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Their cities, arts, sciences, amusements and literature. BY TRUMBULL WHITE, Late Correspondent of the "North China Daily News," and the "Kobe Herald." WITH AN INTBODXrOTION BT JULIUS KUMPEI CQATUMOTO. A. CQ. OF TOKIO, JAPAN. WITH ILLUSTBATIONB BT TEITOKU MORIMOTO, J. C. FIREMAN, and others. McDERMTD & I.OGAX, LONDON. ONT. Copyrighted, 1893, by TRUMBULL. WHiTB. WAR ^:^^ V '- ''■ i' U L Li^j L :..-Ki •• "■:-.' PREFACE. SoMB stri^ng act in a maq's career is neoessary to attract gen* eral atteutioii to him. The one who moves along through his path in life doing nothing put of the ordina,ryf will win few glances from the public, and little will the world notice his exist- ence. Worthy of the worthiest he may be, but if he does nothing to demonstrate it, how shall the world know his merit or his strength ? 3ut with all this true, it does npt follow that it is man's duty to seek an occasion to advertise these qualities. Only when the necessity for action arises, then should he i^ct, ^d then will the world know what his ability and character ar^. The same is true as to the nations of the earth. Those years during which they move onward in their national life and history in peace and quietness, however full of latent strength they may be, are not the ones which command the attention of the eyes of the world. It is the year of supreme test, of struggle, moral or , physical, that furnishes crucial testimony what the nation really [is. War is always a curse unless it be waged to advance justice : and assure more worthy peace. But if such a war be necessary, I the progress of it, the results, and the lessons they teach are essen- itial to the student of humanity, in whatever quarter of the globe I the battles are. China, Japan and Corea are a strange trinity to most of us in (the western world. Separated from us by long distances and by immense differences in race, in language, in religion, and in cus- toms, they have been known here only through the writings of the comparatively few travelers who exchange visits. Of late jrears, it is true, the hermitages of the Orient have been opening to freer intercourse, trade and treaties have multiplied, and students have come to us for the knowledge we could give them, (ut there was needed a great movement of some sort to awaken the Orient from its centuries of slumber, and to make known to IS the truth of eastern affairs. Nothing could do this as the War |n the East has done. We can study its conduct and its results if PREFACE. we will, in a way to teach us more of the characteristics of the three nations than we could learn in any other way. It has been the object of the author in the present volume, to record the facts of the war and its preliminaries so clearly that every seeker for knowledge might trace the lessons for himself. To justify this effort, it is necessary to say no more than that the conflict involves directly nations whose total population includes more than one-fourth of the human race. And the results will affect the progress of civilization in those countries, as well as the commercial and other interests of all the European and American nations. Invertebrate China, with scorn of western methods, and com* placent rest in the belief that all but her own people are bar- barians, had to face an inevitable war with Japan, the sprightly, absorbent, adaptive, western-spirited, whose career in the two score years since her doors were opened to the call of the American Perry has been the marvel of those who knew it. And the con- flict was to be on the soil of th^ Hermit Nation, Corea, " the Land of Morning Calm," for centuries the land of contention between "the Day's Beginning" and "the Middle Kingdom." It is to record tlie history and description of these realms and peoples in sufficient detail to make plainer the facts of the war that the preliminary chapters are written. The work must speak for itself. The importance of the subjects included in the volume must be the explanation of any inadequacy of treatment. Tbumbull White. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PARTI. CHINA, THE CELESTIAL KINGDOM. OHAPTEB I.— History from the Earliest Times to First Contact with European 01 vilization .... OHAFTEB II.— History from First Contact with European Olv. llizatlon to the Outbreak of the War with Japan . CHAPTER III.— The Chinese Empire, its Geography, Govern ment, Climate, and Products .... CHAPTER IV.— The Chinese People, their Personal Character Istics, Manner of Life, Industries, Social Oustoms, Art, Science, Literature, and Religion . . 83 71 99 136 PARTIL JAPAN, THE ISLAND EMPIRE. CHAPTER v.— History from the Earliest Times to First Oontact with European Civilization . .... 187 CHAPTER VI,— History from First Contact with European Olv- Ization to the Present Time— How the United States Opened Japan to the World .... 223 CHAPTER VII.— The Japanese Empire, Its Geography, (Govern- ment, Climate, and Products ..... 265 CHAPTER VIII.— The Japanese People, their Personal Charac- teristics, Manner of Life, Industries, Social Customs, Art, Science, Literature, and Religion ... 285 PART m. COREA, THE HERMIT NATION. CHAPTER IX. — History from the Earliest Times to the Present ........ CHAPTER X— The Kingdom of Corea, its Geography, Govern- ment, Climate, and Products ..... C7) 327 372 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XT.— The Ooreuns and how they Live, their Per- sonal Ohnrncteristlcs, Industries, Boclal Customs, Art, Science, Literature, and Religion .... 391 PART IV. THE WAR BETWEEN JAPAN AND CHINA. CHAPTER XII.— Causes of the War, Condition of the Three Nations at the Outbreak of Hostilities, and the Prepara- tions for the Impending Struggle .... CHAPTER XIII.— How the Conflict Began. The First Overt Acts of Offense, the Sinking of the Kow- shlng, and the Formal Declarations of War by the Rulers of Japan and China ........ CHAPTER XIV.— From Asan to Ping- Yang. The Campaign in the North of Corea During August and Early Sep- tember . . . . . . . CHAPTER XV.— On Land and Scft. The Assault on Ping- Yang by tlie Japanese, and the Flight of the Chinese. Battle off the Yalu Uiver, the ^irst Great Fight Between Mod- ern Battle Ships, and its Lessons .... CHAPTER XVI.— The Advance into China. Japan's Forward Movement across the Yalu River. Li Hung Chang Los- ing his Influence in Chinese Affairs .... CHAPTER XVII —Review of the State of the Conflict and the Lessons to be Learned by the Aspect of Affairs at the First of November ...... CHAPTER XVIIL— Preparing to Attack Port Arthur, vance Movements on the Kwang Tung Peninsula Ad- CHAPTER XIX.— Port Arthur. Successful Assault on the Chinese Stronghold. Barbarity to the Wounded and Prisoners on Both Sides. Horrible Mutilation and Brutality ........ CHAPTER XX.— From Port Arthur to Wel-hai-wei. Offer of Peace. Envoy Rejected. China's CHAPTER XXI.— The Expedition to Capture Wei-hai-wel and its Success. Admiral Ting's Suicide CHAPTER XXII.— The End of Hostile Operations. Capture of Niuchwang and Hai-chow ..... CHAPTER XXIII.— The Negotiations for Peace. Treaty. Probable Results of the War Terms of the 419 437 457 481 507 543 6G2 683 611 629 643 655 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Battle Field of Ping- Yang, Battle of the Yalu, Thfi Fight of Plug- Yang, Chinese Musician, Chinese Idea of Creation, Emperor Shun Plowing, View from Summer Palace, Peking, Chinese Temple, Image of Confucius, . Mancboorlaii Ministers, Great Wall of China, Buddhist Priest, Chinese Arohers, Chinese Writer, Chinese Cannonlers, . Ancient Chinese Arch, A Chinese Lodging House, Chinese Priest, Man of Swatow. Chinese Paper-Maker, Chinese Peasant, Peiho District, Battle of Crickets, Chinese Mandarin, Qate at Peking, Opium Smokers, Cnlnese Miners, Chinese Farm Scene, Chinese Tea Farm, . Chinese Street Scene, Chinese Farmer, An Imperial Audience, Preparation of Vermicelli, Chinese Ladles, Palanquin of a High Official, The Governor of a Province, Punishment by the Gangue, Flogging a Culprit, . Outside Peking, .... Discipline on the March in the Chinese Army, A Typhoon, Bandaging the Feet, . The Seat of the War, The Punishments of Hell, Chinese Cart, . School Boy, Chinese School, . . . . • Chinese Engineers Laying a Military Telegraph, Chinese School Old, ..... PIOI Frontispiece. 21 28 82 36 86 87 42 46 48 60 62 67 69 64 65 71 76 76 79 82 86 87 89 92 101 108 109 111 113 117 119 122 125 126 130 131 134 143 160 161 166 168 162 163 164 166 187 (») 10 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Ohinese Artist, .... Ohiiiere Darbur, .... Porttjr's Chuir, .... Chinese Emperor, King of Corea, aud Chinese OfQoiala Huddhist Temple, .... Temple of Five Hundrod Oods, iit Cmitoo, Jnpiinene Miiaiolan, .... The Mllcudo and his Prinoipul Offluers, . Japanese Ood of Thunder, . Japanese Ood of Riding, Jupaneue Peasuntn/, .... Janitnese God of War, ToKio Types and Costumes, Japanese Musloian, .... Jauanese Silk Spinner, Coloasal Japanese Image, JapunofleFemiilo Types, Shinto Temple, .... Japanese Ood uf Wind, Dalmios (^f JapaiK .... Sketch Showing Development of Japanese Army Buddhist Priest Japanese Junk, .... Old Time Japanese Ferry, . Scenes of ludustrial Life, . Japanese Bell Towers, Image of Buddha, .... Japanese Samurai or Warrior o{ the Old Time, Japanese General of the Old Time, Japanese Bridge, .... Baptism of Buddha, .... Woman of Court of Kioto, . Chinese Coolie, .... Japanese Gymnasts — Kioto, . . Formosan T"pe, .... Entrance to 'Nagasaki Harbor, Fuji- yama, ..... Japanese Idols, .... Japanese Jugglers, .... Japanese Court Dress, Old Style, . Council of War on a Japanese Battle-Ship, Dressing the flair, .... Child Carrying Baby, The Chinese Fleet at Wei-hal-wel, Japanese Bath, .... Japanese Couch, .... Sketches in Japan and Corea, Geisha Girls Playing Japanese Musical Instruments, Japanese Alphabet, New, Japanese Alphabet, Old, Shinto Priest, ..... Japanese Troops Landing at Chemulpo, . Street Scenes, ..... The Ainos, ..... Bats as Bice Merchants, Corean Landscape, .... Baw Levies for the Ohinese Army, • Pagoda at Seoul, .... Corean Soldiers, .... 168 169 171 178 178 181 184 187 189 190 ' 192 19« 198 19l> 20() 206 207 20!) 211 212 213 216 218 220 221 229 232 233 234 235 240 249 254 256 268 261 267 272 277 281 284 287 291 293 296 299 304 307 308 309 311 313 316 819 321 324 326 333 834 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 11 FIfflitlnff Before th« Gate of Seoul, Old Mhu in Ck>rea, ..... 0()U9t Near Chemulpo, .... Oorean MaDdarins, ..... ColimaiiK/'oiHJiii Idol— U»-jiii Miiiok, Mil)) Sliovviii{f .Jiipmi, Coruii tiiid I'liit uf China, Cureun liull llurrowing, .... Coreau City Wall ..... Cliin«8« Piotectea Cruiser Chih-Yuen, Gate of Seoul, ...... Naval Attack on the Chen- Yuen Before Chemulpo, Corean Magiatrate and Servant, Japuneae Naval Attack on Fc.rts at Wei-bai-wel, Statoijtiiuu on Mouocyde, .... Oor«>an Brush Cutter, .... Porters With Chair, ..... Japanese Wardhip, "YdShluo, Corean Boat, ...... The Battle at Asau, ..... Corean Eggseller, ..... Japanese Holdiers Denneiiding from the Castle at Fenghwang Corean Band of Musiuiaui^, .... Japanese Coolies Following the Army, . Japanese Army at Chlu-llen-cheng, The Corean Regent, ..... Corean Natives Viewing Japanese Soldiers, Sinking of the Kow-shing, .... Mr. Otori Before the Commissioners, Japanese Army on the March, . . . Procession in Seoul, ..... After the Battle, ..... The Attack on Ping- Yang, .... Opening the Qates at Ping- Yang, . . . Fighting at Foochow, .... Capture of Ping- Yang, .... First Sight of Ping-Yang Battle of the Yalu— Sinking of the Ohih-Yuen, . Bringing In the Wounded, .... The Mikado Reviewing the Army, Corean Police Agent, . , . . Japanese Kitchen in Camp, Japanese Soldier Saluting a Field Ceraetery^^ . Crowd In Toklo Looking at Pictures of the War, Japanese Ambulance Oiilcer, Chinamen Mutilating Remains of Japanese Soldiers, ThePIng-Yuen The Yoshino, ...... Japanese Advance at the Orossing of the Talu Blver, The Matsusima, ..... H. Sakoraoto, ...... Japanese Infantry Attacking a Chinese Position, Principal Street of Mukden, Chinese Troops Trying to Save Their Artillery, Transporting Chinese Troops, Japanese Military Hospital, Review of Chinese Troops at Port Arthur, . Japanese Soldiers Digging Well, . . . Constantine von Hannecken, . . The Attack on Port Arthur, . . 3SS 337 349 847 8A8 808 87fi 870 877 88] 884 387 89U 398 894 393 399 403 4U5 407 4ia 413 418 421 424 497 439 484 486 489 441 448 464 468 469 473 476 478 480 481 482 484 486 487 488 489 494 496 497 498 606 609 612 618 616 618 621 626 697 .'i; ij;;',";*,,-!*" 12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Surrender of Chinese General and Staff, . Map of Territory Adjacent to the Mouth of the Yalu, . Japanese Army Crossing the Yalu ou a Pontoon Bridge, The Japanese tit Port Arthur, .... Sinking of the Eow-shing, ..... Naval Skirmish July 25th, ..... Routed Chinese Flying Before the Victorious Enemy, Skirmish on July 27th, ..... Before the Wall of Seoul, ..... Japanese Cavalrymen, . . Port Arthur— Transports Entering the Inner Harbor, General Nodzu, ...... Chinese Earthworks, ..... View of Talien-wan Bay, ..... Port Arthur — Japanese Coolies Removing Chinese Dead, Japanese Skirmishers before Port Arthur, Retreat of Chinese Soldiers After the Fall of Port Arthur, Japanese Soldiers Removing Dead Bodies, Japanese Attack on Port Arthur, .... The Attack on Kinchow, ..... Port Arthur from the Bay, ..... Japanese Soldiers Mutilating Bodies, . . . Marshal Oyama, ...... Chang Yen Hoon ...... Distant View of Wei-hni-wei and its Surroundings, Admiral McClure, ...... Japanese Soldiers Escorting Chinese Prisoners, . . Chinese Soldiers on the March, , . Chinese Soldier Laden with Provision, . . . Gap in the Great Wall at Shan-hai-kwan, • • 533 636 687 540 647 648 649 661 562 668 660 662 664 665 669 577 580 581 687 589 698 699 603 610 630 639 640 646 649 668 INTRODUCTION. The unexpected news of war between the Mikado's Empire and the Celestial Kingdom has startled the whole world. Thereby considerable light was thrown upon the Oriental world. Japan, up to a very short time ago, through the pen and tongue of poets and artists, who have visited this land, has been thought to be merely a country of beautiful flowers, charming madem- oiselles, fantastic parasols, fans and screens. Such misrepresenta- tion has long impressed the western mind, and the people hardly imagined Japan as a political power, enlightened by a perfect educational system and developed to a high pitch of excellence in naval and military arts. The war in the East is certainly interesting from more than one point of view. Viewing it from the humane standpoint, Japan is, indeed, the true standard-bearer of civilization and progress in the far east. Her mission is to enlighten the millions of slumbering souls in the Celestial Kingdom, darkened for generations. Polit- ically, she, with her enterprising genius, youthful courage and alert brain, as well as the art and science of civilization, has lifted herself into the ranks of tlie most powerful nations of the earth, and compelled the whole of the western powers to reckon her as a " living force," as she has proved her right to a proud place among the chief powers of the world. Commercially, she has demon- strated herself the mistress of the Pacific and Asiatic Seas. From the outbreak of the war all the civilized nations, except England, have sympathized with Japan, especially the people of America have given a strong moral support to Japan, not because this country is the warmest friend of Japan, but because Japan is, to-day, the propagandist of civilization and humanity in the far east. At the beginning of the hostilities a majority of the people had an erroneous idea that the overwhelming population and resources (18) 14 INTRODUCTION. of China would soon be able to crush the Island Empire of Japan ; but they overlooked the fact that in our day it is science, brains and courage, together with the perfected organization of warfare that grasp the palm of victory. Thousands of sheep could do nothing against a ferocious wolf. So the numerical comparison has but little weight. Some sagacious writer compared Japan to a lively swordfish and China to a jellyfish, being punctured at every point. Truly Japan has proved it so. From the sinking of the Kow-shing transport, up to the present time, Japan has an unbroken series of victories over China. At the battle of Asan she gained the first brilliant victories and swept all the Chinese out of Corea, and at Ping- Yang, by both tactics and superb strategy, crushed the best army of China, which Li Hung Chang brought up to the greatest efficiency, by the aid of many European oflBcers, as if it had been an egg shell. Again, at the mouth of the Yalu River, she gained a brilliant naval vic- tory over China, by completely destroying the Ping -Yang squadron. Once more on the land the Japanese army stormed Port Arthur, the strongest naval fort, known as the Gibraltar of China. All these facts are viewed with amazement by the eyes of the world. For all that the people know about Japan and the Japa- nese is that the people of Japan are very artistic, as the producers of beautiful porcelain, embroidery, lacquer work and all sorts of artistic fancy goods, and they wonder how it is possible that such an artistic people as the Japanese could fight against sober, calm Chinamen. But such an erroneous notion would soon vanish if they came to learn the true nature and character of the Japanese. More than once the world has seen that an artistic nation could fight. The Greeks demonstrated this long ago, and the French in the latter times have sl.own a shining example. Japan is reck- oned as one of the most artistic people in the world, as the pro- ducer of beautiful things, as the lover of fine arts and natural beauties. The Japanese have proved the same as what the ancient Greeks and modern French have shown. The history of Japan reveals the true color of tha Japanese as brilliant fighters and a warlike nation. " In no country," says Mr. Rogers, " has mili- INTRODUCTION. 16 tary instinct been more pronounced in the best blood of the peo- ple. Far back in the past, beyond that shadowy line where legend and history blend, their story has been one of almost con- tinual war, and the straightest path to distinction and honor has, from the earliest times, led across the battle field. The states- men of Japan saw, as did Cavour, that the surest way to win the respect of nations was by success in war." The ancestor of the Japanese people, who claim to have de- scended from high heaven, seems to have been the descendant of the ancient Hittites, the warlike and conquering tribe once settled in the plain of Mesopotamia. The Hittites, so far as our investigation is concerned, extending their sway of conquest towards the north-eastern portion of Asia, must have, at last, brought the Japanese family to the island of Japan. As they settled on the island, they found it inhabited by many different tribes ; but they soon vanquished them and established the ever- lasting foundation of the Mikado's Empire, which they called the " Glorious Kingdom of Military Valour." The first Mikado was Jiramu, whose coronation took place two thousand five hundred and fifty-four years ago, long before Alexander the Great thought he had conquered the world and Julius Caesar entered Gaul. The present Mikado is the one hundred and twenty-second lineal descendant of the first Mikado Jimmu. The unbroken dynasty of the Mikado hab continued for twenty-five centuries. The people are brave, adventurous and courageous. Fanatical patriotism for country and strong loyalty towards the Mikado are essential characteristics of the Japanese people. And all these tend to form the peculiar nationality of Japan. Since the establishment of the Mikado's Empire their land has never been def51ed by in- vaders and they have never known how to be subject to a foreign yoke. The history of Japan is the pride of the Japanese people. The Japanese, in an early time, have displayed their superior courage and distinguished themselves from the rest of the Asiatic nations in the point of military affairs. In the year A. D. 201 the Empress Jingo, the greatest female character in the Japanese history, undertook a gigantic expedi- tion to the Asiatic continent. She assembled an immense army and built a great navy. Placing herself as the commander-in- 16 INTRODUCTION. il chief of the invading aimy, she sailed for the continent. Her victory was brilliant. Gorea was at once subjected without any bloodshed. Long since the Japanese power was established on the Asiatic continent. Again in the sixteenth century, ambitious Taiko, who id known as the Napoleon of Japan, undertook a great continental expedition, to show the military glory of Japan before the world. He found Japan too small to satisfy his immoderate ambition, and sent word to the emperor of China and the king of Corea that if they would not hear him, he would invade their territory with his invincible army. It was his plan to divide the four hunched prov- inces of China and eight provinces of Corea among his generals in fiefs, after conquering them. So he assembled his generals and fired their enthusiasm, recounting their exploits mutually achieved. All the generals and soldiers were delighted with the expedition. Fifty thousand samurai were embarked for the continent and sixty thousand reserve was kept ready in Japan as re-enforcement. The Japanese army was, everywhere victorious. After many battles fought and fortresses stormed, the entire kingdom of Corea was subdued. The capitol was taken, the king fled. The em- peror of China sent an army forward against the Japanese and a severe battle was fought. The victorious Japanese were on the point of invading China, when in 1698, the death of Taiko was announced and the Japanese government ordered the invading army to return home. Peace was concluded. Thus the conquest of China was frustrated. The invasion of the Mongolian -Tartars is the most memorable event in Japanese history, which excited the utmost patriotism and valour of the nation. The dangers and glories at this time will never be forgotten by the Japanese. In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan, who is now identified as Minamoto Yoshitsune or Gen Gi Kei in Japanese history, who left Japan for Manchilia, began his sway of conquest in Mongolia. The conquest of the whole earth was promised him. He vanquished China, Corea and the whole of Central and Northern Asia, subjected India and overthrew the Caliphate of Bagdad. In Europe, he made subject the entire dominion of Russia and extended the Mongolian Empire as far as the Oder INTRODUCTION. 17 and the Danube. After his death the Empire was divided among his three sons. Kublai Khan received as his share North-eastern Asia. He had completely overthrown the Sung dynasty of China and founded the Mongolian dynasty. He placed the whole of Eastern Asia under his yoke, and then sent envoys to Japan, demanding tributes and homage. The nation of Japan was indignant at the insolent demand, for they were never accus- tomed to such treatment, and dismissed them in disgrace. Six embassies were sent and six times rejected. Again, the haughty Mongolian prince sent nine envoys, who demanded a definite an- swer from the Japanese sovereign. The Japanese reply was given by cutting off their heads. At the sight of imminent foreign invasion, the Japanese were in a great hurry to prepare for war. Once more, and for the last time, Chinese envoys came to demand tribute ; again the sword gave the answer. Enraged, the great Mongolian prince prepared a gigantic armada to crush the island of Japan, which had re- fused homage and tribute to the invincible conqueror. The army, consisting of one hundred thousand Chinese and Tartars and seven thousand Coreans, aided by thirty-five hundred of armed navy, that seemed to cover the entire seas, sailed for the invasion in August of 1281. The whole nation of Japan now roused with sword in hand and marched against its formidable foe. Re-enforcements poured in from all quarters to swell the host of defenders. The fierce Mongolian force could not effect their landing, but were drivei into the sea as soon as they reached the shore. Aided by a mighty typhoon, before which the Chinese armada was utterly helpless, the Japanese fiercely attacked the invaders and after a bloody struggle, they succeeded in destroying the enemy's war ships, and killing all or driving them into the sea to be drowned. The corpses were piled on the shore or floating on the water so thickly that it seemed almost possible to walk thereon. Only three out of hundreds of thou- sands of invaders, were sent back to tell their emperor bpw the brave men of Japan had destroyed their armada. The courage of the Japanese is fully manifested in these great events. Many ambitious men, seeking for military glory, have expatriated themselves from their own native lands, and gone off 18 INTRODUCTION. to the less warlike countries of Asia, where they found them- selves by their distinguished courage and military genius, kings, ministers and generals. The Japanese seamen have long been renowned for their ad- venturous spirit and audacity. Trading ships of Japan, in the remotest ancient age, are said to have sa'*' 1 around the Persian Gulf, beyond the Indian seas. It is said that at the beginning of the fourteenth century a Japanese junk had discovered the American Pacific sea-coast, now known as the regions of Oregon and California. For a long time the Japanese pirates were the mistress of all the eastern seas. China, Siam, Birmah and the southern islands had paid tribute to them. The name of the Japanese was, indeed, the terror of the Oriental world, just as the northmen had been the object of dread to the southern Europeans. A policy, that was adopted by the Japanese people in the seven- teenth century, was an injurious one for its national development. Up to this time, foreign intercourse was free and commerce flour ished. Nagasaki, Hirado, Satsuma, and all western seaports were the cosmopolitan cities, where all European and Asiatic trades- men were found crowded. Unfortunately these foreigners were sources of vice. The avarice and extortion of the foreign traders ; bitter sectarian strife between Dominicans, Franciscans and the Jesuits ; and the most cruel intolerance and persecution by the Catholic people, which were vices unknown to the Japa- nese mind ; political-religious plots of the Christians against the Japanese government ; the slave trade carried on by the foreign merchants, and the like events, disgusted the Japanese authority, and forced theui to believe the exclusion of the vicious foreigners was absolutely necessary to the welfare of Japan. Thus the Japanese resolved to expel all foreigners out of the islands. Tokugawa, the founder of Tai Kun shcgunate, vigorously en- forced this principle and carried it so far that all the Roman Catholics both native and foreign were extinguished and all foreign merchants except a few Dutch, were expelled out of the country. The policy of the Tokugawa Government not only excluded the foreigners but also kept the natives at home. No foreigners (except the Dutch) were allowed to peep in this for- INTRODUCTION. 19 bidden land and no native was permitted to leave his own country. Thus it was cut off from all the rest of the world. Japan furnishes different varieties of productions, which can amply supply all the needs of the nation without any inconvenience; hence commercial intercourse with foreign lands, was not abso- lutely necessary. In the course of time she had forgotten all about the outside world and so the world neglected her. The people, however, enjoyed a profound peace by this policy. Ignoring the rise and fall of other nations, the people in this ocean guarded paradise, cultiviited arts and learning and devel- oped their own civilization, which is quite different from what we call now the . civilization of the nineteenth century. While thus she was enjoying tranquility and cultivating the arts and learning in a secluded corner of the earth, in the western na- tions, endless struggles and everlasting contests completely rev- olutionized the old phases of the earth. The peace and culture of two centuries and a half, which Japan has enjoyed, exalted her to the certain state of civilization. But her isolated condi- tion and tranquility lacked the systematic development of army and navy and the arts of international negotiation, which are the weapons vitally important in order to stand on the field of struggle for existence. Suddenly this tranquility that has continued for two hundred and fifty years, was broken, when in 1853, the war ships of Com- modore Perry appeared in the Bay of Yeddo. This event threw into great confusion and panic the whole nation. Japan had no navy and no army to fight with the foreign intruders, nor had she the art of diplomacy, with which to consult in regard to the protection of Japan's interest. Japan stood then with her naked civilization against the armed civilization of Europe. She was forced to make a disadvantageous treaty with the European and American states at the cannon's mouth. In this treaty she con- ceded her sovereign right to the western people who live in the realm. Thus Japan entered, infamously, the group of the civilized world. She saw at once that the western nations were far in ad- vance of her in the art of war and diplomacy, that they have learned from the constant struggle of the past three centuries, while she 10 INTRODUCTION. was devoted to arts aud learning. She perceived that the so-called civilization of the 19th century is but a disguised form of barbar- ism of iron and fire, covered with comity and humanity, and that to exist in the field of struggle for existence she must adopt the same means by which the European nations stand. Hence the whole nation of Japan, since the intercourse with the western people, has struggled, with the utmost energy, to adopt what is called the 19th century civilization. In 1868 a revolution took place, from which the New Japan suddenly emanated. The French Revolution did not cause greater changes in France than the Revolution of 1868 in Japan. The old feudal regime, in full force, was cast away. J^he social system was completely reorganized. New and enlightened criminal and civil codes were enacted ; the modes of judicial procedure were utterly revolutionized ; the jail system radically improved ; the most effective organization of police, of posts, of ^'ailways, of tele- graphs, telephones and all means of communication were adopted ; enlightened methods of national education were employed ; and the Christian religion was welcomed for the sake of social innovation. The most complete national system of navy and army, after the modern European model, was achieved. The sound order of the imperial government, financially and politically, were firmly estab- lished ; the most improved aud extended scheme of local govern- ment was put into operation, and the central government was or- ganized according to the pattern of the most advanced scale. The imperial constitution was promulgated, and the Imperial Diet, con- sisting of two houses — the House of Lords and House of Com- mons — elected by popular votes, was founded. Freedom of thought, speech and faith was established; the system of an influ- ential press and party rapidly grew up. Now the monarchial ab- solutism of the Mikado's Empire is replaced by^a government by parliament and constitution. Such is the progress which Japan has achieved in the past twen- ty-five years. This progress must not, by any means, be taken as strange. The Revolution of 1868 also, must not be imagined as the birthday of the Empire of the Rising Sun. Those who do not know the true condition of the Japanese before the Revolution, and who observe superficially the phases of modern Japan, have INTRODUCTION. often said that the Japanese are merely imitating western civiliza- tion without any idea of understanding it. This a gross mistake. The Revolution of 1868 is merely a moment of transition when Japan adopted the western system. The Japanese mind was fully developed and enlightened, at the time when they came in contact with foreigners, to ftilly grasp western civilization. Mentally, the Japanese people were so enlightened as to be able to digest European science and art at one glance. As a clever writer haa said : ** It must be clearly understood that like a skillful gardener, who grafts a new rose or an apple upon a healthy and well-estab> lished stock, so did Japan adopt the scientific and civil achievement of the west to an eastern root, full of vigorous life and latent force.*' For these causes we have no reason to wonder at the rapid progress which the Japanese have made in the past twenty-five years. And by all these facts, we have no reason to wonder how the colossal Celestial Empire, that was thought by the Europeans invincible, came to ask the mercy of Japan. The collision between Japan and China, though it was thought strange to those who are not familiar to eastern affiiirs, is not a surprising matter to the person well acquainted with Asiatic poli- tics. Japan had predicted, long ago, that the inevitable conflict of the two powers in the Orient must come sooner or later, and the nation has been long prepared for to-day. She has perceived the weakness and corruption of the Celestial Empire, while the Eu- ropean diplomats were dazzled, in the court of Peking, by an out* ward appearance of unity, power, and majesty that the huge Mid- dle Kingdom maintained for centuries. She knew quite well that the lack of national spirit and effective system of government, hatred of races, depravity of the officers, ignorance of the people, corruption of naval and military organization and constant mal- administration of the Manchoorian government dominated the stupid empire, whose people still proudly style their country the " Flowery Kingdom, in the Enlightened Earth." The Japanese, as they are polite and artistic, are by no means a blood-thirsty race ; nay, far from that. But the present war is in an inevitable chain of circumstances. For a long time the Jap- anese and Chinese were not good friends, they hated each other, as much, if not more than the French and the Germans do to-day. 2 l-\ .'i ?■ '1 ? \ ( INTRODUCTION. Sinoe Japan came in contact with the Europeans, she adopted, with the most marvelous activity, the western methods which have completely revolutionized the nation in a (juarter of a century, while China maintained her regime and looked upon all western arts and science with utmost hatred and contempt. So she re- garded Japan as the traitor of Asia. Naturally Japan represented the civilization and progress in the far east ; and Cliina ultra-con- servatism. It was long expected that the collision of these two antagonistic principles must come. And so it has now come. Moreover, the goal of Japan was, as the leading spirit of Asia, to exalt herself among the first-class powers of the civilized world. But China, up to a very short time ago, pretended to be the mis- tress of Asia. Thus they envied each other, and conflict of the two powers for supremacy became inevitable. The first collision between Japan and China crime in 1874, with the question of the Liu Kiu Islands, which China abandoned for Japan, then the Formosa expedition provoked serious trouble between the two countries. In both cases^ Japan came off successful in the end. Again there were collisions in Corea, just as Rome and Carthage met in Sicily. Corea has for a long time, paid tribute both to Japan and China, yet neither had any definite sovereign right over Corea, but mere suzerain powers. In 1876, the Japanese government abandoned all her ancient, traditional suzerain rights in Corea, and concluded a treaty which recognized Coroa as an independent State, enjoying the same sovereign powers as Japan. Soon after, the United States, England, France, Germany and Russia followed Japan's example. This friendly act of Japan by which she introduced Corea as an independent State among civilized nations, was a terrible blow to China, who still had the intention of claiming her traditional suzerainty over Corea. It must be remembered that the permanent neutrality of the Her- mit Kingdom is of vital importance to the prosperity and safety of the country of the Rising Sun. It is evident from this point of view that Japan can never permit the Chinese claim of suze- rainty, nor Russian aggression in Corea. From the time that Japan recognized Corea as an independent nation, she made great efforts for the progress of Corea. Many Corean students were educated and many Japanese, sent there as i> L M t $. ti. k JL.. U L:l.,l\, l.i t r, i^v'?,J"- —'.' ", i; -.r " INTRODICTION. 26 instruotorB and as advisors, assisted the advancement of her civ- ilization. Japan has nevef failed to show her hiendly sympathy towards Corea, for the progress . nd welfaio of Corea as a firm in- dependent state, has great bearing upon Asiatic civilization, and upon the safety of Japan itself. While Japan was using her best efforts as the sincere friend of Corea, China constantly and secretly ititrigued with th« Corean government and the conservatives, in order to restore her old suzerainty and to annhilate Japan's influence in Corea. In 1882, an insurrection, instigated by the Chinese ofBcers, broke out in Seoul. It was directed chiefly against the Japanese, as the pro- moters of foreign intercourse. The mob attacked the Japanese legation and several members were murdered. The Japanese minister and his staff escaped to the palace to find refuge, but found there the gates were shut against them, then they were obliged to out their way through the mob and run all night to Chemulpo, where they were rescued by an English boat and re- turned to Japan. The insurrection was suppressed by a Chinese force and a number of the leaders were executed. The Corean government consented to pay a sum of f600,000 as indemnity, but this was subsequently forgiven to Corea in consequence of in- ability to pay it. There were already existing in Corea two parties, that is, the progressive and the conservative. The former party represented civilized elements and the spirit of Japan, while the latter represented the majority of the officers and it was sup- ported by the Chinese government. These two parties were bitter enemies and struggled for supremacy. Since the rebellion of 1882, Chinese influence in Corea rapidly increased, consequently the conservative spirit predominated. Two years later, the leaders of the progressive party undertook a bold attempt when they saw that their party influence was wan- ing. During a dinner party to celebrate the opening of the new post-office, a plan was made to murder all the conservative leaders who had dominant influence in the government. They partly succeeded in the attempt. The revolutionary leaders proceeded to the palace, secured the person and the sympathy of the king, who sent an autograph letter to ask the Japanese minister for the protection of the royal palace. Thereon, the Japanese minister 26 INTRODUCTION. guarded the palace for a few days with his legation guard of one hundred and thirty Japanese soldiers. In the meantime the Chi- nese force in Seoul, two thousand in number proceeded to the palace, and without any negotiation or explanation fired upon the Japanese guard. The king fled to the Chinese army and the Japanese retired to the palace of their legation which they found surrounded by the Chinese army. They abandoned the spot, find- ing it impossible to maintain the legation without any provisions, fought their way to Chemulpo, where they found their way to Japan. Many Japanese were killed in this event. The Japanese government demanded satisfaction from China on account of the action of the Chinese soldiers. The convention of Tien-tsin, after long negotiation between Count Ito, the present premier of Ja- pan and Li Hung Chang, the viceroy of China, was concluded. The main points of the Tien-tsin treaty were three : (1) that the king of Corea should provide a sufficient force to maintain order in future, to be trained by officers of some nation other than China or Japan ; (2) that certain internal reforms should be made ; (3) that if necessary to preserve order and protect their nations either Japan or China should have the right to dispatch troops to Corea, on giving notice each to the other, and that when order was re- stored both forces should be withdrawn simultaneously. The eve"*^^ of 1885 completely extinguished the Japanese in- fluence and. established the Chinese authority in Corea. The Chinese minister in Seoul got complete possession of the Corean government, entirely crushed the revolutionary party and organ- ized an ultra-conservative government and appointed ministers at his will. Japan's influence in Corea has been almost nill during the past ten years, for she has been very busy with her internal reorganization and has not had much time to look after Corea. Two prominent leaders of the revolutionary party fled to Japan on account of the failure of the coup d' ^tat of 1885, where they found their asylum. The Chinese and Corean governments dis- patched missions to demand the extradition of these unfortunate political reformers, but Japan was firm in her refusal, on the ground of the ethics of international law. The Corean govern- ment, sanctioned by that of China, at once began to take meas- ures to effect the removal of these ruined leaders by other pro- rd of on© 1 the Chi- ;d to the upon the and the ley found ipot, find- rovisions, r way to Japanese nt of the sin, after er of Ja- ►n eluded. that the ain order an China lade; (3) ms either to Corea, : was re- anese m« ja. The 3 Corean d organ- isters at 1 during internal orea. to Japan ere they ents dis- artunate on the govern- ■ce meas- her pro- O H C INTRODUCTION. 29 cesses. Official assassins followed their footsteps for ten years in vain. But at last they succeeded in murdering Kira-ok-Kiun, one of those reformers, and most barbarous cruelties were com- mitted by the Chinese and Corean authorities. The murder of Kira-ok-Kiun excited great sympathy from the Japanese pub- lic. Many a time China and Corea cast disdain and contempt upon Japan's name. Many a time the political and commercial interest of Japan were impaired by them. Yet Japan forgave their insolence with generous heart. The progress of the late rebellion in Corea was beyond her power to check. A state of perpetual anarchy seemed to prevail. Insolent China seemed to be using the Corean mobs for her own advantage, and directly against Japan's interests. China, ignor- ing the treaty of Tien-tsin in 1886, sent troops to Corea. Japan no longer lightly viewed China's insolence and Corean disorder. Japan's ardent need to take a decided step in Corea, at this moment seemed a more cogent one in the commercial point of view than her political interest. The greater part of the modern trade of Corea has been created by Japan and is in the hands of her merchants ; the net value of Corean direct foreign trade for 18i)2 and 1893 together was 14,240,498 with China, while 18,306,- 671 with Japan. Hence the interest of Japan is twice that of China. In tonnage of shipping the proportion is vastly greater in favor of Japan. Her tonnage in 1893 was over twenty times that of China, as the exact figures show : tonnage — China, 14,- 376 ; Japan, 304,224. Thus Japan's economic interests in Corea are decidedly greater than any other nation's. Immediately after China sent troops to Corea, Japan, also, sent her force, to preserve her political as well as economic interests, and determined not to draw back her troops until Corea should restore the sound order of society and wipe out the Chinese claim of Corean suzerainty, for so long as Chinese influence pre- dominates in Corea, any thoughts of her advancement are hope- less. For a long maladministration of the Li government had weakened the Hermit Kingdom. The country is no more than a desert and its people are plunged in the most miserable poverty of any in the poverty-stricken east. The Japanese government proposed to the Chinese government according to the Tien-tsin it 6 80 INTRODUCTION. treaty, a measure of internal reform for Corea, which was rejected with insult by the Chinese authority. At first Japan had, 1>y no means, any intention to make war with China, but she was forced by her to enter the struggle. She has never infringed the ethics of international law, nor the comity of nations. It was China that provoked the eastern war, now raging in the Orient, but not Japan ; the true idea of Japan, in the war, is, by conquest, to put the blame on China for refusing to adhere faithfully to the spirit of her treaties and for trying to keep Corea in barbarism, and for endeavoring to stop the progress of civilization in Eastern Asia. Her mission in the east is to crush the insolent and ignorant self-conceit of the Peking govern- ment and to reform the barbarous abuses of the Corean adminis- tration. Therefore Japan fights to-day for the sake of civilization and humanity. After the eastern war was declared, four months had hardly passed, until the fighting power and the economic resources of the Chinese Empire were destroyed and exhausted. China was forced to beg the mercy of Japan. The banner of the "Rising Sun " is now triumphant. Japan dictating the terms of peace, signifies the beginning of a better era for benighted China and the preservation of permanent peace in the Orient. Julius Kump^i Matumoto, A. M., Tokio, Japan. • "»]► "SJWJSEsJ'r^WT'- as rejected make war Jgle. She the comity war, now pan, in tlie efusing to ■ trying to e progress east is to ig govern- 1 adminis- ivilization id hardly ces of the hina was 5 "Rising of peace, a and the China 0, Japan. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF CHINA FROM THE EARU- EST TIMES TO FIRST CONTACT WITH EUROPEAN CIVII.IZATION. Origin of Chinese People— Legends— Golden Age of Clilna— Beginnings of Autlientio History— Dynasty of Chow— Cultivation of Literature and Progress— Music, Slavery, House- hold Habits Three Thousand Years Ago— Confucius and his Work— First Emperor of China— Burning of Boolis— Han Dynasty— Famous Men of the Period— Paper Money and Printing— Invasions of Tartars and Mongols— Sung Dynasty— Literary Works— Funious Chinese Poet— Literature, Law and Medicine— Kublai Khan-MIng Dynasty— Private Library of a Chinese Emperor- Founding of the Present Dynasty— Connection Between Chinese History and the Rest of the World. Obscurity shrouds the origin of the Chinese race. The Chinese people cannot be proved to have originally come from anywhere beyond the limits of the Chinese empire. At the remotest period to which investigations can satisfactorily go back, without quitting the domain of history for that of legend, we find them already in existence as an organized, and as a more or less civilized nation. Previous to that time, their condition had doubtless been that of nomadic tribes, but whether as immigrants or as true sons of the soil there is scarcely sufficient evidence to show. Conjecture, however, based for the most part upon coincidences of speech, writing or manners and customs, has been busy with their ultimate origin ; and they have been vari- ously identified with the Turks, with the Chaldees, with the earliest inhabitants of Ireland, and with the lost tribes of Israel. The most satisfactory, however, of recent conclusions, based on most careful investigations are as follows : The fii*st records we have of them represent the Chinese as a band of immigrants settling in the north-eastern provinces of the modern empire of China and fighting their way amongst the aborigines much as the Jews of old forced their way into Canaan against the various tribes which they found in possession of the land. It is probable that though they all entered China by the same route they separated into bands almost on the threshold of the empire, one (83) II ' lllli I 34 WHENCE CAME THE PEOPLE OF CHINA? body, th(j3o who liavc left us tho records of their history in the ancient Chinese books, apparently following the course of the Yellow river, and turning southward with it frora its northern- most bend, settling themselves in the fertile districts of the modern provinces of Shan-hsi and Honun. But as it is believed also that at about the same period a large settlement was made as far south as Anam of which there is no mention in the books of the northern Chinese, we must assume tlmt another body struck directly southward through the southern provinces of China to that country. Many writers answer the question that arises as to whence these people came, by declaring that research directly points to the land south of the Caspian sea. They find many reasons in the study of languages which furnish philological proof of this assertion. And they affirm that in all probability the outbreak in Susiana of possibly some political disturbance in about the 24th or 23rd century B. C, drove the Chinese from the land of their adoption and that they wandered eastward until they fijially settled in China and the country south of it. Such an emigration is by no means unusual in Asia. We know that the Ottoman Turks originally had their home in northern Mongolia, and we have a record of the movement at the end of last century of a body of six hundred thousand Kalmucks from Russia to the confines of China. It would appear also that the Chinese came into China possessed of the resources of western Asian culture. They brought with them a knowledge of writing and astronomy as well as of the arts which primarily minister to the wants and comforts of mankind. According to one native authority, China, that is, the world was evolved out of chaos exactly 3,276,494 years ago. This evolution was brought about by the action of a First Cause or Force which separated into two principles, active and passive, male and female. Or as some native writers explain it, out of a great egg came a man. Out of the upper half of the egg he created the heavens and out of the lower half he created the earth. He created five elements, earth, water, fire, metal and wood. Out of the vapor frora gold he created man and out of vapor from wood he created woman. Traditional pictures of CHINESE LEGENDS OF TIIK CREATION OK THE WORLD. 85 this first man and first woman represent them wearing for dress, girdles of fig leaves. He created the sun to rule the day, the moon to rule the night, and the stars. Those who care to go deeper into these traditions than the limits of this work permit will find ample material for interesting research in the analogies to Christian history. These principles, male and female, found their material embodiment in heaven and earth and became the father and mother of all things, be- ginning with man, who was immediately asso- ciated with them in a triumvirate of creative powers. Then ensued ten immense periods, the last of which has been made by some Chinese writers on chronology to end where every sober his- tory of China should begin, namely, with the establishment of the Chow dynasty eleven hundred years before the birth of Christ. During this almost im- measurable lapse of time, the process of development was going on, involving such discoveries as the pro- duction of fire, the construction of houses, boats and wheeled ve- hicles, the cultivation of grain, and mutual communication by means of writing. The father of Chinese history chose indeed to carry us back to the court of the Yellow Emperor, B. C. 2697, and to introduce CHINESE IDEA OF CREATION. 86 III I THE GOLDEN AGE OF CHINA, LONG AGO. us to his successors Yuo and Shuu and to the great Yu, who by his engineering skill had drained away a terrible inundation which some have sought to identify with Noah's flood. ' This flood was in Shun's reign. The waters we are told rose to so great a height that the people had to betake themselves to the mountains to escape death. Most of the provinces of the existing empire were inundated. The disaster arose, as many similar dis- asters, though of less magnitude, have since arisen, in consequence of the Yellow river bursting its bounds, and the great Yu was appointed to lead the waters back to their channel. With unre- mitting energy he set about his task, and in nine years succeeded in bringing the river under his control. During this period so absorbed was he in his work, that we are told he took heed neither KMPEROR SaUN PLOVVI.NU. of food nor clothing, and that thrice he passed the door of his house without once stopping to enter. At the completion of his labors he divided the empire into nine instead of twelve provinces, and tradition represents him as having engraved a record of his toils on a stone tablet on Mount Heng in the province of Hoopih. As a reward for the services he had rendered for the empire, he was invested with the principality of Hea, and after having occupied the throne conjointly with Shun for some years he suc- ceeded that sovereign on his death in 2308 B. C. But all these things were in China's " golden age," the true record of which is shrouded for us in the obscuritj of centuries. VIEW FROM SUMMER PALACE, PEKING. BEGINNINGS OF AUTHENTIC CHINESE HISTORY. 89 There were a few Iftw§, but never any occsMon to exact the penalties attached to nuHOOuduot. It was considered superfluous to close the house door at night, and no one would even pick up any lost property t ,at lay in the high i-oad. All was virtue, happiness and proHperity, the like of which has not since been known. The Emperor Shun was raised from the plow handle to ihe throne simply because of his filial piety, in recognition of which wild beasts used to come and voluntarily drag his plow for him through the furrowed fields, while birds of the air would hover round and guard his sprouting grain from the depredations of insects. This of course is not history ; and but little more can be said for the accounts given of the two dynasties which ruled China be- tween the " golden age " and the opening reigns of the House of Chow. The historian in question had not many sources of information at command. Beside tradition, of which he largely availed himself, the chief of these was the hundred chapters that had been edited by Confucius from the historical remains of those times, now known as the " Book of History." This contains an unquestionable foundation of facts, pointing to a comparatively advanced state of civilization, even so far back as two thousand years before our era ; but the picture is dimly seen and many of its details are of little practical value. This calculation declares that with Yu began the dynasty of Hea which gave place in 1766 B. C. to the Shang dynasty. The last sovereign of the Hea line, Kieh Kwei, is said to have been a monster of iniquity and to have suffered the just punishment for his crimes at the hands of T'ang, the prince of the state of Shang, who took his throne from him. In like manner, six hundred and forty years later, Woo Wang, the prince of Chow, overthrew CImw Sin, the last of the Shang dynasty, and established himself as the chief of the sovereign state of the empire. It is only with the dynasty of the Chows that we begin to feel ourselves on safe ground, though long before that date the Chinese were undoubtedly enjoying a far higher civilization than fell to the share oi most western nations until many centuries later. The art of writing had been already fully developed, having passed, if we are to believe native researches from an original sys- 40 RISE OF THE DYNASTY OF CHOW. ! <\ tem of knotted cords, through successive stages of notches on wood and rude outlines of natural objects down to the phonetic stage in which it exists at the present day. Astronomical obser- vations of a simple kind had been made and recorded and the year divided into months. The rite of marriage had been sub- stituted for capture ; and although cowries were still employed and remained in use until a much later date, metallic coins of various shapes and sizes began to be recognized as a more practicable medium of exchange. Music, both vocal and instrumental, was widely cultivated ; and a kind of solemn posturing filled the place that has been occupied by dancing among nations farther to the west. Painting, charioteering and archery were reckoned among the fine arts ; the cross bow especially being a favorite weapon either on the battle field or on the chase. The people seem to have lived upon rice and cabbage, pork and fish, much as they do now ; they also drank the ardent spirit distilled from rice vulgarly known aj " Samshoo " and clad themselves in silk, or their own coarse home stuffs according to the means of each. All ihis is previous to the dynasty of Chow with which it is now proposed to begin. The Chows rose to power over the vices of preceding rulers, aided by the genius of a certain duke or chieftain of the Chow state, though he personally never reached the imperial throne. It was his more famous son who in B. C. 1122 routed the forces of the last tyrant of the semi-legendary period and made himself master of China. The China of those days consisted of a number of petty principalities clustering round one central state and thus constituting a federation. The central state managed the common affairs, while each one had its own local laws and administration. It was in some senses a feudal age, somewhat similar to that which prevailed in Europe for many centuries. The various dukes were regarded as vassals owing allegiance to the sovereign at the head of the imperial state, and bound to assist him with money and men in case of need. And in order to keep together this mass, constantly in danger of disintegration from strifes within, the sovereigns of the House of Chow were forever summoning these vassal dnkes to the capital and making them renew, with oerenionies of sacrifice and potations of blood, their FORMATION OF THE EMPIRE. 41 vows of loyalty and treaties of alliance. At a great feast held by Yu after his accession, there were, it is said, ten thousand princes present with their symbols of rank. But the feudal states were constantly being absorbed by one another. On the rise of the Shang dynasty there were only somewhat over three thousand, which had decreased to thirteen hundred when the sovereignty of the Chows was established. The senior duke always occupied a position somewhat closer to the sovereign than the others. It was his special business to protect the imperial territory from invasion by any malcontent vassal; and he was often deputed to punish acts of insubordina- tion and contumacy, relying for help on the sworn faith of all the states as a body against any individual recalcitrant. Such was the political condition of things through a long series of reigns for nearly nine centuries, the later history of this long and famous dynasty being simply the record of a struggle against the increasing power and ambitious designs of the vassal state of Ching, until at length the power of the latter not only outgrew that of the sovereign state, but successfully defied the united effi)rts of all the others combined together in a league. In 403 B. C. tlie number of states had been reduced to seven great ones, all sooner or later claiming to be "the kingdom," and contending for the supremacy until Ching put down all the others and in 221 B. C. its king assumed the title of Hwang Ti or emperor and determined that there should be no more feudal principalities, and that as there is but one sun in the sky there should be but one ruler in the nation. It is interesting to glance backward over these nine hundred years and gather some facts as to the China of those days. The religion of the Chinese was a modification of the older and sim- pler forms of nature worship practised by their ruder forefathers. The principal objects of veneration were still heaven and earth and the more prominent among the destructive and beneficient powers of nature. But a tide of personification and deification had begun to set in and to the spirits of natural objects and in- fluences now rapidly assuming material shape had been added the spirits of departed heroes whose protection was invoked after death by those to whom it had been afforded during life. 11 m I I I I 42 CHARACTERiSTICS OF THE CHOW DYNASTY. The sovereign of the Chow dynasty worshipped in a building which they called "the hall of light," which also served the pur- pose of an audience and council chamber. It was 112 feet square and surmounted by a dome ; typical of heaven above and earth beneath. China has always been remarkably backward in architectural development, never having got beyond the familiar roof with its turned up corners, in which antiquaries trace a CHINESE TEMPLE. likeness to the tent of their nomad days. Hence it is that the "hall of light" of the Chows is considered by the Chinese to have been a very wonderful structure. Some have said that the Pentateucli was carried to China in the sixth century B. C, but no definite traces of Judaism are discoverable until several centuries later. The Chow period was pre-eminently one of ceremonial observ- CULTIVATION OF LITERATURE AND PROGRESS. 4S aiices pushed to an extreme limit. Even Confucius was unable to rise above the dead level of an ultra formal etiquette, which occupies in his teachings a place altogether out of proportion to any advantages likely to accrue from the most scrupulous com- pliance with its rules. During the early centuries of this period laws were excessively severe and punishments correspondingly barbarous ; mutilation and death by burning or dissection being among the enumerated penalties. From all accounts there speedily occurred a marked degeneracy in the characters of the Chow kings. Among the most conspicuous of the early kings was Muh, who rendered himself notorious for having promulga- ted a penal code under which the redemption of punishments was made permissible by the payment of fines. Notwithstanding the spirit of lawlessness that spread far and wide among the princes and nobles, creating misery and unrest throughout the country, that literary instinct which has been a marked characteristic of the Chinese throughout their long his- tory continued as active as ever. At stated intervals officipls, we are told, were sent in light carriages into all parts of the empire to collect words from the changing dialects of each district ; and at the time of the royal progresses the official music masters and historiographers of each principality presented to the officials appointed for the purpose, collections of the odes and songs of each locality, in order, we are told, that the character of the rule exercised by their princes should be judged by the tone of the poetical and musical productions of their subjects. The odes and songs as found and thus collected were carefully preserved in royal archives, and it was from these materials, as is commonly believed, that Confucius compiled the celebrated "She King" or " Book of Odes." One hundred years before the close of the Chow dynasty, a great statesman named Wei Yang appeared in the rising state of Ch'in and brought about many valuable reformations. Among other things he introduced a system of tithings, which has en- dured to tlie present day. The unit of Chinese social life has always been the family and not the indiviilnal ; and this states- man caused tl\e family to be divided into gron]is of ten families to each, upon a basis of mutual protection and responsibility. 3 44 THE CHINESE THREE THOUSAND YEARS AGO. t>t i The soil of China has always been guarded as the inalienable property of her imperial ruler for the time being, held in trust by him on behalf of a higher and greater power whose vice-regent he is. In the age of the Chows, land appears to have been culti- vated upon a system of communal tenure, one -ninth of the total produce being devoted in all cases to the expenses of government and the maintenance of the ruling family in each state. Copper coins of a uniform shape and portable size were first cast, accord- ing to Chinese writers, about half way through the sixth century B. C. An irregular form of money, however, had been in circu- lation long before, one of the early vassal dukes having been advised, in order to replenish his treasury, to " break up the hills and make money out of the metal therein ; to evaporate sea water and make salt. This," added his advising minister, " will benefit the realm and with the profits you may buy up all kinds of goods cheap and store them until the market has risen ; estab- lish also three hundred depots of courtesans for the traders, who will thereby be induced to bring all kinds of merchandise to your country. This merchandise you will tax and thus have a suffici- ency of funds to meet the expenses of your army." Such were some of the principles of finance and political economy among the Chows, customs duties being apparently even at that early date a recognized part of the revenue. The art of healing was practised among the Chinese in their prehistoric times, but the first quasi-scientific efforts of which we have any record belong to the period with which we are now dealing. The physicians of the Chow dynasty classify diseases under the four seasons of the year — headaches and neuralgic affections under spring, skin diseases of all kinds under summer, fever atid agues under autumn, and bronchial and plumonary complaints under winter. The public at large was warned against rashly swallowing the prescriptions of any physician whose family had not been three generations in the medical profession. When the Chows went into battle they formed a line with the bowman on the left and the spearman on the right flank. The centre was occupied by chariots, each drawn by three or four horses harnessed abreast. Swords, daggers, shields, iron headed clubs, huge iron hooks, drums, cymbals, gongs, horns, banners and MUSIC, SLAVERY, HOUSEHOLD HABITS. 45 streamers innumerable were also among the equipment of war. Quarter was rarely if ever given and it was customary to cut the ears from the bodies of the slain. It was under the Chows, a thousand years before Christ, that the people of China began to possess family names. By the time of Confucius the use of surnames had become definitely estab- lished for all classes. The Chows founded a university, a shadow of which remains to the present day. They seem to have had theatrical representations of some kind, though it is diflBcult to say of what nature these actually were. Music must have already reached a stage of considerable development, if we are to believe Confucius himself, who has left it on record that after listening to a certain melody he was so affected as not to be able to taste meat for three months. Slavery was at this date a regular domestic institution and was not confined as now to the purchase of women alone ; and whereas in still earlier ages it had been usual to bury wooden puppets in the tombs of princes, we now read of slave boys and slave girls barbarously interred alive with the body of every ruler of a state, in order, as was believed, to wait upon the tyrant's spirit after death. But public opinion began during the Confucian era to discountenance this savage rite, and the son of a man who left instructions that he should be buried in a large coffin between two of his icubines, ventured to disobey his father's commands. We know that the Chows sat on chairs while all other eastern nations were sitting on the ground, and ate their food and drank their wine from tables ; that they slept on beds and rode on horse- back. They measured the hours with the aid of sun dials ; and the invention of the compass is attributed, though on somewhat insulficient grounds, to one of their earliest heroes. They played games of calculation of an abstruse character, and others involving dexterity. They appear to have worn shoes of leather, and stock- ings, and hats, and caps, in addition to robes of silk ; and to have possessed such other material luxuries as fans, mirrors of metal, bath tubs, and flat irons. But it is often difficult to separate truth from falsehood in the statement of Chinese writers with re- gard to their history. They are fond of exaggerating the civiliza- tion of their forefathers, which, as a matter of fact, was sufficiently 11 46 CONFUCIUS AND HIS WORK. k advanced to command admiration without the undesirable coloring of fiction they have thus been tempted to lay on. Of the religions of the Chinese we will speak in a succeeding chapter, but it must be said here that during the Chow dynasty was born the most famous of Chinese teachers, Confucius. He was preceded about the middle of the dynasty by Lao-tzu, the founder of an abstruse system of ethical philosophy which was destined to develop into the Taoism of to-day. Closely following, and partially a contemporary, came Confucius," a teacher who has been equalled in his influence upon masses of the human race by Bud- dha alone and approached only by Mahomet and Christ." Confucius de- voted his life chiefly to the moral amelioration of his fellow men by oral teaching, but he was also an author of many works. A hundred years later came Mencius, the record of whose teachings also forms an im}'ortant part of the course of study of a modern student in China. His pet theory was that the nature of man is good, and that all evil tendencies are necessarily acquired from evil communications either by heredity or association. It was during this same period that the literature of the Chinese language was founded. Of this subject, and some of the famous works, more will be said in a succeeding chapter devoted to literature and education. In their campaign against the prevailing lawlessness and IMAGE OP CONFUCIUS. e coloring icceeding r dynasty ;iu8. He )-tzu, the bich was jlop into to-da}'. »gi and tnporary, a teacher ualled in I masses by Bud- )roached let and iius de- liefly to ation of by oral vas also ' works. 8 later record gs also nt part idy of a China, as that s good» m evil during ge was 5, more re and )s and I'l I ' .i::ll!!; mi ,M il :il! MANCHURIAN MINISTERS. WHAT THE REST OF THE WORLD WAS DOING. 49 violence, neither Confucius nor Mencius was able to make any headway. Their preachings fell on deaf ears and their peaceful admonitions were passed unheeded by men who held their fiefs \jj the strength of their right arms, and administered the affairs of their principalities surrounded by the din of war. The feudal system and the dynasty of the Chows were tottering when Con- fucius died although it was more than two hundred years after when Ch'in acquired the supremacy. The nine centuries covered by the history of the Chows were full of stirring incidents in other parts of the world. The Trojan war had just been brought to an end and ^neas had taken refuge in Italy from the sack of Troy. Early in the dynasty Zoroaster was founding in Persia the religion of the Magi, the worship of fire which survives in the Parseeism of Bombay. Saul was made king of Israel and Solomon built the temple of Jerusalem. Later on Lycurgus gave laws to the Spartans and Romulus laid the first stone of the Eternal City. Then came the Babylonic captivity, the appearance of Buddha, the conquest of Asia Minor by Cyrus, the rise of the Roman Republic, the defeats of Darius at Marathon and of Xerxes at Salamis, the Peloponnesian War, the retreat of the Ten Thousand, and Roman conquests down to the end of the first Punic war. From a literary point of view the Chow dynasty was the age of the Vedas in India ; of Homer, ./Eschylus, Herod- otus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Aristotle and Demosthenes in Greece ; and of the Jewish prophets from Samuel to Daniel ; and of the Talmud as originally undertaken by the scribes subsequent to the return from the captivity in Babylon. It has been stated that the imperial rule of the Chows over the vassal states which made up the China of those early days, was gradually undermined by the growing power and influence of one of the latter, the very name of which was transformed into a by- word of reproach, so that to call a person "a man of Ch'in" was equivalent to saying in vulgar parlance, " He is no friend of mine." The struggle between the Ch'ins and the rest of the empire may be likened to the struggle between Athens and the rest of Greece though the end in each case was not the same. The state of Ch'in vanquished its combined opponents, and finally established a dynasty, shortlived indeed, but containing among 50 THE FIItST FMPKttOR OF CHINA. the few rulers who sut upon tlie tlirone, only about fifty years in all, the name of one remarkable man, the first emperor of the united China. On the ruins of the old feudal system, the landmarks of which his three or four predecessors had succeeded in sweeping away, Hwang Ti laid the foundations of a coherent empire which was GREAT WALL OP CHINA. to date from himself as its founder. He sent an army of 800,000 men to fight against the Huns. He dispatched a fieet to search for some mysterious islands off the coast of China ; and this ex- pedition has since been connected with the colonization of Japan. He built the Great Wall which is nearly fourteen hundred miles in length, forming the most prominent artificial object on the surface THE BURNING OF THE BOOKS. SI of the earth. His copper coinage was so uniformly good that the cowry disappeared altogether from connncMce with this reign. Ac- cording tu some, the modern hair pencil euipluyed by the Chinese as a pen was invented about this time, to be used for writing uu silk; while the characters themselves underwent certain modifi- cations and orthographical improvements. The first emperor de- sired above all things to impart a fresh stimulus to literary effort ; but he adopted singularly unfortunate means to secure this de- sirable end. For listening to the insidious flattery of courtiers, he determined that literature should begin anew with his reign. He therefore issued orders for the destruction of all existing books, with the exception of works treating of medicine, agriculture and divination and the annals of his own house ; and he actually put to death many hundreds of the literati who refused to comply with these commands. The decree was obeyed as faithfully rs was possible in case of so sweeping an ordinance and for many years a night of ignorance rested on the country. Numbeis of valuable works thus perished in a general literary conflagration, popularly known as " the burning of the books ; " and it is partly to accident and partly to the pious effurts of the scholars of the age, that posterity is indebted for the preservation of the most precious relics of ancient Chinese literature. The death of Hwang Ti was the signal for an outbreak among the dispossessed feudal princes, who, however, after some years ci disorder, were again reduced to the rank of citizens by a successful peasant leader who adopted the title of Kaou Ti, and named his dynasty that of Han, with himself its first emperor. From that day to this, with occasional interregnums, the empire has been ruled on the lines laid down by Hwang Ti. Dynasty has succeeded dynasty but the political tradition has remained un- changed, and though Mongols and Manchoos have at different times wrested the throne from its legitimate heirs, they have been engulfed in a homogeneous mass inhabiting the empire, and in- stead of impressing their seal upon the country, have become but the reflection of the vanquished. The stately House of Han ruled over China for four hundred years, approximately from 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. During the whole period the empire made vast strides towards a more settled state of prosperity and civilization, i m 62 HISTORY OF THE HAN DYNASTY. although there were constant wars with the Tartar tribes to the north and the various Turkish tribes on the west. The oointnuni- oationH with the Huns were piirticuhirly close, and even now traces of Hunnish influence are discernible in several of the recognized surnames of the Chinese. This dynasty also wit- nessed the spectacle, most unusual in the east, uf a woninn wielding the imperial sceptre ; and hers was not a reign calcu- lated to inspire the people of China with much faith either in the virtue or the adniinistrative ability of the sex. In Chinese history however, her place is that of the only female sover- eign who ever legitimately occupied the throne. It was under the Han dynasty that the religion of Buddha first became known to the Chinese people, and Taoism began to develop from quiet philosophy to foolish superstitions and practices. It was also dur- ing this period that the Jews appear to have founded a colony in Honan, but we cannot say what kind of a reception was accorded to the new faith. In the glow of early Buddhism, and in the exciting times of its subsequent persecution, it is probable that Judaism failed to attract much serious attention from the Chinese. In 1850 certain Hebrew rolls were recovered from the few remaining descendants of former Jews ; but there was then no one left who could read a word of tlieni, or who possessed any knowledge of the creed of their forefathers, beyond a few tradi- tions of the scantiest possible kind. But the most remarkable of all events connected with our present period, was the general revival of learning and author- BUDDHIST PRIEST. FAMOUS MKN OF THIS I'KUIOI). 68 ahip. The Confuci;ui textH were r«H(!iU'(l rrnin hiding [)lace» in which they had been concealed tit tht; risk of death ; editing com - mittees were appointed, and inunenbe clTorln made to repair the nuBchief sustained by literature at tlie hand of the first emperor. Ink and paper were invented and authorship was thus enabled to make a fresh start, the very start indeed, that the first emperor had longed to associate with his own reign, and had attempted to secure by such impracticable means. During' the latter portion of the second century U. C, llourished the " Father of Chinese History." His great work, which has been the model for all sub- sequent histories, is divided into one hundred and thirty books, and deals with a period extending from the reign of the Yellow emperor down to his own times. In another branch of literature, a foremost place among the lexicographers of the world may fairly be claimed for Hsu Shen, the author of a famous dic- tionary. Many other celebrated writers lived and prospered dur- ing the Han dynasty. One man whose name must be mentioned insured for himself, by his virtue and integrity, a more imper- ishable fame thim any mere literary achievement could bestow. Yang Chen was indeed a scholar of no mean attainments, and away in his occidental Imme he was known as the "Confucius of the west." An officer of government in a high position, with every means of obtaining wealth at his command, he lived and died in comparative poverty, his only object of ambition being the reputation of a spotless official. The Yangs of his day grum- bled sorely at opportunities thus thrown away ; but the Yangs of to-day glory in the fame of their great ancestor and are proud to worship in the ancestral hall to which his uprightness has be- queal hed the name. For once when pressed to receive a bribe, with the additional inducement that no one would know of the transaction, he quietly replied — " How so ? Heaven would know ; earth would know; you would know and I should know." And to this hour the ancestral shrine of the clan of the Yangs bears as it name " The Hall of the Four Knows." It was in all probability under the dynasty of the Hans that the drama first took its place among the amusements of the people. It i-^ unnecessary to linger over the four centuries which con- ^^r^j^j^f'^y^'^'-y^' '■ !'^' '" ■ '■ :7n;<^> 54 ADVANCK IN THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD. 1: i nect the Hans with the T'angs. There was not in them that dis- tinctness of character or coherency of aim which leave a great impress upon the times. The three kingdoms passed rapidly away, and other small dynasties succeeded them, but their names and dates are not essential to a right comprehension of the state of China then or now. A few points may, however, be briefly mentioned before quitting this period of transition. Diplomatic relations were opened with Japan ; and Christianity was intro- duced by the Nestorians under the title of the *' luminous teach- ing." Tea was not known in China before this date. It was at the close of this transitional period that we first detect traces of the art of printing, still in an embryonic state, and it seems to be quite certain that before the end of the sixth century the Chinese were in possession of a method of reproduction from wooden blocks. One of the last emperors of the period succeeded in adding largely to the empire by annexation toward the west. Embassies reached his court from various nations, including Japan and Cochin China, and helped to add to the lustre of his reign. The three centuries A. D. 600-900, during which the T'angs sat upon the throne, form a brilliant epoch in Chinese history, and the southern people of China are still proud of the designa* tion which has descended to them as " men of T'ang." Emperor Hsuan Tsung fought against the prevailing extravagance in dress ; founded a large dramatic college ; and was an enthusias- tic patron of literature. Buddhism flourished during this period in spite of edicts against it. Finally, it gained the favor of the emperors and for a time overpowered even Confucianism. It was during the reign of the second emperor of the T'angs and only six years after the Hegira that the religion of Mahomet first reached the shores of China. A maternal uncle of the prophet visited the country and obtained permission to build a mosque at Canton, portions of which may perhaps still be found in the thrice restored structure which now stands upon its site. The use of paper money was first introduced by the government toward the closing years of the dynasty ; and it is near to this time that we can trace back the existence of the modern court PAPER MONEY AND PRINTING. 66 circular and daily record of edicts, memorials, etc., commonly known as the Peking Gazette. Another unimportant transition period, sixty years in duration, forms the connecting link between the houses of T'ang and Sung. It is known in Chinese history as the period of the five dynasties, after the five short-lived ones crowded into this space of time. It is remarkable chiefly for the more extended practice of printing from wooden blocks, the standard classical works being now for the first time printed in this way. The discredit- able custom of cramping women's feet into the so-called " golden lilies " belongs probably to this date, though referred by some to a period several hundred years later. It has been said before that the age of the T'angs was the age of Mahomet and his new religion, the propagation of which was destined to meet in the west with a fatal check from the arms of Charles Martel at the battle of Tours. It was the age of Rome independent under her early popes ; of Charlemagne as emperor of the west ; of Egbert as first king of England ; and of Alfred the Great. The Sung dynasty extended from about A. D. 960 to 1280. The first portion of this dynasty may be considered as on the whole, one of the most prosperous and peaceable periods of the history of China. The nation had already in a great measure settled down to that state of material civilization and mental culture in which it may be said to have been discovered by Europeans a few centuries later. To the appliances of Chinese ordinary life it is probable that but few additions have been made even since a much earlier date. The national costume has indeed undergone subsequent variations, and at least one striking change has been introduced in later years, that is, the tail, which will be mentioned later. But the plows and hoes, the water wheels and well sweeps, the tools of artisans, mud huts, junks, carts, chairs, tables, chopsticks, etc., which we still* see in China, are doubtless approximately those of more than two thousand years ago. Mencius observed that the written language was the same, and axle-trees of the same length all over the empire ; and to this day an unaltering uniformity is one of the chief char- acteristics of the Chinese people in every department of life. I {'> u 56 INVASIONS OF THE TARTARS AND MOXCxOLS. 1 vf Jill I' W The house of Sung was not however without the usual troubles for any length of time. Periodical revolts are the special feature of Chinese history, and the Sungs were hardly exempt from them in a greater degr3e than other dynasties. The Tartars too, were forever encroaching upon Chinese territory and finally overran and occupied a large part of northern China. Tliis resulted in an amicable arrangement to divide the einpire, the Tartars retaining their conquests in the north. Less than a hundred years later came the invasion of the Mongols under Genghis Khan, with the long struggle wliich eventuated in a complete overthrow of both the Tartars and the Sungs and the final establishment of the Mongol dynasty under Kublai Khan, whose success was in a great measure due to the military capacity of his famous lieuten- ant Bayan. From this struggle one name in particular has sur- vived to form a landmark of which the Chinese are justly proud. It is that of the patriot statesman Wen T'ien-hsiang, whose fidelity to the Sungs no defeats could shake, no promises under- mine ; and who perished miserably in the hands of tlie enemy rather than abjure the loyalty which had been the pride and almost the object of his existence. Another name inseparably connected with the histoiy of the Sungs is that of Wang An-shih who has been styled " The Inno- vator " from the gigantic administrative changes or innovations he labored ineffectually to introduce. The chief of these were a universal system of militia under which the whole body of citizens were liable to milita.y drill and to be called out for service in time of need ; and a system of state loans to agriculturists in order to supply capital for more extensive and more remunerative farm- ing operations. His schemes were ultimately set aside through the opposition of a statesman whose name is connected even more closely with literature than with politics. Ssu maKuang spent nineteen years of his life in the compilation of " The Minor of History," a history of China in two hundred and ninety-four books, from the earliest times of the Chow dynasty down to the accession of the house of Sung. A century later this lengthy production was recast in a greatly condensed form under the superintendence of Chu Hsi, the latter work at once taking rank as the standaid history -V. A-- . .■.^^' CHINESE ARCHERS. LITERARY WORK OF THE SUNG DYNASTY. 59 of China to that date. Chu Hsi himself played in other ways by far the most important part anioiig all the literary giants of the Sungs. Besides holding, during a large portion of his life, high oflBcial position, with an almost unqualified success, bis writings are more extensive and more varied in character than those of any other Chinese author ; and the complete collection m CHINESE WRITER. of his great philosophical works, published in 1713, fills no fewer than sixty-six books. He introduced interpretations of the Con- fucian classics, either wholly or partially at variance with those which had been put forth by the scholars of the Han dynasty and received as infallible ever since, thus modifying to a certain extent the prevailing standard of political and social morality. v_^ !il I I 60 A FAMOUS CHINESE POET. His principle was simply one of consistency. He refused to in- terpret certain words in a given passage in one sense and the same words occurring elsewhere in another sense. And this principle recommended itself at once to the highly logical mind of the Chinese. Chu Hsi's commentaries were received to the exclusion of all others and still form the only author^ ized interpretation of the classical books, upon a knowledge of which all success at the great competitive examination for literary degrees may be said to entirely depend. It would be a lengthy task to merely enumerate the names in the great phalanx of writers who flourished under the Sungs and who formed an Augustan Age of Chinese literature. Exception must however be made in favor of Ou-Yang Hsiu, who besides being an eminent statesman, was a voluminous historian of the immediately preceding dynasties, an essayist of rare ability, and a poet ; and of Su Tung-p'o whose name next to that of Chu Hsi fills the largest place in Chinese memorials of this period. A vigorous opponent of " Th6 Innovator," he suffered banishment for his opposition ; and again, after his rival's fall, he was similarly punished for further crossing the imperial will. His exile was shared by the beautiful and accomplished girl " Morning Clouds," to whose inspiration we owe many of the elaborate poems and other productions in the composition of which the banished poet beguiled his time ; and whose untimely death of consumption, on the banks of their favorite lake, hastened the poet's end, which occurred shortly after his recall from banishment. Buddhism and Taoism had by this time made advances toward tacit terms of mutual toleration. They wisely agreed to share rather than to quarrel over the carcass which lay at their feet ; and from that date they have flourished together without prejudice. The system of competitive examinations and literary degrees had been still more fully elaborated, and the famous child's primer, the *' Three Character Classic," which is even now the first step- ping stone to knowledge, had been placed in the hands of school boys. The surnames of the people were collected to the number of four hundred and thirty-eight in all ; and although this was admittedly not complete, the great majority of those names which were omitted, once perhaps in common use, have altogether disap- ,vHi I \* LITERATURE, LAW, AND MEDICINE. 61 peared. It is comparatively rare nowadays to meet with a person whose family name is not to be found within the limits of this small collection. Administration of justice is said to have flour- ished under the incorrupt officials of this dynasty. The func- tions of magistrates were more fully defined; while the study of medical jurisprudence was stimulated by the publication of a volume which, although combining the maximum '>f suparstition with the minimum of scientific research, is ■ .p the officially recognized text book on all subjects connected with murder, suicide and accidental death. Medicine and the art of healing came in for a considerable share of attention at the hands of the Sungs and many voluminous works on therapeutics h.ave come down to us from this period. Inoculation for small pox has been known to the Chinese at least since the early years of this dynasty if not earlier. The irruption of the Mongols under Genghis Khan, and the comparatively short dynasty which was later on actually estab- lished under Kublai Khan, may be regarded as the period of transition from the epoch of the Sungs to the epoch of the Mings. For the first eighty years after tlie nominal accession of Genghis Khan the empire was more or less in a state of siege and martial law from one end to the other ; and then in less than one hundred years afterwards the Mongol dynasty had passed away. The story of Ser Marco Polo and his wonderful travels, familiar to most readers, gives us a valuable insight into this period of brill- iant courts, thronged marts, fine cities, and great national wealth. At this date the literary glory of the Sungs had hardly begun to grow dim. Ma Tuan-lin carried on his voluminous work through all the troublous times, and at his death bequeathed to the world " The Antiquarian Researches," in three hundred and forty -eight books, which have made his name famous to every student of Chinese literature. Plane and spherical trigonometry were both known to the Chinese by this time, and mathematics generally began to receive a larger share of the attention of scholars. It was also under the Mongol dynasty that the novel first made its appearance, a fact pointing to a definite social ad- vancement, if only in the direction of luxurious reading. Among r 62 KUi^LAI KHAN AND HIS REIGN. \U%m other points may be nientioneil a great influx ol" Molmiumeduns, and consequent spread of their religion about this time. The Grand Canal was completed by Kublai Khan, and thus Cambaluc, the Peking of those days, was united by inland water communication with thj extreme south of China. The work seems to have been begun by the Emperor Yang Ti seven cent turies previously, but the greater part of the undertaking was done in the reign of Kublai Khan. Hardly so successful was the same emperor's huge naval expedition against Japan, which in point of number of ships and men, the insular character of the enemy's country, the chastisement intended, and the total loss of the fleet in a storm, aided by the stubborn resistance of the Jap- anese themselves, suggests a very obvious comparison with the object and fate of the Spanish Armada. The age of the Sungs carries us from a hundred years previous to the Norman Conquest down to about the death of Edward III. It was the epoch of Venetian commerce and maritime supremacy ; and of the first great lights in Italian literature, Dante, Petrarch and Boccacio. English, French, German and Spanish literature had yet to develop, only one or two of the earlier writers, such as Chaucer, having yet appeared on the scene. The founder of the Ming dynasty rose from starvation and ob- scurity to occupy tlie throne of the Chinese empire. In his youth he sought refuge from the pangs of hunger in a Buddhist monas- tery ; later on he became a soldier of fortune, and joined the ranks of the insurgents who were endeavoring to shake off the alien yoke of the Mongols. His own great abilities carried him on. He speedily obtained the leadership of a large army, with which he totally destroyed the power of the Mongols, and finally established a new Chinese dynasty over the thirteen provinces into which the empire was divided. He fixed his capitol at Nan- king, where it remained until the accession of the third emperor, the conqueror of Cochin China and Tonquin, who transferred the seat of government back to Peking, the capitol of the Mongols, from which it has never since been removed. For nearly three hundred years, from 1370 to 1650, the Mings swayed the destinies of China. Their rule was not one of unin- terrupted peace, either within or without the empire ; but it was IIS I' vt ucdiins, /( I I \ nd thus ti water e work en can. ing was was the hich in r of the 1 loss of she Jap- vith the )reviou8 ard III. :emacy ; *etrarch ;erature rs, such and ob- 8 youth monas- led the off tlie ied him ly, with I finally evinces at Nan- m per or, •red tlie ongols, Mings •f unin- t it was M- n n 73 FOUNDING THE MING DYNASTY. 66 litllli on the whole a wise and popular rule, and the period which it covers is otherwise notable for immense literary activity and for considerable refinement in manners and material civilization. From without, the Mings were constantly harrussed by the encroachments of the Tartars; while from within the ceaseless intriguing of the eunuchs was a fertile cause of trouble. Chief among the literary achievements of this period, is the ANCIENT CHINESE AROH. gigantic encyclopedia in over twenty-two thousand books, only one copy of which, and that imperfect, has survived out of the four that were originally made. Allowing fifty octavo pages to a book, the result would be a total of at least one million one hundred thousand pages, the index alone occupying no fewer than three thousand pages. This wonderful work is now probably rotting, if not already rotted beyond hope of preservation, in »V-J hi 66 A CHINESE EMPEROR'S PRIVATE LIBRARY. 'I ' some damp corner of the imperial palace at Peking. Another im portant and more accessible production was the so-called '^ Chinese Herbal." This was a compilation from the writings of no fewer than eight hundred preceding writers on botany, mineralogy, entomology, etc., the whole forming a voluminous but unsci- entific book of reference on the natural history of China. Shortly after the accession of the third emperor, Yung Lo, the imperial library was estimated to contain written and printed works amounting to a total of about one million in all. A book is a variable quantity in Chinese literature, both as regards num- ber and size of pages ; the number of books to a work also vary from one to several hundred. But reckoning fifty pages to a book and twenty 3r twenty-five books to a work, it will be seen that the collection was not an unworthy private library for any em- peror in the early years of the fifteenth century. The overthrow of the Mings was brought about by a combina- tion of events of the utmqst importance to those who would un- derstand the present position of the Tartars as rulers of China. A sudden rebellion had resulted in the capture of Peking by the insurgents, and in the suicide of the emperor who was fated to be the last of his line. The imperial commander-in chief, Wu San- kuei, at that time away on the frontiers of Manchooria engaged in resisting the incursions of the Manchoo-Tartars, now for a long time in a state of ferment, immediately hurried back to the capitol but was totally defeated by the insurgent leader «nd once more made his way, this time as a fugitive and a suppliant, toward the Tartar camp. Here he obtained promises of assistance chiefly on condition that he would shave his head and grow a tail in accordance with Manchoo custom, and again set off with his new auxilliaries toward Peking, being reinforced on the way by a body of Mongol volunteers. As things turned out, the com- mander arrived in Peking in advance of these allies, and actually succeeded with the remnant of his own scattered forces in routing the troups of the rebel leader before the Tartars and the Mon- gols came up. He then started in pursuit of the flying foe. Meanwhile the Tartar contingent arrived and on entering the capitol the young Manchoo prince in command was invited by the people of Peking to ascend the vacant throne. So that by the > > FOUNDING OF THE PRESTII^IT RULING DYNASTY. 67 time Wu San-kuei reappeared, he found a new dynasty already established and his late Manohoo ally at the head of affairs. His first intention had doubtless been to continue the Ming line of emperors ; but he seems to have readily fallen in with the arrange- ment already made and to have tendered his formal allegiance on the four following conditions : That no Chinese woman should be taken into the imperial se- raglio ; that the first place at the great triennial examination for the highest literary degrees should never be given to a Tartar ; that the people should adopt the national costume c"^ the Tartars in their everyday life ; but that they should be allowed to bury their corpses in the dress of the late dynasty ; that this ccnditi'' v of costume should not apply to the women of China who were ^ot to be compelled either to wear the hair in a tail before mprnage as the Tartar girls do, or to abandon the custom of compressing their feet. The great Ming dynasty was now at an end, though not de ,cine i wholly to pass away. A large part of it may be said to remain ill the literary monuments. The dress of the period survives upon the modern Chinese stage ; and when occasionally the alien yoke has galled, seditious whispers of " restoration " are not al- together unheard. Secret societies have ^lway8 been dreadetJi and prohibited by the government ; and of thet^e none more so than the famous " Triad Society," in which heaven, earth, and man are supposed to be associated in close alliance, and whose watchword is believed to embody some secret allusion to the downfall of the present dynasty. In the latter part of the sixteenth century, ; > civilization of western Europe began to make itself felt in China by the advent of the Portuguese, and this matter will be returned to in the fol- lowing chapter. In other parts of the world, eventiul times have set in. In England we are brought from the accession of Richard II. down to the struggle between the kiiig and the commons and the ulti- mate establishment of the commonwealth. We have Henry IV. in France and Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain. In England, Sliiikspeare and Bacon; in France, Rabelais and Descartes; in Germany, Luther and Copernicus ; in Spain, Cervantes ; and in ';* ;'i'vfi^!^"jj>p' 68 IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. Italy, Galileo,Machiavelli audXasso; these names to which should be added those of the great explorers, Columbus and Vusco de Gama, serve to remind one of what was meanwhile passing in the west. ch should Vusco d« ng in the fi PROM FIRST CONTACT WITH EUROPEAN CIVIUZA- TION TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. How the Western Nations Formed me Acquaintance of China— First Mention of the Orient by Grecian anil Uoiiian Historians— Introduction of Judaism— Neatorlan Missionaries Bring Christianity— Marco I'olo's WdndcMful Journey— Koman Missionaries In the Field— Dlssentions among Christians Discredit their Work— Work of tiie Jesuits— The Dynasty of the Chlngs- Splendid Literary Labors of Two Emperors— Englaiids First Embassy to China— The Opium War— Opening the Ports of China— Treaties with Western Nations— The Tal-Plng Kebellion— The Later Years of Chinese History. The works of several Greek and Roman historians, principally those of Ptolemy and Arian, who lived in the second century, contain references of a vague cliaracter to a country now generall}' believed to be China. Ptolemy states that his information came from the agents of Macedonian traders, who gave him an account of a journey of seven months from the principal city of eastern Turkestan, in a diret^aon east inclining a little south. It is probable that these agents belonged to some of the Tartar tribes of Central Asia. They represented the name of this most eastern nation to be Serica, and that on the borders of this kingdom they met and traded with its inhabitants, the Seres. Herodotus speaks of the Isadores as a people in the extreme north-east of Asia. Ptolemy also mentions these tribes as a part of Serica and under its sway. Ammianus Marcellinus, a Roman historian of the fourth century, speaks of the land of the Seres as surrounded by a high and continuous wall. This was about six hundred years after the great wall of northern China was built. Virgil, Pliny, Ricitus and Juvenal refer to the Seres in connection with the Seric garments which seem to have been made of fine silk or gauze. This article of dress was much sought after in Rome by the wealthy and luxurious, and as late as the second century, is said to have been worth its weight in gold. From the length and description of the route of the traders, the description of the mountains and rivers which they passed, the character of the people with whom they traded and the articles of traffic, the evi- dence seems almost conclusive that the nation which the Greeks and Romans designated by the name of Serica is that now known (71) 72 INTERCOURSE WITH WESTERN NATIONS. I mm '■ 1 1 to us as China. The particular countries visited by the caravans which brought the silk to Europe, vore probably tlie dependencies or territories of China on the west, or possibly cities within the extreme north-west limit of China proper. The introduction of Judaism into China is evidenced by a Jewish synagogue which existed until quite recently in Kai-fung- foo, a city in the province of Honan. Connected with this synagogue wero some Hebrew manuscripts, and a few worshippers who retained some of the forms of their religion, but very little knowledge of its real character and spirit. There is a great deal of uncertainty as to when the Jews came to China, though the- have, no doubt, resided there for many centuries. Nestorian missionaries entered China some time before the seventh century. The principal record which they have left of the success of their missions is the celebi-ated Nestorif.n monu- ment in Fen-gan-foo. This monument contains a short history of the sect from the year 630 to 781, and also an abstract of the Christian religion. The niissionaries of this sect have left but few records of their labors or of their observations as travelers, but the churches planted by them seem to have existed until a com- paratively recent period. The Romish missionaries who entered China in the beginjiing of the fourteenth century, found them possessed of considerable influence, not only among the people, but also at court, and met with no little opposition from them in their first attempts to introduce the doctrines of their church. It seems to be true that during the period of nearly eight hundred years in which Nestorian Christianity maintained its foothold in China, large numbers of converts were made. But in process of time the Nestorian churches departed widely from their first teachings. After the fall of the Mongolian empire they were cut off from connection with the west, and not having sufficient vitality to resist the adverse influences of heathenism the people by degrees relapsed into idolatry or took up the new faiths that were introduced. The first western writer, whose works are extant, who has given anything like full and explicit explanation respecting China is Ser Marco Polo. He went to China in the year 1274, in company with his father and uncle, who were Venetian noblemen. At this .■\--\—^;^7' SER MARCO POLO'S JOURNEY TO CHINA. 78 time, the independent noniivd tribes of central Asia being united ill one government, it was practieable to reach eastern Asia by passing through the Mongolian empire. Marco Polo spent twenty-four years in China, and seems to have been treated kindly and hospitably. After his return to Europe he was taken prisoner in a war with the Genoese, and during his confinement wrote an account of his travels. The description he gives of the vast territories of China, its teeming population, and flourishing cities, the refinement and civilization of its people, and their curious customs, seemed to his countrymen more like a fiction of fairyland than sober and authentic narrative. It is said that he was urged when on his death bed to retract these statements and make confession of falsehood, which he refused to do. He was undoubtedly one of the most remarkable travelers of any age. During the period of the Mongolian empire which compre- hended under its sway the greater part of Asia from China on the east to the Mediterranean on the west, an intense desire was kindled in the Roman church to convert this powerful nation to its faith. Among the first and the most noted of the missionaries sent to China at this, time, was John of Mount Corvin, who reached Peking in 1293. He was afterward made an archbishop. From time to time bishops and priests were sent out to re-enforce this mission, but they met with indifferent success ; and when the Mongols were driven ''rom China the enterprise was abandoned as a complete failure. After the fall of the Mongolian empire, direct overland communication with eastern Asia was interrupted, and for about two hundred years China was again almost com- pletely isolated from the western world. The use of the magnetic needle, and improvements in naviga- tion, made a new era in intercourse with the Orient. It is sup- posed that the first voyage from Europe to China was made by a Portuguese vessel in 1616. From this period commercial inter- course ^i^ith China became more frequent, and various embassies were sent to the Chinese court by different nations of Europe Unfortunately the growing familiarity of the Chinese with west- ern nations did not increase their respect and confidence in them. This was due partly to the servility of most of the embassies to Peking, but principally, no doubt, to the want of honesty and 74 DISSENXrONS BETWEEN THE SECTS. « ■: ' the general lawlessness of most of the traders from the west. The consequence was that the Chinese became desirous of re- stricting foreign intercourse, and exercising as strict surveillance over their troublesome visitors as possible. Immediately after connection was established between Europe and the far east by sea, another and a more successful effort was made by the Roman church to propagate its faith in the Chinetie empire, this being coincident with the growth of the exchange of business. Francis Xavier, in his attempt to gain an entrance into the country, died on one of the islands of the coast in 1552. Toward the close of the Sixteenth century the Portuguese ap- peared upon the scene, and from their " concession" at Macao, at one time the residence of Camoens, opened commercial relations between China and the west. They brought the Chinese, among other things, opium, which had previously been imported over- land from India. They possibly taught them how to make gun- powder, to the invention of which the Chinese do not seem, upon striking a balance of evidence, to possess an independent claim. About the same time Rome contributed the first installment of those wonderful Jesuit fathers whose names yet echo in the em- pire, the memory of their scientific labors and tiie benefits they thus conferred upon China having long survived tlie wreck and discredit of the faith to which tliey devoted their lives. At this distance of time it does not appear to be a wild statement, to as- sert that hud the Jesuits, the Franciscans, and the Dominicans been able to resist quarreling among themselves, and had they rather united to persuade papal infallibility to permit the incor- poration of ancestor- worship with the rites and ceremonies of the Romish church, China would at this moment be a Catholic coun- try and Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism would long since have receded into the past. Of all these Jesuit missionaries, the name of Matteo Ricci stands by common consent upon the long list. He established himself in Canton in the garb of a Buddhist priest in 1581. He was a man of varied intellectual gifts and extensive learning, anited with indomitable energy, zeal and perseverance, and great prudence. In 1601 he reached Peking in the dress of a literary gentleman. He spent many years in China. He associated with DISSENTIONS BETWEEN THE SECTS. 76 the highest personages in the land. He acquired an unrivalled knowledge of the book language, and left behind him several CHINESE PRIEST. valuable treatises of a metaphysical and theological character, written '.n such a polished style as to command the recognition T6 BEGINNING OP THE REIGNING DYNASTY. i!i: and even tlie admiration of the Chinese. One of his most inti* mate friends and fellow workers was the well-known scholar and statesman, Hsu Kuang-chi, the author of a voluminous com* pendium of agriculture, and joint author of the large work which introduced European astronomy to the Chinese. He was appointed by the emperor to co-operate with other Jesuit mis- sionaries in reforming the national calendar, which had gradually reached a stage of hopeless inaccuracy. He wrote independently several small scientific works ; also a severe criticism of the Buddhist religion, and finally, not least in importance, a defense of the Jesuits, addressed to the throne, when their influence at court had begun to excite envy and distrust. Hsu Kuang-chi forms the sole exception in the history of China of a scholar and a man of means and position on the side of Christianity. The age of the Chings is the age in which we live, bui it is not so familiar to some persons as it ought to be that a Tartar and not a Chinese sovereign is now seated on the throne in China. For soma time after the accession of tie first Manchoo emperor, there was considerable friction between Ihe two races. The subjugation of the empire by the Manchoos w&a followed by a military occupation of the country, which survived the original necessity, and has remained part of the system of government until the present day. The dynasty thus founded, partly by accident as it seems, as was related in the last chipter, has remained in power through the entire period of interaourse with western nations. The title adopted by the first emperor of the line was Shun-che. It was during the reign of this sotereign that Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, took up his residence at Peking and that the first Russian embassy, 1656, visited it was not until Canton, Amoy, Ningpo, Shanghai, Chapoo and Cliinkeang Foo had been taken by the British troops, that the emperor at last consented to come to terms, now of course far more onerous. By a tieaty made by Sir Henry Pottinger in 1842 the cession of Hong Kong was supplemented by the open- ing of the four ports of Amo)% Foochow Foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai to foreign trade, and the indemnity of $6,000,000 wae increased to $21,000,000. Without noticing the other points at issue and the merits of the dispute concerning tliem, it is considered by the world at large that one of the blackest pages in the records of the history of civilization is that which tells of the forcing of the opium traffic upon the Cliinese by Great Britain. The Chinese people were making most strenuous efforts to abolish the traffic in opium and the habit of its use, which had been introduced from India, and which was rapidly becoming the curse of the nation. But for commercial motives, in this Victorian age of civilization, England sent to force compliance with the demand of her mer- chants in China that the sale of tlie drug be legalized. The rapid spread of the use of opium among the hundreds of millions of Chinese, dating from this time, may be charged against En- gland, in the long account which records the oppression and the shame of her dealings with whatever eastern nation she has played the game of war and colonization and annexation. Death put an end to Tao Kuang's reign in 1860, and his fourth son, Hien Feng, assumed rule over the distracted empire which was bequeathed him by his father. There is a popular belief among the Chinese that two hundred years is the natural lite of a dynasty. This is one of those traditions which are apt to bring about their own fulfilment, and in the beginning of the reign of Hien Feng the air was rife with rumors that an effort was to be made to restore the Ming dynasty to the throne. Oa m d against e Canton ner Lin'a )ng Kong s conveii- nt, and it apoo and ,, that the sourse far ttinger in the open- igpo, and 0,000 vvaL' ! merits of B world at ,he history the opium ese people traffic in uced from le nation. ivilization, her mer- zed. The af millions gainst En- n and the she has )n. his fourth pire which ular belief ural life of ire apt to ing of the it an effort rone. Oa it^l I i in ' t(T73T":^'*"-'V,'r\';5" HOW THE TAI-PING REBELLION BEGAN. 87 such occasions tliere are always real or pretended scions of the required family forthcoming. And when the flames of rebellion broke out in Kwang-hsi a claimant suddenly appeared under the title of Teen-tih, "heavenly virtue," to hear" the movement. But he had not the capacity required to play the neccsary part, and the affair languished and would have died out altogether had not a leader named Hung Sew-tseuen arose, who combined all the qualities required in a leader of men, energy, enthusiasm, and religious bigotry. As soon as he was sufficiently powerful he advanced northward into Honan and Hoopih, and cap- tured Woo chang Fog, the capital of tho last named province, and a city of great com- mercial and strate- gical importance, situated as it is at the junction of the llau river with the Chiang. Having made this place secure he advanced down the river and made himseU' ■ :a8- ter of Gan-ting and the old capital of the empire, Nanking. Here in 1852 he estab- lished his throne, and proclaimed the commen- ement of Tai- ping dynasty. For himself he adopted the title of Teen-wang, or " heavenly king." For a time all went well with the new dynasty. The Tai-ping standard was carried northward to the walls of Tien-tsin and floated over the towns of Chin-keaug Foo and Soochow Foo. Meanwhile the imperial authorities lad by their stupidity raised another enemy against themselves. The outrage on the English flag perpetrated on board the Chine^o iorcha "Arrow," at Canton CHINESE MANDAUIN. 4 88 CHINA AT WAR WITH ENGLAND. in 1867, having been left unredressed by the mandarins, led to the proclamation of war by England. Canton fell to the arms of General Straubenzee, and Sir Michael Seymour in December of the same year, and in the following spring the Taku forts at the mouth of the Peiho having been taken. Lord Elgin, who had in the meantime arrived as plenipotentiary minister, advanced up the river to Tien-tsin on his way to the capital. At that city, however, he was met by imperial commissioners, and yielding to their entreaties he concluded a treaty with them which it waa arranged should be ratified at Peking in the following year. liut tua evil genius of the Chinese still pursuing them, they treacherously fired on the fleet accompanying Sir Frederic Bruce, Ln.l Elgin's brother, proceeding in 1860 to Pekinc", in falfillraent of this agreement. This outrage rendered another military ex- peilt on necessary, and in conjunction with the French govern- !"'"-nt, the English cabinet sent out a force under the command of ,' !.■ jlope Grant, with orders to mar h to Peking. In the siuu- ttwr of 1861 the allied forces landed at- Peh tang, a village twelve miles north of the Taku forts, and taking these intrenchments in the rear captured them with but a trilling loss. This success was so utterly unexpected by the Chinese, that leaving Tien-tsin unprotected they retreated rapidly to the neighborhood of the capital. The allies pushed on after them, and in reply to an in- vitation sent from the imperial commissioners at Tung-chow, a town twelve miles from Peking, Sir Hany Parkes and Mr. Loch, accompanied by an escort and some few friends, went in advance of the army to maKC a preliminary convention. While so engaged they were trea, herously taken prisoners and carried to Peking. This act precipitated an engagement in which the Chinese were completelv routed, and the allies marched on to Peking. After tlie usual display of obstinaty the Chinese yielded to the demand for the surrender of the A'l-ting gate v>" the city. From this vantage point Lord Elgin Dp* ued negotiations, and having secured the release of Sir Harry Parkes and the other prisoners who had survived tlie tortures to which they had been subjected, and hav- ing burnt the summer palace of the emperor as a punishment for their treacherous capture and for the cruelties perpetrated on them, he concluded a treaty with Prince Kuug, the rej)reseutativQ PUNISHMENT FOR TREACHERY. 89 ich it was of the emperor. By this instrument the Chinese agreed to pay a war indemnity of 18,000,000 and to open six other ports in China, one in Formosa, and one in the island of Hainan to foreign trade, and to permit the representatives of the foreign governments to reside at Peking. GATE AT PEKING. Having thus relieved themselves from the presence of a foreign foe, the authorities were able to devote their attention to the suppression of the Tai-ping rebellion. Fortunately for them- selves, the apparent friendliness with which they greeted the Hi f •-I : ; I ^'■■i ^ 1 1 ! 1 ■ •' ,u.. Ii I in 90 CHINESE GORDON AND HIS WORK. arrival of the British legation at Peking enlisted for them the sympathies of Sir Frederic Bruce, the British minister, and in- clined him to listen to their request for tlie services of an English officer in their campaign against the rebels. At the request of Bruce, General Staveley selected Major Gordon, since generally known as Chinese Gordon, who was killed a few years ago at Khartoom, for this duty. A better man or one more peculiarly fit for the work could have been found. A numerous force known as " the ever victorious ami}'," partly officered by foreign- ers, had for some time been commanded by an American named Ward and after his death by Burgevine, another American. Over this force Gordon was placed, and at the head of it he marched in conjunction with the Chinese generals against the Tai-pings. With masterly strategy he struck a succession of rapid and tell- ing blows against the fortunes of the rebels. City after city fell into his hands, and at length the leaders at Soochow opened the gates of the city to him on condition that he would spare their lives. With cruel treachery, when these men presented them- selves before Li Hung Chang to offer their submission to the em- peror, tliey were seized and beheaded. On learning }\ow lightly his word had been treated by the Chinese general, Gordon armed himseir, for the first time during the canij)aign with a revolver, and sought out the Chinese headquarters intending to avenge with his own hand this murder of the Tai ping leaders. But Li Hung Chang having received timely notice of the righteous anger he had aroused took to flight, and Gordon, thus thwarted in his immediate object, threw up his command feeling that it was im- possible to continue to act with so orientally-minded a colleague. After considerable negotiation however, he was persuaded to return to his command and soon succeeded in so completely crip- pling the power of the rebels that in July 1861, Nanking, their last stronghold, fell into the hands of the imperialists. Teen- wang was then already dead, and his body was found within the walls wrapped in imperial yellow. Thus was crushed out a rebellion which had paralyzed the imperial power in the central provinces of the empire and which had for twelve years seriously threatened the existence of the reigning dynasty. Meanwhile in the sunnner following the conclusion of the )r them the iter, and in- f ai) English e request of ce generally years ago at e peculiarly erous force by foreign- rican named ican. Over marched in 3 Tai-pings. >id and te li- fter city fell opened the spare their Mited them- 1 to the em- liow lightly rdon armed a revolver, to avenge rs. But Li teous anger arted in his t it was im- 1 colleague, srsuaded to (letely crip- iking, their its. Teeii- witliin the shed out a the central rs seriously ion of the ll' [■i; / f!) OPIUM SMOKERS. MASSACUK OF THE FUKNCII CATHOLICS. 98 treaty of I'ekiiig, 18G1, tlie einiieror, Ilicii Feng, bieiitlied his l.iht ill. Jeliol, an event which wtis in popuhir belief foretold hy tlie appeiirunce of a comet in the early part of the sunimer. He was succeeded to the thi\)ne by ids only son, a mere cliild, and the off- spring of one of the imperial tdnciibines. Ho a(h)pled the nanu? of Tung Chih. On account of his youth the adndnistration of affairs was placed in the hands of the two dowager empresses, the wife of the hvst emperor and the mother of the new one. These regents were aided by the counsels of the boy emperor's uncle, Prince Kung. Under the direction of these regent lOugh the internal affairs of tlie empire prospered, the foi ,_,ii relations were dis- turbed by the display of an increasingly hostile spirit towards the Christian missionaries and their converts, which cuhninated ill 1870 in the Tien-tsin massacre. In some of the central prov- inces reports had been industriously circulated tluit the Roman Catholic missionaries were in the habit of kidnapping and mur- dering children, in order to make medicine from their eyeballs. Ridiculous as the rumor was, it found ready credence among the ignorant people, and several outrages were perpetrated on the missionaries and their converts in Kwang-hsi and Sze chwan. Through the active interference, however, of the French min- ister on the spot, the agitation was locally sui»pressed only to be renewed at Tien-tsin. Here also the same absurd rumors were set afloat, and were especially directed against some sisters of charity who had opened an orphanage in the city. For some days previous to the massacre on the 21st of June, reports increasing in alarm reached the foreign residents that an outbreak was to be apprehended, and three times the English consul wrote to Chung How, the superintendent of the three northern ports, calling upon him to take measures to subdue the gathering passions of the people which had been further danger- ously exas|)erated by an infamous proclamation issued by the prefects. To these communications the consul did not receive any reply, and on the morning of the 21st, a day which had ap- parently been deliberately fixed for the massacre, the attack was made. The mob first broke into the French consulate and while the consul, M. Fontanier, was with Chung How endeavoring to .%.^l!. V^ ^ ^.^' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 •^ 1^ III 2.2 Hr 1^ 12.0 1.8 U 111.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 CA m ' i!l II ilii ii ! 94 PUNISHMENT OF THE MURDERERS. persuade him to interfere, two Frenchmen and their wives, and Father Chevrien were there murdered. While returning the consul suffered the same fate. Having thus whetted their taste for blood, the rioters then set fire to the French cathedral, and afterward moved on to the orphanage of the sisters of mercy. In spite of the appeals of these defenseless women for mercy, if not for themselves at least for the orphans under their charge, the mob broke into the hospital, killed and mutilated most shock- ingly all the sisters, smothered from thirty to forty children in the vault, and carried off a still larger number of older persons to prisons in the city, where they were subjected to tortures of ' which they bore terrible evidence when their release was at length affected. In addition to these victims, a Russian gentle- man with his bride, and a friend, who were unfortunate enough to meet the rioters on their way to the cathedral, were also mur- dered. No other foreigners were injured, a circumstance due to the fact that the fury of ^he mob was primarily directed against the French Roman Catholics, and also that the foreign settle- ment where all but those engaged in missionary work resided, was at a distance of a couple of miles from the city. When the evil was done, the Chinese authorities professed themselves anxious to make reparation, and Chung How was eventually sent to Paris to offer the apologies of the Peking cab- inet to the French government. These were ultimately accepted ; and it was further arranged that the Tien-tsin prefect and district magistrate should be removed from their posts and degraded, and that twenty of the active murderers should be executed. By these retributive measures the emperor's government made its peace with the European powers, and .the foreign relations again assumed their former friendly footing. The Chinese had now leisure to devote their efforts to the sub- jugation of the Panthay rebels. This was a great Mohammedan uprising which dated back as far as 1856 and which had for its object the separation of the province of Yun-nan into an inde- pendent state. The visit of the adopted son of the rebel leader, tlie sultan Suleiman, to England, for the purpose of attempting to enlist the sympathies of the English government in the Pan- thay cause, no doubt added zest to the action of the mandarins, w/ EMPEROR RECEIVES THE MINISTERS. 95 wives, and urning the I their taste ;hedral, and s of mercy, or mercy, if heir charge, most shock- children in der persons I tortures of ase was at sian gentle- late enough re also mur- ance due to 3ted against reign settle- prk resided, professed How was eking cab- accepted ; ind district jraded, and Duted. By made its tions again to the sub- lammedan lad for its to an inde- bel leader, ttempting n the Pan- nandarins, who after a 'short but vigorous campaign, marked by scenes of bloodshed and wholesale carnage, suppressed the rebellion and restored the province to the imperial sway. Peace was thus brought about, and when the empresses handed over the reigns of power to the emperor, on the occasion of his marriage in 1872, tranquility reigned throughout the eighteen provinces. The formal assumption of power proclaimed by this marriage was considered by the foreign ministers a fitting oppor- tunity to insist on the fulfillment of the article in the treaties which provided for their reception by the emperor, and after much negotiation it was finally arranged that the emperor should receive them on the 29th of June, 1873. Very early therefore on the morning of that day, the ministers were astir and were conducted in their sedan chairs to the park on the west side of the palace, where they were met by some of the ministers of state, who led them to the " Temple of Prayer for Seasonable Weather." Here they were kept waiting for some time while tea and confectionery from the imperial kitchen, by favor of the emperor, were served to them. They were then conducted to an oblong tent made of matting on the west side of the Tsze-kwang pavilion, where they were met by Prince Kung and other ministers. As soon as the emperor reached the pavilion, the Japanese ambassador was introduced into his pres- ence and when he had retired the other foreign ministers entered the audience chamber in a body. The emperor was seated facing southward. On either side of his majesty stood, with Prince Kung, several princes and high officers. When the foreign min- isters reached the center aisle they halted and bowed one and all together ; they then advanced in line a little further and made a second bow ; and when they had nearly reached the yellow table on which their credentials were to be deposited they bowed a third time ; after which they remained erect. M. Vlangaly, the Russian minister, then read a congratulatory address in French, which was translated by an interpreter into Chinese, and the ministers making another reverence respectfully laid their letters of credence upon the yellow table. The emperor was pleased to make a slight inclination of the head towards them, and Prince Kung advancing to the left of the throne and falling upon his V CEREMONIES OF THE RECEPTION. lilll I ;i !ill knees, had the honor to be informed in Mauchoo that his niaje»ty acknowledged the receipt of the letters presented. Prince Kung, with his arms raised according to precedent set by Confucins when in the presence of his sovereign, came down by the steps on the left of the desk, to tlie foreign ministers, and respectfully re- peated this in Chinese. After this he again prostrated himself, and in like manner received and conveyed a message to the effect that his majesty hoped that all foreign questions would be satis- factorily disposed of. The ministers then withdrew, bowing repeatedly, until they reached the entrance. Thus ended the first instance during the present century of Europeans being received in imperial audience. Whether under more fortunate circumstances the ceremony might have been re- peated it is diflBcult to say, but in the following year the young emperor was stricken down with the small-pox, or *' enjoyed the felicity of the heavenly flowers," and finally succumbed ti- the disease on the twelfth of January, 1875. With great ceremony the funeral obsequies wei*e performed over the body of him who had been Tung Chih, and the coffin was finally laid in the imperial mausoleum among the eastern hills beside the remains of his pred- ecessors. His demise was shortly afterwards followed by the death of the girl empress he had just previously raised to the throne. For the first time in the annals of the Ching dynasty, the throne was now left without a direct heir. As it is the office of the son and heir to perform regularly the ancestral worship, it is necessary that if there should be no son, the heir should be, if possible, of a later generation than the deceased. In the present instance this was impossible, and it was necessary therefore that the lot should fall on one of the cousins of the late emperor. Tsai teen, the son of the Prince of Chun, a child not quite four years old, was chosen to fill the vacant throne, and the title con- ferred upon hin> was Kuang Su or " an inheritance of glory." Scarcely had the proclamation gone forth of the assumption of the imperial title by Kuang Su, when news reached the English legation at Peking of the murder at Manwyne, in the province of Yun-nan, of Mr. Margary, an officer in the consular service who had been dispatched to meet an expedition sent by the Indian ^. MURDER OF AN ENGLISH EXPLORER. 97 government, under the command of Colonel Horace Browne, to discover a routc from Birmah into the south western provinces of China. In accordance with conventional practice, the Chinese government, on being called to account for this outrage, attempted to lay it to the charge of brigands. But the evidence which Sir Thomas Wade was able to adduce proved too strong to be ignored even by the Peking mandarins, and eventually they signed a con- vention in which they practically acknowledged their blood guilti- ness, under the terms of which some fresh commercial privileges were granted, and an indemnity was paid. At the same time a Chinese nobleman was sent to England to make apology, and to establish an embassy on a permanent footing at the court of St. James. Since that time the Chinese empire has been at peace with all foreign powers until the eruptions of the recent months. There have been some narrow escapes from war with the European countries holding possessions on the southern Chinese border, but serious results have not followed. Ministers have been maintained in China by the western nations, and by China in the western capitals. Under the child Kuang Su, who came to the throne in 1875, we have seen the completion of Chinese re-conquests in Central Asia and the restoration of Kuldja by the Russians. For many years the progressive party in the nation's councils, under the leadership of Li Hung Chang, Viceroy of Chihli, gradually ap- peared to gain ground, amply posted as the court of Peking was in the affairs of western countries. Even the old conservative party, of which the successful and the aged general Tso Tsung- tang was the representative, has vastly modified its tone in the last twenty years. It is true that the short experimental line of railway which had been laid down between Shanghai and Wusung was objected to, and finally got rid of by the Chinese government ; but the reason for this apparently retrograde step arose out of the not very scrupulous means employed by the promoters of the scheme, and out of the very natural dislike of an independent state to be forced into innovations for which it may not be altogether pre- pared. Since that time several telegraph lines have been con- structed, beginning with the first one between Peking and 08 CHINA'S SLOW PROGRESS. i! ! Slianghai, which formed the final connecting link between the capital of the Chinese empire and the western civilized world. The freedom of residence has been greatly extended to foreigners living in China. Travel has become safer, and popular hatred towards foreigners not as apparent. Slow as it* has been to take eflfect, nevertheless the influence of closer association with western civilization has made its impress on the Chinese nation, and the extreme conservatism in many details has been compelled to waver. The stories of the war which are to follow will indicate much of the characteristics of the later day history of the empire. i HE 11 !• 11 [ ^^ THE CHINESE EMPIRE. Origin of the Name of China, and What the Chinese Call their Own Country— Depend* encles of the Empire— China and the United States in Comparison— Their Many Physical Slinllarities— Mountains and Plains— The Fertile. Soil— Provinces of China— Rivers and Lalces— Climate— Fauna and Flora— Industries of the People— Commerce with Foreign Nations- The Cities of China— Forms of Oovernment and Administration. Until recflnt years the word China was unknown in the empire which we call by that name, but of late it has become more familiar to the Chinese, and in certain regions they are in fact adopting it for their own use, owing to the frequency with which they hear it from the foreigners with whom they are doing busi- ness. The name was no doubt introduced in Europe and America from the nations of Central Asia who speak of the Chinese by various names derived from that of the powerful Ching family, who iield sway many centuries ago. The names which the Chinese use in speaking of themselves are various. The most common one is Chung Kwo, the *' Middle Kingdom." This term grew up in the feudal period as a name for the royal domain in the midst of the other states, or for those states as a whole in the midst of the uncivilized countries around them. The assump- tion of universal sovereignty, of being the geographical center of the world, and also the center of light and civilization that have been so injurious to the nation, appear in several of the most ancient names. In the oldest classical writings the country is called the Flowery Kingdom, flowery presenting the idea of beautiful, cultivated, and refined. The terms Heavenly Flowery Kingdom, and Heavenly Dynasty are sometimes used, the word heavenly presenting the Chinese idea that the empire is estab- lished by the authority of heaven, and that the emperor rules by divine right. This title has given rise to the contemptuous epithet applied to the race by the Europeans, " The Celestials." The Chinese empire, consisting of China proper and Man- chooria, with its dependencies of Mongolia, I-li and Thibet, em- braces a vast territory in eastern and central Asia, only inferior (99) 100 DEPENDENCIES OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. in extent to the dominions of Great Britain and Russia. The dependencies are not cobnies but subject territories; and China proper itself indeed, has been a subject territory of Manchooria since 1644. China proper was divided nearly two hundred years ago into eighteen provinces ; and since the recent separation of the island of Formosa from Fu-chien, and its constitution into an independ- ent province, we may say that it now consists of nineteen. These form one of the corners of the Asiatic continent, having the Pacific ooeun on the south and east. They are somewhat in the shape of an irregular rectangle, and including the island of Hainan lie between 18 and 49 degrees north latitude and 98 and 124 degrees east longitude. Their area is about two million square miles, while the whole empire has an area more than twice that large. In giving a correct general idea of China one cannot perhaps do better than to institute a comparison between it and the United States, to which it bears a striking resemblance. It occu- pies the same position in the eastern hemisphere that the United States does in the western. Its line of sea coast on the Pacific resembles that of the United States on the Atlantic, not only in length but also in contour. Being found within almost the same parallels of latitude, it embraces almost the same variety of climate and production. A river as grand as the Mississippi, flowing east, divides the empire into nearly two equal parts, which are often designated as " north of the river " and " south of the river." It passes through an immense and fertile valley, and is supplied by numerous tributaries having rise in mountain ranges on either side and also in the Himalayas on the west. Tlie area of China proper is about two-thirds that of the states of the American union. The resemblance holds also in the artificial divisions. While our country is divided into more than forty states, China is divided into nineteen provinces. As our states are divided into counties, so each province has divisions called fu and each fu is again divided into about an equal number of hien. These divis- ions and subdivisions of the provinces are generally spoken of in English as departments or prefectures, and districts, but they are t ■ sia. The nd Chinn anchooria 3 ago into the island independ- nineteen, it, having newhat in I island of id 98 and million han twice >t perhaps and the It occu- be United lie Pacific )t only in the same ariety of ississippi, lal parts, " south e valley, mountain est. Tlie states of While China is ided into ach fu is ese divis- cen of in they are CHINESE MINERS. •^V: ^!- ■:■ H CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES. 108 much larger than our corresponding counties and townships. And similarly to our own system of government, each of these divisions and subdivisions has its own capital or seat of civil power, in which the officers exercising jurisdiction over it reside. The outer dependencies of the Chinese empire are comparatively sparsely populated, and in this work, when China, without spec- ification, is mentioned, it is intended to refer to the eighteen provinces exclusively, which include the vast proportion of the population, intelligence and wealth of the empire. As to the physical features of China proper, the whole terri- tory may be described as sloping from the mountainous regions of Thibet and Nepaul towards the shores of the Pacific on the east and south. A far extending spur of the Himalayas called the Nanling, or southern range, is the most extensive mountain system. It commences in Yun-nan, and passing completely tiirough the country enters the sea at Ningpo. Except for a few steep passes, it thus forms a continuous barrier that separates the coast regions of south-eastern China from the rest of the country. Numerous spurs are cast oflf to the south and east of it, which appear in the sea as a belt of rugged islands. On the borders of Thibet to the north and west of this range, the country is mount- ainous, while to the east and from the great wall on the north to the Po-yang Lake in the south, there is the great plain comprising an area of more than two hundred thousand square miles and supporting in the five provinces contained in it more than one hundred and seventy-five million people. In the north-western provinces the soil is a brownish colored earth, extremely porous, crumbling easily between the fingers, and carried far and wide in clouds of dust. It covers the sub-soil to an enormous depth and is apt to split perpendicularly in clefts which render traveling difficult. Nevertheless by this cleavage it affords homes to thousands of the people, who live in caves ex- cavated near the bottom of the cliffs. Sometimes whole villages are so formed in terraces of the earth that rise one above another. The most valuable quality of this peculiar soil is its marvelous fertility, as the fields composed of it require scarcely any other dressing than a sprinkling of its own fresh loam. The farmer in this way obtains an assured harvest two and even three times a 1! ■ 1 ' I 104 MOUNTAINS, PLAINS AND PROVINCES. year. This fertility, provided there be a sufficient ruiiifull, seems inexhaustible. The province of Shan-hsi luis biuno the name for thousands of years of the " granary of the nation," and it is, no doubt, due tu tho distribution of this earth over its surface, that the great plain owes its fruitfulness. Geographically speaking the arrangement of the provinces of China is as follows: On the north there are four provinces, Chihli, Shan-hsi, Shen-hsi, and Kun-su; on the west two, Sze* chwan, the largest of all, and Yunnan ; on the south two, Kwang-hsi and Kwang-tung ; on the east four, Fuchien, Cheh- cliiang, Chiangsu, and Shan tung. The central area enclosed by those twelve provinces is occupied by Honan, An-hui, Hoopih, Hunan, Chiang-hsi, and Kwei-chau. The latter is a poor prov- ince, with parts of it largely occupied by clans or tribes supposed to be the aborigines. The island of Formosa, lying off the coast of Fu-chien, ninety miles west of Amoy, is about two hundred and thirty-five miles in length, fertile and rich in coal, petroleum, and camphor wood. The first settlement of a Chinese population took place only in 1683, and the greater part of it is still occupied by aboriginal tribes of a more than ordinary high type. The population of these provinces is immense, but the various esti- mates and alleged censuses fluctuate and vary so much that it is impossible to give a definite number as the total. It is a safe estimate however to say that the population of the Chinese empire appri)ximates four hundred jnillion, or considerably more than one fourth the population of the world, and nearly as much as the total of all Europe and America. One of the most distinguishing features of China is found in the great rivers. These are called for the most part "ho" in the north and "chiang" (kiang) in the south. Two of these are famous and conspicuous among the great rivers of the world, the Ho, Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, and the Chiang, generally mis- named the Yangtsze. The sources of these two rivers are not far from one another. The Ho rises in the plain of Odontala, which is a region of springs and small lakes, and the Chiang from the mountains of Thibet only a few miles distant. The Ho pur- sues a tortuous course first to the east and north until it crosses tJbe ifrea.t waJl into Mongolia. After flowing a long distance ^. TWO GREAT RIVERS OF CHINA. 106 northward of the Mongolian desert, to the northern limit of Slien- hsi, it then turns directly south for a distance of five hundred miles. A right angle turns its course again to the eastward and finally north-eastward, when it flows into the (rulf of Pechili in the province of Shantung. The Chiang on the contrary turns south where the IIo turns north, and then after a general course to the eastward and northward, roughly paralled with its fellow, flows into the Eastern Sea, not far from Shanghai. Both rivers are exceedingly tortuous and their courses are only roughly outlined here. Almost the very opening of Chinese history is an account of one of tlie innndatioiirt of the Ho River, which has often in course of time changed its channel. The terrible calamities caused by it so often have procured for it the name of "China's sorrow." As recently as 1887 it burst its southern bank near Chang Chan, and poured its mighty flood with hideous devastation, and the destruction of millions of lives, into the populous province of Honan. Each of these rivers has a course of more than three thousand miles. They are incompar- ably the greatest in China, but there are many others which would be accounted great elsewhere. In connection with inland navigation must be mentioned the Grand (^anal, intended to con- nect the northern and southern parts of the empire by an easy water communication ; and this it did when it was in good order, extending from i*eking to Hankow, a distance of more than six hundred miles. Kublai Khan, the first sovereign of the Yuan dynasty, must be credited with the glory of making this canal. Marco Polo described it, and compliments the great ruler for tl)e success of his work. Steam communication all along the eastern seaboard from Canton to Tien-tsin has very much superseded the use of the canal and portions of it are now in bad condition, but as a truly imperial achievement it continues to be a grand menio- r'al of Kublai. Tho Great Wall was another vast achievement of human labor, constructed more than two thousand years ago. It has been alleged a myth at some times, but its existence has not been denied since explorations have been made to the north of China I'roper. It was not as useful as the canal, and it failed to answer llie purpose for which it was intended, a defense against the in- 106 CHINA'S WONDERFUL GREAT WALL. i:? I ! : i;ltl oursions of the northern tribes. In 214 B. C. the Einpei'or Che Hwang Ti determined to erect a grand barrier all along the northern limit of his vast empire. The wall commences at the Shan-hsi pass on the north coast of the Gulf of Pechili. From this point it is carried westward till it terminates at the Chia-yu barrier gate, the road through which leads to the " western Re- gions." It is twice interrupted in its course by the Ho River, and has several branch .;nd loop walls to defend certain cities and dis- tricts. Its length in a straight line would be one thousand two hundred and fifty-five miles, but if measured along its sinuosities this distance must be increased to one thousand five hundred. It is not built so grandly in its western portions after passing the Ho River, nor should it be supposed that to the east of this point it is all solid masonry. It is formed by two strong retaining walls of brick rising from granite foundations, the space between being filled with stones and earth. The breadth of it at the base is about twenty-five feet, at the top fifteen feet, and the height varies from fifteen to thirty feet. The surface at the top was once covered with bricks but is now overgrown with grass. What travelers go to visit from Peking is merely a loop wall of later formation, enclosing portions of Chihli and Shan-hsi. China includes many lakes, but they are not so commanding in size as the rivers. There are but three which are essential to mention. These are the Tung-ting Hu, the largest, having a cir- cumference of two hundred and twenty miles, about in the center of the empire ; the Po-yang Hu, half way between the former and the sea ; and the Tai Hu, not far from Shanghai and the Yaug-tsze River. The latter lake is famous for its romantic scenery and numerous islets. The peculiarities of climate along the Chinese coast are due in gredt measure to the northern and southern monsoons, the former prevailing with more or less uniformity during the winter, and the latter during the summer months. These winds give a greater degree of heat in summer and of cold in winter than is experienced in the United States in corresponding latitudes. At Ningpo, situated in latitude 30, about that of New Orleans, large quantities of ice are secured in the winter for summer use. It is, however, very thin measured by what we think proper ice for n; CLIMATE OP CHINA. 107 )erov Che ilong the 368 at the i. From B Chia-yu estern te- liver, and IS and dis- isand two inuosities idred. It tssing the this point retaining ! between b the base he height e top was 38. What 1 of later anding in sential to ing a cir- le center le former i and the romantic t are due oons, the e winter, s give a sr than is des. At ns, large ,e. It is, sr ice for perservation. In this part of China snow not infrequently falls to the depth of six or eight inches, and the hills are sometimes covered with it for weeks in succession. In the northern prov- inces the winters are very severe. In the vicinity of Peking, not only are the canals and rivers closed during the winter, but all commerce by sea is suspended during two or three months, while in the summer that part of China is very warm. The period of the change of the monsoon, when the two opposite currents are struggling with each other is marked by a great fall of rain and by the cyclones which are so much dreaded by mariners on the Chinese coast. The southern monsoon gradually loses its force in passing northward, and is not very marked above latitude 82, though its influence is decidedly felt in July and August. With the exception of the summer months the climate of the northern coast of China is remarkably dry ; that of the southern coast is damp most of the year, especially during the mouths of May, June, and July. In different parts of the country almost every variety of climate can be found, hot or cold, moist or dry, salubrious or malarial. The ports which were at first opened as places of residence for foreigners were unfortunately among the most unhealthful of the empire, not so much from the enervating effects of their southerly latitude as from their local miasmatic influences, being situated in the rice-producing districts and surrounded more or less by stagnant water during the summer months. Under the later treaties which opened new ports in the north, as well as interior cities, foreigners have been permitted to live in regions whose climates will compare favorably with most parts of our own country. The Chinese themselves consider Kwang-tung, Kwang- hsi, and Yun-nan to be less healthful than the other provinces ; but foreigners using proper precautions may enjoy their lives in every province. The Chinese are essentially an agricultural people, and from time immemorial they have held agriculture in the highest esteem as being the means by which the soil has been induced to supply the primary wants of the empire, food. Of course the climate and thQ nature of a district determine the kind of farming appro- priate to it. Agriculturally China may be said to be divided 108 WHERE FOREIGNERS LIVE. into two parts by the Chiang. South of that river, speaking generally, the soil and climate point to rice as the appropriate crop, while to the north lie vast plains which as clearly are best designed for growing wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn and other cereals. Culinary or kitchen herbs, mushrooms, and aquatic veg- etables, with ginger and a variety of other condiments, are every- where produced and widely used. From Formosa there comes sugar, and the cane tlirives also in the southern provinces. CHINESE FARM SCENE. Oranges, pomegranates, peaches, plantains, pineapples, mangoes, grapes, and many other fruits and nuts are supplied in most markets. The cultivation of opium is constantly on the increase. Of course the use of tea as a beverage is a national characteris- tic. The plant does not grow in the north, but is cultivated ex- tensively in the western provinces and in the southern. The in- fusion of the leaves was little if at all drunk in ancient limes, but now its use is universal. Fu-chien, Hoopih, and Hunan produce r, speaking appropriate rly are best 1 and other iquatic veg- , are every- where comes provinces. 'W '!/ ^7 'is:^M^, ^^ fe ^^1 s, mangoes, ed in most he increase, chaiacteris- Itivated ex- n. Tlie ia- t limes, but an produce ■f< III ii:ii 110 ANIMALS WILD AND DOMESTIC. the greater part of the black teas ; the green comes chiefly from Cheh-chiang and An-hui ; both kinds comes from Kwang-tung and Szechwan. Next to silk» if not equally with it, tea is China's most valuable export. From rice and millet the Chinese distill iiloohdlic liquors, but they are very sparingly used and it is a com- pliment to the temperate inclinatilons of the people, that immedi- ately upon the opening of tea houses many years ago, the places for selling liquor found themselves empty of business and were soon compelled to close. ■ i^M; W'/'^ • .: ^f v: , Birds and animals are found in great variety, though the coun- try is too thickly peopled and well cultivated to hatbor many wild and dangerous beasts. One occasionally hears of a tiger that has ventured from the forest and been killed or captured, but the lion was never a denizen of China and is only to be seen rampant in stone in front of temples. The rhinoceros, elephant, and tapir are said still to exist in tlie forests and swamps of Yun- nan ; but the supply of elephants at Peking for the carriage of the emperor when he prDceeds to the great sacrificial altars has been decreasing for several reigns. Both the brown and the black bear are found, and several varieties of the deer family, of which the musk deer is highly valued. Among the domestic animals the breed of horses and cattle is dwarfish and no attempts seem to be made to improve them. The ass is a more lively animal in the north than it is in European countries or America, and receives much attention. About Peking one is struck by many beautiful specimens of the mule. Princes are seen riding on mules, or drawn by them in handsome litters, while their at- tendants accompany them on horseback. The camel is seen only in the north. Many birds of prey abound, including minos, crows, and mag[)ies. The people are fond of songbirds, especially the tlirush, the canary, and the lark. The lovely gold and silver pheasants are well known, and also the mandarin duck, the em- blem to the Chinese of conjugal fidelity. Many geese too are reared and eaten, while the ducks are artificially hatched. The number of pigs is enormous and fish are a plentiful supply of food. Tlie people are very fond of flowers and are excellent gardeners, but their favorites are mostly cultivated in pots instead of in beds. liefly from f-tung and is China's lese distill it is a com- at immedi- the places \ and were I the coun- tbor many of a tiger ptured, but to be seen , elephant, ps of Yun- carriage of [ altars has n and the [ family, of e domestic iO attempts lore lively r America, struck by jeen riding le their at- 3 seen only ng minos, , especially and silver ik, the era- se too are hed. The supply of gardeners, of in beds. :.n ^ AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 118 Silk, linen, and cotton furnish abundant provision for the clothing of the race. China was no doubt the original home of silk. The mulberry tree grows everywhere and silk worms flourish as widely. In nil provinces some silk is produced, but the best is furnished from Kwang-tung, Sze-chwan, and Cheh- chiang. From the twenty-third century B. C. and earlier, the care of the silk worm and the spinning and weaving of its produce have been the special work of women. As it is the duty of the sovereign to turn over a few furrows in the spring to stimulate the people to their agricultural tasks, so his consort should per- ./'/■•'•jmAiv^ CHINESE FARMER. form an analogous ceremony with her silk worms and mulberry trees. The manufactures of silk are not inferior to or less brill- iant than any that are produced in Europe, and nothing can ex- ceed the embroidery of the Chinese. The cotton plant appears to have been introduced some eight hundred years ago from Eastern Turkestan and is now cultivated most extensively in the basin of the Chiang River. The well known nankeen is named for Nan- king, a center for its manufacture. Of woolen fabrics the pro- duction is not large, but there are felt caps, rugs of camels hair and furs of various kinds. 114 MmERAL RESOURCES. While the Chinese have done justice to most of the natural capabilities of their country, tliey have greatly failed in develop- ing its mineral resources. The skill which their lapidaries display in cutting the minerals and jewels is well known, but in the development of the utilitarian minerals tiiey have been very negligent. The coal fields of China are enormous, but the major- ity of them can hardly be said to be more than scratched. Im- mense deposits of iron ore are still untouched. Copper, lead, tin, silver, and gold are known to exist in many places, but little has been done to make the stores of them available. More attention has been directed to their mines since their government and com- panies began to have steamers of their own and a scheme has been approved by the government for working the gold mines in the valley of the Amoor River. With the government once conscious of its mineral wealth, there is no limit to the results which it may bring about. The commerce of China with the western nations has been con- stantly on the increase foi* many years. The number of vessels entering and clearing at the various treaty ports is now between thirty thousand and thirty-five thousand annually, and the value of the whole trade, import and export, approximates 1300,000,000 annually. Of course the two principal exports are tea and silk. About half of the trade is done by means of vessels under the British flag, and nearly half of the remainder are vessels of foreign type, but owned by Chinese and sailing under the Chinese flag. The capitals of the different divisions of the empire are all walled cities, and these form a striking featuire of the country. There are important distinctions between the cities of the third class, most of which are designated as hien, a few as cheo and others as ting. Though varying considerably in size, these differ- ent cities present nearly the uniform appearance. They are sur- rounded by walls from twenty to thirty-five feet in height, and are entered by large arched gateways which open into the principal streets and are shut and barred at night. These walls are from twenty to twenty-five feet thick at the base and some- what narrower at the top. The outside is of solid masonry from two to four feet thick, built of hewn stone, or bricks backed with ^K THE CITIES OF CHINA. 116 earth, broken tiles, etc. There in genei-ally a lighter stone facing on the inside. The outside is surmounted by a parapet with em- brasures generally built of brick. The cironmferences of the provincial cities vary from eight to fifteen miles ; those of the fu cities from four to ten miles, and those of the hien cities from two or three to five miles. Some of the larger and more important cities contain a smaller one, with its separate walls, enclosed within the larger outside walls. This is the Tartar or military city. It is occupied exclusively by Tartars with their families, forming a colony or garrison, and numbering generally several thousand soldiers. In times of in- surrection and rebellion the emperor depends principally upon these Tartar colonies to hold possession of the cities where they are stationed. In such emergencies the inhabitants of these en- closed Tartar cities, knowing that their lives and the lives of their families are at stake, defend themselves with great desperation. The provincial capitals contain an average population of nearly one million inhabitants ; the fu cities from one hundred thousand to six hundred thousand or even more, while the cities of the third class, which are much more numerous, generally contain several tens of thousands. The most of these towns of different classes have outgrown their walls, and frequently one-fourth or even one-third of the inhabitants live in the suburbs, which in some cases extend three or four miles outside the walls in differ- ent directions. Property is less valuable in these suburbs, not only because it is removed from the business parts of the city, but also because it is more liable to be destroyed in times of re- bellion. All the names to be found on even our largest maps of China, are the names of walled cities, and many of those of the third class are not down for want of space. The total number of these cities is more than one thousand seven hundred. From the number and size of the cities of China it might be inferred that they contain the greater portion of the inhabitants of the empire. This is however by no means the case. The Chinese are mainly an agricultural people and live for the most part in the almost innumerable villages which everywhere dot its fertile plains. A detached or isolated farm house is seldom seen. The country people live in towns or hamlets for the sake of society 116 CHARACTEIUSTICS OK CHINESE VILLAGES. and mutual protectioi). Most of the cities, even the smaller ones, liave thousands of these villages under their jurisdiction. In the more populous parts of China will frequently be found, within a radius of three or four miles, from one hundred and fifty to two hundred of these villages. The estimate of population made on a previous page gives an average population of about three hundred persons to the square mile, while that of Belgium and some other European countries is greater. Perhaps no country in the world is more fertile and capable of supporting a dense population than China. Every available spot of ground is brought under cultivation, and nearly all the land is made use of to provide food for man, pasture fields being almost unknown. The masses of China eat very little animal food, and what they do eat is mostly pork and fowls, the raising of which requires little or no waste of ground. .The comparatively few horses and cattle and sheep which are found in the country are kept in stables, or graze upon the hill tops, or are tethered by the sides of canals. Taking these facts into con- sideration, that an extended and exceedingly fertile country un- der the highest state of cultivation, is taxed to its utmost ca- pacity to supply the wants of a frugal and industrious people, the estimate of population need not excite incredulity. Nearly all of tiie cities marked on our maps of the coast of China, are now open ports for traffic and residence of foreigners. The most northerly of these is Niuchwang and the most south- ern Pak-hoi, while between these familiar names are those of Canton, Swatow, Anioy, Foochow, Ning^jo, Shanghai, Tien-tsin and several others. Interior cities that have been opened to foreigners include a number on the Chiang River, the one farthest inland being I-chang. Peking is also accessible to foreigners ; and several ports on the islands of Hainan and Formosa are opened by treaty. The population of these cities cannot be told with much exactness, as the Chinese census can scarcely claim accuracy. But the largest cities, such as (Canton and Peking, are generally credited, in common with several others even smaller, with passing the million mark. The Chinese government is one of the great wonders of history. It presents to-day the same character which it possessed more I '" H" le smaller I'isdictioii. be found, i and fifty e gives an the square 1 countries fertile and a. Every md nearly iture fields very little fowls, the ind. .The are found ill tops, or a into eon- Duntry un- utmost ca- )eople, the le coast of 'oreigners. ost south- those of Tien-tsin >pened to e farthest )reigners ; mosa are ot be told ely claim 3king, are 1 smaller, if history, ised more ^ •0 n > ► D « n n 118 THE GOVERNMENT OF CHINA. l\ iliiiii thrtiu thouHHiul years ago, and which it has retained over since, during a period which covers the authentic history of tho world. The government may be described as being in theory a patriarchal despotism. The emperor is the father of his people, and just as in a family the father's law is supreme, so the emperor exercises complete control over his subjects, even to the extent of holding, under certain recognized conditions, their lives in his hands. But from time immemorial it has been held by the high- est constitutional authorities that the duties existing between the emperor and his people are reciprocal, and that though it is the duty of the people to render a loyal and willing obedience to the emperor, so long as his rule is just and beneficent, it is equally incumbent upon them to resist his authority, to depose him, and even to put him to death, in case he should desert the paths of rectitude and virtue. As a matter of fact however, it is very difficult to say what ex- tent of power the emperor actually wields. The outside world sees only the imperial bolts, but how they are forged or whose is the hand that shoots them none can tell. The most common titles of the emperor are liwang-Shang, "The August Lofty One," and Tien-Tsz, " The Son of Heaven." He lives in unap- proachable grandeur, and is never seen except by members of his own family and high state officers, save once a year when he gives audience to few foreign diplomats. Nothing is omitted whicli can add to the dignity and sacredness of his person or character. Almost everything used by him or in his service is tabooed from the common people, and distinguished by some peculiar mark or color so as to keep up the impression of awe with which he is re- garded, and which is so powerful an auxiliary to his throne. The outward gate of the palace must always be passed on foot, and the paved entrance walk leading up to it can be used only by him. The vacant throne, or even a screen of yellow silk thrown over a chair, is worshipped ec^ually with his actual presence, and an im- perial dispatch is received in the provinces with incense and pros- tration. The throne is not strictly and necessarily hereditary, though the son of the emperor generally succeeds to it The emperor appoints his successor, but it is supposed that in doing so he will ned ever ry of tlic theory II 8 people, euipeior ixtent of. !8 in his :he high- kveeii the it is the ce to the « eiiuiilly him, and paths of what ex- de world whose is common 3t Lofty in unap- irs of his he gives id whicli laracter. )ed from mark or le is re- e. The and the by him. n over a I an ini- ,nd pros- thongh emperor ) he will I I '1 * I ill I ; ■ ::i I II I I 120 POSITION OF THK KMPEROR. have supreme regard for the best food of his subjects, and will be goyerned by the will of heaveu, iudicated by the conferring of regal gifts, and by providential circumstances pointing out the in- dividual whom heaven has chosen. Of course in the case of un- usually able men, such as the second and fourth rijiilers of the present dynasty, their influence is more felt than that of less energetic rulers ; but the throne of China is so hedged in with ceremonials and so padded with official etiquette that unless its occupant be a man of supreme ability he cannot fail to fall under the guidance of his ministers and favorites. In governing so large a realm, of course it is necessary for the emperor to delegate his authority to numerous officers who are regarded as his agents and representatives in carrying out the imperial will. What they do the emperor does through them. The recognized patriarchal character of the government is seen in the familiar expressions of the people, particularly at times when they consider themselves injured or aggrieved by their officers, when they are apt to say, " A strange way for parent^ to treat their children." The government of the empire, omitting the regulation of the imperial court and family, or the special Manchoo department, is conducted from the capital, supervising, directing, controlling the different provincial administrations, and exercising the power ot removing from his post any official whose conduct may be irregular or dangerou^ oo the state. There is the Grand Cab'Met, the privy council of the emperor, in whose presence it meets daily to transact the business of the state, between the hours of 4:00 and 6:00 A. M. Its members itre few and hold other offices. There is also the Grand Secretaiiat, formerly the supreme council, but under the present dynasty very much superseded by the Cabinet. It consists of four grand and two assistant grand secretaries, half of them Manchoos and half Chinese. The business on which the Cabinet deliberates comes before it from the six hoards or Luh-pu. These iire departments of long standing in the government, having been modeled on much the same plan during the ancient dynasties. At the head of each board are two presidents, calle»ie Kellulons- Lanxiiage and Literature. In treating of the personal characteristics and customs of the Chinese peo{)le it is the desire of the writer to get away from the hackneyed descriptions of pigtails, shaven heads, thick soled shoes, assumption of dignity and superiority, and great ignoiiince concerning many subjects with which we are familiar, which usually mark the pages of articles and books concerning this race. The Chinaman is believed by many to be the personification ol" stupidity, and many writers who wish to make readable matter gladly seize upon and exaggerate anytliing which can be made to appear grotesque and ridiculous. It would be but a poor answer to these views to say that they correspond remarkably with those which the Chinese entertain of us. They also enjoy a great deal of pleasantry at our expense, finding it almost impossible to re- gard otherwise than as ludicrous our short cropped hair, tight fit- ting, ungraceful, and uncomfortable looking clothes, men's thin soled leather shoes, tall stiff hats, gloves in summer time, the wasp-like appearance of ladies with their small waists, our remark- able ignorance of the general rules of propriety, and the strange custom of a man and his wife walking together in public ! These views we can afford to laugh at as relating to comparatively trivial matters, but they think they have the evidence that we are also inferior to them in intellectuality, in refinement, in civili- zation, and especially morals. It is evident that one party or the other has made a serious mistake, and it would be but a natural and reasoiitble presumption that both may have erred to some extent. We should look at this matter from an impartial stand- point, and take into view not simply facts which are compara- C136) 136 CHINA VERSUS THE UNITED STATES. tively unimportant and exceptional, but those which are funda- mental and of widespread influence, and should construe these facts justly and generously. We should take pains not to forju the judgment that because a people or a custom is different from our own it is therefore necessarily worse. There are many reasons why unfair judgments have beeir^ formed by us against the Chinese and by the Chinese against Europeans and Americans. Each nation is apt to see the worst side of the other. It so happens that the Chinese who have come to America are almost all from the southern provinces and from the lower classes of the worst part of the empire. We have formed many of our impressions from our observation of these low class adventurers. They on the other hand have not received the treatment here which would cause them to carry back to China kindly opinions of Americans. In China the same or similar conditions have existed. In the open ports, where a large foreign commerce has sprung up, an immense number of Chinese congregate from the interior. Many of them are adventurers who come to these places to engage in the general scramble for wealth. The Chinamen of the best class are, as a matter of fact, not the most numerous in the open ports. Moreover foreign ideas and customs prevail to a great extent in these foreign communities, and the natives, whatever they might have been originally, gradually become more or less denational- ized, and present a modified type of their race. The Chinese be- ing every day brought into contact with drunken sailors and un- scrupulous traders from the west, new lessons are constantly learned from them in the school of duplicity and immorality. The Chinese of this class are no fitting type of the race. It is an accepted fact that the great seaports of the world, where inter- national trade holds sv/ay, are the worst centers of vice, and no estimate of a people formed from these cities can be just. The Chinese as a race are of a phlegmatic and impassive tem- perament, and physically less rctive and energetic than European and American nations. Children are not fond of athletic and vigorous sports, but prefer marbles, kite flying, and quiet games of ball or spinning tops. Men take an easy stroll for recreation, but never a rapid walk for exercise and are seldom in a hurrv or v» RACIAL CHARACTERISTICS OP THE CHINESE. 137 In the excited. They are also characteristically timid and docile. But while the Chinese are deficient in active courage and daring, they are not in passive resistance. They are comparatively apathetic as regards pain and death, and have great powers of physical en- durance as well as great persistency and obstinacy. Physical development and strength and longevity vary in different parts of the empire. In and about Canton, as well as in most parts of the south, from which we have derived most of our impressions of China, the people are small in stature ; but in the province of Shan-tung i^ the north, men varying in height from five feet eight inches to six feet are very common, while some of them are considerably taller. In this part of China too, one frequently finds laborers more than seventy years of age working daily at their trades, and it is not unusual to hear of persons who have reached the age of ninety or more. The intellectuality of the Chinese is made evident by so many obvious and weighty facts, that it seems strange that persons of ordinary intelligence and information should ever have ques- tioned it. We have before us a system of government and code of laws which will bear favorable comparison with those of European nations, and have elicited a generous tribute of admira- tion and praise from the most competent students. The practical wisdom and foresight of those who constructed this system are evidenced by the fact that it has stood the test of time, enduring longer than any other which man has devised during the world's history ; that it has bound together under one common rule, a population to which the world affords no parallel, and given a de- gree of prosperity and wealth which may well challenge our won- der. It is intelligent thought which has given China such a prominence in the east and also in the eyes of Christendom. She may well point with pride to her authentic history reaching back through more than thirty centuries ; to her extensive literature, containing many works of sterling and permanent value ; to her thoroughly elaborated language possessed of a remarkable power of expression ; to her list of scholars, and her proficiency in belles- lettres. If these do not constitute evidences of intellectuality, it would be difficult to say where such evidences could be found, or !►'**-■ ' 188 LACK OF MODERN KNOWLEDGE. on what basis we ourselves will rest our claim of intellectual superiority. ^ China has been so arrogant and extravagant in her assumptions of pre-eminence, that we have perhaps for this very reason been indisposed to accord to her the position to which she is fairly en- titled. It should be remembered, that ignorant until recently of, western nations, as they have been of her, she has compared her- self simply with the nations around her, and a partial excuse for her overweening self conceit may be found in the fact that she only regarded herself as the nations with which she is acquainted have regarded her. She has been for ages the great center of light and civilization in eastern Asia. She has given literature and religion to Japan, to Corea, and to Manchooria, and has been looked up to by these and other smaller nations as their acknowl- edged teacher. The Japanese have produced no great teachers or sages which they would presume to compare with those of China ; and it is clearest evidence of their acknowledgment of the literary superiority of the Chinese that they use Chinese classics as text books in their schools much as we do those of Greece and Rouie. It is true that the Chinese know hardly anything of the modern arts and sciences and that there is no word in their lan- guage to designate some of them ; but how much did our ancestors know two hundred years ago of chemistry, geology, philosophy, anatomy, and otiier kindred sciences. What did we know fiftv years ago of the steamboat, the railroad, and the telegraph ? And is our comparative want of knowledge a few years ago and that of our ancestors to be taken as evidence of inferiority of race and intellect ? Furthermore, if we go back a few hundred years we are apt to find many things to establish the claims of the Chinese as a superior rather than inferior race. There are excellent grounds to credit the Chinese with the invention or discovery of printing, the use of the magnetic needle, the manufacture and use of gunpowder, of silk fabrics, and of chinaware and porcelain, and there seems no doubt that tlie Chinese discovered America from the westward, long before the discoveries of Euiopeans. Intellectual power manifests itself in a variety of ways, and glaring defects are often found associated in the same individual with remarkable powers and capabilities, as particular faculties w MORALITY OF THE CHINESE. 189 both of mind and body are often cultivated and developed at the expense of others. Chinese education has very little regard to the improvement of the reasoning powers, and Chinese scholars are deficient in logical acumen and very inferior to the Hindoos in this respect; but in developing and storing the meniory they are without a rival. Again their system of training effectually discourages and precludes freedom and originality of thought, while it has the compensating advantages of creating a love of method and order, habitual sulijection to authority, and a remark- able uniformity in character and ideas. Perhaps the results which they have realized in fusing such a vast mass of beings into one homogeneous body, could have been reached in no other way. The morality of the Chinese presents another subject about which there is a wide difference of opinion. It may be a matter of interest and profit to turn for a moment to the views which the Chinese generally entertain of our morality, and their reasons for these views. They are all familiar with the fact that foreign- ers introduced opium into China, in opposition to the earnest and persistent remonstrances of the Chinese government; tliat out of the opium trade grew the first war with China ; and that when the representatives of Christian England urged the Chinese gov- ernment to legalize the trade and make it a source of revenue, the Chinese emperor replied that he would not use as a means of revenue that which brought suffering and misery upon his people. The Chinese form their opinions of western morality to a great extent from the sailors on shore-leave at the open ports, and these men are proverbially vicious under such circumstances. For years foreigners of this class have commanded many of the piratical fleets on the coasts of China, and foreign thieves and robbers have infested many of the inland canals and rivers. In business dealings with strangers from western lands the natives find that du[)licity and dishonesty are not confined to their own people. Replying to our criticism of the system of concubinage, the Chinese point to the numerous class of native women in the foreign communities, fostered and patronized by foreigners alone, who appear in the streets with an effrontery which would be re- garded as utterly indecent and intolerable in most Chinese uities. 140 TWO ENGLISH OPINIONS. i! ! •t The large importation from Europe of obscene pictures which are offered at every hand, is another fact which the educated Chinese cites in answer to criticisms of his people's morality. On the general subject of morality and Chinese moral teach- ing, two quotations from the writings of eminent Englishmen who lived in China for many years are pertinent. Sir John Davis says : " The most commendable feature of the Chinese system is the general diffusion of elementary moral education among the lower orders. It is in the preference of moral to physical instruction that even we might perhaps wisely take a leaf out of the Chinese book, and do something to reform this most mechanical age of ours." The opinion of Thomas Taylor Meadows is thus expressed : " No people whether of ancient or modern times has possessed a sacred literature so completely ex- empt as the Chinese from licentious descriptions and from every offensive expression. The? is not a single sentence in the whole of their sacred books and their annotations that may not when translated word for word oe read aloud in any family in En- gland." It must be acknowledged that the Chinese give many evidences, not only in their literature, but also in their paintings and sculp- ture, of a scrupulous care to avoid all indecent and immoral asso- ciations and suggestions. In referring to the above peculiarity of Chinese views and customs, these remarks are not, of course, concerning the private lives and practices of the people, but of their standard of propriety and of what the public taste requires, in objects which are openly represented to be seen and admired by the young and old of both sexes. The government of the empire is modeled on the government of a household, and at the root of all family ties, says one of the Chinese classics, is the relation of husband and wife, which is as the relation of heaven and earth. Chinese historians record that the rite of marriage was first instituted by the Emperor Fuh-he, who reigned in the twenty-eighth century B. C. But before this period there is abundant evidence to show that as amongst all other peoples the first form of marriage was by capture. At the present day marriage is probably more universal in China than in any other civilized country in the world, for it is regarded PRELIMINARIES TO MARRIAGE. 141 as something indispensable and few men pass the age of twenty without taking to themselves a wife. To die without leaving be- hind a son to perform the burial riles and to offer up the fixed periodical sacrifices at the tomb, is one of the most direful fates that can overtake a Chinaman, and he seeks to avoid it by an early marriage. Like every other rite in China that of marriage is fenced in with a host of ceremonies. In a vast majority of cases the bride- groom never sees his bride until the wedding night, it being con- sidered a grave breach of etiquette for young men and maidens to associate together or even to see one another. Of course it does occasionally happen that either by stealth or chance a pair become acquainted ; but whether they have thus associated, or whether they are perfect strangers, the first formal overture must of necessity be made by a professional go-between, who having received a commission from the parents of a young man, proceeds to the house of the young woman and makes a formal proposal on behalf of the would-be bridegroom's parents. If the young lady's father approves the proposed alliance, the suitor sends the lady some presents as an earnest of his intentions. The parents next exchange documents which set forth the hour, day, month, and year when the young people were born, and the maiden names of their mothers. Astrologers are then called ii ';o cast the horoscopes, and should these be favorable the engagement is formally entered into, but not so irrevocably that there are not several orthodox ways of breaking it off. But should things go smoothly, the bridegroom's father writes a formal letter of agreement to the lady's father, accompanied by presents, consisting in some cases of sweetmeats and a live pig, and in others of a goose and gander, which are regarded as em- blems of conjugal fidelity. Two large cards are also prepared by the bridegroom, and on these are written the particulars of the engagement. One is sent to the lady and the other he keeps. She in return now makes a present to the suitor according to his rank and fortune. Recourse is then again had to astrologers to fix a fortunate day for the final ceremony, on the evening of which the bridegroom's best man proceeds to the house of the lady and conducts her to her future home in a red sedan chair, 142 DESCRIPTION OF THE WEDDING CEREMONY. accompanied by musicians who enliven tlie procession by wedding airs. At tiie door of the house the bride alights from her sedan, and is lifted ovei- a pan of burning charcoal laid on the threshold by two " womer of luck," whose husbands and children must be living. In the reception room the bridegroom await, his bride on a raised dais, at the foot of which she humbly prostrates herself. He then descends to her level, and reuioving her veil gazes on her face for the first time. Without exchanging a word they seat themselves side by side, and each tries to sit on a part of the dress of tlio ot.iier, it being considered that the one who succeeds in so doing will hold rule in the household. This trial of skill over, the ])air proceed to the hall, and there before the family altar worsliip heaven and earth and their ancestors. They then go to dinner in tlieir apartment, through the open door of which the guests scrutinize and make their remarks on the appearance and demeanor of the bride. This ordeal is the more trying to her, since etiquette forbids her to eat anything, a prohibition which is not shared by the bridegroom, who enjoys the diiinties provided as his appetite may suggest. The attendants next hand to each in turn a cup of wine, and having exchanged pledges, the wedding ceremonies come to an end. In some parts of the coun- try it is customary for the bride to sit up late into the night an- swering riddles which are propounded to her by the guests ; in other parts it is usual for her to show herself for a time in the hall, whither .icr husband does not accompany her, as it is con- trary to etiquette for a husband and wife ever to appeir together in public. For the same reason she goes to pay the customary visit to her parents on the third day after the wedding alone, and for the rest of her wedded life she enjoys the society of her hus- band only in the privacy of her apartments. The lives of women in China, and especially of married women, are such as to justify the wish often expressed by them that in their next state of existence they may be born men. Even if in their baby days they escape the infanticidal tendencies of their parents, they are regarded as secondary considerations compared witii their brothers. The philosophers from Confucius downward have all agreed in assigning them an inferior place to men. ^-edding r sedan, ireslioM must be ide on a I herself. ;s on her hey seat ft of the Hicceeds 1 of skill e family hey then of which pearance j-yiiig to ahibition diiinties txt hand Iges, the he coun- ight an- lests ; in le in the t is con- ogether stomavy one, and her hus- women, that in ,'en if in of their )mpared wnward Lo men. DiscirLixi; ox tiik march, i.n tiiI'; Chinese ar.my. r THE POSITION OF WOMEN. 145 Wlien the time conies for them to marry, cuatom requires them ill nine cases out of ten, as we have seen, to take a leap in the (lark, and that wife is fortunate who finds in her Imsband a con' genial and faithful companion. There is but one proper wife in the family, but there is no law against a man's having secondary wives or concubines; and such connections are common enough wherever the means of a family are sufficient for their support. The concubine occupies in the family an inferior position to the wife, and her children, if siie has any, belong by law to the wife. There are seven legal grounds for divorcing a wife : disobedi- ence to her husband's parents; not giving birth to a son ; Disso- lute conduct ; jealousy ; talkativeness ; thieving, and leprosy. These grounds however may be nullified by "the three considera- tions : " If her parents be dead ; if she lias passed with her hus- band through the years of mourning for his parents; and if he lias become rich from being poor. So many are the disabilities of married women, that many girls prefer going into nunneries or even committing suicide to trust- ing their future to men of whom they can know nothing but from the interested reports of the go-between. , The re-marriage of widows is regarded as an impropriety, and in wealthy families is seldom practiced. But among the poorer classes necessity often compels a widow to seek another bread winner. Some, however, having been unfortunate in their first matrimonial venture, refuse to listen to any proposal for a re-mar- riage, and like the young girls mentioned above seek escape by death from the importunities of relatives who desire to get them off their hands. A reverse view of matrimonial experiences is suggested by the practice of wives refusing to survive their hus- bandSj and putting a voluntary end to their existence rather than live to mourn their loss. Such devotion is regarded by the people with great approbation and a deed of suicide is generally per- formed in public and with great punctiliousness. The picture here given of married life in China has been nec- essarily darkly shaded, since it is, as a rule, only in its unfortu- nate phases, that it affords opportunity for remark. Without doubt there are many hundreds of thousands of families in China 146 HOME Lliii OF WOMEN. which are entirely happy. Happiness is after all a relative term, and Chinese women, knowing no higher status, are as a rule con-i tent to run the risk of wrongs which would be unendurable to an American woman, and to find happiness under conditions which are fortunately unknown in western countries. The family tie in China is strong and the people are clannish.v They seldom change their place of residence and most of them live where their ancestors have lived for many generations. One will frequently find the larger portion of a small village bearing the same name, in which case the village often takes its name from the family. Books on filial piety and the domestic relations recommend sons not to leave their parents when married, but to live together lovingly and harmoniously as one family. This theory is carried out in practice to some extent, in most instances. In the division of property some regard is had to primogeniture, but different sons shaie nearly equally. The eldest simply has a somewhat larger portion ajid certain household relics -and valu- ables. The position of woman is intermediate between that which she occupies in Christian and in other non-Christian countries. The manne. in. which the}' regard their lot may be inferred from the fact related on a previous page, that the most earnest desire and prayer in worshipping in Buddhist temples is, generally, that they may be men in the next state of existence. In many families girls have no individual names, but are simply called No. One, Two, Three, Four, etc. When marrieci they are Mr. So-and-so's wife, and when they have sous they are such-and-such a boy's mother. They live in a great measure secluded, take no part in general society, and are expected to retire when a stranger or an acquaintance of the opposite sex enters the house. The claim of one's parents and brothers upon his affections is considered to be paramount to that of his wife. A reason given for this doctrine in a celebrated Chinese work is that the loss of a brother is irrep- arable but that of a wife is not. Women are treated with more respect and consideration as they advance in year^ ; mothers are regarded with great affection and tenderness, and grandmothers are sometimes almost worshipped. It must be further said that the Chinese iave found the theory of inferiority of women a very \l\ STYLE OF MEN'S DRESS. 147 difficult one to carry out in practice. There are many families in which the superiority of her will and authority is sufficiently manifest, even though not cheerfully acknowledged. The rules and conventionalities which regulate social life are exceedingly minute and formal. Politeness is a science, and gracefulness of manners a study and discipline. The people are liospitable and generous to a fault, their desire to appear well in these respects often leading them to expenditures entirely dis- proportionate to their means. When under the influence of passion, quarrels arisen the women resort to abuse in violent language, extreme in proportion to the length of time during which the feelings which prompted tliem have been restrained. Men bluster and threaten in a man- ner quite frightful to those unaccustomed to it, but seldom come to blows. In cases of deep resentment the injured party often adopts a mode of revenge which is very characteristic. Instead of killing the object of his hate, he kills himself on the doorstep of his ener y, thereby casting obloquy and the stigma of murder on the adversary. In matters of dress, \"ith one or two exceptions, the Chinese must be acknowledged to have used a wise discretion. They wear nothing that is tight fitting, and make a greater difference between their summer and winter cloth::.g than is customary among ourselves. The usual dress of a coolie in summer is a loose fitting pair of cotton trousers and an equally loose jacket; but the same man in winter will be seen wearing quilted cotton clothes, or if he should be an inhabitant of the northern provinces a sheepskin robe, superadded to an abundance of warm clothing intermediate between it and his shirt. By the wealthier classes silk, satin, and gauze are much worn in the summer, and woolen handsome fur clothes in the winter. Among such people it is or customary except in the seclusion of their homes, to wear both in summer and winter long tunics coming down to the ankles. In summer non-official Chinamen leave their heads uncovered, but do not seem to suffer any inconvenience from the great heat. On the approach of summer an edict is issued fixing the day upon which the summer costume is to be adopted throughout the empire, and again as winter draws near, the time for putting on J /^ 148 WOMAN'S DUKSS. ;"!' winter dress is announced in the Hunie furnml manner. Fine straw or bamboo forms the material of tiio Hummer bat, tliu out- side of which is covered with Hno silk. At this season also the thick silk robes and the heavy padded jackets worn in winter are exchanged for light silk or satin tunics. The winter cap has a turned-up brim and is covered with satin with a black cloth lin-" ing, and as in the case of the summer cap a tassel of red silk covers tlie entire crown. The wives of mandarins wear the same embroidered insignia on their dresses as their husbands, and their style of dress as well as that of Chinese women generally bears a resemblance to that of the men. They wear a loose fitting tunic which reaches below the knee, and trousers which are drawn in at the ankle after the bloomer fashion. On state occasions they wear a richly embroidered petticoat coming down to the feet, which hangs square both before and behind and is pleated at the sides like a Highlander's kilt. The mode of doing the hair varies in almost every province. At Cantcui the women plaster their back hair into the shape of a teapot handle, and adorn the sides with pins and ornaments, while the ycung girls proclaim tlieir unmarried state by sutting their hair in fringe across their foreheads after a fashion not unknown among ourselves. In most parts of the country, flowers, natural when obtainable and artificial when nut so, are largely used to deck out the head dresses, and consider- able taste is shown in the choice of colors and the manner in which they are arranged. Thus far there is nothing to find fault with in female fashions in China, but the same cannot be said of the way in which they treat their faces and feet. In many countries the secret art of removing traces of the ravages of time with the appliances of the toilet table has been and is practised ; but by an extravagant and hideous use of pigments and cosmetics, the Chinese girl not only conceals the fresh complexion of youth, but produces those very disfigurements which furnish the only possible excuse for artificial complexions. Their poets also have declared that a woman's eyebrows should be arched like a rainbow or shaped like a willow leaf, and the conse(;[uence is that wishing to act up to the idea thus pictured, China women with the aid of tweezers :i /^ vra \s Br. Fine , the out- 1 also the Milter are cap has a cloth liii- r red silk I insignia '. dress us blance to h reaches the ankle r a richly ch hangs des like a in almost back liair with pins inmarried ds after a t3 of the when not consider- aanner in 3 fashions Inch they jret art of ces of the travagant e girl not ices those ixcuse for id that a or shaped to act up ' tweeiers ^. vv COMPRESSION OF WOMAN'S FEET. 161 remove all the hairs of their eyebrows which sftraggle the least out of the required line, and when the task becomes impossible even witli the help of these instruments, the paint brush or a stick of charcoal is brought into requisition, A comparison of one such painted lily with the natural healthy complexion, bright eyes, laughing lips, and dimpled cheeks of a Canton boat girl, for example, is enough to vindicate nature's claim to superiority over art a thousand fold. But the chief offense of Chinese women is in their treatment of BANDAQINQ THE FEET. their feet. Various explanations are current as to the origin of the custom of deforming the women's feet. Some say that it is an attempt to imitate the peculiarly shaped foot of a certain beautiful empress ; others that it is a device intended to restrain the gadding-about tendencies of women ; but however that may be, the practice is universal except among the Manchoos and the Hakka population at Canton, who have natural feet. The feet are first bound when the child is about five years old and the muscles of locomotion have consequently had time to develop. 8 1 *^.- 102 ORIGIN OP THE QUEUE. A cotton bandage two or three inches wide is wound tightly about the foot in di£Ferent directions. The four smaller toes are bent under the foot, and the instep is forced upward and back- ward. The foot therefore assumes the shape of an acute triangle, the big toe forming the acute angle and the other toes, being bent under the foot, becoming almost lost or absorbed. At the same time, the shoes worn having high heels, the foot becomes nothing but a club and loses all elasticity. The consequence is that the women walk as on pegs, and the calf of the leg having no exercise shrivels up. Though the effect of this custom is to produce real deformity and a miserable tottering gait, even foreigners naturally come to associate it with gentility and good breeding, and to estimate the character and position of women much as the Chinese do, by the size of their feet. The degree of severity with which the feet are bound differs widely in the various ranks of society. Country women and the poorer classes have feet about half the natural size, while those of the genteel or fashionable class are only about three inches long. Women in the humbler walks of life are therefore often able to move about with ease. Most ladies on the other hand are practi- cally debarred from walking at all and are dependent on their sedan chairs for all locomotion beyond they own doors. But even in this case habit becomes a second nature and fashion triumphs over sense. No mother, however keen may be her recollection of her sufferings as a child, or however conscious she may be of the incjnveniences and ills arising from her deformed feet, would ever dream of saving her own child from like imme- diate torture and permanent evil. Further there is probably less excuse for such a practice in China than in any other country, for the hands and feet of both men and women are naturally both small and finely shaped. The Chinese insist upon it that the custom of compressing women's feet is neither in as bad taste nor so injurious to the health as that of foreign women in compress- ing the waist. The male analogue of the women's compressed feet in the shaven forepart of the head and the braided queue. The custom of thus treating the hair was imposed on the people by the first emperor of the present dynasty, in 1644. Up to that time the Chinese ^'^t FOOD AND HOW IT IS EATEN. 158 had allowed the hair to grow long, and were in the habit of drawing it up into a tuft on the top of the head. The introduce tion of the queue at the bidding of the Manchoorian conqueror was intended as a badge of conquest, and as such was at first un- willingly adopted by the people. For nearly a century the natives of outlying parts of the empire refused to submit their heads to the razor and in many districts the authorities rewarded converts to the new way by presents of money. As the custom spread these bribes were discontinued, and the converse action of treating those who refused to conform with severity, completed the conversion of the empire. At the present day every China- man who is not in open rebellion to the throne, shaves his head with the exception of the crown where the hair is allowed to grow to its full length. Tliis hair is carefully braided, and falls down the back forming what is commonly known as the " pig tail." Great pride is taken, especially in the south, in having as long and .lii '. ^oV a queue as possible, and when nature has been nig- gardly <> supply of natural growth, the deficiency is supple- mented ^j bUe insertion of silk in the plait. The staff of life in China is rice. It is eaten and always eaten, from north to south and from east to west, on the tables of the lich and poor, morning, noon, and night, except among the very poor people in some of the northern non-rice producing provinces where millet takes its place. In all other parts the big bowl of boiled rice forms the staple of the meal eaten by the people, and it is accompanied by vegetables, fish and meat, according to the circumstances of the household. Among many people, however, there is a disinclination to eat meat, owing to the influence of Buddhism. The difference in the quality and expense of the food of the rich from that of the poor, consists principally in the con- comitants eaten with the rice or millet. The poor have simply a dish of salt vegetables or fish, which costs comparatively little. The rich have pork, fowls, eggs, fish and game prepared in various ways. Before each chair is placed an empty bowl and two chop-sticks, while in the middle of the table stands the dishes of food. Each person fills his basin from the large dishes, or is supplied by the servants, and holding it up to his chin with his left hand he 164 FOOD PRODUCTS OF CHINA. transfers its contents into his mouth with his chop-sticks with the utmost ease. The chop-sticks are held between the first and second, and the second and third fingers, and constant practice enables a Chinaman to lift up and hold the minutest atoms of food, oily and slippery as they often are, with the greatest ease. To most foreigners their skillful use is well nigh impossible. To the view of the Chinese the use of chop-sticks is an evidence of superior culture ; and the use of such barbarous instruments as knives and forks, and cutting or tearing the meat from the bones on the table instead of having the food j^roperly prepared and severed into edible morsels in the kitchen, evidences a lower type > of civilization. The meats most commonly eaten are pork, mutton, and goat's flesh, beside ducks, chickens, and pheasants, and in the north deer and hares. Beef is never exposed for sale in the Chinese markets. The meat of the few cattle which are killed is disposed of almost clandestinely. , There is a strong and almost universal prejudice against eating beef, and the practice of doing so is de- claimed against in some of the moral tracts. Milk is hardly used at all in the eighteen provinces, and in many places our practice of drinking it is regarded with the utmost disgust. It must be confessed thiit in some parts of the country less savory viands find their place on the dinner table. In Canton, for example, dried rats have a recognized place in the poulterers' shops and find a ready market. Horse flesh is also exposed for sale, and there are even to be found dog and cat restaurants. The flesh of black dogs and cats, and especially the former is preferred as being more nutritive. Frogs form a common dish among the poor people and are, it is needless to say, very good eating. In some parts of the country locusts and grasshoppers are eaten. At Tien-tsin men may commonly be seen standing at the corners of the streets frying locusts over portable fires, just as among ourselves chestnuts are cooked. Ground-grubs, silk- worms and water-snakes are also occasionally treated as food. The sea, lakes, and rivers abound in fish, and as fish forms a staple food of the people the fisherman's art has been brought to a great degree of perfection. The same care as in the production of fisli is extended to that of ducks and poultry. Eggs are arti- ;g':-'- tff$l' iticks with e first ai)d it practice it atoms of atest ease. iSible. To videiice of •uments as the bones pared and lower type ^ ^5; and goat's the north le Chinese is disposed t universal ig so is de- ardly used Lir practice )untry less [n Canton, poulterers' xposed for 3staurants. B former is onion dish very good asshoppers tanding at } fires, just jrubs, silk- d as food, ish forms a brought to production js are arti- % V.-^ ■:•■;■<■ ijy.f/j.' »^^ FUNERAL CEREMONIES. 167 h»Ji lilt I ficirtlly liatohed in immense numbers, and the', poultry markets aud boats along the river at Canton are most amazing in their extent. The funerals of grown persons, and especially of parents, are as remarkable for burdensome ceremonies, extravagant manifesta- tions of grief and lavish expense, as those of children are for their coldness and neglect. Candles, ince*^ and offerings of food are placed before the corpse, and a mpany of priests is engaged to chant prayers for the departed spirit. An abundance of clothing is deposited with the body in the coiEn and various ceremonies are performed during several days immediately after that, and on every subsequent seventh day, closing with the seventh seven. When the coffin is carried out for burial, men and women follow in the procession clothed in coarse white gar- ments, white being used for mourning. Inasmuch as the coffin must remain in the hall for forty-nine days, naturally they are prepared with a great deal of care. Very thick planks are used in its construction, cut from the hardest trees, caulked on the outside and cemented on the inside, and finally varnished or lacquered. Sometimes a coffin containing a body is kept in the house for a considerable length of time after the forty-nine days have expired, while arrangements are being made for a burying place and other preliminaries are attended to. The lids being nailed down in cement they are per- fectly air-tight. The notions which Chinamen entertain concerning the future life rob death of half its terrors and lead them to regard their funeral ceremonies and the due performance of the proper rites by their descendants as the chief factors of their future well being. Among other things the importance of securing a coffin according to the approved fashion is duly recognized, and as men approach old age they not infrequently buy their own coffins, which they keep carefully by them. The present of a coffin is considered a dutiful attention from a son to an aged father. The choice of a site for the grave is determined by a profes- sor of the " FungShuy " superstition, who, compass in hand, ex- plores the entire district to find a spot which combines all the qualities necessary for the quiet repose of the dead. When such 158 CtJRTOtrs BURIAL CUSTOMS. SI favored spot has been discovered a priest is called in to deter- mine a lucky day for the burial. This is by no means an easy mat- ter and it often happens that the dead remain unburied for months or even years on account of the difficulties in the way of THE PUNISHMENTS OP HELih — From Chinese Drawings. choosing either fortunate graves or lucky days. The ceremonies of the interment itself and of mourning that follows are most elaborate in character, and too much involved for detailed descrip- tion here. L ^ CURIOUS BURIAL CUSTOMS. 150 But universal as the practice of burying may be said to be in China there are exceptions to it. The Buddhist priests as a rule prefer cremation, and this custom, which came with the religion they profess from India, has at times found imitators among the laity. In Formosa the dead are exposed and dried in the air; and some of the Meaou-tsze tribes of central and southern China bury their dead, it is true, but after an interval of a year or more, having chosen a lucky day, they disinter them. On such occasions they go accompanied by their friends to the grave, and having opened the tomb they take out the bones and having brushed and washed them clean they put them back wrapped in cloth. ,,:».;... ^. .,, The necessity in the Chinese mind that their bones must rest in the soil of their native land with their ancestors, has made to exist some peculiar practices among the colonizing Chinese in the United States and other countries. The bones of those who die thus far away froru home are carefully preserved by their coun- trymen and shipped back, sometimes after many years, to find a resting place in the Middle Kingdom. ;j It is a curious circumstance that in China where there exists such a profound veneration for everything old, there should not be found any ancient buildings ov old ruins. That there is an abundant supply of durable materials for building is certain, and for many centuries the Chinese have been acquainted with the art of brick making, yet they have reared no building possessing enduring stability. Not only does the ephemeral nature of the tent, which would indicate their original nomadic origin and rec- ollection of old tent homes, appear in the slender construction of Chinese houses, but even in shape thsy assume a tent-like form. Etiquette provides that in houses of the better class a high wall shall surround the building, and that no window shall look out- ward. Consequently streets in the fashionable parts of cities have a dreary aspect. The only breaks in the long line of diamal wall are the front doors, which are generally closed, or if not, movable screens bar the sight of all beyond the door. Passing around one such screen one finds himself in a court-yard which is laid out as a garden or paved with stone. From this court- yard one reaches, on either side, rooms occupied by servants, or 160 PLAN OF THE HOUSES. directly iu front, another building. Through thi8 latter another court-yard is reached, iu the rooms surrounding which the family live, and behind this again are the women's apartments, which not infrequently give exit to a garden at the back. Wooden pillars support the roofs of the buildings, and the in- tervals between these are filled up with brick work. The window-frames are wooden, over which is pasted either paper or calico, or sometimes pieces of talc to transmit the light. The doors are almost invariably folding doors ; the floors either stone or cement; and ceilings are not often used, the roof being the only covering to the rooms. Carpets are seldom used, more especially in southern China, where also stoves for warming pur- poses are known. In the north, where in the winter the cold is very great, portable charcoal stoves are employed and small chaf- ing dishes are carried about from room to room. Delicate little hand-stoves, which gentlemen and ladies carry in their sleeves, are very much in vogue. , In the colder latitudes a raised plat- form or dais is built in the room, of brick and stone, under which a fire is kindled with a chimney to carry off the smoke. The whole substance of this dais becomes heated and retains its warmth for several hours. This is the almost universal bed of the north of China. But the main dependence of the Chinese for personal warmth is on clothes. As the winter approaches garment is added to garment and furs to quilted vestments, until the wearer assumes an unwieldy and exaggerated shape. Well-to-do Chinamen seldom take strong exercise, and they are therefore able to bear clothes which to a European would be unendurable. Of the personal comfort obtainable in a house, Chinamen are strangely ignorant. Their furniture is of the hardest and most uncompromising nature. Chairs made of a hard black wood, angular in shape, and equally unyielding divans, are the only seats known to them. Their beds are scarcely more comfortable, and their pillows are oblong cubes of bamboo or other hard material. For the maintenance of the existing fashions of female head dressing, this kind of pillow is essential to women at least, as their hair, which is only dressed at intervals of days, and which is kept in its shape by the abundant use of bandoline, would be crushed and disfigured if lain upon for a moment. Women, H FURNISHINGS OF THK IIOUSKS. 161 therefore, who make any pretension of following the fashion, are obliged to sleep at night on their backu, resting the nu|)e of tiie neck on the pillow and thus keeping the head and hair free from contact with anything. The ornaments in the houses of the well-to-do are frequently elaborate and beautiful. Their wood carvings, cabinets, and ornamental pieces of furniture, and the rare beauty of their bronzes and porcelain, are of late years well known and much sought for in our own country. Tables are nearly uniform in size, furnishing a seat for one person on each of the four sides, and tables are multiplied sufficiently to accommodate whatever number requires to be served. When guests are entertained, the two sexes eat separately in different rooms, but in ordinary n eals the members of the family of both sexes sit down together with much less formality. The streets in the towns differ widely in construction in the northern and southern portions of the empire. In the south they are narrow and paved, in the north they are wide and unpaved, both constructions being suited to the local wants of the people. The absence of wheel traffic in the southern provinces makes wide streets unnecessary, while by contracting their width the sun's rays have less chance of beating down on the heads of passers and it is possible to stretch awnings from roof to roof. It is true that this is done at the expense of fresh air, but even to do this is a gain. Shops are all open in front, the counters form- ing the only barrier. The streets are crowded in the extreme, and passage is necessarily slow. This inconvenience is avoided in the wide streets of the cities of the north, but these streets are so ill kept that in wet weather they are mud and in dry they are covered inches deep in dust. Of the large cities of the north and south Peking and Canton may be taken as typical examples and certainly, with the excep- tion of the palace, the walls, and certain imperial temples, the streets of Peking compare very unfavorably with those of Canton. The walls surrounding Peking are probably the finest and best kept in the empire. In height they are about forty feet and the same in width. The top, which is defended by massive battle- ments, is well paved and is kept in excellent order. Over each 1fi2 nORROIlS OF INFANTICIDK. giiUj iti built a forlified towor botwoen eiglity and ninety feet high. The power of a Chinese father over his children is complete except that it stojjs short with life. The practice of selling chil- dren is common, and tliongh the law makes it a punishable offense, should the sale be effected against the will of the children, the prohibition is practically ignored. In the same way a law exists making infanticide a crime, but as a matter of fact it is never acted upon ; and in some parts of the country, more especially in CHINESE CART. the provinces of Chiang-hsi and Fu-chien, this most unnatural offense prevails among the poorer classes to an alarming extent. Not only do the people acknowledge the existence of the practice, but they even go the length of defending it. It is only however abject poverty which drives parents to this dreadful expedient, and in the more prosperous and wealthy districts the crime is almost unknown. Periodically the mandarins inveigh against the inhumanity of the offense and appeal to the better instincts of the people to put a stop to it ; but a stone which stands near a t< HORRORS OK INFANTTfTnK. 168 pool out. Je the city of Foodiow iK'iiring the iiisciiption, "(iiiU may not he drowned here," testifies with terrihle emphasis to the futility of their endeavors. The large number of cast a-way bodies of dead infants seen in many parts of China is often regarded, though unjustly, as evi- dence of the prevalence of this crime. In most instances, however, it really indicates only the denial of burial to infants. This is due, at least in many places, to the following superstition : When they die it is supposed that their bodies have been inhabited by the spirit of a deceased creditor of a previoiis s vte cf existence. The child during its sickness may be cared for with the greatest tenderness, but if it dies parental love is turned to hate and resentment. It is regarded as an enemy and intruder in the family who has been exacting satisfaction for the old unpaid debt; and having occasioned a groat (leal of anxiety, trouble, and expeiise, has left nothing to show for it but disappoint- ment. The uncared for and uncoffined little body is cast away anywhere ; and as it is carried out of the door the house is swept, crackers are fired, and gongs beaten to frighten the spirit so that it may never dare enter the house again. Thus do superstitions dry up the fountai is of natural affection. The complete subjection of children to their parents is so firmly imbued in the minds of every Chinese youth, that resist- ance to the infliction of crue; and even nnmerited punishment is seldom if ever offered, and full-grown men submit meekly to be flogged without raising their hands. The law steps in on every occasion in support of parental authority. Filial piety is the leading principle in Chinese ethics. SCHOOi. BOY. 164 SCHOOL lAVK OF rui-: Cim.DHKN. Sdlidul lifd l)(>giiiH ill tho ago «tl' six, iiiiil uinong tlio wealthier oliisseH great eaio i.s shown in tho ohoice of master. The stars having intliiiatoil a propitious day for boginning work, the boy presents himself at school, bringing with him two small candles, some sticks of incense, and some paper money, whieh are burnt at the shrine of (\)nfueius, before whieh also the little fellow prostrates hinisi^lf three times. There being no alphabet in Chinese the pupil has to plunge at onee into the middle of things and begins by learning to read. Having mastered two elementary books, the next stop is to the " Four Books." Then follow the "Five Classics," the linal desire of Chinese learning. A full tlllNKSE sonooL. comprohension of these Four Hooks and Five CI issics, together with tlio eonunontarios upon them, and the power of turning this knowledge to account in tho shape of e^^says and poems, is all that is ro(iuiivd at tho highest examination in the empire. This course of instruct ion has been exactly followed out in every school in tho empire for many centuries. The choice of a future calling, which is often so perplexing in our own country, is siinplilied in China by the fact of there being but two pursuits which a man of respectability and education can follow, namely the mandarinate and trades. The liberal professions as we understand them are unknown in China. The wealthier The stars :, the boy 1 candles, are burnt tie fellow phabet in of things lementary follow the :. A full L together Irning this lenis, is nil lire. This in every ^ilexing in lere being leducation lie liberal Ina. The o a M c/. X c y, PC c/: c H C pa 1' ! \. ; CHOICE OF A VOCATION. 167 judicial system fciu. mI the existence of the Jegal profession ex- cept in the case oi official secretaiies attached to the mandarins' courts ; and medicine is represented by charlatans who prey on the follies of their fellowmen and dispense ground tiger's teeth, tyjiake's skins, etc., in lieu of drugs. A lad, or his parents for him, has therefore practically to consider whether he should attempt to compete at the general competitive examinations to qualify him for office, or whether he should embark in one of the numerous mercantile concerns which abound among the money- making and thrifty Chinese. The succession of examinations leading up to the various hon- orary degrees and official [)ositions, are complicated iiiid exacting. The suc- cessful candidates have great lienor attached to them, and are the promi- nent and successful people of the empire. These ex- aminations are open to every man in the empire of whatever grade, unless he belong to one of the fol lowing four classes, or be the descendant of one such within three generations; actors, prostitutes, jailers, and executioners and ser- vants of mandarins. The theory with regard to these people is that actors and prostitutes beii)f]f devoid of all shame, and execu- tioners and jailers having become hardened by the cruel nature of their offices, are unfit in their own persons or as represented by their sons to win posts of honor by means of the examinations. The military examinations are held separately, and though the literary calibre of the candidates is treated much in the same way as at the civil examinations, the same high standard of knowledge is not required ; but in addition skill in archery and in the use of warlike weapons is essential. It is illustrative of SCHOOL aiRL. i i:l i 168 TEACHERS AND SCHOLARS. the backwardness of the Chinese in warlike methods, that though they have been acquainted witli thf> use of gunpowder for some centuries, they revert in the examination of military candidates to the weapons of the ancients, and that while theoretically they are great strategists, strength and skill in the use of these weapons are the only tests required for commissions. Persons of almost every class and in almost every station of life make an effort to send their boys to school, with the hope that they may distinguish themselves, be advanced to high posi- tions in the state, and reflect honor upon their families. Of those who compete for literary honors a very small proportion are success- ful in attaining even the first degree, though some strive for it for a lifetime. These unsuc- cessful candidates and the graduates of the first and second degrees, form the important clays of literary men scattered throughout the empire. The large proportion of this class are compara- tively poor, and their services may be ob- tained for a very small remuneration. They are employed to teach the village schools. Rich families in different neighborhoods often assist in keeping up the school fur the credit of the village, and opportunities for obtaining an education are thus brought within the reach of all. Graduates of the first and second degrees, generally have the charge of more advanced pupils, and many are engaged as tutors in private families, commanding liigher wages. They are also eni- lilnyed as scribes or copyists, and to write letters, family hist(jries, CHINESE ARTIST. BUSINESS AND THE TRADES. 169 genealogies, etc. In the larger cities schools are established by the government, and in many places free schools are supported by wealthy men, but these institutions do not seem to be popular and are not flourishing. Though trade practically holds its place as next iu estimation to the mandarinate, in theory it should follow both the careers of husbandry and of the mechanical arts. All land is held in free-hold from the govern- ment, and princi- pally by clans or families, who pay an annual tax to the crown, amount- ing to about one- tenth of the pro- duce. As long as this tax is paid regularly the owners are never dispossessed, and properties thus re- main in the hands of clans and fami- lies for many gen- erations. In order that farming oper- ations shall be properly conduct- ed, there are estab- lished in almost every district agricultural boards, consisting of old men learned in husbandry. By these veterans a careful watch is kept over the work done by the neighboring farmers, and in the case of any dereliction of duty or neglect of the pre- scribed modes of farming, the offender is summoned before the district magistrate, who inflicts the punishment which he con- OHINESE BARBER. 170 MODES OF TKAVEL. i> ! aiders proportionate to the offense. The appliances of the Chinese for irrigating the fields and winnowing the grain are excellent, but those lor getting the largest crops out of the land are of a rude and primitive kind. Among their artisans tlie Chinese number carpenters, masons, tailors, shoemakers, workers in iron and brass, and silversmitl^s and goldsmiths, who can imitate almost any article of foreign manufacture ; also workmen in bamboo, carvers, idol makers, needle manufacturers, barbers, hair-dressers, etc. Business men sell almost every kind of goods and commodities wholesale and retail. Large fortunes are amassed very much in the same way and by the same means as are now in our own country. The wealth of the rich is invested in lands or houses, or employed as capital in trade or banking, or is lent out on good security, and often at a high rate of interest. Traveling in China is slow and leisurely, and the modes of it vary greatly in different parts of the empire. In many of the provinces, especially along' the coast and in the south, canals take the place, for the most part, of i-oads. In the vicinity of Ningpo the country is supplied with a complete network of them, often intersecting each other at distances of one or two miles or less. Farmers frequently have short branch canals running off to their houses, and the farm boat takes the place of the farm wagon. Heavy loaded passage or freight boats ply in every direction. The ordinary charge for passage is less than one-half a cent per mile. The boats are admirably adapted to th > people and circum- stances, being built for comfort rather than for speed. These water courses then, with the rivers which are so numerous, fur- nish the most general way of traveling throughout the empire. In the north, where the country is level and open, the existence of broad roads enables the people to use rude carts for the con- veyance of passengers and freight. Mules are used for riding purposes, and palanquins borne by two horses, or sedan chairs carried by two coolies, are popular ways of traveling. The sea- going junks are very much larger than the river craft, and differ- ent in construction. The best ones are divided into water tight compartments and are capable of carrying several thousand tons "■."■;jf.".,;;;v»v' ,"■ vti^Vi^^' "' v> i of the rrain are the land , masons, rersmitl^s f foreign makers, uess men esale and same way try. The ployed as urity, and lodes of it any of the anals take of Ningpo lem, often les or less. )ff to their •m wagon, direction, cent per id circum- These irons, fur- mpire. existence r the con- |for riding an chairs The sea- ind differ- ater tight isand tons *T1 > i ? rn > •y. o o o H a >; M ■Ji %' HOLIDAYS AND AMUSEMENTS. 171 of cargo. They are generally three-masted and carry huge sails made of matting. Although the Chinese have the compass, they are without the knowledge necessary for taking nautical observations, so they either hug the land or steer straight by them copass until they reach some coast with which they are familiar. In these circum- stances it is easy to understand why the loss of junks and lives on the Chinese coast every year is so great. The immense number of people who live in boats on the rivers in southern China, render the terrible typhoons which sweep the sea and land espec- ially destructive. For the most part these boat-people are not of Chinese origin but are remnants of the aborigines of the country. porter's chair. That the race has ever survived is a constant wonder, seeing the hourly and almost momentary danger of drowning in which the children live on board their boats. The only precaution that is ever taken, even in the case of infants, is to tie an empty gourd between their shoulders, so that should they fall into the water they may be kept afloat until help comes. They are born in their boats, they marry in their boats, and die in their boats. The Chinese calendar and the festivities that accompany differ- ent seasons and anniversaries, are peculiarly interesting and different from our own, but space forbids any detailed account of them. The four seasons correspond to ours, and in addition to 9 fli 1. I ; I in J 11' ^l i 172 IK )M DAYS AND AMUSKMKN'rs. tlm four nonHoiiM Mm your in dividod into oiglit piirU calltMl '*jnintM," or (UviHioiiM, uinl thoso mo iiguiti Hiilnliviciod into nix- t«WM> luoro (iuI1(mI " lnoutliH," or Houroos of life. Tlioro uro forty fostivulH of ('iiiiia which uro ouhtbrutod with obsflrvnnooH gonerully throughout, tho otnpiro and aro ooimidorod to ho important. Thoy do not oiuMU' at r(*guhvr intorvalH, and thoro in no poriodical day of roHt and ro(M'(^ation oorroHponding at all to onr Sunday. Tho fostiviliort of tho lU'W yoar oxcood all othors in thoir pronunspi>ol»>d. Actors aro rogardod ns an inforior class. Komalt's «lo not ajiptnir upon tho stage, hut men act tho part of fonmlo oharai'lors. (Jamhling is vory common in China and is prjuMico«l in a variety of ways. Its ill »ep alive the music nf the ancients and to suppress all coinp»>sitions which arc not in harmony with it. It is ilirticult t\>r western cars to tind anything truly beautiful in Chinese music. The medical art of China is not of a sort to win much admira- tion tVou) us. The Chinese know nothing of physiology or an- atoujy. Tho t unctions of the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and brain aro scaled books to them and they recognize no distinction between veins and arteries and between nerves and tendons. Their deeply rootc«! repugnance to the use of a knife in surgery ov to post-mortem examinatit^n* prevents the possibility of their acquiring any accurate knowledge of the position of the various organs. They consiiler that fronj the heart and j>ii of the stomach MKDICAF- IMIACTTCE. 1Y3 ivrU cuUihI (I into Hix- I'O jiro forty 3H goMorully Mwt. Tlioy riodical rlivy inUvy. 'n»o prtiininouco i»siii8ui with " and " Tlio g of ('hineso rcrtt timo for ho sport and TluMvtora ivro rttions of tho and are very niVrior class, ct tho part of (M\ina and is i-UnowUMlgiid, ,h'ad letter. ioi\ts nseti by lous, and ox- is kopt ovor n\usio, whoso il to soppvoss It is ililVicnlt in Clunoae nuch ndnura- sioUigy or an- kidneys, and no distinction and tendons, ife in surgery bility of their jf the various l>f the stoujach all ich;aH and (h^lights proc(!0(l, and tliut the gnll bladder is the scat of courage. Man's body is bolioved to lie coinposccl of tho five elements, (ire, water, metal, wood, earth. The medical pro- fesHJoii in (^liiiia is an open nm;, for tliuro are no medical (colleges and no examination tests to worry the minds of would-be jiracti- tioncrs. Some doctors have prescriptions as valuid)le and of the same sort as those [>repar(!d from herbs and vegetal)les by many an old woman in our own country settlements. On the other hand, sonio of tho nujst ridicidous remedies are given, such as tiger's teetli, gold and silver leaf, and shavings of rhinoceros horns, or ivory. Fortunately for the people iinllammatory diseases aro almost unknown in China, but small-pox, consumi)- tion, and dysentery rage almost unchecked by medical help; skin diseases are very prevalent, and cancer is by no means uncommon, or late tho practice of vaccination has begun to make its way among the people There are hosts of superstitions among the Chinese people, and tiieir beliefs regarding spirits and the influence of the dead, of sorcerers, and of devils, are myriad. These superstitions pervade every rank of society, from the highest to the lowest. The g(U)(Mal term applied to the whole system of superstition and luck is fung-shwuy, and the practitioners and learned men in this science are called upon to determine what action shall be taken in all sorts of circumstances. There aro benevolent societies in China corresponding in variety and almost in number to those of Christian lands. There are orphan asylums, institutions for tho relief of widows, and for the aged and infirm, public hospitals and free schools, together with other kindred institutions more peculiarly Chinese in their ehiuaeter. In some parts of China schools for girls exist, taught by fenuvle teachers. In most places, however females are seldom taught letters, and schools for their benefit are not known. Koreiguers in establishing them invariably give a small sum of money or some rice for each day's attendance, and it is thought that these schools could not be kept together in any other way. The Chinese describe themselves as possessing three religions, or more accurately three sects, namely, Joo keaou, the sect of scholars, Fuh kea(ni, the sect of Buddha; and Tao keaou, the 174 CONFUCIANISM. sect of Tiio. Both as reganls age and origin, the sect of scholars, or as it isgenoriilly called, ('oiifuciiinisin, represents pre-eminently the religion of China. It has its root in the worship of Shang-to, a deity associated with the earliest traditions ot the Chinese race. This deity was a personal god, who ruled the affairs of men, re- warding and punishing as appeared just. But during the trouh- lous times which followed the first sovereigns of the Chow dynasty, tiie Li'Iicf in a [)ersonal deity grew din», until when Con- fucius began his career there appeared nothing strange in his atheistic teachings, ilis concern was with man as a member of society, and the object of his teaching was to lead him into those paths of rectitude which might best contribute to the happiness of the man, and to the well being of the community of which he formed a part. Man, he held, was born good and was endowed with qualities, which when cultivated and improved by watchful- ness and self-restraint, might enable him to acquire godlike wisdom. In the system of Confucius there is no place for a personal god. Man has his destiny in his own hands to make or mar. Neither had Confucius any inducement to offer to en- courage men in the practice of virtue, except virtue itself. He was a matter-of-fact, unimaginative man, who was quite content to occupy himself with the study of liis fellow men, and was dis- inclined to grope into the future. Succeeding ages, recognizing the loftiness of his aims, eliminated all that was impracticable and unreal in liis system, and held fast to that part of it that was true and good. They clung to the doctrines of filial piety, brotherly love, and virtuous living. It was admiration for the emphasis which he laid on these and other virtues, which has drawn so many millions of men unto him and has adorned every city of the empire with temples built in his honoi\ Side by side with the revival of the Joo keaou, under the in- fluence of Confucius, grew up a system of a totally different nature, which when divested of its esoteric doctrines and reduced by the practically minded Chinamen to a code of morals, was destined in future ages to become affiliated with the teachings of the sage. This was Taoism, which was founded by Lao-tzu, who was a contemporary of Confucius. The object of his teaching was to induce men, by the practice of self-abnegation, to reach CHINESE EMPEROR, KING OF COREA, AND CHINESE OFFICIALS. ; ii Si ; ' 1 ( I tl 1 1 ' 1 1 h j j "■; I TAOISM. 177 absorption in something whicli lie called Tao, and which bears a certain resemblance to the Nirvana of the Buddhists. The primary meaning of Tao is " the way," " the path," but in Lao-tzu philosophy it was more than the way, it was the way -goer as well. It was an eternal road ; along it all beings and things walked ; it was everything and nothing, and the cause and effect of all. All things originated from Tao, conformed to Tao, and to Tao at last returned. It was absorption into this "mother of all things" that Lao-tzu aimed at. But these subtilties, to the common people were foolishness, and before long the philosophical doc- trine of the identity of existence and non-existence assumed in their eyes a wauant for the old Epicurean motto, "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." The pleasures of sense were substituted for the delights of virtue, and to prolong life the votaries began a search for elixirs of immortality, and charms. Taoism quickly degenerated into a system of magic. To-day the mouopoly which Taoist priests enjoy as the exponents of the mysteries of nature, inherited from the time when they sought for natural charms, makes them indispensably necessary to all classes, and the most confirmed Confucianist does not hesitate to consult the shaven followers of Lao-tzu on the choice of the site for his house, the position of his family graveyard, or a fortunate day for undertaking an enterprise. Apart from the practice of these magical arts, Taoism has become assimilated with modern Confucianism and is scarcely distinguishable from it. The teachings of Lao-tzu bore a sufficient resemblance to the musings of Indian sages, that they served to prepare the way for the introduction of Buddhism. A deputation of Buddhists ar- rived in China in the year 216 B. C, but were harshly treated, and returned to their homes without leaving any impress of their religion. It was not until some sixty years after Christ, in the reign of the Emperor Ming Ti, that Buddhism was actually in- troduced. One night the emperor dreamed that a monster golden image appeared and said, " Buddha bids you to send to the west- ern countries to search for him and to get books and images." The emperor obeyed, and sent an embassy to India which re- turned after an absence of eleven years bringing back images, the sacred writings, and missionaries who could translate these (I l'< ... \ , i I. ■A i ,;.M 178 BUDDHISM. scriptures into Chinese. Tlius was intrnclnced into China the knuwledge of tluit system which in purity and loftiness of aim takes its place next to Christianity among tiie religions of the world. From this time Buddhism grew and prevailed in the land. The Buddhism of China is not, however, exactly that of India. The Chinese believe in a material paradise, which is obviously BUDDHIST TEMPLE. inconsistent with the orthodox beliei in Nirvana. Like the other faiths of China, orthodox Buddhism could not entirely satisfy tlie people. Like the Jews of old they were eager after signs, and self interest made their spiritual rulers nothing loth to grant tliom their desire. From the mountains and monasteries came men who claimed to possess the elixir of immortality, and pro- UNION OF THREK FAITHS. 179 claimed themselves adepts in witchcraft and sorcery. By magic incantations they exorcised evil spirits, and dissipated famine, pestilence, and disease. By the exercise of their supernatinal powers tliey rescued souls from hell, and arrested pain and death. In the services of the church tliey added ritual to ritual. By such means they won their way among the people, and even sternly orthodox Confucianists make use of their services to chant the liturgies of the dead. But while superstition compels even the wise and the learned to pay homage to this faith, there is scarcely an educated man who would not repudiate a sugges- tion that he is a follower of Buddha; and though the common people throng the temples to buy charms and consult astrologers, they yet despise both the priests and the religion they profess. But Buddhism has after all been a blessing rather than a curse in China. It has to a certain extent lifted the mind of the peo- ple from the too exclusive consideration of Uiundane affairs, to the contemplation of a future state. It has taup-ht them to value purity of life more highly ; to exercise self-constraint and to for- get self; and to practise charity towards their neighbors. It will be seen that no clearly defined line of demarcation sep- arates the three great sects of China. Each in its turn has bor- rowed from the others, until at the present day it may be doubted whether there are to be found any pure Confucianists, pure Buddhists, or pure Taoists. Confucianism has provided the moral basis on which the national character of the Chinese rests, and Buddhism and Taoism have supplied the supernatural ele- ment wanting in that system. Speaking generally then, the re- ligion of China is a medley of the three great sects which are now so closely interlaced that it is impossible either to classify or enumerate the members of each creed. The only other relig- ion of importance in China is Mohammedanism, which is confined to the south-western and north-western provinces of the empire. In this faith also the process of absorption in a national mixture of beliefs is making headway. And since the suppression of the Panthay rebellion in Yun-nan, there has been a gradual decline in the number of the followers of the prophet. The speech and the written composition of the Chinese differ more than those of any other people. The former addresses it- I 'm I 180 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. h 'i; m i '* !.1f rfi self, like all other languages, to the mind through the ear ; the latter speaks to the niiiul through the eye, not as words but as symbols of ideas. All Chinese literature might be understood and translated though the student of it could not name a single character. The colloquial speech is not difficult of acquisition, but the written composition is slow of learning by foreigners. "Pidgin English" is a mixed Chinese, Portuguese and English language, which is a creation of the necessities of communication between Chinese and foreigners at the open ports, while neither party had the time or means or wish to acquire an accurate knowledge of the language of the other. " Pidgin " is a Chinese attempt to pronounce our word business, and the materials of the lingo are nearly all English words similarly represented or mis- represented. The idiom on the other hand is entirely that of colloquial Chinese. Foreigners master it in a short time so as lu carry on long conversations by means of it, and to tiansact im- portant affairs of business. Tins jargon is passing away. Chinese who know English and English who know Chinese are increasing in number from year to year. In the first two chapters, containing a sketch of Chinese his- tory, mention has been made of the greater literary works pro- duced in the early centuries of the empire; and the calamity of the burning of the books has been described. Of the famous classics which are yet cheiished we will not speak again here. After the revival of literature, and the encouragement given to it by the successors of the emperor who destroyed the libraries of the em[)ire, the tide has flowed onward in an rverincreasing volume, checked only at times by one of those signal calamities often overtaking the imperial libraries of China. It is note- worthy tliat however ruthlessly the libraries and intellectual cen- ters have been destroyed, one of the first acts of the successful founders of succeeding dynasties has been to restore them to their former completenjss and efficiency. The Chinese divide their literature inio four departments, classical, philosophical, historical and belles lettres. The " nine classics," of which we have already spoken as being the books studied by every Chinese student, form but the nucleus of the immense mass of literature which has gathered around them. POSSIBILITIES OF CHINA. 181 The historical literature of China is the most important branch of the national literature. There a.re works which record the purely political events of each reign, as well as those on chronol- ogy, rites and music, jurisprudence, political economy, state sac- rifices, astronomy, geography, and records of the neighboring countries. On drawing, painting, and medicine much has been written. Poems, novels, and romances, dramas, and books written in tlie colloqual style, are frequent in the Chinese lilera- TEMl'LE OF FIVE HUNDRED GODS, AT CANTON. ture. There is no more pleasant reading than some of their his- torical romances, and some of tlie best novels have been trans- lated into European languages. There is, however, considerable poverty of imagination, little analysis of character, and no inter- weaving of plot in the fiction. The glance that we have taken af the habits and customs of life among the Chinese people, shows that while they lack many of the things that we have bctn liught to believe essential to 1- 182 POSSIBILITIES OF CHINA. civilization, they nevertheless are equipped with many good things. They have the same Iiuman instincts, and are ready and able to absorb learning with great rapidity, when once they be- come convinced of the value of it. It is their conservatism and their belief that they are the only truly civilized people in the world, while all others, are barbarians, that has made them so slow to adopt any of the better things of western civilization. The war which this work records may prove to be the most eflPective means that could possibly have been devised to awaken China from the sleep of centuries, and convince her of the value ai \u tjftiii.ioy of western methods. If this prove true, a descrip- tlo" oi China written a generation in the future mav liave to de- bci ibo the things here related as existing conditions, to oe hiator- IchI facts after twenty years. •M II. A i j:i 1 ^:|i p*i "' III I !!l it many good ire ready and ance they be- ervatism and people in the ide them so civilization, be the most }d to awaken ■ of the value lie, a descrip- V have to de- to be histor- \S cJapan Hm^. ii ir [5! k ^!!» '■V JAPANESE MUSICIAN. lAU ll !^' li 'M t (' lit': ''i\ THE MIKADO AND HIS PRlNCn'AL OFFICERS. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF JAPAN FROM THE EARLI- EST TIMES TO FIRST CONTACT WITH EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. The Oldest Dynasty in the World iiml Its ItccordH— The First Emperor of Japan— Some of tho FamoUL4 Karly llulors— Invasion and Conqiicsi ot (;oiea ' v tiio Enntross .lingo— How Civilization Came from Corea to Japan— Tin) Ulse ol tli' System of (iovernment— Mikado and HIioKun— Expulsion of the llojo Dynasty «ji ^uns— The Invasion of tho Mongol Tartars— Annlhlladon of the Arniada-Corruptlon ui iho Phogun Kule— Growth of the Feudal System -Another Conquest of Cona— Founding of the La»t Dynasty of Shoguns —Advance of Japan in tho Age of llldeyoslii. Ill a historical sketch of the life of a nation whicli counts twenty live centuries {*f recorded liistory, but the briefest out- line can be given. The scope of such a work as tliis does not admit of minute historical details. When it is said that tradi- tions exist carrying back the history for a number of years which requires several imndred ciphers to measure, the effort to relate even an outline becomes almost appalling. Until the twelfth cen- tury of our era, Europe did not know even of the existence of Jajian ; and the reports wliich were then brought by Marco Polo, who had learned of the island empire of Zipangu from the Chinese were as vague as they were enticing. The successes of the Jesuit missionaries led by Xavier, and the commercial inter- course established by the Portuguese in the latter part of the 16th century, and by the Dutch somewhat later, promised to dis- close the mysteries of the far Pacific empire ; but within a few generations these were more hopelessly than ever sealed against foreign intrusion. Only forty years ago the United States of America knocked at the door of Japan, met a welcome under protest, and the country began to open to western civilization. Even yet the great mass of the people of our own country have far from a right conception of the ancient civilization which has for ages ]»revailed in these islands of the Pacific. The Japanese imperial dynasty is the oldest in the world. Two thousand five hundred and fifty-four years ago in OGO li. C, •^^ ^. "i^.J.^^^ IMAGH EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) fe // .'!> / '^t. ^° ^ % ^m (/. '^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 :t 1^ i!i2.o IIIIM IIM ^ m 1= \A. Ill 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ) 4f^ i^. i/i f I •18S THE OLDEST DYNASTY IN THE WORLD. the sacred histories relate that Jimmu Tenno commenced to reign as the first Mikado, or Emperor of Japan. The sources of Japanese history are rich and solid, historical writings forming the largest and most important divisions of their voluminous literature. The period from about the ninth cencury until the present time is treated very fully, while the real history ot the period prior to the eighth century of the Christian era is very meagre. It is nearly certain that the Japanese possessed no writing until the sixth century A. D. Their oldest extant com- position is the " Kojiki," or " Book of Ancient Traditions." It may be called the Bible of the Japanese. It comprises three volumes, composed A. D. 711-712, and is said to have been preceded by two similar works about one hundred years earlier, but neither of these have been preserved. The first volume treats of the creation of the heavens and earth, the gods and goddesses, and the events of the holy age or mythological period. The second and third give the history of the mikados from the year I (660 B. C.) to the year 1280 of the Japanese era. It was first printed in the years A. D. 1624-1642. The " Nihongi " conipleted A. D. 720 also contains a Japanese record of the mythological period, and brings down the annals of the mikados to A. D. 699. These are the oldest books in the language. They contain so much that is fabulous, mythical or exaggerated, that their statements especially in respect of dates cannot be ac- cepted as true history. A succession of historical works of apparent reliability illustrate the period between the eighth and the eleventh centuries, and still better ones treat of the mediaeval period from the eleventh to the sixteenth century. The period from 1600 to 1853 is less known than others in earlier times, because of mandates that existed forbidding the production of contemporary histories. Whatever may be the actual fact, Jimmu Tenno is popularly believed to have been a real person and the first emperor of Japan. He is deified in the Shinto religion, and in thousands of shrines dedicated to him the people worship his spirit. In one official list of mikados he is named as the first. The reigning Em[)eror refers to him as his ancestor, from whom he claims unbroken descent as the 123rd member of this dynasty. The :*i.-Sf'' ^f'-t^fYi'; FIRST EMPEROR OF JAPAN. 189 seventh day of April is fixed as the anniversary of his ascension to the throne and that day is a national holiday on which the hirth, the accession and death of this national hero are still annually celebrated. Then one may see flags flying from both public and private buildings, and hear the reverberations of a royal salute fired by the ironclad navy of modern Japan from Krupp guns, and by the military in French uniforms from Remington rifles. The era of Jimmu is the start- ing point of Jap- anese chronology, and the year I of the Japanese era is that upon which j he ascended the throne at Kashivva- vara. In the beginning there existed, ac- coiding to one in- terpretation of the somewliat perplex- ing Shinto mythol- ogy, chaos, which contained the germs of all things. From this was evolved a race of heavenly beings and celestial " Kami " of whom Tzanagi, a male, and Izanami, a female, were the last individuals. Other authori- ties on Shinto maintain that infinite space and not chaos existed in the beginning; others again that in the beginning there was one god. However, all agree as to the appearance on the scene of Tzanagi and Izanami, and it is with these we are here con- lorned; for by their union were produced the islands of Japan, JAPANESE GOD OP THUNDER. /x 190 JAl'ANESE ACCOUNTS OP THE CREATION. and among their children were Amaterasu, the sun goddess, and her younger brother, Susanoo, afterward appointed god of the sea. On account of her bright beauty the former was made queen of the sun, and had given to her a share on the govern- ment of the earth., To Ninigino-mikotOt her grandson,^ she afterward consign- ed absolute rule over the earth, sending him down by the floating bridge of heaven upon the summit of the mountain Kirishima-y^ma. He took with iiim the three Japanese regalia, the sacred mirror, now in one _/'^ '^^Bff^^^PI^BPKp^S^n^^ ri ^^ ^'^^ Shinto JK^ >cy^Sl^^^^HBOl^B^Sc!r!lj|Bst» shrines of Ise ; the ^ C ^^Sfj^^^^^OO^^Kj^^^^^^ *' sword, now treas- V. ^/^PWaj^^j^^^B^MWEy^r ured in the temple '^"^^ '' -^''■^^^■'^S™"™* of Atsuta, near Nagoya ; and the ball of rock crys- tal in possession of the emperor. On the accomplish- ment of the de- scent, the sun and the earth receded from one another, and communica- tion by means of the floating bridge ceased. Jimmu Tenno, the first historic emperor of Japan, was the great grandson of Ninigi-no-mikoto. According to the indigenous religion of Japan, therefore, a religion wliich even since the adoption of western civilization has JAPANESE GOD OF RIDING. Vi N. oddess, and god of the was made the govern- ^udson, she ard consign- solute rule the earth, 5 him down e floating of heaven the summit I mountain hima-y;ima. •k with J dm ee Japanese , the sacred now in one le Shinto of Ise; the now treas- the temple suta, nenr i; and the rock crys- possession J emperor. accomplish- of the de- :he sun and 'th receded ne another, 3ommunica- f means of rst historic o-mikoto. ;herefore, a lization has JAPANESE PEASANTRY. it,: »» SACREDNESS OF THE MIKADO. 198 been patronized by the state, the mikados are directly descended from the sun goddess, the principal Shinto divinity. Having re- ceived from her the three sacred treasures, they are invested with authority to rule over Japan as long as the sun and moon shall endure. Their minds are in perfect harmony with hers ; there- fore they cannot err and must receive implicit obedience. Such is the traditional theory as to the position of the Japanese emperors, a theory which was advanced in its most elaborate form, as recently as the last century, by Motoori, a writer on Shinto, which of late years has no doubt been much modified or even utterly discarded by many of the more enlightened among the people. Even yet, however, it is far from having been abandoned by the masses. The mikados being thus regarded as semi-divinities, it is not surprising that the very excess of veneration showed them tended more and more to weaken their actual power. They were too sacred to be brought much into contact with ordinary mortals, too sacred even to have their divine countenances looked upon by any but a select few. Latterly it was only the nobles immediately around him that ever saw the mikado's face ; others might be admitted to the imperial presence, but it was only to get a glimpse from behind a curtain of a portion of the imperial form, less or more according to their rank. When the mikado went out into the grounds of his palace in Kioto, matting was spread for him to walk upon ; when he left the palace precincts he was borne in a sedan chair, the blinds of which were carefully drawn down. The populace prostrated themselves as the procession passed, but none of them ever saw the imperial form. In short, the mikados ultimately became virtual prisoners. Theoretically gifted with all political knowledge and power, they were less the masters of their own actions than many of the humblest of their subjects. Although nominally the repositories of all authority, they had practically no share in the management of the national affairs. The isolation in wh'ch it was deemed proper that they should be kept, prevented them from acquiring the knowledge requisite for governing, and even had that knowledge been obtained, gave no opportunity for its manifestation. From the death of Jimmu Tenno to that of Kimmei, in whose 10 11 1 1 m THE EEIGN OF THE GOOD SUJIN. reign Buddhism was introduced, A. D. 671, there were thirty mikados. During this period of one thousand three hundred and thirty-six years, believed to be historic by most Japanese, the most interesting subjects are the reforms of Sujin Teuno, the military expeditions to eastern Japan by Yamato-Dake, the invasion of Gorea by the Empress Jingo Kogo, and the introduction of Chinese civilization and Buddhism. Sujin-or Shujin, B. C. 97-30, was a man of intense earnestness and piety. His prayers to the gods for the abatement of a plague were answered, and a revival of religious feeling and worship ensued. He introduced many forms in the practices of religi(m and the manners of life. He appointed his own daughter priestess of the shrine and custodian of the symbols of the three holy regalia, which had hitherto been kept in the palace of the mikado. This custom has continued to the present time, and the shrines of Uji ill Ise, which now hold the sacred mirror, are always in charge of a virgin princess of imperial blood. The whole life of Sujin was one long effort to civilize his half ' savage subjects. He regulated taxes, established a periodical census, and encouraged the building of boats. He may also be called the father of Japanese agriculture, since he encouraged it by edict and example, ordering canals to be dug, water courses provided, and irrigation to be extensively carried on. The energies of this pious mikado were further exerted in de- vising a national military system whereby his peacably disposed subjects could be protected, and the extremities of his realm extended. The eastern and northern frontiers were exposed to the assaults of the wild tribes of Ainos, who were yet unsubdued. Between the peaceful agricultural inhabitants and the untamed savages a continual border war existed. A military division of the empire into four departments was made, and a shogun or general appointed over each. The half subdued inhabitants in the extremes of the realm needed constant watching, and seem to have been as restless and treacherous as the Indians on our own frontiers. The whole history of the extension and development of the mikado's empire is one of war and blood, rivalling that of our own country in its early struggles with the Indians. This constant military action and life in a camp resulted, in the course THE GREAT EMPRESS JINGO. 195 of time, in the creation of a powerful and numerous military class, who made war professional and hereditary. It developed that military genius and character which so distinguish the modern Japanese and mark them in such strong contrast with other na- tions of eastern Asia. ' Towards the end of the first century A. D., YamatoDake, son of the emperor Keiko, reduced most of the Ainos of the north to submission. These savages fought much after the manner of the North American Indian, using their knowledge of woodcraft most effectually, but the young prince with a well equipped uimy em- barked on a fleet of ships and reaching their portion of the island, fought them until they were glad to surrender. It was in the third century that the Empress Jingo invaded and conquered Corea. In all Japanese tradition or history, there is no greater female character than this empress. She was equally renowned for her beauty, piety, intelligence, energy and martial valor. To this woman belongs the glory of the conquest of Corea, whence came letters, religion and civilization to Japan. Tradition is that it was directly commanded her by the gods to cross the water and attack Corea. Her husband, the emperor, doubting the veracity of this message from the gods, was forbid- den by them any share in the enterprise. Jingo ordered her generals and captains to collect troops, build ships, and be ready to embark. She disguised herself as a nv^rj, proceeded with the recruiting of soldiers and the building < \ ships, and in the year 201 A. D. was ready to start. Before starting. Jingo issued these orders for her soldiers : " No loot. Neither despise a few enemies nor fear many. Give mercy to those who yield but no quarter to the stubborn. Rewards shall be apportioned to the victors, punishments shall be meted to the deserters." It was not very clear in the minds of these ancient filibusters where Corea was, or for what particular point of their horizon they were to steer. They had no chart or compass. The sun, stars and the flight of birds were their guide. None of them be- fore had ever known of the existence of such a country as Corea, but the same gods that had commanded the invasion protected the invaders, and in due time they landed in southern Corea. i9r INVASION AND CONQUEST OF COREA. Tlie king of this part of the country had hoard from his messen- gors of the coming of a strange fleet from the east, and terrified exclaimed, " We never knew there was any country outside of us. Have our gods forsaken us ? " It was a bloodless invasion, for there was no fighting to do. The Coreans came holding white flags and surrendered, offering to give up their treas- ures. They took an oath to become hostages and be tributary to Japan. Eighty ships well laden with gold and silver, articles of wealth, silks and pre- cious goods of all kinds, and eighty hostages, men of high families, were given to the con- querors. The stay of the Japanese army in Corea was very brief, and the troops returned in two months. Jingo was, on her arrival, de- livered of a son, who in the popular estimation of gods and mortals holds even a higher place of honor than his mother, who is believed to have conquered southern Corea through the power of her yet unborn illustrious offspring. The motive which induced the invasion into Corea seems to have been mere love of war and conquest, and the Japanese still refer with great pride to this, their initial exploit on foreign soil. The son Ojin, who became the emperor, was, after his death, JAPANESE GOD OF WAR. 1 fP his mesBen- and terrified •y outside of hting to do. red, offering their treas- iy took an me hostages I'ibutary to ighty ships with gold articles of ks and pre- of all kinds, r hostages, gh families, to the con- rhe stay of ;se army in very brief, )p8 returned Lhs. Jingo arrival, de- son, wlio in estimation nd mortals 1 a higher nor than his ) is believed conquered rea through of her yet nduced the of war and :ide to this. his death, M 1 •'■i I'M TOKIO—TYPES AND COSTUMES. CONTINKNTAJ. CIVIIJZATION UKACriKS JAPAN. ll»9 (leifioil and worshipped as the god of war, Ilaoliiiniin, iiiid ddwn through the centuries ho has been worshiped by all classes of people, especially by soldiers, who ufl'er their prayers and pay their vows to him. Ojin was also a man of literary tastes, and it JAPANESE MUSICIAN. was during his reign that Japan began to profit from the learning of the Coreans, who introduced the study of the Chinese lan- guage, and indeed the art of writing itself. During the immedi- ately succeeding centuries various emperors and empresses were J7;'iFir^;*-'-'--t;?' ^K NOBLE FAMILIES BEGIN TO RISE. 201 from Kioto, Japan had laigely under the government of empresses reached a most creditable stage of progress in the arts of peace. Near the close of the eighth century the emperor Kiiwammu took up his residence at Kioto, which until 1868 remained the capital of the country, and is even now dignified with the name of Saikiyo, or "Western Capital." Here he built a palace very unlike the simple dwelling in which his predecessors had been content to live. It had a dozen gates, and around it was reared a city with twelve hundred streets. Tiie palace he named " the Castle of Peace," but for years it proved the very centre of the feuds which .soon oegan to distract the country. This did not happen however until some centuries after the death of Kuwammu. But even after his time there were not wanting indications that the control of affairs was destined to slip into the hands of certain powerful families at the imperial court. The first family to rise into eminence was that of Fujiwara, a member of which it was that got Kuwammu placed upon the throne. For centuries the Fujiwaras controlled the civil affairs of the empire, but a more important factor in bringing about the reduction of the mikado's power and the establishment of that strange system of government which was destined to be so char- acteristic of Japan, was the rise into power of the rival houses of Taira and Minamoto, otherwise called respectfully Hei and Gen. This system of government has almost always been misunderstood in 'America and Europe. Two rulers in two capitals gave to for- eigners the impression that there were two emperors in Japan, an idea that has been incorporated into most of the text books, and encyclopedias of Christendom. Let it be clearly understood how- ever that there never was but one emperor in Japan, the mikado, who is and always was the only sovereign, though his measure of power has been very different at different times. Until the rise and domination of the military classes, he was in fact, as well as by law, supreme. With the feuds of Hei and Gen commences an entirely new era in the history of the country, an era replete with tales alike of bloodshed, intrigue and chivalry. We see the growth of a feudal system at least as elaborate as that of Europe, and strangely -! :l 202 BIRTH OP FAMILY FKUDS. enough, assuming almost identical forms, and that during the same period. The respective founders of the Taira and Minaraoto families were Taira Takamochi and Minamoto Tsunemoto, two warriors of the tenth century. Their descendants were for generations military vassals of the mikado, and were distinguished by red and white flags, colors which suggest the red and white roses of the rival English houses of Lancaster and York. For years the two houses served the emperor faithfully; but even before any quarrel had arisen between them, the popularity of the head of the Minamoto clan, with the soldiers with whom he had been placed, so alarmed the emperor Toba (1108-1124, A. D.) that he issued an edict forbidding the Samurai, the military class, of any of the provinces, from constituting themselves the retainers of either of these two families. It was in the year 1156 that the feuds between the two houses broke out, and it arose in ,this way. At the accession of Go-Shir- akawa to the throne in that year, there were living two ex-em- perors who would seem to have voluntarily abdicated ; one of them, however, Shutoku, was averse to the accession of the heir, being himself anxious to resume the imperial power. His cause was es- poused by Tameyoshi, the head of the Minamoto house, while among the supporters of Go-Shirakawa was Kiyomori,of the house of Taira. In the conflict which followed, Go-Shirakawa was success- ful, and immediately thereafter we find Taira Kiyomori appointed Daijo-Daijin, or prime minister, with practically all political power in his hands. On the abdication within a few years of the mikado, the prime minister was able to put whatever member of the im- perial house he willed upon the throne ; and being himself allied by marriage to the imperial family, he at length saw the accession of his own grandson, a mere babe. Thus, to use the term con- nected with European feudalism of the same period, the mayor of the palace virtually, though not nominally, usurped the imperial functions. The emperor had the name of power but Kiyomori had the reality. But this state of matters was not destined to last long. The Minamotos were far from being finally quieted. The story of the revival of their power is a romantic one, but we cannot dwell V ROMANCE AND HISTORY COMBINED. 203 upon it. It was in the battle of Atiji that Kiyomori seemed at length to have quelled his rivals. Yoshitomo, the head of the Miuamoto olan was slain in the fight, but his beautiful wife Tokiwa succeeded in escaping with her three little sons. Tokiwa's mother, however, was arrested. This roused the (laughter to make an appeal to Kiyomori for pardon. She did so, presenting iierself and children to the conqueror, upon whom her beauty so wrought that he granted her petition. He made her his concubine, and not withstanding the remonstrances of his retainers, also spared the children who were sent to a monastery, there to be trained for the priesthood. Two of these children became famous in the history of Japan. The eldest was Yoritomo the founder of the Kamakura dynasty of shoguns, and the babe at the mother's breast was Yoshitsune, one of the flowers of Japanese chivalry, a hero whose name even yet awakens the enthusiasm of the youth of Japan and who so im- pressed the Ainos of the north whom he had been sent to subdue, that to this day he is worshiped as their chief god. A Japanese has even lately written a book in which he seeks to identify Yoshitsune with Genghis Khan. It is unnecessary to dwell on the circumstances which brought Yoritomo and Yoshitsune into note ; how the two brothers raised the men of the eastern provinces, and after a temporary check at the pass of Hakone, succeeded in utterly routing the Taira forces in a dreadful battle, half by land and half by sea, at the straits of Shimonoseki. Suffice it to say, that Yoshitsune having been slain soon after a famous victory, through the treachery of his brother Yoritomo, who was jealous of his fame and popu- larity, that warrior was left without a rival. Yoritomo received from the emperor the highest title which could be conferred upon him, that of Sei-i-tai-shogun, literally " Barbarian-subjuga- ting great general." This title is generally contracted to shogun, which means simply general. Thus appointed generalissimo of all the imperial forces, he looked about for a city which he might make the center of his power. This he found in Kamakura about fifteen miles westward of the site of the modern Yokohama. Thus before the close of the twelfth century was founded that system of dual government which lasted with little change until rifW: 204 ORIGIN OF THE SYSTEM OF DUAL GOVERNMENT. the year 1868. The Mikado reigned in Kioto with the authority of his sacred person undisputed; but the shogun in his eastern city had really all the public business of the country in his own hands. It was he who appointed governors over the different provinces and was the real master of the country ; but every act was done in the name of the emperor whose nominal power tlius remained intact. Yoritomo virtually founded an independent dynasty at Kamakura, but it was not destined to be a lasting one. His son Yoriye succeeded him in 1199, but was shortly afterwards deposed and assassinated ; and the power though not the title of shogun passed to the family of Yoritomo's wife, that of Hojo, dififerent members of which swayed the state for more than a century. After a checkered career of various shoguns of the Hojo family, their tyranny became supreme. None of the family ever seized the office of shogun, but in reality they wielded all and more of the power attaching to the oflSce. The political history of these years is but that of a monotonous recurrence of the exaltation of boys and babies of noble blood to whom was given the semblance of power, who were sprinkled with titles and deposed as soon as they were old enough to be troublesome. In an effort made by the ex-emperor Gotoba to drive the usurping Hojo from power the chains were riveted tighter than ever. The imperial troops were massacred by the conquering Hojo. The estates of all who fought on the emperor's side were con- fiscated and distributed among the minions of the usurpers. The exiled emperor died of a broken heart. The nominal Mikado of Kioto and the nominal shogun at Kamakura were set up, but the Hojo were the keepers of both. The oppression, the neglect of public business and the carousals of the usurpers became intoler- iible. Armies were raised spontaneously to support the emperor and the Ashikaga leader in their revolt against the existing evils. All over the empire the people rose against their oppressors and massacred them. The Hojo domination which had been par- amount for nearly one hundred and fifty years was utterly broken. The Hojo have never been forgiven for their arbitrary treatment H^, OPPRESSIONS OF PIIK USURPING HO.TOS. 205 of the iMika'Ios. Every obloquy is cast upon theta by Japanese historians, dramatists, poets and novelists, and yet there is an- other side to the story. It must be conceded that the Hojos were able rulers and kept order and peace in the empire for more than a century. They encouraged literature and the cultivation of the arts and sciences. During their period the resources of the country were developed, and some branches of useful handicraft and fine arts were brought to a perfection never since surpassed. To this time belongs the fa- mous image carver, sculptor and architect, Unkei, and the lacquer artists who are the "old masters" in this branch of art. The military sjniit of the people was kept alive, tactics were improved, and the methods of governmental administration simplified. During this period of splen- did temples, monasteries, pagodas, colossal images and other monuments of holy zeal, Hojo Sadatoki erected a monument over tlie grave of Kiyomori at Hiogo. Hojo Tokimune raised and kept in reiidiness a permanent war fund so that the military ex- penses might not interfere with the revenue reserved for ordinary government expenses. To his invincible courage, patriotic pride, and indomitable energy are due the vindication of the national honor and the repulse of the Tartar invasion. During the early centuries of the Christian era, Japan and China kept up friendly intercourse, exchanging embassies on vari- ous missions, but chiefly with the mutual object of bearing con- gratulations to an emperor upon his accession to the throne. The civil disorders in both countries interrupted these friendly rela- COLOSSAL JAPANESE IMAGE FIFTY FEET HIGH. .-»^f,-. .-;- 206 PRIENDSHTP OF CHINA AND JAPAN. ■ HI , 'X I tioiis in the twelfth century, and coniniunicatiun ceased. When the acquaintance was renewed in the time of the Hojo it was not on so friendly a footing. In China the Mongol Tartars had overthrown the Sung dynasty and had conquered the adjacent country. Through the Coreuns the Mongol emperor, Kublai Khan, at whose court Marco Polo and his uncles were then visiting, sent letters demanding tribute and homage from Japan. Chinese envoys came to Kamakura, but Hojo Tokimune, enraged at the insolent demands, dismissed them in disgrace. Six embnssies were sent, and six times re- jected. An expedition from China consisting of ten thousand meri was then sent against Japan. They landed, were attacked, their commander was slain, and they returned, having accom- plished nothing. The Chinese emperor now sent nine envoys to announce their purpose to remain until a definite answer was re- turned to their master. They were called to Kamakura, and the Japanese reply was given by cutting off their heads. The Jap- anese now began to prepare for war on land and sea. Once more Chinese envoys came to demand tribute. These were decapi- tated. Meanwhile the armada was preparing. Great China was coming to crush the little strip of land that refused homage to the invincible conqueror. The army numbered one hundred thousand Chinese and Tartars, and seven thousand Coreans in ships that whitened the sea. They numbered three thousand five hundred in all. It was in July, 1281, that the sight of the Chinese junks greeted the watchers on the hills of Daizaifu. Many of the junks were of immense proportion, larger than the natives of Japan had ever seen, and armed with the engines of European warfare which their Venetian guests had taught the Mongols to construct and work. The naval battle that ensued was a terrible one. The Japanese had small chance of success in the water, owing to the smallness of their boats, but in personal valor they were much superior, and some of their deeds of bravery are inspiringly inter- esting. Nevertheless the Chinese were unable to effect a landing, owing to the heavy fortifications along the shore. The whole nation was now roused. Re-enforcements poured in from all quarters to swell the hosts of defenders. From the mon- asteries and temples all over the country went up unceasing *« When i was not r dynasty Coreans irco Polo ig tribute amakuia, dismissed times re- thousand attacked, g accom- envoys to er was re- a, and the The Jap- 3nce more re decapi- Dhina was age to the thousand [Ships that hundred ese junks the junks apan had are which tnict and ne. Tlie ing to the ere much gly inter- la landing, [poured in the mon- inceasing ■v. ^^N JAPANESE FEMALE TYPES. H^ JAPAN ItEFUSES TRIBUTE TU CHINA. 209 prayer to the gods to ruin their enemies and sf^ve.the land of Japan. The emperor and ex-eniperor went in solemn state to the SHINTO TEMPLB. chief priest of Shinto, and writing out their petitions to the gods sent him as a messenger to the shrines of Ise. It is recorded as a 210 INVASION AND DEFEAT OF THE CHINESE. miraculous fact that at the hour of noon as the sacred envoy arrived at the shrine and offered a prayer, the day being perfectly clear, a streak of cloud appeared in the sky that soon overspread the heavens, until the dense masses portended a storm of awful violence. One of those cyclones called by the Japanese tai fu, of appalling velocity and ' resistless force, such as whirl along the coast of Japan and China during late summer and early fall of every year, burst upon the Chinese fleet. Nothing can withstand these maelstorms of the air. We call them typhoons. Iron steam- ships of thousands of horse power are almost unmanngeable in them. The helpless Chinese junks were crushed together, impaled on the rocks, dashed against the cliffs or tossed on land like corks on the spray. Hundreds of the vessels sank. The corpses were piled on the shore or floating on the water so thickly that it seemed almost possible to walk thereon. The vessels of the sur- vivors in large numbers drifted or were wrecked upon Taka island, where they established themselves and cutting down trees began building boats to reach Corea. Here they were attacked by the Japanese, and after a bloody struggle, all the fiercer for the despair on the one side and the exultation on the other, were all slain or driven to the sea to be drowned except three, who were sent back to tell their emperor how the gods of Japan had de- stroyed their armada. This was the last time that China ever attempted to conquer Japan, whose people boast that their land has never been defiled by an invading army. They have ever ascribed the glory of the destruction of the Tartar fleet to the interposition of the gods of Ise, who thereafter received special and grateful adoration as the guardian of the seas and the winds. Great credit and praise were given to the Lord of Kamakura, Hojo Tokimune, for his energy, ability and valor. The author of one native history says, " The repulse of the Tartar barbarians by Tokimune and his preserving the dominions of our Son of Heaven were sufficient to atone for the crimes of his ancestors." Nearly six centuries afterward when " the barbarian " Perry anchored his fleet in the bay of Yeddo, in the words of the native annalist, ''Orders were sent by the imperial court to the Shinto priest at Ise to offer up prayers for the sweeping away of the bar- RULE OF THE A8HIKAGA FAMILY. 211 barians." Millions of earnest hearts put up the same prayers their fathers had offered fully expecting the same result. To this day the Japanese mother hushes her fretful infant by the question, **Do you think the Mongols are coming?" This is the only serious attempt at invasion ever made by any nation upon the shores of Japan. ,/ ' The internal his- tory of Japan dur- ing the period of time covered by the actual or nom-^ iiiul rule of the Ashikaga family, from 1886 until^ 1578, except the very last years of it, is not very at- tractive to a for- eign reader. It is a confused picture of intestinal war. It was by foul means that Ashi- kaga Takugi, one' of the generals who overthrew the Hojos, attained the dignity of shogun, and a period of more than two centuries, during which his descend- ants held sway at Kamakura, was characterized by treachery, bloodshed and almost perpetual warfare. The founder of this line secured the favor of the mikado Go-Daigo, after he was re- called from exile, upon the overthrow of the military usurpation. Ashikaga soon seized the reins in his own hands. The mikado fled in terror, and a new mikado was declared in the person of JAPANESE GOD OF THE WIND. / i 212 RISE AND I'KUFKCTION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. another of the royal family. Of course this man was willing to confer upon Asliikaga, his supporter the title of shogun. Kama- kura again became a military ciapital. The duarchy was restored, and the war of the northern and southern dynasties began, to last fifty six years. Tho act by which more than any other the Ashikagas earned the curses of posterity, was the sending of an embassy to China in 1401, bearing presents, acknowledging in a measure the authority of China, and accepting in return the title of Nippon O, or king of Japan. This which was done by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, the third of the line, was an insult to the mitional dignity for which he has never been forgiven. It was a needless humiliation of Japan to her airogant neighbor and done only to exalt the vanity and glory of the usurper, who, not content ,with adopting the style and equip- age of the mikado, wished to be called a king and yet dared not usurp the imperial throne. Japan of all the Asiatic nations seems to have brought the feudal system to the highest state of per- fection. While in Europe the na- tions were engaged in throwing off the feudal yoke and inaugurat- ing modern government, Japan was riveting the fetters which stood intact until 1871. The dairaios were practically independent chieftains, who ruled their own provinces as they willed ; and the more ambitious and power- ful did not hesitate to make war upon the neighboring clans. There were on all sides struggles for pre-eminence in which the fittest survived, annexing to their own territories those of the weaker class which they had subdued. Nor was it merely rival clans that were disturbing the country. The Buddhist clergy DAIMIOS OF JAPAN. ^^^^ -«i< SKETCH SHOWING DEVELOPMENT OF THE JAPANESE ARMY FROM 1867 TO THE PRESENT, RISE AND PERFECTION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 216 had acquired immense political influence, which they were far from scrupulous in using. Their monasteries were in many cases castles, from wliicli themselves living amid every kind of luxury, BUDDHIST PRIESTS. tliey tyrannized over the surrounding country. The history of these often reads strikingly like that of the corresponding insti- tutions in Europe daring the middle ages; indeed the hierarchical 11 11. 1 I 216 THREE GREAT MEN AND THEIR CAREERS. as well as the feudal development of Europe and Japan have been wonderfully alike. Probably the three names most renowned in Japan are No- bunaga, Hideyoshi and lyeyasu. The second and third of these were generals subordinate to the first, who deposed the Ashi^aga shoguns, persecuted the Buddhists, encouraged the Jesuits, and restored tc a great extent the supremacy of the mikado. The Buddhists look on this leader as an incarnate demon sent to de- stroy their faith. He was a Shintoist, with bitter hatred for the Buddhists, and never lost an opportunity to burn property of his enemies or butcher priests, women, and children of that faith. These who have just been named, by their prowess and the strength of their armies, rose to highest positions among the dai- mios. When these three great men appeared, the country was in a most critical state. The later Ashikaga shoguns had become as powerless as the mikado himself in the management of affairs. Nobunaga first rose into note. By successive victories, he became ruler of additional provinces, and his fame became so great that the emperor committed to him the task of tranquilizing the country. He deposed first one usurping shogun and then another, and thus came an end to the domination of the Ashikagas. No- bunaga was now the most powerful man in the country, and was virtually discharging the duties of shogun though he never ob- tained the title. Hideyoshi became virtual lord of the empire, after the assassination of Nobunaga. He rose from the ranks of the peasants to the highest position in Japan under the emperor. Having in connection with Nobunaga and lyeyasu reduced all the Japanese clans into subjection, he looked abroad for some foreign power to subdue. The immoderate ambition of Hideyoshi's life was to conquer Corea, and ev«n China. Under the declining power of Ashikaga, all tribute from Corea had ceased and the pirates who ranged the coasts scarcely allowed any trade to exist. We have seen how it was from Corea that Japan received Chinese learning and the arts of civilization, and Coreans swelled the number of Mongol Tar- tars who invaded Japan with the armada. On the other hand Corea was more than once overrun by Japanese armies, even ■w- CONQUEST OF COREA BY HIDEYOSHI. 217 ipan have in are No- :d of these 5 Ashi^aga esuits, and cado. The sent to de- ;red for the )erty of his that faith. )ss and the )ng the dai- ;ry was in a L become as it of affairs. ,, he became o great that lilizing the len another, agas. No- ^ry, and was e never ob- the empire, ,he ranks of ;he emperor, uced all the jome foreign to conquer \i Ashikaga, ranged the I seen how it land the arts [ongol Tar- other hand jirmies, even partly governed by Japanese officials, and on different occasions had to pay tribute to Japan in token of submission. Japanese pirates too were for six hundred years as much the terror of the Chinese and Corean costs as were the Danes and Norsemen of the shores of the North Sea. The discontinuance of the embassies and tribute from Gorea, thus afforded the ambitious general a pre- text for disturbing the friendly relations with Gorea, by the dis- patch of an embassador to complain of this neglect. The behav- ior of this embassador only too clearly reflected the swagger of his overbearing lord, and the consequence was an invasion of Corea. Hideyoshi promised to march his generals and army to Peking, and divide the soil of Ghina among them. He also scorned the suggestion that scholars versed in Chinese should accompany the expedition. Said he, " This expedition will make the Chinese use our literature." Gorea was completely overrun by Hideyoshi's forces, although the commander himself was unable to accompany the expedition, owing to his age and the grief of his mother. Further details of this invasion will be found later in the histori- cal sketch of Gorea. It may be said here however, that the con- quest terminated ingloriously, and reflects no honor on Japan. The responsibility of the outrage upon a peaceful nation rests wholly upon Hideyoshi. The Coreans were a mild and peaceable people, wholly unprepared for war. There was scarcely a shadow of provocation for the invasion, which was nothing less than a huge filibustering scheme. It was not popular with the people or the rulers, and was only carried through by the will of the mili- tary leader. The sacrifice of life on either side must have been great, and all for the ambition of one man. Nevertheless, a party in Japan has long held that Corea was by the conquests of the third and sixteenth centuries a part of the Japanese empire, and the reader will see how 1772 and again in 1775 the cry of " On to Corea " shook the nation like an earthquake. After the deaths of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, Tokugawa lyey- asu was left the virtual ruler of Japan. At first he governed the country as regent, but his increasing popularity awoke the jeal- ousy of the partisans of Hideyori, the son of Hideyoshi, who was nominated as his successor, as well as of Nobunaga's family. 218 YEDDO BECOMES THE SEAT OF THE SHOGUN. These combined to overthrow him, and the consequence was the great battle of Sekigahara, fought in 1600, in which lyeyasu came off completely victorious. Three years later, he was appointed by the emperor shogun. Like Yorotomo he resolved to select a city as the center of his power, and that which seemed tp him most suitable was not Kamakura, which ere this had lost much of its glory, but the little castle town of Yeddo, about thirty-five miles farther north. Here he and his successors, and the dynasty he founded, swayed the destinies of Japan from 1603 until the restoration in 1868. JAPANESE JUNK. It is not difficult to account for the tone of admiration and pride with which a modern Japanese speaks of "The age of Taiko." There are many who hold that Hideyoshi, or Taiko, was the real unifier of the empire. Certain it is tliat he origi- nated many of the most striking forms of national administra- tion. In his time the arts and sciences were not only in a very flourishing condition, but gave promise of rich development. The spirit of military enterprise and internal national improvement was at its height. Contact with the foreigners of many nations awoke a spirit of inquiry and intellectual activity ; but it was on ence was the yeyasu came as appointed d to select a emed tq him lost much of at thirty-five the dynasty $03 until the m- miration and ■The age of hi, or Taiko, that he origi- 1 administra- iily in a very praent. The improvement nany nations )ut it was on w m K, I;!' M M ■^»:, iwT*f^;';PY'iitfr^": POSITION OF JAPAN AT THIS PERIOD. 221 the seas that genius and restless activity found their most con- genial field. This era is marked by the highest production in marine archi- tecture, and the extent and variety of commercial enterprise. The ships built in this century were twice the size and vastly the superior in model of the junks that now hug the Japanese shores or ply between China and Japan. The pictures of them pre- scENES OF INDUSTRIAL LIFE. (From a Japanese Album.) served to the present day, show that they were superior in size to the vessels of Columbus, and nearly equal in sailing qualities to the contemporary Dutch and Portuguese galleons. They were provided with ordnance, and a model of a Japanese breech-load- ing cannon is still preserved in Kioto. Ever a brave and adven- tui'ous people, the Japanese then roamed the seas with a freedom 222 POSITION OF JAPAN AT THIS PERIOD. that one who knows only of the modern bound people would scarcely credit. Voyages of trade, discovery or piracy have been made to India, Siam, Birmah, the Philippine Islands, Southern China, the Malay Archipelago and the Kuriles, even in the fif- teenth century, but were more numerous in the sixteenth. The Japanese literature contains many references to these adventur- ous sailors, and when the records of the far east are thoroughly investigated, and this subject fully studied, very interesting re- sults are apt to be obtained showing the widespread influence of Japan at a time when she was scarcely known by the European world to have existence. HISTORICAL SKETCH FROM THE COMING OF THE FIRST EUROPEAN TRAVELERS TO THE PRESENT TIME. A New Dynasty ot Shoguns— Mendez Pinto's Visit— Arrival of the Jesuit Missionaries— Kind RecepUunof Christianity— Quarrels Between the Sects— Beginning of Christian Per- secution— Expulsion of the Missionaries— Torture and Martyrdom- The Massacre of Shim, abara— Kxpulslon of all Foreigners— Closing tlie Door of Japan— History of the Last Bho- gunate— Arrival of Commodore Perry's Fleet— The Knock at the Door of Japan— An Era of Treaty Making- Rapid Advance of Western Manners and Ideas in Japan— Attacks on For< elgners- The Abolition of the Shogunate— Japan's Last Quarter Century. Hitherto we have seen two readily distinguishable periods in the history of Japan, the period during which the mikados were the actual as well as the nominal rulers of the empire ; and the period during which the imperial power more and more passed into the hands of usurping mayors of the palace, and the country was kept in an almost constant ferment with the feuds of rival noble families which coveted this honor. Successively the power, although not always the title, of shogun, had been held by members of the Minamoto, Hojo, Ashikaga, Ota and Toyo- tomi families. With lyeyasu we pass into a third period, like the second in that the dual system of feudal government still pre- vailed, but unlike it in that it was a period of peace. Much strife had accompanied the erection of the fabric of feudalism, but it now stood complete. The mikado in Kioto and the daimios in their different provinces, alike ceased to protest against the dual administration. Within certain limits they had the regulation of their own affairs; the mikado was ever rec- ognized as the source of all authority, and the daimios in their own provinces were petty kings ; but it was the shogun in Yeddo who, undisputed, at least in practice, whatever some of the more powerful daimios may have said, swayed the destinies of the em- pire. Let us now note the policy which the Shoguns adopted towards the foreigners who as missionaries or merchants had found their (223) 224 ^HE BEGINNINGS OF EXPLORATION. and the ooui'Be of settlement nud trade of way to Japan, foreigners. ^ It seems now certain that when Columbus set sail from Spain to discover a new continent, it was not America he was seeking, but the land of Japan. Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler, had spent seventeen years, 1276-1292, at the court of the Tartar emperor Kublai Khan, and while in Peking hr,d heard of a land lying to the eastward, called in the language of the Chinese, Zip- angu, from which our modern name Japan has been corrupted. Columbus was an ardent student of Polo's book, which had been published in 1298. He sailed westward across the Atlantic to find this kingdom. He discovered not Japan, but an archipelago in America on whose shores he eagerly inquired concerning Zip- angu. Following this voyage, Vasco de Gama and a host of other brave Portuguese navigators sailed into the Orient and came back to tell of densely populated empires enriched with the wealth that makes civilization possible, and of which Europe had scarcely heard. Their accounts fired the hearts of the zealous who longed to convert the heathen, aroused the cupidity of traders who thirsted for gold, and kindled the desire of i ,onarchs to found empires in Asia. Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese adventurer, seems to have been the first European who landed on Japanese soil. On his return to Europe he told so many wonderful stories that by a pun on his Christian name he was dubbed " the mendacious." His nar- rative was, however, as we now know, substantially correct. Pinto while in China had got on board a Chinese junk, com- manded by a pirate. They were attacked by another corsair, their pilot was killed, and the vessel was driven oif the coast by a storm. They made for the Liu Kiu Islands, but unable to find a harbor, put to sea again. After twenty-three days' beating about, they sighted the islands of Tanegashima and landed. The name of the island, " island of the seed," was significant. The arrival of these foreigners was a seed of troubles innumerable. The crop was priestcraft of the worst type, political intrigue, re- ligious persecution, the inquisition, the slave trade, the propaga- tion of Christianity by the sword, sedition, rebellion, and civil war. Its harvest was garnered in the blood of sixty-thousand Japanese. FIRST ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS IN JAPAN. 225 The native histories recount the first arrival of Europeans in 1542, and note that year as the one in which fire-arms were first introduced. The pirate trader who brought Pinto to Japan cleared twelve hundred per cent, on his cargo, and the three Por- tuguese returned to China loaded with presents. The new market attracted hundreds of Portuguese adventurers to Japan, who found a ready welcome. The missionary followed the mer- chant. Already the Portuguese priests and Franciscan friars were numerous in India. Two Jesuits and two Japanese who had been converted at Goa, headed by Xavier, landed at Kagoshima in 1549. Xavier did not have great success, and in a short time left Japan disheartened. He had, however, inspired others who followed him, and their success was amazingly great. The success ef the Jesuit missionaries soon attracted the attention of the authorities. Organtin, a Jesuit missionary in Kioto, writing of his experiences, says that he was asked his name and why he had come to Japan. He replied that he was the Padre Organtin and had come to spread religion. He was told thai; he could not be allowed at once to spread his religion, but would be informed later on. Nobunaga accordingly took counsel with his retainers as to whether he would allow Christianity to be preached or not. One of these strongly advised not to do so, on the ground that there were already enough religions in the coun- try, but Nobunaga replied that Buddhism had been introduced from abroad and had done good in the country, and he therefore did not see why Christianity should not be granted a trial. Organtin was consequently allowed to erect a church and to send for others of his order, who, when they came, were found to be like him in appearance. Their plan of action was to care for the sick, and so prepare the way for the reception of Christi- anity, and then to convert every one and make the thirty-six pro- vinces of Japan subject to Portugal. In this last clause we have an explanation of the policy which the Japanese government ultimately adopted towards Christianity and all foreign innova- tions. Within five years after Xavier visited Kioto, seven churches were established in the vicinity of the city itself, while scores of Christian communities had sprung up in the south-west. .;„frr..(,.,,..\; : /^ 286 RAPID PROGRESS OP CHRISTIANITY. In 1581 there were two hundred chiirchea and ono liundreikund fifty thousand native Christians. ' In 1588 an embassy of four young noblemen was dispatched by the Christian daimios to the popo to declare themselves vnssals of the Holy See. They returned after eight years, having had au- dience of Phillip 11. of Spain, and kissed the feet of the pope at Rome. They brought with them seventeen Jesuit missionaries, an important addition to the list of religious instructors. Spanish mendicant friars from the Philippine Islands, with Dominicans and Augustinians, also flocked into the country, teaching and zealously proselyting. The number of "Christians" at the time of the highest success of the missionaries in Japan was, according to their own figures six hundred thousand, a number that seems to be no exaggeration if quantity and not quality are considered. The Japanese less accurately set down a total of two million nominal adherents to the Christian sects. Among the converts were several princes, large numbers of lords, and gentlemen in high official positions, and beside generals of the army and admirals of the navy. Churches and chapels were numbered by the thousand, and in some provinces crosses and Christian shrines were as numerous as the kindred evidences of Buddhism had been before. The methods of the Jesuits appealed to the Japanese, as did the forms and symbols of the faith, but the Jesuits began to attack most violently the character of the native priests, and to incite their converts to insult their gods, burn the idols and desecrate the old shrines. As the different orders, Jesuits, Franciscans and Augustinians increased, they began to clash. Political and religious war was almost universal in Europe at the same time, and the quarrels of the various nationalities followed the buccaneers, pirates, traders and missionaries to the distant seas of Japan. All the foreigners, but especially Portuguese, then were slave traders, and thousands of Japanese were bought and sold and shipped to China and the Philippines. The sea ports of Hirado and Nagasalci were the resorts of tlie lowest class of adventurers of all European nations, and the result was a continuous series of uproars, broils and murders among the foreigners. Such a picture of foreign influ- ence and of Christianity as the Japanese saw it was not calcu- FRIGHTFUL PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS. 227 lated to make a pertnanently favorable impression 011 tlie Japanese mind. Latterly Nobunap had somewhat repented of the favor he liad shown to the new religion, though his death occurred before his dissatisfaction had manifested itself in any active repression- Ilideyoshi had never been well disposed to Christianity, but other matters prevented him from at once meddling with the policy of his predecessors. In 1588 he ventured to issue an edict com- manding the missionaries to assemble at Hirndo, an island off the west coast of Kiushiu and prepared to leave Japan, and the missionaries obeyed, but as the edict was not enforced they again returned to the work of evangelization in private as vigorously as ever, averaging ten thousand converts a year. The Spanish mendicant friars pouring in from the Philippines, openly defied Japanese laws. This aroused Hideyoshi*s attention and his decree of expulsion was renewed. Some of the churches were burned. In 1596 six Franciscan and three Jesuit priests with seventeen Japanese converts were taken to Nagasaki and there burned. When Hideyoshi died, affairs seemed to take a more favorable turn, but only for a few years. lyeyasu was as much opposed to Christianity as Hideyoshi, and his hatred of the new religion was intensified by his partiality for Buddhism. The new daimios, carrying the policy of their predecessors as taught them by the Jesuits, but reversing its direction, began to persecute their Christian subjects, and to compel them to renounce their faith. The native converts resisted, even to blood and the taking up of arras. The idea of armed rebellion among the farmers was some- thing so wholly new that lyeyasu suspected foreign instigation. He became more vigilant as his suspicions increased, and resolving to crush this spirit of independence and intimidate the foreign emissaries, met every outbreak with bloody reprisals. lyeyasu issued a decree of expulsion against the missionaries in 1600, but the decree was not at once carried into effect. The date of the at arrival in Japan of Dutch merchants was also 1600. They settled in the island of Hirado. In 1606 an edict from Yeddo forbade the exercise of the Christian religion, but an outward show of obedience warded off active persecution. Four years later the Spanish friars again aroused the wrath of the HORRORS OF THE PERSECUTION. government by defying its commands and exhorting the native Con- verts to do likewise. In 1611 lyeyasu obtained documentary proof of what he had long suspected, the existence of a plot on the part of the native converts and the foreign emissaries to reduce Japan to the position of a subject state. Fresh edicts were issued, and in 1614 twenty-two Franciscan, Dominican and Augustinian friars, one hundred and seventeen Jesuits and hundreds of native priests were embarked by force on board junks and sent out of the country. The next year the shogun pushed matters to an ex- treme with Hideyori, who was entertaining some Jesuit priests, and laid siege to the castle of Ozaka. A battle of unusual ferocity and bloody slaughter raged, ending in the burning of the citadel and the total defeat and death of Hideyori and thou- sands of his followers. The Jesuit fathers say that one hundred thousand men perished in this brief war. The exiled foreign friars kept secretly returning, and the shogun pronounced sentence of death against any foreign priest fuund in the country. lyemitsu, the next shogun, restricted all foreign commerce in Nagasaki and Hirado ; all Japanese were forbidden to leave the country on pain of death. Any European vessel approaching the coast was at once to be referred to Nagasaki, whence it was to be sent home ; the whole crew of any junk in which a missionary should reach Japanese shores were to be put to death; and the better to remove all temptation to go abroad, it was decreed that no ships should be constructed above a cer- tain size and with other than the open sterns of coasting vessels. Fire and sword were used to extirpate Christianity and to paganize the same people who in their youth were Christianized by the same means. Thousands of the native converts fled to China, Formosa and the Philippines. The Christians suffered all sorts of persecutions and tortures that savage ingenuity could devise. Yet few of the natives quailed or renounced their faith. They calmly let the fire of wood, cleft from the crosses before which they once prayed consume, them. Mothers carried their babes to the fire or the edge of the precipice rather than leave them behind to be educated in pagan faith. If any one doubt the sincerity and fervor of the Christian converts of to-day, or the ability of the Japanese to accept a liigher form of faith, or their willingness lative con- itary proof n the part ;e Japan to ed, and in lian friars, tive priests nit of the to an ex- iiit priests, )f unusual ning of the and thou- ne hundred the shogun riest fuund all foreign e forbidden 3ean vessel ) Nagasaki, :iny junk in e to be put ) go abroad, bove a cer- ;ing vessels, ity and to hristianized lerts fled to suffered all lould devise, ith. They efore which eir babes to Ihem behind le sincerity ability of willingness •. "■ ^l^;,-': THE SIEGE AND MASSACRE OF SHIMABARA. 231 to suffer for what they believe, he has but to read the accounts of various witnesses to the fortitude of the Japanese Christians of the seventeenth century. The persecution reached its climax in the tragedy of Shinia- bara in 1637. The Christians arose in arms by tens of thousands, seized an old castle, repaired it and fortified it, and raised the flng of rebellion. The armies of veterans sent to besiege it expected an easy victory, and sneered at the idea of having any diflSculty in subduing these farmers and peasants. It took two months by land and water, however, c f constant attack before the. fort was reduced, and the victory was finally gained only with the aid of Dutch cannon furnished under compulsion by the traders of Deshima. " After great slaughter the intrepid garrison surrend- ered, and then began the massacre of thirty-seven thousand Christians. Many of them were hurled into the sea from the top of the island rock of Takaboko-shima, by the Dutch named Pappenberg, in the harbor of Nagasaki. The result of this series of events was that the favorable policy adopted by lyeyasu in regard to foreign trade was completely reversed. No foreigners were allowed to set foot on the soil of Japan, except Chinese and a few Dutch merchants. The Dutch gained the privilege of residing in confinement on the little island of Deshima, a piece of made land in the harbor of Nagasaki. Here under degrading restrictions and constant surveillance lived less than a score o* Hollanders, who were required every year to send a representative to Yeddo to do homage to the shogun. They were allowed one ship per annum to come from the Dutch East Indies for the exchange of the commodities of Japan for those of Holland. Says Doctor Griffis in his study of this era of Japanese history, " After nearly a hundred years of Christianity and foreign inter- course, the only apparent results of this contact with another religion and civilization were the adoption of gunpowder and fire-arms as weapons, the use of tobacco and the habit of smok- ing, the making of sponge cake, the naturalization into the lan- guage of a few foreign words, the introduction of new and strange forms of disease, among which the Japanese count the scourge of the venereal virus, and the permanent addition to i 232 A CENTURY OF CHRISTIANITY AND ITS EFFECTS. that catalogue of terrors which priest and magistrate in Asiatic countries ever liold as welcome, to overawe the herd. For cen- turies the mention of that name would bate the breath, blanch the cheek and smite with fear as with an earthquake shock. It was the synomyn of sorcery, sedition, and all that was hostile to the purity of the home and the peace of society. All over the empire, in every city, town, village and hamlet ; by the roadside, ferry or mountain pass; at every entrance to the capitol, stood the IMAGE OF liUDDHA. public notice boards on which with prohibitions against the great crimes that disturbed the relations of society's government was one tablet written with a deeper brand of guilt, with a more hid- eous memory of blood, with a more awful terror of torture, than when the like superscription was affixed at the top of a cross that stood between two thieves on a little hill outside Jerusalem. Its daily and familiar sight startled ever and anon the peasants who clasped liands and uttered a fresh prayer ; the Bonze, or Buddhist priest, to add new venom to his maledictions ; the magistrate lo ENGLISH EFFORTS TO OPEN TRADE. 233 Tthe great lent was liore hid- u-e, than Iross that leui. Its mts who {uddhist strata to shake his liead ; and to the mother a ready word to hush the crying of her fretful babe. That name was Christ. So thor- oughly was Christianity or the " corrupt sect " supposed to be eradicated before the end of the seventeenth century, that its existence was historical, remembered only as an awful scar on the national memory. No vestiges were supposed to be left of it, and no knowledge of its tenets was held save by a very few scholars in Yeddo, trained experts who were kept as a sort of spiritual blood hounds to scent out the adherents of the accursed creed. It was left to our day since the recent opening of Japan, for them to discover tliat a mighty fire had been smoldering for over two cen- turies beneath the ashes of persecutions. As late as 1829 seven persons, six men and an old woman, were crucified in Ozaka on suspicion of being Christians and communica- ting with foreigners. Wiicn the French b hren of the Mission Apostolique of Paris came to Nagasaki in 1860, they found in the villages around them over ten thou- sand people who held the faith of tlieir fathers of the seventeenth century. The Portuguese were not the only race to attempt to open a permanent trade with Japan. Captain John Saris, with three ships, left England in April, 1611, with letters from King James I. to the " Emperor " (shogun) of Japan. Landing at Hirado he was well received, and established a factory in charge of Richard Cocks. The captain and a number of the party visited Yeddo and other cities and obtained from the shogun a treaty defining (lie privileges of trade, and signed Minamoto lyeyasu. After a tour of three months Saris arrived at Hirado again, having i/Y/WVi(>4rt— . JAPANESE SAMURAI OR WARRIOR OF THE OLD TIME. 234 rEKlOD OF THE LAST SHOGUNATE. ii ti' iiy !? i I Si It'. visited Kioto, w'lero lie saw the splendid Christian churches and Jesuit palaces. After discouraging attempts to open a trade with Siam, Corea and China, and hostilities having broken out between them and the Dutch, the English abandoned the project of per- manent trade with Japan, and all subsequent attempts to reopen it failed. Will Adams, who was an English pilot, and the first of his nation in Japan, arrived in 1607 and lived in Yeddo till he died thirteen years later. He rose into favor with the shoguns and the people by the sheer force of a manly, honest character. His knowledge of shipbuilding, mathematics, and foreign affairs made him a very useful man. Although treated with kindness and honor, he was not allowed to leave Japan. He had a wife and daughter in England. Adams had a son and daughter born to him in Japan, and there are still living Japanese who claim descent from him. One of the streets of Yeddo was named after him, and the ]ieople of that street still hold an annual cele- bration on the fifteenth of June in his honor. The history of tlie two centuries and a half that followed the triumplis of lyeyasu is that of profound peace and stern isolation. We must pass rapidly in review of them. This great shogun took pains to arrange the empire after the appointment to the office, in such a way that the shoguns of the Tokugawa family? the dynasty which he founded, should have strictest power and most certain descent. His sons and daughters were married where they would be most powerful in influence with the great families of daimios. It must not be forgotten that lyeyasu and JAPANESE GENERAL OP THE OLB TIME {From a Native Drawinfj.) GREAT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE EMPIRE. 236 his successor were both in theory and in reality vassals of the emperor, though they assumed protection of the imperial person. Neither the shogun nor the daimios were acknowledged at Kioto as nobles of the empire. The lowest kuge, or noble, was above the shogun in rank. The shogun could obtain his appointment only from the mikado. He was simply the most powerful among the daimios, who nad won that pre eminence by JAPAN£S£ BRIDQB. the sword, and who by wealth and power and a skillfully wrought plan of division of land among the other daimios was able to rule. In 1600 and the years following, lyeyasu employed an army of three hundred thousand laborers in Yeddo improving and building tlie city. Before the end of the century, Yeddo had a population of more than half a million, but it never did have, as the Hollanders guessed and the old text books told us, two million five hundred !*> 236 GREAT IMniOVEMENTS IN THE EMPIRE. thousand souls. Outside of Yeddo the strength of the great unifier was spent on public roads and highways, post stations, bridges, castles and mines. He spent the last years of his life engaged in erasing the scars of war by his policy of conciliation, securing the triumphs of peace, perfecting his plans for fixing in stability a system of government, and in collecting books and manuscripts. He bequeathed his code of laws to his chief retainers, and advised his sons to govern in the spirit of kindness. He died on the eighth of March, 1616. The grandson of lyeyasu, lyemitsu, was another great shogun, and it was he who established the rule that all the daimios should visit and reside in Yeddo during half the year. Gradually these rules became more and more restrictive, until the guests became mere vassals. Their wives and children were kept as hostages in Yeddo. During his rule the Christian insurrection and massacre at Shimabara took place. Yeddo was vastly improved, with aqueducts, fire watch towers, the establishment of mints, weights and measures. A general survey of the empire was executed ; maps of various provinces and plans of the daimios' castles were made ; the councils called Hiojo-sho (discussion and decision), and Wakadoshiyori (assembly of elders), were established and Corean envoys received. The height of pride and ambition which this shogun had already reached, is seen in the fact that in a letter of reply to Corea he is referred to as Tai Kun, (" Tycoon "), a title never conferred by the mikado on any one, nor had lyemitsu any legal right to it. It was assumed in a sense honorary or meaning- less to any Japanese, unless highly jealous of the mikado's sover- eignty, and was intended to overawe the Coreans. The approxi- mate interpretation of it is " great ruler." Under the strong rule of the Tokugawa shoguns, therefore, the long distracted Japanese empire at length enjoyed two-and-a-half centuries of peace and prosperity. The innate love of art, litera- ture, and education, which almost constant warfare had prevented from duly developing among the people, had now an opportunity of producing fruit. And as it had shown itself in former inter- vals of rest, so was it now. Under the patronage of lyeyasu was composed the Dai Nihon Shi, the first detailed history of Japan. Tsunayoshi, his successor, 1681 to 1709, founded at Seido a Con- UNDER THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNS. 287 fuoian university, and was such an enthusiast for literature that he used to assemble the princes and high officials about him and expcu:?d to them passages from the Chinese classics. Yoshimune, another shogun, was much interested in astronomy and other branches of science, beside doing much to improve agriculture. Legal matters also engaged his attention ; he altered lyeyasu's policy so far as to publish a revised criminal code, and improved the administration of the law, forbidding the use of torture except in cases where there was flagrant proof of guilt. He built an astro- nomical observatory at Kanda and established at his court a pro- fessorship of Chinese literature. lyenori, shogun from 1787 to 1838, threw the classes of the Confucian university open to the public. Every body from the nobility down to the masses of the people began to appreciate literary studies. Maritime commerce within the limits of the four seas was encouraged by the shogun's government, regular service of junks being established between the principal ports. Nor must it be forgotten that to the Tokugawas is due the foundation of the great modern city of Yeddo with its vast fortifi- cations and its triumphs of art in the shrines of Shiba and Uyeno. It was at this period too that the matchless shrines of Nikko were reared in memory of the greatness of lyeyasu and lyemitsu. The successors of the former, the shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty, fourteen in all, were with one exception buried alternately in the cemeteries of Zozoji and Toyeizan, in the city districts of Shiba and Uyeno. But throughout all this period of peace and progress the light of the outer world was excluded. The people made the best use of the light they had, but after all it was but dim. The learning by rote of thousands of Chinese characters, and the acquisition of skill in the composition of Chinese and Japanese verse, were little worthy to be the highest literary attainments possible to the most aspiring of the youth of Japan. In the domain of art there was more that was inviting, but scientific knowledge was tantaliz- ingly meagre and that little was overlaid with Chinese absurdities. When we consider that the isolation of the country was due to no spirit of exclusiveness in the national character, that indeed it was the result of a policy that actually went against the grain of 238 AMERICA KNOCKS AT THE DOOR. the people, how many restless spirits must there have been during these long years, who kept longing for more light. Fortunately there was one little chink at Deshima, in the harbor at Nagasaki, and of this some of the more earnest were able to take advantage. Many instances are recorded and there must be many more of wliich we can know nothing, of Japanese students displaying the truest heroism in surmounting the difliculties tiiat lay in the way of their acquiring foreign knowledge. Let us now see how there came at length an unsettled dawn, and after the clouds of this had cleared, a dazzling inpouring of the light. It was the American Union which opened the door of Japan to western civilization. It had been desired by all of the European nations, as well as by the United States, to obtain access to Japanese ports. Supplies were frequently needed, particularly water and coal, but no distress was ever considered a sufficient excuse for the Japanese to permit the landing of a foreign vessel's crew. Shipwrecked sailors frequr itly passed through seasons of great trial and danger, before they were restored to their own people. Even Japanese sailors who were shipwrecked on other siiores, or carried out to sea, were refused re-admission to their own country when rescued by foreigners. Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry of the American navy, urged upon President Millard Fillmore the necessity and possi- bility of making some sort of a treaty with the exclusive empire. It was decided that th? most effective v/ay to advance this desire was to sail into the bay of YeOdo with a squadron sufficient to command respect. A fleet was assigned to the undertaking, under the command of Perry, and the American vessels sailed away to the Orient to rendezvous at the chief city of the Liu Kiu islands, Napha. From Napha the fleet sailed for Japan, the Susquehanna, the flagship, the advance of the line of the ships of seventeen nations. It was on the seventh day of July, 1853, under a sky and over a sea of perfect calm, that the four American warships appeared off Uraga in the Bay of Yeddo. Without delay the officials of Uraga emphatically notified the "barbarian" envoy that he must go to Nagasaki, where all business with foreigners had to be done. The barbarian refused to go. He informed the messengers I .p,ji II .lUj., |i. en during irtunately Nagiisaki, dvantage. y more of aying the II the way how there ids of this [ Japan to European access to irticularly sufficient yn vessel's seasons of their own i on other n to their loan navy, and possi- ve empire. this desire ifficient to dertaking, sels sailed le Liu Kiu ^apan, the be ships of f and over 3 appeared officials of at he must had to be nessengers 1 I5.\l'riSM OK IllDDIIA. :i ;.'. 'Vi JAPAN'S DOOR fFAr.F AJAR. •241 '^s^<^smcmAM/^==^-^j^ tliiit he wjiH the bearer of a letter from the President of the IJnitecl States to the EiniJeror of .lupau ; that he had sailed as near as possible to the destination of the letter and would now deliver it and continue it on its way by land, but ho would not retrace his patii until the letter was delivered. The shogun lyeycshi on re- ceiving information of such decision, was exceedingly troubled and called his oifioials to a council. Alarm was wide spread, and it was ordered that strict watch should be kept along the shore to prevent the barbarian vessels from committing acts of violence. During the eight days while Commodore I'erry's fleet was wait- ing in the Bay of Yeddo, the boats of his ships were busily engaged in taking soundings and surveying the shores and the anchorage. No sailors were permitted to land, and no Tuitives were molested. Every effort was made to indicate to the Japanese the desire for a peaceful friendship. A learned Chinese scholar was sent by the shogun to Uraga, who acted as an official and eminent interpreter in an interview with the American envoy. Continued councils were culled by the shogun, not only of his chief officers but of the daimios, the nobles, and the retired nobles of Yeddo. The citizens of Yeddo and the surrounding villages were in great tumult, fearing that there would be a war, for which the country was totally unpre- l)ared. Meanwhile the envoy was impatiently demanding an answer. At last, after eight days, the patience and the impa- tience, combined with the demonstrations made by the vessels of the fieet, which were highly impressive to the Japanese who had never seen a steamboat, won success for Commodore Perry's message. A high Japanese commissioner came to Uraga, pre- pared a magnificent pavilion for the ceremonies, and announced himself ready to receive the letter to the emperor. With great pomp and ceremony the Americans landed and in this pavilion with proper formalities, delivered the letter and presents from the president. Then having, for the first time in history, gained several important points of etiquette in a country where etiquette was more than law or morals, the splendid diplomat and warrior Perry sailed away with his fleet July 17, 1853. It was in response to a temporizing policy on the part of Japan, and to the good judgment and careful decision of Commodore ^ipiilliii ■^wpwppwf 242 JAPAN TAKKS TTMK TO TTITNK. I'oriy, that the fleet sailed away without demanding an immediate reply to his letter. The American envoy was informed that in a matter of so much importance a decision could not be at once reached, and that if he now left, he would on his return get a definite answer. No wpnder there was commotion. The nine- teenth century had como suddenly into contact with the four- teenth. The spirit of commerce and the spirit of feudalism, two great but conflicting forces, met in their full development, and the result was necessarily a convulsion. We are hardly surprised to hear that the shogun died before Commodore Perry's return, or that during the next few years the land was harassed by earth- quakes and pestilences. Perry's second appearance was in February, 1854, this time with a much larger fleet. A hot debate took place in the shogun's council as to the answer that should be given. The old daimio of Mito, the head of one of the three families, which, forming the Tokugawa clan, furnished the occupants of the shogunate, wanted to flght and settle the question once for all. " At first," he said, *' they will give us philosophical instruments, machinery and other curiosities ; will take ignorant people in ; and trade being their chief object they will manage to impoverish the country, after which they will treat us just as they like, per- haps behave with the greatest rudeness and insult us, and end by swallowing up Japan. If we do not drive them away now we shall never have another opportunity." Others gave contrary advice, saying, " If we try to drive them away they will immediately commence hostilities, and then we shall be obliged to fight. If we once get into a dispute we shall have an enemy to fight who will not be easily disposed of. He does not care how long he will have to spend over it, but he will come with myriads of men-of-war and surround our shores com- pletely ; however large a number of ships we might destroy, he is so accustomed to that sort of thing that he would not care in the least. In time the country would be put to an immense expense and the people plunged into misery. Rather than allow this, as we are not the equals of foreigners in the mechanical arts, let us have intercourse with foreign countries, learn their drill and tactics, and when we have made the nation as united as one SIGNING OF THE FIRST TREATY. 248 family, we shall be al>lo to go abroad and give lands in foreign countries to those who have distinguished themselves in battle." The latter view carried and a treaty wiuh the United States was signed on the thirty-first of March, 1854. Now be it ob- served that the shogun did this without Llie sanction of the mikado, whom indeed he had never yet consulted on the matter, and that he subscribed himself Tai Kun, (" Tycoon,") or great ruler, a title to which he had no right and which if it meant any- thing at all involved an assumption of the authority of supreme ruler in the empire. This was the view naturally taken by Perry and by the ambassadors from European countries who a few years later obtained treaties with Japan. They were under the impression that they were dealing with the emperor; and hearing of the existence of another potentate living in an inland city, surrounded with a halo of national veneration, they con- ceived the plausible but erroneous theory that the tycoon was the temporal sovereign, and this mysterious mikado the spiritual sovereign of the country. They little dreamed that the so-called tycoon was no sovereign at all, and that consequently the treaties which he signed had no legal validity. The shogun could ill afford thus to lay himself open to the charge of treason. From the first there had been a certain class of daimios who had never heartily submitted to the Tokugawa administration. The principal clans which thus submitted to the regime under protest against what they considered a usurpation, an encroachment on the authority of the mikado, whom alone they recognized as the divinely appointed ruler of Japan, were those of Satsump,, Choshiu, and Tosa. As the years of peace cast their spell over the nation, making the people forgetful of war and transforming the descendants of lyeyasu into luxurious idlers, much more like impotent mikados than successors of the energetic soldier and law-giver, their hopes more and more arose that an opportunity would be given them to overthrow the shogunate and bring about the unification of the empire at the hands of the mikado. Their time had now come. The shogun was enervated and he had so far forgotten himself as to open the country to foreign trade, without the sanction of the " Son of Heaven." It was this illegal act of the shogun that precipitated 244 THE TREATY WAS TREASON. the confusion, violence and disaster of the next few years, reach- ing ultimately in 1868 to the complete overthrow of his own power and the restoration of the mikado to his rightful position as actual as well as nominal ruler of the empire. Fearing the consequences of the illegal act into which he had been driven, the shogun lost no time in sending messengers to Kioto to inform the mikado of what had happened and seek his sanction to the policy adopted. It was plead in excuse for the course of conduct, that affairs had reached such a condition that the shogun was driven to sign the treaty. The emperor in great agitation summoned a council. The decision was unanimous against the shogun's action, and the messengers were informed that no sanction could be given to the treaty. The next import- ant step was not taken until July, 1858, when Lord Elgin arrived with propositions on the part of Great Britain for a treaty of amity and commerce. He was unaccompanied by any armed force, and brought a steam yacht as a present from Queen Vic- toria to the tycoon of Japan. A few months later treaties were entered into with all the leading powers of Europe, but if there was a political lull be- tween 1854 and 1858, the poor Japanese had distractions of a very different kind. From a violent earthquake and consequent conflagration, one hundred and four thousand of the inhabitants of Yeddo lost their lives. A terrific storm swept away one hun- dred thousand moi'o, and in a visitation of cholera thirty thou- sand persons perished in Yeddo alone. Moreover, just when the treaties were being signed, the shogun lyesada died, " as if," says Sir R. Alcock, " a further victim was required for immolation on the altar of the outraged gods of Japan." The political tempest that had been gathering now swept over the nation. For the next ten years there was so much disorder, intrigue, and bloodshed, that Japan became among the western nations a byword for treachery and assassination. Defenseless foreigners were cut down in the streets of Yeddo and Yokohama and even in the legations. Twice was the British legation attacked, on one of the occasions being taken by storm and held for a time by a band of free-lances. No foreigner's life was safe. Even when out on the most trivial errand, every foreign resident YEARS OP VIOLENCE AND DISASTER. 245 was accompanied by an armed escort furnished by the shogun's government. It is needless to give an account of all the different assassinations, successful or attempted, which darkened the period. The secretary to the American legation was cut down near Shiba, Yeddo, when returning from the Prussian legation with an armed escort; a Japanese interpreter attached to the British legation was fatally stabbed in broad daylight while standing at the legation flagstaff ; one of the guard at the same legation murdered two Englishmen in the garden and then com- mitted suicide ; an Englishman was cut down on the highway between Yokohama and Yeddo by certain retainers of the daimio of Satsuma, whose procession he had unwittingly crossed on horseback ; and these were not all. It is not a satisfactory answer to say thiib hatred of foreigners was the leading motive that inspired all these acts of violence. This was no oubt more or less involved, but the true explana- tion is to bt d in the hostility of the mikado's partisans to the shogunV ^cternment. All possible means were taken to thwart the shogun and bring him into complications with the ambassadors at his court. Every attack on a foreigner brought fresh trouble upon the Yeddo government and hastened its col- lapse. Long before foreigners arrived, the seeds of revolution had sprouted and their growth was showing above the soil. It is to the state of political parties and of feudalism at this epoch in Japanese history, and not to mere ill will against foreigners, that this policy of intrigue and assassination must be ascribed. It would take too long to discuss all the complications of this period and to inquire, for instance, how far when the Japanese government failed to arrest and execute the murderer of Mr. Richardson, the British were justified in demanding an indemnity of 1500,000 from the shogun and $125,000 from the daimio of Satsuma, or in enforcing their demands with a threatened bom- bardment of Yeddo and an actual bombardment of Kagoshima. It is out of our seope here to inquire into the shelling of the batteries of the daimio of Choshiu, at Shimonoseki, in turn by the Americans, British, French and Dutch, the men of Choshiu having fired upon some Dutch, American, and French vessels that had entered the straits against the prohibition of the Japanese. jSTJW'TC^'"*./'" / ' 246 HARD TIMES FOR THE SHOGUN. 'V. '>■■•: An indoiniiity of 13,000,000 was also exacted and distributed among these nations. Such stern measures doubtless appeared to the foreign ambas> sadors necessary to prevent the expulsion or even the utter ex- termination of foreigners. Whether their policy was mistaken or not, certain it is that they can have had no adequate concep- tion of the difficulties with which the shogun had to contend. The position of that ruler was one of such distraction as might well evoke for him the pity of every disinterested onlooker. Do as he would, he could not escape trouble ; on the one side were the mikado's partisans ever growing in power and in determina- tion to crush him, and on the other were the equally irresistible foreigners with their impatient demands and their alarming threats. He was as helpless as a man between a wall of rock and an advancing tide. The internal difficulties of the country were increased by dis- sensions which broke out in the imperial court. The clans of Satsuma and Choshiu had been summoned to Kioto to preserve order. For some reason the former were relieved of this duty, or rather privilege, and it therefore devolved exclusively upon the Choshiu men. Taking advantage of their position, the Choshiu men persuaded the mikado to undertake a progress to the province of Yamato, there to proclaim his intention of taking the field against foreigners ; but this proposal roused the jealousy of the other clans at the imperial court, as they feared that the men of Choshiu were planning to obtain possession of the mikado's per- son and thus acquire pre-eminence. The intended expedition was abandoned, and the men of Choshiu, accompanied by Sanjo, afterward prime minister of the reformed government, and six other nobles who had supported them, were banished from Kioto. The ill feeling thus occasioMed between Choshiu and Satsuma, was fomented by an unfortunate incident which occurred at Shimonoseki early in 1864. The former clan recklessly fired upon a vessel, which being of European build they mistook for a foreign one, but which really belonged to Satsuma. Thus Choshiu was in disfavor both with the shogun and with the mikado, and in this year we have the strange spectacle of these two rulers leaguing their forces together for its punishment. .■-■H>!»*t .y? V ABOUTTON OF THE SHOGUNATES. 247 August 20, 1864, the Choshiu men advanced upon Kioto, but were repulsed with much slaughter, only however after the greater part of the city had been destroyed by fire. The rebell- ion was not at once quelled ; indeed the Choshiu samurai were proving themselves more than a match for the troops which the shogun had sent against them, when at length the imperial court ordered the fighting to be abandoned. Simultaneously with the Choshiu rebellion the shogun had to meet an insurrection by the daimio of Mito, in the east. His troubles no doubt hastened his death, which took place at Osaka in September, 1866, shortly be- fore the war against Choshiu terminated. Then there succeeded Keiki, the last of the shoguns. It should be noted, however, that before this the mikado's sanction had been obtained to the foreign treaties. In Novem- ber, 1865, British, French, and Dutch squadrons came to anchor off Hiogo, of which the foreign settlement of Kobe is now a suburb, and sent letters to Kioto demanding the imperial con- sent. The nearness of such an armed force was too great an argument to be withstood, and the demand was granted. Little more than a year after his accession to the shogunate Keiki re- signed. In doing so he proved himself capable of duly apprecia- ting the national situation. Now that foreigners had been ad- mitted, it was more necessary than ever that the government should be strong, and this, it was seen, was impossible without the abolition of the old dual system. He ha>I secured the mikado's consent to the treaties, on the condition that they should be revised, and that Hiogo should never be opened as a port of foreign commerce. But the end had not yet come. On the same day when the shogunate was abolished, January 3, 1868, the forces friendly to the Tokagawas were dismissed from Kioto, and the guardianship of the imperial palace was committed to the clans of Sat&uma, Tosa, and Geishiu. This measure gave Keiki great offense, and availing himself of a former order of the court which directed him to continue the conduct of affairs, he marched with his re- tainers and friends to Ozaka and sent a request to the mikado that all Satsuma men who had any share in the government should be dismissed. To this the court would not consent, and 248 IMPERTALTSM IN THE ASCENDANT. i s II ill i Keiki marched against Kioto with a force of thirty thousand men, his declared object being to remove from the mikado his bad counselors. A desperate engagement took place at Fushimi, in which the victory was with the loyalists. But this was only the beginning of a short but sharp civil war, of which the principal fighting was in the regions between Yeddo and Nikko. The restoration was at last complete. Proclamation was made " to sovereigns of all foreign nations and their subjects, that per- mission had been granted to the shogun Yoshinobu, or Keiki, to return the governing power in accordance with his own request ; " and the manifesto continued : " henceforward we shall exercise supreme authority both in the internal and external affairs of the country. Consequently the title of emperor should be substituted for that of tycoon which had been hitherto employed in the treaties." Appended were the seal of Dai Nippon, and the signa- ture of Mutsuhito, this being the first occasion in Japanese history on which the name of an emperor had appeared during his life- time. With the triumph of the imperial party one might have ex- pected a return to the old policy of isolation. There can be no doubt that when the Satsuma, Choshiu, and other southern clans commenced their agitation for the abolition of the shogunate, their ideas with regard to foreign intercourse were decidedly retrogressive. But after all, the leading motive which inspired them was dissatisfaction with the semi-imperial position occupied by the upstart Tokugawas ; to this their opposition to foreigners was quite secondary. It so happened that the Tokugawa shoguns got involved with foreigners, and it was so much the worse for the foreigners. To go deeper, what was at the bottom of this desire was the overthrow of the shogunate. Doubtless their patriotism, what they had at heart, was the highest welfare of their country, and this they believed impossible without its unifi- cation. Their primary motive then, being patriotism, we need not be surprised that they were willing to entertain the notion that perhaps after all the prosperity of their country might best be insured by the adoption of a policy of free foreign intercourse. This idea more and more commended itself, until it became a conviction ; and when they got into power they astonished the iaiid men, ) his bad [ishimi, in } only the principal was made , that per- Keiki, to request ; " 11 exercise airs of the ubstituted ed in the the signa- Bse history ig his life- it have ex- can be no hern clans jhogunate, decidedly 1 inspired occupied toreigners ira shoguus worse for om of this tless their welfare of it its unifi- we need the notion might best itercourse. t became a nished the a 3, ■ f ^' i-T^TT .T»'Ti^»jiv. \ RADICAL CHANGFlS BY THE MIKADO. 261 world by the thoroughness with which they broke looi^e from the old traditions and entered upon a policy of enlightened reforma- tion. To the political and social revolution which accompanied the restoration of the mikado in 1868, there has been no parallel in the history of mankind. One of the first acts of the mikado after the restoration, was to assemble the kuges and daimios and make oath before them " that a deliberative assembly should be formed, and all measures be decided upon by public opinion ; that impartiality and justice should form the basis of his action ; and that intellect and learn- ing should be sought for throughout the world in order to estab- lish the foundations of the empire." In the mid-summer of 1868, the mikado, recognizing Yeddo as really the center of the nation's life, made it the captial of the empire and transferred his court thither ; but the name Yeddo, being distasteful on account of its associations with the shogunate, was abolished, and the city re- named Tokio, or " Eastern Capital." At the same time the an- cient capital Kioto, received the new name of Saikio or " West- ern Capital." For the creation of a central administration, how- ever, more was necessary than the abolition of the shogunate and the establishment of the mikado's authority. The great fabric of feudalism still remained intact. Within his own territory each daimio was practically an independent sovereign, taxing his subjects as he saw fit, often issuing his own currency, and some- times even granting passports so as to control intercourse with neighboring provinces. Here was a formidable barrier to the consolidation of the empire. But the reformers had the courage and the tact necessary to remove it. The first step towards the above revolution was taken in 1869, when the daimios of Satsuma, Choshiu, Hizen, and Tosa ad- dressed a memorial to the mikado requesting his authorization for the resignation of their fiefs into his hands. Other nobles followed their example, and the consequence was the acceptance by the mikado of control over the land and revenues of the dif- ferent provinces, the names of the clans however being still pre- served, and the daimios allowed to remain over them as governors, each with one-tenth of the former assessment of his territory as rental. By this arrangement the evil of too suddenly terminal 252 ANNIHILATING FEUDALISM. il g' ting the relation between the clans and their lords was sought to be avoided, but it wiis only temporary ; in 1871 the clan system was totally abolished, and the country redivided for administra- tive purposes, with officers chosen irrespectively of hereditary rank or clan connection.. But the payment of hereditary pensions and allowances of the ex-daimios and ex-samurai proved such a drain upon the national resources that in 1876 the reformed government found it neces- sary to conipulsorily convert them into capital sums. The rate of commutation varied from five years' purchase in the case of the largest pensions, to fourteen years' in that of the smallest. The number of the pensioners with whom they had thus to deal wvA three hundred and eighteen thousand four hundred and twenty -eight. The act of the daimios in thus suppressing them- selves looks at first sight like a grand act of self-sacrifice, as we are not accustomed to see landed proprietors manifesting such disinterestedness for the patriotic object of advancing their coun- try's good. But the vast majority of daimios had come to be mere idlers, as the greater mikado had been. Their territories were governed by the more able and energetic of their retainers, and it was a number of these men that had most influence in bringing about the restoration of the mikado's authority. Intense patriots, they saw that the advancement of their country could not be realized without its unification, and at the same time they cannot but have preferred a larger scope for their talents, which service immediately under the mikado would give them. From being ministers of their provincial governments, they aspired to be ministers of the imperial government. They were successful ; and their lords, who had all along been accustomed to yield to their advice quite cheerfully, acquiesced when asked for the good of the empire to give up their fiefs to the mikado. One result of this is that while most of the ex-daimios have retired into private life, the country is now governed almost exclusively by ex-samurai. Such sweeping changes were not to be accomplished without rousing opposition and even rebellion. The government incurred much risk in interfering with the ancient privileges of the samurai. It is not surprising that several rebellions had to be put down during the years immediately succeeding 1868. THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN JAPAN. 268 Dr. William Elliut Griffis, iu liiu exhaustive and intere&ting work, " The Mikado's Empire," discusses at length the change of Japan from feudalism to its present condition, the abolition of the shogunate, and the rebellions that followed that event. He declares that popular iiuprossion to be wrong which suggests that the immediate cause of the fall of the shogun's government, the restoration of the mikado to supreme power, and the aboli- tion of the dual and feudal systems, was the presence of foreign- ers on the soil of Japan. The foreigners and their ideas were the occasion, not the cause, of the destruction of the dual system of government. Tlieir presence served merely to hasten what was already inevitable. Tlie history of Japan from the abolition of feudalism in 1871 up to the present time, is a record of advance in all the arts of western civilization. The mikado, Mutsuhito, has shown himself to be much more than a petty divinity, a real man. He has taken a firm stand in advocacy of the introduction of western customs, wherever they were improvements. The imperial navy, dockyards, and machine shops have been a pride to him. He has withdrawn himself from mediaeval seclusion and assumed divinity, and has made himself accessible and visible to his subjects. He has placed the empress in a position like to that occupied by the consorts of European monarchs, and with her he has adopted European attire. In the latter part of June, 1872, the mikado left Tokio in the flagship of Admiral Akamatsu, and made a tour throughout the south and west of his empire. For the first time in twelve centuries the emperor of Japan moved freely and un- veiled among his subjects. Again in the same year Japan challenged the admiration of Christendom. The coolie trade, carried on by Portuguese at Macao, in China, between the local kidnappers and Peru and Cuba, had long existed in defiance of the Chinese government. Thousands of ignorant Chinese were yearly decoyed from Macao and shipped in sweltering shipholds, under the name of " passen- gers." In Cuba and Peru their contracts were often broken, they were cruelly treated, and only a small portion of them re- turned alive to tell their wrongs. The Japanese government had with a fierce jealousy watched the beginning of such a / "^ 254 DESTIIOYING THE COOLIE TRADE. hi'. traffic on their own shores. In the last days of the shogunate, coolie traders came to Japan to ship irresponsible hordes of Japanese coolies and women to the United States. To their everlasting shame, be it said some were Americans. Among the first things done by the mikado's government after the restora- tion, was the sending of an official who effected the joyful delivery of these people and their return to their homes. So the Japanese set to work to destroy this nefarious traffic. The Peruvian ship Maria Luz, loaded with Chinese, entered the port of Yokohama. Two fugitive coolies in succession swam to the English war ship Iron Duke. Hearing the pite- ous story of their wrongs, Mr. Watson, the British cbarg^ d'affaires, called the attention of the Japanese autViorities to these illegal acts in their waters. A protracted enquiry was in- stituted and the coolies landed. The Japanese refused to force them on board against their will, and later shipped them to China, a favor which was grate- fully acknowledged by the Chinese government. This act of a pagan nation achieved a grand moral victory for the world and humanity. Within four years the coolie traffic, which was but another name for the slave trade, was abolished from the face of the earth, and the coolie prisons of Macao were in ruins. Yet the act of freeing the Chinese coolies in 1872 was done in the face of clamor and opposition, and a rain of protests from CHINESE COOLIE. )gunate, jrdes of Co their long the restora- of an 6 joyful pie and mes. to work IS traffic, iria Luz, entered I. Two iccession war ship the pite- ngs, Mr. charg6 Eittention )ritie8 to ir waters. ' was in- !S landed, to force list their 1 them to iras grate- by the This act shieved a for the Within ie traffic, shed from e in ruins, is done in tests from il X IN CONTACT WITH WESTERN NATIONS. 267 the fureigu consuls, iiiiiiisters, and a part of the press. Abuse and threats and diplomatic pressure were in vain. The Japanese never wavered, but marched straight to the duty before them, the liberation of the slaves. The British charg^ and the American consul, Colonel Charles O. Shepherd, alone gave hearty support and unwavering sympathy to the right side. During the same year, 1872, two legations and three consulates were established abroad, and from that time forward the number has been increasing until the representatives of Japan's govern- ment are found all over the world. Scores of daily newspapers and hundreds of weeklies have been furnishing the country with information and awakening thought. The editors are often men of culture or students returned from abroad. The Corean war project had, in 1872, become popular in the cabinet and was the absorbing theme of the army and navy. During the Tokugawa period Corea had regularly sent embassies of homage and congratulation to Japan ; but not relishing the change of affairs in 1868, disgusted at the foreignizing tendencies of the mikado's government, incensed at Japan's departure from Turanian ideals, and emboldened by the failure of the French and American expeditions, Corea sent insulting letters taunting Japan with slavish truckling to the foreign barbarians, declared herself an enemy, and challenged Japan to fight. About this time a Liu Kiu junk was wrecked on eastern Formosa. The crew was killed by the savages, and, it is said, eaten. The Liu Kiuans appealed to their tributary lords at Satsuma, who referred the matter to Tokio. English, Dutch, American, German, and Chinese ships have from time to time been wrecked on this can- nibal coast, the terror of the commerce of Christendom. Their war ships vainly attempted to chastise the savages. Soyejima, with others, conceived the idea of occupying the coast, to rule the wild tribes, and of erecting light houses in the interests of commerce. China laid no claim to eastern Formosa, all trace of which was omitted from the maps of the " Middle Kingdom." In the spring of 1873, Soyejima went to Peking and there, among other things granted him, was an audience with the Chinese em- peror. He thus reaped the results of the diplomatic labors of half a century. The Japanese ambassador stood upright before U m I u\i\\ 258 AN EXPEDITION TO FORMOSA. the " Dragon Face " and the " Dragon Throne," robed in the tight black dress-coat, trousers, and linen of western civilization^ bearing the congratulations of the young mikado of the " Sun- rise Kingdom " to the youthful emperor of the " Middle King- dom." In the Tsung-li Yamen, Chinese responsibility over eastern Formosa was disavowed, and the right of Japan to chas- tise the savages granted. A Japanese junk was wrecked on Formosa, and its crew stripped and plundered while Soyejima was absent in China. This event piled fresh fuel on the flames of the war feeling . now popular even among the unarmed classes. Japan at this time had to struggle with opposition within and without, to every move in the direction of ad- vancement in civilization. Says Griffis, "At home were the stolidly conservative peasantry backed by ignor- ance, superstition, priest- craft, and political hostility. On their own soil they were fronted by aggressive foreign- ers who studied all Japanese questions through the spec- tacles of dollars and cents and trade, and whose diplo- matists too often made the principles of Shylock their system. Outside the Asiatic nations beheld with contempt, jealousy and alarm the departure of one of their number from Turanian ideas, principles, and civilization. China with ill-concealed anger, Corea with open defiance taunted Japan with servile submission to the * foreign devils.' " For the first time the nation was represented to the world by FORMOSAN TTPB. l.^ ■ At.;.' WHAT THK FMBASSY ACCOMPLISHED. 259 in the zation, "Sun- I King- y over to chas-. ced. A ^rrecked ts crew sd while n China. ti fuel on r feeling nong the ime had pposition to every on of ad- dlization. ome were world by an embassy at onoe august and plenipotentiary: It was not a squad of petty officials or local nobles going forth to kiss a toe, to play the part of figure-heads, or stool-pigeons, to beg the aliens to get out of Japan, to Veep the scales on foreign eyes, to buy gun-boats, or to hire employees. A noble of highest rank, and blood of immemorial antiquity, with four cabinet ministers, set out to visit the courts of the fifteen nations having treaties with Dai Nippon. They were accompanied by commissioners representing every government department, sent to study and re- port upon the methods and resources of foreign civilizations. They arrived in Washington February 29, 1872, and for the first time in history a letter signed by the mikado was seen outside of Asia. It was presented by the ambassadors, robed in their an- cient Yamato costume, to the President of the United States on the 4th of March, Mr. Arinori Mori acting as interpreter. The first president of the free republic, and the men who had elevated the eta to citizenship stood face to face in fraternal accord. The one hundred and twenty-third sovereign of an empire in its twenty-sixth centennial saluted the citizen ruler of a nation whose century aloe had not yet bloomed. On the 6th of March they were welcomed on the floor of Congress. This day marked the formal entrance of Japan upoikthe theater of universal his- tory." In its subordinate objects the embassy was a signal success. Much was learned of Christendom. The results at home were the splendid series of reforms which mark the year 1872 as epochal. But in its prime object the embassy was an entire failure. One constant and supreme object was ever present, be- yond amusement or thirst for knowledge. It was to ask that in the revision of the treaties the extra-territoriality clause be stricken out, that foreigners be made subject to the laws of Japan. The failure of the mission was predicted by all who knew the facts. From Washington to St. Petersburg point-blank refusal was made. No Christian governments would for a mo- ment trust their people to pagan edicts and prisons. While Japan slandered Christianity by proclamations, imprisoned men for their beliefs, knew nothing of trial by jury, of the habeas corpus writ, or of modern jurisprudence ; in short while Japan ' ^--i; ■■ /^;^;^ 260 REBELLION STAMPED OUT. maintained the institutions of barbiuiism, they refused to reooff- nize her as a peer among nations. ' At home the watchword was progress. Public persecution for conscience' sake vanished. All the Christians torn from their homes and exiled and imprisoned in 1868 were set free and re- stored to their native villages. Education advanced rapidly, pub- lic decency was improved, and the standards of Christendom attempted. While in Europe Iwakura and his companions in the embassy kept cognizant of home affairs. With eyes opened by all that they had seen abroad, mighty results, but of slow growth, they saw their country going too fast. Behind the war project lay an abyss of ruin. On their return the war scheme brought up in a cabinet meeting was rejected. The disappointment of tJ e army was keen and that of expectant foreign contractors pitiable. The advocates of war among the cabinet ministers resigned and re- tired to private life Assassins attacked Iwakura, but his injuries did not result fatally. The spirit of feudalism was against him. On the 17th of January, the ministers who had resigned sent in a memorial praying for the establishment of a representative assembly in which the popular wish might be discussed. Their request was declined. It was officially declared that Japan was not ready fc such institutions. Hizen, the home of one of the great clans of the coalition of 1868, was the chief seat of dis- affection. With perhaps no evil intent, Eto, who had been the head of the department of justice, had returned to his home there and wfvs followed by many of his clansmen. Scores of officials and men assembled with traitorous intent, and raised the cry of " On to Corea." The rebellion was annihilated in ten days. A dozen ringleaders were sent to kneel before the blood pit. The national government was vindicated and sectionalism crushed. The Formosan affair was also brought to a conclusion. Thir- teen hundred Japanese soldiers occupied the island for six months, conquering the savages wherever they met, building roads and fortifications. At last the Chinese government in shame began to urge their claims on Formosa and to declare the Japanese intruders. For a time war seemed inevitable. The """€ recog- ion for n their and re- y, pub- tendom imbassy all that th, they t lay an ; up in a } e army le. The . and re- i injuries ist him. ;ned sent kentative . Their ipan was le of the it of dis- been the lis home cores of aised the d in ten he blood Itionalism 1. Thir- for six building Innent in tclare the )le. The THE SATSUMA REBELLION. 203 man fur the crisis was Okubo, a leader in the cabinet, the master spirit in crushing the rebellion, and now an ambassador at Peking. The result was that the Chinese paid in solid silver an indenniity of 1700,000 and the Japanese disembarked. Japan single-handed, with no foreign sympathy, but with positive opposition, had in the interests of humanity rescued a coast from terror and placed it in a condition of safety. In the face of threatened war a nation having but one-tenth the population, area, or resources of China, had abated not a jot of its just demands nor flinched from battle. The righteousness of her cause was vindicated. The Coreau affair ended happily. In 1875 Kuroda Kiyotaka with men of war entered Corean waters. Patience, skill, and tact were crowned with success. On behalf of Japan a treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce was made between the two coun- tries February 27, 1876. Japan thus peacefully opened this last of the hermit nations to the world. The rebellions which we have mentioned were of a mild type compared with that which in 1877 shook the government to its foundations. In the limits of our space it is impossible to enter deeply into the causes of the Satsuma rebellion. Its leader, Saigo Takamori, was one of the most powerful members of the reformed government until 1873 when he resigned as some of his prede- cessors had done, indignant at the peace policy which was pur- sued. A veritable Cincinnatus, he seems to have won the hearts of all classes around him by the Spartan simplicity of his life and the affability of his manner, and there was none more able or more willing to come to the front when duty to his country called him. It is a thousand pities that such a genuine patriot should have sacrificed himself through a mistaken notion of duty. Ambition to maintain and extend the military fame of his coun- try seems to have blinded him to all other more practical consid- erations. The policy of Okubo and the rest of the majority in the cabinet, with its regard for peace and material prosperity, was in his eyes unworthy of the warlike traditions of old Japan. But we cannot follow out the story of this famous rebellion — how Saigo established a private school in his native city of Kagoshima for the training of young Shizoku in military tactics, how the re- ports of the policy of the government more and more dissatisfied [I iii I 264 THE SATSUMA REBELLION. him, until a rumor that Okubo hud sent policemen to Kagoshima to assassinate him precipitated the storm that had been brewing. This report was not supported by satisfactory evidence, although the Kagoshima authorities extorted a so-called confession from a policeman. Okubo was too noble to be guilty of such an act. It was only after eight months of hard fighting, during which victory swayed from one side to another, and the death of Saigo and his leading generals when surrounded at last like rats in a trap, and the expenditure of over forty million yen, that the much tried government could freely draw breath again. The people of Satsuma believe that Saigo's spirit has taken up its abode in the planet Mars, and that his figure may be seen there when that star is in the ascendant. By this time railways, telegraphs, lighthouse service, and a navy were well under construction in native works. Two national exhibitions were held, one in 1877 and the second in 1881; the latter particularly was a pretentious one ard a great success. In 1879 Japan annexed the Liu Kiu islands, bringing their king to Tokio, there to live as a vassal, and reducing the islands to the position of a prefecture in spite of the warlike threats of China. In the same year occurred the visit to Japan of General Grant while he was on his tour around the world. The famous American was entertained most enthusiastically by tlie citizens of Tokio for some two weeks in July. The enthusiasm awakened by his visit among the citizens was remarkable. Arches and illuminations were on every hand for miles. The entertain- ment provided by the Japaiie.-i! for their distinguished guests at any time is so unique when seen by western eyes that it is always impressive and delightful. LIMITS AND POSSESSIONS OF THE JAPANESE EM- PIRE. The Islands and their situation— The Famous Mountain FuJI-yama— Rivers and Canals —Ocean Currents and Their Effect on the Japanese Climate— Japan not a Tropical Country —Flora and Fauna— The Important Cities— Strange History of Yokohama— Commerce— Mln- lUK— Agricultural Products— Ceramic Art— Government of th« Realm. The empire of Japan is a collection of islands of various dimen- sions, numbering nearly four thousand, and situated to the east of the Asiatic continent. Only four of these however, are of size suiBcient to entitle them to considerable fame, and around these a sort of belt of defense is formed by the thousands of islets. Dai Nippon is the name given by the natives to their beautiful land, and from this expression, which means Great Japan, our own name for the empire has been taken. F'oreign writers have very often blundered in calling the largest island Nippon or Niphon. This more properly applies to the entire empire, while the main island is named in the military geography of Japan, Hondo. This word itself means main land. The other three im- portant islands are Kiushiu, the most southeasterly of all ; Shikoku, which lies between the latter and Hondo ; and Yesso, which is the most northerly of the chain. Japan occupies an important position on the surface of the globe, measured by political and commercial possibilities. Its position is such that its people may not unreasonably hope to form a natural link between the Occident and the Orient. Lying in the Pacific Ocean, in tlie temperate zone and not in the torrid, as many have the thought, it bends like a crescent off the conti- nent of Asia. In the extreme north, near the island of Saghalien, the distance from the main land of Asia is so short that it is little more than a day's sail in a junk. At the southern extremity, wlieie Kiusliiu draws nearest to the Corean peninsula, the distance to the main land is even less. Between this crescent of islands and tlie Asiatic main land is enclosed the Sea of Japan. For more than four thousand miles eastward stretches the Pacific Ocean, with no stopping point for steamers voyaging to San (265) m ISLANDS OP THE EMPIRE. Francisco unless they diverge fur from tlieir course for a call at Honolulu. The island connections of Japan are numerous. To the south are the Liu Kiu islands, which have been annexed to Japan, and still farther the great island of Formosa. To the north are tlio Kurile islands, which extend far above Yesso and were ceded Id Japan by Russia in return for Saghalien, over which rule wits formerly disputed. The chain is almost continuous, althongli broken and irregular, to Kamtchatka, and thence prolonged by the Aleutian islands in an enormous semicircle tc Alaska and our own continent. The configuration of the land is that resulting from the com- bined effects of volcanic action and wave erosion. The area of the Japanese islands is about one hundred and fifty thousand square miles, or nearly as great as the New England and Middle States. But of this surface nearly two-thirds consists of mountain land, much of it still lying waste and uncultivated though appar- ently capable of tillage. On the main island a solid backbone of mountainous elevations runs through a great portion of its length, with subordinate chains extending at right angles and rising again in the other islands. The mountains decrease in height towards the south and there are few highlands along the sea coast. The range is reached by a gradual rise from the sea, until the back- bone of the great island chain is reached. Japan rises abruptly from the sea, and deep water begins very close to the shore, in- dicating that the entire range of islands may be properly char- acterized as an immense mountain chain thrown up from the bottom of the ocean. The highest peak is Fujiyama, which rises to a height of more than twelve thousand feet above the sea. It is a wonderfully beautiful mountain, and is the first glimpse that one has of land in approaching Yokohama from the Pacific Ocean. Of the position which this mountain occupies in the affections and traditions of the Japanese, mention will be made in a later chapter. The islands forming the empire of Japan are comprehended in these limits ; between twenty-four degrees and fift3'^-one degrees north latitude, and one hundred and twenty-four degrees and one hundred and fifty-seven degrees east longitude. That is, speaking FUJIYAMA. 267 roughly, it lies diagonally in and north of the subtropical belt, suid lias northern points correKponduig with Paris and Newfound- land, and southern ones corresponding with Cairo and the Bermuda islands; or coming nearer home, it corresponds pretty nearly in latitude wilh the eastern coast line of the United States, added to Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and the contrasts of climate in the latter island and in Florida are probably not more remarkable than those which are observed in the extreme northern and southern regions of Japan. The most striking geographical feature of Japan is the Inland FUJI-YAMA. Sea, which is one of the beauties of the world. It is a long, irregularly shaped arm of the sea, with tides and rapid currents, of variable width and no great depth, studded with innumerable thickly wooded islands. It is the water area which separates Hondo from Shikoku and Kiushiu, and is often spoken oi as the Japanese Mediterranean. One or two of the rivers of Japan, such as the Sumida, on the banks of which Tokio, the ea')ital, lies, and which is about as broad as the East River between New York and Brooklyn, are vm u 268 RIVERS. worthy of note. Here at the present time are situated Bevcral slilp yards, and many modern craft built in the American fashion may be seen along the shore. Here it may be mentioned that any particuhir appellation given to a river in Japan holds good only for a limited part of its course, so that it changes its name per- haps four or five times in flowing a few hundred miles. Indeed the river which passes through the city of Ozaka clianges its name four times within the city limits. Most of the larger rivers in the main land run a course tending almost north and south. The general contour of tlie land is such that they must be short, but this direction gives them the greatest length possible. Tiiere are brief periods of excessively heavy rain, and they are often then in fierce flood, carrying everything before them and leaving great plains of water-worn stones and gravel around their mouths. There are many picturesque waterfalls which attract travelers and command the admiration of native artists and poets. The rivers at a short distance from their outlets are rendered navigable chiefly by the courage and expertness of the boatmen, — who are among the most daring and skillful in the world. Till recently little has been done to deepen river channels or protect their banks, except in the interest of agriculture. In the lower courses, where broad alluvial plains of great fertility have been formed, they are frequently intersected by numerous shallow canals, for the most part of comparatively recent excavation, but some of them are many centuries old and these have been of im- mense service in keeping up communication throughout the country. In spite of their shallowness and rapid silting, some of the rivers of Japan are capable of being improved so as to admit of the passage of steam vessels of the largest size, and there are fine natural inlets and spacious bays which form harbors of great excellence. The Japanese coast is usually steep and even precipitous. Its chief natural features, such as sunken rocks, capes, straits, en- trances to bays and harbors and the mouths of rivers are now well marked with beacons or lighthouses of modern construction. The tides are not great, and in Yeddo bay the rise is only about four feet on an average. In spring tides it rarely exceeds six feet, and in general the height of the flood tide is never very GREAT OCEAN CURRENTS. 2G9 great. Navigation in summer is somewhat dangerous and diffi- cult, owing to the mists and fogs which are deemed by its sailors to be the great scourge of Japan. Indeed these malarious cloud banks are probably as dangerous to the health of tlie landsmen as they are to the safety of the mariner. While a large area of land lying under shallow water, during rice cultivation, may have some share in the formation of these dangerous mists, there is the more general cause which is readily to be found in the ocean cur- rents. Japan occupies a striking position in these currents which flow northward from the Indian ocean and the Malay peninsula. That branch of the great Pacific equatorial current called the Kuro Shiwo, or dark tide or current, on account of its color, flows in a westerly direction past Formosa and the Liu Kiu islands, strik- ing the south point of Kiushiu and sometimes in summer send- ing a branch up the Sea of Japan. With great velocity it scours the east coast of Kiushiu and the south of Shikoku; thence with diminished rapidity it envelopes the group of islands south of the Bay of Yeddo ; and at a point a little north of Tokio it leaves the coast of Japan and flows northeast towards the shores of America, ultimately giving to our own Pacific coast states a far milder climate than the corresponding latitudes on the Atlantic coast. The yearly evaporation at the tropics, of fully fourteen or fif- teen feet of ocean water, causes the great equatorial current of the Pacific to begin its flow. When the warm water reaches the colder waters to the northward, condensation of the water-laden air takes place, with the resulting formation of great cloud banks. The water appears to be of a deep, almost indigo-blue color, whence the name given to the current by the Japanese. Fish occur in great numbers where the Arctic current of fresher, lighter, and cooler water meets the warm salt strean from the south, amidst great commotion. The analogy of this great cur- rent to the Gulf stream of the Atlantic is apparent, and there can be no doubt as to its great influence on the climate of Japan. A difference of from twelve to sixteen degrees may be observed in passing from its waters to the cold currents from the north, and the effect of this on the atmosphere is very marked. The sudden 270 JAPANESE CLIMATE. and severe changes of temperature are often noticed on the southern coast of Japan and even in Yeddo bay. They are evi- dently due to eddies or branch currents from the great streams of cold and warm water which interweave themselves in the neighborhood. In the island of Yesso, the most northerly of the large ones, the extremes of temperature are nearly as great as in New En- gland. In the vicinity of Tokio the winter is usually clear and mild, with occasional sharp frosts and heavy falls of snow. In summer the heat is oppressive for nearly three months. Even at night the heat remains so high that sileop becomes almost impos- sible, the air being oppressive and no breeze stirring. The great- est heat is usually from the middle of June to early in September. The cold in winter is much more severe on the northwestern coast, and the roads across the main island are often blocked with snow for many months. In Yokohama the snow fall is light, not often exceeding two or three inches. The ice seldom exceeds an inch in thickness. Earthquake shocks are.frequent, averag- ing more than one a month, but of late years there have been none of great severity. The winds of J.^pan are at all seasons exceedingly irregular, frequently violent, and subject to sudden changes. The north- east and easterly winds are generally accompanied by rain, and are not violent. The southwest and westerly winds are generally high, often violent, and accompanied with a low barometer. It is from the southwest that the cyclones or typhoons almost in- variably come. On clear and pleasant days, which in the neigh- borhood of Yokohama prevail in excess of foggy ones, there is a regular land and sea breeze at all seasons. The rainfall is above the average of most countries, and about two-thirds of the rain- falls during the six months from April to October. The flora of Japan is exceedingly interesting, not only to botan- ists and specialists, but to casual travelers and readers. The use- ful bamboo flourishes in all parts of the land ; sugar cane and the cotton plant grow in the southern part; tea is grown almost everywhere. The tobacco plant, hemp, corn, mulberry for silk- worm food, rice, wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat, potatoes, and yams are all cultivated. The beech, the oak, maples, and pine wf!^i^-'>>^y!rw^'^'^ on the are evi- strearns i in the •ge ones, l^ew En- lear and ow. In Even at it impos- le great- ptember. 1 western blocked is light, exceeds averag- ive been rregular, le north- ain, and enerally iter. It most in- e neigh- here is a is above the rain- ;o botan- The use. and the 1 almost for silk- oes, and ,nd pine ^AUNA. 273 trees in rich variety ; azaleas, camelias, etc., grow in the forests. Some of the more characteristic plants are wisteria, cryptomeria, calceolaria and chrysanthemums. Various varieties of evergreens are grown, and the Japanese gardeners are peculiarly expert in cultivating these trees in dwarf forms of great beauty. Many familiar wild flowers can be gathered, such as violets, blue-bells, forget- me nots, thyme, dandelions, and others. The v^roods are rich in ferns, among which the royal fern is conspicuous, and in orchids, ivies, lichens, mosses and fungi. The beautiful locusts, though imported, may now fairly be considered as naturalized. There are many water lilies, reeds and rushes, some of which are of great beauty aiil others of utility. The mammalia of Japan are not numerous. In ancient times, before the dawn of history, two species of dwarf elephants ex- isted in the plahis around Tokio. There are many monkeys in some parts, even in the extreme northern latitudes. Foxes abound and are regarded with reverence. Wolves and bears are destructive in the north. There are wild antelopes, red deer, wild boars, dogs, racccons, badgers, otters, ferrets, bats, moles, and rats ; while the sea is specially rich in seals, sea-otters, and whales. The country has been found quite unsuitable for sheep, but goats thrive w'ell, although they are not much favored by the people. Oxen are used for draught purposes. Horses are small but are fair quality, and the breed is being improved. The cats are nearly tailless. The dogs are of a low, half-wolfish breed. There are some three hundred varieties of birds known in Japan. Few of them are what we call song-birds, but the lark is one brilliant exception. Game birds are plentiful, but are now pro- tected. Insects are very numerous, as no traveler will dispute, and Japan is a great field for investigation by entomologists. Locusts are often destructive, and mosquitoes are a great pest. Bees, the silk worm and the wax-insect are highly appreciated. There are several kinds of lizards, a great variety of frogs, seven or eight snakes, including one deadly species, and two or three kinds of tortoise. The crustaceans are numerous and inter- esting, and of fish there is extraordinary vjxriety, especially those found in salt water. Oysters and clams are excellent and plentiful, / '■ •.TW" 274 JAPAN'S GREAT CITIES. Let U8 now turn to the temporal affairs of the people who dwell in this island empire, their cities, their industries, and to their government. Japan like its oriental companion, China, is a country of great cities, although the smaller empire has not so many famous for their size as lias China. With scarcely an exception these greater cities are situated at the heads of bays, most of them good har- bors and accessible for commerce. The largest of these cities, of course, is the capital Tokio, which doubtless passes a million in- habitants, although it is impossible that it should justify the American tradition of not many years ago, that its numbers were twice a million. Tokio, or the old city of Yeddo, is situated near the head of Yeddo Bay, but a few miles from Yokohama, and but little farther from Uraga where the first reception to Commodore Perry was given. Among the other more important cities on the sea coast are Nagasaki, Yokohama, Hakodate, Hiogo, Ozaka, Hiroshima, and Kanagawa. Nagasaki is situated on the southwest coast of thfj island of Kiushiu, and is built in the forji of an amphitheater. The Euro- pean quarter in the east, stands upon land reclaimed from the sea at considerable labor and expense. Desima, the ancient Dutch factory, lies at the foot, and behind it is the native part of the town. The whole is sheltered by high wooden mountains. The city of Nagasaki was almost the first which attracted the at- tention of foreigners, partly from its being already known by name from the Dutch colony established there ; partly because it was the nearest point to China and a port of great beauty ; and also because before the political revolution which overthrew the power of the shogunate, the daimios of the south were there en- abled, owing to its distance from Yeddo, to transact foreign affairs in their own way unmolested. This comparative import- ance did not last long, Tor affairs soon began to be concentrated in Yokohama, and the opening of the ports of Hiogo and Ozaka further reduced it to a secondary rank among commercial towns. It is still, however, a busy place and a great portion of the naviga- tion of the Japanese seas passes by its beautiful port. But it is not a town of the future, and will be supplanted in prosperity to considerable extent by the more northern cities. ^r"^' n^ YOKOHAMA. 275 Yokohama, situated on the Gulf of Yeddo, owes its rise ai?d im- portance to the merchants who came to seek their fortunes in the empire of the rising sun immediately after the signature of the treaties which threw open the coasts of Japan to adventurous foreigners. When Perry, witli his augmented fleet, returned to Japan in February, 1854, the Japanese found him as inflexibly firm as ever. Instead of making tlie treaty at Uraga he must take it nearer Yeddo. Yokoliaina was the chosen spot, and there on the 8th of March, 1854, were exchanged the formal articles of convention between the United States and Japan. By the treaty of Yokohama, Shimoda was one of the ports opened to Americans. Before it began to be of much service the place was visited by an earthquake and tidal wave, which over- whelmed the town and ruined the harbor. The ruin of Shimoda was the rise of Yokohama. By a new treaty Kanagawa, three miles across the bay from Yokohama, was substituted for Shimoda. The Japanese government decided to make Yokohama the future port. Their reasons for this were many. Kanagawa was on the line of the great highway of the empire, along which the proud Daimios and their trains of retainers were continually passing. With the antipathy to foreigners that existod, had Kanagawa l)een made a foreign settltMiient, its hisiory would doubtless have had many more pages of cissassination and incendiarism than did Yokohama. Foreseeing (his, even ihoi'gh considered by the foreign ministers a violation of treaty agreerr«ent,s, the Japanese government iir ediately set to work to render Yokohama as con- venient as pofaoible for trade, residence &nd espionage. Tliey built a causeway nearly two miles long across the lagoons iuid marshes to make it of easy access. They built granite piers, custom house and officers' quarters, and dwel]:"rpean ports and from San Francisco. Social life began as ladl<"s and children came, and houses became home-i Then cam" t !o rapid growth of society and the finer things, Cli arches, :hcatr-:s, clubs, schools were organized in rapid succession. Teie- gi nh ! innection with Tokio, and thence around the globe, was ii.cc"i')i'!ished, and the railway system increased rapidly. Within the ;plonmtic rom some fire which lurify the ettlemeut •. As the Itals, post- ity. File n to come life began 6*5 Then Churches, on. Tele- globe, was . Within wn from a ,ncl people. !S are piled he foreign residents, ide up of merchant thousand. 2S, printed s. Ydko- center of a lied since ted on the f Niphon. lie houses than half of Japan, d into the European njoys the ,he United X V TRANS-OCEANIC COMMERCE. 279 States is second, with a large portion of the remainder, and the rest of the commerce is divided among Germany, France, Holland, Norway, and Sweden. It is impossible to obtain figures recent enough to be a satisfactory index of the total volume of commerce annually, but it is now very many niillionn of dollars a year. Japan exports tobacco, rice, wax, tea, silks, and manufactured goods, such as curios, bronzes, lacquer ware, etc. The principal imports of Japan are cotton goods, manufactures of iron, ma- chinery of all sorts, woolen fabrics, flour, etc. Mining in Japan is seldom carried on by modern methods, and the mineral wealth has not been developed as it will be within a few years. In almost every portion of Japan are found ores of some kind and there is scarcely a district in which there are not traces of mines having been worked. No mines can be worked without special license of the government, and foreigners are ex- cluded from ownership in any mining industry. Japan seems to be fairly well, though not richly, provided with mineral wealth. The mines include those for gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, tin, plumbago, antimony, arsenic, marble, sulphur, alum, salt, coal, petroleum, and other minerals. The annual export of tea amounts to nearly thirty million pounds, of which considerably more than half is shipped from Yokohama. All Japanese tea is green and the United States is the chief customer for it. The exact area of Japan is not known, though it is computed at nearly one hundred and fifty thousand square miles, with a population of more than two hundred persons to a square mile. The number of acres under cultivation is about nine million, or one-tenth of the entire area. Not one-fourth of the fertile portion of Japan is yet under cultivation. Immense portions of good hnd await the farmers' plow and seed to return rich harvests. For centuries the agricultural art has been at a standstill. Pop- ulation and acreage have increased, but the crop in bulk and quantity remains the same. The true wealth of Japan consists in her agricultural and not in her mineral and manufacturing re- sources. The government and intelligent classes seem to be awakening to this fact. The islands are capable of yielding good crops and adapted to support the finest breeds of cattle. With 14 280 GOVERNMENT OF JAPAN. these branches of industry increased to the extent that they de- serve, the prosperity of the empire will shov; constant incrcsc. The ceramic art of Japan and the art of the lacquer worker ire two that have helped to make Japanese wares famous in the western world. The various wares of porcelain and faience are made in Japan in quality and art inferior to none in the world. Since the restoration to power of the mikado in 1868, the gov- ernment of Japan has been growing nearer and nearer into the forms of westerT- munarchical governments. In a prior chapter the promise of the young mikado to advance the freedom of his people, and ultimately to adopt constitutional forms of rule, has been quoted. In the later years he has been aiming for the ful- fillment of this promise. Supporting him, the party of progres- sionists, largely influenced by contact with European and Amer- ican civilization, urge on every reform. The present government is simply the modernized form of the system established more than a thousand years ago» when centralized monarchy succeeded simple feudalism. After the emperor comes the Dai Jo Kuan, which is practically a supreme cabinet, and following this, three other cabinets of varying powers and duties. The council of ministers is made up of the heads of departments, the foreign office, home oiHce, treasiiry, army, navy, education, religion, pub- lic works, judiciary, imperial household, and colonization. The Dai Jo Kuan directs the three imperial cities and the sixty-eight ken or prefectures. The provinces are now merely geographical divisions. In the course of the efforts to bring the Japanese forms of gov- ernment more into harmony with those of Europe and America, many important changes have been made. A system of nobility was devised, and titles were granted to those who were considered to be entitled to them, whether by birth or achievement. The four or five ranks included in this system closely follow the Eng- lish models. The judiciary, too, has been remodeled in many details to make it approach the western system. The methods of procedure are gradually conforming nearer and nearer to our own, as well as the names and jurisdiction of the courts. The Japanese people have been exceedingly anxious of late years to expunge the extra- CONSTITUTION AND PARLIAMENT. 281 territoriality clause which appears in the treaties with all western nations. It provides, in effect, that offenses by a foreigner against a Japanese shall be judged in a consular court presided over by the consul of that country whence the foreigner conies. In other words, Japanese courts have no jurisdiction over the doings of JAPANESE COURT DRESS, OLD STTUB. foreigners having consuls in that country. This provision has become very obnoxious to the Japanese people, placing them on a level, as it does, with barbaric and semi-barbaric countries, wliere like provisions hold. This has been one of the potent fac- tors in influencing Japan to adopt western legal methods. Recent IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A 4is 1.0 I.I 1.25 1^ 2.5 2.2 i.8 U III 1.6 V] <91 '^Jf 7 jj? ^^ O / Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 282 CONSTITUTION AND TARLIAMENT. treaties which have been drawn with the United States and with England provide that this clause shall be expunged, and if they are finally agreed upon we may soon see Japan more absolutely independent than she has yet been. In 1890 a constitution was granted to Japan by the emperor, and a few months later legislative bodies for the first time began deliberation in Tokio. The powers of this parliament are con- stantly increasing. The war between China and Japan has been a strong influence to weld the people of opposing political faiths into harmony, and in parliament conservatives and radicals alike have risen in patriotism, and have been glad to cast votes for every measure that would hold up the hands of those who were bearing the battles. With a government drawing for itself lines parallel with those of enlightened western nations, increasing the freedom of its people, the power of the people's legislators, and the honesty of the people's courts, Japan has every right to name herself as worthy of a place in full brotherhood with the family of civilized nations. / " s and with ind if they absolutely e emperor, ;ime began it are con- n has been tical faiths licals alike votes for who were itself lines 'easing the lators, and \\t to name the family o n 1 > \j. If. w ir. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE. Difference of Opinion as to the True Slgnlflcance of Their Rapid Adoption of Western CiviliziitiDU— Physique of Man and Woman— Two Great Classes of the Population— The aaniuiai— The Agricultural Laborer— Weddiiig Ceremonies— Elopements— Japanese Babies —Sports of Childhood and of Age— Dress of Man and Woman— Food— Homes of the People — Fivmlly Life— Art, Science, Medicine, Music— Language and Literature- Religion. In such a state of transition are the Japanese people them- selves, as truly as the government, that it is difficult to describe their personal characteristics. Different observers reach different conclusions as to their personality. One affirms that great quick- ness of imitation and judgment in discovering what is worth imi- tating, seem to be the prominent characteristics of the Japanese. They want originality and independence of thought, and character which accompanies it. The Japanese are not slow in adopting the inventions of modern civilization, and even in modifying them to suit their own convenience, but, says another observer, that they will ever add anything of importance to them may be doubted. The same is true in a political point of view. The more enlightened of the Japanese are already beginning to recog- nize the superiority of the European forms of government. The upper classes are all sedulously imitating Paris and London fashions of dress. In our own country we have seen the preva- lence of an offensive Anglomania among certain classes of society in the larger cities, but in Japan a corresponding mania for the forms of western civilization has become almost universal, and is reaching the real bulk of the nation. Such extraordinary capacity for change may mark a versatile but unreliable race ; for it seems luird to believe that a people who are parting with their ancestral notions with such a total absence of any pangs of sorrow, will be likely to adhere with much steadfastness to anew order of things. On the other hand, other students of this movement take it to be only a most gratifying indication that Japan was a nation which had outgrown its narrow limits of thought and learning, ready to adopt whatever was good, and yearning for it when the oppor- (285) ;<"'(:?^'4i\ ''f^»-*r\77'i9'^''*!^_:'^^riY^''*^-'^'^^f'' 286 CHARACTERISTICS OP THE RACE. tunity came, with a strength that made rapid assimilation of ideas entirely proper, and no sign of instability. It is to be hoped that the latter interpretation is the right one. In moral character the average Japanese is frank, honest, faith- ful, kind, gentle, courteous, confiding, affectionate, filial, and loyal. Love of truth for its own sake, chastity, and temperfiuce are not characteristic virtues. A high sense of honor is cultivated by the Samurai. In spirit the average artisan and farmer is lamb- like. In intellectual capacity the actual merchant is mean, and his moral character low. He is beneath the Chinaman in this re- spect. The male Japanese is far less overbearing and more chivalrous to woman than any other Asiatic. In political knowl- edge, or gregarious ability, the countryman is a baby and the city artisan a boy. The peasant is a pronounced pagan, with supersti- tion ingrained into his inmost nature. In reverence to elders and to antiquity, obedience to parents, gentle manners, universal courtesy, and generous impulses the Japanese are the peers of any and superior to many peoples of Christendom. The idea of filial obedience has been developed into fanaticism and is the main blot of paganism and superstition. The Japanese in physique are much of the same type as the Spaniards, and inhabitants of the south of France. They are of middle or low stature. The men are about five feet six inches in height or a trifle less on an average, while the women rarely ex- ceed five feet. When dressed the Japanese look strong, well pro- portioned men, but when in the exceedingly slight costumes which they very often are pleased to adopt, it is then apparent that though their bodies are robust their legs are short and slight. Their heads are somewhat out of proportion to their bodies, being generally large and sunk a little between the shoulders, but they have small feet and delicate hands. The resemblance the Japanese bear to the Chinese is not nearly as marked as popular opinion would have it. The faces of the former are longer and more regular, their noses more prominent, and their eyes less sloped. The men are naturally very hirsute, but they never wear beards. Their hair is glossy, thick, and always black. Their eyes are black, their teeth white and slightly prominent. The shade of their skin is totally unlike the yellow complexions of the JAPANESE PHYSIQUE. 287 Chinese ; in some cases it is very swarthy or copper colored, but tlio most usual tint is an olive brown. Children and young people liave usually quite pink complexions. The women follow the Cliinese type a little closer. The eyes are narrower and sloped upward, and the head is small. Like the men tlieir hair is glossy and very black, but it never reaches the length of American women's hair. They have clear, some- times even perfectly white skin, especially among the aristocracy, oval faces, and slender, graceful forms. Their manners are peculiarly artless and simple. But the harmony of the whole is spoiled in many instances by an ugly depression of the chest, which is sometimes observed in those who are otherwise handsomest and best formed. About the end of the eighth century a reform was insti- tuted in the military system of the empire, which had be- come unsatisfactory and de- fective. The court decided that all those among the rich peasants who had capacity and were skilled in archery and horsemanship, should compose the military class, and that the remainder, the weak and feeble, should con- tinue to till the soil and apply themselves to agriculture. This was one of the most significant of all the changes in the history of Japan. Its fruits are seen to-day in the social constitution of the Japanese people. Though there are many classes, there are but two great divisions of the Japanese, the military and the agricultural. This change wrought a complete severance of the soldier and the farmer. It lifted up one part of the people to a plane of life on which travel, adventure, the profession and pursuit of arms, letters, and the cultivation of honor and chivalry were possible, DBESSINQ THE HAIB. 288 CASTE IN JAPAN. and by which that brightest type of Japanese men, the Samurai v/as produced. This is the class which for centuries has monopo- lized arms, polite learning, patriotism, and intellect of Japan. They are the men whose minds have been open to learn, from whom sprung the ideas that once made and later overthrew the feudal system, which wrought the mighty reforms that swept away the shogunate in 1868, and restored the mikado to ancient power, who introduced those ideas that now rule Japan, and sent their sons abroad to study the civilization of the west. To the Samurai Japan looks to-day for safety in war and progress in peace. The Samurai is the soul of the nation. In other lands the priestly and the military castes were formed, in Japan one and the same class held the sword and the pen ; the other class, the agricultural, remained unchanged. Left to the soil to till it, to live and die upon it, the Japanese farmer has remained the same to-day that he was then. Like the wheat, that for successive ages is planted as wheat, sprouts, beards and fills as wheat, the peasant with his horizon bounded by his rice fields and water courses or the timbered hills, his intellect laid away for safe keeping in the priest's hands, is the son of the soil. He cares little who rules him unless he is taxed beyond the power of flesh and blood to bear, or an overmeddlesome ofiBcial policy touches his land to transfer, sell or divide it. Then he rises to rebel. In time of war he is a disinterested and a passive spectator and he does not fight. He changes masters with apparent unconcern. Amidst all the ferment of ideas induced by the contact of western civilization with Asiatic within the last four decades, the farmer stolidly remains conservative. He knows not nor cares to hear of it and hates it because of the heavier taxes it imposes upon him. The domestic solemnities of the Japanese, marriage especially, are made the subjects of deep and careful meditation. In the upper classes marriage is arranged between two young people when the bridegroom has reached his twentieth and the bride her sixteenth year. The will of the parents is almost without excep- tion the dominating power in the matrimonial arrangements, which are carried out according to agreement among the relatives, but love affairs of a spontaneous kind form a large element in the MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 289 romantic literature of Japan. The wedding is preceded by a be- trothal, which ceremony offers an occasion for the members of both families to meet one another ; and it not unfrequently hap- pens that the future couple then learn for the first time the wishes of their parents respecting their union. If perchance the bride- groom elect is not satisfied with the choice, the young woman re- turns home again. With the introduction of other western ideas, this inconvenient custom is little by little falling into disuse. Nowadays, if a young man wishes to marry into a family of good position or one which it would be advantageous to his prospects to enter, he endeavors first to see the young lady, and then if she pleases him he sends a mediator, chosen usually from amongst his married friends, and the betrothal is arranged without any further obstacle. Even more American-like than this, however, there are many instances, and the number is constantlyincreasing, in which the match is the result of mutual affection, and sometimes elope- ments are known to occur among the best families. When things are carried through conventionally, the betrothal and wedding are usually solemnized on the same day and without the assistance of any minister of worship. The customary cere- monies are all of a homely nature, but at the same time are ex- tremely complicated and numerous. Upon the day fixed, the trousseau of the young bride and ail the presents she has received, are brought to the home of the bridegroom, where the c veraony is to be performed, and arranged in the apartments set ..}: .vt for the affair. The bride arrives soon afterward, dressed in whiie and escorted by her parents. The groom, arrayed in gala costume, receives her at the entrance of the house, and conducts her into the hall where the betrothal takes place. Here grand prepa- rations have been made. The altar of the domestic gods has been decorated with images of the patron saints of the family and with different plants, each having its symbolical meaning. When all have taken their places according to the recognized form of precedence, the ceremony is begun by two young girls, who hand around unlimited quantities of saki to the guests. These two damsels are surnamed the male and female butterfly, the emblems of conjugal felicity, because according to popular notion butterflies always fly about in couples. The decisive cere- 290 THE WEDDING CEREMONY. Hli il mony is tinged with a sytnhulisin which has a considerable touch of poetry in it. The two butterflies, holding between them a two- necked bottle, approach and offer it to the engaged couple to drink together from the two mouths of the bottle till it is emptied, which signifies that husband and wife must drain together the cup of life whether it contain nectar or gall ; they must share equally the joys and sorrows of existence. The Japanese is the husband of one wife only, but hQ is at lib- erty to introduce several concubines under the family roof. This is done in all classes of society, especially amongst the daimios. It is asserted that in many of the noble families the legitimate wife not only evinces no jealousy, but has even a certain pleasure in seeing the number of her household thus augmented, as it supplies her with so many additional servants. In the middle classes, however, the custom is often the cause of bitter family dis- sentions. The heavy expenses of the marriage ceremonies often occasion considerable domestic strife and misery, at least if they are cele- brated according to all the established conventionalities. Debts are then incurred which perhaps the young couple are unable to meet, so that when other expenses grow, and trouble or misfor- tune overtake them, they are speedily plunged into the deepest distress and indigence. The natural consequence of these arbi- trary customs is the increase of runaway matches. The elope- ment, however, is usually wisely winked at by the parents, who feign great lamentation and anger, then finally assemble their neighbors, pardon their recreant children, and circulate the inevi- table saki, and the marriage is considered as satisfactory as if per- formed with all the requisite formalities. The birth of a child is another occasion for the meeting of the whole circle of relations, and the consumption of a great many more bumpers of saki. The baptism of the young Japanese citizen takes place thirty days later, when the infant is taken to the temple of the family divinity to receive its first name. The father has previously written three different names upon three separate slips of paper, which are handed over to the officiating bonze or priest. The latter throws them into the air, and the piece of paper which in falling first touches the ground contains JAPAI^ESK BABTES. 291 the name wliich is to ho given to the (ihild. There are no god- parents, but several friends of the family declare themselves the infant's protectors and make it several presents, among which is a fan if it be a boy, or a pot of rouge if a girl. The Japanese child is early taught to endure hardships, and is subjected from its infancy to all the small miseries of life, so far as may be thought wise for its training. The mother nurses it till it is two years of age, and carries it continually about with her attached to her back for con- /-^ venience. The children are daintily pretty, chubby, rosy, sparkling-eyed. The children's heads are shaved in all curious fashions, some with little topknots, and others with bald spots. The way the babies are carried is an improvement upon the Indian fashion. He is lugged on the back of his mother or his sister, maybe scarcely older than himself, either strapped / loosely but safely, with his head just peering above the shoulder of the bearer, or else enclosed in a fold of the garment she wears. It is a pop- ular belief among travelers that Japanese babies are the best in the world and never cry, but the Japanese themselves claim no such distinction for the little ones, very proud of them though they are, and affirm that they child carrying baby. have their fits of temper as well as American babies. Education is not forced too early upon the children, but nature is allowed its own way during the first years of childhood. Toys, pleasures, fetes of all kinds, are liberally indulged in. One writer has said that Japan is the paradise of babies ; not only is this true but it is also a very delightful abode for all who love play. The contrast between the Japanese and Chinese character in this re- spect is radical. The whole character, manners, and even the dress of the sedate and dignified Chinaman, seems to be in keep- 292 SI'OKTS OF YOUN(; AND OLD. iiig with that aversion to nitioiiul uiuusuineiil uiid athletic uxer- cises which charactcsrize that adult population. In Japan, on the contrary, one noes that children of the larger growth enjoy with equal zest, games which are the sanie or nearly the same as those of the little ones. Certain it is that the adults do all in their power to provide for the children their full quota of play and harndess sports. A very noticeable change has passed over the Japanese peoide since the recent influx of foreigners, in respect of their love of amusements. Their sports are by no means as numerous or olaboiate as formerly, and they do not enter into them with the enthusiasm that formerly characterized thein. The children's festivals and sports are rapidly losing their importance, and some are rarely seen. There is no country in the world in which there are so many toy shops for the sale of the things which delight children. Street theatrical shows are common. Sweet meats of a dozen strange sorts are carried by men who do tricks in gym- nastics to please the little ones. In every Japanese city there are scores if not hundreds of men and women who obtain a livelihood by amusing the children. There are indoor games and outdoor games, games for the day time and games for the evening. Japanese kite flying and top spinning are famous the world over, and experts in these sports come to exhibit their adeptness in our own country. In the northern provinces, where the winters are severe, Japanese boys have the same sports with snow and ice, coasting, sliding, fighting mimic battles with snowballs, that are known to our own American boys. Dinners, tea parties, and weddings, keeping store, and playing doctor, are imitated in Japanese children's games. On the third day of the third month is held the wonderful " Feast of Dolls " which is the day especially devoted to the girls, and to them it is the greatest day in the year. The greatest day in the year for the boys is on the fifth day of the fifth month, when they celebrate what is known as the " Feast of Flags." A Japanese attains his majority at fifteen years of age. As soon as this time has arrived he takes a new name, and quietly discards the pleasures of infancy for the duties of a practical life. His first care, if he belong to the middle classes, is the choice of tic exer- 1, on the joy with as those in their phiy and je people ir love of erous or with the jhiklren's and some lich there h delight meats of s in gym- there are livelihood i outdoor evening, jrld over, 3SS in our inters are and ice, that are ties, and tated in ironderful the girls, atest day month, age. As d quietly tical life, choice of CHOOSING A BUSINESS. 296 a trade or profession. The opportunities for this choice are much greater than in China, just as the scope of Japanese learning and life has increased in the last quarter century. Practically all of the businesses and trades that we know in our own country are to-day known in Japan, those which were not there before, having crept in with the advent of the foreigners. The Japanese young man, if he is to be a merchant or to learn a trade, serves an ap- prenticeship for a period sufficient to fit him for the mastery of his work, and then it is he provides himself with a wife. The dress of the Japanese is changing in harmony with the in- troduction of other foreign habits. Custom has always obliged married women to shave their eyebrows and blacken their teeth, but of late years the practice has been decreasing and now it does not prevail among the better classes and in the larger cities. They have also made a most immoderate use of paint, covering their brow, cheeks, and neck with thick coats of rouge and white. Some have even gone so far as to gild their lips, but the more modest have been content to color them with carmine, and the excessive use of paints is diminishing. The kirimon, a kind of long, open dressing gown, is worn by every one, men and women alike. It is a little longer and of bet- ter quality for the women, who cross it in front and confine it by a long wide piece of silk, or other material tied in a quaint fashion at the back. The men keep theirs in its place by tying a long straight scarf around them. The Japanese use no linen, the women alone wearing a chemise of silk crepe, but it must be re- membered that they bathe daily or even oftener, and that sim- plicity of dress is affected by all. The middle classes wear in addition to the kirimon, a doublet and pantaloons. These are also worn in winter by men of the lower orders, the pantaloons fitting tightly, and made of checked cotton. The peasants and porters usually wear a loose overall in summer, made of some light paper material, and in winter not un- frequently consisting of coarse straw. The women also envelop themselves in one or several thickly wadded mantles. Linen gloves with one division for the thumb are very generally worn. Sandals are made of plaited straw, and in bad weather are dis- carded for wooden clogs, raised from the ground by means of two 296 THE DRESS OF MEN AND WOMEN. m bits of wood under the the and heel. As might naturally be ex- pected, locomotion under such circumstances is performed with difficulty, and the hobbling gate which these props necessitate has often been commented on. This peculiarity is most noticeable among the women, whose naturally easy gait is almost as much diverted from its normal movement by these small stilts as that of their sisters iu the west by their high heeled shoes. The costume of the country is exactly alike for both the lower and higher classes, with the difference that the latter always wear silk material. The costumes worn by officials, and those of the nobility, are dis- tinguished by the amplitude of the folds and the rich- ness of the texture. Wide flowing pantaloons are often substituted for the kirimon, which trail on the ground, complete- ly concealing the feet, and give the wearer the appear- ance of walking on his knees, which indeed is the delu- sion it is intended to produce. A kind of overcoat with wide sleeves reaching to the hips completes the costume. The dwelling houses of the Japanese are well adapted to their manners of life, except that they are not always sufficient pro- tection against severe cold. Rich and poor live side by side, although in Tokio there are still traces of the castes of the feudal age, and there are also growing tendencies in the rising mercantile and moneyed classes to separate themselves from the common mass. There are now great portions of the capital densely popu- JAPANESE BATH. DWELLINGS OF THE JAPANESE. 297 lated by the working classes only, and quite destitute of any open spaces of practical ^;alue for health and recreation. The proverb "Every man's house is his castle," might very readily be appropriated by the Japanese, whose home, however humble it may be in all other respects, is always guarded by a moat. In a feudal mansion the moat was usually deep enough to prove a genuine obstacle. While it is still almost universally re- tained, the muddy water is hidden in summer time by the leaves of the lotus, and the bridges are not drawn. The smaller gentry imitate the grandeur of those above them, and when at last we come down to the lowest level we still find a miniature moat whicli is often dry, of a foot or so in breadth, and at most about two inches deep. . In houses of some pretensions there is an enbankment behind the moat, with a hedge growing above it. Behind this there is either a wall or fence of bamboo, tiles, or plaster. As the name of the street is not to be found at the street corner as with us, it is repeated on every doorway. The towns are divided into wards and blocks, and the numbers of the houses are often confused and misleading. A slip of white wood is nailed on one of the posts of the gate, and is inscribed with the name of the street or block, the number, name of Iiouse holder, numbers and sexes of house- hold. The gates of the larger houses are heavy, adorned with copper or brass mountings, and often studded with large nails. When one enters by the gate there is generally found a court, from the sides of which the open verandas of the building may be reached. The verandas are high and there is a special entrance by heavy wooden stairs. The court is sometimes paved with large stones, and sometimes it is left bare or covered with turf. The gardens even of somewhat humble mansions are graced with carved stone lanterns. The well placed near the kitchen often has a rim of stone around it, and the bucket is raised by a beam or a long bamboo. In front of the doorway there is a small space unfloored called the doma, where one takes off his shoes after announcing himself by calling, or by striking a gong suspended by the door post. There is often only one story in Japanese houses, and very rarely more than two. Almost all of them are built of wood ; the ground 298 INTERIOR OF THE HOUSE. i floor is raised about four feet above the ground, the walls are made of planks covered with coarse mats ; jand the roof is sup- ported by four pillars. In a two-storied house the second story is generally built more solidly than the first ; experience having siiown that the edifice can thus better resist the shock of an earthquake. Sometimes the walls are plastered with a coating of soft clay or varnish, and are decorated with gildings and paint- ings. The stair to the second story is very steep. The ceilings are composed of very tiiin, broad planks, and are lower than we are accustomed to, but it must be remembered that the people do not sit on chairs and have no high beds or tables. Doorways, or rather the grooved lintels in which the screen doors slide, are very low and the Japanese, who are always bowing, seem to enjoy having an unusual number of them to pass through in extensive houses. No room is completely walled in, but each one opens on one or more sides completely into the garden, the street, or the adjoining room. Sliding shutters, witli tissue paper windows, the carpentry of which is careful and exact, move in wooden grooves almost on a level with the floor, which is covered with padded woven mats of rushes. As a protection against the severities of the weather rain shutters are also used. All Japanese dwellings have a cheerful, well-caredfor appear- ance, which in a great measure is the result of two causes ; first, that every one is bound constantly to renew the paper coverings of the outside panels, and next that the frequent fires which each time make immense ravages often render it necessary to recon- struct an entire district. In the interior the houses are generally divided into two suites of apartments, the one side being appor- tioned to the women as private rooms, and the other side being used for the reception rooms. These apartments are all separated from one another by partitions made of slight wooden frames, upon which small square bits of white paper are pasted, or else a kind of screen is used which can be moved at pleasure and the room enlarged or contracted according as the occasion requires. Towards nightfall these screens are usually folded up so as to allow a free passage of air throughout the house. The mats of rushes or rice straw which carpet the floors are about three inches thick, and are soft to the touch. Tliey are of BEDS AND OTHER FUR^iTURE. 299 uiuform size, about six feet by three, and this fact dominates all architecture iu Japan. Estimates for building houses and the cutting of wood rest upon this traditional custom. The inhab- itants never soil them with their boots but always walk bare- footed about the ht)use. The mat in Japan answers the purpose of all ordinary furniture, and takes the place of our chairs, tables, and beds. For writing purposes only do they use a low round table about a foot high, which is kept in a cupboard and only brought out when a letter has to be written. This they do kneeling before the table, which they carefully put away again JAPANESE COUCH. when the letter is finished. The meals are laid upon square tables of very slender dimensions, around which the whole family gather, sitting on their heels. In the walls are recesses with sliding doors into which the bed- ding is thrust in the daytime. At bedtime out of these recesses are taken the soft cotton stuffed mattresses and the thick cover- lets of silk or cotton which have been rolled up all day, and these are spread upon the mats. The Japanese pillows are of wood, with the upper portions stuffed or padded, and in form something like a large flat iron. Sometimes each one contains a little 15 300 CONFLAGRATIONS. r '! I I' '■i' « I li drawer in which the ladies put their hairpins. When a Japanese has taken off his day garments he rests his head on this wooden pillow and composes himself to sleep. Everything is put away in the morning, all the partitions are opened to give air, the mats are carefully swept, and the now completely empty chamber is transformed during the day into an office, sitting room, or dining room, to become again the sleeping apartment the following night. Clothes are kept in plaited bamboo boxes usually covered with black or dark green waterproof paper. The furniture is very simple, and there are often in the best houses no chairs, no tables, no bedsteads. There may be some low, short-legged side tables of characteristic Japanese pattern and one or two costly vases or other ornaments, a few pictures which are changed in deference to guests and seasons, some flowers or dwarf trees in vases and a lamp or two. There are, however, two pieces of furniture which are to be found in the houses of every class. These are the brazier and the pipe box, for the Japanese is a great tea drinker and a constant smoker. Every hour in the day his hot water must be ready for him, and the brazier kept burning both day and night both in summer and winter. The principal meal takes place about the middle of the day, and after it the family indulge themselves with several hours' sleep, so that at this time the streets are almost deserted. In the evening they have another meal, and then devote the rest of the time till bedtime to all kii^Js of amusements. In the highest Japanese circles the dinner hour is sometimes enlivened by music from an orchestra stationed in an adjoining room. In summer a well-planned Japanese house is the very ideal of coolness, grace and comfort. In winter it is the extreme of misery. There are no fire-places and there is unmitigated venti- lation. People keep themselves warm by holding themselves close over some morsels of red hot charcoal in a brazier, and frost bite is very common. At night, when cold winds blow, a heat- ing apparatus is put beneath the heavy cotton coverlets. It often gets overturned ; a watchman from his ladder-like tower sees afar ofif a dull red glow, bells begin to clang, and soon the city is in an uprpar of excitement over another conflagration. In a few JAPANESE MINIATURE GARDENS. 801 hours a great fan-shaped gap has appeared in the pity. One goes at day-break to find the scene of destruction, but it has already almost disappeared. Crowds of carpenters have rushed in, and have already done much to erect on the hot and smoking ruinif; wooden houses nearly as good as those swept away by the fire of the night before. The yashikis or palaces in which the people of rank reside, are nothing more than ordinary houses grouped together and sur- rounded by whitewashed outhouses, with latticed windows of black wood. These outhouses serve a two-fold purpose, as habi- tations for the domestics, and as a wall of the enclosure. Always low, and usually rectangular, they look very much like ware- houses or barracks. The palace of the sovereign has, however, a certain character of its own. It is a perfect labyrinth of courts and streets formed by the many separate houses, pavilions, and corridors or simple wooden partitions. The roofs are supported by horizontal beams varnished white, or gilded at the extremities, and decorated with small pieces of sculpture, many of which are very beautiful works of art. The ancient palace of the Tycoons is remarkable for boldness and richness of outline. Everything breathes a spirit of the times when the power and prosperity of tlie shogunate was at its height. Upon the ceilings of gold, sculptured beams cross each other in squares, the angles where they meet being marked by a plate of gilt bronze of very elegant design. The greatest novelties in the eyes of foreigners are the gardens attached to every house. The smallest tradesman has his own little plot of ground where he may enjoy the delights of solitude, take his siesta, or devote himself to copious potations of tea and saki. These gardens are often of exceedingly small size. They consist of a quaint collection of dwarf shrubs, miniature lakes full of gold fish, lilliputian walks in the middle of diminutive flower beds, tiny streams over which are little green arches to imitate bridges, and finally arbors or bowers beneath which a rabbit might scarcely find room to nestle. The Japanese are as strict in the observance of etiquette at a funeral as at their marriage ceremonies. The rites take place both at the time of the actual interment, and afterwards at the 302 FUNERAL CUSTOMS. festivals celebrated in honor of the gods on these occasions. There are two kinds of funerals, interment and cremation. Most of the Japanese make known during life either to the heir or to some intimate friend their wishes respecting the mode of the disposal of their remains. "When the father or mother in a family is seized with a mortal illness and all hope of recovery is past and the end approaching, the soiled garments worn by the dying per- son are removed and exchanged for perfectly clean ones. The last wishes of the dying one are then recorded on paper. As soon as life has departed all the relations give way to lamentations ; the body is carried into another room, covered with a curtain and surrounded by screens. In the higher classes the body is watched for two days, but in the lower it is buried a day after death. Contrary to the customs at marriage ceremonies, the bonzes or priests preside over all the funeral rites. It is they who watch beside the dead until the time for interment. This is usually carried out by men who make it their profession. The corpse is placed in a coffin, somewhat of the shape of a round tub, in a squatting position, with the head bowed, the legs bent under, and the arms crossed ; the lid of the coffin is then fastened down by wooden pegs. The funeral procession proceeds to the temple, the bonzes marching first, some carrying flags, others different sym- bols, such as little white boxes full of flowers, others wringing small hand-bells. Then follows the corpse, preceded by a long tablet upon which is inscribed the new name given to the deceased. The eldest son follows, and then the family, intimate friends, and domestics. The nearest relations are dressed in white which is the color worn for mourning. When the procession arrives at the temple the coffin is placed before the image of the god and then various ceremonies com- mence, the length of which is regulated by the rank of the de- ceased, as with us. After that all the friends and acquaintances return home, whilst the relations turn to the place where the body is to be laid. If the deceased has expressed the desire that his body should be burned, the coffin is carried from the temple to a small crematory a short distance away. It is there placed upon a kind of stone scaffold, at the base of which a fire is kept burning until the body is consumed. The men employed in this £ VI ^ 1 = >5 C JO n J8 C« SI r; ■(> ui n M > > ,f > 3 PROfiRKSS OF KUUCATION. 806 work draw out tlie hones from tlie ashes by menus of sticks, tlie remiuiiiiig auhus are placed in an urn, and carried to the tomb by the relations. Tlie burials of the poor outcasts from society are very simple. The body is interred at once without entering in the temple, or else it is burnt in some waste s[)ot. Japanese cemeteries are most carefully cherished spots, and are always bright with vendure and flowers. Each family has its own little enclosure, where several simple commemorative stones stand. Once a year a festival for the dead is held. It is cele- brated at night. The cemetery is illuminated by thousands of colored fires, and the whole population resort there, and eat, drink, and enjoy themselves in honor of their dead ancestors. Their incapacity for conceiving sorrow is one of the most characteristic features of the Japanese. Perhaps this psychologi- cal phenomenon is due to the influences amidst which this hai)py people have the privilege of living. It is an indisputable fact that where nature is bright and beautiful the inhabitants themselves of that particular spot, like the scenery, seem to expand under its sweet influence and to become bright and happy. Such is the case with the Japanese, who while yielding almost unconsciously to these influences, deepen them by their eager pursuit of all things gay and beautiful. Japan is progressive enough that it has a compulsory system of education, which is sure to be ultimately fatal to idolatrous religions. There are more than three million children in the. elementary schools, not to mention those in the higher institu- tions. The ability to read and write is almost universal among the people. Steady improvement is observed from year to year, in the attendance and quality of the government schools. The various schools in connection with the protestant and Roman missions, which are numerous and influential are also well at- tended and constantly growing. A large number also of the wealthier classes have their children taught privately at home. The average attendance of the Japanese children at the schools is nearly one-half the total number of school age. Education is very highly esteemed by every class, and all are willing to make genuine sacrifices to obtain it for their children. Penmanship is laid great stress upon, and there are many 80t] MEDICAL AND SURGICAL SCIENCE. different styles in use. The blackboard is used in all scliools now, and the artistic tendencies of the people are often well diH played on it. The Arabic numerals are fast displacing the old Chinese system. A great many of the methods of European and American teaching have been introduced into Japan, and their use is constantly on the increase. Universities and academies supported by the government have been chiefly under the direction of American and European pro- fessors, and the western languages are taught everywhere. In addition to this educational element introduced into the country, thei'e is that brought in by the large number of Japanese young men who have been sent to the universities of the United States, Germany, France, and England to complete their education. In our own colleges these young men have ranked with the highest as linguists, scientists, and orators. The influence that they have exerted in Japan, where they have invariably taken a high posi- tion, either officially or educationally, has been most beneficial to the advance of learning in the island empire. The excessive cleanliness of the Japanese, the simplicity of their apparel, which allows their bodies to be so much exposed to the open air, added to the salubrity of their country, might rea- sonably lead one to imagine that they enjoy excellent health. Such however is not the case. Diseases of the skin, and chronic and incurable complaints are very prevalent. The hot baths are the great remedies for everything, but in certain cases the aid of the physicians is enlisted. These form a class of society which has existed from a very early date, and enjoy certain privileges. They are divided into three classes, the court physicians, who are not permitted to practice elsewhere, the army physicians, and lastly the common physicians, not employed by the government, who attend all classes of the community. As no formalities used to be required for the practice of medicine, each member entered on the career at his pleasure and practiced according to his own theories on the subject. It is a profession often handed down from father to son, but it is not a lucrative one, and is looked upon as an office of little importance or consideration. Medical men nevertheless abound in Japan, and in addition to recognized practitioners, there is a class of quacks exactly answer- ' all MUSIC. 807 ing to those of our own country. Their science principally par- takes of the nature of sorcpi ^' Where liot baths fail to produce the desired effect, they have reuour.se to acupuncture aud cauter- isation. Acupuncture consists in pricking with a needle the part affected, a mode of healing which has been practiced from time immemorial in the east. After the akin has been stretched suffi- ciently tight, the needle is thrust in i)erpendicularly either by rolling between the fingers or by a direct gentle pressure, or else by striking it lightly with a small hammer made for the purpose. Cauterisation is performed with little cones called moxas, formed O^ISHA aiRLS PLAYINO JAPANESE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. of dried wormwood leaves, and prepared in such a manner as to consume slowly. One or more of these is applied to the diseased part and set alight. The mode of cauterising wounds has fre- quently the effect of strongly exciting the nervous system, but does not seem to irapr6ve the general health of the patient ma- terially. The national university of Tokio has a medical depart- ment in connection with it, which teaches medical science accord- ing to our own western methods. Hospitals exist in tlie large cities of Japan which are similarly equipped to those of our own 808 MUSIC. country, and are under the direction of ])l)ysicians and surgeons, most of whom are either Europeans and Americans, or Japanese who have been educated in medical colleges abroad. Many young women of Japan have come to America to take courses in nursing in our great hospitals and training schools, and on their return to Japan are spreading the knowledge they have thus gained. Music is one of the most cultivated of the fine arts of Japan, and Japanese tradition accords it a divine origin. The Japanese have many stringed, wind, and percussion instruments, but the general favorite is the sam-sin or guitar with three strings. There are also the lutes, several kinds of drums and tambourines, fifes, JAPANESE ALPHABET, NEW. clarionets, and flageolets. The Japanese have no idea of harmony. A number of them will often perform together, but they are never in tune. They are not more advanced in melody ; their airs recall neither the savage strains of the forest nor the scientific music of the west. In spite of this their music has the power of charming them for hours together, and it is only among the utterly unedu- cated classes that a young girl is to be found unable to accompany herself in a song on the sam-sin. In the department of jurisprudence great progress has been made. Scarcely any nation on earth can show a more revolting list of horrible methods of punishment and torture in the past, and none can show greater improvement in so short a time. The cruel and ■^ : LAW AND LANGUAGE. 809 l)lood-tlursty code was mostly borrowed from China. Since tlie restoration, revised statutes and regulations have greatly decreased tlie list of capital punishments, reformed the condition of prisons, and made legal processes more in harmony with mercy and justice. The use of torture to obtain testimony is now entirely abolished. Law schools have also been established and lawyers are allowed to plead, thus giving the accused the assistance of counsel for his defense. The Japanese tongue has for a long time been regarded merely t ti ^ ^ i)^ y J: }k h I ^ t t JAPANESE ALPHABET, OLD. as an offshoot of the Chinese lanpjuage, or at any rate as being very nearly connected with it. Study however, and the com- parison of the two languages has rectified this error. Japanese understand Chinese writing because the Chinese characters form l)art of the numerous kinds in use in Japan. This is easily under- stood when it is remembered that Chinese characters represent neither letters nor meaningless sounds, which are only the con- stituent parts of a word, but are words themselves, or rather the ideas that these words express ; consequently tlie same ideas "'^,V' ere an im- ny system X isulted his -: consists in 7^ g whether X ral people ?r of their V, 1 erica and 5 ; the faith c eople to a I> ing every ^ been indi- >• take an- ~ se signifi- L bout the - ries after ^ atheistic T. if morals O before or nirsed by caste and 1 equally uwledge. ous state ishnienta the soul superior, ATHEISTIC TENDENCIES. 816 until perchance it arrived at last in Nirvana or absorptidn in Buddha. The true estate of the human soul, according to the Buddhist, was blissful annihilation. The morals of Buddhism are superior to its metaphysics. Its commandments are the dictates of the most refined morality. Sucli was Buddliism in its early purity. Beside its moral code and philosophical doctrines it had almost nothing. But in the twelve centuries which passed while it swept through India, Birmab, Siam, China, Thibet, Manchooria, Corea, and Siberia, it acquired the apparel with which Asiatic imagination and priestly necessity had clothed and adorned the original doctrines of Buddha. The ideas of Buddha had been expanded into a complete theological system, with all the appurtenances of a stock religion. Japan was ready for the introduction of any religion as attractive as Buddhism, for prior to that time nothing existed except Shinto, of whicli there was little but the dogma of the divinity of the mikado, the duty of all Japanese to obey him im- plicitly, and some Confucian morals. Buddhism came to touch the heart, to fire the imagination, to feed the intellect, to offer a code of lofty morals, to point out a pure life through self-denial, to awe the ignorant, and to terrify the doubting. With this explanation of the field which Buddhism found and what it offered, it is sufficient to say that the faith spread with marvelous .apidity until the Japanese empire was a Buddhist land. This did not necessarily exclude Shinto from the minds of the same people, and the two faiths have existed side by side in harmony. Of late years, however, the Japanese liave not only been losing faith in their own religions but in all others, and to-day they are said by many to form a nation of atheists. This does not apply to the common people ho truly as to the edu- cated ones, and of course is not nearly as general a truth as has been often assumed. In no country of Asia has Christianity made such rapid and permanent advance as in Japan. It is the only oriental country having a government of its own in which there is absolute freedom in religious belief and practice, and in which there is no state religion and no state support. It has been for years the prophetic declaration of missionaries in the east that the first nation to extend full liberty of couscieuc© 816 CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN. in religion would be the dominant power of Asia. That Japan has fulfilled thit* condition is not more remarkable than are her rapid strides to political power since that country opened its doors to Christianity. That Japan is sincere in ils treatment of an alien religion is attested by the fact that native Christian chap- lains accompany her armies in their marches against China, and these are representative men of the Methodist, Congregational, STREET SCENES. — From a Japanese Album. and Presbyterian churches in Japan. There is no doubt that the whole Christian element in Japan, foreign and native, has been loyal to the country and in thorough sympathy with the aggressive movement made by Japan. The sympathy between Corea and Japan has been greatly strengthened by the active support rendered Presbyterian missionaries in Corea by the whole Chris- tian body in Japan. The work of Mr. Johnson, a Presbyterian '■wwiwwwwiww'whumpwi THE AINOS. luissiuiiary in Corea, made him an adviser of the king, and this assisted in leading the latter rather towards Japan than towards China. The corner stone of Japan's position to-day is religious toleration. All that the Christian missionaries have asked in Asia is equal privilege with other religions, and these they have had in Japan. History is only repeating itself, and the results of re- ligious toleration in Europe centuries ago are being duplicated in Asia in 1895. The student of Asiatic life, on coming to Japan, is cheered and pleased on contrasting the position of women in Japan with that ill other countries. He sees them treated with respect. and con- sideration far above that observed in other quarters of the Orient. They are allowed greater freedom, and hence have more dignity and self-confidence. The daughters are better educated and the national annals will show probably as large a number of illustrious women as those of any other country in Asia. In these last days of enlightenment public and private schools for girls are being opened and attended. Furthermore, some of the leaders of new Japan, braving public scandal, and learning to bestow that measure of honor upon their wives which they see is enthusiastic- ally awarded by foreigners to theirs, and are not ashamed to be seen in public with them. No women excel the Japanese in that innate love of beauty, order, neatness, household adornment and management, and the amenities of dress and etiquette as pre- scribed by their own standard. In maternal affection, tenderness, anxiety, patience, and long suffering, the Japanese mothers need fear no comparison with those in other climes. As educators of their children, the Japanese women are peers to the mothers of any civilization in the care and minuteness of their training, and their affectionate tenderness and self-sacrificing devotion within the limits of their knowledge. The Japanese maiden is bright, intelligent, interesting, modest, ladylike, and self-reliant. What the American girl is in Europe the Japanese maiden is among Asiatics. So far our attention has been devoted exclusively to the Japanese proper, that is, to those people inhabiting Hondo and the other islands to the south of it. But a few words remain to be said about a people, who, while forming part of the empire of II 'ill! 818 SUllVIVINC AIJORKHXKS. Japim, yet differ essentially from the great ninjority of the popu- lalion. They are the Aiuos, or the original inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago, now only to be found in the island of Yusso. Tlieso people are decreasing in numbers year by year, iind will soon be named with those extinct races of whom it is only known that they liave once existed. 'J'he Ainos, however, have had their day of glory. In olden times, several centuries before our era, they were masters of all the north part of the island of Hondo, and their power equalled that of the Japanese; but little by little their influence diminished, and they were driven before the Japanese, and finally confined to the island of Yesso. There the Japanese pursued them and a long war ensued but finally reduced them to complete submission about the four- teenth century. Since then the state of servitude in which their conquerors have held them has been such as to stifle even the instinct of progress within tJiem, so that in the nineteenth century they offer the image of a people hardly past its first infancy. The origin of the Ainos is unknown. They themselves are per- fectly ignorant of their own history, and they h^ve no written documents existing which could throw light upon tLeir past. It is most probable that they originally came from the far interior of the Asiatic continent, for they boar not the slightest resem- blance to any of their neighbors in the tribes scattered along the eastern coasts of the north of Asia. The Ainos are generally small, thick-set, and awkwardly formed ; they have wide fore- heads and black eyes, not sloping ; their skin is fair but sunburnt. Their distinguishing feature is their hairiness, and they never dress their heads or trim their beards. The little children have a bright, intelligent look, which, however, gradually wears away as they grow older. The dwellings are of the simplest construction, and only contain u few implements for hunting and fishing, and some cooking utensils. They are built in small groups or hamlets, never containing more than a hundred individuals. They are a gentle, kindly, hospitable, and even timid people. Fishing is tlieir chief occupation, and hunting is another profitable pursuit. There is no sign of agriculture, nor is any breed of cattle to be found among these people. Dogs are utilized to draw their sledges in winter. Their organization is quite patriarchal. They f the popu- lilts of the I island of fir by year, whom it is 8, however, il centuries )art of the ! Japanese ; they were tie ishiiid cf war ensud at the four- which their fle even the nth century fancy. ives are per- no written ir past. It far interior I test resem- II along the genenilly wide f(ire- sunbiinit. Lhey never leii have a irs away as nstruction, ishing, and or hamlets. They are a Fishing is )le pursuit. attle to be Iraw their lial. They 73 !/) ^ OUTLOOK FOU JATAN. 821 have neither king, piinoes nor lurds, bat in every hamlet the affairs of the counuunily are veHted in the hands uf the oldest and most innu(!iiliiil f umber. Allhough the intulligunce of the Ainos is very little Uu\ doped, they evince great aptitude for knowledge and eagerly seize every opportunity fur aci^uainting themselves with Japanese laws and customs. The London Times, in 1859, predicted that "The Chinaman would still be navigating the canals of his country in the crazy RATS AS RICE MERCHANTS From a Japanese Album. old junks of his ancestors when the Japanese was skimming along his rivers in high pressure steamers, or flying across the country behind a locomotive." The railway is now in fact stretching its iron track" in every direction over the islands; the telegraph spreads its web all over the country ; street car lines are in every city ; the printing press rattles merrily in every moderate sized country town ; and the Japanese who have always read mnch, now read ten times more than they ever did before. Technical 16 822 OUTLOOK FOR JAPAN. education of the higher kind is telling upon the people, and many works are now undertaken from which the authorities would have shrunk a few years ago as being impossible for them to grapple with. Original investigation in many lines has been pursued, and particularly in the study of earthquake phenomena has Japan given t ) the world results of extreme value. The influence of the modern scientific spirit is immense and ever growing. Western influence in its better nature is constantly on the increase. It appears today as if Japan were to be the civilizing influence in the east of Asia. 3, and many would have I to grapple lursued, and has Japan uence of the . Western icrease. It influence in Cor EA n OOBEAN LANDSOAPS. B i 11 r '■t ' I ■J, r 1; ■■. 1 i wi 111! i|^.i|| Wl l'( '■ RAW I.r.VIKS 1-oR Till-: ClIIXF-SE ARMY u !4^ . - i'-s. - ^ ■ HISTORICAL SKETCH OF COREA, THE HERMIT NATION. i,V. - '1 I Aboriginal Inliabitants of the Land— Founding tlie Kingdom o{ Cho-sen— Tlh' Eia ol the Tliree Kingdoms— Dependence 'on Cliina and Japan— Period of Peace and Prosperity— Inva- sion of Corea by tlie Japanese in tlie Sixteentli Century— Introduction of Cliristianity— The Modern History of Corea— Breaiting down the Walls of Isolation— The French Expedition- American Relations with Corea— Ports Opened to Japanese Conimerce— The Year of the Treaties— A Hermit Nation no Longer. Until recent years our knowledge of tlie remarkable country of Corea, known indeed to the general public by little more than its name, has been limited to the meagre and scanty information im- parted to us by Chinese and Japanese sources. After having been for several thousands of years the scene of sanguinary and murderous feuds between the various races and tribes who peopled the peninsula, and of the intrigues and wars of conquest of its rapacious neighbors, Corea succeeded after its final union under the sway of one ruler, but with considerable loss of terri- tory, in driving back the invaders behind its present frontiers, en- forcing f' ^36 that time with an iron rule, that policy of exclusion which ei.cctually separated it from the whole outer world. Corea, though unknown even by name in Europe until the sixteenth cen- tury, was the s'ubject of description by Arab geographers of the middle ages. The Arab merchants trading to Chinese ports crossed the Yellow Sea, visited the peninsula, and even settled there. The youths of Shinra, one the Corean states, sent by their sovereign to study the arts of war and peace at Nanking, the inedisBval capital of China, may often have seen and talked with the mei'chants of Bagdad and Damascus. As has been said, nearly all that the western world was able to learn about Corea until recent years, has been collected from Chinese and Japanese sources, which oonfine themselves mainly to the historical and political connection with these countries. The meagre early accounts owed to Europeans on this interesting subject, originate either from shipwrecked mariners who have (327) 828 WHENCE CAME THE COREANS. been cast 'jpon the inhospitable shores of Corea and there been kept irapriioned for some time, or from navigators who have ex- tended their voyages of discovery to these distant seas and who have touched a few prominent points of the coast. Like almost every country on earth, Co/ea is inhabited by a race that is not aboriginal. The present occupiers of the land drove out or conquered the people whom they found upon it. They are the descendants of a stock who came from beyond the northern frontier. It may not be a wrong conjecture, which is corroborated by many outward signs, to look for the origin of the people in Mongolia, in a tribe which finally settled down in Corea after roaming about and fighting its way through China. We may also take those who bear the unmistakable stamp of the Caucasian race to have come from Western Asia whence they had been driven by feuds and revolutions. At the" conclusion of the long wars which have at last led to the union of the different states founded by various tribes, a partial fusion had taken place, which, though it has not succeeded in eradicating the outer signs of a different descent, at least caused the adoption of one language and of the same manners and customs. Most of the Coreans claim to be in complete darkness and! ignorance of their own origin ; some declare quite seriously that their ancestors have sprung from a black cow on the shores of the Japan sea, while others ascribe their origin to a mysterious and supernatural cause. The first mention of the inhabitants of Cort a we find in old Chinese chronicles about 2350 B. C, at which period some of the northern tribes are reported to have entered into a tributary con- nection with China. The first really reliable accounts, however, commence only with the twelfth century B. C, at which time the north-westerly part of the peninsula first stands out from the dark. The last Chinese emperor of the Shang dynasty was Chow Sin, who died B. C. 1122. He was an unscrupulous tyrant, and one of his nobles, Ki Tsze, rebuked and remonstrated with his sover- eign. His efforts were hopeless, and the nobles who joined him in protest were executed. Ki Tsze was cast into prison. A re- volt immediately ensued against the tyrant; he was defeated and POUNDING THE FIRST KINGDOM. 829 killed, and the conqueror Wn Wang released tlie prisoner and appointed him prime minister. Ki Tsze however refused to nerve one whom he believed to be an usurper and exiled himself to the regions lying to the north-enst. With him went several thousand Chinese immigrants, most the remnant of the defeated army, who made him their king. Ki Tsze reigned many years and left the newly founded state in peace and prosperity to his successors. He policed the borders, gave laws to his subjects, and gradually introduced the principles and practices of Chinese etiquette and polity throughout his domain. Previous to his time the people lived in caves and holes in the ground, dressed in leaves, and were destitute of manners, morals, agriculture and cooking. The Japanese pronounce the founder's name Kishi, and the Coreans Kei-tsa or Kysse. The name conferred by the civ- ilizer upon his new domain was that now in use by the modern Coreans, "Cho-sen," or "Morning Calm." The descendants of Ki Tsze are said to have ruled the country until the fourth century before the Christian era. Their names and deeds are alike unknown, but it is stated that there were forty-one generations, making a blood line of eleven hundred and thirty-one years. The line came to an end in 9 A. D., though they had lost power long before that time. This early portion of Cho-sen did not contain all of the territory of the modern Corea, but only the north-western portion of it. While the petty kingdoms of China were warring among one another, the nearest to Cho-sen encroached upon it and finally seized the colony. This was not to be permanent however, and there ensued a series of wars, each force becoming alternately suc- cessful. The territory of Cho-sen grew in area and the kingdom increased in wealth, power and intelligence under the rule of King Wie-man, who assumed the authority 194 B. C. Thousands of Chinese gentry fleeing before the conquering arms of the Han usurpers settled within the limits of the new kingdom, adding greatly to its prosperity. In 107 B. C, after a war that liad lasted one year, a Chinese invading army finally conquered the kingdom of Cho-sen and annexed it to the Chinese empire. The conquered territory iujluded the north half of the present kingdom of Corea. .( I' 880 THE ERA OF THE THREE KIN(JI)OMS. ! i i< M Things rt'inaitied in this condition until about 80 I). C.,at wliioh time a part of Cho-seu taking advantage, of the disorders which had broken out afresh in China, separated itself from tlie empire and again formed a state by itself, but still remained tributary ; while the other portions of the old kingdom for some time longer remained under Chinese rule, until they also joined tlie portion that had been freed. Up to this period Cho-sen forming the north-west of the present Corea, had been the only part of that oountry that had become more closely connected with China. The tracts to the northeast, south-west and south were occupied by different independent tribes, and little more is known of them than that they were ruled by chiefs of their own clan. In course of time three kingdoms, Korai, Hiaksai, and Shinra, were formed out of these various elements, subsisting by the side of Chosen, at a later date fighting cither beside or against (^hina, and almost incessantly at feud with each other, until Siiinra gained the pre- dominance about the middle of the eighth century A. I), and kept the same up to the sixteenth century. It was then supplanted in the leading position by Korai, which united under its supremacy all those parts of Coreu which had hitherto been separate, and constituted the whole into a single state. Like the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Wales, these Corean states were distinct in origin, were conquered by a race from without, received a rich infusion of alien blood, struggled in rivalry for centuries, and were finally united under one nation with one flag and one sovereign. Hiaksai was for a while the leading state in the peninsula. Buddhism was introduced from Thibet in 384 A. D. And to this state more than any other part of Coiea, Japan owes her first impulses towards the civilization of the west. The kingdom pros- pered until the decade from 660 to 670, when it was overrun and practically annihilated by an army of Chinese, despite the aid of four hundred junks and a large body of soldiers sent from Japan to the aidof Corea. Korai of course took its turn in struggling with the Dragon of China. Early in the seventh century China had been defeated, and for a generation peace prevailed. Hut the Chinese coveted Koraian territory and again an invading fleet attacked the oountry. COIIKA'S GIFT TO .fAPAN. 881 It tuok years to cnniplotu the conquest, but finally all Komi with its five provinoes, its one and seventy-six cities and its four or ^ve millions of people, was annexed to the Chinese empire. Shinra, in the south-west of the peninsula, was probably the most advanced of all of the states. It was from this kingdom that the tradition reached Japan whioli tempted the A iimzoiiian queen of Japan, Jingo, to her invasion and conquest. 'J'he king of Shinra submitted and became a declared vassal of Japan, but in all probability Shinra was far superior to the Japan of that early day in everything except strength. From this kingdom came a stream of immigrants which passed into Japan carrying all sorts of knowledge and an improved civilization. It is well to remember from this point that the Japanese always laid claim to the ('orean peninsula and to Shinra especially as a tributary nation. They supported that claim not only whenever embassies from the two nations met at the court of China, but they made it a more or less active part of their national policy. During this period Buddhism was being steadily [iropagated, learning and literary progress increased, while art, science, archi- tecture were all favored and improved. Kion-chiu, the capital of Shinra, was looked upon as a holy city, even after the decay of Shinra's power. Her noble temples, halls and towers stood in honor and repair, enshrining the treasures of India, Persia, and China, until the ruthless Japanese torch laid them in ashes in 1596. From the year 756 A. D. up to the beginning of the tenth cen- tury, Shinra maintained its undisputed rule over the other countries of the peninsula, but about this time successive revolts occurred, Shinra was conquered, and the three kingdoms now united were called Korai, a name which was retained to the end of the fourteenth century. The kingdoms now thoroughly sub- dued, never recovered their old position and independence, and composed from that time forward the undivided kingdom of Corea, such as it has been maintained until the present day. In 1218 A. D. the king of Corea promised allegiance to the Chinese emperor Taitsou who was the Mongol Genghis Khan. Here we find explanation for some features of the war now in progress between China and Japan. Corea has at various times ■ W ^v*,;/:;'--,!?-"; :^-3--''-' '* T n^l COREA'S VASSALAGE TO JAPAN AND CHINA. iicknowledged its depeiideiico upon both of those countries. Tho Japanose laid claim to Corea from the second century until the 27th of February, 1876. On that day the mikado's minister plenipotentiary signed the treaty recognizing Cho-sen as an independent nation. Through all the seventeen centuries, which according to their annals elapsed since their armies first com- pleted the vassalage of their neighbor, the Japanese regarded the states of Corea as tributaries. Time and again they enforced their claim with bloody invasion, and when through a more enlightened policy the rulers voluntarily acknowledged their former enemy as an equal, the decision cost Japan almost im- mediately afterward seven months of civil war, twenty thousand lives, and $60,000,000 in treasury. The mainspring of the " Satsuma rebellion " of 1877 was the official act of friendship by treaty, and the refusal of the Tokio government to make war on Corea. It seemed until 1877 almost impossible to eradicate from the military mind of Japan the conviction that to surrender Corea was cowardice and a stain upon the national honor. From the ninth century onward to the sixteenth century, the relations of the two countries seem to be unimportant. Japan was engaged in conquering northward her own barbarians. Her intercourse, both political and religious, grew to be so direct witli the court of China, that Corea in the Japanese annals sinks out of sight except at rare intervals. Niiion increased in wealth and civilization, while Cho-sen remained stationary or retrograded. In the ninetee)>th centuiy the awakened " Sunrise Kingdom " has seen her former self in the " Land of Morning Calm," and has stretched forth willing hands to do for her neighbor now what Corea did for Japan in centuries long gone by. It must never be forgotten that Corea was the bridge on which civilization crossed from China to the archipelago. About 1368 the reigning King of Corea refused vassalage to China. His troops refused to repel the invasion that threat- ened, and under their General Ni Taijo, deposed the king. Taijo himself was nominated king. He paid homage to the Chinese emperor and revived the ancient name of Cho-sen. The dynasty thus established is still the reigning family in Corea, though the direct line came to an end In 1864. The Coreans in ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT COREAN DYNASTY. 1^83 ilage to threat- king. to the 1. The Corea, eans in their treaty with Japan in 1876, dated llie doctiment according to the four hundred and eighty-fourth year of Cho-sen, reckoning from the accession of Ni Taijo to the throne. One of the first acta of the new dynasty was to change the location of the national capital to the city of Ilan Yang, situated on the Han river about fifty miles from its mouth. The king enlarged the fortifications, enclosed the city with a wall of masonry, and built bridges, renaming the city Seoul or "capital." He also redivided PAGODA AT SEOUL. the kingdom into eight provinces which still remain. An era of peace and flourishing prosperity ensued, and in everything the influence of the Chinese emperors is most manifest. Buddhism, which had penetrated into every part of the country, and had become in a measure at least the religion of the state, was now set aside and disestablished. The Confucian ethics were dilli- gently studied and were incorporated into the religion of the state. From the early part of the fifteenth century, Confucian- ism flourished, until it reached the point of bigotry and intoler- ance, so that when Christianity was discovered to be existing among the people, it was put under the ban of extirpation, and its followers thought worthy of death. At first the new dynasty sent tribute regularly to the shogun of Japan, but as intestinal war troubled the Islaud Empire and aft4 JAPAN'S (JREAT INVASIOX OP COREA. tho slioguns becatno efTeiniiuitc, llio Coruans Btoppeil their tribute and it was almost forgotten. The last embassy frcm Seoul was sent in 1460. After that they were never summoned, so they never came. Under the idea that peace was to lust forever, the nation relaxed all vigilance ; the army was dis- organized and the castles were fallen into ruin. It was while the country was in such a condition that the summons of Japan's great conqueror came to tliem, and the Coreans learned for the first time of the fall of Ashikaga and the temper of their new master. As the Mongol conquerors Issuing from China had used Corea as their point of departure to invade Japan, so Hideyoshi resolved to make the peninsula the road for his armies into China. He sent an envoy to Seoul to demand tribute, and then, angered at the utter failure of his mis- sion, commanded the envoy and all his family to be put to death. A second ambassador was sent with more success, and presents and envoys were ex- changed. Hideyoshi, however, became enraged at the indifference of the Coreans to assist him in his dealings with China, and resolved to humble the peninsular kingdom, and China, her overlord. The invasion of Covea was made as related in the earlier chapters on Japan. The Coreans were poorly prepared for war, both as to leaders, soldiers, equipments and fortifications. The Japanese swept everything like a whirlwind before them, and entered tho capital within eighteen days after their landing at Fusan. The accounts of the war are preserved in detail, and are exceedingly interesting, but the limits of this volume compel their omission to provide space for the war of 1894-5. At first Chinese armies coming to reinforce the Coreans were defeated and turned back, but another effort of the allies was more effec- tive and the Japanese troops found advance turned to retreat. The Japanese armies concentrated at Seoul to receive the ad- OOaBAN SOLDIERS. (1 their 4y fron imoned, to luHt VtiH (lis- hile the Japan's [ for the leir new d Corea I invade to make ) armies iivoy to d then, his mis- d all his ^ second success, ere ex- jecanie of the ealings nble the or IS earlier war, Tiie em, and riding at and are compel At first iefeated e effec- retreat. the ad- r. CHRISTIAN CHAPLAINS WITH THE ARMY. 887 vance of the allies numbering some two hundred, thousand. The capital was burned by the Japanese, nearly every house being destroyed, and hundreds of men, womo:i, ctnd children, sick and well, living quietly there, were massacred. The allied troops were beaten back in a ferocious battle, but hunger reached both armies, pestilence entered the Japanese camp, and both sides were utterly tired of war and ready to consider terms of peace. Konishi, the general of the Japanese army, had been con- verted to Christianity by the Portuguese Jesuits. During this period of tiresome wait- ing he sent to the superior of the missions in Japan ask- ing for a priest. In response to this request came Father Gregorio de Cespedes and a Japanese convert. These two holy men began their labors among the Japanese armies, preaching from camp to camp, and administering the right of baptism to thou- sands of converts, but their work was stopped by the jealousy of the Buddhist power. The Jesuits in Japan were then being expelled for their political machinations, and the chaplains in Corea were brought under the same ban. Konishi was called back to Japan with the priest and was unable to convince the shogun of his innocence. A few Corean converts were made during this time, and one of them a lad of rank, was afterward educated in the Jesuit seminary at Kioto. He endeavored to return to Corea as a missionary, but the condition of affairs in Jai)an interrupted his intentions and in 1625 he was martyred .^ OLD MAN IN COREA. 838 CHRISTIAN CHAPLAINS WITH THE ARMY. during the prosecutions of the Christians. Of the large number of Corean prisoners sent over to Japan, many became Christians. Hundreds of others were sold as slaves to the Portuguese. Others rose to positions of honor under the government or in the households of the daimios. Many Corean lads were adopted by the returned soldiers or kept as servants. When the bloody per- secution broke out, by which many thousand Japanese found death, the Corean converts remained steadfast to their Christian faith, and suffered martyrdom with fortitude equal to that of their Japanese brethren. But by the army in Corea, or by the Christian chaplain Cespedes, no trace of Christianity was left in the land of Morning Calm, and it was two centuries later before that faith was really introduced. The fortunes of the war alternated, and finally, after deeds of heroism on both sides, a period of inaction ensued, the result of exhaustion. At this time Hideyoshi fell sick and died, September 9, 1598, at the age of sixty-three years. Almost his last words "Recall all my troops from Cho-sen." The orders to em- were. bark for home were everywhere gladly heard. It is probable that the loss of life in the campaigns of this war was nearly a third of a million. Thus ended one of the most needless, unpro- voked, cruel, and desolating wars that ever cursed Corea. More than two hundred thousand human bodies were decapitated to furnish the ghastly material for the " ear- tomb " mound in Kioto. More than one .'uindred and eighty-five thousand Corean heads were gathered for mutilation, and thirty thousand Chinese, all of which were despoiled of ears and noses. It is probable that fifty thousand Japanese left their bones in Corea. Since the invasion the town of Fusan, as before, had been held and garrisoned by the retainers of the Daimio of Tsushima. At this port all the commerce between the two nations took place. From an American point of view, there was little trade done be- tween the two countries, but on the strength of even this small amount Earl Russell in 1862 tried to get Great Britain included as a co-trader between Japan and Corea. He was not, however, successful. A house was built at Nagasaki by the Japanese gov- ernment which was intended as a refuge for Coreans who might be wrecked on Japanese shores. Wherever the waifs were picked a ADVANCE OF THE MANCHOOS. 830 up, they were sent to Nagasaki and sheltered until a junk could be dispatched to Fusan. The possession of Fusan by the Japanese was, until 1876, a perpetual witness of the liumiliating defeat of the Coreans in the war of 1592-1597, and a constant irritation to . their national pride. Yet with all the miseries inflicted on her, the humble nation learned rich lessons, and gained many an advantage even from her enemy. The embassies which were yearly dispatched to yield homage to their late invaders were at the expense of the latter. The Japanese pride purchased the empty bubble of hom- age by paying all the bills. The home of the Manchoos was on the north side of the Ever- white mountains. From beyond these mountains was to roll upon China and Corea another avalanche of invasion. By the sixteenth century the Manchoos had become so strong that they openlj C -' the Chinese. Formidable expeditions previous to the Jap < invasion of Corea kept them at bay for a time, but the immcuse expenditure of life and treasure required to fight the Japanese drained the resources of the Ming emperors, while their attention being drawn away from the north, the Manchoo hordes massed their forces and grew daily in strength. To re- press the rising power in the north, and to smother the life of the young nation, the Peking government resorted to barbarous cruelties and stern coercion. Unable to protect the eastern bor- der of Liao Tung the entire population of three hundred thou, sand souls, dwelling in four cities and many villages, were re- moved westward and resettled on new lands. Fortresses were planned in the deserted land to keep back the restless cavalry raiders from the north. Thus the foundation of the neutral strip of fifty miles was unconsciously laid, and ten thousand square miles of fair and fertile land west of the Yalu were abandoned to the wolf and tiger. What it soon became it remained until yes- terday — a howling wilderness. In 1615 the king of the Manchoo tribes was assassinated as the result of a plot by the Ming emperor. This exasperated the tribes to vengeance and they began hostilities. China now had to face another great invasion. Calling on her vassal, Corea, to send an army of twenty thousand men, she ordered them to join S^ff>^'^'^'^^'"YJ'-^^P'^fp^''r'.»^}i■?^\f^^ 840 COREAN TREACHERY. n l! 'pi I lit the imperial army about seventy miles west of the Yalu River. In the battle which ensued the Coreans were the first to face the Manchoos. The imperial legions were beaten, and the Coreans seeing which way the victory would turn, deserted from the Chinese side to that of their enemy. This was in 1619. Enraged by alternate treachery to both sides from the Coreans, the Man- choos invaded Corea in 1627, to which time the war had been prolonged. They crossed the frozen Yalu in February, and at once attacked and defeated the Chinese army. They then began the march to Seoul. Town after town was taken as they pressed onward to the capital, the Coreans everywhere flying before them. Thousands of dwellings and stores of provisions were given to the flames and their trail was one of blood and ashes. After the siege of Seoul began, the king sent tribute offerings to the invaders, and concluded a treaty of peace, by which Corea again exchanged masters, this time confessing subjection to the Manchoo sovereign. As soon as the invading army had with- drawn, the Corean king, confident that the Chinese would be ultimately successful over the Manchoos, annulled the treaty. No sooner were the Manchoos able to spare their forces for the purpose than they again marched into Corea and overran the peninsula. The king now came to terms, and in February, 1637, utterly renounced his allegiance to the Ming emperor, gave his two sons as hostages, and promised to send an annual embassy with tribute to the Manchoo court. After the evacuation of Corea the victors marched into China, where bloody civil war was raging. The imperial army of China had been beaten by the rebels. The Manchoos joined their forces with the imperialists and defeated the rebels, and then demanded the price of their victory. Enter- ing Peking they proclaimed the downfall of the house of Ming. The son of the late king was set upon the dragon throne, and as we have seen in a foregoing chapter the royal house of China came to be a Manchoo family. When, as it happened the very next year, the shogun of Japan demanded an increase of tribute to be paid in Yeddo, the court of Seoul plead in excuse their wasted resources, consequent upon the war with the Manchoos, and their heavy burdens newly laid I River, face the Doreans om the Cn raged »e Man- ad been , and at 1 began pressed before s were 1 ashes, rings to 1 Corea 1 to the d with- ould be treaty, for the ran the utterly vo sons tribute victors . The . The efeated Enter- Ming, and as China ■ Japan ourt of t upon '^ly laid n o > H O rn c r •tj o «.' ■^ -^^ '"■ i TRIBUTE TO TWO NEIGHBORS. 848 i iipon them in the way of tribute to their conqueror. Their excuse was accepted. Twice witliin a single generation had the little peninsula been devasted by mighty invasion that laid waste the country. In 1650 a captive Corean maid, taken prisoner in their first invasion, became sixth lady in rank in the in* erial Manchoo household. Through her influence her fathv the ambassador, obtained a considerable reduction of the annual tribute that had been fixed by treaty. Other portions of the tribute had been re- mitted before, so that by this time the tax upon Corean loyalty became very slight, and the embassy became one of ceremony rather than a tribute bringing. In the seventeenth century some information about Corea began to reach Europe, first from the Jesuits in Peking, who sent home a map of the peninsula. There is also a map of Corea in a work by the Jesuit Martini, published in 1649 in Amsterdam. The Cossacks who overran northern Asia brought reports of Corea to Russia, and it was from Russian sources that Sir John Campbell obtained the substance of his history of Corea. In 1645 a party of Japanese crossed the peninsula, and one of them on bis return wrote a book descriptive of their journey. 1707 the Jesuits in Peking began their great geographical enterprise, tlie survey of the Chinese empire, including the outlying vassal kingdoms. A map of Corea was obtained from the king's palace at Seoul and sent to Europe to be engraved and printed. Frotn tins original most of the maps and supposed Corean names in books published since that time have been copied. The first known entrance of any number of Europeans into Corea was that of Hollanders belonging to the crew of the Dutch ship HoUandra which was driven ashore in 1627. Coasting along the Corean shores, John Wetterree and some companions went ashore to get water, and were captured by the natives. The magnates of Seoul probably desired to have a barbarian from the west, as useful to them as was the Englishman Will Adams to the Japanese in Yeddo, where the Corean ambassadors had often seen liim. This explains why Wetterree was treated with kindness and comparative honor, though kept as a prisoner. When the Manchoos invaded Corea in 1635, his two companions were killed 17 844 FIRST EUROPEANS IN COREA. in the war, and Wetterree was left alone. Having no one with whom he could converse he had almost forgotten his native speech, when after twenty-seven years of exile, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, he met some of his fellow Hollanders, and acted as interpreter to the Coreans. \ In the summer of 1653 the Dutch ship Sparwehr was cast on shore on Quelpaert island, off the southwest coast of Corea. The local magistrate did what he could for the thirty-six members of the crew who reached the shore alive, out of the sixty-four on board. On October 29th the survivors were brought by the officials to be examined by the interpreter Wetterree. The latter was very rusty in his native language, but regained it in a month. Of course the first and last idea of the captives was how to escape. They made one effort to reach the sea shore, but were caught and severely punished, after which they were ordered to proceed to the capital. Wherever they went the Dutchmen were like wild beasts on exhibition. When they once reached the palace they were well treated, and were assigned to the body guard of the king as petty officers. Each time that the Manchoo envoy made his visit to the capital the captives endeavored to enlist his sym- pathy and begged to be taken to Peking, but all such efforts re- sulted in failure and punishment. The suspicions of the govern- ment were aroused by the studies which the Dutchmen pursued, of the climate, the topography, and the products of the country, and by their attemps to escape, and in 1663 they were separated and put into three different towns. By this time fourteen of the number were dead and twenty-two remained. Finally, early in September 1667, as their fourteenth year of captivity was drawing to a close, the Dutchmen escaped to the seacoast, bribed a Corean to give them his fishing craft, and steered out into the open tvater. A few days later, they reached the northwestern islands in the vicinity of Kiushiu, Japan, and landed. The Japanese treated them kindly and sent them to Nagasaki, where they met their countrymen at Desima. The annual ship from Batavia was then just about to return, and in the nick of time the waifs got on board, reached Batavia, sailed for Holland, and in July, 1668, stepped ashore at home. Hendrik Hamel, the supercargo of the ship, wrote a book on his return re- CHRISTIANITY IN COREA. 845 couutiug his adventures in a simple and straightforward style. It has been translated into English and is a model work of its sort. The modern introduction of Christianity in Corea dates little more than a hundred years ago. Some Corean students studying with the famous Confucian professor Kwem, during the winter of 1777, entered into discussion of some tracts on philosophy, mathe- matics, and religion just brought from Peking. These were tianslations of the writings of the Jesuits in the imperial capital. Surprised and delighted, they resolved to attain if possible to a full understanding of the new doctrines. They sought all the in- formation that they could from Peking. The leader in this movement was a student named Stonewall. As his information accumulated, he gave himself up to fresh reading and meditation, and then began to preach. Some of his friends in the capital, both nobles and commoners, embraced the new doctrines with cheering promptness and were baptized. Thus from small be- ginnings, but rapidly, were the Christian ideas spread. But soon the power of the law and the pen were invoked to crush out the exotic faith. The first victim was tried on the charge of destroying his ancestral tablets, tortured, and sent into exile, in which he soon after died. The scholars now took up weapons, and in April, 1784, the king's preceptor issued the first public document officially directed against Christianity. In it all parents and relatives were entreated to break off all relations with Christians. The names of the leaders were published, and the example of Thomas Kim, the first victim, was cited. Forthwith began a violent pressure upon the believers to renounce their faith. Then began an exhibition alike of steadfast faith and shameful apostasy, but though even Stonewall lapsed, the work went on. Tlie next few years of Christianity were important ones. The leaders formed an organization and as nearly as they could on the lines of the Roman Catholic church. Instructions were sent from Peking by tlie priests there, and the worship in Corea became quite in harmony with that of the Western church. But the decision that the worship of ancestors must be abolished, was, in the eyes of the Corean public, a blow at the framework of society and state, and many feeble adherents began to fall away. December 8, 1791, Paul and Jacques Kim were decapitated for refusing to 846 YEARS OF MARTYRDOM. recant their Christian faith. Thus was shed the first blood for Corean Christianity. Martyrdom was frequent in this early his- tory of the Christian church in Corea, hut in the ten years following the baptism of Peter in Peking in 1783, in spite of persecution and apostasy, it is estimated that there were four thousand Chris- tians in the peninsula. The first attempt of a foreign missionary to enter the Hermit Kingdom from the west was made early in 1791. Tliis was a Portuguese priest who endeavored to cross the Yalu River to join some native Christians, but was disappointed in meeting them and returned to Peking. Two years later a young Chinese priest en- tered the forbidden territory, and was hidden for three years in the house of a noble woman, where he preaelicd and taught. Three native Christians who refused to reveal his whereabouts were tortured to death and were thrown into the Han River. From the beginning of this century the most bitter general per- secutions against Christians was enforced. The young Chinese priest, learning that he was outlawed, surrendered himself to re- lieve his friends of the responsibility of protecting liim, and was executed. The woman also who had so long sheltered him was beheaded. Four other women who were attendants in the palace, and an artist who was condemned for painting Christian subjects were beheaded near the "Little Western Gate" of Seoul. The polioy of the government was shown in making away with the Clnistians of rank and education who might be able to direct af- fairs in the absence of the foreign priests, and in letting the poor and humble go free. It is impossible to catalogue the martyrs and the edicts against Cl)ristianity. The conditif)n of the Cliristians scattered in the mountains and forests, suffering poverty, hunger, and cold, was most deplorable. In 1811 the Corean converts addressed letters to the Pope begging aid in their distress. These however could not be answered in the way they dosired, for the- Pope himself was then a prisoner at Fontainebleau and the Roman propaganda was nearly at a standstill. In 1817 the king and court were terrified by the appearance off the west coast of the British vessels Aleeste and Lyra, but be- yond some surveys, purchases of provisions, and interviews with against in the d, was letters could limself nganda CORE AN MANDARINS. MAUTYllDOM OF FRENCH I'lUESTS. 849 Bome luual iniigiiitruttis, the foreigners departed without opening coiunuinication with them. Ffteen years later the Britiiih 8hi|) Lord Amherst passed uloiig tiio coasts of Chulla, seeking commer- cial connections. On hoard was a Protestant missionary, a I'rus- sian. He landed on several of tiie islands and Attempted to gain some acquaintance with the people, but made little progress. The year 1884 closed the fiist half century of Gorean Christianity. It is not strange that persecutions resulted from the advance of Roman Catholic strength in Corea, for the Corei. i Christians as- sumed naturally the righteousness of the Pope* chum to t'^m- poral power as the vicar of heaven. The Corea.i Christians Mot only deceived their magistrates and violated their couutiy's 1j,ws, but actually irvited armed invasion. Hence, from the first, Christianity was associated in patriotic minds with treason and robbery. After the restoration of the Bourbons in France u/* the strengthening of the Papal throne by foreign bayonets, he u.is- sionary zeal in the church was kindled afresh, and it was resolved to found a mission in Corea. The first priest to make entrance was Pierre Philibert Maubant, who reached Seoul in 1836, the first Frenchman who had penetrated the Hermit Nation. A few months later another joined him, and in December, 1838, Bishop Imbert ran the gauntlet of wilderness, ice, and guards at the frontier, and took up his residence under the shadow of the king's palace. Work now went on vigorously, and in 1838 the Chris- tians numbered nine thousand. At the beginning of the next year the party in favor of extirpating Christia tL> having gained the upper hand, another persecution broke out with redoubled violence. To stay the further shedding of blood, Bishop Imbert and his two priests came out of their hidii .j places and delivered themselves up. They were horribly tntured, and decapitated September 21, 1889. Six bitter years passed before the Christians again had a foreign pastor. Since 1839 the government had tripled its vigilance and doubled the guards on the frontier. The most strenuous efforts to pass the barriers repeatedly failed. Andrew Kim is a name to be remembered in the history of Christianity in Corea. Year after year he worked to enter Corea, or once in, to advance the .:-••/ s:fc/S,?»,o S60 MARtYRDOM OF FRENCH PRtESTS. cause, or wlien rejected to help others in the work. He was or- dained to the priesthood in Shanghai, and finally in company with two French priests, in September, 1845, sailed across the Yellow Sea, and landed on the coast of Chulla, to make his final effort to spread Christianity among the Coreans. During July of the same year, the British ship Saraarang was engaged in surveying off Quelpaert and the south coast of Corea. Beacon fires all over the land telegraphed the news of the presence of foreign ships, and the close watch that was kept by the coast magistrates made the return of Andrew Kim doubly dangerous. Tiiese record.. :)f j^erseverence, of distress, of martyrdom, from the pages of missionary work in Corea, written in the blood of native converts, who bore their cross with equal bravery to that of the Roman fathers, maybe surprising to some who have been unfamiliar with the history of the Corean jieninsula. But they are convincing testimony to controvert the assertions of some incredulous ones who affirm that the "heathen " are never really Christianized, but are always ready to return to their idols in times of trial. There is no country that can show braver examples of fortitude, in enduring trial for the support of the faith, than the " Hermit Nation." Three priests in disguise were now secretly at work in Corea, Andrew Kim, a native convert, and the Frenchmen, Bishop Fencol, and his companion Daveluy. Kim was captured and in company with half a dozen others was executed September 16th. While he was in prison the Bishop heard of three French ships which were at that time vainly trying to find the mouth of the Han River and the channel to the capital. Ferreol wrote to Captain Cecile, who commanded the fleet, but the note arrived too late and Kim's fate was sealed. The object of the fleet's visit was to demand satisfaction for the murder of the two French priests in 1839, but after some coast surveys were made and a threatening letter was dispatched the ships withdrew. During the summer of 1845, two French frigates set sail for the Corean coast, and August 10th went aground, and both vessels became total wrecks. The six hundred men made their camp at Kokun island, where they were kindly treated and furnished with provisions, although rigidly secluded and guarded against all communication with the main land. An English ship from Shanghai rescued the crews. Daring the ensuing eight years re* ALARM IN COREA. 351 peated efforts were made by missionaries and native converts to enter Corea and advance the work there, and the labor of prop- agation progressed. A number of religious works in the Corean language were printed from a native printing press and widely circulated. In 1850 the Christians numbered eleven thousand, and five young men were studying for the priesthood. Regular mails sewn into the thick cotton coats of the men in the annual embassy were sent to and brought from China. The western nations were beginning to take an interest in the twin hermits of the east, Corea and Japan. In 1852, the Russian frigate Pallas traced and mapped a portion of the shore line of the east coast, and the work was continued three years later by the French war vessel Virginie. At the end of this voyage the whole coast from Fusan to the Tumen was known with some accuracy and mapped out with European names. It was in the intervening years, 1853 and 1854, that Commodore Perry and the American squadron were in the waters of the far east, driving the wedge of civilization into Japan. The American flag, however, was not yet seen in Corean waters, though the court of Seoul was kept informed of Perry's movements. A fresh reinforcement of missionaries reachod Corea in 1857. When three years later the French and English forces opened war with China, took the Peiho forts, entered Peking, and sacked the summer palace of the Son of Heaven, driving the Chinese emperor to flight, the loss of Chinese prestige struck terror into all Corean hearts. For six centuries China had been in Corean eyes the synonym and symbol of invincible power. Copies of the treaties made between China and the allies, granting freedom of trade and religion, were soon read in Corea, causing intense alarm. But the most alarming thing was the treaty between China and Russia, by which the Manchoo rulers surrendered the great tract watered by the Amoor river and bordered by the Pacific, to Russia. It was a rich and fertile region, with a coast full of harbors, and comprisint^ an area as large as France. The boundaries of Siberia now touch Corea. With France on the right, Russia on the left, China humbled, and Japan opened to the western world, it is not strange that the rulers in Seoul trembled. The results to Christianity were that within a few : 352 INTRIGUES IN THE COURT. years thousands of natives fled their country and settled in tlie Russian viih>ges. At the capital, official business was suspended and many families of rank tied to the mountains. In numy in- stances people of rank humbly sought the good favor and pro- tection of the Christians, hoping for safety when the dreaded invasion should come: In the midst of these war preparations, the French missionary body was reinforced by the arrival of four of their countrymen who set foot on the soil of their martyrdom, October, 1861. The Ni dynasty, founded in 1392, came to an end January 15, 1864, by the death of King Chul-chong, who had no child, before he had nominated an heir. Palace intrigues and excitement among the political parties followed. The widows of the three kings who had reigned since 1831 were still living. The eldest of these, Queen Cho, at once seized the royal seal and emblems of authority, which high-handed move made her the mistress of the situation. A twelve year-old lad was nominated for the throne, and his father, Ni Kung, one of the royal princes, became the actual regent. He held the reins of government during the next nine years, ruling with power like that of an absolute despot. He was a rabid hater of Christianity, foreigners, and progress. The year 1866 is phenomenal in Corean history. It seemed to the rulers as if the governments of many nations had con- spired to pierce their walls of isolation. Russians, French- men, Englishmen, Americans, Germans, authorized and un- authorized, landed to trade, rob, kill, or what was equally ob- noxious to the regent and his court, to make treaties. This and the rapid progress of Christianity now excited the anti-Christian party, which was in full power at the court, to clamor for the en- forcement of the old edict against the foreign religion. Vainly the regent wan d the court of the danger from Europe, Forced by the party in power, he signed the death warrants of bishops and priests and promulgated anew the old laws against the Christians. Within a few weeks fourteen French priests and bishops were tortured to death, and twice as many native mis- sionaries and students for the priesthood suffered like fate. Scores of native Christians were put to death, and hundreds more were in prison. In a little over a month, all missionary operations liii' '^ -''' V FRENCH EXPEDITION TO SEOUL. 353 uns came to a standstill, rhe three French priests who remained alive escaped from the peninsula in a Chinese junk, and finally reached Chefoo October 26. Not one foreign priest now remained in Corea, and no Christian dared openly confess his faith. Thus after twenty years of nearly uninterrupted labors, the church was again stripped of hev pastors, and at the end of eighty-two years of Corean Christianity the curtain fell in blood. With Bishop Ridel as interpreter and three of his converts as pilots, three French vessels were sent to explore the Han River and to make effort to secure satisfaction for the murder of the French bishops and priests in the previous March. They entered the river September 21, and two of the vessels advanced to Seoul, leaving one at the mouth of the river. One or two forts fired on the vessels as they steamed along, and in one place a fleet of junks gathered to dispute their passage. A well-aimed shot sunk two of the crazy craft, and a bombshell dropped among the ar- tillerists in the redoubt, silenced it at once. On the evening of the 25th, the two ships cast anchor and the flag of France floated in front of the Corean capital. The hills were white with gazing thousands, who for the first time saw a vessel moving under steam. The ships remained abreast of the city several days, the officers taking soundings and measurements, computing lieights, and mak- ing plans. Bishop Ridel went on shore in hopes of finding a Christian and hearing some news but none dared to approach him. While the French remained in the river not a bag of rice nor a fagot of wood entered Seoul. Eight days of sucii terror, and a famine would have raged in the city. Seven thousand houses were deserted by their occupants. When the ships re- turned to the mouth of the river two converts came on board. They informed Ridel of the burning of a "European" vessel, the General Sherman, at Ping-Yang, of the renewal of the persecu- tion, and of the order that Christians should be put to death with- out waiting for instructions from Seoul. Sailing away, the ships arrived at Chefoo, October 3. The regent, now thoroughly alarmed, began to stir up the country to defense. The military forces in every province were culled out, and the forges and blacksmith shops were busy day and night in making aims of every known kind. Loaded junks ! I !• [ 354 REPULSE OF THE FRENCH. I were sunk in the channel of the Han to obstruct it. Word was sent to the tycoon of Japan luforming him of the trouble, and begging for assistance, but the Yeddo government had quite al! it could do at that time to take care of itself. Instead of help two commissioners were appointed to go to Seoul and recommend that (/orea open her ports' to foreign commerce as Japan had done, and thus choose peace instead of war with foreigners. Before the envoys could leave Japan the tycoon had died, and the next year Japan was in the throes of civil war, the shogunate was abolished, and Corea was for the time utterly forgotten. Another fleet of French vessels sailed from China to C^^ea, consisting of seven ships of various kinds, and with six hundred soldiers. The force landed before the city of Kang-wa on the island of the same name, and captured the city without difficulty on the morning of October 16. Several engagements in the same vicinity followed, all of them successful to the French until they came to attack a fortified monastery on the island some ten days later. Here t^ey were repulsed with heavy loss to themselves and to the foe. The next morning to the surprise of all and the anger of many, orders were given to embark. The troops in Kang-wa set fire to the city which in a few hours burned to ashes. The departure of the invaders was so precipitate that Corean patriots to this day gloat over it as a disgraceful retreat. In the palace at Seoul the resolve was made to exterminate Christianity, root and branch. Women and even children were ordered to the death. Several Christian nobles were executed. One Christian who was betrayed in the capital by his pagan brother, and another fellow believer, were taken to the river side in front of the city, near the place where the two French vessels had anchored. At this historic spot, by an innovation unknown in the customs of Cho-sen, they were decapitated and their head- less trunks held neck downward to spout out the hot life blood, that it might wash away the stain of foreign pollution. Upon the mind of the regent and court the effect was to swell their pride to the folly of extravagant conceit. Feeling themselves able almost to defy the world, they began soon after to hurl their de- fiance at Japan. The results of this expedition were disastrous all over the east. Happening at a time when relations between vt: "■-'■^t^y»*'.'.'v-5:(^. f«ij^;^-, '^f^'" ' '/=*■*■"/■ : -c -'^f,. \ EFFECTS OF THE RETREAT. 355 foreigners and Chinese were strained, the unexpected return of the fleet filled the minds of Europeans in China with alarm. The smothered embers of hostility to foreign influence, steadily gathered vigor as the report spread through China that the hated Frenchmen had been driven away by the Coreans. The fires at length broke out in the Tientsin massacre of 1870. It was this same year, 1866, that witnessed the marriage of the young king, now but fourteen years old, to Min, the daughter of one of the noble families. Popular report has always credited the young queen with abilities not inferior to those of her royal husband. The Min or Ming family is largely Chinese in blood and origin, and beside being preeminent among all the Corean nobility iu social, political, and intellectual power, has been most strenuous in adherence to Chinese ideas and traditions with the purpose of keeping Corea unswerving in her vassalage and loyalty to China. American associations with Corea have been peculiarly interest- ing. The commerce carried on by American vessels with Chinese and Japanese ports made the navigation of Corean waters a ne- cessity. Sooner or later shipwrecks must occur, and the question of the humane treatment of American citizens cast on Corean shores came up before our government for settlement, as it had long before in the cf 3 of Japan. Within one year the Corean government had three American cases to deal with. June 24, 1866, the American schooner Surprise, was wrecked off the coast of Wang-hai. The approach of any foreign vessel was especially dangerous at this time, as the crews might be mistaken for French- men and killed by the people from patriotic impulses. Neverthe- less, the captain and his crew, after being well catechised by the local magistrate and by a commissioner sent from Seoul, were kindly treated and well fed and provided with the comforts of life. By orders of Tai-wen Kun, the regent, they were escorted on horseback to Ai-chiu and after being feasted there were con- ducted safely to the border gate. Thence after a hard journey via Mukden they got to Niuchwang and to the United States consul. The General Sherman was an American schooner that had the second experience with the Coreans. The vessel was owned by m l 'ii' 35d AMERICAN AFFAIRS IN COREA. a Mr. Preston who was making a voyage fur health. At Tien-tsiu the schoouer was loaded with goods likely to be salable iu Corea, and she was dispatched there on an experimental voyage in the hope of thus opening the country to commerce. The complement of the vessel was five white foreigners and nineteen Malay and Chinese sailors. The white men were Mr. Hogarth, a young Englishman, Mr. Preston, the owner, and Messrs. Page and Wilson, the master and mate of the vessel, and the Rev. Mr. Thomas, a niissiunary, who were Americans. From the first the character of the expedition was suspected, because the men were rather too heavily armed for a peaceful trading voyage. It was believed in China that the royal coffins in the tombs of Ping- Yang were of solid gold, and it was broadly hinted that the expedition had something to do with these. The schooner, whether merchant or invader, sailed from Chefoo and made for the mouth of the Tatong River. There they met the Chinese captain of a Chefoo junk who agreed to pilot them up the river. He stayed with the General Sherman for two days, then leaving her he returned to the river's mouth, and sailed back to Chefoo. No further direct intelligence was ever received from the unfortunate party. According to one report the hatches of the schooner were fastened down after the crew had been driven beneath, and set on fire. According to another, all were de- capitated. The Coreans burned the woodwork for the iron and took the cannon for models. The United States steamship Wachusett, dispatched by Admiral Rowan to inquire into the matter, reached Chefoo January 14, 1867, and took on board the Chinese pilot of the General Sher- man. Leaving Chefoo they cast anchor two days later at the mouth of the large inlet next south of the Tatong River, thinking that they had reached their destination. A letter was dispatched to the capital of the province demanding that the murderers be produced on the deck of the vessel. Five days elapsed before the answer arrived, during which the surveying boats were busy. Many natives were met and spoken with, who all told one story, that the Sherman's crew were murdered by the people and not by official instigation. In a few days an officer from one of the villages appeared. He would give neither information nor satis- *■ 1- n-tsiu }oi-ea, in the nnent y and ) and f. Mr. st the 1 were [t was -Yang dition Ihefoo et the 3 m up days, I back from ties of riven e de- n and miral h 14, Sher« the iking ched rs be e the )usy. tory, 3tby I the satis- .'.1 1 1 'f in in 73 ■■»■■'-'■ .:V< THE GENERAL SHERMAN CASE. 359 faction, and the gist of his reiteration was "go away as soon as possible." Commander Shufeldt, bound by his orders, could do nothing more, and being compelled also by stress of weather came away. Later in the year Dr. Williams, Secretary of the United States Legation at Peking, succeeded in obtaining an interview with a member of the Corean embassy, who told him that after the General Sherman got aground she careened over as the tide receded, and her crew landed to guard or float her. The natives gathereil around them, and before long an altercation arose. A general attack began upon the foreigners, in which every man was killed by the mob. About twenty of the natives lost their lives. Dr. Williams' comment is, "The evidence goes to uphold the presumption that they invoked their sad fate by some rash or violent act towards the natives." The United States steamship Shenandoah was sent to make f-urther investigation, and this version of the story was given to the commander. The Coreans said that when the Sherman arrived in the river, the local officials went on board and addressed the two foreign oilicers of the ship in respectful language. The latter grossly insulted the native dignitaries. The Coreans treated their visitors kindly, but warned tliem of their danger and the un- lawfulness of penetrating into the country. Nevertheless, the foreigners went up the river to Ping- Yang where they seized the ship of one of the city officials, put him in chains, and proceeded to rob the junks and their crews. The people of the city aroused to wrath, attacked the foreign ship with firearms and cannon ; they set adrift fire rafts and even made a hand to hand fight with knives and swords. The foreigners fought desperately, but the Coreans overpowered them. Finally the ship caught fire and blew up with a terrible report. This story was not, of course, believed by the American officers, but even the best wishers and friends of the Sherman adventurers cannot stifle suspicion of (iither cruelty or insult to the natives. Remembering the kind- ness shown to the crew of the Surprise it is difficult to believe that the General Sherman's crew was murdered without cause. In 1884 Lieutenant J. B. Bernadon, of the United States navy, made a journey from Seoul to Ping- Yang, and being able to ypeak 36Q AMERICAN EXPEDITIONS. Gorean, secured the following information from native ChriBtians: The governor of Ping-Yang seat otticers to inquire the niiasion of the Sherman. To gratify their curiosity large numbers of the common people set out also iu boats which the Sherman's crew mistook for a hostile demonstration and fired guns in the air to warn them off. When the river fell the Sherman grounded and careened over, which being seeu from the city walls, a fleet of boats set out with hostile intent and were fired upon. Officers and people now enraged, started fire rafts, and soon the vessel, though with white flag hoisted, was in flames. Of those who leaped into the river most were drowned. Of those picked up one was the Rev. Mr. Thomas, who was able to talk Corean. He explained the meaning of the white flag, and begged to be sur- rendered to China. His prayer was in vain. In a few days all the prisoners were led out and publicly executed. In the spring of 1867 an expedition was organized by a French Jesuit priest who spoke Corean, having been a missionary in the country ; a German Jew named Ernest Oppert ; and the inter- preter at the United States consulate in Shanghai, a man named Jenkins. These worthies, it is said, conceived a plan to steal the body of one of the dead Corean monarchs, and hold it for ransom. With two steam vessels and a crew of sailors, laborers, and cool- ies, the riffraff of humanity, such as swarm in every Chinese port, they left Shanghai the last day of April, steamed to Naga- saki, and then to the west coast of Corea, landing in the river which flows into Prince Jerome Gulf. The steam tender which accompanied the larger vessel took an armed crowd up the river as far as possible, and from this point the march across the open country to the tomb was begun. Their tools were so ineffective that they could not move the rocky slab which covered the sar- cophagus, and they were compelled to give up their task. Dur- ing their return march they were attacked by the exasperated Coreans, but were able to protect themselves without great diffi- culty. During the remainder of their buccaneering trip, which lasted ten days, they had various skirmishes and two or three of their party were killed. On their return to Shangliai tiie Amer- ican of the party was arrested and tried before the United States consul, but it was impossible to prove the things with which Jen- lil i\ SEEKING A TREATY. 361 kins was charged, and he was dismissed. A few years later Op- pert published a work in wliich he told the story of his different voyages to Corea, including this last one. In writing of tlie last he takes pains to gloss over the intentions of his journey and to explain the good motives behind it. The representations made to the department of state at Wash- ington by the United States diplomatic corps in China concerning these different attempts to enter Corea, directed the attention of the United States government to the opening of Corea to Ameri- can commerce. Tlio state department in 1870 resolved to under- take the enterprise. Frederick F. Low, minister of the United States to Peking, and Rear Admiral John Rodgers, coniniiinder in chief of the Asiatic squadron, were entrusted with the delicate mission. The American squadron consisted of the flagship) Colo- rado, the I jrvettes Alaska and Dimitia, and the gunboats Monoc- acy and Palos. In spite of the formidable appearance of the navy, the vessels were either of an antiquated type, or of too heavy a draft, with their armament defective. All the naval world in Chinese waters wondered why the Americans should be content with such old fashioned ships unworthy of the gallant crews who manned them. The squadron anchored near the mouth of the Han River- May 30, 1871. Approaching the squadron in a junk, some natives made signs of friendship and came on board without hesitation. They bore a missive acknowledging the receipt of the letter which the Americans had sent to Corea some months before, by a special courier from the Chinese court. This reply announced that three nobles had been appointed by the regent for a conference. The next day a delegation of eight officers of the third and fifth rank came on board, evidently with intent to see the minister and ad- miral to learn all they could and gain time. They had little authority and no credentials, but they were sociable, friendly and in good humor. Neither of the envoys would see them, because they lacked rank and credentials and authority. The Corean en- voys were informed that soundings would be taken in the river and the shores would be surveyed. The best judges of eastern diplomacy think that this mission was very poorly managed. These envoys were sent ashore, and r ! I n<{2 BRAVE FIGHTING. at noon on the 2ii(l of June the survey fleet moved up the river. The fleet conHistcd of four Hteain launches abreust, followed by the Palos and Monocacy. But a few minutes passed until from a fort on the shore a severe fire was opened on the moving boats. The Americans promptly returned the fire, with the result that the old Palos injured herself by the cannon kicking her sides out. The Monocacy also struck a rock and began to leak badly, but after hammering at the forts until they were all silenced, the squadron was able to return down the river and not greatly in- jured Strange to say only one American was wounded and none were killed. It was a strong evidence of the poor marksmanship of Corean gunners. Ten days were now allowed to pass before further action was taken, then the same force started up the river again, enlarged by twenty boats conveying a landing force of .x hundred and fifty men. These were arranged in ten companies of infantry and seven pieces of artillery. The squadron proceeded up the river on the morning of the 10th of June, and soon after noon, having demolished and emptied the first fort, the troops were landed. The next day they began the march and soon reached another fortification which was deserted. Here all of the artillery was tumbled into the river and the fort was named Monocacy. In another hour, another citadel was reached, attacked, and con- quered by the united efforts of the troops on shore and the ves- sels in the stream. The final charge of the American troops up a steep incline met a terrible reception. The Coreans fought with furious courage in hand to hand conflict. Finally the enemy was completely routed, some three hundred and fifty of them being killed. On the American side three were killed, and ten wounded. Before the day was over two more forts were captured. The result of the forty-eight hours on shore, of which only eigh- teen were spent in the field, was the capture of five forts, probably the strongest in the kingdom, fifty fl.ags, and four hundred and eighty-one pieces of artillery. The work of destruction was car- ried on and made as thorough as fire, ax and shovel could make it, and this was all on Sunday, June 11. Early on Monday morning the whole force was re-embarked in perfect order, in spite of the furious tide. The fleet moved down WAR WITH THE HEATHEN. 363 con- car- )ake led ill lowii the stream with the captured colors at the mast heads, and towing the boats laden with the trophies of victory. Later in the day the men slitiii in the figiit were buried on Boiseo Island, and the first American graves rose on Corean soil. Admiral Rodgers, having obeyed to the farthest limit the orders given him, and all hope of making a treaty being over, the fleet sailed for Chefoo on the 8rd of July, after thirty-five days' stay in Corean waters. ♦' Our little war with the heathen," as the New York Herald styled it, attracted slight notice in the United States. In China the expedition was looked upon as a failure and a defeat. The popular Corean idea was that the Americans had come to avenge the death of pirates and robbers, and after several battles had been so surely defeated that they dare not attempt the task of chastisement again. When the mikado was restored to supreme power in Japan, and the department of foreign affairs was created, one of the first things attended to was to invite the Corean government to resume ancient friendship and vassalage. This summons, coming from a source uniecognized for eight centuries, and to a regent swollen with pride at his victory over the French and his success in extir- pating the Ciiristian religion, was spurned with defiance. An in- solent and even scurrilous letter was returned to the mikado's government. The military classes, stung with rage, formed a war party, but the cabinet of Japan vetoed the scheme and in October, 1873, Saigo, the leader of the war party, resigned and was re- turned to Satsuma to brood over his defeat. In 1873 the young king of Corea attained his majority. His father Tai-wen Kun, the Regent, by the act of the king was re- lieved of ofiice and his bloody and cruel lease of power came to an end. The young sovereign proved himself a man of some mental vigor and independent judgment, not merely trusting to his ministers, but opening important documents in person. He was ably seconded by his wife, to whom was born in the same year an heir to the throne. The neutral belt of land, long inhabited by deer and tigers, had within the last few decades been overspread with squatters, brig- ands, and outlaws. The depredations of these border rufiQans 18 f'l- M:t 1 ; i64 NEUTRAL STRIP ABOLISHED. had become intolerable both to China and Corea. In 1875 Li Hung Chang sending a force of picked Chinese troops with a gunboat to the Yalu broke up the nest of robbers and allowed settlers to enter the land. Two years later the Peking govei"nment shifted its frontier to the Yalu River, and Corean and Chinese territory was separated only by flowing water. The neutral strip was no more. • hi 1875 some sailors of one of the Japanese ironclads, landing near Kang-wa for water, were fired on by Corean soldiers under the idea that they were Americans or Frenchmen. The Japanese before this time had adopted uniforms of foreign style for their navy. Retaliating, the Japanese two days later stormed and dis- mantltd the fort, shot most of the garrison, and carried the spoils to the "hips. The news of this affair brought the wavering minds of both tile peace and the war party of Japan to a decision. An envoy was ilispatcl ed to Peking to find out the exact relation of China to Corea, and secure her neutrality. At the same time an- other was sent with the fleet to the Han River, to make if possi- ble a treaty of friendship and open ports. General Kuroda hav- ing charge of tlie latter embassy, with men of war, transports, and marines, reached Seoul February the 6th, 1876. About the same time a courier from Peking arrived in the capital, bearing the Chinese imperial recommendation that a treaty be made willi the Japane^-e. The temper of the young king had been mani- fested long before this by his rebuking the district magistrate of Kang-wa for allowing soldiers to fire on peaceably disposed people, and ordering the offender to degradation and exile. Arinori Mori in Peking had received a written disclaimer of China's re- sponsibility over Corea, by which stroke of policy the Middle Kingdom freed herself from all possible claims of indemnity from France, the United States, and Japan. After several days of negotiation the details of the treaty were settled, and on February 27 the treaty in which Chosen was rec- ognized as an independent nation was signed and attested. The first Corean embassy which had been accredited to the mi- kado's court since the Twelfth century, sailed from Fusanin a Jap- anese steamer, landing at Yokohama, May 29. liy railroad iind steam cars they reached Tokio, and on the first of June the envoy JAPAN AND COREA MAKE TREATY. 365 had audience of the mikado. For three weeks the Japanese amused, enlightened and startled their guests by showing them their war ships, arsenals, artillery, torpedoes, schools, buildings, factories, and offices, equipped with steam and electricity, the ripened fruit of the seed planted by Perry in 1864. All attempts of foreigners to hold any communication with them were firmly rejected by the Coreans. Among the callers with diplomatic powers from the outside world in 1881, each eager and ambitious to be the first in wresting the coveted prize of a treaty, were two British captains of moii-of-war and a French naval officer, all of whom sailed away with rebuffs. Under the new treaty Fusan soon became a bustling place of trade with a Japanese population of some two thousand. Public I buildings were erected for the Japanese consulate, chamber of commerce, bank, steamship company, and hospitals. A news- paper was established, and after a few years of mutual contact at Fusan the Coreans, though finding the Japanese as troublesome as the latter discovered foreigners to be after their own ports were opened, with much experience settled down to endure them for the sake of a trade which was undoubtedly enriching the country. Gensan was opened May 1, 1880. An exposition of Japanese, European, and American goods was established for the benefit of trade with the Coreans. Russia, England, France, Italy, and the United States all made efforts in the next few months to make treaties with Corea, and all were politely rejected. Early in 1881 Chinese and Japanese influence began to be enlisted in favor of the United States in the effort to make a treaty. Li Hung Chang, China's liberal states- man, wrote a letter to a Corean gentleman in which he advised the country to seek the friendship of the United States. The Chinese secretary of legation at Tokio also declared to the Co- reans that Americans were the natural friends of Asiatic nations, and should be welcomed. It began to look more hopeful for tho United States to secure her treaty through the influence of the Chinese than that of the Japanese, on whom we had previously depended. One of the most important moves in the advancement of Coreh'« civilization was the sending of a party of thirty-four prominent men to visit Japan, and ftirthor study the problom of I r FW . / "i^^-'W^'' ■■ '"'^i 366 AMERICAN TREATY SIGNED. liow far western ideas were adapted to an oriental state. The leader of this party, after his return from Japan, was dispatched on a mission to China, where his conference was chiefly with Li Hung Chang. He had now a good opportunity of judging the relative merits of Japan and Cliina. The results of this mission were soon apparent, for shortly after, eighty young men were sent to Tien-tsin where they began to diligently pursue their studies of western civilization as it had impressed itself on China in the arsenals and schools. The spirit of progress made advance from the beginning of 1882, but discussion reached fever heat in deciding whether the favor of Japan or China should be most sought, and wh'in for- eign nation should be first admitted to treaty rights. An vent not unlooked-for, increased the power of the progressionists. Kozaikai urged the i)lea of expulsion of foreigners in such intem- perate language that he was accused of reproaching the sovereign. At the same time a conspiracy against the life of the king was discovered. Kozaikai was put to death, many of the conspirators were exiled, and the ringleaders were sentenced to be broken alive on the wheel. The progressionists hud now the upper hand, and early in the spring two envoys went to Tien-tsin to inform Americans and Chinese that the Corean government was ready to make a treaty. Meanwhile Japanese officers were drilling the Corean soldiers in Seoul. The American diplomatic agent, Commodore R. W. Shufeldt, arrived in the Swatara off Chemulpo May 7. Accompanied by three officers he went six miles into the interior, to the office of the Corean magistrate, to formulate the treaty. Two days after- ward the treaty document was signed, in a temporary pavilion on a point of land opposite the ship. Both on the American and Corean side this result had been brought about only after severe toil and prolonged effort. Four days after the signing of the American treaty, the crown- prince, a l.id of nine years old, was married in Seoul. This year will be forever known as the year of the treaties. Within a few months treaties were signed by Corea with Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy and China. Within a week there appeared in the harbor of Chemulpo two American, tliree British, one French, one rhe led Li the ion ent 3 of the :of the for- ent [fits. em- ign. was tors ken ind, 3rin ady ing Idt, by of er- on ind ere vn- ear ew ce, the )ne 1 m iriiiiMiiinniiiririTrr-i" V OUTBREAK tN SEOUL 369 Japanese, one German and five Cliinese armed vessels; all of them except the French had left by June 8, to the great relief of the country people, many of whom had fled to the hills when the big guns began to waste their powder in salutes. The Japanese legation in Seoul now numbered about forty per- sons. They seemed to suspect no imminent danger, although the old fanatic and tyrant Tai-wen Kun was still alive and plotting. He was the centre of all tha elements hostile to innovation, and being a man of unusual ability, was possessed of immense influ- ence. During the nine years of his nominal retirement from of- fice, this bigoted Confucianist who refused to know anything of the outer world waited his opportunity to make trouble. Just then the populace was most excited over the near presence of the foreigners at Chemulpo, the usual rainfall was withheld, and in the consequent drought the rice crop was threatened with total failure. The sorcerers and the anti-foreign party took advantage of the situation to play on the fears of the superstitious people. The spirits displeased at the intrusion of the western devils were angry, and were cursing the land. While the king was out in the open air praying for lain July 23, a mob of sympathizers with the old regent attempted to seize him. The king escaped to the castle. Some niiscbief-maker then started the report that the Japanese had attacked the royal castle and had seized the king and queen. Forthwith the mob rushed with frantic violence upon the legaLion, mcr lering the Japanese policemen 'd students \vhom they m«t on thn streets, and the Japanese military instructors in the barracl;s. Not satisfied with this, the rioters, numbering four thousand men, attacked and de- stroyed the houses of the ministers favoring intercourse. Many of the Mins and seven Japanese were killed. The Japanese le- gation attaches made a brave defence to the night attack which was made on them. Armed only v/ith swords and pistols, the Japanese formed themselves into a circle, charged the mob, and cut their way through it. After an all night march through a se- vere storm, the little band fighting its way for much of the time, reached lu-chiun at three o'clock the next day. The governor re- ceived them kindly and supplied f'^od and dry clothing, then post- ing sentinels to watch so thai, the Japanese could get some rest. 5 870 JAPANESE FORCE RESl^ECT. lit' J II iiu hour tliG luob attacked them there, and they were again compelled to cut their way out. They now made for Chemulpo, the seaport of the city, and about midnight, having procured a junk, they put to sea. The next morning they were taken on board a British vessel which was surveying the coast, and a few days later were landed at Nagasaki. Without hesitation the Japanese government began prepara- tions for a military and naval attack. Hanabusa, the minister to Corea and his suite were sent back to Seoul, escorted by a mili- tary force. He was received with courtesy in the capital whence at! bad been driven three weeks ago. The fleet of Chinese war FMps was also at hand, and everything was appart-iitly under the control of Tai-won Kun, who now professed to be friendly to for- eit^uiM's. At his audience with the king, Hanabusa presented the i!i.. uods of his government. These were nominally agreed to, 'il several days passing without satisfactory action, Hanabusa hi. i lug exhausted remoiistrance and argument left Seoul and re- turned to his ship. This unex^ jcted move, a menace of war, broug;'.t tlie usurper to terms. On receipt of Tai-wen Kun's apologies, the Japanese envoy returned to the capital and full agreement was given to all the demands of Japan by the Corean government. The insurgetits v/ere arrested and punished, the heavy indemnity was paid, and an apology was sent by a special embassy to Japan. Within the next few days Tai-wen Kun was taken on board a Chinese ship at the orders of Li Hung Chang and taken to Tifa-tsin. It is generallj believed that this action was practically a kidnapping, but whether to rescue Tai-wen Kun from tae dangers which threatened him or to maintain China's olo. theory of sovereign control over Corean rulers it is hard to ]• now. The treaty negotiated v.'?ih tho United States was duly ratified by our senate, and Lucius H. Foote vi.av appointed minister to Corea. General Foote reaciied CHiemulpo in the United States steamship Monocacy May 13, and the formal ratifications of the treaty were exchanged in Seoul six da}^'^ later. The guns of the Monocacy, the same which shelled the Han forts in 1870, fired the first salute ever given to the Corean flag. The king responded by sending to the' United States an embassy of eleven persons led by COREANS TN AMERICA. 371 Min Yong Ik and Hong Yong Sik, members respectively of the conservative and liberal j)arties. Their interview with President Arthur was in the parlors of the Fifth Avenue Hotel, New York, on September 17. All the Coreans were dressed in their national custom, which they wore habitually while in America. After spending some weeks in the study of American Institutions in several cities, part of the em- bassy returned home by way of San Francisco, leaving one of their number at Salem, Mass., to remain as a student ; while Min Yong Ik and two secretaries embarked on the United States steamship Trenton, and after visiting Europe, reached Seoul in June, 1884. We have now reached a point in Corean history from which a continuance can be better made in a later chapter. Almost from the time of the return of the Corean embassy from the United States, the political ferment increased, until a few months after began the disorders which culminated ten years later in the present Japanese-Chinese war. These events will therefore be re- lated in the chapter which is to follow, descriptive of the causes of the war, and the relations of the three oriental nations at the outbreak of hostilities. w. GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, CLIMATE AND PRO- UCTS OF COREA. Il .5|J.h!» Geographical Limits of Corear-Cliaraoteiistics of the Coast LIuo— The Surface Couflgura- tloii of the Country— laolatluii Made Easy by the Character of Its Boundaries— Rivers of the Peninsula— The Climate— Forests, Plants, and Auiinals— Products of the Soil and of the Mine —Extent of Foreign Trade— The Eight provinces of Corea, Their Extent, Cities, and History ^Government of the Corean Kingdom— The Dignitaries and their Duties— Corruption In the Administration of OfHcial Duties— Buying and Selling OfAce— The Executive and the Judiciary. For many a year the country of Corea has been known in little more than name. Its territory is a peninsula on the east coast of Asia, between China on the continent, and the Japanese islands to the eastward. It extends from thirty-four degrees and thirty minutes to forty-three degrees north latitude, and from one hundred and twenty-four degrees and thirty minutes to one hundred and thirty degrees and thirty minutes east longitude, between the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea. The Yellow Sea separates it from the southern provinces of China, while the Sea of Japan and the Strait of Corea separate it from the Japanese islands. It has a coast line of about one thousand seven hundred and forty miles, and a total area of about ninety thousand square miles. The peninsula, with its outlying islands, is nearly equal in size to Minnesota or to Great Britian. In general shape and relative position to the Asiatic continent it resembles Florida. Tradition and geological indications lend to the belief that an- ciently the Chinese promontory and province of Shan-tung, and the Corean peninsula were connected, and that dry land once covered the space filled by the waters joining the Gulf of Pechili and the Yellow Sea. These waters are so shallow that the eleva- tion of their bottoms but a few feet would restore their area to the land surface of the globe. On the other side also, the Sea of Japan is very shallow and the Straits of Corea at their greatest depth have but eighty-three feet of water. The east coast is high, mountainous, and but slightly indented, 372 - J CHAKACTERISTICS OF THE COASTS OK COREA. 373 with very few islands or liarbors. The south and west shores are deeply and manifoldly scooped and fringed with numerous islands. From these island-skirted shores, especially on the west coast, mud banks extend out to sea beyond sight. While the tide on the east coast is very slight, only two feet at Gensan, it increases on the south and west coasts in a north direction, rising to thirty -three feet at Chemulpo. The rapid rise and full of tides, and the vast area of mud left bare at low water, cause frequent fogs, and render the numerous inlets little available except for native craft. On the west coast the rivers are frozen in winter, but the east coast is open the whole winter through. Quelpaert, the largest island, forty by seventeen miles, lies sixty miles south of the main land. Port Hamilton, between Quelpaert and Corea, was for a time an English possession, but in 1886 was given to China. The Russians are generally believed to have an overweening desire for the magnificent harbor of Port Lazaref on the east coast of the Corean mainland. In its policy of exclusion of all foreigners, the government has had its tasks facilitated by the inaccessible and dangerous nature of the approaches to the coast. The high mountain ranges and steep rocks of the east coast, and the thousands of islands, banks, shoals and reefs extending for miles into the sea on the western and southern shores, unite to make approach exceedingly diflScult, even with the best charts and surveys at hand. In the middle of the northern boundary of Corea, is the most notable natural feature of the peninsula. It is a great mount- ain, the colossal Paik-tu or " ever white " mountain, as it is known from the snow that rests upon its summit. When the Man- choorians pushed the Coreans farther and farther back, they reached this mountain, which marked the natural barrier which they were able to make their permanent boundary line. Accord- ing to native account, which in Corea is seriously believed, the highest peak of this mountain reaches the moderate elevation of forty four miles. It is famous as the birthplace of Corean folk lore, and a great deal that is mythical hangs about it still. On the top of the peak is a lake thirty miles in circumference. From this lake flow two streams, one to the north-east, the Tunien, which enters the Sea of Japan ; and the other to the south-west, I ml 37» mVKUS or THE PENINSULA. s ' the Yalii river, vvhioli (lows into the Coroaii hay at the hoiul of the YeUow Sea. Corea is th(;rof()re in reality an island. These two rivers and the lake forming the northern bonndary are i/bont four hundred and sixty miles from the ocean at the southern end of the peninsula. The greutest width of the country is three hundred and sixty miles and its narrowest about sixty miles. The Tumen river separates Corea from Manchooria, except in the last few miles of its course, when it flows by Russian terri- tory, the south-eastern corner of Siberia. The Yalu river also divides Corea from Manchooria. The rivers of Corea are not of great importance except for drainage and water supply, being- navigable but for short distances. On the west coast the chief rivers are the Yalu, the Ching-chong, the Tatong, the Han, the Kum ; the Yalu is navigable for about one hundred and seventy miles and is by far the greatest of all in the peninsula. The Han is navigable to a little above Seoul, eighty miles ; the Tatong to Ping-Yang, seventy-five miles ; and the Kum is navigable for small boats for about thirty miles. In the south-eastern part of the peninsula the Nak-tong is navigable for small boats to a dis- tance of one hundred and forty miles. The Tumen river, which forms the north-eastern boundary between Corea and Siberia, is not navigable except i-ear the mouth. It drains a mountainous and rainy country. Crdin irily it is shallow and quiet, but in spring its current becomes very turbulent and swollen. Occupying about the same latitude as Italy, Corea is also, like Italy, hemmed in on the north by motmtain ranges, and traversed from north to south by another chain. The whole peninsula is very mountainous, some of the peaks rising to a height of eight thousand feet. The climate of the country is excellent, bracing in the north, with the south tempered by the ocean breezes in summer. The winters in the north are colder than those of American states in the same latitude, and the summers are hotter. The heat is tempered by sea breezes, but in the narrow enclosed valleys it becomes very intense. The Han is frozen at Seoul flor three months in the year, sufficiently to be used as a cart road, while the Tumen is usually frozen for five months. Various kinds of timber abound, except in the west, where FAUNA AND FLORA. .'^75 la IS eight ^here wood is scarce and is sparingly used ; and in other parts thi* want of coal has caused the wasteful destruction of many a forest. The fauna is very considerable and besides tigers, leopards, and deer, includes pigs, wild cats, badgers, foxes, beavers, otters, martens, bears, and a great variety of birds. The salamander is found in the streams as in western Japan. The domestic animals are few. The cattle are excellent, the bull being the usual beast of burden, the pony very small but hardy, fowls good, the pigs inferior. Immense numbers of oxen are found in +lie south, furnishing the meat diet craved by the people, who i . iich more of fatty food tiian the Japanese. Goats are rare. Sheep arc; imported from China only for sacrificial purposes. The dog serves for food as well as for companionship and de- fense. Of birds the pheas- ants, falcons, eagle, crane, and stork are common. Among the products are rice, wheat, beans, cotton, hemp, corn, sesame, and perilla. Ginseng grows wild '^<^'n V^Vv.V^ ^ in the Range mountains and coREAN BULL HARROWING. is also much Cultivated about Kai-seng, the duties upon it, notwithstanding much smuggling, yielded about half a million dollars annually. Iron ore of excellent quality is mined : and there are copper mines in several places. The output of the silver mines is very small, but the customs returns for 1886 show the value of gold exported that year to be $603,296. The principal industries are the manufacture of paper, mats woven of grass, split bamboo blinds, oil paper, and silk. The total value of the foreign im- ports in 1887 was $2,300,000, two-tiiirds representing cotton goods ; the native exports reached about $700,000, chiefly beans and cow hides. The foreign vessels entering the treaty ports yearly number about seven hundred and fifty, of some two hun- IMAGE EVALUATIO* TEST TARGET (MT 1.0 I.I 1.25 V] <^ n ^1 7 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 873-4503 vV » S74 RTVERS Ol<^ THE PENINSIILA. the Yalu river, wliicli flows into the Corcau ba}' at the head of the Yellow Sea. Corea is therefore in reality an island. Those two rivers and the lake forming the northern boundary are about four hundred and sixty miles from the ocean at the southern end of the peninsula. The greatest width of the country is three hundred and sixty miles and its narrowest about sixty miles. The Turaen river separates Corea from Manchooria, except in the last few miles of its course, when it flows by Russian terri- tory, the south-eastern corner of Siberia. The Yalu river also divides Corea from Manchooria. The rivers of Corea are not of great importance except for drainage and water supply, being navigable but for short distances. On the west coast the chief rivers are the Yalu, the Ching-chong, the Tatong, the Han, the Kum ; the Yalu is navigable for about one hundred and seventy miles and is by far the greatest of all in the peninsula. The Han is navigable to a little above Seoul, eighty miles; the Tatong to Ping- Yang, seventy-five miles ; and the Kum is navigable for small boats for about thirty miles. In the south-eastern part of the peninsula the Nak-tong is navigable for small boats to a dis- tance of one hundred and forty miles. The Tumen river, which forms the north-eastern boundary between Corea and Siberia, is not navigable except near the mouth. It drains a mountainous and rainy country. Ordinarily it is shallow and quiet, but in spring its current becomes very turbulent and swollen! Occupying about the same latitude as Italy, Corea is also, like Italy, hemmed in on the north by mountain ranges, and traversed from north to south by another chain. The whole peninsula is very mountainous, some of the peaks rising to a height of eight thousand feet. The climate of the country is excellent, bracing in the north, with the south tempered by the ocean breezes in summer. The winters in the north are colder than those of American states in the same latitude, and the summers are hotter. The heat is tempered by sea breezes, but in the narrow enclosed valleys it becomes very intense. The Han is frozen at Seoul fior three months in the year, sufficientlj' to be used as a cart road, while the Tumen is usually frozen for five months. Various kinds of timber abound, except in the west, where FAUNA AND FLORA. 075 orth, The s in t is s it hree hile lere wood is scarce and is sparingly used ; and in other parts the want of coal has caused the wasteful destruction of many a forest. The fauna is very considerable and besides tigers, leopards, and deer, includes pigs, wild cats, badgers, foxes, beavers, otters, martens, bears, and a great variety of birds. The salamander is found in the streams as in western Japan. The domestic animals are few. The cattle are excellent, the bull being the usual beast of burden, the pony very small but hardy, fowls good, the pigs inferior. Immense numbers of oxen are found in the south, furnishing the meat diet craved by the people, who eat much more of fatty food than the Japanese. Goats are rare. Sheep are imported from China onl}' for sacrificial purposes. The dog serves for food as well as for companionship and de- fense. Of birds the pheas- ants, falcons, eagle, crane, and stork are common. Among the products are rice, wheat, beans, cotton, hemp, corn, sesame, and perilla. Ginseng grows wild ^ "^^"^ V--*nV^ •- in the Range mountains and COREAN BULL HARROWING. jg also much Cultivated about Kai-seng, the duties upon it, notwithstanding much smuggling, yielded about half a million dollars annually. Iron ore ol excellent quality is mined ; and there are copper mines in several places. The output of the silver mines is very small, but the customs returns for 1886 show the value of gold exported that year to be $603,296. The principal industries are the manufacture of paper, mats woven of grass, split-bamboo blinds, oil paper, and silk. The total value of the foreign im- ports in 1887 was $2,300,000, two-thirds representing cotton goods ; the native exports reached about 1700,000, chiefly beans and cow hides. The foreign vessels entering the treaty ports yearly number about seven hundred and fifty, of some two hun- 376 INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCIAL LIFE. dred thousand tons burden. Three-fourths of the trade is with Japan and more than one-fifth with China ; British goods go by way of these countries. Until 1888 business was done chiefly by barter, imports being exchanpj^^^^^^^^^jjj^ dust, and Japanese silk piece good^^^^g^^^^^^^^^^^^^^lta^i^ade inland. In that ye** beneficial effect o,^ convenient aj'..> graph with Ji Port /i Cherau^i san, K''^ O int v^ 9\ n av nai' der themi the larj' and villa^'^ ment ofi&cia^ it must not be^ those to be found T! are protected by high au^ walls are usually about six^^^^^l^^^^^^^^H^^^^ecl, of irregular and uneven stone blocks, ana iieaiiy every one of them would tumble down at the first shock of a ball fired from a modern gun. sj- ^'-^-'T*'." -■-"•Ti;"^"'' '^y.%'^-^";j,?;;--i-r"r-"'. ""^l,i■-■ " *-^/'r\''.<^'-/^'^- -y:. - ,-;.;. (.-■'•'■ > 3'7':-'-{ -j-:^:^iv:.^. V HISTORY OF THE NEUTRAL STRIP. 379 Corea has for centuries successfully carried out the policy of isolation. Instead of a peninsula, her rulers strove to make her an accessible island, and insulate her from the shock of change. She has built, not a great wall of masonry, but a barrier of sea and river-flood, of mountain and devastated land, of palisade and cordon of armed sentinels. Frost and snovir, storm and winter, she hailed as her allies. Not content with the sea border, she desolated her shores lest they should tempt the foreigner to land. In addition to this, between her Chinese neighbor and herself she placed a neutral space of unplanted, unoccupied land. This strip of forest and desolated plain twenty leagues wide, has stretched for three centuries between Corea and Manchooria. To form it, four cities and many villages were suppressed and left in ruins. The soil of these former solitudes is very good, the roads easy, and the hills not high. The southern boundary of this neutral ground has been the boundary of Corea, while the northern boundary has been a wall of stakes, palisades and stone. Two centuries ago, this line of walls was strong, high, guarded and kept in repair, but year by year at last, during a long era of peace, they were suffered to fall into decay, and except for their ruins exist no longer. For centuries only the wild beasts, fugitives from justice, and outlaws from both countries have inhabited this fer- tile but forbidden territory. Occasionally borderers would culti- vate portions of it, but gathered the produce by night or stealth- ily by day, venturing on it as prisoners would step over the dead line. Of late years the Chinese government has respected the neutrality of this barrier less and less. Within a generation large portions of this neutral strip have been occupied ; parts of it have been surveyed and staked out by Chinese surveyors, and the Corean government has been too feeble to prevent the occu- pation. Though no towns or villages are marked on the map of this neutral territory, yet already a considerable number of small settlements exist upon it, and it was through them that the over- land marches of the Japanese army from Corea into Manchooria had to be made. The province which borders this neutral territory, is that of Ping- Yang or " Peaceful Quiet." It is the border land of the kingdom, containing what was for centuries the only acknowl- 380 PROVINCE OF PING-YANG. edged gate of entrance and outlet to the one neighbor which Corea willingly acknowledged as her superior. The battle of Ping- Yung recently fought, is only one of many which h' interrupted the harmony of the province of " Peaceful The town nearest the frontier and the gateway of tlK^ Wi-ju. It is situated on a hill overlooking th» surrounded by a wall of light colored sto^ embassy always departed for its overlaiv'i through its gates. Here also are the cu9^^ guards, whose chief business it was t^ entering or leaving Corea. Neverth^'^ missionaries have entered the myste^^ loop-hole, disguising themselves as Yalu river on the ice, creeping thr^ grand wall, and passing through T met by friends at appointed placed i have traveled to the capital. Fui'l condition of this neutral strip wil] chapter, preliminary to the outbrtj river, which forms the southern bcjf Rubicon of Corean history. At v&ti it was the boundary river of Cliii. the peninsula. About fifty miles /.' Ping-Yang, the metropolis and capii royal seat of authority from before r tenth century. Its situation renders it a has been many times besieged by Chinese^ and near it many battles have been fought. The next province to the south is that of " Yellow Sea " province. This is the land of Core*^ into the Yellow Sea directly opposite the Shan-tung j,- of China, on which are the ports of Chefoo and Wei-h? Tien-tsin, the seaport of Peking, is a little farther east. ' FrojJ? these ports since the most ancient times, the Chinese armadas have sailed and invading armies have embarked for Corea. Over and over again has the river Tatong been crowded with fleets of junks, fluttering the dragon banners at their peaks. To guard against these invasions signal fires were lighted on the hill -tops :w V WHERE INVADING ARMIES FOUGHT. 381 which ttle of which formed a cordon of flame and sped the alarm from coast to lu a lew hours. This province has been the camping armies of many nations. Here, beside the border j^«d the troops of the rival iungdom, the l^gols, and Manchoos hate contended for JThe principal cities of this province .ng-ju an old baronial walled city, ^o or Kai-seng. Rock salt, flints, ^de of the hair of wolf tails, are 'e. ^ontains the national capital, although it is the smallest of all. The city of Han Yang, or Seoul, is on the north side of the river, forty or fifty miles from its mouth. Tho name Han Yang means "the fort- ress on the Han river," while the common term ap- plied to the royal city is Seoul, which means "the capi- tal." The popula- r^'.j hundred thousand and two hundred natural advantages of Seoul are excel- ^cected by surrounding mountains, and its ^e navigable river. The scenery from the city is "TTit. The walls are of masonry, averaging about twenty feefin height, with arched stone bridges over the water courses. The streets are narrow and tortuous. The king's castle is in the northern part. The islands in the river near the capital are inhabited by fishermen. Four great fortresses guard the approaches to the royal city, / ' n82 SEOUL AND ITS FORTIFICATIONS. all of which have been the scene of siege and battle in time past. The fortresses in succession are Suwen to the south, Kwang-chiu to the south-east, Sunto to the north and Kangwa to the west. On the walls of the first three have been set the banners of the hosts of Ming from China and of Taiko from Japan, in the wars at the close of the sixteenth century. The Manchoo standard in 1687 and the French eagles in 1866 were planted on the ramparts of Kang-wa. Beside these castled cities there are forts and redoubts along the river banks crowning most of the commanding headlands. Over these the stars and stripes floated for three days in 1871 when the American forces captured the strongholds. Sunto is one of the most important, if not the chief commercial city in the kingdom, and from 960 to 1392 it was the national capital. The chief staple of manufacture and sale is the coarse cotton cloth which forms the national dress. Kang-wa on the island of the same n^me, at the mouth of the Han river, is the favorite fortress to which the royal family are sent for safety in time of war, or are banished in case of deposition. The province Chung Chong or " Serene Loyalty " is the next one to the southward facing the Yellow Sea. In the history of Corean Christianity this province will be remembered as the nursery of the faith. Here were made the most converts to the teachings of the French missionaries, and here persecutions were most violent. When the Japanese armies of invasion reached the capital in 1692, it was over the great highways from Fusan which cross this province. Chion-Chiu, the fortress on whose fate the capital depended, lies in the north-east of the province. The province contains ten walled cities, and like all its fellows it is divided into departments, right and left. The most southern of the eight provinces, Chulla or "Complete Network " is also the warmest and most fertile. It is nearest to Shanghai and to the track of foreign commerce. Considerable quantities of hides, bones, horns, leather, and tallow are exported to Japan. The beef supplied from the herds of cattle in the pas- tures of Chulla is famous, and troops of horses graze on the pas- ture land. The province is well furnished with ports and harbors. Christianity had quite a hold in this province, and when Corea ^r M:.:^ THE SOUTH OP THE PENINSULA. .38: 5.:-- ' ^ was partly opened to the world there were many believers found in the north who were descendants of Christian martyrs. The capital is Chon chin. The soil of the province was the scene of many battles during the CliineHo invasions of 1592-97. The island of Quelpaert is about sixty miles south of the main- land. It is mountainous, with one peak called llan-ra more than six thousand five hundred feet high. On its top are three extinct craters within each of which is a lake of pure water. Corean children are taught to believe that the three first created men of the world still dwell on these lofty heights. The most south-easterly province of Corea, and therefore the nearest to Japan, is Kiung-sang or the " Province of Respectful Congratulation." It is one of the richest of the eight provinces as well as the most populous, and the seat of many historical associations with Japan. The city of Kion-chiu was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Shinra, and from here to Kioto, from the third to the tenth century, the relations of war and peace, letters and religion were continuous and fruitful. The province has always been the gateway of entrance and exit to the Japan- ese. Fusan, the port which was held by the Japanese from very ancient times, is well at the south-eastern extremity of the penin- sula. Its fortifications are excellent, and its harbor well protected. Populous cities encircle the bay on which Fusan stands, and from this point extend two great roads to Seoul. The influence of cen- turies of close intercourse with their neighbors, the Japanese, is strongly marked in this province. The " River Meadow," or Kang-wen province fronts Japan from the middle of the eastern coast directly north of Kiung-sang. It is a province of beautiful scenery and precipitous mountains. The capital is Wen-chiu. The women of the province are said to be the most; beautiful in Corea. Ham-kiuiig, or coniplete view, is that part of Corean territory adjoining the boundary of Russia. The south-eastern boundary of Siberia, which has been pushed farther south after every Euro- pean war with China, touclied the Tumen river, the northern boundary of Corea, in 1858. It is but a little ways from the mouth of the Tumeii river to the forts of Vladivostok and Possiet in Russian territory. From these cities extends a telegraph 19 386 GREAT COREAN-MANCi:OORIAN FAIR. across Siberia to the cities of European Russia, and here will be the terminus of the great Trans-Siberian rf.ilway now under construc- tion. Possiet is connected with Nagasaki by an electric cable. In the event of a war between China and Russia, the Czar would most probably make Corea the basis of operations. Thousands of Coreans have left their own country to dwell in the neighboring portions of Siberia, and most of them are from the province of Ham-kiung. Persecuted Christians from all over the Corean pen- insula have however escaped to Russia for protection for many years. The port of Gensan near Port Lazaref, fronting Broughton's Bay has been opened for trade since May 1, 1880, and has been an important strategic and commercial point ever since. The capital city of this province is Ham-hung and there are fourteen other walled cities within its limits. Until the Russians occupied the adjoining territory, an annual fair was held at the Corea city of Kion-weu which lies close to the border. Here the Manchoo and Chinese merchants bartered their wares for those of Corean, the traffic lasting but two or three days and sometimes only one day. At the end of the fair any lingering Chinese not soon across the border was urged over at the point of a spear. Foreigners found within the Corean limits at any other time were apt to be ruth- lessly murdered. The government of Corea, since the amalgamation of the differ- ent tribes and union of the various states five hundred years ago, has devolved upon an independent king, an hereditary mon- ai'ch whose rule was absolute and supreme. Next in authority to the king are the three Chong, or high ministers. The chief of these is the greatest dignitary of the kingdom, and in time of mi- nority or inability of the king wields royal authority. The father of the present king ruled as regent up to the time when his son reached his majority in 1874. After the king and the three prime ministers, come the six heads of depar^inents of government which rank next. These six department ministers are assisted by two other associates, the Ciiam-pan and the Cham e. These four grades and twenty-one dignitaries constitute the royal council of Dai-jin, though tlie actual authority is in the three ministers. All of the department ministers make daily reports of their affairs, and refer matters of importance to the supreme council. There are also FORMS OF GOVERNMENT IN COREA. 387 three chamberlains who record every day the acts and words of the king. A. daily government gazette called the Cho-po is issued for information on official matters. The general cast and method of procedure in the court and government were copied in the be- ginning after the great model in Peking. The rule of the king in Corea is absolute, and his will alone is law. There has always existed, indeed, the office of a high functionary whose special duty consists in watching and controlling the royal actions. Formerly this office really had some significance, but of late years it has possessed none whatever. Another very curious institution has been that of the declared or official favorite, a position generally filled by some member of a noble family, or by one of the ministers whose influence for good or for evil was paramount with his royal master. The titles of the prime ministers are Chief of The Just Government, The Just Governor of the Left, and The Just Governor of the Right. The six department min- isters are those of the interior, or office and public employ, finance, war, education, punishments or [y^^ ^ justice, and public works. The duties of the minister of foreign COREAN MAGISTRATE AND SERVANT.^^^^.^^ ^^^^j^^ ^^ ^j^^ ^j^j^^^^ ^^ education. Each of the eight provinces is under the direction of a Kani-sa or governor. The cities are divided into six classes, and are governed by officers of corresponding rank. Towns are given in charge of the petty magistrates, there being twelve ranks or dignities in the official class. In theory, any male Corean able to pass the government examination is eligible to office, but the greater number of the best positions are secured by the nobles and their friends. Tlie terms of office in these posts, from that uf provincial governorship down to the lowest are only for two or 388 FORMS OF GOVERNMENT IN COREA. three years. At the end of that time the incumbent pays pur- chase money and is removed to another place. The natural result of this system is that the ofiBcials take little interest in their offices except to extort as much profit as possible from the people whom they are governing. With offices and honors sold to the highest bidder, the high officers sell justice and plunder theii' sub- ordinates, while these again try to indemnify themselves by further extortion. The magistrates lay great stress on the trifles of etiquette, and sumptuary laws exist referring to all sorts of the small things of life. The rule of the loc.il authorities is very minute in all its ramifications. The system of making every fire houses a social unit is universal. Every subject of the sovereign except nobles of rank must possess a passport testifying to his personality and must show his ticket on demand. Civil matters are decided by the ordinary civil magistrate, while criminal cases are tried by the military commandant. Very important cases are referred to the governor of the province, and thence appealed to the high court in the capital. '■^.Tr"-:.'..'':",-:'!.- ''>"■ 3 pur- result their eople o tlie ' sub- is by f- , and igs of ill its social obles r and ^rate, dant. ince, !«:;; M W n w '73 H W3 I w COREAN CHARACTERISTICS AND MANNERS UFE. OF Physique of the People— Rigid Caste System— Slavery— Guilds and Trade Unions— Po- sition of Women— Nameless and Oppressed— Marriage and Family Life— Burial and Mourn- ing Customs— Dress and Diet— Homes— Home Life— Children— Education— Outdoor Life— Music— Literature— Language— Religion. The Corean people are mainly of a Mongolian type, though there is some evidence that there is a Caucasian element in the stock. They are a little larger and steadier of physique than the Japanese, or the Chinese of the south, more nearly approaching to the northern Chinese and even to tlie tribes in the northeast of Asia. Frequently individuals are met, with hair not quite black, and even blue eyes and an almost English style of face. The characteristics of the people are distinguished to advantage from that of their Chinese neighbors by the openness and frankness of their demeanor. The Coreans, even of the lovs^er classes, are grave and sedate by nature, which, however, does not exclude a spirit of frank gayety shown on nearer acquaintance. They are thoroughly honest, faithful and good natured, and attach them- selves with an almost childlike confidence even to strangers and foreigners, when once they begin to trust in their sincerity. Firm, sure, and quick in his walk, the Corean possesses greater ease and a freer motion than the Chinese, to whom they are su- perior in height and bodily strength. On the other hand it can- not be denied that the Coreans rank considerably below the Chinese in cultivation of good manners, and they are wanting in that little polish which is not absent even among the lower classes of China and Japan. The peculiarity of the Corean race and the difference between the same and the neighboring nations, shows itself mainly in the strict and rigid division of tlie castes which part the various ranks of the population of the peninsula from each other, showing some analogy to the caste institutions prevailing among the Hindus in India. There exists, however, this notable difference between the two, that while with the latter this separation is based upon (391) 892 ^>i. SYSTEM OF CASTE. religious principles and customs, no religious movement appears as its cause in Corea, where its origin seems solely attributable to political reasons, which have been maintained and kept up to our times by the government for reasons of its own. The forms of Corean society to this day are derived from feudal ranks and di> visions. The fruit and legacy of feudalism are seen in the 'serf- dom or slavery which is Corea's peculiar domestic institution. Speaking in general terms, society has four grades, following the king. These are the nobles and the three classes which come after them, in the last of which are " the seven low callings." In detail the grades may be counted by the scores. In the lowest grade of the fourth class are " the seven vile callings," that is, the merchant, boatman, jailer, postal or mail slave, monk, butcher, and sorcerer. The first and foremost rank, immediately after the king and the members of the royal family, who stand absolutely above and beyond these castes, is taken up by the so-called nobles, descendants of the old families of chieftains, who are again sub- divided into two degrees, the civil and the military nobility. These two classes of nobles, in the course of time, had possessed themselves of the exclusive right of occupying public ofiQce. Fol- lowing upon these we find the caste of the half nobles, numeri- cally a very weak class, which forms the transition from the no- bility to the civic classes. These also enjoy the right to fill cer- tain offices from their ranks, principally those of government sec- retaries and translators of Chinese. After these come the civic caste, which consists of the better and wealthier portion of the city inhabitants. This class counts amongst its numbers the mer- chants, manufacturers, and most kinds of artisans. Next follows the people's caste, which comprising the bulk of the people is naturally the most numerous of all and includes all villagers, farmers, shepherds, huntsmen, fishermen, and the like. The nobles are usually the slave holders, many of them having in their households large numbers whom they have inherited along with their ancestral chattels. The master has a right to sell or otherwise dispose of the children of his slaves if he so choose. Slavery or serfdom in Corea is in a continuous state of decline, and the number of slaves constantly diminishing. The slaves are those who are born in a state of servitude, those StAVfiBY on SERFDOM. M who sell themselves as slaves, and those who are sold to be such by their parents in times of famine or for debt. ■ Infants exposed or abandoned that are picked up and educated become slaves, but their offspring are born free. The serfdom is really very mild. Only the active young men are held to field labor, the young women being kept as domestics. Wlien old enough to marry, the males are let free l»y an annual payment of a sum of money for a term of years. Outside of private ownership of slaves, there is a species of government slavery which illustrates the persistency of 8TATBSMAN ON MONOCTCLB. — Native Drawing. one feature of the ancient kingdom of Korai perpetuated through twenty centuries. It is the law that in case of the condemnation of a great criminal, the ban shall fall upon his wife and children, who at once become the slaves of the judge. These unfortunates do not have the privilege of honorably serving the magistrate, but usually pass their existence in waiting on the menials in the various government offices. Only a few of the government slaves are such by birth, most of them having become so through judicial condemnation in criminal cases ; but this latter class fare \' U^Vf^i-M^'V:!^*-: Vl;^. 894 GUILDS AND LABOR UNIONS. far worse than the ordinary slaves. They are chiefly females, and are treated little better than beasts. Nothing can equal the con- tempt in which they are held. By union and organization it has come to pass that the common people and the serfs themselves in Corea have won a certain degree of social freedom that is increasing. The spirit of alsso- ciation is spread among the Coreans of all class- es, from the highest families to the meanest slaves. All those who have any kind of work or interest in common, form guilds, corpora- tions or societies which have a common fund contributed to by all for aid in time of need. Very powerful trade unions exist among the mechanics and laborers, such as hat- weavers, coffin-makers, carpen- ters, and masons. These societies enable each class to possess a mo- nopoly of trade which even a noble vainly tries to break. Sometimes they hold this right by OOREAN BRUSH CUTTER. — Native Drawing, writ purchased or ob- tained from govern- ment, though usually it is by prescription. Most of the guilds are taxed by the government for their monopoly enjoyed. They have their chief or head man who possesses almost despotic power, even in some guilds of life and death. One of the most powerful and best organized guilds is that of the porters. The inter''or commerce of the country being almost GUILDS AND LABOR UNIONS. 805 entirely on the backs of men and pack horses, these people liuve llie monopoly of it. They number about ten thousand, and arc divided by provinces and districts under the orders of chiefs and inspectors. They have very severe rules for the government of their guild, and crimes among them are punished with death at the order of their chief. They are so powerful that they pretend that even the government dare not interfere with them. They are honest and faithful in their business, delivering packages with PORTERS WITH OHAiR. — Native Drawing, certainty to the most remote places in the kingdom. When they have received an insult, or injustice, or too low wages, they " strike " in a body and retire from the district. This puts a stop to all travel and business until the grievances are settled, or sub- mission to their own terms is made. Owing to the fact that the country at large is so lacking in the shops and stores common in other countries, and that instead fairs on set days are so numerous in the towns and villages, the guild of peddlers and hucksters is 896 WOMAN'S SECLUSION. very large and influential. This class includes probably two hundred thousand able bodied persons who in the various provinces move freely among the people, and are thus useful to government as spies, detectives, messengers, and in time of need, soldiers. The Corean woman has little moral existence. She is an in- strument of pleasure or of labor, but never man's companion or equal. She has no name. In childhood she receives indeed a sur- name by which she is known in the family and by near friends, but as she grows up none but her father and mother employ this appellation ; to all others she is " the sister " of such a one or *^ the daughter " of so and so. After her marriage her name is buried, and she is absolutely nameless. Her own parents allude to her by employing the name of the district or ward in which she is married. When she bears children she is •• the mother " of so and so. When a woman appears for trial before a magistrate, in order to save time and trouble she receives a special name for the time being. In the higher classes^ of society etiquette requires that the children be separated after the age of eight or ten years. After that time the boys dwell entirely in the men's apartments to study and even to eat and drink; the girls remain secluded in the women's quarters. The boys are taught that it is a shameful thing even to set foot in the female part of the houso. The girls are told that it is disgraceful even to be seen by males, so that gradually they seek to hide themselves when any of the male sex appear. These customs, continued from childhood to old age, result in destroying the family life. A Corean of good taste only occasionally holds conversation with his wife, whom he regards as being far beneath him. The men chat, smoke, and enjoy themselves in the outer rooms, and the women receive their parents and friends in the inner apartments. The men seek the society of their male neighbors, and the women on their part unite together for local gossip. In the higher classes, when a young woman has arrived to marriageable age none even of her own relatives except those nearest of kin, is allowed to see or speak to her. After their marriage women are inaccessible. They are nearly always confined to their apartments, nor can they even look out into the streets without permission from their lords. MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 897 There is, however, anotlier side. Though counting ft)r nothing in society, and nearly so in their family, they are surruuiided by a certain sort of exterior respect. They are always addressed in the formulas of the most polite language. The men always step aside in the street to allow a woman to pass, even though she be of the poorer classes. There is also a peculiar custom which exists in Seoul which exhibits deference to the comfort of the women. A bell in the castle is struck at sunset, after which male citizens are not allowed to go out of their houses even to visit their neighbors. Women, on the contrary are permitted the free- dom of the streets after this time, consequently, as they are as- sured of safety, from seeing men or being seen by them, they take their exercise and enjoy the outdoors most heartily and freely at night. Marriage in Corea is a thing with which a woman has little or nothing to do. The father of the young man communicates with the father of the girl he wishes his son to marry. This is often done without consulting the tastes or character of either, and usually through a middleman or go-between. The fathers settle the time of the wedding, and a favorable day is appointed by the astrologers. Under this aspect marriage seems an affair of small importance, but in reality it is marriage only that gives one any civil rank or influence in society. Every unmarried person is treated as a child. He may commit all sorts of foolishness with- out being held to account. His capers are not noticed, for he is not supposed to think or act seriously. Even the unmarried young men of twenty-five or thirty years of age can take no part in social reunions or speak on affairs of importance. But mar- riage is emancipation. Even if mated at twelve or thirteen years of age, the married are adults. The bride takes her place among the matrons and the young man has a right to speak among the men and to wear a hat. The badge of single or married life is the hair. Before mar- riage the young man who goes bareheaded, wears a simple tress hanging down his back. In wedlock the hair is bound up on the top of the head and is cultivated on all parts of the scalp. Young persons who insist on remaining single, or bachelors who have not yet found a wife, sometimes, however, secretly cut off their hair 898 THE WEDDING DAY. or get it (lone by fraud in order to pass for married folks and avoid being treated as children. Suuh a custom Itowever in a gross violation of nionils and etiquette. On the evening before the wedding the young lady who is to be married invites one of lier friends to change her virginal coifl'ure to that of a married woman. The bridegroomto-be, also invites one of his acquaintances to do up his huir in manly style. On the marriage dny in tho house of the groom a platform is set up and richly adorned with decorative cloths. Parents, friends, and acquaintances assemble in a crowd. The couple to be married, who may never have seen or spoken to each other, are brought in and take their i)laces on the platform face to face. There they remain for a few minutes. They salute each other with profound obeisance but utter not a word. This constitutes the ceremony of marriage. Each then retires upon either side ; the bride to the female, and the groom to the male apartments, where feast- ing and amusement after fashions in vogue in Chosen take place. The expense of a wedding is considerable and the bridegroom must be unstinting in his hospitality. Any failure in this particu- lar may subject him to unpleasant practical jokes. On her wed- ding day the young bride must preserve absolute silence both on the marriage platform and in the nuptial chamber. Etiquette re- quires this at least among the nobility. Though overwhelmed with questions and compliments, silence is her duty. She must rest mute and impassive as a statue. It is the reciprocal salutation before witnesses on the wedding dais that constitutes legitimate marriage. From that moment a husband may claim a woman as his wife. Conjugal fidelity, oblig- atory on the woman, is not required of the husband, and a wife is little more than a slave of superior rank. Among the nobles the young bridegroom spends three or four days with his bride, and then absents himself from her for a considerable time to prove that he does not esteem her too highly. To act otherwise would be considered in very bad taste and highly unfashionable. Habituated from infancy to such a yoke and regarding them- selves as of an inferior race, most women submit to their lot with exemplary resignation. Having no idea of progress or of an in- fraction of established usage they bear all things. They become JATANKSK WAKSHIl' "YOSHINO." (During the Attack on Wei-hai-wei, August ijih, 1894.) DEATH AND BURIAL. 401 devoted and obedient wives, jealous of the reputation and well- being of their husbands. The woman who is legally espoused, whether widow or slave, enters into and shares the entire social estate of her husband. Even if she be not noble by birth she becomes so by marrying a noble. It is not proper for a widow to remarry. The fashion of mourning, the proper time and place to shed tears, and express grief, according to regulations, are rigidly pre- scribed in an official treatise, or " Guide to Mourners," published by the government. The corpse must be placed in a coffin of very thick wood, and preserved during many months in a special room prepared and ornamented for this purpose. It is proper to weep only in this death chamber, but this must be done three or four times daily. Before entering it the mourner must don a special suit of mourning clothes. At the new and full moon all the relatives are invited and expected to assist in the ceremonies. These practices continue more or less even after burial, and at in- tervals during several years. Often a noble will go out to weep at the tomb, passing days and nights in this position. Among the poor, who have not the means to provide a death chamber and expensive mourning, the coffin is kept outside their houses cov- ered with mats until the time for its burial. Though cremation is known in Corea, the most usual form of disposing of the dead is by burial. Children are wrapped up in the clothes and bedding in which they die and are thus buried. As all unmarried persons are reckoned as children their shroud and burial are the same. With the married the process is more costly, and more detailed and prolonged. The selection of a proper site for their tomb is a matter of profound solicitude, time, and money ; for the geomancers must be consulted with a fee. The tombs of the poor consist only of a grave and a low mound of earth. With the richer class monuments are of stone, some- times neat or even imposing, sometimes grotesque. Mourning is of many degress and lengths, and is betokened by dress, abstinence from food and business, visits to the tomb, offer- ings, tablets, and many visible indications detailed even to ab- surdity. Pure or nearly pure white is the mourning color, as a contrast to red, the color of rrjoiciiig. When noblemen don the 402 MOURNING CUSTOMS. peaked hat which covers the face as well as the head, they are as dead to the world, not to be spoken to, molested, or even arrested, if charged with crime. This Corean mourning hat proved the helmet of salvation to Christians and explains the safety of the French missionaries who lived so long in disguise under its shel- ter, unharmed in the country where the police were evtr on their track. The Jesuits were not slow to see the wonderful protection promised for them, and availed themselves of it at once and always, both while entering the well-guarded frontier and while residing in the country. Corean architecture is in a very primitive condition. The castles, fortifications, temples, monasteries, and public buildings cannot approach the magnificence of those of Japan or China. The dwellings are tiled or thatched houses, almost invariably one story high. In the smaller towns these are not arranged in regu- lar streets but are scattered here and there. Even in the cities the streets are narrow and tortuous. In the rural parts the houses of the wealthy are surroiinded by beautiful groves, with gardens circled by hedges or fences of rushes or split bamboo. The cities show a greater display of red-tiled roofs, as only the oflBcials and nobles are allowed this honor. Shingles are not much used. The thatchings are rice or barley straw. A low wall of uncemented stone five or six feet high, surrounds the dwellings. The foun- dations are laid on stone set in the earth, and the floor of the humble is the ground itself. The people one grade above the poorest, cover the hard ground with sheets of oiled paper which serve as a carpet. For the better class a floor of wood is raised a foot or so above the earth. Bed clothes are of silk, wadded cotton, thick paper, and furs. Cushions or bags of rice-chaff form the pillows of the rich. The poor man uses a smooth log of wood or slightly raised portion of the floor to rest his head upon. In most families of the middle class, the "kang" forms the vaulted floor, bed, and stove. It is as if we should make a bedstead of bricks and put foot-stoves un- der it. The floor is bricked over or built of stone, over flues which run from the fireplace at one end of the house to the chim- ney at the other. The fire which does the cooking is thus used to wurm those sitting or sleei)ing in the room beyond. COBEAN HOMES. 403 Three rooms are the rule in an average house, and these are for cooking, eating, and sleeping. In the kitchen the most notable articles are the large earthen jars for holding rice, barley or water. Each of them is big enough to hold a man easily. The second room, containing the '^ kang," is the sleeping apartment, and the next is the best room or parlor. Little furniture is the rule. Coreans, like the Japanese, sit not cross-legged but on their heels. li COREAN BOAT. — Native Drawing. Among the well-to-do. dog skins cover the floor for a carpet, or tiger skins serve as rugs. Matting is common. The meals are served on the floor on small low tables, usually one for each guest, but sometimes one for a couple. The best table service is of porcelain and the ordinary sort of earthenware with white metal or copper utensils. The tablecloths are of fine glazed paper and resemble oiled silk. No knives or forks are used ; but instead chopsticks and what is more common than in ,"';7';'r>Tf!r^>'-;"-fl;'V;'' 404 MEALS, FOOD AND DRINK. China or Japan, spoons are used at every meal. The walls range in quality of decoration from plain mud to colored plaster and paper. Pictures are not known. The windows are square and latticed without or within, covered with tough oiled paper, and moving in grooves. The doors are of wood, paper, or plaited bamboo. Glass was till recently a nearly unknown luxury in Corea. The Corean liquor by preference is brewed or distilled from rice, millet, or barley. These alcoholic drinks are of various strength, color, and smell, ranging from beer to brandy. No trait of the Coreans has more impressed their numerous visitors than their love of all kinds of strong drink. No sooner were the ports of Corea opened to commerce than the Chinese established liquor stores, while European wines, brandies and whiskeys have entered to increase the national drunkenness. Although the Corean lives between the two great tea-producing countries of the world, he scarcely knows the taste of tea and the fragrant herb is little used on the peninsiila. The staple diet has in it much more of meat and fat than that of the Japanese, and the average Corean can eat twice as much as the Japanese. Beef, pork, fowls, venison, fish, and game are consumed without much waste and rejected material. Dog flesh is on sale among the common butchers' meat. The women cook rice beautifully, and other well-known dishes are barley, millet, beans, potato, lily-bulbs, seaweeds, acorns, radishes, turnips, mac- aroni, vermicelli, apples, pears, plums, grapes, persimmons, and various kinds of berries. All kinds of condiments are much rel- ished. One striking fault of the Coreans at the table is their voracity. In this respect there is not the least difference between the rich and poor, noble or plebeian. To eat much is an honor, and the merit of a feast consists not in the quality but in the quantity of the food served. Little talking is done while eating, for each sen- tence might lose a mouthful. Hence, since a capacious stomach is a high accomplishment, mothers use every means to develop as elastic a capacity as possible in their children from very infancy. The Coreans equal the Japanese in devouring raw fish, and un- cooked food of all kinds is swallowed without a wry face. Fish 5 H N V VORACITY OF THE COUEANS. 407 ■^ bones do not scare them. These they eat as they do the small bones of fowls. Nationally and individually the Coreans are very deficient in conveniences for the toilet. Bath tubs are rare, and except in the warmer days of summer, when the river and se^ serve for immersion, the natives are not usually found under water. The need of boap and hot water has been noticed by travelers and writers of tvery nation. The men are very proud of their beards, and honor them as a distinctive glory and mark of their sex. Women coil their glossy black tresses into mas- sive knots and fasten them with pins, or gold and silver rings. Gorea is famous as the land of big hats. Some of these head-cover- ings are so im- mense that the human head en- cased in one of them seems as but a hub in a cart wheel. In shape the eentleman's oorban eoq-sellisb. — Native Drawing. hat resembles a flowerpot inverted in the center of a round table. Two feet is a common diameter, and the top, which rises in a cone nine inches higher, is only three inches wide at the apex. The usual material is bamboo, split to the fineness of a thread and woven. The fabric is then varnished or lacquered, and be- comes perfectly weatherproof. The prevalence of cotton cloth- ing, easily soaked and rendered uncomfortable, requires the ample 20 r 408 COSTUME OF MEN AND WOMEN. protection for the back and shoulders which these umbrella like hats furnish. The wardrobe of the upper classes consists of the ceremonial and the house dress. The former as a rule is of fine silk, and the latter of coarser silk or cotton. They are of pink, blue, and other rich colors. The official robe is a long garment like a wrapper, with loose baggy sleeves. There are few tailors* shops, the women of each household making the family outfit. The under- dress of both sexes is a short jacket with tight sleeves, which for men reaches to the thighs, and for women only to the waist, and a pair of drawers reaching from waist to ankle. The females wear a petticoat over this garment, so that the Coreans say they dress like western women, and foreign-made hosiery and under- garments are in demand. Their general style of costume is that of the wrapper, stiff, wide, and inflated, with abundant starch in summer, but clinging and baggy in winter. The white dress of the Corean makes his, complexion look darker than it really is. Footgear is either of native or of Chinese make. The laborer contents himself with sandals woven from rice-straw, which usually last but a few days. Small feet do not seem to be con- sidered a beauty, and the foot binding of the Chinese is unknown in Cho-sen. Judging from a collection of the toys of Corean children, and from their many terms of affection, and words relating to games and sports, festivals and recreation, and nursery stories, the life of the little ones must be pleasant. In the capital and among the higher classes, children's toys are very handsome, ranking as real works of art. They have many games played by the little ones quite similar to those of our own babies, and they delight in pets, such as monkeys and puppies. At school the pupils study out loud and noisily, according to the method all over Asia. Besides learning the Chinese characters and the vernacular alphabet, the children master arithmetic and writing. The normal Corean is fund of his children, especially of sons, who in his eyes are worth ten times as much as daughters. Such a thing as exposure of children is little known. The first thing inculcated in a child's mind is respect for his father. All insubordination is immediately and sternly r^ CLANNISH SPIRIT. 409 pressed. Far different is it with the mother. She yields to her boy's caprices, and laughs at his faults and vices without rebuke, while the child soon learns that a mother's authority is next to nothing. Primogeniture is the rigid rule. Younger sons at the time of their marriage, or at other important periods of life receive paternal gifts, but the bulk of the property belongs to the oldest son, on whom the younger sons look as their father. He is the head of the family, and regards his father's children as his own. In all eastern Asia the bonds of family are much closer than among Caucasian people of the present time. All the kindred, even to the fifteenth or twentieth degree, whatever their social position, rich or poor, educated or illiterate, officials or beggars, form a clan or more properly one single family, all of whose members have mutual interests to sustain. The house of one is the house of the other, and each will assist to his utmost, another of the clan to get money, office, or advantage. The law recognizes this system by levying on the clan the taxes and debts which in- dividuals of it cannot pay, holding the clan responsible for the in- dividual. To this they submit without complaint or protest. In- stead of the family being a unit, as with us, it is only the frag- ment of a clan, a segment in the great circle of kindred. The Coreans are fully as clannish as the Chinese, and in this lies one great obstacle to Christianity or to any kind of individual reform. China gave her culture to Corea and Corea passed it on to Japan. If we may believe Corean tales, then the Coreans have pos- sessed letters and writing during three thousand 3'ears. It is certain that since the opening of the Christian era the light of China's philosophy has shone steadily among Corean scholars. In spite of their national system of writing, the influence of the finished philosophy and culture of China has been so great that the hopelessness of producing a copy equal to the original became at once apparent to the Corean mind. The culture of their native tongue has been neglected by Corean scholars. The consequence is that after so many centuries of national life Corea possesses no literature worthy of the name. At present Corean literary men possess a highly critical 410 EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. knowledge of Chinese. Most intelligent scholars read the classics with ease and fluency. Penmanship is an art as much prized and as widely practiced as in Japan, and reading and writing constitute education. Corea has most closely imitated her teacher, China, in the use of education. She fosters education by making scholastic ability as tested in the literary examination, the basis of appointment to office. This civil service reform was established by the now ruling dynasty early in the fifteenth century. The Corean child, neglecting his own language, liter- ature, and history, studies those of China and the philosophy of Confucius, so that his education is practically that of the young man in China. The same classics are studied and the same at- tention is paid to memory cultivation. The competitive exami- nations too are very similar to those of China, and corresponding degrees are granted. The system of literary examinations, which for two or three centuries after its establishment was vigorously maintained with impartiality, is at present in a state of decay, bribery and official favor being the causes of its decline. The special schools of languages, mathematics, medicine, art etc., are under the patronage of the government, but amount t. very little. The school of astronomy and the choice of fortunate days for state occasions is for the special service of the king. There is also a school of interpreters, charts, law, and horology. Although the Chinese language, writing and literature form the basis of education and culture in Chosen, yet the native language is distinct in structure from the Chinese, having little in common with it. The latter is monosyllabic, while the Corean is polysyllabic, as is the Japanese which the Corean closely re- sembles. No other language is so nearly affiliated to the Japanese as is the Corean. The Corean alphabet, one of the most simple and perfect in the world, consists of twenty five letters, eleven vowels and fourteen consonants. They are made with easy strokes in which straight lines, circles, and dots only are used. As in Japan, so in Corea three styles of languages prevail, and are used as follows : Pure Ciiinese without any admixture of Corean, in books and writings on science, history aud govern- ment, and in the theses of the students and literary men ; in the books composed in the Corean language the vernacular syntax ih id 3r •y le IS ih r- of 'g ,t- ti- ig 3h ly ,rt tv. te g- y- m in is B- 36 le n m O 1^^ "? ~ w >J o LANGUAGE. 418 Hftrvot as the framework, but the vocabulary is largely Chinese ; the Corean book stylo of composition which is written in the pure Coreuu language. Kvei cue in Corea speaks the vernacular and not Chinsso. The books which have been written in Corean, are chiefly primers or manuals of history, books on etiquette and ritual, and geog- raphy. There are also a few works of poetry written in the vulgar dialeot. OOREAN BAND OF MUSICIANS. — Native Drawing In passionate fondness for music the Coreans decidedly surpass all other Asiatic nations. Their knowledge is indeed primitive, however, not superior to that of their neighbors, and their instru- ments are of vw^^ workmanship and construction. The principal of these instruments are the gong, the flute, and the two-stringed guitar, combining to make a music anything but harmonious. They always sing in falsetto, like the Chinese, in a monotonous and melancholy manner. The Coreans however possess a musical 414 RELIGION. oar, and they know how to appreciate and like to listen to foreign music very much, while the Chinese have not the slighest idea of harmony, and placing our music far below their own, look down upon our art with something like a feeling of pity. The fibres of Corean superstition, and the actual religion of the people of to-day, have not radically changed during twenty centuries in spite of Buddhism. The worship of the spirits of nature and the other popular gods is still reflected in superstition and practice. The Chinese Fung Shuy, which in Corean be- comes Pung-siu, is a system of superstition concerning the direc- tion of the everyday things of life, which is nearly as powerful in Corea as in the parent country. Upon this system, and perhaps nearly equal in age with it, is the cult of ancestral worship which has existed in Chinese Asia from unrecorded time. Confucius found it in his day and made it the basis of his teachings, as it had already betn of the religious and ancient documents of which he was the editor. The porean system of ancestral worship pre- sents no feature radically different from the Chinese. Confuci- anism, or the Chinese system of ethics, holds about the same position that it does in China. Taoism seems to be little studied. In Corean mouths Buddha becomes Pul and his " way " or doctrine Pul-to or Pul- clue. The faith from India has made thorough conquest of the southern half of the peninsula, but has only partially leavened the northern portion where the grosser heathenism prevails. The palmy days of Corean Buddhism were during the era of Korai, 905 to 1392 A. D. In its development, Corean Buddhism has frequently been a potent iufluence in national affairs, and the power of the bonzes has at times been so great as to practically control the court and nullify decrees of the king. As in Japan the frequent, wars have developed the forma- tion of a clerical militia, able to garrison and defend their fortified monasteries, and even to change the fortune of war by the valor of their exploits. There are three distinct classes or grades of the bonzes or priests. The student monks devote themselves to learn- ing and to the compositio i of books and to Buddhist rituals. Then there are the mendicant and traveling bonzes who solicit alms and contributions for the erection and maintenance of the temples and monastic establishments. Finally the military BUDDHISM. 415 bonzes act as garrisons, and make, keep in order, and are trained to use weapons. Even at the present day Buddhist priests are made high officers of the government, governors of provinces, and military advisers. In the nunneries are two kinds of female de- votees, those who shave the head and those who keep their locks. The vows of the latter are less rigid. Excepting in its military phases, the type of Corean Buddhism approaches that of China rather than of Japan. The great virtue of the Coreans is their innate respect for and daily practice of the laws of human brotherhood. Mutual assist- ance and generous hospitality among themselves are distinctive national traits. In all the important events of life, such as mar- riages and funerals, each person makes it his duty to aid the family most directly interested. One will charge himself with the d'Uty of making purchases ; others with arranging the ceremonies. The poor, who can give nothing, carry messages to friends and relatives in the near .or remote villages, passing day and night on foot and giving their labors gratuitously. When fire, flood or other accident destroys the house of one of their number, neighbors make it a duty to lend a hand to rebuild. One brings stone, an- other wood, another straw. Each in addition to his gifts in mate- rial devotes two or three days' work gratuitously. A stranger coming into a village is always assisted to build a dwelling. Hos- pitality is considered as one of the most sacred duties. It would be a grave and shameful thing to refuse a portion of one's meal to any person, known or unknown, who presents himself at eating time. Even the poor laborers at the side of the roads are often seen sharing their frugal nourishment with the passer-by. The poor man making a journey does not need elaborate preparations. At night, instead of going to a hotel, he enters some house whose exterior room is open to any comer. There he is sure to find food and lodging for the night. Rice will be shared with the stranger, and at bedtime a corner of the floor mat will serve for a bed, while he may rest his head on the long log of wood against the wall, which serves as a pillow. Even should he delay his journey for a day or two, little or nothing to his discredit will be harbored by his hosts. It is evident after this glance at the history, the conditions, and 416 GENEROSITY AND HOSPITALITY. the customs of the Coreans, that they have many excellent quali- ties, which require but the leavening influence of Christianity and western civilization to make them worthy members of the family of nations. It is quite possible that the influence of the Japanese-Chinese war, in its ultimate results, may reach this de« sirable consummation. ^ % -^'f^^'^y^,^*" .-"vt { quali- ianity )f the >f the isde- The War CAUSES OF THE WAR BETWEEN JAPAN AND CHINA. Inception Must be Sought Far Back in History— Old Time Animosity Between tlie two Nations Chiefly Responsible— Formal Recognition of Corean Independence by Japan— The Riots ol 1882 and Their Result— Return of tlie Corean Embassy from a Trip Around tlie World— Advance of American Ideas and Influence— Plots of the Progressionists— The Coup d'Etat and Its Fatal Results— Flight of theConspiratorsto Japan and America— De- coying of Klni-ol(-Kiun to Shanghai— Assassination of Kim— Rebellion in Northern Corea— Aid Asked From China— China Sends Troops— Violation of Treaty with Japan— Army from Japan Arrives— Japanese in the Capital— Scheme of Reform Proposed by Japan and Re- jected by China— A Diplomatic Campaign. In its broadest sense no war between nations can be ascribed to a single cause, defined by exact limits of time and place. A cause of war always suggests the question as to what has made it such ; and so we find that for an intelligent understanding of the pres- ent war we have to go back, beyond the Corean rebellions of the early spring of 1894, and take in the whole range of the relations of China and Japan to Corea and to each other. An understand- ing of the history of the three nations is necessary to a proper understanding of the war. The first fornr "i recognition of Corean independence is found in the earliest ti oaty between Japan and Corea, that of 1876, by which the Coreans agreed to pay indemnity for an unwarranted attack which had been made upon a Japanese vessel, and to open several ports to Japanese traders. It was through this treaty that Corea was first introduced to the comity of nations. One of the professed objects of Japan during the war, has, therefore, been to establish the independence of Corea, which she has recognized in her treaties, against the Chinese claim of suzerainty. Sooner or later a war between Japan and China was inevitable. The heredi- tJiry animosities between the two nations have been aggravated by the marked differences which have arisen of late years between their civilizations; by the impatience under which Japan has struggled against an anomalous position among the powers, forced upon her by foreign treaties, while she has beheld her mediaeval rival holding precedence and predominance ; and by the jealousy (419) 420 NATURAL AND CULTIVATED ENMITY. and fanatic contempt with whicii tlie subjects of the " Son of Heaven " have watcho J the growing political aspirations of Japan, her conciliatory atUtude towards foreigners, and her apostate abandonment of the manners and customs of oriental life. For years, moreover, an excuse for a collision has bc^n develop- ing in the relations of the two states to Corea. In spite of the liberal sympathies of the Corean king himself, the ascendant force in the government has long been the Ming faction, to which family the queen belongs, which is pro-Chinese in its sympathies, foe to everything savoring of western liberal progress. Under the sway of this faction, which has monopolized the highest mag- istracies, government in Corea has been nothing more nor less than systematic plunder of the masses, for the benefit of a few privileged nobles. The admitted misgovernment of the country, which has always jeopardized the lives and property of aliens ; the suzerain claims of China; the vast commercial interests of Japan in the peninsula and her large colonies ; and finally the complicated treaty arrahgements which have grown up between Tokio and Peking with regard to the " Hermit Kingdom " — these have long constituted a source of friction, in the knowledge of which the present conflict between the mandarins and the daimios is more readily understood. It is significant that while China has never formally given up her claim to lordship over Corea, she has refused to stand by her vassal on certain occasions, and has en- couraged the latter to conduct negotiations on her own account. This was indeed the action of China in 1876, when the treaty with Japan was made, and the latter seized the opportunity to recognize the king of Corea as an independent sovereign prince. The immediate cause of the war is centered around the disputed question of the right of both parties to keep troops on Corean soil, a right which both have exercised more than once. It is the origin of this right and the complications that have arisen from it, that we must now trace with reference to the outbreak of the war. Corea for ages has been the pupil of China, whence nearly everything that makes up civilization has been borrowed. Of pa- triotism in its highest sense, of pure love of country, of willing- ness to make sacrifices for native land, there have been little in the t/1 Pi n •^ PI n o «v&iw.'^(*i^^ - v -' iiii-^^^"'' < tup: leaven of westkun influence. 423 kingdom. Such things are new thoughtsi nourished by a few far- seeing patriots. But leavening the multitude of Confucian fanat- ics and time-servers of the men in power at Peking, there are also men who have drunk at other fountains of thought, entered new worlds of knowledge, and seen the light of modern science, of Christianity, and of western civilization in other lands. The numbers of enlightened men are increasing who believe in na- tional progress, though to their demands there has ever been the defiance of vigilant conservation. Even within the two broadly defined parties, there are factional and family diiferences. Against the craft of the Ming clan the other noble families, Ni, So, Kim, Hong, and others, have been able to make headway only by adroit combination. In 1875 the two noblemen Kim-ok-Kiun and So Kwang Pom secretly left Corea and went to Japan, being the first men of rank in recent times to travel in lands beyond China. On their return they sought the king and boldly told him what they had Seen. Other noblemen followed their example, but the brother-in-law of the king, Pak Hong Hio, was the first who at risk of reputation and life openly advocated the adoption of western civilization. In 1882 Kim and So in earnest consideration of the opening of their country to modern ideas, endeavored to persuade Min Yong Ik to join them and also win over his powerful Ming relatives to a liberal policy. When this came to the ears of the Tai-wen Kun the young men were forthwith charged with intent to introduce Christianity, and the two liberals narrowly escaped being put to death by the old regent who had already shed the blood of thou- sands. The men of the Ming faction held aloof from treaty negotiations with the United States until China gave the nod. When at last Li Hung Chang advised Corea to treat with Admiral Sliufeldt, the Ming nobles obeyed and exhibited so much energy in the matter as to seem to foreigners to be the leaders of the party of progress. The old regent at once felt it his duty to overthrow both the Mings and the treaty. His opportunity came in July, 1882, the year of the treaties. When on account of the short rice crop the soldiers' rations were cut down by the father of Min Yong Ik, the artful politician directed their revolt against this pro- 424 USURPATION OF TAI-VVEN KUN. Chinese family, and after destroying, as he imagined, the queen and the leading men of the Ming clan, he seized the government itself and for a few days enjoyed full power. When the news of the usurpation reached China and Japan there were in Tien-tsin three Corean nobles, Cho Yong Ila, Kim Yun Sik, and 0-Yun Chung; and in Tokio Kim-ok-Kinn and So Kwang Pom. The former, notified by telegram from the Chinese consul at Nagasaki of the movements of the Japanese, obtained a Chinese military and naval force, and the ships of these two foreign nations met at Chemulpo. Before either the Chinese or Japanese troops were diBerabarked, the two groups of Corean noblemen had a confer- ence, and after a long and warm discussion it was agreed to submit the ques- tion vhether the Chinese; should land and proceed to Seoul, to the king himself. Accordingly Kim-ok-Kiun in disguise penetrated to the capital, but only to find the royal person in posses- sion of his old and chief enemy Tcii-wen Kun, his friends driven away, and approach to the palace im- possible. On learning the failure of Kim's mission the Chinese force at once landed, marched to Seoul, abducted the regent, built forts to com- mand the river against the Japanese, and established their camp inside the walls. This act of China gave her a new lien on Corea. The father of Min Yong Ik, Min Thai Ho, who had been supposed to have been mortally wounded, recovered and resumed office. Min Yonk Ik, who after fleeing to the mountains, shaved his head and in the disguise of a priest had fled to Japan, returned smiling THE COREAN REGENT. RETURN OF THE TRAVELERS. 42r) after temporary defeat. The queen, for whom a palace maid had suffered vicariuiia death, re-entered the capital and palace, and the star of the Mings was again in the ascendant. Two years later, in June, 1884, Min Yong Ik and So Kwang Pom, the first Coreans to go around the world, reached home fol- lowed by Kim-ok-Kiun and the Tokio students from Jiipan. After an enthusiastic reception of the returned envoys and the American officers of the Trenton in Seoul, the public opinion in favor of progress was greatly stimulated. Min Yong Ik was made vice-president of the Foreign Office and the others of tlie embassy were elevated in rank. The Chinese military instructors were dismissed by the king. A model farm sown with American seeds, and for wliich California live stock was ordered, Edison electric lights, American rifles and Gatling guns, Japanese artisans to establish potteries and other industries, gave indications of the new path of national progress upon which Corea had entered. Min Yong Ik \vhile abroad has passed for an enlightened man, susceptible to mouern ideas and in favor of opening Corea to commerce. Yet falling unde" the influence of his clan he had been homo but a few weeks when he came to open rupture with Hong Yong Sik. Resigning from the foreign office he assumed command of the palace guai'd battalion and restored Chinese drill masters, the military students from Japan being left to gain their support as subordinates in the proposed postal department. By autumn the late envoy to the United States had surrounded himself with Chinese and pro-Chinese conservatives, the progress- ive men had been hampered in their action, ?nd the revenues for the promised enterprises and industries had been diverted to war- like preparations, that looked as if Corea, as a vassal, viras to help China against France in the Tonquin complication. The situation in Seoul became alarming. A state of hostility existed between the leaders of the two political parties, one of which had at their call a rabble of rapacious militia, eager to try their new tools upon their hereditary enemies, the Japanese, while the other knew full well the sterling quality of the little body of Japanese infantry. Fifteer. hundred Chinese soldiers were still in the camp under General Yuen. In such a situation, the government being in the hands of their rivals and committed to 426 ALAKMFNf; CONDITIONS IN SEOUL. the pro-Chinese policy, the liheruls folt that their heads were likely to remain on their shoulders only so long as it pleased their enemies to bring no charge against them. In nations without representative institutions, revolutions and outbreaks must be expected when a change of policy is decided upon. Let us see how the Gorean liberals attempted, when beset and thwarted, to save their own lives and reverse the policy of the government. On October 25, one of the liberal leaders intimated to an American that " for the sake of Corea " about ten of the prominent conservatives " would have to be killed." The idea was to remove their rivals by removing the heads of the same, seize the government, inaugurate new schemes of progress, open new ports, and otherwise commit Corea to the same course as that upon which Japan had entered. They supposed that the treaty powers would condone and approve their action, make further favorable treaties, and loan money for national improvement. Further, they claimed to have had the royal sanction. The autumn passed by and the moment seemed ripe for the plot. China, pressed by France, had withdrawn half her troops from Seoul, and Japan, with a view to strengthening her influence in the peninsula, had a few days before remitted $400,000 of the indemnity exacted for the riot of 1882. The time to strike a blow for Corean independence and to break the shackles of China forever seemed to have come. On the evening of December 4, the foreign envoys and several high oflScers of the government were invited to a banquet to celebrate the inauguration of the postal service. When it was nearly over, an alarm of fire was given from the outside, accord- ing to arrangement of the conspirators, and Min Yong Ik, going out to look, was set upon by assassins, but instead of being killed as was intended, was only wounded. Thereupon the liberal leaders hastened to the palace, and assuring the king that he was in great danger, in his name sent to the Japanese minister for the Japanese legation guard. At the same time the conservative leaders were summoned, as they supposed by the king ; as fast as they stepped out of their sedan chairs at the palace gates, they were relieved of their heads. Meanwhile the Japanese infantry commanded the inner gates of the palace, and during the next TIIK LIMKIIAL INSURRECTION. 427 diiy the now tiiinisters of govennuont, tlie liberals whose names have already becunio familiar to us, itroparud edicts to be issued by the king refoiniing ancient abuses and customs, and institu- ting new and radical measures of national policy. The city was in a state of commotion, but despite the surging crowd no actual outbreak occurred. On the morning of the 6th the cry was raised *'■ death to the uapanese," and then began a wild revelry of outrage, butchery, <^ v^M^ OOREAN NATIVES VIEWING JAPANESE SOLDIERS. and incendiarism, in which the newly-trained militia were con- spicuous. The white foreigners in Seoul, nine in number, of whom three were ladies, had gathered at the American legation, which under Lieutenant Bernadon's directions was put in a state of defense. In it twenty-two Jajjanese al.«o found refuge. That afternoon the Chinese troops,' six hundred strong, com- manded by General Y uen and backed by three thousand Coreans, 21 428 DKFEAT OF THE COUP-D'ETAT. moved upon the palace to clrivi.' out the Japanese. With superb discipline and skill Captain Murakami and his little band drove off their assailants, and through the narrow streets reached the legation at 8:00 P. M. after forty-eight hours' absence. The score of soldiers left behind, aided by the hundred or so of civilians who had gathered within, had successfully defended the enclosure from the mob. Provisions being exhausted, the Japanese with admirable coolness, discipline, and success began the march to the sea on the afternoon of the next day. Despite hostile soldiery with rifles and cannon, armed men firing from roof and wall, barred city gates, and a mob following them to the Han river, they crossed with their wounded and reached Chemulpo on the morning of the 8th. There they were fed by the sailors of the men-of-war, while a Japanese steamer carried the news to Nagasaki. The short-lived liberal government came to an end after an existence of less tliau forty-eight hours. Hong Yong Sik, refus- ing to leave the king, was taken with him to the Chinese camp and there beheaded. The other conspirators fled to Japan, whence they were demanded by the Corean ministerial council, which demand was by the Japanese promptly refused. The torture and trial of twelve persons implicated in the affair was concluded January 27, 1885, and eleven were executed in the usual barbarous manner. Their bodies were chopped in pieces and the flesh and bones distributed in fragments through the streets of the city and the different provinces. The refugees ultimately reached America, except Kim-ok-Kiun who settled in Japan. Count Inouye of Japan and Kim Hong Chip of Corea on Jan- uary 9; and Inouye and Li Hung Chang, of China, on May 7 concluded conventions by which the troubles were settled. The chief points in the diplomacy were the payment of indemnity by Corea to Japan, and a joint agreement between China and Japan to withdraw their troops. Both camps were emptied on the 20th, and on the 21st of May the troops left Chemulpo for their respective countries. October 5 the Tai-wen Kun, now sixty- eight years old, but fresh as a man of forty and able as ever to be a disturbing element, returned from China and re-entered Seoul , •fwsfwr:': NEW TREATIES MADE. 429 ■ under a guard of Chinese warriors and many thousands of Coreans. The affair was in its origin an anti- Chinese uprising of radical progressives, but in its ending an anti-Japanese demonstration. About three hundred lives were lost by battle and murder. The conduct of the American minister, General Foote, during this trying occasion, was most admirable, and the legation, which sheltered all the foreigners and many Japanese, was kept open and the American flag was never lowered. Even in these troublous times a way was opened for the en- trance of western science and reformed Christianity. Dr. Henry N. Allen, a missionary physician from Ohio, was called upon to attend Min Yong Ik and the wounded Chinese soldiers. The superiority of modern methods being at once manifest, the gov- ernment became interested, and the dwelling occupied by Hong Yong Sik, who had been beheaded, was set aside as a hospital under Dr. Allen's charge. From that time forward several missionaries from American churches have entered active work iu Corea, and three American young men engaged by the Corean government as teachers have begun to devise an educational system for the kingdom. There are now native Christian churches in Seoul, a hospital, schools, orphanages, and a college. Americans were chosen as advisers and assistants of the nation. Three military oflBcers to organize her army, naval officers to inaugurate a navy, commissioners of customs, and a counsellor in the foreign office were among these. Renouncing the idea of the suzerainity of China over Corea, the king and government sent embassies to Japan, Europe, and the United States, to establish permanent legations. This movement was opposed by the Chinese, and especially by the Minister Yuen in an active, impudent, and even villainous manner. Ynen, who led the Chinese troops during the riot of December, 1884, and who escorted the Tai-wen Kun to Corea, is believed to have plotted to dethrone the king and set up another son of the old regent as a pro-Chinese partisan on the throne Expecting to make use of the Corean military, wliom he had drilled in person, lus plot was exposed by Min Yong Ik. To checkmate any design of China, to prevent the departure of the envoys, or to convert 430 AMERICAN INFLUENCE ADVANCING. her nominal authority into assertions of sovereignty or suzerainity, the Honorable Hugh N. Densmore, our minister, by the orders of the United States government, invited the embassy to take pas- sage from Chemulpo in the United States Steamship Omaha, which was done. In charge of Dr. H. N. Allen, Pak Chung Yang, a noble of the second rank, envoy extraordinary and min- ister plenipotentiary of the king of Corea, arrived in Washington and had audience of President Cleveland in January, 1888. When Kim-ok-Kiun, the leader of the insurrection of 1884, fled to Japan, ho was welcomed by the Japanese and received as a protege of the emperor. Repeated demands were made by Corea upon the mikado to surrender him, and the demands were as re- peatedly refused. In the spring of 1894 he was lured by means of a dummy draft on a non-existing bank in Cliina, to Shanghai, where on March 28, at the Japanese hotel, and in the absence of his Japanese attendant, he was foully murdered by his pretended friend. Hong Tjyong On, a tool of the Ming faction. This man had been in the employ of the Ming faction of the Corean govern- ment with the mission of the assassination entrusted to him, and if the crime was not committed by order of the king of Corea, as was popularly believed, it was surel}' by order of the queen, who hail) been strong in her influence. The murderer was arrested ; but instead of being tried by the Chinese was handed over to a Corean official, who, with the assassin and the corpse, was sent to Corea. There in spite of the protestations of foreign representatives, the body of Kim was horribly mutilated, parts of it being sent to the different provinces, while the murderer was rewarded with high official honor. This murder of a Corean by another Corean in a port under Chinese jurisdiction, though coupled with the subsequent brutal- ities at Seoul, could not be made a subject ®f diplomatic re- monstrance ; but it served in Japan to rouse the deepest public indignation and intense disgust. The Japanese governmsnt was not only outraged by the assassination of Kim, but by the con- duct of Yu, the Corean minister at Tokio. Two brothers named Ken, at the time of Kim's murder, attempted to bring the same fate upon Boku Eiko, Kim's fellow conspirator. Their plot having been discovered, they fled to Yu for protection. For I z o o w c y: O MUllDKR OF KIM-OK-KIUN. 488 v.;"V||i' three days he refused to give them up, but finally surrendered them and took a hasty and undignified departure from the country. The Japanese foreign ollice, having in vain sought an explanation of the motives of the king of Corea in connection with Kim's assassination, and of the precipitate and undiplomatic flight of the Corean representative, was glad to seize the first op- portunity which arose before long, when other events occurred which gave Japan occasion to act. For some time past the peninsular kingdom has been in a dis- turbed condition, owing to the spread of rebellious confederacies among the people. There was now quite a general uprising of Coreans, caused by their want of sympathy with the government, and focussed by their indignation at the horrible fate of Kim. In May, a formidable peasant uprising occurred in northern Corea, caused mainly by the official extortion practiced by tax-gatherers, but having in it elements of remonstrance against the assassination of Kim. The government troops were defeated May 16 at Reisan ; and on May 31 Zenshu fell into the bands of the in- surgents. Later Chung Jui was captured, and Seoul, the capital, was in a state of great commotion. Tlie discovery of a plot to blow up the government building during the annual official meet- ing of the king and liis ministers caused immense excitement. The plot was confessed by one of the conspirators, and warrants were issued for the arrest of one thousand persons implicated or suspected. In alarm the government appealed to China for assistance, and early in June an armed Chinese force numbering about two thou- sand was dispatched ,frora Chefoo to Asan, a port lying a little southwest of Seoul, where it encamped. In the treaty of Tien-tsin, both Japan and China agreed to with- draw their troops from the peninsula, neither power to send soldiers thither again, without giving to the other power pre- liminary notice of the intended action. In the present struggle, Japan has declared from the beginning that she intended to carry her action into Corea no further than the treaty of 1885 allowed, and the necessity for restoring order and stability required her to do. When these troops were sent, the stipulated notification to Japan it is declared, was delayed until after their departure. 434 ARMIES MOVE TO COREA. Actuated by distrust of Chinese motives, and loolting to the pro- tection of her commercial interests and the safety of the Japanese residents and traders in Corea, tlie authorities at Tokio quickly followed by landing a force of six thousand troops on the western coast. A strong force was soon stationed in Seoul, for the pro- tection of the Japanese legation, and the approaches to the capital were securely occupied. Then began the diplomatic campaign, Japan seizing the oppor- MR. OTORI BEFORE THE COMMISSIONERS. tunity offered to insist on a final understanding with both China and the Corean government, regarding the matters whirh had long been the source of friction, and a constant menace to tran- quility in the peninsula. On June 28 a communication pasvsed between Mr. Otori, the Japanese minister, and the Corean foreign office, regarding the tributary relations between Corea and China. To this the Corean government returned an evasive reply. July 3, Mr. Otori laid before the Corean government in a court^ousl}' I- JAPANESE MAKE DEMANDS. 435 o- se ly •n 0- al worded note, the draft of a scheme of refoims which Japan pro- posed, as a remedy for the disorders of the country, under tlie following five general heads: 1. The civil government in the capital and in the provinces to be thorougidy reformed, and the departments arranged on a new basis under proper responsible heads. 2. The resources of the country to be developed, ir' s opened, railways constructed, etc. 3. The laws of the country to be radically reformed. 4. The military establishments to be reorganized under compe- tent instructors, so as to render the country secure alike from internal disorder and external attack. 5. Education to be thoroughly reformed on modern lines. ^ Mr. Otori asked for the appointment of a commission to discuss details, and on July 10, unfolded before the three commissioners, in twenty-five proposals, the details of the contemplated reforms. They were of such a character as to weaken greatly the influence of the queen and the dominant Ming party. Personages of too great influence were to be removed ; the foreign customs estab- lishment to be abolished ; all foreign advisers to be dispensed with ; the resources of the country to be developed ; railways, telegraphs and a mint to be established ; the legal and judicial systems to be radically reformed, and a school system to be adopted, beginning with primary schools and culminating in uni- versities, with provisions for sending pupils abroad. These reforms were declared to be as essential to the true wel- fare of Corea and China, as to the interests of Japan. It being impossible, however, for the Coreans to effect them themselves, Japan proposed joint action on the part of herself and China with a view to the desired object. This proposal however, China curtly refused even to discuss, so long as any Japanese troops remained in Corea. She assured Japan that the peasant rebellion had been quieted, which was true in a sense, for the insurgents, after the landing of the Chinese regulars, had temporarily stayed their on- ward progress ; but the cause of the trouble still remained. From the moment of this deadlock we may date the unofficial beginning of the war. The formal declaration was not made until about two weeks later. , JAPANESE ARMY ON THE MARCH. i:i' I hM THE BEGINNINGS OP HOSTILITIES. Japan Decides to Reform Corea without China's Aid— Corean Palace Guards Fire on the Japanese Escort of Minister Otori— Momentous Result of the Skirmish— Announcement of Corean Independence— Tal-wen Kun as Prime Minister— The First Collision at 8cn— Sinldng of the Kow-shing— Fighting Around Asan— Defeat of the Chinese— Li Hung Chang Declares that the War Will Be Fought to the Bitter Bud— Japan's Formal Declaration of War- China's Response— The Conflict Begun. Failing to secure China's co-operation, Mr. Otori told the officials at Seoul that the government was now determined of her own accord to see the needed reforms carried out. The Corean government still showing no disposition to acquiesce in his pro- posals, the Japanese minister determined to have a personal in- terview with the king, of whose sympathy with the policy of the Ming party, there was some doubt. The minister had regarded the reply of the Corean government to his demands as insolent, and knowing that its substance h.ad been made known to the Corean officers, he felt an apprehension of violence toward him- self and the members of the legation. He therefore insisted on being accompanied by a strong escort of Japanese on tlie occasion of any furtlier visits to the palace. On the morning of July 23, attended by this escort of Japanese guards, and accompanied by the father of the king, Mr. Otori set out from the legation for the purpose of having another inter- view with the Corean monarch. As the minister with his fully armed escort approached the palace, they were fired upon by troops in the service of the Ming ministry, some of whom were stationed within the palace walls. The fire was promptly re- turned by the Japanese, and a sharp skirmish ensued which lasted twenty minutes. One Japanese cavalryman and two foot- soldiers were wounded ; while the Corean loss was seventeen killed and seventy wounded. When quiet was restored, the Jf^- anese were in possession of the palace. The result of the fight was momentous — the complete overthrow of the Ming, or pro- Chinese faction in the Corean government. (437) 438 CHANGING THE GOVKUNMKNT. On tlie same day the Korean lro the interview had ended that day the Japanese ministers saw tlie Tai-wen Kun, father of the king, and formerly regent during the latter's minority, formally installed as prime minister and instructed to introduce adminis- trative reforms such as Japan had proposed. A written pledge was signed by the king, guaranteeing that the remedying of social and political abuses shouhl begin as soon as the proper machinery could be put in operation ; the old counsellors of the king were replaced by men believed to be in sympathy with pro- gressive principles. Japan on her part made herself responsible for the execution of these pledges. The part taken by the kiag in the reforms is somewhat uncertain. One of the most eminent authorities on Corean affairs has declared that the king himself cannot be looked upon as a potent factor in the struggle ; that he is a weak, amiable, nervous man, whose only importance consists in the fact that he is a king and in the sanction that his presence, and authority, and seal may be considered to lend to the party with which he sides. He has not been on good terms with his father, and when the Japanese placed the latter in charge there was considerable uncertainty as to the results that would follow. The same day that this skirmish at the palace occurred between Corean and Japanese troops, a report was sent out which might have involved Great Britain in the eastern war. It was alleged that ill-treatment had been offered by the Japanese troops to the British consul-general at Seoul, Mr. Gardner and his wife. The assertion was that the Japanese troops forbade their passing the line of sentries which had been drawn around an encampment, and that unnecessary force had been ut.ed to accomplish this. The falsity of the charges, or the fact that they were very much overdrawn, was proved upon the first investigation, no regulations being in force except those natural and proper in such times. The situation in Corea developed very slowly. Tr e ways of the east are not as the ways of the west, and one of the most deeply-rooted and highly-prized instincts which oriental diploma- tists have inherited from a long line of their ancestors is a pro- found belief in the merits of procrastination. SENDING TROOPS TO COREA. 489 The first important collision at sea occiured in Prince Jerome gulf, about forty miles off Chemulpo, on July 26, one week be- fore the formal declaration of war. Up to the night of July 19, the highest autliorities at Tien-tsin did not anticipate war, but as a matter of watchful policy the war-office chartered the Britisli steamers Irene, Fei Ching, and Kow-shing, belonging to the Indo- Chinese Steam Navigation company, and a number of Chinese merchant steamers, for the transportation of troops. The object was to transport the second division from Taku to Asan, to rein- force the Chinese army in that Corean city. The Irene was the PROCESSION IN SEOUL. first to leave Taku, July 21, with one thousand one hundred and fifty troops, with one of the owners and his wife on board; the other two vessels were to leave on the 22nd and 23rd. The Kow-shing was an iron vessel, schooner-rigged, of one thou- sand three hundred and fifty tons, built at Barrow and belonging to the port of London. She sailed from Taku July 23, with no cargo, but with one thousand two hundred Chinese troops on board. All went well with the transport until the second morn- ing, July 25, when about nine o'clock the vessel was sighted by a Japanese man-of-war, the Naniwa Kan. The Naniwa was accom- ■J'..^.. II L I H, -- 440 ATTACK ON THE KOW-SHING. panied by two other men-of-war, one of which was the Matausima, on board of which was the Japanede admiral. The Kow -shing was ordered by signal, " Stop whore you are or take the conse- quences." She promptly anchored. Then the Naniwa steamed up and sent a boarding party to the Kow-shing. The officers in command made a strict scrutiny of the ship's papers, and after some hesitation as to his course of action, per- emptorily ordered tlie Kow-shing to follow. This caused great excitement amongst the troops, who said to the English officers of the ship, " We refuse to become prisoners and would rather die here. If you move the ship, except to return to China, we will kill you." The Japanese having returned to their own ves- sel, the European officers on the Kow-shing argued with the Chinese to convince them that it would be wiser to surrender, thus saving the life of all and the ship itself. These arguments had no effect on the Chinese, and the Kow-shing then signalled to the Naniwa to send another boat. Captain Von Hannecken explained the situation to tlie Japanese boarding officer, pointing out that there had been no declaration of war, that the Kow-shing was a British ship under the British flag, and that owing to the position taken by the Chinese it was physically impossible for the officers of the vessels to obey the Nanivva's order. He claimed that the flag should be respected, and that the ship should be escorted back to the Chinese coast. The boarding party then returned to the Naniwa, which thereupon signalled " Quit the ship as soon as possible." The Kowshing officers replied that it was impossible to quit the ship, owing to the threats of the Chinese. The Naniwa threw an answering pennant, and steamed quickly into position, broadside on, at a distance of about two hundred yards. Mr. Tamplin, the chief officer of the Kow-shing, tells a graphic story of the scene that followed. " The Chinese were greatly excited, and kept drawing theii fingers across their throats in order to show us what we might expect. The British officers, and Captain Von Hannecken, were anxiously gathered on the bridge, and the bodyguards were at the bottom of the ladder watching us like cats. Two executioners fully armed were told off to follow the captain and myself, and • 3 3 > ^ H 2. ^ 1 H ft — ' tn 3- SINKING OF THE KOW-SIIING. 443 they dogged us everywhere with drawn scepters. About one o'clock the Naniwa opened fire, first discharging a torpedo at the Kow-shing, vhich did not strike her. Tlie man-of-war then fired a broadside of five heavy guns, and continued firing both heavy and machine guns from deck and tops until the Kow-shing sank about an hour later. The Kow-shing was first struck right amid- ships, and the sound of the crashing and splintering was almost deafening. To add to the danger, the Cliinese rushed to the other side, causing the ship to heel over more than ever. As soon as the Kow-shing was struck the soldiers made a rush. I rushed from the bridge, got a life-belt, and jumped overboard forward. While in the wheel house selecting a life-belt I passed another European, but I had no time to see who it was. It was a regular sauve qui pent. Mr. Wake, our third officer, said it was no use for him to take to the water, as he could not swim, and he went down with the ship, " After jumping into the water I came foul of the chain, down which the Chinese were swarming. As I came to the surface the boiler exploded with terrific noise. I looked up and saw Captain Von Hannecken striking out vigorously. Captain Galsworthy, tlie master of the vessel, was also close by, his face perfectly black from the explosion. All of us went in the direction of the island of Shotai-ul, which was about a mile and a half to the northeast, swimming through the swarm of dead and dying Chinamen. Bullets began to strike the water on every side, and turning to see whence they came, I saw that the Chinese herding around the only part of the Kow-shing that was then out of water, were firing at us. I was slightly hit on the shoulder, and in order to protect my head covered it with the life-belt until I got clear of the sink- ing vessel. When I succeeded in doing this, and got away from the swarms of Chinamen, I swam straight for the Naniwa. I had been in the water nearly an hour when I was picked up by one of the Naniwa's boats. While in the water I passed two Chinese warriors clinging to a sheep which was swimming vigorously. As soon as I was on board the Naniwa's boat, I told the officer in v,'hich direction the captain had gone, and he said that he had already sent another boat to pick him up. By this time only the Kow-shing's masts were visible. The water was however covered 444 NAVAL BATTLES. with Chinese, and there were two lifeboats from the Kowshing crowded with soldiers. The Japanese officer informed me that he had been ordered by signal from the Naniwa to sink these boats. I remonstrated, but lie fired two volleys from the cutter, turned back, and steamed for the Naniwa. No attempt was made to rescue the Chinese. The Naniwa steamed about until eight o'clock in the evening, but did not pick up any other Europeans." The Irene, which had been the first vessel to leave Taku, her- self had a narrow escape from an attack. She sighted a war vessel at eleven o'clock on the night of July 23, but by at once putting out all her lights was enabled to escape, and reached Asan early the next morning. The Chinese cruisers Chih Yuen and Kwang Kai, and the training ship Wei Yuen were at anchor. The troops were at once disembarked, and about nine o'clock the same morning the Irene left for Chefoo, arriving at four o'clock the afternoon of the 25th. Being under orders to proceed to Chemulpo to bring back refjUgees, she sailed at noon the next day in company witli the British ship Archer. When some distance from Chefoo, the Irene was hailed by the Fei Ching, and informed that the troop ship Kow-shing had been sunk by Japanese war vessels. It was decided to take the Irene into Wei-hai-wei and confer with Admiral Ting as to the advisability of her going to Chemulpo ; he advised her return to Chefoo. The same morning, July 26, the cruiser Chih Yuen arrived at Wei-hai-wei from Asan, and reported that shortly after leaving that port, the new Japanese cruiser Yoshino fired on her and her consort, the Kwang Kai, unexpectedly, and a shell, piercing the bow turret, exploded, killing the entire crew serving one gun, and disabling the turret. As soon as the Chih Yuen got a little sea-room, her steering-gear having been disabled, she maneuvered and fought with her stern gun, one shi ' from which swept away the entire bridge of her opponent. A second shell striking the same place, the Ja})anese ceased firing and hoisted a white flag over a Chinese ensign, but Captain Hong, of the Chih Yuen, liaving his bow guns and his steering gear disabled, and other Japanese coming up, decided to make for Wei hai-wei and report to the admiral. The first lieutenant of the Chih Yuen was speaking through the tube, directing the men, when a shot struck ;TT'-5vy,:j;j^'^>(?';'1 SINKING OF TI'E KOW-SIIING JUSTIFIED. 445 , him and he fell dead. Twelve of tlie crew were killed and thirty wounded. The Japanese vessel suffering somewhat less. The Kovvshing affair caused a complete change in the attitude of the Chinese government and in the foreign mind. The viceroy, Li ITung Chang, declared in an interview that if war was once provoked, China would fight to the bitter end. Japan was at- tacked in the European press for having sent a British ship to the bottom, even though it were loaded with Chinese soldiers, inas- much as war had not been declared. The Japanese government at once instructed the minister in London to apologize to Great Britain for tiring on the Britisli fliig, which was floating over the Kow-shing, and it was talked in every quarter that a heavy in- demnity would be required from Japan. As further details be- came known, however, European and American sentiment began to shift. A British consular court of inquiry called to investigate the matter, decided that inasmuch as the two nations were virtu- ally in a state of war at the time, tliough no formal declaration had been made, the Japanese commander was justified in his action on the ground that the Kow-sliing was violating neutrality. The demand for an indemnity was practically abandoned on ac- count of a clause contained in the ship's charter to the effect that in the event of an outbreak of hostilities between China and Japan, the Kow-shing should be considered Chinese property. The case was therefore ended, so far as the action of nations out- side of China and Japan was concerned. Less than two hundred were saved, out of nearly twelve hundred souls who were on board the vessel. French, German, and Italian gunboats which were cruising near, brought to Chefoo the few Chinese survivors, and several of the European officers were saved by the Japanese. Captain Von Hannecken was rescued by a fisherman's boat, and made his way back to China. Immediately following the date of these sea battles, hard fight- ing began at and around Asan, where the body of Chinese troops was intrenched. Early on the morning of July 29 the Chinese troops, who had left their fortifications at Asan, were attacked by General Oshima, the commander of Japanese armies in Corea, at Seikwan. The Japanese gained a decisive victory. After a hard fought battle in which one hundred Chinese were killed and five 446 FIGHTING AROUND ASAN. hundred wounded, out of twenty-eiglit litiiidied troops engaged, while the Japanese lost less than one hundreu, the Chinese were forced back towards Asan, their entrenchment at Chan Hon having been captured. During the -night the Chinese evacuated Asan, abandoning large quantities of ammunition and some guns, and fled in the direction of Koshu. When the Japanese reached Asan. early in the morning of the 30th they found the trenches deserted. Many flags, four cannon, and a quantity of other munitions of war were captured, and the victorious troops took possession of the enemy's headquarters. Elated by the results of the actions which had occurred, Japan was now hurrying troops into the field. Thousands of soldiers were shipped in transports and stationed in Chemulpo, in Seoul, along the Great Northern road in Fusan, and finally around Asan, sixty miles south of Chemulpo, out of which the Chinese had just been driven. Three attempts at mediation had been made with a desire to avert war by diplomatic interference, first by Russia, then by England, f.nd lastly by England supported by all the powers, but Japan was ready and anxious to prove her prowess over her ancient enemy, and to show to western nations the strength that she had acquired ; while there were ample and stuong reasons which appeared to the Japanese worthy ones why they should wage war upon China. They asserted that the best interests of civilization and humanity demanded this action and the time had come to begin. Belligerent acts had multiplied and formal action became necessary, without further delay. August 3 was the important date which marked the formal beginning of warlike operations. The announcements to the world that an oriental war was actuall}^ to be waged, were in every way characteristic of the people and the habits of the two belligerent nations. Each one took pains to dechire its power and the age of the reigning dynasty. Japan however took its greatest pride, very evidently, in the advance of its civilization, and the introduction of western methods in diplomacy as well as elsewhere. China, on the other hand, was more verbose, and at the same time very scornful of the fighting strength of tlie ancient rival. Each of course took pains to justify her own actions and cast all the odium of the war on the other. m 'd 7"' c >„ -n X r" a ^ ^ y. V '■^ w ■^ c > cr5 y ■^ JC ^ • < n •-I W Q. (T) tl ' .TAI'AN'8 DKCLAUA'I'ION OK WAU. 44\) 0W W Jnpan's fonnnl doulumtion of wiu- npponrod in tliu "OiBoial Qttzotlo," und in subHtunoo whh iim followH: '*Wo, by tho gnioo oT houvon, ICnipomr of Jupun, Hoiitod on n thrunu ouonpiod by t.liu Hiiinu dynuHty from tiniu ininionioriul, do horoby muko piuulanuUion lo nil our loyul und bruvu NubjoolM i\h follows: Wo horuby doulurn wiira^ainHl (.'hina, and wiMtoinniand oaoli and all of our ooinpi^lcnl autllol'ili(^s, in obiMlionco to (uir wish, and with a view to tlio atlainnicnt of (lio national aim, to oarry on houtililios by Moa and land against ('liina, with all tho moans at thuir disposal, oonsistontly with tho law of nations. •* Over t wont} yoars havo now olupsod sincjo our ucoossion to tho throno. Durinjj; this tinio wo havo oonsiHtontly pursuod a polioy of poaoo, boing dooply iniprossiul with a sonso of tho nndosir- ability of boing in strainod rolations with othor nations, and havo always dirortod our ofVutials diligontly to ondoavor to pronioto frionilship with all tho troaty powors. Kortunatoly our intor- oourso with tho nations has (^ontiniUMl to inoroaso in intinwu;y. " Wo woro thoroforo unproparod for suiih a o; —1 w^ X c »^ > X c ^ CHINA DKCLAUKS SlIK HAS HKKN I'AIIJ. .ir,5 rcHpcctive govoriiinonts eslablislicd tit^atitts with thiit iiulion, Biich treaties were approved and recorded by ouraelves. For Japan to ignore this in so high handed a manner, is an ofieiiKe against the dignity and authority of Cliina, and a grave breach of the pre-existing liurmonious relations." The message comments upon the doul)tful right of any conntry to interfere with the internal administration of the affairs of the neighboring states, and adds that while friendly counsel and exhortation may sometimes be permissible, the enforcement of suggestions of reform b}' direct and strenuous coercion and armed invasion cannot be tolerated. It is impossible, the uu's sage declares, for China to submit to such ignominious treatnient, which would be equally intolerable to any of the respective governments to which the message is addressed. Reference is next made to the eftorts of the British and Russian governments through their representatives to induce Japan to withdraw her forces from Seoul, thus making possible the peaceful negotiation of Corean affairs. " This," says the circular, " was an extremely fair and just proposal, but Japan stubbornly refused to take it into considera- tion, and on the contrary strengthened her forces to such an extent that the people of Corea and resident Chinese merchants there became daily more alarmed and disturbed. China, out of consideration for the commendable efforts of the different govern- ments to effect a peaceful solution of the Corean question, rigidly abstained from any act of bloodshed, which would have led to great suffering and serious injury to commerce, and though it became necessary to send further forces for the protection of the country, we placed them at a careful distance from Seoul, studiously avoiding a collision with the Japanese troops, which would have occasioned the commencement of hostilities. Not- withstanding all this, and by a most unexpected and treacherous scheme, the Japanese on July 25, collected a number of their war vessels outside the port of Asan, and began hostilities by firing on our transports and attacking and sinking the British steamer Kow-Shing, flying the English flag. Thus, therefore, the commencement of the war on their part was beyond all justification, and China, having done her utmost hitherto to preserve the good 456 CHINA'S JUSTIFICATrON OF HER COURSE. felh)\vsliip of nations, can carry forbearance no further, but feels constrained to adopt different counsels and to take effectual measures for the management of affairs. " We anticipate," says the message in conclusion, " that the various governments of the world will hear of these extraordinary proceedings with wonder and surprise, but they will know where to lay the entire blame attaching to them. This full statement of the circumstances under which Japan has iniquitously and unlawfully commenced war, is presented to your excellency for communication to your respected government for its inspection." The two great nations of the orient were now at Avar, one with forty millions of inhabitants, the other with four hundred millions, fighting on the soil of their helpless neighbor, a nation which was to act as little more than a buffer for the shock of war from either side to strike. FROM ASAN TO PING-YANG. Preparations for War in tlie Two Nations— Activity lo Provide Psfense for Southern China— Chinese Arsenals— War Spirit Among the Japanese— Annies of China, Their Organ- ization and AUinlnistratlon— Burdens Upon Li Hunt; Chang— Manner of Campaign Followed by Chinese Armies— Seeking a Commander for the Chinese Troops in Corea— Complications witli European and American Interests— Trade Relations— Tite Chung liing Atfair- Arrest of Japanese Students in Shanghai— Efforts of American ilepresentatives to Save Their Lives— Delivered to the Cliinese by Order from Washington— Tortured to Death— Operations in Corea— Tlie Masterly Retreat fv.>iu Asan— Engagements in the North— The Lines of the Japanese Drawing Around Pin^-i^anK. As soon as the formal declaration of war was made public in the rival nations, the preparations for aggression and defense which had been in progress in China for a few weeks, and in Japan for several months, began to be multiplied with unceasing activity. The conditions which existed in the two nations were very different, and required different treatment. Immediately following the outbreak of hostilities, the viceroy at Canton, Li Han Chang, brother of Li Hung Chang, began to make great efforts to put the southern part of tlie empire in some- thing like an efficient state of defense. The first definite word of warning that reached liiin, through an official channel, v/as a cipher telegram from Peking informing him of the sinking of the Kowsliing and the other engagements on sea and land, immedi- ately prior to July 30. Li Han Chang was mainly responsible for the series of indignities which led to the resignation of tlie last British officers remaining in the Chinese naval service in 1891, so that China's defeat at sea was to a certain extent his fault. For this reason he was placed in a position to be peculiarly anxious to make a good showing now. It was incumbent upon him to send forces to Formosa, the favorite point of attack in every important war that has been waged against China, and also to guard practically the whole southern coast, of which Canton with the naval station and arsenal at Whampoa, forms the princi- pal point. In times of peace the defenses of Canton consist of the south- (467) 458 CONDITION OF CHINESE DEFENSES. era squadron, the river forts, and the Manchoo or Tartar gar- rison, supposed to number four thousand, but really of very in- definite strength. The sqadron at this time, however, was in the north, except about a dozen river gunboats, belonging to the navy and various revenue offices. The forts were in fairly satisfactory state, although insufficiently supplied for war, and the army sought recruits to increase its numbers as rapidly as possible. The investigation of the Wharapoa arsenal, however, was highly unsatisfactory as to its results. When orders were given to the various arsenals to get to work building ships and making guns, the Shanghai and Nanking stations were found in readiness, and the Foochow arsenal, the largest and only one that had ever done any shipbuilding on a serious scale, was also in reasonably good condition. But Whampoa arsenal was in a lamentable state of unfitness, and all that remained of it was its naval training col- lege, torpedo depot, and warehouse for guns and ammunition. The responsible officials whose negligence and dishonesty had resulted in this unfortunate condition, had good cause to antici- pate severe punishment. In the north of China, where the administration had been more closely under the eye of Li Hung Chang, things were in some- what better condition, although still not what they ought to be to meet a great war. The Japanese nation at the same moment presented a rare spectacle. To a man, ay, to a woman, the whole people were for war to the knife. They scarcely knew, nor did they greatly care, for what, but having been without the luxury of a serious foreign war for two hundred or three hundred years, their military and patriotic spirits were raised over the invasion of Corea and the prospective conflict with China. Never was a stronger antithesis than that between Japanese and Chinese at the beginning of this conflict. It was the perfection of order and of precision against slovenliness and carelessness ; the pitting of a trained athlete against a corpulent brewer wh.o hated fighting. China has in her history had good sold'jrs, but her system does not produce nor encourage them. Despised by the literary class, which has been in absolute control of everything, the s';ldier, having little chance of fame, and feeling himself as belonging to a degraded class, has THE JAPANESE WAR SPIRIT. 459 taken naturally to pillage. If he has hoped to succeed to honors, it has been as likely to be by corrupt interest as by meritorious service, for the Chinese have had no appreciation of military excellence. Of course an army, however numerous, composed of such uuKindly material, is but a mob, and if the Chinese had the spirit of soldiers they lacked the arms, for in a service built up on corruption it was natural to expect that the funds allotted for equipment would find other destinations. After the war broke out, immense efforts were made by Japan in mobilizing troops and transporting them across the straits to Corea. The reserve was called out, and from every house and every shop some one was drafted to serve with the colors. So perfect, however, was the machine, that all this was accomplished without the least visible disturbance to the internal business of the country, and with such secrecy that it was only through reports of trains full of troops passing at night, ar.d occasional train loads of war material, that any inkling was obtained of what was going on. The embarkation was kept equally secret, even when whole fleets of transports were engaged. One was constrained more and more to admire the organization of the Japanese, and the perfect order which everywhere pre- vailed. In a country so strictly policed, the police need never be called on to quell a disturbance, and the force itself constituted another military reserve, drilled and disciplined for any service. So complete was their network of armed watchmen, that a spar- row could hardly cross the road without its name and destination being recorded in the archives of the prefecture. Everything about every individual, whether foreign or native, was known to this intelligent government. Every foreigner's house was frequented by spies, in the guise of peddlers or servants, who reported minutely to their official employers. It was the same abroad. Japanese spies had examined every Chinese ship and fort, had measured the fighting power of every Chinese regiment. Japan knew the rottenness of Chinese naval and military adminis- tration better perhaps than the Chinese themselves. Japan was, in short, one great intelligence department, and it began to prove in a most unexpected way that " knowledge is power." Coming fresh from Japan to Tientsin, the port of Peking, 4fi0 ESPIONAGE IN JAPAN. {'■\ i whence the direction of tlie war was to b(! cm rlecl on, one would be astounded at the aspect of China. The Celestial Empire in war times contrasted so completely with its hostile neighbor that one might imagine oneself in another planet. The silent, stolid iictiou of the one country and tlie confused bustle of the otlier were the strongly evident contrasts. Coming from war minis- tries;, marine ministries, finance ministries, an executive as elabor- ate and perfect as the machinery of a gun factory, every indi- vidual knowing and doing his duty without hurry and without friction, into China where there were none of tliese things at all, one would be puzzled to conceive how any war could be carried on between these countries except one of ultinuite subjugation. China was in a sense full of troops, mostly disbanded without pay, but in such loose fashion as to enable them even to carry off the honors of war, in the shape of their rifles and accoutrements. Some of these had sought and found an honest living, but many had gone to swell the ranks of brigandage. The troops in active service belonged to the great system of sham in which Chijia revelled. The levies on paper and on pay rolls bore no direct correspondence with either the men or the arms. Neither the army nor the navy was a fighting service, but a means of living ; and while generals, colonels and captains practically absorbed the naval and military expenditure, the custom of tiie country per- mitted the ranks to be robbed and starved, while those officials grew rich. Vast as were the numbers of the fighting men of China on pa- per, they were but a very small proportion to the huge population of that empire. The old Chinese army in its three divisions of Manchoo, Mongol, and native Chinese did not exceed the nominal strength of one million, and all the efforts of military reformers have been devoted to increasing the efficiency and not the size of that force. The (ireen Flag, or Luh-ying corps, still represented the bulk of the army, furnishing o i paper a total of six hundred and fifty thousand men scattered through the nineteen provinces, ex- cluding the new province of Manchooria. It has been controlled by the local viceroys and governors who may in some Mistances have attempted to improve its eflficiency, but as a general rule the force has had little or no military value. CHOICEST TROOPS OF CHINA. 461 When tlie Tal-Ping rebellion was finally ciuslied, the Ever Vic- torious army was disbanded, and the Viceroy Li Hung Chang, took into his pay a considerable number of these disciplined and expe- rienced soldiers who had taken their part in a succession of re- markable achievements. When he was transferred to Pechili he took with him these men as a sort of personal bodyguard, and with the avowed intention of organizing an army that would bear comparison with European troops He was engaged on this task for nearly twenty-five years. At the commencement this force numbered about eighteen thousand men. In 1872 the viceroy took into his service several German officers, who devoted themselves with untiring energy to the conversion of what was not unpromis- ing material into a regular army of the liighest standard. The training of this force was carried on with the greatest i)ossible se- crecy, and no European officers except those serving with it had any opportunity of forming an opinion. But it was known at the beginning of the war that the Black Flag army, as it was called, numbered about fifty thousand men. After Li Hung Chang's army, and scarcely inferior to it in strength and importance, came the two branches of the old Tartar army, both of which were recently subjected to some military train- ing, and more or less equipped with modern weapons. These were the old Banner army, and the army of Manchoorit,, the total strength of the former beiuw some throe hundred thousand. Up to a comparatively recent tiiiie nothing had been done to make this force efficient. Many of the troops were armed with nothing but bows and arrc ,v j, and a kind of iron flail. In th; Inst fifteen jears, however, part of the Banner army, called the Peking Field force, was organized by the late Prince Chun, father of the reigning em- peror and rais-id to a fair degree of efficiency. The second Tartar force, the army of Manciiooria, contained some eighty thousand men who had received training and approximately modern weap- ons. Out of these, thirty thousand men, all armed with rifles, have made their headquarters at Mukden, the old capital of the Manchoos. The Japanese reproached the Chinere with having no commis- sariat. Neither had they telegraphs, ambulance, or hospital ser- vices. Their habit was to live on the country in which they hap- 462 ADMINISTRATION OF THE WAR. Rf ; kl \ l\ pened to be, and make it a desert. The Coreun ciiinpuign was ex- pected to form no exception to this rule, and the plains in the northwest, in the region first occupied by the Chinese after the abandonment of Asan, were early deserted by their inhabitants Yet there were exceptions to this method of procedure. The force that was sent under General Yeh to Asan to c^uell the insurrection there, treated the natives with kindness and were consequently much liked. Tiie general had funds entrusted to him, to distrib- ute among the poor i)e(iple who were suft'oring from want, and miraculous to say he did not steal the money, but spent all, and even, it is tua., anv.e of his own, in benevolence to the (\>reans. At the opeai.'ig of the war the functions of a war ministry, ma- rine ininistr;. , i. nance ministry, with their staff of experts, were in Cu':\ <^;*cl'ageil by one old n)an, without any staff, who had stood fort.— .^ y.ir ".between the living and the dead. The emperor issue*' e'J ".' .vithout providing the means of carry liig them out ; all tht rest, wi .'ther in gross or in detail, devolved on Li Hang Chang, who like another Atlas was bearing the '-/hole rotten fabric of Chinese adminisl ration on his shoulders. The supreme command of the Corean expeditions was first of- fered to Liu Ming Chuan, who defended I<'()rmosa in 1884, but that astute old soldier declined on the ostenst-ible ground of age and de- fective sight, but really because, as he said, peace would be made before he could reach Tein-tsin. The connnand was next offered to Liu Kin-tang, the real conqueror of Kashgar, for which the Gov- ernor-General Tso obtained thv. credit, lie also decli led, but was overruled by the emperor, and started from his home in the in- terior. His journey in tb.? height of the summer heat was too mucli to endure, and he liod in his boat before reaching the coast. The command was thf.i entrusted toari-'iliar, Wu Ta-eheng, who distinguished himself in closing a great breach on the Yollow River some years ago, and who has lately been governor oi Hu-nan. This promising official was therefore chos.-n to go to Corea as im- perial commissioner to command the generals, no one of whom had been in authority over another. It was natural to expect that complications would arise be- tween the belligerent nations and the European and American nations having commercial interests in the orient. Japan and TRADE COMPLICATIONS RISING. 465 China had not been lung enough acquainted with tlie rules of in- ternational comity and international war to be familiar with the exactions that would be made by the other nations which might be affected. The diplomatic representatives from tlie west lost no time in stipulating the neutrality of the more important treaty ports where foreigners were settled, and in arranging that certain branches of commerce should not be interfered with. Trade, however, was seriously affected and the price of coal doubled at one leap. China prohibited the export of rice from its own ports whence large quantities are usually shipped to Japan. Chinese lighthouses were darkened, and pilots were specifically warned not to assist Japanese vessels. Tiie term contrabvand waj found to apply to many articles the transport of which in time of peace gave employment to many steamers, mainly coal, rice, and materials for building and repair- ing ships. The British government published a declaration that rice would not be recognized as contrabrand, and the jjrices of grain and rates for freight and insurance ruled high. The wliole trade was, therefore, dislocated, for the Yang-tsze is the chief granary for the far east. The British steamer Chungking suffered an aggression from the Chinese that drew upom them a severe rebuke and punish- ment. The vessel was at anchor in the harbor of Tongku, and among its passengers were sixty Japanese, many of them women and children, who were leaving China to return to Japan for safety during the impending troubles. While the vessel lay in the harbor a large nunjber of Chinese soldiers forced their way on board with hostile intent. They began chasing the Japanese with threats of punishment, and the women and children fled to hide themselves. Many were found and were dragged from their places of concealment with violence. When they were found, their feet were tightly fastened together and their hands were tied behind their backs. They were then throwji upon the wharf, where they lay helpless, and several of tliem fainted under the severe treatment. As soon as the report of the outrage reached the superior officer commanding the district, he commanded the release of the victims, and the ship moved on to Shanghai where it arrived August 7. Viceroy Li Hung Chang tendered a most I I \ 1,1 466 THK CHUNGKING CASE. liumble apology to the British consul fur the iiggression, the sol- diers who coiiimittetl the outnigi- weio severely punished, and the offiijcrs who were responsible I'ur it were degraded and sent into the interior. The Japanese who were living in various Chinese treaty ports, enj^iigcd in business or connected with the various foreign con- cessions, took pains during the early period of the war to keep themselves an much as possible sequestered from (liinese view, to avoid giving offense to the people. Many of them had for years worn Chinese dress, and others now adopted the same cos- tume, thinking thus to lessen the danger to which they were un- doubtedly exposed. The Chinese authorities of Shanghai became convinced that the Japanese remaining there, under the protec- tion of various foreign flags, constituted so many menaces to the national security. The precaution which the Japanese took in adopting Chinese costume, was made the pretext for a demand upon tlie consuls for the arrest of all who had resorted to it, but in each instance the demand was refused. The first complication of American diplomatic interests with those of China came in this connection. On the morning of August 18, two Japanese who were walking within the limits of the French concession v'?co ponncfjd upon by Chinese guards and carried off to prison, charged with being spies in the service of the Japanese government. The accused were young men of good position and repute, and it seemed without the opportunity of spying, even if they were prepared to take I'le risk. They were placed in prison, however, pending, it was explained, the ap- pointment of a proper tribunal to try them, and it was alleged by the Chinese authorities tliitt there were found concealed about their clothes, plans of Chinese fortifications and cipher notes on Chinese movements. The following da}'^ the Japanese residing in Shanghai moved from the Chinese quarters into the American concession, where they placed themselves formally under the i)ro- tection of the United States. The two who were arrested were immediately handed over to the American consul-general at his demand, he agreeing to keep them until charges should be formu- lated and presented. After a careful examination of the merits of the case, the consul, Mr. Jernigan, and the United States min- UNDER UNITED STATES PUOTECTION. 4fi7 istor to China, Mr. Denby, becarno convinced that the charges were groundloss, and that tlieyoung men were innocent of any guilt 01" evil intent. They were mere boys, students at the schools niainliiiiicd in the American and French concessions, where tlicy had resided for nuiiiy years. The fact that they were dressed in Chinese costume proved nothing, inaf*mucli as they Iiad worn that costume for many years The charges that plans and notes had been found upon them, were also discredited by the American representatives. Americans in private life in Shanghai, as well as Europeans, both in official and private positi' united to sus- tain the position tiiken by the American reprt >itives. These rc[)rcseMLutioiis were submitted to the state de[)artmeut at Wash- ington, where Secretary Creshain gave them careful and painstak- ing review, lie lost no time in deciding that the opinions of the di[)lomatic rc[)resentativea of the United States, who were on the ground and able to make a personal investigation of the merits (if the case, were worthless, and that the allegations of the Chinese officials were those which were to be accepted in their entirety. The result was that the United States consul general at Shanghai was commanded by the state department at Wash- ington to surrender to the Chinese officials these students, without delay. Me did, however, delay sufficiently to make a strenuous protest against this action, offering further explanations why it should not be done, and in all he was sustained by the other dip- lomats in Shanghai. He declared that the surrender of these young men to China would be the signal for the torture, and that the only true wisdom and kindness would be to send them back to Japan. His protests were unavailing, and he was again in- structed to deliver them at once, only exacted from the Chinese a promise that they should have fair trial and kind treatment. To the distress of every friend of civilization in China, these two students were therefuie surrendered to the Chinese, and two days later, after a trial which would be considered a mockery among ourselves, without the semblance of judicial fairness, they were oondemned to death. The sentence was executed by means of the most shocking tortures which Chinese fiendish barbarity has been able to dovise, to the horror of all foreigners living in that dark empire. The blot thus [)laced on American state-craft as ex- V] <^ ^ /a ^P: ^ sV ^Woy> V /A IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 12.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.25 U ill 1.6 6" Photographic Sciences Corporation ^V^ '^S^ ^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^^ 468 DISMAY OF THE JAPANESE. emplified in its first test during this war, can never be eradicated from the minds of those familiar with the circumstances of the sad case. The surrender of the two Japanese to the Chinese officials, by the United States consul-general, threw the Japanese of Shanghai into a state of the greatest consternation, as they had hitherto believed themselves to be perfectly secure under the protection of the American government. Their dismay was doubled a month later, when on October 8, the two students were tortured to death, in spite of the promise which had been made to Secretary Gresham by the Chinese minister at Washington, that they should be properly treated. The pledge given by the Chinese govern- ment was that these students should be treated as prisoners of war, and tried by a competent court, after the manner of civilized countries ; and that their trial would be postponed until Colonel Denby, the United States minister, could be present. Informa- tion furnished to the American state department at Washington, its representative in China, the American minister and the Amer- ican consul-general at Shanghai, was to the effect that the young men were not spies, but were students in a commercial school established in Tokio with a branch at Shanghai, the chief object of which was to impart a knowledge of the commerce of China and Japan, and promote the trade relations between the two countries. Under date of September 1, Colonel Denby wrote to the secretary of state as follows : " To give up these boys unconditionally is generally believed to be to give them up to death. The viceroy of Nanking has, I am informed, already demanded of the taotai of Shanghai why the heads of the two spies have not been sent to him. They are judged and condemned in advance. The governor of Formosa has posted a proclamation offering prizes for Japanese heads. In a country where such a thing is possible, it is needless to inquire what chance a Japanese accused as a spy would have for his life. This case has attracted much attention in Japan. The American minister at Tokio telegraphed this legation that these men were innocent. Should any harm befall them, retaliation is inevitable. These young men have the fullest sympathy of all foreigners in lU n > H C ?0 M O :^ o > c H C". >■« TESTIMONY OF AMERICAN DIPLOMATS. 471 I i'na, and the advice of the high officials of all nationalities has >n not to give them up without conditions."' Mr. Jernigan, the United States consul-general at Shanghai, ' ifote as follows : " Had it been known to the Chinese authorities that the limits '>f my power as a protector of Japanese interests extended only to an inquiry after arrest, all the students, fifty, would have been summarily arrested, and it is believed here, as summarily dealt with as were their two fellow students. I do not hesitate to con- clude that the delay caused by the course of this consulate gen- eral in the case of the two Japanese students, prevented the arrest of as many as two hundred Japanese upon mere suspicion, and has probably saved many from being executed and others from being held for ransom." With this sort of a warning before them, the remaining Jap- anese residents in Shanghai, who numbered about seven hundred persons, consequently determined to quit the place at the earliest pos- sible moment. The Yokohama Specie bank transferred its business for the time to a French bank and closed its doors. The Japanese storekeepers sold off their stocks with all speed, and prepared to le 've in the first steamer for their native country. Let us turn now to the hostile operations in Corea involving the rival forces. In the last chapter the operations were related up to July 30, on which dite the Japanese drove the Chinese troops out of their intrenched position at Asan. Five days later, on the 4th of August, the conquerors re entered Seoul in triumph, leaving the retreating Chinese to make their way to their friends far to the northward. Barbarous as it might have been in the Chinese to have no commissariat, they had in such an encounter the advantage in marching, and were able to make a retreat so successfully as to win the admiration of those who can recognize even that sort of merit. To understand the movements of forces from this period of the war, it must be remembered that we have to do with a single Jap- anese force, landing at Chemulpo and commanding and occupying Seoul, from which center the movements were carried on. There were, however, two Chinese forces, the original garrison of Asan, a port forty miles south of Seoul, and a large force advancing by 28 472 MOVEMENTS OF THE ARMIES IN CORE A. the road which enters Corea at its northwest corner at Wi-ju. China anxious to meet and annihilate at one blow if possible her despised foe, threw the latter body of troops, drawn largely from the Mauchoo garrisons, into the Corean peninsula, where they ad- vanced about one hundred and seventy miles inside the border to the banks of the Tatong River at Ping- Yang. The Japanese were awaiting the shock a little to the north of Seoul, and such was the strength of their position that the Chinese, instead of advancing upon them, halted at the capital city of the province, Ping- Yang, assuming the defensive there and strongly fortifying it. One week after the capture of Asan and the beginning of the retreat of the Chinese, the van of the victorious army started from Seoul, marching towards Ping- Yang, one hundred and forty milen distant, whence they were destined five weeks later to be once more vic- torious in expelling the Chinese. General Yeh, with his four thousand Chinese, made, as has been said, a masterly retreat. Accompanied by many Coreans who joined his standard when he was compelled to abandon his unten- able position, he struck northeastward and after twenty-five days effected a junction with the Chinese main body at Ping- Yang, August 23. His column kept to the mountains, where travel was difficult, and it was harassed by the enemy all along the route. Nevertheless, the troops marched three hundred and fifty miles through this almost impassable country, breaking through the Japanese lines at Chong-ju, and reaching their friends at last. The Japanese army, advancing on Ping- Yang at the same time, was approaching that position by a course parallel with that of the Chinese, but to the westward of it. The opposing forces were near enough to one another that detached bodies frequently met in conflict, and the skirmishes resulting were reported by which- ever band happened to be victorious, as a brilliant victory for the army. Because of *.his condition of affairs, many battles were re- ported from one side or the other that were scarcely mentioned by the opponents, whichever force it might be, and the war spirit was thus constantly fed in China and Japan without anything of considerable importance really happening. About the middle of August the Japanese scouts pressing for- ward from Pongsan came across an advance guard of the Chinese, SKIRMISH AND BATTLE. 473 who had seized the telegraph line. A brisk skirmish ensued and the scouts fell back. A few days later the Chinese advance guard, numbering five thousand men, encountered the Japanese troops guarding the Ping- Yang passes, and drove them out. Two days later an advance was made on the Japanese skirmish lines, and FIRST SIGHT OF PING-YANO. the Japanese were again defeated, this time being turned bact as far as Chung-hwa, some twenty miles south of Ping- Yang. When the Japanese troops started from Chemulpo and Seoul to advance on Ping- Yang, a force of thirteen transports, protected by a strong convoy of war vessels, also started for Ping- Yang, carry- k.VESE ON PING-YANG. 'le intended to cu operate the 18th of August these id they immediately be- if the Tatong River in :» had proceeded some i^ousand Chinese cav- .11 to two parts. The «at havoc among the tplete disorder, and to the seashore, pur- f the fugitives. As within the shelter of jse were consequently i J ms been made, involved •anese forces and the out- of the Japanese troops, .jiftt the daily rate of progress 'jby so broken was the road by *ge of which presented great ob- of advance, the army had pushed :oul, when it was decided that a change made. The Chinese assembling in such Tng-Yang, by the union of the two armies, threat- enett liensan, on the east coast of Corea. At Gensan there was an important Japanese colony, and from there a trunk road led southward to Seoul. The destruction of the colony, a flanking movement against the Japanese army, and an irruption of Chinese troops into the Corean capital, might have been the result of not including Gensan in the Japanese program of operations. A force of ten thousand men was accordingly transported to Gensan by sea, with instructions to move westward against Ping- Yang, tim- ing its advance and attack with those of the army from Seoul, whose progress northward was suspended to allow time for the passage and disembarkation of this column, and of the column which had been sent from Chemulpo into the Ping- Yang inlet. While these land operations were going on, there were also some naval movements under way, but the latter brought no very »•« perate ' these )ly be- ver in [ some e cav- The ig the r, and J, pur- I. As ter of lently reived e out- roops, Dgress ad by at ob- ushed hange 1 such hreat- e was idled nkiiig linese »f not force an by '» tim- 3eoul, tr the tlumn 3t. i also I very J > r C t; K r c I 2 C r. CONDITIONS IN CHINA AND JAPAN. 477 definite results. A lluet of JiipiiuoHo vessels, ineluding u lew iron cliuls and some niurcliiint Hteiuiisliips tmiisfonned into ciuiisei-H, made a reconnoissance ol' Wei liai-wei and Port Aitlinr about tlio lOtli of August. A lew shots were exehangod at long range be- tween the vessels and the forts at eaeh of these places, and the fleet then withdrew. The operations were of little more import- ance than a mere ruse to draw fire and ascertain tlie [)Osition and strength of the enemy's guns. No submarine mines were ex- ploded, or torpedoes launched. At the request of the British ad- miral, Sir I^^dmuiid Fremantlo, the Japanese i)romised not to renew (lie attack upon W'eihai-wei or to bombard Chefoo without giving forty-eight hours' notice to him, so that measures might be taken to protect the lives of foreign residents. The emperor of China, talcing personal interest in affairs to greater extent than had been his custom, insisted on a full daily report of the warlike operations and plans. He studied special official reports of the naval attack, and then wanted to know why his commanders allowed the enemy's vessels to escape. All this time the Japanese fleet was patrolling the China sea, the Gulf of I'echili and the Corean Bay, trying to reach a conflict with the enemy, and to prevent the tribute of rice from going north. Tor- pedoes were placed in the entrance to Tokio Bay and Nagasaki harbor, to guard against an attack by Chinese war vessels. The war spirit in Japan lost none of its warmth. The detachments sent across the straits into Corea in August numbered nearly fifty thousand men, and early in September the total number of Japanese troops available for activity in the peninsula was nearly one hundred thousand. A war loan of $50,000,000 was desired by the government, arid so anxious were Japanese capitalists to subscribe for it that foreign subscriptions were refused and more than 180,000,000 were offered. Chinese efforts continued also in great degree, but the results were scarcely as happy. Troops to the same number could not be sent into Corea. A very long land march was required before the forces could reach the seat of war by way of Manchooria and it was useless to attempt transporting them by water, so carefully did the Japanese cruisers patrol the sea routes. Just at this time, when the lines were drawing closer and 478 COREAN.JAPANKSE TUEATY. cluHtir for H (lociHive battle, tho relations between Japun and Cti-ea were more closely defined by a formal treaty of alliance Higned at Seoul on August 26. The preamble of the treaty de- clared it to be the desire of the emiH^^^^^^^HBB^^^r«9 of (^orea to determine definite^ Corea, and to elucidate with respect to the peninsula, of three articles : " The object of the alliance is the strengthening and perpetua- tion of the independence of Corea as an autonomous state, and the promotion of the mutual interests of Corea and Japan, by compelling the Chinese forces to withdraw from Corea, and by \ < COKKAN-JATANKSK TREATY. 479 obliging China to nbatidon her chiiniH to the right to doiniiiate the affairs of Corea. ''Japan is to cany on warlike operations against China both ofTtMisive and defensive ; and the Corean government is bound to afiford every possible facility to the Japanese forces in their move- inents, and to furnish supplies of provisions to them at a fair re- muneration, so far as such supplies may be needed. "The treaty shall terminate when a treaty of peace is con- cluded by Japan with Clnna." At this very time, however, the feeling of the Corean people against the Japanese was very intense and they were everywhere welcoming the Chinese as tiieir friends. Except the strongly ^aarded positions in the provinces of Seoul and ITwanghai and j^ country around the treaty ports which were under Japanese ^lence, the peninsula was in the possession of armed Coreans Chinese. The Japanese Marquis Saionji landed at Chemulpo, Kt 28, to congratulate the Corean monarch on his declara- •f independence, and the king showed every disposition to irate with the Japanese in their efforts to introduce reforms lis country. His Majesty appointed a commissioner to visit I and thank the mikado for his promises to restore peace, and tablish a stable government in Corea. He further issued a ie introducing several reforms, including religious freedom, establishment of a diplomatic service, the abolition of slavery, moraies in the public service, the abrogation of the law hereby the whole family of a ciminal is punished, and the ^ijranting of permission to widows to marry again. Early in September the mikado established headquarters in Hiroshima with the ministers of war and marines and the general staff, deciding to direct the war operations from that city in the future. This had already been the place of assembly and em- barkation for the troops ordered to the seat of war. At the same time Field Marshal Count Yamagata left for Corea to assume sole command of the Japanese army, which had now been aug- mented till its numbers were approximately one hundred thousand. Lines were drawing about the Chinese forces nearer and nearer. The indecisive battle which they had fought with the Japanese on August 16 had availed them nothing, and all their available troops were now massed together in Hwang-ju and Sing-chuen. \ 480 CLOSING IN FOR BATTLE. As uhe three advancing colurans of Japanese diew nearer to tlie lines of the enemy, engagements multiplied and scarcely a day passed without some sort of a skirmish. The three divisions struck the Chinese simultaneously on September 6 and 6. Tlie troops from Chemulpo struck the Ciiinese center at Chung-Hwa; those from Gensan came up with their enemies at Sing-chuen, where the left flank of the Chinese was strongly intrenched ; and the detachment from the mouth of the Tatong struck the right hank of the Chinese at Hwang-ju. The results from all of these engagements were favorable to the Japanese, and the Chinese were forced back in confusion upon Ping- Yang where they united THE MIKADO REVIEWING THE ARMY. to give final battle. In the retreat, the column advancing from the Tatong again caught up with the Chinese on the 7th and an- other stubborn engagement was fought. The Chinese did not give way until they were in danger of being surrounded, when they fled in redoubled haste towards Ping- Yang. With the Chinese forces in Corea thus surrounded by the Jap- anese, after the sharp campaign ; and the Chinese fleet of war- ships in perfect fighting trim collected at Wei-hai-wei, the time was now at hand for the two important conflicts, one on land and one at sea, which resulted in mid-September in the entire victory of the Japanese. J,imia^J>-MUM~A»l l nearer to scarcely a divisions 16. The ing-Hwa; ig-chiieu, lied ; and tlie right of these Chinese !y united g from md an- id not , when e Jap- f vvar- e time id and ictory THE FIRST GREAT BATTLES OF THE WAR. Concentration of Japanese Troops toTlireiiten Ping-Yang— Plan of Attack— Poor De- fenses In the Rear of the Chinese Position— Night advance on the Kiieniy— Swift and Kffective Victory— Chinese Commander Killed— Thousands of Prisoners Taken— Rejoicings in Japan —Honors for the Dead Ciiinese Commander— Second Great Conlllct in a Week— The Naval Battle of the Yalu Klver— Another Victory for the Japanese Fleet— Many War Sliips De- stroyed—Hundreds of Sailors Drowned In Sinking Vessels— Carnage and Destruction— Ela- tion of the Japanes)^ over two Successive Victories— Depression In the Chinese Capital and Criticism of the Chinese Viceroy, LI Hung Chang. The first serious engagement between the Chinese and the Ja- panese forces in Corea resulted, as competent judges foresaw all along, in the complete victory of the latter. The great battle was fought and won. The Ciiinese were utterly routed. The strong position of Ping- Yang lying just north of the Tatong river, on the road from Seoul to the frontier at the mouth of the Yalu river, was carried by assault in the small hours of Sunday morning* September 16. The Chinese troops who held it were utterly defeated, with a loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, estimated at nearly four- fifths of their entire force- On Thursday morning, September 13, began the attacks which resulted two days later in the brilliant victory. Three columns of Japanese troops hud been centering for this attack for some weeks. The first of these came from Gensan, threatening a flank attack. The column marched from this port on the Sea of Japan almost directly west, approaching Ping- Yang by way of the mountain p;isses. The center column (481) COBEAN POLICE AGENT. / 482 QUALITIES OF JAPANESE ARMIES. came from Pongsau almost directly south of Ping Yang. The third column landed at Hwang-ju near the mouth of the Tatong river, and occupied a position to the westward of Ping- Yang on the right flank of the Chinese troops. The infantry and artillery of the Japanese were in a-higli state of efficiency. The men themselves were hardy, active, brave and intelligent. Their drill and discipline had been carefully adapted from the best European models. Their arms were of the latest and most destructive patterns that science has been able to JAPANESE KITCHEN IN CAMP. devise, and every detail in their equipment and accoutrements had been thoroughly thought out and carefully provided. The offi- ' ers who had the skill and the energy to create such a force were of course worthy to lead it. All of them had made scientific study of their profession, and some of them had spent years in close investigation of the more famous European military systems, under the guidance of distinguished strategists. But while it was generally anticipated that such an army, so led, would have an er.sy task in defeating and dispersing any force which the Chinese were likely to assemble against it at short notice in Corea, \\ PRELIMINARIES OF THE BATTLE. 488 it was by no means certain that the Japanese could force an en- gagement before the Corean winter made serious operations im- practicable. The Japanese commander showed that he had mas- tered the great secret of modern warfare. He knew how to move his troops with rapidity and with decision, and doing so he succeeded in dealing a heavy blow to China with trifling loss to himself. The position held by the Chinese was one of great natural strength. Doubtless on this account it was protected by old works, which the Chinese had supplemented by new defenses. True, however, to the extraordinary practice so often adopted by the Chinese armies, they neglected to secure their rear to any ade- quate degree. The Japanese, who had fought the Chinese before, foresaw that this would be the case, and planned their measures accordingly. Thursday the Japanese column from Pongsan, the centre, made a reconnoissance in force, drawing the fire from the Chinese fort, and ascertaining accurately the location of the defenses and the disposition of the troops. This having been accomplished, the Japanese forces fell back in good order and with very little loss, none of the other troops having entered the engagement. Friday was spent by the Japanese in taking up their final po- sition, and by that evening all the Japanese forces were in posi- tion for the combined attack, the Pongsan column facing the Chinese centre to bear the brunt, as in the preliminary fighting, and the others arranged as heretofore described. The Hwang-ju column had been re-enforced the day before by marines and blue jackets from the fleet at the mouth of the Tatong river. The battle opened Saturday morning at daybreak by a direct cannonade upon the Chinese works. This continued without cessation until the afternoon, the Chinese fighting their guns well and making good execution. At two o'clock in the afternoon a body of infantry was thrown forward, and these troons kept up a rifle fire upon the Chinese until dusk. The Japanese gained some advanced positions, but they mainly occupied the same ground as when the attack opened. Firing continued at intervals through- out the night. Neither of the flanking columns took any part in the heavy fighting during Saturday, and thus no opportunity was given to 484 B -i PRELIMINARIES OF THE BATTLE. the Chinese of measuring the real number of the forces opposed to them or of ascertaining the real plans of the enemy. Through- out the day the Chinese held their own without much loss except to their defenses, and they retired to rest with the satisfied feeling of men who have not unsuccessfully opposed a formidable adver- sary. They had a rude awakening. During the night the two flanking columns drew a cordon around the Chinese forces, and at three o'clock on Sunday morning the attack was de- livered simultaneous- ly and with admira- ble precision. The Gensan and Hwang- ju columns were the ones who devoted themselves to the rear of the Chinese position, and the en- trenched troops sud- denly found them- selves exposed to at- tacks from the force they had fought dur- ing the day and from new forces of fresh troops of unknown numbers. The Chinese lines which were so strong in front, were found comparatively weak in the rear. The unsuspicious soldiers, taken completely by surprise, fell into panic and were cut down by hundreds. They were surrounded and at every point where they sought safety in flight they met the foe. It was of course a dis- JAPANESE SOLDIER SALUTING A FIELD CEMETERY. 10m IH*P*« '} 3 opposed Through- ss except !d feeling le adver- 1 a rude During the two columns n around ( forces, 5 o'clock morning was de- taneous- admira- 1. The Hwang- i^ere the devoted o the Chinese the en- )ps sud- them- to at- le force ht dui- d from ' fresh known } found taken wn by e they a dis- n 73 r o o O > n H M 'SI O M > 73 \» BRILLIANT VICTORY FOR THE JAI'ANESE. 487 grace to the Chinese leaders to be completely outmanoeuvred and surprised, but it was no disgrace to the Chinese soldiers to flee with but slight resistance when the surprise had been accom- plished by an enemy outnumbering them nearly three to one. The greatest Manchoo general, and some of the troops disci- plined under Li Hung Chang's directions on the European system, fought stoutly, stood their ground to the last, and were cut down to a man. But their stand was use- less. The Fongsan column, swarm- ing over the damaged defenses in the front, completed the discomfiture of the Chinese. Half an hour after the night attack opened, the splendid position of Ping- Yang was in the possession of the Japanese. The Japanese victory was brilliant and complete. They captured the whole of the immense quantities of stores, provisions, arms and ammuni- tion in the camp, besides hundreds of battle flags. The Chinese loss was about two thousand seven hun- dred killed and more than fourteen thousand wounded and prisoners. Less than a fourth of the Chinese army succeeded in escaping. The Japanese loss was thirty killed and two hundred and sixty-nine wounded, Japanese ambulance officer. including eleven officers. Among the officers of the Chinese killed was General Tso-pao- kwei, Manchoorian commander-in-chief of tlie army, who fought desperately to the last and was wounded twice. In this bat- tle also. General Wei Jink-woi, and General Sei Kinlin were captured and these practically comprise the effective Chinese staff". Within ten hours of the great battles of Ping- Yang, the engineers had completed the military field telegraph between that place and Pongsan, and had messages on the wires to Seoul. The 488 EFFECTS OF THE BATTLE OF PING-YANG. number of troops engaged in the battle on the side of the Japanese was about sixty thousand, and of the Chinese about twenty thousand, which in a measure explains and justifies the result of the conquest. The news of this battle was welcomed most enthusiastically in Japan, and rejoicings were held in Tokio and the other large cities. Bells were rung and salutes fired. Field Marshal Count CHINAMAN MUTILATING REMAINS OF JAPANESE SOLDIERS. Yamagata, in command of the Japanese troops, received congrat- ulations by telegraph from the emperor of Japan. The emperor of China had occasion to take different measures. An imperial edict was promulgated in which he expressed his profound regret at the death of General Tso, who was killed while gallantly leading the Chinese troops. The emperor ordered that posthumous orders should be paid to the deceased, befitting his rank as a provincial commander of the Chinese Empire. The edict bestowed imperial favors upon the sons and family of the »■( v r CHINESE FLEET AT THE YALU RIVER. 489 late general. After he had been severely wouiuled in the shoulder by a bullet, General Tso persisted in remaining at the head of his troops, and it was while leading his men in an unsuccessful charge that he was struck by another bullet and killed. Just one day after the rout of the Chinese from their defenses at Ping- Yang, another meeting between Japanese and Chinese took place not may miles from the same point, but the second battle was on sea instead of land, and its results were not as definitive as those of the battle of Ping- Yang. There remained room for each contestant to lay claim to certain phases of the victory. But the opinion of independent and impartial authorities, naval and military, has been that in the indirect results as well as the immediate lesson, Japan was well justified in claiming the con« test to be hers. THE PINO-YUEN. Admiral Ting and his fleet were at Tien-tsin awaiting the orders of the Chinese war council which was sitting at that place. He was instructed to convoy a fleet of six transports to the Yalu river and protect them while landing troops, guns and stores at Wi-ju, from which base China intended to renew opera- tions in Corea. The transports were ready Friday, September 14, and the following vessels escorted them to sea : Chen-Yuen and Ting-Yuen, speed fourteen knots, tonnage seven thousand four hundred and thirty ; King-Yuen and Lai-Yuen, sixteen and one-half knots, two thousand eight hundred and fifty tons ; Ping- Yuen, ten and one-half knots, two thousand eight hundred and fifty tons; Chih-Yuen and Ching-Yuen, eighteen knots, two thousand three hundred tons ; Tsi-Yuen, fifteen knots, two thousand three 490 BEGINNING THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE. hundred and fifty-five tons; Chao Yung and Yung Wei, sixteen and one-half knots, one thousand throe hundred and fifty tons ; Kwang Kai and Kwang Ting, sixteen and one-half knots, one thousand and thirty tons. The first five vessels named were armored hattle ships, the first two built in 1881.2, the third and fourth in 1887, and the fifth in 1890. The seven following were cruisers with outside armor, all of them built since 1881 and some as late as 1890. There were also in the fleet six torpedo boats and two gun boats. It is evident that the fleet was of modern construction, and without going into details as to the armament it may be said that the guns were equally modern in pattern. This splendid fleet arrived off the eastern entrance to the Yalu river on the afternoon of Sunday, September 16, and remained ten miles outside while the transports were to be unloaded. There were about seven thousand troops to be disembarked, com- posing the second Chinese army corps, which consisted almost en- tirely of Hunanese. The war council had realized that it was impossible to get the necessary re-enforcements to Corea with sufficient promptitude if they were marched overland, so the risk of sending them by transports was assumed. The work of disembarking troops and discharging stores pro- ceeded rapidly until about ten o'clock Monday morning, Septem- ber 17. Very soon after that hour, the sight of a cloud of smoke upon the horizon indicated the approach of a large fleet. The enemy was at hand, and the battle was impending. Admiral Ting immediately weighed anchor and placed his ships in battle array. His position was a difficult one. If he remained near the shore, his movements were cramped. If he steamed out for sea room he ran the risk of a Japanese cruiser or torpedo boat running in amongst his transports. He chose the least of two evils and decided to remain near the shore. By noon it was possible to distinguish twelve ships in the approaching Japanese squadron. The Chinese fleet steamed in the direction of the enemv and at a distance of five miles was able to distinguish the ships according to their types. Admiral Ting signalled his ships to clear for action and then brought them into a V-shaped formation, with the flagship at the apex of the angle. The Japanese had at first approached in double line, \\ FORMATION OF TIIK LINE OF RATTLE. 491 but when Admiral Ito saw the formation adopted by his opponent he changed his fleet into single line and so went into action. The Ting- Yuen opened firing about twelve thirty P. M. at a range of five thousand seven hundred yards. The concussion of the first discharge threw every one off the bridge. As they came nearer, the Japanese appeared to form in quarter lines, to which the Chinese replied by turning two points to starboard, thus keep- ing their bows directed towards the enemy. Approaching within four thousand four hundred yards, the whole Japanese fleet seemed to turn eight points to port, thereby forming a single line ahead, and steaming across the Chinese line they turned its star- board wing. The Japanese manoeuvred swiftly throughout the battle, and the Chinese scarcely had a chance for effective firing from begin- ning to end. When the Japanese were firing at the starboard section of the Chinese squadron, the ships of the port section were practically useless, and could not fire without risk of hitting their own ships. The Japanese cruisers attacked first one sec- tion and then the other. As soon as the Chinese on the port side had brought their guns to bear and had attained the range accu- rately, the Japanese would work around and attack the starboard side. At times as many as five Japanese vessels would bring the whole weight of their armament to bear upon one Chinese ship, their consorts keeping the attention of the other vessels of that line fully engaged, while the ships of the diverging line lay look- ing on almost as useless as hulks in the water. As compared with that of the Japanese, the fire of the Chinese was very feeble and ineffective. The men fought bravely, how- ever, and there appeared to be no thought of surrendering on either side, but a constant intention to fight to the end. While the fleet was getting into its formation the Chao Yung and Yang Wei, which were slow in taking up stations, were dis- astrously exposed to the Japanese fire, and one of them in conse- quence began to burn, On the port wing the Tsi-Yuen and Kwang Kai, occupied a similar position behind the Chinese line. The Japanese steamed around by the stern at a distance of five thousand yarfls and cut off the Tsi-Yuen. The Kwang Kai, which was as yet keeping touch with the fleet, soon fell back. 24 "7 ."ITT '*"T'?^: 402 EVOLUTIONS OF THE HOSTILE FLEETS. Nothing more was seen of these two during tlie action, and they escaped unhurt. k The Chinese, unable tu keep pace with the enemy, endeavored to follow their movements by keeping bow on to them, as they cir- cled around, maintaining a heavy bombardment. The Chinese fleet that kept in the thick of the fight consisted of six ships of the Yuen class, including the ironclads. The Japanese, having completed one circle, hauled o£f to a distance of eight thousand yards, and went through an evolution with the object of 8ei)ara- ting in two divisions, the first consisting of the seven best known cruisers, and the second of five inferior ships which stood oS to some distance. The Japanese gunners were making much better practice than their enemy. Very few of the Chinese shots reached their mark, while the Japanese were constantly hitting the opposing vessels most effectively. After a time the Chinese admiral apparently became desperate. His formation was broken, and two or three of his ships advanced at full speed. The fighting became furious, but the weight uf metal told and one of his ships, the Lai-Yuen, was crippled in this venture. Then for some unknown reason the Japanese ceased firing and cleared off, while the Chinese re- tired nearer the shore. The respite was a brief one, for the Japanese returned in about fifteen minutes, renewing the battle with great vigor and upon the same effective plan. Late in the afternoon the Chinese cruiser Chih-Yuen, the cap- tain of which had several times shown a disposition to disregard the admiral's signals, deliberately steamed out of line and, although again ordered to remain in the place assigned to her, went full speed at a Japanese cruiser. The latter received a slanting blow which ripped her up below the water line and it was believed she would founder. She succeeded however, in pouring several broadsides into her enemy at close quarters, and the Chih-Yuen was so injured by her fire and by the effects of the collision that she herself sank. When the Chinese resumed their line formation, the Japanese guns were directed upon the disabled ships, particularly the Lai- Yuen. She had been riddled by shot and shell, and it was evi- dent that she was sinking The Chinese gunners worked their »• 6INKIN0 OF THE CHINESE VESSEL LAI-YUEN. 498 weaponH to the last Fiually she went down slowly, stern first. Her bows ruMe clear out of the water and she remained in this positi( n for a miiiute and a half before she disappeared in one last plunge. The Japanese had used no torpedoes upon her, but sunk her by fair shot and shell Are. It spurted all the men to additional e£fort, and the officers were naturally exultant. They regarded the sinking uf a double bottomed ship like the Lai-Yuen by gun fire alone as no mean achievment. The battle then arranged itself into two great groups, the four Chinese cruisers becoming engaged with the second division, while the ironclads attacked the first division. The fighting of the second division was irregular and difficult to follow, and ended in the Japanese disappearing in the direction of the island . of Hai-yung-tao. The first Japanese division carried on the fighting with the Chinese ironclads by circling round at a distance of four thou- sand five hundred yards. The Ping-Yuen and Chen-Yuen keep- ing together, followed the enemies' movements in a smaller circle, the whole evolution taking a spiral form. Occasionally the distance between the opposing ships was reduced to two thousand yards, and once to one thousand two hundred yards. The Japanese aimed at keeping a long distance away, so as to avail themselves of their superior speed, and make the most of their quick firing guns, in which armament they vastly excelled the Chinese. The object of the Chinese was to come into close quarters, so as to use their slow firing guns of large caliber with full effect. Other Chinese vessels endangered were the King-Yuen, which was badly injured by fire, the Chao Yung, which foundered in shallow water, and the Yang Wei, which was partially burned, and afterwards destroyed by a torpedo. • On the Japanese side, in addition to the vessel which was rammed by the Chih-Yuen, the Yoshino and the Matsusima were badly injured by fire. The former of these two, after receiving a series of volleys from two Chinese vessels, was enveloped in a cloud of white smoke which lay heavily on the water and com- pletely covered the ship. The Chinese vessels waited for the cloud to clear away ajid got their port guns ready, but before the 494 DISASTER TO JAPANESE VESSELS. 1'^ "I I ■i;.iil Yoshiiio became visible their fire was diverted by a Japanese ship of the Matsusinia type which came on the port quarter. The guns which had been hiid for the Yoshino were fired at this aew- coiner with the result that she too began to burn. In the lati;er part of the battle the Chinese ironclads ran short of common shell, and continued the action with steel shot, which proved ineffcutive. An oflScer of the Japanese navy who was on one of the vessels in the engagement, was sent to make a verbal report to the mikado, and related some interesting details of the battle. He says that the fleet consisted of eleven war ships and a steam packet, Suikio Maru, which had been fitted up with guns as a • cruiser, conveying Admiral Kabayama, the head of the naval THE YOSHINO. Command bureau, on a tour of inspection. Here is what he says about the latter boat: "It was our own turn next to suffer. The Saikio Maru had worked her deck guns to the best of her ability, but she was scarcely adapted for fighting in line against ironclads. Freciuently she was in imminent danger, the Chinese quickly perceiving that she was a weak ship. A well placed shell from tlie Ting-Yuen pierced her side, and exploding made a complete wreck of the steering gear as well as doing other damage. She was put out of action, and pointed the best course she could by means of her screws. But this was a poor make- shift, and in trying to get away, she ran to within eighty metres distance of the Ting Yuen and Chen-Yuen, both these ships hav- ing starred in pursuit of her at full speed. The two Chinese conunanders evidently thought that the Saikio Maru intended to ram them, for they sheered off and thus left lier room to escape. nese ship jr. The ihis Hew- :an short )t, which e vessels it to the ttle. He a steam ;uns as a le naval b he says to suffer. 3st of her le against 5 Chinese 11 placed iing made ing other ist course oor make- ty metres hips hav- I Chinese tended to to escape. i a«; '=>3.>^. f-^v^ 600 EACH SIDE CLAIMS THE VICTORY. best battle ships in the Chinese navy with great loss of life to the crews, and plead that the Chinese withdrew from them. The truth probably is that each fleet was so damaged and the men so exhausted with the long contest that they were mutually willing to quit. Inasmuch as casual spectators of impartial mind are not in a position to observe the details of a battle royal of this sort, it seems that the decision must be left unsettled except as the destruction of so many Chinese vessels may be certainly cred- ited as a victory for the Japanese. The withdrawal of the Chinese fleet towards Port Arthur, and its previous inactivity seem to be partially responsible for the handing over of Corea to the Japanese, giving them first the advantage of possession in the invaded country. The peculiar constitution of the Chinese navy is partially an explanation of the discipline prevailing. The navy is not prop- erly an imperial or even a national force. The four fleets are provincial squadrons jiaised, equipped, and maintained by the viceroys or governors of the maritime provinces to which they are attached. No arrangement could possi^. ly be more unsuited for the purpose of naval war, and to it may be partially attributed the previous inaction of the Chinese fleet while their numerically inferior antagonists were usiiig the sea at will. Stirred up at length, doubtless by peremptory orders from Peking, the Chinese admiral, in place of throwing his whole strength into a decisive operation, seems to hare committed himself to a subsidiary object- ive. Naval history teems with examples of the drawbacks that inevitably result from being thus led away. To have attacked the Japanese when convoying troops to Chemulpo, or to have fought a naval battle at Chemulpo or Ping- Yang inlet might have led to important results. In place of adopting such a course, the Chinese utilized their fleet for the first time in convoying troops to the mouth of the Yalu river in the north-east corner of the bay of Corea. The great difficulty experienced in advancing over- land from Manchooria doubtless sugges*^ r* this plan, but the object at best was purely secondary. Anu with the floet scattered and partially destroyed it would seem that the troops, both artillery and infantry, with their stores landed at the mouth of vr COMPQSITION OF THE JAPANESE FLEET. 501 the Yalu river, would be practically helpless, so far from support or a base of supplies. The Japanese fleet which met that of China in the battle of the Yalu river was composed as follows : The Matsusima, Itsuku- sima and the Uasidate, each of four thousand two hundred and seventy-seven tons displacement and seventeen and one-half knots ; The Takachiho and the Naniwa, each of three thousand six hundred and fifty tons, and eighteen and seven-tenths knots ; the Akitsushima, of three thousand one hundred and fifty tons, and Ghiyoda, of two thousand four hundred and fifty tons, and each nineteen knots ; the Yoshino, of four thousand one hundred and fifty tons and twenty-three knots ; the Fuso, three thousand seven hundred and eighteen tons, and the Hiyei, two thousand two hundred tons, each thirteen knots ; the Akagi six hundred and fifteen tons, and twelve knots ; beside the Saikio Maru, a steam packet fitted as a cruiser and four torpedo boats. It will be seen that in numbers the fleets were about equal. But in tonnage the Chinese fleet was superior, having several vessels larger than any of the Japanese, while on the other hand the speed of the Japanese vessels averaged very much above that of the Chinese. The armament too of the Japanese fleet was superior to that of the Chinese, being composed more largely of quickfiring guns. In type the vessels of the opposing squadrons differed con- siderably. While six of the Chinese ships had side armor, only one Japanese vessel was thus protected ; and while ten Chinese ships had protection of some form, pnly eight Japanese carried any armor. The Japanese had the advantage of their opponents in speed, but to a less extent than might be expected. The number of knots shown for each ship in the lists was of course the best pos- sible, and is equally delusive for both sides. Notwithstanding, the Japanese had so much the greater speed that they were able to steam around their opponents to some extent. There are some lessons to be drawn from this battle by those who have wondered what the result of a contest between the modern war ships would be. The Chinese made one attempt to ram, and discharged one torpedo from a ship and three from a boat. The attempt to ram resulted in desperate damage, though not in destruction to the 1502 EXTENT OF DAMAGE TO BOTH FLEETS. m ship attacked. Tlie rammer herself was afterwards sunk, it was believed by gun fire. All the torpedoes discharged were ineffec- tive. The Japanese tried to use neither the ram nor the torpedo. Beside the Chih-Yuen, the Lai- Yuen and Chao Yung were sunk by shot and the Yang Wei was run aground to avoid foundering in deep water. The Japanese flag ship Matsusiraa was so se- verely injured that Admiral Ito had to shift his flag to the Hasi- date. The Hiyei was forced out of action for a time, and the armed packet steamer Saikio Maru had to go out of action alto- gether. The mast of the Akagi was shot away, and by the fall killed the captain and two men, all of whom were on the top. Such being the variety of the ships engaged, important lessons are forthcoming from this first great modern navl battle. Many theories fondly beloved and eagerly proclaimed have had to be abandoned for their holders to fall back upon the old and well tested principles of naval war. The gun has maintained its posi- tion as a weapon to which all others are merely accessories. The best protection, as Farragut pointed out, is a powerful and well directed fire. Stupendous losses, unimaginable destruction, have been confidently predicted as a necessary result of a naval battle fought with modern weapons. This did not prove to be the case, and the damage inflicted in the five or six hours' fight- ing at the mouth of the Yalu might have occurred in the days of the '74s. Allowance must be made for the probable defects in the Chinese gunnery practice, but their seamen fought like heroes, and greater endurance than was shown on either side can never be expected. The accuracy of naval fire is always over-estimated in time of peace. The disablement of the heavy guns of the Chen- Yuen and her continued fighting with her light armament are a useful object lesson. This vessel like many others was built solely with a view to carry her four thirty-seven ton guns. The remaining armament was doubtless distributed promiscuously as space offered. Both barbettes were quickly disabled, and machin- ery gave place to man power. On board ship, as on land, it is the man who ultimately counts, even though in time of peace he is often forgotten. From this survey of the characteristics of the two fleets, it may be perceived that each fairly represented a different principle. Vt LESSONS OF THE BATTLE OF THE YALU. 603 The principle represented by the Chinese wa?* that advocated by the school which puts matter above mind, for their fleet contained the biggest ships, the less numerous but heaviest guns, and the most extensive torpedo armament. The principle of which the Japanese may be taken as the representative is that of a school which appeals to history and experience, and not to theories evolved out of the inner consciousness of people without practical knowledge of the sea, and which maintains that the human factor is both the most important and the unchanging factor in war, which must in its broader features remain much what it has always been. Whatever the claims of victory made by the opposing forces, the fact remains that Admiral Ito stayed at sea with the Japanese fleet and that the damages were repaired as fast as possible on board the ships ; while the Chinese went into port, where their repairs could be made in safety and at leisure. Japan unquestion- ably had command of the sea. The menace which operated suc- cessfully in the early stages of the war was changed for the pres- tige of a greal moral and material victory. M W > H ?3 H H n 7; > y. O IT- y. r r M ^ ■ ■ , , i i » ■ t V 'i - ' r t 1 ' , '♦ 'i ' " ' 1 •1-1/'= JAPAN'S FORWARD MOVEMENT IN COREA. ntMit of the BattlM of Ping-Yang knd the Y»hi RiTer— How the Two NfttloM Reoelved the Newi— Withdrawal of the Clilneae Fleet— Arinl«R Moving North to the Boundary— I.I Hung Chang loosing HIa Kank and Influenoe— roaslblo DeHtlnatlon of the New Japanese Army— Pi'lnae Kung— Chlnuve Driven out of Heveral I'oaltloiis In tlio North of Corea— Abandoning the I'enliiHula— Danger to Foreigners lu China— Captain Vuu Hanneoken— The Japanese Advance Into Manchoorla. The effects of the battles of Ping- Yang and the Yalu River upon the governraentB and peoples of the two belligerent nations were charaoteristio. Japan was the soene of rejoicings most hearty in every city and village of the empire. Congratulations were sent from the emperor to the commanders of the military and navul forces, and memorials cumplimentary to theui were voted by the Japanese parliament. Additional levies of troops were made and hurried into Corea, with the intention ihat the war should be prosecuted with renewed vigor. In China, on the other hand, the dazed government was scarcely able to realize what had happened. Reports were made to the emperor which caused him to declare that the defeat was merely the result of the cowardice of his commanders, and that they must be punished for the losses. The emperor at once began to contemplate a change of counsellors, and the dismissal 01 all mandarins and others who had been concerned in the conduct of the war. Li Hung Chang's position in imperial favor begun to waver. The captain of the cruiser Kwang Kai was beheaded for cowardice. At the battle of the Yalu River he saw one of the enemy's sliips appruachiitg to attack him, and immediately turned and fled with his vessel as rapidly as possible. He intended to escape to Port Arthur, but as he was endeavoring to shape a course thither which would keep him out of range of the enemy's guns, he ran uhe vessel ashore and she beciune a total wreck. The Coreans, except those under the immediate influence of the home government, were not yet willing to accept the Japanese influence for that of China, which had been so strong throughout 508 AFTER THE PING-YANG BATTLE. their lives. A body of two thousand Japanese left Fusan just be- fore the battle of Ping- Yang, to march to Seoul. Their advance was, however, opposed by the Coreans, who harassed them con- tinually by a guerilla warfare. The Japanese lost heavily, and were compelled to return to Fusan, having lost nearly half of their number. Two thousand fresh troops were immediately sent to tliat port from Japan to guard the neighboring settlements, where some three thousand Japanese permanently resided. Another uprising of the armed Tonghaks, whose rebellion had been one of the first features of the war, was apprehended. The remnant of the Chinese fleet sought refuge after the battle of the Yalu river under the protection of the Port Arthur forts, where they were soon locked up by Japanese ships which pa- trolled the neighboring waters, preventing the exit of Chinese vessels. The Chinese army defeated at Ping- Yang fled to Wi-ju, at the apex of the most northerly angle of the Bay of Corea, on the Corean side of the mouth of the Yalu River. About seven thousand Chinese troops had been landed there from the trans- ports which were escorted by the Chinese squadron engaged in the battle at the mouth of the river. The governor of jNIanchooria began to concentrate all the troops raised in that province upon Mukden and the route between that city and Wi-ju, and extensive earthworks were thrown up along the road. It was believed by the Chinese that Mukden would be the scene of the next great battle of the war. This famous Manchoo city possessed a political and dynastic importance, which might easily render its downfall decisive for the war, irrespective of all strategic considerations. It was the sacred city of the royal house, the ancestral home of the reigning family of China. It contained the tomb of many of the emperor's august ancestors, and accord- ingly was invested in the eyes of all good Chinamen with a halo of sanctity reflected on the Lord of the Dragon Throne himself. The capture of the city in which so many sons of heaven had found sepulchres would be accepted throughout the empire as an omen that the present occupant of the royal seat was not worthy of divine protection, and such omens, in days of disastrous wars, are often fulfilled with remarkable celerity. As the politicians about the court were perfectly aware of wiiat the consequences IMPORTANCE OF MUKDEN. 600 of the fall of Mukden would be, it was natural that they should tiike every precaution to prevent such a catastrophe. Further- more, in Mukden the Chinese emperor was supposed to have gold suid silver accumulated in the course of two centuries, to the amount of $1,200,000,000. Mukden is only one hundred and fifty miles from Wiju, with which place the Manchoo city was connected by a road, compara- tively good for China, as it had been the main route to Peking, and even the Chinese recognized its strategic importance by running telegraph wires along it. It is easy to see why the PRINCIPAL STREET OP MUKDEN. Chinese began to increase the fortifications of the sacred city, and why they made a stand at Wi-ju in the hope of interrupting the Jjipanese advance. The levies of troops concentrating upon Wi-ju, Mukden, and the intervening territory were hardy men from the north, of ex- cellent material to be worked into soldiers, but they were badly armed. Only about four thousand had good rifles, but further supplies were being hurried up from the southern arsenals. The Chinese force intrenched upon the Yalu River was about thirty- eiglit thousand, including the troops that had escaped from the Ping- Yang defeat to fall back upon Wi-ju. Many of the forces 610 LI HUNG CHANG LOSING POWER. a lis " which they found there were also raw levies, badly armed. The loss of field guns, rifles, and ammunition at Ping- Yang greatly embarrassed the Chinese war department. • It was recognized that a battle must be fought at the river, and it was earnestly desired to retrieve the disaster of Ping- Yang. It was immediately after the series of defeats in Corea that the effort began to be made by the enemies of Li Hung Chang to find a means for his degradation. Even two weeks before the battle of Ping- Yang, the government at Peking appointed two officers to act as censors of his proceedings, and especially of his conduct of the war. One of these officials was a notorious enemy of the viceroy. The censors at first contented themselves with taking note of Li Hung Chang's actions and movenients. Immediately after the news of the disaster at Ping-Yang reached Peking, the emperor was persuaded that the defeat of his army was due to the mismanagement of the viceroy. The intrigue was completely successful, and on the morning of September 18, an imperial edict was issued depriving Li Hung Chang of his three-eyed peacock feather, the reason assigned for the disgrace being incapacity and negligence in making preparations for the war. Much sympathy was expressed for the viceroy, who was thus made the scapegoat for the disasters. The real responsibility rested with the Tsung-li Yamen, which had been making war with an inadequate force in- efficiently organized and hampered by tradition. Li was not a member of the Grand Council, but it was sought to make him responsible for its blunders. Within a few days after the Corean engagements, another Japanese army was mobilized at Hiroshima for service in the field. The destination of this fresh expeditionary force of thirty thousand men was kept a secret, nothing being known except that another effective blow was contemplated by General Kawa- kami, the Von Moltke of Japan. The sea-going fleet of China was practically paralyzed for the time, and the Japanese were free to transport a force in any direction. The island of Hai- yung-tao, in Corea Bay, had been made a coaling station for the Japanese fleet, thus enabling the Japanese torpedo boats to keep a constant watch at the mouth of the Gulf of Pechili and secure advance warning of offensive or defensive operations. It was be- . The greatly ;ed that desired hat the to find ! battle officers onduct ' of the taking diately ng, the 3 to the pletely il edict leacock ity and npathy ipegoat 'sung-li )rce in- 3 not a ke him mother in the f thirty except Kawa- F China ;e were 9f Hai- for the to keep secure was be- I o ?3 •^ H C/5 n M H !>. t NEW JAPANESE ARMIES PREPARING. 613 'ft i J_J^ lieved that Count Yamagata favored an attack upon Niuchwang from the sea. This city in the possession of the Japanese would form a base for a movement upon Mukden or upon Peking itself, and the forces landed there could co-operate with the army advancing from Corea. A second possible destination for the TRANSPORTING CHINESE TROOPS. new force was Peking itself. It was believed that an army of that size could reach the capital by disembarking at a point on the coast about half way between Taku, the city at the mouth of the Peiho River, on which Peking is situated, and Niu-chwang. The third alternative was an expedition to Formosa. The island had hitherto remained outside the sphere of operations, and 25 614 IN THE INTEREST OF HUMANITY. Chinese troops from the southern provinces had been transported there in considerable number. This movement of forces had been interrupted only by the wreck of one steamer, and the necessary caution required to avoid a collision with Japanese cruisers, which at times patroller' that portion of the China sea. There were probably fifteen thousand men in the island, drawn in part from the Black Flags, and excellent in quality, but lacking in military training and even arms and equipment. The natural wealth of Forrtiosa was known to be considerable, and its geogra- phical position from a commercial point of view immensely im- portant, so that there were good reasons to believe this a possible destination for the forces. It is interesting to note the general order issued by the Japanese minister of war September 22, to the troops which were about to take the field, and to the others which were already in active service. It went far to prove to the civilized world, whose eyes were upon the operations of the war, that it was the desire of the Japanese authorities to conduct their hostilities with as much consideration for the humanities as is ever possible in war. The order was as follows : " Belligerent operations being properly confined to the military and naval forces actually engaged, and there being no reason whatever for enmity between individuals because their countries are at war, the common principles of humanitj^ dictate that succor and rescue should be extended, even to those of the enemy's forces who are disabled either by wounds or disease. In obedience to these principles, civilized nations in time of peace enter into conventions to mutually assist disabled persons in time of war, without distinction of friend or foe. This human union is called the Geneva convention, or more commonly the Red Cross associa- tion. Japan became a party to it in June, 1886, and her soldiers have already been instructed that they are bound to treat with kindness and helpfulness such of their enemies as may be disabled by wounds or disease. China not having joined any such conven- tion, it is possible that her soldiers, ignorant of these enlightened principles, may subject diseased or wounded Japanese to merciless treatment. Against such contingencies, the Japanese troops must be on their guard. But at the same time they must never forget » 1 IN THE INTEREST OF HUMANITY. 615 that however cruel and vindictive the foe may show himself, he must nevertheless be treated in accordance with the acknowledged rules of civilization, his disabled succored, his captured kindly and considerately protected. It is not alone to those disabled by wounds or sickness that merciful and gentle treatment should be extended. Similar treatment is also due to those who offer no resistance to our arms; even the body of a dead enemy should be treated with respect. We cannot too much admire the course pursued by a certain western nation which in handing over the body of an enemy's general, complied with all the rites and cere- JAPANESE MILITARY HOSPITAL. monies suitable to the rank of the dead man. Japanese soldiers should always bear in mind the gracious benevolence of their august sovereign, and should not be more anxious to display courage than to exercise charity. They have now an opportunity to afford practical pi'oof of the value they attach to these princi- ples." At the very time that these actions were occurring in Japan, measures of increased severity were being taken in China to punish those who were supposed to be responsible for the defeat. The emperor and his counsellors were in a state of iilternate terror ^1 m m m Mil j ■ ( !* 1 1 1 1 i i 1 616 MORP] ATTACKS ON THE VICEROY'S ABILITY. and indignation, at the break down of the war arrangements and the possibility of a Japanese invasion. The emperor declared that the recent defeats could only have been caused by incompetence, or corruption, or both, among those charged with the conduct of the war, and the enemies of Li Hung Chang sedulously encouraged this mood. The viceroy himself remained to all appearances en- tirely unmoved. He made no preparation to proceed to the head- quarters of the army in the field as it had been reported he would do, and it was believed that he would not leave Tientsin as long as his enemy had the ear of the emperor. As Chinese fortunes went down, and admirals and generals and princes lost their high standing in the good graces of the emperor, other officials rose in favor to take their place. The personality of some of these men is peculiarly interesting because of the inti- mate connection and high authority they had from this time in the conduct of the war. On the 30th of September an imperial decree was issued, ap- pointing Prince Kung, the emperor's uncle, and the presidents of the Tsung-li Yamen and the Admiralty, as a special committee to conduct the war operations in co-operation with Li Hung Chang. Prince Kung, whose proper title was Kung tsin-wang, or the Reverend Kindred Prince, whom the emperor of China brought back to honor from retirement and disgrace by appointing him CO director with Li Hung Chang of the war arrangements, was a man who in the past had played a very important part in the liistory of China. At the outbreak of the war he was some sixty- three years of age, having been born about 1831. He was a man of great vigor and determination of character, and was pos- sessed of abilities of a very high order. Prince Kung was the sixth son of Emperor Tankwang, who died in 1850. His personal name, which was used only by his family, was Yih-hu, while the people called him Wu-ako, or the Fifth Elder Brother. Prince Kung came to the front first in 1860, when Emperor Hien Feng the son of Tankwang fled from Peking, on the advance of the allied armies of Great Britain and France. At this critical moment the former returned to the capital, assumed the reins of government, and entered into negotiatiorjs with the allies. Having accepted their ultimatum, he surrendered the northeast VI 1' t ii [I t o "15 o p) H o o "3 > H o H > 73 H SAVma THE MANCIIOO DYNASTY. 619 gate, whiuh commauded the city, on October 18, and eleven days later the treaty of Pekinp was signtid by him and Lord Elgin. The following year Emperor Hien Feng died, leaving a son an heir, whose age was only five years. Four of Prince Kung's elder brothers were already dead, and the fifth had lost his position in Emperor Tankwang's household by being adopted into the family of another emperor. There was thus no one to claim precedence of him as the first prince of blood royal, during the minority of Tungchi, the new emperor. A conspiracy had, however, been formed against him, with which he found it necessary to grapple immediately. The late emperor had left the administration of affairs practically in the hands of a council of eight, of whom Prince I was at the head. This council had decided upon a plan of action for seizing the reins of power. They proposed to ob- tain possession of the emperor's persoi., to put the empress-regents out of the way, and to kill Prince Kung and his two surviving brothers. Prince Kung, however, was not to be found napping. Having received news of the plot, he at once took measures to prevent its successful accomplishment, by carrying off the young emperor to Peking. The conspirators were then arrested and brought to trial. The Princes I and Chin, being of the blood royal, were permitted to take the " happy dispatch." The rest of the conspirators vce either beheaded or banished. Thus did Prince Kung save from destruction the reigning dynasty of China. For h"3 great services he was at once proclaimed " Regent Prince," and in conjunction with the two empress-regents assumed the government of China. He immediately adopted a vigorous policy in dealing with the Tai-Ping rebels, which was crowned with success. After Colonel Gordon's capture of Snchow, at the head of his ever victorious array, Prince Kung bestowed upon him a medal and ten thousand taels, which were refused. Prince Kung also successfully put down the Mohammedan rising in Yun-nan and Kan-pu, and opened up diplomatic intercourse with European powers. Prince Kung's determination not to accept the gun- boats purchased in 1861 nearly led to serious results, and cost England 15,000,000. This crucial period was followed by another in 1870 when the Tien-tsin massacre occurred. In all these events 620 RETREAT OF THE CHINESE. Prince Kung Hhowed thiit he possessed the gifts of a great states- mail. When Kmperor Tung-chi died childhiss in 1876, the clioice of a successor to the dragon throne lay bc:ween Tsai-cliing, the son of Prince Kung, and Tsai tien, the son of Prince Chun, hi.s younger brother. As the election of the former would have com- pelled the retirement of Prince Kung from active participation in the government of China, and as a continuance of his services was a matter of absolute necessity for his country, Tsai-ching was passed over in favor of Tsai-tien, a child of only four years of age, who adopted the name of Kwang-Su, or illustrious successor. Prince Kung, however, continued to act as regent of the country. The present emperor assumed the reigns of power in 1887, and subsequently he dismissed with disgrace the man whom he was afterwards pleased to honor, and who had rendered to China and the reigning dynasty such services as ought never to be for- gotten. When the Chinese fled from Ping- Yang towards Wi-ju they left behind them nearly a million dollars in treasure, thirty-six guns, two thousand tents, one thousand three hundred horses, and a considerable quantity of rice and other stores. Hard pressed by the pursuing Japanese, they abandoned their remaining four guns at An-ju, a town some seventy-five miles north of Ping- Yang. Thirty miles farther on, at Chong-ju, an important provincial town, they made a temporary halt, having received orders to hold the place pending the arrival of large reinforcements from the north. But the pursuit was too hot, and Chong-ju was evacuated without fighting. The next stand attempted to be made was at Ngan, where the troops were reinforced by orders from Shin- King, the province in which Mukden is situated. For a few days it was prophesied that the decisive battle of the war would be fought there, but the Chinese again abandoned their position and fell back upon Kaichan. The Japanese army, while pushing forward towards Manchooria, showed the greatest consideration in their dealings with the Coreans, and any attempt at robbery or outrage on the part of the soldiery was most severely punished. The private soldiers were under the strictest orders to pay cash for everything that they obtained from the natives, and pains were taken to see that It RETREAT OF THE CHINESE. 521 they should carry out tlieir instruotions. The result was that the Coreans began to appreciate that the Japanese were better friends to them than were the Chinese. The latter liad been very severe in their exactions of supplies from the populace, and even though JAPANESE SOLDIERS DiaOINQ A WELL. the Corean sympathies had been with the Chinese, the common people objected to the expense of quartering the army without recompense. On the 4th of October the main portion of the advance 522 JAPANESE MASTERS OF COREA. K ! Japanese column reached Yong-chon, a little to the south of Wi- ju, after the difficult march from Ping-Yang, retarded by an ex- tensive commissariat department and many guns. No sign of the enemy was reported at this place. Four days later, scouts re- ported that a small Chinese force still occupied Wi-ju, and a de- tachment of Japanese infantry and cavalry was thrown forward, supported by light artillery, to dislodge them. The Chinese of- fered but a slight resistance and fled precipitately before the smart attack, finally succeeding in getting across the Yalu. The larger body of Chinese troops had withdrawn across the river be- fore this time, so that the forces remaining in Corea numbered not more than two thousand. Their loss in killed and wounded probably did not exceed one hundred. Wi-ju was occupied by the Japanese on the same day, and on the day after they began a reconnoissance which revealed the fact that the Chinese were still in force in the northern bank of the river. Eight intrenched batteries were discovered, and the enemy were rapidly throwing up fresh earthworks and building new batteries. Obviously the next fight was to be expected at this place, and if the Chinese held their grounds it would be a sanguinary one. Marshal Yamagata still maintained his base at Ping- Yang, as being more convenient for securing his supplies by sea, while General Nodzu remained in advance with the forces. The Jap- anese line of communication was now complete throughout Corea, a sufficient number of troops being scattered through the peninsula at Fusan, Asan, Chemulpo, Seoul, Gensan, and Ping- Yang to guard against any hostilities on the part of the natives, and to make reinforcement by land safe. The government of Wi-ju was placed in the hands of a Japanese officer acting as special commissioner. The field telegraph was established in working order within two days after the capture of the place, and a regular courier service to the rear was inaugurated at once. At the same time two or three detached revolts were in prog- ress, the most important one being that of the Togakuto rebels in the province of Kiung sang. These rebels were still in arms and in the mountain fastnesses it was hard to get near them. They had with them fifty Chinese soldiers who escaped when the Chinese were defeated at Asan and then joined the rebels. Those ON THE BANKS OF THE YALU. 523 who had taken up arms against the corrupt Corean officials in the Province of Chung chong had been dispersed, however, and tlie more formidable ones were now being gradually hemmed in. When the middle of October came, the two armies were still facing each other on the banks of the Yalu. The Chinese had not yet fired a shot but kept at work night and day improving the natural advantages of their position. On the Japanese side there was no desire unduly to hurry the fighting, Marshal Yania- gata choosing to wait for his heavier artillery and supplies before attacking. Spies kept him admirably informed as lo the move- ments of the enemy, their defenses, and their artillery. They estimated the total strength of the Chinese massed along the north bank of the Yalu as between twenty-five and thirty thou- sand. While the two armies are thus facing one another across the Yalu River, the Chinese havnig been dx'iven from their last foot- hold in Corea, let us turn to the condition of affairs in the capitals of the two nations. The enemies of Li Hung Chang in Peking were busy in their efforts to cast disgrace upon him. Sheng, the taotai or chief magistrate of Tien-tsin, fell into disgrace and it was immediately alleged that he was a nephew of Li Hung Chang's and that the latter was probably a sharer in the results of his dishonesty. Just before the wdv broke out Sheng was commissicned to purchase arms and ammunition for the imperial troops, to be distributed to them as they arrived from the inter- ior on the way to Corea. Rifles and cartridges were duly pur- chased, and nearly all were served out to the troops. As soon as they were put to the test of actual service they were found to be almost worthless, and strong complaints were sent to Peking and Tien-tsin. Li Hung Chang himself conducted an inquiry, and learned therefrom that Sheng bought from (Jerman agents tliree hundred thousand rifles of obsolete pattern, part of the discarded weapons, in fact, of more than one European army. The con- tract price of these rifles as between Sheng and the German sellers was two taels each, but the price charged by Sheng to the imperial treasury was nine taels each. The cartridges were of very inferior quality and of various pattern, and Sheng made a large profit on them also. A.fter Sheng's guilt was proven upon 524 EXIT OP FOREIGNKRS. him by the viceroy, he retired to his pahice and for a time was seen no more in pui)lic. It was stated semi-officially that he ap- plied for and was granted leave of absence on the ground of ill health. But a few days later it was reported that he was again enjoying the authority of his office, having been sustained against Li's wishes by some' of the viceroy's enemies. Li's enemies be- came bolder and bolder. Placards denouncing him as the cause of China's troubles were posted on the walls of Tien-tsin and children in the streets sang doggerel songs ridiculing and insult- ing the great viceroy. The foreigners resident in Peking and Tien-tsin became very restless under the impending invasion of China by the Japanese. Assaults on foreigners in Peking and its environs, which have been of constant occurrence during the last ten years, increased in frequency and gravity. Several English and American fami- lies withdrew to Shanghai because of the prevalence of street rowdyism. Tientsin was full of troops from the interior, but nearly all of them were the merest rabble, wretchedly clad, muti- nous through lack of pay and insufficient rations, and useless for real war because of their antiquated weapons. Their continued presence in Tien-tsin was a distinct danger alike to Chinese and Europeans. An imperial edict published in Peking assumed full responsibility for the protection of foreign residents, denounced rowdyism, and ordered the punishment of certain culprits who had assaulted travelers. It assured the strangers the protection of their persons and their property, and was especially favorable to missionaries. The whole tone of the edict was considered highly satisfactory, and yet the government had failed to punish those who were responsible for the assaults and had taken no cogni- zance of the murder of a missionary, except to permit the governor of the province where the crime was committed to retain his high position. A rebellion broke out in the district of Jeho, in the province of Cliihli early in October, consequent on the rumored invasion of the Japanese. The imperial summer residence was in this city. Another Chinese rebellion broke out in the province of Hoopih about one hundred miles from Hankow. Tije local authorities attempted to quell the first rising but failed. Some of their sol- -c- — , REBELLIONS IN CHINA. 626 was diers were killed and others joined the rebels. Two mandarins lost their lives. In consequence of the urgent demands of the im- perial authorities the province had been quite denuded of troops and there was practically no means at the command of the author- ities to keep them in check. The Europeans at Hankow were seriously alarmed and many of them withdrew to Shanghai. The eniperor of China, early in October, began to take the initi- ative, attempting to infuse new energy into the national defense. It was indeed reported that he had disguised himself, and in per- son visited Tien-tsin, accompanied only by a few trusted servants, in order to see for himself what was going on, and particularly to learn the truth as to the alleged incapacity of Li Hung Chang to carry on the arrangements for the war. It was not, however, the emperor who made the journey in disguise, but his former tutor and trusted adviser Weng Toung Ho, the President of the Board of Revenue, or Finance Department. He also went to Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei, and other places, and thoroughly informed himself of the state of affairs, civil, naval, and military. On re- turning to Peking he made an exhaustive report to the emperor, upon which the latter immediately began to take more interest in public affairs. He declined to sign documents until they had been previously read and explained to him, and called for special re- ports from the naval and military commanders. His next act was to summon to Peking the viceroys and governors of provinces, to receive from them accounts of the steps taken to comply with the demands of the imperial government, and to obtain from them their views as to the state of affairs. It was believed however by foreigners most able to judge that throughout all these actions the dowager empress of China was the active power in control. It was also believed that she was really a friend to Li Hung Chang, and that he would not suffer ultimate destruction unless she turned against him. Another important action taken by the emperor was to confer the highest grade of the Order of the Double Dragon upon Captain Von Hannecken for his services at the naval battle of the Yalu River and to place him under practically sole control of the naval forces of China. Constantino von Hannecken, the German officer who was put I 526 CONSTANTINE VON HANNECKEN. in supreme control of what was left of the Chinese navy, had already seen a great deal of service in the war with Japan before his promotion to that post. He was on board the Kow-shing when slie was overhauled and sunk by the Japanese cruiser Naniwa- Kan, with a loss of more than a thousand Chinese soldiers. Von Hannecken was left struggling in the water when the Kow-shing sank, but had the rare good fortune to be picked up by a boat. Still more recently he was high in command of the Chinese fleet at the disastrous battle of the Yalu River. He was slightly wounded but was soon ready for action again. This brave man was born in Wiesbaden, Germany, in 1864, and was a son of the late Lieutenant General von Han- necken. He served tlie usual term in the German army, and in 1879 went to China, where he was soon higli in favor with Li Hung Chang. He mastered the Chinese lan- guage in a single year. His technical military knowledge, amiabilitj', and tact, gained for him the position of per- sonal adjutant to Li Hung Chang, with a large salai}'. He devoted much of his time to the construction of bridges and forts, and the fortifica- tions at Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei were built under his personal direction. He was rapidly promoted to the highest military places within the gift of Li Hung Chang and the government, and received buttons, feathejs, and jackets galore. About a year before the outb'-eak of the war, having grown rich in the service of the dragon throne, he resigned from the Chinese army and returned to his home in Germany. After a stay of a few months he sailed again for China with the intention of settling his affairs there and retiring to Germany. The war with Japan changed this plan, and he promptly reentered the service of China. CONSTANTINE VON HANNECKEN. and w H v„^ JAPANESE DIET IN SESSION. 629 Admiral Ting and Captain Von Hannecken visited Wei-lial-wei to examine its defenses, and satisfied tliemselves that the harbor was practically impregnable from the sea. Japanese war vessels continually patrolled all parts of the Gulf of Pechili, and were fre- quently seen from Port Arthur, Ciiefoo and Wei-hai-wei. Tlie Japanese fleet was also sighted several times ten miles off Shan- liai-kwan, less than two hundred miles from Peking. The main body of i > Chinese army was now entrenched in a strong position protected by a line of rectangular forts newly con- structed across the northeast border of the province of Chihli. The Manchoos were held in reserve nearer Tien-tsin than Peking. Sung Kwei, the emperor's father-in-law, was in command of five thousand picked Manchoo soldiers at Shan -hai-k wan, which was a city of great strategic importance, the starting point of a great highroad to Peking from the coast. General Sung, formerly commander of Port Arthur, was ap- pointed to be Generalissimo of the Pei-Yang army corps in man- chooria and Chief Commander of the Manchoo levies, with the ex- ception of the Kirin division, which remained under the command of the Tartar general. The Chinese headquarters were established at Chiu-lien-tcheng. Generals Yeh and Wei were degraded by imperial edict. On the 15th of October the newly elected Japanese Diet met for a short preliminary session at Hiroshima, where the mikado had established his headquarters. The election of officers was im- mediately proceeded with, Mr. Kusumoto being chosen president, and Mr. Shimada vice-president. The formal opening of the Par- liament took place two days later. The mikado in his speech an- nounced that he had decided to convene an extraordinary session, and had given direction to his ministers to submit for the deliber- ation of the Diet a bill providing for increased expenditure for the army and navy, which was an important matter. His Majesty de- clared that he was greatly pained that China should have forgot- ten her duties in regard to the maintenance of peace in the east in conjunction with Japan, she having brought about the present state of affairs. " However," proceeded the emperor, " as hostili- ties have begun we shall not stop until we have obtained o\ir ut- wost objects." In conclusion, His Majesty expressed the hope 530 FUNDS FOR THE WAR. that all subjects of the empire would co operate with the govern - nieut, in order to promote the restoration of peace by means of the great triumph of the Japanese arms. The president of the two chambers of the Diet presented an ad- dress in reply to the speech from the throne, tlianking the mikado for advancing the imperial standard and for personally assuming the direction of the war. The victories which had been secured by the Japanese arms by land and sea were the natural result. The address in conclusion said : " His Majesty rightly considers China the enemy of civilization. We will comply with the impe- rial desire to destroy the barbarous obstinacy of that power." In the House of Peers, on October 19, Count Ito, the premier, made an elaborate speech in support of the government measures for meeting the expenses of the war, and defended Japan against the charge of having precipitated the hostilities. He narrated in detail tlie circumstances which had led up to the war, and read the correspondence which had passed between the mikado's govern- ment and the autliorities at Peking, before the rupture of diplo- matic relations. The premier's statement made a great impression, and intensified the keenly patriotic feeling manifested by the mem- bers of the Diet, not a dissenting voice being raised against the ministerial bills. The following day the war budget of 150,000,- 000 yen passed both houses unanimously. This was the most im- portant part of the proceedings of Parliament. The two houses fully demonstrated that they desired to hold up the hands of the government, and grant everything which might be asked to insure the success of the Japanese arms. Simultaneously with the opening of Parliament an important diplomatic move was made by the Japanese. Now that Japan was practically in undisputed possession of Corea, the moment was con- sidered opportune for the carrying out of those thorough reforms in the internal government of the country, to which Japanese statesmen looked forward as the best guarantee against foreign in- fluence in the future. In order to strengthen the hands of Mr. Otori, the Japanese minister at Seoul, the emperor selected Count Inouye, minister of the interior, to proceed to the Corean capital to act as special adviser to Mr. Otori. The Jii[)anese Parliament had occasion to welcome an important ENGLAND WANTS PEACE. 681 Corean messenger. The second son of the peninsular monarch left Chemulpo on the day the session began, as a special envoy to the mikado, ruturniug the visit made to the king by the Marquis Sainonji. The young prince Und his embassy, consisting of eight leading nobles, were received by the mikado and his principal ministers, being welcomed most cordially. Just prior to the opening of the session, the British government addressed a circular note to the ministers of the great powers, suggesting intervention in the affairs of the east. The Chinese were in readiness to make terms of peace, conscious of the enor- mous sacrifices and risks which would have to be incurred before she could bring her immense reserves of strength into action, and being devoid of military ambition. The British cabinet council which decided upon this letter met on October 4, and three days later it was generally known, in spite of government denials, that the action had been taken. The reception of it was not cordial. In reply to the proposals put forward by England, the German government formally intimated tliat it was not prepared to join in any measures for circumscribing the political results of the con- flict between China and Japan. The French government shared the same view, and the United States was earnest in the same ex- pression. Russia, too, decided to avoid interference in connection with other nations, preferring to retain the opportunity of indi- vidual interference. On the part of Russia, the military com- manders in the Amoor province were ordered to hold troops in readiness, in view of the fact that the situation in China might make intervention necessary. There seems to be good ground for believing true the rumor, oft repeated after the battle of the Yalu, that China had made to Japan overtures for peace, on the basis of an acknowledgment of Corea's independence, and pay- ment of an indemnity for the losses and expenses of the war. The proposal was rejected by Japan as inadequate. Altogether it seemed that the initiative taken by the British foreign office was premature to say the least. The mikado, in his address to Pa^iiament, made no allusion to the proposals for peace, but seemed rather to look on the prosecu- tion of the war to the end as tlie sole means of insuring lasting tranquility. With England's effort for European intervention in /il 632 MOVKMENTS OF TllOOrS. mind, Parliament adopted a resolution that, " No foreign interfer once will be suffered to obstruct the great object of the national policy, to secure a guarantee of permanent peace in the orient/' A renewed offer of mediation in the interest of peace was made to China and Japan in the name of some of the European powers, after the adjournment of Parliament. China declared her willing^ ness to conclude an armistice or a peace on any reasonable terms ; Japan refused to consider the proposal until it should be made directly at Hiroshima " From a quarter formally accredited and empowered to offer it." The movements of troops, both Japanese and Chinese, were now multiplying to such an extent, that except for one familiar with the geography of eastern Asia, they were very confusing. Almost every day it was reported that some Japanese force had made a landing on the Chinese coast, rumor after rumor of this sort being circulated and denied. Chinese troops massed in the vicinities already named, their numbers constantly increasing. An army of five thousand Japanese was taken by transports along the east coast of Corea to Possiet harbor, near the boundary of Siberia, and five thousand Russian troops were posted on the other side, facing them, to guard the Siberian frontier. Corea was being steadily cleared of Chinese stragglers, deserters from the late army and others, who if allowed to be at large might develop into bandits or spies. The restlessness of the natives in the prov- ince of Chulla was difficult to restrain, and a combined force of Japanese and Corean troops was despatched to the district to quell the outbreak. Rumors of land battles in the north of Corea, on the lower Yalu, were circulated every day, but for a time were foundationless. Towards the end of October, troops began to pour into Tien-tsin in large numbers daily, and were disposed for the defense of the capital. Most of the new arrivals were in- fantry, the bulk of the cavalry being sent to the Manchoorian provinces to the northeast. The fleets of tie two nations were now again in fighting condi- tion, although the loss of many vessels suffered by the Chinese at the Yalu had left them in strength far inferior to the Japanese. The Chinese fleet was concentrated at Port Arthur and Weiliai wei, where it was believed to be safe from attack or favorably sit- >• READY TO INVADE MANCHOORIA. 685 uated for offensive operations. The Japaneso squadron under Admiral Ito was concentrated at Ping- Yang. On October 18 the last of the tranHports carrying the second Japanese army steamed out of the harbor of Ujina on their way to Hiroshima, where they were held in readiness for active operations. The extraordinary session of the Japanese diet at Hiroshima was closed October 22, all the bills submitted by the government having passed unanimously. Before separating, the Diet voted a memorial urgently requesting the offioors of the government to execute the desires of tL i Mikado, in or^er that Japan might '^'J^^^^^""' ^'''^^(>"' HJLP OF TEBRITOB^ ADJAOSNX TO THE MOUTH OF THK TALU. achieve a complete victory oyer the Chinese, whereby peace t^'ould be restored in the east and the glory of the Japanese nation in- creased. A resol' '.ion was passed unanimously, placing upon record the thnn^ s of the nation to the army and navy, for the gal- lantry and patriotism displayed by all ranks, and for the splendid succeri^ which had attended the Japanese arms. On October 24 Count Yamagata, commander-in-chief of the Japanese forces in Corea, threw a small force across the Yalu, thus invading Chinese territory. In order to understand the sub- sequent operations, a brief topographical explanation is here neo- 26 »..-.v'i«.>;...«'.?!5:-'.,:-', :>•: ;- -Ji- >^l'X'.^ri',-i^"AiX-> r-Vif ,^ :,^ ,-i: 636 ON CHINESE TERRITORY. essary. At a little distance below Wi-ju, the Yalu, flowing west, receives a tributary, the Ai, coming from the northeast. Chiu- lien lies in the western, or obtuse-angled corner formed by tlie junction of the two rivers, some distance back from their banks. Within the eastern, or acute-angled corner the land rises to an eminence called Hu-shan. A traveler by the main road from Wi ju to Chiu-lien, having crossed the Yalu, must pass on the left or to the west of Hu-shan, which overlooks the highway, and thus reaching the Ai must cross it also to Chiu-lien. The Chinese had intrenched Hu-shan, and posted there a force estimated by the Japanese at three thousand five hundred, but subsequently alleged by prisoners to have aggregated seven or eight thousand. The plan pursued by Field-Marshal Count Yamagata was to oc- cupy a long stretch of the Yalu River, so that his point of passage would remain to the last uncertain, and any flanking movement on the east by the cavalry, of which the enemy possessed a large force, was rendered impossible. Having rested his troops and completed his arrangement for a final advance, he threw a battalion across the river under Colonel Sato, at Shai-ken-chau, a place ten miles up stream from Wi-ju. The passage was made by wading and was unopposed. The detachment was composed entirely of riflemen, no calvary or artillery accompanying them. A Chinese earthwork had been thrown up at this point to oppose a landing, but a slight deviation enabled the detachment to cross without in- trrference. An attack was immediately opened on the Chinese position, which was garrisoned only by a few artillerymen and in- fantry. They fled after the first two or three rounds had been fired, and the Japanese captured the works with a rush. A regi- ment of Manchoorian cavalry arrived as the little garrison fled, and covered their retreat. The Chinese made for the batteries constructed lower down the river, the infantry throwing away their arms in their flight. The Chinese loss was about twenty killed and wounded, while on the Japanese side not a man was hit. The Japanese force now moved down the river and captured the Chinese fortifications at the Suckochi ferry, where they passed the night. The Japanese engineers had pontoons in readiness for passage across the river. During the night of the 24th, the Japanese pontoon men threw JAPANESE AGAIN SUCCESSFUL. 637 threw a bridge across the Yalu at the ferry, and at dawn the main body of the army, having passed over unop- posed, commenced an attack against Hu-shan, Colonel Sato's brigade coming into action piraultaneously from the other side. The battle began at 6:30 A. M., and lasted until a few minutes past 10. At first the Chinese held their ground with toler- able firmness, but presently, finding their position swept by rifle and artillery fire from a hill on their right flank, of which possession had been taken by a brigade under Major-General Osako, tliey broke and fled across the Ai to Chiu-lien. The reserves, however, did not join the rout. Posted advantageously, they preserved their formation and maintained a resolute fire, until thrown into confusion by a flanking movement, which placed a large force under Major-General Tachimi to the rear of their left. Then they too gave way, and retreated in con- fusion across the Ai, so hotly pur- sued that they had to abandon ten pieces of artillery. The Japanese had lost twenty killed and eighty- three wounded ; the Chinese two hundred and fifty killed and a some- what large number of wounded. Two divisions of the array then crossed the Ai and encamped on the east of Chiu-lien, the brigades of Major-General Tachimi and Colonel Sato posting themselves on the 638 IN POSSESSION OF THE FIELD. same side of the Ai, but further north, so as to menace the same road from Chiu-lien northward to Feng-hwang. Field Marshal Yamagata and Lieutenant-General Nodzu took up their quarters in a farmer's house to the northeast of Hu-shan. Thus with all the advantages of elevated ground, a position fortified at k are, and a force ample for defensive purposes, the feebleness and faulty strategy of the Chinese converted into a mere skirmish what ought to have been a sanguinary battle. The following morning, October, 26, before dawn, a general ad- vance was commenced against Chiu-lien. It was supposed that the enemy would make an obstinate stand there, since after Feng-hwang the fortified town of Chiu-lien ranks as a position of eminent importance in the defense of southwestern Manchooria. Moreover, throughout the night a cannonade had been kept up from the town against the Japanese camp, and though the invad- ing columns were posted so that the enemy's missiles passed harm- lessly over them, this resolute service of guns seemed to promise stout fighting on the following day. But in truth the artillery was employed merely in the vain hope of intimidating the assail- ants, or in order to cover the flight of the garrison. The Japanese encountered no resistance whatever. At eight o'clock in the morning they entered Chiu-lien. The enemy had decamped in the direction of Feng hwang before dawn, leaving behind him al- most everything, twenty-two guns, three hundred tents, large stores of ammunition and quantities of grain and forage. The series of dafeats following the crossing of the Yulu River by the Japanese seemed to complete the Chinese demoralization in that vicinity. The defeated forces probably numbered more than twenty thousand men, the victorious army was considerably inferior in numbers, the batteries weie well built, and the position wa a strong one. The continuous loss of artillery, and throwing away of muskets and rifles wherever the Chinese made retreat, was gradually depleting the stores of arms possessed by the forces in Manchooria, leaving them unable to fight even if they had desired to. A little fightinjj evidently went a long way with them. Did they carry away their artillery and stores, these precipitate re- treats might possess some strategical character, but they simply saved their own lives, leaving all their material of war behind same rshal rters h all lire, Lulty ught lad- that after )n of oria. )t up vad- arm- mise llery ssail- mese the id in m al- large liver [ition more rably litioii wing ., was es in sired Did te re- mply jhind w IT. w H H VI ^*^' CHINESE DEMORALIZATION. 641 w \ '■•■Jff.;i.^' them. The troops at Chiu-lien were not ill-discipliued or badly armed from a Chinese point of view. Coming from Port Arthur, from Talcu, and from Lu-tai, they ranked among the best ;joldiers China could put into the field. If such men proved themselves so conspicuously invertebrate, it was to be questioned whether or not the addition to their number of a few thousand Tartars would make them stand more stiffly in a subsequent conflict. It seemed even to the friends of China that her capacity for resisting the invasion of Manchooria in the face of well-organized and res- olute attack, was simply contemptible. The second invasion of Chinese territory was made by the second Japanese army corps, twenty-two thousand strong, under the command of General Count Oyama. These forces sailed in transports from Hiroshima, and on October 24 commenced landing in a little cove northeast of Talien-wan Bay and protected by the Elliot islands from the open sea. Talien-wan Bay was avoided because the Chinese were known to have made some preparations to resist a landing there. The peninsula wliich juts out south- westward between the Gulf of Liao-Tung and Corea Bay is known variously as the Liao-Tung peninsula and the Kwang Tung pen- insula. Every yard of it was familiar to the Japanese military stafif, and had been included in their system of minute cartography, so that whatever point they selected was well chosen. Up to the last moment it had been supposed by the general public that Port Adams, on the west of the peninsula, would be the port of de- barkation, but as that would have involved the passing of a great flotilla of transports into Pechili Gulf, it was considered too hazardous an operation. The last of the flotilla of fifty trans- ports left Hiroshima October 18, and the fleet having assembled at Shimonoseki, steamed westward on the morning of the 19th. A distance of eight hundred miles had to be traversed, and in this case as in all previous operations everything worked with smoothness and success. On the evening of the 23rd the great flotilla reached its destination, and on the following morn- ing the landing was commenced. There was no resistance. The Peiyang squadron did not show. Had there been any ordinary exercise of vigilance on the part of Admiral Ting's war ships they must have sighted the 642 AT THE END OP OCTOBER. Jiipiuiese flotilla in ample time to strike at it. That they would have eftected nothing in the face of the convoying squadron may be taken for granted, but if the prospect of failure deterred them from making any eifort to protect their own headquarters, China's only dockyard and really important naval station in the north, they certainly deserved the indifference with which the Japanese treated them. From the time of the naval battle of September 17, the Pei-yang squadron played no part in the war. Many at- tempts were made to prove that it had not been vitally hurt in the encounter, and that a few days would sufSce to put it in a thorough state of -^pair. But whether repaired or not it disap- peared from the scene, and the Japanese cruisers thenceforth roamed at will along the Chinese coasts. With the move towards the investment of Port Arthur, and the crossing of the Yalu, the war entered upon a new phase. In se- lecting Port Arthur as an objective point, the Japanese were well advised. By such an (attack a dockyard of the first importance was threatened, and full advantage of naval superiority could be taken. The Kwang Tung peninsula, or " Regent's Sword," was peculiarly inaccessible by land, while a power in command of the sea could land men at pleasure at several points within a short distance of Port Arthur, and with a small force only could isolate it from the mainland. Two days after the landing of troops on the peninsula, the col- lection of a third arnay at Hiroshima commenced. This force was to number twenty-fjur thousand, and be under the command of Lieutenant-General Viscount Takashima. At the same time an- other revolt of some little magnitude arose in the south of Corea, and two thousand rebels attacked the quarters of the Japanese commissary at Anpo. The malcontents were afterwards dispersed by a military force though not without difficulty. We have now reached the end of October. The first Japanese army is safely installed on the north bank of the Yalu River in Manchoorian territory, threatening the road to Mukden, Niu- chwang and the intervening cities. The second army is safe on shore on the Kwang Tung peninsula, threatening China's proudest naval station. The next month will see the fall of Port Arthur and the practical destruction of all Chinese hopes of ultimate success. »i7.;'-f;.?'^;-v!»r «'( REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF THE WAR TO THE FIRST OF NOVEMBER. Characteristics of the two Nations III War— China's Ignorance of the Coasts of Corea— Jiipau's Knowledge of Chinese Topography and CUiiiate— Patriotism in the Two Countries— Kiid Judgment of China in Methods ot Conducting the War— Tiie Governnieiital Weather- Vane and its Revolutions— No Commander-in-Chief for the Cliinese Army— OtHclal Corrup- tion in Civil as Well as Military omclals- Tlie Battles of Plug-Yang and the Yaiu Kiver- Handling the Forces of the Enemies. At this period in the war, occurs a lull which makes it possible and wise to take a glance at the whole course of affairs during the hostilities, since the declaration three mouths earlier. The war has advanced far enough to prove the mettle of both com- batants, and to furnish data for judging of the probable issue of the struggle, at least from a purely military point of view. At the beginning of November, prophets were quite well equipped with material for predictions that were surely not to be disappointed, and it is from the aspect at this date that the present chapter takes its view. On the one side there is little but praise to be offered. The Japanese have proved themselves assiduous stu- dents of all modern armaments, and have in many points bettered their European instruction. They have made good their claim to be the rising power of the Orient. Of the Chinese a diametrically opposite account must be given. From a military standpoint nothing favorable can be said of them, and the only palliation of their failure is that they were wholly unprepared for an unexpected aggression. The course of the war has brought out in strong relief what has not always been clearly recognized, the essential differences between the two belligerent nations. A stronger contrast is scarcely imaginable than that between China and Japan, though they are so near and have been nursed on a common literature. With passionate effort the Japanese have ransacked the western world for its treasures of knowledge, and have vigorously applied what they have learned. The Chinese, on the other hand, have set their (543) 544 HOW THE JAPANESE HAVE STUDIED CHINA. faces against the science of other nations, and with an unhappy mixture of apathy and contempt have rejected the teaching which has pressed upon them. In the same spirit they have spurned the knowledge of their own country and of their own forces, while the Japanese have been for years making a minute study of both, and possess maps and details which the Chinese them- selves have not and do not care for. The Chinese have carried on a large trade with the Yalu river, but the government knew nothing of the coast. Captain Calder of Port Arthur made a holiday expedition to the Manchoo-Corean coast, found the country beautiful, and recommended the naval authorities to let the cadets go and improve themselves by surveying it. Nothing was done, the sole reason being that the incidental expenses of the ships would be increased by being at sea, and the captains would not save so much of their monthly allowance. Now the only survey the Chinese admiral possesses even of the scene of the late naval battle, is, the outline made by Captain Calder him- self. The Japanese navy has complete charts both of the Corean and the Chinese coasts. In the summer of 1893 a small expedi- tion of Japanese disguised as Chinese, in a native boat surveyed the islands and coasts of the Gulf of Pechili, spending eight days in the immediate neighborhood of Port Arthur. The topography and physiography of North China have been their study for years. A Japanese physician even devoted a whole year to the climate and pathology. With his headquarters in Tien-tsin, where he plied the foreign doctors incessantly with queries, this Japanese investigator thoroughly explored the province of Chihli, and probably knows more of the climatic conditions of North China than any other living man. He pretended he had the intention of practicing among the Chinese, as possibly he may in the not distant future. The Chinese have started exotic medical schools, but they have not overcome the elementary difficulty about dissection, and the enterprise is but half hearted. As for employ- ing competent men to gather knowledge, the whole idea is foreign to the Chinese oflBcial mind, and they only accept un- graciously as a gift the results of the explorations of enthusiasts for science. It is not, therefore, the accident of being a little »■« CONDITION OF PATRIOTISM IN THE TWO COUNTRIES. 645 earlier in the field, or quicker in movement to seize the benefit of an opportunity, that gives the Japanese suoh crushing advan- tages over the Chinese, but rather a deep-seated, congenital love of improvement on one side and hatred of it on the other. Another essential difference between the people is their exhibi- tion of patriotism. The Japanese are saturate (-. with it, while the Chinese have none. The instinct of loyalty is there, and it can be called out by any man, native or foreign, who is worthy of it, but in the sense of nationality the Chinese have no capacity for enthusiasm, and the people as a whole are indifferent as to who rules them, so long as they are left to cultivate their gardens. For want of a patriotic focus, what would elsewhere be treachery is in China a commonplace of official practices ; every man to the limit of his small ability selling his country for his private benefit, and no one able to cast a stone at his neighbor. In Japan it would be impossible to get a man to betray his father- land; in China where is the man who would not? From the same root springs the incredible difference between the peoples in their treatment of soldiers and sailors. In the one country they are made heroes of, the people at home send delicacies to the troops abroad, honor the dead, and nurse the wounded. In the other the men are treated worse than dogs, robbed of their small pay, deserted, discarded, or grossly neglected by their leaders whenever they can be dispensed with and their monthly pay saved. Attachment between men and officers in China is a rare, though not an unknown thing, for the Chinese are, after all, human at heart, if one can but penetrate the pile of heredi- tary corruption which has covered up the divine spark. The foregoing are but examples which might be multiplied indefinitely, of the antitheses of Chinese and Japanese character and mode of action. If to all this is added the fact that the Japanese are a people who delight in war, while the Chinese abominate it, no further search is needed for explanation of the actual result. It is simply ignorance overcome by science, in- difference by energy. The Chinese have conducted the campaign in the manner thcsG best acquainted with them would have predicted, doing on most occasions the utterly wrong thing, or stumbling on the right R4r, CONSTANT FAILIIUKS OF T»K CIHNKSK. tiling at the wrong time in Mio wrong wuy. IJiit the most pessi- inistio prophet could hardly huvo predicted the utter inaptitude of the Chinese military movenients. It is nok only that they have failed to learn the modern art of war, but that they have for- gotten the old methods. It was thought that Chinese troops, though deficient in enterprise, might at least make a rospetitable defense. They were advised never to risk a pitched battle, but to retreat slowly, giving trouble to the enemy by night attacks on his baggage, and compelling him to use up an army corps to keep open his line of communication. They failed in every point, and allowed themselves to be chased and caught like sheep, losing stores, guns, and munitions. When all else failed, it was said that winter would come to their assistance, as the Japanese could never stand the cold, while the Chinese and Manchoos were inured to it. But when the cold came it was found that it was not the Japanese but the Chinese who suffered, having abandoned their warm clothing in precipitate flight. Their heart was never in the business, and nothing therefore could go right with the Chinese conduct of the war. While the war was incubating, China had to make up her mind how she was to meet the aggression of the Japanese in Corea. Candid friends, who knew well that her inchoate forces could never be a match for any organized army whatsoever, commended strictly defensive strategy. She was caught in the false position — in a military sense, though it was politically correct — of having a small force isolated in southern Corea, while the iFapanese were occupying the capital in strength. The fighting value of the respective fleets was as yet an unknown quantity, but on the Japanese side there was confidence in their own superiority, and on the part of the Chinese a tacit acquiescence in that estimate. Under such circumstances an over-sea campaign was an absurdity for China, and the commonest prudence dictated that the small garrison at Asan be withdrawn before the outbreak of war. This crisis in affairs was met, as crises usually are in China, by divided counsels; moral cowardice on the part of those who knew, blind rage on the part of those who did not know, ajid the sub- mission of the judgment of the informed to the arbitrary decrees and even the insidious advice of the uninformed. To speak DIVIDKJ) COUNSKLS IN CHINA. 647 pliiinly, Li I lung (vlmng, on whonj tlio burden of tlie war would in all cases rest, and who know something, though very little, of the power of discipline and organization, and who from the first was strongly opposed to the intervention in Corea, which was forced on him by pressure applied from Peking, was for with- drawing the garrison from Asun. In answer to his memorials to the throne, he had obtained the imperial authority and had hired transports to bring the troops over into Chinese territory. But SINKING OF THE K0W-8HIN0. {Drawn by a Chinese Artist) other counsels supervened, and Li Hung Chang refrained from giving effect to his own views. As the Japanese were by imperial fiat to be driven out of Corea, it followed that the garrison at Asan must be strengthened, and China committed herself to the conditions of war dictated by the enemy, an offensive war over- sea, which was entirely beyond China's capacitj'. There were still discussions and hesitations up to the moment of dispatching troops by sea to Corea. When the expedition of 648 PATE OF THE K( >L'NG. troops wus seen to bo inevitable, the (/liinese wore advised to take at least the precaution of having the transports escorted by a strong naval squadron. This was decided to be done, and the ill- fated Kow-shing left Taku on the clear understanding that an escort of warships would join her outside Wei-haiwei, which was two hundred and twenty miles distant, and roughly half way to Asan. But before the transport had got so far on her voyage, the official weathercock had set in another direction. The diplo- NAVAL SKIRMISH, JULY 25th. {Drawn by a Chinese Arlint.) matic Yuan-si-Kai, former resident in Corea, where he had done 80 much to irritate the Japanese, now advised that the appear- ance of warships with the transports might give umbrage to the Japanese, and in deference to this opinion, before the pendulum had time to swing back, the Kow-shing with twelve hundred men on board, was sent unprotected to the Bay of Asan. The Jap anese consular establishment, with its wonderfully organized intelligence department, was still in Tieu-tsin, perfectly informed •^ HOW CHINA CONDUCTS A WAR. 661 of everything that was being said and done in the most secret places, and making free use of the telegraph wires. With the tragic destruction of the Kow-shing, the war was begun most disadvantageously to the Chinese. Being by one and the same stroke deprived of the expected re-enforcements and cut off from the sea, the small force at Asan had either to fight to the death, surrender, or make good their retreat by a long and dan- gerous flank march. This last course was adopted, and after SKIRMISH ON JULY, 27th. {.Dra.wii by a t'/iinese Artist.) making sufficient stand to cover their retreat, not without inflict ing loss on the enemy, they succeeded in joining the Chinese army which had entered Corea from the north west. The numbers of the retreating force were given as four thousand, but they were certainly less. The simultaneous engagements by land and sea on the same day, July 25, proved that the Japanese had determined to begin the war in earnest. The naval action in which i wo Chinese ships i Li 662 HOW CHINA CONDUCTS A WAR. were waylaid as they wore leaving the Coroau coast, served to prove that the Chinese ships ctmid botli fight and run away, and that the Japanese ships weie very ably niancouvred, but the affair had little other significance. Enraged by the sinking of Iho transport in time of nominal peace, the emperor of Ciiiiia ordered the Hoot, over the head of Li Hung Chang, to pursue the enemy to destruction. In obedi- ence to the imperial mandate, the IVi-yang squadron, in tJie early BKi'ORE TllK \VAl,i, OK siioi 1,. {Dmwn III/ (t ('lii)ifS(' Jrlixl ) M days of August, stcanuMl for flic Corenn cojist, but before sigbtinp it steamed buck acfai/i. Tlie viccioy Li then iiitiMcstcd liimsclf to obtain :; modifiraiimi of tin; decree, and the fleet was ci.m- manded to remain no the (lef(Misive for tlu; special protce'ion of the (lulf of I*eehili, wliicli instruction held good until the middle of September, when tlie Hoot was foreiMl to acce])t batll(! off tlie Yalu river. August Lst, troops were ordered to enter C'orean territory from A (JOOI) (ilCNKRAL AND A MAI) ONK. 6r,y from tho Miinchoorian Hitlti, and in tho conrso of tlio niontli a conHidorablo force had filtorod its way to tlio oity of I'ing-Yang, tlie stronmsst strategical j)oint in western (^orca, and even to a considcMaMc distance beyond. Tlic inussinj^ of llw.m troops was (U)nductod in tho ohl rougii-iuid tuiid)lt(, hair-hcarfcod ('hincse fashion. 'I'hcro was no head, but sc[)aral() and rival connnands, each general look- ing only to the viceroy, Li Ihiiig Ohang for orders and supplies, a>jd receiving more of tho former than of the latter. Theso ('hineso gentuals are an old world curiosity, stsareely concoivable in our agt^ They might be described as aiiiiy cdw tractors ratlier than ligliling agents, for like; the civil nuindiiriiiH th(!y buy theii jjosIs as an investnnMit. Tim battalicni or (Miinj) is farmed, as regards its ex[»enHes, by the gtiiuual, who draws iVoni goverunnnit a lump sum for the maintenaiMte of the forei^ itiid mak(!s his economies according to his conscience, by falsifying his muster roll and defrau^'ing his num. At the batth; or rout of I'iiig Yang tluMo wero soldiiirs who were three;, four, and even live months in arrears of pay, some generals deliberately calcu- lating on tho Ciisunlties of war to rediu!(! the nunil)(!r of eventual clainiaiits on the pay fuml. The most notorious offender, (ioneral Wei of I'ing-Yang notoriety, who had hfss than half the troops he drew pay for, and these mostly untrained coollics, hust,led into the ranks to take the place of unpaid deserters, and in whose program lighting had no place, had paid (icrtain innmmlial p(M-sons libcir- ally for his ciommand. Desertion, it may be observed in passing, is not regarded as a (laliimity by an avaricious (!hin(^s(! gcniera!. (/hin(!so olVKJcrs are ho\irev(U' by no means all abandoiuid to money making. Some are liberal with their funds, iust as some are brave and loyal, and are backed by c(|ually brave and loyal soldiers. The enicitmy of a force de[»ends altogether on tho per- sonality of the gcnusral, iind ;ts in feudal tinujs in Knrope, it is to tluiir (ihief rather than to any government or country that tin; troops feel the ties of allegiaiici!. As the hiadci- is, therefore, sr» arc tho men. (ieiKiral Tso ]iiu»-k\v(!i for (sxamplc, who bore to his grave the honors of th(! tight at I'ing-Yang, w"s a man well known to many fontigners of diff(!rent class(!S, issionary and others, and IIk; nnaniuiily of good opinion of him i-i (|uite remark- able. H(i was not only brav(!, but a courteous and kindly gcuitle- i54 NO SYSTEM OF ARMY COMMANDERS. '>. I I Jl man who gained the affections of all around. A Mohamme- dan himself, all his soldiers were of the same faith, amd they stood shoulder to shoulder like heroes in the face of overpower- ing Ids. During the month of August, while the Japanese forces were advancing upon Ping- Yang in three columns, there were outpost skirmishes in which the Japanese were frequently worsted. These affairs were naturally enough reported by the Chinese commanders concerned, according to their lights, as victories, and when it is remembered how the view of each is bounded by the horizon of his own camp, it is easy to see how they could deceive themselves as to the significance of such apparent success. The truth seems to be that the Chinese commanders in and about Ping- Yang did not realize that they were surrounded, each per- haps thinking it was the other's business. They had sent out no scouts, nor posted videttes to watch the mountain passes to the north of them. These eleniencary military precautions had been pressed on Li Hung Chang, who sent repeated orders to the front to have them seen to ; but nothing was done, for according to the vicious tradition of the Chinese service, the word is taken for the deed, and orders which are either impracticable or inconvenient are simply ignored or forgotten, without the delinquent being ever called to account. Spacious but wholly fictitious excuses would in any case serve the turn in a system whose fetich is universal sham. Perhaps, as there was no commander-in-chief, but a num- ber of independent commands, duties which concerned the army at large fell within the sphere of no one in particular. But in whatever manner it came about, the result was that the Chinese remained in comatose ignorance of the intentions of the enemy, until the only thing left was precipitate retreat. The affair of Ping- Yang war> observed by one military expert, a Russian, who speaks in high terms of the precision and com- pleteness of tlie Japanese equipment and organization, but the opposition hud been so contemptible throughout the war that the military qualities of the Japanese have not been seriously put to the proof. They remain a theoretical quantity. So far as the campaign had gone, to November 1, the chief obstacles encountered had been bad roads, standing crops, and sickness. REVIEW OF THE BATTLE OFF THE YALU RIVER. 655 The second day after the flight from Ping- Yang, September 17, the naval battle off the Yalu Rivor was fought. The collision of the fleets seems to have been somewhat unpremeditated. The Chinese were enf»aged in disembarking troops for the re-enforce- ment of the array at Ping- Yang, and it is a characteristically haphazard proceeding that they should have been landing troops one hundred and twenty miles from the front, to strengthen a position already abandoned. The battle which ensued, and which raged for five hours, has been described with aa much fullness as the limits of this volume permit, but the ultimate truth about it will perhaps never be fully known except of course to the Jap- anese government. From the Chinese side it will be impossil)le to obtain a consistent account, not because of intentional con- cealment, but because of the simple reason that no one in the Chinese fleet was able to observe accurately what was going on, except near his own vessel. Nevertheless the salient points of the battle stand out clear enough. The sea fight was but a repeti- tion of the land fight, with two important differences. The first of these was that as the nature of the cause rendered it impos- sible to sail modern ships of war at all by two-thousand-year-old tactics, the mere possession of a fleet required a European organ- iiiation. But the organization was imperfect, and would have boen unable to sustain itself in action, but for the presence of an- other element: in which the Chinese land forces were entirely lacking, competoat foreign direction. This factor also was most imperfect. The foreign officers had been extemporized hastily, the leader of them being not even a seaman. They were of vari- ous nationalities and were enlisted about the middle of August, ''"hree engineers, two German, one English; two gunnery officers, one English, one German ; had been for some years in the fleet, and volunteered for war service. One American engaged for many years in the Chinese naval college also volunteered for active ser- vice during the war. Captain Von Hannecken, bearing now the rank oC Chinese general, commissioned as Inspector General of Fortifications, M^as entrusted with the anomalous office of adviser of the admiral, thus giving him the real command of the fleet. An English civilian with naval traininr^ also joined. On enloi'iug on their duties, these officers found the fleet honey 27 i 1 556 INDUCING THE CHINESE FLEET TO FIGHT. mp- ■'■■'I: t; hi 1 ' U' 1 ^ combed with abuses requiring patient reform, but they set them- selves to make the beat of things as they were, and to get the ships as quickly as possible into action, as the thing most need- ful in order to brace up officers and men. Von Hannecken urged unceasingly an offensive policy. He would seek out the Japanese and attack them wherever found, fall on their convoys, and gen- erally assert the supremacy of China in Corean waters, from the Yalu eastward. In particular he urged the occupation of Ping- Yang inlet, so important for the support of the array which held the city of that name, and, if necessary, to fight to the death for the possession of a harbor ?t once so valuable and so easily de- fended. His prescience was ii.dicated in the sequel, but to all such suggestions Admiral Ting replied with the imperial edict which forbade him to move out of Chinese waters. The convoy- ing service for which the fleet was eventually told off in the middle of September was a sort of compromise, which, without transgressing too flagrantly the imperial restrictions, yet com- mitted the fleet to an engagement on conditions not of its own choosing. The handling of the respective fleets showed the great superi- ority of the Japanese professional training, and critics have com- mented on the weakness of the Cliinese manoeuvring, but the first consideration was to get the Chinese to fight at all. The government had satisfied itself that without foreigners to lead them, the Chinese commanders would rather lose their ships in trying to escape tnan stand up to the enemy. The man, the onlj^ man available, who posriessed the requisite qualities, personal and professional, including a competent knowledge of Chinese, hap- pened to be a soldier, but he at least made the fleet fight, not as a trai)i?d ;;d:uiral would have done with a trained fleet, but in a man.'.er to inspi >; the Chinese with some confidence in them- selve'-, in which tilj then they were greatly lacking. That is per- haps the most important result of the baptism of fire of the Chinese navy. As regards the technical bearings of the action off the Yalu, the Cliinese admiral and captains adopted the formation which tliey said had been taught them by Captain Lang as the most ad- vantageous for attack. But obviously a plan communicated four ECONOMIZING ON AMMUNITION. 557 years ago by an officer whom these same men had intrigued out of their navy, when he had taken it through only half its course of training, could not be considered an infallible weapon with which to meet the thoroughly efficient navy of Japan. The fight brought out several of the weak points of the Chinese naval organization, and taught the officers many lessons. Most conspicuously was the fatuous economy of ammunition ex- posed. The most formidable ships for offense and defense were of course the two iron clads Ting-Yuen and Chen-Yuen, with their twelve and one-half inch guns. These guns throw a shell three and one-half calibres long, charged with forty pounds of powder. It is a projectile of low initial velocity, but a most destructive explosive, as tlie Japanese have testified. There were but four of these shells in the fleet, all being on board the Chen- Yuen. Of a smaller, and of course cheaper shell for the same guns two and one-half cal- ibres long, used for target practice, there were in all fourteen in the two iron clads, and they were fired off in the first hour and a half of the engagement, after which only steel shot was left with which to continue the fight. From the condition of the flag ship and her consort, may be inferred that of the other vessels in tlie fleet. They were at once however, after the battle, well supplied with shell except of the larger size. The Chinese fleet was at a disadvantage in manoeuvring from inferior speed, but a greater difficulty even than that was the per- versity of the personnel. Even on board the flag ship orders were not carried out, but varied or suppressed at the discretion of the officers. In telegraphing from the conning tower to the en- gine room, the plans of the admiral were frustrated, by the officer who moved the telegraph signalling a low speed when the ailmiul was ordering a high speed, in order to close with the enemy. This trick was only discovered after the battle, by comparing notes with the German engineer who was below. How nmny other ways of cheating the commanding officer were resorted to during those critical hours, no one can tell. As for the other ships of the fleet, it is acknowledged that after the flVst round they kept no formation, each sliip fighting her own battle, except the two ironclads with the foreign officers on board, wliicli kept moving in concert till the close. The flagship lost all her signal li 668 EFFECTS OF WINTER ON THE TWO ARMIES. I i ! w-i halyards and a number of signal men in the beginning of the action, and thereby lost touch with the rest of the squadron. From the capture of Ping- Yang, to the first of November, the progress of the war attested the circumspection of the Jap- anese, who from first to last resolved to risk nothing by land or sea. There was practically no resistance, and the Chinese government was tolerably aware that there would be none, either at the Yalu or at Feng-hwang-tcheng. What the government reckoned on, if they can be said to have made any reckoning at all, was that the foi'ces assembled at Chiu-lien-tcheiig would delay the advance of the ene- my till something turned up, or till the winter should come to the aid of the invaded. Well, winter came, and lo it was the Chin- ese and not the Japanese who were its first victims. Poor General Sung, driven out of Kiu-lien-tcheng, and falling back on Feng-hwang- tcheng, was followed up so sharp that, with the remnant of his force, he had to retreat to the mountains, without extra clothing or baggage. The cold set in, and snow was falling on these shiver- ing wretches, while the enemy was enjoying the comparative luxury of the towns and villages. By thi« time in the history of the war, it seemed certain that in such a conflict as was to be anticipated, China would not en- trust the ultimate defense of the empire to such loose levies as had been in the field. From the time of their organization, these JAPANESE CAVALRYMAN. the ber, Jap- and riese ther lent gat the !tl at leng the ene- liing ■ till ould id of l^ell, and !hin- the (vere :in)s. 3ral out leng, back ing- f his ig or iver- ative that t en- es as ihese 5; C/3 ?o ?3 M 73 Ti 73 WHAT TUK FUIKNDS OF CHINA HOl'KD. .001 troops iiiuler arin.s have constituted a clanger to the peace o{ China, wliether in victory or defeat, and perhaps there was a cer- tain cynical calculation in the release by the Japanese of pris- oners, that they might swell the ranks of brigands. It was be- lieved by many friends of China that the dispersion of these troops would make room for an army built up on a different system, should tiie government be at last aroused to a sense of the necessity for military reform. Until this time, the government of China properly so called, had not been able to bring its intelligence to bear on the question of imperial defer That had been left in the hands of the im- perial viceroy iluiig Chang, who has for many years con- ducted the foreign as well as the naval and military affairs of the empire. But during the fall the Peking government was gradu- ally gathering the reins into its own hands. The return of Prince Kung to the counsels of the emperor was a marked expression of the new resolution. The summoning of Von Ilaunecken by im- perial edict to Peking was another indication of the suspension of Li Hung Chang's function of general middleman between the empire and the world. Whether this new born energy for affairs was to have staying power sufficient to launch the government on the unknown sea of foreign science, and save the empire from disruption was problematical, but the \yar still raged on, and out of its immediate issues, it was predicted by many, was to arise a state of thing which would mock the slow progress of mere evolutionary reform, by a cataclysm which might do in one day what a century of deliberation could not accomplish. Va Va >^ ^ .>^ .^ .^ / Photographic Sciences Corporation «-' ^^v r^\ 4\- :\ \ % V >7*. '^.1* '^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 V^^ Vt THE ADVANCE UPON PORT ARTHUR. Landing of the Second Japanese Army at Kwa-yuen-ken— Capture of Kincbow— Taking of Tallen-wan— Flight of the Chinese to Port Arthur— Qeneral Nodzu's Force and its Action — Pekin Authorities Despondent— Prince Kung Asks Foreign Intervention— Propositions fot Peace Fail— Contractors Want to Destroy Japanese Fleet— Foreigners In Chinese Service— The Emperor Receives Visitors— Drawing Near to Port Arthur— People of the Peninsula— Skirmislies on tlie Way— The Night Before tlie Battle. The troops of the second Japanese army landed at a place called Kwa-yuen-ken near the mouth of the Pili River, northeast of Talien-wan Bay. From the mouth of the Pili to Kinchow, the principal town in the peninsula, the distance is fifty-four miles. The debarkation was completed without interruption, and the, march southwestward begun. The capture of Kinchow, at the narrowest point in the Adams Isthmus, was made without diffi- culty, and the victorious forces continued on their way. Novem- ber 7 the Japanese occupied Talien-wan. The more the captured Chinese position here was examined, the greater became the as- tonishment at the poor defense made. The defensive works were excellent in design. Six large and strongly constructed forts commanded Talien-wan bay, mounting all together eighty guns of various sizes and patterns. Many of them were comparatively modern and excellent of their kind. All of these guns, as well as large stores of ammunition, fell into the hands of the Japanese. Beside the forts on the bay, the Chinese had constructed across the narrow neck of the peninsula, which was here about seven miles wide, a series of earthworks of an elaborate kind. The whole system had evidently been planned by an engineer of high skill. It was completely fitted with telephones and other modern appliances for communication. The works had been designed to facilitate a concentration of troops at any threatened point in the shortest possible time. The batteries were powerfully constructed and well armed. The greatest strength of the forts on the bay was on the side facing the sea. Some successful reconnoitering revealed weakness upon the land side. An intimation was con- (663) 564 CAPTURE OF TALIEN-WAN. veyed to Count Ito that the seaward fur^; that a bombardment from the Japai> suit in serious damage to some of formed his colleague that he K^ tended with success, and ilv.; The Japanese fleet took^ mendous bombardment For many hours the fj day it was resumed, the land force attar 'i CHINESE BiT sault, and the success was complete. prise, fled panic-stricken towards Port ArtiT?' The losses in the capture of these two fortificttw? and Talien-wan, were not great on either side. The Chinese gar- rison at the former place consisted of one thousand infantry and one hundred cavalry. They fled to Talien-wan, which was de- fended by three thousand infantry and one hundred and eighty cavalry, and all together retreated thence towards Port Arthur. On the Japanese side the losses were only ten killed and wounded, and the losses of the Chinese, who offered practically no resist- GENERAL NODZU'S AllMY. 566 ance, were not much greater. As in previous retreats, the ('hi- jiese threw away their arms in their flight, and reached Port ^ur with nothing but the clothes they wore. ^g these days of aetion by tine I'mi e under Oyama, Gen- oa's troops had not been idle. Immediately after the '^hiu-lien, the Japanese headquarters' staff moved there ^Two columns were sent after the fleeing Chinese, ^noved upon An-tiing, which was taken withf)ut ^il Tachimi, witii the first division, moved upon 'tober 27, and on the 31st the town surrendered. firisoners were taken by the Japanese. The orders were to '[iisarm and scatter the enemy wherever found, and this was done with vigor. By Marshal Yamagata's orders, the peaceable inhabi- tants were treated with the utmost consideration. All food pur- chased was paid for and laborers were paid for any extra help re- quired. As a result the Japanese camp was thronged with Chi- nese peasants offering produce, and more Chinese laborers asked for work than could be engaged. The enemy divided in flight from Feng-hwang, some going to Mukden, others to Haitcheng, and others to Takn-shan. Most of the generals fled to Mukden. As the last fugitives left Feng- 566 IMPERIAL TROUBLE IN PEKING. hwang it was set on five, and the flames wrecked the vilhige be- fore the Japanese could extinguish them. Cold had set in among the Manchoorian hills by this time and some snow had fallen. The victorious army therefore took pains to make itself as com- fortable as possible, advancing slowly, living off the country, and driving all enemies before it. In Peking at this time the authorities were busy attempting to devise means of safety for their armies, and to provide for their own escape from threntening danger. Li Hung Chang was de- prived of all his decorative honors. Liu Kunyi, viceroy of Nan- king, was made viceroy of Tientsin. Chang Chi Stung, viceroy of Wu-chang, was appointed viceroy of Nanking. Hu Yuff, a judge of Kwang-hsi, and Captain Von Hannecken were ordered to enlist and equip a force of trooi)S after the German model, as the nucleus of a new grand army of China. Finally Prince Kung was appointed Chief Controller of Military Affairs, with Prince Chung to assist him, thus further centralizing the power. Another imperial edict gave executive effect to the sentence passed by the military courts upon General Wei. It declared that by his withdrawal from the battle of Ping- Yang he caused the defeat of the entire army. Furthermore, he was adjudged guilty of embezzling public funds entrusted to him for the specific purpose of paying his soldiers, and of gross incompetence and violation of duty in that he permitted the troops with whom he retreated to maltreat and rob the people along the line of route, thereby lowering the national character. For these offenses General Wei was degraded from military rank and deprived of all his honors. It was also announced that Admiral Ting kept from the knowledge of the throne many important matters connected with l!he naval battle of the Yalu, and that while losing some ships and getting othei-s crippled he inflicted scarcely any damage upon the enemy. The admiral was therefore deprived of all the honors recently be- stowed upon him under a misapprehension of vhe facts. How despondent was the view of the situation held by the Chinese authorities may be judged by the first action taken by Prince Kung after his promotion. On Sunday, November 4, be- fore the news of the Japanese success at Talien-wan had reached the Chinese, owing to the cutting of the telegraph wires, he in- CHINA ASKS INTERFERENCE. 667 in- vited the repreaeutatives all the powers to assemble at the Tsung- li Yaraen to hear what the Ciiinese government had to say re- specting the critical situation. At this audience Prince Kung calmly avowed the complete impotence of his country to withstand the Japanese attack, and appealed to the powers to intervene. He made an appeal for their assistance in bringing about some agreement for the termination of the war, indicating as a basis of negotiation a willingness of China to abandon her claim to the suzerainty of Corea, and to pay a war indemnity to Japan. This appeal was made formally and officially, and marked for the first time the fact that China recognized her utter defeat. Having concluded his speech. Prince Kung handed to each minister a note embodying his remarks. The ministers were favor- ably impressed, and they applauded the frankness of China's con- fession. They promised to support her appeal to their respective governments, with a view to the restoration of peace, and in order to avert the dangers threatening all interested. Simultaneously with this action of Prince Kung, the Chinese minister to Great Britain and France endeavored to enlist the assistance of the foreign offices of those countries, but again the effort to secure peace for China by the intervention of western nations met with little encouragement, A diplomatic complication arose between Japan and France early in November which had an element of comedy in it and is of interest here. Two American citizens, John Brown and George Howie, of British extraction, offered their services to the Chinese government in the capacity of torpedo experts. They claimed to be in possession of an invention capable of most de- structive effects in naval warfare, and having succeeded in con- vincing a Chinese agent of the validity of their claim, they were engaged to employ the invention against the Japanese navy, in consideration of a payment of $100,000 down, $1,000,000 for each naval squadron destroyed, and a proportion of the value of each merchantman sent to the bottom. With their contract in their pocket, they sailed from San Francisco, and at Yokahama trans- ferred themselves to the French steamer Sydney. Meanwhile the Japanese authorities, having obtained intelligence of the two men's proceedings, telegraphed instructions to Kobe, and in that port 568 JAPANESE FORCES MEET. the alleged inventors were taken off ^^ Chinese companions. The Frep^ case in their favor, but clearly on the side of th^ After their arrest how* guarantee binding thegr^ present war, and th^j minister secured thf ^ The Japanese ^^ advantage in strpj graph line alone the line which )^i Corea, and in/. Admiral Ito's placed by thej captured sevei transports all harmony with of Talien-wan, pursuing from Chinese who wei. second invading t^ lished, both by te;^ Japanese garrisons, Corean peninsula and Consternation was caiiv^ one would have supposed not i^ was caught in a trap at Port efforts to bring all the damaged ordering the squadron to keep within _ _^^^ hai-wei. But on account of somebody's violatiotr vir-rr::=rzr dozen Chinese vessels of war were now within the Port Arthur harbor, hemmed in by the neighboring Japanese fleet. The responsible Chinese officials appeared to be callous to the fate of the empire, giving their chief attention to matters of personal interest and gain. Port Arthur was now effectively invested and threatened, and to provide for their personal safety, Kung, the taotai of the '^ji^^ 'J 'J^^S:.SSfeli!^ii^- v> vt FOREIGNERS IN ClilNESK hKRVlCE. 671 place, together with several military Icadera, ubandoned Port Arthur as hastily as possible. The efifort made by one English- man, anxious to preserve some Chinese dignity, to save Port Arthur, was received with considerable surprise and not by any means appreciated. The position of foreigners in the employ of the Chinese govern- ment has always been anomalous, but the exigencies of the war have shown up the relationship between Chinese and foreigners in a vivid and highly instructive light. Their rooted aversion to foreigners, which springs from fear, does not withhold the Chinese from flying to seek foreign aid in their extremity. On these occasions they betray a superstitious feeling towards the foreigners, regarding him as a sort of medicine man who can see through a millstone or work any other miracle. Their idea is to hire him by the job, and when the job is done cast him off as any other laborer. When war came upon them, the Chinese fleet was in a quandary, scuttling about from one snug harbor to another, the officers knowing nothing of their enemy, his movements, or his capacities. Though they were told they had the strongest fleet, they would have preferred not to put its presumed superi- ority to too severe a tost, yet they had the imperial order to destroy the enemy unconditionally. In this extremity, the authorities cast about for extemporized foreigners to help them. A hardy Scandinavian came first to the rescue, offering to scout, pilot, or fight for them, run a torpedo boat, or do anything that youthful daring might legitimately venture. Only he stipu- lated for a twenty-knot steamer, performing, however, in the meantime, the emergency service in a common tugboat of less than half that speed. The promise of a fast steamer was broken, as every promise of every Chinese official, with few exceptions, from the beginning of time has been broken, and until the end of the war the hardy Norseman had to content himself on the deck of that same wet and lively tugboat. Comical indeed were the adventures he had with his convoys of troops, munitions, and stores, which never would follow the program laid down for them, sometimes bolting from the smoke of their own escort, and and he chasing them back into their own ports whose forts would open fire on him. This was the uniform experience of Europeans 672 CHINESE llESISTANCE MELTING AWAY. .u,, who Borved the Chinese. The zeal and loyalty were all on the side of the aliens, whose hearts were broken in hopeless efforts to make the Chinese do their duty to their own country. Every foreigner who served China, no matter in what capacity, unless he belonged to the class which is content to draw pay and say nothing, had the same strenuous battle with his employers to compel theni^ to interest themselves in their own service. The Chinese, on their part, failed to comprehend the folly of the foreigner who was not content to draw his pay and keep quiet. r^ there were some half dozen rival generals, but "aring only for his own camp, and all at Tiie head of the port, the poor ^rder, was a brother of the ^was also the admiral of the to assume the responsi- ^f)f getting himself dis- .•^pt his hands out of ^r at Port Arthur kfif affairs to the instructions to Arthur at the 1^ proceeding 1 themselves. j^out a blow, I a vigorous »n ignomin- fiinese were h character- /illingness to A would only Feng-hwang in \e on the road to iough to intercept '.dng at two or three ?. Westward and entered -thien-ling pass where a rhe left division marched THE lOMFEKOU UECEIVE8 VISITOUS. 678 ;re(T re a ;hed towards Siu-Yen where another Chinese force was encamped. It WU3 the oiit[)08t of this division, pnrsuing the Chinese fugitives through Tuku-slmn, which made junction with the second army and completed the uiiuin of communication. On the 9th of November the Japanese advanced and attacked Namquan pass, a strongly fortified neck between Society Hay and Talien-wan. There was no concerted defense, and enclj Chinese detachment was separately routed. Some ihousiiiids of refugees from Kinchow, who were flying towards villages iu the vicinity, were mistaken for the enemy and were fired upon from th" rear of the defenses, many being killed. Again the Chinese authorities iu Peking decided to seek pence through the influence and intervention of western powers be- tween herself and Japan. On the morning of Novend)er 16 the emperor gave an audience to the diplomatic representati\e8 in Peking, and all the ministers were present. His Majesty's action in thus receiving the diplomatists caused considerable stir in high Chinese circles, such a violation was it of imperial Chinese eti- quette. This audience was granted on the occasion of the pres- entation of letters of congratulation by the ministers, on the six- tieth birthday of the dowager empress. For the first time in Chinese history the audience was held in the imperial palace it- self. As an especial mark of courtesy the foreign ministers entered by the central gate, the gate through which the emperor only is usually allowed to pass. The ministers had audience with the emperor separately, and the reception was of a distinctly formal character, lasting but a few minutes. The audience took place in the hall where His Majesty was accustomed to hear the Confucian classics expounded. He was seated cross-legged on the Dragon Throne, surrounded by a numerous body of princes and officials. In front of His Majest} was placed a small table covered with yellow satin, which concealed the lower half of his person. In the short inter- views with each ministei*, who stood some ten feet from His Majesty, Prince Kung and Prince Ching acted alternately as masters of the ceremonies, and interpreted the speeches. The emperor spoke entirely in the Manchoo tongue. He appeared small and delicate, possessing a fine forehead, with expressive 574 RETROSPECT OF OPERATIONS. brown eyes, and an intellectual countenance. The emperor's position, surrounded as he was by the dignitaries of his court, gave liim an imposing appearance, although to a close observer lie looked and spoke like a lad of sixteen or seventeen years. His Majesty did not indulge in any social conversation with the visitors, but spoke formally to all. The interview was granted in the hope that westeri» sympathy would be secured for the threatened orientals. Now that the approach to Port Arthur has brought the Jap- anese army almost to the walls, let us take a brief retrospect of the operations of the month. On the 24th of October the de- barkation of the second army on the Liao Tung peninsula began, to tlie northwest of the Elliot islands, at Kwa-yuen. No opposi- tion of any kind was encountered, but natural difficulties such as shallow beaches and great range of tides impeded the operation, so that all the stores were not landed until the evening of the 30th. The troops however were put in motion at once, and on October 28th the advance guard reached Pitszwo, a place of some importance at the junction of the Niuchwang, Port Arthur, and Taku-shan road. This place was twenty-five miles from the port of debarkation. Forty-five miles farther southwest, the troops came upon Kinchow, at the point where the two post roads of the peninsula met. On November 6 the Japanese captured this town without difficulty, and the next day Field Marshal Oyama's troops, pressing close on the heels of the flying enemy, reached the formidable isthmus a couple of hours after them, and to the accompaniment of a thunderous bombardment from the fleet, seized the defenses without a struggle. After such a singular display of blundering and cowardice on the part of the Chinese, what followed was not astonishing. Tlie troops passing the isth- 1 .as, found themselves on the shore of Talien-wan Bay, one of the best harbors in North Ciiina. Ample preparations for defense had indeed been made, but they were not utilized by the cow- ardly soldiers. The Japanese themselves were taken by surprise. They had not contemplated such a fiasco. Meanwhile the army had continued its march towards Port Arthur. Tlieir line of comninnication to the rear, both by land and sea, was perfect. The commissariat was in the best condi- DISPOSITION OF THE TROOPS. 676 tion for service. The hospital corps was active and modern in its manner of work. Nurses of the Red Cross Society, both men and women, accompanied the array and were provided with everything in the power of the commander to grant, being shown every courtesy. On the other hand, efforts made by hospital coi-ps to reach the Chinese wounded from the Chinese side of the lines, met with utter failure. Two Red Cross nurses were turned back by the Chinese authorities at Tien-tsin, they declining to be responsible for the safety of non-combatants. The Taotai Sheng said, "We do not want to save our wounded. A Chinaman cheer^lly accepts the fates that befall him." More than a fortnight had Marshal Oyama's army been march- ing in two divisions, eastern and western, down the peninsula to Port Arthur. The distance was less than fifty miles, but the country was a difficult one, there being practically no roads avail- able except in the cultivated valleys. As the army approached the objective point, there were occasional brushes with the enemy. At Ye-jo-shu on November 18, the army was more than half way from Kinchow to Port Arthur, and almost within sight of the goal. The next day's march was expected to bring the forces to camp on the safe side of the hills, within an hour's ride of Port Arthur, unless the Chinese should prevent. The next day was to be devoted to rest and to making sure that everything was prop- erly arranged and ready for the fray ; and it was confidently asserted that on the evening of the day after, November 21, the Japanese army would sleep peacefully in Port Arthur with Dragon Flags for bed quilts. On the morning of the 18th the Chinese made a reconnoissance in force, but retired without discovering much except a Japanese scouting party, which had a narrow escape. The army was moving along steadily with General Nishi leading the vanguard. General Yamaji, his staff, and the war correspondents all with the main body, and General Nogi bringing up the rear. The field marshal and his staff were also behind, and General Hasegawa was on the left wing, with his forces practically covering the country down to the south coast. In front and on the right as far as the not very distant north coast, small bodies of cavalry and infantrv were thrown out along the valleys. The country 28 676 •\ VILLAGES AND PEOPLE. rT- was magnificent for defensive purposes, studded with moderately steep hills, ranging from low undulations up to huge crags two thousand feet high, with hundreds of rocky ravines and gulleys ; broad fertilfe valleys never very level, intersected by winding water courses, like a labyrinth, almost dry at this season. Every two or three miles there were small villages roughly built of stone, nestling in hollows, with a few trees here and there. In and about the villages scores of natives crowded, curious to see the foreigners they feared ; on the hilltops were the more timorous ones, watching awhile and then hurrying away perhaps to tell the Chinese army what they had seen, but no at- tempt was ever made to stop them, except occasionally to ask a question or two. The road was the military road connecting Port Arthur with Kiuchow, Niuchwang and Peking. There was not the least sign of anything having been done to keep it in repair since it was first cut a quarter of a century ago, the soft parts were deep rutted, an^ would be well iiigh impassable after heavy rain, while the rocky parts were jagged and strewn with stones of all sizes and shapes. Over the plains dust drove in black clouds which enveloped the column, suggesting the great dust storms of North China. There was bright sunny weather, but the nights were cold during the march down the peninsula. ' - The day's march which had begun at seven in the morning, was to end at Ye-jo-shu, a big village near the sea, about ten miles northeast of Port Arthur. Before entering the village General Yamaji was met by an aid-de-camp with news of fighting ahead, half way to Port Arthur. After a little hesitation the general granted the request of two of the correspondents to permit them to go forward, and they galloped off to the left in a southwesterly direction. Five miles away, among the hilltops, they caught a glimpse of a small, square, stone building, like a fort or watch- tower, and all around it could be discerned figures moving amidst clouds of smoke. The road was lined many yards on either side with men and animals, all racing in the same direction, spurting to be first at a ford or a narrow defile, urging and helping each other, and only afraid the enemy might retire too soon. It was an hour after midday, and Nisbi's force had just begun to pitch camp south of Ye-jo-shu, when a courier arrived and an- V\ A SKIRMISH ON THE ROAD. 677 nounced that the outer pickets were being forced and out off. Firing had begun at eleven o*clock, but did uot become serious until an hour later. Cavalry were rushed to the front, then in- fantry, then artillery and ammunition trains as they could be mustered and got away. The correspondents gallgped hard where the laud allowed, past soldiers looking to their rifles and pouches as they ran, past lumbering guns and kicking mules, past panting coolies and Red Cross men, threading their way through the throng, cheering the wounded as they were taken to the rear, smiling bravely in spite of pain. Progress was delayed in the \gun an- JAPANESE SKIRMISHERS BEFORE I'ORT ARTHUR. narrow lanes of a picturesque village, in a little wooded hollow where the artillery stuck in a broad, shallow stream. But by eager efforts it was got clear, and went on scrambling up the bank, splashing and stumbling through half dried ditches, plunging in the soft sand, and bumping over boulders, sparing neither man nor beast in the rush up the glen to the top of the hill. There stood Brigadier-General Nishi, watching a " strategic rearward " movement of the Chinese in the plain beyond, and directing oper- ations intended to cut them off if possible. Two strong columns were pushed out right and left, like the horns of a crescent among the hills encircling the valley, towards the sea northwest 678 CHINESE ADVANCE AND RETREAT. w and Port Arthur southwest. The artillery was already on the spot, but was not used yet ; there was no need to let the Chinese know how much strength was massing before Port Arthur. tu , p The engagement originated simply in a surprise meeting of opposing scouts. The Chinese had been creeping all over the valley and surrounding hills, along the ravines and behind the ridges ; Japanese had been striking out in twos and threes, recon- noitering many miles into the enemy's country. Suddenly shots were heard, and a general move v/as made on both sides for the main road in the center. The Japanese seeing no great force in front, and knowing how quickly help could be brought from be- hind them, stood their ground at first. About noon however three stong columns of Chinese with cavalry and artillery, prob- ably three thousand in all, filed out through the hills from main roads and by-paths leading from Port Arthur. The Japanese were in great danger of being surrounded before the advance guard could arrive.. Only a score of cavalry and about two hun- dred infantry, they had to fight their way back at pretty close quarters, hand to hand at one point. The Chinese advanced with an immense display of banners almost to the foot of 'the hill where Nishi stood ; but the small force of three hundred Japanese cav- alry sent out to draw them on, seemed to scare them off, for by half past one they were in full retreat, in good order, over the same paths by which they had come, only just in time to escape the consummation of the Japanese flank movements. It was no use trying to pursue them into the hills about Port Arthur ; for as the full force of Nishi's brigade was collecting about the old stone monument the Chine&e army was disappearing through the passes six miles away. . A cavalry patrol of seven went forward and followed cautiously along the main road until dusk, turning back at a village just under the hills. They saw the bodies of the seven Japanese who had been left dead on the field, hacked, stripped, beheaded, and in two cases minus the right hand ; they saw the cavalryman's horse lying partly flayed with the skin turned back where two large pieces of flesh had been carved out and carried away. They saw traces of the Chinese every few yards, but no bodies ; they must have been removed, for the men of Satsuma had not died w w n m C/2 m ?3 73 c 7i „,,,,._ SKIRMISH AT DOJOSHU. 681 for nothing. They saw no signs of life except the patrols and men with stretchers for the dead, as they rode back slowly into camp at Ye-jo-shu, over ten miles of wretched roads, the horses nenvly dead with the fatigue of a long day's work, stumbling at every step, and finally having to be left with the coolies while the riders walked most of the way. These coolies were simply won- derful in their endurance; after the helter-skelter race for the JAPANESE SOLDIERS BEMOVINQ DEAD BODIES. monument they came up smiling only a few minutes behind, in spite of their forty pound pack on their shoulders. The advance was slow during the 19th and 20th, the desire being to give the soldiers as much rest as possible before the hard work of the assault. On arriving at Dojoshu, a village at the foot of the hills near Port Arthur, about noon on the 20th, the troops were halted. Oyama had gone around to survey the field, and was expected back every minute, so the time of waiting was passed I- 682 t>> SHIRMTSH AT DO.TOSHU. ill a hurried midday meal. Suddenly the boom of heavy guns was heard, and the Chinese were seen advancing in two oolurnns, the right one by Suishiyeli, under the eyes of the troops who held the hill where the army had halted, and the left by way of the west side of the valley, out of sight behind the foot hills. They had at last learned that the invading armies had almost surrounded them, and must be dislodged if possible. But it was not possible now. It was too late. As soon as the advancing left column got within a mile, a portion of the Japanese artillery opened with shrapnel. The forts replied as soon as the positions were revealed. About 8:00 o'clock the Chinese column got within short range of the Japanese bat- teries, and was struck fairly in the center by the first two shells. The foolish banners dropped at once, and the column lay down. Bravely the line was reformed twice, but the shelling was too hot and too accurate. The Chinese got their field guns into position but could do nothing for practically none of the Japanese were exposed to them or to the forts. There was a little musketry fire on both sides, but of no importance. The artillery settled the affair, and by 5:00 o'clock the whole of the Chinese army had marched back into camp. The forts away on the sea-front got into action before dusk, and dropped a few 12-inch shells uselessly on the hilltops a mile beyond the Japanese ; but when the last streak of daylight had disappeared, all was quiet. During the rest of the night there was no sound nor sign on either side. ■>: ,. A- .^ 1\ ' m ' r-: j>"iK>-K-^i.u;f»i; ''-V' «» Ii'/^i r!ij.|^^.M. .'fijf ^t> .i.>i.iUH''i)' I'ttitS t*;/))^ THE CAPTURE OP PORT ARTHUR AND THE MAS- l}.'Hi SACRE. H/i^^,i>:>!i.yn!a yiy'iiiJ, li^^fti Description of the Great Ohlneee Naval Station— Strength of ita poaltlon— The DefentM-^ Arrangement ot Japanese Troops, and Plan of Attack— The First Assault— Attack and Counter-Attaok- Fall of the Chinese Forts— Action of the Fleet— The Japanese In the Streets of Port Arthur— Massacre ot Fugitives— Japanese Red Cross Society snd Its Previous Uood Work— Shocking Details of the Atrocities Conmiltted After the Taking of the Town— Pour Days ot Violence and Cruelty— Stories of Eyewitnesses— Japanese Bxplanatlons and Ex- cuses— Effects ot the Capture ot Port Arthur on the War. .,- } ,r, yv