestly to a study of the fisheries and the con- dition of the inhabitants. He soon recognised the sufferings to which the resident population were subjected, and his humanity led him patiently to investigate the causes and to devise remedies for them. His first care was to regulate the relations which existed between British and French subjects, who had a concurrent right of fishing in the waters of the same coast, the sovereignty of which belonged to Britain. While he secured the French in the exercise of all the rights and privileges acquired by the Treaties of Utrecht and Paris, and ordered that they were to be allowed to prosecute the fishery, within the limits assigned them, without molestation, he also clearly recognised that within these limits they had no superiority over British fishermen, and no exclusive right whatever. He successfully regu- lated the salmon fishery, which subsequently increased greatly in extent and value. The condition of Labrador ■ I II- i i i ' 1 1 ' GO NEWFOUNDLAND. (pa HI t. i^ 11 also engaged his attention. A number of Europeans had taken up their abode in a part of this territory, and by wantonly injuring had alienated the natives ; while at the same time, much confusion had arisen from some Canadians who claimed to have vested rights over certain tracts of land. He personally surveyed the district, and by various wise measures he greatly modified these local troubles, and received the thanks of the merchants and their agents on the coast of Labrador. So many, however, were the difficulties and disputes arising from the former connec- tion of the country with Canada, that in 1773 it was deemed advisable to restore Labrador to the jurisdiction of that province. Previous to this step, Governor Palliser, who took a warm interest in the Esquimaux of Labrador, issued a passport to four of the brethren of the Unitas Fratrum, or Moravians, who wished to establish missions among these savages, with a view to their conversion to Christianity. All His Majesty's subjects were commanded to render every aid and friendly assistance to these excellent men, whose labours have been attended with a great amount of Christian good amongst the Esquimaux of Labrador. Governor Palliser's interest in Newfoundland did not terminate with the expiration of his term of office. He was succeeded by the Hon. Captain John Byron, who in his turn was followed by Commodore Mullineaux, after- wards Lord Shuldhara. But on Palliser's return to England, he was called upon to aid in drawing up an Act, now loudly called for, to remedy some of the more crying evils of the old system. This new Act was passed by the British Parliament in 1775. It is entitled Statute 15 George III. c. 31. In the island it is known as Palliser's Act. Its design was not to abolish the obnoxious Statute 10 & 11 William III., but to remedy some of its defects, and enforce its provisions under special penalties. It still aimed at keeping alive the principle of a ship fishery, rnii'. iv.J THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCK. 07 carried on from England. In order to secure tlio return of tlie fishermen to England, it empowered the masters to detain forty shillings out of their wages for paying their passage home. It forbade masters to suffer seamen to take up more than half their wages in articles of supply, and obliged them to pay the other half in cash or good bills on England or Ireland. It gave the fishermen a lien on the fish and oil for their wages, and provided bounties for the encouragement of industry in the taking of fish. These were undoubtedly great improvements, and helped to . terminate the contentions between masters and servants, securing to the latter their wages at the close of the fishing season. The records of this period show that the resident population went on steadily augmenting. In addition to the natural increase, Ireland continued to send, emi- grants to Newfoundland in considerable numbers, notwith- standing the disabilities under which the adherents of Catholicism still laboured. Harsh regulations against the Irish were enforced by successive governors. One of these was that not more than two Roman Catholic men should dwell in one house during the winter, excejDt such as had Protestant masters; and another that all Roman Catholic children, born in the country, should be baptized, accord- ing to law. These stringent regulations, however, failed to deter Irish emigration from the old country. Not only men, and women under the protection of their husbands, but even women by themselves arrived at St. John's every summer. In spite of these new-comers, it must be noted that whatever improvements had hitherto taken place, the country was still regarded by the Government in the light of a mere Fishery, There wa." as yet no legal provision for the acquisition of property in the soil. Only the temporary use of portions of the shore for fishery purposes was F 2 ;.! f ji ■ I. :,|11 '■.!!( 1 1 C8 NEWFOrNDLANl). [••AIM I. I i 5 ! M 4 A allowed. No one could lawfully own any poi'tion of tlio land for the purposes of cultivation. It was neverthelesa found to bo altogether irapracticablo to try and stop some of the settlers from enclosing plots of ground for gardens or pasture. Not a few favoured individuals eventually succeeded in obtaining a recognition of tlieir right of property, in such enclosures, from the governors. After a time, a conflict arose between these so-called private rights and those of the masters of fishing vessels, in regard to their respective boundaries. The result was an order from Governor Palliser, disallowing any titles to land, and declaring that " no Governor or other person having been empowered to parcel out and divide lands, or to pass patents or grants for lands in this country, the whole must be deemed, according to the Fishing Act, a public common, and free to all persons to cut wood for the uses of the fishery, for fuel, etc., or to turn cattle upon, or to cut grass.^' Further, it was ordered that "if any person hereinafter shall presume to fence or to enclose any lands, contrary to this order, all persons are at liberty to take down such fences or enclosures." A new source of trouble now presented itself, entailing severe sufferings upon the whole population in connection with the war between Great Britain and her revolted colonies in North America. This war which, r.aging for seven years, terminated in 1782 with England's recognition of the independence of the United States, was seriously detrimental to the interests of Newfoundland. The first Congress passed a decree on the 5th of September, 177i<, forbidding all exports to the British possessions. This blow fell with special severity upon the resident inhabitants of Newfoundland, as well as on those who carried on the fishery from England, as for a lengthened period they had been accustomed to obtain their necessary supplies from the New England States. A sudden arrest of this com- 11 fHir. tr.) THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. C9 morclal intcrconrso threatened the colony with ubsohito famine. To meet the difHculty, vessels were at onco detached from the fishery and sent to Ireland, in ballast, to procure provisions. Gloom and despondency prevailed throughout the island, coupled for a time with scarcity and want. American privateers appeared off the coasts, and, entering the harbours, destroyed a great deal of valuable property. They were eventually held in check by the English cruisers, which captured or burnt not a few of them ; but the war nevertheless inflicted great hardship and inconvenience upon Newfoundland. To add to the ti-ials of the people, in 1755 one of the most severe storms ever known in those latitudes swept over the island. Hundreds of fishiug-boats were destroyed, many great ships went by the board, and not fewer than three hundred men perished. The sea suddeidy rose twenty feet above its usual level, causing immense destruction on land, as well as in the harbours. To this distress, arising from natural causes, were added suffer- ings from the want of supplies which had beeu cut off by the war. The attention of successive governoi's was mainly taken up in providing for the safety of the capital, and the protection of the country generally. In this they were loyally aided and supported by the great majority of the people. At various points which were specially exposed, they constructed batteries, mounted guns and manned them. The defences of St. John's were greatly strengthened. A new fort, called Fort Townshend, was erected on a height commanding the harbour from its north-western side. The garrison consisted of 459 regular soldiers and 200 volunteers, and 1,500 stand of arms were sent out from England, and distributed in the various harbours, so as to enable the people to defend themselves. Ships of war were kept constantly cruising around the coast. When, ill i1 ! ■' ■ IW, \\) ■ >;, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 ^^ I.I 1.25 m It U£ 1.4 25 2.2 1.6 I' / o P»/ V. <^ r /i A dl 7 /A 4"^ !\ ^^ \\ 'i^^ rv" >\^- 4^ '' I I t : I NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAKT (, fifteen minutes of north latitude. By the same treaty permission was given to the citizens of the United States to fish on tho coasts of Newfoundland, on the former footing ; hut they were allowed to cure and dry only "in the unsettled buys, harbours, and creeks of Nova Scotia, tho Magdalen Islands, and Labrador/' So far as Newfoundland was concerned, the Treaty of Versailles, by clearly defining the limits within which the French were to exercise their privileges, removed a source of contention arising from uncertainty of boundaries, and ended tho incessant quarrels which had been going on regarding this point. Unfortunately, however, the ambiguity of the language used in another part of the treaty gave rise to even more serious misunderstandings, which continue to this very hour, and have been the source of constant contentions between the French and Newfoundlanders. The stipulation referred to ran as follows : " And that tho fishermen of the two nations may not give cause for daily quarrels. His Britannic Majesty was pleased to engage that he would take the most positive measures for preventing his subjects from interrupting in any mannei', by their competition, the fishing of the French during the temporary exercise thereof, which is granted to them upon the coasts of the Island of Newfoundland, and that he would for that purpose cause the permanent settlements which should be formed there to be removed, and that he would give orders that the French fishermen should not be incommoded in the cutting of wood necessary for the repair of their scaffolds, huts, and fishing-boats." This is tho celebrated section of the Treaty of Ver- sailles, over which volumes of diplomatic correspondence have been written, and countless battles fought without any satisfactory result. The French hold that, from the phraseology employed, the treaty gave them an exten- sion of their former privileges, by securing to them an i: A** (in p. IV. 1 THK FISHKRY RKiHTS OF FRANCK. < oxclusivo riglit over the coasts and waters in qnestion. But neither by any liritish Government, nor by any government or legishiture in Newfoundhmd, has this chiini been allowed. The Crown law officers of England, when the matter was i-eferred to them, declared as their inter- pretation of the language of the treaty, " that if there bo room in these districts for the fishermen of both nations to fish, without interfering with each other, this country is not bound to prevent her subjects fishing there." The French liave clung to their treaty rights with deathlike pertinacity. England, while maintaining that her subjects liave a right to fish concurrently with the French in these waters, has always held this right in abeyance, and discouraged the exercise of it; and, until 1881, refused to recognise settlers on that portion of the coast as subjects entitled to the protection of law and representation in the local legislature. Happily this policy is now reversed. Territorial jurisdiction over the whole island is conceded To the Government of Newfoundland ; the power of making land grants and issuing mining licences is accorded, and representation of the inhabitants in the local Parliament is secured, the French fishery rights being, of course, strictly recognised. It now remains for diplomacy to close, in an equally satisfactory manner, the conflicting claims to exclusive and concurrent rights of fishing. In 1785 the estimated resident population of New- foundland was 10,244, of whom about 1,000 were resident in 8t. John's. This shows an increase of 2,744 over the ^.lOvious twenty-two years. In 1787 a bishop of the Church of England was appointed for Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland was attached to his see. The administration at this time was of so primitive a character that the Governor regulated the price of food, and fixed it by proclamation. The trader who disregarded 7Cy NEWFOUNDLAND. Irviir I. the official tariff was liable to the infliction of a heavy fine. Newfoundland, even when it had power to act other- wise, elected to pass through many of the curious stages which the mother country had traversed during her own slow but glorious march of constitutional liberty. ^1 1 -.*■-,•* iV-**-^ »»-*i* • «*-• • CHAPTER V. "THEOUGH THE FIRE." [1793-1861.] The last French attack on tlie island — Newfoundlanders not allowed to acquire land or build liouses — Stran,(>84 ([uintals. The seal fisheiy had now attained considerable dimensions, 100,739 seals having been killed in 1804. The salmon fishery yielded 1,107 tierces. Three years later, in 1807, the population of St. John's had risen to 5,057. Tlie immigration from Ireland had added considerably to the number of the inhabitants. Avery serious grievance, connected mainly with the out- port population, was brought under the notice of Governor Gower by a petition from the inhabitants of Fogo Island, in which they complained that "through the imposition of the merchants or their agents in Fogo by their exorbitant prices on shop goods and provisions, they were from year to year held in debt, so as not daring to find fault, fearing they might starve at the approach of every winter." They further stated " that the said merchants arrogate to them- selves a power not warranted by any law, in selling to us every article of theirs at any price they think fit, and taking from your petitioners the produce of the whole year at what- soever price they think fit to give. In short, let it sufl[ice to inform your Excellency that they take on themselves to price their own goods and ours also, as they think most convenient to them." This petition accentuates the evils ul' the system of credit at this time universal in the colony, by : I! If iil, > i II 1 '1 I \\\ li!« 88 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part i. •which the supplying meichant made advances in goods to the fishermen at the commencement of the season, taking jiayment at the close in the products of the fishing. The Governor endeavoured to mitigate ihis cruel abuse of power by a proclamation " requiring the mei'chants to make known to their dealers before the 15th day of August in every year, or at the time of delivery, the prices of provisions and other commodities sold by them, and the prices they will give for fish and oil, and to fix a schedule thereof in some conspicuous part of their respective stores." It is to be feared this well- meant regulation had but little effect. The partial removal of the old restrictions on settlement, and the subsequent improvement in the social condition of the people, gave the settlers new hope and fresh courage. They began to feel that brighter days were in store for them. They were not misled. From this time may he dated the commencement of an era of pi'ogress. The advance was slow, no doubt, because of the numerous obstacles that stood in the way, but it was a firm onward movement that has never halted. The years 1805 and 180G ■witnessed the introduction into Newfoundland of two of the great resources of civilisation, a post-office and a newspaper. Previously letters were sent by any casual conveyance; now a postmaster was appointed, but as yet he had no backing of subsidised mail-steamers. Merchant vessels carried the letter-bags. The first newspaper was The Botjal Gazette. It was published by John Ryan, and is still in existence. The liberty of the press was rather re- stricted in those days. The publisher was bound under heavy penalties to submit, prior to publication, the con- tents of each number of his paper to the magistrates in the Court of Sessions, and " not to insert in the said paper any matter which in their opinion, or in the opinion of the Governor, may tend to disturb the peace of His Majesty's subjects." With such a curb to wear it is likely that The CHAP. V.l "through the fire." 89 lli)i/al ilazetfe proved a very mild and harmless journal. It was the precursor, however, of a long array of newspapers, which appeared in due time and claimed and exercised siitKcient " freedom of the press." Another hopeful s}Mnptom was the formation of the Benevolent Irish Society, its object being to relievo the wants and distresses of Irishmen, in due time the other nationalities I'epresented in the population followed with the St. (Jeorge's Society, the St. Andrew's Society, ard the British Society, all existing to-day, well managed and usetul institutions. Admiral Holloway was the next Governor. He arrived in 1807, and one of his first acts was to tighten the reins on The L'oijal Gazette, one of the conditions on which ho permitted its publication being, that nothing should appear in its columns " indicating anything inflammatory against the Government of Great Britain or its dependencies ; and never to give or suffer any opinion to be given upon the policy of other nations, but to confine the paper solely for what was to the benefit of commerce, and the inhabitants of this Government and others trading with it." Some of the most noteworthy events during the administration of Governor Holloway were the reannexation of Labrador to the Government of NcAvfoundland in 1800, and the perma- nent establishment of the judicial system which had already been in operation for some years, and which had been found to work well. When, in 1810, Sir John Thomas Duckworth became Governor, his commission appointed him Governor and Commander-in-Chief over the Island of Newfoundland and the islands adjacent, including the Islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, and all the coast of Labrador, from the river St. John's to Hudson's Straits, the Island of Anticosti, and others adjacent. Governor Duckworth proved to be a ruler possessed of activity and intelligence. In order to make himself acquainted with the condition and wants of the ft" 1.5 V'A i n I lii Ifll 90 NEWFOUNDLAND. M'Uii 1. fi:' tm people lie made a voyage, which extended to the principal northern settlements and also to Labrador. When in the latter region, he addressed a proclamation to the Micmacs, Esquimaux, and others, assuring them of the protection of the king, and his readiness to redress their grievances, and do them any service in his power. He further exported them to live peaceably together, and avoid all causes of violence and bloodshed. Ho took a great interest in the lied Indians of Newfoundland, and sent a party under Lieutenant IJuchan, R.N., to open communications with a tribe on the river Exploits. The expedition had a tragical termination. Buchan met Avith the Indians after a march of one hundred and thirty miles into the interior. Having succeeded in calming their fears, he induced four of them to return with him to his camp in order to receive presents, leaving two marines with the tribe as hostages and pledges of good intentions. On returning with the presents to the Indian camp he found the bodies of the two marines lying on the ground, pierced with arrows and headless. Their treacherous murderers had fled. During Governor Duckworth's administration an hospital was erected for the benefit of the labouring classes in times of sickness, partly by voluntary subscrip- tions among the wealthy classes, which the working people aided by a voluntary assessment of one penny in the pound on each servant's wages, and a shilling annually from each seaman coming into the port. It is needless to say that the hospital, which has since been enlarged from time to time, has proved an inestimable boon to the poor of the city and its suburbs. Governor Duckworth was also instrumental in carrying out the great improvement already referred to — the leasing of the ground around the harbour for wharves and sites for mercantile premises. During his administra- tion, in 1812, the United States declared war against Great Ih'itail ai)poaj island] supplij squadi any atl In to the office, stances! an alte] The res that th it was ruir. v.] "through the fiuk." 91 Britain, and the Governor met witli a ready response to liis appeal to form a volunteer force for the protection of the island. Old forts were repaired and guns and ammunition supplied ; but happily no enemy appeared, the powerful squadron then cruising in the surrounding waters rendering any attack hopeless. In the report which Governor Duckworth presented to the Imperial authorities on the close of his term of office, he faithfully pointed out the fact that the circum- stances of the colony had now completely changed, rendering an alteration in the administration of the laws imperative. The resident population, ho stated, had increased so largely that the fisheries were mainly carried on by them, and it was now vain to attempt lessening their numbers or checking the increase. He therefore suggested that the antiquated statutes should be abrogated ; that the ships' fishing-rooms reserved for the use of fishing vessels from England, should now be thrown open to the inhabitants ; and that all impediments to the cultivation of the soil should be removed, so that the increasing numbers of the population might provide for their wants by agricultural pursuits, as well as by the fisheries. Like several of his predecessors, he had to complain of the conduct of the merchants, who strongly opposed a duty of sixpence per gallon which he imposed on rum, and one shilling and six- pence on other spirits. On this subject he said : " The merchants of St. John's have formed themselves into a society, and are making continual efforts for the acquisition of a power which ought not, in my opinion, to be vested in them." These honest and enlightened representations were not without their effect. When the next Governoi', Sir Richard Keats, was appointed in 1813, he was authorised to make grants of small portions of land to industrious persons. The traces of the old policy which doomed the island to 1 i ' ■ \k Mr . \i : i( J; fl j m\ l/j ll 1 ; ( ; 1 1 i li 1 k' Vl PI i 92 NEWFOUNDLAND. [pari I. : 111 I p4 perpetual sterility did not, however, soon disappear j and the influence of the merchant class was long felt in retard- ing the cultivation of the soil by absurd restrictions, prompted by a fear that the people would be drawn of! from the fishing industries, the source of their own wealth. From the earliest period their traditional policy had boon to represent to the parent Government that the severity of the climate and the sterility of the soil presented insur- mountable obstacles to cultivation. Even in these present days similar representations have been repeated, to the injury of the country. So strong was the feeling against Newfoundland at the date referred to, that permission to cultivate the soil, for which the people had long been begging, was at first granted reluctantly, and accom- panied with such restrictions, that it Avas impossible for agriculture to make any great advances. There were no roads, nor any prospect of any being constructed ; and only small plots of ground, four acres in extent, were granted on leases of twenty or thirty years, and subject to a quit-rent of from two shillings and sixpence per acre to ten and even twenty shillings per annum. Despite these unfavoui-able conditions, the number of applica- tions for land was greater than could be met. In con- trast to this hard usage was the policy pursued, at the very same time, by the British Government, in promot- ing the settlement of the neighbouring provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Canada. Millions of money were lavished by Government in promoting the settlement of these colonies. Large grants of land were offered free of charge ; settlers were advertised for ; their expenses were paid ; means were provided for their subsistence till the land made returns; hundreds of miles of road were constructed ; canals were made, and harbours were im- proved and fortified. On the other hand, not only was there no help given to Newfoundland, but a heavy rent was r'r crilP T.J "through THK FIHK." 93 cliarged for small patches of land, lot on short leases. Every improvement was accomplished by tho hard toil of the poor settlers themselves, not only without assistance, but in opposition to the wretched policy of the Government. Their labour rendered the lands valuable, and in return they were obliged to pay a rent, and were liable to be dispossessed of the soil reclaimed by their industry, at the termination of their leases, \ hich could only be renewed on payment of a heavy fine. This cruelly obstructive policy was continued for many years, notwithstanding the representations of successive governors, and was only effectually ended when tho colony obtained a legislature and the privilege of local self-govern- ment. Governor Keats, in one of his despatches, told tho parent Government that St. John's had now grown into a large commercial town of ten thousand inhabitants ; that the operations of the farmer and gardener were greatly needed, and were extending in spite of all restraints ; that a thousand acres around the town were under cultivation, and many more inclosed, and that crops of hay, potatoes, and vegetables of all kinds were raised. " The environs of the town," he added, "the natural beauties of which are very striking, present to view several neat, well-cultivated, and productive little farms." Another delusion that had long possessed the minds of British statesmen received at this time a complete extinction. The old theory, on which the preservation of the island as a fishing station had been urged, was that these fisheries were an invaluable nursery for British seamen. Now it was discovered that, in the case of ships of war visiting the island, the desertions of the seamen were more numerous than at any other place ; and at the same time the immunity from impressment was a temptation to men in the United Kingdom, who dreaded such a measure, to transfer themselves to Newfoundland, where they were safe. Thus, so far 4 'i . i ) 94 NEWFOUNDLAND. [parti. CIIU'. v.|l .1 i\ % from being a nuraory for men to take service in the royal navy, the island was discovered to bo a refuge for those who wore unwilling to servo. While those changes were slowly working their Wiiy, and these improvements taking root, Newfoundland was enjoying a period of unexampled prosperity. During the long wars which followed the French Revolution, the Newfoundland merchants were relieved — first from the competition of the French, and then from that of the Americans. One after another the Continental markets opened to them a complete monopoly. The fishing seasons, too, were generally favourable. At the same time fish rose to three times its usual price, reaching at length forty-five shillings per quintal. The wages of the fishermen increased, and in consequence largo numbers of emigrants, many of them from Ireland, sought a home in Newfoundland. In 181-1 seven thousand arrived, and in the following year, when a crash was impending, there came four thousand more. From 1812 to 181G St. John's doubled its population, though there was not a propor- tionate increase of houses for the accommodation of the new inhabitants. Princely fortunes were made by the capitalists engaged in the fisheries, some of them securing from 20,000/. to 40,000/. profits in a year. The value of the exports rose to 2,000,000/. per annum. But if wages were high the necessaries of life reached an enormous price. Flour was 8/. per barrel and pork 12Z. per barrel. The fishermen spent their earnings lavishly at the stores of the merchants, never dreaming that the good times were near their close. Of all the great accumulation of capital at this time no part went to the permanent improvement of the country. When the capitalists had realised their fortunes they retired to enjoy them in other lands, and the country was no richer than before. No effort was made to open up roads or extend agriculture. Everybody was striving to iimke liml n(| (IcpciKl tioiiul ))roj)ar^ nation iind snfl The Ml diUiii' Cll*l". V.l "thuouuh the fihk." 95 niako money out of tho fisheries. A largo population Imd nccuniulated in a few years, and those were wholly dependent on an industry which now enjoyed an exccp- lioual and ai'tificial prosperity. All these circumstances prepared tho way for the collapse which followed tho termi- nation of tho war, and for two or three years of disaster and suffering through which the colony had now to pass. Tho Treaty of Paris, 1811, which ended tho long European conflict, followed by a treaty of peaco with America, brought to an abrupt termination tho abnormal prosperity which had attended tho prosecution of the Newfoundland fisheries. By one of tho provisions of that treaty, tho French right of fishery on tho banks of Newfoundland and on the coast of tho island was replaced upon the footing on which it stood in 1 792. Even greater privileges of fishing in JJritish waters were conceded to the Americans. Thoroughly impressed with the importance of the fisheries, both the French and Americans at once established a system of bounties for their encouragement, and at the same time secured to tlieir own fishermen a monopoly of their markets, by a prohibitory duty on the import of foreign fish. Tho result was a rapid development of the French and Ameiican fisheries on the Banks, and on the part of the coast con- ceded to them. Those who had been reaping rich harvests year after year now found themselves competing, on unequal terms, with foreigners who were sustained by bounties, and whose products met theirs in all fish-consuming countries. No provision had been made in prospect of such a change during the prosperous years which preceded it. Tho crash came at the close of 1815, bringing ruin and bank- ruptcy to a large proportion of the merchants and planters. The price of fish fell from forty-five to twelve shillings per quintal. Numbers of large mercantile firms became hopelessly involved. Others realised whatever property .ill ;!!! 96 NKWFOrNDLANl). : run I. li^i 5 1 ' srSi roniaiiunl and rctinnl from tho country. Only a few manaiji'il to weather tlu> storm. Tho systtMn ot" crctlit on which business was conihictcil u(hh'(l to tho disaster. No less than nint^ luiiulretl cases arisin civil I'onrts. It was ostinuiteil that bills to tlu> valuo ot" a million sterlint^ were returnod protested in tho disastrous years oi" iSI"» ami ISI 7, occasioncMl by tho insolvency of houses tMit;;ag-tnl itj the tisheries. The workinu; aiul middlo classes sutYi'red with the rest. Supplies I'or tho lisheries were suddi'iily cut olY or curtailed. Multitu(h>s wert^ thus deprived of (ho means ol" earnin; liardly-won nu)iu'y was swept away by the insolvency of their bankers. It is estimated that tho working class lost a sum littlo short of -tOO/lOO/. sterling. The largo popuhi- tion, attracted by tho exceptional ])rosperity of pre- vious years, could not now, in their present depressi-d condition, bo sustained by tho fisheries. Largo numbers were left unemployed, dependent on the charity of their neighbours. It became absolutely necessary to renu>vo sonio of them. At the public ex{)enso many of the most dt'stituto were shipped to Ireland, and over a thousand were sent to Halifax. Had tho policy of colonisation boon followeil in preceding years, and a portion of the vast profits realised from tlu^ tisheries spent en tho encouragement of agriculture, tho disasters would havo been greatly mitigated. Tho bitter fruits of tho old restrictive system were now to be gathered, and the innocent had to snlYer v.ith tho guilty. IIIM'. V. I "THKOlCIl TlIK KIKK." 07 ()i»o CMlaniity now I'ollowoil closo on imot1i(M'. In Fcbninrv, 1SI(>, u tcnihln tiro broko out in St. flolm's, wliii'ii ilostr(>viMl Olio liumlrod niul twoiity hoiist>s, ami It't't liftt'on Imiulrod jutsohs without a lionu*. 'L'lio li)ss of projHM'tv was (>stimato(l at !()(>, (•(>(>/. 'I'lio distrossi iW- oasioMod 1)V lliis disastor was aiii^nu'nti>il by tht< incloiiuMit season in wliioli it^ dcrnrroil. 'VUo Ushory of tlio fcllowinij; sninnuM' was very \)o^n\ and tlui juit'o nf tisli low, 'V\\o spriiiLif soal lisborv of I Si 7 was a failure, antl tlio sunnner (luo (if tlu> !^loon>iost rvor known, as I'ou^arilinl tlio business of tlio country. In N'ovoinlu>r of tho sanio yoar canu^ wliat sociiu'd to bt> t''o oniwiiiiiL;; calainititvs (if tin* colony. On tlio Till of tliat month another torriblo tiro in St. .lolin's swept, awny one hundred and thirty houses, besides stores and wliarvi's, destroyin on tlu< 'J 1st XovtMuber, which destroyed a consi(h>rabU> part of the business portion of (In* city spared bvtho former con- lla titrations, and seemed to conipleto tlu> misi'ry of tlio iii- Imhitants. Scenes of lu'artreinlintj^ distress followed. 'Vwo thousand persons were left without a luune, many of them liavinjj; lost all they possessed. An apptvd for lu'Ip nu't with a liheral n'sponst*. Provisions were dispati'lu«d from llalifa.xto siive the iidiabitants from starvation. The peoph'of Hostou luaded a vessel with a larj^o earj^o of food of various kiiuls, ail act of y;enerosity which is still {j^ratefuUy remembered in .NewfouniUand. The llritish (Jovernnient sent prompt ami libiM'al aid. Tin* (iovernoi', the merehants, and the \voaltliit>r classi's e.xerted tluMnselvtvs to tlu> ntnu>st io relievo tlio wants of the inhabitants. Thouy;h there were some disturbances caused by want and misery during this tryinj:^ season, yiif, on the whole, tlu' peoph> nu>t their calamities with fortitude ami patience. It was not lon discord among the Churches. Old jealousies and distrusts were revived. The memory of anciout wrongs and griev- ances awoke. Each sect dreaded the political ascendency of the other, and strove to gain the controlling power. Protestants and Catholics were arrayed against one another in the political arena. The press stimulated the strife by violent and vituperative attacks on individuals. The worst passions were evoked. Politics destroyed even the peace of social and commercial life. In two instances outrages of a revolting character were perpetrated, which added fuel to the flame. Violent scones at elections were common, and popular commotions had to be held iu check by the troops. The agitation extended all over the country, and continued, though in a mitigated form, for some years. Over this period of political and religious rancour it is best to draw a veil, and to consign the memory of it to oblivion. It produced only evil results, which retarded the improvement of the colon}', and wasted energies which should have been devoted to the social interests of the people. Happily the strife has long since ended, and both parties have learned the bitter but wholesome lesson that there is no good, and may be much harm, in bringing purely religious questions into political conflicts. The height to which the political fever ran will be under- stood when it is seen that even the Chief Justice became involved in party conflicts. Chief Justice Boulton was charged before the Privy Council by the House of Assembly with being a political partisan, a corrupter of justice, and a magistrate who endangered the constitution and peace of the community. The Privy Council acquitted him of these charges, but recommended his removal for having indis- creetly permitted himself " so much to participate in the strong feelings which appeared unfortunately to have influenced the different parties in the colony." ■': i] if ! • ]■ \. My. m\ m lOG NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAHi I. Notwithstanding the antagonism between the House of Assembly and the Council, the benefits of self-government soon became apparent in the passing of many exceedingly useful measures such as were impossible under the old regimr. Acts were passed for the erection of lighthouses at various points along the coast. An Education Bill sanctioned an annual vote of money for the promotion of education. Boards were appointed to carry out its provisions in each district. Another measure provided for the establishment of an academy in St. John's for the promotion of higher education. >Sir Thomas Cochrane was succeeded, in 183 !•, by Captain Prescott as Governor. He made liberal grants of land to hundreds of poor families, and encouraged agri- culture so effectually that during his term of office largo quantities of land were reclaimed from the wilderness. The House of Assembly appropriated 30,000/. for roads and bridges, and wherever these roads were opened persons were soon found to settle upon the adjacent lands. In 1841 Sir John Harvey assumed the government. Having resided long in the neighbouring colonies, he had a perfect knowledge of their soil and climate. Setting himself the task of acquiring accurate information regarding the agricultural capabilities of Newfoundland, he was soon able to pronounce the local soil and climate not inferior to those of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, or Canada. He used the most strenuous efforts to improve and extend agriculture and promote the settlement of the country. He founded an agricultural society, and opened its proceedings with a speech which went far to dispel existing prejudices. In his speech before the legislature, after having resided a year in the country, he said : " Both as respects climate and agricultural capabilities Newfoundland, in many respects, need not shrink from a comparison with the most favoured provinces of British North America. Its summers, though short, enjoy an extraordinary degree of vegetative power, tllAl'. V. "through the B'IRE." 107 wbich only requires to bo duly taken iulvantago of ; its winters are neither unusually long nor severe; anil its autumnal seasons are as open and lino as those of any of the surrounding colonies. In point of rich natural grasses no part of British North America produces greater abundance. Newfoundland, in fact, appears to mo to bo calculated to become essentially a rich grazing country, and its varied agricultural resources appear only to require roads and settle- ments to force them into highly remunerative development." He also urged the construction of highways into the fertile belts of the interior, in order to pi'omote settlement. In response to his recommendation the legislature voted 40,000?. for roads and bridges, a proof of the wonderful revolution men's ideas had undergone in regard to the character of the country. The value of land rapidly increased under Sir John Harvey's administration, particularly in the n(nghbourhood of the capital and around other populous settlements. A most important measure was passed during his government, by which it was enacted that all Crown lands should be sold by auction at a moderate upset price, in lots of not more than a hundred acres, and the proceeds applied to the internal improvement of the island. This was one of the greatest boons yet obtained for the settle- ment of the colony. In consequence of the discord which still prevailed between the two Chambers, the Imperial Parliament, in 18i2, passed an "Act for Amending the Constitution of Newfoundland." The amendment consisted in the abo- lition of the Council as a distinct branch of the legislature, and in authorising its members to sit and rote in the House of Assembly, where they constituted two-fifths of the whole. Thus was formed what was known as " The Amalgamated Assembly," which continued till 1849, when the Constitution was restored. It is but right to state, lest undue importance should be \ 108 NEWFOUNDLAND. ['Am I, attached to thcso political commotions, that it was chiefly nt tho period of each quadrcnniul election that scenes of confusion took ])luce, and tliat tho stormy passions then engendered subsided as quickly as they arose. There was no tendency manifested to serious crime or chronic social disorder among either of the two opposing parties. Sir Richard Bonnycastlo, in his excellent and impartial work on tho colony, tells us that " scarcely anything worth mentioning in tho way of riot or breach of the peace has ever occurred at any of these elections, excepting once, at Car- bonear, in 18tO, although, at the last election in tho cnpital it was deemed requisite to keep tho troops on the alert,". . . **Tho Irish are an excitable race, which they thonselves do not affect to deny: they are easily led, but difficult to drive. But the good qualities of the Irish peasant abroad are very prominent.". . . "A more peaceable, respectable, loyal, or a kinder-hearted race than the Newfoundland English and Irish, whether emigrant or native-born, I never met with ; all they want, now that temperance has so beneficially operated npon them, is education, agriculture, roads, and the quiet which a firm, decided, and impartial Government promises to have in store for them." When it is remem- bered that, at this time, half the population were Irish or of Irish descent, among whom it might be expected memories of old-world strifes, wrongs, and oppressions would be rife ; and that the other half were Protestant and of English descent, accustomed for years to hold the ascend- ency, and headed by the wealthy mercantocracy, who were not inclined to give up their time-honoured claim to rule, it would not have been wonderful to find, in such a society, atrocities and crimes abounding in a country where the arm of the law was felt but feebly. " So far was this from being the case,'' says Sir Richard Bonnycastle, " there has not been a capital punishment for years : the people are very orderly and respectful to their superiors ; temperance has i ' ^.^t iUki.. riMi'. v.| "through THK KIIIK." lOD onroUod under its banners the greater proportion, and lioiisebroakinr^ and serious crimes are actnally unknown ; and it is universally admitted that there is no country in the civilised world, where j^roater simplicity of manners oi* less crime exists, than in Newfoundland." The foregoing statement in regard to the peaceable character of the people is as true to-day as when it was made by Bonnycastlo forty years ago. Now that the memory of the political conflicts of bygone years is fading away, the people seem to have learned this great lesson, tliat the country must not be governed in the interests of a class or party, but for the benefit of the whole ; that offices of trust and emolument must be equally open to all, without regard to religious or other distinctions ; and that the ascendency of any one section, whether denominational, mercantile, or national, to sway the destinies of the country, cannot bo tolerated. The baneful effects of religious animosities in the past lead all intelligent and patriotic men to resist their introduction into future political contests. Under the progressive government of Sir John Harvey the colony advanced greatly. Agriculture made con- siderable strides, and the staple industry of the fisheries also extended. Postal communication was improved. In 1810 a mail sailing-packet was appointed to ply fort- nightly between St. John's and Halifax; and in 181 !• this was followed by the first steam-packet bearing a mail for Xewfoundland. It was in 181G, the last year of Sir John Hax'vey's administration, that St. John's passed through perhaps the most terrible trial to which ifc had yet been subjected. On the 9th of June a fire broke out in the western end of the city, which swept everything before it, and before night closed in three-fourths of this wealthy and populous city were a smoking mass of ruins. The rapidity of the terrible i ) j 1 [ ] i 4 no NEWFOrNDl-ANl). I'MWT \. rouiliiirvation was owini^ in part to a luu^li witul which ]^Yo- vailod at Iho timo, ami \vhi('li InivhMl \]\o blay.ing* hraiuls far and wiilo, and also lo and briok, prosontod n*) inipodi- uiont to the ])rogToss of (ho fiorco conllagratiou, and, with a singlo oxcoption, thoy woro totally dostroyod. Nearly all the public buildings, except {lovorninent House, perishetl. The Post Ortice, Savings Hank, Hank of British North Ainerica, Custom House, Police Ollice, Exehango Buildings, Ordnance Store, and several others were burnt to (he ground. To add (o (he lernu's of the sceiu^, whil(> (he red (ongues of ilatue were leaping from stree( (o s(reet, (he huge oil-vats on the side of the liarbour took (ire. liiipiitl (lames spreail over the wliole siirface of the water ind set (ire to a number of vessels. Before the day closed twelve thousand people w^ere homeless, and property valued at a million pounds sterling was des(royed. Still (here was no abject despair among the people. X'essels were at once despatched for provisions. When news of the terrible calamity reached I'lngland a sum of o()()()/. was sent for imuu}diate relief, and Parliament vo(ed l!^,Ot^O/. more. To this was added a very large sum collected in tlu^ churches, -luder the sanction of a let(er from (he (^hieeu (o the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. The neighbour- ing colonic' sent liberal contributions. Cheered by this generous sympaihy, the iidiabi(auts at once set to work to rebuild (heir ci(y. A law was enact ed prohibi(ing wooden houses in the business part of the town, .and enforcing increased width of the s(rcets. Some years af(erwards an abundant supply of wafer was introduceil, so that now St. John's is as secure against fire as any other city of the New World. A recurrence of such a terrible contlagr.ation as that of June 0th, ISk), may be regarded as impossible. -Hlsii nui'. v.l "niKoudii TUK Kim:." Ill Vi't nudtliiM' c.'vlijnuty was dostinc*! t() lunvk tlii\< nuMuov- •.\h\c xoiiY. ()i\ llio I'.^lh SoptiMubor a sdn-m of unoxaniplod sovority swopt ovor tho island, causing an ininnMiso «losl mo- tion of shippini*', Ikmisos, jisliing vsfagos and llakos, fonoos and l)ri«lgos, and ongidling in many instances the fruits of the tishernieu's toils during the previous summer. These two calamiti(»s in a single year were a disastrous draAvback to the ]irospority of the colony for a long time. In lSt7 Sir (>aspard le Afarohant was ajiptnnted (lovernor. IVevious to his arrival a strong agitation had sprung up, having for its object the attainment of a more complete jiowim' of t^elf-goverument than the Constitution of 1882 had secured. The .'(ppointments to the prin.-ipal oHices in the colony were still held by the Crown. The demand now made was f(n' what is kuiiwn as " Uospcmsible (iovern- mont," under which all such a])poiutments were to be at the disposal of tln^ V'-^^'^y which secured a majoritj' in the legislature. This boon of government according to the well-understood wishes of the peo])le, or, in otlun- words, executive respoi\sibility, haf it increased in in- tensity, .and at length, in ISol, it was conceded. Charh^s lliMu-y Darling, I'isq., was sent out us the successor of Ker H. Uamilton, Esq., to inaugurate the new system. The importanco of possessing those institutions and that civil administration now granted became especially appareiJt when, in 18^7, the Ih'itish Covernment entered into a con- vention with that of the French, for the purpose of settling matters long in dispute regarding the tisheriea of New- fouudland. When the terms of this couvcntiou were inado il I (i \H 11 NEWFOUNDLAND. [rAHT I. II )5i i ■ 1 1 hi i known in the colony tliey were found to be unfavour- able to its fishing interests, and calculated to inflict loss^ if not ruin, on tlie main industry of the country. A storm of opposition was speedily raised, and all parties joined in denouncing the convention. The legislature appointed dele- gates to pi'oceed to London and represent the opposition of the colony to the proposed arrangement. Other delegates were sent to the neighbouring provinces to invoke their sympathy and help. The British Government, having already bestowed complete self-government on the colony, yielded at once, and the obnoxious clauses Avere withdrawn. A despatch was sent by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to Governor Darling, which gave universal satisfac- tion, and which is regarded as the palladium of the colony's liberties in regard to its territorial and maritime rights. It contained the following words : " The proposals contained in the convention having been now unequivocally refused by the colony, they will of course fall to the ground ; and you are authorised to give such assurance as you may think proper, that the consent of the community of Newfound- land is regarded by Her Majesty's Government as the essential preliminary to any modification of their territorial or maritime rights." This, of course, put an end to all doubt regarding the power of the colony to regulate its own affairs in all time to come ; subject, of course, to the rights secured to the French by treaty, in connection with the fisheries on the coast. The three years following were fairly prosperous ; the fisheries were productive ; the population increased ; the revenue was in such a condition that the legislature was enabled to undertake works of public utility. The light- houses on the coast were increased in numbers; steam communication was improved, both internal and foreign; education was fostered ; and a telegraph line was extended across the island. Responsible government worked well, 1 1 ■\' cntr. v.] "through the fiue." 113 and introduced many needed improvements. The erection of a telegraph line connecting the island with the continent of America suggested the bolder project of laying down a submarine cable from the eastern shores of Newfoundland to the Irish coast, a distance of 1,610 miles. On the oth of j^ugust, 1S58, this great historic enterprise was accom- plished, and the first message between the Old and New Worlds was flashed across Newfoundland. In 18(30 His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales visited St. John's on his way to Canada, and met with a loyal and enthusiastic welcome from all classes of the people. In the same year, however, political troubles clouded the horizon. The old religious dissensions unhappily once more broke out, in connection with the elections, bringing in their train some unhappy results. Thp party who had been most energetic in securing responsible government held the reins of authority for some years. In the session of 1861, however, a misundei'standing arose between Sir Alexander Bannerman, who had been appointed Governor in 1857, and Mr. Kent, the Colonial Premier. Into the merits of this misunderstanding it is not necessary to enter, but the result was the dismissal of the ministry by the Governor, and an invitation to Mr. Hoyles, leader of the Opposition, to form a government. This was followed by a dissolution of the House of Assembly, and a genei-al election in the latter part of April, 1861. The old political passions, in which religious animosities unfortunately played a pro- minent part, were once more I'oused into action. The election presented scenes of tumult and violence in several localities. Protestants and Catholics were once more arrayed against each other in the political conflict. At Harbour Main a life was lost, and at Harbour Grace the disorder was so great that an election was found to be impossible. The result was that the new government obtained a majority, the action of the Governor in dis- I !' / II . I 114 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAET I. mu missing his ministry and dissolving tlie House being thusi sustained by the voice of the people. When the new House of Assembly was opened, in May, 18G1, the political excitement ran high in tlie capital. The Governor received, from a menacing crowd, an ungracious reception when he arrived to open the legis- lature. Later in the day there was a riot. The houses of two obnoxious individuals were attacked by the mob. The soldiers of the garrison were called out to quell dis- turbances which the police were unable to suppress. A sad and deplorable scene followed. The mob assailed the troops with volleys of stones. The commander of the force ordered a number of his men to fire. Three persons were killed and several wounded. It was no doubt a fearful expedient to which the commanding officer had recourse, but, on investigation, the authorities exonerated him from all blame. The employment of the military in aid of the civil power, in quelling popular disturbances, is always hazardous, and can only be justified in extreme cases. The memory of these unhappy events has gradually faded away. To-day a nobler and more patriotic spirit animates political action, which is now chiefly directed towards the development of the best interests of the community at large. There is every reason to hope and believe that religious animosity and persecution are dead in ihe oldest British colony. \ m 1 !l )■ CHAPTER VI. "AFTER DARKNESS— DAWN." [1861-1882.] Demoralising systems of pauper relief — Proposed confederation of Newfoundland and Canada — Important discovery of copper ore — Geological survey of the island — Mr. Alexander Murray's reports — Important revelations — Opposition and defeat of the projected union with Canada — Establishment of steam com- munication with England — Development of mineral and agri- cultural resources — Proposed railway — Sir John Glover on the possibilities of the country — Government charter granted to the Newfoundland railway company — Turning of the first sod and construction of the first part of the first railway in 1881— Prosperous condition of the colony — Final settlement of the French fisheries question — New railway projects, with per- spective plans of increased rapidity of transit between the Old World and the New— New fields for emigration — A country one- sixth larger than Ireland, with a population less than two hundred thousand. Unproductive fisheries and a widespread destitution marked the first eight years of the decade ending in 1870. A system had grown up since 1855 of distributing relief among those of the people who were needy and in want, during the winter season. The effect was most demoralising. Many persons who could have made some provision for the dead season took no heed whatever of the morrow. Pauper- ism increased ; reckless and indolent habits were engen- dered ; and ere long nearly a third of the entire revenue went I 2 \ h\ l:i » 1 ■ I <'';! 116 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AHT I 4 in charity. So many were left in a condition of scnii- starvation, whenever a failure of the fisheries occurred, that government found it impossible to discriminate be- tween the applicants for relief. So general was the dis- tinbution of relief that a great majority of the industriiil population soon leai'ned to disregard the stigma of pauperism. They claimed public assistance as a private right. This condition of things was a result of the old fatal policy of repressing colonisation, and failing to afford facilities for the people to settle on the laud and cultivate it. The population had now greatly multiplied. When the fisheries failed they had no other resource on which to fall back. The credit system was also a factor in the general demoralisation. It had existed for more than a century, and had become part and parcel of the customs of the country. The effect of issuing supplies, at the beginning of each fishing season, to be paid for in kind at the close, was unfavourable to the formation of habits of thrift and industry. The returns of the fishermen's labours were also seriously discounted by the high prices they had to pay for the supposed privilege of credit. Governor Bannerman, when opening the legislative session of 1860, dwelt forcibly on this unfavourable feature of the social condition of a portion of the woi'king classes. He urged that " no pains should be spared to give encourage- ment to agriculture, and to every other source that can give employment to the labouring classes, to prevent, as far as possible, their resorting to pauper relief.'' In every succeeding year the warning was repeated in his speeches regarding the dangers of increasing pauperism, and the necessity of providing employment for the people outside the fisheries, which could no longer sustain the numbers who were now engaged in them. The revenue of 1801 fell to 81,000Z., and the public debt, which had been mainly incurred in meeting the necessities of the destitute, now CHAP. VI.] a AFTER DARKNESS — DAWX. 117 amounted to 180,000/. In 18(33 the Governor's spoecli again proclaimed 'Svidcspreacl pauperism/' in consequence of the failure of the previous year's fisheries. A committee of the legislature was appointed to inquire into the con- dition of the fisheries. Their report showed that there had been no actual decline in the cod fisheries, the average from 1810 to 18G2 having been occasionally a little under a million quintals annually, and at times somewhat over that amount. This national industry was found to bo stationary, but the population had increased, so that the same amount of produce had now to support a much larger number. Another committee was appointed to report on the agricultural capabilities of the country. They reported strongly in favour of the encouragement of agriculture, as a means of repressing pauperism. The soil and climate were pronounced to be well adapted to the requirements of the farmer. The want of roads, however, prevented any immediate efforts to settle the fine valleys of the interior. No one as yet dreamed of a railway as the means of opening up the country and settling a population in the interior. In 18G1 Mr. Anthony Musgrave was appointed Governor. Each year, in opening the session of the legislature, he repeated the same sad tale of pauperism, and sug- gested the old remedies-'. During this trying period large mimbers of the people emigrated to the United States and Canada. In 18G0 the fisheries were again unsuccessful. The usual distress and misery followed. The Governor advised the union of Newfoundland with Canada. He stated that it was greatly desired by the imperial authorities. The years 1807 and 1808 showed no improve- ment, and the financial condition of the colony grew worse and W( I'se. The Governor's speech, which of courso expressed the opinions of his ministers, announced that "year after year it is more Yearly demonstrated that, in the - \^t iii 11 118 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part altered circumstances of the community, the one enterprise and occupation to which our people are accustomed, is inadequate to meet the wants of the increasing population." A gleam of hope, however, began to dawn for the people at this time. In the north of the island copper ore had already been discovered, and mining was beginning to create a new demand for labour. Ere long it became evident that the island, so long pronounced worthless by prejudiced or ignorant persons, was rich in minerals. This new industrial departure was the first substantial aid brought to the suffering people. The prospect of Newfound- land becoming a mining centre gave them fresh hope and courage. Efforts were renewed, again and again, by the legislature to obtain from the imperial powers a removal of the restrictions which prevented land grants or mining licences being issued on that part of the coast where the French had fishing rights. This embraced half the island, and the better half, as far as climate, soil, and minerals are concerned. These applications, however, did not secure the desired concessions. The people were practically excluded from their own shores. The eifect of this injustice, while repressing enterprise, deepened the sense of wrong which the English colonists had borne with patience though not without protest. The commencement of a geological survey of the island, in 1861, under the auspices of the government, must be reckoned as one of the most important measures yet intro- duced for making known and developing the natural resources of the country. Sir William Logan, the eminent geologist, who had long been at the head of the geological survey of Canada, was requested to nominate a competent person to take charge of the survey of Newfoundland. He selected Mr. Alexander Murray, who for more than twenty years had been associated with him in the survey of Canada, and whose experience and ability fitted him specially for this CHAP. VI LiLA..V.i. flUI". VI,] (( AFTER TARKNESS — DAWN. 119 important work. Entering upon Lis duties in 18G4, ho has prosecuted the work till the present time with commend- able zeal and energy, and with important results. For the first time, the resources and capabilities of this neglected country were ascertained and reported on by competent scientific men. As, year after year, Mr. J\lurray's reports were published, it was at first with a feeling of doubt or incredulity that the people heard of the natural riches of the interior ; of extensive pine forests ; fertile valleys, in which many thousands might find a home ; of carboniferous regions, containing coal-beds ; and immense mineral tracts, which the labours of many generations were not likely to exhaust. His survey showed that on the west coast there were 1,320 square miles of fertile lands, admirably adapted for settlement ; and in the valleys of the Exploits, Gambo, Terra Nova, and Gander, not less than 3,320 square miles, equally fitted for agricultural operations or cattle-raising, much of these regions being covered with splendid forests — iu all nearly three million acres of fertile land. He further found that the island presents large developments of the " Quebec group," which is the great metalliferous formation of North America, and therefore might be expected to be found rich in minerals — a prediction which has been amply verified. It is much to the credit of successive governments that the geological survey has been continued since 1864, and is still going on. The knowledge of the country obtained through this agency has been gradually diffused by different writers, and made known in other lands. It can be no longer doubted that Newfoundland now presents a promising field for mining enterprises ; and that it contains enough of fertile land to sustain in comfort a population of several millions. The year 1869 brought a turn in the tide of affairs, in the shape of abundant fisheries, the first for many years which could be called successful. Many of the people had i !■ ill' 120 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ABT h been devoting themselves more to the cultivation of the soil, and the harvest this year was good. In 18G8 the government had at length grappled with the system of able-bodied pauper relief, and cut it off; and the compura- tive prosperity of the next few years rendered it possible to enforce this wholesome enactment. A general election took place towards the close of 18()'.), wliich turned on the question of union with Canada. The result was a return of a large majority of representatives pledged to oppose con- federation with the Dominion, to which it was foiiml a large proportion of the people were opposed. So em- phatically did public feeling show itself in opposition to confederation, that the (juestion has since been entirely laid aside. Sir Stephen John Hill succeeded Sir Alexander Bannerman in 18G1). The following years witnessed successful fisheries, accom- panied by a rise in the price of the products in foreign markets. Harvests, too, were fairly good, and the revenue derived from duties on importations rose as the people were able to purchase more freely the necessaries aucl comforts of life. In 1871 the revenue reached the unprecedented amount of 207,790/., which enabled the government to remit some duties which bore heavily on the working classes, and also to devote certain sums to public works. Great numbers of mining licences were taken out, and the new industry advanced rapidly. The expenditure of money, in the shape of wages in connection with mining, added considerably to the means of the labouring class. The improved condition of the revenue permitted increased grants for the con- struction of roads, lighthouses, and other works of public utility. In 1873 direct steam communication with England and America was established, a contract with the Montreal Steamship Company having been entered into for the cou- CIUP. ^ veyaii was fj bomul moutll the r( were luunicj A the lei system of ma; the ren colony, up, on outside insecun Meantii and the to Labn Bonne 1 and in ] The country necessit the inc; thoujjht i\'\ ■ \ lA ll 4 CHlf. VI.] * 'a FTER DAKKNESS — DAWN. " 121 vcyauco of mails, passengers, iind goods. The arrangement was for fortnightly calls, both of homeward and outward bound ships of the Allan Line, at St. John's, during nine mouths of the year, and monthly trips, via Halifax, during the remainder. The tirade and commerce of the colony were greatly benefited by this improved means of com- munication with the outside world. A petition was presented to the imperial authorities by the legislature, asking for the introduction of a judicial system on the so-called " French shore ; " the appointment of magistrates, the establishment of custom-houses, and the removal of restrictions on the territorial rights of the colony. In this petition it was stated that there had grown up, on this part of the coast, a large population who were outside the pale of law, so that life and property were insecure, and the means of civilisation entirely absent. Meantime, local steam communication between St, John's and the principal settlements was improved and extended to Labrador Channel, St. George's Bay, JJay of Islands, and Bonne Bay. The revenue did not show any further expansion, and in 1874 was 209,531 Z. The knowledge of the great natural resources of the country which had now been diffused, together with the necessity of providing new means of employment for the increasing population, had secured the attention of thoughtful men, who saw that, for any further progress, the construction of a railway, to open up the country to industrial enterprise, had now become a necessity. For some time the idea had been fermenting in the public mind, but in a country where the people were but little accustomed to entertain great national projects, the majority, especially of those whose capital was invested in the fisheries, shrttnk from the proposal as visionary and beyond the m^ans of the colony. Still the question pressed for u solution: ''What are we to do with our ll^KWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. When the legislature met on the IGth o£ Februarv, 1882, Sir F. 15. Carter, who acted as administrator of the government in the absence of Sir Henry Maxse, the Governor, announced in the opening speech that the leading industries of the country had during the previous year been prosecuted successfully on the whole, and that " mining showed a considerably enlarged export of copper ore, and prospects of a further development in the im- mediate future." He referred to the railway as progressing satisfactorily in construction, conferring important benefits on the people, and causing a " large monetary expenditure in the counti'y." This "great work," he said, "is an enterpi'ise which, in the increase of commercial and social communication, and the development of our agricultural and mineral resources, contains the elements of solid and lasting prosperity for Newfoundland." The revenue was found to be in a very flourishing con- dition, amounting to $l,003,80o, being the largest ever received. This furnished the best proof of the generally prosperous condition of the colony. The speech, however, contained another announcement, second in importance onl}' to that regarding the railway. The administrator informed the legislature that the imperial authorities had at length authorised the local government to make land grants, and issue mining licences on that part of the coast on which the French have fishery privileges. This was the boon for which the colony had been pleading in vain for many years. Its importance to the people of Newfoundland can hardly be overrated. It is a virtual settlement of the vexed " French- shore Question," and a removal of a serious and long- standing grievance. It opens the half of the island which liad hitherto been closed to the people, to settlement and industrial enterprise. It enfranchises the population of this part of the island, who are in future to have two representatives in the local legislature, and removes all cnw. VI. 'AFTER DARKNESS — DAWN » " 129 ' iPIII^ restrictions on the exorcise of territorial rights. The administrator very justly connected this concession with .^he name of Sir William Whiteway, to whose able and persevering' representations the country is largely in- debted for a settlement of this vexed question. "The coincidence," said the administrator, "of the improved conditions to which I have adverted with the inauguration of the Newfoundland railway^ marks an era of progress which is a meet subject of congratulation to the country." Two other important events marked the legislative session of 1882. The first was an application to the legislatm*e for a charter of incorporation of a company uuder the title of " The American and European Short Line Railway Company." The objects of the company are described in the following terms : " You are already aware, from communications jDlaced before your govern- ment, that it is the purpose of our company to con- struct a line of railway from a point or points on the east or south-eastern coasts of Newfoundland, through and across the said island, to a point or points on the west coast of Newfoundland, and from the western terminus to connect by steam-ferry with the railway to be constructed to a point at or near Cape North, in the island of Cape Breton; thence by said railway to the Strait of Causo ; thence along the north shore of Nova Scotia to a junction with the Inter- colonial railway, by which line we make connections with the railways communicating Avith Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Montreal, Chicago, St. Louis, and San Francisco. It being our purpose to construct without delay ihe necessary links to complete this proposed trunk-line, when this line is completed, passengers may take cars at New York cr Montreal, and run through to the east coast of New- foundland. From the east shore of Newfoundland the com- pany will establish a fast despatch line of steamships, to sail between that point and the west const of England or K ^ ■1 I I 'k\ I l(l* rl I I I 130 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I, Ireland, there connecting with fast express trains to London and all European cities, thus forming a great international trunk-line across the island of Newfoundland that will absorb and facilitate the transportation of the mails of the governments of America, Europe, and Asia, as well as provide the shortest, speediest, and safest route for pas- senger traffic. The line, when completed, will bring New- foundland into daily communication with the great centres of trade and civilisation of Europe and America. The average time saved by this route between London and New- York will be not less than two days to the traveller over any other existing line or possible route between the two great commercial centres. The short ocean voyage, the great saving in time, together with the superior comforts and safety of this line, will soon make it the most popular route for first-class trans-Atlantic travel ; and will also attract a very largo part of the emigration that now goes direct to New York and other United States and Canadian ports. Thus will the great tides of emigration, flowing to the United States and Canada, be largely diverted across your territory ; and many emigrants will find homes in the rich fertile valleys of your island. The proposed line will pass through parts of your territory very rich in mineral and agricultural lands, capable of supporting a large popula- tion ; and when this line is open to travel, the Great Valley of the Exploits, St. George's Bay, the Gander Eiver, and the Codroy will soon be busy with the hum of agricultural, mining, and mechanical industry, where all is now a silent, tenantless, and comparatively unknown wilderness. The rail- way we propose will be, in every respect, a first-class road, and the equipment of the highest standard of excellence." The great enterprise which is defined in the foregoing extract, is not only of colonial, but of imperial and inter- national importance. In Newfoundland it has met with an enthusiastic approval. The charter sought for has been granted ; and, no doubt, in due time the colony will render ALil. CHAl'. VI.] "after darkness — DAWN." 131 substantial aid to a project which would beuefit tlio island luoro than any other country. The legislature of Nova Scotia has also warmly approved of the enterprise, and promised assistance. That this will bo the great travel- route of the future between the Old World and the New can scarcely admit of a doubt, for it has been marked out by the hand of Nature. The second proposal which came before the legislature was for a charter, to incorporate a company to construct a dry or graving dock in St. John's Harbour. The dock is to bo of such dimensions that it can accommodate the largest oceanic steamers^ being six hundred feet in length, one hundred feet in breadth, and twenty-six feet in depth. The site is to be hewn out of the solid rock whicli composes the southern boundary harbour. The government have agreed to give a subsidy of 830,000 per annum for forty-five years, thus securing interest at five pier cent, on 8000,000. The total cost is estimated at a million of dollars. This dock will be of vast importance to disabled steamers and vessels requir- ing repairs, great numbers of which seek this port fi'om all parts of the Atlantic. It will also serve for the repair- ing of the fleet of twenty-five steamers, and the large number of sailing vessels, which are connected with St. John's itself. It seems clear from all these facts that Newfoundland has at length fairly moved into the path of progress, ard has a bright and prosperous future opening bofore her. Her great natural resources will now be turnoi.1 to account, and her inhabitants will advance in the arts and appliances of civilised life. The population, according to the last census, taken in 1871, was 161,000; it is now probably 185,000. This small population is sprinkled round the shores of an island one sixth larger than Ireland, and having an area of 42,000 square miles. That it will become an attrac- tive field for emigrants cannot be doubted, when once the in- terior valleys are rendered fairly accessible by road and i*ail. K 2 |v il I /'' 1 1 : i ,i,( 111 III i PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. CHAPTER 1. SITUATIOX, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. A stopping-stone between the Old Wovid and the iv'ew — Rank of Ncwfonndland among the islands o" the globe — Bi eoding-grouiul of tlie cod — An iron-bound shore with a fertile interior— ricturcsquc waterways — ^Long Range and otlier mountains- Thc Exploits River— The Grand Falls— The Humber and Bay of Islands — Lakes and ponds — Grand Lake with an area of a hundred and ninety-two square miles — Great pine forests- Red Indian Lake — Virgin lands or " forests primeval." In regard to geographical position Xature Las dealt in the highest degree favourably with Newfoundland. It is diffi- cult to imagine a more commanding position than that of this great island, anchored off the American continent and reaching out at its farthest point towards the Eastevu Hemisphere, thus forming, as it were, a stepping-stoue between the Old World and the New. It has been marked down as the travel-route of the future between the two hemispheres. Stretching right across the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to which it affords access at its northern and southern extremities, it might be compared to a huge ^v V, I CHAP. 1.] SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND KIVEllS. 133 bastion thrown out into the North Athvntic, tlio capital of which, it' duly fortified, might be converted into the Sevastopol of the surrounding seas. It is no less adapted to serve the peaceful interests of commerce, to facilitate communication between two continents, or become a place of arms and defence. At its south-western extremity it approaches within fifty miles of the island of Cape Breton, while its most eastern projection is but 1,G1U miles distant from Ireland. When these two watery intervals are bridged by steam-ferries, the shortest and safest transit between Europe and America will be secured. Had it not been for the facilities afforded by the splendid geographical situation of the island for experiments in lengthened sub- marine telegraphy, it is doubtful whether telegraphic communication between the two worlds would have been established to this day. The short distance between New- foundland and Ireland and the great level submarine plain, a thousand miles in Avidth, between the two countries, suggested the trial, and literally paved the way to success. In another respect Nature seems to have marked out the island as a centre of commercial activity. A glance at the map shows that its coasts are pierced by numerous mag- nificent bays, running, in some instances, eighty or ninety miles inland, and throwing out numerous smaller arms in all directions. Thus the ocean penetrates the laud deeply, bringing with it that sea-harvest which is reaped with- out the preliminary labours of ploughing and sowing. The same watery highways, reaching inland in all direc- tions, afford unrivalled facilities for the transport of the products of the fisheries, the riches of the mine and the forest, and the agricultural productions which will yet be derived from its hithcu'to untenanted plains. In those noble bays, moreover, are some of the finest harbours in the world, with countless coves and creeks, where the fishermen's craft find safe and easy shelter. To such \i I. !i 134 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AIU 11. 'I M an extent arc the shores indented that, though the island is about a thousand miles round, measuring from head- land to headland, "were its bays circumnavigated, the opera- tion would more than double that extent of mileage. In fact, it would be difficult to find anywhere an equal land-area presenting such an extent of frontage to the sea. According to the latest and most accurate surveys, Newfoundland is situated between the parallels of 40'^ ;JG' 50" and 51" 39' north latitude, and between the meridians of 52° 37' and 59° 24' 50" west longitude. Its greatest length, from Cape Ray (the south-western extremity of the island) to Cape Norman (the farthest northern land) is three hundred and seventeen miles ; and the greatest breadth, from Cape Spear (the most easterly point) to Capo Anguille (the most westerly) is three hundred and sixteen miles. The total area is estimated by Mr. Murray, of the Geological Survey, at 42,000 square miles. The size of a country counts for a good deal, and in the long run becomes a measure of political power. We obtain the best idea of the size of the island by comparing it with other countries. Ireland contains 32,500 square miles ; so tliat Newfoundland is more than one-sixth larger than that country. It also contains ^ 2,000 square miles more than Scotland. It is three times as large as Holland, and twice as large as Denmark. Taking for comparison two of the neighbouring provinces of British America, we find that it is twice the size of Nova Scotia, and one-third larger than New Brunswick. Among the islands of the globe it ranks tenth in regard to size. Its figure approaches an equi- lateral triangle, having a wide southern base between Cape Race and Cape Ray, and a narrow apex towards the north. Two large peninsulas project from the main body of the island. One of these points northerly and is long and narrow; it is called Petit Nord by the French. The other is the m li'i envf.i.] SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVEPS. 135 great peninsula of Avalon, pointing south-east, and almost severed from tlio principal portion of the island by tlio two bays of Placcntia and Trinity, on opposite sides of the island, tbo connection being a narrow isthmus, in ono place but three miles in width. The Avalon peninsula is further divided by the two noble bays of St. Mary's and Conception, On its eastern side is situated St. John's, the capital ; and on the northern shore of Conception Bay, Harbour Grace, the second town of the island. Owing to its extensive frontage on the Atlantic, its many fine harbours, and its proximity to the best fishing-grounds, Avalon is the most thickly-populated and by far the most commercially iuii)ortant part of the island. Within a degree of its shoi'es is the greatest submarine island of the globe — the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, which extends for a length of six hundred miles, with a breadth of two hundred miles. The great breeding-ground of the cod, these submarine hills and valleys are alive with inexhaustible stores of this noble fish. Around the shores of Avalon are countless smaller submarine elevations, where colonies of cod are located, and where fishing has been carried on for centuries without any diminution of the supply. Hence, though the soil of Avalon is as a whole poor, and in many places barren, the great pro- portion of the population is clustered round its shores, but they look mainly to the ocean as the source of their sub- sistence. The various harbours of this peninsula present also the most favourable points from which to carry ou the seal fishery in the spring. The first sight of the coasts of Newfoundland impresses the voyager unfavoui'ably. Dark frowning cliffs ; miles ou miles of rocky walls, from two t( iiree hundred feet in height, with but little verdure crowning their summits j bold promontories and headlands, sculptured into grim and fantastic forms by the blows of Atlantic billows ; shapes I ! Si'l i i : !; Il!'l' iMil 13G NEWFOUNDLAND. Il'ART II. ' I, mnssivo and awo-inapiring in their stern grandeiii'. Sucli is tlio general picture tliat meets tho oyo v>£ tlio voyager at almost all parts of tho island. Tho iron-bound shores present no pebbly beaches on which the waves break in softened music. Tho island is defended by rocky ramparts, dark and lofty, repelling tho watery battalions that rush upon them under pressure of the tempest. Such is tho seaward aspect. Should tho traveller, leaving tho coast, sail up one of tho fiords which at intervals clcavo the rocky walls, ho will ero long, if tho season be summer, lind himself amid scenes of rare beauty. Tho shores HEART S CONTEXT HARBOUR AND VILLAGE. are dotted with dark-green forests that sweep down to the water's-edge. Verdant islands of all shapes and sizes stud the bosom of the estuary. Busy boats dance here and there on the bright waters. Fishing hamlets lino the shores, with their rough stages and fish flakes for landing and drying tho cod. Tho clearings around the villages show how little has yet been done in reclaiming the soil from tho primeval wilderness. The atmosphere is balmy and exhilarating. The sky is blue and serene as that of Italy. There are, in those deep bays which pierce tho laud for eighty or a hundred miles, varied scenes of beauty, ^\ I i i cnip. !) .SITUATION, MorXTAIXS, AND RIVERS. 137 such as are rarely surpassed in the world's most favoured lands. On passing from the rugged coast-lino to the outer interior of the island, a hilly country presents itself, with eminences of no great elevation. Around the heads of the bays are large tracts of excellent land, generally covered with fhie timber, and presenting every facility for agri- culture and grazing purposes. On proceeding further inland the interior proper is reached, and, like that of Ireland, is found to consist of an elevated undulating plateau, traversed here and there by ranges of low hills, the surface being diversified by valleys, woods, lakes, ponds, and marshes. Of the interior itself hardly anything is yet known, as it has been examined only at a few points, and has been crossed in 1822, from east to west only by a single traveller, who described much of it as a savanna country, having countless lakes and lakelets, with brooks, woods, and vast green undulating plains. These savannas are composed of fine, black, compact peat-mould, formed by the growth and decay of mosses, and sustain countless herds of reindeer. All the great hill-ranges traversing the country tiike a north-easterly and south-westerly direction, and all the other great physical features, such as the bays, lakes, rivers, and valleys, have a similar trend. No doubt glacial action has been the cause of this peculiar conformation. The highest land is found along the western and southern shores. The course of the principal I'ivers shows that there is a gradual slope thence, easterly and northerly. It is along the valleys traversed by the various rivers that the greatest extent of fertile lands, and the heavy forest- growths are found, and these valleys are destined to be the seats of a large agricultural population, when rendered accessible by road and rail. The principal mountain range is called the Long Range, which extends along the western side of the island for Til nM*< !;' 1 ! f ' i' L, i l-il I I : .I'M ''*i i ^' Mir I 'i If' ■1 i;l •I it t ,1 ■41 1 ': 1 :■! ■I ; h <' :> 1 t'i u\u:Ai ]38 NEWFOUNDLAXl). [I'AHT II. nearly its entire length, having' peaks more than two thousand feet in height. It commences at Capo Kay, runs north-east till it reaches the head ol: St. George's Bay, then tarns north-east again, and terminates, after a course of two hundred miles, in the Petit Nord, or groat northern peninsula. Outside of the Long Range, hut parallel to it, and nearer the coast, is the Capo Anguille range, running from Cape Anguille to the highlands of St. George's Bay, with summits nineteen hundred foot high, and the Blo-mi-dons, extending along the south coast of the Humber Ann, Bay of Islands, and occasion- ally reaching a height of two thousand and eighty-fivo feet. These two ranges are of quite a different geo- logical age from the Long Range, and present separate and independent features. Another range stretches across the country between Fortune Bay and Notre Dame Bay, and is known as Middle Range. Black River Range runs from Placentia Bay to Clode Sound, in Bonavista Bay. The Avalou district is very hilly, there being two remarkable ranges, each about thirty miles long. One of these commences at Renews, fifty miles south of St. Johu's, and terminates at Holyrood, in Conception liay, having at each end a rounded hill called the Butterpot. The other begins at St. Mary's Bay and terminates at Chapel Arm, Trinity Bay. Some of the summits in this range reach the height of one thousand five hundred feet. In iiddition to these well-marked ridges, the country is remarkable for a number of isolated and sharply-peaked summits, bearing the local name of Tolts, which spring abruptly hero and there out of the great central plateau, and serve as landmarks. Some of the more conspicuous of these Tolts arc S^ -ead Eagle Peak, south of Chapel Arm, Trinity Bay; Powder Horn Hill, Bay of Bulls Arm, in Trinity Bay; Hodges Hill, on the Exploits (two thousand feet high) ; Mount Peyton (sixteen hundred and seventy feet), west cnvp. t.] SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. 130 entl of Gander Lake ; and Lobster House, near Hind's Pond. Compared witli the size of tlic island, Newfoundland has few large rivers ; but the want of these is amply com- pensated for by the numerous bays which penetrate the interior in all directions. One cause of the scarcity of large streams is the broken hilly character of many portions of ,i::»:M' II! I J I i \i ' m ROCKY KIVEK BRIDGK. the country. Down the small valleys ilow the sti'eams from the pond, or set of ponds, in their neighbourhood, forming numerous brooks, which thus find the nearest course to the sea. It is a mistake, however, not uncommon, to suppose that the island is destitute of large rivers. Rocky River takes its rise in Hodge Water, a largo lake in the peninsula of Avalon. After a course of about twenty miles, in which it receives a number of tributaries, it falls into the Colinet arm of St. Mary's 15ay. 'Jlie road IN i.V' i $ ' ill ■ t' iDi \i i1^ hk 111 :| .1:1 il ill' 140 NEWFOUNDLAND. [r.iBT n between Salmonier and Placentia crosses Rocky Rivex* near its mouth, nine miles from tlie former place, by a bridge in the midst of scenery, unsurpassed for picturcsque- ness in tlio whole of Newfoundland, On reaching tho summit of a hill on this road, ovcrlookinf^ the valley through which Rocky River flows, the traveller obtains a beautiful view of tho Salmonier and Colinet arms of St. Mary's Bay. The road then winds down through thick woods, with their overhanging branches, past silvery lakelets and over " barrens," till Rocky River is reached. Standing on the bridge which spans the stream with a wide arch, some 80 or 100 feet above the water, and looking up the river a sei'ies of foaming cascades is seen, at a short distance, flashing under the sunbeams. Then the river Avinds among heavy woods, till at length it rushes beneath the bridge, and forms another splendid cascade below, and finally leaps into a huge round basin, the surface of which, continually disturbed by eddying currents, is always white with foam. Lofty clilfs enclose this whirl- pool, out of Avhich the river is seen quietly pursuing its way to the sea. The Exploits River is two hundred miles in length, and drains an area of between three thousand and four thousand square miles. It is a mile wide at its mouth, and gradually narrows to an average of half a mile, which it maintains for ten miles. The first ten miles is studded with islands, one of them, Thwart Island, being nine miles in length. Fourteen miles from the mouth are Bishop's Falls, a succession of cascades, the total height being about twenty feet. The scenery here is greatly ad- mired. Some twenty miles higher up the river the Grand Falls are met with, presenting one of the finest and most picturesque scenes in Newfoundland. Captain Kennedy, of H.M.S. Bruid, describes a visit he made to the Grand Falls in the following terms : " We found ourselves at length CBAP. I. V V.l cBAP. I.I SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. 141 directly above the Fall, and a glorious siglit met our view. I inu.st confess that we were prepared for a disappointment after many of like nature in this and other countries, but the scene now before us fully answered, if it did not exceed, our expectations. Looking upwards, to the right hand was a mass of foaming eddying torrent, with black rocks inter- spersed. Abreast of us, the stream was divided by a thickly-wooded islet, whereon many seagulls had built their nests. The parent birds flew round with loud and discordant screams, adding, in the roar of the waterfall, to the weirdness of the scene. Below this islet the waters met, and, wedged in by precipitous rocks on either side, plunged in a succession of cascades into the seething cauldron beneath. Seating ourselves beside the Fall we contemplated this fine sight, not a living soul to interfere with us. Possibly with the completion of the railway we shall have a station at Exploits River and a hotel at the Grand Falls ; but for the present let us rest content that we have seen, without ques- tion, the finest picture in Newfoundland, untouched by the hand of man. A very fine view must be obtained from above the Falls and also from below ; but the limited time at our disposal prevented our doing more than resting for a short half-hour on the spray-covered rocks, and taking a sketch of the scene before starting on our wearisome walk back. The whole height of the Falls is given at one hundred and forty-fivo feet ; of this a good deal is broken water. I should estimate the largest Fall at not more than fifty feet, and perhaps as many yards across the gorge; but the beauty of the Fall is not so much in its height as in the immense body of water com- pressed into the space, and in the general wildness of the place." The railway now under construction from St. John's to Hall's Bay will traverse part of the noble valley of Exploits, and there can be no doubt that its splendid scenery will prove attractive to tourists and sportsmen, as 1 ;,i ,. . V m II I F':|l i i i !|:il r 14 o NEWFOUNDLAND. [pa III II, it is one of the finest salmon streams in the island. At one point the railway will come close to the Grand Falls. The banks of the river are clothed with lofty pine, together Avitli birch, poplai*, aspen, etc., at intervals. The soil is fertile, and capable of yielding crops of all kinds, including oats, barley, wheat. " The Exploits Eiver," says Mr, Murray, o£ the Geo- logical Survey, " rises in the extreme south-western angle of the island, and within twelve miles of the southern coast, near La Poile, and, flowing in a north-easterly direction, terminates in the Bay of Exploits, Notre Dame Bay, the :;';i=^«rfv .^ - ^ i WIUUA.U lUlNT, EXl'Lorrs 1 IVKR. \y',h\\ distance from the sources to the outlet measuring nearly two hundred miles in an air line. The upper waters flow in two minor branches, the Exploits proper and the Victoria branch, of about equal size, both of which empty into Kod Indian Lake, which itself is thirty- six miles long, with au average width of about two miles, and very deep, whence flows the main stream for seventy-two miles to the sea. The normal surface of Red Indian Lake is four hundred and sixty-eight feet above the sea, and its total area is sixty-nine squai'e miles. There are numerous tributaries to this great river, some of which might with justice be termed rivers themselves ; and the whole area drained by the lIilj^ C.IAP.I.] SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND IIIVERS. 143 Exploits Valley is nothing under three thousand square miles." The next largest river is the Humboi', falling into the Humber arm of the Bay of Islands, on the western coast, after draining an area of two thousand square miles. The main branch of the Humber rises about twenty miles inland from Bonne Bay, and after u circuitous course falls into Deer Lake. The other branch rises north of Sandy Lake, and flows through it into Grand Lake ; thence by Junction Brook it joins the main branch, six miles above Deer Lake. From this lake, which is sixteen miles long, the Humber flows majestically into the Bay of Islands. The scenery of the Humber is among the grandest in the island. At certain points in its course, perpendicular rocks, several hundred feet high, spring from the deepest water, forming canons. At the mouth of the Humber marble beds, of almost every hue, are found, and in the Blo-mi-don Hills a copper mine has been recently opened. The Gander is the third of the large rivers of the island, and drains an area of two thousand five hundred square miles, falling into Fresh Water Bay. Its principal branch rises near Bay D'Espoir, on the southern coast, and running north-easterly falls into the Great Gander Lake. The other, after a very meandering course, falls into the same lake, whence the united stream runs easterly for thirty-one miles into Fresh Water Bay. Gander Lake has an area of forty-four square miles and is thirty-six miles long. These are the three main arteries ; but there are numerous smaller streams, most of them rising at right angles to the course of the larger streams, which have com- paratively short courses, and rush in turbulent torrents to the sea. The Gambo is a small stream flowing from Gambo Pond, and having some splendid pine timber growing on its banks. Terra Nova River is a considerable stream, noted for its rapids, falling into Bonavista Bay, (.'. , i 144 NEWFOUNDLAND. [rAKT U) liMi Colinet River fulls into St. Mary's Bay. The Codroy River rises iu the Long Range Mountains, and flows through a valley containing the finest land in the island. One of the most remarkable of the physical features of the island is its immense number of lakes and ponds. They are so numerous that were the island mapped out in detail, more than one-third of the whole surface would probably be represented by water. They are found in every possible position : in the mountain gorges; in the depressions between the low hills; in the valleys ; and frequently in hollows near the tops of the highest eminences. They are of all sizes, from tiny pools and lakelets to sheets of water nearly sixty miles in length. From the tops of some of the highest hills fiom sixty to one hundred and fifty ponds and lakes have been counted. They form a very beautiful feature iu the landscape, in many districts, as the eye ranges from the hilltop, over an expanse of country having these bright gems, overhung with thick woods, dotting its surface. Nearly all of them are well stocked, with trout. There can be little doubt that these lakes and lakelets arc relics of the Glacial Age, and have been scooped out by glaciers when the island was under an ice-mantle, two or three thousand feet thick, as Greenland now is, and down its mountain gorges, huge glaciers were throwing off myriads of icebergs into the encompassing seas. The largest lake in the island is Grand Lake, fifty-six miles in length, with an area of one hundred and ninety-two square miles. Its surface is but fifty feet above the sea level, while, at its deepest portion, the bottom is more than three hundred feet below the level of the sea. Many brooks empty into it, but it has only one outlet — Junction Brook, which joins the Humber. The south- western extremity bears about north-east from the head iKT r. ^mw 11 iver "h a ires and and lole hey ;ain in of iny les ills ces ire I'es ig til id ?n 31' IS •e e !C 3 '!< i! '.) fi ■1 ■ . I I ' V V !■ cnuM.l SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND UIVEKS. 145 of St. George's Bay, from wliicli it is distant about fifteen miles. Seven miles from this end it divides into two arms, eacli about a mile wide, inclosing an island twenty-two miles long and four or five broad, to which the name Sir John Glover's Island has been given of late, m compliment to the late Governor, who in 1878 visited and explored the lake. From the island the lake runs in a north-eastern direction, and v/idens to a breadth of five or six miles. The shores are densely wooded to the water's-edge, in some places precipitous, in others presenting a gentle rise. The scenei'y in summer, when the trees are clad in " living green/' or still more in autumn, when the leaves are russet, orange, and gold, is magnificent. The island is covered with valuable timber, but what the character of its soil may be is yet unknown. It is a favourite resort of the reindeer in summer, and the shores of the lake opposite to it present the best ground for deer-stalking in the island, as the deer swim across when setting out on their southern migration, and collect in herds on the " barrens " near the lake. The next largest lake is Red Indian Lake, through which the Eiver Exploits flows. It is thii'ty-seven miles long, and from half-a-mile to three miles wide, with an area of sixty-four square miles. Around its shores are forests of fine timber, indicative of a fertile soil. Great Gander Lake is thirty-three miles in length, with an average width of two miles, and covers an area of forty-four square miles. Its banks, and that of the Gander River which flows through it, present immense tracts of the finest agricultural and timber lands in the island. Deer Lake, through which the Humber flows, is but ten feet above the high-tide level, and has an area of twenty-four square miles. The land around it is fertile in the highest degree. Sandy Lake, Victoria, Hind's, Terra Nova, and George IV. lakes range next in size. i \l il I I ^i; : ill nil 1' J :•!■■■ ■ 1 i 146 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AIIT II. As yot tho shores of these great lakes, the valleys through which those uoblo streams flow, are absolute solitudes, without a single human inhabitant. Tho niai,'- nificent pine forests are left to rot, or perish by fire. Tho soil is fertile enough to sustain many thousands of peoplo in comfort, but it is as yet untouched by plough or spado. The " forests primeval " show no clearings won by huinan industry. All is primitive wilderness. It may seem sur- prising that such should be the case in an island only five days' steaming distance from Great Britain, and witli thousands of emigrants passing these shores every day to seek a home in the far west of America. But it must be remembered that until recently the very existence of New- foundland's fertile lands and valuable forests was unknown. Now that the great revolutionist, the railway, is about to render her solitudes accessible, a portion of the great stream of emigration will ere long be diverted towards these un- tenanted wastes, which, by human industry, may be made to " blossom like the rose." A-., V i I'uiT ir. alloys loluto lllJlg. The 30plo Jade, iinan sur- only with ■yto tbe few- iwn. i to 3am nn- ade Ill 111 w \i i \v SA CHAPTER 11. ST. JOHN'S. THE CAPITAL OF NEWFOUNDLAND. The site of the city — The Narrows— Chnractor of the local buildings — The new dock — Water supply — Protection against fire — Cluu'chos and chapels— Government offices and banks — Popula- tion and its religious denominations. All travellers who visit St. John's admire the striking and picturesque approach to the liarbour, and the fine view on entering its waters. In a lofty iron-bound coast, whoso grim rocks frown defiance on the billows of the Atlantic, there suddenly presents itself to the voyager a narrow opening in the rocky wall, as if, by some convulsion of nature, the rampart had been rent asunder, and the sea had rushed in. Hills from five to six hundred feet high guard this opening on each side, and, as the vessel glides through, the traveller looks up, not without a feeling of awe, at the great cliffs of dark-red sandstone piled in broken masses on a foundation of gray slate-rock. On his right he sees au almost perpendicular precipice, three hundred feet in height, above which rises, with almost equal steepness, the crest of Signal Hill, five hundred and ten feet above the level of the sea, on which stands the " Block House," for signalling vessels as they approach the harbour. On the left hand the hill rises still higher by a hundred feet, picturesque, rugged and broken. From its base a rocky L 2 i ■ i J 1 1 i ' 1'/ ! 1 ■ n I 148 NEWFOUNDLAND. (I'Am' ir. II r i ■: 4 promontory juts oat, forming the entrance o£ the Narrows on one sido, on the summit of which is Fort Amherst Lighthouse, where is heard the hoarse roar of the restless Atlantic as the Avavcs break on the rocks beneath. It is a scene which for grandeur and sublimity is not sur- passed along the entire American coast. Foi'merly batteries, armed with formidable guns, rose one over the other amid the clefts of these rocks ; but years ago the garrison was withdi'awn and the cannon removed. The Narrows loadinir to the harbour are nearly half a mile in length, and it is not till two-thirds of them are passed that the city itself opens to view, as, at the termination of this channel, the harbour trends suddenly to the west, thus completely shutting out the swell from the ocean. In ten minutes after leaving the Atlantic a steamer is safely moored at the wharf in the still waters of a perfectly land-locked harbour. Vessels of the largest tonnage can enter at all periods of the tide, the rise of which does not exceed four feet. The entrance of the Narrows, between Signal Hill and Fort Amherst, is about fourteen hundred feet in width ; and at ihe narrowest point, between Pancake and Chain Rocks, the channel is not more than six hundred feet. The harbour about a mile and a quarter in length, and nearly half a mile in width. It is deep, with a mud bottom, having from five to ten fathoms, and in the centre it is ninety feet in depth. Of its size it would be difficult to find a finer harbour. The city is built on the northern side of the harbour, on a site which could scarcely be surpassed. From the water's edge the ground rises with a slope till the summit is reached, where there is a large level space. Alon^ the face of this slope the main streets run, and the city is rapidly extending itself in all directions beyond. The facilities for drainage are all that could be desired. Three principal streets run parallel with the harbour and with one another the whole length of the city, and these are inter- ,^|if{!fiiHL 111 cn.u'. n.) THE CAPITAL. 149 sccted by a numboi* of cross-streets. The former follow the sinuosities of the harbour, so that they are irregular and winding. On the south side the hills spring so abruptly from the water tliat only a sufficient site for a range of wareliouses and oil factories could be scooped out. From the waters of the harbour the city presents a very picturesque appearance, climbing the slope of the hill, which is crowned by the Roman Catholic cathedral, a noble structure, which overlooks the whole. There is ample space in every direction for expansion. Already, on the summits overlooking the business part of the city, houses of a superior description are erected; and these will ere long grow into crescents and squai'es, and form the fashion- able quarters. Water Street, the principal business street, presents a very substantial though not handsome appear- ance, the houses being of stone or brick. fSliops, stores, and mercantile counting-houses occupy the ground-floors, while the merchants and shopkeepers live in the upper storeys. The fish stores and other warehouses and the wharves project from behind, on the side next the hai'bour. Many of the shops present a very handsome appeai-ance. In other parts of the city the houses are for the most pai't built of wood, and many of them are dingy and common- place. Of late years, however, taste has been developing, fnd houses have been built of a superior description. (Jradually the wooden buildings will be replaced by houses built on the best models. Increasing wealth and the growth of the middle class will lead to greater regard for appearances. More attention will bo given to the condition of the streets and side-walks, now too much neglected ; to the proper light- ii g and cleansing of the city; and a corporation, the want o:: which is now felt severely, will take charge jf all urban niatters, and carry out improvements of all kinds. In duo time St. Jonn's will be transformed into a handsome city, for the magnificent site it occupies admits of the introduction |:i .1 ■> > l^tt ! ' 'i \ } I' ! !r ! ill r.! ' ' it I.I - II 1 T I'i I !:|l;K !ll- III' I '- ' l: I if 150 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAUT II. of tlie best improvements of modern times. As it is, business engrosses the tliouglits of all ; and perhaps there are few towns of equal size in which so much business is transacted and money made in the course of a year. Already the want of more harbour accommodation is felt, and it will soon bo found necessary to deepen and extend the harbour at its western extremity, so as to admit of an increase of wharfage. The want of a graving dock is at length to be supplied. Last session the legislature granted a charter to a company who have conti'actod to build a dry dock of such dimensions as to be able to receive the largest steamers afloat. The length of its floor is to be six hundred feet, the width at top one hundred feet, at bottom eighty-three feet, and the depth twenty-six feet- Such a dock will bo equal to anything on this side the Atlantic. The cost is estimated at a million dollars. The government agree to give to the company an annual subsidy of $30,000, for forty-five years, being interest at five per cent, on $000,000. As security for guaranteeing the intei'est on the bonds to this amount, the government hold a first mortgage on the dock. The work is to bo finished in five years, and no subsidy is payable until completion. The site of the dock is to bo excavated out of the rocky boundary of the south side of the harbour, so that it will be literally hewn out of the solid rock, and, when once constructed, will last for all time. This great public work will give an immense impulse to the business of the port. There are now a fleet of thirty steamers and a large number of sailing vessels connected with the port of St. Jollu^s, the bulk of them engaged in the seal fishery. Their owners will have the great advanttige of getting the repairs done on the spot. St. John's lies far out in the Atlantic, near the track of all the great trans- Atlantic lines of steamers; and when the dock is completed, the port will become the great harbour _v^_ cnir. 11.] THE CAriTAL. 151 of refuge for any that meet witli accidents or become from any cause disabled. Hence tliis dock, capable of accommodating- the largest steamers, is really of international importance. On the security of the colony the necessary fimds have been already obtained, and the work is to be commenced at once. St. John's enjoys the immense advantage of possessing an abundant supply of the purest water. The terrible fires which devastated the city again and again taught an im- pressive lesson in regard to the importance of a good supply of water as a security against such calamities, to soy nothing of sanitary considerations. The cost of the water-works, commenced iu 18G0, was considerable; but the saving effected in the reduction of insurance rates, by the introduction of the water supply, more than covered the city taxation for the payment of the interest on the investment ; while, at the same time, the public health has been improved, and habits of cleanliness promoted among the working classes. St. John's is rarely visited with epidemics, and is one of the healthiest cities on the American side of the Atlantic. The supply of water is obtained from Windsor Lake, four and a half miles distant from the city, and standing at a height above it of five hundred feet. The pressure is thus so great that water from the hydrants can be thrown over the highest buildings. In case of fire there is no need o£ engines, the hose being at once attached to the hydrants* whence water in abundance can be poured on the confla- gration. The area of the lake is over two square miles, .injj were it necessary, the flow of a stream which runs out of it could be arrested, and a supply of water equal to the consumption of a city two or three times as populous as St. John's could be obtained. As it is the supply ia abundant, and the consumption unrestricted, 'l^hree millions of gallons are run off daily iu the city. The water is soft, I i li i } ;|| m\m . ' 1 llfl ■ll' 1 ' 1 '.: .1 I *'li| 1 .t. w. 152 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II. pvu'c, and excellent for all liouseliold purposes. The lake lias a shiug'ly bottom, and no mud. There ai'e in the city forty street fountains, and nearly two thousand service pipes. Water from a seveu-eiglitli nozzle can be thrown from a hydrant to a distance of one hundred and fifty feet along the street, and to a height of fifty feet against a wall. The fire brigade consists of one hundred and ten men, all volunteers. No fire of any considerable extent has occurred since the introduction of the water, and few cities enjoy greater security against fire, notwithstanding that two- thirds of it consist of wooden houses. The water-works have been constructed by a joint-stock company, with a capital of $ 1 00,000, the interest on which is guaranteed by government at the rate of five per cent. The water rates are fixed so as to meet the interest on the capital stoc'.c of the company, together with the working expenses. The amount of revenue collected annually is $33,()00. The annual working expenses amount to $0,340. Three rates are collected to meet interest and expenses : the first, on freehold property, for protection against fire j second, on the occu- pier, which is the consumption rate ; and third on vessels entering the port, five cents per ton once a year, and also twenty cents, per ton on all coal landed in the town. The rate is moderate. A house, the rent of which is $1G0 per annum, will pay as water rate about $18, and others in proportion. The poorer classes are supplied at public fountains without charge. The business of the water company is conducted hy three directors who are appointed by government. The churches in the city are the Roman Catholic Cathedral ; St. Patrick's Church ; Church of Englan(i Cathedral; St. Thomas and St. Mary's Churches, belonging to the Church of England; Gower Street, George Street, and Cochrane Street, (Wesleyan) ; St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church ; and the Congregationnl Church. ' [ i cuiP. II. I THE CAPITAL. 153 The most conspicuous buiklhig is tlie Eoinau Catholic Cathedral, occupying a commaucling site on the summit of the hill on which the city is built. It is richly orna- inentecl witli statuary and paintings, and over the gateway ami near the entrance are some fine pieces of sculpture. The cathedral is built in the form of a Latin cross, the entire length being two hundred and thirty-seven feet, and the length of transepts one hundred and eighty feet. The two towers in front rise to the height of one hundred =-i^. --H^- KOMAX CATHOLIC CAXllEDKAL, ST. JOU.N S. and thirty-eight feet. The exterior facings are of lime- stone and Irish granite. The stone of which it is built was obtained principally in Kelly's Island, Conception Bay, and was all carried and brought to the spot by voluntary labour. It was opened for worship in 1850. Close beside the cathedral are the episcopal residence, the Catholic College, and the Px-esentation Convent and schools. The Church of l']iiglaud Cathedral, when completed, will rank among the finest ecclesiastical edifices in British America. The nave was completed and opened for service i I t I I :: I "i I ; I llid-'l '^n I I'l • I f \ 1 1 ■■; 11 1 '' 1 1 1 r ' i ' :'i!r !1 '^ I 1 ] 1 '! ( ! ('1, fl 154 NEWFOUNDLAND. |P\sr II. 7,. N !;, ilUi I 1 !■ ,!.) ; ( 1'! - 1 if •J 1 i ■ I. : ill ] S-")*) ; and tlio transepts, cliancel, and tower aro now in course of erection from a design of Sir (Jilbert Scott, and will probably be finished in two or three years. Its length, when completed, will bo one hundred and twenty feet; its width fifty-six feet, and its tower and spire one hundred and thirty feet. It is of the pointed (fothic or ecclesiastical stylo of ai^chitecture ; and the work- nnxnship, externally and internally, is beautifully finished. Its lofty \ ointed windows are iilled with fine examples of stained glass. The three Wosleyan churches aro tasteful and com- 7nodious erections. St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church is a handsome brick and stone structure in the centre of the city. The Congregational Church is a plain stone building which was opened in 1853. Among the public buildings, Government House and the Colonial Building, or Parliament House, are the most important. Poth aro situated on the plateau stretching inland from the termination of the sloping declivity on which the main portion of the city stands. Government House is a plain, substantial, and spacious building, without any architectural pretensions ; but in regard to internal accommodation and comfort it is all that could be desired. Its erection, in 1828, cost the Imperial Government oO,000/. sterling. The grounds aronnd it are tastefully laid out and planted. The Colonial Building is cue hundred and ten feet in length, and eighty-eight in breadth, and was erected at a cost of $100,000. The white limestone, of which it is built, was imported from Cork. It has a stone portico, supported by six massive pillars, thirty feet high, of the Ionic order, resembling strongly the front of the British Museum on a small scale. The foundation-stone was laid, in 18 17, by Sir Gaspard Le Marchant, who was then Governor, and it was first occupied by the legislature in 1850. The building contains chambers for the two branches cnM'. 11. 1 of the of the ,Sni've\ One public of this Chief J total C( stock c< "i) cnw. n. THE CAriTAL. l.").) I (' of tiio legislature, each thirty feet by fifty; and the whole of the government offices, with the exception of that of the Siu'voyor-Goneral, are now removed to the Athenajum. One of the handsomest and most conspicuous of tlio public buildings is the AthoncX3um. The foundation-stouo of this erection was laid, in 1875, by Sir Hugh Iloyles, Chief Justice, It was completed and opened in 1877, the total cost having been $58,000. It is owned by a joint stuck company; and is so well managed as to pay a fair GOVERNMENT HOUSE, ST. JOHN S. dividend to the shareholders. The building comprises a public hall, haudsonio and well-proportioned, in which concerts, lectures, and public meetings of all kinds take place, capable of cuccommodating a thousand persons ; a reading-room and library, rented by the Athenajum Literary Institute — the former supplied with the loading newspapers and periodicals of Britain and America, and the latter con- taining live thousand volumes of well-selected books. The Savings' Bank, the office of the Surveyor-General, the Geological Survey office, the office of the Colonial Railway ' :f .l:"< I'n 'h I 15G XEWFOUNDLAXI). [I'Ain II. il^ t !»iiH> ■' 'ft ^1 ] S^! ■ I '«i;- Engineer, fvre also in the same building. The Athentciim building is a credit to the city in its appearance extcM-iuil and internal, a,!ul serves important pui'poses ol' public utility. St. I'atrick's Hall, lately completed and opened, is still larger than the Athena)um Hall, and is a building of uoblo proportions, substantial, handsome in appearance, and admirably arranged. The hall occupies the entire second storey, and on the ground-floor ai'e the spacious school- rooms of the Christian Brothers, in which about four hundred children are receiving an education. The Union and Commercial Banks arc both fine orna- mental buildings, and admirably adapted to the purposes for which such institutions are designed. The Court House, Police Office, and Post Office are under the same roof, and little can be said in commendation of this building. An Act has been passed authorising the erection of a new Post Office, which is greatly needed. In addition to the foregoing buildings there are convent?, academies, and schools. The penitentiary, a solid granite building, and the public hospital, are on the outskirts of the city. Both these institutions are creditably managed, and will com- pare favourably with those of any of the neighbouring colonies. The lunatic asylum is a handsome building of bi'ick and stone, possessing a picturesque and beautiful site, about three miles from the city. It is also well arranged and under excellent management. St. John's has of late years made respectable progress in manufactures. It has thi'ee iron foundries, two well- appointed machine shops, a large boot and shoe factory, an extensive furniture factory, two tobacco factories, soap and candle works, a woollen factory, and a tannery. A factory for the manufacture of ropes, twine, nets, seines, etc., is also in course of erection. Now that a railway and .. ■ r' t- ■ ■••(;■■•'■ ^m:iSM '^IHi I'LACEXTIA. shores, with a fertile soil, present most inviting locations for settlers. Trepassey, between Cape Race and St. Mary';-, is an excellent harbour, and has a productive fishery. St. Mary's, with a population of seven hundred, has an extensive shore cod fishery, and is somewhat of a farming CHIP. III.] BAYS AND HARBOURS. 161 district. After passing Cape St. Mary we enter the Bay of Placentia, the largest in the island. It is fifty-five miles wide at the entrance, and has a depth of ninety miles. Its fisheries of cod, herring, and salmon are unsurpassed, and its scenery is rendered more picturesque by the numerous islands which stud its teeming waters. The town of Placentia, built at the head of a magnificent harbour, is a place of historic interest. It was long held by the French, and was founded in 1660 under a grant from Louis XIV. of France. Its site is very peculiar, as it is built on a beach of coarse gravel, and two considerable arms of the sea extend inland several miles beyond the town, adding greatly to the beauty and interest of the scenery. It has a population of upwards of a thousand. Burin, in the same bay, occupied by two thousand three hundred people, is situated on one of the finest land-locked harbours in the island. It has extensive fisheries, and a large trade with St. Pierre. Next in position is Fortune Bay, which is about twenty-five miles wide and seventy iu length. This is one of the principal seats of the herring fishery. Great numbers of American vessels visit Fortune Bay for bait. At Long Harbour, in 1878, some Newfound- landers interfered with the operations of a number of American fishermen, who were, as they believed, violating the locdl laws in regard to the time and mode of taking herring. This petty sc^uabble was magnified into an international difficulty. After lengthened diplomatic correspondence, the British Government agreed to pay 15,000/. as compensation for damages alleged to have been sustained by the Americans. At the entrance of Fortune Bay are the two islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, ceded by treaty to France for the shelter of their fishermen ; and now the only relics of the vast possessions once held by France in North America. Fortune Bay has several picturesque arms, the largest of which are Bay D'Espoir, U\} TTf H I I ! I ' ' ' ' ! I '• . ; I I.' 11 1G2 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT 11, Ilennitago Bay, and Connai'gro Bay. From Fortune Bay there is a straight lino of const called the "western shore/' which is upwards of one hundred miles in length, ami terminates at Capo Bay. It is indented with numbers of small bays and harbours, the largest being La Poile and Boso Blanche Bays. There are also numerous clusters of islands, such as tho Penguin Islands, so called from the multitude of birds of that name which were formerly seen there, and tho ]}urgeo Islands, from tho largest of which Captain James Cook, tho celebrated navigator, observed an eclipse of the sun in 1 765. Cape Bay is tho most western point of tho island, and opposite to it, at tho distance of about fifty miles to the south-west, is Capo North, in the Island of Capo Breton. These two capes guard the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is across this narrow strait that the Great American and European Short Line Railway Company pi'opose to establish a transit by swift steamers. At Cape Bay commences what has been popularly called the French Shore, from tho fact that the French have certain fisliiny privileges secured to them here by the treaties of Utrecht, Versailles, and Paris. The coast included in these treaties extends from Cape Bay around the western and northern shores, and terminates at Cape John, on tho north-cast coast. It includes the best part of tho island in regard to soil, climate, timber, coal, marble, and gypsum beds. Tho effect of these treaties, though thoy conferred no territorial rights on the French, was virtually to pre ■ mt settlement, as no titles to lands or minerals were granted. Last year those restrictions were removed by the British Government, and now the so-called French Shore is as open to settle- ment as any other portion of the island. From Cape Bay to Cape Anguille tho coast is singularly wild and inhospitable, varied only by Little Harbour, which is five miles from the former. The Great and Little Codroy CHIP. III.I BAYS AND HARBOURS. 1G3 Rivers ilischarj^o their waters between these two points. Thoy flow througli a valley which redeems tho barren uppoaranco of tho shore. It is forty or fifty miles in longth, iuul for fertility of soil could scarcely bo surpassed. Bay St. George, on tho banks of which two thousand nino hundred persons aro settled, comes next in our survey. It is a noble bay, some forty miles wide at tho mouth, and stretching far inland, with a good harbour at its head. Around its shores aro some of tho most fertile valleys in tho island, but almost without a human inhabitant. Fine forests of timber, and a coal field of large extent await tho hand of industry and enterprise. Lead and other minerals have been found here, and also in the peninsula of Port- a-Port, which extends to tho north-west of St. George's Harbour, antl is joined to the mainland by a narrow isthmus called the Gravels. On this side of the island tho climate is much superior to that of the southern and eastern shores. Fogs aro unknown, and the effect of easterly winds unfelt. Bay of Islands (population fifteen hundred) is next met with, having three magnificent arms running twenty miles inland, one of which receives the Humber River, tho second largest stream in the island. It is the seat of a winter herring fishery of great value, and a place for the exportation of lumber. Extensive marble beds are found at tho mouth of tho Humber. As the name indicates, this bay contains nu- merous islands. Bonne Bay, farther north, has two long arms, communicating with lakes at some distance from tho coast, by moans of their respective rivers. Other bays on this coast are Ingornachoix Bay, divided into two arms, in which aro Hawke's Harbour and Port Saunders; St. John's Bay, which receives the waters of Castor River, tho size of which is considerable for fifteen miles inland. Along the Straits of Bollo Isle the coast is uniformly straight, and at some points is but nine miles distant from the opposita ll* 1 ■' 1^ I'll'i K i) I 1' H i 1G4 NEWFOUNDLAND. I ll'VIlT II. coast of Labrador. Capo Norman is tlio north-west point of the island, having on the east Pistolet Bay, Capo Jiaiikl, with Quirpon Harbour and Island, is the north-eusteni point of Newfoundland. Hare Bay is a deep and wide gulf, reaching up more than two-thirds of the whole breadth of UEll' 8 COVK HARBOUR, NOTRE DAME BAY. this part of the island, which is very narrow, and branching out into arms and bays, which are sheltered by lofty hills. The French have numerous fishing establishments on this part of the coast. Passing Canada Bay, where fine marble beds are found, and White Bay, we reach Cape St. John, the termination of the French Shore. CDAP. III.) BAYS AXU HAllliOL'llS. 1G5 The nifignificent Bay of Notro Damo now opens up before the giizo of the voyager along the coast. It is inoi'e than iifty miles in width at its mouth, and with its numerous arms it reaches seventy or eighty miles inland. Its shores are now famous as the great copper-bearing region. Here are situated Tilt Cove, where the first copper mine was opened, in 1804; Bett's Cove Mine, the most productive yet discovered ; and Little Bay Mine, which was commenced in 1878, and appears to be one of the finest copper mines in the world. The whole coast here, for miles inland, is covered with mining grants and licences, and mineral indi- cations are met over an extent of country forty or fifty miles in length. Notro Damo Bay contains numerous islands, the most important being Twillingate Island, where there is a popu- lation of three thousand engaged in fishing; and Fogo, with a population of eight hundred ; Herring-Neck, New World Island, with a population of one thousand. Coming south, the next large bay that claims attention is Bonavista, extending from Capo Freels to Capo Bona- vista, having numerous groups of islands, arms, and inlets, and presenting some of the finest scenery in the island. The land in many of these islands and around the head of the bay is very fertile. The town of Bonavista is beauti- fully situated in a fertile district, and has a population of three thousand. It is one of the oldest settlements. Greenspond is an island on the north side of this bay, with au extensive fishery, and a population of sixteen hundred. The whole population of the bay numbers thirteen thousand. Catalina is a harbour of refuge at the entrance of Trinity Bay, a magnificent sheet of water running up seventy or eighty miles inland. The town of Trinity lies at the base of Rider's Hill, on one of the finest harbours in the world. On the south side of this bay is the well-known harbour of IGG NEWFOUNDLAND. [past II. Heart's Content, where the Atlantic cables are landed. A population of fifteen thousand arc clustered around the shores of Trinity Bay. Random Sound and Island, from the fertility of the soil, will yet bo the garden of Newfoundland. We now arrive at the last of the great estuaries, the CONCEPTION BAY. TOPSAIL, NEWFOUNDLAND. GREAT AND LITTLE BELLE ISLE IN THE DISTANCE. beautiful Conception Bay, the most populous and com- mercially important of all the seats of population, containing forty-one thousand inhabitants, and many thriving towns, villages, and settlements. Harbour Grace, on its northern shore, is the second town in the 'island, with a fine harbour, a population of eight thousand, and an extensive trade. Carbonear is a thriving town, with a population of five thousand. Other towns and villages are Spaniards Bay, tlUP. iii.l BAYS AND HARBOURS. 167 Bay Roberts, Cupids, Port-do-Gravo, atul Brigus, near which gold has recently been found, i'assing Cape Ht. Francis, at tlio entrance of Conception Bay, wo onco more I'oach tSt. John's, twenty miles farther south, after having made a round of the island. m !^--*-*#ri«i m^*'- CHAPTER IV. THE INTERIOR. Tho liarvcst of tho sea — The Geographical Survey — Vast tracts of country still unexplored — An adventurous triivcllcr — First im- pressions of a new country — Cor mack's description of the new-found country — Extinction of the aboriginal Indians- Abundance of game — Beaver and venison — A paradise for the sportsman — A vast grazing country — A friendly mountaineer— The island crossed from cast to west. The scat3 of population, it will be noticed, are all situated on the various bays and harbours, and the veholo of the inhabitants are sprinkled round the sea margin. There are no settlements in the interior or at any distance from the sea-coast. Along the roads connecting the different settlements are farmhouses and cottages at intervals, and a small portion of the soil is cleared and cultivated. On the harvest of the sea, however, the great bulk of the people are dependent for their subsistence. Tho sea is their bountiful mother, by whom they are clothed and fed. It is also the grave of many of their kindred. Tales of wreck and disaster form no small part of the fishermen's talk around the winter's hearth. The geological survey has now been going on for seventeen years, so that Newfoundland is no longer the terra incognita it once was: Large sections of it have been carefully explored by scientific men, and tho information ' CllF. IT., THE INTKUIOIJ. 1G9 tlioy linvo nccumulatcil, and wliicli was long neglocteJ because buried in thoir reports, has now been to some extent popularised and diffused. Tlio survey hag been conducted along tho lino of all the great rivers aiul lakes, and many of tho smaller ; around the shores of the bays, and among some of the island groups. Special attention has been given to tho extent of land suitable for cultivation, and to tho mineral and forest wealth of tho country. In- vuiual lo additions to our knowledge of tho island have been made by tho geographical survey, and tho information thus gathered is thoroughly trustworthy. Still it is true that a vast extent of the interior, at a distance from the shores, and from tho great lakes and rivers, is yet unexplored ; and what this may contain of good soil or of mineral treasure has yet to bo determined. Much is known, but far more is still unknown. An adventurous traveller, Mr. Cormack, a Scotchman, crossed tho island in 1822 (accompanied by a single Micraac Indian) fi'om tho head of Trinity Bay in tho east to St. George's Bay in tho west. He was a man of ability and education. The narrative of his journey throws much light on tho condition of tho interior proper. According to his account, the first portion of his journey lay through dense forests of pine, spruce, birch, and larch, and proved to be a uniform ascent, till at length he reached tho summit of an elevated ridge, which served as a barrier between the sea and the interior. From this summit the vast and mysterious interior, on which the eyes of a white man had never before gazed, broke on tho view of the traveller in all its magnificence. Ho describes the sight as grand and almost overpowering. Far as the eye could reach a vast basin spread out in a succession of green plains, marbled with woods and lakes of every form and extent. It must have been a rapturous moment for the traveller, more than enough to repay him for all his toils 1 1 ? hiii ,,. ' I tfii' m\\\ 11: ■ 1 HI 1'' f ' 1 i 1 :| I i s- i 'itji 1' 11 1 All \ 1 1 170 NEWFOUNDLAND. iPAHl II. and dangers, wlicn liis eyes first wandered over tliis ex- panse, untrodden by tlie foot of man, now for the first time disclosed in its beauty and sublimity to an appre- ciative observer. It cai'ried the mind back to tlie ages when primeval man took possession of his fair heritage and gazed with wonder and worship on the green eartli and its glorious canopy of light .and blue. How different from the picture which Ignorance and Prejudice had so long been painting for us, on platforms, in dis- patches, and in newspapers ! Instead of impassable moi'asses, grim rocks, stunted woods, scowling deserts, a scene of striking beauty and mysterious grandeur met the eye. The soft breezes came laden with the scent of the wild flowers. The great plain was alive with a vast variety of birds and beasts, whose movements gave animation to the landscape, and whose taraeness showed how innocent they were of the designs of man the hunter. North and south, in undulating beds, stretched the vast savannas, lakes, brooks, and skirting woods giving variety to the scene. Here and there, for more than ten miles, a yellow- green surface was spread out without a single rock or shrub, or any inequality in the unbroken steppe. The deep-beaten deer-paths were seen, like a vast network, seaming the surface in all directions. The courage of the adventurous traveller rose, and a passionate longing to penetrate the unknown land took possession of him. " A new world," ho wi'ote, " seemed to invite us onward, or leather we claimed the dominion and were impatient to take possession. Fancy carried us swiftly across tho island. Obstacles of all kinds were dispelled and despised. It was manifested on every hand that this was the season of the year when the earth here offers her stores of productions. Land-berries were ripening, game-birds were fledging, and beasts were emerging to prey on each other. Everything animate and inanimate seemed to be our own. There was no will but 'if cn.ip. IV.] THE INTERIOR. 171 ours. Thoughts of tho aborigines did not alter our deter- mination to meet them, as well as everything living that might present itself in a country yet untrodden and before uuscen by civilised man. I now adopted, as well for self- preservation as for tho sake of accomplishing the object of my excursion, the self-dependent mode of life of the Indian both in spirit and action. ^^ Descending from this mountainous belt which encircles the coast, Cormack entered this open interior, which ho found to be level plains or savannas, composed of fine black compact peat-mould, formed by the growth and decay of mosses, and covered for the most part with wiry grass. He describes these savannas as being in reality " magnificent natural deer-parks, adorned by woods and water. The trees here sometimes grow to a considerable size, particularly tho larch ; birch is also common. Tho deer-paths are countless, trending from park to park through the intervening woods, iu lines as established and deep-beaten as cattle-paths on an old grazing farm. It is impossible to describe the grandeur and richness of the scenery, which will probably long remain undefaccd by the hand of man.^' Not a trace of the Ked Indians was found on the whole route. I^he aboriginals are long since extinct. It took the traveller a month to cross this savanna country, which was about one hundred and fifty miles in breadth, tho length being unknown. The progress was slow, as, in order to examine the country he did not follow a direct course : while to find game, and to get round the extremities of woods and lakes, he had frequently to adopt a circuitous course. There was no deficiency of game — deer, beaver, geese, ducks, and trout from tho ponds and brooks constituted their food. Wild berries in great variety were in prodigal abundance. Cormack says that for the first ton days after the stock of bread he carried was exhausted he felt a longing for it, but after that did not miss it. Tho I K Mi^ b :i!^ 1 If 1 i , 172 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABI II. ! O 'I venison he fouuJ excellent, tlie fat upon the liannches beiiij^ often two inches in thickness. lie had no trouble in supply- ing himself with deer's tiesli. " The leading stag of a herd," says Corinack, " is generally the fattest, lie is as tall as a horse, and must sometimes bo shot at full speed, sometimes by surprise. The ball having pierced him he bounds, gallops, canters, faltci's, stands, tosses his antlers, his sinewy limbs quiver, unwillingly bend, and ho stretches out his graceful corpse. Should the ball have passed through his heart he falls at once, probably balanced on all-fcurs. There is regret as well as triumph in taking possession of the noble vanquished." Beavers were found in great abundance, also black ducks, the finest of table-birds. So unsophisticated were the trout from their being unacquainted with man that they took the artificial fly merely by holding out the line iu the hand without a rod. " No country in the world," says the traveller, " can afford finer sport than the interior of this island in the midst of August and September. The beasts of the chase are of a large class, and the cover for all game excellent." Here is a new and boundless hunting-ground for English sportsmen when the railway has pierced these solitudes and rendered this savanna country, with its abundance of game, accessible. The countless deer-paths proved that the whole of the interior is amply stocked with caribou, who migrate to the north-west in spring, returning to the south on the approach of winter. No such herds of reindeer are to be met with in any part of continental America. It is not uncommon to meet with specimens weighing six and even seven hundred pounds. Were these reindeer utilised, as in Norway and Lapland, vast benefits might be realised. They are easily tamed when young, and could be conducted from pasture to pasture, by qualified herdsmen. There can be no doubt that this savanna soil could be reclaimed by drainage and tilling, so as to yield green crops, a cnip. IV.]', THE INTERIOR. 173 process which has been carried out in Scotland and other countries. A vast grazing country, it may be safely predicted, will one day bo found whore now these deer solitudes extend. The climate is far superior to that of tho regions along tho eastern shores. Fogs are raro and the summer warmth is delightful. During tho two months ho spent in the interior, Cormack mentions that thero were but eight rainy days, four foggy, and forty-one bright days. The prevailing winds were westerly ; frosts did not set in till the second week of October. AVhen near the centre of tho island, one hundred and twenty miles inland from the head of Trinity Bay, and after crossing about ninety miles of the savanna country, Cormack and his Indian were fortunate enough to meet, in those solitudes, with a mountaineer Indian, from Labrador, who was out on a hunting excursion. The mountaineer, who was accompanied by his wife only, had erected his wigwam on a small island in a lake, nine miles iu length, called by the Indians Crooked Lake, but which Cormack named Jameson Lake, after Professor Jameson of Edinburgh, Observing, to his great delight, a slender white column of smoke on this island, an indication of human beings, Cormack fired his gun, and presently another gun was heard in reply. " 8oon afterwards," says Cormack, " to my great delight, there appeared among some woody islets in front, which precluded the view of the other side of the lake, a small canoe with a man seated in the stern, paddling softly towards us, with an air of serenity and independence possessed only by the Indian. After a brotherly salutation with me, and the two Indians kissing each other, the hunter proved to be unable to speak English or French. They, however, soon understood one another, for the stranger, although a mountaineer from Labrador, could speak a little of the Mic-mack language, his wife being a Mic-mack. This ill J 1 |- : ! 1 . ' ''. ' f ' hi 1 ;; ' ■' 1 ' i • 1 ll mh. >i I I 174 NEWFOUNDLAND. [tari u. ■was his second year in Newfoundland, his only companion being his wife. He invited us over with him in his canoo, to rest a day at his camp (where, ho said, ho had plenty of venison) which was readily agreed to on my part. "The island on which the mountaineer's camp was lay about three miles distant. Tho varying scenery, as we paddled towards it, amongst innumerable islands and inlets, all of granite, and mostly covered with spruce and birch trees, was beautiful. His canoe was similar to those described to have been used by the ancient Britons, on the invasion by tho Romans. It was made of wicker-work, covered over outside with deer-skins sewed together and stretched on it, nearly of tho usual form of canoes, with a bar or beam across the middle, and one on each end to strengthen it. The skin covering, flesh side out, was fastened or laced to the gunwales, with thongs of the same material. Owing to decay and wear, it requires to bo renewed once in from six to twelve weeks. It is in those temporary barks that the Indians of Newfoundland of the present day navigate the lakes and rivers of the interior. They are easily carried, owing to their lightness, across the portages, from one water to another, and when damaged, easily repaired. " His wigwam was situated in the centre of a wooded islet, at which we arrived before sunset. The approach from the landing-place was by a mossy carpeted avenue, formed by the trees having been cut down in that direction for firewood. The sight of a fire not of our own kindling, of which we were to partake, seemed hospitality. It was occupied by his wife, seated on a deer-skin, busy sewing together skins of the same kind to renew the outside of tho canoe which we had found required it. A large Newfound- land dog, her only companion in her husband's absence, had welcomed us at the landing-place with signs of the greatest joy. Sylvan happiness reigned here. His wigwam 4 An If! CHAP. IV.l THE INTERIOR. i7r> was of a semicircular form, covered with birch-riiid and dried deer-skins, the iire on the foreground outside. Abundance and neatness pervaded the encampment. On horizontal poles over the lire hung quantities of venison steaks, being smoke-dried. The hostess was cheerful, and a supper, the best the chase could furnish, was soon set before us on sheets of birch-rind. They told mo ' to make their camp my own, and use everything in it as such.^ Kindness so elegantly tendered by these people of Nature, in their solitude, commenced to softer those feelings which had been fortified against receiving any comfort except that of my own administering. The excellence of the venison and of young beavers could not be surpassed. A cake of hard deer's fat, with scraps of suet toasted brown inter- mixed, was eaten with the meat; soup was the drink. Our hostess, after supper, sang several Indian songs at my request. They were plaintive and sung in a high key. The song of a female, and her contentment in this remote and secluded spot, exhibited the wonderful diversity there is in human nature. My Indian entertained them inces- santly until neai'ly daylight with stoives about what ho had seen in St. John's. Our toils were for the time forgotten. The mountaineer had occupied his camp for about two weeks ; deer being very plentiful all around the lake. His larder, which was a kind of shed erected on the rocky shore for the sake of a free circulation of air, was, in reality, a well-stocked butcher's stall, containing parts of some half- dozen fat deer, also the carcasses of beavers, of otters, of musk-rats, and of martens, all methodically laid out. His property consisted of two guns and ammunition, an axe, some good culinary iitensils of iron and tin, blankets, an apartment of dried deer-skins to sleep on, and with which 10 cover his wigwam, the latter with the hair off ; a collection of skins to sell at the sea-coast, consisting of those of beaver, otter, marten, musk-rat and deer — the last dried i|h> Ml ! 17G NEWFOUNDLAND. IfABT II. §1 ^ \. |l ■ I t ■ ll and the hair off; also a stock of dried venison in bundles. Animal llesh of every kind, in steaks, witliont salt, sni'^ko- dried on the fire for forty-eight hours, becomes nearly as light and portable as cork, and will keep sound for years. It thus fornfio a good substitute for bread, and by being boiled two hours, recovers most of its original qualities. " We left the veteran mountaineer, James John by name, much pleased with our having fallen in with him. He landed us from his canoe on the south shore of the lake, and we took our departure for the west coast along the south side. Truly could this man proclaim : " I'm monarcli of all T survey, My riL>;lit there is none to dispute; From the centre all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute." One more feature of the interior, as described by Cormack, deserves notice. After nearly a month's travel over the savanna country, the traveller reached a hilly ridge to the westward, which ho named Jameson's Mountains. This ridge proved to* be a serpentine deposit, including a variety of rocks, all lying in nearly vertical strata alternat- ing. "The mineralogical appearances," says Cormack, " were altogether so singular that I resolved to stop a day or two to examine them. All the highest parts of the ridge were formed of this metalline rock, and were extremely sterile. The other rocks were noble sei'pentine, varying in colour from a black-green to a yellow, and from translucent to semi-transparent, in strata nearly a yard wide; steatite, or soap-stone; verde antique; diallage; and various other magnesian rocks. Sterile red earthy patches, entirely destitute of vegetation, were here and there on and adjacent to the ridge ; and on these lay heaps of loose fi-agments of asbestos, rock-wood, rock- horn, and stones, light in the hand, resembling bui'ut clay, •a CHAP. IV.) THE INTERIOR. 177 cum mnltis aliis, the wiiolo having the appcaranc ~ of heaps of rubbish from a 'lottery, but evidently detached from adjacent strata ard veins. I could not divest myself of 'he feeling that wo wore in the vicinity of an extinct volcano." This range is about twelve hundred feet above the level of the sea. The serpentine deposits of which they are formed separate the low slate country, covered with savannas, through which the granitic rocks occasionally peep in the east, from a high granitic country that iipponrs in the west. This spread of serpentine, which Cormack Q„scribcs, is highly important, because it is in this formation that copper ore is found in this island, and wherever it comes to the surface copper ore may bo looked for with a probability of success. This serpentine, there- fore, in the centre of tho island, which occurs again in Bay of Islands and Bonne Bay, may on examination bo found metalliferous ; and corroborates the opinion that the ser- pentine rocks from Notre Dame Bay run across the island, coming to the surface at intervals, tho strike being south- westerly. After crossing the granitic country at tho west tho daring traveller with great difficulty, and amid many perils and hardships, reached St. George's Bay, both ho and tho Lidian being in tho last stage of exhaustion. His bold achievement of crossing the island from east to Avcst at its broadest part, with only his gun to depend on, has never been repeated since. To him we are indebted for all we know regarding the central interior. His journey from Trinity Bay to St. George's Bay occupied a little over two months. His success, he says, was in part owing to tho smallness of his party. " Many together could not so easily have sustained themselves. The toil and privations were such that hired men or followers of any class would not have endured them." K :)1 Jv ■lllii I i CHArTER V. GEOLOGY. Jukes, Logan, and Murray — Eighteen years of surveying — Coal deposits — " The Quebec group " — The great ancient rock systems represented in Newfoundland — More than lialf the island found to bo Laiirentian, and the highest series of rocks carboniferous — Geological demonstrations of the capacity of the country to sustain a large population. The late J. B. Jukes, who was for many years at the head of the Irish geological survey, was the first scientist who was employed to examine the geological structuro of the island. AV^hcn a young man he spent the year 1840 in exploring the country, having been engaged by the government for that purpose. In such a short time, and having great disadvantages to contend with, he could accomplish but little. His work, however, was far from being fruitless. He published, in two volumes, an account of his explorations, which is highly interesting in many respects, and though the result of a short and super- ficial survey, and its information imperfect and frequently erroneous, it can still be read with pleasure and profit. Mr. Jukes's work had the effect of drawing attention to the island, and proved to be the preliminary step to a thorough geological survey at a later date. In the year 1864 the government of Newfoundland r;l Ir > I ' ( -L-Aj 'Mii CHiP. V.J GEOLOGY. 179 I took up the subject of a yurTroy of tlie island, and opened a correspondenco with Sir Wilham Logan, wlio had been long engaged on the geological survey of Canada. Tlio result was the appointment of Mr. Alexander Murray, C.M.G., F.G.S., to take charge of the important work. He had been for twenty years a colleague of Sir William Logan in the Canadian survey, and was strongly recom- mended by him as an able and experienced geologist. The result has amply justified the high opinion Sir William had formed of his qualifications. Mr. Murray has now spent eighteen years in the work, aided, during the last dozen years, by Mi'. James Howley. Ho has prosecuted the survey with unremitting zeal and energy; and to him we arc mainly indebted for that reliable information regarding the agricultural and mineral resources, and the forest wealth of the island which has entirely revolutionised people's views on these points, and is now leading to enterprise and the application of capital with a view to the colonisation of the country and the development of its great natural capabilities. Mr. Murray's reports have been collected and reprinted in a handsome volume,* and those who wish to obtain accurate information regarding the geology of the island and its character as a field for colonisation, will find in this book the results of patient scientific obser- vations extending over many years. We are indebted to his work for the following sketch of the geology of the island. For obvious reasons minute scientific details are avoided, and only the general outlines are indicated. A geological survey is something more than a purely scientific study of the various formations of a country. It has a pi'actical bearing, and is designed to throw light on its economics, and to determine whether beneath its surface ill; > " Geogi'apHcal Survey of Newfoundland." Murray, C.M.G. London : E. Stanford. 1881. By Alexander N 2 i m '% 180 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part II, mineral treasures^ coal, marble, gypsum, or other materials of value may bo searched for with a probability of success, and in what quarters. It also takes cognisance of tlio extent and character of its agricultural lands and its forest wealth. The bearing of geology on these, and its value in determining them, are now so well established, that the governments of all civilised countries are engaged in carry- ing out geological surveys, as the best means of promoting the development of their natural resources. When the survey of Newfoundland was initiated under Mr, Murray, Sir William Logan pointed out two things that were to be specially kept in view. One of these was to determine whether a continuation of the rich coal deposits of Sydney, in the Island of Cape Breton, might be searched for in the carboniferous areas of Newfound- land, along the shores opposite the coal-bearing strata of Cape Breton, with a probability of success. As there was a general analogy in the character of the measures on the opposite sides of the water dividing them, it was for geologists to determine whether the attitude of the strata in Newfoundland warranted the expectation of finding there coal-beds that would be available for commerce. To what extent this has been determined we shall see when the mineral resources of the island come to be described. The other important point to be kept in view v^as to deter- mine to what extent the metalliferous zone of North America was developed in Newfoundland. This is called in Canadian geology the Quebec group, its middle division, the Lauzon group, being rich in metalliferous deposits all over North America. It was, therefore, of primary import- ance, to find whether there was a spread of this formation in Newfoundland and to what extent, as its importance as a mining region would depend on this. The serpentine in which copper ore has been found at Tilt Cove, Bett's Cove, and other localities, belongs to the Lauzon division of the CHAP, v.] GEOLOGY. 181 Quebec group, so that an examination of it becomes of tlio first importance in determining where minerals may bo looked for with a hope of success. " The scattered facts already known/' said Sir William Logan in 180G, "prepare us to expect a great development of the metalliferous division of the group in the southern as well as in the northern portion of the island ; convincing mo that a thorough knowledge of a great portion of tho mineral wealth of tho province will bo greatly promoted bj' a careful and connected exploration and study of the Lower Silurian series," We shall see that tho hope thus expressed has been largely realised in tho carrying out of tho survey. It seems highly probable that there are vast tracts on both tho sides, and also in the centra of the island, which contain ores of great value and importance, chiefly copper, nickel, lead, iron, while in several localities indications of gold and silver have been found. All tho great ancient rock systems between the Lower Laurentian and the Coal measures, are more or less repre- sented at one part or another of the island. According to Mr. Murray, the following column is the descending order of the different scries that have been recognised : i/ I lii H Carboniferous : Coal measures. Millstone grit. Carboniferous limestone, Gypsum, Conglom- erate. Devonian : Gaspe sandstones, etc. Middle Silurian : Clinton, Medina. ii III .iSl 1 ! mm I i 1 1 "I f 1 182 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II. Lower Silurian. (Trenton group.) Hudson River. Utica. Trenton. Bird's-eye and Black River. (Quebec group.) Serpentines, Chlorite slates, Diorites, etc. Sillery sandstone. Levis. Calciferous. Potsdam. Primordial. Iluronian : Huronian. Laurent la n : Upper and Lower Laurentian. The Laurentian system has an immense spread in tlio Island. It constitutes the principal mountain ranges, coming to the surface through the more recent deposits, on the axes of anticlinal lines, or brought up by great dislocations, most of which trend nearly parallel with each other in a general bearing of about N.N.E. and S.S.W. The Laurentian gneiss of the Long Range, on the western side of the island, extends in a nearly straight course from Cape Ray to the headwaters of the Castor on the great northern peninsula. On the south-west extremity of the island these rocks occupy the coast from Capo Ray to La Poile. They are largely exhibited on the Grand Lake, running in a spur from the Long Range, between it and the Red Indian Lake, and bearing for the south-eastern shores of Hall's Bay. The central portion of the northern penin- sula is Laurentian, which also spreads over a wide expanse of country between Grand Lake and the Humber and ir en* p. ».! GKOLOGY. 183 Exploits Rivors, and shows itsolf on tlio coast between Canada Bay and White Bay. Another raiij^o of Lanrontian comes up in tho district of Ferrylund, and shows itself occasionally on tho coast between ilolyrood and flannel's River in Conception Bay. Thus more than half of tho island is Lanrontian. Three-fourths of tho peninsula of Avalon aro Iluronian (equivalent to tho Cambrian of English geologists), a forma- tion which does not extend west of Fortune liay. Tho Huronian here consists of a set of slates with conglomerate bands, diorites, quartzites, and alternating green and reddish hard silicious and clay slates, surmounted by a great mass of thick-bedded green and red sandstones, tho latter passing into a moderately coarse conglomci'ate, with laany pebbles of red jasper at tho top. These ai'o tho " Lower Slates " and "Signal Hill sandstones" of Jukes. They occupy by far tho greater portion of tho whole peninsula of Avalon. "Tho town of St. John's, and in fact nearly all tho settlements between Fortune Bay on tho south and Bonavista Bay on tho east aro built upon this formation." Signal Ilill, overlooking tho harbour of St. John's, is capped with tho sandstone of tho Huronian formation, which is largely used for building purposes. Veins of white quartz aro abundantj and in many instances are impregnated with ores of copper, lead, or iron ; but with the exception of the lead ore, these have not hitherto given much promise of economic importance. Still it is quite possible that a more extended research may find deposits of minerals of great value in these rocks. Tho whole Huronian system is not less than ten thousand feet thick, and has been cut through by denudation to tho Laurentian floor upon which it has been built. The rocks of the Primordial Silurian ago aro spread unconformably over the area thus ground down. These evidences of denudation and reconstruction aro very clear in Conception (til I u I m i 1 t 1 1 I 'I \\ I a 184 .NKWFurXDLAND. ffAiiT :i. Bay, wlici'O tlio rocks of tho intorincdiary system liavo hvm j^roinul down to tho liaurentian j^^neiss, aiul siibsocpiiMitly tho subinarino vaHoy thus formed has been tilled up \vitli a now set of sediments, tho remains of whieh aro still to bo found skirtinjj the shores of tho bay and forming tho islands in its midst. llegariling' the spread of rocks of the Silurian ai^e, tho most extensive is on tlie peninsula of Capo St. Mary's on tho west side, and arouml tho head of 'rrinity Hay. Thesi" belong to tho Primordial Sihiriati gnnip. Tho same rocks come out on some of the headlands of Conception Bay and form tho islands of that bay. Tho lower Silurian rocks havo a largo develoi)ment, and it is in tlii>so that the metallic ores occur which seem destined to render tho island a great mining centre. This formation is largely developed on tho western side of tho ishmd, tho great northern peninsula, tho peninsula of I'ort-a-l'ort, and other regions. Tho Lau/,on division of tho Qu(d)ec grouj>, which is tho true metalliferous zone of North America, has an immense spread in tho ishuul. ^Ir. Ilowley, assistant geologist, says of this formation: "It comes in at BhiiT Uead, on tho east side of Port-a-i'ort Bay, and has a cmi- siderable extent between tliero and tho 1 1 umber Arm, Hay of Islands, Tho entiro western coast from this bay to its northern limit, tho whole of tho north coast and tho eastern coast of the nortlu-rn jieriinsula, as far south as Caiuula i*ay, is occupied by tho same series, tlio Jiauzon division being well displaycMl in many parts of their distribution, especially near l?oum> Hay, Pistolet Hay, and at tho head of J (are Hay. A sn\all portion of tho series comes in on the west side of White l{ay, in J^iy \'crt, around tho shores of Notre Damo lUy, and in nuiny of (he islands of that bay ; tho Jjauzou division, in particular, is very largely displayed here. Hocks having all tho charac- teristics of this latter division wero recognised on the Candcr (!K()L(h;y. 18") lako ill great volmno, and again on tlio head of tho Hay Kiist Uiver; ami thcro is reason to boliovo they occupy tlio most of tho intei'voning country between tlu>sii two hitter localities. Tho Lanzon division of the Quebec group, con- sisting of serpentine rocks associated with dolomites, tliorit(>s, etc., is well known throughout North America to bo usually mere or less metalliferous, and in this respect tho New- foundland rocks iire no exception, but on the contrary, give cviilenco of being rich in metallic ores, llenco it is only roasouablo to infer the })robability that many parts of tho island are destined to bi>come important mining centres." Tho Middle .Silurian division of rocks is also widely spread; and tho most fertile bolts of land ami tho most valuable forests are nearly all situated on tho coiuitry occupieil by this fornnition. Tho great valley of tho Ex- pK)its and Victoria Kivers, tho valley of the Candor, tho country around (jander Lake, ami several smaller tracts, belong to the Middle Silurian formation. The Carboniferous series, in which tho coal-beds are to be found, occupies a large area on tho western side of tho island, in tho neighbourhood of St. (ioorge's IJay and tirand hake. There is a section of the carboniferous strata between Capo Auguillo and tho Little Codroy Kiver of about three thousand feet in thickness ; but it belongs to tho lower and niidiUo part of tho series, and contains no work- able seams of coal. Hut higher measures, containing several workable coal-seams, whoso extent is not yet determined, occupy all tho country on tho south-enst side of St. (loorgo's JJay, between tho Long Range Mtnmtains :ind tho sea, "cxtonding in its lin(> of strike from tho mouths of tlu» Codroy Rivers to ("Mat Hay." This is tho true coal area of tho island, and tho results of explorations hero willbo described in tho chapter on tho mim>ral resources of tho island. On tho north side of St. (Jeorgo's May there aro two smaller trou«jrhs of tho carboniferous rocks. A much 'V) I ri i: { . , \ !i ' li • MS' ' ^la 18G NEWFOUNDLAND. [rABT wider spread of tho y.imo series occurs along the valley of the Ilumber llivor, around the shores of Ueer Lake, tli(> eastern half of (J rand Lake, and as far as Sandy liiiko. " Coal/' says Mr. Ilowley, " is known to exist at several places in this series; and seams apparently of workable thickness, judging from tho outcrops, occur on tho Middle Barachois, and Hobinson's Brooks, in St. George's J{ay. It may also bo reasonably expected in somo parts of tlio Ilumber Eiver trough. Tho best land and tho finest part of tho country will bo found supported by tho rocks of tlio Carboniferous age." It will thus bo seen, from the geological record, that tlio highest series of rocks in tho island is tho Carboniferous, and that this is confined to tho western side; while the middle, eastern, and southern portions arc occupied by Silurian, Huronian, and Laurentian formations. On tliis point Mr. Murray remarks : " It would appear that while tho ancient Laurentian continent was long submerged on the eastern side of tho island, on which tho intermediiito system was deposited, it was not until towards tho Primordial, or perhaps tho Potsdam epoch, that it began to subside on the western side; ind those subsidences must have continued, with many intarmediato oscillations and interrup- tions, until a comparatively late date in the Carboniferous era )) Tho geological structui'o of Newfoundland, as shown in the foregoing brief sketch, presents us with a country admirably adapted to sustain a largo population engaged iu a great variety of pursuits. Tho encompassing seas contain the lax'gest and best fishing banks in the world, abounding in cod, herring, etc. j in the rivers and estuaries salmon and herring fisheries are carried on with success. These fisheries are now tho principal means of support for the present population of Newfoundland, amounting to about 185,000. But tho character of tho island geo- CHAP. V. 1 GEOLOGY. 18^ logiciilly, .shows that it is fitted to sustain a very hirgo agricultural population; that many thousands might ho employed in lunibcring and shi])-buildiiig-; and that its uiuloveloped mineral wealth is such, that a vast number will probably one day bo employed in working its mines. In connection with the geology of the country, it may he mentioned that a great dislocation or fault has been found, running in nearly a straight lino from near Ciipo liay to White Bay. I' lii' 0lt 11! J - !!■ it \-m i, m !! il % CHAPTEE VI. CLIMATE. Popular fictions — Tlic Gulf Stream and the Arctic current — Fogs almost unknown in the interior — Compared with Canada and the United States — Meteorological observations — Average tem- perature and rainfall — " A silver thaw " — The robustness of the people quoted by authorities in favour of the climate. Erroneous ideas regarding the climate of Newfoundland have been quite as prevalent as the delusions in reference to its soil. Thjse mistakes are not difficult to account for. The climate of the Banks of Newfoundland, a hundred miles distant from the shore, and of the southern and south- eastern sea-board which are affected by the sea fogs, lias been taken by voyagers or casual visitors as indicative of the climate of the whole island. Hence it has been con- cluded that the country is enveloped in almost perpetual fogs in summer ; and, on rhe other hand, an impression has grown up that it is given over to intense cold and a succession of snow-stovms in winter. The Arctic current, rushing out of Davis Straits, washes the eastern shores of Newfoundland, and in spring bears on its bosom those ice-fields and icebergs which obstruct navigators crossing the North Atlantic. This current has a chilling effect on the climate of the eastern coast, and frequently retards the advent of spring. Meeting in its southerly I I CHAr. VI. 1 CLIMATE. 189 course tlie warm waters of the Gulf Stream the Arctic current mixes with the heated " river in the ocean," and thus enormous masses of vapour are generated. This is the cause of the fogs which iu summer frequently over- hang the banks where this "meeting of the waters " occurs. When southerly, or south-easterly winds blow, the fog is rolled in on the southern and south-eastern shores of the island, covering the bays, creeks, and headlands with a thick curtain of vapour. The fog seldom penetrates far inland. Hence the saying of the fishermen that " the land eats up the fog." While the coasts are shrouded in vapour the sun is shining brightly inland, and the atmosphere is dry and balmy. It not unfrequently happens that at St. John's a dark wall of fog is visible a few miles out at sea while sunshine and genial weather prevail on shore, and during southerly winds the great bays on the southern coast become receptacles of the sea-fog. It often fills up Placentia Bay, where it drifts over the narrow isthmus into Trinity Bay, while Conception Bay is comparatively clear. The fogs are thus but partial in their influence, being confined to the southern and south-eastern shores and bays. On the western shore, after Cape Ray is passed, fogs are almost unknown. The same holds good of the northern and north- eastern coasts, as far south as Bonavista Bay. In his journey across the interior Cormack experienced but four foggy and drizzly days during two months ; forty-one were bright and only eight rainy days. Mr. Howley, assistant goologist, says : " I myself spent four months during the past season in the interior without experiencing a genuine foggy day, until reaching within twenty miles of the southern side of the island. During the entire months of July and August the weather in the intei'ior was delight- ful, while fogs prevailed at the same time along the southern e/ It must also be remembered that it is only during a shor- " II r-' ll i-i, r. win K^ 190 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAKT II. f ; |. :( 4 '■I portion of tlie year, and when certain winds blow, that the fogs engendered on the Bank are wafted shorewards. During thrce-foarths of the year the westerly winds carry the vapours across the Atlantic, and the British Isles got the benefit of their moisture. In winter there is little fog on the banks, as the Arctic current then is stronger, and pushes the GulC Stream more to the south; while in summer the latter spreads its warm waters neai'cr the shores of the island, and thus creates the huge volumes of vapour which often envelop sea and shore. However unpleasant and gloomy these fogs may be, it must be remembered that they are not prejudicial to health. Taken as a whole, the climate of the island is more temperate, and more favourable to health, than that of the neighbouring continent. The fierce summer heats of Canada and the United States, and the intense cold of their winters are unknown in Newfoundland. It is but rarely and then only for a few hours, that the thermometer sinks below zero in winter; while the summer range rarely exceeds eighty degrees, and for the most part does not rise above seventy. Like all insular climates, that of Newfoundland is variable, and subject to sudden changes. The Arctic current exerts an unfavourable influence along the eastern coast ; but, as a compensation, it brings with it the enormous wealth of cod and seals which has rendered the fisheries the most productive in the world. Only iu cold water are cod and seals at home and abundant. The Gulf Stream, which creates the fogs, modifies the cold ;. and if it darkens the skies, it paints the cheeks of the people with the rosy hues of health. The salubrity of the climate is evidenced by the robust healthy appear- ance of the people. Their clothing in winter does not require to be much warmer than that worn in Britain at the same season of the year. Open fireplaces are suflicieut ' ll CHAP. VI.] CLIMATE. 191 to warm the houses, and free exercise in the open air is attainable at all seasons. The following extracts from a Table showing the average of certain meteorological quantities, for a period of eight years, from 1857 to 180 i inclusive, will furnish reliable data regarding the climate. The observations were taken by Mr. E. M. J. Delany, C.E., at St. John's : „ Mean temperature ^^''^- for year. Moan heipfht of barometer for year 1857 . 42 degs. . 29*31 inches. 1858 . 41 }) . 29-5 „ 1859 . 44 }) . 29-79 „ 1800 . . 41 )t . 20-00 „ 1801 . 40 )) . 29-40 „ 1862 . 41 }) . 20-50 „ 1803 . 44 }> . 2900 „ 1861 . 37 )f . 29-40 „ Average mean temperature for eight years, 41 "2 degs. Average height of barometer for eight years, 2 9 -07 inches. The maximum height of the thermometer for the eight years was 83 degs.; the minimum, 7 degs. The average number of days on which rain fell during the eight years was 105-07. The highest range of the thermometer was on July 27th, 1857, when it reached 89 degs. ; the lowest was on February 11th, 1858, when it marked 2 degs. The observations taken during 1879 gave the following results : ]\Iean temperature for year Absolute maximum temperature Absolute minimum temperature Highc ' temperature, August 3rd . Lowest omperature, December 22nd Mean height of barometer for year . . 40-2 degs. . 01-1 )} . 21-4 i) . 82-0 )f . 4-0 )) . 29-998 inches *l m mm \ * ill 4 Hi '1 1 1 i f 1^ ,' a 1 ■i'^ 1 1 .' ■ III 192 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II, As to tlio rainfall, the following observations will sliow the average doptli of rain, in inches and tenths, during tho years named : Y ar Depth in iiichca aud tenths. 1875 ;50G1 187G 48-4G 1877 57-37 1878 4G-47 The latter two, for 1877 and 1878, include depth of rain and melted snow. Daring the eight years from 1857 to 18G4 the average rainfall was G3'52 inches. In the " Tables of Aqueous Precipitation for Series of Years/' collected by the Smithsonian Institution, United States, and published in 1872, the average fall of rain for Newfoundland is reckoned at 58*30 inches. In order to compare St. John's with Toronto, Canada, in regard to temperature, the following records will be serviceable : TOEONTO. Year. Mean tempera- ture of year. 1875 . 40-77 degs. 187G . 43-98 „ 1877 . 4G-10 „ 1878 . . 47-09 „ 1870 . 44-lG „ Average temperature in Toronto for thirty-nine years, 44-12 degs. In the foregoing returns it should be remembered that the observations in Newfoundland were taken at St. John's, •which is the point in the peninsula of Avalon that stretches farthest eastward, and is therefore most exposed to the chilling influence of the Arctic current. The climate of St. John's, therefore, is an unfair standard by which to rnir. vi.l CLIMATE. 193 II measure that of the whole islaiul. At the heads of the biiys, in the interior, and on the western coast the climate is much warmer tlian at St. John's. The following cora- panitivo table, for 1874, will furnish a fair basis on which an estimate may be founded : Mean totnpora- liowest turo for year. temperature. St. George's Bay, Newfoundland . 4o'8 degs. . 15 degs. Windsor, Nova Scotia . 42-7 „ . 15 „ Toronto . . . . . 44-3 „ . 7-5 „ "Winnipeg, Manitoba . 30-8 „ . 4 3 „ m 11 The rainfall of each place is, when compared, favourable to Newfoundland : Total days of rain in fonr months. St. George's Bay .... Toronto ..... Winnipeg ..... Truro, N.S. . . 34 . 47 . 52 . G8 Thus, in the American sense of the word, Newfoundland is by no means a cold country; but it partakes of the general character of the North American climate, and is therefore much colder than in the same latitude of the Old World. Its latitude corresponds to that of France, but its climate is very different. Winter sets in, as a rule, in the beginning of December, and lasts till the end of March or middle of April. The frost is occasionally broken by southerly winds and bright warm days, and much of the snow is melted. Then it returns, and fresh falls of snow are experienced. The frost rarely penetrates the ground to a greater depth than a few inches, whereas in Canada it has been known to go down three feet. During winter there are often heavy gales of wind, which however do not extend far out to sea. The cold ia of course felt more o •i. •I .11 I 194 ^NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'lin II. intensely in consequence of these gales. Snow-storms are not uncommon ; and when the icy particles are hurled on the wings o£ a fierce north-wester it is safest to keep within doors. Such storms, however, do not often occur, nor, as a rule, do they last long. Winter is the season of social enjoyments of all kinds, and is far from being unpleasant. Nothing can be more exhilaratinij; than the bracing air of a fine winter's day, with the hard crisp snow underfoot and a bright sun overhead. The musical tinkle of the sleigh-bells when driving over the frozen snow, and the purity of the atmosphere add to tlie charms of the scene. In fact, winter is regarded as the most enjoyable part of the year. The snow preserves the ground from the influence of the frost, and when in April it melts, the fields soon become fit for the operations of the farmer. It is true the spring is late, and often Ml!' M I I Hi I 1 , 1 ■ ,'i in i\ iin i i "Winter lingering chills the lap of May. But once vegetation sets in it progresses with marvellous rapidity, and crops grow and ripen much quicker than in the Eastern Hemisphere. The autumn is usually very fine, and is prolonged often till Novembei'. The frosts of winter, too, aid the operations of the husbandman, and help to pulverise the soil. Thus there is nothing in the climate of the country to interfere with agriculture. The de- structive tornadoes that often spread havoc in certain portions of the American continent are unknown in New- foundland. Thunder-storms, too, are very rare, and when they occur seldom prove injurious. A curious phenomenon, called in Newfoundland "the silver thaw," is often witnessed in winter, though seldom seen in Canada. When rain falls with a low state of the thermometer near the earth, it is congealed as it descends, and thus a regular deposition of ice takes place on tho tnir. VI.] CLIMATK. 195 brunches and the smallest twigs of trees and shrubs. The layer of ice goes on increasing till it attains a thickness of half an inch or more. A magical transformation is wrought. The trees are hung with glittering jewels, even the smallest twigs being loaded, and the branches bent to the earth. When the sun shines a scene of dreamlike splendour is presented. Each tree has the appearance of a great chandelier of crystal, the play of the sunbeams on myriads of prisms producing a dazzling effect. The weight of the icy jewellery often breaks the thickest branches. Sometimes the wind rises suddenly and speedily unloads the jewelled trees. Another phenomenon witnessed in perfection in New- foundland is the aurora borealis. At certain seasons the play of the northern lights presents occasionally one of the grandest sights in the world. The whole heavens are lighted up with the brilliant display, and flame-curtains of all hues seem to wave over the vast concave. The auroral phenomena are finer here than even in the Arctic regions. It may be desii'ablo to cite the opinions of a few in- telligent persons who, from experience, have been enabled to form an opinion of the character of the climate. That famous ancient mariner Richard Wliitbonrne, who spent many years in voyaging to the country, and also made it his residence for a length of time, about 1G15, was an en- thusiastic admirer of the island. In his book, after many encomiums on the country and its productions, he says : "What receive we from the hands of our owne country which in most bounteous manner we have not had or may have at hers ? Nay, what can the world yield to the sustentation of man which is not in her to bee gotten ? Desire you wholesome ayre (the very food of life) ? It is there. Shall any land powere in abundant heaps of nourish- ments and necessaries before you ? There you have them. What seas so abounding with fish? What shores so o 2 i. m i 11 r '1;. m I J' j ■• 1 ' ■' ■ ! ■ ' I ( l! »l :i^!^^ 19G NKVVFULNDLAXD. [i'\«i ir. roplonished with fresh and sweefc waters ? The wants of other kingdoms are not felt heoro; and those provisions whicli other countries want are from them supplied. IIow much is Spain, Franco, Portugal, Italy, and other places, beholding to this noblo part of the world for fish and other commodities (it is to bo admired). Let tho Dutch report what sweetness they have suckt from thenco by trade thither, in buying ilsh and other commodities from our nation, and (albeit all the rest should bo dumbe) the voyces of them are as trumphets, lowd enough to make England fall more and more in love with such a Sister-land. "I am loth to weary thee (good reader) in acquainting thee thus to those famous fairo and profitable Rivers, and likewise to those delightful large and inestimable Woods, and also with those fruitful and enticing Hills and delightful Vallies — there to hunt and hawke, where is neither savage people nor ravenous beasts to hinder their sports. They are such, that in so small a piece of paper as now my love salutes thee with I cannot fully set them down as they deserve; and therefore I doe iutreat thee with judgment, with patience, and with true desire for the benefit of thy dread Sovereign and Country, to reade over this discourse which (I trust) may encourage thee to further so hopeful a Plantation as it appeareth to be, and also I trust give thee ample satisfaction and just cause to answere opposers, if any out of ignorance or any other sinester respect should seek to hinder so honourable and worthy designs.'' Sir Richard Bonnycastle, who spent some years in the country, in his interesting work on Newfoundland (1842), says, regarding the climate : " We find that the extremes of temperature in Newfoundland are trifling compared with those of Canada. There the thermometer falls as low an twenty-seven degrees below zero, and even lower at times in winter, and rises to ninety in summer. Here the lowest temperature in winter scarcely exceeds zero, or niAP. VI, 1 CLIMATE. 197 eiglit or ten degrees below it, excepting upon rare occa- sions; and in the height of summer does not attain more in common years than seventy-nine degrees. Winter may really bo said to coramonco here towards the latter end of November only, though iires are comfortablo adjuncts during most of that month ; and its severity begins after Christmas, runs through January and February, and be- t'onius less and loss stern until the middle of April, when it ceases altogether. In the winter of 181-0 ploughing was going on after Christmas. " It is generally supposed in England that Newfound- land is constantly enveloped in fog and wet mist ; nothing, however, can be further from the truth. The summers are frequently so hot and dry that for want of rain the grass perishes — the summer of 1840 was one of these — and the nights are unusually splendid ; whilst in winter fog is very rarely seen." He kept a register in regard to foggy days, from which it appears that in 1811 there were only seventeen and a half days of thick fog in St. John's, " which is more exposed to the ' bank weather,' as it is called, than any other part of the island ; " and light fogs were prevalent only nineteen and a half days — giving thirty-seven days of foggy weather on the shore throughout the year. He remarks further on the light clothing with which the labouring classes went about in winter, and ou their robust appearance, and pronounces the climate salubrious in the highest degree. The Right Rev. Dr. Mullock, in one of his lectures, says regarding Newfoundland : " We never have the thermometer down to zero, unless once or twice in the year, and then only for a few hours, and for a few degrees, three, four, or perhaps ten; while we hear of the tem- perature of ten and twenty below zero in Canada and New Brunswick; and this life-destroying cold continuing for days, perhaps weeks. Then see another effect of r: I I;: I . k |!l \\ [:» i.i ^T 1 I !|i iiM t ill I I i 198 NEWFOUNDLAND. IrVET It. this — tlio CiintidiaTis and other North Americans of the same hititude, are obliged to keep up hot stoves contiimally almost iu their houses, while wo have open fireplaces or at most Franklins; our children, I may say, are lightly clad as in summer, spend a large portion of their time in the open air; and thus while our neighbours have the sallow hue of confinement tinging their cheeks, and their children look comparatively pale and delicate, our youngsters are blooming with the rosy huo of health, developing their energies by air and exorcise, and pre- paring themselves for the battle of life hereafter, either as hardy mariners, or healthy matrons — the blooming mothers of a powerful race.'' ... *' I may remark that by the climate table furnished me by J\lr. Delauy, I find that the high"'3t temperature was ninety-six degrees on the third of July; eight degrees on the 8rd of J\Iurch; and the mean temperature of the year (1859) forty-four degrees; mean maximum pressure of barometer 29"7i; rain G3"92U inches; [for the year; maximum quantity iu twenty-four hours 2-089 inches. Wind, N.N.W. and W.N.W. two hundred days ; N.E. twenty-five days ; W. and W.S.W. thirty-eight days; S.S.W. and 8.E. one hundred and two days; thunder and lightning five days; rain fell on one hundred and ten days; snow fifty-four dsiys." Iu reference to the high temperature of ninety-six degrees on July 13th, 1859, mentioned in the foregoing extract, Mr. Delany, iu a foot-note to the table, remarks that it was probably owing to a largo portion of the woods being on fire on that day, in the neighbourhood of St. John's. Such a temperature is never reached except under exceptional conditions. Sir Stephen Hill, formerly Governor, says in one of his despatches, after a description of the country and the seasons : " Before quitting this subject, I would observe that the climate of Newfoundland is exceedingly healthy. cinr. VI. I CLIMATE. 199 The robust and healthy appearance of the people, and the advanced ages which many of them attain, testify to the purity and the excellence of the air which they inhale^ atid the invigorating qualities of the breezes of British North America." Mr. Murray, geological surveyor, says : " In other respects the climate of Newfoundland is, as compared with the neighbouring continent, a moderately temperate one. The heat is far less intense, on an average, during the summer, than in any part of Canada, and the extreme cold of winter is much less severe. The thevmometer rarely indicates higher than seventy degrees i'ahrenhoit, in the former, or nuich below zero in the latter ; although the cold is occasionally aggravated by storms and the humidity consequent on an insular position. The climate is undoubtedly a very healthy one, and the general physique of the natives, who are a powerfully-built, robust, and hardy race, is a good example of its iniluence." '|l' #i 4\ 1 '■) I 1 j i 1 ( 1 ( i ! ' 1 ■ I . Iitii' CHAPTER VII. THE ABORIGINES. Human relics— The American Indian skull--" Survivals "—Tlio Betlmks — Cartior on the natives of his day — Whitbonrue's description of "The Natural Inhabitants" — Early experiences of the Settlers — Invasion and retaliation — British intervention — Indians captured and taken to St. John's — Disappearance of the native tribes — Modes of sepulture — Cormack's expeditious — Wigwams and deer-traps — Indian vocabulary. In tlie Museum of St. Jolin's there is pres -ved a human skull, to which a curious interest attaches. It is the only cranium known to be preserved of the once numerous and powerful Bethuk or Boeothic tribe of Red Indians, the aborigines of Newfoundland — a race now extinct. It was found in a grave in Greenspond, together with a tliigli bone, a shoulder blade, and a few other smaller bones ; the remainder of the skeleton having been probably carried ofE by the wolves or foxes. The skull is in a good state of preservation, except that the cheek bone and the lower part of the socket of one eye are broken. Underneath where these remains lay was a circular hole, lined with birch bark, about twenty inches in diameter and ten inches in depth, at the bottom of which were two pieces of iron pyrites. In the grave was also found the shaft of a spear stained with red ochre. The skull and bones are the only relics of the '(i> criP. vii.J THE ABORIGINES. 201 kind which I'emain of the vanished Bethuks, once lords of this large island. Diligent search has been made within the last few years, by more than one traveller, in the burial places of the tribe around Red Indian Lake and elsewhere, for skulls or other bones; but, so far, not a fragment has teen found. A few of their arrow and spear heads and stone implements of various kinds have been dug up in various places ; but only a solitary skull remains to tell us what was the configuration of " the dome of thought " in which beat the brain of a Bethuk. Even this relic was in danger of being consigned to the dust-bin through care- lessness, when the present writer rescued it, and placed it in the local museum. It has been since photographed, and formed, together with stone implements, the subject of a paper by Mr. Lloyd, which was read before the Anthropo- logical Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, and printed in their Journal. The peculiarities which stamp the American Indian skull are discernible — the vertical occiput, the pro- minent vertex, the low defective forehead, the square form, the quadrangular orbits, and the massive maxilla. It is the cranium of a savage, but not one of a low type. Ai'ound the skull in its present place of repose, are appropriately grouped various Indian implements of stone which were found in the island. One of these is an oblong vessel of soft magnesian stone, hollowed to the depth of two inches, the lower edges forming a square of three and a half inches in the sides. In one corner is a hollow groove which apparently served as a spout. There are also arrow- heads of a hard gray cherty stone, an axe-shaped tool of felsite slate, and a finely-worked and highly-polished gouge- shaped implement of chert, nine and a half inches in length. No little skill and patient labour were needed to form these poor implements of stone. They were the best which heads of the typo here presented could devise to help them in their hard "struggle for existence." With these poor \\ 'ill 1 III ■if 1 IH Ir, f ti 1 1 " 1 4 ) 1 ■ j 1 i u ( ! i 202 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AST II, implements they were perhaps hunting anil fishing when our own progenitors in Europe had not got far in advance of the red men. Ethnologists are generally agreed in regarding the aborigines of America as but a single race, from Cape Horn to the confines of the Esquimaux, around the Arctic circle, divided into an infinite number of small tribes, presenting more or less differences one from the other. Dr. Morton separates them broadly into two great families : the Toltecan nations — embracing Mexicans and Peruvians — and the barbarous tribes, including the whole remaiuitg inhabitants of the continent. The barbarous tribes have been arranged into five groups : First, Iroquois ; secoud, Algonkin aud Apalachian ; third, Dacota ; fourth, Shosho- nees ; fifth, Oregonians. The question is to which of these groups did the red men of Newfoundland belong. Some writers have regarded them as being Esquimaux, and others as Micmacs; but for neither opinion is there any foundation. The Esquimaux are looked upon by some recent ethno- logists as the " survivals " of the Cave Men of Earope. If this theory be correct, then the Cave Men were gradually driven farther and farther north by new arrivals in Europe, until they Avere pressed within the Arctic regions. Bat when the Bethuks are compared with them there are no points of resemblance. They are also quite distinct from the Micmacs, another tribe of red men. Latham, one of the highest authorities in ethnology, regards the Bethuks of Newfoundland as a branch of the great Algonkin tribe of North American Indians. In his " Varieties of Man " he says that all doubts on this subject have been set at rest by "a hitherto un- published Bethuk Vacabulary, with which I have been kindly furnished by my friend, Dr. King, of the Ethno- logical Society. This marked them a separate section of ll cn.ir. Tii.l THE ABORIGIXKS. 203 tlio Algonkins, and such I believe them to have been/' The evidences we are about to furnish seora to point to the same conclusion. Thus we may safely classify them as a branch of the wide-spread and warlike Algonkins, whose area embraced the whole of Canada, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, New Brunswick, Labrador, and part of Hudson's Bay territory, together with a large portion of the United States. In fact this tribe were distributed east and west, from the Eocky Mountains to Newfoundland, and north and south, from Labrador to the Carolinas. The Bethuks came of a good stock of red men, and if they were unable to retain a footing in Newfoundland before the advancing tread of civilisation, they have only anticipated a little the inevitable doom which awaits their race in continental America. At Avhat time the Bethuks found their way to New- foundland from the shores of Canada or Labrador is of course utterly unknown. When Cabot discovered the island, in 1497, he found them in possession. No doubt, for many centuries previously, they had been fishing in its creeks, harboui's, and bays, hunting the caribou over its plains, and erecting their wigwams by the placid waters of its inland lakes. At this day there are few better hunting- grounds than those of Newfoundland ; and what must they have been before the coming of " the pale faces," with their destructive fire-arms ! One can fancy that the island, with its abundance of wild creatures of all kinds, and its shores and countless lakes swarming with fish, must have been the very pax-adise of the red men. Unmolested, they pursued the game over a country having an area of forty- two thousand square miles. Countless herds of the finest reindeer bounded over the savannas of the interior, in their annual migrations ; and who moi'e skilled than the red men in entrapping and slaying the lordly stag, in capturing the beaver, Avith which the ponds were lavishly stocked, or in / ' I ' ! i 204 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAHT It. bringing down the plunip ptarmigan, of wbich vast flocks were everywhere to bo met with. We can hardly doubt that when " monarchs of all they surveyed/' and with all the resources of the island at their command, the Bethuks revelled in a savage luxury, feasting on venison, and clothing themselves in the rich furs which were the spoils of the chase. The early historical notices of the red men of New- foundland are very bi'ief, but serve to give us some idea of their appearance and habits as they presented themselves to the early voyagers. The eai'liest reference met with is iu " Hakluyt," * where there is an account of the discovery of Newfoundland by Cabot. Of the aborigines Cabot is reported to have said : " The inhabitants of this island use the skins and furs of wild beasts for garments, which they hold in as high estimation as we do our finest clothes. In war they use bows and arrows, spears, darts, clubs and slings." In "Kerr's Travels," it is stated that Cabot, on his second voyage, brought away three of the aborigines, and took them to England. " In the fourteenth year of the king (Henry VII.,) three men were brought from New- foundlaiid, who were clothed in the skins of beasts, did eat raw flesh, and spoke a language which no man could under- stand ; their demeanour being more like that of brute beasts than men. They were kept by the king for some con- siderable time, and I saw two of them about two years afterwards, in the Palace of Westminster, habited like Englishmen, and not to be distinguished from Englishmen until I was told who they were." It may be doubted whether this account is correct iu all respects, as Cabot does not appear to have had much to do with Newfoundland after its discovery. The red men * Vol. iii. p. 27. .^.i^ hi cniP. ni.l THE ABORIGINES. 205 referred to may have been natives of Cape Breton or Prince Edward Island. Jacques Cartier, in 1534, described the aborigines of Newfoundland as " of indifferent good stature and bigness, but wild and unruly. They wear their hair tied on the top like a wreath of hay, and put a wooden pin in it, or any other such thing instead of a nail, and with them they bind certain birds' feathers. They are well clothed with beasts' skins, as well the men as the women ; but the women go somewhat straighter and closer in their garments than the men do, with their waists girded." Hayes, who was second in command to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, about 1583, and whose narrative has been pre- served in the Hackluyt Collection, says : " The savages are altogether harmless." Captain Richard Whitbourne, 1G22, gives much fuller accounts in his interesting book on Newfoundland. He tells us that "the natural inhabitants of the country, as tliey are but few in number so are they something rude and savage people, having neither knowledge of God nor living under any kind of civil government. In their habits, customs, and manners they resemble Indians on the con- tinent." He further describes them as ingenious and tractable, full of quick and lively apprehension ; willing to assist the fishermen in curing fish for a small hire." He shows that " in their habits they resemble the Canadian Indians, as they constructed canoes with the bark of birch trees, which they sew very artificially and close together, and over-lay every seam with turpentine." He also tells us that they were able to " sew the rinds of spruce-trees, round and deep in proportion, like a brass kettle, to boil their meat in ; " and on one occasion he says three of his men surprised a party of them enjoying themselves in a sumptuous manner. " They were feasting, having the canoes by them, aud had three pots made of rinds of trees, standing each 20G XKWFOUNDLAND. ll'iRT II. it M: i Ub h 1 IV. 1 1 1^ M III i [ 1 1 1 ' 1 ^ ! 1 of tliem on three stems, boiling, with fowls in each of them, every fowl as big as a pigeon, and some as big as a duck. They had also many such pots so fowled, and fashioned like the leather buckets that are used for quenching fires, and were full of the yolks of eggs that they had taken and boiled hai'd, and so dried small, which the savages used in their broth : they had great store of the skins of deer, bettners, bears, seals, otters, and divers other fine skins which were well-dressed; as also great store of several goots of flesh dried ; and by shooting off a musket towards them, they all ran away naked, without any appai'el, but only their hats on their heads, which were made of seal- skins, in fashion like our hats." We are greatly indebted to this quaint old skipper of the days of Queen Elizabeth for preserving these details, and thus supplying the only picture we have of the domestic life of this extinct tribe. They evidently knew how to appreciate the good things around them, and had very fair ideas of cookery. The friendly relations which at first existed between the white ana red men in Newfoundland did not continue long. The savage people began speedily to exhibit a tendency to annex the white man's goods whenever opportunity offered. Such objects as knives, hatchets, nails, lines, or sails, pre- sented a temptation which to them was almost irresistible. Their petty thefts were regarded by their invaders as crimes of the darkest dye, quite sufficient to justify the unsparing use of the strong arm for their extermination. The rude hunters, trappers, and fishermen in the more distant settle- ments in the north of the island were rough men outside the control of law, and but little disposed to try conciliation or kindness on a tribe of savages Avhose presence in the country was felt to be an annoyance. That they treated the poor Bethuks with brutal cruelty admits of no doubt. In fact, for a long period they regarded the red men as vermin to be hunted down and destroyed. We can hardly CE.U'. THE ABOllIGINES. 207 doubt that such ti'eatment provoked the red man to deeds of WcYCG retaliation, and that at length " war to the knife " became the rule between the two races. The savages, at first mild and tractable and disposed to maintain friendly relations, became at length the fierce and implacable foes of the white man, and sternly refused all overtures for peace- able intercourse when at length sucli offers were made by a lunnane Government. Deeds of wrong and cruelty were perpetrated by the invader, and followed by retaliation on the part of the savages. In such a conflict the weak must go to the wall. Bows, arrows, and clubs could avail little against the firearms of the white man. Gradu- ally their numbers were thinned ; they were driven from their best hunting-grounds. War, famine, and disease thinned their ranks. To-day not a single representative of the Red Indians of Newfoundland is known to be in exist, ence. Their haunts in the interior have been explored in the hope of discovering some remnants of the ill-fated raice, but in vain. Only a few graves and the mouldering remains of their huts and deer-fences have been found. Their camp-fires have been extinguished for ever, and the record of their fate fills another dark page in the white man's progress in the New World. Some believe that a small band of them escaped and took refuge in the wilds of Labrador, but of this there is no proof. It may be regarded as quite certain that in Newfoundland not a single individual of the race now exists. They are gone Like the cloud-rack of a tempest, Like the withered leaves of autumn. We must further take into account that the white men were not the only enemies of the doomed aborigines. TheMic- macs invaded their territory from Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, and, having learned the use of firearms, carried on a deadly war against the unhappy Bethuks. Assailed on the 208 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'iBT It. u m Olio hand by the white settlers, and on the other by the Mic- inucs, it is not wonderful that the unhappy tribe wore slowly but sursly extorniinated. Through the representations of various hnmano in- dividuals, the British Government were at length aroused to take measures to arrest the barbarities of the settlers ; hut owing to the scattered nature of the settlements find the law- less habits of the early trappers and fishermen their efforts had little effect. The earliest official notice of the aborigines is in the form of a proclamation by the governor. Bearing tlie date of 1700, it seems to have been repeated on the accession of each new governor. The document sets forth that His Majesty had been informed that his subjects in Newfound- land " do treat the savages Avith the greatest inhumanity, and frequently destroy them without the least provocation or remorse. In order, therefore, to put a stop to such inhuman barbarity, and that the perpetration of such atrocious crimes might be brought to due punishment. His Majesty enjoined and required all his subjects to live in amity and brotherly kindness with the native savages," and further enjoined all magistrates to " apprehend persons guilty of murdt ring the native Indians and send them to England for trial." Not content with such proclamations the Government engaged in various zealous efforts to establish friendly relations with the Bethuks. A reward was offered for the capture of a Red Indian, and in 1804 a female was taken by a fisherman and brought to St. John's, where she was kindly treated and sent back to her tribe loaded with presents. A strong suspicion was entertained that the presents aroused the cupidity of the man who was entrusted with the duty of conveying her back to her own people, and that the wretch murdered her and took possession of the property. In 1810, Lieutenant Buchau, of the Eoyal Navy, was ■m' Lli, (HIP. VI I.) THE ABOIUOINES. 209 sent to the Ilivcr Exploits, witli orders to winter there, and open a communication with the Indians. He succeeded in finding a party of them ; and, taking two of their number as liostages, and leaving two marines with them as a pledge of 1,'ood faith, ho returned to his depot for presents. During his absence, the fears of the i*ed men were ai'oused, lest, from his delay in returning, he might be bringing up reinforce- ments with a view to capture them. 'i'hey murdered the hostages and Hed to the interior. In 1819, another female was taken by a party of trappers on Ked Indian Lake. Her husband and another Indian were with her, and, having offered resistance, were both relentlessly shot. The woman was brought to St. John's, and was named Miuy March, from the month in which she was taken. She was treated with great kindness and sent back to her friends, with numerous presents, but died on the voyage, having been suffering for some time from consumption. Her body was placed in a coffin and left on the margin of a lake, so that it might be found by her people. They conveyed it to their burying-place on Ked Indian Lake, where, as we shall presently learn, it was found several years afterwards by the adventurous traveller, Cormack, lying beside the body of her mui'dered husband. In 1823, three Indian females were taken in a wigwam, by a party of men from Twillingate. They proved to be a mother and her two daughters. They were brought to St. John's and treated with great kindness. The mother and one of the daughters died ; but the third, whose name was Shanandithet, survived for about two years and became useful as a house-servant. She is described as six feet high, and having a fine figure; her complexion swarthy, like the Micmacs, and her features handsome. In her manners she was bland, affable, and affectionate. When a pencil and a piece of paper were given to her she drew a deer perfectly at a few strokes, and, what was most p r,' T I 210 NKVVFOrNDLAND. [PAST It, U 1 »' [■ I! ' I ! 11 ' suvpriHinj^, slio henfan at tlio tip of tho tail. Both sho ami the others wovo unwilliiiii^ to bo sont hack to thoir tril)o; but ShananditluH doclarcd tl oy would ho killed hy tlicii- own people as traitors, as they had been anion^' tho whites, whom they considered their deadly enemies. Sho also said that Ijor tribe was reduced to a very small number. These were tho last of the Red Indians seen alive. Shananditliefc died in the hospital in St. John's, of consumption, after six years of civilised life. A final effort to open communications with tho Bethuks was mado in 1828. In that year a " Boeothick Society," formed at St. John's, having' for its object tho civilisation of the aborigines, organised an expedition to tho part of the island supposed to be still occupied by a remnant of the tribe. Mr. Cormack, the traveller who had crossed the island in 1822, headed the expedition. He took with him three Indians — one an intelligent man of tho Abenakie tribe, from Canada ; the second an elderly mountaineer from Labrador ; and tho third an adventurous young Mic- mac, born in Newfoundland. Tho party entered the country at the inlet called tho North Arm, at the mouth of the River Exploits, and took a north-west course to Hall's Bay, an arm of Notre Dame Bay, across the extremities of New Bay, liadger Bay, Seal 13ay, etc. On the fourth day after their departure, at the east end of Badger Bay, at a portage known by the name of the Indian path, they found traces mado by the Red Indians, evidently in the spring or summer of the preceding year. They observed a " canoe-rest " on which the daubs of red ochre and fibrous roots of trees used to fasten or tie it together, appeared fresh. Fragments of their skin-dresses, a spear-shaft eight feet in lengtii and recently made, ochred parts of old canoes, and a few other objects were found scattered about. The remains of eight or ten mamateeks, or winter wigwams, each fitted to con- tain from ten to twenty persons, wei'e also seen close together. IIIAP. VIl.l Till-: ABOJIIGINKS. 121 *t Besides thcso tlioro wore tlio remains of summer wi*j»wnras. Tlio winter -wififw.Mins were conicfil, tlio fnimos iiuulo of jioles covered with skins or birch bark. One dilVerenco between tlio J5othuk ■wigwiini and those of other Iiuliuns wiva that in most of the former there were small liollows, like nests, dug in the eartli around the iireplace, one for each person to sit in. " These hollows/' says Oormuck, " are generally so close together, and also so closo to the tire])laeo and to the 31 OS of the wigwams, that I think it probable these people have been accustomed to sleep in a sitting posture." In addition, each winter wigwam had close to it a snudl S([uare- mouthed or oblong pit, dug into the earth about four feet, to preserve their stores. Some of these pits were lined with birch rind. Cormack also found in this Indian village the remains of a vapour bath, ■which, it seems, was used chiefly by those who were suffering from rheumatic affections. Their method of making a vapour bath was the same as that practised by many other savage tribes. Large stones were, first of all, made very hot in the open air by burning a quantity of wood around them. After this process the ashes were carefully removed, and a hemispherical frame- work, closely covered with skins to exclude the external air, was fixed over the stones. The patient then crept in under the skins, taking with him a birch-rind bucket of water, and a small bark dish to dip it out. By thus pouring water on tho hot stones ho could raise tho steam at pleasure. Failing to get any further intelligence rogai'ding the Red Indians at Hall's Bay, Cormack decided on proceeding to Red Indian Lake, hoping that at that noted rendezvous ho should at last find the object of his search. After a march of ten days over a marshy country, during which no traces of the red men were seen, he obtained a glimpse of this splendid sheet of water, more than thirty-five miles in length and five to six in breadth. From the hills at the r 2 m [' \ a ! i,(' i'tiii NK\VKOlM>l..\M>. I'iKr 11 m N iu>rtln>rii (M\tl (>r {\\o Iiikt> lu> hmktMl ili>\vi\ on its watiM-s with Iri'liun's ol" inlminit ion. l?iit no cjiihio cuulil ho {\\<- i'()Von'«l movini^ on its pliii'iil siirl'nci»; no liiinum somuls wovo lu'iinl ; no snioko Iroiii wii^wiuns n\onnto(l into tlu> nir. SiK'\n'i', iK'«'|> us ilratli, riMj^ninl iirouiul. Coi-nnu'l; ami liis jiiirt y \vi'ri> tln< lirst I'luruprans who hml srtMi IuhI liuliaii Liiki' in un unl'ro/.(>n stat(>, only otUMir two part ics havin^^f pn'i'inli'il tluMii in t luMl 'ptii of winter l>y way of tlio I'lxploits Ivivrr, 'I'ho viow was solonm ami majestic. '' Wo appronclu'tl tlu- lakt'," says (yoi'nuu'k, " wit li hop(< ami ('antion; Itnt louiiil to our tmn'tilli'ation, that tho (umI Indians liail desiM'tcd it, Tor sonu> yivirs past. My party liati hoen so ("XiMtnl. so siin).»uii\i<, and so lU'tormini^d ti> obtain ai\ interview of seiiu' kin.l with thest^ p(>ople, that, (>n diseovei-ini;' from appenr- anet>s eV(Mywlu>r(< around ns that tht^ KNnl Indians. tlu> terror of tin* Muri>peans as wt>ll as tin* »>tluM' Imlinn in habitants of Newfoumlland, no Kin}.;'er c^xistml, the spirit ; tif one anil all wviv (let>ply alYt>eti"d. Tlie (>Id luoimtiiiueer was particularly ov»'rconu>." 'The party, ho ti-Us ns, spiMit si>v»M'al " melancholy " days wamleriu!^ around tlu' borders of the east i>ud of tlio lakt>. Mverywhert* (.h(>y tm>t with indications that this liml lonj.;; b(H>n the lu>adipuirt(>rs of the tribe in the days wlirii they (Mijoyetl pi*ac(> and si>cnrity. (>n si*vtM'al plactvs by tln' nuirjjfin of the lake they l\)und small clusters of winter aiul suiuniiu' wigwams in ruins; also a woodiMi buildinj^', con striictetl for drying and smoking viach they lij/htcil on the wreck i>f a largts handsenns binh canoe, tw» feet iu hMigth, ami »«vid(mtly but little used. The pi'o- bability is that, after being wreckien cast up by the waves, the peoplt* who were in it having p(>rishetl. 'I'ho most interesting objiu'ts met with were the ro- poaitories for their ilead — om* trait of tlu* lti*thuks huvini? I mini I I'lIK AliOUKJlNKS. 'Ji;5 ln'iMi i^i'i'iit r('S|u>rt roi" tlio rtMiiuiiis of tluMr doinl. It appivirs l'i(>!ii I'oniuii'U's luTomil (luit tlu>r»' wvvv n\\\o\\^ tluMii lour iiioiK's ul ilis|)o.sin!>; oi \\\o (U'lul, ufiMnlmi;' lo tlu^ niiik ami I'liiiiai'trr of I ho |ior.sotis oiilombod. ()no of tin* liiu'viiiv;' [iliu'cs Mu«t with " fosomlilod u hut ton I'lU't l>y oii;'ht or niiio aiul lour or liv»i loot !iio;h in tli(» I'outi'o, Ihtorotl with snuuri> jnilt's, tlio ro(>r 0(iviil with rintls of trcos, jiml iu ov(M'V way well si>iMuo(l iii^'uiiist (ho woathor iiisuU> luul tho iiitnisi(tus of Willi Itoasts. ' ihi I'liti'riui;' this .slruoluro thoir I'uriosity waH raisod to till' lii>;hosi |)iti-h. 'I'lioy louiul tho hoilios of two >;'ro\vii |UM'S(>us laiti out at full Irui^th on tho llooi-, wi^apiu'il rouiul with door sUius. |!ul what iu(>st astiuiisluHl tluuilod iu wlul(> uiiodiu. " 'This was tho oolliM of Mary .\hiroli, whioh had lu'ou oai-ritul hs' souu< M\ond>ors of hor tnbo froui tho soa-i-oiist to t his solitudo. Iu tlu* huildiu^ wcro al^o found two Muall woodoii iiuai;'t\s »if u uuui anil a woumu, su|>|n>soil to ii'prosont husband and wifo, lunl ii small di>ll, whu'h |U'rliaps n^pri'sindod thoir child." Sovoral siaiill uuxh'ls y'\ thoir oanoos, twi> uumIoIs of boats, an ii'ou a\o, a liow, a t|uivi'r of arrows, woro {ilai'od by tin* siih* of Mary Maroh's husband, and two liro-stonos (uoduhvs iif irtMi jtyntos, from whioh thoy [iroducod liro l>y striking llirui to^'othor) lay at his lu'ud. 'Thoi-** wi-rt* also various kinds of i-ulinary nti-usils, ui^atly niudo i>f biri-h riinl, and oninu\ont(nl." Tho si'cond luodo of sopultun* obsi^rvtMl horo was similar to that of tho Wi'slorn Imlians of tlio simiioos of tho Mississippi. 'Tho body of tluMUn'oiisod hail boon wrappod ill biroh rind, Hiul with his [iroporty, placod on a sort of siiilVold, abiiut four fot»l inni u half from tho ground, 'riio M'idTohl was buMuod of four posts, about si'von b'ot hij^li, lixfd ptM'poiulioidarly iu tho ^rouinl, \o sustain ii kind td' riili, livi* l'i"i*t ami a half iu lon^th, by four in brt>adth, with i) \-i. 1 i ■ , ' H 1 I 214 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II. a floor made of small squared beams laid close together horizontally, and on which the body and property rested. A third mode was, when the body was bent together wrapped in birch rind, and was enclosed in a kind of box, on the ground, the box was made of small squared posts, laid on each other horizontally, and notched at the corners, to make them meet close. It Avas about four feet by three and two and a half feet deep, and well lined with birch rind, to exclude the weather. The body lay on the right side. A fourth and more common mode of burying, was to wrap the body in birch-rind, and cover it over with a heap of stones, on the surface of the ground, in some retired spot. Sometimes the body, thus wrapped up, was put a foot or two under the surface, and the spot covered with stones. In one place where the ground was sandy and soft, the graves were found deeper and no stones were placed over them. Cormack's party returned by way of the River Exploits, which flows from Red Indian Lake, this part of its course being about seventy miles. Cormack says, " Down this noble river the steady perseverance and intrepidity of my Indians carried me on rafts in four days, to accomplish which otherwise would have required probably two weeks, What arrests the attention most while gliding down the stream, is the extent of the Indian fences to entnvp the deer. They extend from the lake downwards continuously, on the banks of the river at least thirty miles. There are openings left here and there in them, for the animals to go through and swim across the river ; and at these places the Indians were stationed, to kill them in the water with spears, out of their canoes, as at the lake. Here, then, connecting these fences with those on the north-west side of the lake, are at least forty miles of country, easterly and westerly, prepared to intercept all the deer that pass that CHAP. VII.] THE ABOKIGINES. 215 way, in their periodical migrations. It was melancholy to contemplate the gigantic, yet feeble efforts o£ a whole prhnitive nation, in their anxiety to provide subsistence, forsaken and going to decay. There must have been hundreds of the Red Indians, and that not many years ago, to have kept up these fences and pounds.'' With Corniack's expedition the last hope of finding the Bethuks was abandoned. Either they were gradually thinned in numbers, by wars, disease, and want, till at length, perhaps on the banks of the Red Indian Lake, the last Bethuk looked despairingly on the ruins of his race, and the graves of his fathefs, and then folding his deer -skin robes around him, followed his ancestors to the happy hunting-grounds of the hereafter. Or it may be a little forlorn band, relics of a once numerous nation, took a last mournful look at the desolate scene, and then departed for some unknown retreat, where the murderous arm of the white man could not reach them, but where, with the fatality that follows their doomed race, extinction gradually overtook them. This sketch of the tribe extends over a period of three hundred and thirty years, commencing in 1497 and termina- ting in 1828. A few of their peculiarities and customs remain to be briefly noticed. Their method of kindling fire by striking together two pieces of iron pyrites, was not peculiar to the Bethuks, as the use of these " fire-stones " was known to other tribes of the North American Indians. But their custom of making small hollow-like nests around the fire-places of their wigwams, dug into the earth, one for each person to sit and probably sleep in, was, so far as is known, peculiar to the Bethuks. These oblong hollows were lined with tender branches of pine (white), fir, and dry moss, and doubtless added greatly to their comfort in the cold nights of winter. Their bows were made of sycamore or mountain-ash, and were five and a half feet m i: «■!. ! im II 216 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABI IV, I. I I iH in length, having strings of deer's sinews. The arrows were made of well-seasoned pine (white), or sycamore, and were light and perfectly straight. Their intercourse with the whites supplied them with scraps of iron, oui of which they made a two-edged lance, about six inches Ion.', for the arrow head. This was let into a cleft on the top of the shaft and secured there by a thread of deer's sinew. The stock was about three feet in length, and was feathered by the quill of the goose or of the bald-headed eagle. Their deer-fences were made by felling the trees along the ridge of the river's bank without chopping the trunks quite asunder, taking care that they fell parallel with the river, each tree having been guided so as to coincide with and fall upon the last. Gaps were filled up by driving in stakes and interweaving the branches and limbs of other trees. They were raised to the height of six, eight, or even ten feet, as the place required, and were not to be forced or leaped by the largest deer. Their wigwams were conical, the base being proportioned to the number of the family, whose beds formed a circle of nest-like hollows around the fireplace. The frame of the wigwam was composed of poles and covered with birch-rind, which was overlaid, sheet upon sheet, in the manner of tiles, and secured in its place by outside poles. This perfectly sheltered the whole apart- ment except the fireplace, over which was left an opening to carry off the smoke. The central fire spreading its heat on all sides made the apartment quite warm. Where materials and labour were plentiful, one of these wigwams could be completed in an hour, and yet so durable were they, that they have been found standing after a lapse of thirty years on Red Indian Lake. Besides Avigwams, they had square habitations, one side of which was made of trees well squared and placed horizontally one on the other, the seams being caulked with moss. The other three sides were made of upright studs, the seams being stuffed with deer-skins. CHAT, VII.. THE ABORIGINES. 217 The beams "and rafters were neatly executed, the roof being in the form of a low pyramid. According to Mr, Lloyd tlie Betliuk canoe was peculiar to these Indians. "The principle on which it is constructed'^ he says "is perhaps nowhere else to be met with. It has, in a way, no bottom at all, the side beginning at the very keel and from thence running up in a straight line to the edge or gunwale. A transverse section of it at any part whatever makes an acute angle, only that it is not sharpened to a perfect angular point, but is somewhat rounded to take in the slight rod which serves by way of a keel. The rod is thickest in the middle (being in that part about the size of the handle of a common hatchet) tapering each way and terminating with the slender curved extremities of the canoe.'' "The peculiar shape of their canoes may be owing, as suggested to me by Mr. John Evans, Pres. Geo. Soc, to an adaptation of form to cir- cumstances; the greater height of the gunwale, and the curving up of the ends of the canoe, as compared with the ordinary birch bark canoe of Canada, would render it less liable to ship a sea, while its V shaped section would increase its capability as a sailing craft in moderate weather. The fact of paddles, arrow-heads, and other articles having been found on the Funk Islands, more than thirty miles from the mainland, appear to show that the Indians could travel a considerable distance out to sea in their canoes." The implements and utensils found in various parts of the island consist chiefly of mortar-shaped vessels, spear and arrow heads, gouges and rude axes. They are all fashioned from stones of various degrees of hardness. In 1875, a discovery of Indian stone implements was made on Long Island Placentia Bay, at some eighteen inches underneath the surface, there having been a growth of stout timber over the spot where they were found. h r>. I* l! m 218 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT n. They consisted of arrow and spear beads, gouges, toma- Lawks, rubbing and sharpening stones, and a pot shaped out of serpentine. The arrow and spear heads were iu every stage of manufacture, from the rude outline roughly chipped out of the raw material to the perfected and highly polished implement suggesting the idea that here there had been a manufactory for the production of these stone implements. About one third of the whole are polished. Some appeared to be failures which had been cast aside. A thorough exploration of this locality might lead to a discovery of many more of their relics. As to their personal appearance the Bethuk men were of the ordinary stature, and about five feet ten inches in height. Their hair was coarse and black, and the men let it fall over their faces. Their complexion was lighter than that of the Micmacs. Their dress consisted of two dressed deer-skins, which were thrown over their shoulders, some- times having sleeves. Rough mocassins of deer-skin covered their feet. There is nothing to show that they had any religious culture or mode of worship, and the vocabulary which has been preserved does not contain any word to express the idea of a Deity. The following vocabulary may prove interesting to philologists, who are acquainted with the Indian tongues of North America. It was supplied by Mary March, and recorded by the Rev. John Leigh, The original is in the possession of a gentleman in St. John's : 4 Vocabulary of Mary March's Language. Presented to Mk. John Peyton by the Rev. John Leigh. A. Bonnet ... ... Abodoueek Arms • • • ... Memftyet Beaver ... ... Mamshet Arrow ... ... Dogernat Boat and vessel... Adotho Buttons & money Agamet B. Berries ... ... Bibidigemidio Boy . . . ... BukaBhiimC'sh Blanket ... ... Manavooit BreaBt ... ... Bogomot or a Bear Gwashmvet cn.ii'. Tii.] THE ABORIGINES. 219 la- Blood Iggobauth Feathers... ... Abobidress r A Beat Bahiiskawik Fall ... Koshet eu. Bite Boshooclik Fork ... Ethenwit iu Blow-tliG-Noso ... Sliegamik Fishitjg lino ... Edat or o ilv Birch bark Boyish Flying ... ... Miaoth ^'j Body ... ■•• Haddabothic 11(1 C. G. Cl'G Girl ... Emamooset Clothes Thengyam Gloves . . . ... Obsedeek ese Codfish Bobboosoret Gun ... Adamadret are Cattle— cows and horses... Ncthabete Glass Go out . . . ... Hadibiet ... Euano 3G11 Cat, domestic .. Abidecshook Gull ... Asson ,.llt Cat, martia Canoe Adidish Tapatliook Gimlet . . . Grindstone ... Quadranuek ... Aguatlioovet 3 of Can or jug Motheryet Gunpowder ... Baasothnut Come hither Thooret; r Goose ... Odensook in Caudle Shaboth Good night Get up ... Gaping ... Groaning Gooseberry ... Bethook let Capelan Cry Shamoth Matheoduc ... Yanyess or G ... Abemik lan sed Comb Chin Child Moidensu . Goun Immiimuost't, J. P. ... Cheashit ... Jiggaminfc me- Cut Odishuik H. 1 • Comet Auin kin Clouds Berroicft. or k Hand ... ... Mewet had Hair ... Drona D. House ... Mamruateek lary Deer Osweet Hammer... ... Mathuis L to Deers' horns Magorua Heart ... ... Bogodorefc Dog Mammris.avf'et (or Hare ... Odusweefc Mfimnioosijrnit, Husband... ... Zathrook r to J. P.). Hoop ... Waine •lies Drawing... Moeshwadet Head ... ... Govathin- and Dogwood, or keathut mountain ash,. Emoethook Hiccough ... Madyrut the Duck Duck & Drakes.. Boodowit Mamesheb Herring ... ... Washemesh Dancing... Badisut I. Ice ... Ozeru E. Indian (red) ... Beathook Eye Egg Guinya T\ 1 • Indian cup ... Shucodimit Debuio Iron ... Mowagesnite or e Eat Odoit Islands . , . ... Mammasheek Eyebrow Marmeuk Elbow Moocus K. i^ar Mooshaman Knife ... ... Nine ic F. Knee ... Hodamishit Fire Woodrut Kneeling ... Acusthibit Fish hook Adothook Kiss ... Widumife or ik h I 220 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PART II. 1' f^ f i 1 ; ■ ^ t ' i i I 1 1 i; :»l ;t«^' L. R. Lobster ... ... Odjet Rocks .. Ahmoe Lamp ... Bobbiduiahemet Rain .. Bathuo Lord bird (or Har- Running... .. Wothaniasheb lequin duck P) Mammadronit Rowing ... .. Oaavato or u Leg ... Aduse s. Load ... Gooshebeu Lip ... Ooish Shoos .. Moosln Lie down ... Bitnwait Smoke ... .. BmsiUc or a Louse ... ... Kusebeot Seal .. Bidesook Shaking... .. Mathic-bidesook i)i \'\ !* ^* 'HI ! i 224 NKWFOUNDLANI). |l'«IIT It. I'll aliiindiuit, and were largely indulged in hy a people wlio lind few otluu' enjoyments; but as they have risen in the scale of comfort and civilisation, drp.nken habits have disappeared, and, as a whole, the;y are now tennperate, and a largo number are total abstainers. Their kindness and hospitality to strangers who visit the country are proverbial. A traveller finds himself at once at home in Newfoundland, whether in the capital or the more distant settlements, and all vie with each other in showing him attention and kindness. Quiet, orderly, church-going, attached to their religious faith, the people live peaceably among themselves, and outbreaks of bigotry or fanaticism are now almost un- known. Kindness to the poor and indigent is a marked feature in the character of the people; and when, through failure of the precarious fisheries, distress occurs, the fishermen help each other to the full extent of their means, and often share to the last morsel with those more indigent than themselves. Charitable societies for the relief of the poor are organised in the capital and chief towns. Facilities for obtaining education are now multiplying, and a taste for literature is spreading. The Athenajum in St. John's has done ex- cellent service by providing a good public librai'y and reading-room, and securing the delivery of a course of public lectures each winter. The Catholic Literary Institute is a similar institution, and has also a course of winter lectures. In the larger towns, such as Harbour Grace and Brigus, there are also literary societies; and these light- radiators will increase. Music is widely cultivated in the capital, and the concerts of the choral society and others attract crowded audiences. There is, of course, no distinction of ranks other than that arising from wealth, or official or professional position. The upper class is composed of the officials of Government, members of the legislature, judges, clergy, merchants, doctors, lawyers, and wealthy individuals who may have }i: f rinr. viii.) MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 225 rotircil from business. Tho middle class is composed of the iiowcr mcrcliiints, shopkeepers, tradesmen, farmers, and that large class who, by industry and economy, have acquired a modest competence, and now look to Newfound- land as their liome, and that of their children. Uappily this class, well named " the shield of society," is increasing rnpiiUy, and making its influence felt more extensively. The large mercantile firms engaged in the exporting Inisiness are about twelve in number, ten of them being in St. John's. The older members of these firms for the most part reside in Britain, and junior partners or agents conduct the business. The merchants of Newfoundland are a highly respectable and intelligent class of men, many of whom have realised considerable wealth, and their standing in tho commercial world is very high. Sir Richard IJonnycastle says of the merchant of former days : " He came to Newfoundland, not with any idea of living there, but to amass, in this new Sea Peru, sufficient wealth to enable him to return to the scenes of home and youth.'* This has undoubtedly been one of the great drawbacks, to the prosperity of the country. The wealth amassed in the island did not remain as capital to extend its business, develop its resources, and be invested in agriculture, buildings, and other improvements. It went to enrich other lands, and develop branches of trade elsewhere. The interest felt in the prosperity and advancement of the country, by non- resident capitalists, could not be the same as in case of those who regarded the country as their own permanent abode and that of their posterity. It is not wonderful then to find, as wo have shown in other portions of this work, that the merchants of former days, as a class, resisted all changes and frowned on all innovations. Happily a different spirit animates many of this class in the present day, though among the older school, the former traditions linger, and they cannot admit that any other M ;i ; f il i'lil IIU I* i 4\ ^^i' '^' Js'EWFOUNDLAXD. [I'ARI II. 4 occupations than fisliing are possible or desirable. 13ut tlie younger school hold different ideas, and admit that the fisheries ai'o quite insufficient to support the present population, and that the time has come for colo- nising and settling the fertile lands of the interior. It is, hoAvever, among the middl3 class, which has grown up, that the sentiment of progress has taken deepest root. All these interests are bound up with the country ; and in its progress lies their hope for the future. The fishermen, too, welcome the prospect of new industries for the support of themselves and their children, feeling that their present means of subsistence are insufficient for their increasing numbers. There is another class of men called '^ planters " to be found in all the principal fishing centres. This term carries us back to the days when all colonics were " plantations," and the colonists were " planters." The name is still continued here, but does not at all indicate a farmer, or one who plants anything; but simply means a sort of middle-man who stands between the mei'chant and the fisherman. He takes his supplies direct from the merchant, to whom he is accountable, and distributes them among a number of fishermen at the commencement of the season. These fishei'men either work directly under his control on his own premises, or they carry on operations apart, under his eye, and at the close of the season hand over the proceeds of iheir labour in payment of advances. The planter again passes the fish to the exporting merchant. Many of the " planters " are independent, and can pay cash for their supplies. Others have but moderate means, and are simply fishermen who own a fishing room, with boats and fishing gear. They engage a number of hands for the season, and the fish is made on their own premises. The fishermen are the working classes of the country. During the height of the fishery season, and when fish ru.r. vni,] MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 227 are abundant, tlieir labours are severe and incessant; but during winter they are for the most part in a condition of enforced idleness. Much of the work of curing the fish is done by women and girls, and their labours are often very heavy. When the fisheries are over, there are boats, nets, etc., to repair, stages and flakes to look after, and fuel to be cut in the woods and hauled over the snow. Those who have gardens, or plots of ground under cultivation, take up the produce and store it in their cellars. If the fishery has been successful, then the fisher- man has a balance coming to him after paying for his summer supplies, and is enabled to lay in a stock of provisions for the winter. Should the fisheries prove a failure, the poor fisherman, after all his toils, has perhaps only a few quintals of fish to hand over, in payment of his advances. He is in debt, and has to depend on the liberality of the supplying merchant for a scanty supply of the necessaries of life, to sustain himself and his family throughout the winter. Should a second unfavourable season follow, he is hopelessly involved in debt. The advances made have to be charged at high prices, in order to allow a margin for bad debts. Here too often, all the evils of " the credit system " are felt in the hopeless indebtedness of the fisherman; and when a good year comes, all is swallowed up in paying old debts. The unfortunate fisherman has no heart to work, and is tempted to recklessness and idleness. Many of them however, who are careful and industrious, and especially those who cultivate the soil, are able to make ends meet and live comfortably. On the other hand, in unfavourable seasons, widespread poverty is felt and severe privations. The "credit system" has much to do with the hardness of their lot; but how to get rid of it is the difficulty. It is injurious both to him that gives and him that takes. Q 2 1 !' I It ^ t 1 , 1 ,f 1 ( : ] i '\% til [ii ii 228 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAIITII. Increased openings for other industries, the cultivation of the soil, employment during winter, education with the forethought and thrift which it teaches, will alone enable the fishermen to get rid of the injurious "credit system'^ and attain comfort and independence. Late years have witnessed a marked improvement in the con- dition of the fishermen, and larger numbers than formerly can now afford to dispense with supplies on credit. Still the system has very wide ramifications, and its practices are deeply engrained in the habits and ideas of the fishermen. The present class of merchants are not accountable for a system which is the growth of many generations, and which can only be got rid of by degrees. Winter is the season for enjoyment among the fisher- men. Among them, too, with all their toils and privations, life viiidicates its right to gladness and relaxation. The season for " fireside enjoyments, home-born happiness," is welcomed. They have their simple social pleasures of various kinds, limited in range, but satisfying to those whose aspirations do not take a lofty flight. Dancing is a favourite winter amusement among the fishermen and their families ; and to the music of the fiddle, or, in its absence the flute or fife, they will dance vigorously for hours. Weddings are, of course, occasions of much festivity. Tea meetings, temperance soirees, readings with music, have multiplied of late years in the larger villages and settle- ments. Newspapers, periodicals, and books are finding their way to these distant and lonely "dwellers by the sea," and stirring intellectual life among them. When inter- course with the capital is facilitated by railways a wider range of thought and sympathy will be developed. As it is, there is perhaps as much genuine happiness among these people as among any similar number who toil for their daily bread. Nature has wonderful compensations ; and in jt: CHAP. viir. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 229 the health, vigour, freedom, and capability of enjoying simple pleasures which the Newfoundlanders possess, they have much to console them for the absence of those exciting and artificial enjoyments in whioh more advanced communities find their chief happiness. I i I- • ■ 1 1 4 ' 'i' i 1 k CHAPTER IX. ANIMAL KINGDOM. The caribou, wolf, mid black 1)ear— The " Wolf Killing Act"— The beaver — "Newfoundland dog"— -Tlie seal tribe^Eaglos, hawks, and pigeons — The American bittern — The great auk— The gigantic cephalopod, or devil-fish. Amoxg the well known wild animals indigenous to New- foundland are the caribou or reindeer, of whicli an account will be given in the chapter on " Newfoundland as o Sporting Country/' and the wolf, of which there are con- siderable numbers in the interior, though they are rarely seen by the settlers. Captain Kennedy in his " Spctuig' Notes " gives it as his opinion that the wolves are far less numerous than is generally supposed. They .are very destructive to the caribou. The black bear is frequently met with. It feeds on the wild berries and roots in summer, and passes the winter in a state of torpor. The seal-hunters occasionally encounter the white or polar bear on the ice off the coast, and sometimes it has been known to land. The fox is found in considerable numbers and varieties, as the black, silver, gray, and red fox. The skin of the black fox is worth 15/. sterling; that of the silver fox, 8/.; tlic gray fox, 1/. 10s.; the red fox, which is the commonest, only 8s. The skin of a bear is valued at from 21. to oJ. ; that of a deer at 15s., and that of a wolf at 1/. By tho HORNS OF THE t'AKIKOU. T. The ordinary Canadian Type, 2. Caribou horns from Newfoundland, 3. Hornj from Labrador, Facing la^c 230. \\\ • 1 |:j|| ' i 1 1 ' i i;K ill ^ 1 ' 1 i^H 1 li ! I^H iti M V h 11' it( h (t fr. sh th rei tli( wi in ses Ne bre the (BAP. IX.I ANIMAL KINGDOM. 231 "Wolf Killing Act" a reward of twelve dollars is offered for every wolf skin ; but so cunning are these animals tliat it is exceedingly difficult to trap or slioot them, and the reward is seldom obtained. The beaver is still numerous in tlio lakes of the interior; the skin is worth IGs. A good trapper will kill thirty or forty beavers in a week, and average two a day all the season. Tlie otter is less numei'ous; the skin is valued at 11. 8s. There are two species, one frequenting fresh water, and a much lai'ger kind found on the coast, and chiefly in salt water. The marten, the weasel, the bat, the rat, the field and common mouse, and the musquash or musk-rat are numerous. The Arctic 1. re grows to a large size, and becomes completely white in inter. It is a variety of the lepus Americanus. A few years ago a few pairs of the common North American hare were brought from Nova Scotia and let loose in the ueighboui'hood of the capital. They have thriven and multiplied rapidly, and in many places furnish an important item of food for the settlers in the winter. They are called "rabbits," but improperly so, as they never burrow, and have all the habits of the hare. There are few fine specimens of the world-renowned "Newfoundland dog'^ to be met with now in the island from which it derived its name. The common, dogs are a wretched mongrel race, cowardly, thievish, and addicted to sheep-killing. By starvation, neglect, and bad treatment the race has degenerated so that few traits of the original remain. The Newfoundland dog thrives better elsewhere, though there are still some superior specimens to be met with in the country. The origin of this fine breed is lost in obscurity. It is doubtful whether the aborigines pos- sessed the dog at all ; and it is highly improbable that the Newfoundland dog is indigenous. Some happy crossing of breeds may have produced it hero. The old settlers say that the ancient genuine breed consisted of a dog about i \'¥l m 232 NEWFOUNDLAND. [rABT II. twenty-six inches high, with black ticket! body, gray muzzlo, and gray or white-stockinged legs, with clew-claws beliin-l. These were probably the progenitors of the present Nl'w- foundland dog, whose life-saving capacities in cases of threatened drowning, especially with those who live near the sea or great rivers, are valuable. Judicious treatment has greatly improved the breed. Landseer, as is well known, has immortalized one of them in his crlebrated picture entitled "A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society," and the breed to which he belonged is known as the " Laudsoer Newfoundland/' Their colour is white with black patches, curly coats, noble heads and powerful frames. The favourite Newfoundland dog at present is entirely black, of large size, from twenty-six to thirty inches in height, remarkable for his majestic appearance. It is now generally admitted that there are two distinct types of the Newfoundland dog, one considerably lai'ger than the other, and reckoned as the true breed ; the other being named the Labrador, or St. John's, or Lesser Newfoundland. The latter is chiefly found in Labrador, and specimens are also to be met with in Newfoundland. Within the last four or five years the celebrated Leonberg dog has been introduced into Newfoundland and thrives remarkably well. The first specimens were brought by Herr T. A. Verkruzen, a German naturalist, who visited the island for the purpose of collecting mollusca. He brought wath him three carefully selected puppies from Essig's establishment in Leonberg, Wurtemberg, of this renowned breed, now so much sought after by the gentry and nobility of Europe. The Leonberg is the result of a skilful crossing of the St. Bernard with the Newfoundland dog and the wolf dog of the Pyrenees, the result being the largest and handsomest long-haired dog now in existence, and distin- guished for sagacity, strength, and faithfulness. Some of the finest well-trained specimens of the breed are sold in ..niP. ix.l ANIMAL KINGDOM. 233 Europe as high as 50L and 1001. They possess some of the highest moral qualities of the noble races whoso blood blends in their veins. At the leading dog shows of the world they have carried off the highest prizes. They grow to the height of thirty-three to thirty-six inches, and are over one hundred pounds in weight. The breed is multi- plying in the island and is much esteemed and sought after. In time they will perhaps supersede the present degenerate breed of the Newfoundland. Their colours are white with black spots, wolf gray, and black. The last have often a double or split nose. Of the seal tribe there are four species — the harbour or bay seal, the harp, the hooded seal, and the square flipper. These will be described in the chapter on the seal fishery. The walrus, or morse, is often met with by the sealers. The cetacea, or whale tribe, are represented by the fin-backed whale, which lives on caplin, lance, etc., the sharp-nosed Avhale {lialmna acuta nostra), and the pike- headed species ; tlio great Greenland whale is rarely, if ever seen. The delphinida) are represented by the species called by the fishermen black-fish, or pot-heads ; the body is bluish black, the head round and blunt, and the blow- hole very large ; they yield from thirty to a hundi-ed gallons of oil. Another variety is called puffing-pig and herring- hog by the fishermen. The porpoise is common around the shores, and specimens of the grampus are seen occasionally. The birds of Newfoundland are far too numerous to be named in this brief and imperfect sketch, and only a few of the more important can be enumerated. Mr. Henry Reeks, F.L.S., an English naturalist of note, spent two years on the western coast of the island, studying its ornitho- logy, and published the result of his observations in the "Zoologist." He enumerates two hundred species of birds, and of course there are many more. A Swedish naturalist m m '? HI li ! .: ,i - 1 - ; i ■ y i -, : i| ! ■■*' ' ' i • If 1 ' I I ,l h 234 NEWFOUNDLAND. li'Ani II. on u visit to the island estimated that there were five hundred species of bin.d. Nearly all the birds are migratory. The sea eagle is occasionally seen, and the bald or white-headed oagle is common. The latter is called by the fishermen " the grepe." Of hawks, the most important varieties are the American osprey or Irish hawk, the pigeon, the sparrow, the Greenland falcon, and the American goshawk. Of owls, there are the snowy owl, the great horned owl, the long-eared and short-eared owls, and tho hawk owl. Of woodpeckers, there are the hairy, the downy, and tho black-headed woodpeckers. The American chimney swallow is rare, and the American night hawk is a summer migrant. The belted kingfisher is common. There are six species of fly-catchers, and the same number of thrushes. Of the lattei", the migratory thrush or American robin — called the blackbird or robin in Newfoundland — is the earliest songster, and even when the ground is still covered Avith snow is heard pouring forth its sonorous notes. The warblers and swallows are in great variety. The finches include the American pine grosbeak, the American cross- bill, the snow bunting, the snow bird, and the chipping sparrow. The American raven and jay, the blue and Canada jay are common. In the chapter on " sporting " reference will be made to the grouse or ptarmigan of the island, erroneously called " partridge." This game-bird is the willow grouse {Lagopiis alhus) ; but there is another kind called the rock ptarmigan [Lagopus rupestrls), an Alpine species, inhabiting only the highest and barest mountain ridges, and called tho *' mountain partridge.^' The Canadian grouse, or spruce partridge, is sometimes seen as a rare visitor on the western side of the island. Mr. Eeeks met with some specimens. Tho American bittern, the American golden plover, and 1 ll.U'. IX. I ANIMAL KINfiDOM. 235 other varieties, nnd a great number of different species of sandpipers and curlews arc abundant. The Canada gooso ard the IJront goose arc reguhir summer visitants. Of ducks there are the bhick, the i)intail, the greon-wiuged teal, the gray, and the American golden-eye. The harlequin duck is called " lords and ladies," and the long-tailed duck " hounds/' from their fancied resemblance to the cry of a pack of hounds in full chase. The eider duck and the red- breasted merganser are tolerably common. The local name of the latter is " shell duck." The stormy petrel, gulls in threat variety, gannets, cormorants, and the loon, or great northern diver, are common. The great auk was once found in myriads around the shores, but is now extinct everywhere, not a specimen having been found for the last fifty years. The little auk, tlie puffin, the common guillemot, called locally the " murr and turr,'' and the rozor-billed auk are abundant. The great auk was a very remarkable bird, and deserves more than a passing mention. It must now be reckoned, like the dodo, among the things tl\at have been, though in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it was to be seen ni nudtitndes on the low rocky islands on the eastern coast of the island, and immense flocks of them were encountered by the mariners of those days as far out as the Banks. Xow the discovery of a single living specimen, or even of a skeleton, would be hailed as a most fortunate event. The last auk was shot on an isolated rock off the south coast of Iceland, in 1844, and is now in the museum of Copenhagen. In all the museums of Europe and America there are only seventy-two specimens of the bird. Three of these were found on Funk Island, off the north-eastern coast of New- foundland in 18G4. They came into the possession of Bishop Field, who forwarded one to Agassiz, another to Professor Xewton, of Cambridge, and the third ultimately reached the British Museum, where there is but one other specimen. :M (■: L I ■ I . i 1 ii| .if ■■ ■ ■ ■ 1 (^ '"'.' 230 NKWFOINDLAND. TAUT ir brought from the Orkneys, in 1812. Numerous bones of tlie great auk have been found on Funk Ishmd, and a careful search might discover many perfect skeletons. Tlu," great auk was lai-ger than a gonse. Its wings were very small, and not constituted for flight, but were admirable paddles in the water, enabling the bird to move about even more swiftly than the loon. The legs were extremely short, but powerful, and placed so much posteriorly, that, in resting on the rocks the birds assumed an upright attitude, the whole of the leg and toes bemg applied to the surface. It was a native of the Northern Hemisphere, the penguin being its relative in the Southern. The causes of its extermination are not difiicult to discover. Its short wings and peculiar conformation rendered it helpless on the land ; while its flesh aiid feathers were so valuable as to invite the rapacity of man. There were few suitable breeding places, and when these were invaded it could not fly elsewhere, and had no choice but to die. In the " struggle for existence," tu which nature subjects all her animated productions, such a bird as the great auk must perish early. It must have been a curious sight, two hundi'ed years ago, to see these wild lonely islands, their coasts literally swarming with these strange birds, as they waddled slowly about in an erect position, with their broad webbed feet and short wings, resembling the flippers of a seal. They were the connecting link between the fish and bird, partaking of the nature of both. The " English Pilot " for 1771', thus refers to them : "They never go beyond the banks, as others do, for they are always on it or within it, several of them together. They are large fowls, about the size of a goose, a coal-black head and back, with a white spot under one of their eyes, which nature has ordered to be under their right eye — an extraordinary mark. These birds never fly, for their wings are very short, and the liiu out r'ith lias ■irk. mil nui'. IX. I ANIMAL KINGDOM. 2.'37 most like the fins of a fish, liaving iiotliiiij^ upon tlioni but a sort of down and short feathers." Not only wero tho crews of the fishing vessels of those days in the habit of consuming vast quantities of these birds fresh, but they were accustomed to salt down many tons of them for future use. The merchants of Bonavista and other places were in the habit of salting thena and selling them, in tho winter season, instead of pork, to the fishermen. The sailors used to land on the islands where they bred, and fill their boats with the plump unwieldy birds (which on land could make no effort to escape), driving them, according to Whitbourne, on board by hundreds, or knocking them on the head with sticks. They feasted on their eggs, and even burned their bodies for fuel, in order to warm water to pick off the feathers which were valuable. After slaughter- ing them, they sometimes shut them up in stone enclosures, in order to have them ready when wanted. It is not wonderful that, under such circumstances, the great auk has been completely exterminated. Tho principal commercial fishes in the waters around the island will be described in the chapter on " The Fisheries," the cod, salmon, and herring being the most valuable. The mackerel, once abundant, have been ex- tremely scarce for many years. Halibut, turbot, plaice, sole, etc., are not taken in such quantities as to render them of value. Eels are plentiful in lakes, rivers, and salt water. Sturgeons are rarely taken. Lobsters are most abundant, and now constitute a valuable article of export. Oysters are not found around the shores ; crabs are plentiful. A few other species are met with, such as the pipe-fish, frog-fish, bellows-fish, sculpins, lance, cat-fish, and lump- fish. Sharks are not uncommon. A specimen of the basking shai'k was brought ashore a few years ago at Topsail, in Conception Bay, measuring thirty feet in length. Tho dog-fish, a kind of small shark, hated by the fishermen. r r fill j^ !, 1, 1 ■, ' OOQ NEWFOIJNDLAND. h'ARl 11, ,Jl 1 i i ■1 i 1 :■ 1 1 i 1 1"' ; 1 1 1' ' !■■■ ■ \\ as it often takes tlio fish from tlioir nets and hooks, is abundant. The fox-shark, (jr thresher, is only scon occasionally. Tlic ahscnice of venomous reptiles of all kinds, and also oE froys and tcads, is remarkahlo. Several animals conimoii on the continent of Amoi-ica are also wanting, such as tlif lynx, the skunk, porcu^nne, mink, and scpiirrel. Of the molluscous animals the principal representative is the common squid, a cephalopod ahout five or six inclics in lonj^th, which visits the coast in immense shoals in August and September, and supplies a valuable bait for the lishcrmcn. It possesses ten arms radiating from the lu^ul, a small hurny beak, and an ink-hag, from which at pleasure it ejects a black iluid, thus darkening the Avater so as to elude its foes. It moves either backwards or forwards through the water with great rapidity. A very great interest was awakened among naturalists in 1 873 by an announcement Avhich one of the present writers (Mr. Harvey) Avas fortunate enough to be able to make, of the discovery of a new species of cuttle-fish, of gigantic size, in the Avaters around ^[owfoundland. Victor Hugo in his " Toilers of the Sea," gives a thrilling description of such a monster under the title of the " devil fish ; " l)ut the reality sur- passed the fiction. Victor Hugo's devil fish Avas only four or five feet between th, .extremities of the outspread arms ; the creature now discovered had arms the longest of Avhicli measured each tAventy-four feet, and betAveen their out- spread extremities were fifty-tAVo feet. The body Avas between seven and eight feet in length. The circumstances under Avhich the discovery Avas first inado were as follows : On the '2()t\i of October, 187;J, tAVo fishermen of Portu rA Cove Avero out in a small boat off %o eastern end of Belle Isle, in Conception Bay. Observing something floating in the Avater they roAved up to it and one of them struck it with his boat-hook. Instantly the mass showed that it Avaa cn\r. I v. I ANIMAL KINflDOM. 239 nniniatecl by putting itself in motion. A hngv.' hoiik roared itself from among the folds and struck tluj bcao, and a pair of largo oyes glared at tlieni ferociously. The men, tis may be imagined, were petrified with fear; but before they had time to escape two corpse-liko arms shot out from around the head and flung themselves across the boat. Had those slimy arms, with their powerful suckers, once attached themselves to the boat, it would speedily have been drawn under the water and its occupants would have been brought within reach of the monster's powerful beak. One of the incn, however, had the presence of mind to seize a small Imtchot that fortunately lay in the bottom of the boat, and with a couple of blows ho severed the arms as they lay over the gunwale of the boat. The creature uttered no cry of pain ; but at once moved off from the boat and ojoctod an enormous quantity of inky fluid which darkened the water for two or three hundred yards. The men saw no more of it, and having dragged the amputated arms into the boat b^pcedily made for the shore. The shorter and thicker of the two arms was thrown carelessly aside and destroyed, hut was described as six feet in length and ten or twelve inches in circumference. The longer arm was ^. -ought to St. John's by the fisherman, and Mr. Ilai'vey was fortu- nate enough to secure it. After being photographed it was placed in the Geological Museum, whore it now is. On nieasuromont tlu' fragment was found to be nineteen foot in length, not more than three and a half inches in circum- ference; of a palish piidv colour, exceedingly strong and tough. The fisherman estimated that more than ton feet of this arm wore loft attached to the body, so that its entire length must have been thirty feet. Towards tlu^ extremity it broadened out like an oar and then tapcod to a fine, tongue-like point. This part was thickly covered wit i suck'^rs, having horny, teethed edges, the largest of them over an inch in diameter, the smallest not larger than a split \,\ r T'! '!i i 1 ' < 1 '1-' • ''I ii ■I ;' ( V. I' I 240 XKWFOUNDLAXD. [I'ART H. .. . I ' H pea. Tlioir iiiimlx'r was estimated at one liundred and eighty. All these suckers, acting together, would establisli such a grasp on an object as it would be impossible to escape from. The fishermen described tlie body of the monster as being of immense size, but under the influence of terror, their account would bo greatly exaggerated. Subsequent discoveries of perfect specimens, however, render it certain that the body must have been over ten feet in lengtli, and showed tliat this was one of the two long tentiicles; the other eight ai-ras being shorter and thicker. Only a fortnight after this event, a perfect specimen was taken in a net at Logic Bay, throe miles from St. John's. Ml", llai'vey had again the good fortune to hear of the capture and to obtain possession of the animal. lie had it measured and photographed, and described it minutely in various newspapers and periodicals. An ongi'aving, copied from the photograph, and a descrip- tion, appeared in the London Field, and the accounts made the rounds of the press in IBritain and America. Everywhere the discovery was regarded by naturalists as of great importance, as it was the first perfect specimen of a creature hitherto regarded as fabulous. The mode of its capture was curious. During the hauling in of a herring net the creature got somehow entangled in the folds, and became powerless. It struggled desperately, and before three men could drag it into the boat, they were obliged to kill it by cutting off the head. It proved to be a gigantic cuttle-fish or calamary; and is called by the fishermen a " big squid." The two long arms or tentacles were found to measure each twenty-four feet, and to be three inches in circumference ; the eight shorter arms were each six feet in length, and at the point of junction with the central masi=, were ten inches in circumference. The longer arms broadened at the extremities, and were there covered with suckers as in the ill! ' \\ in\T. IX. 1 ANIMAL KINGDOM. 241 Conception 13ay specimen. The shorter arms had their undoi" sides covered through tho entire length with a double row of suckers, and each tapered to a lino point. Tho total number of suckci's was estimated at eleven hundred. The ton arms radiated from a central mass two and a half feet in diameter, in the middle of which was a strong horny be.ik, shaped precisely like that of a parrot, and in size larger than a man's clenched fist. The eyes were destroyed, but the eye-socket measured four inches in diameter. The body was between seven and eight feet in length, and five feet in circumference. Tho tail was fin-shaped, and about two feet across. This specimen was forwarded to Professor A. E. Verrill, of Yale College, New Haven, one of the most eminent living )iaturulists of America. He made a very careful study of the animal, and has given an exhaustive account of it in a series of papers in the " American Journal of Science " and the " American Naturalist,^' all the different organs being figured in excellent engravings, and a restoration of the creature being also given. To his admirable account those who wish for a full description of the now famous devil fish must be referred. The details are highly interesting, and prove, once more, that " fact is often stranger than fiction." Professor Verrill has distinguished two species of the giant ccphalopods : one he named Architeiithis Ilarveyi, "as a well-merited compliment to the Rev. M. Harvey, who has done so much to bring these remarkable specimens into notice; the other he cnWed ArcliltenUiis moudchns." In the " Popular Science Review," for April, 187'i, there appeared a highly interesting article, by W. Saville Kent,F.L.S.,on these gigantic cuttles, in which the writer proposed to name the species Mcydloteatliis J[arreyi, "in recognition of the great service to science rendered through Mr. Harvey's steps taken to preserve these valuable specimens." Mr. Frank Buckland, u tK '^M\ I \,: 4 1 ' 1 ; i I 1 1 i 1 , Ii Imv. ill' . N 1 1 f i : i' . 'l , 1 ' ^ 1 242 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AET n. in his " Logbook of a Fisherman and Geologist/' lias a paper on the subject; he also constructed a wooden inodel of the devil fish for his museum. Since 1873 several specimens of this creature have come ashore, generally after heavy storms. The largest hoard of was one cast ashoi-e in Thimble Tickle, Notre Dame Bay, the body of "^'hich was reported, on good authority, to have been twenty feet in length, the tentacles forty feet. Another was found at Throe Arms, Notre Dame Bay, with a body of fifteen feet long. A perfect specimen was obtained at Cata- lina, in 1877, nine feet two inches in length of body; circum- ference of body, seven feet; tentacles, thirty feet ; short arras, eleven feet. This specimen is now in the New York Aquarium. In 1881 another specimen with a body eleven feet in length was obtained at Portugal Cove. It is now in Worth's Museum, Ncav York. All these instances prove that in the seas around Newfoundland these gigaiitic cephalopods are abundant. They seldom approach the shore, so that the depths of the ocean in certain places may contain shoals of them. Mr. Savillo Kent says, in the article previously referred to: "Summing up the Avhole, wo are forced to admit that this gi'onp of cophalopodous mollusks contains representatives of enormous dimensions distributed in the seas throughout the globe, and embracing in all probability many distinct genera and species. Such is the formidable size of these giant calamaries that they vie even with the cetacea in magnitude, and in this respect yield to no other animals now existing. It further appears obvious that the numerous tales and traditions that have been current from the earliest times, concerning the existence of colossal species of this race, though in some instances unscrupulously exaggerated, had, in all probability, in the main a back- ground work of fact, and can be no 1 mger passed over as the mere fabrications ot a disordered mind, as we have hitherto been inclined to accept them." cnAF, IX.] ANIMAL KINGDOM. Professor Vcrrill says: "Tlio pen of our Arch'dcnthls Ilarveyl scorns to resomblo that of tlio ancient genus Tindoi^^is, found fossil in tlie Jurassic formations, and contemporaneous witli tlio liugo marine sanrians, ichthyO' saurus and i)hsioraunis, etc., tho sea-serpent of tlioso ancient seas. May tliero not also be liugo marine saurians still living in tlio North Atlantic, in company with tho giant s(|uids, hut not yet known to naturalists ? Such a. belief seems quite reasonable when we consider how many species of great marine animals, both among cephalopods and cetaceans, are still known only from single specimens, or even mere fragments generally obtained only by chance." Should this eminent naturalist's opinion be well founded, then our Newfoundland devil fish may prove to be first cousin to the sea-serpent, and perhaps may introduce one ilay this relative who has tantalised and eluded the grasp of so many mariners, and may yet prove to be no more a myth than the devil fish which has now an acknowledged place in the halls of science. Herr T. A. Verkruzen, the German naturalist, already mentioned in these pages as the introducer of the Leonberg dog, spent a portion of two summers in dredging and collecting mollusca around the shores of the island. He also visited the Banks, in a fishing vessel, for the same purpose. The result was a collection of the mollusca of Newfoundland of great value to science, by an able and accomplished naturalist, who is a master in conchology. He very kindly presented to the Geological Museum of St. John's a collection embracing specimens of ninety-two different species of mollusca, which he had collected and identified. He also printed a small pamphlet containing a complete list of his discoveries. His collection cost him much time, labour, and money, and his is the only account of the mollusca of Newfoundland yet published. 1 ! ' W iiii ^ mw 1 1 ■K ■ - 1, i vkI ■^ ■ i 1 , ! i j '• . i m t ) ; I (!' CHAPTER X. /} :'t; 1 I 'I ! M HI ! VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Forest trees — Evergreens — The Labrador tea-plant — Wild berries— Flowering plants and ferns — Wild flowers and vegetables. In tlie chapter on " Forest Timber," an account will be given of the more valuable trees of the country, und the ext.nt of the forest growths. It will be there shown that in the valleys of the interior are magnificent forests of great extent of pine, spruce, birch, juniper, larcli, etc., furnishing ample materials for a large timber trade, as well as for shipbuilding purposes. The white pine is often found from seventy to eighty feet in height, and over three feet in diameter. The spruces and larches are of the best quality for shipbuilding purposes, while the yellow birch is pronounced equal in durability to the English oak. The latter, especially on the western side of the island, frequently attains a great size both in girth and height. The oak, beech, maple, chestnut, and walnut are not found in New- foundland. A kind of dwarf maple is found in the interior. The American mountain ash grows to a large size, and is very abundant, the aspen, the balsam poplar, the dog- wood thrive well, and the willow family is well represented and attains a large size. The recumbent or ground juniper and the recumbent Canadian yew are plentiful. The alders attain but a stunted growth. The English hawthorn has CHIP. X.| VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 245 been introduced and thrives well, but is not extensively cultivated. The evergreens are in considerable variety. The most remarkable is the Labrador tea-plant, growing in swamps to the height of three feet, the leaves of which are used by Indians and hunters in place of tea. The ground laurel is a low running shrub, with leaves nearly two inches in length, on long stalks, rough, leathery, and shining. Tts white fragrant flowers grow at the ends of the branches. There is a great variety of recumbent trailing evergreens. The Kalmia family abounds in the swampy grounds, its beautiful clusters of red and pale rose-coloured flowers being very agreeable to the eye. One of the most characteristic features of the country is the immense variety and abundance of berry-bearing plants. These cover every swamp and open rocky tract, and furnish excellent fruit for preserves. Over many thousands of uncultivated acres they carpet the soil. The principal varieties arc the hurtleberry — called in the ver- nacular "hurts'" — the whortleberry in several kinds, the cranberry, partridgeberry bake-applo berry. The wild strawberry and raspberry arc most abundant, and make a delicious preserve. The maidenhair, or capillaire, is a little trailing plant belonging to the family of the felices or ferns. It bears a little fruit, white, and like an ant's egg, which contains so much saccharine matter as to be lusciously sweet when made into a jam or preserve. Berry-picking is quite an industry at a certain season, and might be indefinitely expanded. Of the wild cherries, the choke-cherry is most abundant, and often forms an ornamental tree in gardens. The fruit is pendulous and grape-like, the flowers of a yellowish white colour. There is also a kind of wild prickly gooseberry. The flowering plants and ferns are in such variety that > I I I I I I |!( '\'\ ih : : '^r i :' i 4- ! 24G NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ABI H .1 small volume would be required for their description. Heury Reeks, F.L.S., F.Z.S,, in a paper read before the Linneau Society in 18G9, enumerated three hundred and seventy-one species, besides vai'ieties of flowering plants and ferns, in Newfoundland, and he only visited the western side of the island. He says, of these, six, besides Calluna vuhjaru and Batnjchium Lunaria, are new to the flora of North America, while three of them, to which I have provisionally given names, appear not to have been previously described. He enumerated fifteen species of ferns in this paper, and thirty-eight species of Graminecv, or grasses. Only a few of the wild flowers can bo mentioned here by their popular names. The tribe of lilies are developed in great beauty and magnificence. The iris dots every marsh with its rich blue flowers, and the blue-eyed grass assists the rich display. The dog's tooth, heartsease, lily of the valley, Solomon's seal, Jacob's ladder, columbine, wild lupine, bell-flowers, etc., are abundant. The pitcher plant is one of the most remarkable productions of the swampy grounds. Its leaves are tubular, or pitcher-shaped, and filled with about a wine-glassful of pure water. The flower is purple, large, and handsome, shaped like a lady's saddle, and surrounded with a number of pitchers, the lids of which expand or shut, according to the necessities of the plant. The pitchers are lined with inverted hairs, bending down- ward, permitting insects to enter readily enough, but pre- venting their escape. The pitcher plant is one of the carnivorous order, and digests the flies which enter its leaves. The grasses are very rich and abundant, some mag- nificent specimens being found. The red and white natural clover is found in great abundance, also near the sea, the vetch grows in vast quantities. cnir. X.J VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 247 All the common English flowers thrive well in sheltered gardens, even the dahlia flourishing with a little care in winter. Perennials do better than annuals. Garden vegetables of all kinds grow exceedingly well, and are of excellent quality. The potatoes produced in the island are unsurpassed elsewhere. CucumberSj vegetable marrows, melons, cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, beans, parsnips, carrots, peas, etc., grow luxuriantly. The garden strawberry, raspberry, gooseberry, are as good as in any other country. On the eastern side of the island the soil and climate are not favourable to the growth of pears, apples, plums, etc., though these are grown and ripened occasionally. In the sheltered valleys of the interior there is no reason why apples, cherries, pears, damsons, and other kindred fruits, should not be grown successfully, as they are in the valleys of Nova Scotia. 't. . p i H\' ■\ I i! is; i' A i 'ii!:' 11 i i 1 1 1 Lv, 1 1 CHAPTER XL NEWFOUNDLAND AS A SPORTING COUNTRY. Fishing and shooting — Tlio willow grouse, or ptarmigan — Opening of the season — Tlio Avild goose and black duck — Deer-stalking — Caril)ou shooting — Lord Dunraven on exploration and sport — The moose and the caribou. In many respects, Newfoundland may be regai'ded as the very paradise of sportsmen. Its countless lakes and ponds abound with trout of the finest description, and are the abodes of the wild goose, the wild duck, and other fresh-water fowl. The willow grouse or ptarmigan, the rock ptarmigan, the curlew, the plover, the snipe, are found in the proper season, all over the island, on the great " barrens," or in the marshy grounds, in immense numbers. The sea-pigeons and guillemots, or "murrs" and "turrs" as they are called in the vernacular, are seen all around the shores and islands. The large Arctic hare, and the American hare, called a "rabbit" by the natives, are to be met with, especially the latter — in abundance. Above all, the noble caribou or reindeer, in vast herds traverse the island in periodical migrations from north to south, and furnish the highest prizes for the sportsman. Finer salmon streams than those of Newfoundland naturally are, could be found nowhere; but by want of due protection, they have unfortunately degenerated. Still the enthusiastic 'V^ 'V*^. ":.a?' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) / O ^ ^v:^^\.^ "'^y V V ^^-^ K -^^-UST^ '•^'' "<^.i* Fv '% ^■% ! rr.m I ) J 1 i i ■,; ■ M , ■ '. i i = ' i if'- ' % i , -^ i. ■;lv. ^t' ' 250 NEWFOUNDLAND. iPABr It, ash-gray in colour, mottled and barred with dusky spots. This colour, when the trost sets in, gradually disappears as in the Alpine hare ; and at length, when the snow falls it is almost pure white. These remarkable changes effected, as in the northern hare, without loss of substance, fit it admir- ably for its situation, as the sportsman, if he has not a dog used to game, may almost walk over the bird, v/ithout putting it up, when the snow is on the ground. The ptarmigan is feathered and haired down the legs and between the toes, and may be distinguished at a consider- able distance, by the red about the eye. These fine birds are found all over the island, and it is no uncommon thing for a sportsman to bag, in a day, from a dozen to twenty brace. In addition to the ptarmigan, the sportsman meets with the wild goose, which breeds in the most secluded ponds, and brings its young ones down the brooks at the latter end of June and beginning of July. They are then full- grown. The black duck is also found in fresh water during summer. Its plumage is a dark sombre brown ; it is abundant in some places, but difficult to approach. Of all table-birds the black duck is considered the finest. The curlew, in their southern migration, arrive from Labrador late in autumn, and after feeding there ou the wild berries they are almost balls of fat, and in flavour very delicious. The wild goose of Newfoundland is a remarkably fine bird, easily domesticated, but does not breed when tamed. It is about the size of a common goose, but with a more swan- like form, and has a black ring round its neck. It is a variety of Anser canadensis. While neither reptile, serpent, nor any noxious creature is known to exist in Newfoundland, Nature has bountifully stocked the island with noble herds of caribou, or reindeer, finer than those of which Norway and Lapland can boast, specimens of which are found at times to weigh over six ruu: SI.) AS A SPORTING COUNTllY. 251 hundred pounds. The vast number of deer-paths which, like a network, seam the surface of the interior in all directions, show that the number of deer must be enormous. Their migrations are as regular as the seasons between the south- eastern and north-western portions of the island. The winter months are passed in the south wher3 "browse" is plentiful, and the snow is not so deep as to prevent them reaching the lichens amid the lower grounds. In March, when the sun becomes more powerful, so that the snow is softened by its rays, permitting them to scrape it off and reach the herbage beneath, the reindeer turn their faces towards the north-west and begin their spring migration. They do not move in large bodies, for in that case they could not graze freely ; but in herds of from twenty to two hundred each, which are connected by stragglers or piquets, the animals following one another in single file a few yards or feet apart. The whole surface of the country is now alive with deer, as herd follows herd in rapid succession, each led by a noble stag as tall as a horse, and all bending their course in parallel lines towards the hills of the west and north- west. Here they arrive from the middle to the end of April, and amid the rocky barrens and mountains, where their favourite mossy food most abouuds, they browse till October. In May or June they bring forth their young in these solitudes, where they meet with a profusion of mountain herbage, and where, as compared with the low- lands, they are free from the persecution of flies. So soon, however, as the frosts of October begin to nip the vegetation, they turn towards the south and repeat their long march in the same manner, pursuing the same paths as when on their northern migration. Thus, for unknown periods, have these innumerable herds been moving along the same route, unless when interrupted by the Indians or the irregularities of the seasons. Their movements are i Y: i m 252 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ABT It. il generally in parallel lines, unless where the narrow necks of land separating lakes, or the running waters or straits uniting them, or intervening chains of bills cause thein to concentrate on one point. It was at such points that the Red Indians were accustomed to wait for the deer and Mlaughter them in great numbers. They also constructed deer-fences along river courses, with openings or passes at intervals for the deer to reach the river and swim across. Here, when in the water, they were killed, or struck down at the narrower parts of the fence by those who were on the watch. September and October are the months for deer-stalking in Newfoundland. Some knowledge of the country and the assistance of Micmac guides are requisite. There are favourite hunting grounds known to the initiated, where this exciting sport can be enjoyed in perfection-. One of the best of these is on the " Barrens," overlooking Grand Lake, opposite the northern end of the groat island. From this island the deer cross in large numbers, when setting out on their southern migration, and collect in herds on the hills over the lake. The " White Hills," in the neighbour- hood of Hall's Bay, is another favourite stalking ground. Inland, from various settlements on the southern shore, lato in the autumn the deer can be hunted with much success. The best account of caribou shooting in Newfoundland is to be found in " Sporting Notes in Newfoundland, by Captain Kennedy, of H.M.S. Druid."* The substance of this little pamphlet, which is written with much spirit and with all the enthusiasm of the genuine sportsman, appeai'od in the Field newspaper at various times. Captain Kennedy says of the Newfoundland deer : " In general appearance the caribou somewhat resembles a gigantic goat; the body is heavier and more clumsy than that of the red deer, the legs shorter * Published b}- Withers, St. John's, Newfoundland. cn»i". XI.] AS A SPORTING COUNTRY. 253 ttle the ield the ibou ivier jrtcr and stouter, feet broader, head more cow-like, eyes smaller, ears shorter, and nostrils larger. The skin is brown in summer, brown and white in autumn, and white in winter. It is extremely thick and beautifully soft, being covered with thick wool underneath and long white or mottled hairs over all. This gives it a soft springy touch, unlike the wiry hair of the red deer. The antlers of the caribou stag are palmated, sweeping backwards, and of magni- ficent proportions, the brow antlers meeting over the nose, like a pair of hands clasped in the attitude of prayer. In all respects the animal is admirably provided to resist the inclement climates he is destined to inhabit. His short strong legs carry him over ground such as no horse could traverse, and his broad foot prevents him from sinking deep into the snow. A popular delusion is that the palmated horns of the caribou are given him to scrape away the snow to reach the lichen upon which he feeds. I am certain that it is nothing of the kind, and I can prove it. The horns are supplied solely for the purpose of fighting. The deer turns up the snow with his nose, which is covered with hard skin for the purpose. But the proof that the horns are not intended or used for scraping the snow is that when the snow is on the ground the deer have not got any horns. The stags shed their horns in November, after the rutting season, and they attain their full growth in August. In September they are clear of] the velvet, and all ready for action, and well they use them. During the rutting season, which commences about the third week in September, and lasts a fortnight, terrible battles take place, and it is rare to find a full-grown stag whose antlers are not battered about the brow-antlers especially, and the animal himself often badly wounded about the neck and forelegs. On these occasions the deer generally kneel down and butt each other. In defending themselves against wolves they use their forelegs with good effect. Unlike the rest of the 254 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ART 11. i r5 11' ■ , • ji 1 ,! i 1 ■ ' ' Ji ''ftl 'HHIIH deer tribe the female caribou carries antlers, but not always. She brings forth her young in May, when two years old, retaining her horns till then. Barren deer shed their horns in winter. A full-grown caribou hind is about the size of a red deer stag ; and a full-grown stag in his prime, say from six to ten years old, v/ill weigh 500 lbs. clear, against say twenty stone of a red deer stag." Captain Kennedy does not think well of rod-fishing for salmon, owing to the fact that many of the best salmon rivers have been ruined by barring, sweeping with nets, traps, weirs, or mill-dams. Sea-trout fishing, he says, is excellent, if at the right spot at the right time. Still ho describes some splendid fishing excursions, which he enjoyed on several occasions. Lord Dunraven has given an interesting account of a brief hunting excursion in the island, in " The Nineteenth Century" for January, 1881. He says, "Newfoundland is not much visited by Englishmen. I know not why, for it is the nearest and most accessible of all their colonies, and it offers a good field for exploration and for sport. The interior of a great part of the island, all the northern part of it, in fact, is almost unknown. The variety of game is not great ; there are no moose or small deer, and bears are, strange to say, very scarce; but caribou are plentiful, and the New- foundland stags are finer by far than any to be found in any portion of the continent of North America. The caribou or reindeer are getting scarce, as they are also in every other accessible place. Constant travel a^ *"oss the island interferes with their annual migration from north to south and from south to north. They are no longei to be seen crossing Sandy Pond in vast herds in the spring and fall, but no doubt they are still preity plentiful in some remote parts of the country. The shores of Newfoundland are indented with numerous and excellent harbours ; the interior is full of lakes, and is traversed by many streams navigable for canoes. CHIP. XI.) AS A SPORTING COUNTRY. 255 Fur is pretty plentiful, wild fowl and grouse abundant, and the creeks and rivers are full of salmon and trout." In " Forest Life in Acadio," * Captain Campljell Hardy, R.A., in a special chapter on Newfoundland, says : "I know of no country so near England which offers the same amount of inducement to the explorer, naturalist, or sportsman as Newfoundland. To one who combines the advantages of a good practical knowledge of geology with the lovo of sport the interior of this great island, much of which is quite unknown, may indeed prove a field of valuable and re- munerative discovery, for its mineral resources, now under the examination of a Government geological survey, are unquestionably of vast importance, and quite undeveloped. As a field for sport, likewise, Newfoundland is but little known. Some half-dozen or so of regular visitors from tlio continent, one or two resident sportsmen, and tho same number from England, comprise the list of those who havo encamped in its vast solitudes in quest of its principal large game — the caribou — which is scattei'ed more or less abundantly over an area of some twenty-fivo thousand square miles of unbroken wilderness." Captain Hardy, in a description of moose-calling, says : "Few white hunters have succeeded in obtaining the amount of skill requisite in palming off this strange deceit upon an animal so cautious and possessing such exquisite senses as the moose. It is a gift of the Indian, whose soft, well- modulated voice can imitate the calls of nearly every denizen of tho forest." The following notes on their method of stalking tho moose are as graphic as they are interesting : " September is the first month for moose-calling, the season lasting for some six weeks. I have seen one brought up as late as the 23rd of October. "The moose is now in his prime; the great palmated * Published by Chapman and Hall. ifr^ 1 f. 25G NEWFOUNDLAND. (■"AIT II. liorns, whicli have been growing rapidly during tli(> summer, are firm as rock, and the liitherto protecting covering of vclvetlike skin has shrivelled up and dis- appeared by rubbing against stumps and branches, leaviu" the tines smooth, sharp, and ready for the combat. " The bracing frosty air of the autumnal nights makes the moose a great rambler, and in a short time districts, which before would only give evidence of his presence by an occasional track, now show countless impressions in tho swamps, by the sides of lakes, and on the mossy bogs. He has found his voice too, and, where moose are numerous, the hitherto silent woods i*esound with the plaintive call of the cow, the grunting response of her mate, and the crash - ings of dead trees, as the horns are rapidly drawn across them to overawe an approaching rival. "This call of the cow-moose is imitated by tho Indian hunter through a trumpet made of birch bark rolled up in the form of a cone, about two feet in length ; and tho deceit is generally attempted by moonlight, or in the early morning in the twilight preceding sunrise — seldom after. Secreting himself behind a sheltering clump of bushes or rocks, on the edge of the forest barren, on some favourable night in September or October, when the moon is near its full, and not a breath of wind stirs the foliage, the hunter utters the plaintive call to allure the monarch of the forest to his destruction. The stai-tling and strange sound reverberates through the country, and as its echoes die away, and everything resumes the wonderful silence of the woods on a calm frosty night in the fall, he drops his birchen trumpet in the bushes, and assumes the attitude of intense listening. Perhaps there is no response; when, after an interval of about fifteen minutes, he ascends a small tree, so as to give greater range to the sound, and again sends his wild call pealing through the woods. Presently a low grunt, quickly repeated, comes from over AS A SPOUTING COUNTRY. 257 some distant liill, and snappings of branches, and falling trees, attest the approach of the bull ; perhaps there is a pause — not a sound to bo heard for some moments. The liuntor, now doubly careful, knowing that his voice is criticised by the exquisite ear of the bull, kneels down, and, thrusting the mouth of his * call ' into the bushes close to the ground, gives vent to a lower and more plaintive sound, intended to convey the idea of impatience and reproach. It has probably the desired effect ; au answer is given, the snappings of branches are resumed, and presently the moose stalks into the middle of the moonlit barren, or skirts its sides in the direction of the sound. A few paces farther — a flash and report from behind the little clump of concealing bushes, and the groat carcass sinks into the laurels and mosses which carpet the plains.'^ In regard to the caribou, Captain Hardy says : " It is only to be approached by the sportsman with the assistance of a regular Indian hunter. In old times the Indians possessed and practised the art of calling the buck in September, as they now do the bull-moose, the call-note being a short hoarse bellow; this art, however, is lost, and at the present day the animal is shot by stalking, or ' creeping ' as it is locally termed ; that is, advancing stealthily and in the footsteps of the Indian, bearing in mind the hopelessness of success should sound, sight, or scent give -warning of approaching danger. As with the moose, the latter faculty seems to impress tha caribou most with a feeling of alarm, which is evincad ah an almost incredible distance from the object and fully accounted for, as a general fact, by the size of the nasal cavity, and the development of the cartilage of the septum. As the caribou generally travels and feeds down wind, the wonderful tact of the Indian is indispen- sable in a forest country, where the game cannot bo sighted from a distance as on the f jelds of Scandinavia or Scottish hills. Of course, however, on the plateaux of Newfound- s I I ^'p\ 258 NEWFOUNDLAND. (ntT II. i i^'' . : ;« 1 1 ««4KBm II i 'I^^^^B III 1 f' 'I^D i! u i n^' ^ M I l^lrl■^•'f 1" If I lii land and Labrador, and on the largo caribou-plains of Nova Scotia and Now Brunswick, less Indian craft is brought into play, and the sport becomes assimilated to that of deer-stalking. " It is almost hopeless to attempt an explanation of the Indian's art of hunting in the woods — stalking an invisible quarry over on the watch and constantly on the move, through an over-varying succession of swamps, burnt country, or thick forest. A review of all the shifts and expedients practised in creeping, from tho first finding of recent tracks to the exciting moment when tho Indian whispers, ' Quito fresh ; put on cap,' would bo im- practicable. I confess that, like many other young hunters, or like the conceited blundering settlers, who are for ever cruising through tho woods, and doing littlo else (save by a chanco shot) than scaring the country, I onco fondly hoped to bo able to master tho art, and to hunt on my own account. Fifteen years' experience has undeceived mc, and compels mo to acknowledge tho superiority of tho red man in all matters relating to tho art of 'venerio' in the American woodlands. " When brought up to the game in the forest, there is, also some difficulty in realising tho presence of tho caribou. At all times of the year its colour is so similar to tho per- vading hues of tho woods, that tho animal, when in repose, is exceedingly difficult of detection; in winter, especially when standing amongst tho snow-dappled stems of mixed spruce and birch woods, they are so hard to see, and their light gray hue renaers the judging of distance and aim so uncertain, that many escape the hunter's bullet at distances, and under circumstances, which should other- wise admit of no excuse for a miss." \hvt IIL THE FISHERIES. THE HISTORY CHAPTER I. AND CONDITION INDUSTRIES. OF THE COD-FISH Export comparisons — The earliest fislicrmon on the Ncwfonndland coasts — The "West of England men — Driving out settlers — The rivalry of Franco and England — French and American fishing enterprises supported by bounties — Statistical records of population — Tlio rise and progress of the cod fishery — The Great Banks— Want of organisation and scientific observation — • Number of persons engaged in tli.o staple trade — Value of tho fisheries to France and J]ngland — The American catch of codfish on the Banks — Nowfcnindland and the Dominion of Canada — European cod-pi-oduciug countries — Tho "catch" in Norway — Newfoundland compared with tho principal sea fisheries of tho world. Thr fisheries of Newfoundland constitute the grand staple industry of the country. The trade of the colony depends mainly on the exportation of fish and oil. In one depart- ment of industry Newfoundland in advance of all other countries. Her cod fisheries are the most extensive the world has ever seen. If, for the purpose of comparison, we take the five years from 1871 to 1875, the average annual export of cod-fish from Newfoundland during this period was 1,333,009 quintals, of 1121b. weight. During the * m « in , i 7, I ffffl I t 2G0 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAlt III. samo years tlio average export of cocl-fisli from tlic Dominion of Canada was 78o,425 quintals ; and that of Norway, 751,382 qniiitals. The cod are taken on the shores of tlu> island, on the Banks, and along the coast of Labnidor. Tlio Bank fishery is now chiefly prosecuted by tho French and Americans, Xowfonndlanders occupying themselves mainly with the shore and Labrador fishery. The aggregate annual catch of cod at present by tho three nationalities in the North American waters, is estimated at 3,700,000 quintals. The number of cod-fish captured to make up this weight of dried fish, allowing forty fish for a quintal, would reach 150,000,000. Thus prolific in cod are tho encompassing seas of the i.sland. The value of 3,700,000 quintals, at 81, would be 8M,800,000. The cod fishery has been prosecuted during the last three hundred and seventy-eight years ; but, notwithstand- ing the enormous drafts every year, the fishing-grounds show no signs of exhaustion, and, to all appearance, the supply of cod is as abundant as ever. Very soon after Cabot's discovery of the island, and his report of the abundance of cod in the w^aters, the Basques, the most enterprising fisher- men of those days, began to fish on the coast. The island was discovered in 1407, and in 150 1, according to Pure Fournier, these Basques were busy drawing cod from the waters, and had given the name Baccalaos, or Codlands, to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton, tho countries adjacent to the fishing-grounds. Thus, though discovered by English navigators, other nationalities were the first to profit by the riches of those seas ; and for a long period the fisher- men of the Basque provinces, of Normandy and Brittany, "were alone engaged in the cod fishery on these coasts.* Tho English at that time were maiuly occupied with a lucrative * In tho name " Port-aux-Basques," a fine harbour near Cape Ray, these Basque fishermen have left a relic of themselves ia Newfoundland. ii^^i :'■'.. : cnir. I.] THE COD-FISH INDU8T1UKS. 2G1 fisliery on tlio coasts of Iceland, much nearer liomo. la Purchas' " His Pilgrims," a letter is given which was written by John Rut, master of an English ship, from the harbour of St. John's, to King Henry VIII. It bears the date of August 3rd, 1527. Among other things tlie writer in- formed His Majesty that he found in the harbour of St. John's eleven ships from Normandy, one from Breton, and two from Portugal, all engaged in fishing. It was not long, however, before the English fishermen discovered the value of those fisheries, for, in 1540, vessels from London, Bristol, Bidcford, and Barnstaple were engaged in fishing on the Banks of Newfoundland. In proof of this, Hakluyt gives an extract from an Act passed in the reign of Edward VI. " against the exaction of money, or any other thing, by any officer, for licence to traffic in Ireland or Newfoundland." In 1578, some now light is tln-own on the condition of the fisheries, as Ilakluyt gives a letter written to him by M. Antonio Parkhurst, gentleman, con- taining a report on Newfoundland, in which the writer says that England had then fifty ships engaged in the fishery, but that France and Spain had each a hundred and fifty, and Portugal fifty vessels. When Sir Humphrey Gilbert took possession of the island, in 1583, he found thirty-six ships in the harbour of St. John's engaged in fishing, of which sixteen were English. In 1610 The Company of Planters of Newfoundland, composed of the Earl of Northampton, Lord Bacon, and many others, made an unsuccessful attempt at a settlement in the island. Even at that early period, as we have already seen, Lord Bacon, from his knowledge of the value of its fisheries, declared that " it contained richer treasures than the mines of Mexico and Peru." English merchants and fishermen, chiefly from the West of England, had by this time established stations all along the eastern coast ; but the fishery was mi- 262 NEWFOUNDLAND. [r.uiT III. I I rw 1^ tti gratoiy, tho fisliorraen rcturninj^ to England at tho closo of each season. In 1G15 Captain Wliitbourno was sent out by tlio Admiralty to establish order along the coast, and he found ono hundred and seventy English vessels engaged in fishing. Tho numbers rapidly increased, for in 1G20 Devonshire alone sent ono hundred and fifty vessels to tho fishery, and England had begun to monopolise the fish trado of Spain and Italy. At tho same date throo hundred and fifty families had, in spite of every discourage- ment, settled in the various harbours of tho island. The Fi'cnch, too, had greatly extended their fishing operations, and rivalled tho English in their successful pursuit of tlio cod. So eager were they to share in this lucrative industry, that in 1035 tho French agreed to pay a duty of five per cent, on the produce for pei'mission to dry fish in New- foundland ; and, in IGGO, they founded a colony in Plaisancc or Placentia Bay. Tho importance of the fishery was further evidenced in IGOo, when, in order to encourage it, an Act was passed exempting it from tax or toll. Then followed tho long and melancholy struggle of ninety years, already described in tho historical part of this voluiuo, between the merchant adventurers, who obtained charters from successive British governments, and the resident population, who, notwithstanding stern prohibitory laws, continued to increase. During tho wholo period society was in a wretched state, owing to tho oppressive laws prohibiting settlement. Matters came to a crisis in 107G, when, through tho influence of Sir Joshua Child, the prin- cipal merchant connected with tho fisheries in England, an order was obtained for rooting out tho entire settlers, and Sir John Berry was despatched to bui*n their houses and drive them out. This officer remonstrated against tho inhuman order, and it was annulled before much injuiy was inflicted. ^\i ll I \ fHAr. I.I TTfK COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 2G3 Irs, aim les and 1st tlio injury Both England ami Franco wcro now fully awaro of tho vast importance of tlio island and its fislieries, and cacli struggled hard to retain a hold npon both, moro especially as it was felt to bo tho key to open or close access to Canada. Tho treaty oE Eyswick, in l(i08, restored all tho possessions of each power in the island, but that of Utrecht, in 1713, transferred tho sovereignty of Newfoundland and tho adjacent islands to Great Britain. The French, how- ever, obtained by the same treaty certain fishing privileges, to which they have tenaciously clung ever since, and which have pi'oved tho source of constant disputes, and greatly retarded the prosperity of the colony. The rapidly-increasing value and importance of this fishery may bo estimated from tho fact that oven so early as 1G08, no less than 205,198 quintals of dried cod-tish were sent to market from tho island, nearly half of which quan- tity was caught by tho resident population. The number of ships then employed in fishing or carrying fish was two hundred and fifty-two ; and the number of boats three hundred and ninety-seven. Tho French were still moro active in tho fisheries, as in 1721 they had four hundred ships employed ; and rivalled tho English in supplying tho Mediterranean and Spanish markets. They sustained tho industry bv a system of high bounties. Both nations re- garded the Newfouudhxnd fisheries as highly important, iu a national point of view, as they proved to bo the best training school for a hardy courageous race of seamen, and thus to both nations they were nurseries for supplying their navies with sailors. In tho case of England, there can bo no question that these Newfoundland fislieries wcro the first nurseries for that fearless race of seamen who won her early maritime supremacy, and made her the world's great trader. On this point Mr. McGregor, in his valuable work on "British America," says: "Newfoundland, although > I . 1 ill m I 1 1 I I 1 \ 1 1 1 m li- ill: I ■ h 264 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AHT III. occupying no distinguished place in the history of the New- World, has notwithstanding, at least for two centuries and a half after its discovery by Cabot in 1 197, been of more mighty importance to Great Britain than any other colony ; and it is doubtful if the British Empire could have risen to its great and superior rank among the nations of the earth, if any other power had held the possesc'ion of Newfound- land; its fisheries having ever since its commencement furnished our navy with a great proportion of its hardy and brave sailors." Whatever may be thought of the national policy pur- sued in granting to the French, aud :<,fterwards to the Americans, such extensive privileges in connection with the Newfoundland fisheries, it is evident that these conces- sions placed the colonists at a great disadvantage. Both French and Americans sustained their fisheries by large bounties, while Newfoundland fishermen had to compete with them, in their own waters, without any such assistance. The concessions to the French had the practical result of closing one half the island against settlement and the cultivation of the soil, find thus greatly retarded the growth of the population. It is not wonderful, therefore, to find that the Bank fishing, in which formerly many hundred fishing vessels from the shores of Newfoundland took a part, has long been abandoned to the French and Americans. In 1815 there were four hundred British vessels engaged in the Bank fishery; in 1845 it became practically extinct. An attempt has been made of late, with encouraging results, to restore this fishery ; but only time will tell the issue of the effort. The Newfoundland fisheries have long been carried on only along the shores of the island, and on the coasts of Labrador. With such energy and success have these industries been pursued under all disadvantages, arising from French and Ame'ican bounties, that at present CBAP. I.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. ?G5 their annual value, all fishery products included, may be estimated at from six to eight millions of dollars ; and they constitute the main source from which a population of 180,000 derive their support. They do not, however, expand with the increasing jiopulation ; and hence, to pro- vide for the future, the long dormant resources of the island are at length about t( be turned to account. The great cod fishery, though many more hands are employed in it than formerly, has long been absolutely stationary. For thirty years it has occasionally risen above, and at times fallen below, a million quintals ; and had it not been for the discovery of mines and greater attention to agri- culture, destitution would have driven away great numbers of the inhabitants. The railway now under construction will revolutionise matters and create new industries. Having thus sketched the history of the Newfoundland fisheries, we subjoin the following statistics of the cod fishery, in order to show its growth from the earliest periods and its condition at the present time. The earliest record is for 1G96, and is as follows : Residents ...... 293 Fishermen . . . . . . 2,028 Total population ..... 2,321 Number of boats ..... 431 Number of quintals of cod caught in the harbours occupied by the British . 220,700 The following is an abstract of the trade and population two years later, in 1698 : Number of planters Number of their children Number of their servants 284 462 1,894 sr ,i.' ■' a I 2G6 NEWFOUNDLAND. Number of boats owned by them Quintals of fish made by them Number of ships fishing and carrying fish Their tonnage . . Number of seamen employed Quintals of fish caught by ships . Quintals of fish pui'chased by merchants Quintals of fish carried to market [I'ART III. 307 . 101,152 252 . 24,318 4,2M . 114,770 . 157,818 . 205,198 The returns for the following sixteen years seem to indicate a decline in the cod fishery, the average exporta- tion for the first three years of that period being 154,370 quintals, and for the last three 102,303 quintals. A remarkable increase in the catch of fish took place in 1763, and in the following years the progress was fully sustained, as the following statistics show : i! " i ; : <, t Year. Quintals exported 1703 . . . . 348,294 1704 . 470,118 1705 . 493,054 1785 . 591,276 1787 . 732,015 1788 . 948,970 1790 649,092 1792 . 552,260 1795 500,000 1800 382,000 1805 025,519 1810 884,474 1813 891,360 1814 . 947,762 1815 . 1,086,266 1820 . 901,159 CHAP. I.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 1825 , \j\^i^—j. • Xt.7J.J. » 1 Xi.1 J-/ \J 073,101 1835 . i 712,588 1815 . 1,000,233 1850 , 1,089,182 1854 774,117 1800 . 1,379,804 1863 1 1,012,321 187Q . 1,101,535 1872 . 1,221,150 1873 1,309,205 1871 . 1,009,724 1875 1,130,235 1870 1,301,008 1877 . 1,029,004 1878 1,074,010 1879 . 1,387,770 1880 1,419,505 1881 1,583,132 2G7 In connection with the foregoing returns the population of the island at various periods must be taken into account. The statistics given above include the quantities of cod taken by the whole number of fishermen, both those who came in fishing vessels and returned to England at the end of the season, and those resident in the country. As the population increased the fishing industries fell more and more into the hands of those who resided in the island, and at length the migratory fishery ceased entirely. In 1703 tlie resident population Avas 13,112; in 1792, 15,253; in 1789,19,100; in 1825, 55,719; in 1832, 00,008; in 1855, 122,038; in 1809, 140,530; in 1874, 101,449; in 1882, estimated population 185,000. Naturally we should expect to find as the population grew, and more persons were employed in the fisheries, the iii, 1 1 \ 1 i ! '. V ! 2G8 NEWFOUNDLAND. [FAttT III. quantities of fish cauglit would incroaso in proportion. IJiit the foregoing statistics prove that this has not been the case. In 1855, with a population of 122,()o8, the quantity of cod taken amounted to 1,107,388; in 1880, with a population of nearly 183,000, the quantity of cod taken was 1,419,505. li^or thirty yeai'S the catch has occasionally fallen below a million qumtals, but only during two or three years has it greatly exceeded a million quintals. In 1871, an ex- ceptional year, it rose to 1,000, 721 quintals, which were the highest figures ever reached; and in 1880 the catch amounted to 1,419,505 quintals. The grand staple industry must bo regarded .as stationary, though greatly increased numbers are engaged in it, and improved appliances have been of late introduced for the capture of the cod. The question arises — Have the limits of the cod fishery been reached ? Are there fewer cod in the water than formerly, owing to the heavy drafts made on the prolific race by the increasing numbers of fishermen ? There can be no doubt that there are localities which show signs of exhaustion, either from over-fishing or other causes, such as the destruction of the food of the cod. Some of the bays, notably Conception Bay, where cod were once abundant, are now comparatively unproductive fishing- grounds. But this exhaustion is confined to a limited area; and the more extensive fishing banks along shore, and the Great Banks far out at sea, show no signs of depletion. The Great Banks, six hundred miles in length and two hundred in breadth, the home and breeding- grounds of the cod, have been fished for three centuries and a half without showing any symptoms of a falling off in the quantities taken. The enormous fecundity of the cod forbids the idea of exhaustion ; and the quan- tities taken by man are infinitesimal when compared with the destruction caused by their natural enemies. The CHVP. I.] THE COD-FISH IXDUSTRIES. 2G9 igns of I length peding- Inturies I falling lity of quan- with Tho Fislicry Commissioners of Eng^ai '1, after an exhaustive inquiry into the matter, declare that there is no falling off in the supply of fish around the shores cf Great Britain, notwithstanding tho immenoo and increasing drafts on them ; and in consequence, have recommended the removal of all I'estrictions on the fishing industries. It is difficult to see why the Newfoundland fisheries should ever fall into a state of depletion, when other British waters, with far heavier drafts, ai'e as prolific as ever. The stationary condition of the Newfoundland cod fishery is not caused by a falling off in the quantity of cod in tho waters, but is largely owing to the imperfect and antiquated methods of taking them which, still obtain. Science has not been called in to aid this important industry as has been the case in Norway. Newfoundland lias no fishery bureau. Improvements are very slowly introduced. The hook-and-line is depended on far too extensively. Fishing from small punts with the baited liook, close in-shore, is the method followed by large numbers of the poorer class of fishermen. The merchants show no spirit or energy in procuring information re- garding what other countries are doing, or by inducing fishermen to use improved fishing gear. The preser- vation of bait by ice is only attempted on a small scale, the aid of the telegrapli and the thermometer has not yet been obtained. Above all, the vicious "supplying system," by which advances in food and clothing, at high prices, are made to the fishermen at the commencement of each season, is destructive to the industrious efforts of those who are thus never out of debt, and often on the hrink of famine ; and tends to undermine their self-respect and honesty. Were there a well-organised fishery bureau, under the guidance of a skilled scientist and practical men, and were the improvements of the other fishing countries ; I I I 270 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past III. 1 1 : introduced here, and the supplying system curtailed or abolished, the cod fishery, as well as the other fisheries, by the application of skill and capital, might be indefinitely increased. Under the present system, it is not likely to make further advances. There have been some improve- ments, but much remains to be done. Newfoundlanders have every natural ac.vantage in inexhaustible supplies of cod either close to their doors or on the Banks, a day's sail from their shores, or on the Labrador coast, at no great distance. To the inhabitants of warm countries the dried cod furnishes a palatable article of food, and many of them regard it as indispensable. Catholic countries alone spend annually about half a million sterling in the purchase of cod taken in North American seas. So far from declining in value, the price of Newfoundland cod has advanced from fifty to seventy-five per cent, within the last fifteen years. While there is a difficulty often in finding a market for English manufactured goods, the demand for cod-fish never fails; and, as railways extend in Brazil, in Spain, in the Mediter- ranean countries, so as to permit its conveyance to the in- teriors, the demand increases. Thus it is evident that a cod-producing country possesses in this industry a source of prosperity which can never fail, and which the fluctuations of trade, or the caprices of fashion, cannot muchalfect. The extraordinary fecundity of the cod secures the fisheries against exhaustion. The cod fishery of Newfoundland is the grand staple industry, all the other fisheries — of the seal, salmon, herring, etc. — amounting in the aggregate in value to but one-fifth of the whole. Four-fifths of the entire returns of the fisheries arise from the cod fishery. In proof of this we may take the latest complete returns, those for the year ending July 31st, 1881. The pi'oducts of CHiP. I.I THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. tlio cod fishery oxpoi'ted that year, inclusive of were as f ollowi=) : 1,583,123 quintals dried cod, at $3 20 c. . 1,51 G „ green „ 4,127 tuns cod oil, at $1?0 .... 14 i „ refined cod-liver oil, at $180 1,040 barrels cod-roes, at $3 43 packages of tongues and sound, at $1 300 barrels cods' -heads, at $1 . Total value of exports of the cod fishery . To this must be added the local consumption of cod-fish, at the rate of 1 ^ quintals per head, or 270,000 quintals at $3 20c. Total value of cod fishery in 1881 2/1 Labrador, Dollars. 5,0GG,02Q 1,516 445,71 G 25,922 3,120 43 300 5,542,635 864,000 6,406,635 staple herring, •fifth of isheries •eturns, Hucts of The value of the other fisheries — of the seal, salmon, herring, etc.— for 1881 was $1,429,871. The value of the whole exports, copper ore included, for 1881 was $7,048,574. It is interesting to note the number of persons employed in taking this quantity of cod-fish. The latest census, that of 1874, showed that out of a population of 161,449 there were 26,377 able-bodied fishermen in the colony, 45,845 persons engaged in catching and curing fish, 1,197 vessels of a tonnage of 61,551 tons, 8,902 fishing-rooms in actual use, and 18,611 boats employed in the shore fishery. At the present date there are about 53,000 persons engaged in catching and curing fish out of a population of 180,000. The same men are employed in the seal and herring fisheries as in the cod fishing, the seal fishery occurring in spring before the cod make their appearance, and the herring in the autumn and winter. I 'I' 1 : : II LLA^ k^L <^Uilli 272 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'.ur in We sliall now ondoavour to estimate the extent and value of the French and American , Newfoundland cod fisheries. For some three hundred and fifty years, Franco has carried on a cod fishery on the Banks of New- foundland, and also along the western and northern shores of the island. Each year a fleet arrives at St. Pierre, iu April, from France. After purchasing a supply of bait, for which they are dependent on the Newfoundland fishermen, who realise about $100,000 per annum by its sale, they proceed to the Banks and the station' along shore. Each vessel makes three trips from St. Pierre to the Banks. The produce of the first two voyages is taken ashore at St. Pierre and dried, and that of the third is taken direct to France in a green state. The fishery is sustained by a bounty of eight shillings and four pence sterling per quintal. It has been for years in a state of decline, and without the bounties would perish. In 1839, according to Le Constitutionnel, as quoted by Sir R. Bonny castle in his work on Newfoundland, the French cod fishery, in Newfoundland waters, employed GOO ships, 13,000 men, and 50,000 tons of shipping, furnishing France with 12,000 able seamen — being one-fourth of the wholo number required for her navy at that time. In 1 8 18, according to the report of Captain Loch, of H.M.S. Alarm, " there were 360 French Banking vessels, of from 150 to 300 tons each, carrying from 1G,000 to 17,000 Frenchmen; which vessels caught annually 1,200,000 quintals of fish on the Banks.'^ In 1852, Perley's report was, in substance, the same. In 1865, James S. Hay ward, Esq., of H.M. Customs, Newfound- land, visited St. Pierre, and obtained access to the French records. His report, which is quite reliable, shows a very striking decline iu the French fishery. He found that in 1864, there were employed in the fisheries ninety-eight square-rigged vessels, carrying 2,742 men, and 579 small craft and boats, carrying 4,541 men : making a total of Ml cnip. I.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 273 7,223 engaged in tho fisliories. The catch that year was : Dried cod-fish, 100,097 quintals; green cod, 40,910 quintals. Allowing twenty quintals per man for tho last trip, the produce being taken to France green, we have 54,840 quintals ; and the Northern fishery, not reported at St. Pierre, would probably yield 100,000 quintals. "We have thus, as the total catch along the shores and on the Banks, by the French, in 1804, 308,707 quintals. In a favour- able year it is possible that tho catch may approach half a million of quintals — a striking decline since 1818. This fishery has not advanced since 1804, as the latest returns obtained, those for 1874, show that there were that year, 847 vessels, and 5,021 men employed in tho fishery. In this return are included the schooners from St. Pierre, and boats not decked, employed at the local fishery about St. Pierre. In 1808 the cod-fish export from St. Pierre was 217,045 quintals. The French Newfoundland fisheries may be estimated at present as averaging from 400,000 to 500,000 quintals annually ; the number of men employed being 5,000 to 0,000. The following return shows the number of men and vessels employed from 1807 to 1874: Vessels. Men. 1807 . .804 7,178 1808 . .774 0,552 1809 . .800 0,452 1870 . 833 0,397 1871 . .005 5,295 1872 . .805 5,020 1873 . .899 0,030 1874 . .847 5,021 Boats and schooners are included in the above return. The French returns give the value of their Newfound- 274 NKWFOUNDLAND. tPA«T III. i i \ 1. J ; 1 1 ! 1 1 ' 1 I:! laud fislicrios as 8,;300,0()0 francs in 1871, and 10,500,000 francs in 1872. In the Rcvno des Deux Mondcs for Novon\ber, 187i, a writer states that those fisheries bring some lo to 20 million francs to French comraorcc, and employ OjUOO sailors. This statement is not borno out by their own returns. The history of the French Newfound- land fisheries shows a steady decline since 1850. From 1811 to 1850 tho averngo tonnage employed in their fisheries annually was 18,000 ; tho average number of men 1 1 ,500. Tho decline, therefore, amounts at present to ono- half. After "fatal Waterloo," tho French, in order to restore their naval power and create sailors, gave immense bounties to those who engaged in the Newfoundland fisheries, amounting to about 870 per man. Being sus- tained by such bounties tho Newfoundland fishermen could not compete on the Banks with the French, the outfit for this fishery being very expensive. The result was that the British Bank fishery declined rapidly, so that in 1815 it was completely extinct. Once it employed 400 vessels. As a commercial speculation the French Bank fishery is not suc- cessful ; and were it not for the bounties it would be aban- doned. It is well known that the French fishermen pursue these foreign fisheries largely for the bounties they enjoy, the fish being, in many instances, a secondary consideration. There are no available statistics, as far as we are aware, to show what is the American catch of cod-fish on the Banks. Formerly a large number of American fishing vessels used to frequent the Labrador coast, but at j^resent very few are seen there, and American fishermen confine their efforts mainly to the Banks when in pursuit of cod. According to the Annual Report of the chief of the Bureau of Statistics, etc., the amount of dried cod-fish received into the Customs' Districts of the United States during 1874 was 850,732 quintals, valued at 83,094,1.83 ; and in 1875 the quantity of dried cod-fish was 750,543 quintals, valued at 83,GG1,49G, i-uvr. I.) THi: COD-FISH INDUSTIIIES. 275 The f^rcntor portion of this catch was, wo believe, taken on the Banks. The American coil fishery shows a marked dccHno between tho years 1850 and 1807. In the former year the tonnage of the United States employed in tho cod fishery was l:j(;,05t; in 1807 it was oO,700. Tlio decline lias been most rapid since 1803. Whether this fishery has rallied since I8t)7 we have no statistics to determine. Tho following Table shows tho comparative valno of the cold-water sea fisheries of tho United States, tho Dominion of Canada, and Newfoundland. Tho returns include not only cod but all fish, such as mackerel and herring, taken in tho waters around the coasts : Year. United States. Domlniou of Canada. Newfoundland Dols. Dols. Dols. 1870 . 5,313,007 . 7,000,000 . 7,200,208 1871 . 11,128,110 8,000,000 . 8,()8(;,081 1872 . 0,520,017 . 0,570,110 . 0,i>5-t,528 1873 . 8,31-8,185 . 10,751,088 . 8,138,005 1874 . 0,522,553 . 11,081,880 . 8,511,710 1875 . 10,717,570 . 10,317,880 . 7,815,328 1870 . 0,750,083 . 11,010,151 . 7,0b'7,877 From this Table it appears that the combined catch of the Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland is nearly double in value tho mean annual yield of the sea fisheries of the United States. The greater part of the latter are carried on in waters off British-American coast-liues. Of European cod-producing countries by far the most important is Norway. It is the great rival of Newfound- land in the cod markets of the world, and its competition is very keen, especially in recent years, during which the Norwegians have made great advances, by the aid of science, in the modes of capturing and cux'ing cod. The following table exhibits the comparative condition of the Norwegian T 2 1,, t >f ! ! I! to 18G5, i^how- ing the avertigo annual catch during groups of four years : Years. 1 840-1850 1851-1855 1 850-1800 1801-1805 Norway. Coil exported. Qtiiutnls. . 587,450 . 005,787 . 000,070 . 751,382 Newfmuidlaiiil Cod oxjiortoil. Qiiiutala. 1)80,;}:5(; 1)58,858 1,220,151. 1,050,551 That tho cod fishery of Norway, though flnctuatiii;:^ during certain periods, is increasing in value, is evitleiit from tho report of M. Frielo, presented at tho Taris E.\po- sition of 1878. In that report the returns are given as follows : STenr.s. Cod. Value ill dola 1878 . 1.9,500,000 . |.,2 10,000 187-1. . . -17,500,000 . •1,000,000 1875 . . 58,000,000 . •|.,800,000 1870 . . 88,000,000 . 8,000,000 1877 . . 70,000,000 (about) 0,080,000 Tho yield in Norway in 1877 of 70,000,000 cod-fish must ho regarded as exceptional, being hy far the most abundant on record. If avo allow fifty cod-fish to a iiuintnl, then tho NiM-wny catch in 1877 was 1,100,000 ({uiiitals. Tho last two years havo witnessed a failure in those fisheries, which lias had tho effect of enhancing tho price of Newfoundland cod-fish, tho catch in Newfoundland being at tho samo time above an average. In 1877 there wcro employed in the Loffoden cod fishery — which is the prin- cipal one — 21,287 men and •|.,507 boats. Tho average gain of each fisherman Avas -SI 20 during tho season, which lasts from tho beginning of February to the middle of April, !t CHAT. I.l THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 277 being a winter fisliory. Finmark is the summer cod fisbery of Norway. Althougb. the NowfouiidlanJ cod fishery does not show any marked advance in the quantities taken during the last thirty years, the increase in the market vahie of dried cod- fish has been enhanced to the extent of from lifty to seven ty- five per cent., so that there lias been a steady progress in the value of the products. The follow' ig Table shows the progress of the value of the whole products of the Newfoundland fislun-ies during each group of five years, from 1852 to 187(5 inclusive, the main increase arising from tlie cod fishery : Groii]) of Fivo Yeiirs. 1852-1850 1857-1802 1802-1800 1807-1871 1872-1870 Avorngo Valuo of Kxports from >.'o\vr()iiiulliiiKl. Dollars. 5,100,129 0,l:]2,?U)2 0,080,1-1.5 7,011,107 7,817,001 The following are the values of the exports of New- foundland for the years named : YiMirs. Dollars. 1877 7,025,111 1878 0,5<) 1,807 1871) 7,108,'.t2l. 1880 7, Un ,01)5 1881 7,018,571. Average for the last live years . 7,200,108 The last-named return in the foregoing Table is for the year ending July olst, 1881, and is taken from the report of the St, John's Chamber of Commerce. The Custom Uouso returns for 1881 extend to December 31st, 1881, and Mi V 1 trif \ I fr : m i\ ii'l It I fr '^1 if pI^ I i ; 278 NEWFOUNDLAND. ll'ABT III. show a most extraordinary advance in the value of tlie fisheries for the whole of that year. The value of the whole exports for 1881 was no less than 89,365,30-1. The value of fishery products exported in 1881 was thus greater by no less than 82,231,209 th m those of 1880. Thus 1881 was by far the most successful year in regard to the products of the fisheries which is on record, the values exceeding those of previous years by nearly two millions and a quarter of dollars. Excluding the catch of cod-fish on Labrador from the returns of 1880 and 1881, the exports of dried cod stood as follows : Years. Quintals. 1880 . 985,131. 1881 . 1,173,510 Increase in 1881 Dollars. 3,282,903 5,125,275 1,8427312 Thus the increase in the values of the exports in 1881 arose largely from an increase in the quantity of cod-fish taken, but also from an advance in the price, which, owing to the failure of the Norwegian fisheries, was considerable. Other things combined to swell the value of the exports for 1881. , The 7alue of the products of the seal fishery was greater by $302,570 than that of 1880, which had been much below the average. The value of the copper ore exported was also greater by 8100,180 than that of 1880. We must therefore regard 1881 as being quite an excep- tional year, and one whose results are not likely to be equalled for years to come. The seal fishery of the spring of 1882 has proved one of the very worst on record, the catch not exceeding 150,000 seals. The cause of the falling off was the masses of heavy ice which beset the shores for many weeks, impeding the movements of the vessels. This will of coui'se cause a corresponding falling off in one item of the exports for 1882. From the foregoing statements it is evident that the CHAP, t.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 279 cod fishery of Newfoundland is greater than that of any other cod-producing country in the world, the Norway fishery being next in value. The average value of the Newfoundland products of the cod fishery may now bo reckoned at $500,000 per annum; and adding to this the value of the local consumption, we must place the entire annual value at 8G,3G4,000. It may ,be interesting to compare the piuncipal sea fisheries of the world in regard to their respective value. The following Table may be regarded as presenting a fairly correct estimate of the annual value : s. Total Value in Dollars. ^G:3 British European sea fisheries . 31,090,000 275 British American sea fisheries . 20,193,59G 312 United States ..... 13,030,821 in 1881 cod-fish France Norway ....... Russia (European sea fisheries) 12,1GG,G6G 0,250,219 . 2,1-25,156 1, owing- Eussia (Asiatic fisheries) . 10,89G,G25 dcraljlo. Netherlands ..... 1,035,725 torts for cry was id been per ore f 1880. excep- • to he > spring 3rd, the of the set the of the falling lat the » I!: iiil' \h\ iM: CHAPTER II. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD, ITS DISTRIBUTION, MOVEMENTS, SPAWNING, AND MODE OF CURE. Cold-water seas and tbe Arctic current — Nature's laws of com- pensation—Food of the cod — The Labrador current — An old theory exploded — A submarine plateau — The fishing season — Cai)lin and squids — Process of curing the cod — Operators at work — Cod-liver oil — Fishing tackle and metliods of taking the cod. Or tlio tliree leading kinds of commei'cial food-fishes — the cod, tlio herring, and the mackerel — the cod has the widest range. On the east coast of America, it is found, from the Polar regions on the north to Cape Hatteras on the south, being most abundant on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, and on the gre.at banks lying to the south and west. On the western coast of America, in the North Pacific Ocean, its boundary runs from Northern China, at Chusan, northward along the west coast of Japan and the Kuviie Islands to the southern extremity of Kamtschatka, and across to the Aleutian Islands, by Kodiak, Sitka, and the islands of the west coast of North Amevica to San Francisco. In the Old World the cod has an extensive geographical range, being most abundant in the neiarhbourhood o^ the LofToden Islands, Norway, Finmark, Iceland, the Faroe and British Islands. il \'- l! i! i 11 1 '1 t li i ., ii'l CHAP, n.] NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 281 Its northernmost limit is in general seventy-seven degrees north latitude, and the southernmost, in the Atlantic, thirty degrees north latitude. It is thus found on the coasts of both continents, and on the line where the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans meet. This may be called the domain of the Gadithe, which naturalists tell us embrace nine genera and forty-one species. Cold-water seas are essential to the life of the com- mercial food-fishes. In the tropical seas, or even in ■ .*' -*^»-n^ A NEWFOUNDLAND FISHING FLEET BEFORE THE DAYS OF STEAM. the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, they could not exist, any more than the Arctic hare could thrive in the Torrid Zone. The Arctic current which washes the coasts of Labrador, Newfoundland, Canada, and part of the United States, chilling the atmosphere, bearing on its bosom huge ice-argosies, is the source of the vast fish wealth which has been drawn on for ages, and which promises to continue for ages to come. Wanting this cold "river in the ocean,'' the cod, seals, herrings, mackerel, halibut, hake, etc. which now crowd the northern seas, would be entirely absent. The great '1 ^ II ! Hi 282 NEWFOUNDLAND. [rABI HI. I 1 !![='« V !l fishing interests are tlius as dependent on the Arctic current, as the farming interests on tlio rain and sunshine which ripen the crops. Here is an illustration of Nature's great law of compensation. While the bleak shores of these northern regions are almost tcuantless wildernesses, the encompassing seas are swarming with vast varieties of marine life. The Arctic current rushes down from the Spitzbergcn seas, laden with ice-fields and icebergs, sweeps round Cape Farewell, the southern point of Greenland, flo\Ys north as far as Cape York, and being here deflected westward, it mingles with the ice-laden river coming from the Arctic regions through Davis Strait. It now flows south, and receiving a fresh accession of strength from Hudson's Strait, it rushes along Labrador and the Newfoundland shores, till it encounters the warm waters of the Gulf Stream moving eastward. Here it is divided into two parts, one wedging itself between the Gulf Stream and the coast, the other shooting underneath the warm waters of this second river of the ocean. From Labrador southward it is usually called the Labrador current; and the area which it occupies on the coasts of North America is the great feeding and spawning ground of the commercial deep-sea fishes. It is not altogether owing to its temperature that the Labrador current is favourable to the development of the commercial fishes, though that is essential to their growth. This cold current brings with it the food on which these fishes thrive, and the supply is one that can never fail. So far from being unfavourable to the production of life, the Ai'ctic seas and the groat rivers which they send forth are swarming with minute forms of life, constituting, in the words of Professor Hind, " in many places a living mass, a vast ocean of living slime; and the all-pervading life "svhich exists thex'e affords the true solution of the ;ii ».1:!1 cn.ir. II- 1 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 283 problem which has so often presouted itself to those engaged iu the great fisheries — where the food comes from which gives sustenance to the countless millions of fish which swarm on the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland, and in Dominion and United States waters, or wherever the Arctic current exerts an active influence." In the Arctic seas the waters are characterised by a variety of colours, and it is found that if a fine insect net be towed after a ship it becomes covered with a film of green in green water, and with a film of brown in brown water. These films are of organic origin. "It is," says Hind, "a living slime, and where it abounds there also are to be found swarms of minute crustaceans, which feed on the slime, and in their turn bocome the food of larger animals." Dr. Brown has shown that the presence of this slime spread over a hundred thousand square miles provides food for myriads of birds that frequent the Arctic seas in summer, and also furnishes sustenance to the larger marine animals, up to the giant whale. This " slime of the ocean " appears to be most abundant in the coldest water, and especially in the neighbourhood of ice. The ice-laden current from Bafllu^s Bay and the Spitzbergen seas carries myriads of icebergs which ground in countless numbers on the coast of Labrador, and " render possible there the existence of all these forms of marine life, from the diatom to the minute crustacean, from the minute crustacean to the crab and prawn, together with molluscous animals and starfish in vast profusion, which contribute to the support of the great schools of cod which also find their home there." Thus, then, the great battalions of icebergs carry with them the slime-food on which minute crustaceans live ; and these in their turn furnish food for the herring which swarm on the Great Banks, where this food is abundant, and the herring, with multi- tudes of other forms, are devoured by the cod. When the cod is assimilated by man this great circle of Nature is complete. 1 'i, \ , . 1' \%f j 1 i lilffl' ,1 1 f ; I ) ' ..M *i * ^ it ill I 284 NEWFOUNDLAND. [mst in. There is a vast area on the shores of North America occupied by the Labrador current^ and constituting the home of the cod and other commercial fishes. By far the greatest area of this cold water subtends the coasts of the British American provinces, within the hundred-fathom hne of soundings. It is computed that while the cold-water area subtending the coast of the United States is about 45,000 square miles, that subtending British American shores is 200,000 square miles. The following Table, given by Professor Hind, shows the comparative extent of coast-line washed by the cold current : United States, north of Cape Hatteras Newfoundland . Labrador, as far as Nain New Brunswick Nova Scotia Quebec 1,070 2,000 ;]G0 545 1,170 1,104 Thus while British America has a coast-line of 5,239 miles of fishing ground, the United States have but 1,070. Hence the superior value of British North American fisheries. There is another important consideration. The homes of the deep-sea commercial fishes are in the vicinity of the coasts washed by the cold-water seas, and these are the great storehouses of the commercial fish supplies, and the real and only mainstay of the deep-sea fishery industries of both British America and the United States. The old theory regarding the extended migrations of the cod and herring to the Arctic or other distant regions and back is now entirely exploded. These fish are now known to be local in their habits, and to be confined to a limited area in their movements. They are governed in their movements by the presence or absence of food, the spawning instinct, and the temperature of the Avater. Their general move- ments are in schools, from the deep to the shallower and CHIP. II- 1 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 285 warmer waters of the coast, for spawning, or in search of food, returning by the same route in a direct lino to their liahitat. The law which governs fish life is that they return to the place of their birth for reproductive purposes. Hence all round the coasts there are at different places what may be called colonies of fish, differing from each other, and each having a range of movement from the deep to the shallower waters, and vice versa. To the spot where the young first issued from the ovum they return when mature to repeat the story of their birth. Further, in passing from the spawning grounds to the deeper waters where they spend the winter, the cod and other fish follow a definite line of migration, and that generally the shortest and most direct route. Most of the schools around the Newfoundland coast are believed to winter at no great distance from the shore. Thus the cod taken along any stretch of coast-line is really indigenous to the adjacent sea ai-ea. The eminent naturalist. Professor Sars, has proved that the cod drops its spawn free into the sea, at a considerable distance from the bottom. The spawn does not sink, but goes through all its stages of development swimming free in the sea, quite near the surface. The eggs are transparent, and have a specific gravity so near that of sea- water that they float near the surface, and are hatched in about six- teen days. The male fish, in spawning, swims deeper than the female, and the milt being of less specific gravity than the sea-water, floats upon the surface as soon as it is poured out. The young cod in its first year grows to be about a foot in length. When six months old it goes off from its birthplace into deeper water. It is not reproductive till its fourth year. The remarkable submarine plains at some distance from the shores of Newfoundland, where the finest cod-fish are taken, and where they are most abundant, are not, as was long believed, masses of sand, borne thither by the Gulf ':1 r 5 286 NEWFOUNDLAND. U'AHT lit. Stream and the Kiver St. Lawrence. They form ji rocky submarine plateau, whoso eastern and southern borders descend steeply to a great depth. Tho Great Bank extends over fully nine degrees of latitude from north to south; from west to cast it covers in somo places five degrees. The depth of water varies from fifty to three hundred and sixty feet. Beyond the Grand Hank to the eastward lies the Outer or False Bank, upon which the sea is from six hundred to nine hundred feet in depth. To the west there are several smaller banks. At the west end of the Great Bank soundings have shown a depth of nine thousand feet. The depth around the bank is from ten thousand to fifteen thousand feet. The water on the bank is not warmer than that surrounding it at a depth of three hundred to six thousand feet, namely, 39*2 to i2'8. The fishing- grounds do not extend over the whole bank, but have an extent of about two hundred miles in length and sixty- seven miles in breadth. For nearly four hundred years this " cod meadow " has been fished by large fleets of various nations, without showing any decrease in productiveness. The cod taken on the Banks is larger and finer iu quality than the fish taken along the shores of the island or on Labrador, An average of thirty Bank cod, when dried, make a quintal. The price is higher than that of shore fish. It is a prevalent opinion among fishermen, and until recently was also held by naturalists, that the cod taken in deep water, on banks and reefs, at a considerable distance from as well as close to the land, is a different species from the cod taken in coastal waters. The re- searches of Sars into the natural history of the cod have exploded that opinion, and proved that the shore and Bank cod are really the same species. The Bank cod is merely the mature full-grown cod that has reached its fourth year or upwards, its habits at that age leading it to prefer the Banks to tho shore as feeding-grounds. The cinr. It.) XATUIIAL HISTORY OF THH COD. 287 two-year-old and three-year-old cod remain on the slioro all the year, passing to and from tlio .shallower water. When four years old their reproductive instincts are de- veloped, and after spawning they retii'o far from the coast, and are found on the submarine slopes antl valleys of the Great ]3anks. On the Labrador coast and on Fiumark great numbers of small cod are taken, from eighteen to twenty-two inches in length ; and those are probably schools in their second or third year, which in a season or two, when mature, will change their mode of existence and become Bank fish. The cod begins to appear on the coasts of New- foundland each year about June 1st, being drawn there mainly by the great master instinct which pervades all animated existences. Local variations in the time of arrival, amounting to dtiys and even weeks, occur; and these are dependent on temperature, which determines the move- ment towards the land of the various forms of marine life on which the cod feeds. On the same cause the time of spawning depends. Professor Hind, from a series of careful observations on the movements of the cod, has deduced the following law : " Over an area extending northerly from Conception Bay for seven hundred miles, the cod approach the shore about one week later for every degree of latitude Ave advance to the north." Li Notre Dame Bay and Southern Labrador they appear about June 20th, and on Northern Labrador from the 20th to the 2Sth July. In August and September cod-fishing is going on simultaneously " throughout a length of coast-line extending from latitude 47" '30' to latitude 58" 30', or more than seven hundred miles in one continuous line. Hence it appears that the migrations of the schools of this fish ai-e merely from deep-water winter feeding-grounds to the nearest coast, and from the coast to the nearest deep-water feeding- grounds again. The coast migrations during the summer P' 288 NEWFOfrXDLAND. t'AIT HI. \l w ii; I months nppour to bo of c(juully limited extent, and sclioolg of cod fixHiuenting any piirticuliir const mny bo said to bo indigenous to it." The fishing season on tho Newfoundland coast lasts about one hundred and forty-three days; on Southern iiiibnulor, eighty-seven days; and on Northern Labrador, lil'fcy-two days. The arrival of the cod on tho coast, about the 1st of June, is heralded by the appearance of the caplin. This is a beautiful little fish, about seven inches in length, which arrives in vast multitudes, swarming in enormous schools, in every bay and creek, and on every fishing-ground around tho island. They approach tho shores to spawn, and continue for about six or seven weeks, when they disappear, and retire to some deep-sea valleys of tho shore, where they remain till the summer of the following year. As thev press in on tho shore in vast masses, the greedy cod follows behind, feasting on the rich banquet, devouring its prey in myriads. Tho caplin furnishes the best bait for the fisher- men; and the caplin schooltirae is his richest harvest season. Vessels engaged in fishing on the Banks run in to the harbours at intervals for fresh supplies of caplin as bait, which is preserved in ice. Some idea of tho immense shoals of caplin that fill the bays may be formed from the fact, that a man standing on shore with a casting-net will often fill a cart with them in an hour. With small seines a couple of men can fill a small boat in an hour or two. Thousands of cartloads of caplin are purchased by farmers, who mix them with earth and bog, and thus form a most fertilising compost. If any means could be devised to cure them, like sardines, which they resemble, caplin would become of considerable commercial value, as they have a very delicate flavour when fresh. In a calm moon- light night in June, when fish are plentiful, and the waters all alive with marine forms, the silvery sides of the cod may be seen flashing in the moonbeams, as the fish leap out of csir- III NATURAL HISTORY OF THK COD. 289 lawn, ant tho wiitcr, and dash upon thoir prey, the little caplin flying in all directions, and in evident terror often fliiif^ing them- selves on tho beach. The world of waters, it would seem, i3 no more free from terror, pain, torture, and death, than tho land. Surrounded by ravenous foes, watching for thoir assaults, flying for dear life, fishes, it may bo easily con- ceived, form a part of "the creation that groaneth and travailetli in pain." No sooner do the caplin retire from tho coast than a now school appears, which also supply food for tho cod, and valuable bait for the fisherman. These aro tho squids, or small cuttle-fish. Tho usual time for the appearance of tho squids is about the 1st of August. They also remain for six or seven weeks, and are followed by the herring in the end of September and October. Without these bait-fishes the fishermen could do little in capturing the cod. In order to form an idea of the process of curing, wo shall take a Newfoundland cod-fish, at the time when it is drawn from the water, and follow it through the different stages till it reaches the exporting merchant's store. When the fisherman's boat, laden with the day's catch, reaches his " stage " — a rough covered platform, projecting over the water, and supported on poles — the fish are flung one by one from tho boat to the floor of the stage, with an instrument resembling a small pitchfork, and called a pew. The cod is now seized by the " cut-throat," armed with a sharp and pointed knife, with one stroke of which he severs the attachment between the gill-covering and tho belly, and inserting the knife in the opening thus made, slits the abdo- men to the vent. He then makes a cut on either side of the head at tho base of the skull, and passes it to the " header." This operator first extracts the liver, which is dropped into a vessel by his side, to bo converted into cod-liver oil. He then wrenches off the head, removes the viscera, which V I M i: 1 i ■ 1 l!l)0 NK\VK»trNI>LAM>. Il'llil Ul, uri^ tlirinvii iiit(Mi. vt^ssiO. Ii» ho pi'i'soi'ViMl aKnii;' witli llio litvul lor (lio liinuiT, wlio iiii\ins.'" Ilioui willi ltd;;- juiil miilli lliiis lurms a I'tM'tilisiiii^' maiuiri'. 'I'lu* tmi^'iuvs iiiul .siuiuil,-. \-^^ ,.„,. I'INtl'I'l.AKh', COD HI'UUAI) OVV, lltl.VI' l,A\|it\tl I'OH. or nir MatldiTH, aro also lakcui out, am!, wIumi pIcKlinl, iimko ail I'Xt'i'UtMit article^ ul" I'dinl. Tlu* lisli now passes to tlu' " nj)littor," who plai'ivs il on its bafk iiiul, lioKliii^" it. o|u'ii with liiH It'll liaiiil, takt'H a Hjilittiiij^-knil't* in iiis i i^-Iil, iiiul uuta uloii^ I lio K«rt Hido III' tlio biickbi>no io tUo l»ast* of tlio ^^ I i ll'Ull III. j;" Willi (|,„ ■'■; iiiiil ,>ar|li lllltl NOIlllll.S r^M'^ I I hni, iiiiikd OH t(t (lio l«^ ill oprii ii^'lil, mill ISC of tlld 1 \ 1 li '1 fttXV. II.] NATUKAL HISTOEY OF THE COD. 291 tail. The fish now lies open on the tabic, and with a sharp stroke of his knife, the " splitter " severs the backbone at a shovt distance from the extremity, and catching the end thus freed, lifts it slowly, and following along its side with his knife, quickly cuts it from the body. The " Salter" now takes hold of the fish, and having carefully washed away every particle of blood, he salts it in piles on the floor of the fish-house. After remaining the proper length of time in salt, it is taken from the heap, washed, and cai'ried to the " flake," where it is spread out to dry. The flake consists of a horizontal framework of small poles, covered with spruce-boughs and supported by upright poles, the air having free access beneath. Here the cod are spread out to bleach in the sun and air, and during the process require constant attention. In damp or I'ainy weather, or at the approach of night, they are piled in small heaps with the skin outward. When thoroughly dried they have a whitish appearance, and are then ready for storing. In due time they reach the merchant's whai'f or store, where they are weighed and " culled," or assorted, into four different jjinds, called Merchantable (the best), Madeira, West India (intended for the consumption of the negroes), and Dun, or broken fish, which will not keep, and is for home use. The dried cod intended for Spain, Italy, Brazil, or any other hot country, is packed by screw-power in " drums," or small casks. To some countries it is shipped in bulk. The cod-liver oil, so famous as a remedy in cases of scrofula and consumption, is extracted from the liver of the cod. The process is very simple as followed in New- foundland. The fresh livers, when carefully washed, are subjected to a moderate heat in a vessel around which warm water circulates. The oil is dipped out and filtered three times, through bags of thin blanketing or stout calico. After the third filtering the oil comes out with a beautiful transparency and almost inodorous. It is then barrelled for u 2 l»:^ i Mil Ml) ^^fi ! ! / I 1 ; f iBtit 1 M„ I I! ' 'f ^' i iii IS 292 NEWFOUXDLAND. [PABT in. exportation. Great care is required during the process, in regard to cleanliness, and the application of the proper degree of heat. No adulteration is practised in Newfound- laud, whatever may be done elsewhere. This refined cod- liver oil is usually sold for about a dollar per gallon in the island. In 1881 it was worth a hundred and eighty dollars per tun. Common cod oil is used for tannery and other purposes, and is worth a hundred and eight dollars per tun. The cod is the most useful of all fish. No part is valueless. The head is sometimes cooked and eaten. More frequently in Newfoundland, it is along with the intestines, converted into manure. The offal and boues of the cod, when steamed, dried, and ground, are converted into a fisli guano, which is almost equal as a fertiliser to the Peruvian guano. From the swimming bladder isin- glass is made. The roe is exported to France, and used as ground bait in the sardine fishery. The tongues and sounds are a delicate article of food. The Norwegians give tbe head, with marine plants, to their cows, for the purpose of increasing their milk ; while the Icelanders use the vertebras bones and ribs for a similar purpose. The apparatus used by the Newfoundland fishermen are the hook-and-line, the seine, the cod-net or gill-net, the cod- trap, and the bultow. The simplest and least expensive mode of fishing is the hook-and-line, or hand- line. The best bait is the caplin. Too large a proportion of the Newfoundland fishermen depend on this hand-line fishing, from small punts near the shore. It is least expensive, but also least remunerative ; and poverty, in a vast number of instances, forbids the use of the improved methods, which, however, are gradually extending. When very fat, the cod does not bite readily, and the hook- and-line men do best when the fish is thin and towards the end of the season. When spawning, the cod does not take the bait well ; and it is then that the seines, nets> CHAP. 11. J NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 293 and traps are specially serviceable. The nets and seines are suspended in the water from floats of cork or wood. The Norwegians now use almost exclusively hollow glass floats, covered with knotted tarred cord as a protection. They are found to be a great improvement on the old buoys. Bultows are used extensively on the Great Banks, and also very largely round the shores and at the entrances of the bays. The bultow is simply a set-line mode of J^--. "^ ^mm COD-FISniNG WITH HOOK AND LINE. fishing, and is called in some places a " trawl-lino." It is a vast improvement on the hand-line, as several hundreds of hooks are baited, and each is attached to a fine line of hemp or cotton. These short lines are suspended at intervals on a long lino, carrying over one hundred hooks which are dropped from the boats and secured by buoys and anchors, and left all night and taken up in the morning. On the Banks, many miles are covered by these bultows, which are secured by suitable moorings, to prevent their being carried away by the strong currents '' / ■ 1 1 ; i I I 1 mm'} 294 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAHT III. whicli usually prevail on the Banks. Tliey are overliaulcd each day and the fish taken off. The countries to which the Newfoundland cod is exported are Brazil, Spain, Portugal, Italy, the AVcst Indies, the United States, and Great Britain. Brazil and Spain are the colony's best customers. CHAPTER III. THE SEAL INDUSTRY. Ancient methods of taking seals — Perils and hardships of tho hunters — Tho beginning of the season — Steamers and sailing vessels — Battling with the ice — Impressive scenes — The Aurora Borcalis — How a sealing ship is fitted — The hunters at work — How the seals are killed and packed for port — Converting the seal for market — Oil and leather. Next to tlie cod fishery, the most valuable of the Newfoundland fisheries is that of the seal. While the cod fishery has been prosecuted for three hundred and eighty years, the seal fishery is not more than eighty years old. Until the beginning of the present century, the attention of the people was absorbed in the capture of cod. L'Abbo Eaynall tells us that as early as 1703 some English fishermen used to repair to certain parts of the island during winter, for the prosecution of the seal fishery. This was entirely an inshore net fishery, and must have been carried on upon a small scale. The fisher- men placed their nets between the shore and the islands or rocks lying at a short distance from it, and the seals, in passing these narrow places, were caught. In the Scots Magazine for March, 1701', it is stated that a valuable whale fishery had also been discovered and prosecuted during the preceding three years, in the Gulf and River i i 'i ] 29G NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAKT in. ''1 1 ( 1 '^'^^ .' 1 !iii V |idl 1 iM H' ■111!' : :j,. ^■l4 ' 1 ! ■ ■ \\ of St. Lawrence. Tlio New England people sent from fifty to eighty vessels to take part in this fishery, wliich appears to have been very valuable. In Fortune Bay whales continued to be taken for many yearSj and are still captured; but this lishery is now unimportant. Up to 1774 vessels went to the seas around the island in pursuit of the walrus — morse, or sea-horse, as it is indifferently named. In the returns of the admirals who commanded on the station, we find entries of sea-cow oil, skins, and teeth, each year from 1707 to 1774, after which they do not occur. The value ranges from 1,000Z. to 2,300^. per annum. The walruses have long since disappeared. A wanderer is still, however, occasionally captured by the seal-hunters. Another mode of killing seals was by shooting from large boats, which sailed about the middle of April. At that time of year the " whelping ice " had passed many weeks, and the young seals having taken to the water, only a few stragglers came within I'ange. As late as 1795 the whole catch of seals only amounted to 4/JOO per annum. A great step in advance was made when the scaling boats gave place to small schooners of from thirty to fifty tons, carrying twelve or fourteen men, the outfit of each vessel costiiirr about 75L They did not at first leave port till after March 21st, to avoid the equinoctial gales, or, "St. Patrick's brush," as it was called, and were often too late for the young seals, though they met plenty of ice. Soon, however, they learned to start somewhat earlier. In 1807 there were only about fifty vessels from all the ports in the island, of from thirty to sixty tons, engaged in the seal fishery. This industry, however, proved so remunerative that its growth was very rapid. In 1805, 81,088 seals were taken; in 1815, 12(3,315; in 1820, 213,679; in 1822, 300,982; in 1830, 558,942; in 1840, 031,385; in 1812, 344,083; and in 1844, 085,530 seals, the largest numher ciivr. III.] THE SEAL INDUSTRY. 297 ever taken in one year. In 1857, there were nearly four hundred vessels, of from eighty to two hundred tons burthen, engaged in the seal fishery, their united crews numbering 13,000 men, the total catch of seals that year being close on half a million, worth $1,700,000. Since that date the catch of seals has not increased, and has varied greatly from year to year. In 1800, it amounted to 444,202 seals; in 1802, 208,420; in 1871, 537,094; in 1872, 278,372; in 1873, 520,000; in 1874, 398,330; in 1877, 451,078; in 1880, 223,795; in 1881, 417,903; and in 1882, about 150,000 seals, being the smallest number on record since 1818. The cause of this last failure was the continuous blockade of the coasts and bays by heavy ice, impeding the movements of the vessels. The average annual value at present of the seal fishery is about $1,100,000, being about tin eighth part of the entire exports. The number of men employed is from 8,000 to 10,000. Thus, beginning with a few nets, there followed the sealing boats and the little schooners, carrying each a dozen men, until the industry was prosecuted with vessels of 200 or 250 tons, and crews of forty or fifty men. At length all-conquering steam entered the field, and in 1803 the first steamer to-jk part in this fishery. Since then the number of steamers has rapidly in- creased, and the number of sailing vessels has still more rapidly diminished. The day is not very distant when this industry will be carried on solely by powerful steamers. In 1800 there were 177 sailing vessels and five steamers; in 1871 there wore 201 scaling vessels ' and thirteen steamers ; their united crews numbering 9,791 men. In 1873 there were eighteen steamers, and at present there are about twenty-five, some of them of 500 tons burthen. They are strongly built, to stand the pressure of ice and cleave their way through the ice-fields, being stoutly timbered, sheathed with iron-wood. !H'^ 1 ( id ■ill' 1 l! 1 298 NEWFOUNDLAND. ip.vuT in. and having iron-plated stems. Tliey carry from 200 to 300 men. Of late years, six of the fine Duudeo steamers that formerly took part in tho Greenland seal fishery, now comparatively exhausted, have come out each season to Newfoundland, shipped crews there, and engaged in tho fishery. They are among tho finest of the sealing fleet. There is always great excitement connected with tho seal fishery. Tho perils and hardships to be encouutercd, the skill and courage required in battling with the ice- giants, and the possible rich prizes to be won, throw a romantic interest around this adventure. Not the seal- hunters alone, but the whole population, from the richest to the poorest, take a deep interest in the fortunes of the hunt. It is like an army going out to do battle for those who remain at home. In this case the enemies to be encountered are the icebergs, tho tempest, and tho blinding snowstorm. A steamer will sometimes go out and return in two or three weeks, laden to tho gunwale, occasionally bringing home as many as thirty to forty thousand seals, each worth two and a half or three dollars. Tiie successful hunters are welcomed Avith thundering cheers, like returning conquerors, and are the heroes of the hour. What tales they have to relate of perils iu icy wildernesses, of narrow escapes from being crushed, of the cold plunge into the treacherous ice-chasm, of fierce combats with the " old Dog Hood ! " No wonder the young Newfoundlander pants for the day when he will get "a berth for the ice," and share in the wild joys and excite- ment of the hunt. According to law, no sailing vessel can be cleared for the ice before the 1st of March, and no steamer before the 10th of March; a start in advance of ten days being thus accorded to the vessels which depend on wind alone. As the time for starting appi'oaches, the streets and wharves i ■! CIIU'. III. I THK SEAL INDUSTllY, 291) ,>xcite- of the capital assume an appuaranco of bustle wliicli contrasts pleasantly with tlio previous stagnation. The steamers and sailing vessels begin to take in stores and complete their repairs. Rough berths are fitted up for tho sealers ; bags of biscuit, barrels of joork, and other neces- saries ai*e stowed away; water, fuel, and ballast are taken on board; tho sheathing of tho ships, which has to stand the grinding of the heavy Arctic ice, is cai'efully inspected. A crowd of eager applicants surround tho shipping offices — powerful-looking men in rough jackets and long boots, splashing tobacco-juice over the white snow in all direc- tions, and shouldering one another in their anxiety to get booked. Tho great anxiety is to secure a place on board cue of the steamers, tho chances of success being considered much better than on board the sailing vessels, l^he masters of the steamers are thus able to make up their crews with picked men. Each steamer has on board from one hundred and fifty to three hundred men, and it would bo difficult to find a more stalwart lot of fellows in tho royal navy itself. Tho second-rate and older men are obliged to content themselves with berths on board tho sailing vessels, while many poor fellows are obliged to be left behind without employment. The steamers have an im- mense advantage over tho sailing vessels. They can cleave their way through the " slob " and heavy ice-packs against the wind; they can double and beat about in search of the " seal patches ; " and when the prey is found they can hold on to tho ice-fields, while sailing vessels are liable to be driven off by a change of wind, and if beset with ice, are often powerless to escape. It is not to bo wondered at that steamers are rapidly superseding sailing vessels in the seal fishery. They can make two, and even three, trips to the ice-fields during the season, and thus leave behind the antiquated sealer dependent on the winds. Before tho introduction of steamers one hundred and twenty sailing < '1 ,f iir: if! P: 1 ht'\\ 1 I ■' i 1 Si 300 NEWFOUNDLAND. (I'AiiT in. vessels, of from forty to two hundred tons, used to leavo the port of St. John's alone for the seal fishery. Now they are reduced to soino half-dozen, but from the more distant " outports " numbers of small sailing vessels still engage in this special industry. The young seals aro born on the ice from the 15tli to the 25th of February, and as they grow rapidly, and yield a much finer oil than the old ones, tho object of the hunters is to reach them in their babyhood, while yet fed by their mother's milk, and while they aro powerless 1^ escape. So quickly do they increase in bulk that by the 20tli of March they are in perfect condition. By tho 1st of April they begin to take to tho water, and can no longer be captured in tho ordinary way. The great Arctic current, fed by streams from the seas east of Greenland, and from Bafliu's and Hudson's l^ays, bears on its bosom hundreds of square miles of floating ice, which aro carried past tho shores of Newfoundland to find their destiny in tho warm waters of tho Gulf Stream. Somewhere amid these float- ing masses the seals have brought forth their young, which remain on the ice, during the first period of their growth, for live or six weeks. The great aim of the hunters is to get among the hordes of " white-coats," as tho young harp seals are called, during this period. For this purpose they go forth at the appointed time, steering northward till they come in sight of those terrible icy wildernesses which, agitated by the swell of the Atlantic, threaten destruction to all rash invaders. These hardy seal-hunters, however, who are accustomed to battle with the floes, are quite at home among the bergs and crashing ice-masses ; and where other mariners would shrink away in terror, they fearlessly dash into the ice wherever an opening presents itself, in search of their prey. In the ice-fields the surface of the ocean is covered with a glittering expanse of ice^ dotted with towering bergs CUAI'. III-I THE SEAL INDUSTRY. 301 of every shape and size, having gleaming turrets, domes, aud spires. Tiio surface of the ico-lield is rugged and broken, rising frequently into steep hillocks and ridges. The scene in which "The Ancient Mariner" found himself is fully realised : And now there came both mist and snow, And it grew wonilrous cold ; And ice, niast-liin set in motion by tho tempest. Scoresby calculates one at ten thousand millions of tons. Siicli :ire tho scenes amid which the seal-hunters have to gather in " the pi'ccious things of the deep." Considering all the perils, it is surprising how few fatal disas((>rs occur. During tho seal-hunt of 1872 one hundred men jierislied, fifty of theso having gone down in a single vessel called the JTunisman, on tho coast of Labrador. In tho samo year, two steamers, tho JUo^iilii w ft i! !'#iWi jH'i 30G NEWFOUNDLAND. [paut III. ashoro hcni'ty and vigorous. Theii' outer garments aro polished with seal fat and the blood of their victims, and it is advisable to keep to windward of them till they have procured a change of clothing. The experiences of a sealing voyage are vai'ious, being influenced by the ever-shifting condition of the ice and the direction of the winds. The grand aim of the sealers is to reach that portion of the ice which is the " whelping- grounds" of the seals, while yet the young are in their plump oleaginous babyhood. The position of this icy-cradlo is utterly uncertain, being dependent on the movements of the ice and the force of winds and waves. It has to be sought for amid vast ice-fields. At times, in endeavouring to push her way through, the vessel is caught in the heavy ice ; and then the ice-saws are called into requisition to cut an opening to the nearest "lead" of clear water, that she may work her way north. But the heavy Arctic ice may close in under the pressure of a nor'-easter, and then no amount of steam power can drive her through. Howling night closes in ; bergs and floes are crashing all around, and momentarily threatening her with destruction; the wind roars through the shrouds, driving on its wings the arrowy sleet and snow, sharp as needles^ which only men of iron can stand. Thus locked in the embrace of the floe the luckless vessel is drifted helplessly hundreds of miles, till a favourable wind loosens the icy prison walls. It is no uncommon occurrence for a hundred vessels to be thus beset by heavy ice through which no passage can be forced. Some are " nipped," some crushed to atoms, and the men have to escape for their lives over the ice. Others are carried into the great northern bays, or borne in the heavy "pack" up and down on the ocean for weeks, re- turning to port " clean," that is without a single seal. There are seasons when the boldest and most skilful captains fail. At other times, by a turn of good fortune, ii cn.ir. III.] THE SEAL INDUSTRY. 30 a vessel "strikes tlio seals" a day or two after leaving port, and finds herself in the middle of a " seal patch " sufficient to load the Great Eastern. The whole ice for miles around is covered thick with the young " white-coats," and in a fortnight from the time of the departure she re- turns to port loaded to the gunwale, her very decks being piled with the skins and fat of the seals. When approaching such an El Dorado as this, the excitement on board may be imagined, as the welcome whimpering of the young harp seals is heard. Their cry has a remarkable resemblance to the sobbing or whining of an infant in pain, which is redoubled as the destroyers approach. Young hunters who now ply their gaffs for the first time are often almost overcome by these baby lamenta- tions. Compassion, however, is soon gulped down. The vessel is " laid to," the men eagerly bound on the ice, and the work of destruction begins. A blow on the nose from tlie gaff stuns or kills the young seal. Instantly the sculping- Icnife is at work, the skin with the fat adhering is detached with amazing rapidity from the carcase, which is left on the ice still quivering with life, while the fat and skin alone are carried off. This process is called " sculping," a corrup- tion no doubt of scalping. In skinning, a cut is made through the fat to the flesh, a thickness of about three inches, from the throat to the tail. The legs, or " flippers," and also the head are then drawn from the inside, and the skin is laid out flat and entire, with the layer of fat adheriu'T' to it; and in this state the skin is called the "pelt," or "sculp." It is generally about three feet loug and two and a half feet wide, and weighs from thirty- five to fifty pounds. The hunter nicks two holes along the edge of each side of the skin, and then lays them one over the other, passing the rope through the nose of each pelt, and then lacing it through the side holes in such a manner that, when pulled tight, it draws them in a compact X 2 I ' i ' ti- i I 308 NEWFOUNDLAND. ll'AllT III. f )i iiii; in bundle. Fasteuiug the "gaff" in this bundle, lie puts the rope over his shoulder and hauls it over the ice to the ship. Five or six pelts are reckoned a heavy load to drag over rough or broken ice, sometimes for one or two miles. If the ice is loose and open the hunter has to leap from pan tc pan. Fancy two or three hundred men on a field of ice carry- ing on this murderous work, their persons smeared with sanguinary evidence of the wholesale slaughter; the ice stained with gore and covered with the skinless carcases of the slain; "the shivering seals' low moans" filling the air like the sobbings of infants in distress ; the murderers every minute smiting fresh victims, or dragging the oleaginous prizes to the vessel's side ! Then what a picture the vessel presents as the pelts are being piled on deck to cool previous to stowage below ! One after another the hunters arrive with their loads, and snatch a hasty moment to drink a bowl of tea and eat a piece of biscuit and butter. The poor mother seals, now cubless, are seen popping their heads up in the small lakes of water and holes among the ice, anxiously looking for their young. So soon as the sailing vessel reaches port with her fat cargo, the skinners go to work and separate the skins and fat. The former are at once salted and stored for export to England, to be converted into boots and shoes, harness, portmanteaus, etc. The old method of manufacturing the fat was to throw it into huge wooden vats, in which the pressure of its own weight and the heat of the sun extracted the oil, which was drawn off and barrelled for exportatiou. This was a tedious process. Latterly steam has been employed to quicken the extraction of the oil. By means of steam-driven machinery, the fat is now rapidly cut up, by revolving knives, into minute pieces, then ground finer in a sort of gigantic sausage-machine ; afterwards steamed in a tank, which rapidly extracts the oil ; and finally, before CUAl'. III. THE SEAL INDUSTRY. 309 being barrelled, it is exposed for a time in glass-covered tanks to the action of the suu's rays. By this process the work of manufacturing, which formerly occupied two months, is completed in a fortnight. Not only so, but by the steam process the disagreeable smell of the oil is removed, the quality improved, and the quantity increased. The refuse is sold to the farmers, who mix it with bog and earth, which converts it into a highly fertilising compost. The average value of a tun of seal-oil is about a hundred and forty dollars. The skin of a young harp seal is worth from ninety to one hundred cents. The greater part of the oil is sent to Britain, where it is largely used in lighthouses and mines, and for lubricating machinery. It is also used in the manufacture of the finer kinds of soap. If' H: Mil I I , np i;. i :it )i ! ■4 f '^ ■ ii CHAPTER IV. NATUEAL HISTORY OF THE SEAL. Mothers and cubs — Jlatcrnal instinct — Toacliing the young to swim — The hood seal and the harp — The " dog" soal under attack- Migrations of tlic harps and hoods— Locahtics where they are found — On the march — Danger of extermination — Statistics of the take of seals since 1805. The maternal instinct appears to bo peculiarly strong in tho female seal, and tlie tenderness witli wliicli the mothers watch over their offspring is most touching. When the young seals are cratiled on the ice the mothers remain in the neighbourhood, going off each morning to fish, and returning at intervals to give them suck. It is an ex- traordinary fact that the old seals manage to keep holes in the ice open, and to prevent them freezing over, in order tliat they may reach the water. On retuniing from a fishing excursion, extending over fifty or a hundred miles, each mother seal manages to find the hole by which she took her departure, and to discover her own snow-white cub, which she proceeds to fondle and suckle. This is certainly one of the most remarkable achievements of animal instinct. The young " white-coats " are scattered in myriads over the ice-field. During the absence of the mothers the field of ice has shifted its position, perhaps many miles, being borne on the current. Yet each mother- cinr. IV. NATURAL HISTORY OP THE SEAL. 311 seal is able to iiud hei' own hole, and to pick out her own cub from tlio iiuraeiiso herd, Avith unerring accuracy. It is quite touching to witness their signs of distress and grief when they return and find only a pool of blood and a skinless carcase, instead of their whimpering little ones. The seal brings forth but one cub at a birth, and that but once a year. When born the young are covered with a thick whitish fur. At six weeks old they begin to "dip," or take to the water ; and it requires as many trials to enable a young seal to swim properly, as in the case of a young bird learning to fly. Just as the eagle " stirs up her young," and encourages them to use their wings, so it is said the mother seals tumble their babies into the water, and give them swimming lessons. When they are in danger from " rafting " ice, or fragments of floes dashed about by the wind, and likely to crush them, the self- Bacrificing affection of the mothers leads them to bi'ave all dangers, and they are seen helping their young to places of safety in the unbroken ice, sometimes clasping them in their fore-flippers and swimming with them, or pushing them forward with their noses. At the end of six weeks the young shed thoi. white woolly robe, which has a yellowish or golden lustre, and a smooth spotted skin appears, having a rough darkish fur. They have now ceased to bo "white-coats," and become "ragged-jackets.'^ The milk on which they are sustained is of a thick creamy consistency, yellowish in colour, and very rich and nutritious. While the mothers are thus guarding and suckling their young the males take the opportunity of enjoying themselves, and are seen sporting about in the open pools of water. The old male harps appear to be indifferent about their young. The male hood seal, on the other id, assists his mate in her maternal guardianship, and will fight courageously in defence of her and the young. In the seas around Newfoundland and Labrador there 312 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'UIT III, i 1! .. I. . r:' , : i , r ' arc four species of seals — tlio bay seal, the ]iar[), tliu linml, and the s([uaro Hipper. The bay seal is local in its habits, does not mi{,'rato, jut frequents the mouths of rivers and harbours around the coast, and is never found on the ice. It is frequently taken in nets, but commercially is of small importance. The harp seal — •jjf/r excellence, the seal of commerce — is so called from having a broad curved lino of connected dark spots proceeding from each shoulder, and meeting on the back above the tail, and forming a figure something like an ancient harp. The old harp seals alouo have this figuring, and not till their second year. When twelve months old the males are hardly distinguishable from the females, and during that season they are callod " bed-lamers.^' In the second season the male assumes liis harp. The hood seal is much larger than the harp. The male, called by the hunters " the dog-hood," is distinguished from the female by a singular hood or bag of flesh on his nose. When attacked or alarmed he inflates this hood, so as to cover the face and eyes ; and it is strong enough to resist seal shot. It is impossible to kill one of these creatures when his sensitive nose is thus protected, even with a sealing gun, so long as his head or his tail is toward you ; and the only way is by shooting him on the side of the head, and a little behind it, so as to strike him in the neck and the base of the skull. The young of this species have not the thick woolly coat of the harp seals, and from their colour they are called "blue-backs." The hoods bring forth their young two or three weeks later than the harps, and are generally found farther from the shore on the ice- fields, and also more to the north. The two species live apart, and are never found mingled, unless by some accidental convulsion of the ice. The male and female of the hood are usually found together, and it is a rule among the l,;t i ■ i'1 I NATUllAL JIISTOIIY OF TIIK SKAT-. 313 luintcM'S to kill tho malo first ; uiul if they tail in tliis, ami kill tho i'omale, tho clc),()(»(). Wo liiivo, iliorot'orc, us ilio iohil v.'iliic of the; uiuiiial ciifoh (A licrriu/^ $727,'5">'.>. I'l'ol'cssor Hind cHliinatoH tliut ilio fi^i^i-c^'iiic! iiiiinlx'f of b.'irnds of licrriiii^ caui^lit in ilio Dominion of ('juuida iMid N(nvi'onn(llji,nd w.'iIcM'm annuidly ('X(!(;ods H()(),()00 hni-rcls ; and t-liJil., allowing' for l.Iu! (|nantity uscmI Un- inaiun'c, tlui (|nanlity used Tor l)ail and dtistroycd liy bari-ini^'', IIk; (|uantiti(!S of iliis fish di-awn oacli year IVoin Hiilisli Amt'iicaii \vat(!rs is fairly i-oproscntod hy I ,()()(),()()() bnncls. 'i^lio vast in)i)()iia,nco, t.li(!r('ror(>, of this lislnTy is cviiiciit, not only in regard to its inli'insic value, hut as oni' mi which otlici" lisli(!rios ju'o ({(ipcndcnt for tluiir very cxislcncc. In Nowfoundlaiid it may bo d(!Hcrib(Ml as bcin*^ yet in its iifaticy. Tlicri! is oonsid(!r;iblo iiiiprovcnicnt within tlic last f(!W years in llniproooss of ciirin^j;', which, however, is still rude, insnlliciont, and in many instances so grossly (•arel(>ss tluit liirji^o (quantities nr(! aniiiiiilly spoiled ;nid lit only for manuriii<^ h-uid. Of othor kinds of fish fakeii in Nowfoundlaiid w.'ifeivs, tlio quantities are insi^nilicant. I'iffy years ajjf) iiKickcri'l woro al)unda,iit, but this oajiricicMis fish has dis!i|)])eare(l fur Pearly half a, century. At fiiiies hij^h hojxjs of its rclnrii aro awakened. 'riuis, in IcS.SO, r>7()(5 bai-rels of pickled nuu "el were exported ; but in the following y((!ir only l(Sl harrels wer(! l;ik(Mi. In l(S77 only foiirfc'en baiTcIs wer7f. lt< is not impossible that this valuable fish tiiiiy (Mio d.'iyreinrn !),(S|2 pounds of pr('S(!rved lobstcM-, in tins, were export(!d, and lli, I2>! pounds of frozen lobsters; iho ttjtal viiliu! bi'ln*^ ."jillljlOS. CnAPTMIl VJf. Tin: KISFTKIUKS AS AKI'M-Kri'lOl) HV INTMIfXATIONA Fj TUKATII'IS. I'rivili'i^cs of tlir l'"r(iicli ( 'iinciiicciil. fij^lits I Iiilouinlid cliiiiris — Sir Williiiiii W liihw.'iy's mission to Ldiidoii Sil t Icincul, nt I Ik; " Krciicli S Ik tic," i|ii(;sl ion- ['"islicry lij^lits still in (lis|>iilc Lorii i'ahnci'sldii iuid i hn l'"r('n(',li (lovcnnin'nl, l']n<^l;iri(l finil I. In; iiiitcd Stiiics ViiiioMs in(i rpi'dtiitions ol' Annu'iciui i-i<^lils - "TIk; IJcciiirocity Trciily " iiml LIk; TruiUy ul' Wasliintjjlon. Amonc Hi'it;iiii's Idrly colonics (Ik; position of N(nv- I'iiukHmikI is in one rcs|)('ct nni(|n(;. IMu; sovci'ci;j;nty ol IIk! (!iitir(i tciM'itoi'y hcionj^s cxclnsiviily to (Jrciit; I'ritiiin, liiit tlic l''r(!ncli lijiv(! (Iio I'itflil, ol" lisliin^ .■ilong' niorcj tliiin IimII" llii) (;iit,ir(! shore ol' t,li(! islaiid, ami ol" iisin<^ tliiil- poi'tion ol" lilt! coast. I'or such pnrposcs as maybe tuHJcs- siiry in llic })r()S(!Ciitioii ol" their llslici-y. In addition l.o this important ])rivik'go, tho l''rcncli lia,\'e (U!(lc(l to them pos- session ol' the two smail islands of St. I'ierr(! a)i(l Micpielon, lit tli(! entra.nce oi' l''ortnne |{ay,as n, shelter I'oi" tlioir fisher- men, the oidy condition aitached to tJie piossession ol" tlu^m \h'\\\'^ that no rortilications arc; to l)e ei-ected, aia' otdy such hiiildinifs as arc iiecCHHiiry in cari'yiiif^ mi the fishery. ThoHC ri.Li^lits have l»(!cn secured to I'^rance, firsti by th :i it'' \4 333 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAirr III. I; lll^fll' i: i. the local goverament. Both branches of the local legis- lature, first in 1807 and again in 1874, memorialised the home Government, and emphatically protested against the restriction on issuing land grants, and praying for per- mission to make such grants for ngricultural, mining, and other purposes. All efforts proved fruitless till 1881, when Sir William Whiteway, premier of the government, was despatched as a deputy to London. His powerful repre- sentation of the flagrant injustice inflicted on the colony, and of the serious dangers of any longer delaying a settle- ment of the vexed question, at length prevailed. The imperial authorities decided on withdrawing the restriction on the issue of land grants, and permitting the local govern- ment to exercise territorial rights by making grants of land for agricultural, }nining, or other purposes. This was welcomed by the colony, which had patiently borne the wrong so long in order that it might be peacefully settled, as a great and important boon, inasmuch as it permitted the settlement of this region and the utilisation of its fine natural resources. At the same time the imperial authorities sanctioned an Act providing for the representation of the residents of this region in the local paidiament. Magistrates have been appointed, and due arrangements made for the administration of justice. Thus one great branch of the " French Shore question " has been satisfactorily disposed of. There now remains the question of concuri'ent or exclusive right to the fisheries to be decided. The whole region is now an integral part of Newfoundland, and the government are empowered to exercise territorial jui'isdiction over the whole, subject of course to existing treaty rights. The boon granted in 1881 might as well have been conceded fifty years before, as the same reasons for the concession existed at the earlier date. The people of Newfoundland maintain that the French claim to the exclusive right of fishery is not warranted by I i%.^^L ! ' cini'. vii.l FISHERIES AFFECTED BY TREATIES. 333 !. This was tlie terms of tlio treaties; and tliey claim as their right that they shall not be molested in fishing on any part where they do not actually interrupt the French by their com- petition, and that there shall bo no interference with their buildings or inclosures which do not actually interfere with the fishing privileges of the French. They are willing that a joint Naval Commission should be appointed to settle all liisputed points, when the concui'rent right is admitted by the French. Such is the position of the colony on this important question. There ought to be no great difficulty in settling it, as the value of the shores of Newfoundland to the French, as fishing stations, is every year becoming less. It is the Bank fishery which is the main consideration with the French. On the shores of Newfoundland the annual catch of the French does not exceed a hundred thousand quintals. The French, however, still maintain that the proper interpretation of the treaties gives them an exclusive right to the fishei'ies, and the British as em- phatically repudiate such claims. Negotiations between the two nations on these disputed points are now in progress. In regard to the justice of the claim put forward by the colony to a concurrent right to the fisheries, it was never better expressed than in Lord Palmerston's note of July 10th, 1838, in reply to Count Sebastiani's communication, in which he urged the British Government to disavow the claim of the British subjects to a right of fishery on the coasts in question, concurrent with the rights of the subjects of France. After a searching I'eview of the treaties bearing upon the subject, and the construction placed upon them previously. Lord Palmerston closed his note in the follo\viiig terms : "It is true that the privilege secured to the fisher- men of France by the Treaty and Declaration of 1783, a II m 334 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'Ull III i I f; II! I ' ' ' ;; M \ *i ' t: i privilege which consists in tho periodical use of a part of the shore of Newfoundland, for tlio purpose of drying' their fish, has in practice been treated by the British Government as an exclusive right during the fishing season, and within tlie limits proscribed ; because, from the nature of the case, it would scarcely bo possible for British fishermen to dry their fish upon tho same parts of the shore with the Frcncli fishermen without interfering with the temporary establish- ments of the French for the samo purpose, and without interrupting their operations. But the British Government has never understood the Declaration to have had for its object to deprive tho British subjects of the right to participate with tlio French in talcing fish at sea, off tlmt shore, provided they did so without interrupting the French cod fishery ; and, although in accordance with the true spirit of tho Treaty and Declaration of 1783, prohibitory proclamations have been from time to time issued, on occasions when it has been found that British subjects, while fishing within tho limits in question, have caused interrup- tion to the French fishery, yet in none of the public documents of tho British Government, neither in the Act of Parliament of 1788, passed for the express purpose of carrying the Treaty of 17S8 into effect; nor in any sub- secjuent Act of Parliament relating to the Newfoundlaml fishery ; nor in any of the instructions issued by the Admiralty and the Colonial Oflice ; nor in any proclamation Avhich has come under my view, issued by the Government of Newfoundland, or by the British Admiral upon tlic station, does it appear tliat the right of French subjects to an exclusive fishery, either of cod-fish or of fish generally, is specifically recognised. " In addition to the facts above stated, I will observe to your Excellency, in conclusion, that if the right conceded to the French by the Declaration of 1 78o had been intended to be exclusive within tho prescribed district, the terms niii'. VII. FISHERIES AFFECTED BY TREATIES. 335 used for defining sucli right would assuredly have been more ample and specific than they are found to be in that document ; for in no other similar instrument which has ever come under the knowledge of the British Government is so important a concession as an exclusive privilege of this description accorded in terms so loose and indefinite. " (Signed) Palmekston. "To His Excellency Count Sebastiani." To this conclusive statement of the 13ritish case no effective answer has been given, or ever will be given. Assured of the justice of her claims, Newfoundland can calmly await a peaceful solution of this long-standing difficulty. But there are limits to human patience. Again and again has a settlement been pi'omised and hoped for, and disappointment followed. So far back as 18o5 Mr. Robinson, in the House of Connnons, when introducing a motion on the subject, stated in his speech that " the question ai'ose out of the construction put upon a treaty entered into between England and France in I81''>, and though so long a period as twenty-one years had elapsed, the Government had given no answer to the persons engaged in the fisheries as to how the trt-aty was to bo construed. This was very strange, and ho would ask the Government how long after twenty-one years were British subjects to wait before they were told whether they had a right concurrent with the French of fishing on their own coast. He protested against any further delay in adjusting this question. The French had an interest in having the settlement of the question indefinitely postponed, because whilst it was so they arrogated to themselves the right of interrupting all others fishing on the coast. France had no other right of fishing than that given by the Treaty of Utrecht, and that was nothing more than a permissive right to fish." 3;JG NKWFO(lNIM.ANI>. iP\Hr i]|. lnA^'i 1 1 < ! 1 h i t !' iwi :iii *:l 1 I' if 1 i, i ■1 1 ; V 1 i i 1 i I 1 ■ ■^^M.^ I Tad Mr. Ilobinson Ixhmi told tluit forty-snvon yoara iiftor (in 1882) liis Kpoocli the; (|nostif)n would bo no nnan>r a Kottlomont, to mH iippo(iranc(>, tlr.in wlien lio protested jipainst fnrtlior delay, lio would doubtless bavo f(!lh roii- sidcraljly astoiiisliod. Tlio treaties between Oront Mritain and tlio United States, l)oarinf»' on tlie fisberios in I?ritisb American waters — New- foundland inoluded — bavo been tlio sul)ject of lenjjftlienod disputes and voluminous diplomatic correspondence, atid tbo (lilTeroiieo in opitiion ref^ardin<^ tbeir proper construc- tion lias ^'iven rise to muoli irritation and ijitornational jealousy. 'Die Ti-eaty of 178o, wbicb recof^nised Americiiii indopondenco, in its tbird article conferred upon tbo people of tbo United States tbo ri^bt to take fisli of every kind on tlio (Jrand I'ank and all tbo otbor banks of Newfoundland, also in tbo Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on sucb part of tlio coast of Newfoundland as liritisb fisbernion sball use, but not to dry or euro tbo samo on tbat island, and also on tbo coast, bays, and creeks of all otber of His Britannic Mai(!sty's dominions in America; .also liberty to dry and cure fisb in any of tbo nnsettled bays, liarboiirs, and creeks of Nova Scotia, Maj^dalen Islands, and Jmbrador, so lonj^ fis tboy remained unsettled. Tbo riglits f^uaranteed by this article wore enjoyed till tbo war of 1812, wbicb tenniiiatcd tbo treaty of 1 78:1. Tlic Treaty of Gbent contained no roferenco to tbo fisberios, and disputes baving arisen between the flsbormen of tbe two nations, tbo Convention of 1818 was aj^reed on. Its first article provided that; '"^rho inbabitants of tbe United States sball havo forever, in common witb tbe subjects of J lis Ib-itannic Majesty, the liberty to take fisb of every kind on that part of the soutbern coast of Newfoundland wbicb extends from Cape ]lay to tbo llamoan Islands; on tbe western and northern cofists of Newfoundland, from tbo said Capo Jtay to the Quirpon Islands, on tbe shores of tbe Magdalen Islands " — M'. VII. I FISIIKIMKS AI'TKCTKI) l?Y TRKATIKS. 337 iilsi) on rinl)ra(l()i' ; also tliat ; " Tlio Auioricaii fishonnoii sli.'ill liavi! liborty I'orovor to dry and euro (isli in any of tli(( iinscsitlud bays, luirbonrs, and crooks o[ the Houtlioru ]);irfc of ilio ('oast of Ninvfoundland lioro abovo doscn-ibod, iiiid of tlio coast of Jjaljrador" — such rij^lit to toi'niinato when ;uiy |)ortioiis ])ocoino settled. l''urtlior, tlio United States ill this article a^^riu'd to "renounce aiiy lil)erty lieretoforo enjoyed or claimed by tJu; iidiabitants tluireof to take, dry, or cure (isli on or within three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, crooks, or harbours of His l>ritannic Majesty's (loiniuions in America," and were only to enter such bays or harliours for shelter or to obtain wood or water. Fresh disputes arose in connection with this convention, which in 1H."J2 became i-atlier serious, 'i'lie chief point of contention was whetlun* the throe-miles limit was to bo measured from headland to headland at tho mouths of bays, so as to exclude American fishermen from fishing in bays, or whether, foUowinj^ tho sinuosities of the bays, it was to bo measured from their shores. Tho Americans strenuously contended for the latter interpretation, tlio British law ofiicers sustained tho former interpretation. To end thcso ihsputes what is cillod tho Uociprocity Treaty was agreed to ill 185 I'. I'y the terms of this agreement the entire sea fisliory was thrown open to Americans, as well as certain rights to land and cure their fisli. The Am(!ricans in turn gave British subjects reciprocal privileges on their ciistcrn coasts and islands adjacent. This treaty was to remain in foi'co " for ten years from the date at wlii(!h it camo into operation, and fiirthei" until tho expiration of twelve months after each of the High Contracting J'arties shall give notice to tho other of its wish to terminate the same." Tho Reciprocity Treaty was terminated in 1S(!. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A 1.0 I.I 1.25 |2B 8 !!: us, 25 12.2 M 1.8 1.4 IIIIII.6 V] <^ /] o^. Wa O 7 >^ 4" \ iV \\ *> ^ nl- j| 1 1 I . 'I I ! 340 NKWFOUNDLAND. [PXRT III. with the Newfoundland fishermen is to proceed to Labrador about the end of June and remain till the first or second week of October. In many instances they take their families with them, in order to aid in handling the fish ; and when there they reside ashore in temporary huts. It is in carrying on this fishery that the most serious loss of life occurs. The bleak coast is frequently swept by storms, even in summer; and in returning late in October in small, overcrowded, and sometimes overladen vessels, fatal disasters are too frequent. The dimensions of the great peninsula of Labrador are enormous. The coast-line, from the Straits of Belle Isle, Avhich separates Newfoundland from Labrador, to Cape Wolstenholme, is 1,100 miles in length. The greatest breadth is (500 miles, and the area about 120,000 square miles, being equal to the area of the British Isles, France, and Austria combined. It extends from 49° N. latitude to 03", and lies between the 5oth and 79th meridians. It is bounded on the east by the Atlantic; on the north and west by Hudson's Strait and Hudson's Bay ; while its south-western boundary is the Bertiamits, Mistassini, and Rupert's Rivers. Only the eastern portion of this immense territory is under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland; the remainder is now annexed to the Dominion of Canada. The bound- aries between Newfoundland and Canadian Labrador are thus defined in the "Letters Patent constituting the office of Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Island of Newfoundland " : " AVe have thought fit to constitute order and declare that there shall be a Governor and Commander-in-Chief (hereinafter called our 8,\id Governor) in and over our Island of Newfoundland, and the islands adjacent, and all the coast of Labrador, from the entrance of Hudson's Straits to a line to be drawn due north and south from Ansa Sablon on the said coast to (II.U'. Vlll.l LABRADOR. 341 the fifty-second degree of north latitude, and all the islands adjacent to that part of the said coast of Labrador, as also of all forts and garrisons erected and established, on which shall be erected and established within or on the islands and coasts aforesaid (which said islands and coast, together with the Island of Newfoundland, are hereinafter referred to as our said colony), and that the person who shall fill the said office of Governor shall be from time to time appointed by connnissiou under our sijjjn-nianual and sijjnet/' In the Appendix to the " Journal of the House of Assem- bly " for 1 80 1, page ()lo,tho boundaries of the Newfoundland portion of Labrador are defined in the following terms : "The western limit of the government of Newfoundland is kit. -M" 2o N.; long. 57'^ 0' W., and includes Jilanc Sablon and the Woody Islands. The northern boundary is Cape Cluidleigh in lat. GU^ 37' N. ; long. Go^ W.'' Thus a line drawn due north and south, from Blanc Sablon to Cape Chudleigh, constitutes the boundary between the two juris- dictions. This portion of Labrador was not always attached to Newfoundland. The first annexation took place after the Treaty of Paris, 17Go. While the lliig of France waved over Cauada, the French carried on extensive fisheries on the Labrador coast, near the Straits of Belle Isle, to which they attached the greatest importance. After the conquest of Canada by Britain, a company established in Quebec obtained a monopoly of these fisheries which lasted for sixty years, but was brought to an end in 1820. Until 1708, the tisheries of the whole southern and eastern shores of Labrador were placed under the Government of Quebec. Increased importance was given to the governorship of Newfoundland at that date by annexing to it the Atlantic coast of Labi'ador. Ten years after, in 1773, it was con- sidered advisable to restore this portion of Labrador to Canada, owing to difficulties arising out of grants made to a number of persons under the rule of the French. In 1809 I 1 342 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PABT ni. I !^ I [wi m ' it was again transferred to the jurisdiction of Newfoundland, under wliicli it has remained ever since. A Court of Civil Jurisdiction, on the coast of Labrador, was instituted in 1821. A special court of civil and criminal jurisdiction, called " The Court of Labrador/' and presided over by one judge, appointed by the Governor in Council, secured the administration of justice. The Customs' duties levied on goods landed on Labrador are the same as in Newfoundland. The Hudson's Bay Company had formerly the exclusive right of trading with the Indians of that part of Labrador which had rivers flowing into the inlet from which the Company took its name, and which is designated East Main. In 1870, however, the Company surrendered all their rights of government, property, etc., in the whole of British North America ; and these have been transferred to the Dominion of Canada, the Company being still at liberty to carry on their trade without hindrance, or any exceptional tax. Canada has thus jurisdiction over all the region of Labrador which does not belong to Newfoundland. The northern vSagas relate that about the year 100^, Eric the Red and Lief his son, whom Humboldt calls "the discoverer of the New World," passed this way and saw the land which a previous navigator, Biorn, had seen four- teen years before, and named " Helluland," that is a land of slate, or naked rocks — a name which was also given by these Norsemen to Newfoundland. The modern discoverer of Labrador, however, whatever may be thought of the account given in the Sagas, was undoubtedly John Cabot, in 1497, the same date at which he discovered Newfound- land. In the historical portion of this volume it has been shown that the map, which was made by Sebastian Cabot, or under his direction, removed all doubt as to his " Prima Vista," and proved that it was near the eastern point of the present island of Cape Breton. Continuing his course thence, in a north-westerly direction, he fell in with the C«\V. VIII.] LABRADOR. 343 Labrador coast, and then, altering his course easterly, he passed along the north coast of Newfoundland, and so homeward, through the Straits of Belle Isle. The Basques, who were among the most daring of early maritime adventurers, were soon employed in fishing on the Gulf shore of Labrador. Tradition has it that a Basque whaler named La Bradore, from the Kingdom of Navarre, pene- trated as far as Labrador Bay (now called Bradore Bay), and gave his name to that locality, and as this bay was, in process of time, much frequented by Basque fishermen, the whole coast received the name of its first visitor. After the Basques came the Bretons, who founded the town of Brest, in Bradore Bay, about 1520. This was about three miles from Blanc Sablon Harbour, and at one time contained upwards of 1,000 residents. The ruins and terraces of this old town are still visible on this iron- bound coast. The French and English were the next visitors in pursuit of fish. Although detached from Arctic lands, and notwith- stauding that much of it lies between the same parallels of latitude as Great Britain, the climate of Labrador is rigorous in the extreme. The snow lies from September till June. In winter, the whole coast is blockaded by ice- fields drifting from Baffin's Bay and other outlets of the Arctic Ocean; while in summer the glittering icebergs, stranded or floating, impart a stern beauty to the storm- beaten shores. Perhaps no country on the face of the globe is less attractive, as a permanent residence of civilised man. Much of the surface of the country is covered with low mountains and barren plateaus on which are vast plains of moss interspersed with rocks and boulders. At the heads of the bays and fiords only, is there a large growth of timber ; and here, and along the margin of some of the rivers, patches of cultivable lands are to be found. The Atlantic coast of Labrador is a grim and terrible Iff '•1' ! ' t i 344 NEWFOrXDLAXD. [part III. i ill wilderness, more than a thousand miles in length, hut still not without scenes of awe-inspiring heauty. The thunders of the Atlantic have been breaking upon its shores for countless ages ; the frosts and storms of winter have been carving the rocks into the wildest and most fantastic shapes which the human imagination can con- ceive. When the interior is reached, it is found to consist of a vast table-land, which in one region is 2,2 lU feet above the sea-level, l^rofessor Hind says of this table-land, " it is pre-eminently sterile, and where the country is not burned, caribou moss covers the rocks, with stunted spruce, birch, and aspen, in the hollows and deep ravines. 'J'he whole of the table-land is strewed with an inlinite num- ber of boulders, sometimes three and four deep ; these singular erratics are perched on the summit of every mountain and hill, often on the edges of cliffs ; and they vary in size from one foot to twenty in diameter. Language fails to depict the awful desolation of the table- land of the Labrador Peninsula.'' Were it not for the fish that swarm in its waters, Labrador would be left to the few tribes of Indians and Esquimaux who roam over its desolate wastes; but such is the extraordinary wealth of the adjacent seas, that thou- sands of adventurous iishermen are annually found on its shores during its brief summer. This migratory population is estimated at 30,000. The fixed population consists of white inhabitants, who live in widely scattered settle- ments, on the Atlantic and St. Lawrence coasts, and at the posts of the Hudson's Bay Company. The northern coast is thinly peopled by wandering Esquimaux, among whom the Moravian missionaries have been labouring for more than a century with marked success. Nomadic tribes of Indians roam over the interior. These are branches of the great Algonkin race, whose area once extended from the Rocky Mountains to Newfoundland, and from Labrador ClUP. VIII.] LABI5AD0R. 345 to tlie Carolina.^, and aro known as tlio Montagnai.s or .MoiintiuntH'rs, tlio Nasquapee, the Mastassini, and the Swampy Creek Indians. Tlie Atlantic coast of Labrador, in an economic point (if view, is by far the most important and vahiablo portion of the conntry. Here, during- the summer, some thirty tliousand hardy fishermen are employed in tlie capture of tlie cod, the herring, and the seal. Of lato years, too, tourists in search of the picturesque, artists sketching ice- bergs and coast scenery, sportsmen and anglers searching for game, and even invalids in pursuit of health have been finding their way in increasing numbers to the Atlantic shores of Labrador during its short but lovely summer. The voyage from SL John's to the Atlantic coast of Labrador, should the weather prove favourable, is one of the most delightful to those who enjoy the grander and sterner aspects of nature. ►Sometimes the North Atlantic is found in a gentle playful mood, dimpling and laughing under the rays of a bright summer's sun as though it had never tlashed a gallant ship to pieces. Overhead is a blue sky in which float masses of fleecy clouds. " Even in their very motion there is rest," so gently do these beautiful terras move across the azure dome, presenting an ever- shifting panorama of loveliness. Then, if we suppose the voyager sailing northward bound for Labrador, he will find himself gliding along a lofty sea-wall, with bold head- Is s and grim rocks frowning defiance at the ocean, while the waves are gently laving the base of the giant cliffs and playfully leaping over the jutting rocks along the coast. No scenes of softened beauty, no Avavo-kissed pebbly beaches, no upland slopes clad in forest emerald need be looked for; but there is the grandeur, massive, perpendicular cliffs, sometimes sculptured into shapes of stern beauty, or torn and jagged by the fierce frosts and tempests of winter and the ever-gnawing tooth of mP I ; 346 NEWFOUNDLAND. ll'VIII III. •1. il m i'l: i E , J time. The monotony of the rocky sea-front is broken at intervals by the lofty capes which project their extremities far seaward and mark the entrance of the great bays of Conception, Trinity, Bonavista, and Notre Dame. The mouths of these bays being crossed, the voyager at length approaches an important land-mark, Cape St. John, the northern headland of Notre Dame Bay and the boundary uf the " French Shore." Here is perhaps the most magnificent scenery along the whole coast, a vast wall of rock from four to five hundred feet in height and six miles in length, whose summit presents every shape into which rocks can bo toru or sculptured, grim, shaggy, and terrible precipices, up whose sides the great Atlantic rollers have been charging for centuries. On nearing the Cape, Gull Island is passed, a rugged barren islet, once the scene of a terrible tragedy. In 1807 a vessel was wrecked here in the month of December, and eleven unfortunates were left without food or shelter to perish by cold and hunger. One of them kept a diary, which is one of the most touching records of human suffering ever brought to light. Their agonies were prolonged for thirteen days, and no knowledge of their terrible fate was obtained till the following spring, when their remains were discovered. At length the most northern point of Newfoundland is reached, Cape Bauld, the northern point of the Island of Quirpon, four degrees north of St. John's. From this point, at times, great processions of stately icebergs may be seen moving majestically with the current which rushes through the straits of Belle Isle from the far-off Arctic regions. Midway to the Labrador shore, and fourteen miles from Cape Bauld, is Belle Isle, nine miles in length and three in breadth, in the entrance of the straits of the same name. It is utterly barren, treeless, and desolate. A lighthouse is erected here, and a depot of provisions is kept for the relief of shipwrecked mariners. When fog envelops CHIP. TUI.l LABRADOR. 347 these seas, or the snow-flakes arc hurled on the tempest's wing, a cannon is fired every half-hour to guide the bewildered mariner. The islands of 13cllo Isle and Quirpon, owing no doubt to their grim forbidding aspect and the dangers from ice and storm encountered in those seas, were named by the early mariners, " The Isles of Demons," and, in old maps, are represented as covered with " devils rampant, with wings horns, and tails." The terror-stricken seamen of early times used to " hear in the air, on the tops, and about the masts, a great clamour of men's voices, confused and inarticulate, such as you may hear from a crowd at a fair or market-place; whereupon tliey knew that the Isle of Demons was not far off." There is a curious legend con- nected with Belle Isle, namely, that hero Roberval, in 1512, put on shore from his ileet the Lady Marguerite, niece of the Viceroy of New France, and her lovci-, with whose conduct he had been scandalised on the voyage. The un- happy, but now penitent pair, were assaulted by the demons, but guarded by bands of saints. The lover died first, then the nurse and child, and the Lady Marguerite was left alone in the terrible wilderness. The smoke of a fii'e, at which she cooked her food, at length attracted the attention of some fishermen, who ventured to land on the haunted spot and rescue the lady after two years' residence among the demons. Battle Harbour, near the entrance of the Straits of Belle Isle, is the first point on the Labrador coast touched at by voyagers. " It is a sheltered roadstead between Battle Island and Great Caribou Island, about half a mile in length and quite narrow." Battle Harbour is an important fishing centre, and is much resorted to by fishermen during the season. Near Battle Island, the easternmost land of the Labrador coast, the water is of great depth, and the place is noted for a remarkable ground-swell, which at times rolls ! I 348 NKWFOUXULAXl). [I'AHi iir. \ik in from the eastward into St. Lewis' Sound. Admiral Bayfield describes it in the following terms : " I certainly never, in any part of tlio world, saw a heavier sea than tlmt which at times rolls in from the eastward in St. Lpwi>i' Sound, even as far up as the entrance of the inlet, round the River Islands and up the bays of the main to tlie westward of them. I never saw anything more grand and wildly beautiful than the tremendous swell which often comes in without wind, rolling slowly, but irresistibly in from the sea, as if moved by some unseen power, rearing itself up like a wall of water as it approaches the crnygy sides of the islands, moving on faster and faster as it nears the shore, until a- last it bursts with fury over islets thirty feet high, or sends up sheets of foam and spray, sparkling in the sunbeams, fifty feet up the sides of the precipices. 1 can compai'e the roar of the surf in a calm night to nothing less than the Falls of Niagara.'' Leaving Battle Harbour, the voyager has now in sight the rugged coast of Labrador, deeply indented with bays and inlets, and having many fine harbours. The scenery now becomes grand and impressive. The great headlands, like sentinel giants, tower over the waters, sometimes grim and bare, while others are covered with the dark green of dwarf-spruce, or the paler green of mosses and shrubs. Then come monotonous miles of rocky precipices, up whose sides charge the watery battalions, urged from behind by the mighty swing of the Atlantic, and evermore flung back in spray and fonm. The most striking natural scenery here are the rocks at the entrance of Chateau Bay, which has within it the noble fiord of Temple Bay. Chateau gets its name from the rock formations at the mouth of this deep and narrow bay. Mr. Hallock says : " This castle is a most remarkable pile of basaltic rocks rising in vertical columns from an insulated bed of granite. Its height from the nm-. VI 11.) LABRADOR. 349 level of the ocean is upwards of two hundred feet. It is composed of regular five-sided prisms, and on all sides the ground is strewn with single hlocks and clusters that have become detached and fallen from their places. It seems like some grim fortress of the feudal ages from whose embrasures big-mouthed cannons were ready to belch forth flame and smoke. On the very verge of the parapet, a cross stood out in bold relief in the gleaming moonlight, like a sentinel upon his watch tower." Chateau was once a place of considerable importance. When the unfortunate Acadians were driven from their homes, a number of them took refuge on this bleak shore and fortified the post. The remains of these fortifications are still visible, consisting of batteries, magazines, etc. ; but they are almost completely overgrown by thickets. "In 17G3, a British garrison was located at Chateau, in order to protect the fisheries ; but the i)lace was captured in 1778 by the American privateer Minerva; and three vessels, and .£70,000 worth of property, were carried away as prizes. In 1790, the post was again attacked by a French fleet. A long bombardment ensued between the frigates and the shore batteries, and it was not until their ammunition was exhausted, that the British troops retreated into the back country, after having burned the village. In 1535, the French exploring fleet, under the command of Jaques Cartier, assembled here." Having passed St. Francis Harbour, Cape St. Michael, Batteau Harbour, and Indian Tickle, Sandwich Bay is reached, nine miles wide at the entrance and fifty-four in depth. Further north, Hamilton Inlet, or Esquimaux Bay, opens, the largest by far of the numex'ous inlets that indent this coast. The entrance ""is in lat. 5-1° 23' N., long. 57° 25', and 250 miles north of the Straits of Belle Isle. This great inlet is thirty miles wide at the mouth ; but at Port Rigolette, a post of the Hudson's Bay Company, i i 1 1 1 fill I 1 \ < I il li HUPI 1, 350 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part III. fifty milps from the soa, it narrows to a mile in width. On both sides of these narrows, hills tower to the height of 1,000 feet, wooded with spruce from base to summit. At the termination of this channel the inlet nj^ain expands 51 nd forms Lake Melville, a salt-water lake, thirty miles in length and twenty in breadth. After narrowing again it forms another lake seven miles wide and twenty long, and at its extremity the head of the inlet is reached, one hundred and fifty miles from the sea. The scenery around the shores of Hamilton Inlet is wild and rugged, but above Kigolette becomes very fine. Along the south shore of Melville Lake are the weird and wonderful volcanic peaks of the Mealy Mountains, 1,500 feet in height. Tiiis mountain range is first visible one hundred miles to the south of Hamilton Inlet, running nearly parallel to the coast, and after skirting Lake Melville it strikes north- westerly and is lost in the hilly regions of the interior. At Rigolette two groat arms stretch from the inlet — the one south-cast running about forty miles, and the other having a course nearly parallel with the main bay and a length of sixty miles. Professor Hind estimates the surface covered by water including the arms of the inlet, at 1,700 square miles. It is studded with islands of all sizes, which, in foggy weather, render i,ho navigation perilous. "The only level ground of any extent near the bay reaches from the head of it to the foot of the Mealy Mountains. It is difficult to conceive anything more beautiful than the tints that their summits assume when touched by the rays of the setting sun, long after he has disappeared from the eye, while every little ravine and inequality in their surface is chiselled out against the clear cold sky with wonderful vividness and precision.^' * Not many tourists will care to proceed further north, along the coast of Labrador, than Hamilton Inlet. The * Hind's " Labrador." ClltP. Till.) LABRADOR. 3j1 sontlicrn portion of the coast, as far north as Ranclwich Bay, has been occupied as a fishing ground for more than a century ; and during the hist tliirty years increasing numbers of fisliormen have extended their operations as far north as Capo Harrison, or Webeck, In recent years, a considerable number of Nevvfoundhind cod-fishers have ventured still further nortli, as far as Capo Mngford ; and the probability is that Capo CI ndleigh, at the entrance of Hudson's Strait, will be reached by these hardy adven- turous fishermen before many years have elapsed, as the tish wealth of Northern Labrador is reported to be amazing. A succession of narrow but deep fiords, some of them ex- tending fifty miles into the interior, indents this northern coast. Fine growths of timber are found at the heads of many of these fiords fit for the construction of fishing craft and all ordinary building purposes. The soil and climate, too, are favourable for the growth of potatoes and other voget.ables. According to the report of Professor Hind, who visited this part of the coast a few years ago, " it is fringed with a vast multitude of islands, forming a continuous archipelago from Cape Aillik to Capo Mugford, averaging twenty miles in depth seawards. Outside these islands, and about fifteen miles seaward from them, are numerous banks and shoals which form the summer feeding grounds of largo cod ; and a second range of banks, out- side the shoals, which are probably their winter feeding grounds." This island-studded area, exclusive of the banks and shoals, from Cape Harrison to Capo Mugford, Professor Hind estimated at 5,200 square miles, furnishing a boat- fishing ground for cod nearly as large as the com- bined area of the English and French boat-fishing grounds on the coast of Newfoundland. This immense cod-fishing ground has, as yet, hardly been touched. Professor Hind estimates the total area of the boat-fishery on North and South Labrador at 7,100 square miles. The great cod- ' Ml i 11' ^' !•! ■ ij '3r)'2 NKWKOUNDLAXl). lI'Ull 111. Usher V of tlio fiitiiro will probably bo uloiin" Nortliorn Tiabnulor iiiul ovor tho mljacout banks. Tho Arctic curnMit, which washes these shores, exerts a most benclicia! iiilluonco on th(> lish life of those rei«'ioMs, as well as on that of tlio seas anMintl NewfoinuUantl, (lunula, and a ))ortion of tli{» New Knt^laiul shores. Tho icy cnrrent tlowinjjf from tli(> Arctic seas is, in nnmy ]>Iaces, "a livinuf mass, a vast ocean of living? slinie"; and this slinu> whii'h accompanies tlit> icebt>rs on the banks of nortlieni Labratlor, and rencK'rs the existence ])ossil)h^ there of all those forms of marine life — froni tho diatom to tho miiuiti' crnstacean, from the minnte crnstacean to the pi-an-ii ami crab, togetlu'r with molhiscons aniimds ami startish in vast profusion, which contrihuti^ to \\\o support of tho jj^rcat .schools of cod which also liiid their h(nm> there." Tho sajno current which brinjijs tin* slime and midtitutlcs of minuti^ I'rustaceans also I'arries on its bosom inniunernbK' cod ova, and distributes them far and wid(>. NortluM-n [jabrador, from Cape Webeck to Cape Cluul- leii^h, is the [>ropi'r homo of tlu> l"iS(piinnvnx o\' this r(>L,Moii. Tlu>y call tluMuselvt'S " Innuits," which mi'ans "men," tho term I'lscpiimanx (" eaters of raw llesh ") beiui>; applied to them by hostile tribes to tho west. " Tlu>y are of low stature, with coarsi> features, snudl hands and feet, ami blai'k wiry hair. The men art> i>xpert in tishiuof, cati-liiiii,'' seals, and mana_y:inj;- tlu> lit^ht. and ^raci>ful boat called the /r<»//(»/.', which outriders tho rudi\st snr^u^es of thos{>a; wliiK' the women are skilful in makin^^ jj;arments from skias." It is estimatetl that, tho Msipjimaux of Labrador nuiabcr iibiuit. 1, 7(H) soids, scattered alon^; .'>(>() miles ef coast. Fcr inoro than a century, tho Moravian missiomiries havt' lieeii labouriujjf amon^ these I'lscpiimaux, and with such sacccss that nearly all of them have been reclaimed from hcatlieii- ism of tho worst description ami bnuiii^ht nniler Christian training. The practice of polygamy has ceasi'il auieiig ii'Mir lit. cm I', viii] l.AllRAnOU. 353 tlioiu, iiml {\\v\ liavo bot'omo to ji lar^o oxtont poacetul ami iiuliistrioiis, and aiT woanoil from tlio wamloriiiiif lit'o [o which thoy wrro JuUlictoil, living aroiiiul tht> mission stations in winter, ami at tlu> llshinjif pitsts in summor. Tho missionarii's trado witii thorn, and oxport tlio products of thoir labonrs, >;ivin!j^ thorn nooosaaritvs ami comforts in t'xchan^c. ()iu'i> a year a missiomiry ship arrives laden with provisions and stores of all kinils, ami carrit>s a ri'tnrn om'i,'o of fnrs, lisli, oil, I'tc. The brethren havi' four stations — llopedali>, Naiii, OUkak, and Hebron. At each station tlioro is H churi'h, store, dwellinjj^-honsi^ for tho missionaries, ami workshops tor the native tradesmen. In addition to itistrnctino- them in tlu^ truths of Christianity, tho missionaries seek to teach them those industrial arts which may contributt" to their eond'ort, anil fi>rm habits of steaily aj)j)lication. In seasons (>f famine food is fri>ely ilistributcd from tho mission stores. About twenty missionaries are resilient on this sava^o coi st. 'Vho hardships they havo to cndnrt> may lie estinnded from tho lact that the mean annual lempi>ratur(< at. Nain is 22*^ 52', anil at Okkak 27"^ S2'. Tho thermonu'ter marks 75^' i)Ccasionally in summer, while spirits free/e in the intense cohl of wilder. The white inhabitants of tho Atlaidic coast of Labrador nro in widely scattiM^nl sixchan;jfeil ^vith tradiM's on the spot for siu'h commodities as they iviiaire. Tlu* winter is spent in trappinjjf fur-bearin_t>; animals. At the various niercantile establishnuMits alonj^ tlio coast a numbei* of book-keepers, clerks, servants, and others ari> ri»sident. 'Iho last census taken by the Covern- luont of Newroundlaud, in 1S7I', gives the residi*nt popula- tion from Blaiie iSablon to Cape Harrison as 2,ll(i. Of ■II: »« w ii TT 1 ■ .' 854 NEWFOUNDLAND. [pai;t III. ' 1 1 : a;r ■; ii. r( :f|;^1 these 1,489 belong to the Church of England; 47G to the Church of Eome ; 295 are Wesleyans; 30 are Presbyterians; and 12G belong to other denominations. There are nine places of worship : four of the Church of England, three of the Church of Rome, and two of the Wesleyan Church. During the fishing season a steamer carrying mails and passengers plies fortnightly on the coast, connectinsf with the Newfoundland coastal mail steamer at Battle Harbour. On the St. Lawrence coast of Labrador, from Port Neuf to Blanc Sablon, there is a considerable population, num- bering in all about 4,400. These are mainly of Canadian or Acadian origin, and live chiefly by fishing and hunting. Many of them speak both French and English. Of the whole number 3,800 are Eoman Catholics, and 570 are Protestants. The Indians of the interior, both the Montagnais and Nasquapees, speak dialects of the Creo language. Their numbers are estimated at 4,000, but they are slowly dis- appearing. Game, on which they depend, is becoming- scarcer every year, owing largely to destructive fires which have swept over vast areas destroying forests, berry-bearing shrubs, mosses and lichens, and converting whole districts into hopeless de. erts strewed with naked boulders, where no animal life can exist. Some of the Nasquapeo tribe are still heathen, but the Montagnais are nearly all nominally Roman Catholics. The zealous Jesuit missionaries of early times extended their labours from Canada to Labrador, and these have been specially successful among the Montagnais. Of late years they have been resumed, and are now syste- matically carried on. The Indians hunt over the interior, and at certain seasons visit the coast in order to exchange the products of the chase for clothing, ammunition, and other necessaries. ■ ) I- .( V) cn\p. vin.] LABRADOR. 355 xnd 570 are One of the principal foatui'es of vegetable life in Labrador is the berry-bearing plants, which in certain districts are found in great variety and abundance. These are chiefly partridge berries, bako-applo berries, raspberries, cran- berries, hurtleberries, wild currants, and wild goosebei'ries. Mosses of every hue, wild flowers of the most delicate colours, ferns and tall wild grasses in immense variety, help to beautify the scene during the brief summer. At the heads of the fiords forest-growths of considerable size are found sufficient for fuel and building purposes. The trees fro chiefly larch, black, white, and red spruce, birch, aspen, silver fir, willow, cherry, and mountain ash. Among the wild animals enumerated are reindeer in large numbers, black and white bears, foxes, martens, lynxes, otters, minks, beavers, musk-rats, hares, and rabbits. Among the birds are eagles, owls, ravens, hawks, falcons, ptarmigan, spruce partridges, curlew, gray plovers, sand-pipers and other waders, geese, ducks, gulls, divers, swallows, snipe, and pigeons. The Avinter in Labrador, to those accustomed to it, is far from unpleasant. It is almost one continued stretch of cold dry bracing weathei', broken at times by fierce snow-storms. Thirty, and even forty degrees below zero, is not an uncommon state of the atmosphere ; but when the ther- mometer ranges so low there is generally a dead calm, so that the temperature is not specially disagreeable. Of the rivers of Labrador those falling into the Gulf of St. Lawrence are the Moisie (two hundred and fifty miles in length), the Mingan, the Ounaneme, and the St. Augustine. Rupert's River, East Main, and Great and Little Whale Rivers fall into Hudson's Bay. The Eagle, the West, and East Rivers — all fine salmon rivers — fall into Sandwich Bay. The largest river in the I3eninsula is the Ashwanapi or Hamilton River, discharging its waters into Hamilton Inlet, o »'u\ A V ^ A ^ I 1 « il i i4 356 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past III, liei'jg nearly a mile and a half wide at its mouth. The valley through which this great river flows is in many pkv'ies v/ell wooded, and patches of fertile land are found at intervals on its banks. The Nasquapee or North-west River and the Kenamou also fall into Hamilton Inlet. Between Hamilton Inlet and the Gult of St. Lawrence there is a canoe route, the distance being traversed in fifteen days. George\s River, Whale River, and South River, or Koksoak, fall into Ungava Bay. The Laurentian formation constitutes the great frame- work of the peninsula, and Lower Silurian beds, principally Potsdam, rest on the Laurentian at various points of the coast. Copper ore has been found at different places along the coast, and gold in small quantities has also been dis- covered, Labradorite, a beautiful felspar, is found in great masses on Labi'ador and elsewhere. It is celebrated for its beautiful lustre. Its surface, when seen at particular angles of vision, is frequently distinguished by an exquisite play of colours, charming the eye with changing lustre, and reflecting the most lovely grays, the most delicate blues, and the softest golden yellows. There are mountain ranges in Labrador largely composed of this felspar. According to Dana, the eminent American geologist, it is colourless to grayish and smoky brown, and usually with beautiful internal reflections. Its composition is silica, 53 ; alumina, 30'1 ; lime, 12"3; soda, 4"5. Ratio of protoxyd bases, alumina and silica, 1 : 1 : : 1^. Labradorite and anorthite differ from other felspars in containing propov- tionably less of silica, and being decomposable easily by acids. It is manufactured into cups, vases, and other ornaments. The main value of Labrador lies in its fisheries. These are of immense and steadily increasing value. The following retui'ns will show the present value of those fisheries. \ CHAP. Tin.] LABRADOR. 357 Exports from Labrador for the year ending July 31st, 1880: NEWFOUNDLAND HOUSES. Dried cod-fish . . 393,436 qtls. Green do. . . . 144 „ Sealskins . 1,090. Seal oil . . 50 tuns. Cod oil . . . . 76 „ Other oil . . . . . 1 „ Blubber . . . . 17 „ Pickled salmon . . 592 tierces Pickled herring . . 10,970 brls. Pickled trout . . . . 14 „ Pickled mackerel . . . 459 „ Dried caplin . 58 „ l!!l EXPORTS BY LABRADOR HOUSES NOT CONNECTED WITH NEWFOUND- LAND, FOR YEAR ENDING JULY IST, 1880. Dried cod-fish . Sealskins . Seal oil Cod oil Kefuse Blubber . Pickled salmon Salmon in tins . Pickled herring Pickled trout . Pickled mackerel Dried caplin 14,000 qtls. 110. 14 tuns. 55 „ 2 „ 15 „ 400 tierces. 30,000 lbs. 700 brls. 40 „ 200 100 )f 'I r? ],\j^m t t'lii ^^ ki6 1 1 i l^^l 1 h WH W |>^^^ :>!' I'' 1 '-• j I 1 '■; i < ; j " i ! 1 . J 358 NEWFOUNDLAND. [rAKT III, EXPOIITS BY TRADERS ON LABRADOR COAST FOR YEAR ENDING JULY 1st, 1880 (estimated quantities) : Dried cod-fisli . 520 qtls. Cod oil . 14 tuns. Pickled salmou 757 tierces. Pickled herring . 2,012 brls. Pickled mackerel 30 „ The foregoing statement shows that in that year the total export of dried cod-fish was 407,902 quintals, value at three dollars per quintal, 1,223,880 dollars ; the export of herring 20,282 barrels, value at three and a half dollars per bai'rel, 70,987; the export of salmon 1,740 tierces, value 34,980 dollars. For the year ending 31st July, 1881, the exports of the three great staples were as follows : Dried cod-fish . Pickled herring Pickled salmon 419,997 qtls. 33,330 brls. 957 tierces. i 1 P ir m I I ' I -'■ b -■ ^ fal... It must be remembered that the foregoing figures represent only the exports of the fishery products, and do not show the quantities consumed by the fishermen while employed, or afterwards during the winter at their owu homes, which must be very considerable. Besides, about a fourth of the whole catch is sent to Newfoundland for shipment, and the Canadian and American fishermen who frequent these shores carry away with them the products of their labours, which are estimated to be about a ninth of the entire quantities taken. About 100 Canadiaa and Nova Scotia vessels are annually engaged in the Labrador fisheries. The number of American fishing- vessels visiting Labrador has declined of late years, and is now tU.Vl'. VIII. 1 LABRADOR. .359 comparativfly insignificant. The Americans mainly devote tbemselves now to the bank fishery. AVhei. the quantities disposed of in the way described arc added to the direct exports, the aggregate will bo increased by more than one half. Altogethc", fi'om 1,000 to 1,200 lishing-vessels are employed each year on the Atlantic coast of Labrador, carrying more than 80,000 fishermen. These valuable fisheries are each year falling more and more into the hands of Newfoundland fishermen. Canadians and Americans, coming from grea^ distances, cannot com- pete with those who are but three or four days' sail from tlie coast of Labrador. Formerly there were a largo number of Jersey houses at Labrador, but only three of these now remain. The English mercantile establishments have all withdrawn. It has been computed by competent authorities that when the quantities of fish of all hinds taken on the Atlantic and St. Lawi'ence shores of Labrador, by the Esquimaux, by Newfoundlanders, Canadians, and Americans, are esti- mated, the aggregate values will not fall short of a million pounds sterling per annum. The total population of Labrador is about 12,527, and is distributed as follows : III On the St. Lawrence Coast, from Port Neuf to Blanc Sablon On the Atlantic Coast — White Population .... Esquimaux ..... Indians of the Interior 4,411 2,416 1,700 4,000 Total 12,527 \rm ,1 1 ! 11 ; [ j, ^ '' \ 1 IHi'^^ ill.: i^^^^^Bit if*^ mm"^ ii h:u lliSi^^^ AGKICULTURAL RESOURCES. CHAPTER I. THE GEOGRAPHICAL SUEVEY. DiflBculties of the past — The vagaries of Governor Milbanke— Value of the land now under cultivation — New discoveries of fertile belts — Lands suitable for settlement — Two million nine hundred and seventy-six thousand acres awaiting cultivation. Up to a comparatively recent period, the belief was almost universal that Newfoundland was a " howling wilderness," its interior a region of swamps, bogs, and rocks, and its climate such as to forbid the idea of attempting the cultiva- tion of the soil. It is not diflScult to account for these unfounded and erroneous impressions. It has been already shown that for nearly one hundred and fifty years, the laws enacted and enforced in the colony prohibited the occupation or cultivation of land under heavy penalties, and even the erection of houses, except such as were necessary for carrying on the fisheries. In vain did the resident inhabitants apply for permission to inclose and cultivate even small patches of land. The right to do so was sternly refused. The island was to be preserved as a station for the use of a small body of mer- CHIP. I.] THE GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 3G1 chants wlio carried on a migratory fishery. To prevent the increase of inhabitants, stringent orders were given to successive Governors not to make any grants of land, and to reduce the number of those who wei-o already settled there, by withholding whatever might servo to encourage them to remain in the island. As Mr. William Knox forcibly expressed it in his evidence before a Parliamentary Committee, in 1793: "The Island of Newfoundland had been considered in all former times as a great English ship, moored near the Banks during the fishing season, for the convenience of the English fishermen. The Governor was considered as the ship's captain, and all those concerned in the fishery business as his crew, and subject to naval discipline.'' The treatment of the settlers was graphically described by Lord North in the following terms : " What- ever they loved to have roasted, the Governor was to give them raw, and whatever they wished to have raw, he was to give it to them roasted," Governor Milbanke, in one of his despatches which is still extant, expressed his astonishment how any Governor could imagine himself vested with power to grant land to persons in Newfoundland in the face of existing statutes, and declared that the possession of any land "ought to subject the holders to imprisonment or banishment from the country." Another cause which retarded agriculture in Newfound- land was the delusion so systematically and perseveringly propagated by interested persons, that the soil of the island was hopelessly barren, and that all attempts at agricultural improvement must prove failures. The mercantile mono- polists were most sedulous in impressing this belief on the English people and on successive English governments, simply because they wanted to keep the country as a comfortable "preserve" for their own advantage. For a long period they were successful in duping the world on this subject, until it became at length a settled belief ' J ■1H«' I I M 3G2 NEWFOUNDLAND. I TAUT IV. that tins liu'f^'o island, with a healthy climate, and situated in a temperate latitude, pi'esented insurmountable obstacles to agriculture. The people themselves, cooped up chiefly around the shores of the peninsula of Avalon, where the soil is poorest, knowing nothing of the interior, and being dependent on the fisheries, at length became persuadoil that there was no soil to cultivate, and that the whole isluntl was of the same character as the rocky margin of the sea. As years rolled on this notion regarding the barrenness of the soil has been entirely dissipated. Experience proved that whei'evcr judicious industry was expended on the soil it yielded excellent returns ; and at the present moment those who have bestowed most attention on agriculture are the most prosperous and independent portion of the working classes. To the statement that the soil of Newfoundland is unfavourable to agriculture, it is sufficient to reply that the value of the land now under cultivation, together with the cattle, sheep, and horses, etc., which it sustains, is not less than two millions and a half of dollars, and the annual ])ro- duce is $Gl2,o50. This is the result of the limited effort made by the people in this direction around the various settlements on the shore, where the soil is poorest, and the harsh winds blowing over the ocean are most felt. What may not be accomplished, when the fertile belts of the interior, having a much finer climate, are peopled and culti- vated. Even now, however, enough has been done to prove that the soil of the island, so far from being intractable and barren, yields on cultivation rich and abundant crops in great variety. The farther settlement has extended inland, especially around the heads of the different bays, where noble stretches of the finest land exist, the more evident become the capabilities of the soil to sustain an agricultural population. The geological survey, as it advanced year after year, and made fresh discoveries of fertile lands, noble forests, and cuu. I.l THE GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 3G3 iiiinoral districts, lias at length completely banished the old delusion founded on ignoi'unco and prejiidico, and revealed a country having very great agricultural resources, awaiting the operations of the strong arm of labour for their develop- ment. These conclusions no longer rest on mere conjecture, or the assertions of individuals whoso judgments aro not reliable. They rest on evidences collected by scientific men whose testimony cannot be disputed. Before giving a detailed account of tho several fertile belts of tho island, wo propose to present a general outline of the extent of the agricultural resources as ascertained by the geological survey. A very careful survey was made of tho westei'n coast, for a considerable distance inland, by Mr. Murray and his assistant. Their reports state, as tho result, that the regions near and surrounding St. George's Bay, including tho Codroy Valleys and Port-a-Port, contain seven hundred and thirty square miles, more or less suitable for settlement, " tho most favoured tract being the coal- uieasure districts, where the surface is often flat or gently undulating over a great many acres." Bay of Islands, in- chidiug tho valley of the Humber, Deer Lake, and Grand Lake country, contains six hundred square miles suitable for settlement — being a total of thirteen hundred and thirty square miles in this single district of laud " perfectly capable of being reclaimed and converted into fairly productive grazing and arable land." " These valleys," says the report, "are for the most part well wooded, producing, in many instances, large pines, juniper, or tamarack (tho latter a species of larch), fine yellow birch, and other valuable timber. In tho valley of tho Humber this is especially the case, where a large ai*ea of country appears to be provided with all the necessary material for shipbuilding in a re- markable degree." Passing now to the eastern coast, we come to the Gander country. On the Gander river and lake, with the tribu- 364 NEWFOUNDLAND. (rAVT u. tnrics, and including tho Gnrabo and 'Vcvra Nova valleys, together with tho tracts at tho heads of tho bays, there are, according to Mr. Murray, seventeen hundred square miles available for settlement. The Exploits Valley and Jlcd Indian Lake, together with the lands surrounding the estuary of the Exploits, contain sixteen hundred and twenty square miles. Thus we have a total, in these great valleys alone, of 4,650 square miles, or 2,970,000 acres, fit for settlement, and capable, when cultivated, of sustaining a very large population in comfort. The foregoing comprise only the most extensive tracts of fertile land at present known, but in addition there arc many smaller portions of excellent soil around the heads of all the bays, along the margins of the smaller rivers, and on several of the islands, such as Random Island, in Trinity Bay, which united constitute a large area. The Salmonier arm and river may be named as a district where there is a very considerable extent of good soil, but little of which is yet under cultivation. The peninsula of St. Mary's, the north side of Smith's Sound, in Trinity Bay, Goose Bay, in Bonavista Bay, are also fertile districts, each capable of sustaining a considerable agricultural population. When you add to these the land already under culture around the various settlements, and the extensive tracts of land throughout the whole peninsula of Avalon, which are admirably adapted for cattle and sheep raising, the area of the whole can scarc-^ly be under 2,000,000 acres. Thus we have close on 5,000,000 acres well fitted for agricultural and grazing purposes. The savanna country of the interior, described by Cormack, which in all pro- bability will one day be converted into cattle tracts or sheep walks, is not included in the foregoing estimate. It is probably about one hundred and twenty miles in length and ninety miles in breadth. CHIP. I I THE GEOaRAPIIICAL SURVEY. 365 1 Having thus given a general outline of the agricultural districts and their extent, we propose now to take each in tarn, and furnish a more detailed account of their capa- bilities, beginning with the Codroy valleys on the western coast. mm CHAPTER II. THE CODROY VALLEYS OX THE WESTERN COAST. A wcll-woodcd country — Wild grass — Graziiig lands — A winter in Codroy Villa — Experiences of local farminp; — Building stone and minerals — Emigrants going West — A fertile oasis oi route hitherto unknown. Tiiiii Great Codroy Eiver falls into the sea in latitude 47'^ 50' 14", longitude 59" 19' 55", between fifteen and sixteen miles north of Cape Ray, and about six miles south-easterly from Cape Anguille. There is a narrow gut between the sea and the expansive shallow estuary of this river. Banks of sand and gravel, which are continually shifting, render the entrance difficult and dangerous even for small craft ; and in some places there are only eight or ten feet of water. Inside this gut there is an excellent harbour sheltered from all winds. On the coast, four miles south from the outlet of the Great Codroy River, is Larkin Point, immediately south of which the waters of the Little Codroy River are poured into the sea. The fine valley, which is drained by these two streams, is bounded on the south-east by the Cape Ray mountains, rising in some places to a height of two thousand feet, and on the northern side by the Cape Anguille range, whose highest elevations rcacli CHIP, n.] THE CODROY VALLEY. 367 ERN COAST. 3s — A winter in -Building stone lie oasis en foidc ea in latitude en fifteen and joout six miles a naiTOW gut istuary of tliis xo continually |an,i2:erou3 even only eight or an excellent last, four miles [ivor, i^ Larkin of tlio Little o fine valley, unded on the n some places northern side svatious reach one thous.and three hundred feet, and " are richly covered hy forest trees nearly to the summits." Of the Codroy Valley, Mi*. Murray says : " The area occupied by level or gently nndulatiug land amounts, by rough measurement on the plan, to about seventy-five square miles, or about forty-eight thousand square acres ; a very large proportion of which is available for settlement. For the most part the country is well wooded with stout mixed timber, consisting chiefly of spruce, balsam firs, yellow birch (frequently of largo size), white birch, and tamarack. The islands and flats of the lower part of Great Codroy River yield a luxuriant growth of wild grass, affording an ample supply of admirable fodder for cattle. Notwithstanding the very rude process by which the land is cultivated, the crops of grass, grain, and roots which it yields highly testify to the excellence of the soil on wliich they are grown. Cattle and sheep are raised upon most of these small farms, producing most excellent beef and mutton, besides dairy produce of the very best descrip- tiou. The greater portion of the Anguille, and some portions of the lower slopes of the Cape Ray ranges are quite capable of iaiprovement, and if cleared of timber and sown iu grass would afford grazing land not easily surpassed in any country." The surveyor-general of Newfoundland, who hold offico more than thirty years ago, after a visit to Codroy, said in Iiis report : '^ The extent of land between the Great and the Little Codroy rivers, and on the north side of the former, may, from the examination made, bo estimated to contain an area equal to seventy thousand acres. The whole of that space consists of a rich loam capable of the highest degree of cultivation, and fit for the production of any description of crop. Limestone is readily obtained, and can with little trouble be made to contribute to the support of the land where it is so abundantly found. Timber of the most i" I i m m laH'l 3G8 NEWFOUNDLAND. [p AKT IV. serviceable dcscr'; tion covers, for the most part, tlie tract here referred to. Birch trees measuring from five to seven feet in circumference were found within a quarter of a mile of the shore, while others of a larger growth may bo readily procured at a short distance from it. Among the birch are mingled spruce and fir of all sizes, suitable either for the erection of houses or the construction of vessels. From information obtained at Codroy, little doubt exists that coal may bo procured, and that without much difficulty, toward the eastern end of the river. Lying to the northward of the valuable tract of land above referred to, is found a range of hilly ground, admirably adapted for grazing, its natui'al productions consisting of hei'bage, which early in the summer attains a height of between two and three feet.^^ ..." In closing the remarks on this river, it is doing no more than justice to say that it would be difficult to imagine a more beautiful or picturesque scene than the whole presents; and whether with reference to the soil around it, to its fisheries, or to its geographical situation, forming as it does part of the Northern Head, and therefore commanding the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a more desirable and importar;t place for a settlement could scarcely be found." An intelligent farmer from Prince Edward Island was shipwrecked, a few years ago, at Codroy Island, and was compelled to pass the winter in Codroy Valley. On his return home, he published in a newspaper an account of his experience, from which the following is an extract : " You may judge of the richness of these Codroy lands by the fact, that at the homestead where I passed the winter, a farm of not more than fifteen acres of roughly-cultivated land, supported a stock of twenty head of Jcattle and thirty- five sheep, wholly upon hay. Along the * intervals ' I passed over rich fields where clover had been grown luxuriantly for more than thirty years, without manure, cniP. II.] THE CODROY VALLEY. 3G9 and with no sign of decay or loss to the soil. Even tbe neighbouring uplands seem equally inexhaustible ia fertility, giving no sign of wearing out, though they have been cropped, year after year, without manure, since they were settled. Indeed, the manure-heaps are considered an encumbrance by the farmers there. Observing large and unsightly heaps of stable manure, which had been accumu- lating for thirty years, as I was told, I asked one of the farmers why he did not turn the manure to account. He replied that their hay-fields had no need of manure, and as for their potato lands, any manure on them would choke the potatoes with clover. Indeed, these uplands are so rich, that there seems no doubt that they are of volcanic origm. The Right Rev. Monsignor Scars, who has spent many years in this district, says : '' As you ask in particular for the Codroy River, suffice it here to say, that the range of good land along its banks is sufficiently broad for all purposes of forming good farms. The ' interval ' is from a mile to two miles wide. The valley of the Codroy is in most places computed at from ten to twelve miles wide, mostly composed of excellent land. The length of the valley is about forty miles altogether. There are of course some marshes, as in all countries, and some plots of stony ground, but nothing to impede farming operations on an extensive scale. In the 'interval,' and even the major part of the good upland, there are scarcely any stones. The wood is abundant and of excellent quality. The birch, which is plentiful, is an excellent article of fuel, besides its ■well-known use for shipbuilding." Regarding minerals and other economical materials of the Codroy valleys, Mr. ]\Iurray says : " The coal rocks ■were perceived to be distributed along the base of the Cape Ray mountains wherever visited, from Trevain Brook to the upper forks of the Great Codi'oy. Near the junction of the 2 B hit I I V 1- • ■ 1 \ 1 1 1 11 ■' .ili: 370 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAET IV. coal measures with the gneiss, on tlie Great Codroy River, some bands of a very ferruginous cliaracter were observed. These bands are of a reddish brown colour, are hard, brittle, and with conchoidal fracture, the broken "surface presenting occasionally a metallic lustre.'' . . . . " Some beautiful speci- mens of magnetic iron were procured from the neighbourhood of the Caii'n Mountain, near Flat Brook, which, judging from the quantity distributed over the ground, is probably derived from a large and important mass in the neighbourhood." .... "Gypsum," Mr. Murray adds, "abounds in the lower part of the carboniferous system, and is largely developed on the coast near Codroy and in Bay St. George. The vast masses which come out in the cliffs between Codroy Island and the Great Codroy River can hardly fail to prove, some day, of great value and importance.'' . . . . " Admirable building stone is found on Codroy Island, in the section between tlie Great and Little Codroy rivers, and on the Great Codroy River. Some of the sandstone beds of the coal formation on the Great Codroy River would produce good scythe stones." Limestone beds, he also describes as " occurring on the coasi near Codroy, and thence cropping out at intervals near the right bank of the Great Codroy." A traveller from. Cape Breton who recently visited this region says : " The land is scarcely surpassed by any of the Lower Provinces for its fertility. We travelled about twenty-four miles above this beautiful and romantic river. There is a range of good upland extending some nine miles above the settlement. This is studded with birch, spruce, and fir. Then commences what is called the * Big interval.' This great tract of rich land I travelled for about fifteen miles either side of the river, some places extending over a mile in width. The extent and appearance of this splendid * interval ' struck me so forcibl}'' that I stopped to examine carefully the nature of the soil. I could see along the banks that the soil was exceedingly good, and four feet in CHAT. II.] THE CODROY VALLEY. 371 depth, while the grass, balsam, and Balm of Giload trees, and tallaldersgavoproof of its surpassing fertility." .... "As I ascended the mountain, previous to coming into the valley of Bay St. George, I took a survey of this vast and mag- nificent valley, and the same grand and pleasing sight was presented to view, unbroken by barrens or rocks, till the sight was lost amid the dark and gloomy forest which, robed in its sombre green, seemed to mourn the neglect in which the vale below was left." The foregoing statements prove that in the Codroy valleys there is a tract of exceedingly fertile land, of very considerable extent, easily reclaimed, ha,ving a favourable climate, enormous development of gypsum and limestone beds, with indications of coal and minerals and fine timber — in fact, that the valley is rich in all that can minister to man's comfort and material progress. From ten to twelve thousand people might find a comfortable home here. It is now occupied by a few hundreds of settlers ; while thousands of emigrants are constantly passing within sight of it, to seek settlements in less promising regions, thousands of miles farther west. 4 2 B 2 ( I ^ i 1 ■ 1 ' 1 1 ' if li I I ! 11 CHAPTER III. THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE AND THE WESTERN COUNTRY. Capabilities of the district for settlement — Mr. Murray and Mr. Jukes on the productiveness of the soil — Vast tracts of un- occupied lands — MonsigiTor Scars gives the results of a settlor's experiences — Room for thousands of farms on " The Barrens" — Dr. Bell on the climate — The Bay of Islands and the number district. About 'tliirty-five miles to the north of Codroy is the fine Bay of St. George. More properly it might bo called a gulf, being forty miles wide at its entrance, and fifty miles in length. It is long and tapering, and receives at its head and along its southern shore numerous streams and rivers. A long low tongue of land runs out at the south side of the head of the bay, forming an excellent harbour. More than a quarter of a century ago the surveyor-general of the day paid a professional visit to this region, with the view of reporting on its capabilities. He estimated that it was capable of supporting in comfort from one to two hundred thousand inhabitants. " The soil," he said, " is deep and rich, and when the trees and stumps are removed from it no further obstacles exist to prevent the land being at once brought under the plough ; while the husbandman has at hand limestone and gypsum sufficient for the most W' \ i w. ) ; II ■ Islands ami CHAP. III.] THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 373 extensive farming- operations, and in addition to which, help, a most valuable manure may be collected almost to any extent." lie calculated that the expense of clearing ground here would not exceed forty shillings per acre. Mr. Murray has estimated that the extent of land in St. George's Bay, available for settlement, is two hundred and twenty-five square miles, or one hundred and forty-two thousand eight hundred square acres. In addition to this he says : " On the north shore of the bay there is a con- siderable area of fine agricultural country, equal to nineteen thousand two hundred square acres." . . . . " The present settlement of this fine rcyion is limited to some strao""-linrr farms along the coast, on cither side of the bay, on which ex- celloiit crops of grass, potatoes, and turnips ai'e raised. Winter wheat has been successfully grown on the north siJo ot; the bay. The valleys around the bay are for the most part well wooded, producing in many instances large pines, juniper or tamarack, fine yellow-birch, and other valuable timber." .... "North-eastward from the terminating point of the Cape Anguillo Montains, the whole country between the coast and the Long Range is of a flat or undulatory character, densely covered with forest trees, except in such parts as have been swept by fire, or occasional tracts of marsh. The trees of this forest consist of white and yellow birch, spruce and balsam fir,poplar, and tamarack or larch." .... "Much of the timber of this great plateau is very largo. Trees of yellow and white birch are frequently met with, and particularly on the river flats, having a diameter of three feet and even more, many of which are tall and straight, resembling the hard-wood forests of Canada; spruces, balsams, poplars, and tamaracks also reach a maximum size, and seem to be of excellent quality." .... " Ai hese streams take their rise among the barren wastes of the Long Kange Mountains, but the lower reaches of each, for distances varying from twelve to twenty miles, flow through richly-wooded and fertile li ' 'lljil ii i! ■ % ■i RH Ml ; ■ 1 ' '^ ; i ii i 1 ' i ^ 1 374 NEWFOUNDLAND. [P.IBT IT. valleys, intersecting the plateau just described. Those valleys, and much of the higher lands, now primeval wilder- ness, appear to bo nearly in every respect well adapted for agricultural settlement. By deducting the tract occupied by the Anguillo range of hills, amounting to two hundred and lifty-six square miles, which is too high and steep for ordinary tillage, although well suited as runs for sheep or cattle, the remainder of the block, viz. five hundred and sixty square miles, is certainly to a largo extent reclaimable; and there can be but little doubt that the construction of roads, which must necessarily be the consequence of occupa- tion, together with the clearing of the forest, will lead to mineral discoveries of vast importance to the colony." .... " Tracts of considerable extent upon the coast, and nearly all the valleys of the principal streams, bear a soil of the most fertile description, which is even already shown by the few and rudely cultivated spots here and there, where the pro- duce in grass, green crops, and even cereals, are all first- class, both in quantity and quality. And this in a country where there is no evidence of a plough, a harrow, or a wheeledvehicle of any kind whatever !" . . . . "Large tracts of extremely fine land extend up the valleys for many miles. The richness of the soil at this part of the coast is probably due to the calcareous material derived from the adjacent mountains, together with the disintegration of the trappeau rocks, of which the subsoil is composed." So far back as 1840, the late Mr. Jukes, the dis- tinguished geologist, visited St. George's Bay, and was much impressed with the beauty of its scenery and its agricultural capabilities. He described the country as " gently undulating, with a fine short turf, not unlike some English landscapes." From a rising ground, at a spot where he landed, he saw " a tract of low undulating land, covered with a rich sea of wood, stretching away into the interior for fifteen or twenty miles, backed by a range of • ,ll cnip. iii.j THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 375 blue hills in the horizon, that rose toward the south-west, while toward the north-east they died away and coalesced with the hills at the head of the bay." The rich-looking valley with its bright waters winding away into the woods ho describes as " completing a most lovely and most English picture/' The Very Rev. Monsignor Scars, who has spent many years on this coast, and done much for the improvement of the region and its people, says of St. George's Bay : " As the soil here is surpassingly productive, especially in the growth of various grasses, I believe there is no country in our latitude to surpass it for grazing sheep or cattle. Of course the land Avill have to be cleared before there is much facility for grazing, although in many places near the salt water there are large tracts already yielding grass. I find that all over Cape St. George, and the sea-coast in general, wherever the trees are removed, either by fire, wind, or other causes, a spontaneous growth of grass springs up. The grass is good for grazing ; and even when protected yields a good crop of hay." Monsignor Sears gives an instance of a settler on a river running into the bay, who, having cleared one square mile of land, raised on this quantity, the following year, two hundred and forty tons of excellent hay. The river on which this settler is located is fifteen miles in length, and the land is equally good through its entire extent. In the more favoured localities he says there are meadows giving hay for the last nineteen years, without getting a particle of manure, and the nineteenth, crop is better than the first. " To my own knowledge," he says, " there are plains on either side of the Bay of St. George, some thirty or forty miles long, and in some places fifteen or twenty miles wide, traversed by rivers, and quite as fertile as the one I have described. The hay is so good that it sold at [St. Pierre for £8 per ton. The wood is abundant and of excellent quality, especially the birch for • » I lili I V ». i ' ,jll:l'l 1 M r^ 37G NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT IT. fuel and shipbuilding. There is another tree here called the balm tree. It grows so luxuriantly on the * Long interval ' tracts of the river margins that, viewed from a distance, this fine-looking tree reminds one of the oak forests of the Old World, or the ninplo groves of the neighbourin<^ colonies. The timber is very light, something like that of the aspen, and is as soft to cut as the cedai*. For inside work it combines the gloss or polish of hard-wood with the facility of being worked or dressed peculiar to pine. It covers hundreds of acres, and grows to a size of three or four feet in diameter." One more testimony regarding this region may ho referred to — that of John Bell, M.A., ]\[.I)., of Montreal, «vho visited the west coast, and described it in tlio "Canadian Naturalist" for 1870. lie says: "Along tlio river flats, in the valleys and on ' the barrens,' when those are drained and the country is a little more cleared, there will be room for thousands of farms, and the hills -will afford walks for immense flocks of sheep, and pasture for countless herds of cattle, the surplus of all which will iiiul a ready market at the ports and fishing stations, at tlio lumbering, manufacturing, and mining establishments which ere long will make this old and neglected colony ono vast scene of active and profitable industry. The climate of the island is favourable to the development of its agri- cultural resources of every kind. Instead of the cold, foggy atmosphere which is generally supposed to hang over the island, quite the reverse is the case. The air is clear and warm, and the temperature during the year remarkably equable, the mercury in winter seldom falling below zero of Fahrenheit's scale, or in summer rising above eighty degrees ; while the mean temperature of the year is about forty-four degrees. I never saw finer weather than during the two months I was on the island. It is only on the south-west CHAP. III.] THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 377 corner that fogs prevail to any extent, from tho proximity of tliat part to tho Gulf Stream." In addition to its agricultui'al capaLilities, Bay St. Goorj^o lias valuaLlo fisheries near, and to these tho attention of tho inhabitants is largely directed. Herrings arc aljun- tlant. Evei'y man takes as many as ho thinks ho can euro. About thirty thousand barrels arc exported annually. Cod, salmon, and smelt ai*o also taken. St. George's Bay is further noticeable as containing on its shores tho most extensive and promising coal-field, which Mr. Jukes estimated to bo twenty-five miles wide and ten miles in length. lie found a seam of excellent Caunel coal here, three feet in thickness at the outcrop. Wo reserve further account of this coal-field for tho chapter on tho mineral wealth of tho island. Macfnetic iron has been found near Cairn Mountain, in St. George's Bay. North of St. George's Bay extends tho small peninsula of Port-a-Port, between it and tho Bay of Islands. Tho few settlers hero live chiefly by farming, tho land being in many places well-wooded and good for agricultural purposes. The settlements are at West Point, Isthmus Cove, East Bay, and Fox Island. Tho inhabitants have a considerable number of cattle and sheep, and employ themselves during the winter months in making staves and herring-barrels, which they dispose of to traders going to the Bay Islaiids, where there is a large herring fishery. Tho best harbour is that of Piccadilly. The peninsula is but very imperfectly known. Tho mineral indications are of tho most promising character. The ores of load and copper have been met with in such, quantities and positions as to warrant the expectation of the district being one day a mining centre. A lead mine was opened here a number of years since, under tho most favourable auspices, but had to be discontinued, as tho imperial authorities — influenced by the protests of the Wf II: 1 ; I 1 l! ': I 378 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAM IT. Froncli, who considorctl their fishery privileges invaded — prohibited the further working of this industry. This state of things has now ceased to exist, and mining grants can now bo issued anywhero by the local government of tho island. About fifty miles from tho north head of St. George's Bay, tho Bay of Islands opens, being fifteen miles wide iit its entrance, where it is studded with lofty islands. This fine region, only second in importance to Bay St. George in regard to its agricultural capabilities, its fisheries, and its mineral and timber wealth, contains as yet but few inhabitants, who are scattered along tho banks of the Humber Sound and River. The bay is spacious and easy of access, its depth being about fifteen miles, and tho anchorage safe and good on tho southern side. There arc several ai'ms extending from its eastern side, but these arc as yet littlo known. Tho most important, however, is that arm which is known as the Ilumber Sound, extending from the south-eastern part of tho bay about twenty-eight miles easterly into the country, with a width of more than two miles. At its head is the mouth of the fine River Humber, the second largest river in the island. A range of hills called tho Blo-mi-don Hills, from eight hundred to a thousand feet high, rises to tho south of tho Sound. On approaching tho Humber their height and abruptness gradually level down until, on tho banks of this noble river, they do not rise higher than three hundred feet, while they pre- sent to the eyo a rich clothing of tho most varied foliage, that goes down to the water's-edge. This, however, does not hold good on tho first or lower course of tho river, which passes through a narrow gorge nearly three miles in length, having on each side lofty crags, which in some places shoot up perpendicularly from the water's edge to the height of a thousand feet. In flowing through this gorge the river is in some places pent up to less than a chaiu in I cnii>. iti.l THE BAY OF ST. GKOUGi:. 379 width, tho current being ileep and stronj^. Three miles from tlio mouth of tlio river n sliglit rapid is met, which is easily passed at high spring-tides. Above this rapid the llumber opens out wide, flowing through a beautiful and pictures(pie Viillcy, from three to seven miles in width, with lino Hat laud on either side. Within a mile of tho lower end of Doer Lake, which is twelve miles from tho mouth of the river, a second rapid is met, considerably stronger than tho first, over which a boat can be readily taken by tracking, and which presents but a slight impediment to tho safe transit of rafts of timber from tho lake to the Sound. Tho rise from tho sea to tho level of Deer Lake, Mr. Murray found to bo only ten feet. Deer Lake, through which tho Humber flows, is fifteen miles in length and three in breadth. Around it, especially to the eastward and north- ward, is a fine expanse of Hat rolling country, reaching away in tho former direction towards Grand Lake. " Tho land surrounding Doer Lake," says the surveyor-general already quoted, " is of the most fertile description, beai'ing on its surface pines measuring from three to four feet in diameter, with birch of hardly inferior dimensions, and both these kinds existing in great quantities, and with such \\ator-power within reach as would seem to invito the establishment of saw-mills, and at the same time to insure success to such an enterprise." The River Humber is about one hundred and fourteen miles in length, and flows through a beautiful and fertile tract of countiy, which ere long, by the extension of tho railway system, will be populated, its valleys waving with the yellow harvest and its hills covei'od with browsing berds. The difficulties presented by the rapids already referred to could easily be removed were the country settled ; and if this were done, vessels of considerable size and small steamers could reach Deer Lake. All who have visited the Humber district speak highly V , . I ■li I l| m ,: I ^ 'M , i ' ettled, iu Canada, either for the purpose of lumbering or . farming on the northern shores of Lake Huron and many parts of the Lower Provinces, far inferiDr in most respects to this region of Newfoundland, which, there can scarcely bo a doubt, is capable of supporting a very "argo population." In this valley of tho Iluniber m.".iiy thousands might find employment in agriculture, while those living on the lower reaches of the river and on the baulks of tho Sound could combine fishing, lumbcriiiir, and shipbuilding with farming. In tho fine country around Deer Lake there is but a single settler — a courageous farmer from Cape Breton, who with his family ventured into this solitude a few years ago. The present writer, when on an excursion to Grand Lake, in 1878, met this lonely pioneer, whose nearest neigh- bours were some twenty or thirty miles off. He described the country around Deer Lake as superior to any ho had seen in Nova Scotia or Capo Breton. Tho extent of good land cniP. ni.] THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 381 he estimated at thirty-tliree miles in length, and with a breadth varying frotn three to five miles, all of it perfectly level. Tlio soil is a deep sandy loam, and, for the growth of root-crops, cannot be surpassed. He had grown potatoes which weighed each three pounds ; parsnips and carrots twenty-two inches in length ; and beans and peas one third larger than the same kinds grown in Nova Scotia. He liad raised a small quantity of wheat as an experiment, aud found it quite equal to Canadian wheat. Clover and buckwheat also grew luxuriantly, and ho found the soil specially favourable to the growth of flax. He thought the soil would suit fruit-trees. The " interval" land along the river made excellent meadow ground. Hay could be cut hove from the natural grasses. The timber, ho said, was large — chiefly pine, spruce, birch, and fir. The Humber district contains some of the finest timber in the island, which will be more minutely referred to when the forests come to be noticed. Coal beds are believed to exist in the neighbourhood of Grand Lake. Marbles of all kinds occur at various parts of the Bay of Islands, iloro details of these are given in another part of this volume, and also of the splendid herring fishery of the bay, which is one of the finest to be met with, the quality of the herring being equal to those taken on the coast of Labrador. North of the Bay of Islands another fine bay opens, named Bonne Bay. It has not been surveyed, and is but very imperfectly known. Casual visitors report a largo extent of good land especially suitable for grazing purposes. Those who have attempted to cultivate the soil speak highly of its fertility. There is here a fine herring fishery, and on that, with salmon and cod, tlio inhabitants chiefly subsist. Of the climate of Western Newfoundland the surveyor- general says : " To persons visiting the western shores of mwTi I'll ■ , ! ■ i' 382 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAM TI. Newfoundland, after having been acquainted Avitli tho eastern and southern, 'the difference of climate between these two places and tho different effects produced on the weather by the winds become at once most apparent. The southern shore is frequently enveloped in fog, and the eastern, though not subject to that visitation to an equal extent, yet does the easterly wind almost always bring to the eastern shore cold and disagreeable weather. On the western shore fog is rarely seen, and the climate is an ameliorated one." In regard to tho more northern bays little is yet known; but casual visitors concur in declaring that at the heads of all these bays there are large stretches of good land, well adapted for settlement, and possessing natural advantages of great value. The foregoing evidence adduced regarding Western Newfoundland shows that here is one of the most desirable fields for emigration that can well be imagined, but which being unknown is neglected. In Codroy, Bay St. George, Port-a-Port, and Bay of Islands, together with the Huraber district, there are 851,200 acres of land such as we have described, awaiting the axe, the plough, and the spade. The climate is favourable to health and industrial occupa- tions. The character of the district is such that a variety of occupations can be followed by the settlers — farming, lumbering, mining, shipbuilding, fishing, etc. The pro- jected Great American and European Short Line Eailway will open up the whole district, and place it in communica- tion with the outside world, securing a market for tho various products of industry. There is nothing, however, to prevent settlement proceeding at present in advance of the railway, the difiiculties being far fewer than those en- countered by settlers who face the prairie or the forests in the west of the United States and Canada. Be it remem- bered, too, that this region is within five daya' steaming 7 [PABT TI. !(1 with tlio late between duced on the parent. The fog, and the I to an equal rays bring to iher. On the climate is an is yet known ; the heads of Dod land, well al advantages ling Western nost desirahle ed, but which ,y St. George, 1 the Huraber 1 as we have d the spade. strial occupa- it a variety of ers — farming, c. The pro- Line Railway a communica- arket for the ing, however, in advance of han those en- the forests in Be it remem- aya' steaming CHAP. III-l THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 383 distance of the Irish coast. Once its attractions are thoroughly known it can hardly fail to secure a consider- able rill from the great stream of emigration now flowing from the Old World to the New. li i 1 M j. '!.' \i§ ' ■« ^^^H' i P ■|- ' i 1 mmi M 1 1 : :• f r ' : m CHAPTER IV. KOTRE DAME BAY AND THE EASTERN DISTRICTS. The future of the plain that Avill one day unite the Humbei" district with Notre Dame Bay— A splendid stretch of country ^ — Scenery equal to that of the English and Scotch lakes — Large and small game — Red Indian Lake and AYhite Bay — The fertile belts of the Gander and Gambo country — A wilderness that might bo "settled" — The unpeopled valley of the Exploits — Gander River. From the Bay of Islands on the western coast Newfoundland can be crossed, without much difficulty, to the shores of Notre Dame Bay on the eastern coast. The distance from the head of Humber Sound to the head of Hall's Bay, an arm of Notre Dame Bay, does not much exceed ouo hundred miles. A level plain at this point extends across the whole island, the greatest height of land between the two opposite shores of the island not exceeding one hundred feet. Thus a railway one hundred miles in length, for the construction of which along this level plain there are the greatest facilities, would unite the fertile Humber district and the Bay of Islands with Notre Dame Bay, the great mining district which will one day contain a dense popula- tion. Such a railway could commence on the eastern side, either at the south-west arm of Green Bay or at Hall's Bay, and terminate at the head of Humber Sound. There is a caw. IV. NOTRE DAME BAY. 385 splendid stretcli of country between tliese two points, the laud being in many places excellent, the timber abundant aud of largo size, and the mineral indications at many points such as to give promise of important discoveries. Ten or twelve thousand people could find comfortable homes along this great plain, which in some places attains a considerable width, but for the most part does not exceed from two to five miles. A chain of small lakes, with rivers flowing from them, extends from Hall's Bay to the shores of Grand Lake, with on^y one portage a mile wide. By following these rivers and lakes a journey across is greatly facilitated. From Grand Lake the route lies across a portage of nine miles in width, and then the Ilumber lliver is reached, flowing through Deer Lake into Humber Sound. There is not a single settler in this valley which stretches across the island. Were it settled, and a railway or ordinary road constructed, there would be a never-failing market for all kinds of agricultural produce, as well as for timber of all kinds, at the mines of Notre Dame Bay. The coal fields of St. George's Bay and of Grand Lake district would supply the mines with coal for smelting purposes and domestic use ; and from Notre Dame Bay coal could be conveyed to St. John's and other towns by the railway wliich is now under construction. The scenery along this route from Hall's Bay to Grand Lake is in many places beautiful, especially on the lakes, where it is often as picturesque and lovely as in the lake country of England or Scotland. Game of various kinds is abundant, and deer, at the proper season, are to be met with in large numbers. In 1878 Mr. Harvey made the journey across in company with Sir John Glover, then Governor of the island, and a small party. Ho has given an account of the excursion in a pamphlet entitled " Across Newfoundland with the Governor," The route lay from Hall's Bay up Indian Brook navigated in canoes, through 2 c J I ':Uil X ■N ^1 38G NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAI.T IT. Indian Lake till tlio portage, or "lioight of land/' was readied, whence the streams flow westward, then Birchy Lakes, Sandy Lake, and Main Brook were followed, till Grand Lake, fifty-four miles long, was reached, and some time was spent in exploring its shores. The following extract from the pamphlet above referred to will convey some idea of Grand Lake and of the feelings its scenery awakened in the mind of the writer. " The shades of evening were closing in as we got our first glimpse of Grand Lake, and a very beautiful and impres- sive sight it was. Near its mouth the river takes a sudden bend and reveals at once the full expanse of the blue waters of the lake in which it loses itself. Our expectations were wound up to the highest pitch as we approached this noble sheet of water, of which we had heard so much but which so few had visited. To compare small things v;ith great, we bad been looking out for it and anticipating a sight of it with something of the same feelings which Speke experienced when ho mounted the last height and saw the magnificent Victoria Nyanza stretching away in the dim distance, as far as the eye could reach. Where the river enters it Grand Lake is about six or seven miles in breadth, and with the encompassing hills gently sloping down to the water, thickly wooded, and flashing under the rays of the setting sun in all the golden glories of autumn, and the bright waters gently heaving under the evening breeze, the sight was enchanting. Near the shore the bottom is composed of bright yellow sand, and the reflection on the rippling surface produces an endless succession of golden squares and circles dazzlingly beautiful in appearance. I stood on the shore enjoying the fine sight as long as daylight lasted, and watching the effect of the darkening shadows on the waters, which, as the breeze died away, became like molten silver. I tried to picture to myself in its full extent this great watery expanse stretching from where I stood for fifty-four CHAP. IV.] NOTRE DxVME BAY. 387 miles towardg St. George's Bay, and grasping in its two arms a lofty island twenty-two miles in length, thus exceed- ing the famous Lake of Geneva by nine miles. Here it had lain embosomed in its sm-rounding hills, its silences un- broken save by the shouts of the Red Men, whose wigwams arc no longer seen on its shores, or by the wild unearthly note of the great northern diver fishing in its waters. In all those woods and hills stretching away in one direction to Ecd Indian Lake, and in another to White Bay, there was not a single track except the paths beaten by the deer in their annual migrations; and in the whole region round there was not a human being but the few composing our party. " I sat down on the trunk of a pine tree that had been crashed up by the waves, and gave myself up to the spirit of the hour and the influence of the scene. The shades of night had now darkened the hilltops, and only a stray breath of wind played on the surface of the lake. The stillness had in it something oppressive, almost painful. There were no warblers to fill the woods with their evening: song, nor even the hum of an insect to disturb the stillness. In vain you hold your breath and listen intently for the faintest sound. The silence was absolute, and had a peculiar and depressing influence on the feelings. To re- lieve this sombre mood I tried to picture the 'good time coming,' when the great valley stretching from shore to shore will be filled with a busy prosperous population; when the forests will be cleared away, and smiling corn fields and meadows will overspread the scene ; when along the iron road will be gliding the chariots of fire; when those blue waves will be the pathway for the steamboat with its tranquil motion ; and when ' young men and maid us, old men and children' will mingle their voices here in songs of gladness. It seemed to me as I gazed in the darkening twilight at lake and hilltops, woods and sky, 2 c 2 mJlK \m T m , ' 1 I 1 uV'^ i ' I '' ■ ^ ft !■;■ ' ' 1 iff m '' ■j^^^ili : ' - \.y 388 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAUT IV. as if tlie utter stillness was pi'oplietic of human approach — as if our little band was to bo the pioneer of the great wave of civilisation, the boom of which I seemed to hoar along the newly-laid telegraph wire which now pierced these forests. The dead and dreary stillness became vocal to my ear, and whispered that man, the lord of creation, the mighty king and conqueror, was coming to make all things new; to build the great city, to erect the monuments of human culture, to make this new world blossom like the old ; to ' make the wilderness and the solitary place glad.' And as I listened, now that the mantle of darkness had wrapped the scene around, the air seemed all alive with his name. The trees whispered it in trembling expectancy to one another; the breeze took it up and spread it over the hills and along these lonely valleys, and proclaimed aloud that man, the rightful heir of all, was coming, that his distant footfalls were heard ; and the trees seemed ' to clap their hands' in welcome, the hills to listen for his approach, the foi'ests to bend their tremulous tops in expectancy, and all Nature to offer eagerly the precious things with which for centuries she had been storing her bountiful bosom for the heir of all the ages/ " There remains now the two great fertile belts opening on the eastern side of the island to be described, namely, the valley of the Exploits and the Gander and Gambo country. The Bay of Exploits forms a deep bight on the south coast of the great Bay of Notre Dame. It has numerous arms, the greatest being the inlet which leads to the entrance of the Exploits River. There are several islands in this arm, the principal being Thwart Island, on the eastern side ; the water is deep, and " there is no impediment to navigation for vessels of any size, until reaching Peter's Arm, where there is a good anchorage.". . . " The entrance to the Exploits River is at Wigwam Point, in latitude 49" 5' N. CilVl'. IV.) NOTRE DAME BAY. 380 longitude 55*^ 19' W. This magnificent river rises in the south-western angle of the island, and within a moderate distance of St. George's Bay, and after a course of two hundred miles, it falls in here. With its numerous tributaries, it drains an area of nearly four thousand square miles. Of these it is estimated that one thousand six hundred and twenty square miles are fertile soil, reclaim- able and fit for settlement. Except at the mouth of the river, and on the arm, where a few settlers are found, there are no inhabitants in all this great valley. The river flows through Eed Indian Lake, thirty-seven miles in length, and distant from the mouth of the river between seventy and eighty miles. The lower valley of the Exploits, between the lake and the sea, is capable of sustaining many thousand inhabitants. " The soil,^' Mr. Murray says, " is equal to the best parts of Lower Canada," with little swamp, unencumbered with boulders, the hills wooded to their tops, and from two to five miles wide. The root crops grown by the settlers — potatoes, turnips, parsnips, etc. — he pronounces " the finest he ever saw.^' The timber is in many places still abundant, consisting of pine, white birch, very large spruce, and tamarack. Lumbering operations are carried on here on a small scale, but might be largely increased. The river and its tributaries afford water-power to any extent. The facilities for stock- raising are unrivalled ; while railways or common roads could be easily constructed, the valley being for the most part a dead level. Twenty miles from the mouth of the river are the Grand Falls, already described. The land in the neighbourhood of Red Indian Lake is excellent. Its shores were the headquarters of the Red Indians for many generations, and the spot where they made their last stand, when assailed by the Micmacs. Formerly their burying places and traces of their wigwams were visible here, but they are now obliterated. I i I'ljl I. '•i :| 1 ■ ' ' ' ' ! 1 ■ 1 ' ■ ■ 1 1 . 1 1 i : 1 1 390 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PABT ir. Tliig great valley was practically unknown till the year 1871, when it was surveyed by Mr. Murray, whose account of it came like a new and startling discovery — so indifferent were the people to the riches of the interior and so ignor- ant of their very existence. Regarding its agricultural capabilities, ho says in his report : " The main river valley, from Red Indian Lake downwards, is nearly for the whole distance a level or gently undulating country, broken only by occasional abrupt hills, or rocky eminences, and densely Avooded for many miles back, from either bank of tho stream.^' .... " Tho foi'ests of the Exploits Valley consist of pine, spruce, balsam-fir, tamarack, white birch, and poplar." .... " Tho quality of its spontaneous productions may fairly be taken as indicative of a fertile soil, Tho width of this fertile belt of land varies at different parts of the river ; but taking it to average about two miles on either side (and it probably is much more), there would bo an area of reclaimablo country of about two hundred and eighty square miles, or 179,200 acres." This estimate refers only to the lower reaches > t the river, and does not include the country around the lake or that around the arms of tho bay. " The fertility of the soil," says Mr. Murray^ " at this part of the region is amply testified wherever culti- vation has been attempted, producing roots, potatoes, grass, and other crops of the finest description ; while as a grazing or stock-raising country it can hardly be surpassed." .... "No observant person visiting the valley of the Exploits could fail to be impressed with the manifold advantages it presents for the prosecution of industrial pursuits, such as lumbering and agriculture. With a splendid river, abundant timber, and a fertile soil, the region that is now a wilder- ness might, by energy and enterprise, be soon converted into a thriving settlement, maintaining a large population." Above Red Indian Lake the Exploits is divided into two branches — the main river or Ex])loits proper, and the CHAP. IT.] NOTRE DAME BAY. 391 Victoria branch. Tho former rises not more than twelve miles from tho sea-coast, flows through King George IV. Lake and several smaller ponds. Tho Victoria branch takes its origin between tho White Bear and Grandy's Brook watoi's, and flows through Victoria Lake, a magnificent sheet of water, sixteen miles long, with a bi'eadth of three- quarters of a mile. The character of tho country through which these streams flow is varied. South of King George IV. Lake and Victoria Lake "the country is one vast desolation of bare rock" with marshes interspersed. On the left bank of tho Victoria there ai'o areas of well- timbered laud, averaging five miles in width, and rich "interval" land between Lloyd's Pond and Red Lidian Lake. Sixteen miles up the Victoria River " the country greatly improves, and a large tract, well wooded, generally level and covered by a good soil, prevails nearly up to Victoria Lake. This level and reclaimablo land seems to extend to the eastward, with a few interruptions, to the Great Rattling Brook." The country south of Hodge's Hill and on the southern side of the Exploits " presents an unbroken dense forest, in a series of gentle undulations, as far as the eye can reach. The country between the Victoria and tho head of Red Indian Lake is well timbered throughout," Rich in agricultural capabilities as is the yet unpeopled valley of the Exploits, it is greatly surpassed by the valley of the Gander, which, when settled and culti- vated, will undoubtedly be the garden of Newfoundland. It may truly be said to have been discovered in 1874, when. Mr. Murray surveyed a portion of it, from the sea to the head of the Gander Lake, his examination being completed by Mr. Howley, his assistant, in 187G, who explored the upper reaches of the river. The total length of the main river is one hundred miles ; but another branch of it, called the South-west River, also empties into the Gander Lake, and is eighty miles in length. The area drained is nearly ^■^ ;:i^ r !«i i . 1 1 1 1 1 I li'*itt| 1 1 M ' i ■ : 1 IN' '' ! 392 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PArr three thousand square miles. Altoy^othcr there are in this great expanse of country, iuchxding the whole of the Gander Kiver and Lake, and the neighbouriui^ Ganibo and Terra Nova valleys, no less than seventeen hundred square miles available for settlement. This, as wo shall see presently, is the finest lumbering country in the island. Gander Iliver is approached from the sea at Sir Charles Hamilton's Sound, by the great inlet of Gander liny, the head of which is in latitude 49" 17' N., and longitude 54" 29' W. From this point to the lake the river is thirty miles in length. The Gander Lake is thirty-three miles in length, with an area of forty-four miles. In the deepest part fifty-seven fathoms of line failed to strike the bottom. The main branch of the river extends above the lake for a distance of sixty miles. Thus the lake intersects the finest part of the district, having one outlet by the river to Notre Dame Bay, on whoso shores are our copper mines. This river, with a small outlay, could be made navigable for toats of a good size, and down it timber could readily be floated were some present obstructions removed. Lumber and produce would here find a waterway to the sea, and a ready market in the rapidly advancing mining district. The railway now in course of construction from St. John's to Hall's Bay will traverse this splendid valley, and unlock its natural treasures and render it accessible. The eastern portion of the lake stretches away in serpentine form towards Bonavista Bay, its extremity being separated from that bay by only nine miles of a very level country, over which a road or tramway could easily be constructed. Thus the valley has two outlets to the sea, and will have railway communication in one direction with the mining region, in the other with the capital and the principal towns. It is difficult to imagine a district more favour- ably situated for a farming and lumbering population. Along the valley drained by the South-west Eiver, eighty CIUP. IV.) NOTRE D- .vlE BAY. 393 miles in length, tlio soil and timber aro reported to be excellent. Pino logs, eighty feet in ](>ngth, have been cut around the mouth of this river, and floated down the lake to the sea. In regard to the character of the soil, ^Ir. Murray says : " Of this great expanse of country a very largo proportion, particulai-ly eastward from the main river, is of rich and fertile soil, as amply testified to by its indigenous produce, which, to a great ( .t nt, consists of pine and spruce of a superior size and description, intermingled with balsam fir, white birch, and poplar, the ground often being thickly matted over by an underbrush of ground hemlock. It is greatly to be regretted however that chiefly, if not alto- gether, from the careless use of fire on the part of trappers who frequent these regions, great damage has been done to those noble forests." .... " Were the region opened up for settlers a very large proportion of the timber might still bo utilised, as we found upon trial upon several trees, that they were still sound and solid though dead." .... " With the almost unrivalled capabilities the country possesses for grass-growing, breeding and rearing of stock can hardly fail to become one of the great future industries of the province. The total rise on the river to the level of the Great Lake has already been shown to be about seventy- five feet ; and, as a great part of the natural course is still and moderately deep water, the impediments to the naviga- tion of vessels drawing from five to six feet might be easily overcome by the construction of five or six locks." Mr. Howley, assistant-geologist, who completed the survey of the Gander River above the lake, says in his report: "Within the immense region drained by the Gander and Gambo rivers, there is a vast area of country capable of being easily reclaimed and converted from its present state of wilderness into agricultural settlements." ..." The country lying above the great lake and forming the valleys • ' w 19 1 11' M'] V I'm m \lm fl ' I m 394 NEWFOUNDLAND. [taut IV. of tlio two rivers, present overywliere a gently undulating surface, rising to a moderate height in its moro elevated parts, and sloping gradually and with beautiful regularity down to the rivers' banks on either side. For a distance of thirty miles above the lake, and at the least two miles on the western side of the main and eastern side of the south- west rivers, the country is of this character, giving a block of thirty miles long by ten miletr wide, or an area of three hundred square miles, covered with a rich deep yellow sondy loam. Nearly every aero of these three hundred square miles is well adapted for agricultural purposes, wliilo the whole is, or was at one time, densely timbered vitli magnificent pine, spruce, fir, and white birch. The islands or intervals in the river, especially near their outlets, aro perfectly level, and covered with exceedingly rich and deep alluvial soil. ^lany of these flats aro of considerable extent, and for tho most part they support a largo growth of timber, while a luxuriant crop of wild gx'ass flouri.slies round tho banks and on tho lower levels. Much of tlio country surrounding the Great Lake is also well adapted for settlement, and the advantages of having a frontage on this future great highway will still more enhance its value." . . . " The country itself is magnificent. I have never seen such an extent of level land in any other part of Newfoundland. It is not to say level in the general sense. It is composed of low rounded ridges and wido sloping countiy, all densely timbered. There is not a hill anywhere near the river fi-oiii which a good view can be obtained.'' .... " That tho soil here, over a very great area, is of excellent quality and capable of yielding rich harvests I cannot doubt. Taking every- thing into consideration, I do not think that a moro promising country or one more easy of access could be found in British America." .... " In all my traxels about tho island I have nowhere seen anything like the quantity of pine timber to be met with here ; and, although tho soil ou CBAP. IV.] NOTRE DAME BAY. 395 tlio "western side of tlic island is richer in some places, tliis country, taking all its advantages into consideration, offers more immediate inducement to settlers/' In addition to its agricnltural and Inmhering capabili- ties the Gander country gives abundant promise of being a mining region. The rocks of the serpentine group, having all tho characteristics of the copper-bearing formation in Notre Dame Bny, are extensively developed in the Gander district, not only on tho north and north-east of the lake, but also on the main river above the lake, where they occupy an immense area. " It is only reasonaMo to suppose/' says Mr. Ilowley, "that tho ores of copper and nickel will be found to exist hei'o also." Of tho Gambo Iliver Mr. Howley says : " The timber ou the Gambo, especially in tho valley of the Triton Eiver, is very fine. Pine is abundant, and though not generally so lai'ge as that of the Gander, is of excellent quality. The white birch, spruce, and fir along tho banks of the river are remarkably fine, indeed I have seldom seen liner in any part of the island. Tho land available for general agricul- ture in the valley of the Gambo is not extensive, being chiefly confined to the alluvial fiats on either side of tho river. These, however, are frequently richly luxuriant, as testified by the indigenous vegetation, especially in tho valley of Triton Iliver, where they are generally upwards oC a mile in width, extending from tho outlet into tho upper ponds and to tho forks." ii flii § 1 udii 1' ililuii' V fi » '' ■ tiliillili n^^^ iS'. Tf,': CHAPTER V. ON THE PROSPECTS OF LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGEATION. Authoritative opinions and reports — Newfoundland compared witli the most fiivourcd provinces of North America — Summers and Avintcvs — Newfoundland as a grazing country — Vegetable pro- ductions— The district of St. John's — Fish as a fertiliser — Wheat, barley, and hops — Report of the Joint Committee of the Council and House of Assembly — The peninsulaof Avalon— The present condition of agriculture — Customs returns — Markets for farm produce- Forest timber, pine and spruce — Area of forest lands — The lumbering regions. In 1812 Sir Jolin Harvey was appointed Governor of the island. He was a man of mucli intelligence and energy, and he liad an extensive knowledge of tlie soil of the neighbouring colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. He became an enthu- siastic advocate for the agricultural improvement of New- foundland, and never ceased to urge its importance. He showed that the country must be opened up by roads as an indispensable step to the cultivation of the soil. Nothing was known in his day of the fine districts and valleys described in the preceding pages. He was only acquainted with the poorest portion of the island around the eastern shores and bays, and yet, addressing the legislature, he referred to the subject in the following mv « cn.vr. v.] LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 397 ENTS AND terms: ''And liei'e I will not deny myself tlie satis- faction o£ recording tliis public declaration of my con- viction, derived from such observation and information as a residence in the island for upwards of a year lias enabled me to acquire, that, both as regards climate and agricultural capabilities, Newfoundland in many respects need not shrink from a comparison with the most favoured pro- vinces of North America. Its summers, though short, enjoy an extraordinaiy degree of vegetative power, which only requires to be duly taken advantage of; its winters arc neither unusually long nor severe, and its autumnal seasons are as open and fine as those of any of the sur- rounding colonies. In point of rich natural grasses, no part of British North America produces greater abundance. Newfoundland, in fact, appears to me to be calculated to become essentially a rich grazing country ; and its varied agricultural resources appear only to require roads and settlements to force them into highly remunerative develop- ment." After referring to the entire absence of roads in liis day, he said : " So long as this unexampled state of tilings, more especially as respects the roads, is suffered to continue, this colony must remain — what it would appear to have been designed to keep it — little beyond a fishing' station. Emigration to it, beyond the number of labourers required for the prosecution of that single pursuit, cannot bt expected, no other encouragement being held out. But by opening up its interior by means of good roads and com- munications, upon lines carefully surveyed and carried through lands — and it is known that such are to be found — capable of repaying the labour of the settler, and therefore holding out inducement to that class of emigrants, you will, as I have elsewhere said, discover treasures which, though they may not offer, in the first instance, rewards so tempting, and so immediately available, as those of the surrounding deep, are nevertheless quite as essential to the prosperity of 'M I l\' ill ■( I il'l^ii Ifll ' 1 i, 1: j ; j 1 j 1 ' (' i . 1 1 i M^ ill, 398 NEWFOUNDLAND. [rAKT IV. your island home as are the fisheries themselves." These utterances of Sir John Harvey have proved to be prophetic. The existence of " the treasures " he refers to is now placed beyond all question. Sir Richard Bonnycastle, a military officer of distinction, who spent some years in the island, and has written one of the best books on the country, was strongly impressed with its agricultural resources. His work bears the date of 1812, and in it he earnestly advocates colonisation and agricultural development. He speaks of Newfoundland as " possessintr a climate of extraordinary salubrity," and predicted that if opened up for settlement, it would " take its rank amongst the more flourishing colonies of the neighbouring conti- nent." He enumerates among the vegetable productious which he saw groAving and thriving admirably, cucumbers, melons, cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, beet, parsnips, carrots, peas, potatoes. " The garden strawberry and rasp- berry of every variety thrive without more than the usual care." . . . . " Potatoes, oats, turnips, and all the necessary vegetables, can readily be reared, even on the very worst por- tion of such a wilderness as that of the littoral. Here one hundred thousand acres are stated to be under cultivation." .... "Thevery worst portion of the soil is that in the neigh- bourhood of St. John's, and yet here, in all directions, the plough speeds and the ancient forest has vanished." His description of the soil in the neighbourhood of St. John's is perfectly correct. It is among the poorest in the island, and yet in every direction for miles around the city are well-cultivated and productive farms, comfortable home- steads, and a numerous agricultural population. Oats and barley of the best quality are grown, and even wheat has been tried with success. If, then, such are the results of cultivation in the least promising portion of the country, where the harsh winds from the east are felt, and the effect of the cold Arctic current is most felt, what may we uot >> > I; » '^ i [PAKT IV, cuAP.v.i LAXD INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 399 -es." These )0 prophetic. 3 now placed £ distinction, ritten one of pressed with Jato of 18 J 2, I agricultural " posscssinj^ licted that if ank amongst During conti- I productions J, cucumbers, 3t, parsnips, rry and rasp- an the usual the necessary }ry worst per- il. Here one cultivation." in the neigh- irections, the ished." His St. John's is in the island, the city are rtable home- Oats and en wheat has ihe results of the country, md the effect may we not tn expect when the deep soil of the sheltered valleys and of the warmer interior and of the west coast are brought under c'lltivation ? " The district of St. John^s," says Bonnycastle, " is; especially well adapted for a grazing country ; and the imported and home-raised cattle look as plump and as sleek as those of any other part of the world where they are care- fully attended to ; and I have seen cows at some of the farms which would not discredit the dairies of Devon." It may be mentioned here that a large portion of the manure used by the farmers is a compost made by mixing cods' -heads and fish offal of all kinds with earth and peat. Litev standing for a year a fertilising compound, equal to guano, is thus produced. The Right Rev. Dr. Mullock, Roman Catholic Bishop of St. John's, a gentleman of high culture and intelligence, and one who took a deep interest in the improvement of the country, delivered two lectures on Newfoundland, in 18G0, in which he spoke in high terms of the natural capabilities of the island, especially of its agricultural and mineral re- sources. Of the former he said : " All garden vegetables — cabbages, carrots, turnips, salads, etc. — are brought to the liighest perfection, and the climate appears specially adapted to impart succulency to them. The potato, you all know, before the rot, was of the finest quality. It has now neaidy recovered." .... "Wheat will ripen very well. I have never seen finer barley than the growth of Newfoundland ; and all persons who have bought, as I have done, Newfoundland oats, at nearly double the price of the husky grain imported here, will find that he has gained by the purchase. Hops are most luxuriant, and so are strawberries, currants, goose- berries, cherries, and many other species of fruit." .... "My estimate, then, of the agricultural capabilities of Newfound- land, comparing it with what I have seen in the north of Europe, is, that if we had a large agricultural population, we could support them iu comfor'"." It must be re- %-l M''-'^ if 1 m 400 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ABT IT. membered that the foregoing was written previous to tlio discoveries of the geological survey. Sir Stephen Hill, who was Govei'nor in 1873, says in one of his despatches that " the agricultural capabilities of tlio island are far greater than are usually assigned to it/' and that large portions of it are " capable of a high cultivation." The area of the fertile portions, he says, " added together, amount to many millions of acres. With respect to the pro- ducts of the colony, potatoes, turnips, cabbages, peas, beans, and indeed all vegetables which grow in England, arrive at the highest state of perfection in Newfoundland. Of cereak, its barley and oats will not suffer by comparison with tlio produce of Nova Scotia; and even wheat can bo ripened in spots, though, as a rule, not as a profitable crop." (This refers to the neighboui4iood of St. John's.) "As regards fruit — currants, strawberries, gooseberries, and cherries, with other fruit, gi'ow in the gardens; and countless species of berries are found in great profusion throughout the country." In 1880 a joint committee of the Council and House of Assembly, appointed to consider the question of constructing a railway in the island, presented a report, of which the following are extracts : " Our agricultural industry, though prosecuted to a valuable extent, is yet susceptible of very enlarged development. Vast stretches of agricultural land, extending from Trinity Bay, north, along the heads of Bonavista Bay, Gander Bay, and Exploits Eiver, as well as on the west coast, need only the employment of well-directed labour to convert them into means of independent support for thousands of the population." .... "The inquiry is further suggested whether this colony should not become an ex- porter of live stock ; and we have little difficulty in affirming this position. For grazing purposes, we have large tracts that we believe cannot be surpassed in British North 'Wi ill cnip.r.] LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 401 America ; anil wlien we regard our proximity to England, and the all-important consideration of a short voyage for live stock, the advantages we possess in this connection are too manifest to bo the subject of question or argument." The last authority we shall quote is Mr. W. Eraser Eae, who visited the island in 1880, and has recorded his views in an excellent and trustworthy work, "New- foundland to Manitoba." Ho formed a very favour- able opinion of the island, and, from its great natural resources, he anticipates for it a career of prosperity, now that the railway has at last been introduced to aid in the development of its agricultural and mineral resources. Of the former ho says : " That the soil and climate of Newfoundland are really good is a statement which may be read with scepticism. The common opinion is unfavourable to both, and this opinion is based upon experience gained near the coast." . . . . " Not till a few years ago was it determined to open up the interior of the island by constructing a railway across it. In 1875 the legislature passed an Act for an extended survey. The reports of the engineers confirmed all that had been previously written in praise of the island, while showing hoAV easy it was to construct railways there. Nearly the whole of the interior is undulating, is covered in parts with forests, is intersected with rivers, and is strewn with lakes. One-third is water. The greater part of the soil is adapted for the growth of all kinds of vegetables, most kinds of grain, and con tobacco. On the western side the soil is richer and the climate is finer than in the peninsula of Avalon at the east. If the earlier settlement had taken place at the western shore, the island might now sustain a large population, living by the pursuit of agriculture alone." In Newfoundland, as in Canada and the United States, there arc areas which are hopelessly barren or nearly so, the 2 D mv^ I f> hV 402 NEWFOUNDLAND. Ipabt :v. soil being too scanty to permit vegetation, or tlio surface covered deep with large boulders. A largo space, too, is occupied by marshes or swamps. The best judges declare that, in a majority of cases, these could bo drained, and profitably converted into meadow if not arable land, as has been done in similar cases in Great Britain and Ireland. Between the head-waters of the Exploits and the sea there is a dreary and desolate country on the southern coast, where vegetation is very scanty, and for months dense fogs prevail. The mistake has been in supposing that the character of such a repulsive region held good of the whole island, and that it contained no fertile belts. The present condition of agriculture in Newfoundland will be best learned from the following returns taken from the census of 1874, being the latest. It is necessary to bear in mind that agriculture hitherto has been mainly confined to the littoral portion of the island, where the soil is poorest and the climate less favourable, the good lands being inaccessible. Land — Acres cultivatec 34,293 Cattle— Head Milch Cows — Head 6,286 6,240 Horses Sheep Swine Goats 3,890 24,964 . 21,897 6,708 Butter — Pounds . Hay — Tons cut . Wheat — Bushels 186,854 21,604 84 Barley — Bushels Oats — Bushels Potatoes — Barrels 546 6,606 315,096 Turnips — Barrels Other root-crops — Barr els . • 14,001 5,487 H, iPABT IV. the surface pace, too, is tlges declare drained, and 5 land, as lias and Ireland, bbe sea tliero uthcrn coast, M dense fogs ing that tbo 1 of the whole Newfoundland as taken from b is necessary lS heen mainly md, where the able, the good 34,293 6,28G G,240 3,890 24,964 21,897 6,708 186,854 21,604 84 546 6,606 315,096 14,001 5,487 cnAP.T.] LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. The growth of agriculture, for obvious reasons already referred to, has been very slow. The census of 1836 gave 11,062 acres as the quantity under cultivation. That of 1845, gave 29,656 acres; that o£ 1855, 41,108 acres; that of 1869, 38,134 acres; that of 1874, 34,293 acres. On these points, however, the censuses are not to bo relied on as entirely accurate. As the returns stand they show a decline since 1855 instead of an advance in the quantity of land under cultivation. The want of all facility of access to the fertile districts, and of every encouragement to settle in the interior, is sufficient to account for this stagnation. The Customs' returns for 1880 show that in that year the total value of agricultural produce imported into Newfoundland, was no less than $2,825,411. If we suppose this amount of px'oduce raised in the country, which, were tho island opened up to any extent, would be the case, then nearly three millions of dollars annually, which now are sent out of the country to pay the agri- culturists of other places, would bo retained and spent among Newfoundland farmers, to the great benefit of the home population. If the encouragement of home manufactures is proper, then as farms are food factories, every facility should be given for the extension of this industry, by providing railways for the transport of farm produce to market. It is evident from these returns, that for the produce of the farm and dairy and the raising of stock, there will be, for years to come, a re- munerative market in the island itself, apart altogether from exportation. The total annual value of the produce of the land now under cultivation has been estimated by Sir William Whiteway at $612,350. The value of the cultivated land, at the rate of $80 per 2 D 2 il ^ i|f|i||!l i 1 ^ \ : 1 i ■ ; 1 r 1 1 I i I* 404 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAIIT IV. acre, together witli horses, cattle, sheep, etc., m 1855, was estimated at $3,957,0G9. It may be doubted, however, whether this estimate is not too high. Although from tiino to time fires have destroyed largo sections of the heavily-timbered districts, yet the forest wealth still remaining and yet unutilised is immense. These forests are found chiefly in the valleys of the great rivers already described, and along the banks of their tributaries ; also in the country around St. George's Bay and Port-a-Port. The varieties of the indigenous forest timbers are white pine, white and black spruce, tamarack or larch, fir, yellow and white birch. Onco the country is fairly opened up by railways a great timber trade will be created. The yellow birch, which abounds largely in St. George's Bay, is said to be equal in durability to English oak, and, with* the spruces and larches, is admirably adapted for shipbuilding purposes. The great valley of the Gander is destined to be the most important lumbering region in the island. It is covered with pine and spruce of the finest description; and the river and lake present all facilities for floating logs to the sea-margin, whero saw-mills could be erected. On both sides of the lal ^ itself water-power for driving machinery could be obtained in many places. Besides the river, an outlet could be found at Freshwater Bay, in Bonavista Bay, which is separated from the lake by a level tract only nine miles in length. Mr. Murray reports as follows of this region : " Ex- cept where pai'tially denuded by fire the whole valley of the river, the shores over the lake, and the banks of the tributaries are all densely clad by forest, among the most conspicuous trees of which are pines, to all external appearance of the finest description. Upon the south-west arm, and at various parts of the lake, cHvp.v.j LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 405 groves of pine may be seen where the average girth of the trees is not much, if anything, less than nine feet, and where many individual trees will reach to eleven, twelve, and even fourteen feet. On about one acre of surface I measured fifteen or twenty trees, the diameters of which varied from two and a half to four and a half feet ; and these, moreover, were straight, tall, and sound, with stems running up symmetrically for upwards of fifty feet without knot or branch." He estimated that there was here ''an area of not less than five hundred square miles worthy of being laid out as timber limits where an immense timber trade might be carried on success- fully." .... " Were the tracts surrounding the head- waters of the Gambo and the south-weit branch to be taken into account, I have little doubt the area would be extended to a thousand square miles." In another place he said : " On the supposition that the average amount of timber fit to bo converted into lumber is 20,000 feet per acre, it follows that 400,800 acres will contain nine billion two hundred and sixteen million feet of more or less merchantable produce, equal to ninety-two millions one hundred and sixty thousand feet annually for one hundred years, and yielding timber to the value of $1,843,300 per annum." .... The establishment of the lumber trade in these regions, however, would only be a preliminary move- ment towards the ultimate permanent settlement of the land. The soil over an enormous area is rich and fertile, the surface level or gently undulating. The country is capable of raising all or most of the cei'eal crops in ample abundance." Mr. Howloy, assistant-geologist, says in his report on the same region : " From careful e? lination of the forests at many different points, and particularly as regards the limits of available pine, I feel myself in a position to furnish .r i i 1'^ VI eii'm' ' ■ ' II! ! • ' ! 1 » 1 1 1 1 Hi 406 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'Aur IT. the following estimate of tlio area* supporting that Hmbcr witli tolerable confi donee : Square miles. Area of pine lands on the lower valley of the Gander River and north side of the lake . 200 Valleys of the Main and south-west rivers above the lake 300 Country along the south side of the lake, and across to Freshwater Bay . . . 200 Valley of the Gambo and Triton River with their tributaries . . . . .150 Total . . 850 " I conceive it probable that still further investigation may bring the total area up to one thousand square miles. Most, if not all, the pine here referred to is of the white variety, Finns strohus, probably the most valuable species for the manufacture of lumber." Fires have swept over maiy portions of this district, but "the pine, though scorched, does not appear otherwise to be much injured so long as it remains standing." Though not nearly equal to the Gander country in forest wealth, the valley of the Exploits contains a very large quantity of pine and other valuable timber. Near the mouth of the river a steam saw-mill has been successfully at work for many years, and no difficulty is experienced in procuring a large supply of material. " Between the Grand Falls and Badger Brook," says Mr. Murray, "at many parts, on both sides of the main river, pine was observed to flourish luxuriantly, much of which appeared to be of excellent quality, being often of fair diameter, straight, and tall. These reaches also display a fine growth of other varieties of timber, and at some parts, especially about the forks of the Sandy Brook, white^ birch often attains a very large size." About Red Indian Lake there is a superb \. I [I'AIIT IT. that ♦^imbor Square miles. . 200 s . 300 . 200 h . 150 . 850 avcstigation quare miles. )f tlio white able species swept over [no, though h injured so try in forest very large Near the successfully perienced in sn the Grand ^ " at many observed to id to be of straight, and 'th of other [ly about the Dtains a very is a superb ■'■!*;, ■; 1 J >' i. i i't ' IW !'i I- 1 ; i ■ ; 1 ■ ■ 1 ! ' ! ( 1 . 1 1 .! k 1 1 "'(■ 1 1 ■ y ■ 1 : ' 1 i ■ i j 1 - '■ 11 1 .^ 1 4 I'll: J'aiiiii; /-a'^e 407 l.UMliEKMAN S CA.Ml' IN WINTKR MAP. v.] LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 407 growth of pine and spruce of " large size, straiglit, and tall." . . . " With a splendid river, abundant timber, and a fertile soil, this region is marked out for a prosperous settlement." ..." The southern side of the Exploits pre- sents an unbroken dense forest, in a series of gentle undulations, far as the eye can reach." . . . "From the Victoria Kiver to the head of the Ked Indian Lake, the country is well timbered throughout." Another richly-wooded district is the valley of the Ilumber, where for many years lumbering has been con- ducted on an extensive scale. The surveyor-general reports of the timber here as follows : " The hard- wood found hei'o consists chiefly of the different descriptions of birch, the yellow, called wych-hazcl, within a quarter of a mile of the shore was found measuring, at six feet from the ground, from five to seven feet in circumference ; and soft- wood, as pine, spruce, birch, etc., are to bo had with as little difficulty, the whole consisting of a size sufllciontly large for any kiud of building, and in quantities abundant enough to become an article of export." Mr. Murray says : " Tama- rack, or larch, is not rare ; yellow birch of largo dimen- sions is abundant ; white pine and spruce grow in the greatest profusion, frequently of a size and quality not greatly inferior, if not equal, to the best that is now largely brought into the market in Gaspe and other parts of the lower province of Canada." These are the principal lumbering regions, but, as already stated, the valleys around St. George's Bay and the Codroy valleys contain a fine growth of mixed forest timber — spruce, pine, birch, and fir. On most of the smaller streams there are also groves of pine and various other trees, while the same holds good regarding the licads of many of the bays. It is thus evident that in "regard to forest wealth and lumbering capabilities Newfoundland holds a very important place.'' ii,; /I iri, nil. I ( ^m ir mm4 408 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT IV. "It is very remarkable," says Mr. Howley, "that no species of cedar, beech, elm, or oak have been met with in this country, although they are all common on the continent, and some of these varieties are known even to exist at Cape Breton. The valuable American white ash is a rare tree here : it has only been met with at a few favoured spots in the country surrounding St. George's and Port-a-Port Bays." !| f" MINEEAL EESOURCES. CHAPTER I. 11 PIONEER WOEK AND PROSPECTS. Opening of the first mine — Mr. C. F. Bennet and jMr. Smith MacKay— Tilt Covo iiud Bctt's Cove. It was uot till a comparatively recent date that some ot" the grimmest-looking rocks o£ Newfoundland were known to contain mineral treasures of enormous value. People were at first slow to believe in the possibility of this despised outlying portioia of creation containing deposits of valuable minerals ; those who persisted in searching for them were regarded as visionaries. To-day, however, New- foundland stands sixth among the copper-producing countries of the globe. The first mine was opened in ISGi; and though at first mining was prosecuted in a languid way, productive returns quickened operations ; new deposits were speedily discovered and worked, and at the end of 1879 the Customs' returns showed that copper and nickel ore to the value of a million pounds sterling had been exported. Mining villages sprang up, having a considerable popula- tion, where formerly a few detached huts of fishermen had i iini !' 1 , ! I 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 i j, -i |i ' t 1 1 410 NEWFOUNDLAND. [r\nT V. stood. A small fleet of vessels was employed in conveying tlie ore to Swansea. A rush to secure mineral lands took place, and the shores of Notre Dame Bay, where the ore was found, were eagerly covered with mining licences and mining land grants. Six or seven mines were soon in operation, and great heaps of ore accuraulated at different points awaiting shipment. Speculation ran high, and an extent of country forty to fifty miles in length and five or six miles in breadth] was taken up by speculators. Even men who formerly refused to believe in anything bat cod-fish and seals in connection with the country were now found among the most eager copper-hunters. The work still goes on steadily, but the copper fever has abated to some extent, and now sober capitalists are at work developing mineral resources which the best judges pronounce to be of vast extent and great value. Geologists inform us that the area of mineral lands exceeds five thou- sand square miles. The serpentine rocks in which the ore is found are spread over this great space, and wherever these occur a search may be made with some probability of success. Mr. C. F. Bennet was the pioneer of mining enterprise in Newfoundland. For some time he stood in a minority of one as a believer in the existence of minerals in tlao island. To Mr. Smith MacKay, however, belongs tlio honour of discovering the first considerable deposit of copper ore. This enterprising and intelligent explorer, when making a tour in the northern part of the island, in 1857, arrived at a little fishing hamlet, called Tilt CovC; containing ten or a dozen huts. His experienced eye soon detected in one of the cliffs signs of copper ore. It was not, however, till 1804 that, in conjunction with Mr. Bennet, he commenced mining operations here, which have gone on, with more or less activity, ever since, upon the deposit then discovered, and which, as yet, shows no sign of exhaustion. At the end of 1879, Tilt Cove Mine 1 1^ I h I I '.,5S11LJHE '' Ll IrAKT V. . convoying a era! lands where tlie ng licences 'cro soon in at different high, and length and speculators, lythiug but y were now The work has abated re at work )est judges Geologists s five thou- ;h the ore is revor these y of success, enterprise a minority erals in the jelongs the deposit of it explorer, the island, i Tilt Cove, rienced eye copper ore. .notion with here, which since, upon it, shows no ; Cove Miue cn\r. I. PIOXEER WORK AND PEOSrECTS. 411 had yielded close on 50,000 tons of copper ore, valued at $1,572,154, and nickel ore worth $32,710. Tilt Cove Mine, however, was completely eclipsed by Bett's Cove Mine, a dozen miles farther south, which was opened in 1875. It was secured by Mr. Francis Ellers- liausen, a gentleman of great energy and sagacity, who had speedily a thousand miners at work hero ; and in the second year took from it 20,000 tons of ore, and in the COPPER MINE, BEIT S COVE. third year more than double that quantity. In 1870, the total quantity of ore exported by Mr. Ellershausen amounted to 125,550 tons, valued at $2,982, 8o0. In this return, however, was included some oro from a new miue, at Little Bay, opened in 1878. The last-named mine has thrown the others completely into the shade, and may be regarded as one of the most valuable copper mines in the world. The returns from Little Bay Mine show an average yield of 20,000 tons per annum. Other mines have been I ' 4 I ; 1 ■J 1 ; 1 _L hj ■:' ^^^^^^■i!f,_ 412 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT V. opeued and worked with more or less success at Seal Bay, Roberts Arm, Colchester in S.W. Arm of Green Bay, HalFs Bay, and Naked Man. It is remai'kable that the ore in these mines, is not in veins but in huge sheets, or bunches of greater or smaller dimensions. One of these was reached iu Bett's Cove mine sixty feet in depth. The strata are much corrugated, and the masses of ore are found to be greatest towards the axes of the corrugations, while strings and leads often run in the course of the small faults and cracks. Operations at Bett's Cove were carried on iu a thorough manner. An iron tramway connected the mouth of the mine with the harbour ; a fine wharf eighty feet in length was built for the accommodation of shipping ; and smelting furnaces were erected. Little Bay Mine was worked in the same energetic way, and with satisfactory results. These mines are all situated around the shores of the great Bay of Notre Dame. Until the interior is opened by roads and railways and explored this will be the chief scene of mining enterprise. Notre Dame Bay contains numerous arms, the largest of which are Green Bay and HalFs Bay. The whole peninsula between these arms is of serpentine formation and highly metalliferous. Numerous discoveries of copper ore have been made in various places, but the holders of the licences, not being possessed of capital sufficient to work their "claims,'' await the arrival of mining capitalists, with whom they would willingly come to terms. Many large islands in Notre Dame Bay are also of serpentine formation, and in them several promising discoveries have been made. It is not in the serpentine that the ore is found, but immediately associated with a chloritic slate, very ferru- ginous, which occurs both above and below the serpentine. Where the serpentine appears there is always a possibility that this ore-bearing chloritic slate may be found, so that strings and CHAP. I.] nOXEER WORK AND PROSPECTS. 413 tho serpentine becomes a guide to prospectors. Where no serpentine is, it is vain to look for ore, but there are vast developments of sei'pentino without any indications of ore. Mr. Murray says in a recent report : " Tho ores of copper, usually sulphurets, are found disseminated, or in layers, with iron pyrites in the chlorite slates and dioritic beds, but the more solid and valuable ones are concentrated in the folds and dislocations, particularly in the magnesian portion, by which the formation has been affected. The ores are also of frequent occurrence in white quartz veins near tho same horizon. The surface rocL'' where these deposits exist is usually of a reddish rusty-b wn colour, scored by remark- able minute reticulations which weather in relief, giving a marked and peculiar aspect, which once seen is easily recog- nised, and may serve as a trustworthy guide to explorers in making preliminary examination of the ground." I) ii II 1 i r 1 '' H hI i\ H In ■ ■| J 1 1 ll i ^ I' ; 1- f1 ii : I t [ I ■ ! ] ! 1 \ \ 1 ' ' 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 '■ 1 ' III 1 i^! L CHAPTER 11. METALLIPEKOUS DEPOSITS AND COAL AREAS. The Quebec Group of the Lower Silurian Series— Mr. ^Murrayon tlio ore deposits of Tilt Cove — Areas of the Serpentine Series — New- foundland as a copper-producing country — Professor Stewart's report — The auriferous rocks of Nova Scotia and Newfouiulland — Mr. Solwyn's opinion — Discoveries of precious metals — Mr. Murray on the pi'ospccts of gold-mining — Lead, gypsum, and slate — Mr. Jukes on the coal seams of St. George's iJay and up the Codroy River — Conditions on which land licences are granted — Exports of copper and nickel. Thus it is evident that the largo development of the serpentine rocks in the island must bo regarded as a fact of primary importance. These serpentines belong to what in Canadian geology is termed the Quebec Grroup of the Lower Silurian Series. " This group " says Sir William Logan, " may conveniently be separated into three divisions, the middle one of which has proved rich in metalliferous deposits in its course from the Southern Atlantic States of the American Union to Canada, and through Eastern Canada to Gaspe." This middle division, called the Lauzon division, is the one which is developed in Newfoundland, and in which all the copper mines are situated. " The Lauzon division " says Sir William Logan, "was at first united with the Levis division, but has been separated from it on account of its great mineralogical importance and distinctness, it being the metalliferous zone of the Lower Silurian iu North CHAP. II.] METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 415 I AREAS. . Mnrrny on tlie Series — New- DS.soi* Stewart's Newfoundland us metals — Mr. 1, gypsum, and ;o's liny and up id licences are mcnt of tlio il as a fact of g to what iu roup of the Sir William I'ee divisions, metalliferous itic States of stern Canada izon division, aud iu which Du division" led with the •u account of less, it being ,u iu North America. It is rich in copper ores, chiefly as intorstratified cupriferous slates, and is accompanied by silver, gold, nickel, and chromium ores." In the "American Journal of Science'' for May, 18G1, Dr. Sterry Ilunt thus expresses his views in reference to the economic value of the Quebec Group : " The Quebec Group is of considerable economic interest, inasmuch as it is the great metalliferous formation of North America. To it belongs the gold which is found along the Appalachian Chain from Canada to Georgia, together with lead, zinc, copper, silver, cobalt, nickel, chrome, and titanium. I have long since called attention to the constant association of tho latter metals, particularly chrome and nickel, with the ophiolites, and other magnesian rocks of this scrie.s, while they are wanting in similar rocks of the Laurentian ago. The immense deposits of copper ore in East Tennessee, and the similar ores in Lower Canada, both of which are in beds subordinate to the stratification, belong to this group. Tho lead, copper, zinc, cobalt, and nickel of Missouri and the copper of Lake Superior, also occur in rocks of the same age, which appears to be pre-eminently the metalliferous period." In a paper contributed to " The Journal of the Society of Arts " Mr. Murray, geological surveyor, says : " I may broadly state that the ore deposits of Tilt Cove occur under conditions strikingly similar to those known in Eastern Canada, and to characterise rocks of contempo- raneous origin. The metallic material is arranged in isolated, irregularly-shaped masses, through a set of strata conforming with beds above and below, of a calcareo- magnesium quality, and that these beds are succeeded on the north by a great body of serpentine. As far as I have hitherto seen, and from all the information I have been able to gather, the copper will, in this county, most fre- quently be found to occur in a similar manner — that is to i lALb f I ! * 4)''iiiJ % iMiii «i! i i ■\. 1 1 41G NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT V. say, in beds rather tlum in rcf^ular veins or lodes. I think it right to call particular attention to the facts of this case, and to express a strong opinion, for the benefit of ad- venturers or explorers, that the immediate neighbourhood of the serpentine rocks, wherever they may bo found to exist, will be the most probable position f )r their labours to bo crowned with success. These serpentines, besides being associated with many valuable metallic substances, frequently afford a beautiful variety of marble, which in many cases might of itself prove of considerable importance, added to which may be enumerated the frequent occurrenco of soap-stone, asbestos, and talc. Chromic iron is fre- quently associated with the serpentine, and may probably be discovered in some parts in workable quantities." Thus then science, confirmed by actual experiment, points to Newfoundland as one of the great copper-bearing regions of the world. It holds a wide development of that metalliferous zone which in other North American countries has yielded abundance of valuable mineral. The question arises : " What is the extent of the serpentine rocks in the island ? " Mr. Murray^s geological map enables us to answer that question. Commencing at Cape Norman, the extreme northerly point of the island, we find serpentine develop- ments of considerable extent from Pistolet Bay to Hare Bay, while another spread extends along the coast to Canada Bay. At Cape St. John begins the great serpen- tine development in which are situated all the existing mines. The whole shores of the Great Bay of Notre Dame, together with its cluster of islands, are of the serpentine formation. This belt may be estimated at a length of forty miles, the breadth being yet undeter- mined, without taking the islands into account. The greatest spread of the serpentine rocks is in the Gander country, where as yet they are unexplored. Eound the shores of Bonne Bay and Bay of Islands there >L CIIU'. II. I MpyrALLIFEROrS DEPOSITS, ETC. 417 ni'O also large developments of serpentine. Indeed there are strong grounds for believing that the serpentine formation runs across the Avholo island ; and as the interior is yet un- explored, it may come to the surface in many places far inland, whore it will be discovered when railways are extended so as to open the whole country. It must be re- membered too that these remarks apply to the prospects of copper mining alone ; and that in other parts of the island lead and other ores are found, and give promise of very encouraging developments. Mr. James P. Howley, assistant geological surveyor, gives the following trustworthy estimate of the areas of the serpentine series in Newfoundland : Between Hare and Pistolct Tiays North from Bonne Bay South from Hare Bay South from Bonne Bay South from Bay of Islands Surrounding Notre Dame Bay . Gander Lake and River country Bay d'Est River Total Square miles. 230 350 175 150 182 1,400 2,310 300 ' ill ! :if 111 5,097 The foregoing calculation, which is made by one tho- roughly acquainted with the country, shows how extensive are the mineral lands of the island, requiring many years for their thorough exploration and development. In the most extensive of these areas — the Gander River country — no prospector has yet tried his fortune. The great success of mining, especially at Bett's Cove and Little Bay, shows what possibilities exist in connection with the prosecution of this industry, which is yet in its infancy. The discovery of fresh deposits is constantly taking place ; and the next ten 418 NKWFOIJNDLAND. li'Aiir V. mil', n.l :|- I! t*'l Mi' 1 1 - ii ill i< t ! !1 h or twenty yenra will witness, in all probaLility, a wonderful expansion of mining enterprise. It would seem that only capital and skill are needed to insure success. There is no man whose opinion on the mineral resources of the country is more worthy of respect than that of Mr. Murray, a careful and cautious observer, and one of tlio most skilled geologists of North America. After a survey of a large portion of the mining region, he thus speaks, in his Report, of the Geological Survey of 1875: "I fool bound to state that the experience of the late investigation convinces me more than ever that many of the northern parts of this island, and the great Bay of Notre Dame in particular, are destined to develop into great mining centres, should capital and skilled labour be brought to bear in that direction. The frequent repetition of the miueral-bearin<^' strata, associated with serpentine, chloritic slates, and diorites, maintaining a nearly uniform chai'acter throughout their distribution, and invariably exhibiting metalliferous indications, all seem to warrant the expression of such an opinion." . . . . " The ores of copper, usually sulphurets, are found disseminated, or in layers with iron pyrites in the chloritic slates and dioritic beds ; but the more solid and valuable ores are concentrated in the folds and dislocations (particularly the magnesian portion) by which the formation has been affected. In addition to the ores of copper, ores of nickel, magnetic, chromic, and spicular iron, lead and sul- phur ores have been found in abundance, and traces of the precious metals have occasionally been found always near the saine horizon. The usual form of the nickel ores is that of arsenical or copper nickel ; but it also occurs as millerite, or nickel pyrites; and an cloanthite, or an allied species which is of a steel gray or pale ruby-red colour." In a paper published in the " Journal of the Royal Geo- graphical Society," in 1877, Mr. Murray says: ''There is every probability that vast tracts on both sides and centre of the nt. Itaih V, , a womlcrfiil lein that only oral resources I that of Mr. (1 one of tho ^ftcr a surv('\- bus speaks, in riur-, 11,1 METALLIFKROrS DEPOSITS, ETC. 419 I m I feel investigation tho northern otro Dame in lining centres, ,0 bear in that tueral-bearin<;' D shites, and er throughout metalliferous •n of such an ulphurets, are )yrites in the ore solid and (1 dislocations tho formation opper, ores of end and sul- traces of the I always near el ores is that s as millerite, allied species Royal Geo- riiere is every centre of the island contain metallic ores of great value and importance. Tho chief of these are copper, nickel, lead, and iron, which arc usually more or less nearly associated with serpentine and other magnosian rocks of Lower Silurian age. Tho presence of the precious metals has been indicated by analysis at a few parts, and native silver is said to have been found at Fortune Bay. Thei'e can hardly be a doubt that the Bay of Notre Dame, particularly, will soon become a )> great mining centre. Professor Stewart, an American mining expert of high standing and great experience, visited Notre Dame Bay in 1880. In a lecture delivered in St. John's, on his return from his explorations, ho declared that he had formed a most favourable opinion both as regards the extent of the mineral deposits and the quality of the ore. The following are extracts from the report of his lecture in one of the local newspapers : " He described the copper ore as a beautiful yellow sulphuret, free from arsenic or any undesirable ingredient, with a little iron, and containing from eight to twelve per cent, of pure copper. He hud never seen finer copper ore in the course of his experience. The character of the rocks in which it occurred was such as to give an absolute assurance of perpetuity in the working. These rocks were metamorphosed and laminated, and the extent of minei'al indication over extensive areas was such as rendered exhaustion in the working a practical impossibility, A more promising mining field for copp».r he had not seen anywhere. No fear whatever need be entertained that these mines would become exhausted. Judging by the laws which govern miueriil deposits, the depth of the vein is such as to render them practically inexhaustible. He had traversed a region between Little Bay and Hall's Bay, Avhere his party had seen so much copper that they were fairly surfeited. He said that before coming here he had merely heard that there were some copper mines, but when he came he felt 2 B 2 1 ,:ii:' 1 I I. I' 420 NKWFOUNDLA>'D. [part v. i I r" I k !t-i1' f h •'lilll i astounded at what had been done in copper mining in tlio short space of five years. He found that already Newfound- land stood sixth in the roll of the copper-producing countries of the world, and that during the last five years copper ore had been extracted to the value of four million dollars, and about one million dollars had been spent on mining plant alone. He expressed his admiration of Little Bay Mine, which was yielding two thousand tons of ore monthly. Looking to the future he had evei'y reason to believe that Newfoundland was destined to become one of the greatest copper-mining countries in the world, and he believed tliat this industry alone would yet raise it to a very high place. He expressed himself as delighted with the beautiful scenery of the island, and impressed with the immense natural advantages presented in these grand bays and arras of the sea, which penetrate so far inland, and enabled ships of any size to load ore or other products near the spot whore they were raised. He predicted a great and prosperous future for the island when its natural riches were turned to account.'' Copper is by no means the only ore found in the country. In the lower geological formations, Avhich are la)'gely repre- sented, the existence of ores ci arious kinds, and of other valuable economic materials, has been ascertained. Magnetic iron ore has been found, though not yet in lai*ge masses, in the Laurentian ; the presence of the precious metal is indicated in the Cambrian ; while lead ore has been found in workable quantities in the Huronian and Lower Silurian. Coal has been found ir pretty extensive beds in the Car- boniferous. Thus, while the great beds of serpentine hold the copper treasures, present indications warra'.'^ the belief that the Huronian rocks contain the precious metals, and especially that extensive and valuable deposits of lead are to be founJ. The whole island, therefore, may be fairly regarded as more or less metalliferous, while on the western coast the coal areas have yet to be turned to account. [P.VRT V. iiining in tlic ly Newfound- ing countries rs copper ore 11 dollars, and mining plant le Bay Minc^ ore monthly. 3 believe tliat ■ the greatest believed tliat y liigli place, utif ul scenery lense natural I arms of the i ships of any ot where they ous future for to account.'^ I the country, argely repre- and of other d. Magnetic 'ge masses, in ous metal is been found 3wer Silurian, s in the Car- rpyntine hold the belief 3 metalsj and s of lead are nay be fairly II the western 3Count. cnAP. II.] •S METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 421 Mr. Murray has repeatedly expressed in his reports his helief that the equivalents of the auriferous rocks of Nova Scotia are developed in Newfoundland. Mv. Selwyn, director of the Geological Survey of Canada, is of opinion that the gold-bearing rocks of Nova Scotia are the repre- sentatives of the Cambrian una, lowest members of the Silurian system. It was not till 1880 that any discoveries of auriferous quartz were made in Newfoundland. In that year certain discoveries were made near Bi'igus, Conception Bay, which induced Mr. Murray to visit the locality. He tested one spot with the folLwing results, as described in liis report : " By the first bhist from two to three cubic feet of rock was removed, all oi which was carefully broken up, washed, and examined ; which operation finally resulted in the display of ten or twelve distinct ' sights ' of gold. In one fragment, about five pounds weight, largely charged with dark-green chlorite, the gold shows itself in three places distinctly, Avhile many small specks are perceptible by means of a good lens. The fracture of a fragment of milky white and ti'anslucent quartz, which was broken off the large piece, revealed two patches of gold, both of which together, if removed from the matrix, would probably pro- duce about one pennyweight of the metal; whilst several small masses or nuggets were found adhering to the small broken fragments of quartz at the bottom of the pail in which the rock was washed, the largest of which contained ahout ten or twelve grains of gold.'' . . . "That a large ;u'ea of the country in the regions referred to is auriferous there can scarcely be a doubt, although nothing short of actual mining and practical experience can possibly prove what the value of the produce may be, or whether the prospects of obtaining a remunerative return for the neces- sary outlay are favourable or otherwise." His report concludes in the following words : " The indications of gold in this country then are certainly sufficiently favourable to !i I i ' I:. R IP k4 A. i«" I P i 1 ii'i 422 NEWFOLl^DLAND. IrAiii- V. merit a fair trial. And there are good reasons to hope and expect that ample capital applied to skilled and judicious labour may bo found remunerative to future adventurers; while a new industry will bo added to give employment to the labouring population of the island, and possibly bring this despised and but little-known colony into more prominence and consideration abroad than it hitherto lias enjoyed/' Whatever the future may determine regarding gold, there is no doubt that the island is rich in lead ore. This ore is not confined to any one formation, the presence of that metal having been observed as low as the Laurentiau and as high as the Coal measures. Lead was first discovered at La Manche, near the north-eastern extremity of Placentia J3ay, where workings were carried on for several years. The vein which was worked here is from three to six feet, and is chiefly of calc spar. The ore is distributed irregularly through the whole thickness of the vein, and sometimes in pockets. Professor Shephard, of America, who examined it, placed it on a par with some of the most valuable load deposits of the New World, and estimated that the part of the vein ho examined "would yield oO,000 cubic feet of solid galena, giving a product of upwards of thirteen millions of pounds." An English mining engineer said of it : " The quality of the ore is very fine, and commands the highest price in the English market. It will produce about 82 pe' cent, of metallic lead. It also contains some silver." This mine, howevei', has not proved a success, notwithstanding its promising appearance. It has never, however, been worked by men having eithc,r skill or capital. In 1875 a rich deposit of lead ore was found at Port-a- Port, on the western shore, and was worked for a short time with very promising results; but on the protest of the French, the Imperial authorities ordered the work to bo Ir.Uir V. 3 to liope and ind judicious adventurei'ij ; nployment to )Ossibly bring T into more luthcrto liiis jarding goUl, ad ore. This e preseuco of e Laurontiau :*st discovered y of Placentia several years, e to six feet; ed irregularly id sometimes lio examined valiiablo lead liat the part )0 cubic feet s of thirteen jugiiieer said id commands will produce outains some )d a success, [t lias never, ,liv..i.' skill or id at Port-a- ■ a sliort time 'otost of the ! work to bo cnAi'. n.l METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 423 stopped. Now that the Frencli Shore difficulty is settled, as far as tho territorial rights are concerned, it is likely this mine will soon be reopened. Magnetic iron ore has been found at Cairn Mountain, in St. George's Bay. Mr. Murray anticipates, from various indications, that its existence will be discovered along the range of the Laurentian Hills. Gypsum is found in immense developments. Mr. Murray says : " This mineral gypsum is perhaps dis- tributed more profusely and in greater volume in tho carboniferous country of the first area than in any part of the American continent of the same extent." There arc enormous d •.Ijpmcnts of gypsum at Codroy and around St. George'o ^^(j,. Marbles too, of almost every shade of colour, have been produced from various parts of the coast, on both tho eastern and western shores; while granite of the finest quality, building stones, whetstones, and lime- stones are in ample profusion. Another material which tho island can su])ply in abun- dance is roofing slate. The best slate quarries yet opened arc in Smithes Sound, and Random Island, Trinity Bay. The development hero is very extensive, sufficient to supply half the continent of America, if duly worked; and the quality is declared by good authority to bo equal to tho best Welsh slate. Mr. Murray says of them : " Judging of the quality of the specimens which were brought from Smith's Sound, and the thickness of strata attributed to their place in the formation, together with their proximity to the sea, these slates, when fully de- veloped, can hardly fail to prove of very considerable commercial importance." In tho rocks of the carboniferous age, which cover extensive areas on the west coast, it is now placed beyond all doubt that there are large workablo seams of coal. iif ■ 1 ''A 11 '1 424 XEWFOINDLAND. [I'MIT V. if, llti^ I Mr. Jukes pjiid a visit forty years ago to 8t. George's Bay. On tlio south side of the bay, near Crabb's River, and about eight miles from the coast, lie found a seam of coal three feet in thicki. ss, of excellent quality, being cannel coal. As the top was wanting, he concluded that it belonged to a still thiek'er bed. He says in his report : "There is no doubt of there being more beds in this vicinity, and of the probability of all the centre of this low district being occupied by a productive coal field. Up the Codroy River, in a similar parallel, beds equally valuable are reported to exist." From fair data, Mr. Jukes calculated the extent of this small portion of the coal basin of Newfoundland at about twenty-five miles wide by ten in length. Mr. ^Murray has laid down the posi- tion of an outcrop upon his map, in order to show where workable seams were likely to occur in St. George's Bay, and ho calculates that the plan of one seam, there drawn as three feet in thickness, and occupying an area of thirty-eight square miles, contains 51,720,000 chaldrons of coal, or 1, 125,000 chaldrons per square mile. A very considerable portion of this he believes will be found within workable depth ; and this is but one of the many seams that may yet be found in the area between Cape Anguille and the head of St. George's Jiay. The whole carboniferous area of the western coast occupies three distinct areas, which Mr. Murray designates the " St. George's Trough, the Port-a-Port Trough, and the inland Trough of Humbor River and Grand Lake." "The latter trough," he says, "in its western outcrop strikes inland from the lower end of Deer Lake towards Adee's Pond, and then along the left bank of the river towards the western shores of White B;iy. The eastern outcrop runs along the edge of the upper end of Deer Lake towards the Grand Lake. If the workable beds of Cape Breton exist at all in the central trough of it. Geoi'go's bb's Kiver, uid a sciim liility, boiiiff icluded tliiit his report : leds in this litre of this coal fiohl. )eds equally I, Mr. Jukes of the coal miles wide n\ the posi- 2r to show St. George's seam, there f an area of chaldrons lo. A very ound within many sciims pe Anguille irboniferous tinct areas, e's Trough, of Humber 10 says, "in wer end of ng the left White B;iy. upper end e workable 1 trouirh of r-; cnAi'. n.] METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 425 Newfoundland, the country where they may be expected to be found will be the region between the Humber lliver and Sandy Lake, where there is ample room to bring- in a sufficient accumulation of thickness." Mr. Jukes gives it as his opinion that " it is highly probable that coal may be found over the whole ov greater part of it." Thus then, in addition to its other resources, Newfound- land contains, beyond all doubt, valuable and extensive coal fields, which are yet untouched. The projected Short Line Railwny will traverse the coal region, and when it is constructed these treasures will not long remain undeveloped. The laws which regulate the sale or leasing of Crown lands, for agricultural purposes and mining, are very liberal, and well calculated to pi'omote the settle- ment of the country and the development of its mineral resources. A licence may be obtained for the occupation of un- granted lands, for agricultural purposes, of not less than two hundred and fifty acres or more than one thousand acres, subject to the condition that the licensee shall, within five years, settle upon the land at least one family for every two hundred and fifty acres ; and within that period, cause to be cleared and cultivated, at least five acres for every hundred acres so licensed, and continue the same under cultivation, and continue the said families thereon, or others in lieu thereof, for a period of ten years from the expiration of the said five years. Upon the performance of which the licensee shall be entitled to a grant in fee of the said land. The Governor in council may issue free licences of occu- pation in quantities not exceeding fifty acres, for a term not exceeding five years, of any ungranted lands, to any persons i^h^> li": !W'! <■' iiin; J iiii ill m pm V 1 I 11 ,! Ii 42G NEWFOUNDLAND. [IMIIT V. desirous of permanently settling on and cultivating the same; and to every person dosivous of erecting a saw-mill upon any sucli land a similar licence for two hundred acres. Gi'ants in fee of such lands will bo given to the occupiers at the end of five years if they have cultivated two acres, and also grants in fee to such as shall have erected a saw-mill and ■> worked it for three years. An exclusive right to search for minerals for a period not exceeding two years, over a space not exceeding three square miles, can be obtained by any British subject ; and the person obtaining the same has a right to a lease for eleven years of all the mines and minerals in one square mile of the said land (if applied for within the said two years), and fifty acres of unoccupied surface land. When mining leases are obtained for a term of eleven years, for the minei-als contained in one square mile the lessee is bound to expend, within five years from the date of such lease, the sum of ten thousand dollars; and within six years from the expiration of the first five years, the further sum of ten thousand dollars, otherwise the lease is forfeited and reverts to the Crown. The foregoing conditions being complied with a grant in fee is given, gold being reserved. The fee for mining licences over three square miles is twenty-five dollars, for mining leases fifty dollars, and for subsequent grants in fee twenty-five dollars. Gold is reserved in all such licences. The following are memoranda relating to minerals, drawn up by Alexander Murray, C.M.G., F.G.S., and published in a paper which appeared in Nature in 1881. M 1 1' MIT V. vating tlio ' Ji saw-mill idred acres. )ccupiers at ) acres, and I a saw-mill for a period ediiig tliree abject; and a lease for one square In the said irface land. 1 of eleven square mile years from ind dollars; le first five s, otlierwiso own. The I grant in for mining ive dollars, uent grants in all sucli o minerals, F.G.S., and Nature in ">i'"] METALLIFKIIOUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 427 MEMORANDA: SHOWING THE QUANTITIES AND VALUE OK COl'l'ER AND NICK'Kt, OKES EXPORTED rilO.M THE ISLAND 01-' NEWFOUNDLAND IN TUE UNDERMENTIONED YEARS. Yoam Ports cleaved from. issn to ■ St. John'.s iHIlt) I 1H75) to ,■ 1879 j IsOi) 1170 ls71 1S72 lS7:i IS/t 1S7,> 187(i 1877 ISTS 187'.> Total Union Mine, Tilt Cove Total 1875 Bott's Cove 187(i 1877 lb7S ,, Regulus 1S71) i} Total . . Copper. Nickel. Dollars. Remarks, etc. Tons. Tons. 027! 22,980 Chiefly from Huronian rocks. 54U — 19,179 Partly from openings in Notre Dame Bay. 1172 12,159 Value of Nickel ore. Dollars. ."iras 30 100,010 7200 421S 8S 131,970 8H0O 1921 7 01,,'iOS 700 ■1771 8 152,708 2500 5H1. 233 189,491) 9320 '1310 — 101,304 — 4S3S 17 179,000 1360 (i lot 28 232,701 2800 5389 — lotooi — IWO — 07,901) — 1901 — 35,352 — 49,719 411 1,572,151 32,710 The ores returned for 1878-70 were InvKcly de- rived from Little Ba.y Mine, 0,280 — 232,300 and partly from Colchester. 18,070 — 15(i, HI all iK'ioiif^ing to the Bett's 42,(105 — 1,093,708 Cove Mining Compan.y. 31,370 — 090,1 K) Thus, the total of the ores 751) — 31,500 of Coi)per and Nickel ex- 26,12U 475,587 ported 8inco 1854, amounts to 4,029,880 dollars,or nearly 123,558J 2,982,836 t;i,O0O,O(Ki sterling ii i I ''it Ii ' I t : nini :I f POPULATION, GOVERNMENT, ETC. ■% fill CHAPTER I. POPULATION AND TEADE. Statistics of 1(354 — Gradual increase of population — Religious deiu)- minations — Celtic and Saxon — Exports and imports— Clmi'gcs on revenue and the customs returns. The earliest estimate of the resident population of the island was made in 105 1, when it was ascertained that about three hundred and fifty families were settled in the different har- bours. Allowing an average of five persons to each family, the total population was then one thousand seven hundred and fifty. In 1080 the commanders of the convoy frigates, on duty in connection with the fisheries, collected statistics of the population, of which the following is an abstract : 212 Planters (of whom 99 were married). 251 Children. 1G95 Men-servants. 23 Women-servants. 154 Head of cattle. 25 Horses. 301 Boats. 190 Stages. 07,340 Quintals dried fish annually. 595 Hogsheads of train-oil. ^ :tc. iligions (Iciio- rts— Cliargcs Df the island about three fEcrent har- each family, 'cu hundred tes, on duty sties of the !)• (II U', 1. 1 POPULATION AND TRAUK. 429 The foregoing refers to the resident population of the island, and shows that their number in 1G8U was two thousand two hundred and eighty. At the same time, the statistics show that the western merchants had 97 ships, of the burthen of 9;>().j tons, 7!>;> boats, loo stages, and 3922 men engaged in the fishing- ports. Besides these, they had. 90 ships, of 8123 tons, mounting 115 guns, and navigated by 1157 seamen, and employed, in carrying the produce of the fisheries to Europe, the West Indies, and South America. Their annual take was 133,910 quintals of dried fish and 1053 hogs- lieads of train-oil. The following abstract shows the population and trade of the island in 1(398 : >f i> Number of planters their children their servants „ boats owned by them Quintals of fish made by them ... Number of ships fishing and carrying fish Their tonnage Number of seamen employed Quintals of fish caught by ships purchased by merchants carried to market )) )> 281. 402 1,89 1 397 101,152 252 24,318 4,24 1. 114,770 157,84.8 205,198 The resident population according to this abstract was, in 1098, two thousand six hundred and forty. We have no further record of the population till 1703, when, according to Sir R. Bounycastle, the resident popula- tion amounted to 7,000; and 7,112 besides were engaged in fishing on the shores, or fur-hunting in the interior, while .i'' m\\ Hi 4:}0 NEWFOUNDLAND. In HI' vr. j 1 11 i ( li Foni' hundred sail of vessels carried on the trade of the island. In 1 780 the resident popuhition reached 8,000, and in 1785, 10,000. In 1804 the population had. increased to 20,880; in 1825 it reached 55,710. In 1827 a census was taken, and the population was found to be 50,571. In 1832 it reached ()(),008 ; in 1836, 75,004-; in 1815, 08,703. The census of 1857 gave the total population of the island, the French Shore arid Labrador included, as 12 1,288. The census of 1860 showed that the population had increased to 146,536; while that of 1871, the latest yet taken, gave the total population as 161,374-. Supposing- the population to have increased during the last eight years in the same ratio as during the previous five years, from 1860-1874, the population in 1882 is 185,114. In 1780, St. John's, the capital, contained a population of 1,605; in 1801, it reached 3,420; in 1800, 5,000; in 1812, 7,075; in 1835, 15,000. At the present date, 1882, the population of the capital is close on 30,000. The rate of increase of the entire population during the twelve years between 184-5 and 1857 was 25 per cent.; between 1857 and 1860 — twelve years — the rate of in- crease was 184 V^^ cent. During the five years from 1860 to 1874 the rate of increase was 10 per cent, in that period. It was not till 1845 that the different religious denomi- nations were distinguished in the census returns. Protestant. Roman Catholics The census of 1845 gave 40,505 46,083 1857 „ 67,743 57,214 1860 „ 85,406 61,040 1874 „ 07,057 64,317 The census of 1874 was the last taken. cm p. I.) POPULATION AND TRADE. 431 ado of the )0(), and in icroasod to census was I. In 1832 ,703. tion of the as 12 |.,288. ^d increased taken, gave ) popuhition in the same 0-187 I., the , population , 5,000; in date, 1882, during the per cent. ; •ate of in- years from !ent. in that )us denomi- m Catholics. 46,083 57,214 61,040 64,317 The following Table gives in detail the numerical strength of the different denominations at the various periods : 1845. Church of Rome . 46,983 Church of England , . 3 1,294 Wesley an s . 14,239 Presbyterians . 578 Congregationalists . 304 Remainder unknown — 1857. Church of Rome . 57,214. Church of England . . 41,285 Wesleyans . 20,229 Presbyterians . 838 Congregationalists . 347 Baptists and others . 44 1869. Church of Rome . 61,040 Church of England 55,184 Wesleyans , . . . 28,990 Presbyterians 974 Congregationalists 'S-i8 Baptists .... 10 1874. Church of Rome . 61,317 Church of England 50,561 Wesleyans .... 35,702 Presbyterians 1,168 Congregationalists 461 Baptists and others 165 The following Table shows the distribution of the population in the several electoral districts, and the religious denomination to which they belong, according to the census of 1857, that of 1860, and of 1874 : ' ;, III IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. ^A :s fA t^ C/a 1.0 I.I 1.25 |«5 ■10 n; m iiiH« Ii° 2.0 1.8 1-4 ||!!ll.6 V] v^ 'el e: c^i *^w > '> O 7 / /^ I ts 432 NEWB'OUNDLAND. [iMBT Tl. Dbtricts. I OQ c s _, oJ „ o c 6 ! H o II i K 01 1 a p. » 1 a 01 i : K 'I \ ll:H 11 k St. John's, E. & W. Harbor G rice Harbor Main Port-de-Grave ... Carbonear Bay-de-Verds Trinity Bonavista Twillingate & Fogo Fervyland Placentia & St. M'ys Burin Fortune Bay Burgeo & La Poile French Shore Labrador Ui, 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 1857 1869 1874 Becapitci.ation. 1827 1857 1869 1874 30,476 28,850 :n,576 10,067 12,740 13,055 5,3n6 6,542 7,174 6,489 7,536 7,919 5,233 5.633 5,488 6221 7,057 7,434 10,736 13,817 15,677 8,850 11,560 13,008 9,717 13,067 15,213 5,228 5,991 6,419 8,334 8,794 9,857 5,529 6,731 7,779 3,493 5,233 5,788 3,545 5.119 5,098 5,387 8,651 2,479 2,416 5,655 21,900 5,731. 20,007 6,487 20,9)6 5,490 3,390 6,822 4,153 7,239 4,013 1,160 4,153 1,442 4,982 1,716 5,361 2,726 1,637 3,224 1,900 3,115 2,002 791 2,582 895 2,368 929 2,189 446 1,583 469 1,731 439 1,775 6,016 1,253 7,428 1,384 8,417 1,583 5,714 2,030 7,029 2,420 6,860 2,599 6,232 1,442 6,846 1,961 7,014 1,964 127 5,093 172 5,817 173 6,246 966 7,156 1,174 7,390 1,351 8,254 1,356 2,354 1,390 2,540 1,733 2,692 2,787 647 3,935 1,290 4,391 1,387 3,172 89 4,123 112 4,216 125 2,098 2,466 3,745 3,736 1,803 483 1,489 476 1,882 2,140 2,926 1,112 1,588 1,615 71 118 97 2,112 2,397 2,501 1,859 2,367 2,3fi2 4,191 4,857 5,220 3,460 4,985 5,663 1,083 2,094 3,531 2,036 4,235 6,217 8 1 212 219 239 1,810 2,789 3,349 30 6 9 282 843 731 186 991 165 295 S ^ IK X tc,2 ♦J 3 SB III 1,039 969 1,217 75 177 188 2 14 15 1 1 3 8 1 7 20 14 23 17 18 7 25 18 11 13 9 6 5 29 2 1 2 11 26 37 179 28 156 50,571 No denominational data. 119,304 42,638 55,309 20,148 , 1,209 146,536 55,184 61,040 28,990 1,322 161,449 59,544 64,348 35,745 1,812 [PAIT VI. CIIU'. t.) POPILATION AND TRADE. 433 . (A Cb §£2 Q q8 X ti* k. 01 i'^S #T!- ^ m 1,882 1,039 2,110 969 2,92(5 1,217 1,112 75 1,588 177 1,615 188 71 2 118 — 97 — 2,112 14 2,:il»7 15 2,501 1 1,859 1 2,367 3 2,362 8 4,191 1 4,857 — 5,220 — 3,460 7 4,985 20 5,663 14 1,083 23 2,094 17 3,531 18 2,036 7 4,235 25 6,217 18 8 — 1 1 212 219 11 239 13 1,810 9 2,789 6 3,349 5 30 29 6 2 9 1 282 2 843 11 731 26 186 37 991 179 165 28 295 156 onal (\ nta. !0,148 1,209 !8,990 1,322 15,745 1,812 It is worthy of remark that the increase of population lias arisen almost entirely from natural growth, as since 181 t the amount of immigration has been quite insignificant The fisheries were barely sufficient to sustain the existing settlers, and latterly have failed to expand so as to meet the wants of a rapidly growing population. Till recently no attempts were made to open up the agricultural districts, work the mines, and utilise the forests ; and no inducement was presented to emigrants to seek for a home in New- foundland. The case is now altered. Railroads designed to open up the interior are under construction ; mines and forests are being developed ; agriculture is rendered prac- ticable. We may now fairly expect that ere long a stream of thrif'by immigrants will pour in to the colony, and turn the fine natural resources to industrious account. The last census, that of 1874, presents some results that will be interesting. The number of males was found to be 82,903; the number of females 77,791. The number of males between 50 and 70 years of age was 0,798; of females between 50 and 70, 0,085 ; of males from 70 upwards, 1,000; of females same age, 1,435; number of married males, 24,402 ; of married females, 24,380. Of the total population of 101,374, 153,021 were born in Newfoundland ; the remainder in other countries. The number of aged and infirm paupers was 1,140; of de.*f and dumb, 83; of blind, 107; of lunatics, 137; of idiots, 100. Of Indians (Micmacs) there were 151. The number of churches belonging to the Church of England was 103; to the Church of Rome, 77; to the Wesleyans, 00; to others, 4. There were 4 bishops; 120 clergymen or ministers ; 30 lawyers ; 41 doctors ; 589 merchants or traders; 1,004 farmers; 2,171 mechanics; 45,845 persons engaged in catching and curing fish ; 20,377 able-bodied seamen engaged as fishermen; 18,935 children attending school ; 20,758 children not attending school ; 24,050 inhabited houses by 26,910 families. 2 F w 434 NEWFOUNDLAND. (l kUT VI. The same census showed that there were 8,680 men on board 1,197 vessels that were engaged in the sea and othtT iisheries. The number of acres of land under cultivation was 3(5,330 ; the number of head of cattle was (),()().') ; of milch cows, 7,273; of horses, 4,057; of sheep, 28,700; of swine, 22,955. The present population of the island is composed mainly of two elements, the Celtic, or Irish, and the Saxon, or English. The Roman Catholic portion of the population are the descendants of Irish emigrants ; the Protestant portion are the descendants of English settlers, chiefly from the south-western counties of England. There are besides a small number of Scotch. !;' ■ REVENUE, FINANCIAL CONDITION OP THE COLONY, TRADE, EXPORTS, IMPORTS, SHIPPING. The following Table shows the revenue and the value of the exports and imports from 1870 to 1881 inclusive: Years. Revenue. Exports values. Imports values 1870 $831,423 $6,98i,543 $6,655,840 1871 749,981 8,154,206 6,039,227 1872 812,752 7,166,443 6,716,068 1873 801,412 7,700,799 6,766,603 1874 841,588 8,569,960 7,354,680 1875 830,219 8,214,768 7,058,372 187G 855,228 8,168,540 7,205,907 1877 872,913 7,625,441 7,363,631 1878 839,640 6,594,807 6,868,723 1879 962,921 7,168,924 7,261,002 1880 897,474 6,759,875 6,966,243 1881 1,003,803 9,365,304 6,863,708 The revenue is chiefly derived from duties levied on imports. These duties are partly ad valorem and partly revenue o: \M CHAP. I.] roPULATIOX AND TKADK. 435 specific, but only to a very slight extent differential, the tariff being dosignecl for revenue purposes only, not for protection. There are no direct to^es of any kind, and no city or town corporation. Even the capital is not in- corporated. All expenses for making and repairing roads, streets, bridges, breakwaters, public wharves, etc., are defrayed out of the general revenue, the Board of Works having charge of this department. The provision for the poor, for the maintenance of a police force, and indeed for the whole Civil Service is also chargeable on the general revenue. The per capita taxation in 1882 is only $l-'91- per head of a population of 185,308. When the absence of municipal taxation is taken into account it will be seen that the people of Newfoundland are the most lightly taxed of all the inhabitants of the British colonies. Out of a total revenue of $1,00:5,803 in 1881, no less than $910,038 were derived from customs' duties; $11,038 from Crown lands; $17,400 from postal revenue; and $29,736 from interest on the Halifax Fishery Award. The prosperity of the colony may be inferred from the steady advance of the revenue without any additional taxa- tion, till in 1881 it reached over one million dollars, and is now quite adequate to meet all the demands of the public service. Within the last twenty years the revenue has more than doubled. In 18G0 the revenue amounted to $534,432; in 1801, to $300,172; in 1802, to $407,710. In 1881 it amounted to $1,003,803. The financial position of the colony is exceptionally good. The consolidated and debenture debt of the colony on the 31st December, 1881, was $1,351,008. The amount fer capita, with a population of 185,000, is thus a little over seven dollars. In Canada the public debt was a few years ago $29 per head, and is now considerably more. In Victoria it is $104 per head; in New Zealand, $279; in 2 F 2 i I SP f 1 I «f V t I 43G NEWFOUNDLAND. |r\iiT VI. fl, ']*f ' ) 1 4| II South Australia, $17G; in New South Wales, $7oj in the Cape of Good Hope, $48 ; in Newfoundland, $7. This, however, is not all. This small public debt is nominal not real. Of the whole sum of $1,351,008, the Savings Bank, which is a Government institution, holds $593,30 k An Act was passed by the legislature in 1870, entitled "An Act to provide for the payment of the public debt of this colony," by which it was enacted that "the profits of theNewfoundland Savings Bank now existing, anci the profits of the said Bank, as they shall arise from time to time, together with the sum of $8,G51 now held by the said Bank as a sinking fund, and all interest accruing thereon, shall be constituted a sinking fund for the liquidation of the public debt of this colony ; and that such fund be applied in the first instance towards the payment of all debentures of the colony which are or may be held by the said New- foundland Savings Bank." The effect of this Act in reducing the public debt will be that in twenty-one years from 1879, even supposing there should be no increase in the present amount of deposits and profits, the debentures held by the Bank will be paid off. So much of the funded debt being thus provided for, there remains only $757,70 1, But as an offset against this amount the colony has now placed to its credit, at four per cent., $71'1,814, being a portion of the Halifax Fishery Award of one million dollars. This almost covers the remainder of the public debt. Virtually, therefore, the colony is in the unique and enviable position of being free from pu^'ic debt, the whole of the existing debt being provided for. Such being the financial position of Newfoundland, with an increasing revenue and without debt, it is in a most favourable condition for undertaking public works of general utility; and should it be found necessary at any time to contract a loan for such purposes, with such unquestionable security to offer, money can be borrowed on the most favourable terms. How small an -\^^ til vp. l.| rOPL'LATIUN AND TRADE. 437 f7'); in tlio blic debt is 151,008, the iitioTi, holds ire in 187!', f the public (1 that "the ixisting, an(i from time to 1 by the said ing thereon, dation of the d be applied 1 debentures e said New- this Act in ity-one years ) increase in e debentures 3 funded debt ■,70 k But ,s now placed ^ a portion of lollars. This Virtually, able position the existing icial position and without undertaking it be found ich purposes, loney can be [ow small an amount it has been found necessary to borrow of late may be judged of by the fact that during the last eight years the public debt has been increased but thirty-six cents per head of the population — a scarcely appreciable amount. Tlio sound condition of the revenue is apparent from facts already stated. In the thirty years which have elapsed since 1852 it has risen from $335,700 to over a million dollars. The following statement shows the estimated charges on the revenue for the year 1882 : Relief of the poor and the institutions connected therewith ...... Steam and mail service subsidies Postal service ...... Telegraph extension, maintenance, and interest Education ...... lloads and bridges ..... Public works (special votes) Magisterial and police department . Interest on public debt .... Interest on railway loan .... Geological and land survey Court-house and gaol supplies . Ferries Pensions ....... Legislative contingencies .... Judicial, civil, and revenue department Ship-building (in aid of) . In aid of lighthouses, repairs and maintenance Western herring fisheries protection In aid of cleansing St. John's streets In aid of gas companies, St. John's and Harbour Grace ...... Dols. Cts. . 112,350 . 110,700 . 29,000 t 10,853 84 . 91,800 . 108,000 . 20,000 65,797 . 03,000 . 4,700 5,500 9,000 2,931 . 15,889 61 . 31,000 . 128,395 . 10,000 J 8,000 2,500 4,000 ] '' I : i! '4.\ 2,900 ) ! 438 NEWFOUNDLAND. |PA»T Tl. Repairs of public buildings .... Printing, postage, telegraphs, and shipwrecked crews For sundry other sources ..... To defray expenses for general election 1882 . To defray expenses for vaccination . For encouragement of homo industries Railway subsidy and contingent expenses Dola. Gts. 7,510 3,650 () 17,522 7,000 3,000 1,500 20,000 The following extracts from the customs tariff will show the nature of the duties levied on imports : Agricultural implements . Apples, per barrel . Bacon, hams, tongues, etc., per cwt. Butter, per cwt. Candles .... Cheese, per cwt. Coal brought into St. John's, per ton Confectionery, per cwt. . Eggs .... Flour, per barrel Fresh meat and poultry . Horses, each . Indian meal, per barrel . Lumber, per thousand feet Manufactures of wood Oats, barley, rice Oxen, cows Oatmeal, per barrel Pig ii'on .... Pork, per barrel of 200 lb. Ready-made clothes Steam-engines, boilers, etc. Tobacco, manufactured, per lb. Free. 30 cents. $2. $1 20 cents. 20 per cent. $1 50 cents. 25 cents. $3 50 cents. Free. 20 cents. 5 per cent. $2 30 cents. 15 cents. $1. 20 per cent. 8 per cent. 5 per cent. 20 cents. Free. $1. 20 per cent. Free. 12 cents. CHAP. 1.] Gof Mm Gin Wh Rui Wii >> )> }i The copper o; ing Tabl exports t Arernpe v 1851 185: i80i; 18(j: 187l 187' Whil the value populatic decline : of the i sufficient Year 18GI 187( 187- 187! 188< riiAT. I.] POPULATION AND TRADE. 439 Goods, wares, merchandise not other- wise enumerated 1 3 per cent. Brandy, per gallon. Gin „ . . Whisky „ . . Kum „ $1 20 cents. $1. $1. 75 cents. Wines — Champagne, per gallon „ Port, Madeira ,, $2. $1 50 cents. „ Spanish red, claret, per „ llhenish , gal. > :{3 cents. 00 cents. The exports of Newfoundland, with the exception of copper ore, are fish products of various kinds. The follow- ing Table shows the gradual progress in the values of the exports during each group of iive years, from 1852 to 1881 : Avernpe value of exports. Group of five years. 1852 to 1850 . . $5,100,129 1857 „ 1862 . . 0,132,392 1802 „ 1807 . . . . . 0,080,445 1807 „ 1871 . . 7,011,407 1872 „ 1870 . . . . . 7,847,001 1877 „ 1881 . . 7,159,522 While the foregoing Table shows an actual advance in the value of exports since 1852, yet when the increase of population is taken into account there appears an actual decline in the fer capita value of the exports, and also of the imports, as the following comparative statement sufficiently shows : Year. Value of exports per head 1800 . . $47 82 cents 1870 . . 49 69 1874 . . 53 56 1879 . . 39 90 1880 . . 37 33 » )> }} )) Value of imports per head. $44 52 cens. 45 42 „ 45 57 „ 40 74 „ 38 33 \ m )> 440 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part ti. (in I'. 1.1 w These figures indicate a gradually decreasing average in the earnings and incomes of the people, showing that the fisheries, hitherto the chief reliance, are inade(iuate to meet the wants of a growing population, and that other industries, especially agriculture, are essential. The Table of exports and imports shows that for the years 1870 and 1880 the average annual volume of the trade of Newfoundland amounted in value to $1 1',077,!>71. The Customs returns for 1881 show the value of the ex- ports for that year to the different countries uamed,as follows: Value of exports Value of imports Country. thereto. therefrom. D.ols. Dols. The United Kin gdom . 2,255,701 2,300, 12 1. Brazil . 2,120,773 Portugal 1,183,2:55 47,210 Spain . G20,4()0 1.52,038 United States 300,080 1,031,741 Italy . 207,281 Hamburg ■IS, kSO 1,741. Spanish West I ndies . 47,401 08,387 Sicily . . 15,710 0,020 British West In dies 3 10, 124 250,088 Dominion of Canada 380,833 1,050,52 I. Gibraltar • 163,834 The total exports and imports for 1881 are grouped as follows : Value of exports Value of imports Country. thereto. therefrom. Dols. Dols. United Kingdom . . 2,255,704 2,300,421. British Colonies . 005,010 2,234,077 Foreign Countries . 4,503,001 2,233,207 7,755,360 6,803,708 The foregoing figures demonstrate that the largest volume of trade is between Newfoundland and the United Kingdom; Vears. /ISK 184 iMk 1811 {^ 181 ■■S ' 181; 1 1 18 n o> 18 U 1811 185C 1851 1851 nsii o a tPKHT VI. I| POl'l'LATION AND TRADE. 441 average m i<^ that the ite to meet I' industries, liat for the imo of the M>77,!>71. 3 of the ex- l, us follows: I of iniporta .'refrom. I)0l8. 50G, 12 1. 17,210 I .V2,088 W 1,7 11 1,711. 08,:J87 l),920 150,088 50,52 1. grouped as of imports B re from. Dole. 3110,42 !■ >:54,077 ^03,708 gest volume 1 Kingdom ; and that the best customers for the fish products, next to the United Kingdom, are Hra/,il, Portugal, Spain, liritish West Indies, Canada, and the United States. Of the whole volume of trade, about 17 ])er cent, is with Canada, and about 15 per cent, with the United States. The following comparative statement will be found interesting as showing the trade of the colony forty years ago, and affording data for comparing that period with the present, in regard to the revenue imports and exports : COMPARATIVE STATEMKXT OF TIIK QrANTlTY AND VALUh OK THK STAPLE ARTICLES OF PRODUCE EXPOBTKO IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS: Years. a a 1840 1841 1842 1813 1814 181.5 1817 18 W 1849 1850 1851 1852 j Dried llnh. 11 Qiiinlalx. , 915,795 . 1,009,725 1,007,980 932,162 1,000,333 837,973 920,300 1,175,167 1,0H9,1H2 1,017,674 973,731 o a /1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 \1852 £576,245 605,014 561,950 532,194 482,480 53(!,99(J 489,940 491,924 58H,728 532,969 493,014 403,741 Oils. Gallons. 3,20(5,583 2,673,.')71 2,262,031 :<,U1,312 :«,60.i,868 2,219,301 2,22t,233 2,610,820 2,282,496 2,636,8CKt 2,741,910 2,931,767 £305,197 266,832 233,313 335,975 315,690 243,640 229 172 350^579 213,742 309,928 319,977 363,607 Seal nkins. Salmon. Herri nj^K. No. Tierces. Barrels, (531,385 3,396 14,680 417,115 3,(542 9,965 311,083 4,715 13,839 651,370 4,058 9,049 685,530 3,753 13,410 352,202 3,515 20,903 43(i,831 4,917 9,908 521,001. 3,822 13,872 300,072 5,911 11,471 440,828 4,600 19.556 511,030 4,025 30,259 534,378 3,473 42,716 £39,408 29,901 23,200 40,497 39,018 10,123 40,280 58,420 33,780 66,350 7(5,596 76,790 £12,939 12,302 13,078 12,210 11,915 12,794 9,782 6,597 10,815 9,200 12,021 10,252 £9,036 0,361 7,119 4.570 6,065 11,234 5,111 7,644 5,071 9,779 18,261 14,411 COMPARATIVE STATE.MENT OK THE COLONIAL REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN THE F'u OWINO YEARS : 1850 1851 1852 Colonial duties Light dues From other sources . . . Totals E.^pendituro £59,381 19 2,390 10 11 5,142 8 £66,915 3 11 £71,807 1 5 i;74,205 4 1 2,467 18 8 3,722 11 b £80,395 14 2 £75,770 5 1 £62,300 11 8 2,781 3 19,241 11 6 £84,323 6 2 £90,409 8 10 ; I )■ i' 2a 442 NEWFOUNDLAND. IpUII VI. VALUE OE IMPORTS ANU EXPORTS IN THE FOLLOWIXO YEARS: 1848 £769,628 887,581 1849 1850 1851 1852 Imports Exports £770,190 876,567 £867,316 975,770 £943,101 959,751 £795, 7oH 965,772 SHlPPINa. On December 31st, 1881, the registered tonnage of the colony WHS 1,89.") vessels, liaving a tonnage of 89,055 *ons. Of these, 1,8()(> were sailing vessels, and 29 were steamers. In addition, (50 vessels were engaged in the foreign carrying trade, which, though owned in Newfoundland, were re- gistered in Britain. The following Table shows the increase in the tonnage since 1859 : Vessels. Tons. In 1859 . . 1,312 . . 89,G70 „ 1869 . 1,459 . . 75,445 „ 1879 . . 1,718 . . 82,5(34 „ 1881 . . 1,895 . . 89,055 The number of vessels entered at the various ports in 1881 was 1,300; their tonnage, 158,345; their crews, 7,991. The number of vessels cleared at the various ports in 1881 was 1,018; their tonnage, 132,743; their crews, 0,030. The number of steamers entered in 1881 was 190 ; their tonnage, 102,285; their crews, 7,338. The number of steamers cleared at the various ports in 188] was 181 ; their tonnage, 100,208; their crews, 7,183. The number of vessels built in the colony in 1881 was 70; their tonnage, 3,301. The bounty paid on them was $10,013. Twenty-seven vessels were built on which no bounty was paid : their tonnage was 582. CHAPTER II. GOVERNMENT. ' the tonnat'c The constitution — Executive and public officers — Tlio electoral districts — Snliirica of officials — Tlie judicial department — Constitution and character of the law courts. In 1832 the boon of a representative government and a constitution was granted to Newfoundland. The island was divided into nine electoral districts, each of which was to have one or more representatives, according to its popu- lation, the whole number of members to be fifteen. The right of voting Avas conferred on every man who for one year immediately preceding the day of election had oc- cupied a dwelling-house within the island, either as owner or tenant. A legislative and executive council, composed of seven persons, appointed by the Crown, was also created. The system did not work well, and in 1842 the constitution was suspended, and the council abolished as a distinct branch of the Legislature, and its members were authorised to sit and vote in the House of Assembly, on the same footing as if they were elected members. This was known as " The Amalgamated Legislature." At length, in com- pliance with t-he strongly-expressed desire of the people, " Responsible Government " was conceded to the colony in 1855. This was simply the application of the principles of the British constitution to the government of the colony. I '\m ' j ' y \^ Mi . 1 1 1 1 ^ \ 444 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAIll VI. ' m 1 it' ■M . j' •?lfl ^Bi ii It provided that tlie country " should be governed .ac- cording to tlio well-understood wishes of the people." The party wlio were sustained by a majority in the Legislatnre had at their disposal the appointment to the principal offices in the colony. By them, too, the Executive Council was selected. Two legislative Chambers were appointed The House of Assembly, to be elected, the Legislative Council to be nominated by " The Governor in Council." This form of government, which has worked satis- factorily, is that by which the affairs of the colony aie at present regulated. It consists of a Governor, who is appointed by the Crown, ant^ whose term of office is usually about six years; an Executive Council, chosen by the party commanding a majority in the Legislature, and consisting of seven members; a Legislative Council, or Upper House, of fifteen members, nominated by the Governor in Council, and holding office for life ; and a House of Assembly of thirty-one members, elected every four years by the votes of the people. The chief public officers of the Government, selected from the party who command a majority in the Legislature, are the Colonial Secretary, who is also Secretary of the Executive Council, the Attorney- General, the Receiver-General, the Solicitor-General, the Surveyor-General, Financial Secretary, Chairman of the Board of Works, and Auditor of Public Accounts. There are fifteen electoral districts, sending 31 members, divided as follows : St. John's East St. John's West Harbour Grace Carbonear . . . Harbour Maine Pox*t-de- Grave Bay de Verds Members. .> o .> o «> .. 1 o .. 1 .. 1 ri!\i'. II.] GOVERNMENT. 445 Trinity Bonavista ... Twillingate and Fogo Ferryland ... Placentia and St. Mary's Burin Fortune Bay Burgeo and La Poilo Members. *> o .. 3 .. 3 o .. 3 . < ^ .. 1 .. 1 The qualification of persons to bo elected to serve as members of the House of Assembly is a net annual income, arising from any source whatever, of $i80, or the pos- session of property, clear of all incumbrances, exceeding $2,400. They must have resided in the island for two years previous to each election, be over twenty-one years of age, and be British subjects or lawfully naturalised. The members of the House of Assembly are elected by a household suffrage. All persons who, either as owners or tenants, have occupied a dwelling-house for two years next before the day of election, are entitled to vote. In addition to the electoral districts enumerated already, there will be two others on the western coast, each entitled tj elect a representative at the next general elections, in November, 1882. The Act enfranchising the so-called "French Shore," has received at length the royal assent; thus the next House of Assembly will consist of thirty-three members. The members of both branches of the Legislature are paid. Members of the House of Assembly, if resident in St. John's, receive $194 per session ; if resident elsewhere, $201 per session. The members of the Legislative Council receive $120 per session ; the president, $240. The Speaker of the House of Assembly receives $1,000 per session. The Legislature is usually summoned to meet " for the v\ I Ui IN r /! 11' 44G NEWFOUNDLAND. [PIBT TI despatch of business " about 'he bet^inning of February, and the session generally lasts till the end of April. The Governor receives a salary of $12,000 per annum, paid by the colony ; his private secretary, $02 1 ; his orderly, $300; keeper of the lodge, $277 ; and light and fuel are provided for Government House. The salaries of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney- General, the Receiver-General, and the Surveyor- General are each $2,400 per annum. The Chairman of the Board of Works receives $2,000 per annum ; the Financial Secretary, $l,38i; the Auditor of Public Accounts, $1,000; Solicitor- General, $1,200. The legislative contingencies average $27,000 per annum. The Supreme Court was instituted in 182G by the pro- mulgation of a Royal Charter. It is composed of a Chief Justice and two Assistant Judges, appointed by the Crown. The Chief Justice has "rank aud precedence above and beyond all persons within the colony and its dependencies, excepting the Governor or Acting Governor for the time being, and excepting all such persons as by law or usage take place in England before the Chief Justice of the King's Bench." The Chief Justice may accept the office of Ad- ministrator of the Government of the Colony, and also of Judge of the Vice-Admiralty Court, with the emoluments and fees belonging to each office. The Supreme Court holds two terms or sessions each year, in St. John's, one of them commences on the 20th of May, and the other on the 20th of November. There is a Chief Clerk and Registrar of the Supreme Court. There are circuits of the Supreme Court held in the northern and southern districts of the island, at such times and places as may be fixed by the proclamation of the Governor. These are presided over by the Chief Justice, or one of the Assistant Judges, in rotation. The salary of the Chi 3f Justice is $5,000 ; of each of the Assistant Judges, $4,000. They hold their appointments for life. ciiAi". ir.] GOVERNMENT. 44: I iii The Court of Labrador has civil and criminal jurisdiction over such parts of Labrador as lie within the Government of Newfoundland. It is presided over by one Judge, who is nominated by the Governor in Council. His salary is $1,154. The Central District Court is a Court of Record, held in St. John's, for the said district, for the adjudication of civil causes, and sits whenever business requires. There are two Judges, appointed by the Governor in Council; the salary of each is $2,000. They may jointly or severally hold such Court, or when business requires, may sit separately. There is also a District Court in Harbour Grace, with jurisdiction over the electoral district of Conception Bay, It is presided over by one Judge, who is ex officio a Justice of the Peace. There is a Sheriff for each judicial district of the island, who is appointed by the Governor in Council. Courts of General and Quarter Sessions are held in the island, at such places as may be determined by the pro- clamation of the Governor. They are presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices of the Peace. "The Law Society of Newfoundland" is constituted by Statute, and is under the inspection of the Judges of the Supreme Court for the time being. " No person is admitted by the Supreme Court to practise as an attorney unless upon actual service of five years with some practising attorney of the island j or, if a regular graduate of any college in Her Majesty's Dominions of four years, or who, having been entered on the books of 'The Law Society' as a student at law, shall have been subsequently called to the Bar in England, Scotland, or Ireland, or any of Her Majesty's Colonies." Any person who has been called to the Bar in England, Scotland, or Ireland, or any of the Colonies, upon producing evidence thereof, and undergoing a satisfactory examination, may be called by the Law Society to the degree of barrister. !f!' A: CHAPTER III. ROADS, RAILWAYS, ANC STEAM COMMUNICATION. The first higliway — Postal roads and mail routes — Preliminary survey for the first railroad — Subsidy of money and lands offered by Government for construction of the road — Progress of the work — Turning of the first sod, and running of the first locomotive. Owing to the mistaken policy pursued by tlie Britisli Government, in connection with Newfoundland, as detailed in our historical sketch, it was not till the year 1825, or fifty-seven years ago, that the first road was constructed iu the island. The cultivation of the soil was not regarded as a legitimate pursuit in Newfouiidland, so that the idea of making roads to reach and open up good lands for settlement and cultivation was not entertained. At length a better era dawned, and the first step in progress was taken by Sir Thomas Cochrane, Governor, who in 1825 constructed a good road, nine miles in length, from St. John's to Portugal Cove, on the shore of Conception Bay. Opposite the village of Portugal Cove, on the northern side of the bay, was the second largest settlement iu the island. Harbour Grace, the centre of a considerable popu- lation. By establishing regular boats to cross this bay, a route was established by which nearly half the population cn.vp. HI.] ROADS, RAILWAYS, ETC. 449 sriCATION. then living in the country were provided with a rough means of intercommunication. A road to Torbay, a village north of St. John's, and another along a beautiful valley through which flows a small stream falling into St. John's harbour, to a spot now called Waterford Bridge, speedily followed. Then the more distant settlements began to connect themselves with each other by roads and finally with the capital. In several directions roads radiating f''om St. John's were constructed, along which farms and neat farmhouses were soon visible. One of these roads extended first to Topsail, on Conception Bay, thence to Holyrood at the head of the bay, and onward to Salmonier, St. Mary's, and Placentia. It is eighty miles in length to Placentia, and the St. Mary's branch is twenty-two miles additional. Road-making has been carried on ever since, and of late about $100,000 per annum have been devoted to making and repairing roads and bridges. At the present time there are about seven hundred and twenty-seven miles of postal roads, and one thousand seven hundred and thirty miles of district roads. The Great Northern Mail route, when com- pleted, will be one hundred and thirty-seven miles in length ; and one thousand two hundred miles are in process of making. The Allan Line of steamers call at St. John's on their outward and homeward voyages between Liverpool and Halifax. Thus the colony has fortnightly communication with Great Britain and America. During three months of winter these steamers run from Liverpool to Halifax without calling at St. John's, the connection during this time being kept up fortnightly by a mail steamer, plying between St. John's and Halifax. A subsidy of $69,120 per annum is paid by the colony to the Allan Company for these services. In addition, two local steamers ply between St. John's and the settlements north and south, carrying passengers, mails, and goods. In the summer season, the steamer plying 2 a 1 I^^^Hi 1 < ' ; i , I 1 1 t ( ■ 'i ! I ' 450 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT VI. northward connects with the Labrador steamer at Battle Harbour. Another mail steamer plies on Conception Bay. The amount of subsidies for local steam service is $52,300 per annum, and for both oceanic and local steam services $121,420 per annum. The first stop towards tho construction of a railway was taken in 1875, when a preliminary survey of a lino from St. John's to St. George's Bay, distance about two hundred and sixty miles, was made, under the direction of ^Ir. Sandford Fleming, who was then engineer-in-chief of Canadian railways. In a valuable paper which he publishc I some years previously, he had pointed out that the shortest and safest travel-route between America and England was across Newfoundland. He suggested a fast line of steamers from Valentia, Ireland, to St. John's, Newfoundland, carrying only mails, passengers, and light express matter. Thence a railway to St. George's Bay, and another line of steamers between that point and Shippegan in the Bay of Chaleurs, New Brunswick, where connection with Canadian and American railways could be established. By this route he calculated that the ocean passage would not exceed four days, and that passengers and mails from London would reach New York in seven days. The Government of New- foundland obtained from tho Legislature a money grant for a preliminary survey of a railway from St. John's to St. George's Bay, being the land portion of this route. This survey was made in 1875, and the result showed that there were no serious engineering difficulties in the way, and that the line could be constructed at a moderate cost. Two years elapsed before any further steps were taken. At length, in 1878, the Hon. W. V. Whiteway, Premier (now Sir William V. Whiteway), undertook to grapple with the matter in earnest. With the concurrence of the government of which he was leader, he introduced a series of resolutions, which were warmly received and accepted by [PABT VI. r at Battlo ieption Bay. :e is $52,300 )am services railway was a lino from bwo hundred bion of ^Ir. -in-chief of he publishc 1 the shortest England was 3 of steamers 3wfoundland, oress matter, other line of in the Bay of ith Canadian By this route exceed four ondon would lent of New- tiey grant for "ohn's to St. route. This id that there vay, and that were taken. ?ay. Premier : to grapple :rence of the need a series I accepted by cuxv. III.] ROADS, RAILWAYS, ETC. 451 il' tlie Legislature. Among c*-her things it was resolved that an annual subsidy of $120,000 per annum and liberal grants of Crown lands along thi line should be given to any company which should construct and continue in operation a line of railway across Newfoundland, con- necting by steamers with Britain on the one hand, and with the Intercolonial and Canadian lines on the other, across the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Steps were imme- diately taken by the Newfoundland Government to have this proposal advertised in England and elsewhere. But an unexpected difficulty arose. The Imperial Government declined to sanction the undertaking, on the ground that the terminus on the western side of the island, at St. George's Bay, would be on that part of the coast on which the French had fishery rights secured by treaty, and that negotiations in regard to those rights were then in progress. Thus the hopes of the colony were blighted in regard to this project. The Government waited patiently two years, in expectation that diplomacy would remove the difficulty, but without result. Sir William Whiteway and the Government then resolved to take the matter up in another form. Instead of constructing a line across the island, which would be a link in the chain of communica- tion between the old and new worlds, they proposed to build a narrow-gauge railway suited to local requirements, and such as would be within the means of the colony. The resolutions which Sir William Whiteway submitted to the House of Assembly proposed the construction of a narrow-gauge railway from St. John's to Hall's Bay, the centre of the mining region, with branches to Harbour Grace and Brigus, the total length of which would be about three hundred and forty miles. Such a line. Sir William pointed out, would open up for settlement the most fertile agricultural and the best timber lands in the island more especially the great valleys of the Gander and 2 G 2 'Il 17 n ' f; '.' I it 452 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT TI. Exploits. It would place the mining region in connection with the capital, and thus impart a great impetus to mining industry by increasing facilities for its prosecution ; and it would also traverse and open up a largo extent of mineral lands Avhich there was every reason to believe was of great value, and which was as yet almost unexplored. His pro- posal was that the colony itself should undertake the work, and ho showed that the finances of the country were in such a healthy condition as to warrant the enterprise, A joint committee of both branches of the Legislature was appointed to consider the proposal, and their report was strongly in favour of the construction of the railway. The report dwelt on the necessity which existed for opening up new industries for the employment of the increasing population, for whose support the fisheries were now utterly inadequate. It referred to the immense mineral wealth of the country, which only required capital for its development ; to the vast extent of fertile lands which the geological survey of the island had made known; to the large im- portations of agricultui'al produce and live stock, all of which could be raised in the country ; to the advantages the island possessed as a grazing country, and to the facilities of exporting live-stock to England; and to the benefits that would flow from the remunerative employ- ment furnished to the people by the construction of a railway. It concluded by recommending the passing of an Act authorising a loan of the amount required to construct the lino, within the limits of one million pounds sterling and in sums not exceeding half-a-million of dollars in any one year. This report was adopted by the Legislature by an overwhelming majority of both branches. Railway commissioners were appointed, and engineers were employed in the summer and autumn of 1 880 in making a survey of the first hundred miles. According to this arrangement then, the colony, through rti'^t..., 7;7 ,-, [PABT TI. connection 3 to mining ion ; and it of mineral 'as of great . His pro- the work, try were in ;erprise. A islaturo was report was he railway. for opening 9 increasing 1 now utterly ral wealth of evelopment ; b geological le largo im- stock, all of advantages and to the and to the ive employ- ruction of a Dassing of an to construct nds sterling^ ollars in any 3gislature by s. Railway ore employed a survey of lony, through CHAP. Ill,] ROADS, KAILWAYS, ETC. 453 the Government, was to construct the proposed line of railway, the necessary funds to be raised by a loan on tho credit of tho colony. Wiicn, however, tho Legislature met in February, 1881, two offers camo before it, one from a Canadian, and another from an American syndicate — to build and operate .ao proposed lino of railway. Tliis at once raised tho question whether tho railway should bo carried out through a contract with a company instead 4\'^i)^^i''' -;-..-■; i''(;fi^... "■■ ■,,.,. • ' . ;' ' ' FIRST EXCUUSION TRIl' ON TlIK N KW1.'0LNI)LA.\D RAILWAY. "TRAIN ABOUT TO START." of by the Government itself. There were weighty objec- tions of a political character to the work being placed under the control of Government, and it was considered that the construction of the line would be more economically carried out by contract. Tho Legislature, therefore, proceeded to formally consider the two propositions. The result was that the proposal of the American syndicate was accepted by an overwhelming majority in the House of Assembly. The leading features of the contract entered into between the colony and this company are as follows : 454 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT TI. CItAP. III.) a Steel rails of the best quality to bo used; the lino of railway to run from St. John's to Hall's Bay, with branches to Brigus and Harbour Grace; the distance estimated at three hundred and forty miles. A money subsidy of $180,000 per annum, to bo paid half- yearly by the Government, for thirty-fivo years conditional on the efficient maintenance and operation of the road, the proportions of this subsidy to attach while the road is in course of construction, and as earlx five miles are completed and approved, land grants of five thousand acres per mile of good land are secured to the company in alternate blocks along the lino in quantities of one mile along the line, and eight miles in depth; and if not obtainable along the line, to be selected elsewhere. The company bind themselves to build a substantial, reliable, and efficient road, subject to approval by a government inspector, and to complete it within five years. The first sod of the railway was turned on the 9th of August, 1881, and so rapidly has the work been pushed on that in September, 1882, thirty-five miles were completed and in running order ; one hundred miles were located, and the remainder of the line northward under survey. Including outlay for labour, purchase of rails and sleepers for future use, rolling stock, construction of wharf and waterside premises on the harbour, the company had expended over a million dollars on the enterprise in July, 1882. All the engagements of the company have been faithfully complied with. At the present rate of progress the work will probably be completed within three years. When the Legislature met in February, 1882, an appli- cation came before it for a " Charter of Incorporation for the Great American and European Short-line Eailway Company." The object of this company is to carry out the project already referred to, of making the great travel- route be Their p] Mr. San( class rai! Newfoun Ray; th( to a poin fifty-six to the S system o travellers swiftest 1 coast of ] terminus shortenin, York by passage, superior ( it the mos and will that now and Canac A sel( appointed report wai ''The vail of travel scheme its can hardl; this islanc trans-Atla route will accepted. is free fron tween thes i.*t".*-.t-«t- CIUF. III.] ROADS, RAILWAYS, ETC. 455 route between America and Europe across NcwfoundlanJ. Their plan, however, is a vast improvement on that of Mr. 8andford Fleming. They propose to construct a first- class railway, standard gauge, from the eastern coast of Newfoundland to a point in the neighbourhood of Capo Ray ; thence a steam ferry is to carry mails and passengers to a point near Cape North, in Capo Breton, a distance of fifty-six miles ; from which point a railway is to bo built to the Strait of Canso. This being crossed, the railway system of Canada and the United States is reached, and travellers can proceed to all quarters. A line of the swiftest steamers is to ply between a port on the west coast of Ireland and the Newfoundland port at the eastern terminus of the railway. The company calculate on shortening the time of travel between London and New York by two days. They claim that " the short ocean passage, the great saving in time, together with the superior comforts and safety of this line, will soon make it the most popular route for first-class trans-Atlantic travel, and will also attract a very large part of the emigration that now goes direct to New York and other United States and Canadian ports." A select committee of the House of Assembly was appointed to consider and report on his application. Their report was highly favourable. In it the committee said : " The value of our geographical position in the direct line of travel between Europe and America receives in this scheme its due recognition, and the importance of this fact can hardly be exaggerated. When the project is realised this island will occupy a proud place in the economy of trans-Atlantic travel, for the advantages of the short sea route will assert themselves, and will become permanently accepted. The voyage between the Irish coast and this island is free from all unseen dangers, and no steamer running be- tween these limits has ever met with serious disaster. Tha T 45G NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAttT TI. distance of soa voyage is but one thousand six hundred and forty miles, and experience shows tliat the approacli to thu Newfoundland coast is rarely affected by the presence of fog, despite the popular theory in this respect. On the score of safety no other trans-Atlantic route presents equal attractions, and it is matter of record that the losses of ships and life by stranding on Atlantic voyages have, in almost every instance, taken place to the westward of this island." The report further enlarges on the immense benefits such a lino of railway would confer on Newfoundland, as it would com- plete the line now under construction, unite the eastern and western coasts, open up the fertile lands and mineral treasures of the latter, and promote its settlement, lead to a very large monctaiy expenditure among the people, and bring tlio island into daily communication with the great centres of trade and civilisation of Europe and America. The charter asked for was readily granted by the Legislature. A land-grant of five thousand acres per mile along the line, in alternate blocks, and an exclusive right of way for forty years, were secured to the company by the charter. The importation, free of duty, of all materials for the construction and maintenance of the line, was also permitted. The project is supported by a large number of wealthy and intelligent capitalists. Developing, as is pro- posed, what is claimed to be the shortest and safest route between the two hemispheres, its establishment is only a question of time. CHAPTER IV. EDUCATION. Eiso and progress of educational movements — Legislative enact- ments—Denominational appointments — Government grants — Tho Colonial and Continental Church Society. It was not till tlio year 1 8 13 tliat tho Legislature took any action in connection with tho promotion of education in tho colony. Previous to that date all educational efforts pro- ceeded from religious bodies or individuals, and being thus dependent on more desultory and unorganised labours, education was in a low condition, and in tho widely- scattered settlements many of the young had grown up ignorant of the very rudiments of knowledge. Taking into account tho disadvantages under which tho people laboured in regard to education, it must be admitted that the educa- tional progress made during the last thirty-nine years is of a very gratifying character. The interest in education is deepening and extending, and its importance is more fully realised among the great body of the people. A very liberal provision is made for it by the Legislature, and gradually improvements have been introduced. No doubt very much yet remains to be done, but the advances already made, and the enlightened zeal in the cause of education now awakened afford suflficient guarantees of future progress. In 1843 the initiatoiy step was taken by a Legislative Act granting a sum of 5,100L annually for the promotion -t-LL. 7 lill ¥ ^: ■1^ ! 1 t i 1 1 t 458 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAIIT VI. of eclucation, one half the amoant being appropriated in support of Protestant and one lialf in support of Roman Catholic schools. Educational districts were defined, and a board appointed for each. Whore the majority of the population were Protestants, the schools were to bo under a Protestant board; where Catholics preponderate, the schools were to bo under a Catholic board. An effort was also made to provide for the higher education by voting 3,000Z. for the erection of an academy in St. John's, with salaries for three teachers. From a variety of causes this academy, in which all denominations wei'e to receive an united education, proved an entire failure. After a trial of six years it was broken up; and in 1850 chree academies were founded on tlie denominational principle, one Roman Catholic, a second Church of England, and a third in which Wesleyans, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists were united. At a later date the Wesleyans obtained a separate academy for themselves, so that now academic education is conducted in four distinct establishments in St. John's. This may seem a waste of power, but in the present state of denominational feeling separate education is perhaps unavoidable. Denominational zeal pei-haps fui'nishes a stimulus to educational efforts which would otherwise bo wanting. In the elementary schools the denominational principle has also been carried out, and each religious denomination now receives a grant for education from the public funds in proportion to its numbers. Separate boards of education in tho different districts have charge of the schools. Three inspectors are appointed by Government, one for Roman Catholic schools, one for Church of England schools, and one for Wesleyan schools. The gentlemen who hold these appointments are zealous and able educationists, and are using every effort to advance the cause of education. Their annual reports show a decided progress in recent years, and the system appears to be working well. [r\BT VI, cnip. IV.] EDUCATION. 459 apriatccl in of Roman incd, and a ity of tlie be under derate, the 1 effort was . by voting Folin's, with causes this receive an ,er a trial of ) academies one Roman rd in which alists were I a separate education is St. John's. L'esent state is perhaps 'urnislies a herwiso be ominational religious )n from the ate boards irge of the overnment, oi England lemen who ucationists, education, in recent 1. Instead of a normal school, an arrangement is in opera- tiaa for the training of pupil teachers in the academies. After going through a certain course of education, these pupil teachers have to undergo examinations, are graded according to their merits, and on passing receive certificates, without which they are not eligible to be appointed to take charge of schools. This, in due time, vill elevate the standard of education, and incompetent teachers will gradu- ally disappear. No doubt normal schools will bo the next step. The drawback under a denominational system such as this is that the salaries of teachers are lower than they would be were there an united system of education in operation. More money, too, is required for the erection of school houses. Denominational lines are drawn more deeply by the education of the young in separate schools. The state of religious feeling, however, does not at present admit of an united education, whatever the future may bring about; and the denominational system is working to the satisfaction of those interested. A brief account of the present condition of education will be interesting, and will show the progress already made. The total amount of the annual legislative grant for elementary schools and academies for the whole of New- foundland and Labrador is $93,952. Taking the population as given in the last census of 1874 at 161,000, this would be a 2^cr cainta amount of 58 cents for the entire population for academic and elementary education. The Elementary Education Grant is $70,311 For Pupil Teachers . . . 4,0G1 For the Encouragement of Teachers 2,000 For Inspection .... l^O'^'^ Total . $80,372 ,1. iiULi ' 1 i J /' '\ ^ u 4G0 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT TI. This gives a per capita grant of 49 cents for elementary education. The four academies and two grammar scliools receive $9,880 p r annum, or 6 cents per capita of the entire population. The education grant is divided among the different religious denominations in proportion to their numbers as follows : I, I •i If Church of England S32,144 Church of Rome . . . . 35,571 Methodists 20,350 Presbyterians. 898 Congregationalists . 214 Harbour Grace Grammar School 924 The amount distributed among teachers of elementary schools as salaries is $55,118 per annum. The teachers of academies receive as salaries $10,588. Denominationally the salaries are distributed as follows : Salaries of Elementary Schools. Church of England . . $24,820 Eoman Catholic . . . 10,083 Methodists . 14,230 Congregationalists . )tal 285 Tc . $55,418 Salaries op Academies. Church of England • • . $3,115 Roman Catholics . • ■ . 1,160 Methodists • . 3,400 General Protestants • • . 1,100 Carbonear Methodist Grammar School GOO Harbour Grace Grammar School . 1,213 : \ CHIP. IV.] EDUCATION. 4G1 ;ed as follows ; The total number of elementary schools in 1881 was ilG. Of these 157 belonged to the Church of England, 158 to the Eoman Catholics, 99 to the Methodists, and 2 to the Congregationalists. There are 4 academies and 2 grammar schools. The total number of pupils in the elementary schools in 1881 was 24,292. Of these 9,1G3 belonged to the Church of England, 9,014 to the Church of Kome, 5,284 to the Methodist Church, and 92 to the Congregational Church- The total number of pupils in the academies and grammar schools in 1881 was G74. Thus the total number of scholars is 24,971. The total number of pupil teachers in 1881 was 84. Since the denominational principle was fully carried out, in the subdivision of the education grant, the increase of schools has been 59, the increase of teachers, 89; the amount spent in erecting school houses and teachers', houses, $100,G95. The per capita cost of the education of scholars is $3 61 c, exclusive of fees. The salaries of teachers under the Methodist boards are as follows : Male. Female. 1st Grade . . $300 1st Grade. . $200 2nd Grade . 250 2nd Grade . 180 3rd Grade. . 180 3rd Grade. . 160 Maximum . . 400 Maximum . . 250 Minimum . . 160 Minimum . . 160 No return of salaries is given under Church of England and Koman Catholic boards. The census of 1874 showed that there wore then 18,935 children attending school. This gave an attendance at school of about one in eight of the population. Estimating the population in 1882 at 185,000, then, the number attend- ing school being 24,971, the attendance is about one in » I i _£_li. 462 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAEI VI. r seven of the population. There is, th.^refore, an increase of attendance at school during the last eight years in propor- tion to population. As the colony is increasing in population and wealth, educational improvements will no doubt keep pace with the material prosperity. The great desideratum at present is a more perfect training for the teachers, and an increase of their salaries. In connection with the cause of education in Newfound- land grateful acknowledgment is duo to " The Colonial and Continental Church Society,^' by whose instrumentality schools have been maintained in the island for more than half a century, and most valuable educational work has been done, especially at a time when the need of the poor in- habitants was sorest. These schools have been maintained mainly by the liberality of the members of the society, their efforts having been acknowledged and aided by an annual grant from the funds of the colony. In fact, the beginning of common school education in the island may be said to date from 1823, when "The Newfoundland School Society" was founded in London by Samuel Codner, a Newfoundland merchant. It began by opening schools in St. John's, Harbour Grace, Trinity, and other places ; and under the supervision of the teachers at these principal places branch schools were opened in the smaller settlements. The society afterwards extended its operations to other parts of British North America, and in 1851 it united with the " Colonial Church Society," taking the new name of "The Colonial Church and School Society." The amalgamation seems to have led to a rapid growth of means and extension of operations. Having established a large number of chaplaincies on the continent of Europe for the benefit of English travellers and residents, its name was again changed in 1861 to "The Colonial and Continental Church Society." It is worth remembering that this important missionary society, with a present annual income of over 40,000Z., [PABI VI. CHAP. IV.] EDUCATION. 463 n increase of Ts in propor- in population doubt keep desideratum eaeliers, and n Newfound- Colonial and strumentality r more than ork has been the poor in- Q maintained society, their 3y an annual he beginning ,y be said to ool Society" evvfoundland St. John's, d under the laces branch The society ts of British le " Colonial The Colonial ation seems .d extension number of 38 benefit of ■ain changed sh Society." missionary er 40,000Z., began with the formation of the Newfoundland School Society in 1823. Since the Legislature undertook the work of public education, the position in the island of this old society has become less prominent. At the present time it has twenty schools in operation, and, taking the average of the last five years, the number of scholars attending them is 2,295, and the average expenditure on their account about 2,000L The Legislature aids the society in its educational work in the island by a grant of 500Z. sterling, taken out of the Church of England share of the education grant, the remainder of the expenditure being furnished from the funds of the society, and also in part from subscriptions in Newfoundland and from a portion of the school fees. The central schools in St. John's are used by the Church of England Boards of Education as a training school for their teachci.s, male and female, nearly twenty teachers being sent out every year. Honourable mention is also due to the Christian Brothers, who have in operation a school in St. John's attended by 350 pupils. Their schoolrooms are the finest and best arranged and equipped in the island, and the character of the instruction imparted by them is deservedly spoken of in the highest terms. They are doing an excellent educational work in St. John's. JJIL fV "' I I! i 1 i 1 " ■ ! CHAPTER V. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. Protestant and Roman Catholic settlers — The Churcli of England— The early missionaries and the first bishopric — Wesleyan Method- ism and Congregationalism — Progress of Presbyteinanism, The census of 1874 showed that there were at that date 97,057 Protestants, and 61,317 Roman Catholics. Of the Protestants 50,561 belonged to the Church of England; the Wesleyans numbered 35,702 ; the Presbyterians, 1,168; the Congregationalists, 461 ; other denominations, 165. According to the census of 1857 the denominations stood as follows : Protestants Catholics . 65,743 56,895 The Protestant denominations stood thus Church of England . 44,285 "Wesleyans .... . 20,229 Presbyterians .... 838 Congregationalists . 347 Other denominations 44 Besides, there were in Labrador 1,331 adherents of the Church of England and 319 Roman Catholics. CHAP, v.] The arrived j counties, Engliuid A numb for aboTj country, of the e? original i numbers dissent vi Church ii It wa on the p? wants of settled o Propagat in 1701, foundlan( clergyma St. John' and gave the socie more mis Conceptic the early were buil and New the societ for a miss His Roya King Wil the statio church at communio CHAP, v.] RELIGIOUS DEXOMIXATIONS. 4G5 rents of the The great bulk of the original Protestant settlers who arrived year after year were English from the south-western counties, and nearly all of thorn belonged to the Church of England. The Roman Catholic settlers came from Ireland. A number o{ Scotch mercantile establishments have been for about eighty years engaged in the business of tho country, and are among the most extensive and prosperous of the exporting firms. In connection with them came the original representatives of the Presbyterian Church, whose numbers in 1874 did not much exceed 1,000. English dissent was represented as early as 1775 by a Congregational Church in St. John's, whose adherents in 1874 numbered 401. It was not till 1703 that any organised effoi't was made on the part of the Church of England to supply the spiritual wants of its adherents, who, in considerable numbers, were settled on the shox'es of the island. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was established in 1701, and their attention was at once directed to New- foundland. At that time there was but one Protestant clergyman in the island — a Mr. Jackson, who was in St. John's. The society adopted him as its missionary, and gave him a salary of 50Z. per annum. Tho efforts of the society were gradually extended year after year, and more missionaries were sent as the population increased. Conception, Trinity, and Bonavista bays were the seats of the early missions of the Church of England. Churches were built in St. John's, Harbour Grace, Carbonear, Old and New Perlican. In 1787 a memorial was presented to the society from the inhabitants of Placentia Bay, asking for a missionary, and promising to contribute to his support. His Royal Highness Prince William Henry, afterwards King William IV., then in command of a ship of war on the station, contributed handsomely to the erection of a church at Placentia, and presented it with a set of communion plate, which is still preserved. 2 n liVJl ■^i I * M 1 ' ■ i 1 _ M I, i ; I, i • 1 1 _ \ i. : 1 466 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AUT VI. Tho hardsliips, perils, and privations encountered by these early missionaries were very great, and too mucli praise cannot bo accorded them for their self-denying- labours. In carrying the consolations of religion to tho poor fishermen of those days, in their widoly-scattcrod settlements, their journeys had to bo made by sea in open boats or small fishing vessels, as there were no roads ; and in these frail barques they had to cross wide arms of tlio sea, and double headlands and promontories exposed to tho great swell of the Atlantic. The cold of Avinter had to be encountered in rude wooden houses of the poorest descrip- tion, and through tho blinding snowstorm they had often to make their way from one fishing hamlet to another. Like Goldsmith^s curate, they wex'o "passing rich on 401. a-year,^^ the largest salary tho society could give them being 50/. per annum. One of them, a Mr. Langman, a most laborious missionary, wl o had oOl. a year from the society, represented that the little gratuities ho received from his flock were quite inconsiderable, and that " he had to go and beg for them as a poor man would for alms." It was not till ISM that the salaries rose to lOOZ. per annum. It is not wonder- ful that under such discouraging circumstances the progress of tho Church of England in the colony should have been very slow. In 1787 the first colonial bishopric was created, that of Nova Scotia, "with ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and tho Island of Newfoundland.^' It was not till 1827 that Bishop Inglis, of Nova Scotia, was able to visit this portion of his immense diocese. Ho found but nine clergy- men and missionaries in tho whole island. There were six hundred communicants and twenty-three schoolmasters. At length in 1839 Newfoundland was erected into a separate diocese, including the Bermudas, and the Rev. Aubrey S. Spencer, archdeacon of Bermuda, was consecrated to tho CHAP, v.] EELiaiOUS DENOMINATIONS. 467 new SCO. IIo found but oiglit clergymen in the island, and the church in a very disorganised and dispirited condition. Tlu'ough his zealous labours a great change for the better was effected, and the church speedily made marked ])rogress. In two years ho was able to report that a theological seminary for training missionaries was opened, that there were twenty-five clergymen, thirty thousand church members, three thousand two hundred scholars in the Sunday schools, and between two and three thousand in day schools. In 1843 he laid the foundation of a cathedral in St. John's, which was consecrated in 1850. Bishop Spencer was succeeded in 1841 by Dr. Edward Feild, of Queen's College, Oxford, who continued bishop for thirty-two years, till his death in 187G. Under his zealous and devoted labours the church prospered and extended itself ; a cathedral was built ; orphanages were erected ; Sunday and day schools increased in numbers ; and the Church was thoroughly organised. Bishop Feild was most abundant in labours, never shrinking from toil or peril in the discharge of his duties. By all denominations his self-denial and devotedness were admired and appre- ciated. Dr. J. B. Kelly was appointed coadjutor in 18G7, but failing health compelled him to resign in 1877. He was succeeded, in 1S78, by the Eev. Llewellyn Gomes, D.D., who is now the bishop of the diocese. The diocese is now divided into eight deaneries, and the number of clergy is fifty. A diocesan synod was established in 1873. A theological college for the education of candi- dates for holy orders has been in operation for a length of time, and is now endowed. Orphanages for destitute children of both sexes have been founded on a secure basis. The cathedral in St. John's, of which only the nave was completed, is now advancing towards entire completion, and will be a very beautiful and spacious structure. The total number of churches belonging to the Church of ml. 4G8 XEWFOUNDLAND. fl'MlT VI. cuAr. V.) ■I:: ■I i 'I ,'i f ' :, EnfrlfiTicl in Xcwfoiindland and Labrador is at present ono liundrod and two. In 1874 tlioHoraan Catliolio inlial)itants of Newfoundland numbered GijOl?. Cathob'cism was founded in the island as early as 1023, by Sir Georj^o Calvert, an Eni^lislunan, who, as described in tlio Historical sketch, settled at Ferry- hind. During the occupation of portions of the island by the French, priests of the Franciscan Order acted as chaplains to the French ships of \yar, and to all forts manned by over forty men. In 1G80 the Catholic bishop of Quebec visited Placentia, then in the occupation of the French, and brought with him several priests from tlio Franciscan convent in Quebec. The church there was placed under their care, and a royal licence was obtained for the establishment of a convent of Franciscans in Placentia. When, in 1713, Newfoundland was placed entirely under the jurisdiction of England, and the French retired, all ecclesiastical records were taken to France. Unhappily the reign oE religious intolerance commenced soon after, and continued for more than sixty years. For an account of the persecutions endured by lloman Catholics in those days reference is made to the Historical portion of this Avoi'k. The disabilities of Roman Catholics came to an end in 1784, when liberty of conscience and the free exercise of their religion were granted to all the inhabitants of the island. In that year the Roman Catholic Church in Newfoundland was publicly organised by the appoint- ment of Dr. O'Donnell as prefect apostolic, by pope Pius VI. In 1796, the population having increased, and episcopal superintendence being needed. Dr. O'Donnell was appointed vicar apostolic and bishop. Under his superintendence numerous churches were built, and the ministrations of religion carried out in localities where previously they were unknown. Bishop O'Donnell retired from office in consequence of age and infirmity in 1807, fPMlT Vt. pi'csont one iwfoiuKnimd 1 tho island Rnglislunan, 3(1 at Fovry- 10 island by }r acted aa to all forts holic ])isliop ation of the ts from tlio 1 tlioro was vas obtained uiciscans in was pi aced I the French to France, commenced yeai'S. For lan Catholics •ical portion ics came to lud tho free inhabitants lolic Church the appoint- by pope creased, and O'Dounell Under his ilt, and the lities where nnell retired ity in 1807, cnAi'. V.J RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 4G9 and died in Watcrford in 1811, in his seventy-fourth year. lie was succeeded by Bishop Lambert, who held oiHco till 1817, when Dr. Thomas ycallan was appointed bishop. Ho died in 1830, and was succeeded by liiahop Fleming, who held office till 1850. In 1847 Newfound- land was erected into a diocese, and Dr. Mullock became coadjutor bishop, and in 1850 ho succeeded Bishop Fleming. Tho cathedral, which was commenced by Bishop Fleming in 1811, was consecrated September l)th, 1855. AVith tho adjacent episcopal residence, convents, and college, it cost over 12O,U00i. In 185G Newfoundland was divided into two dioceses — St. John's, comprising tho southern part of the island from Bay of Islands to Spaniard's Bay ; and Harbour Grace, all the northern portion, and Labrador. These boundaries have since been altered to a slight extent. Dr. Dalton was tho first bishop of Harbour Grace, and the Right Rev. Henry Carfagnini tho second. By a decree of 17th September, 1871, the western portion of the island was erected into a prefecture apostolic. Dr. Mullock died in 18G9, and in 1870 tho present bishop, tho Right Rev. Thomas Joseph Power, was consecrated in Rome by His Eminence Cardinal Cullen. In the diocese of St. -John's there are now a cathedral, twenty-six churches, besides a number of chapels, twenty- nine priests, a college, thirteen convents, and a female orphanage. In the diocese of Harbour Grace, of which Dr. McDonald is now bishop, there are a cathedral, fourteen churches, besides a number of chapels, sixteen priests, and five convents. In the prefecture apostolic of St. George's, West Newfoundland, of which the Very Rev. Monsignor Sears is prefect apostolic, there are threo churches and three priests. Wesleyan Methodism presents an honourable record in Newfoundland, and has been characterised by zeal, activity, '' I \it\ t' ' t I i ■1 i H i i i ■ 1 i 470 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AllT Tl. and uac'fnlnoss. It dates from 17G5, wlion tlio Rev. Lawrence Cougliliiii, a travelling' ]n'Oficlier in connection witli llio Ecv. John Wesley, was ordained by the Bisliop of London, at the request of tlio Society for the Propa<:(ation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, that ho might bo (inalificd for the office of a missionary in Newfoundlnnd. At tluit timo tho state of religion and morality among a people who had been long neglected, and left almost without religions instruction and education, is described as deplorable. Immorality of tho woi'st description abounded, and religious worship was maintained in but a few localities. Mr. Coughlan's labours were mainly in llarbour Grace, Carbonear, and other places in Conception Bay, He encountered a great amount of opposition and bitter persecution, especially from some of tho wealthier classes, till at last he was cited to appeal* before the Governor, who declared in his favour and appointed him a justice of tho peace. This ended the persecution, and ho continued to labour quietly and with marked success. Three churches were built, and in these he ministered, till failing health compelled him to return to England, where ho published a book, dedicated to the Countess of Huntingdon, in which ho gave an account of his work in Newfoundland. In 1780 three missionaries were sent to tho colony by the Wesleyan organisation, to prosecute Mr. Coughlan's work. Ten years later there was but one Wesleyau missionary in tho island, and in 180G two missionaries, and 508 membei's. The work went on and extended as the popu- lation increased. In l81i Newfoundland was constituted a separate district, with a superintendent. In 1829 there were twelve missionaries and 1,147 members. In 1840 there were labouring in the island fourteen ministers and ten local preachers; there were 2,733 members, and 15,000 adherents. Sunday and day schools were conducted in connection with the missions. The census of 1857 gave cii.vr. the CHAP. T.l K KLIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 471 tho number of Wosloyans in tlio island as 20,220 ; ministers sovontecn, and clmrches tliirty-aovcn. Tlio census of 1874 states tlio number of Wesleyans as 35,702, and tho number of cliurclics as forty-two. At present Nowfoutul- land is constituted a separate Conference, with a president, and is divided into three districts — St. John's, Carbonear, and lionavista. Tho total number of ministers is forty- nine, and of churches forty-four. Congregationalism in Newfoundland diites from the year 1775, when a church was formed under tho Rev. John Jones. He had been originally a soldier in the artillery stationed in St. John's, and having been led to engnge in religious work, his ministrations proved so acceptable that on his discharge from his regiment he was ordained in England to be minister of the church in St. John's, which had been planted under his auspices. His labours extended over twenty- one years. He died in 1800. The single church thus organised has maintained itself ever since, and has always sustained a high character for useful- ness and zealous Christian work. Its ministers and members have liberally aided other denominations, and shared in efforts to advance tho best interests of tho community. There are now, in addition to the church in St. John's, a congregational church at Twillingatc, another at Rendell Harbour, Trinity Bay, and two mission stations in Fortune Bay. The census of 187i gives the number of congrega- tionalists in the island as 401. Of lato years they have taken an active part in education in proportion to their numbers, having in operation live elementary schools, with an average attendance of 207, and expending $884 per annum in the support of these schools. The first Presbyterian church was organised in 1842. Previously the Presbyterian residents of St. John's had worshipped with the members of other Christian churches, but they then formed themselves into a distinct body, and m ■ I i A 472 NEWFOUNDLAND. li'Aia' VI. 1 A J!l : W crectoil n cliuirli, wliicli was oponeil for public worsliip on Deei'iuber onl, 18io. Tht'li' first minister wiis \\w Uov. DiuiaUl A. FrastM", a man ot" ooiisidorablo gifts ami attain- ments, whoso labonr.s woro cut sln)rt by tloatli in I8i5. Tho conij^rt'ii^acion nnnibored about live Imndrt'tl })orsons, some t)f tlio most intelllt^^ont, iniluontial, and wtMdtliy vosidouta boin<^- niombors. Tlio causos which had h'd to tho disruption of tho EstabHshotl Churi'h of Scotland at lon>!;th proiluceda division among them; and tho portion sympathising with tho Free Church of Scotland separated in 1818, and erected a second Presbyterian church, which was opened for worship in 1850. In l8o5 a third l*resbytorian church was erected in Harbour Grace. In l87i» both the Presbyterian churches in St. John's were destroyed by fire. Tho two congrega- tions being now under tho san\o ecclesiastical jurisdiction, namely tho Genoi'al Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada, resolved on union, Avhich was effected in 1877. On the 18th of June, 1878, the corner-stono of St. Andrew's church was laid. It is a handsome structure, ami was completed at a cost of $ ll>,0()(>, and opened for worship on the oUth of November, 187l>. In addition to tho foregoing, there is a Presbyterian church and mission station at Little Bay Mine, also a mission church at Bay of Islands. Tho total nundier of Presbyterians, according to the census of 1874, is 1,1 G8» CliAlTER VT. THE rOST-OFFICE, COXSTAlULAllY, LIGliTlIOUSES, BANKS, ETC. Tho ninil service — Cost of tlio postal depai'tment— Tho police force — Thirty-two lifj;htlu)usc3 ami beacons 'L'ho li^lit ilucs — Bank statistics. Postal coinmunicntiou botwocu St. JoIiu'h, Britain, niul America is maintained by tho Allan Lino of steamoi's which touch at St. John's fortnightly, on their outwaril and homeward voyaijfos between Halifax and Liverpool. During three winter months those steamers omit calHn*^ at St. Jolm's, and ruu direct between Liverpool and Halifax. A fortnightly steamer durinj^ those months runs between St. John's and Halifax, carryin — 482 INDEX. ( « i PAOl Oormaok, Mr. — Journey Across the Island . 169 Meeting with a Labrador Indian .... 178 Cortoroal, Gasper, Discoveries of 13 Courts of Law .... 446 Custom-House, Establishment of a 61 Customs TaiiEE . . . . 438 Cuttle-fish- Mr. Harvey's Discoveiy of a New Species of . . 238 Capture of a . . . 240 Darling, Governor, Despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies to . . . 112 Darrell's, Governor, Proclama- tion against the Irish . . 63 Deer-fences .... 214 Docks, Proposed Construction of 131 Dogs ...... 231 Drake, Sir Francis ... 24 Duckworth, Sir John Thomas, Activity and Intelligence of 89 Dunraven, Lord, on Sport in Newfoundland . . • 254 Education Bill, An . Education Grants • Educational Statistics 106 457 461 FAOB 444 Electoral Districts Exploits River .... 110 Captain Kennedy's Descrip- tion of the Grand Falls . 141 The Valley of the . . 388 Exports, Statistics of. . . 434 Falkland, Viscount ... 32 Feild, Bishop . . . .467 Forryland .... 31, 159 Fertility of the Codroy Lands . 368 Ferulam (see Ferry land). Financial Position . . . 435 Fire-stones .... 215 Fish, Price of, in 1814r-16 . 94, 95 Fishery Rights, Disputed . . 333 Fishes, Tho Commercial . . 237 Fishing Admirals . . 42, 44 Fishing Grounds, Area of the 284 Fishing Privileges, Policy of conceding, to Foreigners . 264 Fishing Season .... 288 Flowering Plants and Ferns . 245 Flowers, Wild , . . .246 Fogo Island, Grievance of the Inhabitants of . . .87 Fogs 189 Food, Price of, fixed by Procla- mation . .... 75 Forest Lands .... 404 Fortune Bay . . • 161 i* I INDEX, nan • . 444 • . 140 Dosor ip. d Falla . 141 . . 388 • . 434 , . 32 . . 467 . 31, 159 Lands . 303 ). . 435 . 215 16. 94,95 3d. . 333 . . . 237 42, 44 rea of . 284 )licy of ers . 264 • . 288 ?rn3 . 245 . . 246 of the • . 87 • . 189 Procla- • . 75 • . 404 . . 161 PAOB Franciscans, Royal Liounco to astablish a Convent of . • 468 French Ambition ... 38 French, Expulsion of the . . 59 French Fisheries, The . . 272 French Fishing Privileges . . 329 French Shore, Tho . . 162, 331 Gambler, Admiral, Efforts to Ameliorate tho Condition of the People by ... 85 Game 171 Gander River .... 392 Garden Vegetables . . , 247 Geographical Position of New- foundland .... 134 Geological Survey — The Earliest, by Mr. J. B. Jukea .... 178 By Mr. Murray . . . 179 George III., Act of . . .71 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey — Letters Patent from Queen Elizabeth ... 17 Annexation of the Island by 18 Return and Loss of his Ex- pedition . ... 20 Glover, Sir John Ilawley . 123, 124 Gold 421 Government, Civil, Cost of . 71 Governor, The First ... 48 483 PAOE Gower, Sir Erasmus, Important Improvements under . , 86 Graving Dock at St. John's, Subsidy for . . . ,150 Grazing Country, A Vast . . 173 Great Auk, The. . . 29, 235 Great Codroy River, Tho Valley of tho 366 Guy, John, Tho Establish- ment of a Colony Advocated by 26 Gypsum 423 HakluytMSS 14 Hamilton, Sir Charles 98 Harbour Grace .... 166 Hardy, Captain Campbell, on Newfoundland 255 Hares, Arctic and American 248 Harvey, Sir John, Efforts of, to promote the Settlement of the Country 106 On the Prospects of Emi- gratiou .... 397 Herring, The — As Bait for Cod . 324 Spawning-time , 324 Herring Fishery, The 325 Statistics .... 327 Its Importance . 328 Hill, Sir Stephen John 120 2 I 2 t ■ 484 Vs'DEX, I i I PAOB Ilolloway, Admiral — Pvoaa Censorship under . 81) Ro-anuexation of Labrador . 89 Ilofapital Tax, A Voluutary . 90 Uouse>building, Diflicultiea ia the way of . . . .80 House of Commons, Soloct Com- mittco of the .... 98 Howley, Mr., on the Coal Seams 18G Humber District, The . . 379 Hunting Grounds, Favourite . 252 Hunting the Caribou . .- . 257 Imports . . 434 Indian Camp, An . 174 Innuits . 352 Irish Immigration 67, 83 Jameson Lake . . 173 Jameson's Mountains . 176 Judicature — Establishment of a Supreme Court of . . . 49, 72, 446 Act of 1824. . . 73, 101 Jukes, J. B., Exploration l>y . 178 Keats, Sir Eichard, Commercial Progress under . . .93 Kirke, Sir David ... 32 Grant from Charles I. . 33 FAOI Labrador. . . .66, 89, 339 Its Discovery by Cabot . 312 A Voyage from St. John's . 345 Tho Isloa of Domona . . 347 ChiUoaiiBay . . . 348 Its Fisheries . . . 351 Population . . . 353, 359 Vogotablo and Ani \1 Life 355 Rivers 355 Exports . . • .357 Labrador Fisheries, Value of the, to Newfoundland . . . 339 Labradorite .... 356 Lagopus albus .... 249 Land Grants, The First . . 91 Land Licences .... 425 Language, Vocabulary of Mary March's 218 Law Society of Newfoundland, The 447 Lead 422 Leake's, Captain, Expedition against the French . . 50 Legislature, Payments to the . 445 Le Marchant, Sir Gaspard . Ill Leonberg Dog, The . . . 232 Light Dues . . . . 476 Lighthouses . ' . . . 475 Lobsters 328 Logan, Sir William, on tho Mineral Wealth of the Island 181 Long Harbour, Disturbances at 161 , . . 1 . V'*>** * lrr i *^rwiriif ■ jiBM flTT'^-'-'V , -: , jMn i INDEX. 485 PAOI . CO, 8t ,33y Jabot 312 . Johu's . 315 )na . 317 • SdS . 351 . 853 ,359 ..\1 Life 355 • • 355 • ■ 357 no of the, • • 339 • 35G • 249 • • 91 • • 425 of Mary 218 undland, ■ 447 • • 422 cpeditioD • « 50 to the . 445 ard 111 • 9 232 • • 476 . 475 • • 328 on tho Island 181 ances at 161 PAOI Louisberg, Expedition against . 57 Mackerel 328 Magnetic Iron Ore • . , 423 Mails, Tho . . . 4,1.9, 473 Marble Bods . . . 1G3, IGl March, Mary . . . .200 Burial-place of . . . 213 McGregor, Mr., on Newfound- land as a Nursery for Seamen 2G1 Milbanke, Governor, and tho lloman Catholics . . .CI Minerals, llight of Search for 426 Mineral Wealth . 119, 162, 181, 418 Minoralogical Characteristics of the Interior .... 176 Mining Prospects . . 184, 419 Missionary Labours . . . 466 Molluscs, Herr T. A, Verkruzen'a Collection of, in the Geological Museum of St. Johu's . . 243 Montague, Rear-Admiral, Cap. ture of tho islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon by . 70 Moose-calling .... 255 Mountain Ranges . . . 137 Mullock, Eight Rev. Dr., on the Climate . . . . .197 Murray, Alexander — Geographical Survey of Newfoundland by . . 179 PAOI Murray, Alexander— On tho Mining Regions of Newfoundland 418, 421, 423 Native Indian, Capture of a 85, 208 Native Races, Tho . . . 202 Early Historical Notices . 20 1 Government Protection of . 203 Newfoundland Dog, The . . 231 Newfoundlanders, The, of tho Present Day .... 222 Newspaper, The First . . 88 Newspapers .... 478 Notre Dame, Bay of . . 165, 384 Nova Scotia, Bishop of . .75 O'Donnell, Bishop, Pension to . 84 Ornithology . . . .233 Osborne, Captain Heury — Appointment as Governor . 48 Administrative Ability . 54 Oyer and Terminer, Appoint, meut of Commissioners of . 57 Palliser, Sir Hugh ... 65 Order of . . . .68 Palliser's Act .... 66 Palmerston, Lord, on the French Privileges .... 333 Paris, Treaty of 59,95 -^ V mi 1.' i '■ 1 i! ' ■ 1 , 1 ■f ;i t »i 11 -i li 'H' Ir! , ■' j! 486 INDEX. FAOB Pasqualio, Lorenzo, Letter of, concerning Cabofc ... 10 Physical Features , . . 141 Pickmore, Admiral ... 98 Pinus strohus .... 406 Placcntia — Besieged .... 39 Bay of . . . .161 Planters 226 Planters of Newfoundland, Com- pany of . . . . . 261 Police Force, The . . . 474 Political and Religious Dissen- siona .... 105, 113 Population — In the Seventeenth Cen- tury .... 33 Limitation of Resident . 38 Depopulation proposed . 47 In 1763 .... 60 Social Condition ... 61 In 1785 .... 75 Distress of . . . 79, 115 In 1804 .... 87 In 1816 . . . .103 Statistics of . . 267, 428 Distribution of . . . 432 Postal Arrangements, The First 88 Postal Department, The . . 474 Presbyterian Churches . . 471 Prescott, Captain . . . 106 Prima Vista (see Bonavista). PAGE Prince Regent, Memorial from the Merchants of St. John's to the 86 Ptarmigan 249 Public Debt .... 43r> Quebec Group, Tho . . 414 Kennedy. . . . 252 Relic, A Solitary , . , 200 Religious Freedom ... 83 Religious Intolerance . 64, 67 Religious Statistics . . 430, 464 ! i Race, Cape .... 159 Railway Construction . . 450 Railway Enterprise, Projected . 121 m Government Subsidy to 123 m Railway Loan, A . . . 125 1 Rainfall 192 Raioigh, Sir Walter . 19 Letters Patent from Queen Elizabeth 23 Reciprocity Treaty, The . 337 Reeves, Chief Justice — On the Condition of the Country under the Fish. ing Admirals . 45 On the Civil Government of the Island 56 1 Appointment of . 72 1 Reindeer .... 172, 250 9 Description of, by Captain 1 ja: IXDEX. PAGE lorial from St. John's • . 86 . • 249 ^ ^ 435 414 • • • 159 • 450 'rejected . 121 sidy to 123 • 125 • • 192 ■ • 19 'om Queon • • 23 he . 337 n of the the Fiah. • • 45 rnment of ■ • 56 • • 72 . 172, 250 r Captain • • 252 • • 200 • • 83 64 ,67 . 430, 4G4 PA OK Represontativo Govern meat 102, 413 Resident Governor, The First . 98 Responsible Government . .111 Rovenuo . . 116, 120, 128, 434 Charges on, for 1882 . . 437 . 139 103, 448 . 181 . 182 . 183 . 184 . 185 63 469 88 84 Rivers Roads, The First Rock Systems ... Laurentian ... Huronian ... Silurian ... Carboniferous Roman Catholics, Severity to. wards .... Cathedrals and Churches . Royal Gazette, The . Royal NevirfouiuUand Regiment, Mutiny in the . . But, John, Letter of . . 14, 2G1 Ryswick, Treaty of . . .40 St. George's Bay . . 163, 372 A Settlor's Experience of . 375 St. John's— Besieged . . .40, 50, 58 Population of . . 85, 157 Improvemonts under Sir Erasmus Gowor . . 86 Destruction by Fire . 97, 109 Visit of U.R.H. tho Prince of Wales . . . .113 The Harbour . . 147, 159 487 PAOB St. John's— The City . Dock Construction Source of Water Supply Tho Cathedrals • Government House The AthenoDum . Banks . , Geographical Position St. Mary's Bay . St. Shotts . , Salmon, Tho— The Exports Its Growth . Salmon Fisheries Salmon Fishery, Tho — Reckless Conduct of Future of . , Salmonier . . . Savings Bank, The . Scenery of Grand Lake Seal, The— "White.coats"and "Ragged Jackets". . . .310 Varieties of the Seal . 233, 312 Migratory Habits . . 313 Tabular Statement of tho Number taken . , 316 Seal Fishery, The— Modes of Capture . 295, 293 Growth of the Fishery and Statistics . . , 2J7 148 150 152 152 154 155 156 157 159 159 317 320 160 318 321 160 476 385 1 '-■'. 1^ 1 i Ml ii i •if 488 INDEX. PAGB Seal Fishery, The— The Hunting Season . . 298 Equipment of a Sealing Steamer .... 304 Experiences of a Voyage . 306 "Sculping" . . . 307 Seal Oil and Refuse . . 308 Prospects of the fishery . 314 Sea Trout 322 Sears, Right Rev. Monsignor, On the C.odroy Valleys , . 369 Serpentine Rocks, Area of the . 417 ShanandithSt . . . .209 Shield, The, of Society . . 225 Shipping 442 Shooting Season, The . . 249 Silver Thaw, The . . . 194 Slate ..%... . 423 Slime, A living . . .282 Society for the Propagation of the Go^el in Foreign Parts,The, 465, 470 Star Chamber, The Policy of the 36, 42 Steam Communication . . 449 Stewart, Professor, on the Mineral Deposits . . .419 Stone Implements . . . 217 Strang, Richard . . . 2'^ Sport 248 Squatters 52 Supreme Court, The . . . 446 Swile Huntin' . . . .304 Tax on Roman Catholics . . 63 AfiB 435 Taxation .... Taxes on Spirits ... 91 Telegraphic Communication with the Old World. . . .113 Temperature .... 190 Thomson, Sir Peter, MSS. . 3 Tilt Cove Mine . . . .410 Timber 368, 376, 381, 389, 395, 404 Timber Lands, Area of the . 406 Trade Statistics . 103, 429, 434 Union with Canada, Proposed . United States, Treaties between Great Britain and the, in Re- gard to the Fisheries United States, Influence of War of Independence of the, upon the Interests of Newfoundland Utrecht, Treaty of . 117 336 68 51 Vapour Bath, A Primitive . 211 Vegetable Productions . . 398 Venerie 258 Versailles, Treaty of, French Privileges under the . . 73 Verulam (see Ferryland). Vespucci, Amerigo ... 2 Vicar Apostolic, The First . 70, 468 Waldegrave, Admiral, Humane Rule of 78 Wallace, Admiral, Defensive Measures of . . . .77 m INDEX. 489 i.Si • • • 435 . 91 ication with • • • 113 ■ • • 190 MSS. 3 • • • 410 81, 389, 395, 401 of the 406 . 103, 429 431 Proposed . 117 ies between the, in Ee- ies 336 jnce of War f the, upon wfoundland 68 • • • 51 mitive 211 ns 398 • • • 258 of, French le 73 and). » First . 70, 468 al, Humane Defensive 78 77 PAGE p mR Washington, Treaty of . 123 ,338 Wliiteway, Sir W. V.— r.VUtt Wesleyan Methodism, The Pro- Virtual Settlement of the gress of 469 "French Shore Question" Western Newfoundland, Climate by . . . .129 332 of 381 Wigwam, A Bethuk . 211 Wliitbourne, Captain Eichard . 27 An Indian .... 174 "A Discourse and Dis- William III., Statute of . 43 covery of Newfoundland '' 28 Order in Council of . 56 On the Produce of tho William Henry, Prince (after- Island .... 195 wards King William IV.), Wliiteway, Sir W. V.— 1 Visit of 71 Motion by, in the Legisla- AVomen, Exclusion of, from ture, for Construction of Newfoundland 43 a Eailway 124 Working Classes, Tho 226 €HABLB8 DICKBHS AKD EVANS, CnTSTAL PALACE PBESS. wm 'f.. f 'li ) 1 -i t !„ ';] i' 1 '- } M: ill i '• f ; " As a guide to contemporary journalism, Mr. Hatton's information Is certainly more extensive, and, we venture to say, more accurate than any kindred publication which has hitherto appee-red."— Daily New3. In Ono Vol., Crown Swo, Cloth extra, 12s. 6(7. JOURNALISTIC LONDON: By JOSEPH HATTON. " It would, perhaps, bo idlo — it would certainly bo lato in tho day — to complain that this scheino necessarily constitutes a rather extensive rent in that tliick 'blanket of tlio dark ' behind which tho gentlemen, and wo ought to add the ladies, of tho Press of this country are supposed to perform their duties. If Mr. John Morloy's belief that the tinio is fast coming when there shall be no such thing as anonymous journalism bo well founded, Mr. Hatton may claiui to have merely helped in somo degree iu bringing about the inevitable ; while to tho charge of being guilty of indiscretion, it is perhaps enough to answer that his chapters present abundant evidence of the fact tliat so far from resisting a littlo intrusion of this kind, 'Journalistic London' has even lent somo amount of co- operation in the work of betraying its own secrets," — Daily Nev:s. " Coming at tho end of nearly a quarter of a century after tho beneficial change, Mr, Hatton's book is as timely as it is attractive. Embellished with portraits of many of tho men best known in journalistic literature, this work will doubtless prove a very pleasant souvenir to tho friends of those who are thus represented, tho more so as a largo proportion of tho likenesses arc cxceptioiuilly good. ^Much detail of tho history of tho London Press is given, and tho names of many persons who had almost been forgotten are advantageously recalled." — Daily Teleyraph. " Despite tho generally anonymous nature of Press work, tho names of many illustrious writers are identified with particular journals, and much light is thrown upon tho inner lifo of newspaper offices. Tho author adopts a picturestjue stylo in tracing the vast journalistic progress of tho past half-century." — Daily Chronicle. "Whatever Mr, Hatton's pen is engaged upon, tho genial and scholarly style of tho writer never fails to make it attractive. Simple newspaper paragraph, leading article, magazine essay, dramatic or artistic criticism, play or novel — and tho author of this interesting volume has been successful in all these — never "■'! to make their mark when emanating from so bright a fancy as that wluc- ilr. Hatton possesses. To afiirm tliat tho task of providing this series of sketches of famous pens and papers of to-day was a congenial ono is only to say that the writer has long been identified witli tho Press as a journalist of tho highest repute. Few men know so much of what may bo cjillcd tho inner lifo of English journalism. , . . It reminds one of Dr. Johnson's ' Let us take a walk down Fleet Street,' and in our author's company wo find ourselves pleasantly strolliug in and out of several news- paper offices, introduced to their respective editors, managers, proprietors, and chief contributors, and instructed on points of their not too familiar histories. Tho book is beautifully printed, neatly bound, and furnished with engravings from drawings by Mr. Kidley, and numerous original portraits of distinguished editors and writers for the Press, taken from photographs," — The Weeldy Times. " It is extremely interesting, and is sure of a wido circle of eager readers. All green-rooms have a fascination for tho outside public, but tho green-room of the Press most of all. Into tliis greon-room Mr, Hatton introduces us, and shows us as much probably as it is good for us to know of the famous pens and papers who shako the world." — Truth. A :! li 4 I \ ij\ Very pleasant and readable, and should have a largo circulation."— World. " The history of the newspaper Press is a subject of much interest both to British and American readers, and Mr. Hattoii'n pleasant gossiping chapters will be welcomed by all who wish to increase their knowledge of the Fourth Estate." — Illustrated London News. " Tact and tasto woro peculiarly necessary in deciding what to say, and particularly what not to say; and for his acconiplishinont of the task he is to bo highly commended. The accuracy of his information, on many points concerning which information must have been difficult to find, is remarkable." — Sjiorting and Dramatic News. " This is a reprint, with some additions and modifications, of certain articles originally published in 'Harper's Magazine.' They are chiefly concerned with the history of the greater London flailies, and with personal details of their most prominent contributors. Jlr. Uatton is a fluent writer, and it is likely that his book will interest many persons who spend an hour over their morning paper, but know little of tlio way it is published. . . . Great pains seem to have been taken to give accurate information. Personal details, as might have been expected, fill many pages. . . . The book is beautifully printed on toned paper, and profusely illustrated with woodcuts in the best stylo of American i^eriodicals. Tho portraits are copied from photographs." — The Academij. " Mr. Hatton docs full justice to the merits of those who are living, and some pleasant chapters are devoted to the rise and progress of periodicals of world-wide fame, such as Punch, Truth, The World, &c., full particulars being given of their characteristic peculiarities, their editors, contributors, &c"—Era. "The entire impersonality of our English newspaper is our peculiar institution, and there is a very rational curiosity to know something about tho men who sink their individuality for such a wonderful result. Mr. Hatton's book ministers to this laudible desire, without, as far as we can see, hurting anyone's feelings, or betraying any secrets, except such as are justly described as open ones. The value of the volume is much increased by the portraits." — Life. " Many persons desire to penetrate the veil of the anonymous which usually surrounds journalism, and to such inquiring minds there is afforded much both to interest and amuse in Mr. Hatton's book." — The Queen. "A really entertaining book, abounding in personal anecdotes and interesting information, and forming a valid, if somewhat fragmentary, addition to current literary and political history." — Nanconformist. " The ordinary reader could not easily have a more agreeable intro- duction to the great chiefs of the London Press, and he cannot fail to enjoy the brief interview with which he is favoured. Naturally the book abounds in anecdotes, most of which we imagine are well authenticated." — Nottingham Guardian. " A journalist himself, he is still not so much a literary day labourer as to be wholly absorbed in the concerns of one journal, working one set of ropes, and seeing only one set of faces. He works in the free atmosphere of his own study, and is bi'ought into contact with all without being lashed to any. He has, besides, a broad general sympathy with all that concerns the craft, and commands the confidence and friendship of its ornaments. The book shows that the author is deep in the secrets of tho profession, and has, besides, been specially entrusted with nuich new information about the various journals dealt with. All this is liighly entertaining to the reading class of tho lay public." — Sheffield Daily Telegraph, London : SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON, 188, Fleet Street. CA CHAP] DRAW 1 THE S FOR THE US fo circulation."— nch interest both 3Ji8ant gossiping oir kiiowlodgo of wliat to say, and of the task ho is ation, on many Hculb to find, is tions, of certain 'hoy are chiefly nd with personal s a fluent writer, o spend an hour published. . . . to information, lagos. . . . The illustrated with e portraits are ) are living, and 3 of periodicals full particulars rs, contributors, is our peculiar omething about ul result. Mr. s far as we can opt such as are much increased mymous which liere is afforded he Queen. anecdotes and i fragmentary, ormist, ;reeable intro- 3t fail to enjoy ally the book authenticated." ay labourer as ing one set of ee atmosphere t being lashed that concerns ts ornaments, ho profession, V information itertaining to »«i * » -« II, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C. {Late 193, Piccadilly, W.) November, 1882. CATALOGUE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED, INCLUDING DRAWING EXAMPLES, DIAGRAMS, MODELS, INSTRUMENTS, ETC. ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITV OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT, SOUTH KENSINGTON, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ART AND SCIENCE CLASSES. VINGTON, \i\ i NEW NOVELS. i; %., ji s % New Novel by the Author of " Policy and Passion." NADINE, A Story of Modern Society, founded on Fact. By Mrs. Campbell Praed. 2 vols. Neio Novel by the Author of" Aunt Hcpsy's Foundling." COSMO GORDON. A Novel. By Mrs. Leith Adams. 3 vols. \In November. 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THE ANALYSIS AND ADULTERATION OF FOODS. I!y Jamks Bri.i., Principal of the Somerset House Laboratory'. Part I. — Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, Sugar, &c., tieing a New Volume of the South Kensington Museum Sv-ience Handbooks. Large crown 8vo, 2s. fid. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. ByCARLENGEL. With numerous Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 2s. fid. ]\IANUAL OF DESIGN, compiled from the Writings Addresses of RicnAFin Redgrave, R.A. liy Gii.iiKRT R. Rudqrave Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, as. fid. PERSIAN ART. By Major R. Murdock Smith, R.E. Second Edition, with additional Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, 2S. FREE EVENING LECTURES. Delivered in connection with the Special Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatus, 1876. Large ciown 8vo, Ss. and With CARLYLEi LIFE 01 01 CRITIC. ON HE IN PAST A I OLIVER Pyr LATTER LIFE 0I< HISTOR ear TRANSL EARLY TR Illu: EARLY I POl 7s. 6 CARLYLE'S (THOMAS) WORKS. CHEAP AND UNIFORM EDITION. Ill 2j vols., Crcnvn Svo, cloth, £'/ js. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION : A History. 2 vols., 12s. 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SAR HE] ESS. ^K.S—Contintie a vols. i6 36 f 1 a vols. 16 36 ■ 1 a vols. 16 40 If a vols. 16 40 II a vols. lO 38 II a vols. 16 38 II a vols. 16 40 II a vols. 16 39 >i I vol. 8 24 II I vol. 8 17 II I vol. 8 16 II I vol. 8 8 II 1 vol. 8 8 II I vol. 8 8 II I vol. 8 8 II 1 vol. 8 13 II I vol. 8 ic. i\ „ I vol. 8 DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS- Continued. LIBRARY EDITION. In Post 8vo. With the Orisinal Illustrations, 30 vols., cloth, £12. PICKWICK PAPERS NICHOLAS NICKI.EBY MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT OLD CURIOSITY SIIOP& REPRINTED PIECES 36 BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES ... BLEAK HOUSE LITTLE DORRIT ', DOMBEY AND SON DAVID COPPERFIELD OUR MUTUAL FRIEND SKETCHES BY "BOZ" OLIVER TWIST CHRISTMAS HOOKS A TALE OF TWO CITIES GREAT EXPECTATIONS PICTURES FROM ITALY & AMERICAN NOTES UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND EDWIN DROOD and MISCELLANIES ... CHRISTMAS STORIES from " Household Words," &c. 14 THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. ByJoHN Forster. With Illustrations. Uniform with this Edition, i vol. los. 6d. THE "CHARLES DICKENS" EDITION. In Crown Svo. In 21 vols,, cloth, with Illustrations, £3 i6s. PICKWICK PAPERS MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT DOMBEY AND SON NICHOLAS NICKLEBY DAVID COPPERFIELD BLEAK HOUSE LITTLE DORRIT OUR MUTUAL FRIEND BARNABY RUDGE OLD CURIOSITY SHOP A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND EDWIN DROOD .ind OTHER STORIES ... CHRISTMAS STORIES, from " Household Words " SKETCHES BY "BOZ" AMERICAN NOTES and REPRINTED PIECES CHRISTMAS BOOKS OLIVER TWIST GREAT EXPECTATIONS TALE OF TWO CITIES HARD TIMES and PICTURES FROM ITALY UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. Numerous : THE LETTERS OF CHARLES DICKENS „ s. d. 8 Illustrations .. . 4 8 II *• • 4 8 II •■ ■ 4 8 II •• . 4 8 II •• . 4 8 II •• . 4 8 II *. 4 8 II 4 8 II .• 3 6 8 II •• 3 6 4 II ■• 3 6 8 II 3 6 8 II ** 3 6 8 II .. 3 6 8 II .. 3 6 8 II 3 6 8 II 3 6 8 II 3 6 8 3 8 II »•• 3 4 II 3 stratior IS. a vols. 7 .. . ...2 vols. 8 22 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY DICKENS'S (CHARLES) VJORKS-Continucd. w \ \v hY \\ 'a \i THE ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION. Complete in jo Volumes. Demy Svo, los. each ; or set, £ij. This Edition is printed on a finer papT nnc' in a larger type than has been employed in any previous edition. The type has been cast especially for it, and the page is of a size to admit of the introduction of all the original illustrations. No such attractive issue has been made of the writings of Mr. Dickens, which, various as have been the forms of publication adapted to the demands of an ever widely-increasing popularity, have never yet been worthily presented in a really handsome hbrary form. The collection comprises all tlie minor writings it was Mr. Dickens's wish to preserve. SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With 40 Illustrations by George Cruikshank, PICKWICK PAPERS. 2 vols. With 42 Illustrations by Phiz. OLIVER TWIST. With 24 Illustrations by Cruikshank. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and REPRINTED PIECES. 2 vols. With Illus- trations by Cattermole, &c. BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES. 2 vols. With Illustrations by Cattermole, &'c. MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. 2 vols. With 4 Illustrations by Phiz. AMERICAN NOTES and PICTURES FROM ITALY, i vol. With 8 Illustrations. DOMBEY AND SON. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. DAVID COPPERFIELD. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. BLEAK HOUSE. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. LITTLE DORRIT. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. A TALE OF TWO CITIES. With 16 lUustrations by Phiz. THE UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone. GREAT EXPECTATIONS. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone. OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Marcus Stone. CHRISTMAS BOOKS. With 17 Illustrations by Sir Edwin Landseer, R.A., Maclise, R.A., &c. &c. HISTORY OF iJNGLAND. With 8 lUus -.lions by Marcus Stone. CHRISTMAS STORIES. (From "Household Words" and "All the Year Round.") Vith 14 Illustrations. EDWIN DROOD AND OTHER STORIES. With 12 Illustrations by S. L. Fildes. a 3ITION. 36 than has been ;cially for it, and illustrations. Dickens, which, lands of an ever ited in a really )ickens's wish to kshank. iz. Is. With Illus- lUustrations by iz. vol. With 8 y Marcus Stone. ne. arcus Stone. ^andseer, R,A., ne. "All the Year itions by S. L. CITAPMAi'f A- HALL, LIMITED. 23 DICKENS'S (CHARLES) ^OSLVJi-ConUnued. HOUSEHOLD EDITION. Complete in 22 Volumes. Crown 4I0, cloth, £a, 8j. bd. MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT, with 59 Illustrations, cloth, 53. DAVID COPPERFIELD, with 60 Illustrations and a Portrait, cloth, 5s. BLEAK HOUSE, with 61 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. LITTLE DORRIT, with 58 Illustrations, cloth, 53. PICKWICK PAPERS, with 56 Illustrations, cloth, 53, OUR MUTUAL FRIEND, with 58 Illustrations, cloth, 53. NICHOLAS NICKLEDY, with 59 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. DOMBEY AND SON, with 61 Illustrations, cloth, 53. EDVyiN DROOD ; REPRINTED PIECES ; and other Stories, with 30 Illustra- tions, cloth, 5s. ^ THE LIFE OF DICKENS. ByJohnForster. With 40 Illustrations. Cloth, 53. BARNABY RUDGE, with 46 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, with 32 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. CHRISTMAS STORIES, with 23 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. OLIVER TWIST, with 28 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. GREAT EXPECTATIONS, with 26 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. SKETCHES BY "BOZ," with 36 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER, with 26 Illustrations, cloth, 3s, CHRISTMAS BOOKS, with 28 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND, with 15 Illustrations, cloth, 33. AMERICAN NOTES and PICTUl.ES FROM ITALY, with 18 Illustrations, ciotn, 3s. A TALE OF TWO CITIES, with 25 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. HARD TIMES, with 20 Illustrations, cloth, as. 6d. MR. DICKENS'S READINGS. Fcap. 8z'<7, sewed. CHRISTMAS CAROL IN PROSE. IS. CRICKET ON THE HEARTH, is. CHIMES : A GOBLIN STORY, is. STORY OF LITTLE DOMBEY. is. POOR TRAVELLER. BOOTS AT THE HOLLY-TREE INN, and MRS. GAMP. IS, A CHRISTMAS CAROL, with the Original Coloured Plates bc,ng a reprint of the Original Edition. Small 8vo, red cloth, gilt edges, ss ^ BOOKS PUBLISHED BY DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS— Co«//««^(/. THE POPULAR LIBRARY EDITION OF THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS, In 30 Vols. , large crown Svo, price £6 ; separate Vols. 4f. each. _ -cAu: — — .•_».,i — 1 containing Illustrations selected from Each Volume has about 450 pages An Edition printed on good paper, the Household Edition, on Plate Paper and 16 full-page Illustrations. SKETCHES BY "BOZ." PICKWICK. 2 vols. OLIVER TWIST. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. 2 vols. DOMBEY AND SON. 2 vols. DAVID COPPERFIELD. 2 vols. CHRISTMAS BOOKS. OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. 2 vols. CHRISTMAS STORIES. BLEAK HOUSE. 2 vols. LITTLE DORRIT. 2 vols. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP ani> REPRINTED PIECES. 2 vols. BARNABY RUDGE. 2 vols. UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVEL- LER. GREAT EXPECTATIONS. TALE OF TWO CITIES. CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENG- LAND. EDWIN DROOD AND MISCEL- LANIES. PICTURES FROM ITALY and AMERICAN NOTES. The Cheapest and Handiest Edition of THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS. The Pocket-Volume Edition of Charles Dickens's Works. In 30 Vols, small f cap. Zvo, £'i Ss. Nt^u and Cheap Issue of THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS. In pocket volumes. PICKWICK PAPERS, with 8 Illustrations, cloth, 2s. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY, with 8 Illustrations, cloth, as. OLIVER TWIST, with 8 Illustrations, cloth, is. SKETCHES BY " BOZ," with 8 Illustrations, cloth, is. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, with 8 Illustrationp, cloth, 2S. BARNABY RUDGE, with 16 Illustrations, cloth, 2s. A REPRINTS. CHRISTMAS CAROL and HAUNTED MAN. By Charles Dickens. Illustrated. (IL) READINGS FROM THE WORKS CHARLES DICKENS. THE [In November, OF List of Bo As selected and read by himself and now published for the first time. Illustrated. {In November. THOSE ISS^ AND AI USE OF CATA AND BENSON { IV PRIN( Small MANl Fronti BRADLEY { ELEM Parts, Sele A BURCHETT LINEi cloth, PRAC DEFII sewed CARROLL {I FREE BOAl CUBLEY {V/ A SYi Illjst DA VISON (I DRAV 8vo, c MODI THE Build by thi DITION s. 4J. each. ons selected from about 450 pages ^ SHOP ANI> ECES. 2 vols. 3E. 2 vols. L TRAVEL- ATIONS. CITIES. RY OF ENG- AND MISCEL- M ITALY AND PES. f )ICKENS. Works. )ICKENS. > THE [In November, RKS OF the first time. [/» November. CHAPMAN 6- HALL, LIMITED. as List of Boohs, Drawing Examples, Diagrams, Models, Instruments, etc., INCLUDING THOSE ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT, SOUTH KENSINGTON, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ART AND SCIENCE CLASSES. CATALOGUE OF MODERN WORKS ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. 8vo, sewed, is. 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With numerous Illustrations, drawn on Wood by the Author, Demy 8vo, los. 6d. aft BOOKS PUBLISHED BY I M !iki .5 111 1 \\"- > 1 i -i I 'i s ^ 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 DELAMOTTE (P. H.)~ PROGRESSIVE DRAWING-BOOK FOR BEGINNERS. i2mo, 3S. 6d. DYCE— DRAWING-BOOK OF THE GOVERNMENT SCHOOL. OV DESIGN: ELEMENTARY OUTLINES OF ORNAMENT. 50 Plates. Small folio, sewed, 5s. ; mounted, i8s. INTRODUCTION TO DITTO. Fcap. 8vo, 6d. FOSTER [VERE]— DRAWING-BOOKS : (a) Forty-two Numbers, at id. each. {b) Forty-six Numbers, at d. each. The set /' includes the subjects in a, DRAWING-CARDS : Freehand Drawing : First Grade, Stts I., II., III., price is. each. Second Grade_ Set I., price 2s. HENSLO IV (PROFESSOR)— ILLUSTRATIONS TO BE EMPLOYED IN THE PRACTICAL LESSONS ON BOTANY. Prepared for South Kensington Museum. Post 8vo, sewed, 6d. JACODSTHAL ^E.)— GRAMMATIK DER ORNAMENTE, in 7 Parts of 20 Pl.-ites each. Price, unmounted, ;C3 13s. 6d. ; mounted on cardboard, ^i\ 4s. The Parts can be had separately. 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[VE. i8mo, , i2mo, 6d. pies to be )m the large ONS OF A Comparative De- :iNGDOM. T: CHAPMAN 6- HALL, LIMITED. VI DRAWING CARDS, Fifth POYNTER (E. 7.), R. A. —Continued. FREEHAND— FIRST GRADE : Book I. Simple Objects and Ornament, 6d, ,, II. Various Objects, 6d. „ III. Objects and Architectural Ornaments, 6d. „ IV. Architectural Ornament, 6d. ,, V. Objects of Glass and Tottery, 6d. „ VI. Common Objects, 6d. FREEHAND— SECOND GRADE: Book I. Various Forms of Anthermion, S:c., IS. ,, II. Greek, Roman, and Venetian, is. ,, III. Italian Renaissance, is. ,, IV. Roman, Italian, Japanese, &c. is. THE SOUTH KENSINGTON Containing the same examples as the books : Elementary P'reehand Cards. Fovir packets, gd. each. First Grade Freehand Cards. Six packets, is. each. Second Grade Freehand Cards. Four packets, is. 6d. each. REDGRAVE— MANUAL AND CATECHISM ON COLOUR. Edition. 24mo, sewed, gd. ROBSON (GEORGE)— ELEMENTARY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Oblong folio, sewed, 8s. WALLIS (GEORGE)— DRAWING-BOOK. Oblong, sewed, 3s. 6d.; mounted, 8s. WORNUM (R. N.)— THE CHARACTERISTICS OF STYLES: An Intro- duction to the Study of the History of Ornamental Art. Royal 8vo, cloth. 8s. DRAWING FOR YOUNG CHILDREN. Containing 150 Copies. i6mo, cloth, 3s. 6d. EDUCATIONAL DIVISION OF SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM : CLASSIFIED CATALOGUE OF. Ninth Edition. 8vo, 7s. ELEMENTARY DRAWING COPY-BOOKS, for the Use of Children from four years old and upwaids, in Schools and B'amilies. Compiled by a Student certificated by the Science and Art Department as an Art Teacher. Seven Books in 4to, sewed : Book I. Letters, 8d. Book IV. Objects, 8d. „ U. Ditto, 8d. „ V. Le.ives, Sd. ,, III. Geometrical and Ornamental ,, VI. Birds, Animals, &c., 8d. Forms, 8d. „ VII. Leaves, Flowers, and Sprays, 8d. *** Or in Sets of Seven Books, 4s. 6d. ENGINEER AND MACHINIST DRAWING-BOOK, i6 Parts, 71 Plates. Folio, ;{,'i 12s. ; mounted, £3 4s. PRINCIPLES OF DECORATIVE ART. Folio, sewed, is. 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MECHANICAL STUDIES. By J. B. Tripon. 15s. per dozen. FOLIATED SCROLL FROM THE VATICAN, unmounted, sd.; mounted, is. 3d. TWELVE HEADS after Holbein, selected from his Drawings in Her Majesty's Collection at Windsor. Reproduced in Autotype. Half imperial, £,x i6s. LESSONS IN SEPIA, 9s. per dozen, or is. each. COLOURED EXAMPLES: A SMALL DIAGRAM OF COLOUR, mounted, is. 6d. ; unmounted, gd. CAMELLIA, mounted, 3s. gd. COTMAN'S PENCIL LANDSCAPES (set of g), mounted, 15s. SEPIA DRAWINGS (set of 5), mounted, ;Ci. ALLONGE'S LANDSCAPES IN CHARCOAL (Six), at 4s. each, or the set, {,i 4s. SOLID MODELS, &c. : ~ *Box of Models, i,\ 4s. A Stand with a universal joint, to show the solid models, &c., i,\ i8s. *One Wire Quadrangle, with a circle and cross within it, and one straight wire. One solid cube. One Skeleton Wire Cube. One Sphere. One C&ne. One Cylinder. One Hexagonal Prism. £,2 2s. Skeleton Cube in wood, 3s. 6d, i8-inch Skeleton Cube in wood, 12s. *Three objects of/orm in Pottei-y ; Indian Jar, ') Celadon Jar, > i8s. 6d. Bottle, ) *Five selected Vases in Majolica Ware, £2 iis. *Three selected Vases in Earthenware, i8s. Imperial Deal Frames, glazed, without sunk rings, los. each. *Davidson's Smaller Solid Models, in Box, £2, contalning- Square Slabs. 9 Oblong Blocks (steps). 2 Cubes. Square Blocks. Octagon Prism. Cylinder. Cone. Jointed Cross. Triangular Prism. Pyramid, Equilateral. Pyramid, Isosceles, Square Block. ! Models, &C.' entered as sets, can only be supplied in sets. SOLID M< * Davidson of th acros the t objec and 1 unite Ladd sponi ATt plain in di; in di; the s shadi nichf 'Davidson *Binn's M appli Miller's ( large Mod high Cyli dian Con iK iVir i^ ii high dian 17 ii 19 ii 27 ii Vulcanit Large C ■"Slip, tw( *Parkes's 'Prize In pen 6-lnch C ASTRON TWEL mit BOTANI NINE He o Selected Plates, ced by Herman, )duced by Herman, nted, 3s. 6d., un- lounted, sd. lounted, 3s. fid. ; Sheets, 11 at as. .', mounted, is. 3d. in Her Majesty's ial, £x i6s. CHAPMAN b- HALL, LIMITED. 29 nted, gd. 1, or the set, £1 4s. traight wire. One le. One Cylinder. SOLID MODELS, ^ac— Continued. * Davidson's Advanced Drawing Models, ;C9.-The following is a brief description of the Models:— An Obelisk-composed of 2 Octagonal .Slabs, 26 and 20 inches across, and each 3 inches high; i Cube, 12 inches edge ; i Monolith (forminR the body of the obelisk) 3 feet high ; i Pyramid, 6 inches base ; the complete object is thus nearly 5 feet high. A Market Cross-composed of 3 Slabs, 24. 18, and n inches across, and each 3 inches high ; i Upright, 3 feet high ; 2 Cross Arms, united by mortise and tenon joints; complete height, 3 feet 9 inches. A Step. Ladder, 23 inches high. A Kitchen Table, n'A inches high A Chair to corre- .spond A Four-legged Stool, with projecting top and cross rails, height 14 inches. A Tub, with handles and projecting hoops, and the divisions between the st.ives plainly marked. A strong Trestle, .8 inches high. A Hollow Cylinder, g inches in diameter, and 12 inches long, divided lengthwise. A Hollow Sphere, 9 inches in diameter, divided into semi-spheres, one of which is again divided into iiuarters ; the semi-sphere, when placed on the cylinder, gives the form and principles of sh.iding a dome, whilst one of the quarters placed on half the cylinder forms a niche. 'Davidson's Apparatus for Teaching Practical Geometry (22 models), £$. "Binn's Models for Illustrating the Elementary Principles of Orthographic Projection as applied to Mechanical Drawing, in box, £1 los. Miller's Class Drawing Models.-These Models are particularly adapted for teaching Lirge ci.-isses ; the stand is very strong, and the universal joint will hold the Model', in any position. Il^aati AUiMi: : Square Prism, 12 inches side, 18 inches high ■ Hexagonal Prism, 14 inches side, 18 inches high ; Cvibe, 14 inches side : Cylinder 13 inches diameter, id inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 14 inches diameter, 12'A inches side ; Square Pyramid, 14 mches side, 2214 inches side ; Cone, 13 inch'es diameter, 22H inches side ; Skeleton Cube, 19 inches solid wood lii inch square; Intersecting Circles, ig inches solid wood 2'4 by I'/i inches. IVire Afo(Ms : Triangular Prism, 17 inches side, 22 inches high ; Square Prism, 14 inches side, 20 inches high ; Hexagonal Prism, 16 inches dia-neter, 21 inches high- Cylinder, 14 inches diameter, 21 inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 18 inches diameter, 24 inches high ; Square Pyramid, 17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Cone, 17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Skeleton Cube, 19 inches side; Intersecting Circles 19 inches side ; Plain Circle, 19 inches side ; Plain Square, 19 inches side. Table, 27 inches by 21% inches. Stand. The set complete, £n 13s. Vulcanite Set Square, 5s. Large Comp.-isses, with chalk-holder, 5s. *Slip, two set squares and T square, 5s. *Parkes's Case of Instruments, containing 6-inch compasses with pen and pencil ■ *Prize Instrument Case, with 6-inch compasses, pen and pencil leg, 2 small comj , pen and scale, 18s. . 6-inch Compasses, with shifting pen and point, 4s. 6d. LARGE DIAGRAMS. ASTRONOMICAL igular Prism, mid, Equilateral, mid. Isosceles, re Block. TWELVE SHEETS. By John Drrw, Ph. Dr., F.R.S.A. Prepared for the Com- mittee of Council on Education. Sheets, £2 8s.; on rollers and varnished, £i 43. BOTANICAL: NINE SHEETS. Illustrating a Practical Method of Teaching Botany. Ey Professor Henslow, F.L.S. £2; on rollers and varnished, £3 3s. CLASS. DIVISION. SECTION. Dicotyledon ^ Monocotyledons ) Angiospermous ^ Gy mnospermous I'Petaloid .. ( Glumaceous /■ Thalamifloral ) Calycifloral '\ Corollifloial (. Incomplete DIAGRAM '.". « & 3 4 S 6 . ( Superior \ Inferior . * Models, &c., entered as sets, can cn'y be supplied in sets. 30 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN &' HALL, LIMITED. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION : 'J"EN SHKl'.TS. liy NViLLiAM J. Glemny, Professor of Drawing, King's College. In sets, £1 IS. LAXTONS KXAMPLRS OF RUII.DING CONSTRUCTION IN TWO DIVTSION.S, containing 32 Imperial Plates, jCi. BUSURIDGF.S DRAWINGS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, n Sheets. 2S. Qcl. Mounted, 5s. 6d. GEOLOGICAL : DIAGRAM OF BRITISH STRATA. By H. W. BlusTOW, F.R.S., F.G.S. A Sheet, 4b. ; on roller and varnished, 7.S. 6d. MECHANICAL: DIAGRAMS OF THE MECHANICAL POWERS, AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN MACHINERY AND THE ARTS GENERALLY. By Dr. John ANDiiRSON. 8 Diagrams, highly coloured on stuut paper, 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. Sheets ^i per set ; mounted on rollers, £2. DIAGRAMS OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. By Professor Goodeve and Professor SHELLEY. Stout paper, 40 inches by 27 inches, highly coloured. Sets of 41 Diagrams (52_5^ Sheets), £6 6s. ; varnished and mounted on rollers, /'i I ns. MACHINE DETAILS. By Professor Unwim. 16 Coloured Diagrams. Sheets, £2 2s. ; mounted on rollers and varnished, £-i 14s. SELECIED EXAMPLES OF MACHINES, OF IRON AND WOOD (French). By Stanislas PiiniT. 60 Sheets, £-i 5s. ; 13s. per dozen. BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWINGS OF MACHINE CONSTRUCTION. 50 Sheets, I2S. 6d. Mounted, £1 5s. PHYSIOLOGICAL : ELEVEN SHEETS. Illustrating Human Physiology, Life Size and Coloured from Nature. Prepared under the direction of John Marshall, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., lic. Each Sheet, 12s. 6J. On canvas and rollers, varnished, £1 is. THE SKELETON AND LIGAMENTS. THE MUSCLES, JOINTS, AND ANIMAL MECHANICS. THE VISCERA IN POSITION.-THE STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. THE LYMPHATICS OR ABSORBENTS. THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION. THE BRAIN AND NERVES.-THE ORGANS OF THE VOICE. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES. THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS. THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS. HUMAN BODY, LIFE SIZE. Bv John Marshall, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Each Sheet, I2S. 6d. ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, £1 is. Explanatory Key, is. 1. THE SKELETON, Front View. 2. THE MUSCLES, Front View. 3. THE SKELETON, Back View. 4. THE MUSCLES, Back View. ZOOLOGICAL : 5. THE SKELETON, Side View. 6. THE MUSCLES, Side View. 7. THE FEMALE SKELETON, Frgijt View. TEN SHEETS. Illustrating the Classification of Animals. By Robert Patterson. £2 ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, £-i los. The same, reduced in size on Royal paper, in 9 Sheets, uncoloured, 12s. TTNDK U i>, day, has In the and the n The I 24 folio nprodiii studios ; accoinpiii PrintselU The ! in order Tlie n PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF THE HONEY BEE. Two Diagrams, 7s. 6d. , LIMITED. ig, King's College. TION IN TWO nON, II Sheets. i-, F.R.S., F.G.S. AND THEIR THE ARTS :t 6 inches by 2 •oilers, ^2. fessor GooDEVE by 27 inches, varnished ami Magrams. Sheets, WOOD (French). 'ION. 50 Sheets, .nd Coloured from :.S., F.R.C.S., &c. THE LUNGS. VOICE. AND ORGANS. AND ORGANS. F.R.C.S. Each itory Key, is. N, Side View. I Side View. SKELETON, lERT Patterson. I2S. »NEY BEE. MODERN ARTISTS. A SERIES OF ILLUSTRATED BIOGRAPHIES. Edited by F. G. DUMAS. UNDP:R the above title a Series of niographical Sketches, with Characteristic Portraits, and of Critical Studies of the works of the Great Painters of the day, has been in preparation lor some time. In tlie publication of tlie work the co-oiieration of the highest authorities on .Vt, and the most noted Etchers, has fortunately been obtained. The puljlication is divided into TWiCl'-Vl'; HIOGKAPHIIiS, each containing 24 folio pages of Text (20 x 14 inches), profusely Illustrated with facsimile reproductions of orii'Jiial Drawings by tiie Artists themselves, and views of their studios and residences, printed on fine plate paper, numbered i to 1,200, and accompanied by 36 Lettered Proofs of tlie various Etchings stamped by the Printsellers' Association. The greatest care has been e.xerciscd in the selection of the works for engraving, in order'to obtain the subjects more characteristic of the personality of each .\rtist. The first section of Three Parts will consist of— SIR FREDERICK LEIGHTON, P.R.A. • Portrait by Rajon, after G. F. Watts, R.A. The Athlete Wrestling with a Python. A Group from The Arts of War. JOHN EVERETT MILLAIS, R.A. Portrait by Waltner, after the Artist. The North-West Passage. Forbidden Fruit. HUBERT HERKOMER, A.R.A. Portrait by himself. The Poacher's Fate, The Woodcutters. Artists' Proofs of the above, also stamped by the Printsellers' Association, may be had ; special attention has been paid to the selection of the proper materials for tlie printing of these Proofs. IhQ Tiuelue Biographies (not sold separately), £12 12s. GRAND EDITION DE LUXE. Thcte will also be printed Twenty-five Copies of this Edition, on paper froni the Imperial Factories of Japan, and numbered in the press, from i to 25, containing Thirty-six Proofs before Letters of the Etchings, stamped by the Printsellers" Association. Price for the Twelve Biographies, £63. AMATEUR'S EDITION. Fifty Copies of this Edition will be printed on the finest tinted Dutch paper of Van Gelder, numbered in tlie press from i to 50, with the accompanying Etchings printed on Japan. Price for the Twelve Biographies, £31 10s. .■?! BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN &> HALL, LIMITED. THE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW. Edited by T. H. S. ESCOTT. 'yHE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW is published on the ist of every month (the issue on the 15th being suspended), and a Volume is completed every Six Months. Tlu following are among the Coninbutors : — SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK. MATHEW ARNOLD. PROFESSOR BAIN. PROFESSOR BEESLY. DR. BRIDGES. HON. GEORGE C. BRODRICK SIR GEORGE CAMPBELL, M.P. J. CHAMBERLAIN, M.P. PROFESSOR SIDNEY COLVIN. MONTAGUE COOKSON, Q.C. L. H. COURTNEY, M.P. G. H. DARWIN. F. W. FARRAR. PROFESSOR FAWCETT, M.P. EDWARD A. FREEMAN. MRS. GARRET-ANDERSON. M. E. GR.\NT DUFF, M.P. THOMAS HARE. F. HARRISON. LORD HOUGHTON. PROFESSOR HUXLEY. PROFESSOR JEVONS. ifeMILE DE LAVELEYE. T. E. CLIFFE LESLIE. RIGHT HON. R. LOWE, M.P. SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, M.P. LORD LYTTON. SIR H. S. MAINE. DR. MAUDSLEY. PROFES.SOR MAX MULLER. PROFESSOR HENRY MORLEY. G. OSBORNE MORGAN, Q.C, M.P. WILLIAM MORRIS. F. W. NEWMAN. W. G. PALGRAVE. WALTER H. PATER, RT. HON. LYON PLAYFAIR, M.P. DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. HERBERT SPENCER. HON. E. L. STANLEY. SIR J. FITZJAMES STEPHEN, Q.C. LESLIE STEPHEN. J. HUTCHISON STIRLINa A. C. SWINBURNE. DR. VON SYBEL. J. A. SYMONDS. W. T. THORNTON. HON. LIONEL A. TOLLEMACHE. ANTHONY TROLLOPE. PROFESSOR TYNDALL. THE EDITOR. &c. &c. &c. ^ X The Fortnightly Review is published at 2s. 6J. CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED, n, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN,. W.C. CHARLES DICKBNt AND EVANS,] [CRYSTAL hALACB fRESS. tMimiasiUb,, ;, LIMITED. aEW. 1 on the I St of and a Volume is 6^/. 'A STREET, ;tal palacb rRsss. ,X MULLER. NRY MORLEY. )RGAN, Q.C.M.P. ilS. E. lER, playfair, m.p. ;l rossetti. JCER. NLEY. ;S STEPHEN, Q.C. C ■ . EN. i' STIRLINa NE. )N. L. TOLLEMACHE. LLOPE. J NDALL.