'iu ^"vS'.^^tJ^ .o>*.. V^ '^v,^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // 4- 1.0 ■no i^-^-= an lin 2.2 I.I - y^ - lUUu 1.25 in 1.4 1 ,.6 ^ . 6" 11* ! X' *¥'i>^'.^ ^-^^ 'V V '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 #>' _j>ij-i3ae4arig.-a>KM)saiMmw*.'-^_, >JCKt;>uffi>ft.>',!i3gv»,-'^ .•»."ic*i«"wir»«e^,- ■."'»•-'—; ,'>-»7^>-»r»;i:.-.!A'.-'"»- CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques i MMMRT- wamd Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. D Coloured covers/ Couverture ie couleur I I Covers damaged/ Couverture endommag^e Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurde et/ou pellicuide Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque D □ Coloured maps/ Cartes gdographiques en couleur □ Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) |T^ Coloured platbs and/or illustrations/ ^aJ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur D D D D Bound with other r?aterial/ Reli^ avec d'autres documents Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La reliure serr^e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge int6rieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certalnes pages blanches ajoutdes lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela dtait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6t6 filmdes. Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppl^mentaires; L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'i! lui a 6td possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du point de vue biblfographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la methods normale de filmage sont indiquds ci-dessous. I I Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommag^es Pages restored and/oi Pages restaurdes et/ou pelliculdes Pages discoloured, ..iiained or foxec Pages ddcolordes, tachet^es ou piqudes Pages detached/ Pages d6tach6es I I Pages damaged/ I I Pages restored and/or laminated/ I I Pages discoloured, ..iiained or foxed/ I I Pages detached/ D D D D Showthrough/ Transparence Quality of print varies/ Qualitd in^gale de I'impression Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du materiel suppl^mentairu Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Pages wholiy or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6x6 filmdes d nouveau de fapon d obtenir la meilleure image possible. This item is filmed at tta reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est filmd au taux de reduction indiqu^ ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 12X 16X 20X 24X 26X 30X 28X 32X ils u lifier ne ige The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: Library of Congress Photoduplication Service The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. L'exemplaire filmd fut reproduit grdce d la g6n6rosit6 de: Library of Congress Photoduplication Service Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettet6 de l'exemplaire filmd, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol -^(meaning "CON- TINUED "}, or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprim6e sont film6s en commenqant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernldre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impresslon ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont film6s en commenpant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impresslon ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un des symboles suivants apparaftra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ► signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN ". iVIaps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film6s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 d partir de Tangle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'Images n^cessaire. Les diagrammes suivants iilustrent la mithode. ita ure. ] 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 mm^if^timiiiimuteilmmtiiMtatmiMmum-f''---- ■■^ •i?=?-;:»'.'^- ■-/'■■r''W=" ■'"«ww^'''T^»' ■ V,.., .-awp,-. ; srj t' ^ '^ iS<>y ^^^J^y "^^A^t^ ^/ZL^ '9faJA^^ < iM>iii»iwiWWte*>*— MM* iBw i i -U Kw r- -J-i^ -•^MiqMVifWW^qHi ■^ f ii H' M ■ 'mil i f.|iiyA ; t-ti'',f ■ MIM i fc NEW WAEEEN'S HOUSEHOLD PHYSICIAN, ENLAKGED AND KEVISED, BGIirO A BBIEF DESCEIPTION, IN PLAIN LANGUAGE, or AUiTHX Diseases of Men, Women and Children, WITH THB LATEST AND MOST APPROVED METHODS OF TREATMENT. ALLOPATHIC DEPARTMENT / IRA WARREN, A.M., M.D., Pellow of the Maiiachuietts Meilical Society, etc. BEVIgBD BT WILLIAM THORNDIKE, M.D., fellow of Mansachusetts Medical Society, and Member of Boston Society for the Improve- ment of Medicine, etc., and others. HOM(EOPATHIC DEPARTMENT A. E. SMALL, A.M., M.D., President of the Hahnemann Medical College, Chicago, 111. BEVI8ED BT J. HEBER SMITH, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica. Boston University School of Medicine, and laie President of Ma»- lachusetts Homaopathio Society, And insny others on special subjects. FULLY ILLUSTRATED. By 86 Figures on i6 Splendid Colored Lithograph Plates, 262 ENk^KAviNGs, and Two Full-Page Manikins. TAit ieok is published strictly as a Suhtcription Book, and to he sold only as such, A ny person or persons infringing upon these rights will be held liable. THB RIOHT OF TRANSLATION IS RESERVED. BOSTON : A. I. BRADLEY & COMPANY, 234 AND 236 COMORBM STBBBT, 1898. \mmmm^ '■'-■''■' •''iiiirfiiiahii'fn 1'"' TW.Wnrs ffKEfVED 1 \^ c\^ :^57;5 Entered occonling to Act of Congreu, in the year 1859, by IRA WARREN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the DIf trict of Man. Entered according to Act of Congreis, in the year 1(63, by IRA WARREN, In the Clerk's Office of theDistrlctCourt of the District of Mass. Entered according to Act of Congress, In the year 1870, by CHARLES ROBINSON, JB., In the Office of the Librarian of Congrers, at Washington. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by CHARLES ROBINSON, JR., In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by CHARLES ROBINSON, Jr.. In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Entered according to Act of Congress, ir the yaar 1807, by GEO. A. BLANEY, Admstr. Estate of Ira Warren, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. KIOBT OP TRANSLATION IB RESERVED. This work Is published strictly as a Subscription Book, and to be sold only as such.' Any person or persons in- fringing upon these rights will be held liable. H. M. PLIMPTON A CO., PRIN-.ER8 A BINDERS, NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A. PEEPACE. This book is written for the people. It is based on the assump- tion that every man — the mechanic, the farmeiMind the day laborer, as well as the professional man — has a right to all the knowledge he 18 capable of acquiring, on all subjects, — medicine not excepted. 1 he book aims, therefore, to popularize and adapt to the many what Has been claimed as belonging only to the few. I do not hesitate to avow that my sympathies, as a man, are with the great masses, who maybe called the bone and muscle of the race. Ihey are, in the main, more shrewd, more endowed with common sense, more simple and true in their natural instincts, and conse- quently less perverted, than those who claim more refinement and a nigher place m the social scale. " ^n men," says Hippocrates, one of the great fathere of medicine, "ought to be acquainted with the medical art. I believe that knowl- edge ot medicine is the sister and companion of wisdom." Such knowledge would shield the many from the impositions of quackery. No one, I venture to say, who reads this book thoroughly, will be often imposed upon thereafter by quack nostrums, or quack doctora. Jivery man s physical organization is his own ; and he is charged with the responsibility of taking care of it. To do this properly, he needs knowledge of it; and to withhold this from him is another form of the old oppression, which decreed knowledge and power to the few, and Ignorance and obedience to the many. In accordance with the design of the work, it has been written in plain simple English, and brought within the comprehension of all who have medium powers of mind. In preparing this book, a great number of authors have been care- tully consulted, to whom I acknowledge large indebtedness; yet the work is not a mere compUation. In dealing with each disease, I have aimed to sketch a brief pen-and-ink portrait, so like it that every reader shall know the original whenever he sees it; and then V give, in the fewest words, the best treatment. • No work of the sort has ever explained the reasons, or given the whys and wherefores of medicine to anything like the extent of this : nor has any one been so extensively illustrated. The engravings have ^en, with fp- exceptions, done expressly for this work. The colored lithographs and manikins are inserted at great expense, and add much to the value of the book. I. W. SECOND PREFACE. The Household Physician was written in the belief that the people were ready and waiting for a popular medical work based on liberal principles ; and that one hundred and forty thousand copies have already been sold is a sufflciont evidence that the belief was well-founded — many persons assuring the publishers that fifty or one hundred dollars would be no temptar tion for them to part with the copy they have if they could not obtain another. Such an extensive sale of so large a book, with the demand constantly increasing, shows its value. For these evidences of public favor the Publishers are not ungrateful or unmindful of corresponding duties on their part. A chapter is now added, therefore, on "Old Age and its Diseases," — a subject never before intro- duced into any popular treatise on medicine, and very rarely, indeed, into any medical book. Great pains have been taken in preparing it, and we sincerely hope that many fathers and mothers will, in future years, be kindly remembered in consequence of the suggestions it contains. Also a chapter oa new popular Gymnastics, illustrated with many cuts. The Publishers. THIRD PREFACE. The Household Physician, now so well known throughout the English and German-speaking world, again appears before the public, printed from entirely new plates, revised and improved in accordance with the progress of medical science of the present day. Old, obsolete matter has been discarded, and only those methods and remedies of olden times have been preserved to which, though numerous, recent discoveries have found nothing superior. Much new information has been added, including articles on Russian and Turkish baths at home. Drowning, and on Diseases of the Nervous System peculiar to modern times. The illustrations have been supple- mented by fine colored plates and manikins showing the arrangement of the various organs of the body, the muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves. New colored plates of medicinal herbs have also been added, thus giving a dis- tinct idea, not only of the pathological seat of many maladies, but of many of the sources from whence are derived their specific remedies. The prescription list has been most carefully revised, and the old heroic doses of opium in its various forms have been superseded by milder nar- cotics and sedatives. Mercury no longer shows its hideous features on these pages, except as it is to be given in syphilitic affections. The work now airly competes in rich information with any newer system of popular medicine, and may be relied on, as ever before, for accuracy, best advice, aud the most modern medical customs. The Publishbbs. i TABLE OF CONTENTS. Preface ^ • General Introductory Remarks Anatomy Physiological Laws of Life and Health — Hygiene Temperaments, Constitution and Symptoms Skin Diseases Diseases of the Brain and Nerves Diseases of the Throat Diseases of the Chest .... Heart Diseases Diseases of the Abdominal Cavity Venereal or Sexual Diseases Female Diseases .... Married Ladies' Perpetual Calendar . Care of Children and their Diseases . Diseases of the General System and MisceHaueous Di Diseases Peculiar to Modem Times Old Age and its Diseases Accidents ...... Surgical Diseases .... Homoeopathic Treatment of Diseases . A Treatise by A. E. Small, M.D. Diseases of the Head . Diseases of the Brain and Nerves Diseases of the Eye and Lids Diseases of the Ear Disorders of the Nose . Diseases of the Respiratory Organs Diseases of the Urinary Organs . Diseases of the Organs of Generation Diseases of the Skin Diseases of the, Organs of Circulation Diseases involving the Various Organs Diseases of Various Organs and Regions Dropsies, Hydropsies .... Insidious Diseases .... seases L Paob 3 S 14 64 122 134 164 208 229 274 'jm 360 379 443 445 469 493 496 509 317 608 608 613 615 622 625 62" 628 634 638 642 651 653 665 684 686 i TABLE OF CONTENTS. Homoeopathic Treatment (continued). VAa* MiscellaneouH Diueases 600 Affections of the Mind 692 Surgical Diseases 700 Diseases of Infants 706 , DiBe<\8eH of Women 713 Labor, Parturition 716 Speciflc Indicr aons for Remedies in Fevers .... 720 Poisons and their Antidotes 726 Processes of the Hydropathic Treatment ..,,.*. 732 Domestic Management of the Sick-Room 766 Cookery for the Sick-Room 789 Dieting in regard to Health . . ' 798 Dieting in Disease 801 Bathing 803 Proofs of Death 807 Medicines and their Preparation^ — Materia Medica .... 808 Prescriptions — Recipes 920 Proprietary and Patent Medicines 944 Physical Culture — Gymnastics 960 Pronouncing Dictionary 961 General Index 965 Index to Homoeopathic Department . . . . . . . 982 LIST OF COLORED AND FULL-PAGE PLATES. Portrait of Dr Plate I. II. " III. IV. " V. " VI. VII. " VIII. " IX. »' X. «' XI. " XII. XIII. " XIV. XV. " XVI. " XVII. " XVIII. " XIX. . Ira WaiTen Sectional Manikin of Human Head The Human Skeleton . . . . Muscles of the Human Body Arteries and Veins of the Human Body Fig. 1, Measles ; Fig. 2, Scarlet Fever Small-Pox Erysipelas Sectional Manikin of Human Trunk Internal Organs of Human Body . Syphilitic Eruptions Syphilitic Affections of Throat Medicinal Plants (Aloes, etc.) " " (Bittersweet, etc.) " " (Dandelion, etc.) " " (Ground Ivy, etc.) " " (Hemlock, etc.) " " (Mullein, ete.) " " (Plantain, etc.) " " (Thoroughwort, etc.) Frontispiece. Facing Preface. . p. 19 Facing p. 27 37 (( u (( '(( it (( (( u (( « i< (( « (t (> (t " 136 " 140 " 142 " 164 •' 291 «' 362 " 368 " 814 " 820 " 836 " 840 " 844 " 856 " 884 « 882 Paoi 690 699 700 706 718 716 790 796 789 766 780 796 801 808 807 808 090 944 980 961 96S 989 tispiece. p. 19 gP- 27 (( 37 u 136 « 140 (( 142 At 164 ii 291 (( 362 (( 868 t< 814 (( 820 (( 886 (( 840 (( 844 (< 856 i( 864 << 882 t \ \ i ^^v .^'' r frilt-IIMTi'iri"" i1 •■ T-. "••'--^"rtriftiih'iii^imi] I { / I L 4 \j^ Copyright, by Bradley & Woodruff, 1892. (f-- IK'J GENERAL INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Progress of Medicine. Medicine may be divided into a science and an art. It is a science as it presents facts and evolves principles ; an art as it consists of rules for practice. For its present attainments, it is indebted partly to researches scientifically conducted, and partly to empirical and haphazard discovery. As a science, medicine is chiefly indebted, and must ever be, to the members of what is called the " regular profession." This body of men, while it contains numerous persons whose talents and attain- ments do not raise them above the mei'est quacks, does yet embrace large numbers of men who are alike ornaments of the race, and lights of their profession. It is to the writings of this class that every stu- dent must go who would qualify himself for the proper discharge of the duties of a physician ; and he who attempts the practice of medi- cine without a knowledge of standard medical writings is either a fool or a knave — either without the brains to understand science, or destitute of the honesty to deal fairly with men. While this is said, however, it must be granted that a respectable portion of the facts which make up the science of medicine have been contributed by the industry of men who have not had what is called a regular standing in the profession. I am sorry to be obliged to add that the great body of this class have been quacks and charlatans, while only a few of them have had talents and acquirements. Nevertheless, they have been too indiscriminately condemned. Their labois have been useful in various ways, and have contributed to the advancement of medical knowledge. A regard for truth, not less than justice to these persons, requires this statement. One-Idea Men. — The " irregulars," as they have been called, have generally had their hobbies, which they have ridden with singular diligence, and often in little better than John Gilpin plight. Yet they have di-awn attention to great truths, which the regular profession either did not see, or would not commend ; and they have done this by dwelling incessantly upon some single idea. The one-idea men, of every class, have been ridiculed in all ages ; and indeed have always exhibited some singular obliquities. Yet when they have been men of learning and talents, they have accom- plished great things, either for good or evil. \' mm - OENKKAI, INTRODUCTOKY KKMAUKS. Martin Luther was strictly fv one-idea man. The wliolo forro of liis extraordinary eharactor was jriventothe ()r()|)ajfation of the sinjirlo doctrine of justification by faith; and by the incessant efTortH he made for this purpose, ho sank the doctrine deeper into the heart of Europe than a hundred ecpially powerful men could have done by giving it only an ordinary share of attention. William Ellery ('banning was a one-ideaist. Matu the noblest work of creation, to be developed, educated, adorned, loved, made like unto (iod,wa8 the thought of his life, — a thought which ho em- bellished and moulded into all the forms of beauty which our flexible language is capable of producing. Under the mild promptings of his genius, and the workings of this thought, philanthropy, quick- ened into a new life, spread out her aims, and embraced the world. Sir Isaac Newton was a one-ideaist. So entirely did he devote his great powers to astronomy and the liigher mathematics, that he be- came unfitted for the duties of social and domestic life — so unfitted, that when induced by his friends to give a little attention to courtship, he fell into one of his abstractions, and detected himself in using his lady-love's fore-finger to poke down the ashes in his pipe I But Sir Isaac advanced mathematical science to a point far beyond its previ- ous attainments, and laid it under such obligations as no general scholar could have done. It is in this way, though in a vastly less degree, and without tlie scientific method, that one-ideaists in medicine benefit the world. They seize upon some single remedy, — generally one which has been overlooked — and using it themselves to the exclusion of all others, they press it upon the world as the panocba for all its ills. With them disease is a unit, and they have found its one all-important remedy. Thus convinced, they jn-ess it upon others with the enthu- siasm of fanatics. Testing it in all cases, they develop all its virtues. Those who have the good sense to turn their attention to it have only to use it in those cases for which its adaptation is proved. It is in this way that these men become, incidentally, medical dis- coverers ; and not being burdened with modesty, they never with- hold their importunities till the world acknowledges whatever value there is in their discovery. And although they may do some mis- chief with the single-edged tool which they handle so industriously, I doubt if they do much more than many better workmen who use too many. At all events, wise and generous men thank them for their gift to the profession, small though it may be, and use it in the light of a clearer knowledge. Hydropathy. — As an illustration of what I have just been saying, 1 may refer to hydropathy, or the plan of treating all diseases by water. The singularly careful avoidance, by the whole medical faculty, for many ages, of the article of pure water as a medicinal, or, rather, health-imparting agent, was anything but creditable to the profession. It is now admitted by all sensible men that water, cold and warm, ORNKRAF, INTRODUCrORY RKMARK8. force of tllU Hlll^lo tH he inadu of Europe 1 giving it lio noblest ved, made ich ho em- lur flexible nptings of ipy, quick- ie world, devote his hat he be- io unfitted, • courtship, a using his I But Sir d its previ- no general irithout tlie the world, ch has been E all others, ills. With ll-important t the enthu- its virtues. to it have roved. medical dis- never with- itever value 3 some rais- ustriously, I who use too era for their in the light been saying, 868 by water. 1 faculty, for 1, or, rather, \Q profession, d and warm, used at jH-oper times and to a reasonable extent, huH great power over several diseases, and is a powerful promoter of li'eiilth. No physiinaiis, except those who arc; too ii lolciit to know what is going on in the world, or too fast lu(;k(!d in old pnijudicos to touch new things, now oniit ita use in tmujf cases, I low warm anctsincere my own approval of water iw a r nedy is, almost every page of this volume will attest. Indeed, it may honestly be allowed that the hydropathists have fairly droicni'd the almost criminal professional prejudice against water. They are in all tlio more need of this (concession, since in their absurd zeal to cure all diseases l)y water, and make aquatic; an- imals of men, they have also drowned their own common-sense. Homoeopathy — This mode of practice is of comparatively recent origin ; but it has already sunk itself deep into the popular heart, and has drawn to its support many of the wealthy, the cultivated, and the intelligent, in our most refined communities. I do not pro- fess to comprehend and appreciate its principles, nor would it bo honest in me to pretend to see how its infinitesimal doses can pro- duce the results which it often shows, and which it is fair to confess look like singular success ; and saying this, I can neither adopt nor approve the violent denunciations and censures which so many are induced (by fashion, I fear) to employ towards this generally well- cultivated class of practitioners. I hold them as useful members of the profession, and mean ever to cultivate towards them fraternal feelings. They give great attention to exercise, diet, the use of water, etc., — things which contribute very powerfully to preserve health, and to restore it when lost. In this thing, the oUUchooI practitioners ought to learn a most important lesson from them. In truth, they are learning it, but very slowly and reluctant! i/, I am sorry to say. The centml idea of the homoeopathist, that " like cures like," the " great law of cure," as he styles it, I do not feel called upon to dis- cuss — theories being of much less consequence than rules of prac- tice. The old-school men have certainly much to learn from him respecting the augmented power of medicine from the greatest possi- ble division by trituration. We have learned from him, too,— though many are too ungenerous to confess the source of the infor- mation, — that we may gain our purposes with much less medicine than we were once in the habit of giving. Eclectics. — There is a large and growing class of physicians, called, at first, after the founder of the school, Thomsonians. Subsequently, they were generally known as Botanic Physicians. Now they pass under the title of Eclectics. These men, directing their attention, at first, chiefly to cayenne and lobelia, have gradually extended their zealous researches over the vegetable kingdom, and have gathered much information worthy to be preserved. These researches have revealed a sadly neglected duty on the part of old-school practitioners. TS^ WT^^^^S?*?***" I 8 OKNERAL INTUODUCTORY RRMAKKS. Tho iHlncatioi) niid tiiltMitM of tliiH cIohh of pnictitioiuM'H have grad- ually risen, year by ^ear, until tliey liavo Heveral medical hcIiooIh, where HliidenU an; well inHtrueted in the principles of ni(;(li(Mne, hy men of real ahility. They have also a liUiraturr of no mean si^ni- ticance, espceially in the department of materia niedieu. The liut of renjcdies they liavo ffivnn to the w(»rld, drawn from our home plantH, are a l>oon of no small value. I regard them an equal in value to all we were previounly in possession of from the vegetable kingdom. The sulwtitution of 'ngetiible remedies, in most ciiHes, for mercurials, can hardly be too highly prized. Physiologists. — Besides these various direct privctitionera of medi- cine, there is the large and (}uite intelligent :;laH8 of physiologists, including the phrenologista, who nearly discard medicine, and ai>- pealing to the laws of life established by the (Creator, urgt temper- ance in eating and drinking ; exercise in the oj)en air ; securing of pure air by ventilating dwellings, school-houses, and (ihurches ; lath- ing in cold and wa'-m water; cheerfulness of mind ; and the cultiva- tion of tlie Christian virtues, as the only mtional modes of securing health and life. I confess myself inclined to forgive this class their error in Ikvu- ishing medicine, in view of their zeal and success in disseminating hygienic information of the utmost value and importaiice to man- kind. Put man into harmony with nature, and establish over him the empire of reason, and their theory would be excellent; but as tilings are, medicines, like prisons, and alms-houses, and large cities, are " necessary evils." Other Practitioners. — Finally, we have Mesmerists, Pathetists, Electro-biologists, Spiritualists, Nutritivists, and what not, all pre- tending to cure disease by processes peculiar to themselves. They are all experimenters in different departments of nature, — now spreading over oiir eyes a large plaster of humbuggery, and now drawing a small curtain and giving -us a peep into the large and well-furnished rooms which nature has fitted up for our reception, b}' and by, when we are better instructed. All Useful in a Degree. — On the whole. I am disposed to regard all the operators in the different departments of medicine a* useful in their degree ; excepting always those mercenary quacks, who lie about their remedies to make money. Each of all these (I mean all sincere and true men who believe what they teach) is aiding in some measure the general advancement. And though the truths, as they gather and present them, are but fragmentary, they are useful in the hands of those true Eclectics, who have the wisdom and independence to select the best things out of all systems. General Conclusion. — This brings me to remark that there is but one truly libera' and piulosoTjlvical school oi medicine. It is the Ec- lectic, — composed of those who have liberality enov gh to reject rM niNKKAI, r».TKOI)trCTOUY KKMARKS. 9 prnvd- iooIh. e, 1>.V i \\ni home ml ill i table caseH, medi- ogiste, lul a\y- iMuper- ring of ; bath- •ultiva- 3curing in l)an- linating to man- VQV him but as e cities, .thetists, till inv- They now nd now r^e and )tion, by lo regard |ih useful who lie Imean all in some L as they lul in the pendence tre is but Is the Ec- Ito reject (•very frcliifiiu' iii/iiti'm, and to Hulect out of all HyHteins thone thingH vvliicli iiH' a|i|iroved by t'xpcrionce and reason. I liave alrrady Hpokcn (if the school of practitionei's callt'd KchHttic. To a certain extent tliey an* (entitled to tlu* name, but I tliink not entirely. They have formed a separate and exclusiv»t Hcbool. They have turned some articles out of the materia medica /loioti/ili/ for no letter reasoji than iM'cause their jiarty is conunitted to th.ar rejec- tion ; whereas tliey should have no party, but allow each man to act as if he were a citizen of the world only, and not a member of any restricttnl association. But I will not ([uarrel with them on this point. I think they are hefoinin picsciil)u with sonic intelligent aim. Me will not know 'everything, to be sure, but what he does know, he will have a reason for knowing. If he give a medieine, he will have in view the el emieal (dianges of the solids and llnids of the body, known to be produced by the disease he is combating. He will also kee]> in mind the solution of the medicine in the fluids of the body, and the chemical reaction between its com- ponents and the acids, alkalies, etc., found in the alimentary tube and elsewhere. As the science of medicine advances, and becomes liberal and ec- lectic in its character, gathering from all systems the best attested facts, and using them to the exclusion of all mere theories, these facts must not themselves degenerate into mere pettsd theories, but must be held in subordination to future experience. Medical prac- titioners, who would meet the wants of the age, must be men of progress. The light of to-morrow, with them, must nKwlify and im- prove the light of to-day. They rv iit knock CN'ery hour for admis- sion into sqme new apartment of nature. Need of Liberality. — That medical progress may be real, physi- cians mu3t be free from bigotry. They must have no narrow preju- dices against any man, or class of men ; but be ready to examine candidly any new thought or new remedy brought to their notice, from whatever source it may come. They should not hedge themselves about with such restrictive by- laws and Bocietiiry rules as are calculated to fetter their thoughts, and turn their investigations, by a sort of moral necessity, into the narrow channels of party conservatism ; remembering that he who is once enclosed by such restrictio'.is must hew a path for his feet through bigotry, and even malevolence itself, before he can escape them, or be a free man in any node sense. The members of medical societ'.es do themselves no credit, in the nineteenth century, by putting on airs, and telling others to stand at a distance. This Avould do better, had medicine become an exact science ; but while the primary effects of even opium are not settled — some physicians considerint^ it as ^irimarily stimulant, others as sedative, others as stimulant to tl^e nerves and sedative to the muscles, others as neither, and still c thers as alterative, — such ex- clusiveness seems neither wise nor modest. When the professors of the iiealing art can hoard medical knowiedgre as misers hor>rd gold, and can submit its purity to equally certain tests, it will appear in better taste for them to grow exclusive. Until then, the most be- coming badge they can wear is the Christian direction : " Let each esteem others better than himself." Medical societies, with liberal by-laws, are fitted to do good ; but it would be hard to show that those with stringently restrictive '"lies can operate otherwise than as checks upon progress. In truth, they are apt to become mere catacombs in which to embalm dead ideas . ^Mm GKNKRAIi INTKOUUCTORY KEMARK8. 11 3od; but live ■^'iles ith, tliey id ideas. They are very liable to Im made the instruments for iwcoinplishiiig the ambitious purposes of a few leading men. They tenil to suppress all sympathy with everything outside their orgauization ; and they Ijeget a feeling like that which would forbid the lixed stars to drop their light into our atmosphere without first coming down and joining the solar system. Conservative Leaders. — There are no influences which hold so steady a check upon medical progress as the conservative leaders in many of our medical association , Not that they are oi)posed to im- provement in the medical art, t /ould object to any amount of dis- covery, if it could come to the profession through channels which they have the honor of opening. But against all light from outside, or from obscure sources, they will draw down the curtains, and close the doors ; and, if it chance by any means, in spite of them, to get within the sacred enclosure, they will call it darkness, and, as priests of the temple, will attempt to atone for the indignity offered to the god of medicine, and fill the whole sky with murky clouds from their altivrs. These men have strong faith in caste, and in the right of the few to govern the many. In the low places of society, they look for nothing but ignorance and poverty. Notwithstanding that the light of every natural day breaks in the horizon, and ascends, they so far despise analogies as to insist that all medical light breaks at what they call the zenith of the profession, and comes dovm. With them the temples of Esculapius are all rebuilt, and tLcy are the priests ; and to offer in sacrifice the smallest medicinal plant is a sacrilege, unless it be entrusted to their hands. Such persons measure and weigh a man by the amount of money he has. Property is their god, which gives laws to everything. With them, knowledge, like property, goes to posterity by will,- — they being the principal testators. Like their money, t' \ it goes chiefly to their sons, and to certain favored institutions, by .vhoni and in whicli it is to be hoarded, and whence it is to go out only ux certain appi'oved channels, weighed and stamped, like coin from the mint. These are the men who regard knowledge as a contraband article, unless regularly entered at the custom-house, with bills of lading properly certified by the conservative magnates at some other me- tropolis. With them, knowledge is not like the west wind, fanning the brow of the peasant as gently as that of the king — not like the light of heaven, entering the small, clean window of the hut, as readily as the larger one of the palace ; not a boon which comes alike freely to all, and which is to be everywhere amplified, changed sus circumstances and conditions require, and especially adapted to the present hour. It i,? rather, as they too often view it, like litho- jrraphed letters '-i advice, printed upon stamped paper, and carefully sealed up and addressed to posterity. And then, if they can be made the mail carriera, and be permitted to pass, unchallenged, with the precious bag, from post to post, and pass it over, carefully sealed, II! "Til ■ '■. 12 (iENEKAL INTKOnUCTOllY RKMAKKS. to the next generation, they will think it has done its work, and that they have fulfilled their mission. I would not be unjust or severe, but I cannot but remark fui-ther, that these men present but one view of humanity. They are monot- onous objects of inspection. Look at them a thousand times, and you see only the same unaltered phase of life. To the mariner on life's ocean, they are not safe lights. If he approach them on the dark side they remain black as night to him, until he comes round to their shining front. Th^y are not revolving lights. They have light : it may be bright and genial ; but it gleams out upon the watei-s only in one direction. It does not sweep round, and throw its rays upon every mariner's path. Such men are useful, but only to a certain class. They have in them no true omnilogy — they are not all-teaching. Their lives are ins ructive to their friends, their clique, their party, their school ; but a stumbling-block, a hindrance, an oppression, an offence to evei-y- body else. They are like porcupines, with fronts smooth and easy of access ; but their backs bristle with quills to stick into those on the wrong side. They are not whole men. Humanity has infused into them only one or two of its elements. They have length, but no breadth. They are citizens of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, or Cincinnati, but not of the world. Within certain circles, they are genial friends, but cynics and haters outside of them From their high places they come down to their humble followeid with tokens of friendly recognition ; upon others they frown and lower like armed castles. The True Physician. — How different the character of the true man and physician ! He is genial in his disposition. He has no dislikes and antipathies, and hates no men except tyrants. He accepts knowl- edge, though it come from the humblest source ; believing th( ve is no experience but will repay a study of it, and no husbandman's plough- share but turns up a soil worth analyzing. He belongs exclusively to no party, and can be approached easily by respectable men of every stamp. Whether belonging to the same society with him or not, you may take hold of liis nature and draw it out, without hav- ing it slip from your fingers, and spring back from your presence into a thousand kinks, like an overtwisted thread. He is a whole man. God made him for the world, and not for a party. By some strong influence you may possibly, for a time, draw him from the world into some iiarrower sphere, but not only will his reluctant nature, like a retiring tide, run back continually to embrace the continent, but will soon break from its confinement, and, like a full sea, come back, boil- ing and running over. What is now Wanted. — The foregoing remarks indicate one great leading want, in order that medical knowledge may increase. It is liberality in the true and full sense. We want true men in high places, who will not only let their otmi light shine everywhere, but mil cease to hinder otfier meiCs light from shining. GENKHAL INTKOltUCTORY KEMAKKS. 13 man. Itrong into like a It will boil- great It is higli it mil Beyond this, find of nearly equal importance with it, we want med- ical knotvledge diffused among the people. We want — what the world has never seen — a popular medical literature. We want the temples of Esculapius pulled down, and the priests turned into the streets to bersome teachers of the multitude, rather than worshippers in the inner sanctuary. I know this want will be stoutly denied, but not, I think, on well- considered grounds. We do not think it necessary to confine a '•M, 'lere is no .aymen to ol)8curest or push the Why should body? They knowledge of the soul to the ministers of religion. branch of theology which we do not deem it proper study; we even popularize it for our children, in towns of New England, laymen who follow the plough plane, become, in many cases, eminent theologians. they not study the lower science which relates to the liave not been able to heretofore, because its mysteries have been purposely hidden under technicalities. These coverings should be torn off. It is said that those who begin to read upon medicine are very apt to imagine themselves afflicted with the various symptoms they find described. To some small extent this is true ; but it is also true that the light they obtain relieves them from many apprehensions which their previous ignorance allowed to prey upon them ; as boys lose their feara when the light of the morning changes to some familiar object the ghost of the preceding night. Physicians oppose the popularizing of this kind of knowledge too often, I fear, upon the sordid ground of self-interest. They think their own services will be less sought. We do not dispense with the services of ministei-s because the people study theology, neither shall we cease to employ teachers and practitioners of medicine when each man and woman is wise enough to study the healing art. The principal change we shall witness will be much larger attainments in knowledge among practitioners, — just as the ministers of religion now know, and are obliged to know, ten times as much as in those darker periods when the people re- ceived all spiritual knowledge from their mouths. The teachers of any art or science are obliged to keep in advance of their pupils. Let medicine become a popular study, and we shall have very few io^norant physicians, and quackery will become one of the impossi- liilities. Homoeopathists, Eclectics, Hydropathists, and Physiolo- jifists, believe in scattering medical books, stripped of their techni- calites, among the multitude, and their people purchase very few secret, advertised medicines ; — these being cliiefly bought and con- sixmed by the followers of those who believe this kind of reading fosters quackery 1 ANATOMY. Anatomy describes the structiu'e and organization of living be- ings. Special Anatomy treats of the weight, size, shape, color, etc., of each organ separately. General Anatomy investigates the tissues or structures from which organs are formed. Surgical Anatomy or Regional Anatomy (jonsiders the relations of organs to one another. Physiological Anatomy treats of the uses or functions of organs in health. Pathological Anatomy describes the alterations made upon dif- ferent organs by disease. We shall here introduce a very brief compendium only of Sj)ecial Anatomy. It is of great consequence that everj' person should have some knowledge of anatomy and physiology. Self-knowledge ought to extend to the Iwdy as well Jis the mind. To know one's self, physi- cally, is to gain a new insight into that wonderfully skilful adjust- ment of means to ends which is never absent from the works of God. Without this knowledge, one cannot know how to take care of the health ; and without health, life loses most of its value. Structure of the Body. The human body is composed of solids and fluids. The fluids are most abundant in cliildren and youth. It is this which gives softness and pliancy to their flesh. In old age tlie fluids are less abundant, and the flesh is more hard and wrinkled. The fluids contain the whole body, as it were, in a state of solu- tion ; or rather, they hold the materials out of which it is manufac- tured. Chemical Properties of the Body. The four elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, make up nearly the whole bulk of the fluids and soft solids of the human body. A numljer of other elements, cliiefly in a state of combina- tion, and in much smaller quantities, enter into several of the tissues. Binary Compounds. — Thus, we ha/e carbonic acid in blood, urine and sweat; and we have water univei-sally diffused through the sys- tem, — each of these substances l)eing a binary compound, that is, composed of two elements. Compounds of more than two Elements are widely distributed over the body ; as, eellu watei fi'oin iinoth of hid silk, Fat "id con lias 110 '''« oIei( ^'it is us ANATOMY. 15 this uids , urine le sys- hat is^ ibuted Carbonate of Soda in serum, saliva, bile, mucus, sweat, and tears. Carbonate of Lime in cartilage, bone, and teeth. Phosphate of Lime in Iwnes, teeth, and cartilage. Phosphate of Iron in blood, gastric juice, and urine. Chloride of Sodium in blood, brain, muscle, bone, cartilage and pigment. Chloride of Potassium in blood, gastric juice, milk, and saliva. Chloride of Calcium in gaatric juice. Sulphate of Potassa in urine, gastric juice, and cartilage. Sulphate of Soda in sweat, bile, and cartilage. Sulphate of Lime in bile, hair, and scarf-skin. , Oxide of Iron in blood, black pigment, and hair. Organized Compounds. — Besides the above inorganic elements and compounds, several organized substances, or proximate elements, as they are called, exist largely in the body. The chief of these are albumen, fibrin, gelatin, mucus, fat, and casein. Others need not be named. Albumen is found in great abundance in the'human body. It is the mw material out of which the flesh and other tissues are made. The white of an egg, which is nearly pure albumen, is a good speci- men of it. Fibrin, when removed from the human body, changes from a solu- ble to an insoluble state. In other words, it coagulates in a kind of net- work. Nearly the same thing takes place constantly in the living body, when the liquid fibrin leaves its soluble state, and is deposited as solid flesh. Fibrin bears the same relation to albumen that wool- len yarn does to wool ; it is spun from it in the busy wheel of or- ganic life. And the flesh or muscle is related to fibrin as the cloth is to yarn ; it is woven from it in the vital loom. Fibrin has been called liquid flesh. Qelatin exists largely in the ligaments, cartilages, bones, skin, and cellular tissue. When dissolved, five parts in one hundred of hot water, it forms a thick jelly. Isinglass is a form of gelatin obtained from the air-bladder of the sturgeon and the codfish. Glue is still another form of gelatin. It is extracted from the bones, and parings of hides, and the hoofs and ears of cattle, by boiling in water. Black silk, varnished over with a solution of gelatin, forms court-plaster: Mucus is a sticky fluid secreted by the gland-cells. It is spread over the surface of the mucous membranes, and serves to moisten and •Iffcnd them from injury. Fat consists of cells held together by cellular tissue and vessels, iinil contains glycerin, stearic acid, margaric acid, and oleic acid. It liiis no nitrogen. If the stearic acid be in excess, the fat is hard ; if till! oleic acid preponderate, it is soft. The stearine extracted from tat is used for making very hard candles. 16 ANATOMY. t I CaAeIn is abundant in milk and constitutes its curd. It is held in solution in milk by a little soda. When dried, it is cheese. It is found in blood, saliva, b and the lens of the eye. It forms the chief nourishment of thos ig animals which live on milk. It is found in peas, beans, and i^ s. Vegetable and animal casein are precisely alike in all their properties. Fibrin and albumen contain almost exactly the same amount of oxygen, hydrogen, cail)on, nitro- gen, and sulphur, whicli i» found in casein. This Litter, wlien taken into the stomach, therefore, goes, without much change, to the forma- tion of the albumen and fibrin of the body. Physical Properties of tlie Body. The Tissues. — The solid organized substances of which the human body is composed, are called tissues. There are various kinds of tissues. The Cellular Tissue, commonly called areolar, is made up of small fibres and bands woven together into a sort of ne^work, with numer- ous little spaces opening into each other. These spaces are filled with a watery fluid ; and When this is greatly increased by disease, so as to cause the parts to swell, and the skin to shine, the person has ana- sarca, or cell-dropsy. The uses of this tissue are to give parts and organs a kind of elastic cushion to rest upon, so that they may not be bruised and injured by the shocks of life ; to make a kind of safe highway for delicate vessels to pass from one part of the body to another ; and to furnish a beautifully arranged lodgment for the wa- tery fluid which gives such roundness, smoothness, and grace to the human form. The opening of the cells into each other exjjlains the reason why feeble persons have swelled feet and ankles in the even- ing, and not in the morning — the fluid settling down from cell to cell, into the lowest parts, while they are up during the day, and running back to its proper place while they are Ij'ing down during the night. The Mucous Tissue, or nviicous membrane, lines all the cavities which communicate with the air, as the month, stomach, bowels, liuigs, etc. It is supplied with numerous small glands which secrete a sticky kind of fluid called mucus, to protect the surface from any injury which might be inflicted by air, or by instating substances suspended in it. The Serous Tissue, or membram, lines all the cavities which do not communicate with the air, that is, all those which are shut, and have no outward opening. The skull, the chest, and the belly are lined by this kind of membrane. The membrane itself forms a closed sac. — one layer of it being attached to the cavity it lines, while the other is folded back upon and around the contents of the cavity, which are left outside of the sac. A watery fluid oozes from the inner surfati- of the sac, to make its sides glide easily upon eacjli other. When some disease causes this water to Ije poured out too freely, so as to fill or partly fill the cavity, we have dropsy of the brain, or chest, or abdomen, as the case may be. ANATOMY. 17 lo not have led by Id sac. 1 other [oh are lurfai'i' IWhPii b aH to liest, or The Dermoid Tissue covei-s the whole outside of the body. We call it the akin, or eutia. It is Himiliar in Htnicture to the mucous lueinlmines, which are a mere continuation of it. It is harder than the mucous membrane, liecause more exposed to injury. In health, it never ceases to secrete and throw off a fluid which we call insen- sible pei-spiration while it is in the form of an invisible vapor, and pei'spiration, or sweat, when it is so increased as to be seen. So ^reat is the sympathy between this dermoid covering of the Iwdy and the mucous membranes, that when it is eJulled so as to stop the invisible perspimtion, the internal membrane becomes affected, and we have a sore throat, or diarrhoea, or running at -the nose ; that is to say, when the skin cannot sweat, the mucous membrane begins to sweat. The Fibrous Tissue consists of closely united fibres, and for what- ever purpose used, forms a fine, dense, and enduring body. In some cases it takes the form of a membrane, as the dura mater, which lines tlie interior of the skull and spinal coluimi. The li(/ament8 which liold the lx)nes together, and the tendons or cords, which fasten the lunscles to the Ixmes, are fibrous Inidies. It is this firm substance of which rheumatism frequently takes hold, and this is the reason why it lingers so much about the joints. It sometimes tiikes hold of the ligament which fivstens the deltoid muscle to the bone of the upper arm, about two-thirds of the way from the ellwjw to tlie shoulder. This muscle lifts up the arm. In this form of rheumatism, therefore, the arm hangs helpless at the side. The Cartilaginous Tissue covers the ends of the bone^ where they come together to make a joini. It is well fitted to make the joint work easy, being smooth, hard, and elastic. The Osseous or Bony Tissue varies in its composition, density, and strength, according to the age of the person, and the uses of the lM)ue. The Muscular Tissue, or muscle, he'mg made for a great deal of pulling and lifting, is formed something like a rope, except that there ia no twisting. Many small fil)ies or filaments unite to form fasciculi. A fasciculus is a bundle of fibres surrounded by a delicate layer of cell-tissue called sarcolemma, — just as a cord is a number of smaller threads of cotton or hemp bound together. A number of these fiusciculi united together make a muscle, — just as several cords, called strands, twisted together, inake a i()l)e. Figure 1 gives us a good view of the fibres and bundles, liighly magnified. FlO. 1. 18 ANATOMY. & The Adipose Tissue is the material which the human Iwdy works up into pots and cells contivining/n^ It is found chiefly under the skin and muscles of the belly, and around the heart and kidneys, liy the increase of this tissue, persons may Iwcome enormously en- larged without having their muscles at all increased in size. Such a condition is to he deplored, — the body having become merely the storehouse or depot of myriads of pots of fat. Tlie Nervou.» Tissue i» composed of two distinct kinds of matter, — the one gray and pulpy, called eineritious, the other white and fibrous, called medullary. The external part of tlie brain and the in- ternal portion of the spinal cord are composed of the gray or ash- colored tissue ; the nerves are made only of the white or flbrous matter, and are inclosed in a delicate sheath called neurilemma. Vital Properties of the Body. Bodies begin their growth with a simple cell, which is a delicate little bladder or shut sac. Cells take their rise in that portion of the blood which is capable of being organized, and which is called blastema. In animal Iwdies each cell generally begins as a minute point in the blastema, and grows until a transparent bladder or vesicle spjings out from one side uf it, and soon appears to enclose it. The bladder is then called the cell, and the point or dot is its nucleus. Within this nucleus appears another dot, which is called the nucleolus. When fully ripened, the cell bursts and sets the nucleus free, and this, in its turn, matures and yields up its contents. Thus all cells have their origin in germs produced by previously existing parent- cells. They are multiplied with great rapidity. Having grown to a certain extent, they lose their fluid contents, and their walls col- lapsing or coming together, they form simple membraneous discs. In this way, with some variations, the simple tissues of the body be- gin to be, and the foundation is laid for the noble structure of man. Anatomy of the Bones. The human skeleton is composed of two hundred .and eight bones, the teeth not included. When fastened together by natural ligaments, the bones are said to form a natural skeleton; when attached by wires, an artificial skele- ton. In Figure 2, — 1, 1, represent the spinal column; 2, the skull; 3. the lower jaw ; 4, the breast-bone (sternum) ; 6, the ribs ; 7, the col- lar-bone ; 8, the bone of the upper arm (humerus) ; 9, the shoulder- joint ; 10, the radius; 11, the ulna; 12, the elbow-joint; 13, the wrist; 14, the hand; 15, the haunch-lxme ; 16, the sacrum; 17, the hip-joint; 18, the thigh-bone; 19, the knee-cap (patella); 20, tlie knee-jt)int; 21, the fibula; 22, the tibia; 23, ankle-joint; 24, the foot; 27, 28, 29, the ligaments of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist; A 18 1» 80 ■ 21 ._..J 22 ■ 23 . M 20 ANATOMY. 5J0, tlie liir^e iirtiTv ot" tlu! iirin ; J^l, the ligiimentB of the lup-joint; •\2, tlie liiij^e hl(i(i(l-V('S8('lH of the thigh; ."{;{, tlie artery of the It-g ; •i4, .iij, 80, the ligiiiiieiitH of tlio knee-cap, knee, and ankle. 'rh(! piotnherances itr swellingH in certuin parts of the hones are called proeeHtu-s, and are the puinUt to whii-h ninHcieH and li^iamentH are ftwtened. The iMineH are Hnjtplied with nntritive vesm-ls, and, like other parts of tlie JKid'. , are formed from the hlood. At liist they are compurH- tively Hoft and eartilaginonH. After a time, in the y(»nng animal, they hegin to change to lM)ne at certain places, called pointti of onniji- nation. They are covered with a strong, fihroUs membrane (tailed the perionteum. A sonufwhat similar covering upon tlie cartilages has the name of /n-rii'/iondrium, and that which covers the skull is the pfrioranium. The hones are compounded of earthy and animal matter. From the former — phosphate and carbonate of lime — they receive their strength; from Llu' latter — cartilage — they derive their life. ''ut a bone for a few days into diluted nnuiatic acid, — one part of acid to six of water, — and the i)ho8i)hate and carlK)nate of lime will all l)e removed, while the bone will remain the same in shape. It will now l)e comparatively soft, and may l)e bent, or even tied into a knot without break- ing. Place a similar lK)iie in the tire for a few houix, and it will also retain its shape, but the cartilaginous portion will Ite gone. It is now brittle, and may Ih; picked in pieces with the fingers. The bones are divided into those of the head, thirty ; of the body, fifty-four; of the upper limbs, «ixiy;foMr ; and of the lower limtjs, xixty. i I Bones of the Head. The bones of th head are divided 'into those of the »kull, the ear, and the/fflrv. The skull has eight bones. They are composed of two plates, one above the other, with a porous partition between. These two plates are capable of giving the brain very powerful protection against in- jury, the outer one being fibrous and tough, — the inner one, hard and glass-like, and hence called vitreous. The middle layer has the name of diploe. Its spongy nature deadens the jar from a blow inflicted upon the outer table. In euily life, when the bones are tender and yielding, tlxis porous layer is not needed, and is not found. Fio s. In the backbon( Ijieast-bo ealled cavities, TJie »> front, ANATOMY. 91 1)6 in, one pliites i8t iii- j, hiivd I nature eiivly is not Fio. 4. That the bonps of the skull may not eiwily Hlip by eiioh otlier, and ^'t't out of place, tlicy arc ilovftailiil tojrcther in curiouH lineH called HiUium. In advanced yeui'H, tlieHe gen- erally cloHc .ip, the ItoiieH uniting (irmly together. In early life they are <|nito open, the Hrin iKtncH nut covering the whole hniiii. The ojM'iiinj,' of the coronal suture in childhood in called a fontanelle. It present* a soft place upon tlie top of the head, where the tinker could l)e jjreHsed down into the liniin. In Figure 4, — 1, 1, hIiow the coronal HUture on the front and upper part of the skull ; 2, the Hagittid Huturo on the top of the skull ; and 8, 3, the liiM»hdoi(hvl suture, nuining down on each side of tiie l«vck part of the skull. Figure 5 shows the skull-bones sepamted from each other at the sutures : 1, the frontid bone ; 2, the parietivl ; 2, the occipitjil : 4, the toiupond ; 5, the niwal ; 6, the malar ; 7, the superior maxillary ; 8, the unguis ; 9, the in- ferior maxillary. Ar- nott has demonstrated that the form of the skull is the best possible for sustaining weights, and resisting blows. The oummit of the head is a complete arch, like that of a bridge. The ear has .our small l)one8, whi^^h aid the sense of hearing. The bones of the face are fourteen in number. They hold the soft part« in place, and aid in F.O. B. grinding the food. Bones of the Trunk. In the trunk there are twenty-four ribs ; twenty-four pieces in the backbone or spinal colunui ; four bones in the pelvis and hips ; one breast-bone, called sternum ; and a bone at the base of the tongue, called 08 hyoides. They are so put together as to form two great cavities, namely, the thorax or chest, and the abdomen or belly. The n'6«, connecting with the backbone behind and the breast-bone in front, form the thorax, wliich contains the lungs and heart. Fig. W. ' "m Fl08t : 1, is the flpino ; 2, 2, tliH cnllai'-ltoiiuH ; 8, !l, the hcvcii upjK!!. or tnut lilw; 4, 4, th« five lower or fiilw rWm; f), tho lirciiHt-lMJiic, i.» which tho tnio lilw arc united ; (), the sword-Hhaped «artilapo whir.li conHtitutos tin- lowor (Mill of tiic hroaut-liono. called enxifonii rartilage. ; 7, 7, the upper part (»f two lungs ; 8, H, the right luug, scon hotwoen tho ril»H ; 9, 1>, tho left lung ; 10. 10, the heart; 11, 11, the dia- phragm, or midriff; 12, 12, the liver; IH, 18, the stomach, 14, 14, the second stomach, or duodenum ; li), the transverse colon; IH, tho upper part of the colon on right side ; 1 7, upper part of colon on left side. Fdch piece of the spinal col- umn is called a vertebra. Upon every one of these are seven projections, called processes — a part of which are for linking the bones together, and the rest to furnish attachments for tho muscles of the back. The projections are linked together in such a way, that a continuous channel or opening runs down through the whole, in which is lodged the spinal cord, or medulla spinalis. This nervous cord is 'jonnected with the base of the brain, and is u kind of continuation of it. Between all the vertebrae are certain cartilaginous cuBhions, which, when com- pressed, spring back, like India rubber, and thus protect the brain from being injuriously jarred by running, leaping, or walking. The pelvis has four bones : the two nameless bones — iih nominata, the sacrum, and the coccyx. In the side of each of the nameless bones is a deep, smooth cavity, called the aite- tabulum. Into this the round head of the thigh-bone is nicely fitted. When the bone is thrown out of this cavity, the hip is said to be out of joint. *'"'• *• The sacrum took its name FlO. 7. froi'i llieiu, • if (ho ilie in ", a, t PdIh'n culunii FlO. 9, ened in tl nieut, form •iieubs. A fore-arm. %9: 1, head which which unit< Of the t\ "»ites with "fher bone — o'l the sf ^[« ««}, witi "'e ulna ; 2 wJ'ich the ll !'f the ulna J"'"t; 6, tlu MHi AK ATOMY. 98 lies : ill'- 1 the of leep, 1 ace- luiul cely is the bint, line froi'i the (net tliiit tlio hciithuim iiHcd to offer it in siicriflcu'. With iht'iii, it wiiM the hiujimi hoiii;. Thu iMxicyx is tlic h)wur teiiniMiitioti (if tlio iMukfK)!!!!. Tlit'Ht) Imhuih iiiM! lepreHoutJMl ill Vi^r. H: 1, 1, lM'illJ» I hit iiinniiiiiiat^i, 2, thi* Hiutruni ; 8, the coccyx ; 4, 4, the iicotuhuluni : II, II, i\w (tiihic portion of the niiineUm.s iKUieH ; d, the arcli of tlie |)iih(>H ; (\ thu union of thu mierum and the lower end of the upinul cohiinn. Bones of the Upper Extremities. Thk should fr-hlaile (seapuhi), the collar-hone, (clavicle), the hint ; 6, the point where the ulna articulates with the wrist. Fio. 9. FlO. 10. ANATOMY. The eight bones of the wrist or carpus are ranged in two rows, and being bound close together, do not admit of very free motion. In Fig. 11 : 8, is the scaphoid bone ; L, the semilunar bone ; c, the cuneiform bone ; P, the pisiform bone ; T, T, tlie trapezium and trapezoid bones ; M, the os magnum ; u, the cuneiform l)one. The last four form the sec- ond row of carpal bones. 11, 11, are the meUi- carpal bones of the hand ; 2, 2, the first mnge of the finger-bones ; 3, 3, the second mnge of finger-bones ; 4, 4, the third range of finger- bones ; 5, 6, the bones of the thumb. Of the five metacarpal bones, four are atr tsiched below to the first range of the finger- bones, and the other to the firat bone of the thumb, while the whole are united to the second range of the carpal bones above. Bones of the Lower Extremities. These are the thigh-hone (femur), the knee-pan (patella), the shin- bone (tibia), the Hviall hone of the leg (fibula), the bones of the instep (tarsal bones), the hones of the middle of the foot (metji- tarsal bones), and the hones of the toes (phalanges). The thigh-bone is the longest bone in the system. Its head, wliich is large and round, fits admirably into the cavity in the innominatum, called acetabulum, and forms what is called a ball-and-socket j int. In Fig. 12 : 1, is the shaft of the thigh-bone (femur) ; 2, is a projection called the trochanter minor, to which some strong mus- cles are attached; 3, is the head of the femur, which fits into the acetabulum ; 5, is the external projection of the femur, called the external condyle ; 6, the internal con- dyle ; 7, the surface which articulates with the tibia, and on which the patella slides. The knee-pan or knee-cap (patella) is placed on the front of the knee, and being attached to the tendon of the extensor muscles above, and tf) the tibia by a strong ligament below, it acts as a pulley in lifting up the leg. The shin-hone (tibia) is the largest of the two in the lower leg, and is considerably enlarged at each end. The email bone Oi the leg (fibula) lies on the out- side, and is bound to the larger bone at both ends. Fig., 13 shows the two bones of the leg: 1, being the tibia ;| 5, ihe fibulo ; 8, the space between the two ; 6, the junction of the tibia and fibula at the upper extrem- '"■ ity ; 8, the internal ankle ; 4, the lower end of the tibia that unites That he Joints are «o coustrucl «ach other, tilings, a ANATOMY. 25 with one of the tarsal lx)ne8 to form the ankle-joint; 7, the upper end of the til)ia, which unites with the femnr. The instep (tiiraus) has seven Iwnes, which, like those of the wrist, are so firmly l)oun(l together as to allow but a limited motion. The metatarsal houi's, corresponding with the palm of the hand, are five in number, and unite at one end with the tarsal l)ones, and at the other witli the first range of the toe-bones. The tarsal and mebitjirsal bones are put together in the form of an arch, the spring of which, when the weight of the body descends upon it in walking, prevent** injury to the organs above. (Fig. 14.) The phalanges have fourteen bones. The great toe has two miiges FlO. 14. FiO. 16. Fia. 18. v.f bones ; the other toes have three. Fig. 15 gives a view of the upper surface of the bones of the foot : 1, is the surface of the as- tragalus where it unites with the tibia ; 2, the body of the astragalus ; 3, the heel-bone (os calcis) ; 4, the scaphoid bone ; 5, 6, 7, the cune- iform bones ; 8, the cuboid ; 9, 9, 9, the metatarsal bones ; 10, the first bone of the great toe ; 11, the second bone ; 12, 13, 14, three ranges of bones forming the small toes. liki* The Joints. That bones may be of any use, they must be jointed together. Joints are of the greatest importance. It is necessary they should be 80 constructed that then^ shall be no harsh grating of the bones upon each other, and no injurious jars in walking, etc. To prevent these things, a hard, smooth, and yet yielding, cushion-like substance is *«^l ■MMM a i? i • ■ W ANATOMY. required between them in joints. Such are tlie cartilages. Fig. 16 ifivcH a specimen oi these intervening cartilaj,'('8. I), is the body of a lM)ne, at the end of wliich is u socket ; C, the cartilage lining the socket, tiiin at the sides and thick in the centre ; B, the body of a bone, at ^o. 16. the end of which is a round head ; C, the investing cartilage, thin at the sides and thick in the centre. Cartilage grows thinner, harder, and less elastic in old age. Hence old people are not quite as tall as in middle life, and a little stiffer in their joints. The synovial membrane is a thin layer covering the cartilage, and being bent back upon the inner surface of the ligaments, it forms a closed sac. From its inner surface a sticky fluid oozes out, which helps the joints to play easily. There are other smaller sacs connected with the joints, called bursa mucosae. They secrete a fluid similar to that from the syno- vial membrane. Fig. 17. FlO. 18. Fta. 19. The ligaments. To retain the bones in their places at the joints, some strong, flexible straps are required to stretch across from one to the other, and to firmly unite them. Such are the ligaments. They are the pearl-colored, lustrous, shining parts about the joints, in the form of straps and cords. There are a number of them so woven together as to form a complete covering of the joint, called a capsular ligament. In Fig. 17 : 1, 2, are ligaments extending from the hip-bone, 6, to the femur, 4. In Fig. 18: 1, is the socket of the hip-joint; 2, head of the femur, lodged in the socket; 3, the ligament within the socket. In Fig. 19: 1, is the tendon of the muscle whicli extends the leg ; 2, the knee-cap (patella) ; 3, the anterior ligament ANATOMY. 27 of the ])atella; 6, the long external lateral ligament; 4, 4, the syno- vial membrane ; 5, the internal lateral ligament ; 7, the anterior and superior ligament that unites the tibia with the tibula. Uses of the Bones. . The bones are to the body what the frame is to the house. They hold up and retain the other parts in their proper places. They fur- nish points of attachment for the muscles, to hold the body together and to give it motion. They also furnish strong, bony cavities for the lodgment and protection of such delicate organs as the eye, the brain, and the heart. A single bone, examined by itself, might not seem to have much beauty or design about it; it might even look clumsy and misshapen. But when all the bones are inspected with reference to each other, we immediately discover a general plan upon which they are made, and are compelled to admire their beautiful harmony, and the sym- metrical grace with which they act. They show us that God can command our wonder, even in the bony frame of our bodies. ^ts, l)ne- its, so a lorn Ithe lent tch lent The Huscles. . That part of the animal's body which we call lean meat is com- posed of muscles. We have already explained that muscles are com- posed of threads, etc., put together in great numbei-s, forming bundles. So numerous are these threads and bundles in some cases, that the muscles which are composed of them have a strength truly wonderful. Toward the end of the muscle, the fibres cease, and the structure is so modified as to become a white cord of great density and strength. This cordy substance is fastened to the bone so strongly, that it is impossible, except in some rare cases, to detach it. Generally the bone will sooner break than this attachment will give way. Some- times this cord spreads out like a membrane. It is then called fascia or aponeurosis. The fibres of a muscle have the peculiar property of contractiriff under a nervous stimulus sent to them by the will. These contrac- tions cause them to act as pulleys, and to move the bones, and conse- quently tlie limbs and body, in such direction as the will commands. This is the special use of the muscles. All our movements are caused by them. They pull us about, not . blindly and at a nmdom, but under the direction of an intelligent will. The manner in which a muscle aista, with the cord attached, may l)eseen by examining the leg or " drum-stick " of a fowl. If the cord on one side be pulled, the claws are shut ; if that upon the other side he drawn, they will open. If both be pulled, they are held fast in one position, neither opening nor shutting. An examination of a piece of boiled lean meat will show the i ! ! n 28 ANATOMY. FlO. 20. threads of which it is composed, With proper instruments, these may be unravelled, as it were, until fibres will be found not larger than a spider's web. These, covered with sheaths of great delicacy, extend beyond the fleshy fibre, and with the cell-sutetance connecting the fibres, are condensed into t' don. Millions of these sheathed fibres are gathered into a bundle, and covered with a sheath, and thus form what is called & fasciculus. A muscle is a number of these fascicula made into a bundle, and cov- ered with a sheath called n fascia (Fig. 1). The arm is a number of muscles bundled together, and covered, likewise, by a fascia. The fibres in a fasciculus being parallel, act together. But the fasciculous bundles which make up a muscle act in various ways. Shape of the Muscles. — Some muscles are fusiform or spindle- shaped, so that the attachment occupies but a small space (Fig. 20). Other muscles are radiate or fannshaped (Fip, 21). Such is the temioral muscle, the thin edge of which is attache I to the side of the head, without producing an elevation or deformity. In some cases the fasciculi are arranged upon one or both sides of a tendon. In this way a great number may concentrate their action upon a single point. Such muscles are called penni- form, — hieing shaped like a feather (Fig. 29). In other instances, the fasciculi form circular muscles, — orhiculares, or sphincters, as These surroiuid certain openings iijto the body, which thry are designed to close, either in whole or in part. They surround the eyelids, the anus, the mouth of the womb, etc. (Fig. 23). In still other instances the fasciculi are ranged side by side in rings, forming muscular tubes. By the successive contraction of these rings, ^^° 24. any substance is drivt'ii through the tube, — as food or drink through the gullet of a cow. Fig. 24 is a section of the gullet : a, b, show the circular fibres : «?, the longitudinal. Sometimes the fasciculi curve around in paiuUel layers or intei- lace with each other, forming a bag or pouch. By the contraction of these fasciculi, the contents of the bag will be turned from side to side as in the case of the stomach, or driven out, as in that of tlic heart. Fig. 25 sluiws the muscles of the stomach : L, represent*! the fibres running in one direction ; c, in another ; E, lower end of gullet : ( >, pylorus ; i), beginning of duodenum, or second stomach. FlO 21 FlO. 32. they are called. FlO. 23. r'Z^r — rr:K^- m- I PI. 8. Numbe as tlic rojK iinatoinists They ar trunk, tlios tien. They ar« this brief a iiiider tlie while auotl tai y, movin the will, latter kind, it to keep r and mind a On the layers of ini other. Sucl **''«ry to pel movements arms, etc. ] liatc. hope, f made expres The diapl cavity of the penetrated b blood-vessels • over of a di: the breath is the chest at 1 out, the revei Mode of Ai spoken, is sin "loved : 1, is , '•"lies below tl attachments o *>.^(irtjii MUSCLES OF THE HUMAN BODY m ANATOMY. 29^ Number of Muscles. — The muscles of the iKidy arc nn numerous lis the ropes of a ship, — there being five hundred or more. Some iiiiiitoiniste reckon more, some less. 'llii'Y are divided into those of the head and ttenk, those of the Inni/c, those of the upper extretnitiea, and those of the lower extremi- tie». They are too numerous to be named and indivithially described in tliis brief account of them. A part of them are voluntary, tliat is, under the control of the will ; while another part are involun- tary, moving without reference to tlie will, 'rhe heart is of the hitter kind, it being necessary for it to keep moving when the will and mind are asleep. On the back there are six layers of muscles, one above an- other. Such a number are neces- sary to perform the numerous movements of the back, neck. anus, etc. Every expression of the human face, as joy, sorrow, love, liatc. liope, fear, etc., is produced by the gentle pulling of muscles, made expressly to indicate these emotions. The diaphragm is a large flat muscle, reaching across the great cavity of the body, and dividing the chest from the abdomen. It is l)i'iietrated by the gullet going to the stomach, and by the great blood-vessels leading to and from the heart. It is shaped like the cover of a dinner-dish, the convex surface being turned up. When the l)reath is drawn in, it sinks down towards a level, thus enlarging tlie chest at the expense of the belly. When the breath is thrown out, the reverse takes place. Fio. 25. Mode of Action. — The cordractibility of a muscle, of which I have spoken, is simply its power of shortening itself. The hand is raised g by the shortening of a mus- cle in front, attached to the bone above the elbow, and to a bone below the elbow. The contraction of an an- tagonistic muscle behind, also attached alwve and be- low the elbow, brings the iK''ud back to its place. Fig. 26 shows how all joints are "lovfd : 1, is the bone of the arm above the elbow ; 2, one of the 'xjiies l)elow the elbow ; 3, the muscle wliich Iwnds the elbow ; 4, 5, iittaeliinents of muscles to bones ; 6, the muscle that extends the Fio. 2G. i. : I 30 ANATOMY. eU)ow ; 7, attachment to elbow; 8, weiglit in hand. The nuiHcle, 3, contiacts at the central part, and hringn the hand up to 9, 10. The complication, variety, and Hwiftness of motion, executed by muscles, are past conception. Every movement which a human be- ing makes, from the heavier motions of the farmer in cultivating his fields, up to the magic touches of the painter's brush, and the metliod- ical frenzy with which the great master's fingers sweep the piano, are all made by muscles obeying an intelligent will. The Teeth. The teeth are not like other bones, either in composition, method of nutrition, or growth. When broken they do not unite, not being furnished with the necessary power of reproduction of lost parts. Both the upper and lower teeth are set into l)ony sockets, called alveolar processes. These, with the fibrous gums, give the teeth a very firm setting. Origin. — The teeth have their origin in little membranous pouches within the bone of the jaw, which, in their interior, have a fleshy bud. From the surface of this the bone or ivory exudes. Tiie tooth and the Iwny socket are developed and rise up together, — the former, when sufficiently long, pushing itself through the gum. Number. — The first set of teeth are only temporary, and are called milk-teeth. There are but twenty of them. lietween the age of six and fourteen, these become loose, ard drop out, and the permanent teeth appear in their places. Of these there are thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw. Names. — The four front teeth in each jaw, a, h, Fig. 27, are the cutting teeth (incisors) ; the next one, c, is an eye-tooth (cuspid) ; the Fig. 27. next two, d, Cs are dmall grinders (bicuspids) ; the last three, /, g, h, are grinders (molars). One appears late on each side, from the age of twenty to twenty-four, and is called wisdom tooth. Compo • int-ernal p the surfac which rise which is c root or far vessels pat into the tc in tooth-a( The inc solid parts, In niii8ti( aiuklown r motion. J muscles. ] vegetable-ea while man a pretty clei The teeth and symmet kept in goot their decay i are spoken o The alimei the pharynx, chyle vessels oreas). The prepai takes place in cretion of the on each side. The Parotli "peniug into tl i^^y- This is Hence the dise TlieSubma ot Its angle. ; of the tongue ( On each side '''^ne of the ; P«««» its saliva W ANATOMY. SI Composition.— A tooth is composed of ivory and enamel. The int^.>rnai part is ivory, which is harder than bone. The coating upon the surface is enamel, which is still harder than ivory. That part which rises above the jaw-bone is called the crotvn ; it is this only which is covered with enamel. The part within the jaw is called the root or fang; this is composed of bony matter, through which small vessels pass in to nourish the tooth. Small white nerves also pass into the tooth. — of the presence of which we have terrible eviilenoe in tooth-ache. Use of the Teeth. The incisors cut the food asunder; the molars break down its solid parts, and grind it to a fineness which fits it for the stomach. In niivsticating the food, the lower jaw has two movements, the up- lUuWown motion, like a pair of sheai-s, and the lateral or grinding motion. These two movements are performed by different sets of iiuuscles. P'lesh-eating animals have only the up-and-down motion ; vegetable-eating animals have only the lateral or grinding motion ; while man has both the up-and-down and the lateral. This seems a pretty clear intimation that he is to eat both flesh and vegetables. The teeth aid us in articulating words, and they give a roundness and symmetry to the lower part of the face. When well formed, and kept in good condition, they add much to the beauty of the face, and their decay is an irreparable loss. Their proper care and treatment are spoken of in another place. i'] The Digestive Organs. The alimentary organs are the mouth, the teeth, the salivary glands, the pharynx, the gullet (oesophagus), stomach, bowels (intestines), chyle vessels (lacteals), thoracic duct, liver and sweetbread (pan- creas). The preparatory process of digestion, the mastication of food, takes place in the mouth, where the food is mixed with sallAa, a se- cretion of the salivary glands. Of these glands there are six, three on each side. The Parotid Qiand lies in front of the external ear. It has a duct opening into the mouth opposite the second molar tooth of the upper jaw. This is the gland that swells in the disease called mumps. Hence the disease is also called parotitis. The Submaxillary Qiand is inclosed withinthe lower jaw, in front of its angle. Its duct opens into the mouth by the side of the bridle of the tongue (fraenum linguse). On each side of this string or bridle, and under the mucous mem- brane of the floor of the mouth, lies the mhlingual gland, which poun its saliva into the mouth, through seven or eight small ducts. I,: , ■■■ > l! . I I n. 32 ANATOMY. A disease called the frog consists Fig. 28: 1, the parotid gland; 2, in its Fia. as. the swelling of this gland, duct ; 3, the submaxiTlary ; ^^vv>K\\wm\^w[i^^^HM^^ *4» its duct ; 6, the sublin- <^^^HM^ gual. f/^r^ ^iifiH^^^^I^^ ^^^ Pharynx con- y 4BP^^'^>a down pel the belly The Je The lie angle, nea to prevent the ileum. At this caecum, a 1 dix vermifo from one U. The Colo transverse c The Ascc surface of ti part of the 1 portion whi< on the left s of the descei which is call The Recti! ingattheani The Lacte mucous mem tween membn glands, from another coUe Passing, for a glands to anc progress increi ja number, the "ito the thoraci »P through tl J»lly, makes a forward, and ( ^.rge vein whic % 30 : 1, is nie-flenteric glar teals pass; 6, fuaphragnj. % the help , small vessels mi «»tofthebowe 1'. AMATOMT. 83 a foot in length. It begins at the pyloric oriiice of the stomach, and passes backward io the under surface of the liver, whence it drops down perpendicularly in front of the right kidney, and i)a8se8 across the belly behind the colon, and ends in the jejunum. The Jejunum continues the above, and terminates in the ileum. The Ileum is a continuation of the jejunum^ and opens, at an obtuse angle, near the haunch l)one, into the colon. A valve is located here, to prevent the backward passage of aubstances from the colon into the ileum. At this point the large intestines begin, and here is situated the mcum^ a blind pouch, or cul-de-sac, attached to which is the appen- dix vermiformi$, a worm-shaped tube, of the size of a goose-quill, and from one to six inches long. The Colon, or large intestine, is divided into the ascendinff colon, the trantvene colon, and the descending colon. The Ascending Colon rises from the right haunch-bone to the under 8urfac« of the liver, whence it bends inward, and crosses the upper part of the belly, below the liver and stomach, to the left side. This portion which crosses over is the transverse colon. From this point, on the left side, it turns down to the left haunch, and has the name of the descending colon. Here it makes a curve like the letter S, which is called the sigmoid flexure. The Rectum is the lower portion of the large intestine, terminat- ing at the anus. The Lacteals are small vessels which begin in the villi, upon tlie mucous membrane of the small bowels. From here they pass be> tween membranes of the mesentery to small glands, from which larger vessels run to another collection ol glands; and after passing, for a space, from one collection of glands to another, at each stage of their progress increased in size and diminished in number, the lacteals pour their contents j into the thoracic duct. This having passed up through the diaphragm, out of the belly, makes a sudden turn downward and forward, and empties its burden into a large vein which ends in the right heart. Fig. 30 : 1, is the bowel ; 2, 8, 4, the mesenteric glands through which the lac- teak pass ; 6, the thoracic duct ; 7, the spinal column ; 8, the diaphragm. By the help of a magnifying ^lass, an infinite number of these smaU vessels may be seen starting from the rough, shaggy internal coat of the bowel. Fia. ao. i l^ 84 ANATOMY. The metentery ih a thick sheet of membrane, formed of several folds of the peritoneum, and spread out from the vertebras like a fan. The bowels are attached to ite edge, »ud are held by it in their place, and at the same time have free motion. Between its layers are a great number of glands, which Hometimes l)ecome diseased and swol- len in childhood, and prevent the chyle from pasHing along to the thoracic duct. Thus affect FlO. 32. . duodenum just where the bile- The Spleen has an oblong, flattened form. It lies on the left side, just under the diapliragm, and close to the stomach and pancreas. It is supposed to be a reservoir for holding the surplus blood of the liver. It was thought by the ancients to be the seat of melancholy. The blood in passing through it loses a portion of its red globules. The Omentum or catd is a doubling and «3Xtension of the perito- neum. It is a kind of fatty body, whicii upon the surface of the bowels (iate tl Hence The thi! hlo( kidneys. The* region, I imd two and weij called tl ureter w kidney is 01' cortict tlie bloot 'i^i^y the TheUi and eight men, behi they empt The Bli composed and the in the interna it secretes rosiveness means of a "f the orga iw to give s relaxes and The blad peritoneum, the bladder This orga '"thout it, A dribbling aw The Uretl of the bladd( tic fibrous, urine passes mt^ ANATOMY. 36 lus lot Ihe bowels and is iit.taclu'd to tlie stomivch. Its use Heems to l)e to lubri- cate thu l)owel8, and uspecially to protect and keep them warm. Hence it is often called the apron. The Urinary System. The organs of this system are devoted to separating the urine from the l)loo.ie ubove another. The Bronchial Tul>es are, at the div' n of the windpipe, two in number, but they divide and subdivide until they become very nu- merous. The Air-Celis or Vesicles are small, bladder-like expansions at the ends oi the tubes. They are elastic and swell out when the air passes in. The Lungs All the greater part of the chest, the heart being the only other organ which occupies much space in the cavity. The size of these organs is larg^ or small, according to the capacity of the chest. Ea ch lung — for there are two — is a kind of cone, with its base resting upon the diaphragm, and its apex behind the collar-bone. They are concave on the bottom, to fit «he diaphragm, which is con- vex on its upper side. The right and left lungs are separated from each other by a parti- tion called the mediastinum, formed by two portions of the pleura, a smooth serous membrane coming off from the spine and closely en- veloping each lung ; the heart, covered by the pericardium, lies in the centre, between them. The right lung is divided into three lobes ; the left into two. Each lobe of the lungs is divided into a great many lobules, which are connected by cellular tissue. These lobules are again divided into very fine air-cells. Besides these, the substance of the lungs is compof t= i likewise of blood-vessels and lymphatics, and is well su^)- plied with nerves. In the foetal state, before the lungs have been filled with air, tLay are solid and heavy, something like other flesh, but after all their cells have been filled with air, and breathing has been established, they are exceedingly light and spongy, and float upon water. In cases where infanticide is suspected, and where it is desirable to know whether the child was still-bom, or bom alive and killed afterwards, the specific gravity of the lungs, compared with water, will often settle ^e question. The foe lacteals, ca tlie lungs, i if not distr fecting thif capillaries. The Hea side, and is form is som ward in the the left, occ three inches case or sac. The heart it is endowe( sides, a right cular partitic the lungs ; t side is divide The Auric i^servoirs to 1 parts. The Ventri carnece. The I'ight, beirg r cavities will c The Tricus on the right 'uembrane. ' side. Small ^ pass from th columnae earn «re of the bl< the auricles. '^if pvlmot "ght ventricle "f the left ver arteries are nn valves. Fig. 3 ^ is tlie right j Jght ventricle 'll 10, the vesse the heart. BMi^ ANATOMY. 87 The Organs of Circulation. The food having been digested, changed to chyle, absorbed by the lacteals, carried to the veins, poured into the right heart, sent up to the lungs, and prepared for nourishing the body, will still be useless, if not distributed to every part of the system. The organs for ef- fecting this distribution are the Jieart, the arteries, the vein*, and the eapillariea. The Heart is placed obliquely in the chest, with one lung on each side, and is enclosed between the two folds of the mediastinum Its form is something like a cone. Its baae is turned upward and back- ward in the direction of the right shoulder; the apex forward and to the left, occupying the space between the fifth and sixth ribs, about three inches from the breast-bone. It is surrounded by a membranous case or sac, called the pericardium. The heart is a muscular body, and has its fibres so interwoven that it is endowed with great strength. It is a double organ, having two sides, a right and a left, which are divided from each other by a mus- cular partition, called a septum. The right heart sends the blood to the lungs ; the left heart distributes it to the general system. Each side is divided into two compartments, an auricle and a ventricle. The Auricles have thinner walls than the ventricles, being only reservoirs to hold the blood until the ventricles force it along to other parts. The Ventricles have within them fleshy columns, called columnce earnece. The walls of the left ventricle are thicker than those of the right, beirg required to contract with more force. Each of the four cavities will contain from one and a half to two ounces of blood. The Tricuspid valves are situated between the auricle and ventricle on the right side, and consist of three folds of a thin, triangular membrane. The mitral valves occupy the same position on the left side. Small white cords, called chordce tendince, 8^ Lio pass from the floating edge of these to the columnas earner, to prevent the backward press- ure of the blood from carrying the valves into the auricles. The pvlmonary artery is the outlet of the right ventricle ; the larger artery, called aorta, of the left ventricle. At the opening of these arteries are membranous folds, called semilunar valves. Fig. 33 gives a fine view of the heart : 1. is the right auricle ; ti, the left auricle ; 8, the right ventricle ; 4, the left ventricle; 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, the vessels which bring the blood to and carry it away from the heart. Fia. 8S. ANATOMY. The Arteries are the round tubes which carry the red blood from the left side of the heart to every part of the body. The sides of arteries are stiff and hard, and do not fall together when empty. They may often be seen open in a piece of boiled beef. The arteries have tlu-ee coats, — an external, which is cellular, firm and strong ; a middle, which is fibrous and elastic ; and an internal, which is serous and smooth, being a continuation of the lining of the heart. They are surrounded by a cell vestment called a sheath, which separates them from surrounding organs. The Pulmonary Artery starts from the right ventricle in front of the opening of the aorta, and ascends to the under surface of the aortic arch, where it parts into two branches, sending one to the right, the other to the left lung. Having divided and subdivided to a great extent, they end in the capillary vessels, uniting, joining their mouths, and becoming continuous with the pulmonary veins just where they pass around the air-cells. The Aorta is the largest artery in the body. It takes a slight turn in the chest, called the arch of the aorta, from which are given off the arteries which carry the blood to the head, etc. ; thence it descends into the belly along the side of the backbone, and at the bottom of the abdomen it divides into two arteries, called the iliacs — one going to each of the lower limbs. The branches the aorta gives off a supply of red blood to every part of the body. The Veins carry the dark or purple blood. Being made red and vital by meeting atmospheric air in the lungs, and then conveyed to every part of the body in the arteries, the blood loses its redness in the capillaries, and comes back to the heart in the veins, dark and purple, and unfit to support life. The veins are more numerous and nearer the surface than the arteries. They have, likewise, thinner walls, and when empty, they collapse or fall together. They begin in the small capillaries, and running together, they grow larger and larger, and finally form the great trunks which pour the dark blood into the right auricle. The veins are composed of three coats, simi- lar to those of the arteries, with the exception of being thinner and more delicate. These vessels have valves all along their inner sur- face, to aid in circulating the blood. The large vein which receives all the dark blood from above, and pours it into the right auricle, is called the vena cava descendens ; the one which takes it from below, tvnd disposes of it in the same manner, is the vena cava ascendens. The pulmonary veins bring the red blood from the lungs to the left auricle, and thus are exceptional in their use, — being the only veins which carry red blood. The Capillaries are the extremely fine network of vessels between the ends of the arteries on the one side, and of the veins on the other. THE W mat PI. 4. THE ARTERIES AND VEINS OF THE HUMAN BODY Tli(>y inos( one end, a industrioui red, and i\ tliey take t and vitaliz beginnings for another in the lun^ In Fig. lation. Fi thrown int tery, 3, ar its passii- f: to the right ANATOMY. 89 Tlicy inosculate, or join their nioutlis to tlic very small arteries at one end, and to the equally small veins at the other. They are the industrious little builders of the human frame. Receiving the blood, red, and full of life, from the terminal extremities of the arteries, they take the living particles out of it, and apply them to the renewing and vitalizing of the body, and then pass it along into the hair-like beginnings of the veins, dark and Iwreft of vitality, to he carried up for another freight of chyle, and to be again vitalized by being touched in the lungs by the breath of heaven. in Fig. 34 we have a good ideal illustration of the whole circu- lation. From the right ventricle of the heart, 2, the dark blood is thrown into the pulmonary ar- tery, !J, and its branches, 4, 4, carry it to lx)th lungs. In the capillary vessels, 6, 6, the blood conies in contact with the air, and becomes red and vitalized. Thence it is returned to the left auricle of the heart, 9, by the veins, 7, 8. Thence it passes into the left ventricle, 10. A forcible contraction of this sends it forward into the aorta, 11. Its branches, 12, 13, 18, distribute it to all parts of the l)ody. The arteries terminate in the capillaries, 14, 14. Here the blood loses its redness, and goes back to the right auricle, 1, by the vena cava descendens, 15, and the vena cava aacend- ens, 16. The tricuspid valves, 17, prevent the reflow of the blood from the right ventricle to the right auricle. The semi- lunar valves, 18, prevent the blood from passing back from the pulmonary artery to the right vcntricrle. The mitral valves, 1 9, prevent its being forced back from the left ventricle to the left auricle. The semilunar valves, 20, pre- vent the backward flow from the aorta to the left ventricle. By a careful examination of this diagram, with these explanations, the reader may understand the circulation very well. The passage of the blood from the right heart, through the lungs, and back t'> the left heart, is called the lesser, or pulmonic circulation ; its passu:^3 from the left heart through all parts of the body, and back to the nght heart, is the greater or systematic circulation. FIO. 34. .J' y If Vi V f 40 ANATOMY. The Absorbent Vessels. The vessels which absorb the chyle from the small intestines, and convey it onward towards the blood, are the lacteaU. They have been described. The veins are also supposed to have the power of absorption, particularly the small commencements of the veins. These have likewise been de- '^°- «• scribed. The Lymphatic vessels resemble the lacteals skin, the mucous membranes, and the lungs. They are very small at their origin, and, like the veins, they in- • crease in size, as they dimin- ish in numbers. Like the veins, too, they travel to- • wai-ds the heart, and their They abound in the Fio. 36, FlO. 37. contents are poured into it. Their walls are composed of two coats ; -S.\e external is cellular, and distensible ; the internal is folded into valves, like that rf the veins. These vessels, on their way to the heart, pass through soft bodies, called lymphatic glands, which bear to them the relation that the mesenteric glands do to the lacteals. T lymphatic g arm-pits, an( parts of the magnified; '. trunks; Fig thi'ough it. Fig. 38 rej 6, show thes( the commenc lymphatic ai of the stomac 13, 14, 15, th 19, 20, the la the heart. A cold will ings aie calle( from cold, an( larly in scrofi and break, for The exhalar, Hon. The Exhala nations upon tl terminations uj posure. The Follicle membranes. 1 little bags. Ve QIands are s ing many kinds united in one mi lias a small d main duct whic shows a gland : through its bo 1, the large duct substance is car The mesente werely modify tl tnem ; others se fluids to be used m^ % ANATOMY. 4J lacteals. These glands are a ooUection ,.f small vessels. The lymphatic glands are most numerous in the neck, chest, abdomen arm-p,te and groins. They are also found, to some extant, in othei^ parts of the body Fig 3o shows a single lymphatic vessel, much maguihed; Fig 36 exhibits the valves along one of the lymphatic though it^" '' ' ^^"'P'^'^^' ^^'"^ ^''^ '^' vessels pLing Fig. 38 represents the lymphatic vessels and glands. 1, 2, 3 4 5 b, show these vessels of the lower limbs ; 7, the inguinal gknds ;' 8,' he commencement of the thoracic duct, into which the contents of lymphatic are poured ; 9, the lymphatics of the kidneys ; 10, those ?q ir^.T ' ^M^"«««f i»'« liver; 12, 12, those of the lungs ; 1Q Jn' i ' t '^ °^-*^^ ^n'"' ' ^^' ^^' 1^' *h°«« of the face and neck ; the hit ""^"^ ' *^^ *^°''''''*' '^"'*' ^^' *^^ ly'^Phatics of A cold will' often cause lymphatic glands to swell. These swell- mgs are called kernels. They often swell, also, without the irritation cm cold, and become very much and permanently enlarged, particu- arlyiu scrofula. In scrofulous subjects they sometimes suppurate and break, forming bad sores upon the neck. The Organs of Secretion. ^_JHE exhalants, the follicles, and the glands are the organs of seere- The Exhalants are the sweat-glands. These have external termi- nations upon the skin, thus communicating with the air, and internal t.™mations upon the surfaces of organs n^ot having an' outwTrd^x- membi-anpl,"'''T. "'" ''"^" T' i^^^^d V" ^^e true skin and mucous ^ iS iZ V ^T °^ *^' '^''^ *"" *^« ^"°"*1^« "'• o'^tlete of these little bags. Veins and organic nerves are sent to these vessels. aiands are soft organs, having a variety of structure, and perform • ig many kinds of secretion. A gland is made up of severallobS united in one mass, and each of these lobules ' has a small duct, communicating with a jSl^^. C? main duct which forms the outlet. Fig 39 shows a gland : 2, the small ducts spread hrough Its body, and running together; i, the large duct, through which the secreted substance is carried away. The mesenteric and lymphatic glands merely modify the fluids which pass through tnem; others secrete from the blood either nuids to be used in the body, or such as are to be cast away ■1^ 42 ANATOMY. if The Vocal Organs. No sounds touch the heart like those of the human voice, for no mechanic, however scientific and skilful, has ever been able to make an instrument which could produce sounds as beautiful, tones its varied, a timbre as melodious, and inflexions as manifold and agree- able. It has been compared to wind, reed and stringed instruments. In touching expression, it is most resembled by the concert-horn, tlie bassoon, and the hautboy. Vocal sounds, paat all question, are produced in the larnyx, but these sounds are grouped, or formed into articulate speech, by the pharynx, the nasal cavities, the tongue, the teeth, etc. The Larynx is a kind of cavity or tube at the top of the windpipe, formed by the union of five cartilages, namely, the thyroid, the cricoid, the two arytenoid, and the epiglottis. Ligaments bind these together, and muscles move them. The Thyroid Cartilage is composed of two parts, and has a con- nection with the bone of the tongue above, and with the cricoid car- tilage below. The Cricoid Cartilage is .shaped like a ring, and hence its Greek name. It is narrowest in front, and broadest behind. It connectfi with the thyroid cartilage above, and with the first ring ; of the trachea below. Fig. 40 gives a side view of the car- tilages of the larynx : 1, bone at the base of the tongue (os hyoides) : 2, the ligament con- necting hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage ; .3, the front of the thyroid cartilage ; 4, the thyroid cartilage ; 6, the cri- coid cartilage; 7, the wind- pipe. '^*'' **■ Fig. 41 is a back view of the cartilages and ligaments of the larynx : 1, is the back surface of the epiglottis ; 3, 3, the os hyoides ; 4, 4, the lateral ligaments connecting the os hyoides and the thyroid cartilage ; 5, 6, the back face of the thyroid cartilage; 6, 6, the arytenoid cartilages; 7, the cricoid cartilage ; 8, the first ring of the windpipe. The Arytenoid Cartilages are upon the back part of the cricoid, and are connected with the thyroid cartilage by the vocal cords. The Epiglottis is a fibro-cartilaginous lid, shaped like a leaf, which covers the upper opening of the larynx. It is connected by a carti- lage to the 1 iage. Breai down upon i passing dow The Vocal fibres, enclos lines in widtl antt'iior pro; tilages, and the anterior are four ligi two superior ter being call k'tween ther ineiits thems the lips of the tween the suj is the ventrich Fig. 42 rep from above: . cricoid ; h, h, verse ar_ytenoi( ligaments. The muscles of pulling then the laryngeal c and to relax or others, the soui Tightening the The skin is entire person. is the true skin ture f,nd uses. TheScarf-SI "rane. partially blood-vessels or a simple coverii "gents. It is tl The scarf-skii 'rom it in the si and dries up int of these scales, new layen, are £ ANATOMY. 48 uge to the bone of the tongue (os hyoides) and to the thyroid carti- age. Breathing opens and shuts it; and in swallowing, it closes down upon the top of the larynx, to prevent food and drink from piissing down the windpipe. The Vocal Cords are two ligaments, formed of elaatic and parallel hbres, enclosed in a fold of mucous membrane. They are about two lines in width, and inserted behind into the aiitt'iior projection of the arytenoid car- tilages, and passing forward, are fixed " convolutions c The Cerebrum i '■"Kt-'i' portion of i MH^ ANATOMY. noBP and eare. Fig. 4.5 hI.ows an oil-glan.l, the tube, and c, ita mouth. 46 — a, being the gknd, b. W^. th4.f rf;ui,T]^r:nVri n" *""i ^^^^'^ p- ^'-» where it coils upon itself inSTlTn^ »" the -neshes at the bottom, mfied forty dialtersTT^L h« -n ? f i ''''^' *''^' ^^'"»d, mag- two excretory duct« f;om the fland it *"''"• *?'" ^''""^ ' - 2, the tul., which opens at 4 wh ch fs th^nS'"' Tf''^ ^''"" «"« ^P'^*^! fat*ells. ' " '^ **'' ^'^^"ce ot the cuticle; 3, are the The hair and the nails are appendages of the skin. The Nervous System. --; the spinal ner^e. aidlJfe'.X^Srr;:' '^^ ^ ''' --'«^ ^n^^ 'ftt iVdf upTfVh^er;^ '"^^^^ '^'^'' -'"^^ *^e ^^^^H- cipal parts -the cer.irwm, the cere- allium, and the w^rfw/Za oblor^ata. Ihese are nicely covered and pro- te ted y three membranes, the Zr« »'«J^r, the aracAno^rf, and the pia tilff ^1 ^t""^^ * considerable por- ThP^?^"*"^' being removed. The scalp turned down is repre- "later, drawn up with a hook • f "'« convolutions'^ of the braTn ' J^^^*';*'"•"™ « the upper and '"5>^^ portion of the brain, and is f.o. 47. IK 46 AM4T0MY. (livi(lelanc(! to a Hicklu, in called the falx cerebri. The dimign of tbiH seems to Iw to support each half of the brain, and to prevent it from preHsingupon the other half when the head reclineH to one side. The undulating surface of the cerebrum is produced by what are called convolutioHH. The lower surface of this organ is divided into three lol)e8, — the anterior, the middle, and the posterior. The Burface of the (iereljruni w of a gray color, culled cortical, or oinerifioug ; the central portion is white and fibrous, and is called medullary. The Cerebellum is about one-sixth the size of the cerebnim. It lies just under the posterior lobe of the cerebrum, and is separated from it by an extension of the dura mater, called the tentorium. It is composed of white and gray matter; when the former is cut into, there is presented the appeamnce of the trunk and branches of a tree^ called arbor vita:. The MeduiJa Oblongata is the top of the spinal cord; but being within the enclosure of the skull, it passes for a portion of the brain. It consists of three pairs of bodies, united so as to form a bulb. The Dura Mater is a strong, fibrous membrane which lines the skull and spinal column, and sends processes inward to support the brain, and forward, as sheaths for the nerves which go out from the brain and spinal cord. The Arachnoid is a serous membrane, and like all other serous membranes, is a closed sac. It is leilected upon the inner surface of the dura mater. The Pla Mater is a vascular membrane, and lies next to and in- vests the whole surface of the brain, — dipping into its con- volutions. It furnishes nu- triment to the brain. The Cranial Nerves which go out from the brain are in twelve pairs. In reading a description of them, let the reader keep his eye on Fig. 48. The First Pair, olfactory (6), passes through several small openings in the ethmoid bone, and is distributed to the mucous membrane which lines the nose. Destroy this, and the sense of smell is gone. FlO. 48. The Secoi skull, and en retina. It ii of sight, call The Third iitiid bone to The Fourt iniiNcle of the The Fifth loots, iuid divi iiiid noNo, call the teeth of tl the third goin jiiw, and callei the hranches o affection callet The Sixth P •arotid artery < Ntmight muscle The Seventf teniiil ear. The Eighth I Jt sends nervou The Ninth Pi ■'^"iiie opening w lous membrane The Tenth P« the pharynx, lui »"a iKJwels. The Eleventh "'"th and tenth j The Twelfth F i"'fl is its motion- those who talk m The Spinal Cor 'n connection wit) Ihe upper fend of "ft. Another s ^''hich go to the ui toi^, where the ne f^'ssures dip int. '^™ -^teral parts, w ^hese lateral col ANATOMY. 47 The Second Pair, optic nerve (7), paaflea tliroiigh the iweof the skull, and enters the cavity of the eye where i h oxpiinded upon the retina- It iH a disease of this nerve which occtisions a gradual loss of HJpht, called amauroHtit. The Third Pair, niotoros oculorum (9), passes through the sphe- noid lx)ne to the muscles of the eye. The Fourth Pair, patheticus (10), passes to the superior oblique immclo of the eye. The Fifth Pair, trifacial nerve (11), like the spinal nerves, has two mots, and divides into three brandies, one going to the eye, forehead, iiiitl noHe, called the ophthalmio branch ; another going to the eye, the tf t'th of the upper jaw, etc., called the miperior maxillary ; and the third going to the ear, the tongue, and the teeth of the lower jaw, and called the inferior maxillary. It is a painful condition of the branoheHof the fifth pair which constitutes the ^'••.libie neuralgic affection called tie-douloureux. The Sixth Pair, abducentes (12), passes the opening by which the carotid artery enters the cavity of the skull, and goes to the external stniiglit muscle of the eye. The Seventh Pair, portio n' w I '^Ir \ li. X s\^ mm "N, other with part to wl mon lan^ comes nm may move before. C root, whic producing, to which il move. Il thougli it acutely. 1 nerves tlial the spinal pretty well ill Fig. 60. If the ci of motion ' the face be tion or pas expressed, will all be like statuar;; to laugh, t give, expres feeling of guish, or lo impossible, breath of ai face will be ly as before, or palsy, as partial orge result of in ju or many of tl producing m ralgia, tic c etc., arise i disease, perh nuition, of th sensation. How the of the extern! communicate acted on by e: sensations." ' with the inte] HYGIBNE. 55 other with the /ron^ part of the cord. Cut off the back root, and the part to which It 18 distributed loses its feeling. As wo say in com' mon language, it be- ^ comes numb, though it may move as well as before. Cut the front root, which is motion- producing, and the part to which it goes cannot move. It is palsied, though it may still feel acutely. The numerous nerves that spring from the spinal column are pretty well represented ia Fig. 60. If the cranial nerves of motion which go to the face be cut, no emo- tion or passion can be expressed. The features will all be immovable, like statuary. To smile, to laugh, to frown, to give, expression to the feeliug of pity, or an- guish, or love, is alike impossible. And yet a breath of air upon the face wiWhe felt as readi- ly as before. Paralysis, or palsy, as it is called, partial or general, is the result of injury upon few or many of these motion- producing nerves. Neu- ralgia, tic douloureux, etc., arise from some disease, perhaps inflam- niation, of the nerves of sensation. How the Mind get* Knowledge. Everything the mind knows of the external world, it learns through the the orgLs of Teme wSd! communicate with it through these nerves. Thus, the nm^es ail ZtZ^'T^:\:'TT''i''''' ^r^^ "" the'bmin anTcaS ensatons. When the hand is burned the nerves of sensation run ^N.th the intelligence to the brain, which, quick as thought, through FlO. 60. KJ ^iri • WiiTiTW HYCTENE. the nerves of motion, despatches orders to the muscles to repel the injury. Comparison. — The arrangement and operation of the nervous system are like thoje of the electric fire-alarm system of a city. The brain is the intelligent centre, like the central office. The nerves of sensation which carry to the brain, with electric speed, intelligence of what is going on outside, are like the wires which run to the central station from the several boxes. The quick carry- ing to the brain of any information of injury done to some part of the body, is like sending to the central station from an alarm-box the intelligence of fire in one of the districts. The rapid transmis- sion of orders from the mind to the muscles is like flashing the alarm over the wires to every part of the city. And, finally, the powerful action of the muscles in warding off danger is like the dashing of firemen over the pavements and the energetic playing of the engines. Sensations. An effect produced on the mind thi-ough a nerve is called a sensation. Hunger is a sensation. It is an effect produced upon the mind through ascertain nerve by the condition of the stomach. Thirst, pain, heat, cold, are sensations in a similar sense. Nausea is a sensation produced by some injurious substance acting upon the coats of the stomach. Strength of Sensation. — Some sensations are much stronger than othei-s ; some are very intense. A very strong sensation is called a feeling. It is common to say, " I feel cold," or, " I feel hot." We simply mean by this, that the temperature of the weather makes a very powerful impression upon us. Kinds of Sensation. — Sensations are either pleasurable or pain- ful. Pleasurable sensations arise from the proper exercise of some healthy part of the body ; and they are a suitable reward for any care the mind may take of the corporeal organs. The sensations arising from a proper amount of exercise are pleasurable. The muscles find a sort of enjoyment in action. He who leads a sedentary life, either from choice or necessity, loses much enjoyment. Hence, there is pleasure in labor ; and the working-man, though often pitied by the wealthy, is generally the happiest of men.* The eye and the ear, when directed to agreeable sights and sounds, derive the most agreeable sensations from exercise. The air of a beautiful spring-morning gives impressions which none can describe, but which all know to be delightful. These impressions are well fitted to reward us for taking at that season, in the open air, the ex- ercise we so much need. Moral Uses of Sensations. — How little we reflect upon the amount of happiness it is in our power to create by making agreeable impression impression (if families lies in the 1 (hopping ii acts of ber agreeable a of life, — c and which us like spri In aiming be governed of happinesi stairs, — shi: refining infl or for recrea to wear a fn flowers of ht Every hui ism of whicl urable or pai life, it shouL Wives may j tion of their heart of the the liusband. pressions upc fully. Most the heads of saying, or do other. A w loved either I who desires t life, the whol sions upon ot Agreeable tions not onl^ to health. T Travelling pi variety of the Care of the portant that i HYGIENE. 87 impressions upon others. A civil and polite address makes a pleiisant iin|)re88ion. A kind word, fitly spoken, makes the heart glad. Heads of families might do much to increase the happiness of their domes- tics in the kitchen by meeting them with a pleasant countenance, and (hopping in their ear, now and then, a word of approval. Such, little nets of benevolence are easily performed, and they make the most agreeable and lasting impressions upon persons in the lower stations of life, — creating attachments, in fact, which end only with death, and which in hours of future sorrow, which come to all, may refresh us like springs of water in the desert. " Full iiiauy a shaft at random sent, ' FindH luai'ks the archer little meant; Full many a word at random spoken, May heal a wounded heart that's broken." Sir Walter Scott. In aiming to make agreeable impressions upon domestics, we should be governed by the simple desire to create happiness. Their sources of happiness are comparatively few. They spend their days below staira, — shut out from a portion of the light of day, and from the refining influences of the drawing-room, — having little time for rest or for recreation. How unfeeling to treat such persons with harshness, to wear a frowning face in their presence, and thus wither the few flowers of happiness which bloom around them! Every human being is endowed with the beautiful nervrsus organ- ism of which I have spoken, and is daily receiving impressions, pleas- urable or painful, from thousands of sources. In all the relations of hfe, it should be our aim to touch delicately this sensitive structure. Wives may add much to the happiness, and I may say, to the affec- tion of their husbands, by always wearing a pleasant face ; and the heart of the wife may be made light and glad by gentle words from the husband. We cannot but love those who make pleasurable im- pressions upon us, and we necessarily dislike such as impress us pain- fully. Most of the coldness and alienations which grow up between the heads of families, spring from the habit of one of the parties, of saying, or doing, or looking something which painfully impresses the other. A woman who habitually wears a "sour" face cannot be loved either by her husband or her children. The man or the woman who desires to be loved, must cultivate a manner, a look, a speech, a life, the whole scope of which is fitted to make pleasurable impres- sions upon others. It is against nature to love what gives us pain. Agreeable Sensations a Source of Health. — Pleasurable sensa- tions not only beget love, and increase happiness, but they add much to health. They exhilarate the spirits and drive away melancholy. Travelling promotes health and prolongs life, by the number and variety of the pleasing impressions it makes upon the mind. Care of the Sick. — Tf the above statements be correct, how im- portant that the sick should be so dealt with as to have none but I HYQIENE. aj'p'eeable sensations made upon them. Many a life has been mcri- ficed to the peevish temper of a nurse. When the nerves are weak from disease, even slight causes make powerful impressions ; and if these impressions are of a painful kind, the results are most deplora- ble. To treat harshly the sick, especially those whose nervous system is broken, implies either great thoughtlessness or extreme cruelty. A single harsh word, which would scarcely move one when well, may send the same person, when sick, almost to distraction. Every word spoken to persons in sickness should, therefore, l)e gentle and sooth- ing. Every feature of the face should express either cheerfulness, or tenderness and pity. As the painful impressions which disease is making tends to de- press the spirits and create melancholy, it is not expected that peraons when sick will exhibit as amiable tempers as when well ; and for this all due allowance must be made. Effect upon the Disposition. — This leads me to say that pleasur- able sensations improve the temper and disposition. This is a fact of very great importance, and parents should never lose sight of it in dealing with their children. There are few children but would grow up amiable and useful members of society, were they dealt with in the gentle and tender manner which their young and impressible natures require. From the moment the young mind wakes to intelli- gence, it will he occupied with something. Parents and guardians should aim, therefore, to turn it to all those things which will impress it pleasantly, and at the same time do it no hai-m. Exercise, songs, playthings, flowers, — to these and other entertainments it should be led by gentle hands. No thoughtful parent will ever pain a child by harsh threats and denunciations, or shock it by an oath. Bad Effect of Unpleasant Sensations.— If pleasurable sensations improve the health and temper, unpleasant ones do just the opposite. They break down the health and spoil the disposition. They are intended to give us a warning of impending injury. Thus, we have painful sensations when we have overworked the body or mind. The sensation of weariness tells us that the muscles have worked as long as their good requires, and that they need rest. Were this sensation unheeded, exhaustion and entire prostration would be the result. When fatigue begins to be felt, either of body or mind, the sensa- tion may be dissipated by strong tea, or intoxicating drink, or opium ; but to drive it away in this manner, for the purpose of working longer, is wrong, and leads, in the end, to disease or exhaustion. It was said that one of the most brilliant advocates of recent times was dependent upon opium for the stimulus to carry him through his extraordinary flights of eloquence ; but his restless motion and nervous face reminded one that he had bent his bow very nearly to the snapping point, and that a sudden collapse of his vital powers, at no distant day, might be feared as the result of such tension. Persons sorrow, sh( jects and c light, and sliould visi I)res8ions. When w to use it a our fault, feeble. T which says hungry for Need of ideas of the the organs mind, shou str laments i and will m portance, t imprope iidierit dis( eased brain the offsprii Among th( Europe, n( arises, in a j practice uni The wisdon certain deg] vation of p who will ti body, obser relations. Need of of its duties than any ot to this impi lessened or ( loss of bloc charged wit well, the bl brain, and t any way, or it is breathi brain, and tl headache, fa m IIYOIENK. 60 Persons in affliction, whoso spirits are depressed and broken by sorrow, should have their thoughts turned away from all sombre ob- jects and contemplations. They should be taken into the open sun- light, and be diverted by the beautiful things of nature. They sliould visit cheerfu; society, and open their hearts to pleasurable im- pressions. When we penmit any part of the body to remain idle, neglecting to use it as much an we ought, unpleasant sensations remind us of our fault. The muscles, when unused, waste away and become feeble. This is sure to produce an uneasy, nervous state of feeling, vvliich says to us as plainly as a sensation can, that the muscles are hungry for exercise, and that it is injurious to let them rest longer. Need of a Healthy Brain. — In order that we may get correct ideas of the external world, it is necessary that the brain, the nerves, and the organs of sense through wliich sensations are made upon the mind, should be in a healthy condition. It is evident that if the in- strumenbs of sensation be diseased, the sensation cannot be natural, and will make a false report to the mind. It is of the highest im- portance, therefore, that the brain should be sound. Improper Intermarriages. — This organ, like every other,'may inherit disease from parents. Insanity, which springs from a dis- eased brain, is often hereditary. When both' parents are diseased, the offspring are of course more liable to partake of their defects. Among the wealthy, and particularly among the royal families in Europe, nervous diseases and sterility are very common. This arises, in a great part, from intermarriages among blood relatioJiS, — a practice under which any people will degenerate, and finally perish. The wisdom of the Old Testament prohibition of marriage within certain degrees of consanguinity has been established by the obser- vation of philosophers and the experience of mankind. Let those who will transmit to their descendants a sound mind in a sound body, observe the laws of life, and avoid all marriages with blood relations. Need of a Qood Supply of Blood. — B'or a proper performance of its duties, the brain requires and receives a larger supply of blood than any other part of the system. One-tenth of all the blood goes to this important organ. If the quantity or quality be materially lessened or changed, great disturbance of the brain follows. A large loss of blood occasions dizziness and fainting. If an atmosphere charged with too much carbonic acid gas be breathed, as in a deep well, the blood is not vitalized in the lungs, so as to sustain the brain, and unconsciousness soon follows. If the air be vitiated in any way, or have its oxygen extracted, as in large assemblies, where it is breathed over several times, it becomes unfit to support the brain, and the result is languid feelings, inability to apply the mind, headache, fainting, hysterics, and other nervous manifestations. jr- HYOIEMK. Ventilation. — This hIiowh the great necessity of having dwellings, churcheH, and school-houMeH well ventilated. Were a good system of ventilation adopted in all our churches, ministers would seldom preach to sleeping audiences. A congregiw tion Hitting in one of our places of public worship, where the air in a single afternoon is as many times used over as the minister's ser- mons are in a lifetime, can neither hear with attention, nor compre- hend with clearness. In many of our school-houses, the ventilation is (juite as bad, and the consequences worse, Injcause they are occupied six houi-s of tlie day instead of three, and five days of the week in place of one. In the small s^hool-.'-ouses which our children filled to overflowing in former yeai-s, in wnich there was no ventilation, unless they happened to be blessed with an old-fashioned chimney and tire-pjac3, the effects upon the nervous system of the children was deploraWe. Many of the diseases which afflict i j present generation of men and women had their origin in the bad air of those crowded nuraeries of edu- cation. Our dwellings were partly ventilated in olden time, when the open fire-place received the " back -log," the " top-stick," the " fore- stick," and other sticks to match ; but since we have been warmed by the stove and the .furnace we have known little of the luxury of pure air at the domestic hearth. Need of Exercise for the Brain. — Health requires that the brain should be properly occupied with vigorous thought. The same reasons may be given for this as for the exercise of the muscles. It is governed by the same laws which apply to other parts of the system. Use improves its strength and vigor ; idleness causes it to grow feeble. Of course the labor it is put to should be only reason- able in amount, and should not be too long continued at any one time. With the weakening of the brain, the whole bodily forces, and indeed the whole mental and moral character, fall into feebleness and decay. It is a great mistake to suppose that the cultivation and even vigorous use of the mind impairs health and shortens life. Just the opposite is true. Many of the most eminently intellectual men, who have worked their brains hard all their lives, have been distinguished for long life. Bad Effect of Change in Circumstances. — No class of persons suffer more from nervous diseases and general ill-health than those who, having worked hard in early life, with little or no cultivation of the mind, are suddenly raised to wealth, and immediately drop all exercise, and fall into habits of indolence and luxury. The condition of such persons would be much less pitiable, did they take up books when they lay by the hoe or the broom. But they seldom do this. Many a woman, in early life, haa felt the glow of health in every limb, and a thrill of pleasure, too, while scrubbing -the floor on her hands « k. '','■1 !.f i p /a ^ ^ /a ^>. IMAGE S:VALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) !«•,. Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. I4S80 (716) 873-4503 ^^■te itan ts i? CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical MIcroreproductlons / Instltut Canadian de microreproductlons historlques ^4 tmmm and kneei her damaj the health ately, anc pleasures Discret we must I ply it wit soon brin^ only until permitted a lighter, than to en Overw* used not t parts of tl longed ex( early, and from this formerly ; years, a h brain. Pi The result are depior; to be culti forward fa and fortif; required t( Yet pan verse this startled eo of their fo softening < the horrorf though wii Old Pec ticularly ci covers eas of recover lapse. 01 tion. The and easy si A Suppl work, nee( Without tl to any pari \/ HYGIENE. 61 and knees, who has, in subsequent years, reclined in misery upon her damask-covered lounge, and wondered that she could not have the health of other days. Let her cultivate her brain, live temper- ately, and exercise in the open air, and life may again have real pleasures for her. Discretion in Exercising the Brain. — In exercising the brain we must use discretion. We must not sit down in the morning, and ply it with work during the whole day, without rest. This would soon bring upon it disease, or premature decay. It should be worked only until it begins to show symptoms of fatigue. Then it should be permitted to rest ; or, what is better, be turned to some new subject, of a lighter, or a different character. This often rests the brain better than to entirely suspend its action. Overworking the Brain in Childhood. — Great care should be used not to exercise the brain too much in early life. Like other parts of the system, it is tender in childhood, and will not bear pro- longed exertion. As a general thing, children are put to school too early, and made to work their brains too hard. Great mischief arises from this source. Children are born with larger brains now than formerly ; and it is no uncommon thing to see upon a child of ten years, a head equal in size to that of an adult. Children run to brain. Precocity in development of brain and mind is common. The results of stimulating and hastening the unfolding of such minds are depiorable. In such children, the brain should be the last thing to be cultivated. We do not need to urge its growth. It will come forward fast enough in spite of us. Our chief aim should be to harden and fortify the general constitution, so that the brain which it is required to bear up and sustain may long be its crown and glory. Yet parents are proud of their precocious children, and often re- verse this rule. They do it thoughtlessly, and would be terribly startled could they suddenly look into the future and see the results of their folly. Could they do so, they would see inflammation and softening of the brain, epilepsy, insanity, paralysis, apoplexy, with all the horrors of uudescribed and indescribable nervous affections, which, though without a name, have a terrible reality. Old People's Brains. — Persons in advanced life should be par- ticularly careful not to overwork the brain. In middle life it re- covers easily from great fatigue. In the decline of life, its powers of recovery are feeble. A single exhaustion may cause its fatal col- lupse. Old age should be distinguished for gentleness and modera- tion. The journey of the down-hill of life should be made by sliort and easy stages, through regions of uiversified beauty. A Supply of Blood. — EA'iery part of the system, when hard at work, needs and must have a very large supply of pure blood. Witliout this, it is torpid and inactive. To cause the blood to flow to any particular part, it must be exercised. The lumberman, when m m rm s 62 HYGIENE. in the forest in extreme cold weather, stamps his feet vinlpnfl, the ground, or beat« them against a log, anfwhU hi Wd«^ "^'"'J proportion that it dmws the vital current to 2Yw7«„;i ^"'^ '" bram and all otiier working organs. ^ ^' '^'^ "^ *^« worrer!:i:ei;lftrsat\im^^^ ^^^ ^' -^--an brain to hard work i.rTf^dLt^l ' 7. . 'n '"^P^^Per to put the stomach then wrt^ the bio. !.n^ iK^ ^."" "*""^' ^«^"«« th« the blood be ca ed off fo h K '^'^^^ '^-^^ ^^««* <^^^^' ^«od; and if the stomach be oaded with fo^'l ^'1?" ""? ^^P* ^^' ^^ould . thinking; for the i:^:^^%ITi;'7:to:'x i^oii^i '^•^•' own excitement has had time to subside ^^ ^^''' ^*" Sympathetic Nervous System need to go on wh leTe Z'ai^-« . i '' ^'1 ''^*^"''^^ P'""'^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ The nerfous sy^ e n of .vWch WtT "'^•^.^^^"»«t ^^^^^d to them, tions which areClednvotto/P^'^lf^^f^.^^^^^ -" those fuuc- will is needed for their performanol' ~s! '?'^ '^'^"'' "° ^^* '^^ the and the circulation o Tebinod Si ,^''"f «"' absorption, digestion, well as while we ll e. wt^ kn L'^^^^ fj^ M? "^'^ "^ «^^^P' ^ performance, as in walking Pntin^ "^'^ necessary to their have to ceas; thrm^meXe 2^ T'^r""/"^' '*"•' '^''^ ^^^^ ^«»W the result. ^^^ '''^'" ^^^^ ^^««P' ^^d death would be con^dmoStn; "TvU'E ''''\ n.'' ^^« «^^- ^^ «- flamed, the stomach seemstn^y, ^ l'- ^'^^'^ ^^^ ^«ng« ^re in- becaus; this wou d a^ivlte th^T' "^ '^ T^^"^ ''^^^^^^^"^ f««d' Well would it belf ifS, n t ^^:J ^^ *^^ neighboring organs. and abstain from bote ^cte ^/"ff "''^'^-f ''''''''' ^ ^^' forbeaifnce, injure their neighboii ««l%^tification which they know will r ^^ish to*add'l*frrwo'Ji??fi!!' r ^^/u '"^ ''^^'^^"8^ *h««« observations, diseases which chamc^rJ/'u'P'^'^*'"^ ^^'. ^'^'^^^^ effects of nervous Thai tuJ '^"aractenze the present time. That theya« far more „„i^ ,„„ ,„i„y,^ ^,^„ .„ ^^^^^ m.m ;r'55^^^'~-=*— HYGIENE. 63 years, must be apparent to the most careless observer. They are nothing more nor less than the price we pay for a high civilization, and especially for our democracy. Among us, every man feels his individuality, and has a motive for thinking and doing his best. Thought and action are here unfettered ; and if the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, eveiy man acts as though he thought it was. The great excitement which the struggle for wealth kindles and inflames, deranges and shatters the nervous system to a shocking degree. And wealth, when obtained, does its full share to weaken the nerves. It brings with it high living, indolence, loss of energy, dis- sipation, and a weakening of the whole moral and physical powers. It need not do this ; but, in most cases, it does. Tlie result is, that, at least, every other person has some nervous disease, which makes life a misery rather than a blessing. The brain and nerves are too much developed in comparison with the develop- ment of the muscles. Half our boys and girls have heads as large as men and women. It is common to see a boy or a girl at ten talk- ing and acting like a man or woman. I do not mean by tliis, that they imperfectly imitate the actions of older persons. It seems to be natural to them. Their brains are prematurely developed, and their acts and thoughts have the maturity of adult life. What is Coining ? — What will be the result of this state of things, no man can predict. I sometimes think the race will break down ; that that which was intended to be its ornament and strength will be its destruction. I hope not. Yet there is danger of it. Nothing can save us but the wisdom to adopt such means as will develop all parts of the system alike. No race of men can stand for many generations such a strain upon the nervous system, unless bet- ter means are adopted to counterbalance its evil effects than are now used in the United States. We have got to pause in our swift career, and look after our health, or we shall become a nation of maniacs. No proof is needed of what is here said. Hopeful ConsiJe rations It is proper to say, the considerations here presented, terrible as they are, are mitigated in some measure by others of a more hopeful character. Physiology and the laws of life are now better understood than at any former period. These subjects are getting "nto our common schools, and are engaging the attention of our youth. Declining health has already made us think more of the means of preserving it, — such as diet, exercise, bathing, travelling, and amusement. To encourage and intensify this hopeful direction of the public mind, I propose to devote a few pages to these subjects. ■^I'( tmmm 64 HYOIENK. Pood and Digestion. F..OM the earliest dawn of existence to the last moment of life our bodies are constantly changing. Old particles of matter, when tliev are worn out, leave their places and are thrown out of the systeni Were this the whole of the matter, our bodies would soon wuste away, and that would be the end of us. But as fast as the old mate- rials are thiown away, new ones take their places ; and it is solely out o.t our food that these new materials are formed. In order that the food maybe well digested, it must first be broken into small particles in the mouth. The act of chewing it Ls called mastication. During this act, if it be well performed, I large quan- tity of spittle, called saliva, flows out of a number of glands, called salivary giands, and mixes with the food, forming with it a soft mass m tlus conaition, it is thrown backward into the top of the throat called the pharynx. Here, a little cartilage, called the epiglottis drops down apon the opening into the top of the windpipe, and pre- vents its entrance into the breath-passage ; and it is pushed alonp into the gullet, a tube which runs down behind the windpipe and lungs, and which physicians call the oesophagus. Here a succession ot muscular bands, circular in shape, contract upon it, one after another, and force it down into the stomach. It is importc^nt that two things should be securfid while the food is m the mouth, namely, that it should be reduced to a good degree of fineness by chevying, and that a proper amount of saliva should be mixed with it. If the chewing were not necessary, teeth would not have been given us; and the salivary glands would certainly not liave been put in the mouth, if the mixing of water with our food would serve the purposes of digestion as well. Eating too Rapidly., —Americans have fallen into a pernicious error in eating their food too rapidly. Time is not given to chew it sufficiently to excite a full flow of saUva; and as it cannot be swal- lowed m a dry state, it is not uncommon to see persons taking a sip of water after every second mouthful, to enable them to force it into the stomach. It is a habit we Americans have of cheating ourselves both of the pleasures and the benefits of eating ; for the only real pleasure of eating arises from the flavor of food while retained in the mouth, and the only benefit we can derive comes in consequence of Its proper digestion. The food when received into the stomach is in the same condition as when taken into the mouth, except that it is, or should be, ground hne by the teeth, and well mixed with saliva. The Gastric Juice. — The stomach, like the mouth, the windpipe, and the gullet, is Uned by a mucous membrane. The chief office of this membrane is to secrete, or take out of the blood, a fluid which we caU gastnc juice, which means stomach juice, from the Greek -iPt^' HYGIENE. u name of stomach, yaorf'p (gaster). This fluid has not much smell or taste, and looks like spring water. It has a powerful effect upon food, which, when mixed with it, soon undergoes an important change, which is apparent to the taste, the smell, and the sight. The natvu-e of the gastric juice and how it produces Its effect upon food are not certainly known; but it contsiins two active elements, — a tree acid and pepsin, whose function is to dissolve the nitrogenous parts of the food and convert them into albuminose or peptone. The albnniinose is absorbed by the coats of the stomach and enters directly into the circulation ; while the sugar and fat pass on to the duodenum to -be acted upon by the bile, the i)ancreatic juice, and other secretions of the bowels. Too Much Cold Water at Meals. — There are some interesting facts connected with the formation of this fluid, of which it is im- portant that every person should be apprised. Its quantity and quality depend on the amount and healthfulness of the blood which flows to the stomach during the first stage of digestion. It is, therefore, injurious to drink large quantities of very cold water with, or immediately after, our meals ; as this will chill the stomach, and repel the blood from its vessels, so that but little of the juice can be formed. Digestion, in such case, must be im- perfect. This Fluid not Secreted Without Limit. — This fluid does not flow into the stomach continuously, but only when we swallow food, and then not as long as we please to eat, but merely till we have taken what the system requires. If, in the amount we take, we go beyond the wants of nature, there will not be fluid enough formed to dissolve it, and the whole will be imperfectly digested, and be a source of in- jury rather than benefit. This should teach us to be careful that our food be only reasonable in amount. Not Secreted in Sickness. — When we are sick, the gastric juice is either not formed at all, or only in small quantities. Whatever may be our feelings of lassitude, and however much we may appear to need food, at such times, it is usjless to take it, for it cannot be digested, and will only aggravate our disease. If the illness be only slight, the fluid will be formed to some extent, and food may be taken in proportion. Its Secretion Favored by Cheerfulness. — A cheerful disposition, and a happy, lively frame of mind, are highly favorable to the pro- duction of the gastric juice ; while melancholy and anger and grief ^nd intense thought of business, at the hour of meals, greatly hinder its natural flow. This should teach us to go to our meals with light hearts, and to make the family board a place of cheerful conversation, and of a light and joyous play upon the mirthful feelings of all present. Should any of the family circle be in the habit of using vinegar as a condi- 6(5 HYGIBNE. ment, we should never be guilty of compelling them to extract it from our faces. A vinegar face is not easily excused anywhere ; at the table it is unpardonable. A single countenance of this description will throw a gloom over a tableful of naturally cheerful peraons ; and if habitually present at the board, may finally spoil the digestion of half a dozen, and entail dyspepsia upon them for life. The stomachs of the sick pour out but very little of this fluid, and they can tiake but a small amount of food. It is cruel to deprive them of the power of digesting that little by treating them harshly, and filling them with gloomy and desponding feelings. I therefore repeat the substance of the advice given on a previous page : Deal gently with the sick. How all this Is Known. — As the stomach is wholly concealed from view, the reader will very naturally ask how it is known that the gastiic juice is poured into it in certsiin states of the mind, etc., and withheld in others. It certainly could not have been so accurately known, had it not been for an accident which opened the living and working stomach to the inspection of Dr. Beaumont, a United States Surgeon. A young man by the name of Alexis St. Martin, a Cana- dian by birth, but then in the State of Michigan, had a large part of his side torn away, and a hole of considerable size made into his stomach, by the accidental discharge of a gun. To the surprise ot his surgeon, St. Martin recovered ; and the edges of the wound in the stomach refused to grow together, preferring rather to fasten them- selves to the borders of the breach in the side, thus leaving the pas- sage open. A kind of curtain grew down over this, which prevented tlie food from falling out. Dr. Beaumont, taking advantage of this state of things, instituted a series of valuable experiments, by lifting the curtain, and inserting various articles of food, and witnessing the process of digestion. Movement of the Stomach. — The presence of food in the stom- ach causes its muscular coat to contract and throw it about from side to side, mixing it thoroughly with the gastric juice, and reducing it to a pulpy mass, called chyme. This, as fast as it is properly pre- pared, passes through the pylorus into the upper bowel, or duodenum, called also the second stomach. Chyme. — A certain witty professor of anatomy and physiology was in the habit of asking his class if they ever saw any chyme ; and when they answered, no, as they often did, he called their attention to what is occasionally to be seen in the morning, upon the sidewalks, where drunken men have held themselves up by lamp-posts, and left the contents of their stomachs. The pylorus, or opening into the bowel, has a very singular and wise instinct, which is worthy of remark. When a piece of food, which has not been digested, attempts to pass into the bowel, the moment it touches the inner surface of this orifice, it is instantly thrown 'j»»sBP*BBsas HYGIENE. 67 thrown back by an energetic contraction ; tliough a portion of well- prepared chyme, touching the same opening immediately after, is allowed to pasa unchallenged. Chyle. — The chyme, when it reaches the duodenum, seems to ciiuse the liver to S(M;rete bile, and the pancreas to produce pancreatic juice. These two Huids aie con- veyed into the upper portion of the second stomach, and there are mixed with the chyme, and cause it to separate into a delicate, white fluid, called chyle^ and a residuum, which, being worthless, is pushed onward, and thrown out of the body. Bile in the Stomach. — Most persons suppose that the bile is gen- erally found in the stomach ; but a Tani- H '^^^ '^ * mistake. It is thrown up by vomiting, because in that act, the action both of the tii-st and the second stomach is reversed, and the bile is forced up from the duodenum, — taking a direction the opposite of its usual course. Destination of the Chyle. — The chyle being separated from the dregs, is pushed onward in its course by the worm-like motion of the intestine ; and as it passes along, it is gradually sucked up by thousands of very small vessels, whose mouths open upon the inner surface of the bowel. These little vessels are called lacteals, froi/i the Latin word lac, which means milk, because they drink this white, milky fluid. Fig. 61 shows a section of the small bowel, turned inside out, and covered with the villi, or root-like fila- ments, closely set upon its surface, for absorbing the chyle, and at the bottom of which the lacteals take their rise. In these lacteals, and in the mesen- teric glands, the chyle is gradually changed, so as to approach nearer and nearer to the nature of the blood ; but precisely what the change is, or how it is effected, is not known. Several Fio. 02. 68 HYOIENE. learned men liave publifllied their tlieories upon these points, and the writer has opinions upon them; but it is not worth while to trouble the reader with them. It is B\il1ieient to say that the fluid is carried by the lacteals to the thoracic du(t,tiirough whi(!h it is conveyed into a large vein at the lower part of liie neck, wher(i it is jjotired into the blood, and becomes, after going through the linigs and experi- encing another and a vital change, the material out of which oui' bodies aie daily and hourly new-created. Fig. 62 gives a genei-al idea of the stomach, bowels, etc. : 9, being the stomach ; 10, 10, the liver; 1, the gall-bladder; 2, the duct which conveys the bile to 4, which is the duodenum ; 3, is the pancreas ; 5. the oesophagus ; A, the duodenum ; B, the bowels ; C, the junction of the small intestines with the colon ; D, the appendix vermiformis ; E, the coecum ; F, the ascending colon ; G, the transverse colon ; H. the descending colon ; I, the sigmoid flexure ; J, the rectum. Nature and Destination of Food. The food which man requires for his support and development is of two kinds, inorganic and organic. The firet of these embraces certain mineral substances, as common salt, sulphur, phosphoru.s, iron and lime, either in combination or separate. These are not generally reckoned as aliments, and yet no human being can live without them. In their absence, the body decays, dis- integrates, and perishes. Common salt is composed of muriatic acid and soda. The first is an important ingredient in the gastric juice, and the latter promotes the secretion of bile. Sulphur is found in several of the tissues, particularly in the muscles. Phosphorus, united to fatty matter, is highly honored in forming a portion of the brain and nerves, and is also combined with oxygen and lime to make the earthy or hard part of bones. Found in Food. — These articles it is not necessary often to intro- duce into the system in a separate state. They are contained, in larger or smaller proportions, in most articles of food ; and man al- ways suffers, as all animals do, from theit absence. Common salt is found in the flesh of animals, in milk, and in eggs. It is not very abundant in plants ; and we all know how eagerly domestic animab devour it when it is given to them, and how constantly wild cattle resort to the salt springs, which, in the grea't West, are called " buffalo licks." Lime exists in nearly all animal and vegetable substances. In wheat flour we get it in combination with phosphcric acid, that is, as phosphate of lime. Lime exists too, in the state of carbonate and sulphate, in all hard water. Iron is found in the yolk of eggs, in milk, in animal flesh, in potatoes, pears, cabbages, mustard and other articles. Sulphur we get in flesh, eggs and milk ; and, as sulphate of lime, in spring and river water. Phosphorus is derived from eggs and milk; and flesh, bread, .'ruits, and husks of grain, r-;: }''?)!flll HYGIENE. 69 coniiuonly called bran, contain even a larger proportion tlian we need in our diet. Organic Food, — The organic elements of man's food, which in bulk embrace almost the whole of it, remain to be considered. In the animal economy they serve two great purposes. A part of the arti- cles which compose them are blood-formers, out of which all the tissues are made, — the other part produces fat, which serves to warm the body by being burned with oxygen. These articles are derived partly from the vegetable and partly from the animal kingdom. Divided into Four Qroups. — For convenience, these articles may be divided into four groups. For the tir.st, sugar stands as a type. We there- fore call it tlie ttaccharine group. It em- braces starch, gum, and the fibre of wood. These articles may all be converted into sugar by a simple chemical process. Figure 63 gives a microscopic view of the granules of starch. The second group we call the oleayinous. It is composed of oily substances, from whatever source derived, whether the an- imal or tht vegetable world. The third group is the albuminous. A good type of it is the white of egg. The fourth is the gelatinous, or Jelly group. First and Second Groups, Supporters of Respiration. — The ar- ticles composing the first and second groups are analogous in com- position, all containing oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. They are what Liebig calls supporters of respiration ; the meaning of which is, in more comprehensible terms, that they are supporters of combustion. They are the fuel which warms us. They keep the fires going, from which arises all the heat we have in our bodies. But they are desti- tute of nitrogen, and, on this account, they are not blood-formers, and cannot be worked into flesh. Hence, man cannot live on them. The food articles embraced in the third and fourth groups also contain oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon ; and to these they add nitro- gen. This fourth component part, which forms only a small portion of them, gives them, for some reason never explained, the peculiar quulity of producing blood and flesh. They are the raw materials, out of which our bodies are reconstructed from day to day. Feed a man ever so largely upon sugar, starch, gum, and oils, and lie will starve as certainly as if he were allowed nothing but water. Names of Two Great Divisions of Food. — The possession or non- possession of nitrogen, then, is what distinguishes from each other the two great classes of food-articles. Those which contain nitrogen »'lO. «8. mmd 70 HYOIKKE. have been called nitrogenized, and thoae which are destitute of ii, notirnitrogenized cuni]iound8. As nitrogen is often called azote, the former class are more frequently named azotized ; the latter, no7t- azotized. Let the reader now fix it in iiis mind that the azotized articles of food produce blood and flcph ; the non-azotized, heat ; and he will have the key to understand much of what is to be said, and likewise to unlock many ot the mysteries of diet. Nutrition Table. — Taking human milk as the standard, and ex- pressinp the amount of nitrogen it contains by 100, the following tiible saows the relative amount of nitrogen in the principal flesh- producing articles of food, and consequently their power of forming the tissues : — II VEGETABLE. Rice 81 Bye l(» Com 120 Buley 12S Oati 138 WhMt 144 Potatoes 84 Turnips lOti Carrots ISO Peas 239 Be.n8 320 ANIMAL. Human Miik 100 Cows' Milk 237 Oyster SOB Yolk of Eggs 305 Cheese 331-147 Eel 428 Pork-Ham 807 Salmon 610 White of Egg 845 Herring 910 Haddock 816 Pigeon 78(i Lamb 8KI Mutton ... 882 Veal 911 Beef 912 Other Standards of Value. — We must not infer that t^ose articles which have most nitrogen are necessarily best adapted for human diet because they are the most effective blood-producers. In deciding the value of an article for food, other things are to be looked at be- sides its nutritive qualities. Those which are poor in nitrogen, are rich in carbon and hydrogen, and are well fitted to serve the double purpose of nourishing and wanning the body at the same time. The fitness of n article for diet depends veiy much upon the ease or difficulty with which it is digested and assimilated. If an article having a great deal of nitrogen, and being very nutritive, is with great difficulty reduced in the stomach by the digestive process, it may be much less desirable for food than one which is digested and assimilated easily, but is much poorer in nutritive qualities. Heat-Keneratins; Food Articles.— The reader has before him the principal blood and tissue-forming food articles. Those which we reckon as fuel, or heat-generators, are chiefly oils, sugar, starch, farina, sago, arrowroot, tapioca, gums, etc. These are less essential than the others ; for the blood-forming articles have within them the ele- ments out of which fat is formed in the process of assimilation ; for V 320 84S 910 816 7M 838 862 911 M2 HYQIKNE. 71 inimv of them contiiin nU\\vh ; and this, in tlie Innnaii organiam, is (ihan^'od into fat. The amount of starch in some of these articles is ii8 follows : — Wboat Hour, good nunllty, 100, c.ontaiiiM lift to H cially cabbage, are united with them. Turnips, Carrots, Beets, Parsnips. — These are much alike, — being all poor in nutritive qualities. They serve to please the pal- ate by furnishing a variety ; but in our city markets they are expen- sive, and do not furnish an economical diet. Cabbage. — It is interesting to observe how the instincts of men have in all tages led them to select those articles of diet which their circumstances have demanded. The poverty of the Irish has led them to subsist hugely upon the potato, — a root which the soil of their country yields profusely. But as this root has but little nutri- tive matter, necessity required that it should be united with some other vegetable. The natural instinct selected the cabbage ; and when chemical science came, at length, to pass judgment upon the correctness of this instinct, it turns out that the cabbage is the richest in albumen of any known vegetable. The cabbage, then, is the nat- ural complement of the potato ; and the Irish had the sagacity, with- out science, to bring the two together. It is said the Irish have a dish named " kohl-cannon," consisting of boiled and mashed potatoes and cabbage, seasoned with pork fat, pepper, and salt, and that it is a truly savory dish. It certainly is a nourishing and a cheap one. The ambassador who was sent to tamper with the patriotism of a Roman who liad dined on beans, wiis asked if he was silly enough to think gold anti silver could bribe a man who was satisfied with so plain a HYQISNE. 9» expen- of men ch the li- as led le soil of iiutrl- th some ^e ; and )on the richest the nut- ty, with- Ive a clisli toes and it is a ne. The Roman ) think ph'in a fare, and dcsirod no other. We come to the fonrhision then, that l)ean-|i()rridgo, pcii-noin), «iU!t-piulding swecflened with nioliisHeH, tuit- iiieal, iiiid buioy-hreiid, with " kohl-ciiniion " for those who can digest it, will t'urniBh, for hard-workinjj men, tlm most Knhstiintial diet, at the smallest possible G"i)en8e. To ren(U'r these dishes savory, and to make the bible on which they are spread an inviting lx)ard, the deft housewife must emph)y her best skill in servinjj them. With the thouspud " fixings, with whi k(!(i() him in luniltli, aluiiii two or two and a half pnumlB of Holid food per day. For miniHtvi'x, lawyerH, doctoix, aiillioix, and niun-lianUi, ono pound and a lialf is amply Huniciunt. TUv amount hIiouUI Ik; inciraHod a littlu iiy a se- lection from Honut of tlu; fnul-fonnurM, if no ft>rmontec lmrni>d in hreatliin^', which haw to l)e drawn from the food when they are not employi'il, This furnisheH no motive for usin// ardent spiritM ; for there is fuel enough tu be had in the oJs, starcheH, and sugani. Dyspeptics. — U is said that dyHi>eptic8 eat more than {Mirsons in health ; and, in many caHes, the remark may he true. The appetite of a person suffering from this disease is almost always morbid, and the information it gives respecting the real want« of the systenj van seldom be trusted. If we allow a disetuied sk)math to dictate to us when and what and how much we shall eat and drink, our misery for life is a foregone (juestion. A sick stomach is like a spoiletl eliild, — it cries for what it should not have. If the dyspeptic will live, and enjoy any amount of peace and eonifort, lie must follow tiiis simple rule : I'o eat no more than can be diiiegted, even though the amount be only an ounce a day. Animal and Vegetable Food. It has generally been supposed that it was intended man should subsist on a mixed diet, consisting of both animal and vegetjii)le substances. Within the last fifty years, however, a school of physi- ologists have appeared, who affirm that a vegetable diet is alone consistent with the laws of health. They declare tiiat animal food is not adapted to man's organization, — that it unduly stimulates the blood, predisposes tf) fevers, consumptions, diarrhoeas, choleras, apo- plexy, and numerous other diseases, and of course shortens life. That such a school should have come into existence in this countiy, where animal food is more largely consumed than in any other part of the world, in proportion to the number of people, is not surprising. We do, undoubtedly, eat too much flesh. So enormous is the consunip tion, that notwithstanding the vast herds of cattle raised in all our agricultural states, and especially on the western plains, the deniund keeps up with the supply so well that beef brings, on an average, about twenty centa per pound, — at least twice its full value as a blood-former. Facts show that man may live upon flesh alone, upon vegetables alone, or upon flesh and vegetables combined. Is it be»t he should subsist upon vegetables only, or upon a mixed diet ? A mere affirm- ation upon these points is of little consequence. To cite facts avails nothing. Men have a way of making their own affirmations, and of HYaiENE. 86 lortkiiig lit factH with oyes which uometimcs see clearly enough on lK)th HidcH of them, hut totally ignore their existence. Man's Structure Settles the Question. — To settle thJH matter, we must a[)]>eal to man's organization. His structure will tell uh some- thiiiji; we need not mistake. All the works of God show design. Kvi'iything he has made has a use, and is so contrived as to he iidiipted to that use. Lions, tigers, and other animals, for example, whicli feed on flesh alone, have a tshort second stomach, — it heing (inly ahout three times tiie length of the animal's l)ody. Aninials witicli eat no flesh have a long second stomach, — that of the sheep lieiiijr from thirty to thirty-five times the length of its body. A very iviiiarkablo difference of anatomical structure I This is the meaning Oi .he difference : Vegetable foqd has a great (leal of waste matter in i Woody fibre makes quite an item in it« cDiiiposition. This wiuste portion must be carefully separated from the nutritive part, and tiiis must all be done in the second stomr. h. It takes time to do it. It must not l)e done in a hurry. The nutri- tive materials are destined to build a living structure, whose dura- tion, like that of all other fabrics, will depend on the care with which the materials are selected and put together. The second stomach of the sheep is long, that there may be ample time for the mixed mass of chyme, when it pisses out of the first stomach, to Xte (iiaiiged to chyle, and then to lie carerfully separated into the two parts, the useful and the useless. Animal food is in iXn composition just like our own flesh, — the « is little waste matter, and not much time is required for it« separation ; ^ ^nce, the second stomach of flesh-eating animals is short. Nearly the whole alimentary mass is ([uiekly taken up by the lacteals, and there is no occasion fOr itf travelling through a long second stomach. Mans second stomach is in length midway between that of the fle8h-<^ating and the vegetable-eating animals. If there be design in the works of the Creator, and if that design in the structure* of the flesh and vegetable-consuming animals has now been correctly inter- preted, it is plain that man is best nourished when he eats both kinds of food. The structure of his teeth and the motions of his jaws (see p. 80), confirm the same conclusion. Americans Eat too Much Meat. — Yet, as I have said, there is no doubt the Americans eat too much meat. Sedentary persons require but very little. Less is wanted in summer than in winter, — in warm chiiiat€s than in cold. People of wealth, whose circumstances im- pose no bodily hardships, need less than the poor, who are much exposed, and work hard; whereas, they consume more. Those who aimed at is tempenince. It is not so necessary to reject one article and use another, as to partake of all with moderation, " I do not live to eat and drink ; I eat and drink to live," said a wise philoso- pher of the olden time. One would think the moderns have reversed this rule. A modern table has the appearance of being s[iread for the purpose of inducing men to eat all their stomachs will hold. A man who can dine daily, for half a dozen years, at one of our first-class hotels, and then find himself free of dyspepsia and all other diseases, must have a fine constitution, as well as most admirable control over his appetite. Mr. Addison said, " When I behold a full table ^et out in all its magnificence, I fanr^ . see gout, cholic, fevei-8, )d lethargies lying in ambuscade among the dishes " ; to which he adds, with much truth, in another place, " Abstinence starves a growing dist3mper." Qood Results of Temperance. — A temperate diet has always been attended with excellent results, and always will be. There are times of great anxiety, when abstinence should be pushed to the extreme verge of endurance. During the siege of Gilbraltar, Lord Heathfield, its gallant defender, lived eight days on four ounces of rice per day. Dr. Franklin, when a journeyman printer, lived two weeks on bread and water, at the rate of ten pounds of bread a week, and was stout and hearty. Dr. Jackson, an eminent physician in the British army, says, " I have wandered a good deal about the world, and never followed any prescribed rule in anything; my iiealth has been tried in all ways ; and, by the aid of temperance and liard work, I have worn out two armies, in two wars, and probably could wear out another before my period of old age arrives." Lord Bacon was right in tlie opinion that intemperance of some kind or othtjr destroys the bulk of mankind, and that life may be sustained by a very scanty portion of nourishment. Cornaro, whom I have before mentioned as having lived fifty-eight years on twelve ounces of solid food a day, wrote as follow respecting himself in his eighty-fifth year : " I now enjoy a vigorc"8 state of body and of mind. I mount my horse from the level ground ; I climp steep ascents with ease ; and have written a comedy full of innocent mirth and raillery. When I return home, either from private business or from the senate, I have eleven grand-children, with whose education, amusement and songs I am greatly delighted; and I frequently sing with them, for my voice is clearer and stronger now than ever it was in my youth. In short, I am in all respects happy, and quite a stranger to the doleful, morose, dying life of lame, deaf and blind old age, worn out with intempei-ance." Howard, the philan- thropist, fasted one day in the week ; and Napoleon, when he felt his system unstmng, suspended his meals, and took exercise on horse- l»ck. Nothing can be plainer than the duty of fasting, when the stomach, having been overworked, is disinclined to receive food. 88 HYGIENE. Brutes invanably follow this suggestion of nature ; they never eat when sick, — probably because they have no silly nurses to coax them to swallow stimulating aliments. The habit of putting high- seasoned food into the stomach when it is inflamed and feverish is about as wise as directing streams of blue, violet, or red light into the eye when it is red and swollen with inflammation. Tea and Coffee. It is proper, before closing this chapter upon diet, that something should be said respecting the beverages of tea and coffee. Some years ago, a meeting was held by the leading physicians of a city in the old world, in which the merits of tea and coffee were discussed. In this discussion each man first stated his experience in the use of these articles, and then consti acted his argument according to that experience. The amount of what the reader could learn from the discussion was that Dr. A. had used tea all his life, and been benefited by it, while coffee had uniformly injured him ; and that he thought tea should be used, while coffee should be rejected ; that Dr. B. had taken coffee at breakfast, and found it an excellent support to the stomach and nervous system, while tea had disturbed his digestion and his mind ; and that the former was a beverage of excellent qualities, wnlle the latter was detestable ; that Dr. C. had always drank both tea and coffee, and recommended them to everybody ; and that Dr. D. had hi^iself never been able to indulge either tea or coffee, and would have them both expelled from every household. The discussion was not creditable to the learned and really able men who participated in it. The arguments were all based upon the miserably narrow basis of single individual experiences. They were no more valid than that of the man who should hold up a shoe, de- claring it fitted his foot the best of any he ever had, and recommend- ing all men to have their shoes made upon the same last. The truth is, there is but one thing which can be afiirmed univer- sally of the effect of tea and coffee. They both, when taken, tend to prevent waste in the body, and, consequently, less food is required when they are used. This may be afiirmed of tLem in their applica- bility to all persons, but nothing further. The truth is, some can drink tea but not coffee, and some coffee but not tea ; some can use both, and some neither. Every man's susceptibility to the effects of these beverages is his own, as much as liis susceptibility to the effects of light, or heat, or atmospheric changes ; and these effects, each per- son must learn from experience. Coffee often produces, and gener- ally aggravates, a bilious habit, — an effect which cannot, I believe, be traced to the use of tea. I have no doubt but that many cases of confirmed dyspepsia are traceable to the use of coffee alone. HYGIENE. 89 Water. There is one universal beverage ; it is water. All men are fond of it. In sickness and in health, in joy and sorrow, in summer and winter, in cold climates and in hot, man loves and drinks water. The stomach, abused and made sick by stimulating food and drinks, and repelling everything else, still gratefully opens itself to water. Wher- ever man exists, therefore, or wherever he should exist, water is found, either in the form of springs, or running brooks, or rivers, or ponds, or lakes ; and even where it is not found in some of these forms, it is periodically dropped down from the clouds. As there is 110 element in nature more necessary for ' j *s existence than water, 80 there is none more universally diffuse' Pure Water Essential to Health But water varies very mate- rially, both in its pliysical qualities, and in its adaptation to its pur- poses. Pure water is as essential to health as pure air. When either of these fluids is rendered impure by mixture with foreign matters, disease will be a frequent result. The ancients must have been in- fluenced by this fact, or they would not have incurred such heavy expenses in procuring pure water from great distances. The strong aqueducts through which, for many miles, large streams of water are even at this day poured into Rome, attost the freeness of the expendi- tures she mad^ for this purpose in the day of her greatest renown. We may pity the ancient Romans for being governed in their military operations by the opinions of augurs and soothsayers, and certainly these things were silly enough ; but in other things, at first view equally superstitious, they showed practical wisdom. Vetruvius re- ports that in selecting the sites of theii: cities, they inspected the livers and spleens of animals to learn the salubrity of the waters and the alimentary productions of the region. The size and condition of these organs do in fact indicate the nature of the pasturage and the qualities of the water with which animals are supplied. No people can enjoy good health when subjected to the double influence of bad water and impure air. Division of Water. — The simplest division of water is into two kinds, soft and hard. Rain, river, pond, and snow water is soft: well and spring water is generally hard. Soft water contains but little impurities, and when used for washing, forms a good lather with soap. Hard water contains at least one of the salts of lime, often more ; mixed with soap, it curdles and turns white. Tte reason of this is, that the oily acids of the soap unite with the lime, and form a compound which the water will not dissolve. Such water is not suitable for domestic purposes. Chemical Nature of Water. — Water contains, reckoning the ele- ments of which it is composed in volumes, two volumes of hydrogen, and one volume of oxygen. These two gases, the unlearned reader 90 HYGIENB. will please remember, &.re highly subtle bodies, not visible to the eife ; and yet, when chemically united, they form a liquid which covei-s two-thirds the entire surface of the globe, — floating upon its lx)S(im the navies and merchant ships of all nations, and by its unmeasured depths and vast breadths and sublime movements, fills the thoughtful mind with conceptions of creative Power, which words never attempt to express. Should the two gases which compose this vast body of water cease to love each other, and fall asunder, the first lighted taper would set the world on fire, and not a living being upon its surface could escape destruction. Impurities in Water. — It is not surprising that a fluid with as great a solvent power as water, should often dissolve and hold in solution a great many impuritiss. In passing along through the earth, before it comes up in springs and wells, it is filtered through various mineral earths, and becomes contaminated accordingly. In running through beds of limestone, it takes up a little carbonate of lime. Salt-beds impart to it common salt (muriate of soda), while sulphur and other ores tinge it with salts of various kinds. Warer-Supply. — At the present time all large cities and most of the towns in this country are supplied with water for domestic pur- poses, either from ponds or lakes, or from artesian wells, of greater or less purity, but in almost all cases superior to the common well- water, so liable to contamination by cesspools and sewage. The re- sult is that the health of the people has been materially improved, and fevers, particularly those of a typhoid type, have diminished both in prevalence and fatality. The decaying vegetable and animal mat- ter, which formerly was washed into the soil, and percolated into and poisoned the wells, is now washed away by copious supplies of pure, fresh water. Lead Pipes. — In cities, water is usually conveyed through the dwellings in leaden pipes, — a practice fraught with a danger, to avoid which various expedients have been devised. That lead does often become oxidized and impart its poisonous properties to water when long in contact with it, is a well-known fact. Let a number of persons drink every morning from the the first water drawn from tiie pipes, and a portion of them will be attacked with some form of lead disease. The pipes should be emptied every morning before using the water for domestic purposes, and then there is little danger. Tin- lined pipes have been found to be almost entirely free from danger of lead-poisoning. Physical and Otlier Properties of Water.— Good water is with- out smeil, is perfectly clear, and in the mouth has a soft and lively feel. Whan poured from one vessel to another, it should give out aiivbubbljb. Boiled and distilled waters have a vapid, flat taste. This is ovdng to their containing no carbonic acid gas or atmospheric acid we MVJ Wff« HYGIENE. 91 air, — these being driven off in the act of boiling and distilling. A hundred cubic inches of good river water contain about 2^ of carbonic acid, and 1^ of common air. Carbonic acid is what gives to mineral, or soda water, its brisk, and even pungent taste. Without a portion of this acid and atmos- pheric air, water is perfectly insipid, and not fit to be used as a bev- erage. Hence, if it be boiled or distilled to clear it of earthy matters, we must expose a large surface of it to the air, and shake it, that it may re-absorb from the atmosphere what it has lost, and thus recover its taste. . . Rain Water is the Result of Distillation on a large scale, and would be insipid, like other distilled water, only that, after being distilled off from the waters upon the surface of the earth, it recovers, while ascending as vapor, the carbonic acid and atmospheric air. Fishes breathe air as well as land-animals, and hence, lakes upon the tops of high mountains, where but little oxygen can be absorbed into the water from the air, are not inhabited by the finny tribes. The Saltness of the Ocean is simply the accumulation of the saline substances washed out of the bowels of the earth. The water which for thousands of years has been distilling off as vapor from the surface of the ocean is nearly pure. Reing carried by the winds to the continents, it falls as rain, sinks iulci the earth, is filtered through mineral substances, comes to the surfaces in springs, is collected into rivers, and, with all its freight of mineral salts, is borne back to the ocean. Everything that water can dissolve, and carry down from the continents, finds a great depository in the ocean; and as this has no outlet, the accumulation must go on without limit. Rivers which flow into the ocean contain from ten to fifty grains of salts to the gallon, — composed chiefly of common salt, sulphate and carbonate of lime, magnesia, soda, potash and iron ; and these are the constituents of sea-water. Cleansing of Impure Water. — Impure waters should be cleansed before being used for domestic purposes. Distillation is the most perfect method of purification. Filtration through sand is a good method. It removes all suspended vegetable or animal matter, and all living animals. Boiling likewise kills all animals, and throws to the bottom carbonate of lime. It is this which constitutes the crust which lines tea-kettles in all regions where limestone exists. 'Settlers in a new country should make it a prime object to find good water. This is of great moment. Their own health and the health of their posterity is dependent upon it. Any soil, good or bad, is not worth half price, if it yield impure water. Reasons for Prizing Water. — Finally, we ought all to prize water very highly, for it composes nearly eight-tenthn of our entire bodies, in- cluding our flesh, blood, and other fluids. Nay, we owe to it the very m mM 92 HYGIENE. softness, delicacy, and smoothness of our persons. Our musclfs. nerves, blood vessels, glands, cartilages, etc., all play smoothly upon each other in consequence of water. Take all the water out of us, and we should be dry sticks indeed. All our comeliness would W gone. Nobody would or could love us. We should be walking reeds, sh ' -n and sported with by every wind. Let us never forget how mu ire indebted to water. Exercise. Animal life is conditioned upon exercise. Without it health can- not exist, or life -itself be continued for any great length of time. Proper exercise communicates motion to every part susceptible of it. It expands the chest, contracts and relaxes the muscles, quickens the motion of the blood, moves afresh all the other fluids, and stirs to the centre of the whole frame. More easy and perfect digestion, the nutrition of every part, and the proper performance of all the secre- tions and excretions, are the results of such exercise. A distinguished physician said : " I know not which is most neces- sary to the support of the human frame, food or motion." Some of the finest talents in the world are probably lost for the want of exercise ; for without it the mind loses its keen perception and its bounding energy, ita power of application and its general scope. If men of great talents would give attention to exercise, the world would reap a larger harvest from their written thoughts. The arrangements of modern society have very much abridged the facilities for taking exercise ; but if Trenck in his damp prison, with fetters of seventy pounds weight upon him, could preserve his health by leaping about like a lion, most persons could do as much with the fetters of modern society upon their limbs. Must be Regular. — Exercise, to be of much service, must be regu- lar, — not taken by fits and starts, — a good deal to-day and none to- morrow ; but in reasonable measure every day. Occasional efforts, with intervening inactivity, only does mischief. Must be Pleasurable. — It should be connected, too, if possible, with some pleasing occupation or pursuit. The movement of the limbs should carry us towards some place or end in which the mind feels an interest ; exercise will then do us most good. Hence botan- ical pursuits, the cultivation of a garden, and the like, are often pre- ferable to a solitary and aimless walk. , Must not be Excessive Exercise should never be carried so far as to produce great fatigue. Extremes are injurious ; and too much exercise, especially by a sick or feeble person, may he as injurious as too little. No clothing should be thrown off after exercise, nor should one cool off by sitting in a draft of air. Very serious consequences often follow this practice. HYGIENE. w Not to be Taken After Meals. — It is not best to take exercise im- mediately after meals. The reasons for this caution have been ex- plained. It is true many laboring men go at once to their work after eating, without apparent injury. Yet they are strong, and can en- dure what those who use their brains chiefly could not. And even they do not labor as easily and cheerfully immediately after dinner. Active and Passive. — Exercise is properly divided into active and passive. Walking, running, leaping, dancing, gardening, various sports, etc., are active. While sailing, swinging, and riding in car- riages are passive. Riding on horse-back is of a mixed nature, — being both active and passive. A few remarks upon these several kinds of exercise will have a practical value to some of the readers of these pages. Walking is one of the most gentle, easy, and generally one of the most useful of the active exercises. It is within the reach of all who have the use of their limbs, and is indulged at the expense only of a little shoe-leather. To make it agreeable, the face is only to be turned to some favorite locality, and the mind put in communion with the voices of nature. To walk with the best advantage, the body should be kept upright, the shoulders thrown back, the breast projected a little forward, so as to give the lungs full play, and the air an opportunity to descend to the bottom of them. This attitude places all the organs of the body ill the most natural position, and relieves them from all restraint. Walking then becomes a source of pleasure. The artist who bends over his pallet, and gets into a cmmped position, is by this kind of walking relieved, and his body kept upright. Females, particularly of the wealthier class, are much more apt to neglect this species of exercise than males. It is not so in England. There it is no uncommon thing for ladies of high rank to walk ten miles a day ; and they do it in shoes of suf- ficient thickness to protect their feet from all dampness, and in clothes large enough to give their muscles full play. As a conse- quence, they enjoy excellent health, and in many cases even retain their freshness and beauty to old age. A master of one of the vessels of our navy who spent some time, lately, in the British Channel, was several times invited to spend the evening at Lord Hardwick's, where he made the acquaintance of two •laughters of his lordship, who, in the drawing-room, he thought the most accomplished ladies he ever saw. Yet those young women, on two occasions, in company with other friends, walked miles to visit his vessel, once on a rainy day, clad in thick, coarse cloth cloaks which no rain could penetrate, and caring as little for wet weather as a couple of ducks. Good for the Studious. — For the studious, walking is a most capi- tal exercise. It varies the scenes so constantly, and brings the mind ■•BiiiiTirann/Tir' ^■''■■■" ■ ■ I 94 HYGIKNE. in contact with so many objects, that the monotony of in-door Hfe is admirably broken. It was a maxim of Plato, that " he is truly a crip- ple, who, cultivating his mind alone, suffers his body to languish." Good in Cold Weather. — Walking is valuable in cold weather, because it exposes one to the cold atmosphere, and hardens the person against frosty weather, — a consideration of great consequence in countries which are subject to extremes of cold. Running and Leaping are forms of exercise which should be in- dulged with prudence even by the young and healthy. For the feeble and the aged, they are entirely inadmissible. Used cautiously, in a system of regular training, they may help raise the bodily powers to a high degree of agility and endurance. The North American Indian, who was bred to the chase, ran with surprising swiftness, and for en- durance was scarcely excelled by his faithful dog. What training has done for the Indian, it may do for the white man, who may chance to inherit as good a constitution. Tlie Qame of Base-Ball requires very active running, and for the young, it is an exceedingly healthful amusement. It fills the whole frame with a bounding spirit, and sets the currents of life running like swollen brooks after heavy rains. QymnasticA. — The more active species of exercise have generally been included under the term gymnastics. Among the (ireeks aiul Romans, feats of strength and endurance were supposed to confer honor. For this reason, and because war was a laborious calling, re- quiring bodily endurance and strength, their youth were trained in the most active exercises. Gymnastic games were with them at once the school of health, and the military academy. In England, during the middle ages, acts of Parliament and royal proclamations were 'employed to regulate and foster those manly sports and exercises, which fitted the people for the activity required on the field of battle. Those preparations for brutal wars would be unsuited to the pres- ent state of the world ; but the capacity for endurance which these trainings produced, could be most usefully employed in the laborious and scientific researches which modern advancement requires. Very few of our scientific men have sufficient hardness of fi-ame to sustain them in their laborious studies. The heart-diseases which prevail so extensively are the result, many of them, of violent exercise, taken, perhaps, from necessity, and proving injurious because not a matter of every-day practice. Violent exercise, more than any other kind, must be regular in order to be borne. Needed by Young Women. — Gymnastic exercises and calisthenics are particularly needed by our young women, to give them something of the robustness of our mothei-s, a few genemtions back. For the HYGIENE. M loor life is uly a crip- tiguish." I weatlier, the pei-soii qnence in uld be in- the feeble ously, in a powers to an Indian, Hid for en- it training who may nd for the the whole 'e running ! generally treeks and to confer calling, re- trained in 3in at once ; and royal )8e manly ;y required the pres- hich these 3 laborious res. Very to sustain the result, lessity, and 5. Violent rder to be alisthenics something , For the want of them, they are dwindling away, and becoming almost worth- less for all the purposes for which they were made. In view of this want of exercise the introduction of the lucycle offers an excellent means of development for ladies, and it is very gratifying to note its increasing use. It brings into play many of the nniscles of the body, while affording an exhilarating enjoyment of fresh air and changing scenery. But caution must be used, not to overdo one's self. Short rides only should be taken at first, increas- ing the distance as the muscles l)ecome hardened. Moderns Physically Inferior to the Ancients. Reason for it. — It is evident that the moderns are inferior in bodily strength to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Before the introduction of Christianity, men knew very little about the future, and therefore strove to make the most of the present. Hence, they took measures to ensure health and long life. It is true that a due regard to the welfare of the fu- ture need not, and should not, prevent a care for the present ; but from various causes, to be referred to on a subsequent page, such has been the practice, to the manifest physical injury of the race. Dancing:, when hedged about with proper restrictions and limita- tions, has great advantages as a physical training for the young. There are very few forms of exercise which give so free a play to all the muscles, and at the same time so agreeably interest the mind. Begun in early life, and pursued systematicaHy, dancing imparts a grace and ease of motion which nothing else can give. For this rea- son alone, it should be cultivated as an art. Every man and woman is often placed in circumstances in life where the possession of an easy carriage of body, and an unembar- rassed manner, would be prized above gold. One's personal influence in tlie world is greatly increased by an easy, graceful manner. We all know how a polite manner wins, while a rough and vmcouth one rejjels us. Warning against Excess. — While dancing has many things to recommend it, there are also several considerations which should warn us against using it to excess, particularly in the ball-rooms of fashion- able life. So many muscles are called into play, the breathing is so much quickened, and the air breathed is often so impure, that the circulation of the blood is hastened almost to fever excitement. And when to this we add the use of wines and cordials, alternated with ices and iced drinks, and the exposure, on returning home from balls, to the chilly night air, under the insufficient protection of light cloth- ing, we have drawbacks enough to abridge, if not to annihilate the benefits derived from this otherwise healthful and elegant exercise. But then it will be said, and truly enough, that these are the abuses, not the uses of dancing. To these abuses, no parent should permit the health of a child to be exposed. In the parlor at home, with a few young friends gathered in to spend an evening ; or, in a well-venti- r XIIMI 96 IIYGIRNR. lated hall, under the instruction of a master of known character and refinement, dancing is of high utility, and much may be said in its favor. An amusement for which there is so general a fondnoss, one may say, passion, must be fitted to meet some want of the animal economy, and perhaps of man's higher nature. Grace of motion gratifies our sense of the beautiful, and in its na- ture is allied to poetry. Turning away from the abuses of dancing, let the reader thankfully use it as one of the very best physical, so- cial, and rosthetical educatora of youth. But if dancing is salutary, it is only when every limb and muscle is allowed to participate naturally and without restraint in the general motion. When performed in a dress so tight as to restrain all free- dom, not only is every grace destroyed, but injury of a serious char- acter may be the result. The Cultivation of a Qarden is also a species of exercise highly conducive to health. To the poor it should have a double attraction. It is not only a healthful exercise, but it yields, in its season, many wholesome vegetables, the price of which, when they have to be pur- chased, frequently puts them beyond their reach. It is pleasant to know that in many of our manufacturing towns the workmen own small pieces of ground which they cultivate as gardens, — deriving health both from the labor, and from the vegetables raised. This is one of the kinds of exercise which are more beneficial from having an end in view. The man who works in his garden derives pleasure from the improvement he is making upon his ground, and from the prospect of advantage to himself and family. Otiier Active Exercises. — To the exercises already spoken of may be added those which are mostly taken indoors, — the dumb-bells, jumping the rope, battledore, etc. They may be resorted to when the weather is stormy, or when any other cause may prevent one from going into the open air. Nevertheless, as promoters of health, they are inferior to those exercises which take one out under the open sky. They are too mechanical in their nature, and have too little aim, to be allowed to take the place of the preceding. Passive Exercises. Sailing. — This, to many persons, is among the most pleasurable and exciting of the passive exercises. But the excitement arising from the motions of a boat, sometimes, in case of timid persons, de- g lerates into /ear, which is injurious. Young gentlemen who man- age the boat upon sail:.ig excursions, should never put on too much sail in a brisk wind, and torment the ladies by exciting their fears, as their own amusement may be in this way purchased at the cost of others' health, — a result far enough from their thoughts or inten- tions, but not the less real. ja w5-iMwTOiifw i i i iH i nMrii< iBiiMwww».«. '"nrnfWlifMWii '-^A'^iiiiaAi ■fe longest endured, in which we feel the greatest interest. Place before eveii a feeble man some desirable (»l>- ject, and he will endure a great deal to reach it; or engage the iiiiiid of a very tired peraon in something which greatly interests it, and considembly more exertion will be easily borne;. This is well illus- trated by the story told by Miss Edgeworth of a certain father, who had taken a long walk with his little son, and founil the boy appar- ently unable to walk further, some time before reaching home. " Here," said the shrewd-minded father, " ride on my gold-headed cane." Immediately the little fellow was astride the cane, which carried him as safely home as the freshest horse. Mentc' Co-operation is of the highest importance in all exercise. Men who are paid by the job, work with far more spirit than those who are paid by the day. One would dig in the earth with \ery little spirit, if he had no motive for doing it ; but if expected with every shovelful of earth to bring u[) gold-dust, he would not only work with a will, but would endure a great deal more labor. From these considerations we may infer that those farmers and manufac- turers who pay their men the highest wages, make the most money on their work. The best time for taking exercise is that in which it does us most good. For most pei-sons the morning hours may be considered most favorable. But there are many who cannot take exercise in the early morning, without suffering from it through the whole day. Some are able to walk miles in the afternoon, who would be made sick by similar exertions immediately after rising. Persons often injure friends who have this peculiarity of constitu- tion by urging them out in the morning. They do it from good mo- tives, but are, nevertheless, blameworthy for attempting to advise iu matters which they do not understand. Rest and Sleep. Oim bodies are like clocks ; they run down and are wound up once every twenty-four hours. Were they obliged to work on uninter- ruptedly, they would wear out in a few days. It is a merciful pro- vision that periods of repose are allotted to us. Eveiything has its -"®^;.?*flAi'.T;-VAt,~ i!K55rei3r«.i'a*a HYOIENE. M oil liorse- tiU'lmil to Imu iijioii • >l)lo creii- a passion, 1 pt'ifoiiu- 1 exorcis's feel ilic siraltlc dlh ttu! niiiid tH it, and veil illiiH- itlier, will) lK)y a|)[)ar- njj iioiiie. )l(l-ht>adcd me, which 1 exercise. han those with \^ry ectcd witli not only or. From . manufac- ost money les us most lered most 1 the early ly. Some de sick hy I constitu- : good mo- advise in id up once Q uninter- rciful pro- ing has its proper place. Rest is not less a luxury after oxercisc, than exercise is after rest. They botli confer happiness at the same time thai they promote our well-l/oing. Sleeping Rooms. — The largest part of our rest is taken in sleep. Of course the kind of room in which we sleep is worthy of considera- tion. Hufeland says: "It must not Ikj forgotten that wo spend a considerable portion of our lives in the l)ed-chamber, and consecpiently that its healthiness or iinhealthinuss cannot fail to have a very ini portant influence upon our physical well-being." It should at lea«t 1)0 huge. That is of prime importance, Iwcause, during the several iiours tliat wo are in bed, we need to breathe a great deal of air, and our health is injured when we are obliged to breathe it several times over. We should at least pay as much attention to the size, situa- tion, temperature, and cleanliness of the room we occupy during the horn's of repose, as to the parlors, or drawing-room, or any other apartment. And yet how different from this is tho general practice of families. The smallest room in the hoi^ise is commonly set apart for the bed and ita nightly occupants. The sleeping-room should have a good location, so as to be dry. It should be kept clean, and neither be too hot nor too cold. And, more important still, it should be well ventilated. One bed, occupied by two persons, is as mucli as should ever be allowed in a single room ; though, of course, two beds in a large room are no more than one in a small one. Both are objectionable. Fire in Sleeping Rooms. — As to having fire in a sleeping room, that is a matter to be determine:' by the health of the occupant. Persons who have poor circulation, and are feeble, had better have a little fire in the bed-chamber in cold weather. For those in good health a cold room is preferable. Open Windows in Sleeping Rooms. — In the hot weather of sum- mer, it is better to keep the windows open to some extent, through the night, but not on opposite sides of the room so as to make a draft across the bed. There is a difference of opinion as to the safety of this practice, but the experience of those who have used it prudently and persever- ingly has generally sanctioned its employment. It is presumed that night-ail is made to be breathed; and if we breathe it habitually, there is no good reason why it should be considered hurtful. At all events we have got to do one of three things, — either breathe it, or be poisoned by air which is breathed several times over, or use very large sleeping-rooms, and thus lay in a stock to last over night. An Open Fireplace in a bed-chamber will do much towards its purification. It carries off foul air. But many persons board up this outlet as if bad air were a friend with whom they could not think of parting. At the same time they will carefully close all windows and doors, as if fresh air were an enemy not to be let in. 100 HYGIENE. Beds. — It is a pleasant thought that while so many things which injure health are coming into fashion, some which have a like effect are going out. Among the injurious things which are silently witli- drawing are feather-beds. In earlier times, a bed made of eider-down was thought to be a great luxury^ to be carefully preserved, and handed down from mother to daughter. Beds made of hen's feathers, and other coarser kinds, were thought to be only fit for children. With due deference to these earlier judgments, it must be said that feather beds, whether downy or coarae, are not even fit for children. They are composed of animal matter, and by a slow process of decay, are always, when stirred, sending up an exhalation which it is not healthful to breathe. By their softness, too, they increase the general tendency to effemi- nacy. In warm weather they are too heating. To sink down into thera, and lie nearly buried all night, is to insure a feeling of lassi- tude and debility in the morning. Only the strongest persons can endure it without being made conscious of the evil effects. Beds must not be too Hard. — On the other hand, it is almost equally unwise to choose a bed of absolutely unyielding hardness. When very tired, we may rest even upon a board ; but sleep will generally be moro sound as well as refreshing, if the bed be some- what yielding. The hair mattress is the very best bed yet used. It is healthful and easy. No person once accustomed to it will ever return to feathera In summer, it is a luxury ; in winter, it is suffi- ciently warm, though a little more covering is needed than with feathers. Bedding. — In hot weather, linen sheets are preferable to cotton, and of course will be used by those who have ample means. But cotton ones are good enough, and in winter are decidedly the more desirable of th<3 two. Cotton is best, too, for those who suffer with rheumatic affections. For external covering, comforts are objection- able, because they do not let the insensible pe spiration pass off as freely as it should. They are light, however, and so are rose blankets, which have the additional good quality of being porous. We should sleep under as few clothes as possible, consistently with con. fort. Night- Dress. — The flannel, cotton, linen, or silk, worn next the skin through the day, should always be replaced, on retiring, by a suitable night-dress. The undershirt should be cf the same ma- terial with that which is taken off, but thinner. If we wear flannel through the day, we need it quite as much at night. Do not Cover tlie Face. — The practice of sleeping with the face entirely covered with the bed-clothes is very injurious. It compels one to breathe the air over several times. Natural Position for Sleep. — The most natural position in which to sleep is upon the right side. This affords the easiest play to the "■T^aafe'iWa^^^reaBtiBy'gaaw iiiiia^ ^ ATg HTOIEKI. 101 internal organs. It is best, however, to learn to sleep in different positions, and to change occasionally from side to side. Upon the bacic is not so easy a position. To lie in this way obstructs the cir- culation of the blood, by the pressure of the stomach, bowels, etc., upon the large blood-vessels which pass down and up in front of the backbone. It u very tiresome and inJHrious to lie with the hands above the head. Amount of Sleep. — The average auiount of sleep required by persons in health is from seven to eight hours. Occasionally we find persons who get along very well with six, or even five hours ; while some, even in health, require nine. There is no ^vbsolute standard for all persons, in the amount of sleep, any more than in that of food. It depends on the temperament, the constitution, the amount of exercise, and the exhausting nature of the mental application. The object of sleep is to repair the energies, the extent to which they are wasted, and the recuperative power possessed, will measure the amount required. Late Suppers. — These are a bar to all sound and healthful sleep. The last meal should always be taken at least three hours before re- tiring and should be light. During sleep the stomach should have a chance to rest. It will work the better on the morrow. ^ Some per- ,8ons boast that they can sleep perfectly well after a heavy supper. Perhaps they can, but, as Franklin lias wisely suggested, they may by and by " have a fit of apoplexy, and sleep till doomsday." This will be sleeping too well! Preparation for Sleep. — Dr. Franklin left behind the record of a wise life, as well as many excellent moral and philusophical direc- tions. A good conscience was his prescription for quiet sleep and pleasant dreams, — a most excellent direction. Sleep is promoted, too, by withdrawing the mind, a short time before retiring, from all hard study and exciting themes of conversation, and turning it to calmer subjects of reflection, such as the moral attributes of God, and particularly his love and paternal character Objects oii Clothing. The clothes we wear are intended, or should be intended, to secure three objects, — warmth in winter, coolness in summer, and health at all times. It has already been shown that our bodies are warmed by their own internal fires. In the lungs, in the skin, and indeed in all parts of the body, oxygen unites vath carbon , : d other combustible mat- ters, producing heat in the same way that it is produced in a grate where coal is burned ; and as our temperature always needs to be kept to about 98° Farenheit, it follows that this combustion must always be going on. 102 HYOIENE. Now, the atmosphere which surrounds us is alwajrs receiving into itself the heat which comes to the surface of our bodies, and thus robbing us of our warmth. In summer, the atmosphere, full of the rays of a burning sun, may impart heat, instead of taking it away ; while in winter it takes more than it gives, and would cause us to parish with the cold, were it not for the protection afforded by our clothing. Clothes, of course, have no power to manufacture or impart heat. They only retain, and keep in contact with our bodies, that which is generated within us. If we have on a single garment which is made tight at the bottom and top, so that no current can pass up or down, there will be a layer of air between it and the body, which, becoming immediately heated, and being retained there, helps keep us warm, or rather, prevents us from being cold. With every additional garment put over this, there is another layer of heated air, adding still more impenetrable guards against either the intrusion of cold, or the escape of internal heat. Bad Conductors of Heat. — But, that our clothes may thus retain our warmth, and prevent its dispersion, they must be had conductors of heat, — that is, they must not readily take up the heat and convey it away from the body. They must slowly absorb the caloric into their own substance, and then retain it tenaciously. Linen, which is so universally popular in temperate climates, as an article to be woi-n next the skin, is unfortunately a good conduc- tor of heat. It does not afford a warm garment. It conducts heat rapidly away from the body. Hence it always feels cool to the touch. It is really no colder in itself than other kinds of cloth, but it is solely the rapidity Avith which it conducts heat away from the body, that gives it the feeling of cold- ness. It has other qualities which compensate, in some measure, for this defect. The fibres of which it is composed are round and pliable, which makes linen cloth smooth and soft, and the sensations produced by it on the skin altogether agreeable. Fig. 67 represents a fibre of linen, as it appears under a microscope which magnifies it 155 times. Cotton is warmer than linen, because it is a worse conductor of heat. The perfection to which its manufacture has been carried, makes it almost a rival of linen in softness and pliability. It does not al)sorb as much moisture as linen, and there- fore better retains its powers as a non-conductor. But then the fibres of cotton are not round and smooth, like those of linen, but flat and spiral, with sharp edges. Fig. 68 represents two of its fibres, magnified 155 times. This renders cotton irritable to some very delicate skins. This is the reason why linen Fio. er. FlO. 68. HYGIKNE. 103 Biving into i, and thus full of tlu. J it away; iiuse us to led by our npart heat, it which is ch is made p or down, , becoming 8 warm, or \\ garment still more the escape hus retain conductors nd convey iloric into limates, as id conduc- iucts heat it always 3 colder in it is solely heat away g of cold- jmpensate, composed I soft, and ,ble. Fig. ope which nductor of sn carried, . It does and there- conductor, round and and spiral, two of its lers cotton why linen FlO. 69. is better than cotton for binding up wounds, where there is tender- ness of the surface. Silk has a round fibre, like linen, which is even softer and smaller. It absorbs less moisture than cotton, and in its power of retaining warmth, it is superior to both the preceding. It forniR the most de- sirable fabric for clothing that we have ; but its cost makes it inacces- sible to the great body of the people, except as a holiday dress for the ladies. Its culture in our country, if extensively established, would be a source of national wealth. The Fibre of Wool is quite rough, almost scaly, and highly irrita- tive to delicate skins. Fig. 69 shows fibres magnified 310 times. It is not possible for some persons to wear it next the skin. But where this cannot be done it may be worn outside the linen or cotton ; and being a good nortrconduetor, it will in this way preseive the warmth of the body, without either irritating the skin, or disturbing its electricity. Wool, in cold climates, is one of the very best materials of which clothes can be made. In New England, and, indeed, in all cold and temperate regions, it should be worn by delicate persons, in the form of thick or thin garments, all the year round. It does not readily absorb moisture, and is a dry, warm, and wholesome material for clothing. Hair. — Though not precisely in the line of these remarks, hair may as well be introduced here. Wool is in fact hair. Every part of the skin, with the exception of that upon the soles of the feet, and the palms of the hands, is intended to produce hairs. On most parts of the body, they are short and fine, hardly ri-'ing above the surface. Upon the head and the face, they grow to coii,.iderable length. Hair, like wool, is a bad conductor of heat ; and, as growing upon the head and face, is doubtless intended for some useful purpose. That it was designed as a warm covering, can hardly be doubted. The beard, when permitted to grow, is a natural respirator, guarding the lungs against cold and dust. It has been noticed that black- smiths who have allowed their beards to grow, had their mustache discolored by iron-dust, which lodged among the hairs, and very justly inferred that the dust must have found its way into the lungs, and done mischief, had it not been arrested by this natural respirator. That the beard, when long, does Avard off a grcsat many colds and throat troubles, is too well known to be denied. It has required moral courage on the part of those who have broken away from the universal practice of shaving, foe which they should be honored rather than ridiculed. For those who do not suffer from throat or lung complaints, espe- 1 cially if they are getting advanced in life, it may not be thought worth while to abandon the razor. Yet the change would M *!! FlO. 70. ■P&asvw" ■^^smmmm^ii&m&^^^i 104 .lYOIENE. not be regretted. Fig. 70 is a human hair, magnified 250 timts, showing its scaly surface. The Color of our Clothing is a matter of some moment. The dark colors absorb the light, the sun's rays, and heat, much more than the lighter ones ; and as those bodies which absorb heat well are likewise good radiators, the dark colors have the highest radiating power. White reflect heat and rays of light, and is a bad absorber and bad radiator. In su.amer it prevents the sun's rays from passing inward to heat the body, and in winter, intermpts the heat of the body in its passage out. In summer, it makes the coolest garment ; in winter the warmest one. These facts can be very simply illustrated, by laying, side bj side, upon the snow, when the sun shines, two pieces of cloth, the one black, the other white. Lifting them up, after a time, the snow will be found considerably melted under the black cloth, but not under the white. It is now seen that the object of' clothing is not to impart heat to the body, but to prevent its loss ; that it is not to create it, but to furnish the occasion for increasing its degree. It appears further, that clothing protects the body against the evil effects of changes of temperature, and that white garments, by reflecting, instead of ab- sorbing heat, guard it against the heat of summer. Clothing should be Porous. — All articles used for garments should be porous, and permit the free passage of insensible perspiration. The skin receives oxygen through its pores, and gives back carbonic acid. It performs a sort of subordinate respiration. India-rubber garments, worn next to it, interrupt this, and must do mischief. Shoes made of this material soon cause the feet to become damp and cold. The dampness is occasioned by the insensible perspimtion, which cannot escape through the rubber. Such shoes worn in the open air, should be immediately taken off on entering the house. Thin Shoes. — The defective way in which American females pro- tect their feet from cold and wet, is a sore evil; and he who persuades them to adopt a wiser fashion, and cover their feet with better guard? against colds and consumption, will deserve the gratitude of the na- tion. We are in many things too fond of copying foreign fashions: but if our ladies would, in this matter, follow the excellent example of English women, they would live longer, and leave a hardier pos- terity behind them. The shoes worn by our females, high and low, rich and poor, are not thick enough to walk with safety upon a painted floor, hardly upon a carpet in an unwarmed room ; and yet they walk with them upon cold brick sidewalks, upon damp and frozen ground, and even in mud. The result is, that they suffer from colds, sore throats, pleurisies, lung-fevers, suppressions, inflammations of the womb, and many other ailments, which in early life rob them of their freshness and beauty, '•i»^^\ ;k«w«iesii;;;^«i^S£uu^^^ HYGIENE. 106 passage of tlioir health aftfl comfort, of their usefulness to their linusehold 1111(1 the world, and leave them helpless in the arms of their friends, with a patrimony of suffering for themselves while they live and a legacy of disease to hand down to their children. Would that they were wise in season ' Some, to their honor be it said, have already adopted a safer coui-se. rected. It is hoped the evil will be gradually cor- Never attempt to mould the Form by Dress. — Parents commit a great error when they attempt to mould the forms of their children, particularly their daughters, by their dress. This cannot be done. It is the work of nature, and she wants no assistance in it. The great object of dress in childhood, as well as in adult life, is to pro- mote health. With this, there is not much difficulty in preserving the symmetry ; without it, deformity is almost a matter of course. The fact cannot be too often repeated, nor too seriously urged upon parents, that while the foundation of all graceful and just proportion of the different parts of the body must be laid in infancy, it cannot be done by tight bands, and ligatures upon the chest, and loins, and legs, and arms. Upon all these points, the garments of children should set easy, leaving the muscles at liberty to assume the fine swell and development which nothing short of unconstrained exercise can give. Could infants tell all the hon'ors they suffer from the re- straints put upon them by tight dresses, it would make many a mother's heart bleed. In these brief remarks, the principles are given which should guide us in the selection of our clothing. The intelligent reader will be able very easily to fill up the outline. Bathing and Cleanliness. Aristotle calls cleanliness one of the half virtues ; and Addison, ill the Spectator, recommends it as a mark of politeness, and as analo- gous to purity of mind. Both in the Jewish and Mohammedan law, it is enforced as a part of religious duty. Its requirement as a pre- requisite to cliristian communion would be wiser than the demands sometimes made. A dirty Christian may perhaps be found, but not among those who mean to be intelligent. The importance of keeping the skin clean is not generally appreci- ated. The motive for cleanliness is often a lower and meaner one than should be allowed to have place in the mind. Many persons would be mortified to have their hands, or face, or neck dirty, who ilo not wash their whole body once a year. That they may appear well in the eyes of others, is the only motive with such for keeping clean. Offices of the Skin. — If we look a little at the offices of the skin, we shall better understand the need of keeping it clean. ■■■■ 106 HYGIENE. The skin is not merely a covering to protect us trom the weather. It is a living structure, curiously wrought, with a large extent of sur- face, and having important duties to perform in the animal economy. Its structure is more particularly explained under the liead of " Anat- omy " and " Skin Diseases." It has been aheady said, that it helps the lungs in breathing. It does many other things on Wi.ich the health is dependent. Number of Perspiratory Tubes. — The skin performs several kinds of secretion, — that is, it separates several things from tlie blood, — one of which is the persjnratfbn, or sweat. The sweat is formed in small glands, situated just under the skin, and is brought to the surface in small ducts, or tubes, like the hose tlirough which firemen throw water. These little tubes are spiral, as seen in cut 44. and run up through the two skins. These spiral canals are very numerous, covering every part of the human frame, - there being about 2800 of them upon every square inch throughout the body ; and as a man of ordinary size has about 2500 square inches of surface, the number of tubes in the skin of one man is seven millions. The mouths of these tubes are called tlie pores of the skin. Each one of these tubes is extended just below the skin ; and there, among the cells where the fat is deposited it, or rather the two bi-anches into which it is divided, is wound into a coil, called the sudoriferous or sweat gland. These ducts are each about a quarter of an inch in length, which make an aggregate length of tubing in the human skin of about twenty-eight miles. Insensible Perspiration. — Through each of these seven million of quarter-inch hose, there is poxired out, day and night, as long as a man lives, a stream of sweat in the form of vapor. When this is thrown off very rapidly, as happens when active exercise is taken, it accumulates in drops, and is called sweat. Ordinarily it does not thus accumulate ; it is then called insensible perspiration, — not being recognized by the senses. This transpiration may be proved very beautifully by inserting the naked arm into a long glass jar, and closing up the space around it at the month so that no air can get in. The inside of the glass will soon be covered with a vapor, which will grow more and more den.se until it is converted into drops. Boerhaave says : " If the piercing chill of winter could be introduced into a summer assembly, the in- sensible perspiration being suddenly condensed, would give to each person the appearance of a heathen deity, wrapped in his own sepa- rate cloud." Now, this continual exudation of sweat through these millions of tubes is for a wise and necessary purpose. It is to take out of the blood and other fluids various salts, which would do mischief if allowed to remain longer, and particularly carbonic acid, which is ESfissBEKeanHH HTGIENB. 107 the weather, ffentof sur- iil economy. '1 of " Anat- that it helps h the health rms several fs from the he sweat is is brought ough which 11 in cut 44. part of the very square ;e has al)out skin of one skin. Each lere, among unches into oriferous or an inch in luman skin n million of s long as a /^hen this is is taken, it it does not tion, — not iserting the ! around it B glass will more den.se 16 piercing bly, the in- ve to each own sepa- millions of out of the nischief if , which is poisonous, — the same matters, in fact, which are thrown out by the lungs. The skin, in truth, is a kind of helper of the lungs ; and a lady, by covering herself with garments which have no pores, and will neither admit air nor let off insensible perspiration, may be strangled almost as certainly as by putting a cord around her neck, and closing her windpipe. Almost twice as much fluid passes off through the skin as through the lungs. Keep the Pores Open. — It is obvious from what has now been said, that the pores of the skin should be kept open to preserve health. When bathing is neglected, and the undergannents are not changed sufficiently often, the insensible perspiration accumulates and dries up upon the skin, mingling with the oily matter secreted by the oil-glands, and with tha slireds of the scarf-skin, and form- ing a tenacious gluey matter, which closes up the pores. By this misfortune, that large quantity of worn-out matter which usually goes off with the fluid througVi the pores is retained to poison and embarnvss the living current of blood, or seek an outlet through lungs or kidneys, which are already burdened with quite as much as they are able to do. How important, then, that these channels through which the body is purified should be kept open I that the skin shoiUd be kept healthy and in working order ! The Bath, the Great Purifier. — But this can only be done by . daily washing. The bath is the great purifier of the human skin. The antiquity of bathing is very great. The practice is supposed to reach back to the infancy of the race, or certainly to a very early period. The inhabitants of Middle Asia are said to have been the firet to use the bath for the specific purposes of purification and health. Domestic baths are represented as having been used by Dioraed and Ulysses. Andromache prepared warm water for Hector on his return from battle. Penelope banished sorrow by unguents and baths. The Baths of the Medes, the Persians, and the Assyrians were much celebrated. Alexander, though familiar with the voluptuous baths of Greece and Macedon, was astonished at the magnificence of those of Darius. Roman Baths. — As luxury and refinement advanced, the means of luxurious bathing were multiplied, until establishments were built by the Romans, the very remains of which excite wonder at this day. Among these are the Thermae of Agrippa, of Nero, of Vespasian, of Titus, etc. One of the halls of the building con- structed for baths by Diocletian, forms at this day the church of the Carthusians, one of the most magnificent temples in Rome. Number and Character. — According to Pliny, baths were intro- duced into Rcme about the time of Pompey ; their first erection Dion attributes to Maecenas. Agrippa increased their number to 108 HYGIENK. one hundred and seventy ; and within two hundred years they were multiplied to about eight hundred. These establishments were sn vast that one writer compares them to provinces. They were paved either with crystal, or mosaic, or plaster, and were adorned by Hcidj)- ture and painting to the very highest degree. They added not merely to the health and luxury of the people, but contributed to their culture in the highest departments of art and taste. Names of Baths. — To the apartment of their dwelling in wliich they washed their bodies in warm or hot water, the Romans gave the name of balneum, or bath ; to the public establishments, that of balnea, or baths. The apartment which held the vessels was called vasarium. In this were the three immense vessels which conttuned the cold, warm, and hot water. There were instruments of lx)ne, ivory, and metal, for scraping the skin, with a groove in the edge, through which the impurities of the skin might run oif. On the north front of the thermae was a reservoir of cold water large enough for swimming, called by Pliny the younger, baptuterinm. In the centre was a spacious vestibule, and on each side, warm, cold. and vapor biths, with apartments for cooling, dressing, and refresli- ments. There was the frigidarium, a vaulted room, a cooling room midway between the warmer and the open air ; the tepidarium, with a temperature midway between the above and the hot bath ; and the calidanum, or the vapor bath. Then there was the room where the body was rubbed over with a great number of ointments and essences of the most precious kinds ; and another in which it was sprinkled over with powder ; and also a room which held the clothes, in which the bathera undressed and dressed at pleasure. All these upartments were double, the two wings being appropri- ated to the sexes. Open to all. — These baths, thus numerous and magnificent, were open to all classes of the people, and contributed largely to the gen- eral health and physical endurance for which the Romans were con- spicuous. The Bath Neglected under the Christian System. —When Jesus of Nazareth came into the world, he found man's nature cultivated in a most defective way. The moral element had sunk down to the lowest place, while the physical had risen to the highest, — just the reverse of the true order of things. This Divine Teacher came, not to recomm i a neglect of the body, but a new cure for the imper- ishable pa. -. Mankind were for the first time systematically taught to forgive injuries. Prostrate liberty and degraded woman became the wards of Christianity. Unfortunately, under the new order of things, the lower element of man, which had been exalted and worshipped, was cast down and abused. What the Pagan had pampered, the Chiistian pei-secuted. *»- ---- ^ HYGIENK. 109 i they were nte were ho were jHivcd hI hy Hculj)- added not tribntcd (o ig in wliicli )mans gave intH, that of was calh'd 1 contained t« of lx)ne, 1 the edge, coUl water aptisterinm. warm, cold, nd refresh- loling room %rium, with h ; and the over with a iouu kinds ; and also a ressed and appropri- icent, were to the gen- were con- ^hen Jesus cultivated own to the -just the came, not the imper- illy taught an became element down and teraecuted. The Imdy, which had been bathed, and scrubbed, and anointed, and perfumed, waa thenceforward, in consequence of the improper inter- pretation of certain texts, scourged, and fasted, and clothed in rags. Thousands believed, and thousands do to this day, that to torment the body is to please God. Under this feeling, the public and pri- vate baths were neglected ; and to this day no Christian nation has fully appreciated the necessity of cleanliness, and of sanitary meas- ures for the maintenance of the public health. To a considerable extent, the body is still under disabilities ; still the subject of perse- cution ; and where this is not the case, it is too often regarded only as a loose outside garment, to be thrown over the traveller to the celestial city, and is expected to be well soiled with mud and dust. The teachings of the Great Master will by and by cease to be per- verted, and will be applied to raise up man's body, as they have raised his mental and moral nature, and will make a well-developed and harmonious being. In the meantime, it is the duty and the privilege of the physician to urge a return, not to the magnificence of the ancient regimen for training the body, but to its real efficiency in a simpler form. Cold Bathing. — Water applied to the skin at a temperature below 75° of Farenheit, is called a cold bath. If applied to a person with sufficient constitutional energy to bear it, it is a decided and very powerful tonic. By this is meant that it promotes the solidity, com- pactness, and strength of the body. The first effect of the application of cold water to the skin, is the sudden contraction of all its vessels, and the retreat of the blood towards the internal organs. The nervous system, feeling the shock, causes the heart to contract with more energy, and throw the blood back with new force to the surface. This rushing of the blood back to the skin, is called a reaction ; and when it occurs with some energy, it is an evidence that the sys- tem is in a condition to be much benefited by the cold bath. When this does not take place, but the skin looks shrunken, and covered with " goose flesh," and a chilliness is felt for a longer or shorter time after bathing, then the inference should be, either that the water has been used too profusely, or that the bather has too little reactionary power for this form of the bath. The latter conclusion must not be accepted until cold water has been tried with all possible guards, — such as beginning with tepid water, and gfradually lowering the tem- perature ; bathing for a time, at least, in a warm room ; beginning the practice in warm weather ; and applying the water at first with a sponge out of which most of it has been pressed by the hand. With some or all of these precautions, mosf persons may learn to use the cold bath. It is always to be followed by brisk rubbing with a coarse towel or flesh-brush. The Sponge Bath. — \. wet sponge is the simplest, as well as the best mode of applying water to the surface of the body. With per- fiU tli> Jl no HYGIENE. sons who are feeble, a [nirl only of the hody should bo exposed at a time, — which part, having been quickly sponged and wiped dry, should Ihj covered, and another part exposed, and treated in a likt; manner. In this way, all parts of the body may successively be kiiI)- jected to the bnvcing influence of water and friction, with little risk, even to the most delicate, of an injurious shock. The only furniture required for carrying out this simple plan of bathing, is a sponge, a basin, anrl a towel. There is no form of iNithing so universally appli- cable as this, or so generally conducive to health. The Shower Bath requires a brief notice. The shock to the ner- vous system produced by itKs much greater than that from sponging. Beside the sudden application of coldness, there is a concussion of the skin by the fall of the water. This form of the bath is excellent for those who are strong and full of vitality, but is fraught with some danger for the feeble and delicate. This, however, depends on the judgment with which it is used. In the form of a delicate shower, and with tepid water, the frailest body might bear its shock. The Warm Bath. — A temperate bath ranges from 75° to 85° ; a tepid bath, from 86° to 95° ; a warm bath, from 95° to 98° ; a hot bath from 98° to 105°. A warm bath is of the same temperature with the surface of the body. Of course it produces no shock. To those who are past the meridian of life, and have dry skins, and l)egin to be emaciated, the warm bath, for half an hour, twice a week, is eminently serviceable in retarding the advances of age. It is a mistake to suppose the wann bath is enfeebling. It has a soothing and tranquillizing effect. It renders the pulse a little slower, and the breathing more even. If the bath be above 98°, it becomes a hot one, and the pulse is quickened. The temperature of the warm bath, as of the cold, should be made to range up and down according to the vigor of the frame, and the circulation of the individual. The aged and the infirm, whose hands and feet are habitually cold, require it to be well up towards the point of blood heat. The pulse should not be made to beat faster by it, nor should sensations of heat or fullness be induced about the temples and face. The Vapor Bath. — This differs from the warm bath in being ap- plied to the interior as well as to the exterior of the body. The warmth is inhaled into the air-tubes at the same time that it envelops the external person. The first sensation of the vapor bath is oppres- sion, and causes some difficulty of breathing ; but this passes off as soon as the perspiration begins to flow. From' the steam-chamber, the bather should step into a tepid bath, and after remaining a short time in this, wipe himself thoroughly with diy towels. Cold Affusion immediately after either the warm or the vapor bath, i(i excellent. In Russia it is common, after the vapor bath, to pour m^ posed at a npud dry, in a like ily IX! Hlll)- Uttli' risk, ' furniture sponge, a ally appli- to tlio ner- Hpoiiging. cu88ion of ) excellent with some ids on tlie te shower, k. to 85° ; a '8°; a hot mperature bock. To and l)egin ■I week, is It has a se a little »ve 98°, it d be made , and the 1086 hands wards the fiister by about the being aj*- dy. The envelops IS oppres- ses off as -chamber, y a short ipor bath, 1, to pour HYUIENK. lU upon the head of the bather a bucket of warm water, then one of tepid, and hwtly one of cold ; and to finish with giving hira a good towelling. It is even said that the natives leave the uteaiu and the hot bath, and roll themselves in the snow. No danger need Ik; feared from cold affuwion when the skin is red and excited by tlie warm bath, provided the nervous frame is not in a depressed condition. If the body is chilled, and the nerves pros- trated by disease or fatigue, the appli(!ation of cold water to the skin may do great mischief, and should in no case bo hazarded. Cold water applied to a hot skin cannot do harm ; to a cold skin, it can do nothing but harm. Hence, the cold bath may In; used with advan- tage on rising in the morning, while the lK)dy is warn>. Another good time is at ten or eleven o'clock in the forenoon, when the nervous power is advancing towards its height for the day. Reaction Necessary. — iVs a means for promoting cleanliness, the importance of the bath can liardly be overstated. For the support and improvement of health, it is equally important. But for the pro- motion of the latter, one prerequisite is essential, — the reaction of the skin. Various means are resorted to, to secure this. The Hindoos secure it by a kind of shampooing, thus described by a writer: " One of the attendants on the bath extends you upon a bench, sprinkles you with warm water, and presses the whole body in an admirable nianner.- He cracks the joints of the fingers, and of all the extremities. He then places you upon the stomach, pinches you over the kidneys, seizes you by the shoulders, and cracks the spine by agitating all the vertebrae, strikes some powerful blows over the fleshy and muscular parts, then rubs the body with a hair-glove until he perspires," etc. " This process," siiys the wiiter, " continues for three-quartera of an hour, after which a man scarcely knows himself; he feels like a new l)ei.ig." Sir John Sinclair speaks thus of the luxury of the process : " Tf life be nothing but a brief succession of our ideas, the rapidity with which they now pass over the mind would induce one to believe that in the few short minutes he has spent in the bath, he has lived a number of years." The Coarse Towel, the horsehair glove, and the flesh-brush are the appliances commonly used for stimulating the skin, and causing re- action. For tender skins, the towel is sufficiently rough. With this the bather should rub himself, unless he is weak and the exertion produces palpitation. The muscular exertion necessary for this will help the reaction. Restoration oi the. Bath deslrabie. — It is greatly to be wished that the bath miglit be restored to .something like the importance it held among ancient nations. It is a luxury, a means of health, and iv source of purity both of body and of mind ; for the morals of any people will rise when"} the use of the bath is regular and habitual. h 112 HYUIENR. The attempt to cure all diseases by what in called the " water-cure," h:tH a hit of fanaticlHm about it, which will cure ituelf in time. But that water, used judiciously in the form of baths, is a potent moral and physical renovator of the nice, is not to be doubted ; and this should commend it to all sensible peo[)le, even though it should some- times be abused by excess, at* all good things art>. A people with clean hands, anU clean bodies, and clean health, will very natunilly come to like clean streets and clean cities, and finally, dean consciences. A fondness for cleanliness in one form, almost ne- cessarily runs into a like fondness for it in other forms, until the pu- rifying desire pei-vades the whole nature, moral as well as physical. Air and Ventilation. Water and air are fluids. Water covers two-thirds the surface of the globe, having a depth, in some places, of five miles or more. Air covers not merely the remaining third of the earth, but the water as well. It embraces the entire globe, pressing alike upon land and water, and having a depth of about forty-five miles. This is a sea of such magnitude, tliat the Atlantic or Pacific shrinks to a very small lake in the comparison. Man has his residence, and walks about fo the bottom of this ocean. He has no means of navigating it, and, therefore, never rises to its surface ; but, with his natural eyes, and with telescopes, he discovei's objects which lie millions and billions of miles beyond it, and even acquires much exact and useful information respecting them. This vast ocean of air we call an atmosphere, from two Greek words signifying vapor, and a sphere, — it being an immense fiuid-sphere, or globe. Pressure of the Atmosphere. — This atmosphere presses upon man and upon every object on the surface of the earth, with a force equal to fifteen pounds to every square inch ; and as a man of average size has a surface of about 2500 square inches, the air in which he lives, presses upon him with a weight of eighteen tons. This would of course crush every bone in his body, but for the fluids within him which establish an equilibrium, and leave him unoppressed. The Phllc^ophy of Breathing cannot be fully explained in the brief space p 'to this subject; it is enough to say, that, upon the attem' made to draw in the breath, the muscles of the breast ne ribs, the diaphragm or midriff at the same time conti — the whole movement being such as to create a vacuum in tht xgs. The air, pressing upon every part of the surface, as mentioned above, rushes in and fills the vacuum. The limgs being filled, the contraction of the muscles of the belly causes the dia- phragm, which has sunk down towards a plane, to rise up into the form of an umbrella, aud squeeze the aii- out of the lungs. HYGIENE. 113 This is about all that need to Ix) said of the method of getting the air into and out of the lungs. The whole process is under the con- trol of that part of the nervous system called the medulla oblongata, or the top of the sjjinal cord. Objects of Breathing. — There are at least three objects to be ac- complished by breathing ; the renewal of the blood and the taking of impurities out of it ; the warming of the body ; and the finishing uj) of the process of digestion, and the change of chyle into nutritive blood. There is no good reason for attempting here to explain the last of these objects. To give any idea of the first two, it is necessary to funiish a very brief explanation of the circulation of the blood. The heart is double. There are in fact two hearts, a right and a left, joined together. The right heart receives the blood from the veins, and forces it up into the lungs, whence it is brought back to the left heart, and by this is driven through the arteries into e v^ery part of the body. When received into the lungs, the blood is cf a dark purple color, and is loaded with carl)onic acid and some other impurities. It has also l)een deprived, during its circulation through the l)ody, of most of its oxygen. The small, delicate vessels which convey this dark and impure blood through the lungs, pass directly over the air-cells ; and at this moment the carbonic acid and water pass through the blood-vessels and air-cells, and are borne from the body on the outgoing breath ; while the oxy- gen enters the blood through the walls of the same vessels ; and this exchange, which takes place with every breath, alters the blood from a dark purple to a scarlet red. Fig. 71 shows at 1, a bronchial tube divided into three branches ; 2, 2, 2, are air-cells ; 3, branches of the pulmonary artery winding around the air- cells with the dark blood to be reddened. That carbonic acid and water are borne out of the lungs with every breath, may be esisily proved. If we breathe into limo-water, it will become white. This is owing to the carbonic acid in the breath unit- ing with the lime, and producing carbonate of lime. Then, if we breathe upon a piece of glass, it becomes wet, showing that there is watery vapor in the breath. That the blood receives oxygen from the air we breathe is proved by the fact that the ingoing breath has one-fourth more oxygen in it than the outgoing. The lungs, then, take out of all the air we breathe, one-fourth of its oxygen. If we breathe it over a second, a third, and a fourth time, it not only has less oxygen each time, and is less useful for the purposes of respiration, but it becomes positively hurtful by rea- son of the poisonous carbonic acid which, at every outgoing breath, it carries with it from the lungs. Effect of Sleeping in a Small Room. — Now, consider the effect of Fro. 71. 114 HTOIBNE. sleeping in a small room, seven feet by nine, not furnished with the means of ventilation. A pair of lungs, of ordinary size, take in, at each breath, about a pint of air. Out of this air one-fourth of its oxygen is extracted ; and when it is returned from the lungs, there comes along with it about eight or nine per cent of carbonic acid. As it is not safe to breathe air containing more than three or four per cent of this gas, the pint which the lungs take in and throw out at each breath is not only spoiled, but it spoils something more than another pint with which it mingles ; and as the breatli is drawn in and thrown out about eighteen times per minute, not less than four culjic feet of air is spoiled in that time by one pair of Ivmgs. This is two hundred '••■id forty feet an hour ; and in eight hours, the usual time spent iU L .e sleeping room, it amounts to one thousand nine hundred and twenty cubic feet. During the hours of sleep, therefore, one pair of luags «o %poil one thousand nine hundred and twenty cubic feet of air ; it is positively dangerous to breathe it. In a room seven feet by ten, and eight feet liigh, there are five hundred and sixty cubic feet of air, a little more than one-quarter the amount spoiled by one pair of lungs during sleeping hours. In a room of this size, there is not air enough to last one person three yhours ; and yet two persons often remain in such rooms eight or nine hours. Why then do they not perish ? Simply because no room is entirely air-tight. Fortunately, all our rooms are ;^o made that some foul air will get out, and a little that is pure will find its way in. Were it not 80, no man who closed the door behind hir.i, for the night, in a small bed-^oom, would ever see a return of day Suppose fifty children are confined in an urventilated school-room, twenty feet by thirty, and ten feet high. These children will spoil about one hundred and fifty feet of air in one minute, or nine thou- sand feet per hour, or ttventy-seven thousand feet in three hours, — a usual half -day's session. But the room holds only six thousand o-uhic feet of air, — the whole of which these children would spoil in forty minutes. These simple facts show the absolute necessity of ventUation. Yet ho\v poorly it is provided for in our sleeping rooms, our sitting rooms, our school houses, our churches, our court houses, our halls of legis- lation, and even in our anatomical and medical lecture-rooms ! In sick-rooms, ventilation sfiould receive special attention.— Every disease is aggravated by the breathing of bad air. Yet it is common to close all the doors and windows of rooms where sick per- sons are confined, lest the patients should take cold. This is a bad practice. The sick should have plenty of fresh air. Their comfort is promoted by it, and their recovery hastened. It is strange that human beings sliould be afraid of pure air. It is their friend and not their enemy. Impure air only should be shunned. .:X' ■- aUai.T-*-- HYGIENE. 115 The supply of good air ample. — There is no necessity for breath- ing air which has lost a part of its oxygen, and acquired a portion of carbonic acid. The supply of good air is ample. An ocean of it forty-five miles deep, covering the whole glote, seems a pretty plain intimation that it is not to Ix) sparingly used. When men retire within their dwellings, and attempt to shut out this great sea of air, they show about as much wisdom as would be exhibited by fishes which should build water-tight huts around themselves at the bottom of the ocean, and swim about continually in the unchanged water within. Fishes can ordy live in glass globes when the water is changed every day ; and if the water be changed half a dozen times a day, they cannot be as healthy as when swimming in the great ocean. Cultivating; Trees. — In most of our cities there is almost a crimi- nal neglect of the cultivation of trees ; yet they add greatly to the health, and prolong the lives of the citizens. The leaves of a tree are the lungs with which it breathes ; but in- stead of extracting oxygen from the air, and giving back carbonic acid, like man, it takes only the poisonous carboni-j acid, and gives back oxygen. Were there no animals on the globe, the vegetables would con- sume all the carbonic acid, and die for v ant of breathing material ; on the other hand, were there no trees or other vegetables, the ani- mals would in time so far exhaust the oxygen as to perish for lack of it. The two together keep the air healthy for each. The relation of plants and animals, in all that relates to their peculiar actions and effects, is a complete antagonism. Their move- ments are in contrary directions, and by hostile forces. Their oppos- ing actions may be illustrated thus : — The ATTiMAii ooNSTmBS the non-nl- trogenized substances, sugar, starch, and gum. The animal peoditcbs carbonic acid. The vegetable produces the non- nitrogenized substances, sugar, starch, and gum. The vegetable decomposes carbonic acid, water, and ammoniacal saits. The yeqbtable disengages oxygen. The vegetable absorbs heat and electricity. The vegetable is a de-oxidizer. The vegetable is stationary. water, and ammoniacal salts. The animal absorbs oxygen. The animal produces heat electricity. The animal is an oxidizer. The animal is locomotive. and We learn from the facts of Geology that the time was in the his- tory of our globe, when lunged animals could not breathe its atmos- phere ; it was too much loaded with carbonic acid. The trees then grew with a rapidity almost incoTiceivable, decomposing the poison- ous gas, taking to themselves the carbon and setting the oxygen free, and lifting up their brawny ar* s to heaven in acts of thankful- ness for the great feast. At length the noxious gas was exhausted \ and then, pale and sickly, they feebly held up their hands for help , and God sent num- berless tribes of warm-blooded uaimals, full of life and energy, that 116 HYGIENE. tl 1 I and carefully Ever}'^ narrow absence, thou- sported in the exhilarating air, anu destroyed vast forests, thereby reproducing carbonic acid. These simple facts should teach man the sanitary importance of trees and bushes ; and wherever he has a rod, I had almost said a foot of ground to spare, a tree should be planted nursed. This is particularly necessary in large cities, street in a city should be lined with trees. For their sands of men, women, and children have died sooner than they otherwise would. We want them stretching up their arms to all our windows to give us oxygen, and to take to themselves the car- bonic acid we exhale. Tight Dresses. — The health may be injured by not breathing air enough, as well as by inhaling that which is impure. It is therefore improper to compress the lungs by wearing tight dresses. If the ribs are held down by the dress, but little air can get into the lungs, and only a small amount of carbonic acid can be carried out. In this event, the health is injured in two ways : the blood is not vital- ized by oxygen received, and it is poisoned by carbonic acid retained. Tight lacing has in a measure gone out of fashion ; yet too much of it for the best development of female health is yet retained. As a knowledge of physiology and the laws of life, and a better judg- ment of the true symmetry of the female form prevail, this barbar- ous custom will pass out of use, and the substantial health and real beauty of the American woman will together rise to a higher standard. Fill the Lungs well. — Persons who take but little exercise are apt to acquire the habit of drawing the air very little into the lower part of the lungs. This' should be counteracted by taking long and full inspirations for a short time, every day, while in the open air. This practice would get the lungs in the habit of opening to the air quite down to their base, and would make the breathing much more natural as well as effectual at all times. In the case of young per- sons, it would enlarge the capacity of the chest, and add to the brief years of life. Parents should see to it that their children spend from ten to twenty-five minutes every morning inflating their lungs with pure air. Travelling. It is true that many persons who dwell in one spot, and hardly move from it all their lives, live to old age. Yet change of location for a short time, or permanently, does promote health, and protract life. The mind tires of contemplating one set of objects for a great length of time ; and in the absence of all stimulation, it sinks into apathy, and imparts no energy to the body. The physical frame, partaking of the ennui of the mind, droops. This is doubly true when one is suffering from illness. HYGIENE. 117 Travelling is eminently fitted to chaw the thoughts of the nervous and feeble from themselves, and to turn them with interest to out- ward objects. This is of great importance. It is better than stimu- lants and tonics. The nervous system has great power over the health; and the pleasurable sensations, excited by visiting new places and scenes, and conveyed to the mind through the nerves, often awaken in the constitution energies which are essential to recovery. Travelling places a man in entirely new circumstances. It sur- rounds him with novelties, every one of which makes a demand upon his attention. It breaks up his old trains of thought, which have been monotonous so long that they have grown oppressive. It 3au8e8 the world to touch him at a thousand new points, and sur- prises him every day, perhaps every hour, with a view of the false relations he has sustained to it. It opens to him new depths in his own nature, and causes him to wonder that they never attracted his attepoion before. It opens to him one door after another, leading him into new apartments of knowledge ; and as the world grows, he finds himself growing with it, until his whole nature dilates and beats with new life. Means of Travelling Increased. — The last twenty-five years have greatly increased the facilities for travelling. Many of the sick may now seek health in distant lands, who, had their circum- stances been similar twedty years ago, would have been compelled to pine at home. The railroads give an easy journey to thousands with the comforts of the parlor cars. One thing more wanted. — But one thing is wanted to bring the means of travelling, for the sick, very nearly to perfection ; it is a method of propelling carriages upon common roads, by some cheap power, which can never be exhausted, and which shall be easily man- aged by the traveller or his companion. This is a prominent want of the present hour ; a giant discovery, which, at a single stride, would cany the world forward a hundred years, and which, we may hope, is in the womb of the near future. The power, it is believed, will be electro-magnetism. The mode of applying it, when discovered, will be simple, yet wonderful ; and the results to the sick, beneficent beyond expression. The human mind cannot conceive the advan- tages which invalids would derive from such a mode of conveyance. Journeys might be long or short ; might be made with any rate of speed which the strength permitted. The morning or afternoon stages might be discontinued when fatigue demanded, and resumed at pleasure. Over uninviting regions the traveller might gli'de swiftly, and linger where Nature spreads her feasts for the mind. The best Seasonsfor Travelling are spring and autumn. Win- ter is too cold. A pleasurable excursion may sometimes be made in summer, but in general the season is too hot for comfort. In chang- iHri 118 HYGIRNE. ing climate, food, water, etc., in the stiltry seaHon, there is danger of contracting very troublesome bowel complaints. Means of Travelling for the Poor. — There is one painful thought connected with travelling as a means of health, — it cannot be en- j'»yed by the poor. When sick they generally have the careful attention of humane physicians ; they receive from kind neighbors little delicacies of food and drink ; they are watched witli by night, and visited by day ; but though suffering from the hard routine of a laborious life, and needing diversion and recreation more than all else, they cannot travel. They have not the means, and nobody thinks of supplying them for such a purpose. This is a channel into which charity ought to pour some of its benevolent streams. In large cities there is a class of poor females who sit in their small rooms and ply the needle diligently through the whole year, and who run down every summer very near to con- finement in bed. Two or tlu-ee weeks, in the hot season, spent in travelling in the mountains and elsewhere, would bring back the color to the pale cheeks of such persons, and save them many years both from the grave and from the almshouse. No millionaire could make a better use of property than to set it apart, at his death, for the specific purpose of enabling the poor to travel. And if this suggestion should induce one rich man to consecrate his wealth to the Godlike work of bestowing health, happiness, and intelligence upon the poor, the great labor of preparing' this book will not have been endured in vain. Amusements. That which engages the mind, and at the same time impresses it with pleasurable sensations, is a sufficiently accurate definition of amusement. Whatever occupies the thoughts and senses in an agreeable way, and employs them with some degree of intensity, comes under the same head. This broad and general definition allovra us to disregard our daily employments as amusements when they engage our deep attention and at the same time give us pleasure. The term " amusements," however, in the more popular sense, is restricted to those sports, games, plays, exhibitions, entertaimaents, etc., which involve a mspension of our daily labors, and are properly called diversions. When nature is tired and worn with those severe and exhausting toils by which we earn our bread, amusements turn us aside, divert us, engage other powers, and allow our tired faculties to rest. They are, therefore, of very great importance. Even the most trifling amusements may have the highest value. Their very nature and object imply that they will be valuable just in proportion as they divert and rest us. And just in proportion as they do these thinori^, they give us health. HYCIENR. 119 One other thing amusements do for us, which must not be forgot- ten ; they preserve in us, in middle life, and even in old age, the warm simplicity of childhood. They keep us young in our disposi- tions and feelings. They keep us in harmony with nature, and con- sequently artless and truthful. They prevent the formalities of con- ventional life from stiffening us into cold and repulsive hypocrites. Selection of Amusements. — Of course the same amusements are not adapted to all persons. The farmer who has worked his muscles all day, would not be benefited by a game of ball in the evening ; yet there are few games more suitable for the student who has bent for many hours over his books. Care should always be taken, there- fore, that amusements or sports do not bear upon those limbs or faculties which are wearied by work. Amusements improve various faculties. — To one who haa a taste for art, who is fond of works of genius and poetry, theatrical entertainments will always be agreeable, and a source of gratification and health. I know these exhibitions are objected to by many as immoral and hurtful, but more, I think, from habit and fashion, than upon any solid grounds of reason or religion. They certainly appeal to a high order of faculties in the human mind ; and to those who are fitted to receive them, teach lessons of great moment. Even the lower exhibitions of comedy, though not particularly improving to the mind, are yet, from their power to provoke laughter^ among the most powerful up-builders of health. Tlie Games of Wtiist, Euchre, etc., engage the minds of the play- ers in a sort of mental contest, which is exciting, agreeable, and health-imparting. These games make us skilful in calculating chances, and judging how men ought to act under certain contin- gencies. They make us sharp to detect and turn aside the unseen forces, which tend to oppose and destroy our success in life. I hardly need to say that money or rather property should never be staked upon a game of cards, or upon any other game. Gambling is one of the meanest as well as most destructive things in which men can engage. It raises the healthful excitement of these innocent amusements, — innocent when prope 'v pursued, — into raging pas- sions, which, when defeat comes, as curae it will, sink into remorse and bitterness as terrible as the mind can conceive. I warn young men, as they would escape the pangs of a hell on earth, and the loss of character, happiness, and probably health for life, to avoid any such abuse of cards. Chess, Chequers, etc., appeal likewise to the fondness of competi- tion, which is common to all men. But they cultivate in us a little more of the mathematical element. As they require very close appli- cation of the mind, they are not suitable for persons of sedentary em- ployments, or whose daily avocations require a constant use of the 120 Hy«)IKNK. II ij mind. Such persniiH hIioiiM cliooHe lighter and more active amuse- raente. Lighter Amusements. — Beside these higher amusements, there are a great number of lighter and more childish ones, which should not be overlooked. Some of these are merely physical, involving a trial of strength, fleetness, action, etc., as the games of ball, cricket, etc. Othera are domestic in their nature, involving mirth, and various other of the lighter excitements, as blind-man's buff, puss in the corner, hole in the wall, fox and geese, hunt the slipper, hurly-burly, roll the platter, etc. In fashionable American households, these simple domestic plays have in a great measure gone out of use, — being deemed vulgar, and below the dignity of ladies and gentlemen. I am sorry to say this; for the vulgarity, in my judgment, is in those \. ho reject them, and not in the play. The oflBcer of our navy, whose visit to the mansion of Lord Hard- wick I have spoken of on page 93, reports that on the evening of one of his visits, the ])lay of blind-man's buff was engaged in by the whole party ; and that his Lordship in attempting to make a short, tfrn dur- ing the play fell upon his back, when one of his daughters, who was blinded, caught him by the heels, and being assisted by others, drew him feet-foremost half the length of the hall, amid the shouts of the whole party. This would have been deemed very vulgar by fashion- able people in this country. But to me, who am no believer in any nobility which Lord Hardwick can receive from kingp or queens, this simple naiTative raised him at once to a peerage in nature's realm. Without doubt, he is one of nature's noblemen. A man in his sta- tion, and with his wealth and temptations to snobbery, who can pre- serve such simplicity of character, must have a warm as well as a noble heart in his breast. Value of Domestic Amusements. — I remark here that, in all our amusements, we should, as far as possible, seek those of a domestic character. They are more simple and childlike in their nature, and preserve in us, even to old age, the freshness of feeling, and truthful simplicity, which spread so beautiful a greenness over the autumn of life. Simple domestic amusements, too, are always gotten up on a cheap scale; they do not encourage costly extravagance, and can be in- dulged in by the poor as well as the rich. But more, and better than all, they keep young men and old men, and young women and old women, at home, by making the domestic circle the centre of attraction. They draw the seekers of pleasure around the hearth-stone, instead of outward in the world. They in- cline young and old to look to the family circle as the centre of the most pure, because the most simple and natural, enjoyments. They teach us to look to home as the centre of life, and to all outside as onlj its appendages. -'Hif-i'-:-vMujjeiri, mmmsi^^^i^^ HYGIKNK. 121 It. has been said that homeg are found only in England; that in (itlier countries, life wanders, houseless and shelterless, abroad, seek- ing happiness, it knows not where, while in England it nestles warmly in the bosom of home. To whatever extent this is true, — and I be- lieve there is truth in it, — it is owing to the simple household amuse- ments of England. An American Want. — One of the great wants of this country is a more liberal provision for amusements. We attach here too much value to wealth ; and we pursue it with an intensity altogether in- compatible with health. We cannot take time for recreation because we are in so great a hurry to be rich. If we would save ourselves from a total wreck of health, we must tako broader and better views of life. We must value it for its solid comforts, rather than for its glitter and show. Contrary to the general belief, insanity is very prevalent among seamen and farmers. The former lead a life of dreary solitude upon the ocean ; the latter, one, if not of equal, certainly of very objection- able solitude upon the land. The sailor who does business upon the great sea should provide himself with great numbers of games to amuse hira in his wanderings. The farmers of our land should cul- tivate more of the sociabilities of life. Let them meet together in the fine summer evenings, like the peasants of France, and dance upon the green lawns before their cottages. They will till their lands more cheerfully for it ; enjoy better- spirita and health ; and live to greater age. Completeness of Life. — Amusements are necessary in order to give a completeness to life. The faculties of the human mind are numerous. It is only when they are all exercised, in their due pro- portion, that there is a harmonious beauty in our lives. The cus- toms of society twist us all out of shape, — perverting us mentally, morally, and physically, and robbing us of every maidy and health- ful quality. Getting out of the ruts of fashionable life, we must come back to the simple paths of nature. I would strongly impress upon parents, teachers, and guardians, the importance of studying well the various temperaments, physical and mental peculiarities of their children, in order to judge wisely of the kind and amount of recreation required by them. Instance : a pale, delicate child of ten to twelve or fourteen years, with clear complexion, flaxen hair, blue eyes, slender frame, and' a nervous, sensitive organization, with strong mental cast, requires much more recreation and out-door exercise than a full-blooded, robust child of that age ; a fact not at present duly considered, as a general thing. fl3E7tSS?^SS^?? >U^.'>*^i«»^KiS^*l»*«'*' TEMPEBAMENT8, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. Man has thinking^ wanning, nourishing^ and moving powers. For the performance of each of these great functions, he has organs of the best possible construction. For Thinking, he has a brain. If this be large in proportion to his other organs, it gives a character, a cast, a peculiarity to his whole organization. Everything about him is subordinate to his brain. We recognize him, at once, as a thinking and feeling being. He has an intellectual look. There is a delicacy, a refinement, a sensi- tiveness, a studious habit, an air of thoughtfulness about him, which determine his traits, his tone, his temper, his whole character. Hence it is proper to say he has a cephalic or thinking temperament. The Lungs and Heart, devoted to renewing and circulating the blood, are placed in the chest or thorax. If these be large in man in proportion to other organs, he is characterized by great activity of cir- culation, by a large supply of red blood, and by the general indica- tions of a full, warm, and bounding life. This activity gives him his tone and temper, and shows that his is the thoracic or calorific temperament. In the Great Cavity of the Abdomen is done the work of receiv- ing, digesting, and disposing of the materials which nourish the body. If the organs which do this work be large in proportion to others, the body is fed to repletion, and the whole organization speaks of the table. The habit, the look, the temper, are ell sluggish. This is the abdominal or alimentary temperament. The Bones and Muscles are instruments by which the movements of the body are performed. If these be the largest, in proportion, of any in the body, then the locomotive powers are in higher perfection than any others. There is largeness 'of person, energy of movement, and greatness of endurance. The whole cast of the person partakes of the strength and coarseness of bone and muscle. This is the muscular or locomotive temperament. This gives us four temperaments, as follows : — I. The Cephalic Temperament, denoted by large brain, activity of mind, and general delicacy of organization. 122 -T TEMPERAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 123 , AND •wers. For 1 organs of jrtion to his ) his whole his brain, being. He snt, a sensi- him, which iT. Hence It. ilating the in man in vity of cir- iral indica- gives him or calorific of receiv- L the body. others, the iks of the Fhi^ is the movements portion, of perfection novenient, n partakes his is the ictivity of II. The Thoracic Temperament, indicated by a large chest, force of circulation, redness of skin, great activity, warmth of temper, and fulness of life. III. The Abdominal Temperament, denoted by a large develop- ment of the stomach, liver, bowels, and lymphatics; by a fulness of l)elly, fondness of high living, and a disposition to float sluggishly upon the current of the world, rather than to struggle against it. IV. The Muscular Temperament, indicated by largeness of frame and limbs, coarseness of structure, and great power of locomotion and endurance. There are some reasons for reckoning but three temperaments in- stead of four, by reducing the thoracic and abdox mal to one, after the manner of the phrenological Fowlers, — especially as the organs in the chest, and their appendages, take an important part in the process of nutrition. But as the heart and lungs are placed in one cavity, and the stomach, liver, etc., in another, and as one set of these organs may be largely developed, and the other defectively, I have thought it most convenient, on the whole, and quite as philo- sophical, to letain the four temperaments. These temperaments seldo.a or never appear single and pure. They mix and cross with each other in all possible ways. Medication and Temperaments. The object of speaking of temperaments in this work is to make the reader acquainted wit£ the principles upon which remedies are to be adapted to their development. The philosophical-minded phy- sician will, in prescribing, always keep the temperament in view. Persons of a Cephalic Temperament cannot bear powerful medi- cines, — particularly drastic purges. Their fine, delicate and sensi- tive organizations would be torn all to pieces by doses which would hardly be sufficient in a fully-developed muscular temperament. This should always be borne in mind in prescribing for persons of a large brain and delicate organization. In this temperament, too, fevers, instead of running a high and fiery course, take the low typhoid type, the patient becoming pale, and showing a constant tendency to sink. Such patients would be killed by purging, leeching, cupping, sweating, and starving. They want tonics, stimulants, and every kind of support ich the case will possibly permit. Persons of a Thoracic Temperament, having a rapid circulation, and a fulnesp of blood, are most liable to inflammatory diseases. When fever attacks them, they have what is called a " high fever." If rheumatism comes, it is acute rheumatism. Disease takes hold of them smaHly. As they do everything with emphasis and energy 124 TEM'iiRAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 1.1' when well, ao, when ill, they make a businefls of it, and are sick with all their might. Stimulants and tonics generally make such persons worse. They want sedatives, and diaphoretics, and Hweato, and purgatives, and leeches, and cups, and low diet, and cold bathing, and whatever else will slacken the ferocious swiftness of their circulation. Those of the Abdominal Temperament are not particularly sub- ject either to veiy high fevers, or to those typhoid forms which produce sinking. As in the two temperaments noticed above, their complaints chiefly attack the organs most largely developed. Their diseases affect the stomach, the liver, the spleen, and the Ixiwels. These are the largest organs in their bodies, and are most used ; and, being overworked, they fall into disease. As these persons are slothful in all their habits, so their diseases run a sluggish course. They are not so liable to sudden death as persons of either of the preceding temperaments. They have all sorts of chronic diseases which linger a great while, and are cured with much difficulty. These persons will bear larger doses of medicine than either of the preceding. Neither do their constitutions respond as readily to medicine. A physician will be disappointed if he expects to see them recovering as fast under its use. Those of a Muscular Temperament, having little fondness for any wiing but a hardy, active life, are much exposed to the elements. Though strong and long-enduring, the hardship of their lives often breaks them down, and when felled by disease, they are oftentimes shockingly racked and torn by it. These persons bear large doses of medicine, and when sick, need to be treated with an energy proportioned to the strength of their constitution. Rheumatism, which affects the joints, the ligaments, and the tendons, is an affection from which they suffer severely. The Constitution. In prescribing for disease, it is of very great importance to take notice of the constitution. This is a different matter from the tem- peraments. Persons of the same temperament are often quite unlike in the strength of their constitution. And those having good natural constitutions, frequently abuse them by improper habits and indul- gences, and at length come to have broken and very feeble consti- tuiidns. Some persons' muscles and other tissues are put together as if they were never intended to come apart. Like some of the woods of the forest, — the lignum vitse for example, — they are fine-grained and tough. A real smart boy will wear out an iron rocking-horse sooner than one of these persons can exliaust their constitution by TIMPKBAMBNT8, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMi 125 e sick with rae. They atives, and utever else iilarly sulh rnis which bove, their 3d. Their !ie lx)wel8. wed; and, ir diseases » death as f have all are cuied either of readily to :ts to see dness for elements, ves often iftentimes jick, need I of their igaments, 3rely. e to take the tem- te unlike d natural id indul- e consti- her as if le woods 3-grained ng-horse ution by hard work. Otliera, to outward appearance equally well made, have very little endurance, break dov/n easily under hard work, and lose their flesh from trifling causes. The state of the constitution, therefore, should always be learned before much medicine is given ; for what a person of a strong con- stitution will need, may greatly injure a feeble person, even of the same temperament. Habits.— These must likewise be attended to. Persons using stimulants require larger doses of medicine to affect them than other persons. Climate.— Medicines act differently on the same persons in sum- mer and winter. Narcotics act more powerfully in hot weather and climates than in cold, and must be given in smaller doses. IdioAyncraAy.— Medicines of only ordinary activity, act very pow- erfully, and even violen My on some persons. This is owing to a pecu- liarity of stomach, or constitution, called idiosyncrasy. It makes the person, in this particular, an exception to the general rule. And no physician can knv)w beforehand in what imrticulars this exceptional disposition will show itself. Persons, however, learn their own idio- syncrasies, and should make them known to those who prescribe for them for the first time. Thi Sex.— The peculiarities of each sex should never be forgotten in prescribing for the sick. Males are not so sensitive as females. They will bear more medi- cine, and their nervous system is not so readily excited by it. Influence of Age.— Human life is divided into infancy, childhood, youth, manhood, and old age. Each of these periods has peculiarities which modify disease. The First Period, extending from birth to the age of seven years, is marked by tenderness and excitability, and is alive to every "irrita- tion. Teething and other disturbances occur at this period, and need careful management. The Second Period extends from seven to fourteen, and is quite subject to disease, including the second dentition. During these two periods there is no great difference between the sexes ; both are ten- der, and need careful watching. During the Third Period, the changes occur which mark and sepa- rate the sexes. This is a developing period, when the functions be- come established, and the frame acquires form, proportion, and strength. At this time, hereditary tendencies to disease, latent till now, begin to show themselves, and call for every possible endeavor to break them up, and fortify the constitution. . -.rr^aicSBTpcfWy .31 126 TKMPKRAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND HYMPTOMH. The Fourth Period vinbroces tliu vigorouH maturity nf life, wlion the powera of body and mind, in both sexes, are at the Hutninit of their excuUunce. The functions are now well established. It Ih dur- ing this periwl that the female is siibjeut to most of the ImniNNin^ ailments peculiar to her sex. So numerous are these complaints, luiil so large and valued the class of persons uff;icted by them, that ho who treats thenj with the greatest skill, and with the delicacy which their nature demanils, may be said to be ut the head of his profession. The Fifth Period is that of old iige, wlien the functions are detain- ing, and the frame is bending u .der the weight of yeara. ()ld age l)egin8 earlie'" with females than with males. Many ailmelits are com- mon to this period, which require peculiar management, both medi- cinal and hygienic. Proper Frequency of Dose. — Kach suciceeding dose should Ixi given before the effect of the preceding is gone. If this rule is not attended to, the cure does not advance. What is gained by each dose is lost by the rallying of the disease in the interval. Care must he taken, however, not to apply this rule too strictly with very active medicines. « How to Examine a Patient. When a patient is presented for examination, having observed the tempemment, constitution, sex, and age, 1. Learn the causes of the disease, whether local, specific, or gen- eral, and also its history. 2. Search out its nature and character, whether febrile or other- wise. 8. Take notice of the whole train of symptoms, -^ embracing the pulse, the condition of the mouth, tongue, and digestive organs, the breathing, the urine, the fecal discharges, the condition of the brain and nervous system, the state of the skin, etc. Brief Table Explanatory of Symptoms. GENERAL APPEARANCE OF PATIENT. 1. Tonic spaHtn of the trunk 2. Distorted features, altered pooltion, and impaired motion of limbs '■\. Irregular and perpetual motion 4. Entire and absolute immobility .'). Qreat and unnatural Iroldneas (i. Great and unusual languor 7. Ability to lie only upon the back 8. Lying upon the face 9. Lying upon one side indicates Locked jaws. " Paralysis of one side. * " St. Vitus's dance. " Catalepsy. " Insanity or delirium. " The beginning of an acute disease, or the progress of a chronic one. " Apoplexy. Organic disease of the brain or spinal marrow. Acute inflamma- tion of the lining of the abdomen. Rheumatism of the joints. " Several kinds of colics. " Pleurisy, or inflammation of the lungs. When one lung only is affected in consumption, the pai'.ont generally lies on the diseased side. t^aifkoA TEMPERAMENTS, C0N8TITUTI0N, AND HYMPT0M8. 127 in. MnlnUlninK tli« NittlnR poaturn indioaton only 11. The lieail tlirown bock " Vi. KflNtlflmnnm Hiid totMinipt •• 13. Uen«nl «nlargem ( of the body " DUnafin of tlio lionrt or InnRM, wlilrh interfnroH with br«athln|{. Hevere diiieaiieMof the larynx and wlnd- pljMS. Th« beKlnnlnp of acute Indammatlon. Fevers. Dellniini, uiid acute inanlu. CelUlroimy. Eui|ihy»enia from a wound of the clinNt. Head, Face, and Neck. 1. TToad bent to one Hide 2. Head increasetl in ilze 3. Hwollon Hcali) 4. Dull exprexNion of face 5. Full, red face, with blood-veaaeU of eyed injected 6. Pinched, contracted countenance 7. I'iiiched nose, Hunken even, hollow tonipleH, Hkin of forehead tense and dry, complexion livid H, Wrinklefi hvtdm tho forehead 0. Wrinkles from forehead, vertically to root of nose 10. A white line from inner angle of the eye to just below the cheek- liono 11. White line from the upper border of the wing of the nose (ala nasi ) , curved to the outer margin of the orb of the oye 12. The white line In children from angle of mouth to lower part of face 13. A white line external to the last two, in a semicircular direction towards the chin 14. Swelling of tlie face and eyelids 15. Transient redness or flushing of face 16. Hectic flush 17. Paleness of face 18. Dingy, white, or greenish face 19. Yellow tint 20. A citron tint 21. A bluish tint 22. Pc-petual motion of eyelids 23. Forcible closure of eyelids 24. Byelidti remaining open 25. PMsy of the upper lid 20. Plowing of tears over the cheek 27. Nostrils, dilating forcibly and rap- idly 28. ItohiQg of nostrils in oldldren Indicates ConvuLiions. Paralysis of oiie-half the bo*ly. Dislocation of hones of neck. Swelling of glands of neck. " Chronic hydropholus. Knlarged brain. " Erysipolas. Hmall-pox. " Typhoid fever. Hwolling of heart. Congestion of brain. " Acute Inflammation of peritoneum. Exposure to severe cold. " Chronic disease just before death. " ExcesfllTe pain arising externally. " Distress, anxiety, and severe internal pain. In children, a brain or nervous affec- tion ; in adults, abuse of the genera- tive organs. " In consumption and wasting -f flesh. The lower part of the line indicates disease of stomach ; the upper part, some afTection of upper part of bowel. When united with the white line named above, and with a drawing in of the cheek, fixed eyes, and a wan complexion. It implies worms. ' An afrection of the chest, with diffl- culty of breathing. " Chronic and obstinate disease in the chest or belly. " Albumen in the urine. " Suffering from the monthly irregular- " Consumption. Chronic aflfections. Cold stage of fever. Acute inflamma- tion. Chronic diseases, especially Bright's disease, during recovery. A low and deficient state of blood. Jaundice. " Cancerous disease. " Poor circulation in the veins. Cholera. Typhus fever. Blue disease. Mania and idiocy. " Intolerance or dread of light. " Orbicularis palpebrarum. Paralysis of the muscle which closes the eye. Injury of the tliird pair of nerves. ' Obstruction of the lachrymal duct. Difficulty of breathing. Worms in the bowels. The Tongue. Surface of tongne covered with a layer of whitish, soft, mucous substance, which may partially be taken off with a scraper, — also, clammy mouth indicates Derangement of stomach , or bowels, or both. 128 TBMPEBAMSNTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. icdloates Acute dyspepsia. Asthma. " Severe oases of acute dyspepsia. 3. State of tongue as above, with clammy mouth, bitter taste, and fetid breath. 8. Oreat load on tongue as above, which pwU off, leaving the tongue smooth, red and tender 4. TonKue slightly white from small white pomts, and sometimes cov- ered with for, like the fibres of coarae velvet 6. Tongue pale, tumid, cloan and very smooth 6. Tongue /urred and dry 7. Tongue white and loaded, with much thirst 8. As above at first, — afterwards c/ean, red, and dry 9. Tongue white and loaded, with dry- ness 10. Tongue dry, parched, tender, and dark brown or black. Pushed out with great difficulty and tremb- ling 11. Tongue loaded with white, through which numerous elongated, very , red papillae protrude their points Chronic djrspepsia. Some affection of the liver, if the fur be yellow. Chlorosis or green sickness. Violent local inflammation. Irritation in bowels. Inflammatory fever. Protracted inflammatory fever. Mild tjrphus fever. Severer forau of typhus fever. Scarlet fever. The Throat. 1. Throat enlarged 2. Violent pulsation of carotid arteries 8. Pulsation of the nameless artery (arteria innominata) above the breast b me, and to the right of the windpipe. 4. Circumscribed swelling about throat indicates The approach of puberty in females. " Acute mania. Inflammation of brain. Enlargement of heart, and dilation of right ventricle. Anemia. " Regur^tation from aorta. Enlivgement of glands. The Chest 1. General enlargement of one side of indicates Large effusion of water from pleurisy, chest " Water from pleurisy settling to the bottom. " Emphysema. " Enlargement of liver. " Water in heart-case. Enlargement of heart. " Aneurism of the ascending aorta. 2. Bulging at the base of a lung 3. Bulging at front upper part of chest 4. BuIgingrighthypochondrium(See 5. Bul^iig m region of heart 6. Tumor where the third rib joins the breast-bone 7. Tumor between the base of the shoulder blade and the spine 8. Depression or retraction of one tide of chest 9. Breathins increased in rapidity. Oenerally, in health, about twenty breaths aro taken in a minute 10. Breathing diminished in rapidity 11. Jerking respiration 12. Breathing with muscles of ribs only Aneurism of the descending aorta. Constmiption. Absorption of fluid, effusea by pleurisy. Spasmodic asthma. Pleurisy. Paralysis of respiratory mus- cles, inflammation of lungs. Emphy- sema. Pneumothorax. Consumption. Spasmodic asthma. Obstruc)Jon in larynx and windpipe. Abdominal inflammation. Inflamma- tion of diaphragm. 1. Increased size of belly The Belly. indicates Dropsv. Wind in bowels. Inflam- mation of peritoneum. Obstruction in bowels. Hysteria. TEMPERAMINTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 129 2. Enlargement In epigastrium (FUr. 93) indicates Hysteria. Cancer of stomach. 3. Enlargement In hypogastrium (Pig. 96) " Distension of bladder. Ovarian tu- mors. Accumulation of feces in bowels 4. Belly diminished In dze " Chronic dysentery. Lead ooUc. Also in most chronic diseases, 1. Enlarged penis in children 2. Drawing up of testicles 3. Enlargement of scrotum 1. The limbs immovable 2. Limbs contracted and rigid 3. General swelling of limbs 4. Swelling of joints 5. Limbs diminished in size Private Organs. indicates Stone In bladder. Masturbation. " Stone In kidneys. " Hydrocele. Hematocele. Sarocele. The Limbs. Indicates Paralysis. " Softening of the brain. " Defective circulation of blood. " Bhenmatism. Water In the joints. White swelling. " Faralysiii. * The Nervous System. /' 1. Morbidly increased sensation 2. Tensive pain 3. Dull, heavy pain 4. Smarting pain 5. Shooting, tearing pains 6. Boring pains 7. Contualve pains. 8. Itching. Sensation as of ants creep- ing over the skin 9. Exaltation of vision 10. Black flecks floating before the eyes 11. Painfully acute hearing 12. Dull hearing 13. Increase of strength 14. Debility 16. TrembUng 16. Rigidity of upper extremities 17. Cramp 18. Temporary spasm 19. Pain at extremity of penis 20. Pain in right shoulder 21. Pain in left shoulder 22. Exaltation of affections 23. Loss of moral sensibility 24. Ezaltat m of Intellect Indicates Acute Inflammation of brain and spinal marrow. Fevers. Hysteria. " Phlegmonous inflammation. Enlarged internal organs. Internal tumor. Effusion of water into cavi- ties lined with serous membranes. Felt In the loins previous to dis- charge from menstruation, and from piles. " Scarf -ekln removed. ' " Neuralgia. Cancer. " Constitutional syphilis. Rheumatism. Oout. Inflammation of periosteum. " Bruises. Acute diseases. " Several diseases of the skin. " Ophthalmia. Inflammation of brain. Some nervous diseases. " Affections of the brain and optic nerve. Dyspepsia. " Inflammation of brain. Hysteria. " Typhus fever. " Delirium. Inflammation of brain. Mania. " Most diseases. " Cold stage of fever. Nervous affec- tions. Old age. Action on the sys- , tern of lead, mercury, strong coffee, alcoholic drink, tobacco, opium. " Softening of the brain. Infiltration of blood into the brain. Hysteria. " Pregnancy. Hysteria. Painters' colic. In convulsions of children. Some affections of the brain. " Stone in bladder. " Congestion of liver. " Disordered stomach. " Hypochondriasis. " Mania. Typhus fever. Masturbation. Melancholy. Sometimes indicates close of Ufe. 1. Stiffness of chest 2. Pressure upon parta The Breathing. indicates Cartilages turned to bone. Pleura hardened. Distortion from rickets. Tumors. Dropsy of belly. 180 TEMPERAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 3. Obstruction of air-tubes 4. Compression of lungs 5. Pain in parts moved in breathing 6! Paralysis of muscles of chest 7. Spasm of muscles of chest 8. Deficiency of red blood indicates Spasm of glottis. Spasm near the small ends of bronchial tubus. Mucus, etc., thrown out upon the inner surface. " Effusions in pleurisy. Water in chest. Air in substance of lungs. Aneurism and other tumors. " Pleurisy. InflAmmation ol perito- neum. " Injury of spinal marrow. " Locked jaw. Spasmodic asthma. " Angemia. Chlorosis or green sickness. 1 . Hollow and barking cough 2. Sharp, ringing cough 3. Hoarse cough 4. Wheezing cough 5. Belching cough H. Cough in paroxysms 7. Cough sounding harsh and concen- trated when listening with the stethoscope. 8. Cough sounding hollow, when lis- tening with the stethpscope, as thougli it came from a cavern. 9. Cough having a metallic or ringing sound when listening with the stethoscope. The Cough. indicates Last 8i.age of consumption. Clironic bronchitis. Some nervous affections. " Croup. " Beginning of cold. Chronic laryn- gitis. " Asthma. " Some diseases of larynx. " Hooping cough. Hysteria. " Consumption. Inflamination of thn lungs. Pleurisy. Enlargement of bronchial tubes. " Tuberculous cavity. Enlarged bron- chial tubes. Large tuberculous cavity. 1. Scanty expectoration 2. Copious expectoration 3. Watery expectoration 4. Mucous expectoration 6. Expectoration of pus 6. Expectorated matter shaped like coin (nummular) 7. Muco-purulent, iloculent expecto- ration 8. Tubular expectoration 9. Whitish or greenish expectoration, that clings to the vessel 10. Yellow expectoration 11. Rusty expectoration 12. Putrid smell of expectoration 13. Faint and sweetish smell of expec- toration. 14. Expectoration smelling like garlic The Expectoration. indicates First stage of acnte diseases of the lungs. " Decline of acute diseases of air-passages and lungs. " Beginning of bronchitis. Congestion of lungs. Vesicular emphysema. " Bronchitis. Inliammation of lungs. " Consumption. Third stage of inflam- mation of lungs. " Tubercular consumption. Bronchitis of measles. " Consumption far advanced. Plastic bronchitis. Pneumonia. Acute affections of lungs, particularly bronchitis Chronic bronchitis. Other chronic af- fections of the lungs and throat. Inflammation of tL ' lungs. Gangrene of the lungs. Bronchitis. First sta^o of consumpti jn. Broncho-pleuial fistria. 1. Dull, heavy, aching pain at the base of the chest 2. Soreness about the breast bone, and between the shoulders 3. Sharp, sudden, tearing pain below the nipple 4. Pain darting from front part of chest to between shoulder blades 5. Constant paiu between the shoulders Pain. indicates Acute bronchitis- '■ j-V,".! J b/onci'.itis. If Pleurisy. It Consumption. Consumption. Green sickness. Other chronic diseases. TEMPERAMENTS. CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 131 «m near the Oiial tubus. iUt upon the Water in ice of lungs. nors. n of perito- ; asthma. :een sickness. on. Clironic lUH affections. tironic luryii- ia. lation of the largenient uf ilarged bron- leases of the if air-passages Congestion iphysema. jn of lungs, ige of innani- iimonia. , particularly er chronic af- d throat. consuuipti ju. The Pulse. ^' ^W.rfi^lfir^''"'"' compression indicates Intiammatory affectionH. osi.ecially of Dy tiie linger the substance of large organs, as the liver, etc. I'rostration from disease. Nervous and clironic affections. Fear. Diseases of women and children, and old per- sons. Congestion of brain. Apoplexy. Dis- ease of heart. Inflammation of stomach, bowels, bladder, etc. Hysteria, and other nervous affections. Inflammation of membranes. Active bleedings. Lead colic, et«. Affections cliaracterized by debility. Inflammatory diseases. Hemorrhages. Apoplexy. Sometimes in disease of heart. Weak pulse, easily pressed down ."?, Full pulse, as if the artery were in- creased in size 4. Small pulse, opposite of full 5. Hard, sharp, contracted pulse,- ,. brating like a cord under the finger - vi- «. Soft pulse, yielding readily to pres- sure 7. Frequent pulse 8. Slow pulse Relating to Digestion. 1. Tongue trembling and dry, and di- minished in size 2. Voracious appetite 3. Diminished appetite 4. Ii-.creased thirst 5. Thirst gone (i. Vomiting 7. Pain increased by pressure 8. Pain relieved by pressure 9. Urgent desire to go to stool 10. Watery stools 11. Mucous stools, like white of egg 12. Hard and lumpy stools 13. Clay-colored stools 14. Yellow or dark-brown stools 15. Dark-green stools 16. Stools red, and streaked with blood 17. Pitchy black stools 18. Stools pure blood, with no colic 19. Stools like rice-water 20. Black stools 21. Shreds of false membrane in stools 22. Fat with stools 23. Fetid stools indicates Typhoid and other low fevers. Pregnancy. Hysteria. Insanity. Some- times in dyspepsia. " In most acute diseases. Acute affections of stomach and bowels. Cerebral disease, with coma. " Early pregnancy. Colic. Disease of brain. Inflammation of stomach. Hernia. " Inflammation of internal organs. Over-distension of bowels. Neuralgia. Colic. '■ Dysentery. Sometimes in diarrhoea. Diarrh&a, Cholera. '' Chronic inflammation of colon. Constipation. Colic. Cancer of stom- ach. " Deficiency of bile. " Too much bile. Bile from children after taking cal- omel. ■' Dysentery. " Meltena. " Bleeding piles. " - Asiatic cholera. " Iron taken in medicine. " Dysentery. Diarrha>a. Worms. Diabetes. ConsmniJtion. " Diseases attended by debility. The Urine. kuess. Other 1. Diminished secretion of urine 2. Retention of urine in the bladder 3. Urine increased in amount 4. Red or yellow sand deposits in urine (uric acid) 5. White sediment in urine (earthy phosphates) B- Oxalate of lime deposits in urine 7. Blood in urine 8. Albumen in urine 9. Mucus in urine 10. Sugar in urine indicates Dropsy. Inflammatory and febrile diseases. " Paralysis. Typhoid fever. Hysteria. " Diabetes. Cold stage of fevers. Hy- steria. Various passions of the mind. " Fevers. Acute Rheumatism. Con- sumption. Dyspepsia. Great indul- gence in animal food. " Depressed state of the nervous system, of serious import. " Derangement of digestion. " Bleeding of kidneys, etc. - " Bright's disease. " Inflamed mucous membrane of ure- " thra, bladder, etc. Diabetes. 132 TEMPERAMENTS, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. The Perspiration. !■ Profum {Mnpiratlon 2. Diminished perspiration 3. Night sweats 4. Sour-smelling sweat 6. Fetid smelling sweat 6. Sweat with mouldy odor 7. Smalling like ammonia 8. Sweat having the odor of mice 9. Sweat smelling like rottenstoue indicates Acute rheumatism. Decline of acuto " inflammations and fevers, beine sometimes critical. " ^n/'il**** **' **"*** disease. Dropsy. " Consumption. , " Rheumatism. Oout. " Some debilitating fevers. " Measles. Scarlet fever. " Typhoid fever sometimes. " Insanity. Miliary. The Temperature. 1. (General heat of surface 2. External local heat 3. Hot forehead 4. Hot scalp fS. Skin of chest hot 1 6. Hands and feet hot. 7. Acrid heat, burning the hand when applied 8. Chflfs 9. Low temperature 10. Cold hands and feet indicates Fevers. Inflammation. Headache. Disease of brain. Inflammation in chest. Consumption. Typhus fever. Beginning of fever. Poor circulation. Nervous diseases. Dyspepsia. Impure state of the blood. The Temperature of the Body. The use of the thermometer is an important addition to the means of making physical examination, and is one of the improvements in modern medicine. It is intended to measure the heat of the oody. The best kind now in use is the self-registering. The bulb of the instrument is to be placed in the warmest part of the body, and should be allowed to remain there for eight to ten minutes. Some place it under the tongue ; some in the axilla. Sometimes it is necessary to introduce it into the rectum or vagina. In these parts the temperature is a degree higher than in other parts. The normal temperature of the body is from 98° to 99° Fahrenheit, in the great majority of persons. Exceptionally it may be half or a whole degree either above or be- low this range. The normal fluctuations are inconsiderable in comparison with the variations of disease. The natural variations in health are as follows : The temperature is at its minimum at five o'clock A. M. ; the maximum is reached in the latter part of the afternoon, and then decreases till five o'clock A. M. By means of the thermometer we are able to determine all differ- ences with precision. TEMPBRAMBNT8, CONSTITUTION, AND SYMPTOMS. 188 The increase of heat in different febrile diseases rarely exceeds 110° Fahrenheit, ant* as a rule the amount of increase is a criterion of its severity. An increase to lOO^ Fahrenheit or 101° is evidence of mildness of the disease. If the thermometer indicates steadily 106° Fahrenheit, it is certain tliat the disease is severe. A persisting temperature above 106° Fahrenheit denotes that there is great danger, and an increase to 108° to 110° Fahrenheit is usually a fatal sign. The abnormal changes of temperature consist of more or less in- crease. Diminution below the normal standard is comparatively rare ; yet it sometimes occurs and is of some importance. In the course of typhoid fever, a sudden decrease may indicate in- testinal hemorrhage. Sometimes the temperature falls without im- provement in the other symptoms. This is an unfavorable symptom. The value of thermometric changes depends in no small measure upon the symptoms with which they are associated. : .,iw;j ?.i ^fe'teH.''. ' ->^ . ' -' ' >- '■ '~' ^ ' ' ' -' -"' ' •-•• Iff ULl ^ SKIN DISEASES. The skin is the soft and pliant membrane which covers the entire surface of the body. The interior, like the exterior is likewise covered by a skin, which, from its always being moist, is called a mucous membrane. At the various openings of the body, the outer and the inner skins are united, — forming one continuous skin, — like the same piece of silk turned over the border, and covering both the out- side and inside of a bonnet. From this continuity or oneness of the skin and mucous membran ; springs an important medical law, namely, that a disesise of the skin may spread to the mucous membrane, and a disease of the mucous membrane may spread to the skin. We see this illustrated by the breaking out around the lips v/hich follow colds, and the itching of the nose of children when the mucous membrane of the bowel is irri- tated by womwj. The Skin is Composed of Two Layers. — These are separated from each other by the action of a blister. The thin portion which is raised up by the fluid of a blister is called the scarf skiti, the cuticle, or the epidermis; that which remains in connection with the body is the sensitive skin, the cutis, the derma, or the true skin. The two skins have very different offices to perform. The scarf-skin is horny and insensible, and serves as a sheath to protect the more sensitive skin under it. Were the scarf-skin taken off, we could not bear to have anything touch us. The derma, or true skin, and its glands, etc., are the seat of all the cutaneous diseases. These may be separated into four great divisions, — namely, diseases of the true skin, diseases of the sweat glands and tubes, diseases of the oil glands and tubes, and diseases of the hairs and hair glands. Then the diseases of the true skin are divided into Inflammation of the true skin ; Enlargement of the papilloe of the true skin ; Disorders of the vessels of the true skint- Disorders of the sensibility of the true skin ; Disorders of the color-producing function of the. true skin. The inflammation of the true skin is conveniently divided into two groups, — namely, Such as are marked by inflammation of the derma and mucous membranes, with constitutional symptoms of a specific kind, and 134 3 the entire k'ise covered I a mucous ter and the — like the Jth the out- i membran j of the skin ihe mucous ited by the itching of 3wel is irri- irated from ih is raised 'icle, or the )ody is the ! two skins horny and sitive skin ir to have ; of all the ; divisions, jlands and the hairs rf m SKIN DISEASES. 135 Surli aH arc (liHtin^nnslu'd by iiiflaniniiitioii of the derma, withnut consfitutional symptoms of a specij'u; kind. Congestive Inflammation of tlie True Slegi)i8 to decline, with itching, and the scai-f-Hkin falls off in branny scaU^s. A swelling or putliness of ti>e tlesli, which spreads out tin* tingers in a singular manner, seems to be peculiar to scarlet fever. In the first stage of the complaint, the tongue, as stated al)Ove, is covered with a fur ; but as it advances, the tongue often Ixicomes suddenly clean, and presents a glossy, fiery-red surface, which is sometimes, with the whole lining of the mouth, raw and tender. It is peculiar in this complaint, that the inflammation of the throat alwayp runs into a stiite of ulceration. As far us can be seen, on pressing down the tongue, the throat is swollen and of a deep, florid I'jid ; and on the tonsils may be seen white or gray ulcers. This makes swallowing very ditiicult, and aggravates the sufferings of the patient. The great amount of mucus in these parts causes also a continual rattling in the throat. The eustachian tube, which extentls up to the ear, is apt to get involved in the inflammation, and cause swelling and pain in that region. The glands under the ear and jaw sometimes inflame, and after a time they oc- Ciisionally break. Abscesses formed in the ear frequently produce some deafness which is not easily cured. In the cell-dropsy, which sometimes appears after scarlet fever, the crystals of urate of ammonia may often be found in the urine with the microscope (Fig. 72). This disease resembes measles, but may *■'<*• "• be distinguished from it by the absence of cough ; by the eruption being finer^ and of a more scarlet color (see plate) ; by the rash coming out on the second day instead of the fourth ; and by the ulceration in the throat. Treatment. — In ordinary cases, the treatment should be very simple. The apartment should be kept cool, and the bed-covering light. The whole body should be sponged with cool water as often as it is hot and dry, and the patient be permitted to take cooling drinks. Besides this, in many cases, very little is needed, except to give a few drops of the tincture of belladonna, night and morning. In some cases where there is a good deal of fever and soreness of throat, give tincture of veratrura (125) often enough to keep down the pulse. Give every half hour (an adult) till pulse reaches sixty. Aconite in drop doses to children every fifteen minutes. In addi- tion to this, the feet and hands should be soaked in hot water, with a little ground mustard, or pulverized ca3'^enne, stirred in. This bath should be continued twenty minutes, twice a day, for two or three days. rSMSS&K' .ai ii. l i ni iiiii r i H l » i T ' i n ' i " i " ' ' SKIN niHRAHRn. The cold 8tajr« having piwHcd, and the fovor Hot in, wiinn water may Iw ubjhI without the miiHtard, eU-. If tiic head Ik; iifTecU-d, um nuiHtui'd (IniftH upon the feet. Shouhl the JK)welH lie coHtivo, they may \x' gently o[)(auHl hy Honie very miUi physic. No Holid food Hhould bo aUowed ; but after the fiixt shock of the di8eit«e iH pusHed, dnnka, in reiwonablc (juantiticH, will Iw advisable, Buch au cold wattu', lemonade, barlMtrry and tamarind water, rice water, balm or tlax-Heed tea, and Home thin wat<*r-gruel. To promote the action of the skin, the HpiriUi of nitre, with other articles (125), adapting the dose to a child, will be found useful. The nitrate of poUwh iw UHeful, given in on»> to three-grain doses, dissolved in water, every three or four houm. Muriatic acid, foity-tive drops in a tumbler filled with wattu-, and sweetened, and given to a child in teiuspoonful doses, is a good remedy. In very violent attacks, the system sometimes inclines to sink im- mediately ; typhoid symptoms show themselves ; there is great pros- tration ; the eruption strikes in; the skin changes to a purple or mahogany color; the tongue is of a deep red, nr has a dark-brown fur upon it, and the ulcers in the throat become putrid. This is called scarlatiua maligna ; but it is only a severer form of the same disease. The treatment of this form must be different from that recom- mended above. It must Iw tonic. Quinia (66) must be freely given. Wine whey, mixed with toast-water, will be useful. Tincture of cayenne, in sweetened water, may be given often in small doses. Ammonia (135) may likewise be given as a stimulus. Gargles (245) (244) (243) are also required. A dropsical affection is one of the most frequent results of scarlet fever. It is believed that this seldom occurs, if the warm bath is daily used, as soon as the skin begins to peel off. After the dropsy has set in, give the warm bath twice a week, and encourage perspi- ration by the compound tincture of Virginia snake-root, and similar articles. The child should have a generous diet, at the same time, to bring up its strength. Anointing the skin with vaseline at night and washing off in the morning with suds removes the poisonous scales, and lessens the danger of contagion, as well as improves the activity of the skin. Nasal and aural catarrhal diseases are commonly observed to follow scarlet fever and need attention of a physician. Rheumatism like- wise is a frequent sequela, wliile nephritis or inflammation of the kidneys is often a sad reminder of the disease. These two compli- cations are to be treated as directed elsewhere. TABLE EXHIBITING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SMALL T OX, VARIO- LOID, SCARLET FEVER AND MEASLES. SMALL-POX. VABIOLOID. first. Period between expocure and when dU- ea«e flnt abowa Itaelf li from five to twenty daya — oaokUy abowa itaelf in ten or twelve daya. First. Period of InoubRtfn*. more Irregnlar than Buiall- Pox — from five u < wty daya— av- eragea twelve daya. tm^ •iirm wdttT rented, put Htivo, they Jck of the IviHiiblu, — water, rice with other nd UNefiil. ail) doHes, watt(r, and )d remedy, o sink im- jreat pros- pur j)le or ark-brown 1. This is the same *^ lat recom- Jely given, incture of lall doses, jles (246) of scarlet 11 batli is he dropsy ge perspi- ud simihir iime time, off in the jssens the the skin. to follow itism like- on of the ro ' compli- )X. VARIO- nore irregnUr )Pty (Uyi — «T- m I SMALL POX ■*■■'" dfeo o-^ Q- O*^ 9^ * ..' e ^o^ 'f 0r^O *j..-,ai;-.ii «'l*tf*, /S'jfefAVS ■p^;. . .^v^;*p<- " Proof ress of M, ^ SnuxU Pox. *^' l?fd to the touch, and shaped like a cone, and are proportionate in number to the subsequent pustules. In Plate II the artist has well exhibited the developed disease, as well as the progress of the eruption from day to day. Treatment. — Like the two preceding disease.., the ordinary, un- complicated form of this requires only the most simple treatment. Not much is wanted, except confinement in bed, cooling drinks, cool and even temperature, frequent change of linen, and sponging the body with cool water. But when what is called the fever of inva- sion is past, and the eruption is fvlly developed, and has brought along with it the secondary fever, then some recipe, as (131), (355), (126) will be in place, and some gentle laxative to keep the bowels open (8), — also gentle injections (249), and opiates to relieve sleeplessness and nervous symptoms ; (366) (367) may be used if very sleepless. Should the system, at this period, appear to be sinking, a more generous diet, and a little wine may be allowed. If the brain suffers, apply cold ice-cloths to head, or an ice-bag behind the ears, and put the feet in a mustard bath (242). If the breaking out appears with difficulty, put the patient into a warm bath, and give extract of jaborandi (368). Gargles will frequently be needed for the inflammation, and dryness of the mouth and throat (243). Cold sponging may be considered as highly beneficial, in both the primary and secondary *ever. The belladonna likewise is a useful remedy, used in the same way as in scarlet fever. The plaster (288), applied to the face, will, it is said, arrest the formation of matter, and prevent the unsightly scars which so often cover the face of persons who have suffered from small-pox. Paint the face once or twice a day vnth glycerine, which will effectually prevent pitting. The use of collodion is still better. To avoid Pittins:, and the occurrence of unsightly scars of the face, several methods of dressing have been used. The simplest consists in covering in the vesicle with iodof orm-collodior , say, twenty grains of the former to one ounce of the latter. Having pricked the vesicle with an absolutely clean needle, one, for instance, that has been boiled in sodarwater for five minutes, a layer of this collodion should be applied a..d allowed to dry on at once. Should pus form under this coating it must be released by washing off the collodion with alcohol. The wound is then to be thoroughly disin- fected with carbolic acid water (one teaspoonful to pint of water) and the collodion again applied. This process will avoid most of the pitting. m^rr SKIN DISEASES. 141 Varioloid. — Varicella. Varioloid, or modified small-pox, begins with symptoms similar to those of small-pox, but much milder in degree. These symptoms are feverishness, nausea, vomiting, pains in the loins and head, and a quickened pulse. The eruption comes out on the third or fourth day, and looks like that of small-pox. It reaches its height the fourth or fifth day, and then declines without any secondary feve'-. The pustules dry up and form brown scabs which fall off in a few days, and leave slight pits, and a few red or purple spots. Varicella appears under a variety of forms, called " hives," " swine- pox," " chicken-pox," " horn-pox," etc. But they all have a family likeness, and need not be described. The treatment of all these forms must be conducted on the same principles with small-pox. Sponging the skin in all these inflamhaatory conditions has the hap- piest effect, and should seldom be omitted. Cow-Pox. — Vaccina. This disease exists to some extent among lower animals, and is identical with small-pox in man. The immortal Jenner taught the world that the pus taken from the cow having this disease, and in- troduced under the skin of man, would produce an eruption similar to that of small-pox, and that this would protect the system from the latter disease. This was an immensely important discovery, and will render the name of Jenner famous through all time. It is a question of great importance how far vaccination, or inocu- lation with the matter of cow-pox, does, in fact, protect tlxe system from small-pox. That it is a protection, to a certain extent, is doubted by none. That in some instances it protects through life, is likewise generally admitted. Is it a protection in all cases, and through the whole life? Perhaps not, though this is a disputed point. Probably the mild form of the vaccine disease does not im- press the system powerfully enough to last more than a certain num- ber of years. Most thinking physicians now believe it is wise to revaccinate occasionally, to make sure of the protection. It is done with little trouble, and may save a terrible infliction. Plate II, ^^S- 4, gives a good idea of the appearance and progress of the eruption. The Second Group of diseases, characterized by inflammation of the true skin, without constitutional symptoms of a specific kind, are Erysipelas, Nettie-Rash, False-Measles, and Inflammatory Blush. Erysipelas. — St. Anthony's Fire. Erysipelas is a diffused inflammation of the skin, affecting only a part of the surface of the body, and is accompanied by a fever, which is generally thought to be infectious and contagious. The ! f >«*MHMMMT8iirr[im« ■ii^lle, while tarry preparations generally are the most satisfactory in this chronic stage. ^.ill!, w ""'"^'^ however, w often so stubborn to treatment as the different forms of eczema. The cure often will be slow and medi- cTl wrnt ^ ''^'^^''* '''^ ^°^^^ ^^"^^^^« '' «--^ -