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^1 Mil inji ii|i iiniiMiaiBi
FIRST BOOK
ON
ANATOMY,
PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
FOR
GRAMMAR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES
WITH EIGHTY-THREE ENGRAVINGS.
By CALVIN CUTTER, M.D.
AUTHOR OF "ANATOMT, PUTSIOLOOT, AND UYQIENK, FOR C0LLE0E8, A0AI)KMIK8, AN©
PAMIUE8;" "SECOND BOOK ON ANATuMf, PlirSIOLOOY, AND UfUIENB,
FOR ACADEMIES, BOHOOLS, AND FAMIUE8;" " ANATOJllOAl,
OHTUXB PLATES FOB OCliOOIS, KTa
BEV18BD STEREOTYPE EDITION.
PHILADELPHIA:
J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO.
TORONTO:
ADAM MILLER,
11 Wellington Street, West.
1871.
Bntcrod according to Act of CongreM, in the year 1864. by
CALVIN CUTTER, M.D..
Iq the CloTR'i OflBce of the District Court of the DlBtrtct of taaiwachnHOtto.
PREFACE
Iw presenting this work to the public, th« author
would indulge in a few prefatory suggestion*.
Education, to be complete, mii?t be not only moral
and intellectual, but physical. As the culture of the
mind and of the affections is the subject of systematic
attention in early life, should not the education of the
physical powers be commenced as early ? It will
demand no more maturity and thought to understand
the reasons for adequate clothing, bathing, *he neces-
sity of an erect position in standing and suting, regu-
larity in taking food, the supply of pure air to the
lungs, (fcc, than to comprehend geographical details
or moral truths. Is not a knowledge of the laws upon
which health depends, as important to the develop-
ment of a vigorous physical constitution, w moral
instniction is to the formation of correct moral prin-
ciples ? Can any reason be given why both should
♦lot be taught in the school-room?
A child should be taught to call each organ by its
correct name. No more effort is required to learn the
meaning of a proper^ than an improper term. F^or
example : a child will pronounce the word as readily,
and obtain as correct an idea, if you say lungs^ as
if you used the word lights.
In preparing tnis work, it has not been deemed
necessary to use low, vulgar terms, for the purpose of
being understood ^ but such words have been selected
VI PREFACE.
as good usage sanctions. Should the pupil meet witn
any word he does not understand, let him consult his
dictionary, as he should do in perusing works upon
history, when a similar difficulty occurs.
To iFkSure a correct pronunciation of the technical
words interspersed with the text, they have been
divided into syllables, and the accented syllables des-
ignated. An jjrnple Glossary of technical terms luis
aiso been appended to the work, to which reference
should be made.
To the teacher we would suggest the propriety of
calling on a pupil of the class, to describe the anatomy
of an organ from an anatomical outline plate ; after-
wards call upon another to give the physiology of
the part, while a third may state the hygiene ; aftei
which, the questions at the bottom of the page may
be asked promiscuously, and thus the detailed knowl-
edge which each pupil porsessea of the subject will
be tested.
With advanced pupils, it is recommended that the
subject be examined in the form of topics. The ques-
tions in Italics are designed for this method of reci-
tation.
For a more full and complete explanation of Anato-
my, Physiology, and Hygiene, the pupil is referred to
the Author's treatise, of 450 pages, for Colleges, Acade-
mies, and Families, or to his second boot:, of 300
pages, for Academies, Schools, and Families.
To the instructors of youth, and the patrons of
Mucaticn, this work is respectfully j^ubmitted.
Warp.en, J/a««., 1852
CONTENTS.
1 GENr.RAL IlEHARKS, 9
S. Anatomt of tub Bones, 11
3. Anatomt of the Bonks, continued, . . .... 16
4. Phtbioloot of thb Bonbs, 21
5. Htoienb of the Bones, 24
6. Anatomy of the Muscles, 27
7. Phtbioloot of the Moscles, . . SO
8. Htoiene of the Muscles, 86
9. Anatomt of the Teeth, 43
»0. Anatomt of the Digestive Okoans , 47
11. Phtsioloot of the Diqestivb Okoans, 63
12. Hygiene of the Digestive Organs, 56
13- Anatomt of the Circclatokt Organs, 62
14. Phtsioloot of th« Circulatort Organs, 67
15. Htgienb of the Circolatort Organs, 70
16. Absorption, 76
17. Secretion, 82
18. Nutrition, 86
19. Anatomt of the Rkspiratort Organs, .... .89
20. Phyj»iologt of the Re: iratort Organs, ... .93
81 Hygiene of thb Kkbpiratory Organs,. . > .98
tftrw^^jr^^v^ WT'w^
TUl 0ONTINT8.
Chapter PS|,
22. Animal Hbat, 10«
23. Anatomt o» thb Vocal Oroaks, 110
24. Anatomt of the Ssin, 115
25. PUTSIOLOOT OF THB SkIN, , 119
26. Utoibnb of tub Skist, 122
27. Anatomt of the NKRvor5 Ststbm, 127
28. Fhtsioloot of thb Nervous Stbtkx, 131
29. Htoienb of thb Nebvous Ststbm, 134
80. Senhb of Touch, 138
Sbnbb of Tastb, 139
Sense of Smell, 141
81. Anatomt of thb Organs of Visiok, 143
32. Phtsioloot of the Organs of Vision, 149
S3. Anatov; of the Organs of Hearing, 152
34. Phtsiologt of the Organs of Ebabibo, 155
35. Mbanh of preserving the Ubalth, 158
86 DiRIlOTIONS fob NubSBS, 164
APPE>'DIX, 170
GLOSSABr, 176
INDEl . 181
FIUST BOOK
ox
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND
HYGIENE.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL REMARKS.
1. Anatomy is a description of the organs^ or parts o/ a
Dody.
Examples. Ist. Flowers have roots, stems, and blossoms.
These are their organs. 2d. The teeth, stomach, and heart,
are some of the organs of the human body.*
2. Physiology is a description of X\\q function^ or use of an
organ.
Examples. 1st. The roots of flowers suck up water, to
make them grow. This is their function. 2d. The stomach,
in man, is one of the organs that prepare the food for his
growth. This is its function.
3. Anatomy and Physiology are divided into two kinds,
namely, Animal au \ Vegetable.
, • Where examples are given, let the pupil mention other analog
gous ones.
I. What is anatomy ? Give examples. 2. What is physiology ? Givo
examples. 3. How many kinds of anatomy and physiology are there?
10 OENhRAL REMARKS.
4. Anitnal Anatomy and Physiology are again divided into
Human nnd Comparative.
5. Ilunuin Anatomy and Physiology describe iho structure
and functions of the organs of man,
6. Comparative Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc-
ture and functions of the organs of other animals than man.
Examples. As the horse, the monkey, and the whalo.
7. Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc-
ture and functions of different parts of trees, shrubs, plants, and
flowers.
8. ilvGiENE is the art of preserving health, or that depart-
ment of medicine which treats of the preservation oiT health.
9. All bodies in nature are divided into Organic and In-
organic. Organic bodias include animals and plants. Inor-
ganic bodies include earths, metals, and other minerals.
10. All organized bodies have a limited period of life, and
this period varies with every species. The duration of some
plants is limited to a single summer, as many garden ilowers ;
while some trees, as the olive, live many hundred years. Some
atiimals live but a short time, while the elephant lives more
thun a century.
l.\ The life of man is shortened by disease ; but disease is
undc the control of fixed laws — laws which we are capable
of understanding and obeying. How important, then, is the
study of ; thysiology and hygiene ! For how can we expect to
obey laws which we do not ui. 'erstand ?
4. How are animal anatomy and physiology divided ? 6. What do
human anatomy and physiology describe ? 6. What do comparative anat-
omy and physiology describe ? 7. What do vegetable anatomy and physi-
ology describe ? 8. What is hygiene ? 9. How are all bodies in nature
divided ? What bodies are called organic ? What bodies are called in-
organic ? 10. Have all animals and plants a limited period of life ? Doei
this period vary with different speiies of animals and plants? Give some
exr.mples. 1 1. How is life usually shortened ? Wliy is the study of phyai<
•lugy aiid ii) gicne important to every person ?
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 11
CHAPTER II.
THE BONES.
12. The b)ne3 are firm and hard, and of a dull white color
In all the higher ordors of animals, among which is man, they
are in the interic r of the body, while in lobsters, crabs, <fcc.,
thoy are on the outside, forming a case, which protects 'he
movable parts from injury.
ANATOMY OF 1'HE BONES.
13. There are two hundred and eight • bones in the human
body, beside ifio teeth.
14. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts:
1st. The bones of the Head. 2d. The bones of the Trunk.
3d. Tne bones of the U2)per Extremities. 4lh. Tho bones of
the Lower Extremities.
15. The bones of the iikad are divided into those of the
Skull.^ Eary and Face. '^
16. The SKULL is formed of eight bones. These are joined
together by ragged edges, called sutures. (Fig. 2.)
Observation. The sutures stop, in a measure, the jars
caused by external blows. Children should never strike each
♦ Some anatomists reckon more than this number, others leas, for
the reason that, at different periods of life, the niunber of pieces of
which one bone is formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in
infancy, has ei(/ht pieces ; in youth, three ; in old age, but one.
^1 '" '■ ' llll.l— ■! ■■ I. IMIII. — ■ 111 ■ I II ■ I'l — ^— ■ I 1
12. Describe the bones. 13. How many bones in the human body?
14. How are they diy'ded? Name them. 15 — 18. Give the anatomy of tht
bones of the head. 15. How are the bones of the head divided ? 16. Ho*
nuiny bones in the skull ? How are the bones of the skull joined togethn *^
^■vm^fM>.fn^e^<^^^*v'''';m!pmfm!^figffifmir
12 ANATOMT, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
Other upon the head, I nuse the bones of the skull in them
are softer than in adults.
# 17. In each ear are four small bones. They aid in hearing.
18. In the face are fourteen bones. They support the
softer parts outside of them.
19. The TRUNK has fifty-four bones — iwenty-four RihSf
tw'enty-foui" bones in the Spinal Col'umn^ (back-bone;) four
in the Pelvis; the Ster'n^.tPy (breast-bone;) and one at the
root of the tongue.
20. All the RIBS are joined to the spinal column. There
are twelve on each side.
Fig. 2.
^^.
Ptg. S. The bones of the npper part of the skuU. 1 , 1, 9, 9, 3, The mturw that joia
Oie bones.
21. The seven upper ribs are united in front to the sternum
by a yielding substance called car^ti-lage^* (gristle.) The
• See paragraj/h 46.
17. What is the use of futures ? How many bonea in each ear ? "What
Is their use? J", iiow many bones in the face? 19 — 29. Give the anato
my of the hones of the tntnk. 19. How many bones in the trunk ? Name
them. 20. To what are all the ribs joined ? How many on each side ?
What does fig. 2 represent? 21. How are the first seTen ribs united io
tront?
ANATOMY OF TFK BOWES. 18
remjining five are not attached, directly, to the sternum.
Three are joined to each other by cartilage ; two are not con ,
fined; hence they are called "floating ribs."
22. The cavity formed by the sternum, ribs, and spinal
column, is called the Chest. It contains the heart, iungs, and
large blood-vessels.
23. The shape of the chest is conical, or like a sugar-loaf.
Fig. 3. The lonii of the chest. ',2,3, The stennim, (breast-bone.) 4, 3, The
■pinal coluirin, (back-bone.) 6, 7, 8, 9, The first rib. 10, The seventh rib. 11, The
cartilage of the third rib. 13, The floating ribs.
Observation, The lower part of the chest is broader and
fuller than the upper part, when it is not made smaller by tight
clothing.
The next three ? What are the last L^o called ? Why ? Describe flg. S.
" 22. How is the chest formed ? What does it contain ? 23. What is th»
shape of the chest } How does the lower part of the chest compare in
•ixe with the upper?
2 ,,'-■■;. - ,:--:-.zk,''''
M
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE
24. llie SPINAL* COLUMN IS composcd of twenty-four
pieces of bone. Each piece is called a vert'e'bra.
25. Uetween the pieces, or vertebra;, is a thick piece of car-
tilage, which is elastic, or springs like India-rubber. This not
only unites the vertebiTc, but pernnits them to move in diflerent
ways.
26. There is an opening in each vertebra. By a union of
these openings, a canal is formed the whole length of the spinal
column in which the spinal cord (pith of the back-bone) is
placed.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig 4. The form of a vertebra of iho neck. 1, The main portion of Ite bona.
2, 'I'he spinal canal, in which tJie spinal cord is placed. 4, 5, 7, 8, Points, < projto
liuns of ihe vertebra.
r=3, 5. 1, The cartilage that c mnects the vertcbree. 3, 4, 5, 6, Points, r pro-
jections of the vertebra. 7, The Hpinal canal.
Observation. A good idea of the structure of the vertehraj
may be obtained, by examining the spinal column of a domestic
animal, as the dog, cat, or pig.
• From the Latin spi'na, a thorn ; so called from the points of tfe.»
rertebrae that are felt beneath the skin.
24. How many pieces of bone in the spinal column ? "What is each
piece called ? 2.5. What is placed between the vernebrie ? Give its use.
26. How is the spinal canal formed, and what does it contain ? Describe
fig. 4. Describe fig 5. How may an idea of the structure of th* Terte*
OIK be obtained 2
ANATOMY OF THE BONES
1»
27. I'he spinal column is a very curious and perfect piece
of mechanical art. By its structure, great strength and suf-
fijiient movement or tiexibility are combined. The vertebrfla
are so firmly joined together, that dislocation of tliem, without
fracture, is very rare.
28. The PELVIS is composed of four bones. They are so
arranged as to form a bony basin. Tlie spinal column testa
on these bones, and they also serve to support the lower
extremities.
Fig. 6.
Pig. 6. 1, 1, The hip-bones. 2, The sacrum, wynm which the Hpinal coiumn
re Its. 3, Tlie extremity of the spinal column, named the coc'cyz. 4, 4, The cavitiea
for the head of the tliigh bone.
29. In the sides of these bones is a deep, round cavity,
called a-ce-tabu-lum, in which the head of the thigh-bone ia
placed.
27. What is said of the structure of the spinal column ? 28. Of how many
bones is thr pelvis composed ? What is their use ? Describe fig. C
Hi. Wiiat is found in the bidea of these bones ?
16 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYOIENB.
CHAPTER III.
ANATOMY OF THE BONES, CONTINUED.
30 The upper extremities contain sixty-four bones —
the Scap'ii-la^ (shoulder-blade;) the Clav'i-ch^ (collar- bone;)
and the bones of the Arm^ Fore-arm^ Wrist^ and Hand.
31. The SCAPULA is a broad, irregular bone, situated upon
the upper and back part of the chest.
32. The CLAVICLE is a thin bone at the base of the neck.
It IS joined at one extremity to the sternum, at the other to
the scapula.
Observation. The use of the clavicle is to keep the arms
from sliding toward the breast. Children should frequently
throw their arms backward, as t'^ s exercise would tend to
increase the length of this bone, am nlso to enlarge the chest.
33. The ARM is formed of a su.^ > bone, called the hu''
mer-us.
34. The FORE-ARM is formed of two bones — the w/'nrt, on
the inner side, and the ra'di-us., on the outside, (the side on
which the thumb is placed.) By a beautiful arrangement of
these bones, the hand is made to rotate^ or turn, permitting ita
complicated and varied movements.
35. The WRIST is formed of eight irregular bones. They
move but little upon each other.
36. The HAND consists of nineteen bones — five in the palm,
and fourteen bones in the fingers and thumb. *
30 — 37. Give the anatomy of the hones of ihc upper extremities. 30. Name
the bones of the upper extremities. 31. Describe the Sv?apula. 32. "Where
is the clavicle situated ? \Vliat is the use of the clavicle ? 33. How ia
the arm formed ? 34. The fore-arm ? 35. How many bones in the wrist ?
86. How many bores in the hand ?
ANATOMY OP THE BONES.
17
37. Kach finger is formed of thr^e bones of diflerent lengths
the thumb has but two. Proofs of a designing Creator aro
nowhere more manifest than in the simple but wonderful
structure and adaptation of the human hand.
38. The LOWER extremities contain sixty bones — the
Fe'mur^ (thigh-bone ;) the Pa-tel'la^ (knee-pan ;) the Tib'i-a
(shin-bone;) \\ie Fib'u-la^ (small bone of the leg;) and the
bones of the Foot.
39. The FEMUR is the longest bone of the body. It sup-
ports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 7. V, The nlna. R, The radiui. s, L, c, P, U, M, T, T, The eight bones «l
the wrist. 1> 1, 1, 1, 1, The five bones of the pjilm of the hand.
Fig. 8. 10, 10, 10, Tile bones of the palm of the hand 11, 13, 13, The bonea of
(he fingers. 14, 15, The bones of the thumb.
40. The TIBIA and the fibula are situated between the
knee and ankle.
37. What is said of the bones of the fingers and thumn ? 38 — 41. Qiv
the anatomy of the bonea of the lower extremities. 38. Name th«
oonfs of the liwer extremities. 39. "What is said of the femur?
Describe fig. 7.
anUe?
Fig. 8 40. What bones between the knee and
J8
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
41. Th« FOOT is formed of twenty-six bones --seven in the
instep ; five in the middle of the foot; and fourteen toe-Dones.
Observation. Tlie bones of the foot ore so united as to give
it the form of an arch, — convex on its upper surface, and con-
cave on the lower surface.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. A view of the upper surfnce of the Ijones of the foot. 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 8, T
8, The bones of the instep. 9, 9, 9, Tlie boncfl of the middle of the foot. 10, 11, Th«
bonea of the great toe. 12, 13, 14, The boaea of the siiiull toea
Fig. 10
P (?. 10. A Bide view of the bones of the foot, showing its arched form. The arch
rests upon the htel behind, Rnd the baU of the toes in front. I, Tnt lower i«rt of the
tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Runes of the instep. 6, A bone of the middle of the foot. 7, 8, The
bones of tlie great toe.
♦
42. The bones consist of animal matter, (jelly,) and earthy
matter, (phosphate and carbonate of lime.)
41. How many bones in the foit, and name them ? What is the form
3f the foot? Describe fig. 9. Fig. 10. 42. Of what are the bonec
•omposed? » ^ ^, :,'„
ana:omy op the bones.
19
43. To show the cinitnal without the eurthy matter of the
bones, immerse a slender bone tor a few days in a weak aciu,
(one part muriatic acid and six parts water,) and it can then
be bent in any direction.
44. To show the earthy without the animal matter, bum a
bone in a clear fire for about fifteen minutes, and it becomet
white and brittle.
45. The JOINTS form an interesting part of the body. They
are composed of the extremities of two or more bones, Car'li-
ingcc^ '.<?ristles,) Syn-o'vi-al membrane, and Lig'a-ments
Fig. 12.
*«<•.■
Fig. 11. The relative position of the tmiie, rartilnge, and synovial membrans.
1, 1, The extreiiiities of two bones, to form a joint. 9, 2, The cartilage that coven*
the end of the bone. 3, 3, 3, 3, The synovial membrane, winch cover:) the cnrtiluge
of both bones, and is Uien doubled back from cue to the other ; It is represented by
the dotted lines.
Fig. 12. A vertical section of the' knee-joint 1, The femur. 3, The patella
5. Th.? tibia. 2, 4, Ligaments of the patella. 6. Cartilage of the til)ia- 12, The
cartilage of the femur. * « * *, The synflvial membrane.
46. Cartilage is a smooth, solid, elastic substance, that
covers the ends of the bones that form a joint. It prevents
the ends of the bones from wearing off, and also diminishes
tlie jar that the joint receives, in walking or leaping.
- 43. How can the animal matter be shown ? 44. The earthy ? 45— 18. D«
tcribe the parts that form aJoiiU. 4.5. AVhat is said of the joints ? Of what
bre they composed ? What is represented by fig. 11 ? Fig. 12 ? 46. Defina
cartilage. 'W^.iat is its use i
mm
2()
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
47. The SYNOVIAL ^xi:MBRANE is a thin, membranous layer
which covers the cartilages, and is thence bent back, or reflected
upon the inner surfaces of the ligaitients which surround and
enter into the composition of tho jomts. This inembrano
forms a », osed sac. (Fig. 11.)
48. The LIGAMENTS are strong, in'^lastic suostances ; th«y
serve to connect and bind together the bones of the body.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Pig. 13. 8, 9, The ligaments that extend flrom the hip-bone (6) to the thigli'
tme, (5.)
Fig. 14. 2, 3,' The ligaments that extend from the collar-bone (I) to the shouldef
DiHile, (4.) The ligaments 5, 6, extend from the shoulder-blade to the first bona
vf the arm.
Observation. The joints of the domestic animals, are similar
in their construction to those of man. To illustrate this part of
the body, a fresh joint of the calf or sheep may be used.
47. Define synovial membrane. 48. What are ligaments ? Wbat is
their use ? What is represented bv fig 13 ? Fig. 14 ? How oan the etruo*
turo of the joints be illustrated
PHYitlOLOQir OF THE BONES. 21
CHAPTER IV.
PHYSIOLOGY OF lilS BC'^li«.
4&. The bones are the frumework of iho body. They sup-
port 'all the soA parts, as the flesh and vessels, and likewise
afford a firm surface for the attachment of the ligaments.
50. The use of the various bones is different. Some protect
organs, as those of the skull and chest, while others are used
when we move, as those of the extremities and spinal column.
51. The bones are covered with a firm mem'brane, or skin,
called per-i-os'te-um. This membrane and the bones, when
healthy, give us but little pain if wounded ; but. if diseased, as
in " felons," the pain is very severe.
52. The joints are constantly supplied with a fluid called
syn-o'vi-a. This operates like oil on the joints of a machine.
By the smooth cartilages and synovia, the joints are enabled
to bear all the motion required of them during a great number
of years.
53. The joints vary in their functions. Some are movable,
as the finger-joints ; while others are immovable, as the sutures
of the skull.
54. The union of the spinal column with the skull exhibits
one of the most ingenious contrivances to be met with in the
body. 1st It permits the backward and forward movement,
as in bowing and nodding the head. 2d. The motion which
is made in turning the head from side to side.
49 — 61. Give the physiology of the hones. 49. What is the use of the
bones ? 60. Give the function of some of the bones. 61. With what are
the bones covere 1 ? 62 — 66. dive the physiology of the joints. 62. With
what are the joints constantly supplied ? What is the use of this fluid
and the cartilages ? 63. Mention some of the functions of the joints.
64. What is said of the union of the spinal column with the skull?
^iMiiiiitiiMiiiiiiBr^"^-^-^'"^'^"-^^-
Ss
22
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
65. This admirable piece of mechanism aflbrds great pro-
tection to the spinal cord, at the top of the neck ; ti'is being
perhaps, the most vital portion of the whole body. Injury to
it, or pressure upon it, is instantly fatal.
56. Some joints move but in one direction, like a hinge of a
door. These are called Hinge Joints ; as the ankle and the
knee-joint. Some joints move in difFerent directions, like a ball
in a socket. These are culled Ball and Socket Joints ; as the
fhoulder and the hip-joint.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 15. The knee-JoinU 1, The lower extremity of the thighbone, a, 5, The
two rounded extremities that rest upon the upper extremity of the tibia, (shin-bone.)
S. Two ligaments within the knee-JoinL 6, 7, The cartilage that tips the uppei
extremity of the tibia, (4.)
Pig. 16. 2, The deep socket of the hip-joint. .5, The round head of the thigh-
bone, which ii lodged in ''e socket. 3, The ligament within the socket.
Observation. The more movable a joint, the less firm it is,
and the more frequently dislocated, or " put out." It is for this
reason that the shoulder-joint is more frequently displaced than
any other in the body.
65. What is protected by this admirable piece of mechanism ? 66^ What
•re hinge joints ? What are ball and socket joints ? Why is the shouldtfT>
Joint more frequently dislocated than any other in th>^ body i
|»P»v8'Ol,OGY OF THE BONES.
Fig. 17.
2f^
'■W
P»g 17. 1,1, The spinal column. 2, TheFkuIl. 3, The lower jaw. 4, The sternam.
\ The libs. 6,G, The carMlagCH of the ribs. 7, Tl,e clavicle. 8, The humerus. 9, Th«
rhoulder-JoinC 10, The radius. 11, The ulna. Vi, The elbow-joint 13, The wriat.
U, The hand. 15, The luuinch-bone. IG, The sacrum. 17, The hip-joint. 18, The
thigh-bone. 19, The patfll.i. 20, The knee-joint. 21, The fibula. 22, The tibia.
23, The ankle-joint. 24, The foot 2.";, 2ti, The lignnients of the clavicle, Rtemum,
and ribs. 27, 28, 29, The ligaments of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist. 30, The larfe
Kitery of the arm. 31, The ll^ainentsof the hi|>-joint. 'M, The largo bl(M>d-VMwbior the
fhigh. 33, Thearterj'ofthelei^. 34, 35, 3(3, The iigauienlsufthe patella, kne«, and ankla.
A'd(£. Let the pupil, in form of topics, review the anatomy and physiology of Jm
^nes from fig. 17 or from anatomical outline plateb 1 and 3.
14 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. ANU BTOIXNX.
CHAPTER V.
HYGIENE OF THE BONES.
67. The hones require exercise to make them healthy. By
use they arc iiicr ased in size and strength to a limited extent,
while inaction or disease weakens them. Exercise favors the
deposition of the substances of which they are composed.
58. The exercise or labor should he adapted to the condition
of the hones. The bones of a child contain more of the animal
than the earthy matter, and are consequently weak ; though
the child is able to exercise, its bones are not adapted to severe
toil. On the other hand, the bones of the aged man contain
more earthy than animal matter. This causes them to be brit-
tle and unfit for labor. But in middle age, the proportions of
animal and earthy matter are, usually, such as to give the
proper degree of flexibility and strength for labor, with little
liab lity to injury.
Ohservation. The difference in the structure of the bonea
at different ages may be seen, by comparing the rib of a calf
or lamb, with the rib of an ox or sheep.
59. The clothing should he loosely worn. The ribs and
bones of the spmal column are soft and yielding in childhuod.
A small amount of pressure on the walls of the trunk will
lessen the size of the chest, and thus injure the lungs, stomach,
and heart
60. In sittings the feet of the child should he supported. If
67—63. Give the hygiene of the bone*. 67. What effect has exerciw
upon the bones ? 68. Give the reasons why the amount of labor should be
adapted to the condition of the bones. How can the difference in the
structure of the bones at different ages be illustrated ? 69. Give a reason
why the clothing should be loosely worn. 60. Why should the feet of
ihildren, when sitting, be supported ? »;:.*;«.
;ii*;
nVGIENK OF THE BONES.
35
ihe stool IS so hi^h as not to permit the feet to rest upon the
Hoor, the weight of the limbs below the luuie luiiy cause the
flexible hone of the thi^fh to becntne curved. When the feet
are not supported, the child is inclined to lean forward, contract-
ing an injurious and ungraceful position.
Observation. The scats in school-rooms should not only be
of such height as to enable the pupil to rest the feel on tlio
floor, but they should have properly-constructed backs.
Fig. 19.
Fig. 18. The position ossuined when the leat ia of proper height, and the feet
buppiirtcd.
Fig. 19. The position a child naturally assumes when Uie seat ia so high tliat Mm
feet are not 8u;)ported.
61. Children should stand and sit erect. This position tends
'.o keep the spinal column erect and healthy. When a slight
cur/ature of the spine exists, it can be improved by walking
with a book, or a heavier weight, upon the top of the head ; tq
Should seats in a school-room have backs ? 61. Wliy should childrea
•land and sit erect ?
a
26 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
ba!7*iice which, the spine must be nearly erect. Thosfi people
that carry their burdens upon their heads se'dom have crooked
spines. *
62. Pupils, while writing, drawing, and sometimes while
studying, frequently incline the spinal column to one side, in
order to accommodate themselves to the desks at which they
are seated. This position elevates one shoulder, while i t de-
presses the other.
; , Fig. 20.
Fig. ^X A representation of . deformed spinal column. A well-Armed spinal
column has three curves, two forward und one bucliward, (2, 2, 2, fig 25,} but no
lateral curvature, (1, 1, Ag. 17.)
63. One shoulder may be thus elevated for a short time, and
no injurious results follow, prrivided care is taken not to keep it
in the raised position too long, or if the opposite shoulder is
elevated for the same period of time.
What is the effect of carrying biirdens upon the head ? 62. What is tht
effect of pupils using desks that are too Itigh or improperly constructed
6S. How can one shoulder b« elevated, Aud *o injurious results follow ?
ANATOMY OF THE MUSCIES.
27
CHAPTER VI
THE MTJSCLES.
«
64. All the great motions of the body are caused by the
movement of some of the bones which form the framework of
the body ; but these, independently of themselves, have not llie
power of motion, and only change their position through the
action of other organs attached to them, which, by contracting,
or shrinking, draw the bones after ihem. In some of the slight
movements, as the winking of the eye, no bones are displaced,
or moved. These movmg, contro 'ting organs are the Mus'ch^y
(lean meat) "*
ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES.
65. A MUSCLE is composed of many little strings, called
fibres. Some of these fibres run in straight lines ; others
spread like a fan ; while some are inclined like the feathery
part of a quill. (Fig. 21.)
66. Toward the extremities of a muscle the fibres unite, and
form a substance of a whitish color, harder and tougher than
the muscle. This is called ten'don^ (cord, sinew.)
Observation. TI t pupil can examine a piece of boiled
beef, or the leg of a fowl, and -^ee the structure of the fibres
and tendons of a muscle, with the attachment of the tendons
tc the bones.
67. Tendons have various shapes. Sonie*imes tt.'iy are
94. Ilovy are all the great motions of the body produced ? What are
these moving, contracting organs called ? 65 — 72. Give the structure of the
muaclea. 65. Of what is a muscle composed ? 66. What in a tendon ?
How can the structure of a muscle be shown ? 67. Wliat is the shape ol
tendons ?
m
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
long, slender strings; sometimes they are short and thck
again, in some situations, they are thin and broad. Thej serve
to fasten the muscles to the bones, or to each other.
Observation. In some instances, the synovial membrane,
which forms the sheath of the tendons, is ruptured, and the
synovial fluid escapes. This forms a tumor, called a gan'gli-on,
(weeping sinew.) It is called a wind-gall when on the limbs
of a horse.
68. in tha description of a muscle, its attachments are ex-
piessbd by the terms origin and instrlion. The term origin is
general Jy applied to the more fixed or centml attachment, or to
the points toward which motion is directed ; while insertion is
assigned to the more movable point, or to that most distant from
the centre. The middle, fleshy portion, is called the " belly,'*
or swell.
Fig. 21.
Pig. 21. I, Represents the fibres of a muscle running in straight lines. S, Th«
Ibn-shaped fibres. 3, 4, Fibres inclined like the plumes of a quill, t, (, Tendons a*
the extremities of the muscle, L
69. In some parts of the body, there is but one layer of
muscle over the bones ; in other parts, there are five or six
How are the tumors formed, called weeping sinews ? 68. How are the
attachments of muscles expressed ? What is the middle portion called ^
69. How many layers of muscles aie there around the bones ?
,p--.-Ty,».-7jr-T--i;'-'^r>-^yv- -Tr.-,. 1.7 t ..y-^r-, "■■■.■--•■'; v ,•,> - ' ■ ''W^Jij .••■:::^.\
AN.? rOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 95
layers, ona muscle being placed over another. They are sepa-
rated by a tiiin, whitish membrane, ciUlcd fas'ci-a.
Observation. An instance is seen in the membrane which
envelops a leg of beef, and which is observed on the edges
cf Pi slice when it is cut for broiling.
70. In general, the muscles form about the bones two
layeiTJ, calleo the superficial^ or external muscles ; and the
deep-seated^ or those nearest the bone.
71. There are more than four hundred muscles in the
human body. To these, and a yellow substance, called fat^
that surrounds and fills the spaces in the muscles, the child
and youth are indebted for the roundness and hearty of their
limbs.
Observation. When we are sick, and cannot take food, the
/ is {*;d with ihis fat. The removal of it into the blood
causes the sunken cheek, hollow eye, and prominent appear-
ance of the bones, after a severe sickness.
72. When we look at this "harp of thousand strings," and
notice the varied, rapid, complicated, yet accurate movements
it performs in a single day, our thoughts are lost in wonder, in
contemplating this superb and mtricate machine, framed and
finished by the divine Architect
How are they separated from each othor? Give an instance where thia
membrane may be seen. 70. How many lav«»rs of Tuscles generally around
the bones, and M-hat are they called ? 71. How m»nv n)i|iu>l<>s in the hu
man body? "W* y are the limbs of a child nu a rntind and full thar ws
aged ptTSOo'f ? How is the body nourished whca wc ctioTiot t«k<« toodk *
W ANATOMY PnySIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
CHAPTER VII.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES.
73. Every motion of the body is made by the contraction
of the fibres of the muscles ; from the awkward movement
of the boy's first efibrt at penmanship, to the delicate and
graceful sweeps of the pianist ; from the firm, the stately tread
of the soldier, to the light, fairy-like step of the danseuse.
Illustration. The muscles ami tendons are to the bones
what the ropes are to the sails and yards of a sh'p. By their
action, the direction of the sails and yards is chanj^ed. So, by
the action of the muscles, the position of the bones of the body
is changed.
74. Each fibre of the several muscles receives from the
brain, through the nervous filament appropriated to it, a certaiu
influence called nervoiis fluid ^ or stimuhis. It is this that in-
duces contraction, while the suspension of this stimulus causes
relaxation of the fibres.
75. Muscles remain contracted but a short time ; then they
relax, or lengthen, which is their rest. When the muscles are
in a state of contraction, they are full, hard, and more prom-
inent than when relaxed.
76. The alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscles
may be shown by the following experiment: —
Experiment. Clasp the fore-arm about three inches below
the elbow, then open and shut the fingers rapidly, and the
73 — 99. Give the physiology of the miiscles. 73. How is every motion of
the body produced ? 74. With what is each muscular fibre supplied ^
What effect has this stimulus on the muscles ? 75. Do muscles remain
crntracted a long time ? What is their appearance when in a state of con-
traction ? 76. How can the aU«rnate contraction and relaxation of the
muscles be shown ?
^-V'-XP'l
rnvsioLOGY of titk muscles.
81
Bwelling and relaxation of tlie muscles on the opposite sides of
*he arms, alternately with each other, will be felt correspond
ing with the movement of the fingers. While the fingers are
bending, the nside muscles swell and the outside ones become
flaccid ; and, while the fingers are extending, the inside mus-
cles relax and the outside ones swell. The altornate swelling
and relaxation of opposing muscles may be felt in all the move-
ments of the limbs.
Fig. 22.
2 4
t rejrrenentation of the manner in which all nf the joints of the body are m6V«d.
Fig. 22, 1, The bone of the arm above the elbow. 2, One of the bones below fh«
ilbow. 3, The muscle that bends tlie elbow. This muscle is united, by » tendon, to
the bone below the elbow, (4 ;) at llie other extremity, to the bone above the elbow,
(5.) 6, The muscle that extends the elbow. 7, Up attachment to tlie point of the
eJbow. 8, A weight in the hand, to be raised. ' .le central part of the musc!e (3)
contracts, and its two ends are brought nearer together. The bones beh»w the elbow
are brought to the lines shown by 9, 10, II. The weight is raised in the direction of
the curved line. When the muscle (6) contracts, the muscle (3) relaxes, and the el-
bow is extended.
77. The eyebrows are elevated, or raised by the contraction
of the muscles on the forehead, 1, fig. 23.
78. The eyes ar^ closed by the contraction of the muscles
that surround them, 2, fig. 23.
Explain 65?. 22.
Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the muscular system be re
viewed, in form of topics, from figs. 23, 24, or from the outline anatomicft«
plates 3 and 4
ji
M (ij'-pi ■■(■iiiiwi iijii.mi'.v f ! I.
82 ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
79. The upper lip is elevated by the contraction of the mus-
cles, 3, 4, 5, 6, fig. 23.
80. The mouth is closed by the contraction of a muscle that
surrounds it, 7, fig. 23.
81. The lower lip is drawn down, or depressed, by the con
traction of muscles on the lower part of the face, 8, fig. 23.
82. The head is bent forward, as in nodding, by the contrac-
tion of muscles on the front part of the neck, 9, fig. 23.-
83. The chin is raised, and the head is brought erect by the
contraction of muscles on the back part of the neck, 5, 6, fig. 24.
84. I'he body is bent forward, and the ribs brought down,
by the contraction of muscles on the front and lower part of
the trunk, 22, 23, fig. 23.
85. The spinal column is kept erect by the muscles at the
lower and back part of the trunk, 24, 25, 26, fig. 24.
86. The shoulders are brought forward by the muscles upon
the upper and (ront part of the chest, 11, fig. 23.
87. I'he shoulders are brought back by the contraction of the
muscles upon the upper and back part of tlie chest, 7, fig. 24.
88. The arm is elevated by a muscle upon the shoulder, 10,
fig. 23 ; and 8, fig. 24.
89. The arm is brought to the side by muscles, 11, fig. 23;
and 24, fig. 24
90. The elbow is bent by the contraction of the muscles on
the upper and front side of the arm, 14, fig. 23.
91. The elbow is extended by a muscle on the back part of
/he arm, 10, fig. 24.
92. The wrist and fingers are bent by the muscles on the
front part of the arm, below the elbow, 16, 18, fig. 23.
93. The muscles on the back part of the arm, below the
elbow, extend the wrist and fingers, 21, 22, 23, fig. 24.
94. The muscles that bend the lower limbs, at the hip, are
situated at the lower and front part of the trunk, and the upper
and front part of the thigh, 25, 26, 27, 28, fig. 23.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES.
38
95. The lower limbs are extended at the hips by the
muscles on the lower and back part of the trunk, and the uppei
and back part of the thigh, 27, 2b, fig. 24.
96. The muscles upon the front part of the thigh extend the
leg at the knee, 29, 30, fig. 23.
97. The knee is bent by the muscles upon the back part of
the thigh, 29, 30, fig. 24.
98. The muscles upon the fore part of the leg, below the
knee, bend the foot at the ankle, and extend the toes, 34, 35,
36, fig. 23.
99. The muscles upon the back part of the leg, below the
knee, extend the foot at the ankle, and bend the toes, 31, 32
33, fig. 24.
Observation. It would be a profitable exercise for pupils to
press their fingers upon prominent muscles, and, at the same
time, vigorously contract them, not only to learn their situations,
but their use ; as the one that bends the arm, 14, fig. 23.
[Fig. 23. A front view of the muscles of the body. 1, The frontal swells of the
occipito-frontalis. 3, The orbicularis palpebrarum. 3, The levator labii superioria
alteque nasi. 4, The i^ygomaticua major. 5, The zygoniaticus minor. 6, The
mosseter. 7, The orbicularis oris. 8, The depressor labii Inferioris. 9, I'he {ilatysma
myoides. 10, The deltoid. 11, The pectornlis major. 13, Thb latissimus dursi
13, The serratus major anticus. 14, The biceps flexor cubiti. 15, The triceps ex-
tensor cubiti. 16, The supinator radii longus. 17, The pronator radii um cm. 18, The
extensor carpi radialis longior. 19, The extensor oasis metacarpi pollicis. 30, The
nnnular ligament 31, The palmar fascia. 33, The obliquuit externus abdominis.
23, The linea alba. 24, The tensor vagine femoris. 26, The psoas magnua
27, The abductor longus. 38, The sartorius. 39, The rectus femoris. 30, The
vastus externus. 31, The vastus Internus. 32, The tendo patella;. 33, The gas-
trocnemius. 34, The tibialis auticus. 35, The tibia. 36, The tendons of the ex
tensor communis.
Fig. 24. A back view of the muscles of the body. 1, The temporalis. 2, The
occipito-frontalis. 3, The complexus. 4, The splenius. 5, The masseter. 6, Tli*
■tcrno^^leido mastoideus. 7, The trapezius. 8, The deltoid. 9, The infra spinatus.
;0, The triceps extensor. 11, The teres minor. 12, The teres major. 13, The
tendinous portion of the triceps. 14, The anterior edge of the triceps. 15, The
supinator radii longus. 16, The pronator radii teres. 17, The extensor conuniinit
digitorum. 18, The extensor oesis metacarpi pollicis. 19, The extensor comniunia
•ligitorum tendons. 20, The olecranon and in.sertion of the triceps. 21, The exten*
■or tarpi ulnads. 22, The auricularis. 23, The extensor communis. 24, The Litis
■imus dcrsi. 2.% Its tendinous origin. 26, Tlie obliquus externus. 27, The ghitei'j
medius. 28, The gluteus magnus. 29, The biceps flexor cruris. 30, Tne semi-tea
dinoflus. 31, 32, The gastrocnemiua. 33, Tlie tendo- Achillis.]
y*
--.•i^^'M '■ •
34 ANATOMY, niYSlOLOGY, ANH HYGIENB.
Fig. 23.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MITSCLBS.
35
Fig. 24.
86 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, 4Nr> UtulEftm
CHAPTER VIII.
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES.
100. Tlie muscles should he used and then rested. Tih*
will increase their size and strength, by increasing the flow oi
blood to the parts called into action A muscle should not be
used too long, or remain at rest too long ; both are alik«
injurious.
Illustrations. 1st The blacksmith uses and rests the mus-
cles of his arm when striking upon the anvil. They not only
become large, but very firm and hard.
2d. The student uses the muscles of the arm but little, in
holding his books and pen ; they are not only small, but soft.
3d. Let the student leave his books, and wield an iron sledge,
and the muscles of his arm will increase in size and firmness.
On the other hand, let the blacksmith assume the student's
vocation, and the muscles of his arm will become fioft and
less firm.
101. Exercise should he regular and frequent. The sys-
tem needs this means of invigoration as regularly as it does
new supplies of food. It is no more correct that we devote
several days to a proper action of the muscles, and then
spend one day inactively, than it is to take a proper amount
of food for several days, and then wi'/ iw this supply for
a day.
102. Every part of the muscular system should have its
appropriate share of exercise. Some employments call into
100 — 118. Give the hygiene of the muscles. 100. Why should every mu8
cle be used ? What is injurious to muscles ? How is the effect of using
muscles illustrated? 101. Why should the exercise of the muscles b«
regular and frequent ? 102. What employments and amusements are b«st
CDr ths health ?
Il
AYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 89
exercise the muscles of the upper limbs, as shoe-making ; others
the muscles of the lower limbs; while some the muscles of l)oth
upper and lower limbs, with those of the trunk, as farming.
Those trades and kinds of exercise are most salutary, in which
all the muscles have their due propoition of action, as this tendi
to develop and strengthen them equally.
103. The proper time for exercise should be observed. This
is modified by many circumstances. As a general rule, the
morning, when the air is pure and the ground dry, is better than
the evening; for then, the powers of the body are greatest
We should avoid severe exercise and labor immediately before
and after eating a full meal, for the energies of the system are
then required to perform the digestive function.
104. Tlie muscles should be used in pure air. The purei
the air we breathe, the longer can the muscles be used in labor,
walking, or sitting, without fatigue and injury ; hence the bene-
fit derived in thoroughly ventilating all inhabited rooms.
Observation. It is a common remark that sick persons
will sit up longer when riding in a carrian;e, than in an easy
I chair in the room where they have Inn sick. In the one
instance, they breathe pure air, in th other, usually, a con-
fined, impure air.
105. The muscles should be exercised in the light. Light,
particularly that of the sun, exercises as great an influence on
I man as it does on plants. Both require the stimulus of this
I agent. Students should take their exercise during the day,
■|i rather than in the evening, and the farmer and the mechanic
;:| should avoid night toil, as it is much more exhausting than the
I same eflbrt during daylight.
I Illustrations. Plants that grow in the ^hade, as under a
I board, are of lighter color and more feeble than those that are
-^ Why? 103. What time, in general, is best for exercise? What should be
^ avoided ? 104. Why should the muscles be used in pure air ? Give obser-
3. vation. 105. Why should students take their exercise in the davtime ?
M What should farmers and mechanics avoid ? Why ? How ia the iuftuenct
^ of Bclar light illustrated ?
p 4
1
88 ANATOMY, PnYSIOLOGV, AND IIVGIENE
exposed to tho lig it of the sun. Persons that dwell in dark
rooms, nro paler and less vigorous than those who inhabit
apartments well lighted, and exposed to solar light.
106. Every muscle should move freely. Compression by
any means, lessens the size and strength of the muscle.
Illustration. Let a surgeon bandage a limb for some weeks,
when a bone is broken, and when the bandage is removed, the
limb will be found smaller than when the accident occurred.
The compression by close dresses produces similar eflecis upon
the muscles of the body.
107. The state of the mind affeclb musailar contraction. A
person who is "heerful and happy will do more work, and with
less fatigue, than one who is peevish and unhappy.
Illustration. A sportsman will pursue his game miles with-
out fatigue, while his attendant, not having any mental stimu-
us, will become weary.
108. The erect attitude lessens the exhaustion of the muscles.
A person will stand longer, walk farther, and do more work,
wh«)n erect, than in a stooping posture; because the muscles
of the back, in stooping, are in a state of tension, or stretching,
to keep the head and trunk from falling forward. In the erect
position, the head and trunk are nicely balanced and supported
by the boncfc of tho spinal column, and the muscles of the back
are called but slightly into action.
Experiment. Hold in each hand a pail of water, or equai
weights, in a stooping posture, as long as it can be done with-
out much suffering and injury. Again, when the musculai
pain has ceased, hold the same weights, for the same length of
time, in an erect posture, and note the difTerence in the fatigue
of the muscles.
Ohsewation. The attitude of children in standing has been
106. Why should every muscle more freely ? How is the effect of com-
pression illustrated ? 107- Does the mind affect the action of the muscles ?
How is this illustrated ? 108. "What attitude lessens the exhaustion of thf
muscles ? Why ? How is the effect of position shown by experiment I
What is said respecting the attitude of child en ?
HTOTENE OF THE MUSCLES.
»9
mur.h neglected ooth by parents and tcncliers. Let a child
acquire the habit of inclining his head ai d shoulders, and the
chest wi.l become contracted, the muscles of the back enfeebled,
and the deformity thus acquired will progress to advanced age
Fig. 25.
Fig. 26
Pig. 25. 1, A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet to the upper extrem-
ity of the opiiial column, where the head rests. 2, 2,2, The spinal coiamn, with its
three natural turves. Here the head nnd body arc Imlnnccd upon the spinni column
and jointib if the lower extremities, so that the muscles are not kept in n state of tcn-
i.)n. This erect position of the bmly and head is rlways accxnpanied with straight
lower limbs.
Fig 26. 1, A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet. 2, Represents th; un
natural curved spina column and its relative position to the perpendicular, (1.) The
lower limbs are seen curved at the knee, and the body is stooping forward. While
■landing in this position, the muscles nf the lower limbs and back are in conl.nued
tension, which exhauat3 and weakens them.
What is represented by figs. 25 and 26 ?
40
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE
109. Wfiile studying^ drawing, writing, and sewing, the
lody should be kept erect. This attitude favors a healthy action
of the various organs of the body, and conduces to beauty and
symmetry of form. On the contrary, narrow chests, " hollow
stomachs," " round shoulders," and ill health, follow a viola-
tion of this rule.
Fig. 27
Fig. 28.
Fig. 97. An improper, but not an unusual poaition in Bitting,
Fig. St>. A proper position in sitting.
1 10. Muscles should be gradually called into action. When
the muscular system has been in a state of rest, \i should not
suddenly be called into vigorous action. On arising from a
be 1, lounge, or chair, the first movements of the limbs should
be slow, and then, if necessary, gradually increased.
109. What is one cause of narrow chests and round shoulders ?
110. "What caution is given in using the rausclci when they have been iv
a sUte of rest ? What does fig. 27 show ? Fig. 28 ?
-"V^
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 41
Observation. If a man lias a certain amount of work to be
performed in nine hours, and his muscles have been in a state
of rest, he will do it with less fatigue by performing half the
amount of the labor in five hours, a d the remainder in four
hours. The same principle should be regarded in driving
horses and other beasts of burden.
111. Muscles should be rested gradually, when they have
been vigorously used. If a person has been making great
muscular exertion in cutting wood, or any other employment,
instead of sitting down to rest, he should continue muscular
action by some moderate labor, or amusement.
112. When the skin is covered with perspiration, (sweat,)
from muscular action, avoid sitting down " to cool " in a current
of air ; rather put on more clothing, and continue to exercise
moderately.
1 13. In cases when severe action of the muscles has been
endured, bathing and rubbing the skin over the joints that have
been used, are of much importance. This will prevei.t soreness
of the muscles and stiffness of the joints.
114. In labor, or exercise, the muscles should be relaxed.
In walking, dancing, and learning to write, there will be Jess
fatigue, and the inovements will be more graceful, when the
muscles are slightly relaxed, than when rigidly contracted.
The same principle applies to mo^t of the mechanical em-
ployments.
Experiments. Attempt to bow with the muscles of the
limbs and trunk rigid, and there will be a stiff bending of the
body only at the hip-joint. On the other hand, attempt to bow
with the muscles moderately relaxed ; the ankle, the ku e, and
Give observation. Should the same principle be observed in driving
horses ? Ill ^low should muscles be rested when they have been vigor-
ously used .•' 112. When the skin is covered with perspiration from muscu-
lar action, how should it be " cooled" ? 113. How can .screncss of the mus-
cles be prevented ? 114. In what state should be the muscles of the arm in
writing or performing most employments ? How is this principle shown by
ezperimente !
4»
12 ANATO^tfT, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
the hip-jomt will slightly bend, accompanied with an easy and
graceful curve of the body.
115. When riding in cars and coaches, the system will not
suffer so severely from the jar if the muscles are slightly
relaxed. When riding Dver uneven places in roads, rising
slightly upon the feet diminishes the shock occasioned by the
sudden notion of the carriage. The muscles, under such
circumstances, are to the body what elastic springs are to a
carriage.
116. In jumping or falling from a carriage, or any height,
the shock to the organs of the body may be obviated in the
three following ways. 1st. Let the muscles be relaxed, not
rigid. 2d. Let the limbs be bent at the ankle, knee, and hips ;
the head should be thrown slightly forward, with the trunk a
little stooping. 3d. Fall upon the toes, not the heel.
1 17. Repetition of muscular action is necessary. To render
the action of the muscles complete and effective, they must be
called into action repeatedly and at proper intervals. This
education must be continued until not only each muscle, but
every fibre of the muscle, is fully under tlie control of tlie will.
In this way, persons become expert penmen, singers, and
skilful in every emplojment.
1 18. In training the muscles for effective action, it is very
important that correct movements be adopted at the com-
mencement. If this is neglected, much power will be lost.
115. What suggestion when riding in cars or coaches ? 116. In jumpijtg
itam a carriage, in how many ways can the shock to the organs of the body
be obviated? Give the 1st. The 2d. The 3d. 117. How do persons be-
come expert penmen, singers, or skilful in any employment ? 118. What
is necessary m trailing the muscles for effective action i
ANATOMY OF THE TEETH.
48
CHAPTER IX.
ANATOMY OF THE TEETH.
119. The teeth aio nrmly fixed in the sockets of the upper
and lower jaw. The first set, which appear in infancy, is
called tem'po-ra-ry^ or milk-teeth. They are twenty in num-
ber; ten in each jaw.
Fig. 29.
Fig. S9. The permanent teeth of the upper and !ower Jaw. a, b. The incisora.
c, The cuspi.^s. d, e, The bicuspids. /, g, The molars, (double teeth.) A, The
wisdom teeth.
120. Between six and fourteen years of age, the temporary
teeth are removed, and the second set nppeare, called per'ma-
nent teeth. They number thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw.
121. The four front teeth in each jav;^ are called in-ci'sors^
119 — 123. Give the anatomy of the teeth. 119. In what are the teeth
placed ? What is the first set called ? How many in number ? Describe
feg. 29. 120. "Wlion are these teeth removed ? What is the second set
called ? How many in each j w ? 121. What are the teeth in front called ?
44
ANATOMY, PIIYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
(cutting teeth ;) the next toofh on each side, the cus'pid^ (eye
tooth ;) the next two, bi-cus'pids, (small grinders ;) the next two
mo'lars, (grinders.) The last one on eacli side of the jaw, la
called a wisdom tooth., because it does not appear until a person
is about twenty years old.
122. Each tooth is divided into two parts; iiannely, crown
and root. The crown is that part which protrudes fronn the
jaw-bone and gum. The root, or "fang," is placed in the
sockets of the jaw.
Fig. 30.
Fig. 31.
Fig. 30. A side view of tlie body and enamel of a front tooth.
Fig. 31. A side view of a molar tooth. 1, The enamel. 2, The body of the. tooth
3, Theca.ity in the crown of the tooth. 4, A nerve that spreads in the pulp of the
tooth. 5, An artery that ramifies in tlie pulp of tlie tooth.
123. The crowns of the teeth are covered with a very hard
substance, called en-am'el. The roots consist of bony matter. •
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE TEETH.
124. The use of the teeth is twofold. 1st. By a cutting
and grinding movement, they divide the masses of food into
The next ? The next two ? Those next the bicuspids ? The last that
appear in thf jaw ? 122. How is each tooth divided ? "Which part of the
tooth is the crown ? Which the root ? 123. "With what ait the crowns
Df the teeth covered ? Of what docs the root consist ? Describe fig. 31.
424 — 126. Give ih£ physiology of the teeth. 124. What is one use of the teeth }
HYGIENE OF THE TEETH. 45
smaller pieces, so tliat they are more easily and readily changed
in the stomach.
125. 2d. The teeth aid us in spr 'cing with distinctness
certain letters and word.-:. An individual who has lost his front
teeth cannot pronounce distinctly certain letters, called dental,
126. The teeth also give beauty to the lower part of the
face. When they are removed, the lips and cheeks sink in, as
is frequently seen in old age. Con.scfiuently, those sijiiple
observances that tend to the preservation of the teeth, are ol
practical interest to all persons.
HYGIENE OF THE TEgTH.
127. To preserve the teeth^ they must be kept clean. After
eating food, they should be cleaned with a brush and water, or
rubbed with a piece of soft flannel, to prevent the tartar col-
lecting, and to remove the pieces of food that rnay have lodged
between them.
128. Tooth-picks may be useful in removing any particles
maccessible to the brush. They may be made of bone, ivory
or the common goosc-quill. Metallic tooth-picks should not bo
used, as they injure the enamel.
129. The whole mouth should be washed with pure, tepid
water, at night, as well as in the morning, after which the teeth
should be brushed upward and downward, both on the posterior
and anterior surfaces. It may be beneficial to use refined
soap once or twice every week, to remove any corroding suiv
stance that may exist around the teeth, care being taken to
thoroughly rinse the mouth after its use.
12.5, Give another use of these organs. 126. Dc they contribute to the
symmetry of the lower part of the face ? 127 — 132. Give the hygiem of the
teeth, 127. By what means can the teeth be preserved ? 128. What is said
of the use of tooth-picks ? 129. How often shouul the teeth be brushed ?
V''
46 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
130. Food or drink should not he taken into the mouth \ohen
very hot or very cold. Sudden changes of temperature will
crack the enamel, and, finally, produce decayed teeth. .
Observation. On this account, smoking is pernicious, be-
cause the teeth are subjected to an alternate inhalation of both
cold and warm air.
131. Care should he taken^ in childhood^ that the temporary
teeth be removed as soon as they become loose^ in order that the
second set of teeth may present a regular and beautiful appear-
ance. If a permanent tooth makes its appearance before the
first is removed, or has become loose, the milk-tooth, although
not loose, should be removed without delay.
132. If the teeth are crowded and irregular, in consequence
of the jaw being narrow and short, or when they press so hard
upon each other as to injure the enamel, remove one or more,
to prevent their looking unsightly and irregular, and in a few
months, the remaining teeth, with a little care, will fill the
spaces.
Observations. 1st. It is not always necessary to have teeth
extracted when they ache. The nerve may be diseased, and
the tooth still be sound.
2d. When it is ntcessary to have decayed teeth filled, it is
better for the health of the person and durability of the teeth,
to have them filled with gold foil.
130. What is the cause of decayed teeth ? Why is smoking injurioui
to the teeth? 131. What remarks respecting the temporary teeth?
132. Give other remarks in regard to the temporary teeth. Give obser-
vation Ist. Observation 2d.
ANATOiifr or TUB DIGESTIVB OBOANB.
47
CHAPTER X.
DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
133. The food, whether animal or vegetable, has no resem-
blance to the bones, muscles, and other parts of the body to
which it gives sustenance. It must undergo certain essential
alterations before it can become a part of the diffcrcv* struc-
tures of the body. The first change is effected by tft? actioa
of the Digestive Organs.
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
Fig. 32.
Fig. J2 A view of the salivary glands in their proper situations. 1, The parotid
gland 2, Its duct. 3, 7'he submaxillary gland. 4, Its duct. 5, The sublingual
gland, Drought to view by the removal of a section of the lower Jaw.
138. Has aniraal or vegetable food any resemblance to the different parts
ot the body to which it f^ives sustenance ^ By what organs is th» iu«t
change in the food effected ? Describe fig. 32.
■f*
n.
48
ANATOMY, PHTSIOLOQY, AND nYGIENl
134. Tho DIGESTIVE ORGANS are the Mouth, Teeth, SaVl
va-i-y Glands, Phar'ynx, (E-soph'a-ijiis, (gullet,) Stomach,
In-te^tines, ^bowels,) Lac'te-als, (milk or chyle vessels,)
Tho-ra(/ic Duct, Lit/er, and the Pan'cre-aa, (sweetbread.)
135. The MOUTH is an irregular cavity, which contains the
leeth and the organs of taste.
136. The SALIVARY GLANDS* are six in number; three
on each side of the jaw. They are called the pOrrotUd,
the suh-max'il-la-ry, and the suh-Un'gual. (Fig. 32.)
1 37. The PHARYNX is a mvuscular, membranous sac, that leadg
10 tile oesophagus.
Fig. 33.
I
r'ig. 33. A side view of the face, oesophagus, nnd tracben. 1, Zf The trachea
(wind-pipe) find larynx. 3, The ossophagiis. 4, 4, 4, The muscles of the upper pt)r-
tion of the (esophagus, forming the pharynx. 5, The muscles of the cheek. 6, Tie
muscle that surrouuds the mouth. 7, The muscle that forms the floor of the mouth
* See paragraph 234.
134 — 147. Give the anatomy of the dir/estive organs. 134. Name the
digestive organs. 135. Describe the mouth. 136. Describe the rsihvary
glanda. 137. What is the pharynx ? What doea fig. 33 represent ?
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
49
138. The CESOPHAGUS is a largo, momhranous tube, through
which the food and drink pass into the stomach.
139. The STOMACH * is in the left side of the body, below
the lungs and heart. It is composed of three coats, or mem-
branes, which are thin and yielding. The external is called
the se'rons ; the middle mus'cu-Iar ; the inner, mn'cnns.
Illustration. The three coulsof the stomach (anatomicallv^
resemble tripe, which is a preparation of the largest stomach
of the cow or ox. The outer coat is smooth and highly
polished. The middle coat is comjujsed of minute threads,
which are arranged in two layers. The fibres of these layers
cross each other. The inner coat is soft, and presents many
folds, usually called " the honey-comb."
Fig. 34.
Fig. 34. The Inner emrface of the gtomach and duodenum. 1, The lower portion
of the oesophagus. 2, The opening through which the food is passed into the stomach
3, The stomach. 9, The opening throtigh which the food passes out of the stomach
into the duodenum, or upper portion of the Rmall intestine. 10, ;i, 14, The duode-
num. 12, 13, Ducts through which bile and pancreatic fluid pass into it, a, 6, «, The
three coats of the stomach.
For situation of the stomach, &c., see fig. 63.
138 What is the oesophagus. 139. Where is the stomach situated?
How many coats has it ? Name them. What Article prepared for food
does the slmnach resemble iq Btructute ? KxpUiin fig. 34.
50
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE,
140. The INTESTINES, or alimentary canal, are diviJed into
two parts, the small and large. The small intestine is aboui
twenty-live feet in length. The upper and most important
division is called the Du-o-deJnnm. The large intestme is
about five feet in length. The largest division is callea the
Co'lon.
141. The DUODENUM (called by nurses the second stomach)
18 the most essential part of the small intestine. It is about
twelve inches in length, and commences at the lower orifico of
the stomach.
Fig- 35.
Fig. 35. 1,1, The duodenum. 2,3, Tho small intestine. 3. The conaectlon jI
Uie small and large inteBtine. 4, 5, 6. 7, 8, 9, 10, The large intestine. 6, 7, 8, 9, T6s
colon.
140. How are the intestines divided ? What is the length of the small
(kiteatine ? What is its lurgeat division culled ? What is the length of th«
large intestine ? What is its luigest division cal/cd ? 141. Describe the
duodenum. Explain fig. 35.
/ h
/;
/.,/
iV
/,
/v'
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
51
142. The LACTEALS are minute vessels, which open- upon tho
mucous surface of the small intestine. From the mtestne
they pass through small glands, {mes-en-ler'ic^) to the thuracio
diict
Fig. .3fi,
Fig. 36. A portion of C*^ "tnall intestine, lacteal vessels, mesenteric glands ani
thoracic duct. 1, The intestine. 2, 3, 4, Mesenteric glands, through which th»
lacteals pass to the thoracic duct. 5, 6, The thoracic duct. 7, The point in the neck
where it turns down to «*nter the vein at 8. 9, 10, The aorta. II, 13, Vessels of the
neck. 13, 14, 15, The large veins that convey the blood and chyle to the heart.
17, 17, The spinal colunriO. 18, The diaphragm, (midriff.)
142. What are lacteals ? Through what do they pass as they proceed t«
the thoracic duct ? Describe fig. 36.
68 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANb HYGIENE.
143. The THORACIC duct commences behind the liver, ajid
ascends in front of the spinal column. At the lower part of
the neck, il turns downward and forward, and pours its con-
ten 5 into the vein behind the collar-bone. (8, fig. 36.) This
due is equal in diameter to a goose-quill.
144. The LIVER is in the right side of the body, below the
right lung. On tlie under side of this organ is a small sac,
which contains a yellow, bitter fluid, called bile^ (gall.)
Observation. The bile does not flow into the healthy stomach,
Dut into the duodenum. With many persons, the imagination is
biliouSy not the stomach.
145. The PANCREAS is a long, flattened organ, situated be-
hind and below the stomach. From it there flows a fluid into
the duodenum, called pan-cre-at'ic juice.
Obsenmlion. A good idea of the liver, pancreas, and intes-
tines can be obtained by examining these parts of a pig. In
this animal, the sacs or pouches of the large intestine are well
defined.
146. The i.T'LEEN, (milt,) so called because the ancients
supposed it to be the seat of melancholy, is an oblong, flattened
organ, situated in the left side, in contact with the stomach and
pancreas. Its use is not well determined.
147. The OMENTUM (caul) is composed of adipose matter,
(fat,) deposited between layers of serous membrane. It is
attached tq the stomach, and lies on the anterior surface of the
intestines. In some persons of gross habits, this deposit is very
great.
143. Describe -ourse of the thoracio duct. What is its size)
144. Describe ♦ What is found upon its under surface ? Give ob-
servation, jribe the pancreas. How may an idea of the liver be
obtaJned describe the spleen. Is its use well known ? 147. De-
scribe th<. .NiUtAUO.
PHTSIv ^,v^Y OF TUB DIGESTIVE OBOAN8. 68
CHAPTER XI.
PHYSIOLOGY OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
148. Substances received into the stomach as food, must
necessarily undergo many changes before they are fitted to
form part of the animal body. The solid portit)n8 arc reduced
to a fluid state, and those parts that will nounsii the body are
separated from the waste material.
149. The first change in the food is made in the mouth, by
the teeth, and the sa-li'va (spittle) from the salivary glands.
The teeth divide, while the saliva moistens and softens the food,
si that, when carried into the pharynx, it is passed, with ease,
thi ugh the GBsophagus into the stomach.
150. In swallowing, tlie food is pressed by the contraction
of the muscles 5, 6, 7, (fig. 33,) into the pharynx, from which
It is carried into the oesophagus, by the contraction of tho
muscles 4, 4, 4. As soon as the food is received into this Xuhe
its muscular coat contracts upon it successively \rom above
downward, and the alimentary ball is pressed onward into the
stomach.
Observation. The process of* swi"ov/ing, or deglutition, is
easily observed, when a person passes either liquid or solid
food into the stomach.
151. The nex* change in llie food is in the stomach. The
coats of the stomach contract, and the food is moved around,
while, at the same time, a peculiar fluid is suoplied by the
148 — 159. Give the icse of the digestive organs. 148 "Wh«* ia necessary
before food ran nourish ♦he body ? 149.' Describe the first chanj?e in the
food. 150. Give the process by which the food is passed into the stomach
H<*w may the process of swallowing be ooscrved ? 151. Where U tne
lecond change in the food effected ? How is it done i
5*
54 ANATOMY, PHVSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENK.
Stomach, caUed gastric juice, which mixes with the food, and
reduces it to a soft, pulpy mass, called chyme.
152. This pulpy, grayish substance is passed into the duo-
denum, and, by the action of the bile and pancreatic juice, it is
changed into two parts — a milk-like substance, called c/iyZe ;
and re-sid'u-um, or waste matter.
153. The chyle and residuum pass from the duodenum i»^.to
the remaining portion of the small intestine, and are moved
along by a worm-like action of its parts.
154. As these two substances are moved along the intestine,
the chyle is sucked up by the lacteal vessels,* that pass through
the small intestine, and the residuum is carried into the large
intestine, and r cd from the system.
155. '^o recapitulate : In the adaptation of the food to the
wonts of the body, it is subjected to five different changes.
1st. It is changed in the mouth, by the action of the teeth and
saliva. This is called mastication.
156. 2d. By the action of the stomach and gastric juice, it
is changed into a pulpy, homogeneous mass. This is called
chymijication.
157. 3d. In the duodenum, the bile and pannreatic juice
change the chyme into chyle. This is called ckiflification.
158. 4th. By the action of the lacteal vessels and thoracic
duct, the chyle is poured into a vein behind the collar-bone,
and passes through the heart to the lungs ; here, by the action
of the air, it becomes blood. '(See Chap. XX.)
159. 5th. The separation and excretion of the residuum.
♦ The chyle is changed by the lactcals and mesenteric glands, but
the nature of this change is not, as yet, well defined or understood.
152. What becomes of this pulpy substance? What change is effected
In the duodenum ? i.53. "Where do the chyle and residuum then pass ?
1/J4. What becomes of the chyle { Of the residuur^ ? 155. Recapitulate
the five changes in the digestive process.
Note. Let the pupil review the anatomy and physiology of the digestive
rgans, t'rom figs. 30 and 37, or from outline anatomical plate 6.
tHYSlOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
bk
Fig. 37.
Irig. 37. An ideal view of the organs of digeation, opened neatly the whole lenptlk
1, The uppei jaw. 2, TKj lower jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The roof of the mouth.
5, The CBSophagus. 6, Thetraclica. 7, The parotid ghind. 8, The siiblingual gland.
», The stomach. 10, 10, Tlie liver. 11, The gall-cst, or sac. 12, The duct ti.at
conveys the bile to the luodtnum, (13, 13.) 14, The pancreas. 15, 15, 1.5, 15, Th«
■mall intestine. 16, Tlie opening of the small intestine into the large intestitie
17, 18, 19, SO, The large intestine. 21, The spleen. '22, The upper part of tlie spine
column
6tt ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENK.
CHAPTER XII.
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
160. The perfection of the digestive process, as well as tho
health of the body, requires the observance of certain condi-
tions. These will be considered under four heads. 1st. The
quantity of food that should be taken. 2d. Il8 quality.
3d. The maimer in which it should be taken. 4th. The con-
dilion of the system when food is taken.
161. The QUANTITY of food necessary for the system varies.
Although many things may aid us in determining the quantity
of food proper for an individual, yet there is no certain guide
in all cases. Age, occupation, habits, temperament, tempera-
ture, nealth, and disease, all exert an influence.
162. The. child and youth require food to promote the
groicth of the bones, muscles, and the different parts of the
body. The more ra})id the growth of the child, the greater the
demand for food. This accounts for the keen appetite and
vigorous digestion in childhood.
163. Food is necessary to repair the waste which attends
the functions of the different organs. The waste is greatest
when we exercise most. For this reason, when we increase
our exercise or labor, the quantity of food may be increased ;
while, on the other hand, when we change from an active em-
160 — 186. Give the hyyiene of the digestive organs. 160. What does the
perfection of the digestive process require ? 161. Can the quantity of
food proper for an individual be determined in all cases ? What exert an
Influence on the quantity necessary for the body ? 162. At what age is the
appetite keen and the digestion vigorous ? Why ? 163. Give another db-
mand for food. When is the waste greatest ? When should the amount
of food be lessened ?
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGAXS. 67
ployment to one less active in character, the food should be
diminished in nearly the same degree that the exercise is
lessened.
164. When the girl leaves the active household employ-
ments for the shop of the dress-maker, — when the boy leaves
the farm for the school-room, — the amount of food should
be diminished as soon as the sedentary employment is com-
menced ; for, under such circumstances, the appetite will n(»t
guide correctly.
Ohservation. It is a common observation, that in academies
and colleges, the older students from the country, who have
been accustomed to hard manual labor, sufTcr more frequently
from defective digestion and impaired health than the youngci
and feebler students from the larger towns or cities.
165. The food aids in supporting the icarmth of the body.
This is the reason why the apjsetite for food is keener in the
winter than in the summer. It follows, then, that the system
requires more food in cold than in hot weather.
Observations. 1st. Well-clothed children require less food
in cold weather than those thinly dressed. 2d. Flocks and
herds that are sheltered in winter, will eat ont, third less than if
exposed to the inclemency of the weather; hence it is true
economy to keep the infeiior animals warm, as well as children.
166. In all instances^ the quantity of food should have
reference to the present condition of the digestive organs.
If they are weakened or diseased, so that but a small quantity
of food can be properly digested or changed, that amount only
should be taken. Food does not invigonite the system, except
it is changed, as has been described in Chap. XI.
167. The QUALITY of the food best adapted to the wants of
164. When will not the appetite guide correctly ? What observation re-
specting tliosc students that have been accustomed to hard manual laboi /
16.5. AVhy is the appetite for food keener in the winter than in the sumnici *
Give observation 1st. Observation 2d. 166. Why should the present
condition of the digestive organs be regarded in reference to the quantity
ot food? 167. On what does the quality of food adapted to the wmts of
the system depend '.
58 aNATOMy, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
the syf»tein depends upon the season, climate, age, «S«j., of
a person. Like the quantity necessary for an individual, there
can be no fixed law.
168. The kind of food lohich is eaten should be adapted to
the distensible character of the stomach and alimentary canal.
Hence the food should contain nutritious and innutritious mat-
ter — nutritious, to promote the growth and repair the waste of
the system ; and innutritious, to distend both the stomach and
alimentary canal. Consequently, hot flour bread, rich pies, and
jellies, are not so good articles for food, as the unbolted wheat
bread, ripe fruits, and berries.
169. The infuence of season and climate shcvld be consid-
ered in selecting food. Food of a highly stimulating character
may he used almost with impunity, during the cold weather of
a cold climate, but in the warm season, and in a warm climate,
it would be very injurious. Animal food, being more stimu-
lating than vegetable, can be eaten in the winter; but vegetable
food should be used more freely in the spring and summer.
Observation. By abstaining from meats and stimulating
drinks in warm weather, and living on nutritious, unstimulating
food, the "season" or bowel complaints may be, in a great
degree, prevented.
170. The age of persons modifes the injlucnce of food on the
system. The organs of a child are more sensitive and excita'
ble than those of a person advanced in years. Therefore
a vegetable_diet would be most appropriate for a child, while
stimulating animal food might be conducive to the health of an
aged person.
171. The MANNER in which food should be taken is of much
practical importance ; upon it the health of the digestive
organs depends.
168. What should all substances used for food contain? Why?
169. Should the season of the year influence us in selecting food ? Give
observation. 170. What kind of food is adapted to the organs of the child ?
Why ? What kind to a person advanced in life ? Why ? 171 What ia
rfurt of ths manner of taking food ?
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 69
172. Food should he taken at regular periods. The interval
between meals should be regulated by the kind of food, the
age, health, exercise, and habits of the individual. Children re-
quire food more frequently than adults ; yet, strict regularity and
i/unctuality should be observed in regard to their cimes of eaung.
173. Food should not be taken too frequently. If food is
taken before the stomach has regained its tone and energy by
repose, or before the digestion of the preceding meal has been
completed, not only will the action of the stomach be imperfect,
but the food partially digested becomes mixed with that last taken,
inducing irritation or disease. In general, an adult should allow
six hours to intervene between meals.
174. Food should be well masticated^ or chewed. All solid
food should be reduced to a state of comparative fineness, by the
teeth, before it is swallowed ; the gastric fluid of the stomach
will then blend with it more readily, and act more vigorously
m reducing it to chyme.
175. Mastication should be moderate^ not rapid ; for the
salivary gland% are excited to action in chewing, and some time
must elapse before they can secrete saliva in sufficient quantities
to moisten the food.
176. Food should be masticated and swallowed without
drink. As the salivary glands supply fluid to moisten the dry
food, the use of tea, coflee, water, or any other fluid, is not
demanded by nature's laws while taking a meal.
Observation. Were it customary not to place drinks on the
tiible until the solid food is eaten, the evil arising from drinking
too much at meals would be obviated.
177. The CONDITION of the system should be regarded
when food is taken.
172. How should food be taken ? How shoiild the intervals between
meals be regulated ? What should be observed in giving food to children ?
173. What is the effect if food is taken too freciuently ? 174. Why should
food be well masticated i" 17o. Why should we i:ot oat rapidly ? 176. Why
do we not require drink while chewing our f )od ? 177. Should the con-
dition of the system be regarded when food is taken ?
60 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGr, AND HYGIENE
178. Food should not be taken immediately after severe exer-
tioiiy either of the body or mind ; for all ori^aiis in action require
and receive more blood and nervous fluid, than when at rest.
Observation. Tije practice of students and accountants
going inuneiliately from severe mental labor to their meals, is
a pernicious one, and a fruitful cause of indigestion and mental
debility. The custom of farmers and mechanics hurrying
from their toil to the dinner-table, "to save time," — which, to
say the least, is poor economy, — does much to cause dyspepsia
among these classes in community.
179. Severe mental or physical labor should not be entered
upon immediately after eating. The amount of blood and
nervous fluid supplied to the stomach and alimentary cana!
during the digestion of food is increased, and a deficiency con-
sequently exists in other organs. If the blood is diverted from
the stomach to the limbs or brain by active exertion, it will not
only cause disease of the digestive organs, but chyle will not be
formed, to nourish the system.
ISO. Pure air is necessary to give a keen appetite and vigor-
ous digestion. The digestive organs not only need the stimulus
of blood, but they absolutely need the influence of pure blood,
which cannot exist in the system, except when we breathe
pure air.
Illustration. A manufacturer stated before a committee of
Ihe British parliament, that he removed an arrangement for
ventilating his mill, because he noticed that his men ate much
more after his mill was ventilated than previous to admitting
fresh air into the rooms. The apology for removing the venti-
lators was, that he could not afford to have them breathe
pure air.
178. Why should not food be taken after severe exertion ? AVhat is one
cause of indigestion among students and accountants ? What is said of
farmers and mechanics hurrying from their toil to the dinner-table ?
179. Why should not severe exertion be made immediately after eatint{ ?
180. Wtat effect has pure air on digestion ? Give illustration.
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 61
181. Persons should abstain from eatings at least three
hours before retiring for sleep. It is no unusual occurrenco
for those persons wlio liave eaten heartily irnmcchately before
retiring for sleep, to have unpleasant dreams, or to be aroused
from their unquiet slumber by colic pains.
Illustration. A healthy farmer, who was in the habit of
eating one fourth of a mince pie immediately before going to
bed, became annoyed with unpleasant dreams, and, among the
varied images of his fancy, he saw that of his deceased father
Becoming alarmed, he consulted a physician, who, after a
patient hearing of the case, gravely advised him to eat halfoCa
mince pie, assuring him that he would then see his grandfather.
182. When the eeneral system and digestive organs are
mfeebledt mild^ unstimulating food^ in small quantities, should
be given. In the instance of a shipwrecked and famished
mariner, or a patient recovering from disease, but a small
quantity of nourishment should be given at a time.
183. Water and most fluids are removed from the stomach
in a very few mmutes, by the action of the veins. In instances
of great feebleness, the body can be strengthened sooner by
liquid than by solid food.
184. When travelling in coaches or cars, the stomach is not
m a- state to digest large quantities of food. When food is
taken, it should be of the mildest character, and small in
quantity.
185. To prevent disease, it is as necessary that the alimen-
tary canal be evacuated regularly, as that we take fcod hito
the stomach at regular periods.
186. Sitting, standing, and walking erect, aid in keeping the
digestive organs healthy.
181. What is the cflcct of eating immediately before retiring for sleep ?
Haw is this illustrated in the case of a healthy farmer ? 182. IIow should
food be given when both the digestive organs and general system are en-
feebled ? 183. A\1iich are introduced into the system soonest, fluids or
solid food ? 184. What is said in regard to food while we are travelling ?
).86 Wh»t positioB of the body aids digestion ?
6
W ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
187. The blood is distributed lo every part of the systeni.
riicre is no part so minute, that it does not receive this circu-
lating fluid. This distribution is effected by the agency of the
Heart, Ar'te-ries, Veins, and Cap'il-la-ries.
ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
188. The HEART is situated in the chest, between the lungs.
(Fig. 53.) It is a double organ, or has two sides, called right
and left, which are separated by a muscular sep'tum, or
partition.
189. Each side of the heart has two cavities. The upper
cavity is called the au'ri-cle, (deaf ear.) The lower cavity is
called the ven'tri-cle. These cavities are separated from each
other by folds of membrane, called valves. (Fig. 38.)
190. Between the auricle and ventricle of the right side of
the heart, there are three valves, called tri-ciis'pid. Between
the auricle and ventricle of the left side of the heart, there are
two valves, called mi'tral.
Observation. To obtain a clear idea of the heart and its
valves, it is recommended to examine this part of an ox or
calf. In order that each ventricle be opened without muti-
187. "What is said of the distribution of the blood ? How is it effected ?
188—196. Give the anatomy of the circulatcry organs. 188. Describe the
heart. 189. How many cavities has it ? What is the upper cavity called ?
What is the lower cavity called ? How are these cavities separated ?
190. How many valves between the right auricle and ventricle, and what are
they called ? How many valves between the left auricle and ventricle, and
«hat are they called t How can an idea of the heart be obtained i
ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
63
latlng the parts that compose its internal structure, out on each
side of the septum parallel to it. This may be easily found
between the ventricles, as they diirer in thickness.
191. The ARTERIES are the vessels that carry the blood fronj
the heart. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise to the
ful'mo-na-ry artery ; the left ventricle to a large artery, called
the a-ort'a. At the lommencemont of both of these vessels
are valves, and from their shape, they are called sevi-i-lu'nar
Fig. 38.
Fig 38. I, The descending vein. 2, The ascending vein. 3, Tho right niiricle
4 The opening between the ritiht auricle and the riglit ventricle. 5, The right ven
tixle. 6, The tricuspid val"es. 7, The pulmonary artery. 8, 8, The branches o?
the ptilinonary artery that pass to the right and left lung. 9, The semihinar valves of
ti.e pulmonary artery. 10, The division between the two ventricles of the heart,
li, 11, The pulmonary veins. 12, The left auricle. 13, The opening between tJio
lei auricle and ventricle. 14, The left ventricle. 15, The mitral valves. 16, IC, The
aorta. 17, The semilunar valves of the aorta.
Observotion. The parts of the circulatory organs most liable
to disease are the valves of the heart, particularly the mitral.
T91. What are arteries ? Where does the puhnonary artery take ita
ri«^ ? The aort? ? What valves ut the commencement of these vessels ?
IVscribe fig. 38. What parts of the circulatory organs are most liable tc
dtv«a8e?
T
■^ *^
^'
4'
■f '■
/
64
ANATOMY, irHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
V^'Tien tMese mcmbmnous folds become ossified or rupti'.rea
ihe blood regurgitates, and causes great distress in breathing.
192. The PULMONARY ARTERY conimcnccs in front of the
aorta. It ascends obliquely to the under surface of ihe arch of
(he aorta, where it divicJcs into two branches, one of which
passes to the right, the other to tiic left lung. This artery
conveys the dark-colored or "venous" blood to the lungs, and,
with its corresponding veins, establishes the pulmonic circU'
lalion.
Fig. 39.
Fig. 39. t, The windpipe, h, The heart, d, The aorta, p. The pulmonary
aiiery. 1, Tne biancli of the pulmonary artery that divides in the left lung. 2, The
Dranch that divides in tlie right luni?.
Tlie divisions of this artery continue to divide and subdivide, until they become no
larger than hairs in si/.c. Tlie^^e minute vessels pass over the air-cells, represented by
■mall dark points around the margin of tlie lungs.
192. Describe the pulmonary artery. "WTiat is the function of this
artery ? Explain fig. 39. What is said of the divisions of the pulmon»r.»
trtery?
ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
QS»
193. The AORTA proceeds from the left ventricle of the
heart and contains the pure or "arterial" blood. This vessoi
gives off branches, which divide and subdivide as they advance
until they are distributed to every part of the body. Thia
artery, with its corresponding veins, establishes the systemic
circulation
Fig. 40
Fig 40. The aorta and its branches, a, The commencement of the sottk.
193. Describe the aorta. What is represented by fig. 40 ?
6*
66
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
1J4. Tha VEINS are the vessels which return the blood to
the auricles of the heart, after it has been circulated by the
arteries through the lungs and other parts of ihe body. A
certain inter>'als, they are furnished with valves, which allow
the blood to flow toward the heart only. In general, they arc
nearer the surface of the body than the arteries.
195. The CAPILLARIES constitute a microscopic net-work,
and are so distributed through every part of the body as to ren-
der it impossible to introduce the smallest needle beneath the
skin .vithout wounding several of these fine vessels. They
establish the communication between the termination of the
arteries and the beginning of the veins.
196. The relation of the capillaries to the arteries and
veins, is illustrated by figs. 41 and 42.
Fig. 41.
Fig. 41. An ideal view of a p<.rtion of the pulmonic circulation. 1, 1, A branch
•f the drtery that carries the impure blood to the lungs 3, 3, Capillary vessels
t, 2, A vein through which the red blood is returned to the left side of the heart
Fig. 42. An Ideal view of a portion of the systemic circulation 1, i, A branch
•f the aorta. This terminates in the capillaries 3, 3. 2, 2, A vein through which
the Impure blond is carried to the right side of the heart.
194 What are veins ? With what are they furnished ? 195. What do
the Cftpillaries constitute ? What do they establish ? What does fig. 41
represent? Fig. 42?
PRI&IOLOOY or THE CIRCULATORY OROANS. 67
CHAPTER XIV.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY GROANS.
197. The walls of all the cavities of the heart are composed
of muscular fibres, which are endowed with the property of con-
tracting and relaxing, like other parts of the muscular system
The contraction and relaxation of the muscular fibres of the
heart increase and diminish the size of its ca/ities.
198. The two auricles dilate at the same instant, and also
contract at the same instant. The two ventricles cdhtract, while
the auricles dilate. Thus the blood is forced from the heart to
every part of the body, and received again on its return.
199. The roTirse of the blood through the heart, arteries,
and veins, may be easily comprehended by attention to fig. 43,
which gives an ideal view of the circulation of the blood.
209. The heart aids iu forcing the blood through the arte-
ries, to the different parts of the body. Every time the heart
contracts, there is a " pulse," or " pulsation," in the arteries.
Experiment. Apply the fingers upon the artery at the wrist,
at two different points, about two inches apart ; if the pressure
be moderately made, the "pulse" will be felt at both points.
Let the upper point be pressed firmly, and there will be no
pulsation at the lower point; but make strong pressure upon
the lower point only, and the pulsation will continue at the
upper point; proving that the blood flows from the heart, in
the arteries, to different parts of the system,
197—203. Give the physiology of the circulatory organs. 197 What do
the contraction and relaxation of the muscular walls of the heart produce ?
19^ What is said of the contraction and dilatation of the auricles ? Of
the ventricles ? 200. What causes the " pulse," or •' pulsation," in the
arterien ? How is it proved that the blood flows from the heart in thb
sxteries ?
68 ANATOiMY, PHYSlOLOUy, AND IIYaiENB.
201. The frequency of the pulse varies according to tht
age, sex, and degree of health. In adults, it is usually from
seventy to seventy-five "beats" in a minute.
202. There is no pulsation in the veins, and the return of
the blood to the heart through them can be shown by the fol-
lowing experiments.
Experiments 1st. Press firmly on one of the veins upon
the back of the hand, carrying the pressure toward the
fingers ; for a moment the vein will disappear. On removing
the pressure of the finger, it will reappear, from the blood
rushing in from below.
2d. If a tape be tied around the arm above the elbow, the
veins below will become larger and more prominent, and also a
greater nunflber will be brought in view. At this time, apj.Iy
the finger at the wrist, and the pulsation of the arteries still
continues, showing that ihe blood is constantly flowing from
the heart, through the arteries, into the veins ; and the increased
size of the veins shows that the pressure of the tape prevents
its flowing back to the heart.
203. From the right ventricle of the heart, (2, fig. 43?) the
dark, impure blood is forced into the pulmonary artery, (3 ;)
and its branches (4, 5) carry the blood to the left and right
lung. In the capillary vessels (6, 6) of the lungs fixe blood
becomes pure, or of a red color, and is returned to t' left auri-
cle of the heart, (9,) by the veins, (7, 8.) From the left auri-
cle the pure blood passes into the left ventricle, (10.) By a
forcible contraction of the left ventricle of the heait, the blood
is thrown into the aorta, (11.) Its branches (12, IS, 13) carry
the pure blood to every organ, or part of the body. The
divisions and sjbdivisions of the aorta terminate in capillary
vessels, represented by 14, 14. In these hair-like vessels
the blood becomes dark-colored, and is returned to the right
auricle of the heart, (1,) by the ve'na ca'va de-scen' dens (15)
and ve'na cava as-cen'dens^ ( 16.) The tricuspid valves ( 17) pre-
vent the reflow of the blood from the right ventricle to the righi
201. What varies the frequency of the pulse ? 202. Is there pulsation
in the veins ? How is it proved, by experiment 1st, that the blood is
returned to the heart by the veins ? By experiment 2d ?
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
69
auricle. The semilunar valves ( 18) prevent the blood passing
from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle. The mitral
valves (19) prevent the flow of blood from the left ventricle to
the left auricle. The semilunar valves (20) prevent thr ^eflow
of blt)od from the aona to the left ventricle.
Fig. 43.
Noti^ From fig. 43. give the course of the blood thiuugh th» heart, arte
•^s, and veins, or from anatomical outline plates 6 and 7.
70 ANATOMY, FHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEME.
CHAPTER XV.
HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
204. The clothing should he loosely worn. To have good
nealth^ the blood must circulate freely. Consequently, no arti-
cle of apparel should be worn so as to prevent a free flow of
blood through every organ of the body.
205. Strings, bands, or belts, however narrow, should not
be worn so tightly as to cause an indentation of the skin of the
trunk, or extremities.
Observations. 1st. Inelastic bands, worn upon the lower
extremities, are a frequent cause of enlarged veins and painful
limbs. 2d. The fulness and the crimson tint of the face, gid-
diness, fainting, and many derangements in the functions of
differei-t organs, are produced by pressure upon the blood-
ves.=els of the trunk.
206. The skin should be kept clean, and every part of an
equal teinperature. These conditions favor free and vigorous
circulation.
Observation. When intending to ride in a cold day, wash
Uie face, hands, and feet, in cold water, and rub them smartly
with a coarse towel. This is far better than to take spirits into
the stomach, to keep the extremities warm.
207. Muscular exercise is important in maintaining a
204 — 214. Give the hygiene of the circulatory organs. 204. Why should
the clothing be loosely worn ? 205. What is said of bands or belts ? What
is the effect of wearing inelastic bands upon the lower extremities ? What
is a frequent cause of giddiness, faintness, and derangement of the func-
tions of many organs ? 206. In what condition should the skin be kept?
Give observation. 207. What is the effect of muscular exercise apon the
circulatiou uf bluod ?
HYGIENE OF TH.S CIRCULATORY ORGANS 71
nealthj circulation. The muscles, when used, force the
blood more rapidly to and from the heart.
Illustration. The coach-driver and teamster throw their
arms around their bodies to warm them, when cold ; because
the muscles that are called into action in swingii. g the arms,
force a greater quantity of blood into the chilled parts, and
n\ore heat is produced.
208. Idle men and women, who complain of cold feet, and
take " warming bitters " to quicken the blood, would find them-
selves warmer and more invigorated by culling the muscles into
action in the mechanic's shop, or the kitchen, or in some active
employment.
Observation. In cold weather, when travelling in cars, the
feet will not become chilled so readily when standing as when
sitting. Again, the feet will be warmer by allowing them to
swing, instead of being supported the whole time, because tiie
muscles, called into action in swinging them, increase the cir-
culation of the blood.
209. The quality and quantity of the blood modify the action
of the heart and blood-vessels. If this fluid is abundant and
pure, the circulatory vessels act with more energy than when
it is deficient in quantity or defective in quality.
Illustrations. 1st. In an athletic man, whose heart beats
forcibly, and whose pulse is strong, if a considerable quantity of
blood is drawn from a vein, as in bleeding, the heart will beat
feebly, and the pulse will become weak.
2d. When the blood is made impure by inhaling vitiated air,
the action of the heart and arteries is diminished, which pro-
duces an effect similar to that which takes piace when blood ia
drawn from a vein.
210. When large blood-vessels are wounded or cut, the
Give illustration. 208. What is better for cold feet and hands than
♦ warming bitters " ? Give observation 209. What effect have the quantity
and quality of the blood upon the circulatory vessels ? Give illustration
1st. Illustration 2d. 210. What is necessary when large blood-vesseU aie
wounded or cut ?
72
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
flow of blood must be immediately stopped, or the person
will soon die. If a large artery is wounded, the blood will be
thrown out in jets, or jerks, every time the pulse beats. The
flow of blood can be stopped until a surgeon arrives, *>4ther by
comp/esining the vessel between the wound and the heart, or by
compressing the end of the divided artery in the wound.
Fig. 46.
Fig. 44. The track of the large artery of the ann 1, The collar-bone. 9, 10, The
•arge artery of the arm.
Fig. 45. B, Tlie manner of compressing tlie artery near the collar-bone. A, The
manner of compressing the large artery of the arm, with the fingers. C, Th3 manner
of compressing the divided extremity of an artery in the wound, with a finger.
21 1. After making compression with the fingers, as described
and illustrated, take a piece of cloth or handkerchief, twist it
cornerwise, and tie a hard knot midway between the two ends.
"What is shown by fig. 44 ? By fig. 45 ? 211. What is to be done after
comp'^essing the wound, as before described ?
HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
78
riiis knot should be placed over the artery, between the wound
and the heart, and the ends carried around the Hmb and loosely
tied. A stick, five or six inches long, should bo placed under
the handkerchief, which should be twisted until the knot has
made sufficient compression on the artery to allow the removal
of the fingers without a return of bleeding. Continue the
compression until a surgeon can be culled.
Fig. 4G
Fi-'. 47.
Fig. 4C. Tlie nietliod of applying tlie knotted Imndkerchiff to make cotnpreastou oa
ihia filter)'. A, IJ, Tliu track of the larpe artery of the arm.
TiS. 47. A, C, The track of the lar^ic artery of tlie thigh. 15, The method of ap
()lyiii^ the kiuittcd handkerchief to conipre.ss thiM artery.
Observation. When an artery of the arm is cut, elevalitig
the wounded limb above the head will tend to an t the ilcv of
blood. In a wound of a lower limb, raise the fooi, so 'lat it
shall be higher than the hip, until the bleeding ceases.
Illustration. On one occasion, the distiti<j;uished Dr. Natliaa
Smith was called to a person who had divided one of 'he large
arteries below the knee. After trying in vain to find the I)leed-
ing vessel, so as to secure it, he caused the foot to be elevatd
What is shown by figs. 46, 47 ? Give observation. Relate a simple
(Operation by Dr. Nath.<n Smith.
7
74
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE
hiaher than the hip. At the first instant, the blood was forced
from the wound about twelve inches; in a minute, it was dimin-
ished to three or four ; and, in a short time, the bleeding ceased.
This Dr. S. called his '•*■ great '''* operation; and it was truly
great in simplicity and science.
212. In " flesh wounds," when no large blood-vessel ja
divided, wash the part with cold water, and, when bleeding
has ceased, draw the wound together, and retain it with narrow
strips of adhesive plaster. These should be put on smoothly,
and a sufficient number applied to cover the wound. In most
: .ances of domestic practice, the strips of adhesive plaster are
too wide. They should not exceed in width one fourth of an
inch. Then apply a loose bandage, and avoid all '' iiealmg
salves," ointments, and washes.
Fig. 48.
Fig. 48. The manner in which strips of adhesive plaster are applied to wou.ids.
213. The union of the divided parts is elfected by the actioi;
of the divided blood-vessels, and not by salves and ointments.
The only object of the dressing is to keep the parts together,
rnd protect the wound from air and impurities. Nature^ in alt
cases of wounds, performs h^r own cure. Such simple incisions
do not generally require a second dressing, and should not be
opened till the parts are healed. In removing the dressing
from a wound, both ends of the strips of plaster should be
raised and drawn toward the incision. The liability of the
wound re-opening is thus? diminished.
212. How should *' flesh wounds " be dressed ? 213. How is the union of
the divided parts eifected ? AVTiat should be avoided ? Uow should tlw
strips of plaster be r<^moved from a wound ?
WYGIENE CF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 75
214. Tne proper position of the limbs favors the unicn of
wounds. If the wound be upon the front part of the leg,
between the knee and ankle, extending the knee and bending
the ankle will aid its closing. If the wound be upon the back
part of the leg, by extending the foot and bending the knee,
the gaping of the wound will be diminished. When woimds
occur upon tlie trunk, let the position of the person be regarded
Pig. 4a a, A, Wounds on the back part of the ami and fore-arm. ft, ft, Wounds
on the front part of the arm and fore-arm. By bending the elbow and wrist, tho
wounds at a, a, are opened, while the wounds at ft, ft, are closed. Were the arm ex
tended at the elbow and wrist, the wounds at a, a, would be closed, and those at ft, I
would be opened.
21^. In wounds made by pointed instruments, as a nail, or
in lacerated wounds, as those made by forcing a blunt instrj-
ment, as a hook, into the soft parts, there will be no dnect and
immediate union. In these cases, apply a soothing poultice, as
one made of linseed meal, and also keep the limb still. It is
judicious to consult a physician immediately, in punctured or
lacerated wounds, beciuse they often induce the most danger-
ous diseases.
214. Does the proper position of the limbs favor the union of wounds?
216. How should puncture 1 and lacerated wounds be dressed ?
*B ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY, AND I^YOIENB
CHAPTER XVI.
ABSORPTION.
216. Absorption is the process by which the nutrient por-
lion of the food is removed from the alimentary canal to bo
conveyed into the circulatory vessels. It is likewise the process
by which the particles of matter that have become injurious or
useless, are removed from the mass of fluids and solids of
which the body is composed. These renovaimg and remov-
ing processes are performed by two sets of vessels.
ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
217. The vessels that act exclusively for the growth and
renovation of the system, are found only in the alimentary
C'nal. They are called lac'te-als*
218. The vessels whose sole function is to remove paniclea
of matter already deposited, are called lym-phat'ics. The
radicals, or commencement of the veins, in many, and it may
be in all parts of the body, perform the office of absorption
Fig. 50. A reiiresentation of tlie lymphatic vessels and glands. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, The
lymphatic vcHstls and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic glands. 8, The
connnencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The lymphatics of the kidney. 10, Of the
stomach. 11, Of the liver. 12, 12, The lungs. 13, 14, 15, The lymphatics and
glands of the arm. 16, 17, 18, Of the face and neck. 19,20, Large veins. 21, The
thoracic duct. 26, The lymphatics of the heart.
* See paragraph 142.
216. What is absorption ? 217. What are those vessels called that act
exclusively for the growth and renovation of the body ? 218 — 221. Give
the anatomy of the lymphatic vessels. 218. Name those vessels that remove
the atoms already deposited. What other vessels perform the office of
absorption ? What does fig. uO represent ?
ANATOMY OP THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
77
Fig. 60.
7 •
78 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND ITYGIKNK
219. The LYMPHATIC vessels are very minute at their com
mencem^nt ; so much so, that they cannot be seen withou
the aid of a magnifying glass. As they proceed, they unite
and form larger trunks, that open into tlie veins.
220. Lymphatic vessels are found in every part of the
body, except the brain, yet, it is supposed they exist in this or-
gan. The knotted appearance of these vessels is owing to
llie arrangement of their internal coats, to form valves.
22 J. In certain parts of the body, us the neck, these ves-
sels pass through small, soft bodies, called lymphatic glands^
which are to these vessels what the mesenteric glands are to
tne lacteals.
Observation. Sometimes, when we are afflicted with a
o^ld, these glands in the neck enlarge ; they are usually
called " kernels."
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
222. Though the lacteals and lymphatics resemble each
otlicr in their structure and termination, yet they differ as to the
nature of the fluids which they convey, as well as the nature ot
their functions. The lacteals open into the small intestine,
and possess the power of rejecting all substances in the passing
food but the chyle.
223. The lymphatics, on the contrary, not only imbibe, or
suck up, all the various constituents of the body, both fluid and
Bolid, when their vitality has ceased, but they absorb foreign
and extraneous substances when presented to their mouths.
Observations. 1st. When little or no food is taken into the
stomach, life is supported by the lymphatic vessels imbibing
219. Describe the lymphatic vessels. 220. Where are they found ? To
what is tne knotted appoarance of these vessels owing ? 222 — 224 Give
the iisr of the lyviphatic vessels. 221. What are lymphatic glands? Give
observation. 222. What is said of the lacteals and lymphatics ? Give
the function of the former. 223. Give the use of the lymphatics. IIow
ta life suppot 'ed when little or no food is eaten ?
nTOIENE OF THE LYMrilATIC VESSKI.S. 79
iho fat, and roconvoying it into the circnl.ifory vc«?so1s. It is
the removal of this substance which causes the emficiation of
the face and limbs of o person recovering from a f«'ver. In
consumption, the txlreme attenuation of tlie l!mbs is caused by
the absorption, not only of tlio fat, but also of the muscles anU
more solid parts of the body.
2d. Animals which live in a half torpid state during tho
winter, derive their nourishment from the same source. In
other words, we may say the starving animal lives for a time
upon itself, eating up, by internal absorption, such parts of tho
body as can be spared, under urgent necessity, to feed these
organs, and continue those functions tliat are absolutely essen-
tial to life.
224. The most important absorbing surfaces are the
stomach, intestines, lungs, and skin. Through the lungs,
absorption is not onlv very great, but extremely rapid.
Illustration. In inhaling sulphuric ether, or letheon, it is
introduced into the vessels of the lungs in the form of vapor,
and through them it is rapidly conveyed to the brain, and thus
influences the nervous system.
HYGIENE OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
225. By the action of the lymphatics, substances of an inju-
rious, as well as of a beneficial character may be conveyed
into the system. These vessels, under certain conditions, are
more active in their office than at other periods ; and i is of
practical utility to know what influences their action.
228. The function of these vessels is increased by moisture^
"WTiat causes the extreme atte.mation of the limbs in consumption ? How
do those animals derive their nourishment that live in a half torpid stf te
during winter ? 224. What are the most important absorbing surface ; ?
How is letheon introduced into the system ? 225 — 229. Give the hygie^ie
of the lymphatic vessels. 225. What is said respecting the action of the
lymphatic ressels ? 226. What influences the function of tliese vessels ?
80 ANATOMY, rnVSlOLOGV, AND HYGIENE.
arid lessened hy an ^active state of the lacteah. Obser
vation shows that the ill-fcul, and those persons that live in
marshy districts, contract contagious diseases more readily than
those individuals who are well fed, and breathe a dry and
pure air.
227. The "(kin and the apparel of nurses and watchers
should he (Iran, and as free of perspiration as possible. The air
of the sick-room should ^so be dry. The observan e of these
conditions tends to prevent the absorption of the poisonous
matter of contagious diseases, as small-pox, measles, &c.
Observation. When we have been visiting, or aaending on
a sick person, it is judicious to change the apparel worn in the
sick-room, and also give the skin a thorough bathing. The out-
side garments, also, should be aired, as poisonous matter may
have penetrated the meshes of the cloth.
228. The stomach should he supplied with food of a nutrient
and digestible character, in proper quantities, and at stated
periods. The chyle formed from the food stimulates the
lactcals to activity, which activity is attended with an inactive
p'atc of the lymphatics of the skin and lungs. Thus due at-
tention should be given to the food of the attendants on the
sick, and the children of the family.
Observation. Many individuals, to prevent contracting dis
ease that may be comm\micated from one person to another,
use tobacco, either chewed or smoked ; and sometimes alco-
liol, with decoctions of bitter herbs. These substances do not
diminish, but tend to increase the activity of the lymphatics.
Thus they make use of the means by which the poisonou*
matter formed in tlie system of the diseased person, may be
more readily conveyed into their own.
What does observation show ? 227. "Why should the skin and apparel
of nurses and watchers be as free of perspiration as possible ? What sug-
gestion when we have been visiting or attending on the sick ? 228. Why
should the stomach oe supplied with food of a nutrient and digestible
character ? What is said of the use of alcohol or tobacco, in preventing th«
bitroduction of the poisonous matter of contagious diseases ?
BYOIF.NB OF THE LYiMPIIATIC VESSELS. 81
229. Absorption hy the skin is most vigorous when the ex-
ternal layer is removed by vesication^ or blistering. Then,
external applications, as ointmtMita, are brought in imncdiate
contact with the orifices, or moullis, of the lymphatics of tho
skin, and by them rapidly imbibed and circulated through tho
ftystom. The same results follow, if iha skin is only j)unctured.
Observation. 1st. In case of an accidental wound, it is best
immediately to bathe the part thoroughly in pjre water, and to
avoid all irritating applications. In some instances, it would be
well to apply lunar caustic immediately.
2d. When shrouding dead bodies, or removing the skin
from animals that have died of disease, it would be well to
lubricate the hands with olive-oil or lard. This aifords pro-
tection to the minute portions of the skin from which ilie
external layer may be removed.
3d. In all cases where there is an ulcer, or bore, the p-xrt
should be covered with something impervious to fluids, as
couri-plaster, before exposing the system to any animal, vege-
table, or mineral poison.
'239 When is absorption by the skin most Tigoroua i Oive obMrvation
Ist. Obsenratioa 2d. ObserTation 'M
h
B2 ANATOMY PIIVSIOLOGY, Ar4D HYGIKNIL
THAPTER XVII.
SECRETION.
230. In tl e human body are found many fluids and solids of
dissimilar appearance and character. These are produced by
the action of organs called Se'cre-to-ry. Some of these organs
are of simp''? structure, wliile oiliers are ve. y coTipIicated in
their arrangement.
ANATOMY OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS.
231. The SECRETORY ORGANS are of three kinds, namely
the Ex-ha'fents^ Fol'li-cltn^ and the Glands.
232. The exhalents are supposed to be terminations of the
arteries, or capillaries. They are of two kinds, external and
internal. The latter terminate on the surfaces within the body
and the former upon the outside.
Fig. 51.
Fi^. 51. A secretorv follitie. An artery is seen, which supplies the material for Iti
eecretion. Follicles are al3o supplied with veins iind orgouic nerves.
233. The follicles are small bags, or sacs, in the deeper
layer of the skin and mucous membrane. The pores seen on
the skin are the outlets of these bodies.
230. How are thp fli..us and 1 3lids of ♦he 5o(ly .vod'jccd ? 231—234. Give
the anatomy of the secretory organs. I.Jl. Name the secretory organs.
232 Describe tie exhalents. What does fig. 51 reprer «nt ? 233. Define
]oUicle&,
PHYSIOLOGY OP THE SECRETC RY ORGANS. 83
234. The glands are the chief agent"? of secretion in the
body. They are formed of minute arteries, veins, and tubes,
wound together. These organs vary in size from a mustard-
seed to th t of the hver, which weighs from two to four pounds.
Every gland, however minute, has a small duct for collecting
and carrvin.f.' off the secreted fluid.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS.
235. Secretion is one of the most obscure and mysterious
functions of the br'dy. It has the same meaning (physiologi-
cally) as separati n. Not only is the pro,>.ss by which sul>
stanccs are separated from the blood, called secretion^ but th**
same term is also applied to substances thus separated.
Fig. 53. a a, A iecretory gland, b, b, Minute ducU tLki art apitad thrrmgh the
^iniidB. These coalesce to form th« main duct, c
236. All the fluids of the body arj derived from the blood,
and this element, when distributed to the different glands and
follicles, is similar in composition and character: but the fluids
secreted by them, vary in appearance in a remarkable degree.
The office of the glands is principally to form different secro-
234. Whiit is said of the glands ? Explain fig. 52. 2;i'>— 287. Crive '.he
physiology of the ^cretory orgmis. 23.5. What is secretion ? 236. From
what are all the fluid.s of the body dei-ved? What is the principal office
af the glands ?
84 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND IIVr.IENE.
tions. Thus the salivary glatids secrete the insipid sahva; the
liver, tlie yellow, ropy bile ; and the kidneys, the acrid urine.
2.'J7. When any substance wliich is not demanded for nutri-
tion, or does not give nouriq»ment to the sy tern, is taken up by
the lymphatic vesbuls vu<-\ conveyed intD the blood, it is dis-
charged by secretions.
Tl/ustrafion. A few years since, a poor inebriate was carried
to a London hospital in a state of intoxication. lie lived but a
few hours. On examining his brain, nearly half a gill of fluid,
strongly impregnated with gin, was found in the cavities of this
organ. This was secreted from the vessels of the brain.
HYGIENE OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS.
238. Unless the secretions are regularly maintained^ dis-
ease will he the ultimate result. Let the secretions from the
skin be suppressed, and fever or some internal inflammation
will follow. If tliebiie is impeded, digestion will be impaired.
If any other secretion is suppressed, it will cause a derange-
ment of the various internal organs.
Ohservation. Ardent spirits derange tiie secretions, and
change the structure of the brain. This is one reason why
inebriates do not live to advanced age.
239. The quantity of blood injluences the character of the
secretions. If it is lessened to any great extent, the "-icretiona
will be lessened, as well as changed in character.
Illustration. When a person has lost a consider .c quantity
of blood, tliere is a sensation of thirst in the throat, attended
with a cold, pale, dry skin. WHien iTjaction comes on, the
237. What becomes of those substances which are taken up by the
lymphatics, and do not nourish the body ? How is this illustrated ?
238 — 241. Give the /ii/r/ic/w of the secretory organs. 238. What is the effect
on the system if the secretions are not regularly maintained ? What ia
a reason that inebriates do not live to an advanced age ? 239. "What effect
n the secfctions when the quantitj of hlood ia lessened ? How is this
illustrated ?
HYUIENE 01 THE SECllGru.l'V uKvJA^S 86
perspiration is cold, attended with nausea, and sometimes
vomiting.
240. 77ie amount of action modifies the condition of the
secretory organs. When a secretory offran is excessively
stimulated, its vigor and energy are reduced. The subsequent
debility may be so great as to suppress or destroy its functional
power.
Illustrations. 1st. In those sections of the country where flax
is spun on a " foot-wheel," the spinners sometimes moisten tho
thread with saliva. This seems to operate economically for a
lime, but debility of the salivaiy organs soon follows, and they
are incapfible of supplying saliva sufficient to moisten the food,
producing, in a short time, disease of the digestive organs
2d. The habit of continual spitting, which attends the chew-
ing of tobacoo and gums, induces debility, not only of the
salivary glands, but of the system generally.
241. The secretions are much influenced by mental emo-
tions. If we smell savory food, there wili be an increased flow
of saliva ; if we hear the intelligence of the death of a cherished
friend, the tear will quickly coai.se down the cheek. •
Observation. Such is the nice sympathy which exists be-
tween diflerent parts of the body, that in the evenings of the
warm season, a chill upon the impressible skin that suppresses*
the perspiration, is frequently followed by a diarrhoea, dysen-
tery, or cholera morbus. These can be prevented by avoiding
the chill. An efficient means of relief, is, immediately to
restore the skin to its proper action.
5
240. What is the effect if a secretory organ is excessively stimulated ?
How is this effect illustrated by the use of the saUvary glands ? 241. Door
the state of the mind influence the secretions ? What is said of tho sym-
pathy between different parts of the body ?
8
R6 ANATOTiY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
CHAPTER XVIII.
NUTRITION.
212. The blood is the nutritive fluid of animals. It i's com.
posed of two parts — a watery fluid, called se'rum^ and a solift
portion, called co-ag'u-Ium, (clot.)
Observation. That portion of the serum which remains fluid
after coagulation by heat has taken place, is called se-ros'i-tt/.
It is more abundant in the blood of old, than in that of young
animals ; and it forms the " red gravy " in roasted meats.
243. The blood is not necessarily red. It may be white, as
m the fish ; .transparent, as in the insect ; or yellowish, as in
the reptile. There is no animal in which the blood is red in all
parts of the body. The ligaments and tendons, in man, are not
supplied with red, but with white blood.
244. Nutrition is the vital act by which the different parts
of the body renew the materials of which they are composed.
Digestion, circulation, absorption, and respiration, are but sepa-
rate links in the chain of nutrition, which would be destroyed
by the absence of any one of them.
245. The nutritive process is a kind of secretion, by which
particles of matter are separated from the blood, and conveyed
with wonderful accuracy to the appropriate textures, or parts
of the body.
246. The function of the nutrient vessels antagonize those
of absorption ; while one system is constructing, with beautifu!
242. What is the nutritive fluid of animals? Of what is it composed?
Wliat forms the red gravy in roasted meat ? 213. Wliat is said of the color
of the blood? 244 — 248. W/iat remarks respecting nutrition* 244. What
ia nutrition ? 24.5. Wliat is said of the nutrit-ve process ? 246. What can
you say of the function of the nutrient vessel*. ?
NuiniTioN. 87
precision, tlie animal frame, the other is diligently employed
in pulling down this complicated structure. But amid this
simultaneous renovation and decay, the form and beauty of the
organs are preserved.
Ohsenmtion This ever-changing state of the body is shown
by giving animals colored matter, mixed with their food, which
in a short time tinges their bones with the same color as the
matter intrcHuced. Let it be withdrawn, and in a few days
the bones will assume their former color — evidently from the
eflects of absorption. The changeful state of the body is fur
Iher shown, by the losses to which it is subjected ; by the
necessity of aliment; by the emaciation which follows absti-
nence from food.
247. The renewal of every part of the body is not perfected
merely by the passage of the blood through the arteries of the
systemic circulation, but by the smallest capillary vessels,
called the nutrient arteries.
248. " As the blood goes the round of the circulation, the
nutrient capillary vessels select and secrete those parts which
are similar to the nature of the structure, and the other portions
pass on; so that every part takes up and converts to its own
use the very principles which it requires for its growth ; or, in
other words, as the vital current Uj.pioaches each organ, the
particles appropriate to it feel its attractive force, — obey it, —
quit the stream, — mingle with the substance of its texture, —
and are changed into its own true and proper natuie."
Illustration. When a bone is broken, or a ner>e wounded,
minute vessels shoot out from the living parts, and immediately
commence their operations, by depositing bony matter, where it
IS required to unite fractured bones, and nervous substance to
heul the wounded nerve.
Give a proof of thr over-chansiiif; stntc of the bod) . Give other in
stances illui;trative of the chaiigcfiil state oi tlio body. 247. By what ves-
sels is the reiie\^l of every part of the body perfeitcd ? 248. What is said
of the office of the rmtrieiit capillary vessels .' When a bone is fractured,
»i what pro'jess is it hcalcd ?
88
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENK.
Fig. 53.
I
Fig. .^. A front view <iftlie organs within llie rhest and alidnrncn. 1, 1, 1, I, Th«
muacles of the chest. 2,2,2,3, 'I'he rihs. :<, .1, 3, 'I'he upper, middle, ami lower
lobes of the Jiglit lung. 4, 4, The <ohes of the lef. lung. 5, The ri^'^ht ventricle of
the heart. G, The left ventricle. 7, The right auricle of the heart, 8, The left ami
cle. 9, The pulmonary artery. 10, The aorta. 11, The vena sava dcscendena.
12, The trachea. 13, The OBsophagns, 14, 14, 14, 14, The pleura. 15, 15, 15, Tha
diaphragm 16, 16, The right and left lobe of the liver. 17, Tlie gall-cyst. 18, Th«
stomach 26, The spleen. 19, 19, The duodenum. 20, The ascending colon.
21, The transverse colon. 25, The descending colon. 22, 22, S, 22, The small In
t««tine8. 23, 23, 7Ae abdominal walls turned down. 24, The thoracic iuct, openinf
•nto the left subclavian vein, (27.)
ANATOMY CF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 89
CHAPTER XIX.
THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
219 The nutrient portion of the food is poured into the
vein at tlie lower part of the neck, and is carried to the right
cavities of the heart. The fluid in these cavities consists of the
3hyle mixed with the venous blood. Neither of these two
elements is fitted to promote the growth or repair the waste of
the body. They must be subjected to a process, by whi.'h the
first can be converted into blood, and the second freed of its
impurities, (carbonic acid and water.) This is effected by
the Respiratory Organs.
ANATOMY OF THE llESriRATORY ORGANS.
250. The organs of respiration are the Lungs^ (lights;)
*he Tra'clie-a, (wind-pipe ;) the Bronch'i-a, (subdivisions of
tlie trachea ;) and the Air Ves'i-cles^ (air-cells at the extrem-
ities of the bronchia.) The Di'a-phragm, (midriff;) ribs, and
several muscles, also aid in the respiratory process.
251. The LUNGS are conical organs, one on each side of the
chest, embracing the heart, and separated from each other by a
membranous partition. The color of the lungs is a pinkish gray,
mottled, and variously marked with black. They are com-
posed of air-cells and tubes, beside many small blood-vessels.
252. Each lung is surrounded by a membrane, called the
249. What f \ids are conveyed into the right cavities cf the heart ? What
is necessary before they can be adapted to the wants of the body ? By what
organs are these changes effected ? 250 — 256. Gii'e the anatomy of th»
espiratory organs. 2.'30. Name the respiratory organs, WTiat organs also
aid in the respiratory process ? 251. Describe the lungs. 2.52. Describe
the pleura.
8»
90 ANATOMY, niYSIOLOGY, AND n\'OIENX.
r
pleura^ wliicli not only surrounds those organs, but is reflected
upon the walls of the chfst. The lungs, liowever, are on the
outside of the pleura, in the same way as the head is on tlie
outside of a cap doubled upon itself.
Observation. When this membrane, tliat covers the lunTs,
and also lines the chest, is inflamed, the disease is called
" pleurisy."
SoS. The TRACHEA is situated in the front part of the neck,
and extends from the mouth to tlie lungs. It is composed of
cartilaginous rings, which are very elastic.
254. The bronchia are the divisions of the trachea at its
lower extremity, behind the upper part of the heart. One
bmnch r^isses to the right lung, and the other to the left.
These brinches, upon entering the lung, divide into an almost
infinity of smaller branches.
IHustratinn. The trachea may be compared to the trunk of
a tree ; the bronchia to two large branches ; the subdivisions of
the bronchia to the branchlets and twigs ; the air-cells to the
buds seen on the twigs in the spring.
255. The air-cells are very small sacs, or bladders, at the
end of the minute divisions of the bronchia. Their walls are
extremely thin, the interior of which, as well as the trachea
and bronchia, are lined by mucous membrane. These cells
are variable in size, and are most numerous in the middle and
lower part of the lungs.
Ohserration. When the mucous membrane of a few of the
larger branches of the wind-pipe is slightly inflamed, it is called
a " cold ; " when the inflammation is greater, and extends to the
lesser air-tubes, it is called bronchitis. Coughing is a violent
expulsory effort, by which air is suddenly forced through the
bronchia and trachea to remove offending matter.
»
"WTiat is tho disease called when this membrane is inflamed ? 253. De-
sciioe the trachea. 2'54. What are the bronchia? To what may tlie
trachea and branches be compared ? 2'5o. Describe the air-cells. Wh«re
are tlicy tht most numerous ? Mention some diseases of the membrane
that lines the bronchia.
ANATOMY OF THE KESPIRArORY ORGANS.
d1
Observation. Tho structure of the tracliea nnfl liinps may
bo illustrated by taking those parts of a calf or sheep, and
.nflating the bronchial tubes by forcing:; air into the wind-pipe
V'\th a pipe or quill. Tho internal structure may then bo
seen by opening tho dillbrent parts.
Fig. 64.
Fig. 54. A representation of the larynx, trachea, bronchia, and air-cells 1, 1 , 1, An
luitline of the right lung. 2,2,2, An outline of the left lung, 3, Tho larjnx.
i, The trachcii. .5, The right hronchial tube. 6, The left bronchial tube. 7, 7, 7,
P, 8, 8, Bronchial tubes of riglit and left lung. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-colls.
256. The diaphragm is a flexible, circular partition, that sep-
antes the respiratory from the digestive organs, and the chest
How can the structure of the trachea and lungs be illustrated ? 256. De-
scribe the diaphragm.
92
ANATOMY, niYSIOLOGV, AND IIYPWENE.
from tlje alHlomcn. Its margin is attached to the spina! column
the sternum, and cartilages of the Utwer ribs. In a state of re«
pose, Its centre rises into the chest in the form of an arch.
When air is forcibly expelled from the lungs, its upper point
reaches as high as I he fourth rib. It is depressed as low as the
seventh rib, when air is drawn into the lungs.
Fig. 55.
Fig. 56.
Fig 55i A section of tlie clicst when the lungs are inflated. 1, The diaphragm.
a. The muscular walls of the abdomen.
Fig. .W. A section of the cheai when the lungs are ccmtrnrted. 1, The diaphragm,
in common expiration. 2, 2, The muscular walls of the ahdomnn. 3, The positioa
of the diaphragm in forced expiration.
These engravings show the dinphrngm to he more convex, and the walls of tha
abdomen more flattened, when the lungs are collapsed, than when they are inflatCo.
What is its form when not in action ? How high does its central poition
rise in forced expiration ? How low does it descend when air is drawn into
the lungs ? What do figs. 55 and 56 illustrate ?
I'UYHIOLOUY OF illE RESPlRATORy OIIGANS. 93
CHAPTER XX.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY
ORGANS.
257. Respiration, or brenthinjjj, is that process by which
air is drawn into tliu kings and expelled from ihein. The prin-
cipal object in breathing, in animals, is to free the dark blood
of one of tiie princi|)ai substances that com[)ose the old and
useless particles of the body.
258. When air is drawn into the lungs, the muscular margin
of the diaphragm contmcts, which depresses its central portion ;
the chest is then enlarged at the expense of .'he abdomen. At
the same time that the diaphragm is depresv-ed, the ribs are
thrust forward and upward by means of nmscles placed be-
tween and on them. Thus the chest is enlarged in every
direction.
259. The lungs follow the variations of capacity in the chest,
expanding their air-cells when tl»e latter is enlarged, and con-
tracting when the chest is diminished. Thus, when the chest
Is expanded, the lungs follow, and consequently a vacuum is
produced in their air-cells. The air then rushes through the
mouth and nose into the trachea and its branches, and fills the
vacuum as fast as it is made. This mechanical process
constitutes inspiration.
260. After the expansion of the chest, the muscles that ele-
vated the ribs relax, together with tiie diai)liragm. The (ilas-
ticity of the cartilages of the ribs depresses tliom, and the
257 — 266 Give the vsc of the respiratory orrjan.i. 207. Mliat is rcspira
tion? What is the principal objrct in breathing ? 2-5S. Dpsrribe how the
chest is enlarged in respiration ? 'L'i'^. Do tlic lungs follmv the variations
uf capacity in the chest ? What constitutes inspiration ? 260. How is the
air expelled I'loiu the lungs ?
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ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AJiD HYGIENE.
cavity of the cliest is diminished, attended by tho sxpulsion of
a portion of the air from the lungs. At the same time, the
muscles that form the front walls of the abcbminal cavity, con-
tract and press the alimentary canal, stomach, and liver, up-
ward against the diaphragm ; this, being relaxed, yields to llie
pressure, rises upward, and presses upon the lung£; which re-
treat before it, and another portion of uir is expelJed from theso
or^^uns. This process is called expiration.
Fig. 67.
Fig. 57. A Tront view of the chest and abduineii in respiration. 1, 1, The poeitioB
of the w'ulls of tile cliest in inspirntion. 2, 2, 2, The [losition of the diaphragm in
Inspiration. 3, 3, The position of the walls of the chest in expiration. 4, 4, 4, The
pouition of 'ho dinphrugin in expirntion. 5, 5, The position of the walls of U\e abdo-
men in inspiration. 6, 6, The position of the walls of the abdomen in expiration.
261. Thus it is obvious that the enlargement of the cheSt,
or inspiration, is produced in two ways — 1st. By the d«pres-
What does this constitute ? Explain fig. 57.
Jk« cheat enl uged i Name them.
261. In how many vays is
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATOHY ORfJAJMS. 95
xon of the central, arched portion of the diaphragm. 2d By
the elevation of the ribs. On the contrary, the contraction of the
chest, or expiration, is produced by the depression of the riba
and elevation of the central part of the diaphragm. These
movements are successive during life, and constitute res-
piration.
Experiment. Pjace the ear upon the chest of a person, and
a murmuring sound will be heard, somewhat like the soft sigh-
ings of the wmd through forest trees. This sound is caused
by the air rushing in and out of the lungs, and is peculiarly
distinct in the child.
262. As before mentioned, the dark, impure blood, that
passes from the heart to the lungs, is unfit to sustain the vita)
action of the various organs of the body. Its impurities must
be removed. When this is done, the blood loses its blackish
red color, and becomes of a bright scarlet red.
263. The dark color of the blood is owing to the presence
of carbonic gas. This is formed in the blood-vessels by the
union of carbon (the principal element of the dead, waste
atoms) and oxygen.
264. There is also, mixed with the dark blood, hydrogen,
which, when united with oxygen, forms water. Both carbon and
hydrogen are supplied to the blood through the food. They
are carried out of the system not only by the lungs, but by the
skin and othei* organs.
Observation. The presence of carbonic acid and watery
vapor in the expired air, can be proved by the following
experiments. 1st. Breathe into lime-water, and in a few
minutes it will become of a milk-white color. This is owing
to the carbonic acid of the breath unitmg witli the lime,
forming the carbonate of lime.
How is it conlraoted ? Wliat do these successive movements cob-
■titute ? Give an experiment, 262. What change must be made in the
blood before it can sustain Mfe ? 263. To what is f>»e dark color of the
blood owing? Where is tais gas formed? 264. What element beside
•■rbon la found in the bluod ? What dues it form w^en united with oxygen ?
90 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, /ND HYGIENE.
2d. Breathe upon a cold, dry mirror, for a few minutes, and
it will be covered with moisture. This is condensed vapor
from the lungs. In warm weather, this watery vapor is invisible
ill the expired air ; but, in a cold, dry morning in winter, the suc-
cessive jets of vapor issuing from the mouth and nose are
BufTiciently obvious.
265. Atmospheric air, or tha which fills the air-cells of the
lungs, is composed of two gases, ox'y-gen and ni'tro-gen. Oxy-
gen has the property o! supposing life, while nitrogen alone
would destroy it. But combined with the former gas, it serves
to neutralize the otherwise irritating action of the oxygen.
Pig. 58. 1, .- bronchial tube divided into three branches. 2, 2, 2, Air cells.
3, Branches of the puhnona/y artery, that spread over the a.r-cells. Through the
pulmonary artery, the dark, impure blood is carried to the xir-cells of the lungs.
4, Rranciies of the pulmonary vein, that commence at the minutt^ terminations of the
pulmonary artery. Through the pulmonary vein, the red blood is returned to the heart.
266. We will now pass to the change which the air effects
when it comes in contact with the blood in the lungs. As the
impure blood is passing in the minute vessels over the air-cells,
the oxygen passes through th^ extreme thin coats of the air-
cells and blood-vessels, and unites with the blood. At the same
time, the carbonic acid and watery vapor leave the blood, and
pass through the coats of the blood-vessels and air-cells, and
irix with the air in the cells. These are expelled from the air-
^ow are these elements supplied to the blood ? How may the presonco
o. Trbonic acid in the expired air be proved ? The presence of watery
vapor ? 265. Of what is the air composed "* "What property has oxygen ?
Has nitrogen ? 266. Explaiu how the blood is changed by the action of
oe air.
■-«s^:
PHVSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
97
cells every time we breathe. This interchange of gases pro-
duces the change in the color of the blood.
Eicperimenl. To show that gases may be interchanged
through membranes, fill a bladder with dark blood drawn from
any ^nimal. Tie the bladder closely, and suspend it in the
air. In a few hours, the blood next the membrane will have
become of a bright red color. This is owing to the oxygen
from the air passing through the bladder, and unit>»>g with the
blood, while the carbonic acid has escaped through ihr mi^^t*.
branc.
Fig. 69.
Pif .59. An ideal view of the pulmonary cirriilntion. 1, 1, The lipht luuR.
2, a, The left lung. 3, The tiiichea. 4, The hplit hronrhiai tube. 5, Tttti U'tt
bronchial tube. 6. C, 6, G, Air-rells. 7, The right auricle. 8, The riglit ventricle.
9, Tne iricuspia vaIv3B. 10, The p\ilinonary artery. II, The branch to the rifsht
lung. 12, The branch to the left lung. 13, The right pulmonary vein. 14, The
left pulinonmy vein. 15, The left auricle. 16, The left ventricle. 17. TIm
mitral valves.
yote. Let a /eview of the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory
organs be given from figs. 5'S, f)\), or fiom outline anatomical plates 5 and 7
9
98 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AlsD HYGIENE.
CHAPTER XXI.
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS
267. For man to enjoy the highest degree of health, it is
necessary that the impure " venous " blood be properly changed.
As this is eftected in the lungs by the action of the air, it follows
that this element, when breathed, should be pure, or contain
twenty-one per cent, of oxygen to about seventy-nine per
cent, of nitrogen.
268. The quality or purity of the air is affected by every
respiration. The quantity of nitrogen is nearly the same in
the expired, as in the inspired air. But the quantity of oxygen
is diminished, and that of carbonic acid is increased. Thus,
every time we force air from the lungs, it becomes unfit u> be
breathed again.
Experiment. Sink a glass jar that has a stop-cock, or one
with a glass stopper, into a pail of water, until the air is expelled
from the jar. Fill the lungs with air, and retain it in the chest
a short time, and then breathe, into the jar, and instantly close
the stop-cock. Close the opening of the jar that is under the
water with a piece of paper laid on a plate of sufficient size to
cover the opening, invert the jar, and sink into it a lighted candle.
The flame will be extinguished as quickly as if put in water.*
• As a aubatitute for a jar with a stop-cock, take a piece of lead
pipe bent in the form of a siphon, and insert it in the mouth of a
reversed J£ir. This experiment is as conclusive whether the air is in-
h;ilcd once only, or breathed many times.
267 — 285. Give the hygietw of the respiratory organs. 267. What is ne-
cessary that man may enjoy the highest degree of health ? AVhat propor-
t'on of oxygen and nitrogen should the inspired air contain ? 268. What
iB the differrtnoe bet^veen inspired and expired air ? How can this differ-
ence be shown i
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 99
Remove the carbonic acid by inverting the jar, and place i lighted
candle in it, and the flame will be as clear as when out of the jar.
ObservaHon. It is familiarly known that a taper will not
burn where carbonic acid exists in any considerable quantity,
or when there is a marked deficiency of oxygen. From this
originated the judicious practice of sinking a lighted candle into
a well or pit before descending into it. If the flame is extin*
(juished, respiration cannot there be maintained, and life would
be sacrificed should a person venture in until the noxious air
is removed.
269. Air, in which lamps will not huin with brilliancy, is
unfitted for respiration. In crowded rooms, which are not
ventilated, the air is vitiated, not ouly by a decrease of oxygen
and an increase of carbonic aci<i, but by the waste, injurious
atoms thrown out from the lungs and skin of tlie audience.
The burning lamps, under fmch circumstances, emit but a feeble
light. Let t!ie oxygen gas be more and more expended, and
the lamps will burn more and more feebly, until nearly ex-
tinguished.
Illustrations. 1st. The effects of breathing the same air
again and again, are well illustrated by an incident that occurred
in one of our halls of learning. A large audience had assembled
in an ill-ventilated room, to listen to a lecture ; soon the lamps
burned so dimly that the speaker and audience were nearly en-
veloped in darkness. The oppression, dizziness, and faintness,
experienced by many of the audience, induced them to leave ;
and in a few minutes after, the lamps were observed to rekindle,
owing to the exchange of pure air on opening the door, which
supplied to them oxygen.
2d. The " Blacl: Hole of Calcutta " received its name from
the fact, that one hundred and forty-six Englishmen were shut
"Why should a lighted candle be sunk in a well or pit before a person
descends into it ? 269. How is the air of crowded, unventilated roomt
Titiated ? What effect has such air upon the burning lamps ? Give an
incident that illustrates the effects of impure air upon burning lamps.
MtMBMillMlWIlH
iOO ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY^, AND HYGIENE.
up in a room eighteen feet square, with only two small windows
on the same side to admit air. On opening this dungeon, ten
hours after their imprisonment, only twenty-three were alive.
The others had died from breathing impure air, that contained
animal matter from their own bodies.
270. Churches, concert-halls, and school-rooms should he
leeU ventilated. If they are not, the persons assembled in them
will be restless, and complain of languor, and perhaps head-
ache. These unpleasant sensations are caused by a want of
pure air, to give an adequate supply of oxygen to the lungs.
Observation. In all school-rooms, where there is nol ade-
quate ventilation, it is advisable to have a recess of five or ten
minutes each hour. During this time, let the pupils braathe
fresh air, and open the doors and windows, so that the air of the
room shall be completely changed.
271. While occupying a room, we are insensible to the grad-
ual vitiation of the air. This is the result of the diminished
sensibility of the nervous system, and gradual adaptation of the
organs to blood of a less stimulating character.
272. In the construction of every inhabited room, there
should be adequate means of ventilation, as well as warming.
No room ie well ventilated, unless as much pure air is brought
into it, as the occupants vitiate at every respiration. This can
be efiected by making an aperture in the ceiling of the room,
or by constructing a ventilating flue in the chimney. This
should be in contact with the flues for the escape of smoke, but
separated from them by a thin brick partition.
273. Provision should also be made, by which pure air
may be constantly coining into the room, as the crevices of the
Of the effects of brcn tiling impure air. 270. Why should churches and
Bchool-rooms be well ventilated ? "W hat suggestion when a school-room ia
not well ventilated ? 271. Why are we insensible of the vitiation of the
air of the room in which we are seated ? 272. What is very important in
the construction of every inhabited room ? Eow can a room be well venti-
mted ? 273. Should provision be made to have pure air introduced into
a room?
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
101
doors and windows are not sufTicient. There should be an
aperture at or near the floor, to connect with the outer walls of
the building or external air,
274. The sick-room, particularly, should be so arranged that
the impure air may escape, and pure air be constantly coming
into the room. Curtains around the bed, and the sheet over the
face, are injurious. The efiect is similar to the* produced by
sleeping in a small, unventilated room.
275. The change that is effected in the blood while passing
through the lungs, not only depends upon the purity of the air,
but the amount inspired. The quantity varies according to the
. '^e of the chest, and the movement of the ribs and diaphragm.
Fig. 60.
Fig. 61.
Fig. 60. The skeleton of a deformed chest.
Fig. 61. The skeleton of a well-formed chest.
276. The size of the chest and lungs can be diminished by
moderate and continued pressure. This is most easily done in
infancy, when the cartilages and ribs are very pliant ; yet it
can be effected at more advanced periods of life.
Observations. 1st. The Chinese, by compressing the feet of
female children, prevent their growth ; so tha. the foot of a
274. What rooms particularly should be well ventilated ? "Why are cur-
tains around abed injurious? 275. What varies the amount of air received
Into the lungs ? 276. How can the size of the chest be diminished ? What
does fig. 60 represent ? Fig. 61 ? Give observation Ist.
0»
102
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
Chinese belle is not larger than the fool of an American girl of
five years.
2d. The American women compress their chests, to prevent
their growtli ; so that the chest of an American belle is not
laryor than the chest of a Chinese girl of five years. Which
country, in this respect, exhibits the greater intelligence ?
3d. The chest can be deformed by making the linings of the
waists of the dresses tight, as well as by corsets. Tight vesta,
upon ihe same principle, are also injurious.
Fig. 62. Fig. 63.
F {. 6SL A correct outline of the Venus do Medici, the heau ideal of female lym
metry.
Fig. 63. An outline of a well-corseted modern beauty. One hai an artificial
'nsect waist ; the other, a nntnrni waist. One has sloping shoulders, while the shoul
ders of the other are comparativeiy elevated, square, and angu.lnr. The proportion of
Jhe corseted female below the waist, is also a departure frcx the sy^rmetry of nature
277. In children, who have never worn close garments, the
circumference of the chest is generally about equi.1 to that of
Give observation 2(1. How may the chest be defortred as given by obser-
tetion 3d ? 277. What is the size of the chest of a child that haa always
von loose clothing t
HYGIENE OF THE RESriRATORY ORGANS. 103
Jie body at the hips ; and similar proportions would exiHt
through life, if there were no improper pressure of the clothmg.
Those persons that have large, full chests, particularly at the
lower part, are not so liable to diseases of the lungs, as those
who have narrow, contracted chests.
278. A contracted chest, caused either by injudicious dress-
ing, or by any other means, can be enlarged, although the
person is thirty years of age, by permitting the muscles hat
elevate the ribs and diaphragm to perform their proper function.
Observation. Scholars, and persons who sit much of the
time, should frequently, during the day, breathe full and deep,
BO that the smallest air-cells may be fully filled with air. While
exercising the lungs, the shoulders should be thrown back and
the head held erect.
279 When the lungs are properly filled with air, the chest
is enlarged in every direction. If any article of apparel is
wc :" so tight as to prevent the full expansion of the chest and
abdomen, the lungs, in consequence, do not receive air sufii-
cient to purify the blood. The penalty for thus violating a
law of our being, is disease and suffering.
Observation. Many individuals do not realize the small
amount of pressure that will prevent the enlargement of the
chest. This can be shown by drawing a tape tightly around
the lower part of the chest of a vigorous adult, and confining it
with the thumb and finger. Then endeavor fully to inflate the
lungs, and the movement of the ribs will be much restricted.
280. The position in standing and sitting injluences the
movement of the ribs and diaphragm. When the shoulders are
thrown back, and when a person stands or sits erect, the dia-
What persons are most free from diseases of the lungs ? 278. Cam
narrow, contracted chests be enlarged ? How ? What practice is recoTi-
mended to scholars and sedentary persons ? 279. What is the efl'ect if tne
apparel is worn so tight as to prevent the full expansion of the chest ? H . w
can the amount of pressure necessary to prevent the enlargement of f.ie
chest be shown ? 280. Shaw the effect of position on the movement of th«
riba and diaphragm.
»04 ANATOMV, PUYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
phragm and ribs Imve more frecflom of motion, and the abdomi-
nal muscles act mor« efricienty ; thus the lungs have broader
range of movement, than vkrhen the shoulders incline forward,
and the body is stooping.
281. The state of the mind exercises a great influence upon
respiration. If we are depressed by grief, or feel anxious
about friends or property, the diaphragm and muscles that ele-
vate the ribs will not contract with the same energy as when the
mind is influer ce(! by joy, mirth, and other enlivening emotions.
Consequently, our breathing is not, as frequent and full in the
"ormer as in the latter condition.
282. To recover persons apj)arently droumed^ it is necessary
o press the chest, suddenly and forcibly, downward and back-
ward, and instantly discontinue the pressure. Repeat this
without intermission, until a pair of bellows can be procured.
When the bellows are obtained, introduce the nozzle well upon
the base of the tongue, and surround the Jth and nose with
a towel or handkerchief, to close them. Let another person press
upon the projecting part of the neck, called "Adam's apple,"
while air is introtiuced into the lungs through t' bellows. Then
press upon the chest, to force the air from the lungs, tc imitate
natural breathing.
283. Continue the use of the bellows, and forcing the air out
of the chest, for an hour at least, unless signs of natural breath-
ing come on. Wrap the body in warm, dry blankets, aud place
it near the fire, to preserve the natural warmth, as weU as to
impart artificial heat. Every thing, however, is secon'^ary to
filling the lungs with air. Avoid all friction until breathing is
restored. Send for medical aid immediately.
28'1. In cases of apparent death from hanging or stran-
gling, the knot should be untied or cut immediately ; thm uso
artificial respiration, or breathing, as directed in apparent death
281. Does the state of the mind influence our breathing? 285V How
should persons apparently drowned be tieated ? 284. How should V*pa-
rent death from strangling be managed ?
HTGlfiNE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. ' lOA
from drowning. In asphyxia from electricity, (lightning,) luti-
ficial respiration slioutd 1x3 resorted to.
Observation. It is a common impression, in many sections
of ihe country, that tlie law will not allow the removal of the
cord from the neck of a body found suspended, unless the cor-
oner be present. It is therefore proper to say, that no such
delay is necessary, and that no time should be lost in attempting
to resuscitate the a*.rangled person.
285. When life is apparently suspended, from breathing
carbonic acid gas, the person should be carried into the open
air. The head and shoulders should be slightly elevated, the
face and chest should be sponged or sprinkled with cold water,
or cold vinegar and water. Apply fricl'jn to the skin, with a
coarse cloth or flesh-brush, and resort to artificial respiration.
Observation. 1st. Many persons have died from breathing
carbonic acid that was formed by burning charcoal in an open
pan or portable furnace, for the purpose of warming their
sleeping-rooms.
2d. In resuscitating persons apparently dead from the already
mentioned causes, if a pair of bellows cannot be procured im-
mediately, let their lungs be inflated by air expelled from the
lungs of some person present. To have the expired air as pure
as possible, the person should quickly inflate his lungs, and in-
stantly expel the air into those of the asphyxiated person. Place
the patient in pure air^ admit attendants only into the apartment,
and send for a 'physician without delay.
What treatment should be adopted in asphyxia from lightninp* What
is 8P.id of the impression, common in some sections of the country whrni
a body is found suspended? 285. What should be done when carbonk
acid has been inhaled ? What sad results frequently follow the burning of
charcoal in a close room ? Give the 2d observation.
106 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENS
CHAPTER XXII.
ANIMAL HEAT. ""
286. The true sources of animal heat are still imperfecrt'y
known. We see certain phenomena, but the causes are hidden
from our view. Its regular production, to a certain degree, is
essential both to animal and vegetable life.
287. The temperature} of the human body is about ninety-
eight degrees, whether we examine it in the Icelander in his
snowy hut, or the Negro under an equatorial sun.
288. To enable man to maintain an equilibrium of temper-
ature under such extremes of heat and cold, naturally suggests
two inquiries. 1st. By what organs is animal heat generated ?
2d. By what means is its uniformity maintained ?
289. In combustion, or burning of wood, coal, oil, dec, tlie
oxygen of the atmosphere unites with the carbon and hydrogen
of these substances, and carbonic acid and watery vapor are
produced. This process is attended with the disengagement
of heat.
290. The quantity of heat disengaged in combustion is
always in proportion to the amount of carbon and hydrogen
consumed ; thus a piece of wood weighing one pound, in
burning slowly, would give out the same quantity of heat as a
pound of shavings of the same wood, in burning rapidly. Upon
the principle of combustion, the production of animal heat may
be understood.
286 — 296. What is said res]>ectmg animal heat f 286. lathe true source
of animal heat known ? 287. What is the temperature of the human body ?
288. What i-^quiries are naturally suggested ? 289. What takes place in the
combustion, or burning of wood, oil, &c. ? 290. Upon what does the quan-
tity ol heat disengnged in combustion depend ? How is tb'« illustratei ?
ANIMAL HEAT. 10^
291. As Defore mentioned, the fcx>d contains CArbon aad
hydrogen. These exist in the chyle. The old and waste
atoms of the body, Hkewise, contain the same elements. It ia
now supposed that the oxygen of the inspired air enters the
capillary vessels of the lungs, and mingles with the blood, with
which it is carried to the heart, and from thence to the nutrient
capillary vessels of every part of the system.
292. In the capillary vessels, the oxygen of the arterial
blood uiiites with the carbon and hydrogen of the waste atoms
(which are conveyed into the blood by the lymphatics,) and
carbonic acid and water are formed.
293. This change of state among the particles of bodiaa
is attended with the disengagement of heat. The carbonic
acid and water are returned to the lungs in the blo.jd, and car-
ried out of the body by the expired air. The inference is, that
heat is generated in every part of the body.
294. Our next inquiry is, by what means is the uniformity
of temperature in the body maintained ? It has been ascer-
taitied that the principal agent in keeping the body at a uni-
form temperature, is the immense evaporation that takes place
from the skin and lungs.
295._ When cold air comes in contact with these membranes,
heat is given off to restore the equilibrium. The quantity de-
pends somewhat on the rapidity of the change of air. And
this is greatest v/hen we are in a current of dry air, or a brisk
wind is blowing upon us.
296. The skin, in an ordinary state, is constantly giving out
a watery fluid, which is converted into vapcj and carried off by
the surrounding air. To effect this, heat is taken from the
system, and the conversion of the perspiration into vapor
291. From what source are the carbor and hydrogen in the body derived ?
The oxygen ? 292. Show how heat may be produced in every part of the
body. 294. Wliat is the principal agent by which a uniform tempersi
ture of the body is maintained ? 295. What is the effect when cold Bit
comes in contact with these membranes ? When is the greatest amouut
*f heat given off? 296. How is the surplus heat of the body remotftd.
lOlJ? ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
conveys a large proporlion of the surplus heat frotn the body;
and in consequence, the temperature is maintained at ninety-
eight degrees.
Ohseniations. 1st. In all ages and climes, it has been
observed, that the increased temperature of the skin and
system in fevers, is abated as soon as free perspiration is
restored.
2d. In damp, close weather, as during the sultry days of
August, we feel a disagreeable sensation of heat, because the
saturation of the air by moisture prevents the escape of heat
through the lungs and skin.
HYGIENE OF ANIMAL HEAT.
297. The amount of heat generated in the human system
depends upon the quantity and quality of the food, age, exer-
cise, the amount and character of the inspired air, condition of
the brain, skin, and general system.
298. Animal heat is modijied by the proportion of carbon
which the food contains^ and by the quantity consumed. As
the kind of fuel that contains the greatest amount of combus-
tible material gives ofT the most heat when burned, so those
articles of food that contain the greatest quantity of carbon pro-
Himo the most heat when converted into blood.
299. Age is another injtuence that modifies the generation
of animal heat. The vital forces of the child being feeble, less
heat is generated in its system than in that of an adult. Hence
the young child, and the enfeebled, aged person, need more
clothing than the vigorous individual of middle age. -
What has been observed in all ages and climes ? Why do %ve feel a dis-
agreeable sensation of heat in the sultry days of August ? 297 — 304. O'im
the hygiene ofam'tnal heat. 297. On what does the amount of heat gener-
ated in the human system depend ? 298. What element o? the food m-
Guences the generation of heat ? 299. Does age modify the feneration of
aeat ? What persons need the most clothing ?
'.1'\ '■ ■
HYGIENE OF ANIMAL HEAT. 109
300. Exercise is an injluence that modifies the generation
pf animal heat. Whatever increases the llow of blood in the
system, increases also the deposition of new atoms of matter,
and the removal of the waste particles. This ciiange among the
particles of matter is attended with an elevation of temperature.
For this reason, a person in action is warmer than in a slate
of repose.
301. Tlie amount and character of the air which is breathed^
modify the heat of the system. In the generation of heat in
a stove, air, or oxygen, is as essential as the wood or coal. It
IS equally so in the production of animal heat. The oxygen
of the inspired air should be in proportion to the carbon and
hydrogen to be consumed. This requires capacious lungs, to-
gether with free movements of the ribs and diaphragm.
302. The condition of the brain and nervous system affects
the generation of animal heat. If the mind is aroused from
fear, the breathing becomes slow, and a chilliness peivades the
body, particularly the extremities ; while, on the other hand,
joyous and agreeable emotions quicken the circulation of the
blood, and this increases the generation of heat.
303. During sleep, when the brain is partially inactive, less
heat is generated than when awake. This is one reason why
an individual who sleeps in the same clothing that was ade-
quate to prevent chills while awake, contracts a cold, unless ho
throws over him an additional covering.
30'4. The system suffers less when the change of tempera^
ture is gradual. The change in the production of heat, as
well as in the evaporation of fluids from the system, is gradual,
when not influenced by foreign causes. By this means, the
fx)dy IS enabled to endure tropical heat and polar cold.
300. What effect has exercise on animal heat ? 301. To -^hat should the
oxygen of the inspired air be proportional ? 302. Mention the effeota of
some of the emotions on animal heat. 303. Why dp we need more cloth>
ing when asleep than when awake ? 304. How is the body enabled to en-
dire tropical heat and polar cold ?
10
110 ANATOMY. PUTSIOLOQY, AND HYOIUNB.
CHATTER XXIII.
THE VOICE.
305 The beautiful mechanism of tlie vocal instrument,
<vl)ich produces every variety of sound, from a harsh, un-
melodious tone, to a soft, sweet, flute-like sound, can never be
imitated by art. It has been compared, by many physiologists,
to a wind, reed, and stringed instrument. This inimitable, yet
simple instrument, is the Larynx.
ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS.
306. The LARYNX (Adam's apple) is a kind of cartilaginous
tube, wl ch, taken as a whole, has the general form of a hollow
reversed ne, with its base upward toward the tongue, in the
shape of an expanded triangle.
307. It is composed of several pieces of cartilage, that
aot only connect with each other, but with the tongue,
lower jaw, and trachea.
308. There are stretched across the cavity formed by
these cartilages, four folds of membrane, two on each side,
called vocal cords.
309. The space between the cords on each side is called
the glot'tis^ or chink of the glottis. The cavity between the
upper and lower vocal cords is called the ventricle of the
larynx.
30"'i — 310. Give the anntomy of the vocal organs. 305. What is said ot the
Btructiire of the vocal iui-trumcnt ? What instruments have physiologists
compared it with ? What is the vocal instrument called ? 106. Describo
the larynx. 307. Of what is it composed ? 308. Describe the ior*l cordsi
109. What is the space between these cords called ?
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS.
Ill
310. Behind the base of the tongue, is a piece of car-
tilage, resembling a leaf of parsley, called the ep-i-glot'tis.
The duty of this sentinel is to keep the food and drink
from passing into the air-passage, or trachea.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS.
311. In the for'^i.ation of the voice, each part already de-
scribed performs an important office. The cartilages give form
and stability to the larynx, and by the action of muscles attached
to them, the width of the glottis is varied.
Fig. 63.
Fig. 63.
Fig. 63. A side view o the cartilaf^en of the larynx. I, The bone at th« root of
th) tongue. 3, 4, 5, 6, I cartilages of the larynx. 7, The trachea.
Fig. 63. A section of tlie larynx. 1,1, The upper vocal cords. 3, 2, The lowet
vocal cords. 3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the larynx.
312. When air is forcibly driven from the lungs through
the glottis, it causes a vibration, or trembling of the vocal
cords. This produces sound ; and it is varied by the tongue,
the teeth, and the lips.
810 Where is the epiglottis situated? 311, 313. Give tht function of
the vocal organs. 311. Of what use are the cartilages of the larynx*
What does fig. 62 represent ? Fig. 63? 312. How is sound oroduccd?
112 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
313. The size of the larynx, the capacity and health cf the
lungs, the condit'cn of the throat and nasal passages, the eleva-
tion and depression of the chin and tongue, and the state of the
mind, influence the modulations of sound.
HYGIENE OF THE VO^ AL ORGANS.
314. Common observation shows that the voice can !;"»
clianged and modified by the habits; sailors, smiths, and
others, who are engaged in noisy occupations, exert their
vocal organs more strongly than those of more quiet pursuits.
This not only affects the structure of the vocal organs, but
varies the intonations of the voice.
315. The voice is strong in proportion to the development
of the larynx^ and the capacity of the chest. Singing and
reading aloud, improve and strengthen the vocal organs, and
give a healthy expansion to the cliest. The enunciation of the
elementary sounds of the English language, aids in developing
the vor^al organs, as well as preventing disease of the ihroat
and lungs, {laryngitis and bronchitis.)
316. The attitude also affects the modulation of the voice^
When an individual stands or sits with the head and trunk erect,
the movements of the whole respiratory apparatus are most
free and effective. Sound, in consequence, is more clear and
distinct.
Experiment. Read with the head bowed forward and the
chin depressed ; then read with the head erect and the chin ele-
vated, and the difference in the movement of the vocal organs,
together with the difference in the voice, will be manifest
bl3. What influences the modulation of sound? 314 — 321. Give the
hygiene of the vocal organs. 314. What does observation show in refeience
to the Toice ? 315. How may the voice be strengthened ? 316. "NVTiat
effect has the erect attitude upon tht modulations of the voice ? State
*he experiment.
- H •■<•< ■^1.>WW'
HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL OHOj^NS.
113
Fig. 64.
Fig. 65.
Fig. 64. An improper position, but one not iinfrequently seen in some of our com-
II on schools, and in some of our public speakers.
Fig. 65. The proper position for reading, spealcing, and singing.
317. The muscles of the neck should not he vompressed.
If the muscles of the neck and larynx are compressed by a
high cravat, or other close dressing, not only will the free and
forcible use of these parts be impeded, but the tones, instead of
being clear and varied, will be feeble and ineffective.
Ohservati^ns. 1st. The loss of voice which is prevalent
among public speakers, may be ascribed in part to the in-
What is represented by fig. 64 ? By fig. 65 ? 317. Why should not th«
musclea of the neck be comprp 1 ? What is a common cause of loss of
Toice' V
10 •
114 ANATOMY, niYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE,
judicious dressing of ihe neck, and improper position whtn
standing.
2d. When individuals hove been addressing an audience in
a warjp room, or engaged in sinr ^, they should avoid all
imprcsoions of a cold atmosphere, unless adequately protected
by an extia garment.
318. 2'he opening of the jaws^ and condition of the nasal
passages and throaty modify the voice. The enunciation of
words is rendered more or less distinct, in proportion as the
jaws are separated in speaking, and the throat and nasal pas-
sages are free from obstruction.
319. Repetition is essential to distinct articulation of
words. In teachmg a child to articulate a letter or word, in
the first instance, make an effort to induce a proper state of
the vocal organs by which the particular sound is produced.
Repeat the letter or word again and again, until it can be
uttered with accuracy.
Observation. The drawling method of talking to young
children, as well as using words that are not found in any
written language, (called hahy talk,) is decidedly wrong. A
child will pronounce and understand the application of a cor-
rect word £is quickly as an incorrect one.
320. When foreign bodies, such as cherry-stones, buttons,
&c., get into the throat, they cause excessive irritation, and
sometimes death. It is not necessary to ascertain which pas-
sage the foreign body is in, for the immediate treatment ought
in either case to be the same.
321. Some person should place one hand on the front of
the chest of the sufferer, and, with the other, give two or three
smart blows upon the back, allowing a few seconds to inter-
vene between them.
Give 2d observation. 318. Does the condition of the throat and nasal
passages modify the voice ? 319, Is repetition essential to distinct articu-
lation ? What method i suggested in teaching a child to articulate letters
cr words ? Give observation. 32). What should be done wherv f >reiga
bodies get into he throat ?
ANATOMY OF THE SKIN.
115
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE SKIN.
33S. The skin is a membranous covering, enveloping the
\>*jf\es and other parts of the system. In youth, and in females
particularly, it is smooth, soft, and elastic. In middle age, and
in inales, it is firm, and rough to the touch. In old age, in
pcrAons who are emaciated, and about the flexions of the joints,
it M thrown into folds.
ANATOMY OF THE SKIN.
3J3. The skin of the human body is composed of two
layers of membrane, namely, the cu'ti-de^ and the cu'tis vefra^
or true skin.
324. The cuticle, or that part of the nkin which is seen by
the eye, is, at first, a fluid thrown out by the blood-vessels over
the internal layer of this membrane.
325. While layers of this fluid are continually forming
on the upper surface of the true skin, the external layers of
li.e fluid become dry, and resemble small scales.
Illustrations. The cuticle is that part of the skin which is
raised by a blister. Sometimes from disease, as erysipelas, or
fever, it comes off" from the surface of the body in pieces of
considerable size.
322. What is the skin ? Mention its different appearances in its differ-
ent conditions in the human frame. 323 — 336. Give the anatomy of the
tkin. 323. How many layers of membrane has the skin ? What are they
called ? 324. How is the cuticle first formed ? 325. What is the appear
tnce of the external layers ? Give illustration.
w.-
16
ANATOMV, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HTGIENK.
326. The arrangement of the cuticle, in difTcrcnt parts of
the huriiun body, is worthy of notice. Where feelinj; is most
acute, the cuticle is delicate and thin. Where there is motion,
as over the joints, it is lax and movable. Where it is in con-
stant use, it becomes harder and thicker.
Illustration. The soleri of the feet and the palms of the
hands afford good examples.^ of the cuticle thickened by use.
327. This part of the skir. has no blood-vessels or nerves ;
consequently, a needle may ..e passed under it, to some extent,
and cause no pain, nor will iny blood ooze from it.
Fig. 66.
Fig. 66. 1, 1, The cuticle. 2, 2, The colored layer of the ciiticlo 4, 4, The iiet-
nork of nerves. 5, 5, The true skin. 6, 6, 6, Three nerves that d'"ide to form the
net-work, (J, 4.)
328. The cuticle, when clean, looks like a thii shaving of
soft, clear horn ; but when filled with dust and other foul
matter, it becomes dark-colored.
Observation. The hair and nails, also the hoofs •'f animals,
326. Mention the arrangement of the cuticle in different pw:*s of the
bndy. What parts of the body afford examples of the cuticle thiclj^ned by
ut>e? 327. Has the cuticle blood-vessels or nerves? 328. Wuat i* th*
<ener2il appearance of the cuticle? Qire observation.
i,»ll>HI — i"U 11 ■ I ip^p^—t>»^T»-~^»g^r-^»^pi>^H^T^^—^^p»"»^^t^»lw^— ^
ANATOMY OF THE SKIN. IH
are appendages of the skin. They are so connected vntli the
cuticle, that by scalding they come off with this tissue-
329. -^n the inner and newly-formed layers of the . jle,
there exists a peculiar kind of paint. This colored layer, in the
Negro, is black ; in the hidian, copper-colored ; in t'.ie Euro-
pean, It is very light, diflbring, however, in ditlerent persons.
330. The cutis vera, or true skin, is so called, because
it is the most essential of the two layers of the skin. It
contains several sets of vessels, namely. Arteries, Veins, and
Lijvipliatics. Beside these vessels, there are found both 0*7
and Perspiratory (sweat) Glands, and Nerves.
331. The ARTERIES and veins form a net-work upon the
surface of the true skin ; hence, cut any part of this layer of the
skin, and it will bleed. By the arteries the skin is nourished.
Observation. When this layer of the skin is destroyed by
cuts or burns, it is never formed again, and produces scars
which do not disappear.
332. The nerves, like the blood-vessels, are very numer-
ous, for no part of the skin can be pricked or cut without
giving pain. The minute extremities of these nerves, together
with the capillary vessels, form small, conical prominences,
called pa-pil'lcB. (Fig. 68.)
Observation. These prominences can be seen in the palm
of the hand and sole of the foot. On the ends of the fingers
they are curiously arranged ; some in concentric ovals ; others
pursue a serpentine course.
333. The lymphatics are those small vessels which open
upon the inner layers of the cuticle. These vessels are called
329. What is found in the inner and newly-fonmed layers of the cuticle ?
What color is it in the Negro ? Indian ? European ? 330. Why is the cutis
vera so called ? What does it contain ? What vessels exist in this layer
beside the last raer»tioned ? ?31. What do the arteries and veins form
upon the true skin i By what vessel is the skin supplied with blood ?
What is formed when the true skin is destroyed by cuts or burns?
832. What is said of the nerves of the trie Hkin ? How arc the papillae
formed ? Where may they be seen ? 333 What are the lymphatics of the
»kiu? .,--,- _ „^.
118
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOOY, AND HYGIENE.
into action when ointments are rubbed on the skin ; and also ir
vacciiiation, to prevent the small-pox.
334. The perspiratory apparatus consists of minute tubes,
which pass inward through the cuticle, and terminate in the
deeper meshes of the truo skin. In their course, each little
tube forms a beautiful spiral coil ; and, on arriving at its desti-
nation, coils upon itself in such a way as to constitute an ovul-
shupcd, or globular ball, called the perspiratory gland.
335. The oil-glands are small bodies embe Ided 'n the true
skin. They connect with the surface of the skin ' y small
tubes, which traverse the cuticle. In some pans iheao glands
are wanting ; in others, where their office is most needful, they
are abundant ; as on the nose, the head, and the ears.
Fig. 67.
FiR. 67. 1, 9, 3, Oil-glnnda and tubes from diflerent parts of tlie body. A A, A,
Glands. B, B, B, The ducts of these glands. 4, An oil-gland, and tube from th«
■calp. The glands (A) form a cluster around the tube cf the hair, (C.) These ducU
open Into the shcatb of the hair, (B.) The figures, from 1 to 4 are roaguifled ib Jty
eight diameters.
Observation. When there is an unnatural ac simulation of
oil in the tubes, it producos the " worm," or " grub."
834. Of what does the perspiratory apparatus consist ? 335. Uescrib«
the oil-glands. What is said of thoir distributi;>n ? Explain fig. 67
What does an unnatural accumulation uf this oily matter produce i
HMiiiilii
mrsioLoav or the skin 119
CHAPTER XXV.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN.
336. The skin invests the whole of the external surface of
the body, following all its prominences and curves, and gives
protection to all the organs it encloses, while each of its several
parts has a distinct use.
337. The cuticle is insensible, and serves as a sheath of pro-
tection to the highly sensitive skir. (cutis vera) situated beneath
It. The latter feels; but the former blunts the impression
which occasions feeling.
338. The cuticle, also, prevents disease, by impeding the
evaporation of the fluids of the true skin, and the absorption of
the poisonous vapors, which necessarily attend various employ-
ments. It, however, affords protection to the system only when
unbroken, and then to the greatest degree, when covered with
a proper amount of oily secretion from tlie oil-glands.
339. The nerves of the skin ure the organs of the sense of
touch and feeling. Through them we receive many impressions
that increase our pleasures ; as, the grateful sensations imparted
by the cooling breeze in a warm day. In consequence of their
sensitiveness, we are individually protected, by being warned
of the nearness of destructive agents.
340. A large proportion of the waste of the body passes
through the outlets of the skin; s^int portions in the form of
oil, others in the form of watery vapor and carbonic acid.
336—346. Give the physiology of the skin. 336. What is said of the skin ?
887. Mention a function of the catirle. 338. Give another use of the
euticle. 339 Of wnat use are the nervf s of the skin ? 340. Through
what membrane does a large proportion of the waste atoms of the body pass ^
120
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYfilKNE.
341. llie oily fluid with which tlie skin is bedewed, is sepa-
rated from the blood by means of the oil-glands. This secre-
tion is spread over those parts of the skin most exposed to the
changes of temperature and moisture. The action of these
glands rendfHs the skin soft, and it is also one source by which
the blood is purified.
342. The perspiratory glands separate from the blood tho
perspiration, or sweat. There are more than two thousand of
these glands, v,'ith ducts, in every square inch of skin, and more
than five million of them in this natural covering of the body.
Fig. 68.
Fig. 1)8. 1, 1, The lines or ridges of the cuticle, cut perpendicularly. 2, 'i, 2, 2, 2, The
ftirrows or wrinkles of the same. 3, The cuticle. 4, 4, The colored layer of th«
cuticle. 5, 5, The culis vera. 6, G, 6, fi, 6, Tl'o papilte, each of which ansv.'era to
the lines on the ex'yrnal surface of the skin. 7, 7, Small fu:-rowa between the pa-
pilltB, 8, 8, 8, 8, The deeper furrows between each couple of the ;>!ipilItD. 9, 9, l^ells
filled wit!< fat. 10, 10, 10, The adipose layer, with numerous fat vesicles. 19, Two
hairs 13, A perspiratory gland, with its spiral duct. '4, Another perspirator>' gland,
with a duct less spiral. 15, 15, Oil-glands with ducts opening into the sheath of th«
hair, (12.)
341. Wliat is the use of the oil-glands ? 342. What is the use of the
perspiratory ghinds ? How mauy of these glauds with ducts upon every
square inch of skin f
PHTSIOLOaY OF THE SKIN. 121.
343. In hialth, these glands are in constant action, and the
skin is moist. When this moisture cannot be seen, it is called
insensible perspiration. When it can be seen in drops, it in
called sensible perspiration.
Experiment. Put the hand into a cold, dry, glass jar, or any
glass vessel, and wind arou: r the wrist and mouth of the jar a
handkerchief. In a few minutes, the inside of the jar will be
covered with moisture from the hand.
344. The function of these gl!\n<ls is very necessary to
health. During twenty-four hours, from twenty to thirty ounces
of waste, useless matter pusses out of the body by these ducts,
or through the pores of the skin.
345. If perspiration is suppressed from disorder of the skin
or cold, the whole of this injurious matter is circulated through
the system by the blood, disturbing the action of the lungs,
stomach, and other organs.
346. Many cases of chronic coughs, headache, dyspepsia,
and diarrhoea, originate in this way. If any one organ of tno
system has been weakened, this organ is more susceptible of
disease than others. Ji persons whose lungs are weak or
diseased, a chill will immediately cause an irritation and often
inflammation of these organs. If an individual is predisposed
to stiffness of the joints and rheumatic pains, a chill will affect
these diseased parto.
343. When is perspiration called insensible ? When ser siblc ? 344. How
many ounces of waste matter pass through the skin in twenty-four hours ?
"'''^5. What is the effect if perspiration is " checked " ? 34<J. What is the
result if any oigz-u of the body is weakened or diseased ?
Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the skin be reviewed from
fig. es. or froao anatomical outline plate 9.
u
122 ANATOMY^ FHlSIOLOtY, AND BTG1£N1.
CHAPTER XXVI.
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN.
347. The sensibility of the skin, and the activity of the oil
and perspiratory glands, are modified by the condition of the
cuticle, the temperature of the skin and body, the purity and
warmth of the air, and the character of tba light to which the
body is exposed.
348. To maintain a healthy action of every part r is
membrane, attention to clothing, bathing, light., c ad air, ^ of
great practical importance.
349. Clothing, in itself, does not bestow heat, but is chiefly
useful in preventing the escape of heat from the body, and in
defending it from the temperature of the atmosphere. In select-
hig and applying clothing to our persons, the following sugges-
tions should be observed.
350. The material for clothing should be a bad conductor of
heat ; tha i is, it should have little tendency to conduct, or remove
heat from the body. This depends on the property possessed
by the material in retaining atmospheric air in its meshes.
351. Moisture renders clothing a good conductor of heat
Thus all articles of apparel should not only be non-conductors
of heat, but should not possess the property of absorbing and
retammg moisture.
347—373. Give the hygient of the akin. 347. "What influences modify
the action of the oil and perspiratory glands ? 348. To what must atten«
tion be given to maintain a healthy action of the skin ? 349. Does clothing
bestow heat ? What is its use ? 350. Mention a property that the vnaterial
for clothing should possess ? 351. What property in the selection of
elothing should we aroid?
"'M».^ii ). p,w*Li ■ "^ T^TT ■Mi'rT ;irT»^'T"^T^^v^' ^ '
HYGIENE OF ?HE SKIN. 123
352. Woollen cloth retains more a'r in its meshes ihdii any
other article except furs, and it absorbs but very little moisture.
Consequently, it is an excellent article for clothing.
353. Cotton contains less air in its meshes than woollen, but
much more than linen. In texture, it is smoother than wool,
and less liable to irritate the skin. This fabric absorbs moisture
in a small degree. In all respects, it is well adapted for gar-
ments worn next the skin.
354. The clothing should be of a porous character. The
skin is not only an important agent in separating from the blood
those impurities that otherwise would oppress the system and
occasion death, but it exercises great influence in respiration.
Consequently, the apparel should be made of a material that
will permit the air to pass through its meshes.
355. Thi clothing should be not only porous^ but fitted
loosely. The garments should retain a layer of air between
them and the body. Every one is practically aware that a
loose dress is much warmer than one which fits closely ; that
a loose glove, boot or shoe, afford greater warmth than those of
smaller dimensions.
356. More clothing is necessary when a vital organ is
diseased. When vital organs, as the lungs, heart, «Sic., are
diseased, less heat is generated in the body. For this reason,
in consumption, dyspepsia, and even headache, the skin is pale
and the extremities cold.
357. Mfire clothing is required in the evening than during
the day. In the evening we have less vital energy, and, there-
fore, less heat is generated in the system, than in the early part
of the day ; beside, the atmosphere is damp, the skin has
become moist from perspiration, and heat, in consequence, ia
rapidly removed from the body. For this reason, when re«
352. Give the properties of woollen cloth. 353. What are the quali-
ties of cotton as an articlo of dress ? 3.54. Why should 4he material for
clothing he porous ? 3.55. W hy should garments be fitted loosely ?
8.56. Why do we need more clothing when the lungs or brain is diseased?
867. Why uo we need more clothing in the eveniuij than during the day ?
. .. JJWJfJWi
124 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANI' HYGIENE.
turning from crowded assemblies, we should be provided with
an extra garment.
358. A person of active habits requires less clothing tha*
one of sedentary employments ; for exercise increases the cir
culation of the blood, which is always attended with the disen
gagcment of a greater quantity of heat; consequently, an
increase of warmth is felt throughout the system.
359. An excessive^ as well as an insufficient, amount of
clothing is alike injurious. The custom of wearing an undue
amount on some parts of the body, and leaving exposed the
arms and upper part of the chest, cannot be too highly
censured.
360. The clothing should he kept clean. No article of ap-
parel is entirely free from absorption ; even wool and cotton
possess it in a small degree. They take up a portion of the
perspired fluids, and thus the fibres of the cloth become covered
with the waste matter contained in the perspiration. A neglect
of a frequent change of apparel, is one cause of disease with
many pei*sons, particularly the poorer classes in the community.
361. The clothing in which loe sleeps as well as beds and
bed-clothes, should be aired every day. If this is not done, the
moist bedding will cause a chill, and the perspired matter may
be carried into the system of the next occupant. Many dis-
eases are thus contracted.
362. When the clothing has become wet, it is best to change
it immediately. The skin should then be nibbed with a dry,
crash towel, until reaction, indicated by redness, is produced.
If the garments are not changed, the person should exercise
moderately, so that sufficient heat may continue to be generated
in the system to dry the clothing and skin without a chill.
358, Why does the active lahorer require less clothing than a person of
sedentary employment ? 3;39, Is too much as well as too little clothing
injurious ? 360. Why should the clothing be kept clean ? What arises
from neglect of a frequent change of apparel ? 361. Why should beds and
bed-clothes that arc used be aired everv day ? 302. What ia neoessaxy
when the clothing has become wet
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN LA»
^3. Changes of dress^from thick to thin^ should always he
made in the mornings for then the vital powers are in full play.
Sudden changes in wearing apparel, as well as in food and
general habits, are attended with hazard ; and this is propor-
tionate to the weakness or exhaustion of the body when the
change is J^ade.
364. Kathing is necessary, in order that the perspirable
matter may pass freely through the " pores" of the skin.
The whole body should be bathed frequently, as perspira-
tion is not confined to the face and hands.
365. Cold water — or water at about seventy degrees in
summer, and eighty degrees in winter — is more strengthening
to the system than water that is warmer.
366. No person should bathe when the body is fatigued,
either by mental or physical labor, or immediately after a
meal. The best time for bathing, particularly for sick per-
sons, is about two hours after breakfast. Persons in hcallii
may bathe in the morning, or in the evening.
367. The sponge bath is, perhaps, the simplest and best
method of bathing. In this but a small portion of the surface
of the skin is exposed to the air, and the brisk rubbing that
immediately follows the wet sponge, prevents a chiil of the
skin. No colds would be contracted in bathing, if persons
.vould wipe dry, and use friction with a coarse towel or flesh-
brush, until redness or warmth of the skin is produced.
368. The air is an agent of importance in the functions of
the skin. It imparts to this membrane oxygen, and receives
from it carbonic acid. It also removes from it a large portion
of the perspiration and the more fluid portions /)f the oily mat-
ter. In order that the air may accomplish these ends, it is
363. When should changes in Jresa from thick to thin be made ? Why ?
864. What is said of the necessity of bathing ? 36.5. What temperature of
water is best for the system ? 3G6. When should persons not bathe ?
When is the best time for b...tiing? 367. What method is the simplest
for bathing ? How are colds prevented when bathing ? 368. What is said
of the influerce of the air on the functions of tte skin ?
. .^ 11 ♦ , .
12'> ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOG\ iWD HYGIENE.
neiessary that it come in contact with the body. This is one
of the many reasons why we sliould wear loose and porous
clothing.
3H9. LiRHT exercises a salutary inPuence upon the skin.
Thus wo see, that those individuals who labor in low, damp,
dark rooms, are pale and sickly. The light, permeating the
skin, not only exercises a salutary influence upon this mem-
brane, but upon the blood, and, through this fluid, upon tho
whole system.
370. This established fact shows how important it is that
school-houses, mechanics' shops, kitchens, and sitting-rooms,
be not only well ventilated, but favorably situated to receive
light. For the same reasons, the kitchen and the sitting-room,
which are the apartments most used by ladies, should be se-
lected from the most pleasant and well-lighted rooms in the
house.
371. When any portion of the skin has been frozen, apply
ice, snow, or cold water. The fire and a warm room should
be avoided. If the frozen parts blister, treat them as you
would burns.
372. In scalds and burns, when there is no blister, or if one
is formed, and the external skin is not broken, apply cold water,
as Lng as the smarting pain continues. After the pain has
subsided, cover the blistered part with a patch of cotton or linen
cloth, on which is spread lard and bees-wax.
373. If the external skin is removed, apply lime-walei
mixed with "sweet oil," fresh cream, or lard and bees-wax.
When the dressings are applied, they should not be removed
until they become dry and hard.
369. Show the effect of light on the skin. 370. What is said of the se-
lection of those rooms that are the most used? 371. What should ue
applied when th9 skin is frozen? What should be avoided? 372. In
scalds or burns, what is necessary if a blister is formed ? 373. What la
necessary if the oxte-nal skin is removed? How often should the dre»»
lings be removed ?
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 127
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
374. In the precediug chapters, the structure and use of the
bones and muscles have been explained, the process by which
the food is converted into chyle and mixed with the blood,
together with the manner by which this fluid is conveyed to
every part of the body, has been described.
375. It has also been shown, that lymphatic aosorption com-
mences as soon as nutrition is completed, and conveys the
useless, worn-out particles of the different parts back into the
circulating fluid ; while the respiratory organs and secretory
glands perform the work of preparing the waste atoms to be
conveyed from the body. These functions must succeed each
other in proper order ; and such is the mutual dependence of
these processes, that a medium of communication is necessary
from one organ to another. This is effected by means of the
Nervous System.
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
376. The nervous system is composed of the Brain^
Cranial Nerves, Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and the Sym-
pathetic Nerve.
377. The brain is a pulpy organ v.^ithin the skull-bones.
The upper and front portion is called the Cer'e-brum. The
lower portion, situated at the back part of the skull, is callt^d
the Cer-e-bel'lum.
874. "What has heen described in the preceding chapters? 375. Wlat
has also been shown ? 376 — 388. Give the anatomy of the nervous system
376. Of what is the nenrous system composed ? 377. Describe the brain
J2b
ANATOMY, rilVSIOLOGV, AND IITQIENB.
378. The cerebrum, or larger portion of the brain, is com
posed of a whitish suhstancc, with an irregular border of gray
matter around its edges.
379. The cerebellum is also composed of white and gray
matter, but the latter constitutes the largest portion. The white
matter is so arranged, that when cut vertically, the appearance
of tba trunk and branches of a tree {ar'hor vi'ta) is presented
Fig. 6'?.
Fig 69. a, a, The scalp turned down. A, h, b, The cut ed^es of the bones cf Ilia
Hkiill. c, Tbe external membrane of the brain suspended by a hook, d, The left 8ia<;
of the brain, showing its convolutions.
380. The brain is surrounded by three membranes. The
external membrane is thick and firm ; the middle membrane is
thin, and looks somewhat like a spider's web ; the inner mem*
brane consists of a net-work of blood-vessels.
378, Describe the cerebrum. 379. Describe the cerebellum. 380. Wbat
is taid of the membranes of the brain ? What does fig. 69 represent ?
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
1211
381. On removing the upj)er part of the sku.l-honcs and
f^einbranes, the brain presents an undulating, folded appear-
ance. These ridges are called con-vo-lu'tions.
382. The spinal cord is composed of a whitish substance,
similar to that of the brain. It is covered with a sheath, or
membrane, and extends from the brain tli rough the whole
length of the spinal column. The upper portion, within tlw»
filiull-bones, is called the me-duVla oh-lon-ga'ta.
Fig. 70.
Fig. 70. A section of the brain and spinal cord, showing the relation of the cmntaJ
nerves to these organs. 1, The cerebrum. 2, Tlie cerebellum, with its arbor vitM
rtpresfnted. 3, The medulla oblongata. 4, The spinal cord. 6 The first pair, ot
nerve of smell. 7, The second pair, or nerve of siglit. 9, 10, 12, The third, fourth,
and sixth pairs of nerves. Tlicse pass to the muscles of the eye. II, The fiflh pair,
cr nerve of taste, and also the sensitive nerve of the teeth. 13, i'he seventh pair
This passes to the muscles of the face. 14, The eighth pair, or nerve of hearing
15, 16, 18, 19, The ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth pairs. These pass to th*. tODgu«,
larynx, and neck. 20, Two spinal nerves. ^
381. What is the appearance of the brain when the skull-bones anJ n»era«
branes are removed ? What are they called ? 382. Describe the spinal
oord. What is the medulla oblongata ? Explain fig. 70.
130
ANATCMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
383. The nerves are small, while cords, that pass from the
biain and spinal cord. They are distributed to ev^ ;y part of
the human system.
38-4. The ckanial nerves, that connect with the base of the
brain, are arranged in twelve pairs. Tliey are generally dis-
tributed to the parts about the face.
385. The spinal nerves, that connect with the spinal cord,
are arranged in thirty-one pairs, each arising by two roots ; uu
anterior, or motor root ;, and a posterior, or sensitv^e root.
Fig. 71. A, The spinal cord, surrounded by its sheath, (E, E.) B, A spinal nerve,
foriiied by the union of the motor rixit, (C,) and the sensitive root, (D.) At D, th«
gaiiglioM, or linot, upon tliis root is seen.
38G. Every nerve, however small, contains two distinct cords
of nervous matter. One gives feeling, while the other is used
in the motion of the part to which they are distributed.
^•^T. The SYMPATiiKTic nerve consists of a series of
^' .„gli-ay or knots, extending each side of the spinal column,
forming a chain its whole length. It communicates with both
the cranial and spinal nerves, and likewise distributes branchen
to all the intc' nal organs.
383. What are nerves? 384. What is said of the cranial nerves?
385. "What is said respecting the spinal nerves ? 386. What does every
aerre contala ? Describe fig. 71. 387. Describe the sympathetic nerve.
rRTAIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYUTEM 131
CHAPTER XXVIII.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
388. The brain is the organ of the mind. To the cc^bnim,
01 large brain, the facuhies of thinkings memory^ and the will,
arc ascribed. In the human body, this part of the bmin extends
so far backward as to cover the whole of the cerebellum. To
the cerebellum, or little brain, is ascribed the seat of the animal^
or loicer propensities.
389. The brain is the seat of sensation. It perceives tho
impressions made on all parts of the body, through the medium
of the sensitive nerves. That the impressions of external
objects, made on these nerves, be communicated to the brain,
where sensation is perceived, it is necessary that they be not
diseased or injured.
390. There is a plain distinction between sensations and im-
pressions ; the latter are the changes produced in the extremiiies
of the nerve ; the former, the changes produced in the brain
and communicated to the mind.
391. What part of the brain receives the impressions, or has
the most intimate relation with the intellectual faculties, is un-
known. Some portions, however, are of greater importance
than others. Pif;ces of both the white and gray matter, have
been removed by injuries without impairing the intellect or
destroying life.
388—394. Give the Junctions of the brain. 388. "What is said of the brain ?
What is ascribed to the cerebrum ? To the cerebellum ? 389. Wherr i«
sensation peiceived ? Through what medium are the impressions of exter-
nal objects conveyed to the brain ? 390. What is the difference between
oenaations and impressions? 391. Is it known what part of the brain kM
the most intimate relation with the intellectual faculties i
182 ANATOMY, PJIYSIOLOGY, AND HYQIENK.
392. This or^aii, ullhough it tukes cogni/ruicc of every sen*
Ballon, is, of itself, but slightly sensible. It may be cut oi
removed wilhout pain, and the individual, at tlie satne time,
retain his consciousue^s. The medulla oblongata, unlike the
brain, ia highly s'.;nsitive ; if slightly punctured, convulsions
follow ; if much injured, respiration, or breathings immediately
ceases
393 The brain is the seat of the vnll. The contraction, or
TiKivernent of the muscles, is caused by an influence sent from
the brain by the act of the mind, or the will. The medium of
communication from this organ to tlio muscles, is the motor
nerves. If the brain is in a state of repose, the muscles are at
rest; if, by an act of the will, the brtiin sends a portion of
nervous influence to a muscle, it immediately ci.iiracts, and
those parts to which the muscle is attached, move.
394. The sympathetic nerve, although it confers, neither
Bensibility nor power of movement, yet it gives vitality, or life,
to all the important parts of the system. Every portion of the
body is, to a certain extent, under its influence, as filaments
from this system of nerves accompany the blood-vessels through-
out their course. This establislies a union, or sympathy, with
the dilTerent organs of the body.
Uluslralion. When the brain is jarred by a blow, nausea
an<l vomiting follow. Again, when food is taken that irritates the
nerves of the stomacii, it produces headache, from the sympathy
of the brain with the stomach, through this system of nerves.
Pig. 72. A back view of the brain and spinal cord. 1, The cerebrum. 2, Ths
cerebellum. 3, The spiiiai cord. 4, Nervea of the face. 5, The brachial plexus, or
Huiiiu of nerves. 6, 7, 8, 9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nerves i\\^„ pass ureter the ribs.
11, The lumbar plexus of nervea. 12, The aacral plexus of nervea. l' 14, 1$, 16,
Nervea of the lower limba.
392. What is said of the sensibility of this organ ? Of the medulla
oblongata ? 393. Describe how the contraction of a muscle is effected.
294. What is said of the sympathetic nerve ? Explain fig. 72.
Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the nervous systeit be re
newed from fig. 72, or anatomical outline plate 8.
IMATOMT or run NKUVOUS BVaXUM
133
Fig. 72.
IS4 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
CHAPTER XXIX.
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
395. As the different organs of the system are dependent on
l/je brain and spinal cord for efficient functional action, and as
the mind and brain are closely connected during life, the former
acting in strict obedience to the laws which regulate the latter,
it becomes an object of great importance in education to dis-
cover what these laws are, and escape the numerous evils con-
sequent on their violation.
396. For healthy and efficient action^ the brain should Jc,
primarily^ sound ; as this organ is subject to the same general
laws as other parts of the body. If the brain of the child is
free from defects at birth, and acquires no improper impressions
m infancy, it will not easily become diseased in after life.
397. The brain requires a due supply of jmre blood. It is
estimated that one teuth of all the blood sent from the heart
goes to this organ. If the arterial blood be altogether vv^ith-
drawn, or a person breathes air that is filled with carbonic gas,
the brain ceases its proper action, and sensibility with con-
sciousness become extinct. The effects of slight differences in
the quality of the blood upon the action of the brain, are not so
easily recognized.
Illustration. Let a person remain, for a time, in a crowded,
ill-ventilated hall or ch -ch, and headache or faintness is gen-
emlly produced. This is caused by the action of impure blood
upon the brain.
89o — 408. Give the hygiene of the nervous system. 39.5. Why is it im-
portant to know the laws which regulate the action of the brain ? 396. "V\^^a♦
is necessary that ihe action of the brain be healthy s.r\d efficient ? 397. Why
does the brai;j require a due supply of pure blood i How is th^ Ulu»>
trated>
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS Si'STEM. 135
Ohservalion. if a school-teacher wishes to have his pupils,
on the day of examination, appear creditably, he will bo care-
ful to have the room well ventilated. Ventilating churches
might prevent the inattention and sleepiness that are observed
during the afternoon sorvice.
398. Tlie brain should be called into action. This organ,
like the muscles, should be used, and then allowed to rest, or
cease from vigorous thought. When the brain is properly
called into action by moderate study, it increases in size and
strength ; while, on the other hand, if it is not used, the action
of this organ is enfeebled, thereby diminishing the function of
all parts of the body.
399. The number of hours that the brain should be vigor-
ously used, depends on its development, and the general
he'ilth of the body. The child with a large brain and an active
mind, should not be induced to pursue studies above the
capacity of children generally. On the other hand, children
of sluggish minds, particularly if they have good health, should
be incited to study.
400. Excessive and continued mental exertion is injurious
at any time of life ; but in infancy and early youth, when the
structure of the brain is still immature and delicate, permanent
injury is more easily produced by incorrect treatment than al
nny subsequent period.
Observation. It is no unusual occurrence, that on " 'xam-
ination day," the best scholars appear indiflerently. Th's. is
the result of riervous exhaustion, produced by extra mental
effort in preparing for the final examination. Such pupils
should divert their ninds from study, for a few days previous
to examination. During this time, indulge in light read'ng and
physical recreation.
Give a practical observation. 39.S. AVHiy slioiild the brain be called into
tction ? What is the effect if the brain is not used ? 399. How long should
the brain be actively used ? What is said respecting the child fith a large
brain? Those of sluggish minds ? 4(J0. When is excessive and continued
mental exeTtion particularly injurious ? Give observation.
136 ANATOMY, I'HYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
401. We should not enter upon continued mental exertion^
or arouse deep feelings immediately after a full meal. Such
is the connection between the mind and body, that even in a
perfectly heahhy person, unwelcome news, sudden anxiety, or
mental excitement, occurring soon after eating, will impede
digestion, and cause the stomach to loathe the masticated food.
402. We should engage in intense study in the early part
of the day. Studies that require close application shouid ae
pursued in the morning. The evening should be devoted to
entertaining conversation, music, and light reading. This will
fit the system of the student for quiet and refreshing sleeo.
Observation. The idea of gathering wisdom by burning the
" midnight oil " is more poetical than profitable The best time
to use the brain is during the day.
403. Those whose employment is arduous, and the groioing
childy need more sleep than the idler or the adult. As sleep is
the natural repose of all organs, it follows that the more all the
organs of the system are employed, the more repose they
require The organs of the child, beside sustaining their proper
functions, are busy in promoting its growth. This nutritive
process is attended with a certain degree of exhaustion.
404. The condition of the brain is modified by changing
the action of the mind. If we think intensely of a subject,
the face will become flushed, and dizziness or pain of the
head will be induced. Change our thoughts to something
of a more trifling character, and these peculiar sensations
will cease.
405. The brain can exercise its full power vvon only one
object at a time. If its energies are directed to two oi more
opemtions, neither will receive that full power of exertion that
It would, if only one object had engaged the mind.
401. Why should we not arouse deep feeling immediately after a full
meal ? 402. When should we engage in intense study ? Give observation.
403. What persons require the most sleep ? 404. Show how the action of
the mind modifies the condition of the brain. 405. Why cannot tne biaia
exercise its full powers on more than one object at a time ?
HTGIENE OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 13^
406. Regularity is of great importance in calling the hrain
into action. Let us take our dinner at a certain hour for m v-
eral successive weeks, and we at last find our appetites indi-
cating its approach with the greatest regularity. The same is
true of the nervous system ; call it into action at regular periods,
and without previous thought, we enter upon that mode of
action when the time approaches. The formation of " habits "
are promoted by this principle.
407. Repetition is necessary to make a durable imvression
on the mind. Repetition of mental action is as important aa
repetition of muscul'^r action. It is by this means that thoughts
are durably impressed upon the brain. This principle has been
too much neglected in the moral and intellectual education of
children.
408. !n injuries of the brain, the person is generally insen-
sible, the extremities are pale and cold, the pulse feeble, and
the breathing is less frequent and full. When these symptoms
exist, the patient should be placed in pure air. Friction, with
dry warmth, should be applied to the extremities, to restore
proper circulation in the blood-vessels. There should be no
bleeding until the skin of the extremities becomes warm.
406. Should the brain be called into action at regular periods ? 407. Why
is repetition of mental action necessary ? 408. What is the effect on the
system when the brain is injured ? What is necessary to be done when
Buoh lymptoms exist?
12 •
138 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
CHAPTER XXX.
SENSE OF TOUCH.
409 Sensation is an impression made upon the mind
through the medium of the senses. There are five senses,
namely, Touchy Taste, Smell, Hearing, and Vision.
410. Touch is the sense that enables us to tell whether a
body is rough or smooth, cold or hot, sharp or blunt. This
sense and feeling reside in the nerves of the skin.
411. The nerves that contribute to the sense of touch, pro-
ceed from the anterior half of the spinal cord. Where sensa-
tion is most acute, we find th . greatest number of nervous
filaments, and those of the largest size, as at the ends of the
fingers and lips.
Observation. The sense of touch varies in different persons,
and also in individuals of different ages. Thus the sensibilities
of the child are rrnore acute than those of the adult.
412. This sense is modified by the condition of the braui
and nerves , by the quantity and quality of the blood supplied
to the skin ^ by the thickness of the cuticle ; and by cultivation.
Ohsenmtion. Blind persons, by whom the beauties of the
external world cannot be seen, cultivate this sense to such a
degree that they can distinguish objects with great accuracy ;
and the rapidity with which they read books prepared for their
use, is a convincing proof of the niceness and extent to which
the cultivation of this sense can be carried.
409. Through what medium are sensations received ? Name the senses.
410 — 412. \VJuit is said of the sense of touch f 410. What is touch?
411. Why is sensation acute at the ends of the fingeis and lips? What
Is said respecting the sense of touch in different persons ? 412. What
modify this sense ? What is said of blind persons ?
SENSE OF TASTB.
139
SENSE OF TASTE.
413. Taste is \he sense by which ws perceive the flavor or
relish of a thing. The tongue is the principal organ of taste,
though the sides of the cheeks, and upper part of the throat,
snare in this function.
414. The surface of the tongue is thickly studded with
papillae, or points ; these give this organ a velvety appearance.
To these points the gust'a-to-ry, or nerve of taste, is distributed.
•
Fig. 73.
Pig. 73. The distribution of the fifth pair of nerves. 1, The orbit for the ey
9, The upper Jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The lower jaw. 5, Tlie fifth pair of nerves
6, The first branch of tliis nerve, that passes tt the eye. 9, 10, 11, 19, 13, 14, Divi*
ions of this branch. 7, The second branch that p.tsses to tlie teeth of the tipper Jaw
J.*, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Divisions of this branch. 8, Tlie third branch that is distributed
to the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw. 33, The division of (his branch, callea
g\j;tatory, 24, The division that is distributed to the teeth of the lower jaw.
4l<3 — 419. What is said respecting the sense of taste f 413. Define taste.
What is the principal organ of taste ? 414. Where is the nerve of taata
distributed ? Explain fig. 73.
l-tO ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
Observation. By applying strong acids, as vinegar, to the
tongue, with a hair-pencil, these points will become curiously
lengthened.
415. Substances, to be tasted, nnust be either naturally fluid,
or partially dissolved by the saliva. When fluids are taken into
the n\outh the papillas dilate and erect themselves, and the
particular sensation excited is carried to the brain by the nerve
of taste. But if dry, solid food is taken, it must be acted upon
by the saliva before the impression is perceived.
416. The use of taste is to guide men and animals in the se-
lection of their food, and to warn ihem against the introduction
of injurious articles into the stomach. This sense lias been made
to vaiy more than any other by the refinements of social life.
417. The Indian's like or dislike to particular kinds of food,
generally extends to every person of the same tribe ; but among
civilized men, no two individuals can be found alike in all their
tastes.
418. This sense is modified by habit, and not unfrequenily
those articles which at first were disgusting, become highly
agreeable, by persevering in the use of them ; as in learning to
chew tobacco, &c.
419. Taste, as well as touch, may be improved in acuteness.
Those persons whose business leads them to judge of the quality
of an article by their taste, can discriminate shades of flavor
not perceivable by ordinary persons. Epicures, and tasters of
wines and teas, afford examples.
Observation. Many persons impair their taste by bad habits,
as chewing or smoking tobacco, and using stimulating drinks,
&c. These indulgences lessen the sensibility of the nerve, and
destroy the natural relish for food.
How can these points upon the tongue be seen ? 415. How must sub-
stances be, in order to be tasted ? Show how the taste of substances ia
perceived by the brain, 416. What is the use of taste ? What is said of
the difference among persons as regards taste ? 418. What effect has habit
on this sense ? 419. What effect has cultivation ? Give illustrative er-
unplefl. How may the taste be impaired ?
'-T"T7'"^^^n7"'''^*'*^'''"*'r7"r
SENSE OF SMELL.
14J
SENSE OF SMELL.
420. Smell is the sense that enables us to discern the odor,
or scent, of a thing. This sense is located in the air passages
of the nose.
421. The air passages, or nostrils, are lined by mucous
membrane, which is continuous with the skin exte/nally, and
with the lining membrane of othor cavities which communicate
with theni. To this membrane the ol-facl'o-ry^ or nerve of
smell, is distributed.
422. To protect the delicate filaments of the nerve of smell,
thus freely exposed to the air and to the painful stimulus of
sharp, pungent odors, the membrane is kept constantly moisi
by a fluid secreted by the glands, with which it is provided.
Fig. 74.
Fig. 74. A side view of the passages or the nostrils, and Hie distribution of the first
bdir of nerves. 4, The olfactory nerve 5, The fine and curious divisions of this
nerve on the membrane of the nose.
423. When substances are presented to the nose, the air
that is passing through the nostrils brings the odoriferous parti-
420—427. TMiat is said in reference to smell f 420. What is smell ? Wher?
is this sense located? 421. Describe the air passages of the nose. 422. How
are the filaments of the nerve of smell protected from pungent odors ?
Wliat does fig. 74 represent ? 42ii. llow is the odor of substance9 carried
to the brain ?
142 ANATOMF, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
cle8 of matter in contact with the filaments of tlie nerve of
smell, that are spread upon the membrane that lines the air
passages, and the impression is then carried to the brain.
424. This sense is closely connected with that of taste, and
aids man, as well as the inferior animals, in selecting proper
food. It also gives us pleasure by the inhalation of agreeable
odors.
425. The sense of smell, like taste and touch, may be im-
proved by cultivation. Thus the North American Indians can
easily distinguish different tribes, and different persons of lie
same tribe, by the odor of their bodies.
426. This sense is seen to be remarkably acute in the dog ;
he will trace his master's footsteps through thickly-crowded
streets, and distinguish them from thousands of others ; he will
track the hare over the ground for miles, guided only by the
odor that it leaves in its flight.
427. Acuteness of smell requires that the brain and nerve
of smell be healthy, and that the membrane that lines the nose
be thin and moist. Any influence that diminishes the sensibility
of the nervous filaments, thickens the membrane, or renders it
dry, impairs this sense.
Observation. Snvff, when introduced into the nose, not only
diminishes the sensibility of the nerve, but thickens the lining
membrane. This thickening of the membrane obstructs tlie
passage of air through the nostrils, and thus obliges " snuff-
takers" to open their mouths when they breathe.
424. What is the use of this sense ? 425. What is said of this sense
among the North American Indians ? 426. In the dog ? 427. What does
acuteness of smell require ? What will irapaj: this sense ? What efiect
nas imuff upon the nasal organ ?
8ENS£ OF VI&ION. 143
CHAPTER XXXI.
SENSE OF VISION.
428. This sense contributes more to the enjoyment and hap-
piness of man than any of the other senses. By it, we per-
ceive the form, color, size, and position of objects that surround
us. The beautiful organ of vision, or sight, is the Eye.
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION.
429. The eye is shaped like a globe, and is placed in a
cavity in front of the skull. The sides of the globes are com-
posed of three coats^ or membranes. The interior of the globe
is filled with certain substances called Hu'mors.
430. The coats are three in number : Ist. ^/The ScU-roi'ic
and Corn'e-a. 2d. The Cho'roid, Tris, and Cil'ia-ry processes,
3d. The Ret'i-na.
431. The HUMORS are also three in number: 1st. The
A*qvI-^\iSy or watery. 2d. The Crys'tal-line. 3d. The
Vit're-ous^ or glassy.
432. The sclerotic coat is firm, and its color white ; hence,
It is frequently called the " white of the eye." From its tough-
ness, it forms the principal support to this organ. This mem-
brane, with the cornea in front, encloses the eye.
433. The cornea is the transparent part of the eye in front,
which projects -nore than the rest of the globe. It is shaped
like the crystal of a watch, and, in health, gives the eye its
sparkling brilliancy.
428 — 449. Crive the structure of the different parts of the eye. 429. De-
joribe the eye. 430. Name the coats of the eye. 431. Name the humors
of the eye. 432. Describe the sclerutic coat. 433. Where is the cornea
situated ?
144 ANATOy.Y, PI1Y3I0L0GY, AND HYGIENE.
434. The CHOROID coat is of a dark color upon its inner
surface. It contains a great number of blood-vessels, which
give nourishment to diiFerent parts of the eye.
435. The iris is situated a short distance behind the cornea.
It is the most delicate of all the muscles of the body. This
pait gives the blue, gray, or black color to the eye.
436. In the centre of the iris is ar. opening called the jni'fi'd*
which enlarges or contracts, according to the quantity of liglit
that falls upon the eye.
Fig. 76.
Fig. 75. A section of the eye, Been il^om witliin 1, The divided edge of the thre«
conifl. 2, Tlie pupil. 3, The iria. 4, The ciliary procedses. 5, The acollopedl u>rdei
of the retina.
437. On viewing the part of the eye near the pupil, small
Hnes, of a lighter color, will be seen passing to the outer part of
the iris ; these are called ciliary processes. They are about
sixty in number.
438. The retina is the innermost coat of the eye. It is
* From pu pa, Latin, a babe ; because it reflccta the diminisliecl
image of the person who looks \ipon it.
434. Describe the choroid coat. 43<'5. Where is the iris situated? What
ia said of this coat ? 436. Wliere is the pupil of the eye ? Explain fig.
76. 437- Describe the ciliary processes. 43S. Give the structure of the in*
nermost coat of the eye.
SENSE OF VISION.
i4ft
formed, in part, by an expansion of the optic nerve over the
botton' of the eye, where ihe sense of vision is first received
439. The aqueous humor occupies the space between tho
coinea and crystalline humor, both before and behind the iria.
440. The crystalline humor (lens) lies behind tho aque-
ous humor and pupil. Its form is different on the two sides.
When boiled, it may be separated into layers like those of aii
onion
Observations. 1st. The lens in tho eye of a fish is ro'ind
like a gl<>be, and when boiled, it may be separated into layers,
resembUnjjf those of the liuman eye.
Fig. 76.
Pig. 7C. A section of the (jlobe of the eye. 1, The sclerotic cont. 2, The cornoa.
A liU coiiiiL-cis with the sclerotic co.-it by a bevelled edge. 3, Tlie choroid coat, d, 0, The
.ris. 7, The pupil. 8, Tlie retina. 10, 11, II, Chambers, or c.ivities of the eye thiit
contain the aqueous humor. 13, The crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous buniur.
25, The optic nerve. 14, 16, One of the arteries of the eye.
2d. When the crystalline lens, or the membrane which sur-
rounds it, is changed in structure, so as to prevent the rays of
light passing to the retina, the afToction is called a cataract.
441. The VITREOUS humor is situated in tlie back part of
439. Whei) is the aqueous humor found? 440. The crystalline humor ?
How can the structure of this lens be seen ? Explain fig. 76 441. Wliere
\m the vitreous humor situated ?
13
146 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGlENB.
the eye. It occupies more llian two thirds of the whole iuto.
rior of the globe of the eye.
Observation. The structure of this organ can be seen, by
first freezing the eye of a sheep, or un ox ; it then can be cut
in various directions, and each part separately examined.
442. The optic nekve, or nerve of vision, extends from
tl'.o brain to the back part of the eye, wliere it expands on a
portion of the cliuroid coat. On this expansion the iinige of
objects arc first formed.
Fig. 77.
Fig. 77. The second pair of nerves. 1, 1, The gh)l)e of the eye. The one on Um
loft is perfect, but the sclerotic coat has been removed from tiio one on the k'ght, to
•liow the retina. 3, The croHsing of the optic nerve. 3, 4, The brain. 5, 6, The
C4tininenceinent of the spinal cord. 7,8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, The cranial nerves.
4 '.3. The EYEBROWS and eyelids protect the eye from too
strong impressions of light, and also prevent particles of dust
and perspiration from falling into it.
How can the structure of the eye be seen ? 442. What is said of the
optic nerve ? AVhat is represented by tig. 77 ? 443. What is the use ot tha
vyebrows and eyelids ?
_,:;.■. -.-^KJi-'tr^^
SENSE OF VISION.
147
44-1. The EYELASHES are attached to the eyelids • and wlmn
iho eye is closed, they interlace, and thus prevent particles of
matter from injuring this delicate organ. They add very
greatlv to the expression of the eye.
445. The eyelids not only protect the eye, by closing it in
front, from too brilliant rays of light and from dust, but dis-
tribute eqtiiUy over the globe of the eye a watery fluid secreted
by glands, with which they are provided.
4-46. Beside this, there is another fluid, (tears,) secreted by
the lacli'ry-rnal, or tear-gland, above the eye. The tears flow to
the eye by several minute ducts. As this fluid passes over the
eye, the small atoms of dust are swept away, by the process
of "winking," and with the tears pass into two ducts at the
inner corner of both eyelids.
Fig. 78.
Fig. 78. 1, The tear-gland. 9, The ducts tliat pass from this glard to the eys
3, 3, DucU at the inner corner of the eyelids. 4, The duct tliat opens into the nose.
447. These small ducts usjally convey the tears away as quick-
.y as they are formed ; but when the eye is irritated, or the mind
444. "What is the use of the eyelashes ? 445. Give another use of these
protecting parts of the eye. 416 Where are tears formeJ ? Wliat is the
tne of tears? What does fig. 78 represent ? 447. What is the effect when
the eye is irritated ?
148
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENA
affected bj- various emotions, they flow to the eye too iipidlj to
oe conveyed to the nose, and they then course down the cheek.
448. The ORBIT, or bony cavity, m which the globe of the
eye is placed, is hned with a thick cushion of fat, in order that
the eye may move in all directions, with perfect freedom ana
without friction. •
449. The eye is moved by six muscles, one extremity of
which is attached to the bones of the orbit ; the other extrem-
ity to the globe of the eye.
Fig. 79.
Pig 79. A view of the eye and Its muscles, a, b, e, d, e, Five of these muscles.
/, The optic nerve. The bono is seen above and below the eye.
Observation. If the external muscle is too short, the eye is
turned out, producing the "wall eye." If the internal muscle
is contracted, the eye is turned inward toward the nose. It \a
then called a " cross eye."
448. How lire the raoverncnts of the eye facilitated ? 449. How many
muscles move the <^ye ? Wluit is the effect if the external muscle is con*
Iracted ? The iiiteruul muscle ?
"^
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION.
149
CHAPTER XXXII.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION.
450. As the eye is strictly an optical instniment, it is neces-
sary to know the laws that regulate the transmission of light,
before the use of the different parts of this organ can bo
understood.
451. It is a law of optics, that the rays of light, while passing
through the same medium, proceed in straight lines ; but that
they are turned out of their course when they pass from one
medium to another of different density. They are then said to
be refracted.
Kg. 80.
Fig 90. The course of the ray« of light coming fVom an object and passing through
the eye. A, A pen, an inverted image of which is painted on the retina of the eye,
at B.
452. Another law is, that the rays of light, as they become
more distant from the luminous body, diverge, or extend farther
from each other. We would also add, that the rays of light
f-om an object, in passing through the eye, cross each other.
Hence, the image of the object is inverted on the retina.
450 — 454. G-ive the ph/swIo<jy of the organs of vision. 450. What is
necessary before the use of the different parts of the eye can be understood ?
451. Give the first law in reference to light. What is represented by fig. 80 ?
452. The secord law. Why is the image of objects inverted on the retina?
13 •
150 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
453. \\ e will now pass to the use of the diflcrent parts of
the eye. The eyebrows, eyelids, and eyelashes, are pro*
tooting organs to tnis delicate instrument ; while the coats give
form and protection to the more delicate parts within.
4M. The transparent cornea and humors are mediums of
diflerent density ; so that the direction of the rays of light that
leave the object at which we look, are refracted and form upon
the retina a small, but clear image of that object. The im-
pression of the image upon the retina, is then carried to the
brain by the optic nerve.
Observations. 1st. When the cornea and crystalline lens
become flattened, as in old age, the image is loimed beyond
the retina. This defect is remedied by wearing convex glasses.
2d. When the cornea and crystalline lens are too convex,
hn image of the object will be formed before the retina. This
defect of the eye is called near-sightedness. To give such
persons longer vision, it is necessary to wear concave glasses.
HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF VISION.
455. The eye, like other organs of the hody, should be used^
and then rested. If we look intently at an object for a long
time, the eye becomes wearied, and the power of vision dimin-
i.«hed. On the contrary, if the eye is not called into action, its
functions are enfeebled.
4.56. Sudden transitions of light should be avoided. The
irii enlarges or contracts, as the light that falls upon the eye is
faint or strong; but the change is not instantaneous. Hence the
453. ^Vhat parts of the eye are used to protect this aelicate organ ?
To give it form ? 454. What is said of the use of the cornea and humors ?
Whntt do persons need convex glasses ? When concave ? 455 — 461. Give
the h"jiene of the organs of vision. 455. How should the eye be used ?
What '8 the eflect of using the eye too long ? Of not calling it into action ?
456. What should be avoided in using the eye ?
JVr>'«i. Review the anatomy and physiology of the eye from €g. 76,
or fio->u anatomical outline plate 10.
/
/■/
: r
1
f
<■
>
,'
>
HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 151
imperfect vision in passing from a strong to a dim light, and the
overwhelming sensation experienced on goiig from a dimly
lighted room to one brilliantly lighted.
457. As far as possible^ avoid all oblique positions of the
eye, when viewing objects. If the eye is turned obliquely in
viewing objects, it may produce an unnatural contraction of the
muscle called into action. This contraction of the muscle is
called strabismus; or cross-eye.
458. Children should be trained to use the eye upon objects
at dijerent distances. This is necessary, in order that the
vision may be correct when objects at various distances are
viewed, as the eye accommodates itself to receive impressions
from objects remote as well as near.
459. When particles of dust get upon the eye, the individual
should be placed before a strong light, the lids held open, and
the particles removed with the corner of a fine linen or silk
handkerchief. Sometimes the substance is concealed under
the upper eyelid, and it may be then exposed by turning back
the lid in the following manner.
460. Take a knitting-needle, or small, slender piece of stick,
which is perfectly smooth, and place it over the upper lid, in
contact with and just under the edge of the orbit ; then, holding
it firmly, seize the lashes with the fingers of the disengaged
hand, and gently turn the lid back over the stick.
461. Too many trials ought not to be made, if unsucoesstUi,
as much inflammation may be induced ; but a surgeon ought
to be consulted as soon as possible. Eye-stones ought never
to be placed in the eye, as they often cause more irritation
than the evil which they are intended to remedy.
457. Wliat should be avoided in viewing objects ? 458. Why should we
▼lew objects at different distances ? 4"59. What should be done whfa
particles of dust get npon the eye ? 460. How can particles of dust b»
removed from the upper eyelid ? 461. What should be avoided ?
152 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENB.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
SENSE OF HEARING.
462. The sense of hearing is next in importance to that of
vision. Through this sense we are enabled to perceive sounds,
that not only subserve to our connfort and pleasure, but are
instrumental to our intellectual enjoyments. The organ of
hearing, or the Ear^ is one of the most complicated in the
human body.
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING.
463. The ear is composed of three parts: 1st. The Ex-
ter'nal ear. 2d. The Tym'pan-um^ or middle ear. 3d. The
Lah'y-rinth^ or internal ear.
464. The external ear presents many ridges and furrows,
arising from the folds of the cartilage that form it. A ftT.nel-
shaped tube extends from the external to the middle ear.
Observation. Many animals have small muscles that move
the external ear, in order to catch sounds from every direction.
The hare, rabbit, and horse, afford good examples.
465. At the internal extremity of the tube, is a thin, semi-
transparent membrane, that separates the external from the
middle ear. It is called mem'hra-na tym'pan-i^ or drum of
tlie ear. This and the bitter wax found around the hairs in the
tube, prevent insects from entering the head.
466. The middle ear is connected with the internal and
■ ' ^ ' ■ ■ ■ '~ III — I — —I I . I M
462. What is said of the sense of hearing ? 463 — 478. Give the anatomy
of the cn-gans of hearing . 463. Name the parts of the ear. 464. Describe th«
external ear. What is said of the ears of horses, rabbits, &c. ? 465, De-
scribe the drum of the ear. 4o6. How is the m.ddle ear connected TritA
.He internal cavity ?
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING.
153
most important cavity, by four small bones, which are the most
delicate and beautifully shaped bones in the body. These are
so arranged, as to form a chain from the drum of the ear to
the labyrinth.
467. From the middle ear, a tube opens Into the back part
of the throat, called Eu-sta'chi-an^ which admits air into this
part of the ear. If this tube is closed by disease of the throat,
hearing is impaired.
Fig. 81.
Fig. 81. a, The external ear. e, The tube that leads to the middle ear g, The
drum of the ear. «, K, The middle ear. ft, /, A, The internal ear. i, The tube tha«
leads U' the throat d, The auditory nerve.
468. The internal ear is very intricate, and the uses of
Its various parts are not well known. It is called the labyrinth^
from its many windings. This part of the ear is composed of
a three-cornered cavity, called the ves'ti-bule., the coch'le-a^
(fPDin its resembling a snail shell,) and the sew- i-ct>'cM-/ar canals.
467. What tube opens into the middle ear ? What is its use ? Explaii
fig. 81. 468 Describe the internal ear.
\b4
ANATOIttY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE
4'/<9. The internal ear is the only part that is absolutely
essential in hearing. Other parts, already described, may be
removed, and yet the person may hear.
Fig. 82.
Fig. fi?. A view of the labyrinth laid open. This figure Is highly magnified
I, 1, Tlie coclilea. Q, 2,3, 3, Two channels, that wind two and a half turns around
B central point, (5.) 7, The central portion of the labyrinth, called the vestibule.
II, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, The semicircular canals. The cochlea and semicircular
canals open into the vestibule.
470. The auditory nerve, or nerve of hearing, proceeds
from the brain, and expands upon the membrane that lines the
internal ear, similar to the expansion of the optic nerve.
469. Wliat part of the ear is absolutely essential in hearing ? What does
fig. 82 represent ? 470. Describe the auditory nerre.
. ^
PHT3T01.OOY OF THE ORGANS OP HEARING 155
CHAPTER XXXIV.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING
471. Hearing is that function by which we ootain a knowl-
edge of the vibratory motions of bodies, which constitute
sounds. The precise function of all the different parts of the
ear are not known.
472. The function of the external ear, is to collect sounds
and reflect them into the tube that connects the external with
the middle ear. The " membrana tympani " receives all the
impressions of the air which enter the tube, and conveys them
to the bones of the ear. It also serves to moderate the in-
iensity of sound.
473. The supposed office of the middle ear, is to carry the
vibrations made on the membrana tympani to the internal ear.
This is effected by the air which it contains, and by the chain
of small bones that are enclosed in this cavity.
474. But little is known of the functions of the internal ear ;
its parts are filled with a watery f\uid in which the filaments of
the auditory nerve terminate.
475. The auditory nerve, like the optic, has but one function,
that of special sensibility, or transmitting sound to the brain.
The nerves which furnish the ear with ordinary sensibility,
proceed from the fifth pair.
476. The transmission of sound through the different parts
471 — 476. Give the use of the organs of hearing. 471. "Wliat is hearing ?
472. What is the function of the external car ? Of the drum of the ear \
473. "What is the use of the middle ear ? 474. What is said of the func-
^ons of tne intoical ear ^ 475. Of the auditory nerve ?
jrjii
156
4NA70M5r, PHYSIOLOGY, AND n\GlEU£.
of the eai, will now be explained by the aid of fig. 83. The
vibrations of tlie air are collected by the external ear, and
conducted through the tube (1) to the membrana tympani, (2.)
Fig. 83.
Pig. 83. A view of all the parta of the ear. 1, The tube that leads to th» in! tea]
ear. 2, Tlie ineinbraua tympani. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 7, The centra' part
of the labyrinth named the vestilmie. 8,9,10, The semicircular canals. 11,18 Th<»
channels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory norve. 14, The channel from the mid-
dle ear to the throat, (eusjtachian tube.) 15, The chorda tyin-fUtui nerve. 16. The
Btyloid process. 17, The seventh pair of nerves, (facial.) 16, The mastoid pkocoas
of the temporal bone.
From the membrana tympani the vibrations pass along the
chain of bones, (3, 4, 5.) The bone (5) communicates with
the internal ear, (7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12.) From
the internal ear the impression is carried to the brain by the
auditory nerve, (13.)
Nnte. Let the pupil review the anatomy abd physiology of the ear &oi»
fig. 83, or from anatomical outline plate 10.
HTQIENK OF THE ORGANS OF HEAHINO. 157
HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING
477. Hearing, like the other senses, is capable of very ^/eai
improvement. By cultivation, the blind are enabled to judge
with great accuracy the distance of bodies in motion. It is also
capable of 'mprovement when all the other senses are perfect.
Thus the Indian will distinguish sounds that cannot be heard
jy the white man.
478. If this sense is destroyed in early Ufe, the person
also loses the power of articulating words. Hence a man
born deaf is always dumb.
479. Acute hearing requires perfection in the structure and
functions of the different parts of the ear, and that portion of
the briin from which the auditory nerve proceeds.
480. The common causes of impaired hearing, are a thick-
ening of the membrana tympani of the ear, an accumulation
of wax upon its exterior surface, a closure of the eustachian
tube, disease of the brain, palsy of the auditory nerve, and
destruction of the middle and internal ear.
481. It is injurious to put the heads of pins into the ear, as
they frequently cause inflammation. The wax can be softened
by dropping into the tube some oil, and in a few hours remove
it, by ejecting warm soap-suds into the ear.
Observation. When worms and insects find their way into
the tube of the external ear, they can usually be driven out, by
dropping in warm olive-oil.
477 — 481. Give the hygiene of the organs of hearing. 477. Show how the
faculty of hearing is capable of improvement. 478. "What follows the los*
of hearing in early life ? 479. On what does acute hearing depend }
480. State some of the causes of impaired hearing. 481, What caution ia
given respecting the use of pins in the ear ? How can insects be removed
("om the ear ?
14
1 58 ANATOMY, rnVSlOLOGY, AND nVGIENB
CHAPTER XXXy.
MEANS or rRESEllViNO THE HEALTH.
482. Our bodies are constituted according to certain laws,
and every person should learn these, in order to regulate hia
actions and duties, so that the health may he unimpaired, and
the power of enjoyment, activity, and usefulness continue while
life lasts.
483. It is a law of the muscles, that they should either be
used in some occupation, or called into action by some social
j)lay and active sport. (See Chap. VIII.)
484. All admit that food is necessary to sustain life; and
unless it be of a proper quality, taken in proper quantities, and
at proper times, the functions of the digestive organs will bo
deranged, and disease produced. (See Chap. XII.)
485. Pure air is essential to the full enjoyment of health.
The close, impure air of heated rooms and crowded assemblies
may be breathed, and the effect be so gradual as not to arrest
attention ; yet it is a violation of the physical laws. (See
Chap. XXI.)
486. The body also requires sleep ; and if it is not taken at
the right time, or with regularity, we do not feel a full reiVesh-
ment from " tired nature's sweet restorer." Let youth be taught
that " early to bed and early to rise " gives him health and its
attendant blessings. The brain, like other organs of the body,
should be called into action at proper times. (See Chap. XXIX, )
482. Why is it incumbent on every person to learn the laws of health ?
483. Give a law of the muscles. 484. In preserviLg the health, why is it
necessary to give attention to the food which is eaten ? 48^. What beside
food is essential to the full enjoyment of health ? What is said of the im-
Dure air of heated rooms and crowded assemblies ? 48G. What shi^uld \)«
3l>served 'n regard to sleep ?
REMOVAL OF DJ EASE. 159
487. From the extent of the surface of the skin, and th«»
close sympathy that exists between it and those organs whose
ofTice IS to remove the waste particles of matter from the body,
it is, therefore, very important in the preservation of the health,
that tlie functions of this membrane be properly maintained.
(See Chap. XXVI.)
REMOVAL OF DISEASE.
4S8. It is seldom that a physician is called in the first sta{.^e8
of disease. At this period, the treatment adopted should bo
proper and judicious, or the suflbrings of the patient are in-
creased, and life, to a greater or less degree, is jeopardized.
Hence the utility of knowing what should be done^ and what
should not be done, in order that the health may be rapidly
regained.
489. In all instances of acute disease, it is proper to rest,
not only the body, but the mind. To efTcct this, the patient
should cease from physical exertion, and also withdraw his
thoughts from study and business operations. This should be
done, even if the person is but slightly indisposed.
490. Select a room for a sick person that is exposed to as
little external noise as possible, as impressions made on the
ear greatly influence the nervous system. Likewise select a
spacious, well-ventilated apartmeni, that has no superfluous
furniture. The practice of placing a sick person in a small,
ill-arranged sleeping-room, when a more spacious room can be
used, is poor economy, not to aay unkind.
491. Care is necessary in regulating the light of a sick-room.
While a strong light would produce on increased action of the
vessels of the brain, on the contrary, a moderate light would be
487. Why should the functions of the skin be properly maintained ?
488. "What is important in the first stages of disease ? 489. What is proper
in all instances of acute disease ? How can it be efr'^*,ed ? 490. What
rooms should be selected for the sick ? Why ? 491. "What is said in refer-
ence to the quantity jf lij;ht admitted into a sick-room ?
160 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
an appropriate stimulus to this organ. It is seldom necessary
to exclude all light from the sick chamber.
492 A sick person, whether a child or an adult, should not
be disturbed by visitors, even if their calls are short. The ex-
citement of meeting them is followed by a depression of the
nervous system. The more dangerous and apparently nearer
death the sick person is, the more r'gorous should be the obser-
vance of this suggestion.
493. Nor should ilio sick-roon be opened to privileged
classes ; for the excitement caused by a visit from relations
and the virtuous, will do as much injury to the aick, as that
produced by strangers and the vicious. The custom of visiting
and conversing with sick friends during the intervals of daily
labor, and particularly on Sunday, is a great evil. No person
will thus intrude herself in the sick chamber, who cares more
for the welfare of the suffering friend than the gratification of
a sympathetic curiosity. Inquiries can be made of the family
respecting the sick, and complimentary or necessary messages
can be communicated through the nurse.
Hhistration. While attending a Miss B., of N. H., sick of
fever, I pronounced her better, withdrew medicine, directed
a simple, low diet, and the exclusion of all visitors. In the
evening, I was sent for, to attend her. There was a violent
relapse into the disease, which continued to increase in severity
until the fourth day, when death terminated her suffering? I
learned that, soon after I gave directions that no visitors be ad
mitted into her room, several particular friends were permitted
to enter the chamber and talk with the sick girl. Their conver-
sation produced a severe headache ; and, to use the language
of the patient, " it seemed as if their talk would kill me ; " and
it did kill Iter.
494. No solid food should be taken in the first stages of dis-
492. What effect have calls on the sick ? 493. What is said of the cus-
tom of calling and conversing with the sick during the intervals of daily
labor ? Give an illustration. 494, What suggestions relative to food, is
the first stages of disease i
L
REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 161
easj, even if the nfTcction is slirrht. Tlio thirst can be nllayed
by drinking cold water, barlcy-wutcr, and other pieparations of
an unstimulating character. It is wrong to terrif t the appetite
of a person who is indisposed. The cessation of u desire for
food, is the warning of Nature, that the system is in such a state
that it cannot be digested.
495. When a patient is recovering from illness, the food
should be simple, and in quantities not so great as to oppress
the stomach. It should" xlso be given with regularity. " Eut
little and often," with no regard to regularity, is a bad practice.
496. When a physician attends a sick person, he should
have the special management of the food, particularly after the
medicine has been withdrawn and the patient is convalescent.
The prevailing idea that every person may safeiy advise rel:*-
tive to food, or that the appetite of the convalescing person
will guide correctly, is dangerous, and cannot be too much
censured.
Ulustration. In 1832, I attended a Miss M., sick of fever.
After an illness of a few days, the fever abated, and I directed
a simple, unstimulating diet. Business called me from the town
two days. During my absence, an officious matron called ;
found her weak, but improving ; and told her she needed food
to strengthen her ; and " it would now do her good." Aixord-
ingly, a piece of beefsteak was prepared, and given to the con-
valescent girl. She ate heartily, and the result was, a relapse
into a fever more violent than the first attack.
497. It is very important in disease that the skin be /cfj)t
clean. A free action of the vessels of this part of the body
exerUs a ';reat influence in removing disease from the internal
ci'-gans, as well as keeping them m health, If the thirty ounces
f — — —
4P5. When the patient is convalescent, how should the food be given ?
What is said of the practice of eating " little and often " ? 496. Who
should have the special management of food when medicine is withdrawn t
What idea prevails in the community ? Give an illustration of the evil
effects attending such an idea. 497. Does the skin exert a great influenctj
in removing disease from the internal organs, as well as in keeping them
'p health i
14*
1G2 ANATOMV, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
of waste, liurtful matter, that passes through the " pores" of the
skin in twenty-fuur hours, is not removed by frequent bathing
and dry rubbing, the action of these vossels is deranged, which
m^ reases the disease of the internal organs.
Illustration Mrs. M. R., of N., Mass., was aflFlicted with
disease of the ungs and cough. This was accompanied with a
dr}', inactive condition of the skin. As medicine had no salu-
tary effect in relieving her cough, she was induced by the
advice of the clergyman of the parish to enter upon a system-
atic course of bathing twice every day. Soon the skin became
soft, its proper functions were restored, the disease of the lungs
yielded, and the cough disappeared.
498. The sick-room should be kept very clean, and in per-
fect order. When a sick person sees ever/ thing neat and in
its proper place, a feeling of comfort is induced, which aids in
the recovery of the health ; while filth and disorder are objects
of annoyance, and tend to depress the nervous system.
499. Every sick person should breathe /iMre air. The purer
,he blood that courses through the body, the greater the energy
of the system to remove disease. The confined, vitiated air of
the sick -chamber not unfrequently prolongs disease ; and in
many instances, the affection is not only aggravated, but even
rendered fatal, by its injurious influences.
Illustrations. 1st. In 1833, I was called, in consultation
with another physician, to Mr. H., who was much debilitated
and delirious. I-'or several successive days he had not slept.
His room was kept very warm and close, for fear he would
" take cold." The only change that I made in the treatment,
was to open the door and window, at a distance from the bed. In
a short time, the delirium ceased, and he fell into a quiet slum-
ber. From this time he rapidly recovered, and I have no doubt
that the delirium was the result of breathing impure air.
498. How should the sick-room be kept r 499. "Why should every sick
person, partic ilarly, breatlie pure air ? Are not diseases prolonged, and
even rendered fatal, from breathing the impure, vitiated air of the sick
ehamber ? Give illustration 1st.
REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 163
t
2d. Formerly, every precaution was used to prevent persons
sick of the small-pox from breathing fresh air. When Mrs.
Ramsay had tiiis disease in Charleston, S. C„, her friends, sup-
posing that life was extinct, caused her body to l»e removed
from the house to an open shed. The pure air revived the vital
Bpark, and she lived to be an ornament to her sex.
500. Medicine is sometimes necessary to assist the natural
powers of the system to remove disease ; but it Is only an assis-
tant. While emetics are occasionally useful in removing food
and other articles from the stomach, that would cause disease
if yulTered to remain, and cathartics are valuable, in some in-
stances, to rf;lieve the alimentary canal of irritating residuum,
yet the irequent administration of either will cause serious dis
ease.
501. Although medicine is useful in isome instances, yet, in
a great proportion of the cases of disease, including fevers and
inflammations of all kinds, attention to the laws of health will
tend to relieve the system from disease, more certainly and
speedily, and with less danger, than wi.en medicines are
administered.
502. Thomas Jeflerson, in writing to Dr. Wistar, of Phila-
delphia, said, " I woula have the physician learn the limit of his
art." I would say, Have those who are continually advismg
" herb teas, pills, bitters," and other " cure-alls," for any com-
plaint, labelled with some popular name, learn the limits of
their duty, namely, attention to the laws of health. The '"■'i
of every family, and each individual, should be, to touch not,
tasio not, of medicine of any kind, except when directed by
a well-educated and honest physician, (sudden disease fi^oni
accidents excepted.)
Give illustration 2d. 600. What is said of the use of medicine ?
601. ^^1lat is said of its use in fevers and many other cases of disease ?
602. What remark by Thomas Jefferson to Dr. Wistar? What should be
the rule of every person in regard to taking medicine ? Wliat exception ?
164 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENK.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
DIRECTIONS lOR NURSES.
503. The nurse requires knowledge and practice to enable
her to discharge aright her duty to the patient, as much as
the physician and surgeon do to perform what is incumbent
en them. Woman, from her constitution and habits, is the
natural nurse of the sick ; and, in general, no small portion
of her time is spent in ministering at the couch of disease and
suffering.
504. As the young and vigorous, as well as the aged and
the infirm, are liable to be laid upon the bed of sickness, by an
epide.ntc, or imprudent exposure, or by some accident, it is
therefore necessary that the girl, as well as the matron, may
know how she can render services in an efficient and proper
manner. No girl should consider her education complete who
is not acquainted with the principles of the duties of a general
nurse and a temporary watcher.
505. It is to be regretted, that, while we have medical
schools and colleges to educate physicians, there is no institu-
tion to educate nurses in their equally responsible station. In
the absence of such institutions, the defect can be remedied, to
some extent, by teaching every girl hygiene or the laws of
health. To make such knowledge more available and com-
plete, attention is invited to the following suggestions relative
to the practical duties of a nurse.
506. Bathing. The nurse, before commencing to bathe
503. Does the nurse require knowledge and practice in her employment,
M well as the physician ? 504. Who is the natural nurse of the sick ?
What, then, is incumbent on every girl ? 505. Should there be Schools to
educate nurses, as well as physicians and surgeons ? 506. "What should a
nurse provide herself with, before bathing a patient ?
DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 165
»he patient, sho ild provide herself with water, two towels, a
sponge, a piece of soft flannel, and a sheet, and also notice
the temperature of the room.
50*7 . When the patient is feeble, use tepid or warm water.
Cold water should only be used when the system has vigor
enough to produce reaction upon the skin. This is showi
b) the increased redness of the skin, and a feeling of warmth
and comfort. Before using the sponge to butbe, a sheet, o.
fold of cloth, should be spread smoothly over the bed, and un
der the patient, to prevent the bed-linen on which the "atient
lies from becoming damp or wet.
508. Apply the wet sponge to one part of the body at a
time ; as the arm, for ^stance. By doing so, the liability of
contracting chills is diminished. Take a dry, soft towel, wipe
the bathed part, and follow this by vigorous rubbing with a
crash towel, or, what is better, a mitten made of this material ;
then use briskly a piece of soft flannel, to remove all moisture
that may exist on the skin, and particularly between the fingei's
and the flexions of the joints. In this manner bathe the entire
body.
509. The sick should be thoroughly bathed, at least twice
in twenty-four hours. Particular attention should be given to
the parts between the fingers and toes, and about the johits, as
the accumulation of the waste matter is most i^bundant on these
p-'iis. In bathing, these portions of the system are very gen-
erally neglected. The best time for bathing, is when the
patient feels the most vigorous, and freest from exhaustion.
The practice of daubing the face and hands with a towel
dipped in hot rum, camphor, and vinegar, does not remove
the impurities, but causes the skin soon to feci dry, hard,
and uncomfortable.
507. "When should cold water be used ? 508. How .should the bathint;
then be performed, so that the patient may not contract a cold ? 509 How
often should a sick person be batheil ? What is said of daubing the lac*
and hauds merelv with a wet cloth ?
i
1
166 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
510. Food. It is the duty of every woman to know how to
make the simplest preparations adapted to a low diet, m the
most wholesome and the most palatable way. Water-gruel,*
which is the simplest of all preparations, is frequently so ill
made as to cause the patient to loathe it. Always prepare the
food for the sick in the neatest and most careful manner.
511. When the physician enjoins abstinence from food, the
nurse should strictly obey the injunction. She should be Jis
particular to know the physician's directions about diet, as in
knowing how and when to give the prescribed medicines, and
'jhcy them as implicitly.
512. When a patient is convalescing, the desire for food is
generally strong, and it often requires firmness and patience,
together with great care, on the part of the nurse, that the food
is prepared suitably, and given at proper times. The physician
should direct how frequently it should be taken.
513. Pure Air. It is the duty of the nurse to see that not
only the room is well ventilated in the morning, but that fresh
air is constantly coming in during the day. Great care must
be taken, however, that the patient does not feel the current.
514. Bed-linen, as well as that of the body, should be aired
every day, and oftener changed in sickness than in health
All clothing, when changed, should be well dried, and warmed
by a fire previous to its being put on the patient or the bed.
515. Temperature. The warmth of the chamber should
be carefully ""^atched by the nurse. The feelings of the patient
• Directions for making the simple preparations for the sick are
found in almost evtiy cook-book.
610. Should every woman know how to make the simple preparations
adapted to a low diet ? 511. Should the nurse strictly obey the injunctions
of the physician relative to food ? 512, What period of a person's illresa
requires the most care in regard to the food ? 513. Give another duty of
the nurse. 614. What directions respecting the bed-linen of the patient ?
What is necessary when there is a cliange of clothing ? 615. Why should
there be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick-chamber ?
REMOVAL OP DISEASE. 16?
OT nurse are not to be relied on, as an index of the ternpeiature
of the room. There should be a well-adjusted thermometer m
every sick-room. This should be frequently consulted by the
nurse.
516. The temperature of the sick-chamber should be mod-
erate. If it is so cold as to cause a chill, the disease will be
aggravated. If, on the other hand, it is too warm, the patient
is enfeebled and rendered more SKsceptible to cold on leaving
the sick-chamber. The Latin maxim, "/« medio tutissimus
iJis," (in medium there is most safety,) should be regarded in
the rooms of the sick.
517. Quiet. The room of the patient should be kept free
of noise. The community should be guided by this rule, that
no more persons remain in the room of the sick, than the wel-
fare of the patient demands. It is the duty of the physician to
direct when visitors can be admitted or excluded from the
sick-room, and the nurse should see that these directions are
enforced.
518. The movements of the attendants should be gentle and
noiseless. Shutting doors violently, creaking hinges or shoes,
and all unnecessary noise, should be avoideil. Most persons
refrain from loud talking in the sick-chamber, but are not
equally careful to abstain from whisperings which is often
more trying than a common tone.
519. The deportment and remarks of the nurse to the patient
sliould bv cilm and encouraging. The illness of a friend, or
persons who ha" recently died, should not be alluded to in the
sick-room. Nc doubts or fears of the patient's recovery, either
by a look or by a word, should be communicated by the nurse,
in the chamber of the sick.
516. What is said of the temperature of the sick-chamber? 517. Should
the sick-room be kept quiet ? 518. What is said of noise in the sick-
charaber ? Of whispering ? 519. What should be the deportment of thfl
nurse toward the patient ? Should doubts and fears of the patienf'4
recovrery be communicated in the sick-room ?
1
168 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
520. When such information is necessary to be communi-
Cttted, it is the duty of the physician to impart it to the sick
person.
521. The nurse should not confine herself to the sick-room
more than six hours at a time. She should eat her food regu-
larly, sleep at regular periods, and take exercise daily in the
open air. To do this, let her quietly leave the room when the
patient is sleeping. A watcher, or temporary nurse, may supply
her place. There is but little danger of contracting disease, if
the nurse attends to the simple laws of health, and remains not
more than six hours at a time in the sick-room.
' DIRECTIONS FCR WATCHERS.
i
522. These necessary assistants, like the nurse, should have
i knowledge and practice. They should ever be cheerful, gentle
I firm, and attentive, in the presence of the patient.
' 523. A simple, nutritious supper should be eaten before
I entering the sick-room; and it is well, during the night, to
; take some plain food.
524. When watching in cold weather, a person should be
warmly dressed, and furnished with an extra garment, as a
i cloak or shawl, because the system becomes exhausted toward
' morning, and less heat is generated in the body.
525. Whatever may be wanted during the night, should be
I • brought into the sick-chamber, or the adjoining room, before
I the family retires for sleep, in order that the slumbers of the
\ patient be not disturbed by haste, or searching for needed
I articles.
620. When necessary to impart such intelligence, on whom docs it de-
pend ? 521. How long should a nurse remain in the sick-chamber at a
time i 522. What qualifications arc necessary in a watcher ? 523. What
directions in regard to the food of the watcher ? 624. AVhcn watching in
cold weather, what precaution is necessary ? 525. What suggestion to
waichera ?
i
SIRBCTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 169
i26. The same general directions should be observed by
watchers, as are given to the nurse ; nor should the watcher
deem it necessary to make herself acceptable to Ihe patient by
agreeable conversation.
5Uf7. It can hardly be expected that the farmer, who boj
been laboting hard in the field, or the mechanic, who has toiled
during the day, is qualified to render all those little attentions
*/hat a sick person requires. Hence, would it not be more
bcnevoicnt and economical to emp'oy and pay watchers, who
are quaafied by knowledge and trainings to perform this duty
in a fa.thful manner, while the kindness and sympathy of
friends may be practically manifested by assisting to defray
the expanses of these qualified and useful assistants ?
^■^•^W^— ^ I ■ ■ MM-I ■- ■ I I !■ — — ^-^^ I ■ ■ ■ M ■ 1^ ■■■ .1 I ■ II H I BM .,,.1 m
626. WIiAt should watchers observe? 527. What is saidof employin|(
those persv Jis to watch who labor hard during the day ?
16
APPENDIX
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES.
»
fl28 Poisoning, either from accident or design, is of such frequency ax.dl
dangei^that it is of the greatest importance that every person should know
the proper made of procedure in such cases, in order to render immediate
a88istan«i« when within his power.
629. loisons are divided into two classes — mineral (^ which will include
the acid»^ and vegetable
630. Tue first thing, usually to be done, when it is ascertained that a
poison hhj been swallowed, is to evacuate the stomach, unless vomit-
ing takes /lace spontaneously. Emetics of the sulphate of zinc, (white
vitriol,) ov ipecacuanha, (ipecac,) or the wine of antimony, should be
given.
531. Wh«n vomiting has commenced, it should be aided by large and
frequent draughts of the following drinks ; flaxseed tea, gum-water, slip-
pery-elm tea, barley-water, sugar and water, or any thing of a mucilaginous
or diluent character.
MINERAL POISONS.
632. Ammonia. — The water of ammonia^ if taken in an over-dose, and
In an undiluted state, acts as a violent corrosive poison.
633. The best and most effectual antidote is vinegar. It should be ad-
888. Is it useful to know the antidotes or remedies for poison ? 529. Into how many
daasea are poiscns divided ? 530. What is the first thing to be done when it is ascer-
tained that poison has been swallowed ? 531. What should be taken after the vomit-
ing has commenced i 532. What effect has an over-dose of ammonia ? 533. The
outtdutef
APPENDIX. 171
ministered in Wftter, witAout delay. It neutriilizes the ammonia, and roa
ders ii inactive. Emetics should not be given.
634. Antimony. — Ine loine of antimony and tartar emetic, if taken tn
over-doses, cause distressing vomiting. In addition to the diluent, mu-
cilaginous drinks, give a tea-spoonful of the sirup of poppies, paregoric, or
twenty drops of laudanum, every twenty minutes, until five or six doser
have been take:;, or the vomiting ceases.
635. Tlie antiuotea are ntU-yalls and oak bark, which may be administered
in infusion, or by steeping in water.
636. Arsenic. — "WHien this has been taken, administer an emetic of
ipecac, speedily, in mucilaginous teas, and use the stomach-pump as soon
as possible.
537. The antidote is the hydrated peroxide of iron. It should be kept
constantly on hand at the apothecaries* shops. It may be given in any
quantity, without injurious results.
638. CoprER —The most common cause of poisoning from this metal,
is through the careless use of cooking utensils made of it, on which the
acetate of cojjper {\crdigTia) has been allowed to form. When this has been
taken, immediately induce vomiting, give mucilaginous drinks, or the
white of eggs, diffused in water.
539. The antidote is the carbonate of soda, which should be administered
without delay.
640. Lead. — The acetate (sugar) of lead is the preparation of this metal
which is liable to be taken accidentally, in poisonous doses. Induce imme-
diate vomiting, by emetics and diluent drinks.
641. The antidote is diluted sidphuric add. When this acid is not to be
obtained, either the sulphate of magnena, (epsom salts,) or the sulphate
of soda, (glauber's salts,) will answer every purpose.
642. Mercury. — The preparation of this mineral by which poisoning is
Should an emetic be given for this poison .' 534. What effect has an over-dose of
the wine of antimony or tartar emetic? 5.15. What is ttio antidote? 5,?6. What
should immediately be done when arsenic is swallowed ? 5.T7. VVIint is the anti-
dote' Can any quantity of this prepiiraticm of iron be given without injurious r»-
iiills? 5.38. What should be given when verdigris has been taken into the stomach'
639. What is tlie antidote? 540. What should immediately be given when sugar
of lead is taken ? 541. What is the antidute i
172 APPENiilX.
commonly produced, is arrosive ntblim ite. The mode cf treatment ta b»
pursued, when this poison han been sw. ilowcd, is as ful.ows : The whitet
of a dozen eggs should be beaten in t\>o quarts of cold water, and a tum-
Dier-full given every two minutes, to induce vomiting. When the whites
of eggs are not to be obtained, soap and water should be mixed with
wucat flour, and given in copious draughts, and the stomach-pump in-
troduced as soou as possible. Emetics or irritating substances ought not
to be given.
643. NiTUB — Saltpetre. This, in over-doses, produces violent poison-
ous symptoms. Vomiting should be immediately induced by large doses
of mucilaginous, diluent drinks ; but emetics, which irritate the stomach,
ought not to be given.
644. ZiNO. — Poisoning is sometimes caused by the atilphate of zinc,
(white vitriol.) When this takes place, vomiting should be induced,
aTtd aided by large draughts of mucilaginous and diluent drinks. Uso
the stomach-pump as soon as possible.
646. The antidote is the carbonate or super-carbotuUe of soda.
646. NiTEic, (aqua fortis,) muriatic, (marine acid,) or sulphubio
(oil of vitriol) acids, may be taken by accident, and produce poisonous
effects.
647. The antidote is calcined magnesia, which should be freely admin-
istered, to neutralize the acid and induce vomiting. When magnesia
cannot be obtained, the carbonate of potash (sala^ratus) may be given.
Chalk, powdered and given in solution, or strong toap suds, will answer
a good purpose, when the other articles are not at hand. It is of very
great importance that something be given speedily to neutralize the acid
One of the substances before named should be taken freely, in diluent and
mucilaginous drinks; as gum-water, milk, flaxseed or slippery-elm tea
Emetics ought to be avoided.
648. Oxalic Acid. — This acid resembles the sulphate of magnesia,
(epsom salts,) which renders it liable to be taken, by mistake, in poison-
ous doses. Many accidents have occurred from this circumstance.
They can easily be distinguished by tasting a small quantity. Epsom
543. Give the treatment when corrosive sublimate has been swallowed. 543. What
effect has an over-dose of saltpetre ? What treatment she uld be adopted? 544. What
l«i the treatment and antidote fur white vitriol.'* 547. What is the antidote for aqua
f jrtis and oil of vitriol ? Should emetics be avoided ? 548. How caji oxalic acid ba
distinguished from epsom salts?
xrpENDix. 173
ioUs, when app'\led to the tongue, have a very bitter taste, while oxalit
acid is intcnflcly sour.
649. The antidote is mn(jnesia, between which and the anid a cheraicaJ
action takes place, producing the oxalate of magnesia, which is inert
Wlicn magnesia is not at hand, chalk, lime, or carbomite of potash,
(salccrat s,) will answer as a substitute.
6.50. Give the antidote in some of the mucilaginous drinks boforo na.wed
No time ought to be lost, but the stomach-pump should be introduced ai
Boon as a surgeon can be obtained.
651. Ley. — The ley obtained by the leach'Tg of ashes may be taken
by a child accidentally. The antidote is vinegar, or oil of any kind. The
vinegar neutralizes the alkali by uniting with it, forming the acetate of
potash. The oil unites with the alkali, and forms soap, which is less
caustic than the ley. Give, at the same time, large draughts of muci-
laginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, &c.
VEGETABLE POISONS.
652. The vegetable poisons are quite as numerous, and many of them
equally as violent, as any in the mineral kingdom. We shall describe the
most common, and which, therefore, are most liable to be taken.
653. Opium. — This is the article most frequently resorted to by those
wishing to commit suicide, and, being used as a common medicine, is
easily obtained. From this cause, also, mistakes are very liable to be
made, and accidents result from it. Two of its preparations, Uiicdwmm
and paregoric, are frequently mistaken for each other ; the former being
given when the latter is intended.
554. Morphia, in solution, or morphine, as it is more commonly called
by the public, is a preparation of the drug under consideration, with
wUch many cases of poisoning are produced. It is the active narcotic
principle of the opium ; and one grain is equal to six of this drug in its
usual form.
655. When an over-dose of opium, or any of its preparations, has been
- — — ^ — *
549. What la the antidote for an over-»lo3e of oxalic acid .' Wlien magnesia can-
not be obtained, what will answer aa a substitute ? 551. What is the antidote
i when ley is swallowed .' 559. Are vegetable poisons aa niuneroua and as violeul
! In their effecta aa mineral ? 55."?. What w said of opium and ita prepatations '
J 555, 556. What tr'^atment should be adopted when a/i uver-di>3e of opium ur auy
of ita preparations s tal<en ?
15*
1
174 APPENDIX.
•Whllowcd, the iitoniach should be evacuated aa Rpecdily as possible. To
effect this, as much tartar emetic as can bo held on a ten cent piece, or aa
much ipecacuanha as can bo held on a twouty-ftve cent piece, should bo
dissolved in a tui nbler of warm water, and one half given at once, and the
remainder in twenty minutes, if the first has not, in the mean time, op-
erated. In the interval, copious draughts of warm water, or warm sugar
and water, should be drank
61)6. The use of the stomach-pump, in these cases, is of the greatest
Importance, and should be resorted to without delay. After most of the
poison has been evacuated from the stomach, a strong infusion of coJfe«
ouglit to be given ; or some one of the vegetable acids, such as viiieyar
or lemon-juice, should be administered.
657. The patient should be kept in motion, and salutary efTects will
often be produced by dashing a bucket of cold water on the head. Artifi-
cial lespiration ought to be established, and kept up for some time. If
the extremities are cold, r pply warmth and friction to them. After the
poison has been evacuated from the stomach, stimulants, as warm wine
and water, or warm brandy and water, ought to be given, to keep up and
sustain vital action.
558. Stramonium — Thom-Apple. Th's is one of the most active
narcotic poisons, and when taken in over-doses, has, in numerous in-
stances, caused death.
559. Hyosciamus — Henbane. This article, which is used as a medi-
cine, if taken in improper doses, acts as a virulent irritating and nar-
cotic poison.
660. The treatment for the two above-mentioned articles is similar to
that of poisoning from over-doses of opium.
661. CoNiUM — Hemlock. Hemlock, improperly called, by many, cicuta
when taken in an over-dose, acts as a narcotic poison. It was by thia
narcotic that the Athenians used to destroy the lives of individuals
condemned to death by their laws. Socrates is said to have been put
to death by this poison. When swallowed in over-doses, the treatment
is similar to that of opium, stramonium, aui henbane, when over-doses
are taken.
557. Should the person be kept in motion? What is said of artiflcial resptra-
lion, warmth, friction, and Htimulants.' 5G0. What should be the treatment when
an nver-dose of stramonium or henbane is taken? 561. What name is some-
Umes impro|)crly given to eonium, or hemlock ? How was this narcotic poison used
by the Athenians ' How are the effects of an over-dose counteracted i
APPENDIX.
175
562. Bkliadonna — Deadly Nightshade. Camphob Aconitb —
klonkshocd. Wolfsbane. Bbtony — Bryonia. Digitalis — Foxglove,
DuLCAMABA — Bitter-stceet. 'Jamhoou. Lobelia — Ittdian Tobacco.
Sanouinauia — Bloodroot. On, of Savin. Spioblia — Pinkroot.
Btrychninb — Nux vomica. Tobacco. All of these, when taken in
over-doses, are poisons of greater or less activity. The treatment of
poisoning, by the use of any of these articles, is similar to that pursued
In over-doses of opium. (See Opium, page 173.)
663. In all cases of poisoning, call a physician as soon as possible.
/
MEANS OF DISTINQUISHINO DEATH FROM
ASPHYXIA.
664. It is no uncommon occurrence, that persons considered dead, have
been restored to life at the moment when a post mortem examination was
to have been made, or even when they were in the coffin or tomb. This
mistake arises from the difficulty of distinfiishing real from appatent
death.
665. In death, although the limbs are stiff, their position is easily
changed, but they remain where last placed. When a limb is stiff from
convulsions or asphyxia, its position is changed with difficulty, and it ira
mediately returns to its former state. Cessation of breathing, or the
*' beating " of the heart, coldness, or insensibility, are no certain indica-
tions of death. The sign most certain, is well-marked putrefaction ; but it
does not belong to the Uiiprofcssional to decide whether putrefaction has
commenced ; the physician alone can establish the fact.
562. What is the treiitment when an over-dose of deadly nighti^hnde, monks,
hood, foxglove, Ritter-sweet, gamboge, lobelia, bloodroot, tobacco, tec, is taken'
tea. Hhould a physician be called In all cases when poison is swalUiwed' 5G5. liuie
cun death be diatinguiahed fVotn aspnvxlu/
GLOSSARY.
Ab 80RP''Ti0lf. Fmm the Latin ah-
Moroere, to rack up.
A-CE-T>.B'u-LUM. From the Latin aee-
(wm, Tineigar. The cavity In the hip-
bone, 8o called from its resernlilance to
the ancient Greek vinegar vessel.
1-WATO-MY, Fr tn the Greek ana,
throiiph, and temxd, I cut A descrip-
tion of the stmctu-.o of animals.
A-ORT'a. From the Greek aortf, to keep
m air. The large vessel tliat carries
blood froHf the heart,
Ap-pa-ra'TU8. From the Latin ad, for,
and parut 3, iu prejKire. A colle-tion of
organs.
Ap-PEND'ix. From the Latin aa, to,
and pendere, to hang. Something
added.
A'QUE-ous. From the Latin aqua, water.
A nunior of the eye.
Ar'te-ry. Frnnti the Greek arteria,
formed from aUr, air, and t«rcin, to
keep. The ancients believed that the
at.eries were filled with air, like the
wind-pipe.
Ab-phyx'i-a. From the Greek a, priva-
tive, and ^huxis, pulse. Suspended
animation.
AT'MOS-piiERE. From the Greek afmos,
vajKir, and sphaira, a sphere. The air
which surrounds the eaith.
AuiyiT-o-BY Belonging to the sense
of healing.
Ac'Ri-CLE. From the Latin auric, rb
ear. The two cavities of the heart
derive the name from their resemblance
to ears.
Bi-CUS'PIDS. From the Latin bis, two,
and eumis, a point. The name of cer
tain teeth.
Bile. A yellow, bitijr, naaseoua fluid,
secreted by the liver,
Brain. The pulpy mass enclosed in
the cranium, or skull -t>onea.
Broncii'i-a. From tJ e Greek hrogchos,
the throat. The two branches of the
wind-pipe.
Cap'il-la-ry. From the Latin eapiUus
hair. The capillary vessels are the ex-
tremely minute terminations of the ar-
teries, and coh.iuencing branches of tiia
veins.
Car'bon. From the Latin carbo, a coal
An element:^ry combustib!? substance.
Car-BON'ic, Coiiiaining carbon.
Car'PUS. From the Greek karpoa, tha
wrist. There arc eight bnnes in tos
wiist.
Car'ti-lage. Gristle ; a part of the
animal body, soAer than bone, but
harder than ligament.
Ca'va. Latin. Hollow. Vena Cava, i]M
hollow, or deep-seated vein.
Cep-e-bel'lum. The lower and smal'
er portion of the brain.
^"'l
I
GLOSSARY.
177
Cer'k brum The npper and larger
portion of the brain.
Chest. The part of the body between
the neck and tlin belly.
Ciio'roid. From the Greek ehoriov, the
skin, and eidos, resemblance. A coat
of the eye.
CiiYLE. From the Greek ckulos, nutri-
tious juice.
Chyme. From the Greek chumos, a
grayish juice.
Cil'lA-RY. Latin. Relating to the eye-
lid.
Clav'i-cle. From the Latin clavu, a
key. The collar-bone.
Coc'cYX. Latin. The lower extremity
of the spinal column.
Coch'le-a. liatin. A snail-shell. A
name given to one of the three cavities
of the iu'ernal ear.
Co'LON tiieek. A portion of the large
intestine.
CON'CAVE. Hollow ; as the inner sur-
face of a spherical body.
Con'vex. liulging; as the external sur-
fiice of a spherical body.
Cohn'e-A. From the Latin eomu, n.
horn. One of the coats of the eye.
Crys'tal-line. a humor, or lena of
the eye. It serves to transmit and re-
fract the r.'iys of light.
Cus'piD. From the Latin euspis, a point.
The name of certain teeth.
Ci''Ti-cLE. The external layer of the
skin.
Cu'Tis Ve'ra. Latin. The true skin.
The internal layer of the skin.
Dl'A-PHRASM. From the Greek rfm-
phragma, a partition. The muscle that
sef urates the lungs and heart from the
stomach, liver, and intestines.
Pl-OES'TION. The process of dissolvinr;
food in the stomach, and preparin;; i'
for circulatii^n and nourishment.
Du-o-DE'Nt'id. The first of the 8n\all
Intestine, being about twelve flngen*
breadth.
En-am'el. The smooth, hard substance
which covers the crcwns of the teetb.
Ep-i-olot'tis. From the Greek cjji,
upon, aiid glottis, the glottis. A kind
of cartilaginous valvo at the upp(>.7
part of the larynx, behind the base of
the tongue.
Eu-sta'chi an Tube. So called from
its discoverer, Euft/uhiu-i. A tube that
connects the middle ear with the
throit.
Ex-ha'lent. From the Latin ezhalare,
to throw out.
Ex-trem'i-ties. The limbs j as the
legs and arms.
Fas'ci-a. Latin. A thin membrane that
surrounds tlie mi.scies and tendons.
Fe'mur. Latin. The thigh-bone.
Fi'BaE. An organic filament, or thread,
of a solid consistence, which entpra
into the composition of every animal
and vegetable lexture.
FiB'u-i.A. Latin. A clasp. The outei
and lefiser bone of the leg.
Fil'a-MENT. ■■■jm the Latin Jilum, a
thread. A small fibre.
Fol'li-cle. From the Latin foUts, a
bag. Very minute secreting cavities.
Fore-arm. That part of the arm be
tween the elbow and wrist.
FUNC'TION. From the Latin fiingor, I
net, 1 perform. The action of organs ,
as the function or action c*^ ike eye is to
see, the ear to h^ar.
Gan'gli-ON. From the Greek gaggUcn^
a knot. An enlargement upon a n«rr«
or tendon.
Gust'a-TO-RY. From the Latin gutlua
tne taste. Belonging to the sense of
taste.
GAs'T-iic JincE From the Qrrek. gas-
ter, the stomach. The fluiil secreted l.y
the stomach.
178
3L0SSART.
Glot'tis a small, oblon? opening at
the upper i)art of tlio larynx.
OLANua. From the Latin glans, a nut.
Soft, tieiiliy organs, of various sizes.
Heart. A muscular organ, situated in
the left side of the chest.
IIu'MER-U8. The bone of the arm, sit-
uated between the shoulder-joint and
elbow.
ilu'MOR. Every fluid substance of an
organi/.ed body ; as the chyle, the Mood.
!lY'URO-aEN. From the Greek hydro,
water, and geinomai, I engender A
gas which constitutes one of the ele-
ments of water.
Hy-oi-ene'. The science of preserving
the health.
fN-ci'soR. From the Latin tnctdo, I cut.
The fore-teeth.
IN-T£S'TINE. Latin. The alimentary
canal.
I'Ris. Latin. The rainbow. The col-
ored membrane around the pupil of
the eye.
Lab'Y-rinth. From the Greek laburin-
thos, a place full of turnings. A name
given to the windings of the internal
ear.
Lacii'ry-mal. From the Latin lachry-
ma, a tear.
Lac'T£-al. .-cm the Latin lae, milk.
The vessels that convey the chyle, or a
niilk-liko _ianre, into the eins.
•jAR'ynx From ti;e Grefk laruj^, a
whistle. The upper puii of the vvind-
Liq'a-ment. From ligo, I bind. A
strong, flbrous substance, which binds
bones, &c., together.
Liv'er. a large gland situated below
the right lung.
Lym-phat'ics. Vessels that perform
the office of absorption.
IIe-oul'la. From the Latin medulla,
marrow
Me-dul'la On-LO!« oa'ta. The t\A-
nal cord that ia situated within the
Bkull-bonca.
Mem'brane. From the Latin memhra-
iia, a film, a delicate w^.b. A nams
given to different thin orgai^s.
Mes'en-ter-y. From the Greek metoa,
in the middle, and entcron, an intestine.
A membrane in the middle of the lutes'
tines, by which they are attached tu the
spinal column.
Met-a-car'pus. From the Greek mcta,
after, and karpos, the wrist. That part
of the hand between the wrist and fin-
gers.
Met-a-tar'sus. From tne Greek meta,
after, and tarsos, the instepi. That part
of the foot between the instep and toes
Mid'riff. The diaphragm.
Mi'TRAL. Resembling a mtire, or bishop's
bonnet. The name of two vaires of
the heart.
Mo'lar. From the [>atin molo, I grind
The name of certain '.eeth.
Mu'cus. A viscid fluid secreted by the
mucous membrane, which it serves to
moisten, and also to defend.
Mus'cLE. A bundle of fibres enclosed in
a sheath.
Nerve. An organ of sensation and
motion in animals.
Nl'TRO-GEN. From the Greek nitron
nitre, and gennad, I beget. One of the
gases that compp.se i;tmospheric air.
Nu-TRi'TiON. The act or process of pro
nuitiiig the growth, or repairing the
waste of the system.
CE-sopii'a-gus. From the Greek oii,
I cirry, and phagd, I eat. The tube
that leads from the mouth to the
stomach.
Ol-fA'jt'o-rt. From the Latin oI/m-
tus. IluUmging to the sense of smell.
O-men'tum Latin. The caul, so called
because iHe ancient priests prophesied
from on inspection of this membiane.
I
OLOSSARY.
179
Ob'OAX. Prom the Greek orgunon, an
Instrument. A part of the system des-
tined to exerciae some particular func-
tion.
Ox'Y-OEN. From the Greek oxua, acid,
and geinomai, I engender. A gaa which
constitutes about one fiAh of our atmos-
phere.
Pan'cre-as. From the Greek pan, all,
and krea3, flesh ; that is, quite fleshy,
A g'.and situated behind the stomach.
Pa-PIL'la. From the Latin papilla, nip-
ple. Small, conirwil prominences seeii
' on the tongue and skin.
Pa-ROT'id. From the Greek para, about,
and ova, the ear. A gland situated un-
der the ear.
Pa-tel'la. From the Latin patina, a
dish. The knee-pan.
Pel'vis. L3»tin. A basin. The name
of a bony structure at the lower part
of the trunk.
Per-i-os'te-um. From p»n, about, and
OS, bone. The membrane, or skin that
surrounds the bones.
Per-spi-ra'tion. The evacuation of
the dtiids of the body through the pores
of the skin.
Pha-lan'oes. From the Greek pha-
lagx, a tile of soldiers. The bones
composing the fingers and toea.
Phar'ynx. From the Hreek pharugx,
the pharynx. The swallow.
PllYS-l-OL'O-GY. From the Greek phu-
»j?, nature, and logos, a discourse. The
science which trcat^s of the functions
of animals and vegetables.
Pleu'ra. Greek. The menibrnne that
lines the chest and surrounds the lungs.
PUL'MO-NA-RY. Belonging to the lungs.
Pi.EX'us. Latin. Any union of nerves
or fibres, in the Toruj of net-work.
ELa'di-us. Latin. A spoke. The small
bone of the fore-arm.
Bec'tuh. The lower and straight por-
tion ol the intestines
Re-siu'u-XJM. Residue. The waste re-
mains of the food.
Ret'i-na. From the Latin reU, a uet
The net-like expansion of the optic
nerve on the inner surface of the
eye.
Sa'crum. A bone so called because U
was ofl'ered in sacrifice. The lower
portion of the spinal column.
Sa-li'va. Latin. The fluid secreted in
the mouth.
ScAP'u-LA. Latin. The shoulder-blade
ScLE-ROT'lc. From the Greek skleroo,
I harden. A membrane of the eye
SE-CRE'TlOJf. From the Latin secemere,
to separate. The function of several
glands, by which they separate from
the blood the material which they ra>
spcctively demand for their several pur
poses.
Sem-i-lu'nar. From the Latin #«m»,
half, and luna, moon. The name of
two valves at the commencement of
the aorta and pulmonary artery.
8kel'e-ton. From the Greek skellO,
I dry. The articulated, dry bones of
an animal.
Spi'nal. Cord. A prolongation of the
brain.
Spine. From the Latin spina, a thorn.
Tlie back-bone.
Spleen. The milt. It was supposed
by the ancients to be the seat of nicl
anclioly, anger, and vexation.
Ster'num. Greek. The breast-bone.
Stom'ach. The principal organ of di
gestion, situated below the left lung.
Sub-lin'gual. From the Latin stib,
under, and lingua, the tongue. The
name applied to the gland under the
tongue.
Sub-max'il-la-ry. From the Latin
snb, under, and maxilla, the jaw-bone.
The name applied to the gland under
the Jaw.
SuT'uRE. From the Latin tM», I •titcta
I
180
GL0S9ARY.
Th« senm or joint whicli unites tlie
ikull-bones.
flVN-O'vi-A. From the Greeic sun, with
and oon, an egg. The lubricating tluit.
of the Joints.
Bts'tem. From the Greeli »un, to-
gether, and isteini, I place. An assem-
blage of organs, arranged according to
some plan or meliiod ; as the nervous
system.
Bys-tem'ic. Belonging to the general
system.
Ten'don. From the Greek teind, 1
stretch. Strong, white cords, that con-
ned the muscles to the bone which
they move.
TiiO-RAC'ic. From the Greek IhOrax,
the chest.
Tib'i-a. Latin. A pipe or flute. The
largest bone of the leg.
Tra'cue-a. From the Greek traehtu,
rough, and arteria. The canal that
conveys air to the lungs.
Tri-cus'fid. From the Latin trea, three,
and cuspis, a point 1'he th -ee valves
lu the right side o! the beoit.
Trunk. The body of animals, without
the limbs.
I<atin. Tlie drum of the
A cubit. A bone of
Tym'pan-um.
ear.
Ul'na. Latin.
the fore-arm.
Valve. From the Latin vaha, a
small door. Any membrane, or dou-
bling of any membrane, which pre-
vents fluid from flowing back in <* ^
vessels and canals of the animal body
Veins. From the Latin vena. The
vessels that carry the blood to the
heart.
Ven'tri-cle. Latin. A small cavity
of the animal body.
Vert'e-bra,-jE. From the Latin »«■
to, I turn. A Joint of the spinal
column.
Ves'i-cle. From the Latin vuicula, t
small vessel, or bladder.
Vi'tal. From the Latin vita, life.
ViT'RE-ous. PerUining to giaxs. A
name given tr one of the humnra of
tiie oye
INDEX.
Absorption, 76
Aci D8, Antiduted for, 172
AlB, Compoaition of the, 96
»— , the Effects of, when Impure, 99
— , the Elfecta of, upon the Bkin,...125
Air-Ce LL3, 90
Ammonia, Antidotes for 170
Aorta, t)5
Arsenic, Antidote for, 171
Arteries, 63
, Nutrient, 87
, Pulmonary, S4
of the Skin, 117
, Treatment of divided, . . . .72
ASPVYXIA, from Carbonic Gas, 105
, from Electricity, 105
, from Drowning, 104
, from Hanging, 104
Attitudes, 25
AuaiCLEsof the Heart, 62
B.
Batiiino, Necessity of, 125
, Method of, 164
Belladonna, Antidote for, 175
Bile, 52
Blood, Composition of, 86
, Circulation of, 67
, Change of, 97
BOPfES, Structure of, 11
, Physi.ilogy of, 21
, Hygiene of, 24, 26
of the Head, 11
of the Trunk, 12
of the Upper Extremities, 16
of the Lower Extremities, 17
BiiAiN, 127
, Membranes of, 198
, Functions of, 134
, Injuries of, 137
H.IO.NflllA 90
liRONC HITIS, 90, Hi
Burns and Scalds, Treatment of,. .126
f.
Capillaries, 6fi
Carbonic Gas, 95, 1U7
the Effect* ui, when
breathed 99
Cartilage, 19
Cerebellum, 128
Cerebrum, 128
Chest, 13, 101
wUYLE -....54
16
rA4ia,
Chtmk, »i
Circulatort Oroans, C9
, Physiology of, 67
, Hygiene of, ....70 — 75
Clothing, Amount of, 123
, Change of, !i24
, Kind of, 122
should be loosely worn,
24, 70, 123
CONIUM, Antidote for, 174
Copper, Antidote for, 171
Cuticle, 115, 1I9
Cutis Vera, ... 117
D.
Diaphragm, 31
Digestive Organs, 48
, Physiology ofj. .53
, Hygiene of, 5o — 61
Drinks, 59
Drowned, Treatment of Persons,. .104
Duodenum, 50
E.
Ear, Anatomy of, 152
, Pliy siology of, 155
, Hygiene of, ; 157
EXHA LENTS, 82
Eve, Anatomy of, 143
, PhyHiology of, 149
, Hygiene of, 150
— ^-, Method of removing Dust from, 151
P.
Fascia, 29
Fibres, 27
Follicle, «a
Food, ('hanges of, during the Diges-
tive Proctjss, 54
, Uuaiititv of, 56
, Ciuality'of, 57
, Mfmner of taking, .SS
, Time for taking, 60
Frozen Limbs, Treatment of, IHB
G.
Gastric Juice 54
GLANiis, Structure of, 83
, Larhrymal, H7
, Ijympliatic, 'lii
, Mesenteric, 51
, O.I, 118, ICO
, Perspiratory, ] 18, 120
, ? Ji -ary, 48
Glottis, IM
182
INDEX.
II. rAOB.
Health, Means of preBerving, 158
[ICARiiNG, Sense of, 153
Heart, ti2
, Contractions of the 07, fJ9
Heat, Animal, 106
, Hygiene of 108, lo9
Hemokruaqe, Means of arresting,... 72
I.
Intestines, 50
J.
iriNTS, Structure of, 19
, Use of, 21
I..
LaCTE ALS, 51
Larynx 110
I^e: AU, Antidote K>r, 171
Lioaments, 20
l-iuirr, Influence of, 37, 12G
LiviiR, 52
LUNU3, 89
Lymphatics, 76
, Physiolojjy of, 78
, Hygiene of, 79 — 81
, of the Skin, 117
M.
Medulla Oblongata, 129
Membrane, 21
Mercury, Antidote for, 17.3
Mineral Poisons, 170
Muscles, Anatomy of, 27
, Physiology of, 30
, Hygiene of, 3f)— 42
-, Compression of, 38, 113
N.
Nervous System, 127
, Physiology of, ..131
, Hygiene of.im — 137
Nerves, 130
, Sympathetic, J.30
. , of the Skm, 117, 119
, Gustatory, 139
, Olfactory, 141
, Auditory, = 1.54
, Optic, 146
NiTR"., Treatment for an Over-dose. . 172
N u RSES, Directions for, 1G4
O.
O^sopiiAsus, 49
Omentum, 52
Opium, Treatment for an Over-dose,. . 173
P.
Pancreas, 52
Periosteum, 21
PHARYNX, 'i'i
fi I ISON B anu their Ar.tid )tes 170
R. AOB
Reading, the proper Postton tn,....119
Removal of Disease, 15&
RESPI RATOKY ORO AN.-f, 8S
, Physiology of, 193
-, Hygiene of, 98—10;;
Retina 44
Ribs »a
S.
Saliva, 53
Secretory Organs, 82
-, Physiology of, 83
■, Hygiene of, 84, W
Senses, 138
Skin, Anatomy of, 115
, Physiology of, II!)
, Hygiene of, 122, liti
Smell, Sense of, 141
Sound, ill, 155
Spinal Column 14
, Curvature of, 20
Cord, 129
Spleen, 62
Stramonium, Treatment for an
Over-dose, 174
Stomach 49
Synovia, 21
Synovial Membrane, « • .20
T.
Taste, Sense of, 139
Teeth, Anatomy of, 43
, Physiology of, 44
, Hygiene of, 45, 4b
Tendon > 27
Thoracic Duct, 52
Throat, extraneous Bo<lic8 in, 114
Touch, Sense of, 138
Trachea, ... 'JO
U.
Ulna, ; 16
V.
Valves of the Heart, 02
of tlie Aorta, t)3
of the Pulmonary Artery, (13
Veins (iC
of the Skin, 117
Vegetable Poisons, 173
Ventilation 100
Ventricles of the Heart, 62
Vertebra, 14
Vision, 143
Vocal Organs, lio
, Physiology of, Ill
, Hygiene of,. ..112, 114
W.
WATCHTiRS, Directions for, 188
WOUH' s, Treatment of, 7<t
4
I
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 183
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES.
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
In using these plates, we would suggest, that the pupil carefully exaimne
the illustrating cuts interspersed with the text, in connection with the
fesson to be recited. The similarity between these and the plates will
enable the pupil to recite, and the teacher to conduct his recitation, from
the latter.
Let a pupil show the situation of an organ, or part, on an anatomical
outline plate, and also give its structure ; while other members of the class
note all omissions and misstatements. Another pupil may give the use of
that organ, and if necessary, others may give an extended explanation.
The third may explain the laws on which the health of the part depends,
while other members of the class supply what has been omitted. After
thus presenting the subject in the form of topics, questions Tiay be pro-
posed prciuiscuously, (roir each para^'aph, and where examples occur in
the text, let other analogous ones be given.
If the physiology and hygiene of a given subject have not been studied,
confine the recitation to those parts only on which the pupil is prepared.
When practicable, the three departments should be united ; but this can
only be done when the chapter on the hygiene has been learned, while
the physiology can be united with the anatomy, in all chapters upon
lihy biology.
PixA.TE I.
A FRONT VIEW OF THE SKELETON,
Bones of the Head. 7, The sphenoid bone. 8, The frontal bone. 10, The
parietal bone. 11, The os unguis. 12, The superior maxillary bono,
(tipper jaw.) 13, The nasal bone. 14, The ethmoid bone. IS, The malar
bone, (cheek-bone.) 16, The vomer. 17, The inferior maxillary bone,
(the lower jaw.) a. Its body, b, Its ramus, or branch. 18, The teeth
Bonesof ike Trunk. 1, 1, The spinal column. 2, The sternum. «i, 3, The
ribs. 4, The sacrum. 6, The innominatum.
Bovica of the Upper Extremities. 19, The clavicle, (coUw bone ) 20, Tho
184 KEY TC AN/^TOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES.
■capula, (shonldpr-blnde.) 21, The humrrus. 22, The iilna. 23, Th«
radius. 24, 2.>, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, The bones of the carpus, (wrist.j
y2, 32, 32, The five bones of the metacarpus, (the pahn of tht hand.'
33, 33, 33, The first range of finger-bones. 34, 34, The second range of
finger-bones. 3o, 3.5, 3.), The third range of finger-bones.
Bones of the Lower Extremities. 3G, The feraur, (thigh-bone.) 37, Tht
patella, (knee-pan.) 38, The tibia, (shin-bone.) 39, The fibula. 40, 40,
40, The bones of the tarsus, (instep.) 41,41, The bones of the metatarsus
(middle of the foot.) 42, 42, The bones of the toes.
Articulations. (Left side of the plate.)
Ligaments of Uie Trunk, 1, 1, The common spinal ligament. 2, 2, The
intervertebral ligament, (cartilage bctvyeen the vertebraj.) 9, 10, 11, 12, Ar-
ticulations of the ribs with the spinal column. 13, 13, 14, 16, 16, Liga-
ments that connect the cartilages of the ribs with the sternum.
Ligaments of the Upper Extremities. 25, The ligament that connects
the clavicle and sternum. 27, The ligament that connects the upper rib
and clavicle. 28, 29, 30, Ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula
81, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the shoulder-joint. 35, 35, 36, Ligaments of
the elbow-joint. 37, 38, 39, 40, Ligaments of the wrist. 41, 42, 43, 44,
Ligaments of the fingers.
Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. 49, 49, Ligaments of the hip-joint.
60, 50, Ligaments of the patella. 61, 52, 63, 64, 55, Ligaments of the
knee-joint. 66, A large bursa mucosa. 67, The ligament of the tibia and
fibula. 58, 58, The interosseous ligament. 69, 69, Ligaments of the an-
kle-joint. 60, 61, 62, Ligaments of the metatarsus. 63, 64, Ligaments of
the toes.
A, The brachial artery. B, The brachial vein. C, The radial artery.
D, The femoral artery. E, The femoral vein. F, O, The anterior tibial
artery.
PLATE II.
A BACK VIEW OF THE SKELETON.
Bone* of the Uead. 5, The occipital bone. 6, The parietal bone. 7, The
temporal bone. 8, The frontal bone. 9, The sphenoid bone. 15, The
malar bone. 16, The nasal bone. 17, The superior maxillary bone, (upper
jaw.) 18, The inferior maxillary bone, (lower jaw.) 19, The teeth.
Bmies of the Tnmk. 1,1, The spinal column. 2, The sacrrm. 3, The
coccyx. 20, The innominatam. 4, 4, The ribs.
B(mes of the Ujyper Extremities. 21, Theclavicb, (Cv.'llar-bone.) 22, The
scapula, (sh"ulder-bladc.) 23, The humerus. 24. The ulna. 25, The
radius. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32. The bones of the cs'pi's. (wrist.)
33, 33, 33, The bones of the metacarpus, (palm of the h<uid.) 34 3^, 34,
Tlie firpt range of finger-bones. 35, 35, The secona range uf finj-o'-hoiwa
30, 36, 36, The third range of flnger-tx'uss.
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 185
Boties of the Lower Extremities. 37, The fcnmr, (thigh-bone.) 38, The
patella, (knee-pan.) 39, The tibia, (shin-bone.) 40, The fibu'a. 41, 42,
13, 44, 45, The bones of the tarsus, (instep.) 46, 46, The bonca of the
metatarsus, (middle of the foot.) 47, 47, Bones of the toes.
Articulations. (Left side of the plate.)
Ligaments of tlie Trunk. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Ligaments of the
spinal column. 14, 14, 15, 15, Ligaments that connect th. 'bs and spinal
column. 11, 11, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, Ligaments that connect the sacrum
and innominatum.
LiffuTtietUs of the Upper Extremities. 27, 28, Ligaments that connect the
clavicle and scapula. 29, The capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint.
80, 30, Lig'aments of the elbow. 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the carpus,
(wrist.)
Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. 9, Tendon of the gluteus muscle.
35, The capsular ligament of the hip-joint. 36, 36, Ligaments of the knee*
joint. 37, The ligament that connects the tibia and fibula. 38, The in.
terosseous ligament. 39, 40, Ligaments of the ankle-joint.
PLATE m.
A FRONT VIEW OF THE MUSCLES.
Mitscles of the Head and Neck. 7, The sterno-mastoideus muscle.
8, The stemo-hyoideus muscle. 9, The omo-hyoideus muscle. 10, The
trapezius muscle. 11, The orbicularis oculi muscle. 12, The frontal
muscle. 14, The orbiculans oris muscle. 15, The elevator muscle of the
nostrils. 16, The zygomatic muscle. 17, The depressor of the lower lip.
18, The depressor anguli oris muscle. 19, The triangular muscle of the
nose. 20, 21, The aural muscles. 22, The masseter muscle.
Muscles of the Tnmk. 2, 3, The external oblique muscles
Micscles of the Upper Extremities. 1, The grand pectoral muscle.
3, 4, The serratus muscle. 23, The deltoid muscle. 24, The biceps
brachialis muscle. 2.5, The coraco-brachialis muscle. 26, The anterior
brachial muscle. 27, The triceps brachialis muscle. 28, The long su-
pinator muscle. 29, The external radial muscle. 30, The pronator teres
muscle. 31, The anterior radial muscle. 32, The palmaris brevis muscle
33, The anterior ulnar muscle. 35, The palmar muscle 36, The abductor
muscle of tlie thumb. 37, The adductor muscle of the thumb. 38, 39,
Small flexor muscles of the thumb. 40, The abductor muscle of the little
finger. 41, 41, The lumbricalcs muscles. 61,61, The bifurcation of the
tendons of the superficial flexor muscle, in the fingers.
Muscles of the Loioer Extremtties. 42, The fascia lata muscle. 43, The
sartorius muscle. 44, The rectus fcmoris muscle. 45, The vastus sxtemus
muscle. 46, The vastus intcrnus muscle. 47, The internal straight muscle.
48, The pectineus muscle. 49, The adductor muscle. 50, Ihe psoai*
J6»
1H6 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLlNli PLATES.
muscle. 61, The tibialis anticus muscle. 52, Tho long extensor muscle
of the great toe. 63, The long extensor muscle of the toes. 64, Th«
anterior peroneal muscle. 65, The long lateral peroneal muscle. 66, 57, The
gastrocncnui muscles. 58, The long flexor muscle of the great to&
59, The short extensor muscles of the toes. 60, The abduc tor muscle of
the great toe.
The figures and letters on the left side of the plate, indicate the position
of important fasciffi, that cover the muscles and enclose the tcndoni.
PLAl'E IV.
A BACK VIEW OF THE MUSCLES.
Muschs of the Head and Neck. 4, The sterno-mastoideus muscle.
5, The complexus muscle. 6, The mylo-hyoideus muscle. 7, 8, The oo-
cjpito-frontalis muscle. 9, The massetcr muscle. 10,11,12, The anterior,
middle, and posterior aural muscles. 13, The temporal muscle.
Muscles of the Trunk. 1,1, The trapezius muscle. 2, The latissimus dorsl
muscle. 3, The rhomboideus muscle. 4, The external oblique muscle.
Muscles of t/ie Upper Extremities. 5, The deltoid nmscle. 6, 7, The
infra-spinatus muscle. 9, The triceps extensor muscle. 10, The internal
brachial muscle. 11, The long supinator muscle. 12, The external radi-
al muscle. 13, The second external radial muscle. 14, The anconeus
muscle. 15, 16, The extensor digitorum communis muscle. 17, The ex-
tensor carpi ulnaris muscle. 18, The flexor carpi ulnaris. 19, 20, The
pxtensor ossis mctacarpi poUicis muscles. 21, An extensor muscle of the
thumb. 22, 'ii, Interossii muscles.
Mtunles of the Lower Extremities. 29, The gluteus maximus muscle.
30, The gluteus mcdius muscle. 31, The biceps flexor cruris muscle
82, The semi-tendinosus muscle. 33, The semi-raembranosis muscle.
'W, The gracilis muscle. 35, The adductor muscle. 36, The vastus ex-
ternus muscle. 37, The sartorius muscle. 38, 39, The gastrocnemii
muscles. 40, The long peroneal muscle. 41, The external peroneal mus-
cle. 42, Tho long flexor muscle of the great toe. 43, The long extensor
muscle of the toes. 44, The short extensor muscle of the toes. 47, The
short flexor muscle of the toes.
The figures and letters on the left side of the plate, indicate the position
of membranous fasciae which envelop the muscles and tendons.
PLATE V.
ORGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN
Fig. 1. The Mouth and Neck. (A Side view.) 1, The upper lip. 2, Tho
lower lip. 3, The i-pper jaw. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The tongue. 6, The
hard palate, (roof of the mDuth.) 7. The parotid gland. 8, The sub-
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE I'LATES. Ifi'I
lingual gland. T, The larynx. 10, Thn pharynx. 11, The ocBophagua
12, The Jipper portion of the spinal column. C, The spinal cord.
The (Sliest and its Oryans. 9, 9, The trachea. R, The right auncle
of the heart. L, The left auricle. 13, The left ventricle of the neart.
14, The right ventricle, lo. The aorta. 16, The pulmonary artery.
17, The vena cava desccndens. 18, The right subclavian vein. 19, The
left subcHvian vein. 20, The right jugular vein. 21, The left jugular
vein. 22, The right carotid artery. 23, The left carotid artery. 24, 25,
26, The upper, middle, and lo^-er lobes of the right lung. 21, 28, The
upper and lower lobes of the left lung. 29, 29, 29, The diaphragm.
P, V, P, P, The pleura, that lines the cavity of the chest S, 8, The clavi-
cles. O, O, 0, O, The riba. M, M, M, M, Muscles of the chest. 40, The
thoracic duct, opening into the left subclavian vein.
I'he Abdomen and its Organs. 30, The stomach. 31, 32, The right and
left lobe of the liver. F, The fissure that separates the two lobes. 33, The
gall bladder, 34, 34, The duodenum. 3-5, The ascending colon. 36, The
transverse colon. 37, The descending colon. 38, 38, 38, 38, The small
intestine. 39, 39, The walls of the abdominal cavity turned down. 41,
The spleen.
Fig. 2. The Relation of the Lacteals and Thoracic Duct. 1, 1, A section
of the small intestine. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, Mesenteric glands, through
whicn the lacteals from the intestine pass. 3, Several lacteal vesseU
entering the enlarged portion and commencement of the thoracic duct.
6, 5, 5, The thoracic duct. 6, The thoracic duct opening into the left sub- /
clavian vein. 7, (See 40, Fig. 1.) 8, The right subclavian vein. 9, The
vena cava dcscendens. 10, 11, 11, The aorta. 12, The carotid arteries.
13, 13, The jugular veins. 14, The vena azagos. 15, 15, The spinal col-
umn. 16, The diaphragm.
Fig. 3. The Relation of the Larynx, Trachea, Bronchia, and Air-celU
1, 1, 1, An outline of the right lung. 2, 2,2, An outline of the left lung.
3, The larynx. 4, The trachea. 5, The right bronchia. 6, The left bron
chia. 7, 7, 7, 7, Divisions of the right bronchia. 8, 8, 8, 8, Divisions of the
left bronchia. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells.
Fig. 4. An idial View of a lateral and vertical Section of the Larynx.
1, 1, The superior vocal cords, (ligaments.) 2, 2, The inferior vocal cords.
3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the larynx
PLATE VI.
HEART, ARTERIES, AND VEINS.
Fig. 1. The Heart and large Arteries. 1, The right auricle of the heart
2, The right ventricle of the heart. 3, The left auricle. 4, Tfic left ven-
tricle. 6, The pulmonar/ artery. 6, The aorta. 7, 7, The descending
aorta. 8, Ttie arteria innominata, 9, The left carotid artery. 10. The left
subclavian artery. 66, The right subclavian artery.
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188 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES.
Arteries of the Ntck and Head. 15, The right carotid artery. 18, The
left carotid artery. 17, The right temporal artery. 60, The right facial
artery. 64, The left temporal artery.
Arteries of ,e Ujjper Extremities. 11, 11, The left brachial artery,
12, The left radial artery. 13, 13, The right brachial artery. 14, The
right radial artery. 61, The right ulnar artery.
Arteries of the Lower Extremities. 18, The left iliac artery. 19, The right
iliac artery. 20, The left femoral artery. 21, The right femoral artery.
22, The peroneal artery. 23, The left anterior tibial artery. 24, The mus-
cular artery. 2-5, 25, The right and left arteria profunda. 26, The right
anterior tibial artery. 27, The right peroneal artery.
T/ie Veins of t/ie Neck atid Head. 28, The vena cava descendens.
29, The left subclavian vein. 30, The right subclavian vein. 31, The
right jugular vein. 32, The left jugular vein. 63, The right temporal
Tein. 65, The left temporal vein. 49, The right facial vein.
Veins of the Upper Extremities. 33, The left brachial vein. 34, The left
radial vein. 35, The right brachial vein. 36, The right radial vein.
61, The right ulnar vein.
Veins of the Lywer Extremities. 27, The vena cava ascendens. 38, The
left iliac vein. !9, The right iliac vein. 40, The left femoral vein. 41, The
right femoral vein. 42, The left anterior tibial vein. 43, The left per-
oneal vein. 44; The right anterior tibial vein. 45, The right peroneal
vein. 46, 46, The profunda veins. 47, The muscular veins. 48, 48, 48,
48, 48, 48, Intercostal arteries and veins.
Fig. 2. The Relation of the Cavities of the Heart to the large Blood-vessels
1, The vena cava descendens. 2, The vena cava ascendcns. 3, The right
auricle of the heart. 4, The opening between the right auricle and right
ventricle. 5, The right ventricle. 6, The tricuspid valves. 7, The pul-
monary artery. 8, 8, The branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to
the right and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery.
10, The left pulmonary veins. 11, The right pulmonary veins. 12, The
left auricle. 13, The opening between the left auricle and left ventricle.
14, The left ventricle. 15, The mitral valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The
semilunar valves of the aorta. 18, The septum between the right and left
ventricle.
Fig. 3. An ideal View of the Heart, Atieries, and Veins. A, The right
auricle. B, The right ventricle. C, The tricuspid vaives. D, The open-
ing between the right auricle and right ventricle. E, The left auricle.
F, The left ventricle. G, The mitral valves. H, The opening between
the left auricle and left ventricle. I, T'le septum between the right and
left ventricle. K, The pulmonary artery. L, The set Jlunar valves of the
pulmonary artery. M, M, The right 'pulmonary artery. N, N, The left
pulmonary artery. O, O, 0, 0, O, O. The capillary vessels of the lungs.
P, P, P, The right pulmonary vein. Q, Q, The left pulmonavy vein
R, R, The aorta. S, The semilunar valves of the aorta. T, T, A branch
of the aorta to the upper extremities. U, U, U, U, A branch to the lower
ex-trtmities. V, V, V, V, V, V, The oapillary vessels at the extremity
JfJi^ TO ANATOMICAi. OUTLINE PLATES. 189
of the branches of the aorta. W, W, The descending vena caya.,
X, X, X, The ascending vena cava.
In Figf). 1, 2, 3, the course of the blood through the circulatory veMelg
is indicated by arrows.
PLATE Vn.
THE PULMONARY CIRCUi^ATION.
Fig. 1. 1, The right auricle oi heart. 2, The left auricle. 8, Tl.e
right ventricle of the heart. 4, The left ventricle. 5, The pulmonary
artery. 6, The branch of the pulmonary artery to the left lung. 7, The
branch of the pulmonary skftery to the right lung. 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8,
Branches of the pulmonary artery in the right and left lung. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9^ 9,
Air-cells. JO, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Small pulmo:iary veins in the right
and left lung. 11, The left pulmonary vein. 12, 12, The right pulmonary
vein.
Fig. 2. An ideal View of the Pulmonary Circulation. 1,1, The right
lung. 2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, 4, J, 4, 4, The right bronchia.
5, 6, 6, 6, 6, The left ironchia. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells, with arteries and
veins passing around them. 7, The right auricle of the heart. 8, The
right ventricle of the hearL 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary
artery. 11, 11, 11, 11, The right pulmonary artery. 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, The
left puln.onary artery. 13, 13, 13, 13, The right pulmonary vein.
14, 14, 14, 14, The left pulmonary vein. 16, The left auricle. 16, The
left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves. 18, The septum between the right
and left ventricles.
Fig. 3. An ideal View of the Cipillaries. 1, 1, A branch of the pul-
monary artery. 2, 2, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 3, 3, Capillar?
vessels between the artery and vein.
Fig. 4. An ideal View of the Relation of ttte Bronchia, Air-ceUt, Put-
hwnary Arteries, and Vein*. 1, A brou'^hial tube. 2, 2, 2, Air-cella.
3 A branch of the pulmonary artery. 4, A branch of the pulmonary vein.
PLATE Vin.
TUE CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM, SPINAL CORD, AND
NERVES.
1, The cerebrum. 2 The cerebellum. 3, 3, The spinal cord. 4, The
orachial plexus of nerves, 5, The lumbar plexus of nerves. 6, The sa-
cral plexus of nerves. 7, The facial nerve. 8, 17, The radial nerve.
9, 9, 16, The ulnar nsrve. 10, The median nerve. Q, The circumjBev
nerve of the shoulder.
U, 11, The great sciatic nerve. 12, The external poplitea.^, or peroneal
190 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES.
nerve. 13, 13, The poster'or tibial nerve. 14, The external tibial nerve.
16, The muscular branch jf the external peroneal nerve. 18, The muBOO*
lar branch of the sciatic nerve. P, Q, The posterior tibial nerve.
The letters and other figures indicate minor nervous filaments dis-
tributed to the various muscles and the skin.
PLATE IX.
THE SKIN.
Fig. 1. A perspiratory Tribe and Gland. 1, 1, The contorted portion of
the tube that forms the gland. 2, 2, Two branches which unite to form
the main duct of the gland. 3, % The perspiratory tube. 4, The cuticle.
6, Its colored porHon. 6, The cutis vera, (true skin.) 7, 7, Fat vesicles,
m which the gland is imbedded.
Fig. 2. A Papilla of the Skin. 1, 1, Two papillae, formed of an artery,
vein, and nerve. 2, 2, 2, 2, Nerves forming a loop in the papillae. 3, 3, Ar-
teries of the papillBC. 4, 4, Veins of the papillae. 6, 6, A net-work of
arteries, veins, and nerves. 6, 6, Nerves of the skin. 8, 8, Arteries of
the skin. 7,7, Veins of the skin.
-Fig. 3. A Hair, and its Oil-Glands. 1, 1, The hair. 2, 2, The sheath
of the hair. 3, Oil-glands that surround the bulb of the hair, the ducts of
which open into the sheath of the hair, (2, 2.)
Fig. 4. A Section of the Skin. 1, 1, The cuticle. 2, 2, Its colored por-
tion. 3, 3, The papillary layer. 4, 4, A net-work of arteries, veins, and
nerves, upon the upper surface of the cutis vera. 6, 6, 6, 5, The cutis
vera, (true skin.) 6, 6, 6, Hairs that originate in the cutis vera. 7, 7, 7, Oil-
glands, the ducts of which connect with the sheath of the hair. 8, 8, 8 8,
8, 8, 8, 8, Perspiratory glands and their ducts. 9, 9; 9, 9, 9, Nerves of the
skin. 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Arteries of the skin. 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, Veins of
the skin. 12, 12, 12, 12, Papillae, or ridges of the skin.
PLATE X.
AN ANTERO-POSTERIOR SECTION OF THE EYE.
Fig. 1. 1, 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, 2, The cornea. 3, 3, The choroid
coat. 4,4, The retina. 6,6, The iris. 6,6, The posterior cha 'ler of
the eye that contains the aqueous humor. 7, 7, The anterior c. nber.
8, 8, The pupil. 9, The crystalline humor. 10, 10, The vitreous humor.
11, The optic nerve. 12, A representation of a pen. 13, An ir. verted
image of the pen (12) on the retina. 14, 14, A canal surrounding th*
crystalline humor. 16, 1>';, The bevelled junction of the cornea and scla
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OtTfLINE PLATES.
191
rotic coats. A. a perpendicular ray of light from the pen. B, B. obliqua
ternal ear. A Ihe meatus auditouus externus, (the tube that con«ecti
8, 8 The tympanum, (middle ear.) 4, The malleus. 5, The incus
Lib^wT^ '' i""'^'^^"' («tirrup-bone.) that conn'ects^ith the
u -TK ^. ' ' ^^^ semicircular canals. 13, 13, The cochlea
4, The auditory nerve. 15. The division of the auditory nerve to the
semicircular canals. 16. The division to the cochlea.^ l" I7 The
Bus ach.aa tube 18, The chorda tymr-ani nerve. 19, The seventL pa'
ac.l) nerve. 20 The styloid process of the te.p'oral Cl fl,'^,
21, 21, 21, The pntrous or hard portion of the ten.poral bone, in ^hki
the parts of the middle and internal ear are situated. .'"»'"»''»««»