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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ««<»OCOfr RBMUTION TBT CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) lit 1.4 MM 14.0 2.2 2.0 I 1.8 ^i^ J^ '65J Eajl Mom Slr^l ('16) 2U - 59l» - Fo, ^0M^ c /^,M.i200 Hod. Loro CANADA DEPARTMENT OF MINES Mnmn; R. G. McComnu, Dmnr GEOLOGICAL SURVEY I MEMOIR Tsl Na t6, CmoLoueu. Sum Wabana Iron Ore of Newfoundland ■V Albert Orion Hajre* OTTAWA GoTBumiR Fmnnra Bun*r 1915 N&1S45 . ExFLAMAiK or Plats I. Ore from upper pikrt of Scotia bed, locality 31S D5, dide 21, microphotograph enlarged 127 diameter*. Boring alga in spherule* compoaed o( alter- nate con-^ntric layer* o( chamodte (green) and hematite (brown) in lideritc matrix. The coiled tubule* are in a nucleus of chamoMte ind have cryauUlne hematite depouted on the exterior oi .heir wall*. Plate XV A tUu*trate« ore aimilar to that from which «UUe 21 wa* cut. (Page* 17, 24, 40, 74.) '1 I :, . ,j.,!'4 50 'kot, i,t. Ai'^nr .1 CANADA DEPARTMENT OF MINES Hon. Louis Codesbk, Ministbk; R. G. McConnkix, Dkputt Mimsm. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY i MEMOIR Tsl No. 66, Geological Sbuss Wabana Iron Ore of Newfoundland BT Albert Orion Hayes OTTAWA GOVERNUBNT PRINTING BUKBAU 1915 No. 1545 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGB IntFoduction 1 Previoui work 4 CHAPTER n. Stratigraphy 9 General stratigraphy of the ore zones 9 Detailed stratigraphy of the ore zones 11 General remarks on the ore zones 21 CHAPTER III. Paheontdogy 22 CHAPTER IV. Petrology 24 Megascopic description of the ore 24 M^aacopic description of accompanying rocks 25 Microscopic description of the ore and its constituents 25 Microscopic description of parting rocks 28 Descriptions of slides illustrated by microphotographs 30 Dominion bed, zone 2 30 Pyrite bed, zone 3 32 Scotia bed, zone 4 34 Upper bed, zone 5 41 Summary of petrology of oolitic ore from zones 2, 4, and 5 41 CHAPTER V. Chemistry 44 Analyses of shale and sandstone not in ore zones 44 Analyses from zone 2 44 Analyses from zone 3 49 Analyses from zone 4 50 Analysis of brachiopod shell 56 Analyses of chamosite 57 Analyses from zone 5 63 Kelly Island chamoute 64 Summary of chemistry of ores 65 H VAOB CHAPTER VI. Origin of the ore 67 Primary nature of ore beds 67 Conditioni during depotition 68 Evidence from foaiila 69 Primary formation of ipherulet 70 Source of the iron 71 Evidence from abeence of limestone 72 Mode of precipitation of the iron 73 Evidence from fossil algae in ore 74 Formation of oolites by physical p r o cesses 79 Origin of siderite and its relations to hematite and chamosite 80 CHAPTER Vn. Occurrences of iron ores of similar age and character 83 CHAPTER VIII. Origin of the pyrite beds 89 CHAPTER IX. Condudon 93 CHAPTER X. Bibliography 95 Index 157 ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. Microphotograph in colours of coiled tubules of boring algse in spherules Frontispiece A. Lower Cambrian basal conglomerate of Manuels brook 103 B. Lenticular sandstone beds with sandy shales on south shore of BvU island 103 A. Lent'cular sandstone parting in iron ore 105 B. General view of iron ore beds on north shore Bell island 105 Dominion bed, face in surface stripping 107 Oolitic pyrite bed 109 Scotia bed with overlying sandy shales at surface stripping. Ill Detail of upper part of Scotia bed 113 Cross-bedding in oolitic ore of Scotia bed 115 Ore beds or >!one 5 on north shore of Bell island 117 Ul PACK Fiate X. Conglomente of oolitic iron ore ia ilimk iMtrting from upper part of Dominion bed 119 XI. A. Ripple-marked rarface at baae of Scotia bed 121 B. Detail of ripple-marked nirface 121 XII. A. Pyritized graptoUte* in oolitic pyrite 123 B. Lingula hawkei from Dominion bed 123 XIII. A. Worm burrowi in Dominion bed, top view 125 B. Worm burrowa in Dominion bed, lectional view 125 XIV. A. Worm burrowa in Scotia bed 127 B. Dominion bed ore hokiing pebblea and ihell fragmenta 127 XV. A. Oolitic ore from Scotia bed 129 B. Oolitic ore from Dominion bed 129 XVI. A. Microphotograph of landy thale underlying Dominion bed 131 B. Microphotograph of denae ore from Do.mnion bed — 131 XVII. A. Microphotograph of sanditone parting in Dominion ore 133 B. Microphotograph of boring algc in Dominion ore 133 XVIII. A. Microphotograph of boring algse in sandstone parting 135 B. Microphotograph of oolitic chamoaite from Dominion bed 135 XIX. A. Microphotograph of oolitic pyrite in argillaceous matrix 137 B. Microphotograph of oolitic pyrite with crystalline quartz 137 XX. A. Microphotograph of oolitic hematite-chamoaite ore underiying Scotia bed 139 B. MicropLotograph of contact Scotia ore and sandstone parting 139 XXI. A. Microphotograph of ore from upper part of Scotia bed 141 B. Microphotograph of boring algse in Scotia ore 141 XXII. A. Microphotograph with natural light of detrital quartz replaced by siderite 143 B. Microphotograph between crossed nicols of detrital quartz replaced by siderite 143 XXIII. A. Microphotograph of pseudomorphs of siderite after chamosite spherules 145 B. Microphotograph of oolitic chamosite from top of Scotia bed 145 XXIV. A. Microphotograph of contact of Scotia ore with over- lying shale 147 B. Microphotograph of ferruginous sandstone overlying Scotia bed 147 XXV. A. Microphotograph of phosphatic layer above Scotia bed 149 B. Microphotograph of chamosite spherules in phosphate layer 149 IV XXVI. A. Microphotognph of Mcondary caldte veinlet in Scad* <** 151 B. Microphotognph of phoiphatk lajwr at bMe of Scoti* bed 151 XXVII. A. Microphotograph of hematite-chamorite ipherulet ra- placed by siderite 153 B. Crow-bedded and laminated ore from Scotia bed 153 XXVIII. Foaail raindrop imprcMiona 155 Figurel. Key map showing line of section A B C 2 2. Generalized section on line ABC ^ 3. Outcrops of ore beds on Bell island, Newfoundland ...!.'!!! 10 4. Generalised section through cones 2, 3, 4. and 5 12 Wabana Iron Ore of Newfoundland. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. An endeavour has been made in this paper to present the results of a detailed study of the petrology and chemistry of the Wabana iron ore. A discussion of the origin of the ore and short descriptions of deposits of similar character and age, are given in conclusion. I had the pleasure of visiting the Wabana iron mines in November, 1911, in company with Mr. C. L. Cantley, assistant to the general manager of the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company. Many questions suggested themselves as to the exact nature of the oolitic iron ore and its origin, and a prelimin- ary investigation was made by Mr. Cantley and the writer in December of the same year. The condu^on was then reached that only a most thorough investigation would serve to answer these questions satisfactorily. While carrying out this research I have been aided in many ways by the management of the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company, and desire to acknowledge especially the kindness of Messrs. Thomas Cantley, R. E. Cham- bers, C. L. Cantley, and A. R. Chambers, and to thank the com- pany most heartily for its courteous co-operation in carrying out both field and laboratory work. I am also much indebted to Mr. Jas. P. Howley, Director, Geological Survey, Newfound- land, through whose kindness and personal interest this work has profited. The field study of the ore deposits was made by the writer in the summer of 1912, after a general geological survey of the '"ambro-OrdovicJan of Conception and Trinity bays had been cai.ied on bv Professor Gilbert van Ingen and the writer, with the assistance of Mr. B. F. Howell of the Department of Geo- logy, Princeton university. The microscopic examinations and some of the chemical analyses were made by the writer in the laboratories of the Department of Geology at Princeton university, and a number of the chemical analyses were also made by him at Wabana, Newfoundland, in the laboratory of the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company. This company has provided other analyses of the ore and accompanying rocks, which were made from time to time by its chemists, Messrs. T. G. McFarlane, W. L. Fraser, and A. V. Seaborn, whose work I de«re to gratefully acknowledge. It gives me great pleasure to express my deep gratitude to Professors C. H. Smyth, jun., and Gilbert van Ingen, of the Department of Geology, Princeton university, for their continued generous support throughout this invesdgation. It would be impossible for me to give them credit for each of the many suggestions by which they have aided this work. Professor van Ingen has also identified the fossils referred to in the text, supplied the material for a chemical analysis of the fossil brachio- pod, Linguh hawkei, and prepared the photographs. I am especially indebted to Professor Smyth for many valuable suggestions regarding methods of investigation, and above all fok giving me freely of his own experience io similar fields of research. This thesis was accepted by the Faculty of Princeton university in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the de- gree, Doctor of Philosophy, and is the first of a series of contri- butions to the geology of Newfoundland by the graduate students and staff of the Department of Geology of the university. The Wabana iron ore deposits are owned and mined by two Canadian firms, the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company and the Dominion Iron and Steel Company, operating steel plants at Sydney Mines and Sydney, in Cape Breton. According to the report of the Department of Mines, Mines Branch, on the pro- duction of iron and steel in Canada during the calendar year 1913, by John McLeish, page 7, the total quantity of New- foundland ore shipped during 1913 from the Wabana mines was 1,605,920 short tons, of which 1,048,432 tons were shipped to Sydney and 557,488 tons to the United States and Europe. The Wabana mines furnished during 1912 and 1913 from 47 to 48 per cent of the total amount of iron smelted in Canada. Since the Wabana ore is so closely connected with Canadian Fig. /. Kmy M^p shomir^ line of se -4S , ine of section ABC industry. th» therii Km been accepted (or publication by the Geological Survey, Cana^ i. «..^ • The Wabana Iron ore (om» part of a •enet of Ordovician •edimento which are expowd on Bell Uland. in the louth central part of Conception bay (Figure 1). The ore bed. outCTop for about 3 milea ulong the northern than of thi. idand and dip to the northwct (Figure. 2. 3. and 4). They are the highest bed. of the northern limb of an anticline, the truncation of which ha. revealed an almct continuou. ^ries of unmeumorphowd Mnd.tone and .halo .everal thouKind. of feet thick, under- lying the ore and ranging in age from Lower Cambrian to lower Ordovician. . , . . u An extraordinary concentration of ferruginous miner^ occur, in five principal xone. through the upper l.OOO feet - of each zone and these are referred to by plate n.-nber. in the text. Following the petrology, the chemistry ; each zone is taken up. recalculations of important analyses made, and their significance stated. In conclusion, the bearing of the results of the investigation on the question of the origin of the ore and of the oolitic pyrite is considered, and the theones of origin of similar deposits discusf-^. Certain names have been given to the various iron ore beds, and among others "Dominion bed" and "Scotia bed' to the principal workable beds. These names were applied before submarine mining commenctti. when the Domimon bed was '• operated by the Dominion Iron and Steel Company, and the Scotia bed by the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company, on the land claims on Bell island. In the case of the submarine hold- ings, however, each company owns all of the beds within its respective areas, the boundaries of which are vertical. At the present time the Scotia Company is mining largely from the Dominion bed, as well as the Scotia bed, while the Dominion Company owns a part of the Scotia bed, as well as part of the Dominion, and other beds in their submarine property. Hence the names of the ore beds do not indicate the names of the owners. PREVIOUS WORK. During the years 1842 and 1843, J. B. Jukes made a general survey of the geology of Newfoundland and in his report (27: pp. 81-82)* the following descriptions are found: "On the southeast side of Kelly island, a mass of gritstone, in many beds having a total thickness of 30 or 40 feet, rises into the middle of the cliffs In Little Bell island, as well as in Bell island itself, several bands of similar stone exist, but none of such thickness nor in so favourable a situation for working as in Kelly island. In the upper beds of Bell isle, namely those on the northwest side, there is but little stone, although one bed of bright red sandstone about 8 feet thick was observed." This is probably the earliest reference to the Wabana ore, as the only bright red strata of Bell island are beds of a ferrugin- ous oolite whose colour is due to hematite; and a bed, of about the thickness noted, forms a striking feature of the northwest coast. In his report for 1868, Alexander Murray (35: p. 157) described a section from Manuels brook across Kelly, Little Bell, and the west end of Bell islands, from Lance cove northwards. The highest stratum described in the section is a "mass of greyish granular white-weathering sandstone" which underlies the principal ore beds. Higher strata containing the ■ Figure! In brackeu refer to bibliography, p. 9S I iron ore are exposed farther east, but as these are not included, they were probably not visited and one of the most wonderful accumulations of iron ore in the world remained unknown until many years later. The ruins of old stone fireplaces at Lance cove point to an early settlement of Bell island, but no accurate history is at hand concerning the pioneers. Primitive fanning was carried on during the latter half of the nineteenth century by Irish settlers who took their product to St. Johns in sailing vessels, their only means of communication. Anchors were frequently made by enclosing the heavy "red rock" in frames made from small fir trees, but no one realized the value of these particular rocks until many years had passed. The nature of the iron ore was eventually recognized and its value being realized, the property was acquired by Messrs. Butler of Topsail, Newfoundland, from whom it was purchased by the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company in 1893. The difficult pioneer work of developing the property for this company was managed by Mr. R. E. Chambers, and we are indebted to him (8) for the first description of the deposit, published in 1896. An historical sketch and a description of the development of mining operations were given in 1909 by Messrs. R. E. and A. R. Chambers (9), and in 1911 an article by Mr. Thomas Cantley (6) reviewed the history of the mines, and described the ore beds and methods of mining. The following interesting facts have been taken from Mr. Cantley's paper: During the summer of 1895, when the mines on Bell island were being opened and preparations made for large shipments of ore, Mr. Thomas Cantley gave the locality the Indian name "Wabana," which means "The place wheredaylight first appears," an appropriate name for this eastern portion of the continent. "In 1899 a portion of the areas was sold to the then recently formed Dominion Iron and Steel Company, the latter thus acquiring the lower bed while the Nova Scotia Company reserved for themselves the upper bed, the ore in which contains a higher percentage of iron than any of the other seams. This sale included a submarine area of 3 square miles adjoining the shore. because of the increaaed th^Z^tr^^^..^ T^"^'' persistence of the beds also led tTtheMS'th.l)t- 1^°^ area would contain all the beH» n.,«!^ * **"' submarine "Upon the sublrine^^" r^'"' °" ''^ '^"^• beds upon their reso^riJlM^ S ~"Pany owns all the bed. the Dominion Com,..TZr^^lt,X^ JJ'^ at the";^^T?me"1^^1SSn;r^--^^^ own 32} square mile^ of thZt!^l • ^^ ^"^ ^'^ Company by which the slopes cTulH h! ^ • '^" .^" ^^^ement was made areas and work wirl,t.t!^*=" '^T^^ '^"^ intervening Thisworkp^eSfrurb^anrh^S^^tb''-^^ ^^ were reached in 1909 Ac *i,„ i acotia submarine areas by diamond d"r?iS tht''the'rwe';^td "" ^Jf ^"^ greatly both in thickness and rirnesTAt 1'"''*^ ^^^ seam was 11 feet thick butT^H. n ^' **** ""^'^"'P th« that thicknes^indeS In 'f ^'^"^'y '""*^ *« °ver double of the ore sZ^thS'Z • "" '° °^''" ^° '^*: '^W'e analyses correspondlngjiower " """ '°"*'"' ^^ '''«''«' -^^ the sS tion^'^JS^:^^;?;^^ ^^^ ^-^^^ P-P-^ in 19n. addi- Stee. and S'£:Zn^Z^l^^^J'y ''^ ^^a Scotia square miles. Many chanUThl , 5 '^'"«' "^'^ being 83} for facilitating tlTcreS^^J^t^fo^" ""''' '"^ ^''^^^ ^'-^ Mr. J^miTSwLVS^es''^:: of Newfoundland (26: p. 751) probable amount oFore taWne int?^'"'"^''.'^*^'"^^^ ^^ ^^e of ore, ten of which r^f f^" Jf/r/f ' T" -"^'"^ ''^"^^ and two large bands near\heTp^^ fhe^seSrir^-:' minion bed, zone 2) averaging 10 feet and the upper (Scotia bed, zone 4) 8 feet. He says: "By the aid of the dip and strike of the strate, where acces- nble, it is possible to form a fair idea of the extent of the trough, and unless some unforeseen disturbance takes place, whereby the ore may be greatly diminished or thrown out altogether, and provided the bands maintain their thickness and stratified character throughout, the result arrived at reaches the enormous total of 3,635,343,360 tons, I shall not hazard an opinion as to the amount that may be recoverable." It is to be pointed out that a stretch of about 10 miles of water intervenes between Bell island and the Pre-Cambrian rocks on the north shore of Conception bay, towards which the ore dips, and that no outcrops of the Cambro-Ordovician series are found on the shore of Conception bay north of Brigus-North h< i, which lies about 10 miles to the southwest of the island. Any estimation of the total amount of ore present, depends largely on an interpretation of the structure of t*"^ ore strata, and hence must be largely hypothetical. Mr. H. Kilbum Scott, M.I.M.M., of London, in 1009 (39: p. 39) estimated the ore in the Scotia property alone to total 652,500,000 tons, and total recoverable ore, deducting that lost in pillars by faults and poor zones, to total 395,525,000 tons. Mr. Elwin E. Ellis and Mr. Edwin C. Eckel have each estimated the amount of the Wabana iron ore, and the results of their findings were given as testimony in a legal case, as follows, according to the "Iron Age" of October 16, 1913, in an article entitled— "The Steel Corporation Dissolution Sin'." "Edwin E. Ellis, of Birmingham, Alabama, a geologist, formeriy with the United States Geological Survey, and now with the Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad Company, testified regarding the iron mines which are being operated near Bell island, in the Conception Bay district, Newfoundland, of which he had prepared maps. He said that clciims had been taken as far as 12 miles out from shore and that it is planned to operate workings of that length. He estimated the reserve at 3,250,- 000,000 tons allowing for workings 5 miles long Edwin C. Eckel testified that in Newfoundland there were 3,500,000,000 tons of economically available ore *nthin a radius of 5 miles of Bell island. Besides this there are billions of tons which are not economically available at this time. In one deposit alone in the Newfoundland district he said that the ore runs 30 feet thick and contains about 90,000,000 tons to the square mile." No discusMon of the geology of the Wabana ore with refer- ence to ite origin, has come to the writer's notice, but Professor C. K. Leith (29: pp. 99-100) and Dr. R. Beck (2) group them with the Clinton ores as primary sediments. 4 . 4 *5 '^M £•»•/ Fi^2 Genanaiiiad aection on Uim A BC.ahom r C. showing position of Wabmnm^ Iron Ores CHAPTER II. STRATIGRAPHY. GENERAL STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ORE ZONES. From a study of the ore-bearing rocks, the conclusion has been reached that the ore beds are primary sediments which have been deposited on the floor of a marine sea of Arenig to Llandeilo age, and that their distribution was reguhted by the same forces which have had to do with the forniation of the sandstones and shales which accompany them. (Plate II A). Several thousand feet of unmetamorphosed and slightly disturbed sediments accompany and underlie the ore beds and dip 8 to 10 degrees north-northeast. The distance across the strike of these strata from the basal Cambrian conglomerate on Manuels brxwk to the highest beds on Bell island is about 8 miles, of which about 3^ miles is covered by the water of Con- ception bay (Figure 2). Exposures occur on Kelly and Little Bell islands, about midway across this covered portion, and fur- nish a section over 1,000 feet in thickness, which reveals strata of a character very similar to that found on Bell island. The sediments are laid down in broad lenticular beds of varying thickness and extent, which occasionally begin at a point, spread and thicken, and then die away within a distance of 100 feet (Plates II B and III A), although ui^ually they are much more continuous. Cross-bedding and ripple-marks are constantly met with. It is evident that these sediments were deposited on a sea bottom that suffered continual oscillation relative to the surface of the water. Zones of strata varying in thickness up to about 100 feet, and composed predominantly of sandstone or layers made up of beds of shale, are very persistent and can usually be traced as far as exposed above water. The individual layers constituting these zones are themselves continually thick- ening and thinning, being replaced by others of similar character. The ore beds display all the features peculiar to ofl-shore deposits. 10 l^nHJ T?«,«^""''«ed generally in thicker «ul mo»* extenrive Oolitic iron ore and ferruginoui rocka have been found in ^ zone, on Bell idand ami theae are given in .tratigS32m Ea.tern head on the ea.t coa.t of the idand toT^e northwe.t coa.t between Big head and the Bell (Figure. 2 and 3). It contain, band, of oolitic hematite, two of which appear to be continuous, one attaining a thicknew of about 2 feet h.^ .T ^' l?'^"^'"^ <*« Dominion Bed.~The lowest oolitic hematite of thi. zone i. about 600 feet .tratigraphically above zone and the whole zone con^.t. of a «jrie8 of bands of oolitic hem^atite alternating with shales and cross-bedded, fine-grained «nd.tone.. comprising about 100 feet of strata culminating «^ r ""^"u ?""^*^*' '" '*'•*='' '^» ^^ thin ferru^. sandstone and .hale parting rocks (Figure. 2, 3, and 4, and Plate three bands extending through strata from a few inches up to 4 teet in thickness, and found from 1 to 10 feet above the highest ooliuc hematite of zone 2. (Figures 2 and 4. Plates IV and V). Zone 4, Scot^ Bed.-This zone commences 210 feet above 4"pLtrmr;i%ii:?„s°vno^ Zone 5, Including the Upper Bed.-The lowest band of this zone IS separated from the top of the Scotia bed by about 40 ivc the mt in cal ite ta, ng he ir- nt le td IT ic 'e ic d 8 i s e 1 '■l^-^ Outcrops or or«.t^a on Bmll lU «•// /«A«/N/, N»wf6undlMd 11 feet of sandstone and shales, and the oolitic iron ore continues upwards through about 50 feet of strata (Figures 2, 3, and 4, Plates IIIB and IX). DETAILED STRAT'Ox , f^TiY OF THE ORE ZONES. Zone J. This oolitic hematii,- is, not being r ined for ore, and conse- quently the ferruginous sirtna ^;c e> posed for study only in the perpendicular cliffs of the coast and along road and prospect cuttings. Ten exposures were found which serve to trace the outcrop nearly the entire length of the island, about 5} miles. Three sections will illustrate the stratigraphy of the zone, one from the east coast, another from the interior, and the third from the west coast. Lists of fossils are given on page 22. Section at Eastern Head. Locality 206 AS E. Strata Thickness' Character Rock Hema- tite 10 Shale Eroded 2 ft. 10 ft. 15 ft.' 30 ft. 5 ft. 20 ft. 2 ft. 1ft. 2 ft. Purple-black, fine-«rained, sandy. Green, medium-grained.' Oolitic. Green, medium-grained. Oolitic. Green, medium-grained. Purple black, fine-grained, sandy. Medium-grained, green. Oolitic. Green, medium-grained. 9 8 7 6 5 4 Sandstone Hematite Sandstone Hematite Sandstone Shale 3 2 1 Sandstone Hematite .... Sandstone ' Thicknex estimated in iteep cliff by eye. ' The green tandnone of this lone appean to be femiiinoui. but no analyiea o( it have been made. ■1 12 Section in CuUing South of Rents Bridge. Locality 206 ASA. Number Strato Thickness Rock Hematite Character 18.. 17.. Sandstone 5 ft. in Sandstone and Dark to light - •n.fine. 16.. 15... shale Sandstone. . . . Sandstone anc 1 ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 4 in. Gradual change with thin shales. Green, coarse, granular. 14... 13... 12... 11... 10... 9... 8... shale Hematite Sandstone Sandstone Shales No exposure.... Sandstone Hematitic 4 ft. S in. Sin. 4 in. 1 ft. in. 1 ft. 1 in. 2 ft. in. 4 in. Gradual change with thin shales. Oolitic. Ferruginous. Ferruginous, coarse. Black, in thin Uyers, with thin sandstone layers. Dip 10 de- grees north. Dark green, medium- grained. Sandstone. . . 9 in. Coarse-grained with 7... 6.. . S.... 4... 3 Hematite No exposure. . . Sandstone No exposure. . . 1 ft. 1 in. 2 ft. 8 in. 3 ft. 10 in. 3 ft. 10 in. 1ft. 6 in. •••■•• quartz pebbles. Oolitic. Coarse, dark green. 2... Sandstone with hemat- ite bands.... 1 ft. 3 in. 3 in. Oolitic hematite in 3 bands each 1 inch 1.... Sandstone 1ft. Din. thick. Medium-grained, ferru- gmous. ASA. •n, fiw. 2 with ranular. 8 with r»e. •ayen, idstone 10 de- edium- with in 3 inch femi- V 3 I I • I Pyrite Section, 208 D, through Zone 3. No. Ic lb la Strau. Shale.. Pyrite. 5 Shale 4 I Pyrite 3 .-.,"e I VI te. Shale Pebble bed. Shale Underlying ooli- tic hematite with shale partings at top of lone 2 (PUte X). Thickness. Rock. 85 ft. in. ft. 8 in. Ift.Oin. 2 ft. ft in. ft. 2 in. 4 ft. in. Pyrite. 1 ft. in. ft. 6 in. 1 ft. 2 in. Character. Graptoiites in lower 60 ft. Graptolitic, oolitic (Slide 31). Graptolitic. Graptolitic, oolitic. Graptolitic. Graptolitic, oolitic (Plate V) (Slide 44). Fine-grained, fietUe. Fine-grained sandy shale with phosphate nodules and shell fragments. Fine-grained, fissile. Contains conglomerate of oolitic iron ore at top. Zone 4, The Scotia Bed. The iron ore of this zone is confined to about 15 feet of strata, and fewer layers of parting ™ck occur Tt^e hematite than are found m the ore of the other zones. A thinSrSno,^ sandstone partmg, found along the eastern surface out^^d pand 17 numbered in aectisns as 215 E>4 on page 17 (Plate VIII), and as 206 J2c3 on page 18 (Plate VI) diet out; and at the point where section 206 A25 E is taken, this horizon is marked between the top of E7 and the bottom of E8 by a disconformity formed by wave erosion apparently contemporaneous with the deposition of the parting rock farther east. The eroded surface contains worm burrows and above this disconformity the oolitic hematite is cross-bedded, indicating that shallow water conditions obtained during the deposition of this zone. The upper 3 to 6 inches is composed of a grey, oolitic ore and although similar in texture, a sharp colour line marks the change from the general red hematite of the lower ore. This grey layer is found everywhere over the Scotia bed and is due to the presence of oolitic chamosite instead of hematite. Section 215 D, Zone 4 (Plate VIII). No. Slide. 9 26,27 25 24 22. 2,1 21,86 20 19 18 Chemical' analyses. Za,Zc Z Y X W Strau. Pebble bed Sandstone Shale Ore Ore Sandstone. Ore Ore Sandstone- Underlying beds of ool- itic hema- tite, sand- stone, and shale. Thickness. Rock. ft. 3 in. Oft. Oft. 3 in. lin. ft. 2 in. Ore. ft. 3 in. 4 ft. 4 in. 2 ft. 3 in. ft. 6 in. ft. 11 in. Character. Phosphate nodules and shell frag- ments. Chamositic. Grey oolitic chamo- site Oolitic hematite. Ferruginous part- ing. Oolitic hematite. Oolitic hematite with three one- half inch shale partings. Ferruginous, cham- ositic. ' Page 53. 18 2c(l-2) . Section 206 J, Zone 4 {PlaUs VI and VII). 2b j 2a 54 51 ft. 2 in Ore Sandstone.. Oft. 4 in. Q P Ore Sanditonc. Ore ft. 3 in. 3 ft. 6 in. ft. 1 in. Ore I Roclt Oft. in, Underlying beds of ool- itic hema- tite, sand- stone, and shale. ft. 1 in. ft. 4 in. 1ft. 11 in, Hard, grey Phosphate nod and shell f mentc in sa shale. Sandy. Green ferrugir chamositic. Fissile. Grey oolitic chi osite. Oolitic hematit) Ferruginous, gr« with many si fragments. Oolitic hematite. Ferruginous, grei Oolitic hematit with thin sand partings. Oolitic hematite. Shell fragments a sandy shale. 'Pais 52 II). Character. I, grey. phate nodulet i shell frag- nto in sandy lie. y- I ferruginous mosieic. c. oolitic chani> e. c hematite, jinous, green, i many sheU :ments. : hematite, pnous, green, hematite, I thin sandy ings. hematite, 'agmentsand ly shale. 19 Sectim 206 A25 E, Zone 4. No. Strau. Thickness. Character. Rock. Ore. n... 10 9 8f . . . . Shale Sandy shale Sandstone Ore ft. 9 in. ft. 3 in. ft. 3 in. ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 10 in. 2 ft. 6 in. 1 ft. in. Grey, fiMile. Hard, green with trilobites. Green, finely laminated chamositie. 8 (a<) Ore erite, grey. ite, cross-beilded. Diiconformily. 7 (a-h) Ore 6 1-5... Sandy shale Ore forniity at top shown by wave erosion and vertical worm burrows. (Plate XIV A). Green, ferruginous. Underlying beds of oolitic hematite, sandstone, and shale. shale partings. Zone 5. Including the Upper Bed. This zone is the highest, stratigraphically, and outcrops along the '^rth of the island in a series of bands of oolitic hema- tite separated by sandstone and shale partings, which contain lean, ferruginous oolitic layers composed of chamosite and siderite with smaller amounts of hematite. Section 206AH, through this zone, described below, was measured on the north cliff. Its component layers are shown in Plate IX. 20 ! r I. Section 206 AH. Zone 5. {Plate IX.) No. 22.... 21.... 20. . . . 19.... 19f. 19e. 19d. 19c. 19b. 19a.. 18. 17. 16. 15.. 14.. 13.. 12.. 11.. 10.. 9... 9d. 9c.. 9b.. 9a.. Thickness. Oolitic hem. Rock. 18 in. 10 to 12 in. 5 in. 4 in. Description. 20 to 50 ft.i toperoded.JDark soft shales, top of bank. 6 in. 6 ft. 3 in. 12 i 32 in. 13 in. 12 to 15 in 7 in. 35 in. Carbonate, phosphate, pebbies. py! nte, hard band. Variable as follows: in. shale. Ji in. iron silicate carbonate bed. " in. iron silicate rock. ft. 3 in. iron silicate roik. 1 1 in. heavy slate with many pebbles. 1 ft. 9 in. heavy layer. Base fills erosion channels in top of under- lying hematite. I Rhombic hematite. Slate with phosphate pebbles in upper 5 inches. Heavy bed, chamosite and hematite mixed, ledding plane at base. East of fault (Slides 93 and 94) Slate. Heavy bed. red and green ferruginoui at base, slaty at top. Rhombic hematite. Irregular slaty parting rock. Fossil trails at base. Irregular rhombic hematite. jHeavy bed. variable, as follows: 9 m. massive, homogeneous, lean ore. Ill in. slaty, knotty. 4 to 5 in. white-weathering pebbles. Lingula. 1 1 in. mixed chamosite and hematite. 21 Section 206 AH, Zone 5—Contd. bank, bblea, py- ebed. 'pebbles. Base fills >f under- i>bles in lematite lase. 1 94). 'Uginout Fossil vs: ), lean ebbles. natite. No. Thkknen. Description. Oolitic hem. Rock. 8 24 in. Hematite with green rock partings, as follows: 8e 7 in. hematite. 8d 8c 1 in. oarting. 4 in. hematite. 8b 8a 2 in. parting. 10 in. hematite. 7 9 in. Hard green rock and hematite in- 6 1 ft. 8 in. termingled. Platy rhombic hematite, as follows: 5 in. hematite. 6c 6b \ inch, sandstone. 6a 1 ft. to 2) in. hematite. 5 1 ft. 1 in. Hard bed of hematite and green slate. 4... 4) in. 5 ft. 6i in. Soft hematite, platy. Many brachio- pod fragments. Heavy bed. Alternating hematite and green siliceous rock. 3(a-f).... 2 2 ft. 6 in. Grey hard shale, with grey sand- stone seams. 1 1 ft. 1 in. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ORE ZONES. All of the ore bands are characterized by wave erosion indicated by ripple-marked surfaces (Plate XI A). Some por- tions of zone 4 are cross-bedded (Plate VIII). Worm burrows are splendidly preserved in the ore and accompanying rocks of all zones (Plates XIIIA, XIIIB, and XIVA), and compara- tively fresh brachiopods are found in all the ore beds as well as in the accompanying sandstones and shales. The brachiopods are the most important marine fossils, and they are preserved in such a manner as to indicate that the animals lived in the loose material which eventually became compacted into the oolitic iron ore (Plate XIIB). Graptolites occur in the oolitic pyrite and fine fissile grey shales overlying the oolitic hematite and shale of zone 2 (Plate XII A). ^i m l\ 22 CHAPTER III. PALEONTOLOGY. with CI™ '°'°'°™">' " *' '»P »' "^ 2, aie pyritt bri. From the oolitic ore of the Smfi'a k»^ „ j 206 A17 between zones land 2 (Plate XXVIII). ""^'y 23 The lamiiue of the shells of these brachiopods and of lingula frequently have a thin coating of galena over their surfaces, giving them a shiny appearance. This remarkable association of lead sulphide and fossil shells is worthy of further study. Small concentrations of galena occur in the upper part of the Scotia bed and may be genetically associated with these fossils. The general bearing of the presence of this fauna in the ore rocks and the special significance of the incursion of graptolites in zone 3 will be discussed in the chapter on the "Origin of the Ore." 24 I ! 1 ! f CHAPTER IV. PETROLOGY. The study of the ore and accompanyine rocks in thin «w^- sirndar type and age occurring in France. Bohenfia L ^e tngland and Germany. Comparisons of the results of fh MEGASCOPIC DESCRIPTION OF THE ORE. w!tT. K i- f""'^ presenting a reddish grey colour fault systems of the region (Plates IV, VIII. XI B) ThL ' breaks are marked by minute veinlets of calcife and IIT. uiatmg meshwork throughout the ore hprf« t»,„ u . r:L"'ifi.'' ' «".^™"'" »pp^-- « ultras structure. The concretions wh ch will be referred t « n<= =.,1, are very small, varying in diameter fr7m t"^„Th otn^haH lltoT'T''' ^" "^"^'^ -'"-•^^^ disc!shap d.Tvng their shorter diameters at right angles to the bedding S of the ore as though flattened by pressure in this direction 25 The spherules are more flattened in the body Ci an ore band where they are closely packed together, than at the con- tacts with parting rocks where they are scattered through the rock matrix. The spherules of the Dominion bed are consistently smaller, about half the size, and more flattened than those of the Scotia bed, giving the Dominion ore a very much finer- grained appearance than the Scotia ore (Compare Plates XV A and XV B). Small fr^^ments of brachiopod shells are always contained in the ore and have usually been almost perfectly preserved. Many nodules occur, usually along lines parallel to the bedding of the rocks, but frequently scattered indiscriminately through the ore and varying in size from that of the spherules to one centimetre in length. They are usually somewhat elongated, irregular spheroids showing a dark green colour in cross section (Plate XIV R). MEGASCOPIC DESCRIPTION OF ACCOMPANYING ROCKS. The rocks accompanying the ore as partings are flne-grained ferruginous sandstones and sandy shales which have a thickness varying from a thin film to I i-^ches (Plate X). The sandstone has a greenish grey co> .• -1 the shale is grey-black with a purple tinge. Both present i. -ng faces when broken parallel to the bedding of the rocks, due to a chloritic mineral, similar in appearance to mica but without elasticity, breaking easily when bent. This mineral is probably crystalline chamosite. MICROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION OF THE ORE AND ITS CONSTITUENTS. The ore is composed of two principal iron-bearing minerals, hematite and chamosite, while a third, siderite, becomes locally abundant. Quartz is present in some quantity and occurs gen- erally as detrital fragments, and locally in a recrystallized form. Small fragments of brachiopod shells are always present and minute boring algae occur throughout the ore series. Hematite is the most abundant iron-bearing mineral and occurs in a very finely divided form, arranged in concentric 26 bands in small spherules. It is opaque and can be studied b. in reflected light, when its natural colour is seen. In the deni ores hemaute frequently obscures the presence of other miner which have been found to occur with it; therefore the spherul may be studied to the best advantage in the leaner orra T spherules may be completely composed of hematite or they m; have a distinct central portion, termed the nucleus, which frequently a grain of quartz, quite often a small shell fragmer ^rVu' T°"' ^''*" ''"^*"' ^^hamosite. or occasional sidente. The other part is made up of an alternation of laye ofhematite and chamosite. In many spherules the hemati ?„^"7 t? ^^^" .°^ chamosite. but by digesting the spherul Sim lar to that found on treating spherules of chamosite alon IS always obtained, indicating the presence of the silicate in a hematite spherules. Hematite occurs also to a limited exten fiUing the interstices between the spherules. Crystals of hemj tite are frequently found enclosed in chamosite and recrysta hzed quartz where they exhibit the typical hexagonal outlim These crystals are very minute and exceedingly thin, translucen and of a ruby red colour. It is probable that all of the hematit occurs in this micro-crystalline form. Ckamosite, an aluminous ferrous silicate, is found in all th ore bandsand is second to hematite asan iron-bearing constituent The composition of the green iron silicate as determined fron che.nical analyses T. W. Z, Za, Zc (pages 58-62) approximate, the composition given by E. R. Zalinsld (53: pp. 70-79) foi chamosite. Similar minerals such as thuringite and uncrystal- •zed silicates having no constant composition, may accompany the chamosite. A further discussion is given under "Chemistry '■ StT'?.""""'', ^'^ '" '^^ 'P*'^™'^^ ^"^ •" the interstices cn^stal ued. Where non-oolitic it frequently exhibits a micro- revealed only by the higher powers of the microscope. It also occurs in larger crystals having a tabular structure. Its colour higher than that of quartz. Between crossed nicols the chamosite L 27 in the spherules is deep blue and shows the cross of aggregate polarization. The microK:rystalline mineral with crossed nicols exhibits a change from yellow to deep blue, the aggregates of minute crystals producing an exceedingly spotted effect. In the leaner portions of the ore the spherules are composed of either a series of concentric layers of chamosite alone or of an alternation of concentric layers of chamosite and hematite, surrounding in either case a nucleus composed of quartz, a shell fragment, or a small area of hematite, siderite, or chamosite. In some parts of the oolitic ore the chamosite fills all of the inter- stitial spaces between the spherules, and it is exceptional to find a thin section which does not contain some of this mineral. Where the chamosite is not found, either the spherules are packed together very closely and a large development of hematite has masked other constituents, or the interspherular spaces are filled with quartz or siderite. Siderite occurs in crystalline form as small rhombohedra, but usually it is difficult to recognize any crystalline form, a granular aggregate in which crystalline structure has occasionallydeveloped, being the rule. It is usually found in the matrix of the ore, that is outside the spherules, sometimes forming all of this interstitial part. It also occurs within the spherules, occasion- ally forming the central portion or nucleus. In many instances this mineral has replaced chamo^te, hematite, and quartz, both outside and inside the spherules, but no instance has been discovered where chamosite or hematite replaces siderite in the spherules. The siderite has an ash grey colour in thin section, exhibits a pearly iridescence between crossed nicols, and has a high index of refraction. Quartz occurs in small fragments scattered throughout the ore, frequently forming the nuclei of the spherules. It is gener- ally of detrital origin, but at some horizons it is found in recry- Btallized form and is apparently secon. ry to the spherules. The detrital quartz is white and frequently contains gas and fluid inclusions and small needles of apatite. In polarized light, each grain extinguishes as an individual crystal. The recrystal- lized quartz fills interstices between and is outlined by the curved ex criors of spherules. It is made up of aggregates of minute crystals. 28 Fossil sheU fragments are present throughout all o* the ore. They occur in varying shapes and sizes and aw frequently so well preserved that the most minute structure ol the shell can be seen. They are commonly found as nuclei of spherules, m larger rectangular fragments and in lath-shaped pieces usually lying parallel to the bedding of the ore. The material m natural light is pale lavender to light brown and be- tween crossed nicols is almost isotropic. The fragments present a structure characteristic of inarticulate brachiopods, and consist m cross section of a series of lamella with minute pores traversing them at right angles. Fossa Alga.—Fossil tubules of minute boring algse occur in shell fragments, spherules, phosphate nodules, and sidente. Their structure is revealed only by the higher powers of the microscope; frequently in the shell fragments a mat of minute tubules is found, while in the spherules sections of single tubules are ordinarily seen. Where abund-nt in the spherules their presence is indicated by a riddled appearance, as the cross section is neariy white and resembles a tiny hole. The tubules occur in different sizes varying from one-fifth to 4 microns in diameter, and they may represent several speaes of boring algae. MICROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION OF PARTING ROCKS. These rocks are composed principally of very small frag- ments of detntal quartz and of chamosite together with small shell fragments and carbonaceous material. Spherules are characteristically absent, but sometimes occur locally, especially m the vianity of a change from parting rock to ore. As most of the constituents of the parting rocks are similar to those of the ore, the descriptions already given for such need not be repeated . J^^. ^^'^t'0"s between them are somewhat different, especially in regard to quantity and form, and require brief consideration. Quartz forms the largest proportion of the parting rocks occurnng in small angular fragments frequently lath-shaped' forming rude parallelograms much elongated relative to their ■» 29 widt^ and rarely exhibiting evidence of rounding by erosion. While rounded forms are found among the larger quartz grains of the ore, at certain horizons, even the largest fragments in the parting rocks seldom exhibit this character. Their detrital origin is shown by inclusions of apatite and liquid and gas cavities in many of the fragments. Chamosile occurs as cement to the quartz and gives to the thin sections the appearance of mosaics, the white quartz frag« ments being surrounded by the green ferrous silicate oi higher refractive index. It occurs in small platy crystals in the micro- crystalline form and is also sometimes uncrystallized. The larger crystals have a tabular structure and are rudely rectangu- lar if cut parallel to the base, and long and narrow if cut at right angles to this plane. It is of a green colour, is pleochroic, and polarizes in light yellows. Shell fragments are more plentiful in the parting rocks than in the ore, and some horizons have a phenomenal development, forming layers nearly an inch thick. They are composed largely of calcium phosphate and in all rocks and ore where chemi- cal analyses have been made, the content of calcium phosphate varies with the amount of shell material contained. The frag- ments are frequently altered by chamosite-like silicates and in many instances the original structure is destroyed thereby, but all gradations are found in the alteration of the shell material. Between crossed nicols, the shell fragments appear dark or allow a very small amount of light to penetrate. This optical character is typical of calcium phosphate nodules and spherules as well. Zircon and Sphene. — Minute grains resembling crystals of zircon and sphene are found in the sandstone layer, 215 D8, zone 4, and with nearly all the grains of sphene is associated a cloudy material, which is opaque in transmitted light and white in reflected light, resembling leucoxene. JO DESCRIPTIONS UF SLIDES ILLUSTRATED BY MICROPHOTOCRAPI Dominion Bed, Zone 2. 2li cT ^^ \ ■"f' '' ^"'"^^^ •'^ Diameters, Local. 2J5 CO. Thia rock is from the floor of the Dominion bed ai consist, of alternations of ferruginous sandstone with siUceo Shale. The fine-grained sandstone i> a mosaic of quartz fra menu set ma matrix of uncrystallized and microndary to the chamositeand he ^per cent of ,., ., and up to 50 per cent or more of the parti their si ^ .,. y ,he apatite and the fluid and gas inclusic found... .,,., I U XVII A). Some of these fragrant, ap« to be pa., '' ^pLedbythechamosite. The d'eTri"7qui:; 1 vvrv onatly ,n si.e. occur as nuclei of the spherul, itte, ri ( \ ■ 'rough the interstitial matrix. A smi ■d- also found in the matrix < ne parting rocks of the ore are mac ,tal quarts, together with chamosi It of shell fragments (Plates XVI grains, wh and also ' amount o' the ore. The f ri ji -.a, up princip.' of . and a small .iriabli and XVII/ . ChamoMte is the most persistent iron mineral and is foun hroughout a 1 the ore and rocks examined (Plate XVIII B It.s .ntjmutely associated with the structure of the spherule frequently form.ng their nuclei, and is apparently never afc^m when .nv.s.ble as in Plate XVIB. it is indicted by the pj^n of gelatinous sil.ca after treatment with hydrochloric a ir 5 » frequently hidden by opaque hematite in the ^en^r o.^ '' ' .H.n > P^e^ence of abundant detrital quartz and unaltere* shell fragments holding boring alga-, intimately ass«:iate^ t^ materirr .""' '"'""^'^' ^^ '""^ '^^"^ arrangement o7 t^J and Xvi; 8^' ' '"""^ ""''"^"^^^ °"«'" 'P'^^es XVIll A band of magnetite about one inch thick was cut through by a d.amond drill boring in the lower part of the DoS bed, but was not found exposed in the workings. Pyrile Bed, Zone 3. 208 mh Th^-^' ^^^" ^t' ^"^"'^''^ -^^ Diameters, Locality 208 D2b. This .s a secfon from the lowest bed of pyrite. The ■MM HRHSR ■■i^mW-flFlg?^ SI itite occurs e is always of the zone !and hetna- ip to about the parting idicated by ) inclusions ;nts appear ital quartz ^ spherules, A small matrix of ; are mide chamosite tes XVIA i is found SVIII B). spherules, er absent; ! presence acid. It re. unaltered ited with t of these I xvri A through >ominion Locality e. The spherules of pyrite occur in an extremely (ine-g'ained siliceous groundmaiM suggesting an original siliceous mud or ooze. In some of the spherules concentric layers of a brown substance, resembling calcium phosphate, alternate with others of pyrite. Fragments of brachiopod and graptolite remains arc plentiful and oth fresh and in various stages of replacement by pyritt'. In many instances nodules of pyrite occur made up of a number of pyrite spherules with fragments of quartz. The relation of a pyrite spherule to a shell fragment shown in the plai. , indicates that they have been placed together Ijy mrchan* ical means. The shell fragment is practically unaltered and such associations of materials in various stages of pyritization suggest that thr various constituents have been brought together by agitation on the sea bottom. The general aspect of the rock suggests that no constituents have be*n added epigenetically. PlaU XIX B, Slide 31, Magnified SO Diameters, Locality 20S D6. This plate shows the character of a portion of the upper bed of pv rite. The material is similar in general character to the specimen illustrated by Plate XIIA. The groundmass is a clear, recrystallized quartz and appears to have had its origin in a pure form of siliceous material. Rectangular and roundid elongate masses of pyrite are pseudomorphs of brachiopod remains. Summary of Petrology of Zone 3. The strata composing the zone are alternating beds of oolitic pyrite and fine-grained, fissile, grey black shale. Thin .-ctions from the pyrite layers show them to be composed principally of pyri?e in the form of spherules with nodules and irregular masses, quartz in small fragments, and other siliceous material, and brachiopod and graptolite remains. No hematite was found in this zone. Some of the pyrite is clearly secondary to the organic remains (Plate XII.A), and also to some of the spherules which have been cemented together in the form of nodules of spherules. There remain, however, many unpyritized fossil fragments in contact and intimately associated with those which have been completely replaced by pyrite, indicating that these various constituents were brought together mechanically by agitation on the sea bottom after the formation of the pyrite. n 34 The bedding planes of the original sediment in the 1 of oolitic pyrite are perfectly preserved as shown in Plat< The recrystallization of the siliceous groundmass in which spherules occur, shown in Plate XIX B, probably marks a genetic change in original material. There is no evidence of addition of any important constituents which were not pre m the original sediment and it seems probable that the spher and the nodules containing the spherules and the pyritiza of shell fragments resulted from di^enetic changes occur in the oceanic sediments. Scotia Bed, Zone 4. PlaU XX A, Slide 18, Magnified 80 Diameters, Loca 215 D2. This is from the lowest band of the workable ore-b Spherules of hematite occur in a groundmass of chamoe The nuclei of the spherules are also chamosite. Fragments quartz occur in the groundmass. The chamosite appears be largely micro-crystalline. Analysis W, from which the composition of chamosite \ determined, was made from material represented by this pla Plate XXB, Slide 20, Magnified 80 Diameters, Loca 215 D4. From the lower middle part of the workable b this plate shows a contact of the oolitic ore with a sandstt parting rock. In the lower half of the plate, spherules of hen tite are shown closely packed together with translucent gn chamosite filling the narrow interstices. The upper half composed principally of angular quartz fragments in a mat of chamosite and hematite. The change from ore to parti rock is abrupt and the contact sharp. Plate XX I A, Slide 86, Magnified 110 Diameters, Local 215 D5. This figure shows a part of the middle of the upp half of the Scotia bed where spherules of hematite are surround by siderite. Many minute round white dots are seen in t spherules, giving them a riddled appearance. These are croi sections of boring alga;. The rhombohedral structure of t crystalline siderite is cleariy exhibited. Quartz is prese only rarely as nuclei of spherules and its absence from the upp 1 1 i 35 part of the Scotia bed suggests a condition of formation differing from that of the Dominion bed, only in being increasingly more favourable to chemical deposition, when detrital sedimentation almost ceased. Plate XXIB, Slide 21, Magnified 80 Diameters, Locality 215 DS. This plate illustrates an ore composed of spherules of chamosite bordered by an outer layer of hematite and with some concentric layers of hematite in the interior of the spherules. The spherules are well separated from each other and, though frequently touching, are usually nearly completely surrounded by siderite, which occupies all of the interstitial space. A few quartz fragments occur as nuclei of some of the spherules, but liiis mineral is remarkably scarce. In some of the spherules minute areas of siderite are scattered through the chamosite and where these occur, the structure of the spherule is destroyed, indicating that the siderite invaded the spherule after it was formed. A closer examination of the alternating bands of hematite and chamosite, reveals the fact that while the hematite contains many tubules, the chamosite js almost free from them. Wherever a tubule of this organism is found in the chamotiite, it is almost invariably surrounded by hematite. Frequently a cross-section of a tubule is found in the interior of the spherules, in char: jsite, apart from a layer of hematite, and usually a small border of hematite surrounds this tubule, evidently secondary after the chamosite. Wherever the algae are abundant in the chamosite of the spherules, hem- atite is plentiful. In Plate XXIA, where the spherules hold much hematite, the algae are found with difficulty ; but they are nevertheless present for they can be seen in a great many of the spherules. It is probable that with the increase of opaque hematite, the interior portions of these tubules may be a'so filled with hematite, so that they are obscured even when the walls of the tubules remain. Since plants give off oxygen while living, this association of hematite with the boring algae suggests a source of oxidation which will be discussed further on pages 74 et seq. Many tubules of algae are preserved in the siderite matrix. This most important fact suggests that the decaying remains 36 of dead alga, have supplied carbon dioxide to precipitate s^ente and that some of the partially destioyed tubulS been preserved m this i«,n carbonate. A further discu will ^ given on pages 80 etseq. See also Plate I. Plates XXIIA and XXIIB, Slide 21. Magnified 110 meters. LoaUuy 215 D5. Plate XXIIA shows spherule comp remnant of a quartz fragment which has been partly repU hi ,1 Z ^ f'1.- ^ P""^"" °^ ^''^ '"tenor of the sphe has also been replaced and the concentric banding of the la. of chamosite and hematite destroyed. Plate XXIIB sh «^tmction of the vanous quartz areas, indicates that all bel. P^uVin^^^'^'.^T'^ "'''*='• ^^ •^" P^'y destroy f„ tif • t *, ''^'^"^ * foot-shaped outline, is represen m the nght central part of the plate. The upper partT, rr L ^ ^*^'"^"' ^'^'^ '° chamosite. is preserved. AU the nodde are spherules of chamosite surrounded by sideri ^L\ L^^', '•^^ *^^ ^"t*"" P^-^'O"* °f the spherules : has no. hi ''"^^•^ r"'""^ ''y ^'^^"t- Their ori^na^^tl after rh ^^"^"tirely destroyed and pseudomorphf of siSer after chamosite spherules have been formed In contact with the phosphate nodules at its upper 1, border, a spherule has a nucleus composed of a shell fragment whjch small tubules of a boring alg. occur. AnalyisT^ro which the comp<«ition of chamosite was determined, was m^ from the matenal represented by this slide. fh «; :• I^' P'^*^ '' °^ ^ thin section taken from the top the Scotia bed. zone 4. Plate XXIII. A and B. is repres^nS Th. tl^"^ ^^!:y"K/rom 3 to 6 inches at the top of thisTon The ore changes m colour abruptly from red to grey, due to t^ rnl^ire^^^lTlB 2i" *''rrj ^^^•°"- '^^ ShLlesstow in Hate XXIIIB are much broken up and also replaced in pai ■"f^ :«cipitate the tubules have er discussion W 110 Dia- les composed rroi r;ded by nucleus the tly replaced ro parts and the spherule )f the laj'ers CUB shows imultaneous t all belong ' destroyed. '■rs, Locality represented Jart of the in its lower ^ed. About 3y siderite, herules are nal outline of siderite upper left •agment in is Z, from was made J, Locality the top of esentative this zone, lue to the lies shown id in part 37 by siderite. Their crushed and bent appearance suggests that they were disturbed while in a gelatinous condition. It is prob- able that they were Stated by the action of waves in a shallow sea and that the incursion of siderite also occurred before the consolidation of the ore. PlaU XXIVA, Slide 24, Magnified 20 Diameters. Locality 215 D7. This plate shows the change at the extreme top of the Scotia bed, zone 4, from oolitic chamosite in siderite matrix to a fine-grained shale containing also considerable siderite. The spherules are scattered sparsely through the shale as though stirred up and mixed through muddy material by the action of waves at a time when a change in conditions of sedimentation brought about a cessation of the formation of oolitic iron ore and introduced the deposition of fine mud and sandstones. A quartz veinlet lies nearly parallel to the bedding and is shown at the top of the plate. PlaU XXIVB, Slide 25, Magnified 80 Diameters, Locality 215 D8. The rock represented in this plate is composed almost entirely of equal parts of chamosite and quartz. Most of the quartz grains appear to be detrital, but a considerable number may have been crystallized diagenetically out of primary siliceous ooze. The quartz and chamosite are frequently so closely associated as to indicate a simultaneous formation. Much of the chamosite is micro-crystalline and some is crypto-crystal- Hne or 2..iorphou8, similar in appearance to the chamosite composing the spherules in the ore. There is also a considerable amount of more coarsely crystalline chamosite which resembles the micro-crystalline variety in ordinary light, being light green, but polarizes in brighter colours, blue-greeii to yellow. Minute grains resembling detrital zircon and sphene are scattered through the slide. A cloudy material is usually associated with the sphene, appearing black and opaque in trans- mitted light and white in reflected light, suggesting leucoxene. The rock is characterized by a laminated appearance shown in the plate as parallel, wavy dark bands, due probably to argil- laceous and carbonaceous matter. It is from such material as is represented in this figure that the chemical analyses Z& and T were made for the purpose of determining the composition of the green iron silicate. I '. 38 215 D?' A^/^^^l: 't^'^^-^^ 20 Diameters, Loo S coLurL ^'^^^f"^ 2. The plate shows the« dark coloured are.., and under the microscope they present optical properties of phosphatic material They are, brown m transmitted light and remain dark between cr<> ^nSi in trm^"'"^ "' "^"^"^ PresenJlTaV ^ T^Z Lnt PO%a' r^\f •*« dots. The rock conti ^o per cent PjO, (Analysis U, paire 52) ir.i!L5r "Placed here to show the cross-section o and quartz. The mmute cana.s crossing at right aneles to f layers of the chitinous material of the shell may be^n Th pZJhatt ' '"'''°"" °^ *^ °^ '" *« '<'- of S ^ fi fj : T f ''^"'■^ P'^"*« ^ exceptional feature which ^nfined to the lower part of the Scotia L. zone 4 The ^^ .ron-beanng mmerals ar^ present, oolitic hematite pr^om ating chamosite forming an integral part of the soherS* and sidente rarely present. The miterid betwL theTohe^^^^^^^ js recrystallized quartz holding minute crySs of he^ati The spherules are corroded about their oJtside ^^ Tnd seems probable that the solutions from which the q^rS^t been recrystallized have been instrumental in this St^ctk action toward the soherulM if n,„ j- • . <^^tructiv atitP in *u; spnerules. If the dissemination of the hem atite in this recrystallized quartz is a phenomenon secondar iUminaZ" in" t ^'^ ?""^^' ^ "°"'^ ''^^' *<> ^^^^^^ aissemmation m the interstitial material in other oarts of th sTh'e^l' *'" .'" "°* '^^ ^°""d- T''^ irregular ouX : h spherules IS due to their partial replacement by quart/ ca^cite veinlet cuts the ore. This small veinlet iftS of - reticulating network of similar veinlets through! hTot al: 39 'ers. Locality hate nodules d chatnosite, >ws these as present the Y are light feen crossed d are repre- ck contains rs, Locality I as that of Jection of a brachiopod, f chamosite gles to the een. These fragments of calcium 's. Locality re which is The same predomin- spherules, ; spherules hematite. ;es and it uartz has estructive the hem- secondary id similar ts of the ne of the Jartz. A >ical of a ore, and it is along these cracks, which have been filled sometimes with quartz, but most frequently with calcite and occasionally with both these minerals together, that the ore breaks up into blocks when loosened from the bed by weathering or by mining oper- ations. PlaU XXVIB, Slide 51, Magnified 34 Diameters, Locality 206 J2a. The rock represented by this plate was taken from a one inch band in the lower part of the Scotia bed, zone 4. The lower part of this band is made up of thin films of sandy shale, and in the upper part a band of calcium phosphate rock is found about half an inch thick. The shale is composed of chamosite with small fragments of quartz and shells arranged in lines parallel to the bedding of the rock. The bedded arrangement is shown in the plate by films of black material probably com- posed of carbonaceous matter. The calcium phosphate band represented by the plate is composed of fragments having rectangular outlines and varying in sizes from very minute to one-half a millimetre. Most of these have been so highly altered that the original shell structure is obliterated. The fragments are closely packed together so that little interstitial space is left and this is occupied by chamodte. It is probable that this ferrous aluminous silicate has effected the alteration of the shell fragments, for every gradation has been found, from fresh shell fragments to material resembling chamosite though still retaining the shape of the shell fragments. A subordinate amount of fragmental quartz is shown by minuie white irregular areas in the plate. Siderite frequently surrounds these grains and appears to have partly replaced many of them. A platy mineral, seen as long, thread-like fonns, parallel to the bedding, is probably crystalline chamosite. Plate I, Slide 21, Magnified 127 Diameters, Locality 215 D5. The natural colours in transmitted light of a thin section of this ore show spherules composed of alternating concentric layers of green chamosite and reddish brown hematite in a siderite matrix. The coiled tubules are in a nucleus of chamosite. The reddish colour of the tubule is due to a deposit of crystalline hematite on the exterior walls of the tubules. See frontispiece and pages 17, 74. Summary of Petrology of Zone 4. The general descriptions given for zone 2, Dominion bed, apply also for this zone; but I SI 40 •ome important variations occur in zone 4. Scotia bed , will be summarued here. Crystalline quar^, second^' t^ mteratices between the spherules (Plate XXVIM ^ r^fttrsid^^^: On.ythilow:rf^r„^chL^ iZe IrH^f '" • **"' "'""^ •^•"8 ^°""d throughout I arger part of the upper portion of the bed, and it is oroeres.! some of the hemaute, and occasionaUy the detrital nu fragments (Plates XXIIA. XXIIB. XXIHA and XX UIB) aim Jt a^t ''h T^/ ' '"* °' *•>« °-' fr^menfaTquaJ of «S mtSti^ • " '"? "^y •"'^•^^e an exceptional Idi, oi sed mentauon, smce detntal quartz is usually present e ^pla^eTby side^r °"''"'' ^"^^ '""" ^"^'^ ''--" '^^ ^ *K« 9'*'"'*'*^ is found in every stratum of the zone i ti^ough not so abundant as hematite in the ore. it is duSi,u through a much wider range, forming a large par of teth and accompanying rocks. Hematite is verylJti,^ djl^. The ^S: oft ""^ "^^^ ^^^"^ 'o^ne ine assoaation of hematite with boring ale* in rham«. •Pherules. as shown in Plates I. XXIA?!nd%C "b tZ that m some cases at least, the hematite hasleveb^ 2 the formation of the chamosite. I„ the lower pari of^e 11 a concentration of shell fragments has l^r^l^'^'Z fonns a ayer about half an inch thick. By che3 aSylis atiiH^ hr. '^ ,y^'^ ^^- Further microscopic and chemic ^ntn. f T^f'f ^ ^'^ '"^'-^^^^ relationship betJeTS content of shell fragments and the percentage of pSon STe o^ "^ "'^' "^""^ "^ ^'^^ phosphorus and ca7ciu, .^rt^f the Scotia bed. m aggregates of only a fraction of ^Z ■im 41 Upper Bed, Zone 5. Plate XXVI I A, Slide 93, Magnified J 10 Diameters, LocalUy 206AH15. This plate illustrates the oditic hematite and cham- osite with siderite taken from a bed 6 feet thick at the very top of zone 5 (Plate IX). Spherules composed of alternating layers of hematite and chamoeite are found, many of which have ex* tenor borders of siderite. The siderite cuts across the original banding of the spherules and is found frequently in the interior portion of the spherules destroying their original concretionary structure. Summary of Petrology of Zone 5. The ore and rocks of this zone are made up of constituents similar to those which compose zones 2 and 4; but siderite has a greater range, being found throughout the zone, and chamosite has a proportionately greater distribution. The general relationships between the minerals are the same. SUliMAKY OF PETROLOGY OF OOLITIC ORE FROM ZONES 2, 4, AND 5. The ore from each of the workable beds is similar in general composition and texture. The iron-bearing minerals are hem- atite and chamosite, while siderite becomes locally abundant. Quartz and shell fragments are also important constituents. The ore is oolitic. The rocks accompanying the ore are also similar throughout the series, varying from a ferruginous shale to a ferruginous sandstone. They are composed principally of detrital quartz and chamosite and some shell fragments. These rocks are non- oolitic. Hematite is the chief iron-bearing mineral of the ore. It is seldom found outside the spherules and probably occurs in micro-crystalline form since minute crystals are found under the higher powers of the microscope wherever the hematite is thin enough to allow light to penetrate. The hematite is associated in the spherules with concentric layers of chamosite, frequently forming alternate layers. Hematite is sometimes found associated with fossil boring algx in spherules of chamosite 42 and frequently where so found the henuitite i. of appa. tiave bored. This condition is probably due to the n^A given otf dunng the life processes of the boring alea> 1 Ste^ exte.S^?v^:.^ "^"""^^ '^""'l '•^^"K their tul rSotr ^ ^"°'" -^ ^" ^ discus^tef: Gr^ iron sUicates resembling ehamoHte occur as chara. ^.c pnmary constituents throughout the ore and ,^k C StLTrerl' r"''""'" "i ^-^ °" - «"' t^ Jnte« oeiween them, and forms much of the matriv «..r»....^- &i^ which i, fo^rf at the top o( »™ 2 and u,™»h rtC:rsL^.:---^^^^ pnmary constituent of the spherules, but is fr^^ently ^a SL of thi'sri'tro"™"? their cenUal'^rtio.i'T:;, case oi this sort, the onginal structure of the spherule aooe f^a^JT "^ V'°"?' *'"*~>'«*' ^"'1 the detriSTui^'^^ fragment, or chamosite maldne uo the «n»,»r..i« ^"*^'."' by the siderite '^ "pherule are repiac 43 The shell fragments are comminuted remains of inarticulate brachiopods. They are found in every portion of the ore and rock, and in the ore frequently form the nuclei of the spherules. Thin layers, composed almost entirely of these remains, are found up to half an inch in thickness. 44 CHAPTER V. CHSMISTRY. A number of chemical analyws h»ve been made to deter- mine the competition of the ore and accompanying rocki, and to learn more exactly the nature and origin of certain important constituents such as the iron-bearing minerals, silica, and phoq>horus. The analyses have been arranged in the strati- graphical order of the rocks from which they have been taken and tabulated separately for each zone. No analyses have been made from zone 1. Analyses <^ Shale and Sandstone not in Ore Zones. Analysb A (page 45) taken from the sandy shale occurring halfway up the cliff at the shipping pier of the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company on the south shore of the island, shows that these rocks contain considerable iron and alumina, but no lime. About 600 feet of strata intervene between this horizon and zone 1 (Plate IIB). Analysis B, taken from the sandstone halfway acroos the island, shows a much smaller content of iron and a'umina but no lime. This sandstone lies between zones 1 and 2. Analyses from Zone 2. Analyses A and B and twelve analyses from zone 2 are as follows: inll 4S ToM* tj Analysts. A B c D M N SJOi 57-00 15-98 76-50 605 11-98 5-13 12 59 5-71 0-27 1-63 75-12 000 1-49 0-42 0-06 8-39 12-66 AUOi TiOi p^ 2 02 75-90 0-OJ 2-71 0-21 0-23 78-38 3-24 Fe,0, c 8-83 2-U 48 60 CaO 0-00 0-00 MoO MnO . ... COk 18-17 HiO— 0-52 H.04- 1-86 1 f^m nn Imttltuim 2-17 Tool 100 07 99-98 So. Gf 4- 10 4-40 1 AnalyM. Slide No. Locality. Aoalyat. DkU. N M i06 A19D 208 H6-9 206 A7 206 Al A. V. Seaborn.... A. V. Seaborn.... T. G. McFarlane. 1912. M 1912. D 1899. c Nor. 13, 189S.> B M. L. Fraw M. L. Fraser 1911. A 1911. 'Aaalynd (or Nom Scotia Stcd and Coal CoBpany. A^-i^ 46 Description. N— Ore from upper part lone 2, Dominion bed, holding siderite, lurface uuirrop. M^)rc from lone 2, iiibmarine worlcingf. D — Average lampic ore from zone 2. Dominion bed. C — Average lample ore from lone 2, Dominion bed. B — Sandstone halfway acroaa Bell itlaml. A— Sandy thale from halfway up cliff at N.S.S. and C.Co. pier. m Table oj Analyses. E F G H 1 J K L ao, P.O. Ferf), S 36-61 0-08 33 18 015 0-00 14-80 2-29 73-04 0-03 49-21 0-48 27-83 0-25 18-80 0-94 71-88 0-02 17-64 Ml 68-26 0005 1 16 46-90 20 32-46 16-99 1-25 45-94 039 1-76 34-48 on 37 o8 0-01 018 CaO 3-24 0-64 1-12 1-38 Analysis. Slide No. Locality. Analyst. Date. L 215 C7 215 C6 215 C5 215 C4 215 C3 215 C2 215 CI 215 CO A. V. Seaborn 1911 K 8 J I H G _ F 2 1 a E ■ Description. L — Shales above zone 2 ore, surface outcrop. K — Oolitic hematite and chamosite ore, zone 2, surface outcrop. J — Oolitic hematite ore containing much quartz. Zone 2, surface outcrop. I — Oolitic hematite ore containing phosphatic pebbles and shell fragments. Zone 2, surface outcrop. H — Oolitic hematite ore, zone 2, surface outcrop. G — Parting rock of line-grained ferruginous sandstone. Zone 2, surface out- crop. F — Oolitic hematite and chamosite ore. E — Fine-grained sandy shale on floor of workable bed. Zone 2, surface out- crop. 47 Afulywt C and D are nearly complete and were made from average tamples of iron from the Dominion hed. Theae two analyses resemble each other very closely, an average of their resultfi snving: FeiO. SJO, PiO. CaO Sp.Gf IS'Sl t2'28 I 62 aio 41 Since the content of ferrous oxide is not given, only an approximate recalculation of the mineralogical composition can i>e made. The average content of about 2 per cent of combined water and 5-5 per cent alumina, points to a chamosite content of about 24 per cent, and a recaJculat (jn of the average of analyses C and D may be made as follows: Hematite M-51 Chamoiitr SiO, AiiO, FeO MgO Mn H,0+ 6-fHl 5-1.: I " «»" ' 2.1.89 "•■'-' ; 015 I 2-01 J Calcium phoiphate(CaO)iPK)i in the form of -.Iicllfragtp.nts 4-43 Quart* 5-98 HygroKoptc water 0-52 100-33 Analyses E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, were made from a series of samples taken at intervals from bottom to top, from the surface outcrop of the Dominion bed (Plate IV) selected purposely from lean ore in order that the constituents associated with the hematite might be studied to better advantage. In an analysis Zd, described on page 56, the composition of the brach- iopod shells taken from this zone is shown to be 68- 14 per cent (alciuin phosphate, 9-68 per cent lime, and 9-69 per cent alica, iron, alumina, etc. The molecular proportion of lime to phosphoric add is as 168 to 142 and in theae analyses the per- centages of lime and phosphoric add are present in approxi- mately these proportions, except in analyis E, where the content is negligible. Thin sections ground from chips of the same 48 spedmens from which the analyses were taken, reveal a shell fragment content, apparently proportional to that of calcium phosphate. According to these analyses, the lime content in this zone varies from nothing to 3-24 per cent, and the phosphoric acid content, from 0-08 per cent to 2-29 per cent. There is usually an excess of iime over the amount necessary to combine with phosphoric acid to form calcium phosphate, but occasionally the phosphoric acid is in slight excess. This relation between lime and phosphoric acid is similar to that found in the analysis Zd of the brachiopod shell. The following table shows the excess of these constituents over the amounts of each required to form calcium phosphate: Table of Analyses. AnalytU. CaO P.O, (CaO). P.O, EZCCM CaO ExceM PA L 018 1-76 1-38 116 112 0-64 3-24 0-00 1-49 2-71 Oil 1-25 0-20 Ml 0-94 0-48 229 08 IM 2 02 0-24 2-73 0-43 213 204 104 499 005 0-28 MS 002 008 0-54 K I I 014 H G F E.. 0-08 D 2-69 4-28 0-43 c 0-45 Small veinlets of secondary calcite fill minute cracks in the ore everywhere, as has been stated in the petrographical descrip- tions. This calcite also tends to increase the free lime content. The excess of phosphoric acid may be due to concentrations of phosphorus in the form of salts of iron resulting from the alter- ation of shell fragments. 49 The small amount of sulphur shown by these analyses prob- ably occurs in the form of iron sulphide as the thin sections reveal an occasional particle of pyrite. Analysis M represents the upper 6 feet of ore mined at locality 208 A in the submarine worldngt. Analysis N is from the upper part of the zone where the ore is made up largely of chamosite and siderite. This type of ore is only a few inches thick at the top of the zone. Analysis from Zone 3, Oolitic Pyrite. AnalycU. Slide. Locality. Analyst. Date. Deacription. 21} 206 D6 A. V. Seaborn... 1911 Oolitic pyrite from upper part of lone 3 (PUte V). SiO. PiO, CaO Fe S Toul. 9-91 0-35 54 35 18 34-46 80-44 A sample from this zone was analysed by Dr. E. T. Allen of the Carnegie Geophysical laboratory, Washington, D. C, with a view to ascertaining the nature of the iron sulphide. Dr. Allen found "that more than 90%, possibly all of the iron is present as pyrite. Cobalt, nickel, copper and arsenic are not present in more than traces, but the small amount of carbon- aceous matter and possibly a little hematite that could not be separated made a more exact determination impossible."' The study of seven thin sections taken from this zone at regular intervals discloses no hematite whatever, and shows I CommiuUcaUoa to tht writer from H. E. Merwln. Feb. ];, 1913. 50 that as a general rule the pyrite exists principally in the form of spherules, nodules, and masses, but is not disseminated through the groundmass, this being almost free from pyrite. The ground- mass makes up a considerable proportion of the rock and is nearly always an extremely fine-grained shale holding consider- able chamosite. Plate XIXA illustrates the normal rock. The excess of iron in the analysis over that required to form iron pyrite is, therefore, present probably in the form of chamosite. The lime is present in slight excess of that necessary to combine with the phosphoric acid to form calcium phosphate, and both of these constituents are probably detived from shell fragments, as has already been shown for similar material in zone 2. Basing the composition of chamosite on analysis Tl page 59, the analysis may be recalculated as follows: SiOi 6-12% Remaining silica after deducting for chamosite. (CaO), PiO, 0-76 CaO 013 F«Si 64-53 Iron pyrite from spherules, nodules, etc. FeO 6-57 Excess over iron necessary to form FeS,. SiOi 3-79 ^lica necessary to form chamosite with excess iron. A1,0,, I MgO, > t-71 Theoretical addition based on excess HiO+, J FeO and chamowte. analysis Tl. 88-67 The balance of the rock is probably composed of aluminous materials making up the shale matrix. Analyses from Zone 4. Chemical analyses from this zone confirm conclusions arrived at from the study of its petrology, and demonstrate that the distribution of the iron-bearing minerals is somewhat different from that of zone 2, siderite becoming much more abundant. Two points have been selected for a special study, iMMi HUHMH ■■■I SI localities 206 J, Plates VI and VII; and 215 D, Plate VIII. Six analyses, P, Q, R, S, T, and U, are listed on page 52 from 206 J, and seven analyses, V, W, X, Y, Z, Za, and Zb, from 215 D, on page 53. The methods outlined by W. F. Hillebrand (23) were employed by the writer except for determinations where special methods were required, and also by Mr. Seaborn for analyses Q and S. The writer has no record of methods for the other analyses. Analysis Q was taken from the lower part of the ore zone and S from the upper part of the hematite ore at 206 J. A comparison of these shows a striking diminution in silica content in the upper ore and while the total amount of metallic iron is about the same, the amount of ferrous iron and carbon dioxide is much greater in the upper part of the ore. The lime and phosphoric acid content remain about constant in both. Table of Analyses. S, upper ore. SiO. Fe,0, FeO.. CO,.. CaO. PiO.. 9-85 4 66 67-79 52 08 JO 03 2117 105 10-78 242 2-8? 2-26 2 11 4 ■■■ S2 Tabk of Analyses. U SiOi AW), TiOi PiO. FeiO FeO CaO MgO. MnO. CO,.. HiO- HgO+ Tou!. S.02 ), 1 28-76 ), i !« 78 ' 1 - ■ 1 1 37-JO Sp. Gr. 9-85 3 23 0-40 2-26 67-79 10-03 2-42 0-37 1-05 0-32 2-35 42 14 3-72 0-54 13-01 1-47 13-29 17-80 0-72 0-46 508 0-30 2-60 4-66 3-05 0-28 2-11 52 08 2117 2-88 114 0-78 10-78 0-27 1-72 63-33 11-68 0-49 007 0-46 17-88 0-27 1-49 0-10 0-30 0-26 4-90 92-86 :100-07 101 13 100-92 4-34 2-72 4-23 2-86 27-78 12-26 14-41 100-96 55-40 0-9S Analysis. I LocaUty. i Slide No. Analyst. Date. U T S. R Q P. 206 J5 206 J4b. . . 206J2d5. 206 J2c3. . . 206J2b2 54 206 J2a 50 81.. 77.. 66.. 60.. A- V. Seaborn j 1912 A. O.Hayes 1912 A. V. Seaborn 1912 A. O. Haye* i 1912 A. V. Seaborn ' 1912 A. O. Hayes ! 1913 Description. V — Pebble bed 1 foot above zone 4. T — Middle part of sandstone layer, 9 inches thick, immediately above < S — Upper part of bed, 2 feet below top of workable ore. R — Parting rock in a>ne 4, 2 feet above floor of workable ore. Q —Lower part of rone 4 ore, 6 inches above floor of workable ore. P —Rock composed largely of shell fragments underlying ore of zone 4. 53 Table of Analyses. V W X Y Z Za Zb SiO, AW), TiO, 27-68 9-10 0-37 4-77 2-39 29-80 719 2-30 1-38 11-54 15-29 9-63 7-44 904 5-36 16-22 7-65 61 4-91 2-99 35-38 4-01 1-84 3-12 16-64 62-83 9-96 41-00 18-20 P.O, FeiO, FeO CaO 107 44-17 19-38 1-54 1-45 0-26 0-43 0-46 0-08 0-83 5-80 1-63 59-89 16-74 1-54 84-96 0-30 5-37 14-69 0-69 1 43 19-57 O-OO MgO MnO CO, Na,0 4-57 1-22 000 0-19 0-11 0-27 5-42 ICO Hrf)- 0-51 3-44 0-78 2-61 H,0+ Toul 100-47 100-39 99-31 9308 96-76 101-26 78-77 Sp.Gr 4-50 3-50 2-93 Analysis. Locality. Slide No. Analyst. Date. Zb M. L. Fraser A. O. Hayes A. V. Seaborn A. 0. Hayes «t m 1911. Za 215 D8 215 D6 215 D5 215 D3 215 D2 215 Dl 25 23 38 19 18 37 1912 Z « Y « X « W « V ■ Dtscription. Zb — Shi^ above zone 4, Scotia had, locality not specified. Za — Sandstone layer 3 inches tUck, i inches above lone 4. Z — From top of xone 4, 3 iixhes grey ore, oolitic chamosite. Y — ^From upper part zone 4 ore about 2 feet from top, oolitic hematite. X — From kmtr port zone 4 ore, oolitic hematite. W — 5i inches on, oolitic hematite and chamosite, lower pirt of mmt 4. V — 11 inches dark green rock, lower part of aooe 4. 54 The much lower content of silica in S appears to be due to an almost entire absence of fragmental quartz, as shown by the study of thin sections from the same horizon. The much higher content of ferrous iron and carbon dioxide in S, indicates that a large amount of iron carbonate occurs in the upper ore, which is absent from the lower. Analysis X is also from the lower ore, and Y from the middle of the workable bed, a little higher up, though not in the upper hematite-siderite ore, represented by analysis S. A reduction in silica content from 7 • 44 per cent in X to 5 • 36 per cent in Y, shows that a similar diminution in silica content takes place upwards. Since the ore is essentially a primary sediment, and its constituent materials were brought together in the first instance by mechanical means, a heterogeneous mixture of constituents has resulted, and an exact mineralogical composition could be determined only with great difficulty. The petrographic and chemical analyses have demonstrated the presence and com- position of the most abundant materials, however, and the fol- lowing recalculations of Q and S serve to illustrate these with tolerable accuracy: Table of Analyses. Q S Hematite 67-79 18-05 2-77 0-83 4-46 50-08 Chamoaite' 17-65 Stdtfrite 27-63 Vivianite' . . Calciu^n phosphate in Calcite the form of shell fragment!. . 4-61 0-68 Hyg^tMcopic water. . . 0-32 0-27 10007 100-92 ' Conipcwition bated on MilyKa Zl and Wl. Sec page 59. ' Pmence not proved optteaUy, but thought probable from chemical relatloai. 55 As already shown, in the Dominion bed, zone 2, so also in the Scotia bed, zone 4, lime and phosphoric acid are present in the ore and parting rocks in quantities proportional to the amount required to form the chitinous material of the fossil brachiopod fragments (See analysis Zd, p. 56). The following table shows the amounts of lime and phosphoric acid present in each analysis, with the corresponding excess of lime or phos- phoric acid, over the amounts required to form calcium phosphate. In eight out of ten analyses, a slight excess of lime is found, agreeing with analysis Zd of the fossil brachiopod. The dight excess of phosphoric acid in analyses Q and Z, is probably due to a concentration of phosphorus in the form of a phosphate of iron, formed out of the decomposition products of organic remains and iron. Minute crystals resembling vivian- ite occur in Slide 2 (p. 133). Ttible of Analyses. CaO P.O. Zc Za Z 0-49 1-43 4-01 1-S4 7-19 0-27 2-88 17-80 2-42 37-30 W V T S R Q P 0-30 0-30 4-91 1-07 4-77 0-07 2-11 13-01 2-26 28-76 (CaO), PA 0-65 0-65 7-42 2-33 10-40 0-15 4-S9 28-36 4-47 62-76 ExccMCaO 014 1-08 0-28 1-57 0-19 0-40 2-45 3-30 Exceu P|Ot 1-50 021 Analyses P and R are of especial interest on account of their greater content of phosphoric add and lime, and a com- parison of the amount of calcium phosphate contained in the rock represented by P, with the analysis of a brachiopod sheit, follows: 56 Amdysis of Braekiopod ShOl. 'i li ^ i LocaHty. Slide P 206 J2a.. Zd 206 A 19. 51 Pbtc XXVIB XIIB AnalyM. A. O. Haycf Date. 1913 DcKriptioa. From upper part ol layer ol tandy ■hale cumpoaed largely of ihell (ragmentf. Shell o( brachtopod Rouault, David- ion, taken from oolitic hematite. AntUym Zd. SiO,. FcO,. AliOi. etc 9-68 P,0. ^6-94 CaO «.12 Analysis Zd RecaUtdaUd. SiOi, FeiOi, Alrf)i, etc 9-68 Ca,{PO.), 6814 CaO ■>•<« Analysis P. SiO, 802 FeiOi. AliO,, etc 18-78 PA 28-76 CaO 37-50 Analysis P RecaUnlated. SiO. 802 Fe.0,, AliOi, etc 18-78 Ca,(PO,), 62-76 CaO 3-30 An examination of Plate XXVIB taken from a thin parting (206 J 2a) from the lower part of zone 4 (Plate VI) revealeda layer of about half an inch in thickness composed of highly altered angular fragments of shell closely packed together. ChamosUe accompanies the shells, has replaced many of them, and forms the cementing material of the rock. The original structure of most of the shell fragments is destroyed, but some are sufh- denUy fresh to establish the i.'.entity of the material, for every gradation from typical shell to typical chamosite retaining the rectangular outlines of the shell fragments is present. Analyses P and Zd were made to confirm the conclusion that a close re- 57 lationship exists between the content of lime and phosphorus of the ore and accompanying rocks and the presence of brachiopod ■hell fragments. The results of these two analyses show that the fossil brach- iopod shell has a content of lime and phosphoric acid sufficient to make up 68- 14 per cent calcium phosphate; while the parting reck holds 62 ■ 76 per cent calcium phosphate. The shell material (analysis Zd) was taken from one complete valve of the brachio- pod, Lingula haivkei (Plate XIIB) by Professor van Ingen, who obtained the sample with the utmost care. It is probable that considerable ferruginous material has impregnated these fossil shells, as in many cases, they appear in thin sections to be altered by chamositc. Generally, however, the shell fragments have been remarkably preserved and frequently the most minute structure of the original shell is retained. In the case of the shell analysed, the original sculpture was preserved and it is probable that the analysis approximates very closely its original chemical composition. The hematite and possibly some of the calcite were introduced by mechanical means in obtaining the sample. A definite relationship is thus established between the fragments of the Lingula shells and the content of calcium phos- phate of these rocks and the conclusion ha.s been reached that the phosphorus and the original lime content of the Wabana iron ore have for their source, the fossil remains which have been preserved in it. Butschli (5) shows in an extensive series of analyses in his monograph on Organische Kalk Gebilde, Berlin, 1908, that different spt-cies of Lingula shells rontain calcium phosphate varying from 18 • 92 to 88 • 32 per cent. Some of the brachiopods have a larger content of calcium phosphate than he has noted for any other organic remains. Analyses of Chamosite. Analyses Za, Zc and T have each been taken from a ferruginous sandstone separated from the top of the oolitic ore of zone 4 by a thin layer of shale (Plates VII and XXIVB). A pctrographical description of this rock is given on pages 37 and 147, ami the chemical analyses have been made to determine the composition of the widely distributed green iron siliti^te, which has been re- 58 ferred to as chamonite. Th«e analyse* with others will be dt'sc ribed on the pages following. The name "Chaniffeite" has l>cen employed to denote one of the principal iron-bearing minerals of this st-ries of rocks, and the term has been applied generally to a green iron silicate, whose optical properties h »ve been described, and the rhemical identi- fication of which has been made from analyses listed on page* 59 and 62. Materials for analyses were obtained from both the ore and the accompanying rock. The rock from which the composition of the green iron silicate was obtained, occurs in the form of a sandstone 3 to inches thick at the too of zone I parated from the oolitic ore beluw by 1 to 2 inches of shale. Table of Analyses. Zs Zc T Z W Soluble «n. 10-56 52-27 9-96 10-56 53-87 9-61 0-98 P 30 2-83 14-69 0-49 1-42 0-U 013 10-65 52-68 11-68 0-19 07 0-46 17-88 0-27 1-49 0-10 0-03 6-27 9-95 7-65 n 61 4-91 2-99 35-38 4-01 1-84 3-12 16-64 12-54 Insoi. SiOii 2-75 AliOi 9 63 TiO, P,Oi 0-30 5-37 14-69 0-69 1-43 1-07 Fe,0, 44-17 FeO 19-38 v.aO 1-54 MeO 1-45 MnO 0-26 CO* 0-00 019 0-11 0-27 5-42 0-43 KnjO 0-4« KjO 008 H/D— 0-92 4-74 0-26 4-90 0-78 2-61 0-83 H^+ 5-80 Toul 101 26 100-68 100-96 96-76 100-39 Sp.Gr 2-93 2-93 2-86 3-50 Analysil. LocaUty. Slide No. Analyst. Date. Za 215 D8 25 A. O. Hayes 1912. Zc 215 D8 25 m u T I 206 J4b 78 m • Z 215 D6 22 W 215 D2 18 ■ m S9 Description. Zm — Sandttone layer, 3 inchet thick, 4 inchet above tone 4, Scotia ore. 2c— ' " * ••■ m It mm f « • • •• Ha as Z — Oolitic chamosite, top 3 inches of jone 4, Scotia ore. W — * " and hematite from bottom of lone 4. T<^le of Analyses. Zal Zcl Tl Zl Wl Sol. SOi 21-67 21-05 11-03 30-17 1 41 2-93 23-50 23-56 6-JO 32-62 22-28 25-46 96 37-41 0-31 3-13 0-31 17-24 21-03 25-42 AliOi. TiOi 19-52 FegO, FeO 49-50 39-2S CaO MgO 3 16 0-31 506 2-94 MnO Na«0 0-39 0-22 11-13 0-93 K|0 .................. 0-16 H*0+ !0-55 10-25 7-17 11-75 Total 10000 10000 10000 10000 100-00 Zal — Analyaif recalculated from Za to ahow compoaition ol chamoaite. Zcl— • ""Zc* • • ■pj a aa-pa a a Zl— • "'Z' • • Analyses Zal and Zcl are from separate samples from the same locality (215 D9), while T is from the same sandstone horizon, but at a locality (206 J4b) about half a mile west of 215 D. Plate XXI VB taken from this rock is described on pages 37 and 147 shows that the rock is made up almost wholly of nearly equal parts of fragmental quartz and crystalline iron silicate. A separation of the green iron silicate from the detrital quartz was made by solution in hydrochloric acid until all iron was dissolved. The residue was treated with sodium carbonate to separate undissolved silica of combiiiation from the quartz. *«C»OCOrY HSOIUTION TBT CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) ^Ks l^^^ Coal Main Strmt ~ ^^ (7>6) 2M - 5999 - F<,« 60 ; \i I The solution was then analysed according to the procedure out- lined by W. F. Hillebrand (23). After the determination of the quartz by treatment with hydrofluoric add, in analyses Za and T, a residue of about one per cent of alumina was found. This may have been present in the rock as a silicate of alumina similar to the argillaceous material which forms the larger part of the series. The insoluble alumina of analyses Za, Zc, and T, is included with the alu- mina of green iron silicate, and the recalculations Zal, Zcl, and Tl, have been made to compare with analyses of thuringite listed by Dana (13: pp. 657-8) and Hinze (24: p. 742). Analyses Zal, Zcl, and Tl, fall within the limits of those given by Dana and Hinze for thuringite, and Wl resembles more closely the analyses they list for chamosite (Dana, p. 658 and Hinze, p. 738). The composition of the green iron silicate has also been recal- culated from analysis Z, taken from a sample of the grey oolitic ore from the top 3 inches of the workable part of zone 4. Siderite cements the chamosite spherules together and hematite is found in small amounts in both the spherules and the matrix (Plates XXIIIAandXXniB). After eliminating t^e calcium phosphate, ferrous carbonate, manganese carbonate, and ferric iron, the re- mainder has the composition shown in analysis Zl. The number of constituents to be considered tends to depreciate the value of these results. A much higher content of ferrous iron is shown than in the other analyses from the sandstone layer, which may be due to reduction of hematite by carbonaceous matter. Simi- larly, analysis W was recalculated and the result is shown in Wl. The sample from which this analyas was made, is com- posed of oolitic hematite and green iron silicate in a matrix of green iron silicate, together with a small amount of fragmental quartz (Plate XXA) and next to the ferruginous sandstone offers the best opportunity for a reliable analysis of this green iron silicate. Bo^ the ferrous iron and silica are higher than in any of the analyses listed by Dana and Hinze for thuringite, and approach more nearly those given by them for chamosite. The results of a thorough investigation of the chemical composition of thuringite and chamosite, made with minerals obtained from their type localities, by E. R. Zalinski (53: pp. 61 70-79) give a more exact standard of comparison than has hitherto been available. While Dana classes chamosite as a variety of thuringite, Hinze places it as a separate species. Zalinski also concludes that chamosite and thuringite are distinct minera' species and gives their chemical formulx as based on the results of his work. Analyses for alumina insoluble in hydrochloric add were made from samples Zc and T and a little over 1 per cent found in each case. This alumina is probably present in the sandstone as finely divided particles of argillaceous material scattered through the rock. The titanium dioxide has also been estimated in these samples. Therefore, for a more accurate comparison with analyses of pure minerals, these constituents which are included with the alumina in Zcl and Tl, should be deducted. In Zalinski's analyses, lime, manganese oxide, and the alkali oxides are not present, hence for a comparison with his results, these constituents have also been deducte osite may be compared. They are as follows: Thuringite. 'Chamosite •Average of 1 and 2. •Average of 3 and 4. SiOj 22-30 16-81 15-13 32-78 1-30 11-04 21-35 17-70 11-57 36-81 3-90 8-78 25-19 Al^i 19-74 FeaOi FeO 41-45 MgO 1-49 hiO 1213 99-36 IOC 11 100-00 'Formulae recalculated by Zalinski from these analyses, are as follows: Hu (Fe, Mg)« (Al, Fe)» Si« On. For thuringite. •Hi7 (Al, Fe)8 (Fe, Mg)io Si« Ou. For thuringite. 'H« (Fe, Mg)i Ala Sij On. For chamosite. 63 A comparison of these results shows that all three analyses Zc2, T2, and W2 are very similar to Zalinski's analysis of cham- osite, while they are all higher in silica and alumina and lower in total iron thari hib analyses of thuringite. The presence of ferric oxide in the analyses Zc and T, may be due to the oxidation oi chamosite, or both thuringite and chamosite may be present in the rock. The total amount of iron is strikingly constant, however, and this is again con- firmed by analysis Zal, made from similar material as Zc2, although in this case 11 -03 per cent of FcjOi is shown. Hence the writer has concluded that the green iron silicate of both ore and accompanying rocks occurs principally in the form of cham- osite, and has used the term throughout this memoir to designate the green iron silicate. From the petrographic study the writer was impressed with the variation in colour of the amorphous variety of this type of material, from light to deep green. It seems probable that chemical interaction between these green iron silicates and other constituents of the ore, has resulted in the formation of iron silicates of varying composition. The chamosite of the spherules, as shown by Plates XXIIIA and XXIIIB must have been in a soft gelatinous condition, and this may have been the original condition of the material out of which the crystalline chamosite developed. While a large part of the chaq|osite of the ferruginous sandstone at the top of zone 4, represented by analyses Zc2 and T2, is crystalline and that of the oolitic green ore occurring below the workable bed, represented by analysis W2, is mostly micro-crystalline, that represented by analysis Zl occurs in spher- ules apparently in th» amorphous form. It seems probable that the crystalline material is the mineral and the amorphous material , analysis Zl, may not have a constant composition, but may vary within certain limits. Analyses from Zone 5, Upper Bed. The petrological study has shown that in this zone, as in zones 2 and 4, hematite, chamosite, and siderite are the iron- hi 64 bearing minerals of the ore, and that detrital quartz is present in moderate amount. The following incomplete chemical analysis is of a specimen ta':en from the workable bed in the submarine slope 2, about one-half mile north of the surface outcrop. SKh MJO, PiO, Ferf), FeO CO, Total Sp. Gr. S-60 4-82 1-22 72-70 8-37 1-38 97-09 4-20 Analysis. Locality. Analyst. Of -.. Zb 215 Dsl A. O. Hayes 1912 A petrographical examination of the material analysed, with the chemical analysis, shows that hematite, chamosite, and siderite are present. The hematite forms 72 • 70 per cent of the ore, and chamosite makes up most of the balance, while siderite and fragmental quartz are much less abundant. rf Kelly Island Chamosite. A ferruginous sandstone occurs on Kelly island which has not been described. The principal bed is about 18 inches thick and the following partial analyses have been made from a speci- men taken from Martin cove: ii = \l i SiO. 31-98 Fe 27-75 PA CO, 174 12-59 Analysis. Locality. SUde. Analyst. Date. Ze 217 A13 c 41 A. V. Seaborn 1912 65 No determination of lime was made to discover whether the COf is present as calcite or siderite. Since the rock does not effervesce with hydrochloric acid, it is probable that the calcite is absent and that the carbonate is present in the form of siderite. The thin sections reveal the presence of a green iron silicate allied to chamosite. A recalculation of the analysis, assuming siderite, chamosite, and calcium phosphate to be present with the addition of a sufficient amount of alumina, water, and lime, gives the following: Quartz SiOi SiO, Chamosite FeO AW,* Siderite. Calcium phosphate. FeO CO, PiO. CaO* 21-98 21-98 10-00 ' 15-09 ^ 4009 1000 5-00 20-56 1 33-15 12-59 J 3-80 9902 'Hypothetical additions. 99 02 Summary of Chemistry of Ores, The chemical analyses have confirmed those identifications which have been made by petrographic methods, given the exact composition of other constituents not determined optically, and established certain relationships indicative of the mineralogical composition of the ore and rocks. Petrographic examinations have revealed the presence of three principal types of iron-bearing minerals in zones 2, 4, and 5, including an oxide, silicates, and a carbonate. T!"e most abundant of these was easily identified as hematite, and % smical investigation has shown the others to be chamosite, and probably other green iron silicates, and siderite. The fossil shell frag- ments have a composition of between 60 and 70 per cent calcium phosphate, and the lime and phosphoric add present in the ore 66 are derived principally from this source. The ores and accom- panyinf, rocks appear to be free from any original lime content in excest) of that which is found in combination with phosphoric add in the shell fragments. All of the constituents of the ore vary within certain limits at different localities and at different portions of the ore beds, as shown in the following table: Hematite 50 to 70 per cent. Chamoaite 15 to 25 " Siderite to 50 * Calcium phoiphate 4 to 5 " Calcite to 1 • Quartz to 10 " Zone 3 consists of layers of iron sulphide in the form of oolitic pyrite intercalated between beds of shale. 67 CHAPTER VI. ORIGIN OF THE ORE. PRIMARY NATURE OF ORE BEDS. The iron ore occurs in strata forming an integral part of a series consisting principally of shales and sandstones. The series is of lower Ordovician age and since it exhibits closer relationships with European than with American geological formations, it is referred to the Arenig and Llandeilo of Wales, corresponding roughly with the Beekmantown, Chazy, and Black River of the Appalachian province. A considerable number of detailed observations and exper- iments have been made and described, relative to the origin of the ore. As a result of this work, the writer has concluded that the iron ore occurs as a primary bedded deposit, and that the iron content was present in the sediments at the time that the series was laid down. It is probable that the spherules were formed out of the extremely fine-grained, unconsolidated, ferruginous sediments of the sea bottom, in water sufficiently shallow to allow of a certain amount of agitation due to the action of the surface waves. (Plate X). In the course of the deposition of a thickness of about 400 feet of strata, in which the three workable beds are contained, records are found of a number of changes of sea-level relative to the sea bottom and shore. Ripple marked surfaces in all of the workable beds were formed by shifting of the bottom deposits by currents off a shore-line. These are beautifully shown on the floors of the workable beds of zones 2 and 4 (Plates XI A and XIB). A disconformity occurs above zone 2, varying at different localities from a few inches to a few feet above the high- est hematite of the Dominion bed (Plates IV and V), immediately above which the oolitic pyrite and black shales, holding grapto- lites, were laid down. The incursion of graptolites signifies a 68 modification of the sea bottom such as to allow the paas&i,z >f continuous ocean currents, capable of bringing in these plank- tonic organisms. They are considered to have been transported as are similar forms of life existing to-day in the Sargossa sea, and it is thought that a considerable deepening of the sea took place at the dose of tiie deposition of zone 2. Shallow water conditions again prevailed at the close of the deposition of zone 4, probably accompanied by vertical oscillations, as evidenced by a ripple-marked surface in the ore found at locality 206 A25 E7, 2 feet above the floor of the workable bed, and by the occurrence of a pebble bed, 206 J5, occupying erosion channels in the fine- grained sandstone, 206 J4, about 1 foot above the top of the Scotia ore (Plate VII). The ore above the erosion surface in the upper part of the ore bfd is cross-bedded, indicating the progressive accumulation of the spherules at the edge of a sub- merged bar, arranged in lamellx at a steep angle to the bedding plane (Plate VIII). The ;3Cotia bed, where examined at the surface outcrop, contains a relatively small amount of detrital quartz fragments and has an exceptionally high siderite content. The ore zone is confined to about 15 feet of strata, about half of which is com- posed of work.-i.ble ore, occurring in a compact layer containing thin pa-^ing lenses of ferruginous sandstone at sonie localities, but entirely free from these layers over other areas. CONDITIONS DURING DEPOSITION. Considerable direct evidence is thus available on which to base a conception of the conditions obtaining during ♦'• dep-v sition of the Scotia bed. The absence of detrital qu^ j: in the ore, indicates that the ore was formed at some distance from a shore-line, while the ripple marked surfaces and cross-bedding of the spherules required shJlow water for their formation. The upper bed also exhibits similar phenomena characteristic of such marginal deposits. That the ore was deposited in marine waters is evidenced by their content of marine brachiopods (Plate XI IB). The graptolites in the shales and oolitic pyrite, also demonstrate the salt water origin of zone 3 (Plate XIIA). lr.A%D..'. 69 It is e\ident that the spherules were formed before the final consolidation of the ore, since the ore is sometimes found to be made up of thin lamellae of oolitic hematite, and earthy hematite in alternating layers arranged by the sorting action of water (Plates VIII and XXVIIB). There occurs also at he top of zone 2, a conglomerate holding pebbles of oolitic hematite- lanosite (Plate X). The spherule, where closely packed togetner in the denser portions of the ore, are much flattened by vertical pressure and lie like tiny discs placed horizontally, and where the spherules are disseminated more sparsely, they remain much more spherical. Spherules in cer- tain layers parallel to the bedding of the ore are frequently much more flattened than others. This flattening probably occurred while the spherules were in a soft condition when variations in the thickness and density of overlying sediments would result in differing amounts of crushing. EVIDENCE FROM FOSSILS. Another most convincing fact is that worm burrows are found in all the ore zones, showing that the worms have burrowed from an erosion surface, removed the spherules, and formed cavities which became filled with mud in which few spherules occur (Plates XIIIA, XIIIB, and XIVA). The fossil boring algae are minute tubular organisms found splendidly preserved in brachiopod fragments, in spherules of hematite, and in chamosite and phosphate nodules. Similar boring organisms are known in modem seas and the presence of these fossil forms in both shells and spherules indicates that these materials were pierced while resting on the sea bottom. ■"* ° tubules of these algae, the delicacy of which may be appre- ed by stating their dimensions which vary from one-fifth .o four microns, often extend beyond the walls of the sriells into the surrounding matrix. The portions of the ore in which these algffi occur in this fashion could not ha* >; been subjected to much mechanical rearrangement. It is evident, therefore, that not only the spherules, but the material which surrounds them, must have formed a part of the unconsolidated sediments (Plates I, XVIIB, XVIIIA, XXIB). 70 PRIMARY FORMATION OF SPHERfLF.9. J. It has been demonstrated that chamosite, hematite and siderite are the important iron-lwaring minerals and that siderite is in general seconuary to the other two. Some hematite appears to be secondary to the chamosite, as has been described of pages 35 and 140. In the ferruginous sediments of both ore and parting rocks, chamosite was one of the earliest iron minerals to form. In the ore it built small concentric concretions of the amorphous material, and in the rocks a non-oolitic form, much of which is crystalline. The alternating concentric layers of hematite and chamoute in the spherulis, suggest that most of the hematite of the ore wak formed contemporaneously with the chamoute. The result of an experiment made by Profeaaor C. H. Smyth, jun., (40: pp. 487-496) on the composition of similar spherules in the Clinton ores, is given as follows: "Everywhere the individual particles of the ore, when close'y examined, have a marked concretionary texture, this beinp. true of all varieties, but showing most clearly in the ool<;ij varieties. A spherule of the oolite or irregular fragment of the fossil ore, when lightly hammered, scales off in thin concentric shells, while thin sections under the microscope usually show concentric structure in spite of the opacity of the earthy hematite. But this structure is better shown, while at the same time another feature is brought out, by digesting spherules and fragments in hydrochloric acid. The result of the treatment is to dissolve the iron oxide, but the grains mstead of disappearing or dimin- ishing in size, retain their original size and shape, becoming white and translucent. Under the microscope they are seen to consist of concentric shells which may be pried apart by a needle. The material of these shells is either dark with crossed nicols or shows the cross of aggregate polarization. It is readily soluole in fixed alkalies, and though it has not been analysed, it is probably amorphous silica." Siniiia'- .'leriments were made on the Wabana ore, one from ooiR.- hematite (Plate XVI B), another from oolitic chamosite (Plate XXIIIB), with like results in both instances. 71 The sidcrite has replaced both chamosite and lieinatitf and, in many instances, detrital v artz as well. All of these opera- dons appear to have taken place in the sediments while they were t till unconsolidated, i.e., diagenetically, and no important introduction of iron seems to have been made sine; the beds were deposited (Plates XXIIA. XXIIB. XXIIIA, and XXIIIB). The only minerals found which have been introduced secondarily to the iron arc calcite and qua. ,z. These fill fault cracks which vary from microscopic veinlets to veins several inches in thick- ness (Plate XXVIA). The calcite and quartz frequently occur together and in one instance a 3-inch calcit< vein is cut across by a quartz vein about one-quarter of an inch in thicknesn The phosphorus of the ore and rocks has been shown to b derived chiefly from fossil remains principally in the form oi fragments of brachiopod shells. These furnish ulso the original lime of I; It ore series. A small amount of secondary lime has been introduced by the calcite veins. (Plates XIIB, XXVA, and XXVB). xl lor tue oolitic /enile source con- iom fissures in the SOURC5 OF THE IRON. Many questions present themselves regarding the source of the iron, and the various complex changes wh'ch it has passed through before reaching its present state. No direct evidence bearing on these questions is avai'able and any statement must be necessarily theoretical. F. Villain (49: pp. 1291-1293) pro iron ores of Luxembourg and Lorraine, a sisting of outflows of iron-bearing solution; earth's crust, but no evidence T.iiatevcr has been found on which to base such an hypothesis for the ^\'ibana ore. It seems probabl, nat the irou was derived by long con- tinued weathering of ■ "ar crystalline and sedimentary rocks, the solution of their iron content by mineral and vegetable acids and subsequent transportation of the iron salts by streams into the sea. The Pre-Cambrian sedimentary and crystalline rocks contain much iron and these have furnish d the iron of the Cambrian and Ordovician rocks underlying the Wabana ore. 72 1 The Upper Cambrian rocks of Manuels brook and the higher strata outcropping on Kelly and Little Bell islands, contain a considerable amount of disseminated iron-bearing minerals, including sulphides, silicates, and carbonates. Occasioned con- centrations of one or more of these minerals occur. The Upper Cambrian beds of Manuels brook hold considerable iron sulphide and some carbonate. Chemical analysis Ze of the ferruginous bed on Kelly island, described on page 64 gives 27 • 75 per cent of metallic iron. This occurs in forms resembling chamosite and siderite. The shale at the Nova Scotia Company's pier on the south shore of Bell island (Plate II B) holds 8-83 per cent ferric oxide. The shales generally appear to be rich in iron, and as the greater part of this Cambro-Ordovician series is com- posed of shales, the whole series holds an unusually large amount of iron. EVIDENCE FROM ABSENCE OF LIMESTONE. Ii fi^ 1: m ii There is a general absence of limestone from this Cambro- Ordovician series above the Middle Cambrian, and there is no evidence that any has ever existed, none having been found in the Upper Cambrian exposed on Manuels brook, or in the Ordovician measures on Kelly, Little Bell, or Bell islands. Chemical analyses A and B (p. 44) of shale and sandstone under- lying the ore beds on Bell island, show an entire lack of lime, while many analyses of the beds and accompanying rocks, prove that the total content of about 2 per cent of lime occurs largely as a phosphate derived from fossil remains, and that little or no calcium carbonate occurs as an original constituent of the ore and accompanying rocks. The theory proposed by Professor L. Cayeux (7: pp. 284-285) for deposits of similar character and age in the Armoricain peninsula, France, and suggested for all similar Palaeozoic deposits, that an original limestone has been transformed into an oolitic iron ore, is absolutely untenable for the Wabana ore, where every observation confirms the conclusion that the ore was originally formed in essentially the same condition, excepting induration, in which it is found to-day. 73 A much longer period is represented by the Wabana ore series than would be required merely for the continuous deposi- tion of such a thickness of rocks. About 200 feet below the Dominion bed, the rocks were, when soft, exposed above water, for raindrop impressions are here preserved pointing to an emer- gence shortly after their deposition (Plate XXVIII). A change in fauna at the top of zone 2 occurs coincidently with a discon- formity marked by an erosion surface (Plate V), and a deepening of the sea followed. The Scotia and Upper beds also give evidence of many oscillations in the relative level of land and sea. Pro- fessor Gilbert van Ingen has suggested that successive marginal tilting probably occurred contemporaneously with the deposition of the rocks of Bell island, causing the shore-line to advance and raising the underlying measures above sea-level. These soft sediments, with their large iron content, would then be available to further enrich the sea with iron solutions. The chemistry of the processes involved in the formation of the ore must of necessity be very complex. I have concluded from petrological and chemical investigations that chamosite, with perhaps other similar green iron silicates, are the most generally distributed primary iron-bearing constituents of both the ore and their accompanying rocks. The hematite is inti- mately associated with the chamosite and is by far the most abundant iron-bearing mineral of the ore. MODE OF PRECIPITATION OF THE IRON. Since W. Spring (43: pp. 47-62) has shown that ferric hydroxide will become dehydrated in salt water and form ferric oxide, the view may be taken that some of the iron may have been precipitated as ferric hydrate and formed the ferric oxide directly. If so, both the silicates and oxide have formed together in a most intricate fashion to build alternate layers in the spher- ules. It appears probable that a considerable proportion of the iron was precipitated primarily as ferrous aluminous silicates similar to chamosite and thuringite, and while a small amount of hematite appears to have been formed about tubules of boring algtc, apparently secondary to the chamosite, most of the hema- 74 tite may be of contemporaneous origin with the silicates. The siderite was the last iron-bearing mineral to form and it frequently replaces chamosite, hematite, and quartz. It may have been produced by the aid of decomposing oi^anic matter acting on chamcwite and hematite during a period of shallow water conditions such as prevailed during the formation of the top of the Dominion bed, zone 2, and of much of zone 5. It has been shown that the ore of zones 2, 4, and 5, was formed as off-shore deposits on the bottom of a sea in which marine life was abundant, some organisms, such as worms, actually burrowing into the oolitic ferruginous sediments. The question regarding the mode of precipitation of the iron on the bottom of an open sea, still remains unanswered. It is possible that during the deposition of the hematite-chamosite ore, the sea was restricted by some means to a basin-like form, but was still sufficiently shallow to allow the migration of a fauna found in similar rocks in Europe. During the deposition of the material in which the oolitic pyrite is found in zone 3, a sufficient depth must have been attained for open currents to pass, carrying marine plankton, as is shown by the graptolites which occur in the oolitic pjrrite and accompanying shales. EVIDENCE FROM FOSSIL ALGiE IN ORE. The role which minute organisms such as algae and bacteria play in the building up of such deposits, has not as yet been very thoroughly investigated and it is probable that many of the little known chemical processes may be due to the action of such organisms. "According to Ehrenberg, the algae, especially the so-called iron algae, GaUioneUa ferruginea Ehrenb., are active ore pre- dpitants coating their cell walls with ferric hydrate and opaline silica. This alga is abundant on the sea bottoms. According to the recent works of Mollisch and Winogradsky, these and most other supposed algae are ciliated bacteria of different kinds, especially Leptothrix ochracea" (Beck 2: p. 102). Tubules of algae are found abundantly in the fragments of brachiopod shells in the ore, some of which extend out of the i I 75 shells into the surrounding matrix, in such manner as to indicate that they pierced the material of the shells after the latter were deposited as fragments in the soft sea bottom. The al^a are also found plentifully preserved in ferruginous phosphatic nodules and many of them have been found in spherules composed of hematite and chamosite (Plates I and XXI A). Most suggestive of all, however, in relation to the diagenesis of the ore, is their presence in siderite, in v/hich, in the upper part of the Scotia bed, tubules of algae have been preserved. I'hese fossil algae have been studied by Professor Gilbert van Ingen, who refers them to the Schizophyceae, or blue green algae. Dr. Marshall A. Howe of the New York Botanical garden, has examined the algae and remarked (25) upon their close resemblance to species of modem blue green algae of similar habits. When living such algae take up carbon dioxide and water which are broken up by the action of light (photosynthesis), and oxygen is given off as a waste product (John M. Coulter 12: Pt. I, p. ISO; Pt. II, p. 302). The chemical reaction may be outlined as follows: 12 CO, + 12 HK) - 2CJI„ O, + 120, + 2H,0 Starch Oxygen The carbohydrate, starch, thus obtained by photosynthesis, and nitrogen, obtained by the process of osmosis, are converted into proteids which provide food for the organism to build up its protoplasm by the process termed metastasis (H. W. Conn. 11: p. 129). The food of the plants consists of carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates, potash salts, and other minerals in small quantities (Conn, op. cit.). During the life of the algae oxygen is their most abundant waste product, and a zone of oxidation would be found in the immediate vicinity of the flourishing plants. The decomposition products of the algae, together with those of the brachiopods, trilobites, \ orms, and other animals present in this Ordovidan sea, provided a large amount of carbon dioxide and ammonia together with small amounts of other gases and salts. 76 Ca 1197 Mg 3-725 Total 100-000 It is impossible to discover the exact nature of the sea water in which the ore beds were laid down, but it is thought probable that it differed only locally, and in degree of con- centration of certain constituents, from the average composition of the waters of modern oceans. F. W. Clarke (10: p. 112), writing on the composition of oceanic salts, has listed 24 analyses of sea water from many parts of the globe and remarks regarding them: "They show a striking uniformity in the composition of sea salts, the only great variable, being that of concentration." The mean of 77 analyses by Dittmar (15: p. 203) of ocean water from many localities, collected by the Challenger expedition is as follows: CI Br SO4 CO, Na K 55-292 0188 7-692 0-207 30-593 1106 Salinity 3-365 per cent. The tubules of the fossil algne are frequently cover«l exterioriy with a layer of crystalline hematite (p. 35). This is especially noticeable where spherules of chamosite have been bored and it seems probable that the oxidation of the iron wa3 in these instances at least, caused by the life processes of these alga, and since by examination of only a small number of slides, the alga have been found at many horizons in both the Dominion and Scotia beds, and evidently lived in great abundance throughout the time of deposition of the ore strata, it may be that sufficient oxygen was provided in this manner to account for the large proportion of the iron of the ore in the form of hematite. The iron, brought into the sea by streams, in the form ol salts of organic acids, chlorides, sulphates, ferrous bicarbonate, etc., having a higher specific gravity than sea water, would sink to the bottom, and ammonia formed on the sea bottom from decaying organic matter might produce, directly or indirectly, a precipitate of iron hydroxide. The oxidizing action of the algae above referred to would tend to oxidize the precipitated hydrate of iron to hematite. Since the oolitic ore occurs with argillaceous rocks, hydrated silicates of alumina were undoubtedly abundant, and the cham- 77 osite and other silicates of iron may have had their origin in the combination of the iron and hydrated aluminous silicates, the process taking place contemporaneously with the formation of hematite. As stated before (p. 74) Ehrenberg has found that certain unicellular plants coat their cell walls with ferric hydrate and opaline silica. This phenomenon suggests the possibility of a common source in the plant activities for the silicates as well as the oxide of iron. As I have found no evidence of organic influence in the building up of the concentric layers of hematite and chamosite, I think that this structure is probably due to physical causes. The work of the late Dr. G. Harold Drew (19: pp. 139-141) on the marine denitrifying bacteria at Port Royal, Jamaica, and at Tortugas, Florida, gives data concerning conditions under which plants flourish or have their growth restricted in the ocean, and suggests also a means by which calcium carbonate may be precipitated with perhaps the forma^^ion of oolitic limestone. These experiments supply information suggesting an interpreta- tion of certain conditions obtaining in the Ordovician sea while the Wabana ores were being deposited. Dr. Alfred G. Mayer, Director of the Department, writes as follows of Dr. Drew's work (32: pp. 123-124): "G. Harold Drew, Esq., carried out observations which justify the belief that he has probably di"^ jvered one of the most interesting facts yet revealed through the study of oceanography. He finds that the most abundant bacillus at depths between ten fathoms and the surface in the ocean oft Jamaica and Tortugas is a form that possesses the cap- acity to convert all the nitrates of the water into nitrites and finally to expel the nitrogen from the sea in the form of gas, thus depriving the surface waters of the sea of nitrogen. This relative scarcity of nitrogen in the tropical ocean accounts for the paucity of plant life in warm seas as compared with the conditions seen in temperate regions, where great masses of fucus, etc., cover the rocks. Dr. Drew also showed that the formation of ammonia and the final liberation of nitrogen by this bacterium would leave the calcium free to combine with the dissolved carbon dioxide of the ocean, thus causing a precipitation of calcium carbonate. The vast areas of chalky mud of the Bahama. mi m 78 Florida region and in the tropical Pacific, may have been formed in this manner. This denitrifying bacterium appears to grow best in a moderate light and to be most abundant at a depth of 10 fathoms, below which it gives place to another, non-denitri- fying form, which appears to be characteristic of the def>p sea and is readily killed upon exposure to sunlight." Dr. Drew writes (Op. cit., 19: 139): "The fonration of beds of fine unorganized chalky mud in certain places off the southern Florida Keys may possibly be explained in this way, and it is conceivable that some such bacterial action may have played a part in the formation of some chalk and oolitic limestone beds in geologic times." . . . (19:p. 140-1). "On August 7, 1911, two samples of water were collected in the lagoon of the Marquesas islands, 40 miles east of the Tortugas. These san'ples were obtained near the eastern entrance to the lagoon, while the tide was still ebbing, but nearly low. The bottles were sent to Ply- mouth, England, where they were studied ..." A number of experiments were made and among other results, the following interesting phenomenon wasobserved : "Rapid growth inamedium consisting of calcium succinate 1-0 gram (soluble), potassium nitrate 0-5 gram, and sea water 1,000-0 c.c, with production of thick, milky appearance, due to extremely finely divided particles of calcium carbonate, so fine that they will not settle. "To such a culture a trace of a very finely powered hydrated calcium sulphate or fine sand was added. This resulted in the formation of a precipitate which, on microscopical examination, could be seen to consist of finely laminated concretions, some of which appeared to have a particle of calcium sulphate or sand as a nucleus. The concretions were soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid with evolution of carbon dioxide. These concretions bear a resemblance to those of some oolitic limestones, and the experi- ment suggests the manner in which some oolites may have been formed. "The bacteria which cause the formation of these concretions seem lo be the same as those found at Tortugas and Jamaica." The statement that "The relative scarcity of nitrogen in the tropical ocean accounts for the paucity of plant life compared with the conditions seen in temperate r^ons," is especially 79 suggestive, for since plant life in the form of algae was abundant when the ores were formed, we may perhaps conclude that no denitrifying bacteria were active there and if existing at that early geological time, the climate was probably temperate. The absence of limestone from the Upper Cambrian and lower Ordovician, also indicates an absence of such bacteria at function- ing temperature. THE FORMATION OF OOLITES BY PHYSICAL PROCESSES. The experimental formation of "finely laminated concre- tions about a nucleus of sand or calcium sulphate" is especially interesting and suggestive. By means of bacteria, organic matter is decomposed and ammonia set free to form ammonium carbonate with the dissolved carbon dioxide in the water. The calcium sulphate is usually precipitated as a very finely divided powder and it seems probable that this material gathered about the nuclei by the force of surface tension rather than by the aid of organisms. Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan (48: p. 303) has studied the pro- cesses which result in the formation of oolites composed of calcium carbonates, which are forming at the present time in shoal waters off the coasts of Florida and the Bahama islands and has announced the following conclusions: "The empirical facts in the process of the formation of the Floridian and Bahaman oolites are demonstrated. They are as fdlows: (1) Denitrifying bacteria are very active in the shoal waters of both regions and are precipitating enormous quantities of calcium carbonate which is largely aragonite; (2) this chemical- ly precipitated calcium carbonate may form spherulites which by accretion may become oolite grains of the usual size, or it may accumulate around a variety of nuclei to build such grains." Similar physical methods were probably operative for the formation of the oolitic hematite-chamosite. The te ^ncy of extremely minute particles to collect together under the .fiuence of surface tension, is well known, and the micro-crystalline hematite and chamosite have together furnished such pulverulent material for the production of the spherules in this manner. M While oxidizing conditions obtained on the sea bottom, very different conditions were produced in the underlying sediments. Dr. John Murray and Mr. Robert Irvine (36: p. 483) say of blue mud deposits: "The deeper layers -)f the deposit are very stiff and compact, blue or black in colour, owing to the presence of organic matter and of sulphide of iron, while the immediate surface of the water in contact with the superincumbent water is thin, watery, and usually of a light brown or red colour from the higher oxidation of the iron. In the "Challenger" trawlings the bag of the net would frequently be filled with a soft red- coloured mud from the surface layers, while the iron frame supporting the beam was covered with patches of a stiff blue mud or clay from the deeper layers." Professor Lindgren (30: p. 250) cites an occurrence on the south side of Molokai, Hawaiian islands, where hematite mud is spread out over a large area of shallow coral reef. h ORIGIN OF SIDERITE AND ITS RELATIONS TO HEMATITE AND CHAMOSITE. Wherever, in the Wabana ores, siderite has been found in association with hematite and chamosite, it replaces them, but the tubules of the algae are sometimes preserved in it. As has been shown above, it is probable that oxidizing conditions obtained upon and immediately above the sea bottom, due to the growth of algae. At the same time some of the dead and decaying algae, together with inarticulate brachiopods, worms, trilobites, and other organisms would be entombed by the upper portions of the newly formed sediments. Where sufficiently covered to make escape of thi- products of decomposition difficult reactions would take place somewhat similar to those outlined by John Murray and Robert Irvine (36: pp. 485-486), who have shown that the alkalinity of water in the blue mud is much higher than that of the water overlying the mud, and quoting from page 485 "At first we were inclined to refer the great increase of alkalinity to the excess of carbonate of lime derived from the solution of the dead shells of calcareous organisms by carbonic acid, the latter being much increased in sea-water 81 through the deoxidation of the sulphates by organic niatter, but the total lime present in the water filterea from the muds was found on determination not to have increased in any notable degree above that present in normal sea-water; indeed, the latter filtrates show a slight decrease of lime, which points, it may be, to the precipitation of carbonate of lime in the mud." Average sea water. Mud water. Sodium chloride, NaCl Magnesium chloride, MgCIt Magnesium bromide, MgBri Magnesium sulphate, MgSO« Potassium sulphate, K1SO4 Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)tS04 Magnesium carbonate, MgCOi. . Calcium carbonate, CaCOi Calcium sulphate, CaSOi 77-758 10-878 0-217 4-737 2-465 2-465 2-465 0-345 3-600 100000 79-019 11-222 0-220 2-232 2-506 0-206 0-909 2-686 2-686 100000 "The increase of alkaline ammoniacal salts points, however, to a further reaction, by which carbonate of lime is increased to a slight degree, for as ammonium carbonate ( (NH4)jCOj) is formed by the decomposition of the albuminoids present, the sulphates in the sea-water by this means are decomposed, sulphate of ammonia ( (NH4)»S04) and earthy carbonates being the result." There is a marked absence of the alkali carbonates from the Wabaua ores and accompanying rocks, so that if any were formed they either remained in solution or were decomposed by syngenetic chemical processes. During the deposition of the ferruginous beds, it seems probable that a variety of iron salts were in solution in the sea water, and the ammonium carbonate resulting from the decomposition of organic matter, where en- tombed by overlying sediments, n.ay have decomposed these iron salts, with the formation of the corresponding ammonium salts and the precipitation of the iron carbonate, siderite. 82 Quartz grains and chamottte, both in matrix and fphentlea, are frequently partly destroyed and replaced by liderite. Sdu- tiont of alkali carbonates and hydroxides have a considerable solvent action on quartz and dissolve non-crystalline silica very readily, and such a solvent may have been produced and con- centrated locally in sufficient quantity to aid in the solution of these constituents, the iron carbonate being deposited. Thus it appears that while the hematite and chamosite were being deposited on the surface of the bottom deposits, siderite was contemporaneously formed in the underlying sediments, con- sisting of oolitic hematite-chamosite muds, quartz grains, and siliceous material, for a distance downward, the amount of siderite formed being dependent upon the quantity of decomposition products furnished under proper cover. i 83 CHAPTER VII. OCCURRENCES OF IRON ORES OF SIMILAR AGE AND CHARACTER. Oolitic iron ores ot approximately the same geologi. al age have been found in Canada and Europe, and more recent depoeits of similar character in Europe and the United Sutes. M. Y. Williams (SI: p. 246) has correlated an occurrence at Arisaig, Nova Scotia, with the Wabana ore and refers it to the Upper Cambrian. He describes ttie deposit as follows: "Oolitic hematite beds are found in the James River rocks near the base of the Baxter Brook division and again at a lower horizon. The sedimentary origin of the ores is most probable from the consideration of the -xAitic and sparingly fossiliferous character of the ore, its longitudinal extent, and its close association with the definite rotk horizon. Some secondary concentration or transference of material, may, however, have taken place. "So far as could be observed the two formations 1 ave entirely conformable relatione to each other and on the evidence of Oholus (Linguhbuhs) spissus and LingukUa ( ?) obtained from the upper iron ore horizon (both from the ore itself and the associated schist), these rocks are proven to be of the Upper Cambrian or Ozarkic age. The ore is likewise correlated with the Wabana ore of Bell island. Conception bay, Newfoundland; but because of low grade and faulted condition it has not yet been developed, although portions of it will probably be profitably mined sooner or later." These ores are also described by Professor J. E. Woodman (52: pp. 15-23), as bedded hematites. The abundant literature descriptive of the Clinton ores, has made them known to all interested in such deposits. Oppos- ing theories rq:arding their origin were discussed and the facts supporting the theory of their sedimentary origin were concisely presented in 1892 by Professor C. H. Smyth, jun. (40: pp.487- I :i i ii 84 496). Profewor Smyth has more recently formulated hU view of the formation of the iron ore a» followt (42: pp. 33-52): "Awuming a rather complete analogy with modem lake ore». i- is probable that the iron was depowted. for the most part, as limonite with, perhaps, subsidiary carbonate. The dehydration of the limonite may have followed soon after precipitaUon. since W. Spring (43: pp. 47-62) has shown that freshly precipi- tated ferric hydroxide undergoes spontaneous dehydration while ttili in contact with water, particularly if the latter is saline. On the other hand, dehydration may have been a slower process, aided, perhaps, by pressure of overlying rocks, and slight tem- perature increase." Some of the other publications dealing with the Llinton iron ores, and of which full titles arc given in the bibliographic list, are: Smyth, jun. (41); Burchard (3): Burchard, Butts, and Eckel (4); Newland and Hartnagel (37); Rutledge (38); and McCallie (33). Professor Smyth (42) discusses the theory proposed by McCallie (33) that the iron was originally deposited not as limonite but as glauconite, and concludes that this h>pothe8i8 is untenable. J. J. Rutledge (38) concludes that by far the greater part of the iron of the Clinton ores is due to replacement and con- centration of the iron, but thinks that the intimately associated oxides and silicates of the spherules and the iron present as the carbonate in isomorphous mixtures with calcium carbonate may be due to original deposition. Professor C. K. Leith (29: pp. 99-100, 1908) groups to- gether the flax seed ores of the Clinton and other beds of the Appalachians and Wisconsin, the ores of the Torbrook and Nictaux areas of Nova Scotia, the Wabana ores of Newfoundland, and a recently discovered deposit in Missouri. He considers them to be sedimentary ores derived by weathering processes and deposited in the ocean as iron oxide rather than as ferrous salts, and that they have undergone no further concentration, being mined essentially in the condition in which they were deposited . . . ,i, u Ores comparable in character arid extent, with the Wabana 8S om, occur in France, on the Armorican peninsula. These are described ' / L. Cayeux (7 : 1900) who concludes that an oolitic limestone was replaced by siderite from which in turn the cham- osite, hematite, and other iron-bearing minerals as well as the quartz of the oic have been derived. Many of the descriptions and photographs of thin sections of ores taken from this locality in France, represent phenomena so similar to those of the Wabana ore, that they might serve to illustrate the latter. A fauna, similar to that described in this ppper, occurs in these French ores and rocks, including boring algse which are found also in the hematite spherules and in the siderite. Certain of the algae of the Wabana ore are similar to the algae-like fossils found by Professor L. Cayeux in the similar oolitic iron ores of Le Ferriers-aux-Etangs. He writes that these organisms seem to be endowed with a ■elective faculty for certain ferruginous constituents of the ores, including siderite and hematite. I have already outlined an explanation for this association, suggesting that, while living, the algae gave off oxygen which oxidized the iron to hematite, and in their decomposition the ammonium carbonate given off precipitated siderite which formed a pr "servative for some of the undestroyed tubules. Professor Cayeux has also studied cpeci- mens of Clinton ores and conci des that these were derived from a limestone by a secondary replacement. The theory of a long series of replacement (7: p. 285) first from an original oolitic limestone to siderite and then through chlorite to hematite, the siderite and hematite so derived giving nse to quartz, goethite, pyrite, etc., appears to me to be unwarranted Vy the observations of fact which Proiessor Cayeux has so cler ■> described in his admirable monograph. A study of the descriptions and photo- graphs has led me to suggest that the deposits at May-sur- Lome, Saint R6my, and Le Ferriers-aux-Etangs, may be primary bedded ores of chau'acter and origin similar to those of the Wabana iron ore. Pisolitic iron ores are found in Wjiles and have been described by W. G. Feamsides (21: pp. 170, 173; 1910), who places them in the Llandeilo, the next younger formation above the Arenig, and thought by Professor van Ingen to correspond very closely 86 V =: in age to the upper part of the Wabana series. The Ordovidan slates of southeast Carnarvonshire in which the ore occurs, are much disturbed by igneous rocks, and, since the ore masses were observed to show no signs of crushing, and the largest ore bodies lie near the crushed zone where it abuts upon the meta- morphic aureoles of the la e intrusive dolorites, Mr. Feamsides has been led to urge that the ore is of secondary or metasomatic origin, and owes its distribution to the position of the fault. It seems probable that this pisolitic ore has a mode of origin similar to other like deposits. The much disturbed condition of these rocks makes an interpretation of their origin diiHcult. I have seen no descriptions of slides of this ore and it may be that a thorough study of their petrographic character would reveal original constituents not otherwise discernible. The presence of oolitic hematite in strata holding a fauna closely related to the lower Ordovician of Bell island, suggests the probability of similar conditions of sedimentation. The occurrence in the Ordovician of the Iberian peninsula of iron ore similar to that of the Amorican peninsula is referred toby Robert Douvilld (18: p. 13; 1911), but no detailed descrip- tion is given. In Bohemia and Thuringia (Germany) there are a number of bedded deposits of oolitic hematite-thuringite-chamosite- siderite ores, occurring in lower Silurian measures. In Bohemia the ore occurs in the so-called Komarauer Schichten (Barrande's Etage D) of Katzer (28: pp. 820, 844-852, 986-989) and is suc- ceeded by an overljdng graptolite zone. The ore closely re- sembles that at Wabana, several beds of oolitic hematite and chamosite occurring as primary sediments in a series consisting principally of quartzites with associated slates, greywacke, conglomerates, diabase amygdaloids, and diabase tu^s. An ore bed at Nucitz is 16 feet thick, shows stratification, and holds fossils. The ores are rich in phosphorus and also carry a little magnetite. A general absence of limestone from the measures, as is also the case with the Wabana sediments, is worthy of note since it indicates a condition of sedimentation unfavourable for the formation of an original oolitic limestone. From the lower Silurian iron ores of Thuringerwaid, 87 Germany, a deposit at Schmiedefeld (Sachsen Meinirgen) near Grafenthal in Thuringia, has been studied petrographically by H. Loretz (31: pp. 120-147; 1884), and found to consist of oolitic chamosite, as a dark grey compact aggregate of small concentric pellets, cemented together by siderite. Thuringite occurs in accompansnng slates. The ores occur as lenticular beds as much as 7 feet thick. The above-mentioned deposits from Bohemia and Thuringia are classed by Dr. R. Beck (2: pp. 82-84) as original intercala- tions in normal sediments. Professor W. Lindgren (30: p. 243) writes of these deposits: "Many believe that the iron is derived from the decomposition of the associated diabase tuffs. Be that as it may, these iron ores are certainly of sedimentary origin." The extensive Minnette ores of Luxemburg and Lorraine, of Jurassic age, resemble the Wabanaores in their oolitic character and the content of green ferrous silicate. According to L. van Werveke (47) the oolitic iron ores of Lorraine were deposited on the bottom of a shallow coastal sea. "The iron was brought from the land to the sea by brooks and rivers, and was precipi- tated in very diverse forms as silicate (looking like glauconite), also as carbonate, sulphide, and sesquioxide in the upper strata, possibly also as ferric hydrate." While many geologists propose a primary origin for the various minerals of the oolitic iron ores of North America and Europe, briefly referred to above, there is not as yet an unanimity of interpretation. The American gfologists with few exceptions, agree with Professor C. H. Smyth regarding the primary origin of the iron minerals of the Clinton ores. Professor L. Cayeux (7) and Dr. A. Harker (22: pp. 273-275) hold that these ores are replacements of original limestone. Professor Cayeux also holds this theory for the oolitic ores of the Armorican peninsula which occur intercalated in strata where there is a general absence of limestone, and are composed of hematite with much chamosite, thuringite, and siderite. While Dr. R. Beck (2) and Dr. W. Lindgren (30) regard the oolitic iron ore of Thuringia and Bohemia to be of sedimentary origin, E. R. Zalinski (S3: pp. 81-84) considers them to be alterations from other sediments. i 88 In England, Alfred Harker (22) considers the valuable iron-stones of Rosedale (Dogger), the Cleveland main seam, and the Jurassic ores of Northampton and Rutland, to be formed by metasomatic changes from limestones. J. E. Stead (44: pp. 75-117) also considers the Cleveland ores to be replacements and concludes that the original strata were siliceous and clayey limestones which have been removed by iron carbonate and silicate solutions. H. H. Thomas and D. A. MacAlister (46), on the other hand, compare the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous ores of Eng- land with those of continental Europe and say that they "seem to be due in part to original precipitation, and partly to metaso- matic replacement. The pisolitic ores especially seem to have the characters of original sediments." vkmm 89 CHAPTER VIII. ORIGIN OF THE PYRITE BEDS. At the close of the deposition of the Dominion bed at the top of zone 2, a disconformity occurs (Plate V) immediately above which, layers of oolitic pyrite alternating with beds of fissile black shale are found, which hold an abundant fauna of graptolites identified by Dr. Rudolph Ruedemann* to be Didy- mograptus cf . nitidus. Associated with the graptolites are brach- iopods, orthoceratites, and probably other fossils. Since the graptolites yere planktonic organisms drifted about by ocean currents, their presence indicates a sudden deepening of the sea at the close of the formation of zone 2. No hematite accompanies the pyrite and an entire change takes place from sediments containing ^litic hematite and chamosite with siderite, to oolitic pyrite, a few inches of shale intervening. With the deepening of the sea, the algse would cease to grow, for they are shallow water plants depending on sunlight for their life processes. The oxidation produced by these organisms would therefore be lacking, and conditions similar to those found on modem sea bottoms where pyrite is forming, were probably produced. (Plates XIIA, XIXA, and XIXB). Murray and Irvine (36: p. 496) explain the principal reactions which occur in mud waters, by the following formulae: (1) RSO4 + 2C - 2C0, + RS. ' where R is an earthy alkaline metal or ari alkali. (2) RS + 2C0, + HiO - H,S + RCO.CO,. (3) RS + RCOiCOi + HiO - 2RCOi + H,S. On the hydrosulphuric acid meeting with ferric oxide (FejOi) present in the surface layer of these blue muda the following reaction occurs: (4) FetOi + 3HiS - 2FeS + S + 3H|0. * Pcnonal commanlaitloa to Uie writer in December, 1912. 90 While these reactions may outline in a general way some of the probable chemical equivalents, I have as yet insufhcient data to apply them to zone 3. The fact that the iron sulphide is present in the form of FeSt raises the question as to whether it was deposited as this higher sulphide or as ferrous sulphide, FeS, and free sulphur, the higher sulphide forming by subsequent diagenctic processes. In either case the evidence indicates that the essential constituents were present in the original sediments and that the pyrite occurs as a primary bedded deposit. The formation of ferrous sulphide in the bottom deposits of the Black sea is described by N. Androussow (1: p. 7). He has found that a micro-organism Bacterium hydrosulfuricum ponticum, liberates hydrogen sulphide not only from albuminoids, but also directly from sulphates and sulphides, and ferrous sul- phide results from the action of the hydrogen sulphide on iron salts. Other micro-organisms as yet insufficiently studied, also occur in the Black sea. In depths cI 300 to 717 fathoms, two varieties of mud were found, a viscous sticky black mud holding iron sulphide (FeS), and a less dense blue mud holi.i.g pelagic diatoms, a smaller au- .y of FeS, and concretions of FeSj. The blue mud i= .^jght to underlie the black mud. Thus the fact is established that FeSj, is produced in bottom de- posits of the Black sea at depths of 300 to 717 fathoms. The researchf 5 of Dr. Bruno Doss (16: pp. 662-713) on the formation of iron sulphide both in the bottom deposits of the Black sea and in Miocene saady clays of Samara, are of the highest importance in their bearing on the origin of pyrite in sedimentary rocks. He found that hydrated ferrous sulphide and free sulphur are deposited in the modern muds on the sea bottom, through the agency of certain iron bacteria. In a study of the cores of eight bore-holes sunk on the property of the brothers Melnikow in Samara, a new iron sulphide was discovered by Doss (17). The bore-holes were made to obtain water, but incidentally gas was found in sandy clays overlying the Miocene sediments. The following strata were bored through: 48 metres brown clay, 46-48 metres clayey sand, 11 metres sandy clay, and 1 to 2 metres of underlying sandy clay of Miocene age. In these Miocene sedinients black iron sulphide was found mk 91 occurring in finely divided, microscopic particles, frequently clinging to such marine shells as Cardium pseudoedule and Madras sp. By chemical analysis he found the black sulphide to be FeSi, a form of ferric sulphide not previously identified, to which he gave the name "melnikowit." By microscopic study he found pyrite associated with the melnikowit in such fashion that he concluded that the pyrite was derived from the melnikowit. He dissolved the melnikowit in aqua regia and ignited the insol- uble residue which turned a yellow colour. This residue, besides clay, consisted of material resembling amorphous silica penetrated by reddish coloured thread-like forms. He found these thread- like forms to resemble pictures of GaUionella ferruginea published by Mc^lisch, and in order to be more certain, sent them to Dr. Schorler in Dresden, who identified them to be the bacteria, GaUioneUa ferruginea of Ehrenberg. Having found that hydrated iron sulphide and free sulphur are formed in modem deposits. Doss concludes that these con- stituents were formed in the Miocene deposits through the agency of desulphurizing bacteria and combined with the loss of water to form melnikowit. He does not know whether the bacteria actually precipitated iron sulphide or whether they produced the iron hydrate which, being acted upon by HiS, produced the hy- drated iron sulphide. The Black sea communicates with the Mediterranean through the narrow strait of Bosphorus through which two currents flow in opposite directions, the surface water being carried into the Sea of Marmora while the deeper water moves toward the Black sea. The upper current, flowing toward the Sea of Marmora, consists of brackish water, while the lower carries salt water from the Mediterranean into the Black .sea. Since the salt water currents do not reach the surface, marine planktonic organisms cannot be freely carried into the Black sea. Somewhat similar conditions, but with the access of surface currents of water, may have obtained in the Ordovician sea when the graptolitic pyrite beds of the Wabana deposits were formed. In such an enclosed sea, uplift would cause shallow water conditions suitable for the growth of algae and the for- mation of the hematite-chamosite-siderite deposits. Subsidence 7a 93 would bring about the deeper water necessary for the production of the iron sulphide such as is found in zone 3. Descriptions of deposits of oolitic pyrite are rare but the pyrite and barite of Meggen on the River Lenne in Westphalia, Germany, which occur in Devonian slates, may be noted here. Underlying the deposit, which averages 10 feet thick, are grey- wacke slates. Overlying it are dense nodular limestones carrying fossils, Prolecanites and inclusions of iron pyrite. The limestones are in part dolomitic and are overlaid by clay slates. The pyrite is distinctly stratified, occurring in fine layers and in some parts is oolitic. Dr. R. Beck (2: pp. 481-482) classes these deposits as epigenetic. Denckmann (14: p. 112) ref. quoted from Beck (2: p. 480) conjectures that the Meggen deposit is an alteration from th» limestone which is thinned at this point. Stelzner (45 : p. 3*2) thinks that it exhibits the characteristics of a bedded sediment, and Lindgren (30: p. 283) classes it as a sedimentary deposit. 93 CHAPTER IX. CONCLUSION. The oolitic iron ore with ferruginous shales and sandstones forms part of a series of sedimentary rocks of lower Ordovician age. The ore beds are characterized by ripple-marked surfaces and cross-bedded layers, and contain remains of animals which lived in shallow water. The spherules of the ore vary in size from 0-1 to 0-5 millimetres and are composed of alternating concentric layers of hematite and chamosite. These spherules were pierced by living boring algae, hence the iron minerals forming them were precipitated near the surface of deposition, while the algse flourished on the sea bottom. Siderite occurs in smaller quantity than hematite and cham- osite, but becomes locally abundant. It replaces chamosite and hematite and in some instances detrital quartz in the ore. The dgae are found in all horizons in the ore beds and formed a very abundant marine plant life growing on the sea bottom. Tubules of the algae are preserved in the siderite and are frequently coated exteriorly with hematite. The siderite was chemically precipitated, probably under cover of overlying sediments where concentra- tions of ammonia and carbon dioxide resulted from decaying organic matter. Thus while hematite and chamosite were form- ing at the surface of deposition, the siderite was contemporan- eously formed in the immediately underlying sediments. There is a total lack of limestone from the series, and igneous rocks are also absent. Practically all of the original calcium content of the ore, averaging about 2-5 per cent, is present in the form of fossil remains composed largely of calcium phos- phate, or as calcium phosphate derived from such organic matter. The phosphorus of the ore is also derived from the remains of organic life preserved in it. No evidence of diagenetic transformation from an original oolitic limestone to an oolitic II II • m ■ iron ore has been found and no ooncencra' loci of iron has occurred since the deposition of these ferruginw..8 sediments. They are primary bedded iron ore deposits, mined to-day in essentially the same condition except for induration, faulting, and the addi> tion of small amounts of secondary caldte and quartx in fault cracks, as when they were laid down. Oolitic pyrite also occurs as part of the same series of sedi- ments, but is characterized by a planktonic fauna indicative of open ocean currents and deeper water. The layers ing Inat., Vol. II, 1908, pp. 99-100. 30. Lindgren, W.— Mineral deposits, 1913. 31. Loretz, H.— Zur Kenntniss der untersilurischen Eisensteine im Thuringer-Walde. Jahrb. d.k. preuss. Landesan- stalt. 1884, pp. 120-147, 1885. 32. Mayer, Alfred, G.— Annual report of the Director of the Dept. of Marine Biology of the*Camegie Inst, of Washington. Year Book No. 11, pp. 118-164. 33. McCallie, S. W.— Report on the fossil iron ores of Georgia. Bull. No. 17, Geol. Survey of Georgia, 1908. 34. Merwin, H. R.— Personal letter to author, Feb. 27, 1913. 35. Murray, Alexander, and Howley, James, P. — Geological Survey of Newfoundland, Stanford, London, 1881. 36. Murray, John, and Irvine, Robert. — The chemical changes wh'ch take place in the composition of the sea-water associated with the blue muds on the floor of the ocean. Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, Vol. XXXVII, pp. 485-486, 1893. 37. Newland, D. H., and HartnagH C- ^-on ores of the Clinton formation in New York state. N.Y. State Museum Bull., No. 123, 1908. 38. Rutledge, J. J. — The Clinton iron ore deposits in Stone valley, Huntingdon county. Pa. Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng., Vol. XL, pp. 134-183, 1909. 39. Scott, H. Kilbum. — The Wabana iron mines of the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company. Joum. Can. Min. Inst., Vol. XIV, 1911. 40. Smyth. C. H., jun. — On the Clinton iron ore. Amer. Jour. Science. 3d. Ser., Vol. 43. No. 258, pp. 487-496, 1892. 41. Smyth, C. H., jun.— Die Haematite von Clinton in den oatlichen Vereinigten Staaten. Zettachr. prakt. Geol., Vol. II, pp. 304-313, 1894. 42. Smyth, C. H jun. — ^The Clinton type of iron ore deposits. Type* oi Ore DepouU; Edited by H. Foster Bain, pp. 33-52, 1911. 43. Spring, W.— Ueber die eisenhaltigen Farbstoffe sediment- aerer Erdboden und ueber den wahrscheinlichen Uhrsprung der rothen Fetscr. Neu. Jahrb. Min., 1899, Vol. I, pp. 47-62. 44. Stead, J. E.— Proc. Cleveland Inst, of Engineers, 1910, pp. 75-117. 45. Stelzner, A. W.— Die ErzlagersUtten : unter zugrundele- gung der hinterlasaenen Vorlesungsmanuskripte und Aufzeichnungen, bearb., von A. Bergeat. Leipzig, Felix, 1904-06. 46. Thomas, H. H., and MacAlister, D. A.— The geology of ore deposits, 1909. 47. van Werveke, L.— Bemerkungen ueber die Zusammenset- zung und die Entstehung der lothringisch-luxembui^- ischen oolithischen Eisenerze (Minetten). Sep.-Abdr. Ber. 34 Versamm. Pberrh geol. Verein in Diedenhofen 10 April, looi. Also in Mitth. Comm. Geol. Elsass- Lothringon, Vol. I, pp. 275-310. 48. Vaughan, T. W.— Remarks on the geology of the Bahama Islands and on the formation of the Floridian and Bahaman oolites, 1913. Jour. Washington Acad., Science, Vol. 3, No. 10, pp. 302-304. 49. Villain, F.— Sur la Genese des Minerals de Fer de la Region Lorraine. Compt. Rendus, 1899, pp. 1291-3. 50. Weed, Walter Harvey.— The geological work of mosses and algae. Amer. Geologist, Vol. VII, 1891, pp. 48-55. » . ■ * m 100 . '. KMiaim, M. Y.— Geology of Arisaig-Antigonish district, Nova Scotia. Amer. Joum. Sd., Vol. XXXIV, 1912, pp. 242-250. 52. Woodman, J. E.— Report on the iron ore deposits of Nova Scotia. Part I, Ottawa, Canada, Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch, No. 20, 1909. 53. Zalinsld, E. R.— Untersuchungen ueber Thuringit und Chamosite aus Thuringen und Umgebong. Neu. Jahrb. Min., 1904, Beilage Ed., Bd. XIX, pp. 40-84; Taf. III-V. l> -'. "QOr *■- »f -;:•...-■.., ^ , ^k b ifff'-..''! ^. 'f'"T*ir^'''nUf ,, J.! .T: ,-..:.u.iA t.. •,.,l-n.| •', ilin ' i Mol !i, fc,t>uji>iini»'> ■i..lT)i;r--)l I.-i: .!<->T)I/'i fi.'rw --^lv vl.iii.'^ i\::.i^ no ,1A .N)i ."iln-Kii ,'')i{! r-'-(n,. )r FT. ) ',,0 J |.nr. !■. t^ .;:: .-y^ "i.,v/. , .^^.-'^^ ,<•»*->• •"^C-.*-. !AK%>2>r .. -i- ■/'. . * Itj J ' ■ I :lf| 102 H»- ^ 3! Wili^-'v.' XXXJV. I'i!?. Wo.^"^: rt 5 -ait.' oJ Nova fel. t- ^ nitmosiTi j.Uirb Mill , T.ii. lU-V. Explanation of Plate II. shore of BeTl bifnd (Pa^ 9. ^^72 )' ^'"' ^'^ ^ ^'' "" '"""' 103 IYatk II. :;- w ^?rJc'^'- '£^^-*xJft. ^ffe. *•'''« «0I m: 3S!S»**'t ■•;'i:-.*^if*.^v. . lv^^m''->^^':--^^i^^: lo J^-j»r WbI 00', iuarfik iiofifei U^a lo Bib iTnon r«d .glTIA. of): v'Ht-Trtl .fl ■-'^•-r -nri|-r. . :rii."ji!'>') h '''■;, I . ii'-.' i;i I..V ■■>/ In'. .. / >,|.)|. n-.'.-i.i-utii^- \ -T .'' 3'j^fcM i !ij*.in-if! -ji 111.:-'' '1 ;.:i^f ;in! -.■jlir/ti aiiivlTj/'i iliiw (iiiii ,;-.Tiiiili x''. >iU ■i>r\h!''ih 'jiil ni ;i<', o'u .\ v*^>;^i.'I' .li'v ''il> ujiii :.;->wrf: iiii-H]ioii ^ r ;;i'il» '' h.trf^". :i. !. !i(i'|itj rr-*- s.lt ,1.' ?^'-. »1fe^; . . '■. -^.^^w ^^ ^ If, J 104 Explanation of Plate III. I^ns of parting rock in midst cA oolitic hematite-chamositc ore of zone 5, locality 206 AH 18, on north cliff of Bell island about 500 feet t .-st of submariiie slope No. 2 of Nova Scotia Stee' and Coal Company, a — p.irt- ing rock; b — ;^Jft,» #Jj^» »i-.i Hl4«0^'. ■ ■'js*^ •I. 106 ExrLANATioN or Plats IV. Dominion bed, face in surface stripping, lorality 215 C, showing the charac- teristic bliKks into which the ore breaks. The numbers arc thoae of the section clescril>cd on (lage IS. (Pages 10, 24.) 107 > ac- the mi 108 EXFLANAnON OF PLATE V. A cross-section of a bed of oolitic pyrites about 14 inches thick. A disconfor- mity is indicated by the line joining a, a, a, a; b — b are lines of stratifi- cation; c— c are nodular bands. Locality 208D (Pages 16, 73, 89.) onfor- tratili- .) 109 I'LATE V. ott IH 110 Explanation or FI-ate VI. Scotia bed with overlying shales at the surface stripping, locality 206 J. The numbers are those of the section describe*! on page 18. Ill Plate VI. &n 1 >Tfc \ i! To i»o|W"9u. «»rtnn>t .«»n**irM 3*w>jnrrf^ )« TOehlK laam m|I<»(I£^ S1 ii^-'^ e I i*$6q 'ab «bu3M' ■■ ■ " % ». ,. 112 Explanation or Plate VII. ^"^I.^nn'fr ' "^^ "' ^'" bed. locality 206J. showing oebble bed occupying ckannefin upper surface of chamosite sandstone. ^lumbers are thSe o7 •eciion on page lo. IIJ In-ATE VII. j-n .}^'fmrj'> ;<■ i^Mi.'.vji..-ttB •■ ,.| fi.^bV- hit-' »• .«! tu Explanation or Platk VIM. liaM atri|)(iin, f.icc of Scotia bed showing (a) croia-bcdding in oolitic hematite- chanuwiir ore; note angiiKir hliKko into which ore breaks. (Paget 17, 24, 60.) 115 In-ATK MM. bu wll 1o t£ nj f. .IS .(1 116 EXPLAMATION Of PLATB IX. Face of north cliff at the fault, locality 206 AH, showing Uyera 3to 21 of the Upper lone 5. The numben are thoae of the Mction, page* 20, 21 . 117 I'LATE IX. J. I< fj «M ■# --. i^4S^.^: 118 Explanation or Platb X. Section of upper part of Dominion bed showing rearrangement of materials, natural sue, locality 208 DO. a — oolitic hematite-chamoeite; b— parting rock of ferruginous shale; c — pebbles of oolitic hematite-chamosite; d— overlying shale. The hematite-chamosite spherules composing the pebbles of the inter-formational conglomerate formed a portion of an oolitic layer which has been broken up and recemented by argillaceoua material. (Pages 25, 67, 69.) I Otl 'i) -isi.'t. i,.-ii'l l-ni aiirwoilt! Iml BJioV III! «iiiti| mui ounus bjjfiBni-ol'iqn h. whv Tm.-y/'. .H )Liui) jil) bnii drigiKjij •ilqqit 9(i' ^iiillfl •jiiiiiiii-.d -wiiinii til. ^se-^^-aE^Sfc-^ --A^, i^ % 120 ExrLANATioN or Platb XI. A. Ripple-marked surface uaderlying the Scotia bed at iti eait (tripping, a— overtying ore filling the channel* o( the ripplea: b— the rule ii 3 feet long. (Page 67.) B. Nearer view of rif^-marked surface juat below the Scotia bed ihowing the oolitic hematite filling the ripple troughs and the characteristic angular blocks of ore. (Pages 24, 67.) 12t IY,UK XI. i u 3 owing nrittic 1 S«l ^^ . '^i^y-^V-t 122 .: EXFLAMATION OF PlATB XII. A. Pyritized graptolites and fragineiiti of brachiopodi in oolitic pjrritc, magnified 3 diameten, locality 208 D4. a — Didymosraptua nitidut. (Pages 22, 33.) B. Lintjula haivkti from the Dominion bed, natural Mze, locality 206 A19s. a — donal valve; b— ventral valve. (Paget 22, 57.) 123 Plate XII. P^^^^^^H^H Bj^^l /> .4 *- ^ - llllllliyilll^^ imi i B. Kt .'A: '"|a ir*"'"»-"T|.-'^'*".f f\ ■> •* * * "i' • i.x: ill!, JKiMl '.i!' k> •.ili«<",t,ri -jjili. ii>rf .itiiijii n!t .iiii dwtnud in njw i\\. .ii r .^ '• A r i nwii lit ki ii-.i; .^ I ,.i;v./ M 124 B. Exn.ANATioN OF Plate XIII. Uoner surface of lave i of ore with depre«iioni marking the openinMof wSJI^b^^ow. into The oolitic hematite-chamorite of the Dominion "bed. locality 206 A19x, Jightly enlarge«J. (Pages 22, W.) Vertical section of bJock shown in A. (Pages 22. M.) mm 125 Plate XIII. i ' ! A. B. d ■: ^J^t ^T" ■» »" 7^- :*; •■fc"'"^^r ^M: .VIX «xf Jtb-wj^-^^ptrJuMJiiSI ./ (Oft I fSatS^Jlfffrui^ ki motion! Jc titp4—'^ A .01)1) il£ ^tilsaol ,'xut Ls-tui&ii .bad noiniinttU kI} ]o no sU-Mmhii-) .Itmiratcti llMin — il ;3l(Ui9(i — & 126 ExrLANATIOM OT PLATB XIV. A. Double worm bunx>w in oolitic hnrntite-chaiiioHte of the Scotia bed, locality 206 A25 E7h. •— croaon lurface of ore; b— mouth of burrow; c — bend at bottom of burrow; d — area of oolitic hematite between the two arma of the burrow. (Pagea 19, 22, 69.) B. PiMMphate-chamotite pebblea and thell fragment* in oolitic hematite- chamoeite ore of the Dominion bed, natunl dae, locality 215 CCIO. a— pd>ble; b— ahell fragment. (Page 25.) 127 PtATE XIV. 3H kj ?ili, i.tii," bi»!>)tiri uuioiU ■»>»omiiri->-'.iin..ii'»rt ,;ii|B.i'i, m 11", iU'*' i»e>. *.p- ■^*». MICIOCOfr RBOWTION TBI CHART (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No. 2| A APPLIED irvM GF_j ^STm 1653 Eo9t Main Street B"^ ?ff^f""- "•" ''o" t4609 US* ^B ("6) 482-0300-Pt,on. * SS ('16) 2M-59e9-ro< 1 1 i ^ i J ,, It '* 1 ?' 'i i if* ^ 128 EZFLANATIOM OT FtAR XV. A. Scotia ore; oolitic hein«titei3i fi S Jiioi I>'jii ;!e.,TA COS (iih.-^-l ,1ri'jil Jtni.'i,,: ,ji .!. : : • "i - .■ ' ; • ;, ^d'f .-mMn}4J.i'! xtiJiU):- -li l")!!,?!.)!!!/..'!;) a/lj 7ini;ji!i,.!i ■•Jijuin'jri ■j?(i>tr- ;; ilils/rr-t'l -iilj If. <)i')C<]i.i Mill "lu ■K'ji.j-jd iiDX .>iJ Juint.) nUPinl*? -jijikuj <.0k flf. fcS^'I} .xhijuu ■'*" !•» #* ■■^'■"'■«.. ¥*.- i- 1.'. ■ i 190 P • ■*• B. Explanation or Plate XVI. Femipnous siliceous shale underlying the Dominion bed, sone 2, locality 215 CO, slide No. 1, microphotograph enlaroed 34 diameters, natural light, a — chamceite matrix; b— crystalline cnamosite; c — fine-grained carbonaceous? shale; d — quartz fragment; e — shell fragment. (Pages 15, 30.) Oolitic hematite-chamosite ore from Dominion bed, zone 2; microphoto- graph enlarged 34 diameters, natural light, locality 208 A7, slide No. 100. a— dense hematite masking the chamosite; b— quartz fragment. The oolitic structure cannot be seen because of the opacity of the hematite matrix. (Pbgea 30, 70.) 131 Plate XVI. •rv^ 7? ({.I .ir/X «XA.rt iC ,«lITAKA.|f.' xrilE.u ali.'ijdufi -b )n;jil !..i:j -n ,aTiJjrrii-.ih Oi; l.-iji/.Iiio ilcj.ii , iIi>iO(!ii;fh to v.|ji<«l (l)l« ))ilr.iJioif hi '>!:(T.(I.i(. - ■> .xn'uri 3li>-,.m».fr ' il >:ij.hi'n iiiJii-j xiT.i'-.y-j :-»tH,)'i,KH-. rtji* !,)>..<.> ^ ...up (f.-irjinv-^! 1; . f.;)lb-<<,i;-,.,Kl liiu ! -Iia );.i((ix,;i)."ba-.--s ;Jn«i.:4t-.l il-.(U - 1 ;•»• ,-nr|.,^ lo ■ ■jUl,.:ll->^ ■)V.llr1.r,, ..■.■■,; ,, r);i„ ■>; J_;i-n 1/ ,- (,>',,..j -,1. /.',■• U .' ^^jJK^i, tn EULAMAnON OP Platb XVII. FcrrunnoiM wndstoae parting rock from Dominion bed, lone 2, locality 215 ceo, aiide No. 11, microrhotofraph enlarged 110 diiunetert, natural Ught. a — angular quarti fragment; b — hematite matrix; c — quart* fragment; d — liquid incluMiM witli gat bubble* arranged in lines approximately at right anslet to each other and parallel to the Mdct of the quaru fragment. (Pages 27, 30.) Ore from the Dominion bed, aone 2, locality 215 CI, ilide 2, microphoto- graph enlarged 110 diameter*, natural light, a — hematite matrix; b— chamoeite matrix; c — ■pheruie ol hematite with border of chamoaite; d — Cragmental quartz coated with chamoaite; e— quarts grain nucleus of spherule; f — shell fragment; g — shell frag.-ient filled with boring al^a>; h — large tubule coated exteriorly with mia crystalline hematite; ■ — smaller tuNule extending through shell fragment into hematite; j — tubule* extending beyond wall of ihell into chamoaite matrix of rock, and cobved exteriorly with microcrystalline hematite. (Page* IS, 31, 69.) i ^ IYatk XVII. J— n\ A ^»»jir-k .»'M.m««» lt.^«*..,«n «tmi»>:r|t ; i « p » iT , »n .u B .--J- ^ ' ,-*■ '>! •--5* ^^- 134 n EXFLAMATIOM OF PlATI XVIII. UMtonkdU; d-t»bttk p2tly hut and pwtiy omted; e-«i*Uer tSbuff^^^ tubule; B-«ilhr tubuk wddeiiJy wdBag to lu(« ^.^«i7^[ibd£iicter from one-fifth to 4 microiu. (Pkget 31, 69.) B. Ch.n«)«u ore from the upper p«t of theDogii^^ 215 C6. tlide 8, microphotogrmph enlarfed 34 duunMen, natural Ugnt. a^&STof th«S&r&-S5iule composed of ch«no.te^h«nd» with chamoeite cement: c— matrU compoeedrf chamoiite; d— tidente replacing chamoiite; e— quarU fragment. (Pages IS, 31.) us Plate XVMI. to B. J I '■ dii '^''% ••)i>.y .;-v.r.- Vj >.•; ^ >>-hU'-)i...iii-f: let :M: l^jf..'tj((»»* ^•^•i m^j i''«lJ)Mt-'-l-. r -li' il M,l ,: .xnnim .•' SJ;„up yj .. ■liixinihii- uniRiw ■jr^ilii - - iHfc!)). -jr^iiiKt-v.-,-.-, :jf,9mvr.ri ■iiiU;n ,«-m(tii,ib (W IJC Li Wi- Explanation of Plate XIX. A. OoUtic pjjite from zone 3, locality 208 D2b, slide 44, mJcn^hotograph entoged 34 diameters, natural hght. Spherules of pyrite occur with fossil nwMobtea and brachiopod fragments in a matrix of very fine- pained siliceous argUlaceous material a-«Aerule of pyrite; b— sheU fragment; c— spherule of concentric layers of pyrite and brown material resembling caldum phosphate; d—quaru fragment; e— matrix of very nne-gratned suiceous material. (Pages 16, 32, 89.) B. Oolitic pyrites from locaUty 208 D6, slide 31, nuoophotograph enlarged 80 diameters, natural li^ht. S|Aerutes of pyrite with pyritised brachio- pod and graptohte remains surrounded by quaru which has crystallized and replac^ Port'O"* of both spherules and fosriU. a— pyrite nherules; b— pyntized sheU framnent; c— crystalline quaru matrix, which has partiaUy replaorf fossU fiMments and pyrite; d— quartz in n>henile; e— quartz in pyntized shell fragment. (Pages 16, 32, 89.) 137 Plate XIX. 10* f ■Ml .OS 9bile .KJ ?n v)il,.-,o! ,Und ,,,j.ja^ lo DibbJm ,)l.>oi ,nin«T anotabn*. :R9lL7'»riii» n-.jwix( xrhuri 9Jii>o;:iBflr)— .( ;9ljioii— [> :)!j ' %» EXTLANATIOM 0» PLAW XX. OoUtic htfii«rite 1 . p- I! • "W •'4), Vti.'tdRilii.ift ^fjfti*...' • ■ ' -H*.!. ^ :1f> ;■!*!> -1 I,.. ,. 1 • ;>r -4 'Jij ■*^/ 'Jlf- •-Mo.' 140 B. ExPtANATION at Platb XXI. Ore from upper part of Scotia bed, locality 21S DS, lUde 86, microphoto- graph enlarged 110 diametera, natural light Hematite iphcnilea con- taining boring algc. Ore containa abundant Mcrite between iphenilea a— hematite ipherule conuiniflff cnaa^ection o( algal tubulca; b-croM- wction o( tubule; c— (idcrite matrix; d— lidcrite at centre ol ipherule; e— hole in slide; f— chamoiite nucWua; g — microcryaulline hcmatitf developed around tubulca preaenred in the aiderite matrix; h — hematite devekmcd about tubulet betiraen ipheniica, joining the qtherulea to- gether. (Page* 17, 34, 75.) Ore from the upper part of Scotia bed, locality 215 DS, alide 21, micro- photograph enlarged 110 diametera, natural ligh«. Hematite-charooaitc a^ierules containing boring alga. Contains r.iuch tiderite which alan holds boring algae. The ipherulea are partly replaced by li'' He. a— itphcrule of ahemating layen of hematite and chamoaite; b- nematite; e— chamorite; d— matrix of Mderite; e — hematito spherule replaced exteriorly by siderite with destruction of structure; f— interior of spherule replaced bv siderite with destruction of structure; g — croaa-sections oi tunule of boring algte in chamosite spherule showiiw surrounding de- velopmcnt of hematite; h — longitudinal section of tubules alao showing devek^pmcnt of hematite. (Pages 17, 35, 69.) 141 PtATt XXI. B. It J <:«it ^■\ ' Wl M V^*^^ ■'- ^■^■ '^iif- •*^:^ ■ ' "''■y.», -.U> < mil' 'lt>1; ;ilii*-'''5 ^ .^ t9*!..l#a:i;Mjt^-j!j#:-..0!, t;(i«^ " ■•;m..,iT.:----;- ^.^ih'^in '^ K;j*fei*i;, • 'J ■If: -.1,1. ^a.,.iiii,l -.1.11 .J i..r, Ihmar.i, .■•i, -li^Hw alin ,i!-!^ ■•■-, i,,j-,,ti,i ,.: ojn Ms •Jtn'ii.i,;- ! -Jin .! I. ,-,1 lira/!! ■'i.',i([i, Yj^ij,.ir(; h I'.'" .Of, ,'1 f;5;;i;«l} llO /Ul.'1.Bi| I ,!H| .imiy snj.ijji loin, ji, yr.i ,j.!,| ,t =!>«%, hil- '.:} .-.'1 ,■ :' ,. ' , , ;•, ,- ]., ,., ,. -J.,, J {] ''^'"' ■ '•''■"■" " ■ .A^, ; --J !* ' ♦. .■■J#- *:■ -1- ' 5 %M '^-- rt 5^'' *■"» ^ '^^i^^::^;*# 5 J„, 142 B. Explanation op Plate XXII. replaced by Ste a^Jherufeof r5^™ ^' •''r^""=' r^C'' <^'«""o«"e charaosite- b c dl^^f„fY f <»ncentnc layers of hematite and 143 Plate XXII. tf ^ !,i.r TSig^"**: Ji ■ ■'irjH';.' - ,*■•- ?a*- .^' .rnx^ -.sT/iVn '4»/Sk.. 1 il' li,,,'. ■ i■ir^^■ ii .i'r -•.■j),:-. If. 1 *f. ,^.,.}o «kfl^3fHl i^htMiWt lr».»i»«v>ii; ('^^i L v.^vU' V : ^•'siU'^9tk^;r^;^•^f.lildv--B. .a!ilI:riqa:OM■■.,l4^..»1'y«lli^^*^,l. ^ ..■.. , .- -I- '^'i' (• jiiT.i,;^ i-.z:.'..,. -.: , ;,j; i':,|.i j,-.iiiii.ii - ;. .H,.,j ; j .jliirirtiir !■. *!iniiiir. .nil--.;* S-"! Ill' — j :/.n.ii.ii- iih '[.« ■, :9J.'ji f.IT r.;. ,Tt ■Jk fe,- -.|- •«!^fe-f*'_f*' s-,:«j^»» ,•9 #• '*-#*^*-' S4-i, . .^WSS^^ 4s.-"€t'ntr. jij«ori-,i,l-. [rmUik- r,iT ■ol iliT] - - 1 ..•■■..,,,.,, I I , . .; _ . . •nt'-,'.. 'V-' i;pr|ji?.tivj)i-i^|»^i'»i tu A. B. It I ^XFLANATION 0» PlaTB XXIV. ConU« of Scotk ore with overlying shale, locality 215 D7/6 lUde 24 JIlfe°£j2?C? •S'V^ ^ diametWB. natural U^t. Scatte^d cham' ^. teTu '" •^!^*'!7^i°'' of Scotia bedTa-chamodte .pher- Flne^trataed chaoKMitic MmdMone from above Scotia bed, locaUty 21S tW, lUde 25, microphotograph enlarged 80 diameters, natuiml Ugfat. The f«Tugii»ue Hiidstone here figured was used for a chemical detSmination °*J^o»tao^te. »—q^x gniai »>-crystol of chamosite; c— micro- cryitaUiiie chamosite; d—fin«-gnuned material probably composed of carbonaceous and argilkceous matter. (Pages fTsi). ^^ 4 141 1 ., ',^^r V 1 ^ .. )^'^'> c #*<; / a ut mu.'^. . '..-*\ i*ri -ti.r ! .» r" ■■^^ ■' . ^■?*^** s-'-'.-ss^raic-Jt-Jti 148 B. Explanation of Platb XXV. Nodular Uyer from above the Scotia bed, locality 215 D9, sUde 26, micro. photMTaph enlarged 20 diameters, natural light. Phoephate nodules and shell fragments m matrix of quartz grains and chamoaitic and argillaceous material, a— phosphate nodule of very fine-grained material; b — nodule contaming quartz grains; c— shell fragment; d— broken shell fragment- e — matrix of quartz grains and chamostte. (Pages 17, 38, 56, 71.) Nodular layer above Scotia bed, locality 215 D9, slide 27, microphoto- graph enlarged 80 diameters, natural light. Scattered chamoaite sphe- rules, phosphate nodules, and shell fragments in matrix of quartz grains, chamonte and argillaceous material, a— brachiopod fragment; b— chamosite spherule; c— argillaceous phosphate nodule; d— quartz fragment in matrix; e— chamosite in matrix. (Pages 17, 38, 56, 710 II 149 Plate XXV. ,^jlUi. >^»— --i. B. . 02 r V ,f.*'*:-v?fc^ n-^iv ;jt: ,i^^ r^i fe#.: ^ii.I(r.t«vi:) b/iJ. .i-nii.ns 5:nj;uf. liirnRin Punoj-JliaiA 'Ji?oriiBdD vd -•■* f V* > '<* ■?'.i^ t-i. 'Q ^^ :'iS m 150 A. B. Explanation of Plate XXVI. Ore from the lower prt of the Scotia bed, locality 206 J2b2, slide 54. micrpphotograph enJarj^ed 34 diameters, natural light. Figire shows oolitic hematite-chamoeite ore in a matrix of crystalUne quartz. The quartz has corroded the exterior portions of the spherules and contains many individual micrcMaystaU orhematite. A ^nute calcite veinlet crosses the ore. a— hematite spherule; b-chamosite nucleus; c— crystalline guartz between spherules; d-^iema.ite sphenile with lagged 18*^38 7lT"* '■epl*«='nent by qi irtz; e— veiilet of calcite. (Pa!|^ R«:k composed of shell fragments irom beneath the Scotia bed, locality 206 J2a, slide 51, microphotograph enlarged 34 dl meters, natural light. Shelf fragments closely packed together, are highly altered and cemented by chamosite. Argillaceous material, quartz grains, and crystalline fc^'*'?'**"^"!:;- .«-^» ^"T-e-t; b-slfell fnl^menU^mentSd .^^C^i?^**/ <=— ""i'vidual crystolof chamosite with long axis parallel \n i^A^ji Tm ''; tZ?J^' F**°.i V*^"*'*""'' material a^nged (Pa^ 18^ 56) * <»« rock! f-cEamosite-hematite spherCle. 151 I'LATE XXVI. "ffiS^s^lsasr--;--^" -■- m-i^i^"'imjin^-^ t^r r.'i/JKi,:.-.; ( O'f- . ! t .lis e;,j(Bl . ■-nji.m hnB {Ji'tx.! sni.j.;i.ii? Jtc^ /,..,.i tito-y: moil f»i,. jV,,i,.,,iii/,I f..n. b-Hjf.j.,'- -voV j lO !.lKI!:.irJ M. IfcllJItJ! f.TJnfcop-):.! j.t JlK^li, ot !ltni/!>->) ./?',/ c)lll ••W a^hH- .Mi; •.iiir.m-id 4t: t J!fio<:» .iiiiA' <>» S9H»j«ti-rf ■ 152 Explanation of Plate XXVII. A. Oolitic chamosite-hematite with .iderite, locality 206 AH15. slide 93 microphotograph enUrged 110 diameter., natural iX Spherulei trt^'^iaTv"di:?™''v^~T"'tt'l" °f ^ha-^o^te witl. a litt£ he^ t te, partial y destroyed and replaced by siderite. a— spherule of hema- acr,;i1inhTuV" ^^^'"^ '*'??= ^"'^ ^"^" of'^riS? cSg acroM spherule; c-^pherule of hematite-chamos te partUlly destroyed anVSi. '^SWf 8^ ^""^^ ''' '"^""^^ both^'intra ^- 2^^pp';^t^r^,i^-^^ "^slur sS!''''i;"«nisfs"'o^ 153 [•late XXVII. J rf M.r il/jfUt WAJ*} II) » iT*»«i.i<»ie:i a- •^^^.■ 154 EXFLANATION or PLATE XXVIII. Fn^l raindroD imprnMOM on landitoiie lurface at locality 206 A17, about 75 te^low^Stwet oolitic hematite of tone 2. A -"rf-f* "« J»^ about 12 square feet U ihown in the photograph. Each joint of the foMing ruleii 6 inches long. (Page 73.) ibout -ea of A the 1S7 INDEX. A1|K. Allen I'V''" ■'**"'''*'" P**"*'i«tty- Alumina. .28, 69, PAGB 74, 93 49 44, 47 Analj^Mt from Zone 3 44 I I ":.;:!;.:::::::::::::;;:: 49 • 5ui;pi^b fj Cobalt *' Conception bay ■*' ' Conclusion ™ Concretions ;* Conn, H. W J^ Coulter, John M J' Cross-bedding ._ *> |' Cruziana similis ^^ n. Dana, E. S * Denckmann, Mr ** Deposition, conditions during J» Didymograptus cf. nitidus 17 a? Disconformity '■' < "I Dittmar, Wm i • ,n i» Dominion bed "''*"' iJ « " fossils in 22 « " outcrop section, 215C " « « petrologyof 30 " • spherules of ** « • ^ne2 < " Iron and Steel Company 2, 5 Doss, Bruno j" Douvilli, Robert 5S Drew, G. Harold '' B Eastern head J9 " " section at '* Eckel, Edwin C _. ,4 Ehrenberg. Mr '*. '^ Ellis, Elwin E .' Eophytum linneanum ^^ F. Feamsides, W. G f* Florida '^. Fluid inclusions ii Fossil alga described 'J " "in ore, evidence from '* Fossils, evidence from "J Eraser, W. L 2 159 a. Galena , '*°" GalUoneUafemgineaEhitciib. . . 74 Gas indusiona 4? Gull island '■'■'■'■'.'.'.'.'.'.l'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.[[[['.][" ' 13 Harker, A 07 aa Hawaiian islands "'• 25 Hematite 16' ib " ?! oi • described "' "' \\ ?? « ooutic : : \i' w uiit. ?^,*!g? •««'<"> on petrology and chemistry. ' HiiieDrana, W. F «i ' ^ Howe, MarshaU A 2V Howell, B. F 'f Howley, James P .' .' i Hymenocaris ( ?) ......................'. 22 I. Iberian peninsula gg Ingen van, Gilbert i "iiV " VV "7* ac Iron, mode of precipitaUon '.'.'.'.'.'.'.['.'.'.[][ 73 " ores of similar age and character. ... at ' source of S? Irvine, Robert ■■■■■■■■■■................... 80 89 J. Jamaica ,» ukes,j.B ;;■;;■;;!!"";:::;;;;;;:;::::::::;: " K. Katier, F »« Kelly island ;■ o m " Island chamosite '...'.'."] ' ' il Kents bridge .'.".'.'.'.".' 10 ■ section near '■■■.'■■■.................... 12 L. Lance cove » m Leith, C. K S' 1? Leptothrix ochracea ' 7I Leucoxene !!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 37 Lime it " 47 "ijj " «»" ';i ^^ Limestone, evidence from absence of ' ' ' ' ' 77 Kr.^::::::;::::: ::::::::::::::::86;-87,92 " affinis 22 " ^^^ ;;:::;;;:::;::::::;::;::::::::::22, s? - '-i it 160 L. rum Linsula leaeueri 22 * newsp ** Lingulella (?) 83 Lingulella befla • • 22 Litfle Bell Uland *i 'i '2 Llandeilo formation W • marine tea ' Loreti, H 8; Lorraine 87 Liuemburg 87 M. MacAUrter, D. A 88 McFarlane, T. G 2 McLeish, J J; Mayer, Alfred G " Megascopic description of the ore 24 Memikowit '* Microphotographs 3^ Microicopic deacription of the ore 25 « • parting rocki 28 Mioouri 84 MoUi«ch, Mr '* Murray, Alexander _ * • John 80, 89 N. Newfoundland 84 Nickel g Nictauz 5* Niobe 22 Nova Scotia • 84 ■ Steel and Coal Company li 2, 5 O. Obolus burrowd 22 * (Lingulobulos) spiasua 83 Ochre cove J3 Oolites, formation of, by physical processes <' Oolitic pyrite, analyses of. 4 " ■«7 t? Ordovician 3, o7, 71 Ore beds, primary nature of Ji • megascopic description of 24 • microscopic " 25 " origin of *• • quantity of • • itippetf during 1913 2 • cones, general remarks on 21 Origin of the ore 5' Orthis sp. undet 22 161 IU«ontology 'AOJ Petrology 22 teht{:;ori^nof:;;:;:::::::::;||||f;i3;-3^^ source of I XVIA XVIB XVII A Plate XVII B XVIII A XVIII B XIX A XIX B XX A, XXB, XXI A. XXI B 93 57 40 39 30 30 30 31 31 31 32 33 34 34 34 XXIII B 36 XXIV A ; 1$ XXIV B IJ XXV A II XXV B If XXVI A |8 XXVI B 38 XXVIIA I? Pre-Cambri?- 41 Previou!" ■ ' > '1 Wmary. 'ore bedtV. ".*.■. !.!.;! A Pnnceton u a\ v '/'\ "' ■''iid's.v;^..^^.::::::::::::;:;::;; ";:::49, m originof t* • petrology of .'.'."."!!!! i!! i.".' i.' i ' 32 oolitic, section. 10 16 Quarts g«^:::::::::::::::::::;:::::::: "• IP II 21 See alK section on petnjogy and cheiniitry. Raindrop impteasiona „ Rip^e-marks '* Rotm accompanying ore. ....!.!!!!! .' ,? Ruedemann,Rudol5i 2x Rutiedge.j.j *;: •••••;■";:;."!:;:.■:.■::.■;;;::;:: m Samara Sandstones. 90 .25, 32 162 S. FAGB SchiMCruiia " • newtp I* Schorler, Dr ••• " Scotia bed 3, 10, 16 • foattUin ** • petrologyof f* Zone4 7,10 ■ ore, ipherulet of *' Scott, H. Kilburn J Seaborn A. V ^» " Section at locality 206A 5A in cutting aouth of KenU bridge 12 • • 206A 25E, Zone 4 W « • 206AH,Zone5 M • • 2061, Zone 4 Jf • « 208D through Zone 3 Ij • • 215D, Zone4 Jj • • 206Q at Big head 13 • « 206A 5E at Eastern head 11 « « bore-hole No. 5 Jf Shales to'ta l\ Shell fragments, described ,d'«' ??' o« Siderite "> "' %*' ~ • described 27, « " originof 74, 80 • relation to hematite and chamosite — _. ou ■ See also section on peuolog-/ and chemistry. Silica «, 51, 54 SBde 1 2? u 9 Oi . g;;;;;;;;:::::;::::::::::::::: 31 « 11' 30 • 13:::::::::::::::::::!;!; 31 « jg 34 « 20 34 u 21.".'.;!'.";".'.'.!".. ..!...". 35' 36, 39 " 22 !!!!!!!!!!!!'.'.!. '. ^ ' 23 .'.'..'.'..'.'.'.'.•'■■'■ •'■ 3*5 u 24' 37 " 25 ! ! . ! ! ! 37 » 26. !!!!!!!! 38 « 27 38 « 3j 33 u ^ ' ' 32 « 5j 39 « CA 38 ^* ZA ' 86 3* • 93 « • 100 ^ ISSi;c;H::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::""""2:76;-83, 87 South head \i Sphaerobolus fimbriatus it ' spissus 2j *J Sphene ' «!« Spherule, primary formation of '*' 163 Spherules .;...... 24, 26, 27, 28, 41, 42, 43'*93 ongin of 67 60 Spring, W... 73 M, Stead. J. E ....\. [..... \.\. 88 Steel Corporation DiMolution Suit. 7 SteUner, A. W ; " ; ; 92 Stratigraphy .'."!!!.'!.'!.!!! '. 9 Sulphur ..!!!.!.'.'!.!.!.'!!!!!].!!!].!!! 49 T. Thomas, H.H M Thuringia gg y"iji;igfe i; ";:;;!;!!!!!;!;;;:;:::::; ;::::26, m Torbrook ' g^ Upper bed ' jp • analyses from 63 " petrology of 41 y Vaughan, T. Wayland ' 70 VilWn.F ' ...........'.'.'.'.'.WW'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 71 W. Watiana, origin of name Wales 05 Werveke, L. van 07 Westphalia oi Williams, M.Y ;;;;;:; 03 Winogradsky, Mr !!.!!!! 74 Wisconsin 04 Woodman, J. E 83 Worm burrows •"•• i .. i .."!.'..'..'.'."!!.'!."].!!.' ! 21 69 Z. Zircon Zalinski, E. R 2* fir, 7i"-"- !.".'.'!!!!] 29' '■'■'■'■■'■'■'■'.'.'.:'.'.:'.::::'.'.::'.::'.:::..io, Zone 10, fossils in !!!!!!!!!! analyses from .!.!....'!!!.' including the Dominion bed petrology of section of '.'....'....'.. analyses from "!.".'!!!! petrology of !!!.'!!!.! pyrite beds 10 section of .' ; ." ' analyses from !.'!.'!.!.'! petrokwy of '.'...', Scotia bed .'.'!!!!!!! 10 section of !!.!!!!!!!!] analyses from fossils in including the Upper bed !!!!!!!!!! petrology of !!!!!!!! 10, 87 37 10 11 22 44 13 30 14 49 32 15 14 50 34 16 14 63 22 19 41 tit LIST OF REGENT REPORTS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Since 1910, reports issued by the Geological Survey have been called memoirs and have been numbered Memoir 1, Memoir 2, etc. Owing to delays incidental to the publishing of reports and their accompanying maps, not all of the reports have been called memoirs, and the memoirs have not been issued in the order of their assigned numbers and, therefore, the following list has been prepared to prevent any misconceptions arising on this account. The titles of all other important publications of the Geological Survey are incorporated in this list. l1 < ! a I' I Memoln and Reports Publlahed During 191*. REPORTS. Report on a geological reconnaimnce o( the region traversed by the National Tranicontincnul railway between Lake Nipigon and Clay lake, Ont.— by W. H. ColUm. No. 1059. Report on the geological position and characteriatica of the oil-ihale depoMta^ Canada-l)y R. W. Ella. No. 1107. A reconnaiMance acroM the Mackeniie mountain* on the Pelly, Roea, and Gravel rivers, Yukon and North West Territories— by Joseph Keele. No. 1097. Summary Report for the calendar year 1909. No. 1120. MEMOIRS-GEOLOGICAL SERIES. Mbmou 1. No. I, Gtototkal Stritt. Geology of the Nipigon badn, Ontario —by AUred W. G. Wilson. MB-ion 2. No. 2, Ctolopcal S4riu. Geology and ore deposits of Hedley mining district, BH ish Columbia— by Charles Camsell. MsMOU 3. No. 3, Cwloticol Soriei. Palconisdd fishes from the Albert shales of new Brunswick — by Lawrence M. Lambe. Mbmoib S. No. 4, Ctoiorical Series. Preliminary memoir or. the Lewes and Nordenskifild Rivers coal district, Yukon Territory^-by D. D. Cairn>-«. Mbmoib 6. No. 5, Geototical Series. Geology of the Haliburton and Ban- croft areas. Province of Ontario — ^by Frank O. Adama and Alfred E. Barlow. Mbmoib 7. No. 6, Geototical Series. Geology of St. Bruno mountain, prov- ince of Quebec — by John A. Dresser. MEMOIRS-TOPOGRAPHICAL SERIES. Mbmou 11. No. 1, Topotraphical Series. Triangulation and spirit levelling of Vancouver island, B.C., 1909— by R. H. Chapman. Memoirs and Reports Published During 1911. REPORTS. Report on a traverse through the southern part c Territories, from Lac Seul to Cat lake, i.n 1902— by At ie tionh West W. G. Wilson No. 1006.' Report on a part of the North West Territories d- :. .-d by the Winisk and Upper Attawapiskat rivers — by W. Mclnnes. No. ''dO. Report on the geology of an area adjoining the east siae of Lake Timiskam- ing— by Morley E. Wilson. No. 1064. Summary Report for the calendar year 1910. No. 1170. MEMOIRS— GEOLOGICAL SERIES. Mbmoib 4. No. 7, Geologieal Series. Geological reconnaissance along'the line of the National Transcontinental railway in western Q. bee— by W. J. Wilson. Mbmoib 8. No. 8, Geototical Series. The Edmonton coal field, AlberU— by D. B. Dowling. 11, Ui No.9,C4oloticalStnt$. Bighorn coal bMin, Alberta— by G. S. F:alloch. No. to, Gtoloticol Strus. An inatrumenul iurvey of the ■horc-linet of the extinct lake* Atgonnuin and Nipiasing in iouthwntern Ontario— by J. W. Goldthwait. No. II, (Uolotical Strut. Inaecti from the Tertiary lain depoaitt of the louthern interior of Britiah Columbia, col- lected by Mr. I^wrence M. Lambc, in 190fr— by Anton Handlinch. No. U, (kolotieal Strut. On a Trenton Echinoderm fauna at Kirk6eld, Ontario— by Frank Springer. No. 13, Ceolopcai Strut. The clay and ahale depoaitt of Nova Scotia and portions of New Bninawick- by Heinrich Riea aaaiited by Joaeph Keele. MEMOIRS-BIOLOGICAL SERIES. Mmou 14. No. I, Biolotical Stries. New spedea of shells collected by Mr. John Macoun at Berkley sound, Vancouver island, Britiah Columbia— by William H. Dall and Paul Bartsch. Mbmoii 9. Mmou 10. Mmou 12. Mbmou 15. Muion 16. Memoirs and Reports Published During 1913. REPORTS. Summary Report for the calendar year 1911. No. 1218. Mbmou 13. Mbmou 21. Mbmou 24. Mbmou 27. Mbmou 28. MEMOIRS-GEOLOGICAL SERIES. Southern Vancouver island — by and ore deposits of Columbia — by O. E No. 14, Ceaioticai Strut. Charles H. Clapp. No. 15, CtoUncaf Seriet. The Phoenix, Boundary district, LeRoy. No. 16, Ceohgical Stries. Preliminary report on the clay and shale deposits of the western provinc«»— by Heinrich Ries and Joseph Keele. No. 17, Gtolopcal Strits. Report of the Comm *ion appointed to investigate Turtle mountain, Frank, Alberu, 1911. No. IS, CedotUal Striet. The Geology of Steeprock lake, Ontaric —by Andrew C. Lawson. Notes on fossils from limestone Walcott. of Steeprock lake, Ontario — by Charles D. Memoirs and Reports Publlslied During 1913. REPORTS, ETC. Museum Bulletin No. 1: conuins articles Noe. 1 to 12 of the Geological Series of Museum Bulletins, articles Nos. 1 to 3 of the Biolo^cal Series of Museum Bulletins, and article No. 1 of the Anthropological Series of Museum Bulletins. Guide Book No. 1. Excursions in eastern Quebec and the Maritime Provinces, parts 1 and 2. I Guide the eaitcrr Ottawa. Guide Guide Manitoutin Guide itnd Canac' ''iiiide GniUi ''"ru Gi. Yulcon '^'tr »{ Catino- .s K,k No. 3. Excursiont in the neighbourhood of Montreal and I .* No. II .ok \i. isi.tnd Boo^ r . Excuraiont in •outhweatern Ontario. Excurdona in the weatern peninsula of Ontario and -fM 8. Toronto to Victoria and return tia Canadian Pacific rn railways; parts 1, 2, and 3. Toronto to Victoria and return via Canadian Pacific, and National Transcontinental railways. ■" "^ ' " British Columbia and u:. ^o, 10. Excursions in Northern >r:. Hid .gy of Gowganda Mining Division— by W. H. Collins. No. 29, Geolo^al Series. Reconnaissance along the National Transcontinental railway in southern Quelec— by John A. Dresser. No. 22, Ceolofical Series. Portions of Atlin district, B.C.— by D. D. Caimes. ' No. 3J, (koiogical Series. Geok>gy of the North American CordUlera at the forty-ninth parallel. Partt I and II— by Reginakl Aldworth Daly. Memoirs and Reports Published During 1914. REPORTS, ETC. Summary Repent for the calendar vear 1912. No. 1305. Museum Bulli^ins No^ 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8 contain articles Noa. 13 to 22 of the GMl(^cal Series of Museum Bulletins, article No. 2 of the Anthio- polomcal Series, and article No. 4 of the Biological Series of Museum Bulletina. "o^'^rtors Handbook No. 1: Notes on radium-bearing minenUa— by MUSEUM GUIDE BOOKS. The archzological collection from the southern interior of British Colum- bia—by Harlan I. Smith. No. 1290. MEMOIRS— GEOLOGICAL SERIES. Mbmou 23. No. 23, Ceolofical Stries. Geology of the Coast and Island between the Strait of Georgia and Queen Charlotte aouad, B.C.— by J. Austin Bancroft. Mbmou 33. MiMou JO. MlMOIB 20. MiMou 36. Mbmou 32. MKMon 43. Mbmou 44. Mbmoib 22. Mbmoib 32. Mbmoib 47. Mbmoib 40. Mbmoib 19. Mbmoib 39. Mbmoib 51. Mbmoib 61. Mbmou 41. Mbma and ChurchiU riveri — by William Mclnnea. No. 41, (holotual S*rus. Gold fielda of Nova Scotia— by W. Malcolm. No. 33, Ctolotical Strut. Geology of the Victoria and Saanich map-areai, Vancouver bland, B.C. — by C. H. Clapp. No. 42, GtoUpeal Stritt. Geological note* to accomp.iiy map of Sheep River gas and oil field, Alberta— by D. B. Dowling. No. 36, Ctolotical Strits. St. Hilaire (Beloeil) and Rougemont moufltaini, Quebec— by J. J. O'Neill. No. 37, Ctolotieal Sents. Clay and ahale depoaiti of New Brunswick— by J. Keeie. No. 27, Otolotkal Strits. Preliminary report on the lerpentinca and aoodated rocks, in aouthem QueW> — by J. A. Dreaaer. No. 25, Ctaiogicat Strut. Portions of Portland Canal and Skeena Mining divisions, Skatna district, B.C.— by R. G. McConnell. No. 39, Ctolotical Stritt. Clay and shale depoaits of the western provinces, Part III— by Heinrich Ries. No. 24, Ctolotical Stritt. The Arcluu', geokjgy of Rainy lakt — by Andrew C. Ljtwaon. No. 26, Ctolovcal Stritt. Geology of Mother Lode and Sunaet mines, Boondary district, B.C. — by O. Le Roy. No. J5, CtolofUal Stritt. Kewagama Lake map-area, Quebec —by M. E. Wilson. No. 43, Ctolotical Stritt. byC. H.CUfm. No. 45, Ctolotical Stritt. Geology of the Nanaimo map-area— Moose Mountain district, southern Albert* (second edition)— by D. D. Caimes. No. 38, Ctolctieal Stritt. The "Fern Ledges" Carboniferoua flora of St. John, New Brunswick— by Marie C. Stopes. No. 44, Ctolotical Stritt. Coal fields of Manitoba, Saskatche- wan, Alberu, and eastern British Columbia (revised edition) —by D. B. Dowling. No. 46, Ctolotical Stritt. Geology of Field map-area, Alberu and British Columbia — by John A. Allan. MEMOIRS— ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES. Memou 4«. No. 2, Antkropolotical Stritt. Some myths and tales of the Ojibwa of southeastern Ontario— collected by Paul Radin. Mbmou 45. No. 3. Antkropolotical Seritt. The inviting-in feast of the Alaska Eskimo— by E. W. Hawkes. Memou 49. No. 4, AnihropoUtical Stries. Malecite tales— by W. H. Mechling. Mbmou 42. No. 1, Anthropolofical Stritt. The double curve motive in northeastern Algonlcian art — by Frank G. Speck. MEMOIRS-BIOLOGICAL SERIES. Mkmou 54. No. 2, Biolotical Stries. Annotated list of flowering plants and ferns of Point Pelee, Ont., and neighbouring distncts — by C. K. Dodge. 'I i i ■■ vi Memoln and Reports Published During 1915. REPORTS, ETC. Summary Report for the calendar year 1913, No. 1359. Summary Report for the calendar year 1914, No. 1503. B '**PSn,'""" *•"* Anthropological Division. Separate from Summary Keport 1913. n '^'PSn,'""" '•* Topographical Divinon. Separate from Summary Keport 1913. D Report from the Biological Diviwon: Zoology. Separate from Summary Keport 1914. Museum Bulletin No. 11. No. 23, Geolotical Series. Physiography of the Beaverdell map^ma and the southern part of the Interior plateaus. B.C. — by Leopold Reinecke. Museum Bulletin No. 12. No 24, Geolotical Series. On Eoceratopa nnadensis, gen. nov., with remarks on other genera of Cretaceous homed dinosaurs — by L. M. Lambe. »ri'^"*f'i"«^"H'"w°..*f- .^*- f^' GeotonMi Series. The occurrence of Glacial drift on the Magdalen islands— by I. W. Goldthwait. tetinJNo^ 15. No^2J,Jieoloticai Series. Gay Gulch and The Ordovidan Museum BuUetin No? 6. ' No. J,' AHtk^^p^fieal Series. Pre-historic and present commerce amoiw the Arctic Coast Eskimo— by N. Stefansson. Museum Bulletin No. 9. No. 4, Antkropolorical Series. The glenoid fossa in the skull of the Eskimo— by F. H. S. Knowies. Museum Bulletin No. 10. No. 5, Anthropological Series. The social organization of the Winnebago Indians— by P. Radin. Museum Bulletin No. 16. No. 6. Anthropotogical Series. Literary aspects of North Amencan mythokwy — by P. Radin. Museum Bulletin No. 13. No. S, Biological Series. The double ctested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus). Its relation to the salmon industries on the Gulf of St. Lawrence— by P. A. Tavemer. Museum Bulletin .w. ,.,. .,». „„, uei Skookum meteorites— by R. A. A. Johnston. Museum Bulletin No. 17. No. 27, Geological Series rocks of Lake Timiskaminr— by M. Y. Williams. Mbuom 58. Memoir 60. Msuon 67. MsMon 59. Mbmois 50. MsMon 65. Memou 66. Mbmou 56. Mbii(»k 64. MEMOIRS— GEOLOGICAL SERIES. No. 48, Geological Series. Texada island— by R. G. McCon- nell. ^"•J^'^^i^^"*^ Stnes- Ariaaig-Antigoniah district— by M. Y. Williams. No. 49, Geological Series. The Yukon-Alaska Boundary be- tween Porcupine and Yukon rivers— by D. D. Cairnes. No. 55, Geological Series. Coal fields and coal resources of Canada — by D. B. Dowling. No. 51, Gfoloncal Series. Upper White River District, Yukon —by D. D. Caumes. No. 53, Geological Series. Clay and shale deposiu of the western provinces, Part IV— by H. Ries. No. 54, Geolotical Series. Clay and shale deposiu of the western provinces, Part V— by J. Keele. No. 56, Geological Series. Geology of Franklin mining camp, B.C. — by Chas. W. Drysdale. No. 52, Geological Series. Preliminary report on the clay and shale deposits of the Province of Quebec— 4>y J. Keele. M Mbmou 57. Mbmoik 68. Memou 69. Memoir 72. Mkuoik 73. Memoir 74. MsMon 76. No. SO, Geohgical Series. Corundum, its occurrence, dictri- bution, exploitation, and um* — by A. E. Barlow. ^"■^^1 Geolotical Series. A seological reconnaissance between Golden and Kamloops, B.C., along the line of the Canadian Pacific railway— by R. A. Daly. No. S7, Geotopcal Series. Coal fields of British Columbia— by D. B. Cowling. No. 60, Geolotical Series. The artesian wells of Montreal— by C. L. Cumming. No. 58, Geolotical Series. The Pleistocene and Recent deposits of the Island of Montreal— by J. Sunsfield. No. 61, Geolotical Series. A list of Canadian mineral occur- rences — by R. A. A. Johnston. No. 62, Geolotical Series. Geologv of the Cranbrook map-area —by S. J. Schofield. MEMOIRS— ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES. Memoik 46. No. 7, Anlhrofolonuil Series. Classification of Iroquoian radicals and subjective pronominal prefixes— by C. M. Barbeau. Memoik 62. No. 5, Anthropological Series. Abnormal types of speech in Nootka — by E. Sapir. No. 6, Anthropolotical Series. Noun reduplication in Comox, a Salish language of Vancouver island — by E. Sapir. No. 10, Anthrofolotical Series. Decorative art of Indian tribes of Connecticut— by Frank G. Speck. Memoir 63. Memoir 75. Memoirs and Reports in Press, July 29, 1915. Mevoir 70. No. S, Anlhropoloncal Series. Family hunting territories and social life of tne various Algonkian bands of the Ottawa valley— by F. G. Speck. No. Anthropolotical Series. Myths and folk-lore of the 1 iiniskaming Algonquin and Timagami Ojibwa— by F. G. Speck. No. 63, Geolotical Series. The Devonian of southwestern Ontario— by C. R. Stauffer. No. 64, Geolotical Series. Geology and ore deposiu of Roesland, B.C.— by C. W. Drysdale. No. 66, Geohtical Series. Wabana iron me of Newfoundland— by A. O. Hayes. No. 65, Geoloncal Series. Ore deposits of the Bcaverdell map-area— by L. Reinecke. Museum Bulletin No. 18. No. 28, Geolotical Series. Structural relations of the Pre-Cambrian and Pakeozoic rocks north of the Ottawa and St. Law- rence valleys— by E. M. Kindle and L. D. Burling. Museum Bulletin No. 19. No. 7, Anthropolotical Series. A sketch of the social organixation of the Nass River Indian*— by E. Sapir. Memoir 71. Memoir 34. Memoir 77. Memoir 78. Memoir 79.