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Un des symboles suivants apparaitra si^r la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbols — ^> signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbols V signifie "FIN ". ire Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre fiimds d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul ciich6, il est filmA A partir de I'angle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche k droits, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images nicessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mithode. »y errata ed to int ne pelure, apon d 1 2 3 32X ■^. 1 2 3 1,. 4 V 5 6 / 41 A * ^h \ 4' Piau I <i,lli^^- ^^ »V till *«,, \Q r.iii IK 1 11 ? \ >} ». ThJ the tlOil II. Aj^ edal ^^^w^i^ / *^t 1 ■I \ \ \ . I A NEW EOGRAPHICAL, HIS AND COMMFAiCIJL GRAMM /A// r///^y^ AND /^ PRESEnT STATE ^J^c^-..,' ^Clu^ OF THE SEVERAL KINGDOMS OF THE WORLD. rONTXtMXG /^y^ f . The Figures, ?>!ot:ons, and Distances of tiie Planets, aecorJini^ to t!ic Newto- ni;in System, and the Idlest Obierva- tioi^s. II. Agtyicral View of theKarth, consider- ed as aPlanet ; with several useful Geo- graphi«:al Dfiiiiltioni and IVobletris. III. The^^rand Oivi'iionsDf the Globeinto I.andandWater,C(<ntineatsandlsl;md*. IV. The Situation and extent of Cnpires. Kingdoms, Stales, Provinces, and Co- lonies. ' V. Their Climate, Air, Soil, Veji^ctable Prodactioni, Metals, Minerals, iN'atur- .•il Curit'sities, Soas, Rivers, bays. Capes, Promontoriei, and Lakes. Vl. ihc Kirds and lje;.s;s peculiar to «;u:h Couutrv. VII. Observations on the Chanf^es that have been any where observed upoa the Face of Nature, since the most early Periods of MisLorv. VIII. ihc History and Origin of Nations, their ] orms of Government, Religion, Laws, Revenues, Tixes, Naval and Military Strength, Orders of Knight- hood, 'ic- IX. The Genius, Manners, Customs, and I Habits of the People- I X. Ihejr I,.'nH;uai',e, Learning, Arts, Sci- j cnces, Ivi.uiufactures. and Commerce. • Xi. 'I he chiff Cities, Structures, Ruins, I and artificial Curiosities ; XII. 'lie Lon.t;itude, Latitude, Rearing;!, j and Distances of principal Placcb trom I Londi!n. TO WHICH ARE ADDKD, A Geograimiical Inhck, with the Name-.of Places alphabetically airangcJ. II. A Taule of the Coins of all Nations, and tlieir Value in Kngi.ish Mon!:y. Ill, A C^hrosological Tacle of icinai k;il)lc Kvonts, from the Creation to the present Time. Bv WUJJAM GUTHRIE, ];:s .. ' TnF, Astronomical, Part bv Jami:s Fkrcz-uson, .'\ R. S. TO WHICH HAVE bf.f.n abdi-u t -m w al^ ■ «' 1 *::.:-usTP.ATi:r» \vn;i: ^1 • • :V ("(UllU^Cl' SEV OF MAPS, yiJx.n-ED //(o.i/ un: .v>5r recfnt on.^r.Ri-.irinxs w.v/j ukavcht^ of THE TWENTIETH EDTTIOX, Currccied and coubidcrably luilarged. LONDON: K'KINTED FOR J. WALKUn, WII-KIE AND ROEI^VSOX, SCATCHERD AND CO. J. .- lOCKDAI-B, GKO. ROHINSON, DARTON AND CO. CADbLL Alio DAVIK.<!, LONGMAN.' AN'DCO. LACKLl N'tlTOX' A.no CO. R. i'Hii,i,ir,s, ,?. m.^wman, AND WILSON A^fD .srENCK, YORK. y By P'. Han^.ifton, Shoe Lane : awd T. GiJUt, Salisbury Squsne • 1 • • • ■ A • • • t « • • • • * • • • ■ t » • « • « • • ADVERTISEMENT. >'i-ii-9<i HE distinguished approbation which the public have shown to this work, as is evident from the many editions through which it has passed, from the rapidity of the sale of very large impressions, and from the in- creasing demand which continues to be made for it, affords, it may be presumed, a proof sufiiciently satis- factory of its utility and excellence. In this edition, however, very considerable improve- ments, and a variety of alterations and additions, have been made, of which it will be necessary to give some account. In the first place a regular and uniform arrangement has been given to the several articles or heads which compose the description of each country, with the ad- diticn of such as were found necessary to complete this v.i iormity. Some alteration has likewise been made iu the arrangement of tlie several countries and king- doms, which, except in one or two instances, where a somev/hat abrupt transition was unavoidable, are treat- ed of according to their contiguity of situation ; an order which appears at once more natural, and more adapted to a geographical work, than an arranixcment derived from their ^upposcd political importance, by which the reader is suddenly transported from Prussia to Spain ; from Spain to Turkey in Europe ; and from t Turkey in Europe to Holland. New Tables have been given of the divir>ions of several countries, as of the pro\inccs of S\veue]i and the go- vernments of Russia. To tho eimmci-ation of the counties of Endand and Scotland, arc L?.dded the num- ber of inhabitants in each, according' to the returns under the late population act. A tabic is also given of the departments of France, including thojc into which the countries she ha;j violently annexed to her territory 66537^' IV ADVERTISEMKNT. havc! been divided, with tlie extent in square miles unci ropuUrion of each, as puMishcd by the French govern- ment. Tlie new divisions of Holland, of the Italian Republic, or as it is now styled Kin;^dorn of Italy, and of Switzerland under its latest constitution, arc likewise given ; as An) a new and complete t:;Me of the states, prin- cipalities, "Sjc. of tlie German Empire, with their respec- tive extent and population after the numerous and great chant;»;es they h.ive undergone by the plan of indemnities lately carried into execution under the influence of France and Rujsia. General views are added of the do- minions, revenue:;, and forces of the Austrian and Prus- sian monarchies in their present state, with additional separate descriptions of several countries appertaining to them ; as Gallicia, or Austrian Poland, Silesia, and Moravia. Nor have our improvements of this kind been con- fined to Europe : tlie account of Hindoi>5tan, its divi- sions, &;c. has received a new arrangement, and been carefully revised, with a variety of alterations and addi- tions. New and separate descriptions have likewise been given of the countries of Chinese Tartary, Tibet, Independent Tartary, and Asiatic Russia ; as also of the settlement of the Cape of Good Hope, (principally from the judicious Travels of Mr. Barrow), and of Lou- isiana lately annexed to the territory of the United States. In the two last editions of this work, m^any impor- tant corrections and additions were made from the latest voyages and travels ; among which may be enu- merated Sir George Staunton's Account of the voyage and emba -sv of lord Macartncv to China ; the embas- sies to Tibet and Ava, of c.iptain Turner and major Symes ; the travels of Mr. Park in Africa, with the geographical illustrations of his journey by that judi- cious geograpjicr major Rennell ; those of Mr. Browne in Egypt and l)ar I'ur ; and the voyages of the unfor- tunate French navigator M. de la Perouse, and captain Vancouver. In the present edition we iiave availed ourselves of the travels of Mr. Barrow in Southern Africa, and those of Mr. llorncmann, into the interior of the same continent ; of those of Mr. Acerbi in Sweden and to the North C-^pe in Lapland j and of ADVERTISEMENT. ▼ those of Mackenzie, Lllicot, and Michaud, in North America. In fine, no publications on the subject of geoi^rapliy, and the present state of the different coun- tries of the world, have been publislied since the Liot edition, which have not been carefully consulted. As this work is historical as well as geograpliical, the perpetual changes of states and human affairs, especially those produced by the late revolutions which have con- vulsed Europe, have rendered some considerable addi- tions and alterations necessary in the historical part. Such have been made in this edition ; and the history of each country is brought down to the present time ; that of Great Britain is considerably enlarged ; and the stupendous exertions and rapid conquests of the French repubHc have been faithfully detailed ; while the calami- tous events, which, in that distracted country, have been the consequence of contending factions, an un- settled government, and a despotic usurpation, have been pourtrayed in their true colours, and such as can- not fail to excite every honest Briton to cherish and de- fend the excellent and well-poised constitution of his own happy island ; a constitution formed and improved by the accumulated wisdom of ages. In making the various and important alterations and additions above enumerated, care has been taken, by abridging and compressing some parts, and totally omitting others that had become obsolete, that the work, whicli had already attained the utmost size con- sistent with the original plan, should be rather diminish- ed than increased in bulk ; at the same time, tli(^ utmost attention has been exerted to give it, in every respect, a just and continued claim to the general notice and approbation which it has so long enjoyed. June^ 1805. PREFACE. O a man sincerely interested in the welfare of society and of his own country, it must be particularly agree- able t J reflect on the rapid prof^ress and general dif- fusion of learning and civility which, within the present age, have taken place in Great Britain. Whatever may be the case in some other kingdoms of Europe, we, in this island, may boast of our superiority to those illiberal prejudices which not only cramp the genius but sour the temper of man, and disturb all agreeable intercourse of society. Among us, learning is no longer confined within the schools of the pliilosophers, or the courts of the great ; but, like all the greatest advantages which heaven has bestowed on mankind, it is become as univer- sal as it is useful. This general diffusion of knowledge is one effect of that happy constitulion of government which, towards the close of the seventeenth century, was confirmed to lis, and which constitutes the peculiar glory of this na- tion. In otlicr countries, the great body of the people possess little wealth, have little power, and consequently meet with little respect ; in Great Britain the people are opulent, have great influence, and claim, of course, a proper share of attention. To their improvement, therefore, men of letters have lately directed their stu- dies ; as the great body of the people, no less than the dignified, rlie learned, or the wealthy few, have an ac- knowledoed title to be amused and instructed. Books have been divested of the terms of the schools, reduced from that size which suited only the purses of the rich and the avocations of the studious, and are adapted to persons of more ordinary fortunes, whose attachment to other pursuits admitted of little leisure for those of knowledge. It is to books of this kind, more than to the works of our Bacons, our Lockes, and our Newtons, tliat the generality of our countrymen owe that superior improvement which distinguishes them from the lower • •• VIU PREFACE. 1% ranks of men in all other countries. To promote and advance thifs imfirovcnient is the principal design of our present u:-:dertakinsi;. No subject appears more interest- ing tiian thiit we have chosen, and none seem:? capable of h-Av.r treated in a manner that may render it more geneiriljy u^.cFid. Tlie knoVileuge of the world, and of its inhabitants, thou;2h not the subllmcst pursuit of mankind, it must be allowed, is that which m.ost nearly interests tliem, and to wliicii their abilities are bes^adapled. And books of Geography, which describe the situation, extent, soil, and productions of kingdoms ; the genius, manners, religion, government, comm.erce, sciences, and arts, of all the inhabitants on earth ; promise the best assistance f(>r attainincr this knovvledpe. Ihe compendium of Geographynow offered tothe Pub- lic differs in many particulars from other books on that subject. Besicies exhibiting an easy, distinct, and syste- matic account of the theory and practice of what may be called Natural Geography, the Author lias atttemptcd to render the following performance an instructive, though compendious, detail of the general history of the world. Ihe character of nations depends on a com- bination of a great numl.er of circumstances, which re- ciprocally aifect each other. There is a nearer connec- tion between the learning, the commerce, the govern- ment, kc. of a state, than miost people seem to appre- hend. In a work of this kind, the object of which is to include moral, or political, as well as natural Geogra- phy, no one of these subjects should pass unnoticed. 'J he omission of any one of them would, in reality, deprive us of a branch of knowledge, not only inter- esting in itself, but v.hich is absolutely necessary for enabling us to form an adequate and comprehensive idea of the subject in general. We havj: thought it neces- saiy, therefore, that this \tork should comprehend the history and present state of learning in the several coun- tries we describe, with the characters of such persons as have been most eminent in the various departments of letters and p]]iiosoj^,hy. This v ill, on a little reflec- tion, appear altogether requisite, when wc consider the powerful influence of learning upon the manners, go- vernment, and general character of nations. These ob- PREFACE. IX. jccts, indeed, till of late, seldom found a place in geo- graphical performances ; and, even wliere they have been introduced, are by no means handled in an enter- taining or instructive manner. Neither is this to be altogether imputed to the fault of geographical writers. The greater part of travellers, acting solely under the influence of avarice, the passion which first induced them to quit their native land, were at little pains, and were indeed ill qualified, to collect such materials as arc proper for gratifying our curiosity, with regard to these particulars. The geographer, then, who could only employ the materials put into his hands, was not en- abled to give us any important information upon such subjects. In the course of the present century, how- ever, men have begun to travel from different motives. A thirst for knowledge, as well as for gold, has led many into distant lands. These they have explored with a philosophic attention ; and, by laying open the internal springs of action, by which the inhabitants of different regions are actuated, exhibit to us a natural and striking picture of human manners, under the va- rious stages of barbarity and refinement. Without manifest impropriety, we could not but avail ourselves of their labours, by means of which we have been en- abled to give a more copious and a more perfect detail of what is called Political Geography, than has hitherto appeared. In considering the present state of nations, few cir- cumstances are of more importance than their mutual intercourse. This is chiefly produced by commerce, the prime mover in the oeconomy of modern states, and of which, therefore, we have never lost sight in the present undertaking:. We arc sensible that a reader could not examine the present state of nations with much entertainment or instruction, unless he were also made acquainted with their situation during preceding ages, and of the vari- ous revolutions and events, by the operation of which they have assumed their present form and appearance. This constitutes the historical part of our work, in which, instead of a meagre index of incoherent inci- dents, we have drawn up a regular and connected epi- tome of the history of each country j — such an epitome PREFACE. i ss may be read with equal pleasure and advantage, and which may be considered as a proper introduction to more copious accounts. Having, througli the whole of the work, mentioned the ancient names of countries, and, in treating of their particular history, sometimes carried our researches beyond the limits of modern times, we have thought it necessary, for the satisfaction of such readers as are un- ' acquainted with classical learning, to begin our historical Introduction v/ith the remote ages, of antiquity. By ini^crtiiig an account of the p.ncicnt world in a book of Geography, we afford an opportunity to the reader of comparhig- together, not only the manners, govern- ment, and arts of different nations, as they now appear, but as they subsisted in ancient ages ; which exhibiting a general map, as it were, of the history of mankind, renders our work more complete than any geographical treatise extant. In the execution of our design, wc have constantly endeavoured to observe order and perspicuity. Elegance wc have sacrificed to brevity ; happy to catch the lead- iiuz features which distinguish the characters of nations, and by a few strokes to sketch, though not completely to fmish. What has enabled us to comprise so many subjects within the narrow bounds of this work, is the omission of many immaterial circumstances, and of all those fa- bulous accounts or descriptions which, to the disgrace of the human understanding, swell the works of geo^ graphers ; though the flilsity of them, both from their Gwii nature, and the concurring testimony of the most enlightened and best-informed travellers and historians, has been long since detected. As to particular parts of the work, we have been more or less diffuse, according to their importance to ua as men and as subjects of Great Britain. Our own CDimtry, in both respects, deserved the greatest share of our attention. Great Britain, though she cannot boast of a more luxuriant soil or happier climate than many other countries, has advantages of another and i,uperit)r kind, which make her the delight, the envy, and the mistress of the world : these are', the equity of her lawsj the freedom of her political constitution,, PREFACE. geo~ Lheir lost )ecii 10 us )\vn rare inot Ihan md of [on. and the moderation of her religious system. With regard to the British empire we have therefore been singularly copious. Next to Great Britain we have been most particular upon the other states of Europe ; and always in propor- tion as they present us with the largest field for useful reflection. By comparing together our accounts of the European nations, the important system of practical knowledore is inculcated, and a thousand arfniments will appear in favour of a mild religion, a free government, and an extended, unrestrained commerce. Europe having occupied so large a part of our volume, Asia next claims our attention ; which, however, though in some respects the most famous quarter of the world, offers, when compared to Europe, extremely little for our entertainment or instruction. In Asia, a strong at- tachment to ancient customs, and the weight of tyran- nical power, bear down the active genius of man, and prevent that variety in manners and character which distinguishes the European nations. i In Africa, the human mind seems degraded below its natural state. To dwell long upon the manners of this country, a country so immersed in rudeness and barba- rity, besides that it could afford little instruction, would be disgusting to every lovTr of mankind. Add to this, that the inhabitants of Africa, deprived of all arts and sciences, without which the human mind remains torpid and inactive, discover no great variety in manners or character. A gloomy sameness almost every wlicre pre- vails ; and the trifling distinctions which are discovered among them seem rather to arise from an excess of bru- tality on tlic one hand, than from any perceptible ap- proaches towards refinement on the other. But though il'icse quarters of the globe are treated less extensively than Europe, there is no district of them, however bar- ren or savage, entirely omitted. America, whetlier considered as an immense continent, inhabited by an endless variety of different people, or as a country intimately connected with Europe by the ties of commerce and government, deserves very par- ticular attention. The bold discovery and barbarous conquest of this New World, and the manners and pre- 9di PREFACE. judices of the original inhabitants, are objects which, together with the description of the country, deservedly occupy no small share of this performance. In treating of such a variety of subjects, some less obvious particulars, no doubt, must escape our notice. But if our general plan be good, and the outlines and chief figures sketched with truth and judgment, the candour of the learned, we hope, will excuse imperfec- tions which are unavoidable in a work of this extensive kind. We cannot, without exceeding the bounds of a Pre- face, insist upon the other parts of our plan. The Maps, which are executed with care, by the ablest artists, will, we hope, aflbrd satisfaction. The science of Natural Geography still remains in a very imperfect state; and the exact divisions and extfint of countries, for want of geometrical surveys, are far from being well ascertained. With respect to these we have however constantly resorted to the best authorities which, in the present state of geographical science, we have been 5ible to procure. 1 ' CONTENTS. Page 1 2 .5 5 6 8 10 ir* 19 21 22 23 25 INTRODUCTION. PART I. Qf Astronemlcal Geography. OF the Figure and Motion of the Earth Different Systems of tlie Universe The t'operniciin System ^'J!;!'fi'^''^^i^"'"'''' Periods, &c. of the several Planets ill tiie bolar System . . . ««iv.L5 m Comets - - * " " Fixed Stars - , _ " " Doctrine of the Sphere Description and Use of the Terrestrial Globe i roblems performed by the Globe Geographical Observations Natural Divisicns of the Earth Figure and Diraensions of tlie Earth ' ' . Winds and Tides . . Construction and Use of Maps " . ' . ' ^1:^1; ""-^ '^" ^'''''' '^ ^'"''"'* ^--^' Oo.cnn„c.f, and 26 PART 111.0/ //;. Onglu and Prosress of Re/l/tor: EUROPE. Extent, Boundaries Grand Divisions Denmark . . " * Norway , Iceland . . ' Ferro Islands Sweden . . " * Lapland Russia in Europe . . ' England . * " - Wales - . " " - - English Isles - , ' " - Scotland ^ . * "" " Isles of Scotland Ireland . France . _ * " Netherlands or Belpium The seven United Provinces, or Holland ' Germany . *"*i.uiu General View of the Austrian Dominions Bohemia and Mnr:ivia , ^'""nons Gallicia and Ludomeria ' " ' " 50 .58 5G 70 '"."' 80 81 97 JO.'J 130 292 2f)7 301 '336 S't2 370 426 432 A'U 478 480 484) ■ i CONTENTS. Han^;iry - - " ^" • L tm -^ Transylvania Slavorii.i, the Bucknwine, Croatia and Dalmatia 'I'he Kinj^lom of Prussia, and the Prussian Dominions m general - - - - .Silesia , - . - - 8\vit/.erlanJ . - - * • Spain _ - - - - Portugal ' - - - - Italy . - - - - '^i'urkev in Europe - - " " Islands belou'^^ing to Turkey in Europe .".,,' I If Other Eumpean Islands are described with the Countries to which they respectively belong. ASIA. Its Situation, I'ounuaries, Grand Divisions, and History Turkey in Asia _ - - - Islands belonging to Turkey in Asia Arabia . - - - Persia - - - - - - Hindoostan . - - India beyond the Ganges - • - China Chinese Tartary - - . .- Tibet . - - Independent Tartary . - - Russian Empire in Asia _ - - Islands belonf^ing to Russia in Asia Indian and Oriental Ulands . - - 502 50H 511 .51 « 520 531 561 572 600 613 GIG 619 (V35 ()37 6U ti5S ma 698 7 If) T' 731 734. 740 7i3 I AFRICA. Its Situation, Boundaries, Grand Divisions, and History The States of Barbary , . • Egypt . - - - j^ljyssinia . . - Interior Countries of Africa - - Western Coast of x\frica . - - Colony of the Cape of Good Hope Country of the Hottentots - - - CafiVuria - - - - Eastern Coast of Africa _ - - African Islands . . - 751 75,1 7(Ki I rl' 783 7f52 796- 80« 810 812 AMERICA. Its Discovery and History • Original Inhabitants Extent, Boundaries, Productions Grand Divisions Greenland - • n I New Britain *H I I Nova Scotia and Nov/ Brunswick *^ <; t British Islands in North America 819 830 839 843 84(5 8 4; J 851 859 CONTENTS. (JIG 619 635 631 (ill- (558 693 693 71 f) 740 m 75J 7(Ki 771' 783 732 796 *":■)!) \b<r> 810 1812 il9 s30 >39 1343 ;4f5 |5.0 United States of America New England - - Vermont - - New Hampshire - - Massachusetts, including the district of Maine Rhode Island - - Connecticut - - - - New York - _ . - New Jersey - - - - Pennsylvania - - . Delaware - - - Maryland - - Virginia . . . - Kentucky - - Nwth Carolina . . - J^outh Carolina Georgia _ - - Tennessee - - - ■ Territory North- West of the Ohio Louisiana - - - General Description of the West Indies Jamaica and other Islands in the West Indies rOld Mexico, or New Spain Page rt '5 t/2 New Mexico, including California East and West Florida / Terra Firma \ Peru Chili Paraguay or I.a Plata j^Spanish Islands in America Portuguese America, Brasll I'rench America, Cayenne - » French Islands in America Dutch America, Surinam Dutch Islands in America Danish Islands in America Islands of the SouthSea, and Late Discoveries Otahelte, or King George's Island Society Islands ... Oheteroa Navigators' Islands • » » Friendly Islands - - - Marquesas Islands « - » New Hebrides . . . - New Zealand - « - New Holland - - - . New Guinea - - • - Pelew Islands - - • • Ingraham's Islands - - - Sandwich Islands - - - North West Coast of America A New Geographical Table, alphabetically arranged A Table of the Coins of all Nations, and their value in English 1002 Money ... . , - Chronological Table of Remarkjible Events, &c. - 1017 917 951 95,'5 95Q 95S 962 963 966 968 963 969 969 972 974. 97* 975 976 976 977 978 980 981 982 982 984. 987 Il" 111 '■] • Directions for flachig the Maps, -., t TIic V.'ORIA), To front the Tit!:. The SPllKRE, - pa^" 8 CHART of the WORLD, uc cording to Mercutor's projec- tion, europp:, - - - 53 DENMARK, SWEDEN, and NORWAY, - - m RUSSIA in EuRopK, - JO;i ENGLAND and WALES, 130 SCOTLAND, - . 801 IRELAND, - - 31-2 FRANCE, SEVEN UNITED PRO- VlNCES,and NETHER- LANDS, GERMANY, - fn^^e POLAND, LITHUANIA, and PRUSSIA, SWITZERLAND, SPAIN ;iiid PORTUGAL, ITALY, TURKEY in Euuope and Hungary, ASIA, - - ■ - EAST INDIES, AFRICA, NOR' !'H AMERICA, BRITISH COLONIES in NoKTH Am Mac A, WEST INDIES, SOUTH AMERICA, - 511 600 GIG O.iS T.'l S3i> The Binder is ih's?rcd to heat the Book hcjcre he 'Jaccs the /!/!• ?/■.•■. If I /' ' ■• • . >'T> INTRODUCTION PART I. OF ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY, 4il- 511 r)'M 600 GIG 7.51 <>' ;.'9 SECT. I. V OF THE FIGURE AND MOTION OF THE EARTH, THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF THE UNIVERSE, THE PLANETS, COMETS, AND FIXED STARS. • It The science of Geography, in the more extensive signification of tlie word, is so intimately connected with that of Astronomy, that it will be necessary to begin this work with a summarj' view of the system of the world, and a brief account of the order and revolutions of the heavenly bodies. But tirst we shall premise a few observations on tlie figure and motion of the earth. The earth was long considered as an extensive plain of unknown thickness, beneath which was the abode of the spirits of the dead— the re- jjions of Elysium and Tartarus. The heavens, in which the sun, moon, ;ind stars appeared to move daily from east to west, were conceived to be ;it no great distance from it, and to be only designed for its use and or- nament. More attentive observation, however, soon shov.ed tliat the earth was of a globular figure. Thus, when a ship sails on the sea, tlie tops of the masts first become visible at a distance j tlae setting sun may be distinctly seen from the top of a hill when it appears to tliose below to have sunk beneath the horizon ; and the shadow of the earth in a lunar eclipse is of a circiilar figure. But it is needless to insist on these proofs, since the frequent voyages of different navigators round the world, from the time of Magelhaens, or Magellan, whose ship first circumnavigated the globe between tlie years ISip and 1522, he himself being killed at the Ladrone islands, to that of the repeated voyages of Captain Cook, have demonstrated the figure of tlie earth to be globular beyond the possibility of a doubt. The spherical figure of the earth being admitted, its motion became niuch more probable from the veiy nature of its form ; and besides, a very strong, and in fact unanswerable, aigument for that motion v/as de- rived firom considering, that if tlie earth did not move roi'nd the sun, not only the sun, but all the planets and stars, must move round the earth. Now as asti'onomers, by calculations founded on the principles of geometry, are able to ascertain very nearly the distances of tlie heavenly bodies from the earth and from each other, it appeared tliat^ if we conceived tlie heavenly bodies to move round tlie eartii, we must suppose them endowed with a motion or velocity so immense ;is to exceed all conception] whereas all the appearances in nature may be as B INTRODUCTION, m V i ivcll fxplnincil hy iint-ining the rnrtli to nunc round tlie sun ill • tic ?.]^acc ot ;i )i.ai-, iind t(j turn on its own axis once in twenty-four J ion is. I'iic earth, tliorci'brcv in the space oftwcnly-four hours, moves from west to f.ist, uhilc the inhabitants on tht' surface of it, like nieji on the deck of a ship, wIk) arc insensible of their own nuition, and think that the bank* move frtd'ithcin in a eoiUrary diaction, will conceive that the sun and stars move from ea.^t to west in the same timr of twenty-four hours in which they, along witJi the earili, mo\e Irom \\est to tM^t. I'his daily or diur- t'al motion of tlie earth, being once clearly conceived, will enable us easily to form an idea of its annual or yearly motion round the sun. For, arf that luminary seems to have a diurnal ni(>t"u)n round our earth, which is really oceasioiied by the daily nKJtion (;f the earth round its own ax's, so, in the course of a year, he seems to have an annual motion in the hea\ens, and to rise and set in different points ff them ; wliieh is really occasioned by the annual motion of the earth in its orbit or path round (he sun, wjfich it completes in tlie space of a )ear. Now, as to the first of these motions we owe the ditlercnce ot day and niglit, so to the se- cond we are iiuhfbted for the ditfereiice in the length of tlie days and nights, and in th.e seasons of the year. Dii 1 EKKNT sYSTKMS OF THE uxivKUSE.] TIuilcs, the Milcsian, who, about Coo years bet'ore Christ, first taught astronomy in Greece, had made a sutHiient jjrogress in this science to calculate eclipses, or interpo- sitions of the moon between the earth and the sun, or of the earth be- tv.een the sun and the moon. Pytliagoras. a native of Samos, flouri-shed about lifiy years after Thales, and was, no doubt, ecjually well acquaintecl with tlie motion <jt" the heavenly bodies. He conceived an idea, which there is r.o reason to believe had »;ver been suggested before, namely, that the earth it-:elf \\as in motion, and that the sun was at rest. He tound that it was impossible, in any other way, to explain consistently tlie lieaNcnly motions. His system, however, was so extremely opposite to all the prejudices of sense and opinion, lliat it never made great progress, nor was e\er widely diti'used in the ancient world. l"he phi- iiisophcrs of iuitiquity, despairing of being able to overcome ignoranc« by reason, eiuic avuiired to adapt the one to the other, and in some mea- sure to reconcile them. Ffolemy, an Egyptian ph.ilosophei-, who flou- rished 138 years before Christ, suj^posed witli the \ulgar, that the earth was fixed immoNably in the centre of the universe, and that the seven planets, considering the moon as one of the primaries, were placed near to it. Above theiu he placed the firmament of fixed stars, then the crystalline oibs, then the pvimum mobile, aiicl, last of all, the coelum empyreum, or heaven of heavens. All these va.->t orbs he imagined to move round the eartii once in twent)'-l(jiir hours, and also to jjerform otlier revolutions round it, in certain stated and periodical times. To account for these motions, he was obliged to concei\ e a number of cir- cles, called eccentrics and epicycles, crossing ai\d interfering with each other. This system was universally maintained l)y the peripatetic philo- sophers, wlio A\'ere the most considerable sect in Europe, from tlie time of Ptolemy to the revival of learning in the sixteenth century. At length, Copernicus, a native of Poland, a bold and original genius, adopted, the Pytliagorean or true sy^;tem of the uni\erse, and publisiied it to the world in the year 15-13. Tiiis doctrine had remained so long ia obscurity, that the restorer of it was f(jnsidered as the inventor, and the system obtained the name of the Copernican Philosophy, though only re- \ived by that great mati. frd pi fu coj trif rej nei an( Di) Jei{ ret Gc the set stel INTRODUCTION. earth genius, But EuroiH* was still iranu*rscd in iijnornncc, aflil Copcniicus l.aJ •tiiaiiy opponents. Tycho Brahe, in particular, a nublc Dane, sensibit? of tlie defects of the Ptolemaic system, hut unwilling to ackjiow ledge the motiun of the enrth, endea^'HU•ecl, about the year 1580', to establish a new s.ystem of his own, whicli vva i .till more perplexed and embarrassed than that of Ptolemy- It allow.-, a mdiithly motion to t!ie moon round the earth, as the centre of its orbit; and m::kcs the sun to be the centre of the orbits of Mercury, \'euus, Mai', Jupiter, and Saturn. The sun, however, with all i)i^' planetn, is stij)pi»>ed ; be whirled round the earth in a year, and even ( nrii in the t,vmty-four hours, liiij system, notwithstanding its abMirdity, met with many advocates. Longomontanus, and others, so far nf iu'd upon it, as to ;!d)nit the * diurnal motion of the earth, though they in^i^tcd that it had no uuuual notion. About this time, after a darkness of many ages, tli'' first dawn of learning and taste began to appear in Europe. Learned men in ditFerent countries began to cultivate astronomy. Galileo, a FU)ren- tine, about the year lOlO, introduced the use of telescope;, which af- forded new arguments in support of the motion of the earth, and con- firmed tlie old ones. The fury and bigotry of the clergy, indeed, had almost stifled the science in its infancy ; and (Talileo was obliged to re- nounce the Copernican system, as a damnable heresy. The happy re- formation in religion, however, placed a great part of Europe ix-yond the reach of the papal thunder. It taught mankind that the Scripture:* were not given for explaining systems of natural philosophy, but fur a much nobler purpose, — to render us just, virtuous, and humane ; that, instead of opposnig the word of God, which, in speaking of natural things, suits itself to the prejudices of weak mentals, we employed our .foculties in a manner highly agreeable to our Maker, in tracing the na- ture of his works, which, the more they are considered, alFord us the greater reason to admire his glorious attributes of power, \\ isdom, ar.d goodness. From this time, therefore, noble discoveries Avere made in all the branches of astronomy. Not only the motions of the heavenly bodies were clearly explained, but the general law^ of nature, accordin?; to which they moved, was discovered and illustrated by the immortal New- ton. This law is called Graritj/, or Attrnctlon, and is the same by which any body falls to the ground, when disengaged from what supported it. It has been demonstrated, that this same law, which keeps the sea in its channel, and the various bodies wliich cover the surface of this earth from flying oft^ into the air, operates throughout the universe, retains the planets in tJieir orbits, and prtiserves the whole fabric of nature from con- fusion and disorder. The Copernican system.] In the solar system of Copernicus, as conflrmed and demonstrated from geometrical principles by the illus- trious sir Isaac Newton, tine sun is placed in the centre, and round him revolve the seven planets, tlie names of which are, beginr.ing with the nearest to the sun. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus, The bst of these was first discovered by Dr. Herschel with his telescope of great size and power, 40 feet '\i\ length, and 4| in diameter, in the year 1/81. Fcir this discovery he received from the Royal Society tlie honorary recompense of sir Godfrey Copley's medal. Though- the Georgium Sidus was not till then known as a planet, there are many reasons to suppo-^e it had beeu seen before, but had been considered as a tixed star. But lioni the steadiness of its light, from its diameter bci: t increased bv hi-h m.i"- B 2 . -^ = !>' ii It' I I I 4 INTRODUCTION. nifying powers, and from tlic change lie had obscn-ed in its situation, J3r. Hcrschel first concluded it was a comet; but in a little time he, with others, determined that it was a planet, from its vicinity to the ecliptic, t]i'=; direction of its morion, and its being stationary in the time and in su:.li circumstances as correspond with .similar appearances in other planets . When the moon is absent, it may be s«^en by the naked eye ; and tlie discovery of i,is satellites attending it confers upon it a dignity, and raises it to a conspicuous situation among the great bodies of our sohxr system + . The magnitudes, annual j^eriods, and niean distances from the sun_, of the several planets, are given in ilie table subjoined. Their relative di- stances may likewise l;e thus stated in a manne? more compendious and easy to be renienili'^Ted. If tlie distance of the earth from the sun be supposed to be divided into ten parts, die distance of Mercur)' will be four such parts, that of Venus se\eu, that of Mars fifteen, that of Jupiter ^fty-two, tliat of Saturn ninety-live, ;:nd Uiat of the Georgiurn Sidus one h.undred and ni;i':ty. Besides these seven planets, *]iere are cigJiteen others which move round four of these in the same inatiner as they do round the sun. Of tJieso our Eartii has one, calleil tlxj Mr-on ; Jupiter has four ; Saturn seven, ^.vo of these ha\ing b'.eii lately discovered by Dr. Ht'rsehel ; and tlie Georgiurn Sidus six, discovered, as well as the planet itself, by the saniu '::xcellent astronomer. Tl\ese are called moons, from their resemblance to our mocn ; and sometimes sccvdun/ j>Luie4s, because they seem to bo attendants of the Earth, Jujjitcr, '\ituj:i, nnd tlie Georgium Sidus, about which tliey mo^ e, and wL'idi are calkit piinluiy. The orbits described by the planets are not exact circles, but ellipses or ovals : hence the same planet is not always at the same distance from the sun ; and the distance which is exactly between the greatest and least di- stance is called the inran (fi.sfaiicr. In the following table the inclimtinnr, of the axes of the planets to their nrbits are '.'iveii; and the meaning of this term it may be necessaiy t'* explain. We nave alre.uly .-aid that the annual motion of die earth oc- casions the diversity of seasons : but tliis would not happen were the axis of the earth exactly parallel to, or in a line with, the axis of itsi. orbit ; because tlien the same parts ot' the earth would be tunied towards the sun in every diurnal revohitioii; which would de])ri\e mankind of the grateful vicissitudes of the seasons arising from the ditference in length of the days and nights protluced by this inclination of die axi-i. The axes of se\enil others of the planets are in like manner inclined tr> the planes oi dieir orbitSj and die angle of their inclination is given in lh•:^ following table. ♦ Another new planet was discovfred on tlic 1st of January 1801. by M. riazzi, *strnnomcr-roval at Pakrino in .Sirily, wlio Cfillcd it Vrrdhtaiulvn , h\ lionour of hi:j .Sioiliaii Majiisty. It is also called Crres, or C-rvs Vrrdinondfi. H, l>;is its orbit between those, of Mar.s and .!uj Nr. Aeeordin^; to the latest observations, its period is four years C2'2days. Its distaiiec from the snn is to tiiat of the earth as -iCr, to 100, eon- sequuntly above '250 millions of miles. It is not visible to the naked eye; and so small, that classes of a very hijrli maffiiifyins jjower will not siiow it with a di.stinctly- defined diaimter: Dr. Hersohe' has ho\\e\er estimated its diameter at l(iO English miles. Another planet has also br"n discovered by Dr. Olbers of IlamburR : it is likewi<;<j sitviated between Mars and .ill j)iter. Ithaslieen named Pallas. Its distance from the snn :.<! to tli.at of the earth as QhO to 100, or nearlv 270 millions of miles. U is extremely syiali; its diameter bein^j estimated by Dr. Ilerschol at only 110 utiles. INTRODUCTION. A TABLE OF THE DIAMETERS, PERIODS, .Vc. OF THE SEVERAL PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSl'EM. Nnmes of the planets. Sun Mercury Vcinis Earth Moon Mars J\>piter Saturn fieoririnm Sidus Diame- ters in Enirlish miles 890,000 7,74.1 7,9+'2 2,1 fi2 4,'220 89,800 79,600 39,900 Me^intlistance'-- iroiii tilt' sun. as detcrininert from ol)?orva- tioiis of tlH' transit of Ve- nus in 1761. .")G, 841, 4(33 68,89 1, 4Sfi 9.5,173,000 ditto 14.5,014,143 494,990,970 907,956,130 1,8 15, 91 '2 ,'260 ,\nnual period round the sun. D. 87 2-24 ;m5 174 Diurnal rotation on its axis. I II. |D. II, M. 125 14 Q,'3 unknouii 17 '2:3 14 o 83 150 18 29 1 ■23 23 56 12 44 40 9 56 10 16 unknown Hourly motion in its orbit, 109,699 80,-295 68. ;4:j '2'2,'290 .55, 28 7 '29,083 22,101 15,000 Ifonrly motion of its equa- tor. 3,318 unkwn. 1 ,043 1 ,042 Oi ■ 7 556 25,920 22,400 Inclina- tion of axis to orbit. 8° 0' 0" unknown 15 23 29 2 10 G 28 unknw, unknown their ry i'i 1 00- re the of itii. ardi n<\ of ce in ed tr, n 111* ia//,i, jf his iween s four con- "Tind so Ictly- [iglish lewisc from uies. ■ 110 CoMRTs.] Bes'ules the pihnaryand secondary planets already enume- rated, tliere are otlier bodies which revolve rovmd the sun, and, consc- <iueatly, make a part of the solar .system. Theso.are called Comets, and appear occasionally in every part of the heavens. Descending from the far distant parts of the system with great rapidity, they surprise ns with the singular appearance of a train, or tail, which accompanies them ; be- come visible to us in the lower parts of their orbits; and, after a short stay, go otl' again to vast distances, and disappear. Though some of the ancients had more just notions of them, yet the opinion having ]irevailed, that they were only meteors generated in the air, like to those we see in it every night, and in a few moments vanishing, no care was taken to ob- serve or record their phaKUomena accurately till of late. Hence this part of astronomy is very impcrttct. The general doctrine is, that they are solid compact bodies, like other planets, and regulated by the same laws of gravity, so as to describe equal areas in proportional times by radii drawn to the common centre. They move about tlie sun ia very eccentric ellipses, and are of much greater den.sity than ihe earth; for some of them are heated iti every period to such a degree as would vitrify or di.ssipate any substance known to us. Sir Isaac Newton computed the heat of the comet that appeared in the year 1(J80, when nearest tlic sun, to be 20tX) times hotter ilian red-hot iron, and that, being tlms heated, it nuist retain its heat till 't comes round again, although its period should be more than 20,000 years; audit is computed to be only 575, The number of comets is very much great(T than that of the planets which move in the vicinity of the sun. From the reports of historians, as well as from the obser\'ations of late )ears, it has been ascertained tliat more than 450 were .seen previous to the year 1771 ; ai'^l when the atten- tion of astronomers was called to this object by the expectation of the return of the comet of \7^^9> "t) fewer than seven were observed in the course of seven years. From this circumstance, and the probability tliat nil the comets recorded in ancient a»Uhors were of considerable apparent magnitude, while the smaller wore .overlooked, it is reasonable to conclude that tlie number of comets considerably exceeds any estimation that might be made from the observations we now possess. RiU the nutuber of those, whose orbits are settled witli sufHcieut accuracy to ascertain their identity $ INTRODUCTION. •J 'Ml ,1 . i(! when they may appear again, is nn more than fifty-nine, reckonings as late as the year l//!. The orbits of most of these are inclined to the plane of tlie ecliptic in large angles, and the greater number of them ap- proached nearer to the sun than to the earth. Their motions in the hea^ vens are not all in the order of the signs, or direct, like those of the planets ; but the number whose motion is retrograde is nearly equal to tliat of those whose motion is direct. All which have been obser\ed, howe\er, have mo\'ed through the aithereal regions and tlie orbits of the planets, without suffering the least sensible resistance in their motions ; which surHciently proves that the planets do not move in solid orbs. Of all the comets, the periotls of tliree only are kncnvn with any degree of certainty, being found to return at intervals of 75, I'it), and 5/5 ycirsj and of these, that which appeared in l6S0 is the most remarkable. This comet, at its greatest distance, is about 1 1,200 millions of miles from the sun, while its least distance from the centre of the sun is about 4(JO,000 miles ; being less than one third part of the sun's semidiameter from his surface. In that pait of its orbit which is nearest the sun, it flies with the amazing; ■ velocity of 880,000 miles in an hour; and the sun, as seen from it, ap- pears 100 degrees in breadth, consequently -10,000 times as large as he appears to us. 'I'he astonishing distance thiit this comet rum out into empty space naturally suggests to our imagination the vast distance be- tween our sun and the nearest of the fixed stars, of whose attractions all the comets must keep clear, to return perioilically and go round the sun. The fixed stars.] Having thus briefly surveyed the solar system, which, though great in itself, is small in comparison with the immensity of the universe, we next proceed to the contemplation of those other vast bodies called the Fixed Stars. These are distinguished by the naked eye from the planets, by being less bright and luminous, and by continually exhibiting .(hat appearance which we call the twinkling of i'->e stars. This aris(,.s froni their being so extremely small, that the interposition of the least body^ of \shich there arc many constantly floating in the air, deprives u;: of the siglit of them ; when the interposed body changes its place, we again see the star ; and this succession, being perpetual, occa- sion.s the twinkling. iJut a more remarkable property of the tixed stars, and that from which Jhey have obtained their name, is their ne\er clianging their situatiixi v-'ith regard to each other, as the planets, from what we have already said^ must evidently be always changing theirs. The stars \\ flit li are nearest to us seem largest, and are therefore called stars of the first niagnif.ide. Those of the second niiignitude appear less, being at a greater distance; and so proceeding on to the sixth magnitude, which includes all the tixi'd stars tlut are visil)]e \sitlK)Ut a telescope. The first obser\ers of the heavens, in the early ageii. of the work}, dividecj the stars into different assembLiges or vo)i.s/cll(iUfms, (ii\ch of which they supposed to represent the image of some animjil or other terrestrial «')bjcet. Tlit'se constellations have, in general, preserved the names vvliich were given them by the ancients, by whom tiiey were reckoned twenty-one nortlicni, mid twclw soiiditrii; but the moderns have increased the number of tlje nortliern to thirty-six, and that of the southern to thirty-two. Beside:? lliese, there are the twelve siirns or constellations of tl.e Zodiac, as it is called from the Greek word ^:';v/, an animal ; because almost all these signs represent some animal. As to tiie number of the fixed stars, though, in a clear winter,'s night without moonshine, tliey seem to be innumerable (which is owing to flieir strong fiparkling, and our looking at them in a confused maimer), yet when tlie whole firmamctit is divided into constellati\)ns, the numv. ht.c tiiat can at my tin)e be seen witli the naked eye in not above a IXIRODUCTION, In thousand. Since the invention of telescopes, indeed, the number of the iixed stars has been justly considered as immense; because, the greater perfection we arrive at in our glasses, the more stars always appear to us. Mr. Flamsteed, late royal astronomer at Greenwich, has given us a ca- trilogue of about 3000 stars. Thes/.' are called telescopic stars, froiii their being iii visible witiiout tlie assistance of the telescope. Dr. Herschel, to whose ingenuity and assiduity the astronomical world is so nuich indebted, has evinced what great discoveries may be made by impro\ements in Ihe instruments of observation. " In j>assing rapidly over the heavens " with his new tclcscoju-," saysM. de Lalande, " the universe increased *' under his eye; 44,000 stars, seen in the space of a few degrees, seemed " to indicate that there were sevcnty-tive miliii.'ns in the heavens." But what are all these, when comprired to those that fill the whole ex- panse, the boundless tields of rethcr? Indeed the immensity of the universe must contain sui-h numbers as would exceed the utmost stretch of the human imaginati(jn ; for who can say how far the riuiverse extends, or point out those limits where the Creator " stayed his rajiid wheels/' or where he " fixed the golden compasses r" The immense dist;u)'.c of the fixed stais from onr earth, and from each otlier, is, ((fall considerations, the most proper f()r raisiMt;- our ideas- of the works of God. For, nolwitlystandiug the great extent of the truth's orbit or path (which is at least IpO millions of miks in diameter) round the sun, the distance of a fixed star is not sensibly atiected by it ; so that the .star does not appear to be any nearer to us when the earth is in that part of its orbit nearebt the star, than it seemed to be when the earth was ;jt the most distant part of it, or ICjO millions of miles farther removed from the same star. The star nearest us, and consequeiuly the largest in appearance, is the dog-star, or Sirius. Modern discoveries make it pro- bable, that each of those fixed stars is a sun, having planets and comets revolving round it, as our sun has the earth and otlier planets revolving round him. Now the dog-star appears 27,000 times less than the sun : and, as tlie distance (jf the stars nuist be greater in proportion as they seem less, mathematicians lia\ e computed the distance of Sirius from u.s to be two billions and two hundred thousand niillions of miles, A ray of light, therefore, though iis niotiiju is s(» (juick as to be conmiouly thought instantaneous, takes up more tiuie in travelling from the stars to us, tlian we do in making a West-India voyage. A sound, w liich, next to light, is considered as the quickest body we are acquaintod with, would not ar- rive to us from thence in 50,000 years. And a cannon ixdl, t!) iiig at the rate of 480 miles an hour, would not reach us in 700,(XJ() years. The stars, being at such immense distances from the sun, cannot pos- sibly receive from him so strong a light as they seem to have, nor any brightness suificient to make them visible to us. For the sun's rays must be so scattered and dissipated before they reach such remote objeits, that they can never be transmitted hack to our eyes, so as to render tho,»o ob- jects visible by reflexion. The stars, therefijre, shine with their own native and unborrowed lustre, as the sun does ; and since each jwrtieular star, as well as the sun, is confined to a particular portion pt sp;ice, it is c\ iiient that the stars are of the same nature with the sun. It is fiir from probable that the Almighty, who aUvays acts w ith in- finite wisdom, and does nothing in vain, should create so many glorious huns, fit for so many important purposes, and place them at such distaIl(•(:^; from each other, w ithout proper objects near enough to be benefited by their influences. \\'hoever imagines that tltey were created only to give *i flint glimmeiing light to the inhabitant'} yf tliis globe, imisi have ;i INTRODUCTION. i* li 1' i |i ^1 Tery superficial knowledge of astronomy*, and a mean opinion of the divine wisdom ; since, by an infinitely less exertion of creating power, the Deity could have given our earth much more light by one single additional moon. Instead then of one sun and one world only, in the universe, as the unskilful in astronomy imagine, that science discovers to us such an in- conceivable number of suns, systems, and worlds, dispersed tlirough boundless space, that if our sun, with all tlie planets, moons, and comets belonging to it, were annihilated, tliey would be no more missed by an eye that could take in the whole creation, than a grain of sand from tlie sea-shore j the space tliey possess being comparatively so small, that it would scarcely be a sensible blank in the uni\jerse, although the Georgium Sidus, the outermost of our planets, revolves about the sun in an orbit of 10,*830 millions of miles in circumference, and some of our Comets make excursions upwards of ten tliousand millions of miles beyond the orbit of the Georgium Sidus j and yet, at that amazing distance, they are in- comparably nearer to the sun than to ar.y of the stars, as is evident from their keeping clear of the attracting power of all tlie stars, and returning periodically, by virtue of tlie sun's attraction. From what we know of oxir own system, it may be reasonably concluded that all the rest are with equal wisdom contrived, situated, and provided with accommodations for rational inhabitants. For although there is an almost infinite variety in the parts of the creation which we have oppor- tunities of examining, yet there is a general analogy running through and connecting all the parts into one scheme, one design, one whole. Since the fixed stars are prodigious spheres of fire, like' our sun, and at inconceivable distances from each ottier as well as from us, it is reasonable to conclude they are made for the same purposes tiiat the sun is— each to bestow light, heat, and vegetation, on a certain number of inhabited planets, retained by gravitation witliin the sphere of its activity. What a sublime idea does this suggest to the human imagination, limited as are its powers, of the works of the Creator ! Thousands and thousands of suns, multiplied without end, and ranged all around us, at immense distances from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten thousand worlds, all in rapid motion, yet calm, regular, and harmonious, invariably kee})ing tiie paths prescribed them ; and tlicse uorlds peopled with myriads of intelligent beings, formed for endless progression in per- fection and felicity. If so much power, wisdom, goodness, and magnificence, be displayed in the material creation, which is tlie least considerable part of the uni- verse, how great, how wise, how good must HE be, who made and governs the whole ! sEcr. II. OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE SPHERE. HAVING, in tlie foregoing section, treated of tlie Universe in gene- ral, in which tlie earth has been considered as a planet, we now proceed to the doctrine of the Sphere. In treating this subject we shall consider the earth as at rest, and tlie heavenly bodies as performing their re- volutions around it. This method cannot lead the reader into any xnistiilce, since we have previously ex})laincd the true system of the universe, from which it appeal's, that it is the real motion of the earth * Especially since there arc niany stars which arc nnt visible without the assis- taiiC4i of a goo<l tek*sfope ; and therefore, instead of giving ligLt to this world, can «nly be s*^n by a few astrouomors. •2^^ Ym/iMT// jy////i'r€. Qj/Wn j»?*-«.r , .^l»-v ' -*' n INTRODUCTION. which occasions the apparent motion of tlie hwivenly bodies. It is besides attended with this advantage, that it perfectly agrees with the in- formation of our senses. The imagination therefore is not put on the stretch ; the idea is easy and familiar ; and in deUvering the elements of science, this object cannot be too much attended to. N. B. In order more clearly to comprehend what follows, the reader may occasionally tuni his eye to the annexed plate of tlie Artificial or Armillar)' Sphere. The ancients observed, that all the stars turned (in appearance) round the earth, fiom east to west, in twenty-four hours ; that the circles which they described in those revolutions were parallel to each other, but not of the same magnitude ; those passing over the middle of tlie earth be- ing the largest, while the rest diminished in proportion to their distance from it. They also observed, that there were two points in the heavens which always preserved the same situation. These points tliey termed celestial poles, because the heavens seemed to turn round them. In order to imitate these motions, they invented what is called the Artificial or Armillari/ Sphere, through tlie centre of which passes an Axis, whose extremities are fixed to the immovable points called Poles. They far- ther observed, that, on the 'iOtli of March and 23d of September, the cir- cle described by tlie sun \\'as at an equal disLance from botli tlie poles. This circle, therefore, must divide the earth into two equal parts, and on this account was called the E(juator or EquaUcr. It was also called the Equinoctial Line, because the sun, when moving in it, makes the days and nights of equal length all over the world. Having also observed, tliat from the 21 st of June to the 22d of December the sun advanced e\ eryday towards a certain point, and, having arri-.ed there, returned towards that from which he had set out, from the 22d of 'December to the 21st of June,— - tliey fixed these points, which they called Solstices, because the direct motion of the sun was stopped at tliem ; and represented the bounds of tlie sun's motion by two circles, which they named Tropics, because the sun no sooner arrived tliere, than he turned back. Astronomers, ob- serving the motion of the sun, found its quantity, at a mean rate, to be nearly a degree (or the 30'0th part) of a great circle in the heavens, every twenty-four hours. This great circle is called the Ecliptic, and it passes through certain constellations, distinguished by the names of animals, in a zone or belt, called the Zodiac, within which the moon and all the planets are constantly found. It touches the tropic of Cancer on one side, iind that of Capricorn on the otlier, and cuts the equator obliquely, at aa angle of twenly-tliree degrees twenty-nine minutes, tlic svui's greatest rieclination. To express this motion, they supposed two points in the heavens, equally distant froiu and parallel to this circle, which they called the Poles of the zodiac, which, turning with the heavens, by means of their axis, describe tlie tivo polar circles. In tlie artificial .sphere, the equinoctial, the two tropics, and two polar circles, are cut at right angles by two other circles called Colurcs, which serve to mark tiie jKiints of the solstices, equinoxes, and poles of the zodiac. The an- cients also observed that, when the sun was in any point of his course, all the people inhabiting directly north and south, as far as the poles, liave noon at the same time. This gave occasion to imagine a circle passing through tlie poles of the world, which they called a Meridian, and -which is immovable in the artificial sphere, as well as Uie Horizon, which ib another circle rejiresenting the bounds betwixt the two hemispheres, or Jwlf spheres, viz. tliat which is above and that which is below it. Is h \p '( 10 I.- INlTvODUCTION. SECT. III. DKSCRimON AND USE OF THE TEKRESTRIAI. GLOBE. THE Tcnvstrial Glork is a representation of the surface of the earth, on an arliticial globe, or hall on wiiich the several eoiintries and places are laid down according to their relati\e situations, and to which the circles of the sphere before described arc transferred. Axis and polks or thk karth.] The axis of the eartli is that imaginary line passing through its centre, on which it is supposed to turil round once in twenty-four hours. Tlie extrei-ue points of this line are called the Poles of the earth, one in the north and the other in tlie south, which are exactly under the two points of the hea\ens called Uio North and South Poles. CiRcr.F.s OF THF. GLOBE.] Thcsc are commonly divided uito the ;^nfitcr and less. A gnwt. nwlr ]■ that whose plane passes through the centre of the earth, and divides it ii.V' iv.'o equal parts or herrjsj}heres. A less circle is that which, biing p.'.r;i]ki to a greater, cannot pass tlirough the centre of the earth, nor divide it into two equal parts. The greater circles are six in number, tlu' les.-. only J'o:n\ Equator.] The first prcat c/irlc is the Equator, or Equinoctial; by navigators called the Line. The p^iles of this circle arc the same widi those of the world. Jt passes through the east and west points of the earth, and divides it into the northern and southern hemispheres. It is divided into 300 degrees, the use of which will soon appear. Horizon.] This,e!"re«/ circle is represented by a broad circular piece of wood encompassing the globe, and dividing it into the upper and lower hemispheres. Geographers distinguish the horizon into the sensible and rational. The first is that which bounds the utmost prospect of our sight, when we view the hea\ ens around us, apparently touching the earth or sea. This circle determines the rising or setting of the sun and stars, in any particular place; for when they begin to appear above the eastern edge, we say they rise ; and when they go beneath the western, wc say they are set. It appears that each place has its ()\\n sensible horizon. The other horizon, called the rational, encomjiasses the globe exactly in the middle. Its j)oles (that is, two points in its axis, eacli ninety degrees distant from its plane, as those of all circles are) are called the Zenith and iSaciir, — the former exactly above our heads, and the latter directly under our feet. The broad wooden circle which represents it on the globe, has several circles drawn upon it; of these the innermost is that exhibiting the number of degrees of the twelve signs of the zodiac, viz. thirty to each sign. Next to this are tlie names ol" these signs, together with the da}s of the month. Besides these, there is a circle representing the thirty-two rhumbs, or points of the mariner's compass. Meridian.] 77//a' circle is represented by the brass ring on which the globe hangs and turns. It is divided into 3t)0 degrees^ and cuts die equator at right angles ; so that, counting from the equator each way to the poles of the world, it contains four times ninety degrees, and divides the earth into the eastern and western hemispheres. This circle is called the meridian, because, when the sun comes to the south part of it, it is then nieridics or mid-day, and then the sun has its greatest altitude for that day, which is therefore called its meridian altitude. Now, as the sun is never in its meridian altitude at two places east or west of one another at the same time, each of these places must have its own me- ridian. There are commonly marked on the globe twenty-four meridianB^ one through every lifteen degrees of the ecjuator. ' ( INTRODUCTION. II :.OBE. ic earth, laces are c circles I IS that posed to this line r in the ailed tlio into the nugh the ispheres. not pass ts. The inoctial; :he same points ol lispheres. lar piece pper and e sensible ct of our the earth lid stars, ' eastern say they n. The y in the degrees le Zenith [directly on the is that lac, viz. logether bcnting lich the Lits tlie I way to Idividcs called |t, it is ide for las the ■)( one In nic- jidiauB^ Zodiac] The Zodiac is a broad circle, which cuts the cqviator ob- liquely; in which tlie twelve signs above mentioned are represented, lii the middle of this cirle is supposed another, called the Ecliptic, frcmi which tlie siui ne\er deviates in his annual course, and in which he ad- vances thirty degrees every month. The twelve signs are, September October November December January Februarv. 1. Aries V . . March 2. 3. Taurus Gemini n . April . IMay 4. Cancer ss . . June 5. Leo a ■ . July t>. Virgo m . . August 7. Libra 1O1 8. Scorpio n\, p. Sagittarius $ 10. Capricornus Vf 1 1. Acpiarius ;:; 12. Pisces K CoLUKES.] If we imagine tv:o itrcat circles both pas.sing through tliQ poles of the world, and one of them through the equinoctial points Aries and Libra, and the other through the solstitial points Cancer and Cajni- corn, these are called the Colures, — the one the Eqiiinoctial, the other the Solstitial Colure. — ^These are all the ^rcat circles. Tropics.] If we suppose two circles drawn parallel to the equinoc- tial, at twtfiity-three degrees thirty minutes' distance from it, measured on the brazen meridian, the one towards the north, the other towards the south, these are called Troj)ics, from the Greek word ri'/Trv;, a turn- ing, because the sun appears, when in them, to turn backwardii from his former course. The one is called the Tropic of Cancer, the otlier of Capricorn, because they pass through the first points of these signs. Polar circles.] If two other circles are supposed to Ixi dra\rn at the like distance of twent)'-three degrees thirty minutes, reckoned «n the meridian from the pi;lar points, these are called the Polar Circles. The northern is called the Arctic, because the north pole is near the con- stellation of the ii<Yfr, in Greek ap'/.to^ ; \\w southern, \\ii^ Antarctic, hc- cause opposite to the former. And tliese arc the/o?/r less circles. Zonks.] After the four less circles we have mentioned \\ere known, it was observed that the earth, by means of them, might be divided into five portions, and consecjueutly that the places on its .surface might be distinguished according as they lay in one or other of the.se portions, which are called Zones, from the Greek word ^avv;, which signiiies a girdle ; being broad spaces, like s\\ athes, girding the earth aliout. The torrid zone is that jiortion of the earth between the tr(»j)ics, and called by the ancients torrid, because they conceived, that, being conti- nually exposed to the perpendicular oi' direct rays of the s\in, it was ren- dered uiiinhabitable, and contained nothing but parched and sandy de- serts. This notion, however, has long since been refuted. It is found that the long nights, great dews, regular rains and bree/es, which prevail almost throughout tlie torrid zone, render the earth not only habitable, but so fniitful, that in many places they have two harvests in a year ; all .sorts of spices and drugs are almost solely produced there ; ami it furnishes tlie most perfect metals, precious stones, and pearls. In short, the coun- tries of Africa, Asia, and America, which lie under this zone, are in all respects the most fertile and luxuriant upon earth. The two L'(7;//)crrt^e roncv are comprised between the tropics and polar circles. They are called temperate, because, meeting tlie rays of the sun obliquely, they enjoy a moderate degree of heat. The two friirid zones lie between the polar tircles and the poles, or rather are enclosed within the polar circles, Tliey are called the frigid or frozen, because most part of the year it is extremely cold there, and every thing is frozen so long as the sun is under the horizon, or but a little above it. However, these zones are not quite iminhabitable, though much less lit for living in than the torrid. W] ^ i ; t V' 1, 1 < r ** i < 12 fNTRODUCTION. None of all these zones have been fully explored by the Eurojjcans. Our knowledge of tlie soutlienj temperate zone is very imperfect ; v« kntnv little of the northern frigid zone, and still less of the soutliem fri- gid zone. The northern teniperatc and torrid zones are those we are best acquainted with. Climatks.1 BeiidoH tlic division of the earth into hemispheres and zones, geographers have also divided it into climates, which are nairower js, each included between two parallels of latitude, at such a distance zones from each otlier, that the length of tlie longest day under tliat nearest the po!t- is increased liy half an hour. As tl:e length of the day under the equator is always twelve hours, and that of the longest day under the j)o!ar circles twi^nty-foiu" hours, it is evident that tliere must be twent} - four of these climates i)etween the ecpiator and either pole. Witliin the polar circles, sdiere the longest day is always more tlian twe!)ty-four hours long, tiio climates are reckoned by the increase of the day by months, till we reacli tlie pole, where th'j whole year consists only of six months day and six montlis night. Of these climates, therefore, there will be six, making tlie whole number on eacli side tlie equator tliirty. We here insert a table of climates, which will show the Icngtli of the longest day in most of the principal places in the world. TABLE OF CLIMATES. Ill .1* :■ n i; ^ m FD. M. S 2i 16 2: 23 50 30 20 36 28 -U 22 Breadt Lo.Da U. M 45 29 8 25 8 6 30 H. M 4 54 15 15 -,9 ]i 3 32 IC Names of Countries and n-markable Places, situated in | every Climate >i'oith of tlic Equator. ) 12 30 1. Within the first Climate lie the Gold and Silver Coasts in Africa; Malacca in the East-Indies; Cay enne and Surinam in Terra Firma, South America. 13 OIL Here Me Abyssinia in Africa; Siani, Madras, and Pondicherry in the East-Indies; St.i'its of Darien, between N. and S. Ain<:rica; Tobapo, llie Oranades, St. Vincent, and Barbadoes, in the West-Indies, 13 50 III. Contains Mecca in Arabia; Bombay, part of Ben- pal, in the East-Indies ; Canton, in China ; Mexico, Bay of Campeachy, in North America ; Jamaica, Hispaninla, St. Christopher's, Antigua, Martinico, and Guadaloupe, in the West-Indies. 14 IV. Egypt, and the Canary Islands, in Africa ) Delhi, capital of the Mogul Empire, in Asia; Gulf of Mexi- co, and East Florida, in North America; the Ilavan- nah, in the West-Indies. 14 30 V. Gibraltar in Spain ; part of the Mediterranean Sea; the Barbary coast, in Africa ; .Jerusalem ; Ispahan, capital of Persia; Nankin in China; California, New Mexico, West Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas, in North America. OVI. Lisbon, in Portnpal ; Madrid, in Spain ; Minorca, Sardinia, and part of Greece, in the Mediterranean; Asia Minor; part of the Caspian Sea; Samarcand, in Great Tartary ; Pekin, in China ; Corea, and Japan ; Williamsburg, in Virginia; Maryland, and Pliiladel pliia, in North America, 30 VII. Northern provinces of Spain; soutlK?rn ditto of France ; Turin, (ienoa, and Kome, in Italy ; Con- stantinople, and the Black Sea, in Turkey ; the Cas»- pian Sen, and part of Tartary ; New York, Boston in New England, North America. OjVJII. Paris; Vienna, capital of Germany; Nova Scotia, I Newfoundland, und Canada, in North America. INTRODUCTION. 13 a Scotia, a. Lat. D. M Breadt D. M. Lo.Da. H. M. 52 U 2 59 10 54 Q7 2 56 58 13;59 U61 62 63 64 64 65 65 2l!66 '2'>:66 23,66 C466 67 69 73 78 84 37 29 58 18 25 oo 6 49 21 47 6 20 28 31 21 48 37 30 3090 10 5'2 29 20 7 57 44 ♦3 32 26 19 14 8 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 Names of Countries and rnmarkahle Places, situai every Climatu North of thu Equator. "^ 16 30 IX. London, Flumlors, Prajruc, Dresden ; Cracow, in Poland; southern provinces of liussia; part of Tar tarv ; n»»rth part of N«wf(Huidlaud. 17 OX. I)ul>liii, York, Holland, Hanover, and Tartary Warsaw, in Poland ; Labrador, and New .S<jutli WaliS, in North America. 30 XL Edinburgh, ('openliaRCMi ; Moscow, capital of Russia XII. South part of Swtihin; Tobolski, capital of Siberia. SOXIII. Orkney Isles; Stockholm, capital of Sweden. OXIV. Berj^on, in Norway ; Petersburg, in Russia. 30 XV. Hudson's Straits, North America. XVL Siberia, and the south part of West Greenland. 30 XVII. Dronthcim, in Norway. OXVIII. Part of l''inland, in Russia. 30 30 30 3 24 1 ^lonth. 2 ^Months. 3 Months. 4 Months. 5 Months. 6 Months. XIX. Archanarel, on the White Sea, Russia. XX. Ilecla, in Iceland. XXI. Northern part of Russia and Siberia. XXII. New North Wales, in Nortli America. XXIII. Davis's Straits, in ditto. XXIV. Samoieda. XXV. South part of Lapland. XXVI. West Greenland. XXVIL Zembla Australi<!. XXVIIL ZemblaRorcalis. XXIX. Spitsbergen, or East Grecnlaad. XXX. Unknown. Quadrant op altitude.] In order to facilitate the performance of several problems, such as finding ilie altitude of the sun, measuring the distance and bearings of places. Sec, globes are provided with a pliant narrow plate of brass, divided ii.to ninety degrees, which screws on the brass meridian, and turns every vwuy. This plate is called the Quadrant of Altitude. Hour circle.] This is a sniall brass circle, fixed under the brazea meridian, divided into twenty-four hours, and having an index, movablo round the axis of the globe. Latitude,] The Ldtitndc of any place is its distance from the equator towards either pole, reckoned in degrees of the general meridian, and is northern or soutliern according as the place lies to the north or soutli of the equator. No place can have more than ninety degrees of latitude, because tlie poles where the reckoning of tlie latitude terminates are at that distance from tlie equator. If circles be supposed drawn parallel to the equator tlirough every degree, or every subdivision of a degree of latitude, tliese circles are called Parallels of Latitude. Longitude.] The longitude of a place is its distance from the first meridian, in degrees of a circle passing through it parallel to the equator, and is reckoned eitlier east or west. The first meridian is an imaginary se- micircle drawn through any particular place from pole to pole. The situa- tion of the first meridian, or the place from which the longitude is taken, i* arbiti'ary, and has been fixed differently at different times, and \i\ different countries. Formerly the meridian of Ferro, the most westerly of tlie Canary Islands, was made, in general, the first meridian ; probably, be- cause tlie ancient geographers considered it as the most westerly point of 11 il 14 introduction:. ill the habitable globe; but at present tlie English astronomers usually reckon trom the meridian of Tvondon, or ratlier that which passes through the observatory at Greenwich ; the Frcncli from that of Paris, &c. Ko place can have more than 180 degrees of longitude, because the circum- ference of the glf)be being 3(50 degrees, n'> place can be remote from another above half that distance ; but formerly the French and other foreign geographers, in conformity with an ordonnance of Lewis XIII., reckoned lin-'lr longitude from Ferro, only to the east, from the 1st to the 3(>0tli degree, or (juite round the globe. The degrees of longitude are not equan like tiiose of latitude, but diminish in proportion as the meridians incline, or their distance contracts as they approach the poh*. Thus in si.xty degrees of latitude a degree of longitude is but half tlie length of a degree on the equator. The number of miles contained in a degree of longitude in each parallel of latituUe is given in tlie following table. ii ^; A TABLE, Showing tlie Number of Englisli Miles contained in a Degree of Longitude, in each Parallel of Latitude from the Equator. Decrees lOOth Dctfioes lonth Dcfrrecs lOOth of Miles Parts of of Miles Parts of of Miles Parts of Latitude a Mill.'. Latitink a Mile. Latitude a Mile. 0° cy 20 30 59 92 60 34 60 1 69 1.9 31 59 32 61 33 55 2 oy 16 32 58 09 62 32 49 3 09 10 33 53 04 03 31 42 4 o-y 05 34 57 37 04 30 33 5 O'S ^d^ 35 50 09 05 29 24 6 68 82 36 55 98 00 28 15 7 68 63 37 55 20 07 27 04 8 Q^ 52 38 54 53 OS 25 92 9 68 55 ^^ 53 78 09 24 80 10 Q'i 14 40 53 01 70 23 07 11 6; 93 41 52 23 71 22 53 12 ^1 Op 42 51 42 72 21 38 13 6; 43 43 50 01 73 20 23 14 e; 14 44 49 78 74 19 07 15 QO 84 45 48 93 75 17 91 10" m 52 46 48 07 70 16 74 17 m 17 47 V 19 15 57 18 65 81 48 40 30 7S 14 39 IP 05 43 49 45 40 79 13 20 20 65 03 50 44 48 SO 12 02 21 64 60 51 43 55 '81 10 82 22 64 16 52 42 60 82 09 63 23 0-6 70 53 41 64 83 08 43 24 63 22 54 40 07 84 07 23 25 62 72 55 39 09 85 06 03 20 62 20 50 38 09 86 04 83 17 61 00 57 37 09 87 03 62 28 61 10 58 36 07 88 02 41 '^9 60 52 59 35 04 89 01 20 INTRODUCTION. 15 rs usuaify fs through &c. No e circum- iiote from and other wis XIII., the Ist to longitude ion as the the poh;. t half tlie iiincd in a following ree of r. OOth irts of Mile. eo 55 49 42 33 24 15 04 92 30 57 53 J8 J3 )7 n '4 '9 .0 >2 PROBLEMS PERFORMED BY THE GLOBE. pRorLEM 1. To iicctifi/ the Globe. Tiie globe being set upon a true plane, raise the pole according to tlie jjhen latitude ; tlieu fix the qundrant of altitude in the zenith ; and if tliere be any inarint- r'< compass upon the jxidestal, let the globe be so situated that the brazt- mendian may stand due south and north, accord- ing to the two extremities of the needle, allowing for its variation. Prob. 2. 7 'ml the Loiii^itudc and Latitude of any Place. Bring the given phi to the brazen meridian, and the degree it is under is the latitude} then jser\e the degree of the equator under tlie same meridian, and you will have the longitude. Prob. 3. The Longitude and Latitude of am/ Place being given, to find that Place on the Globq_. Bring the degree of longitude to the brazen meridian ; fnid upon thei same meridian the degree of latitude, whether south or norths and tlie point exactly under that degree is the place desired. Prob. 4, The Latitude of any Place being given, to find all those Places that have the same Latitude. The globe being rectilicd (a) according to tlie latitude ^ > p ^ of the given place, and that place being brought to the *"^ . ^. brazen meridian, make a mark exactly above tlie same, and turning the globe round, all those places passing under the said mark have the same latitude witlx the given place. Prob. 5. Tao Places being given on the Globe, to find the Disiaiicc bettveen them. If the places are under the same meridian, that is, have the same longi- tude, their difference of latitude, reckoning 69\ miles to a degree, will give the distance. If they have the same latitude, but differ in longitude, their distance miy be found by their ditTerence of longitude, reckoning the number of miles in a degree of longitude in their common parallel of latitude, ac- cording to the table given above. - If they differ both in latitude and longitude, lay the graduated edge of tlie quadrant of altitude over both the places, and the number of degrees intercepted between them will give their distance from each other, reckoning every d< gree to be ()9{ English miles. Prob. Q. T<-find the Suit's Place in the Ecliptic at any Time. The month and day being given, look for the same ujion the wooden horizon ; and ovei-against the day you will find the sign and degree in which the sun is at that time j which sign and degree being noted in Uie ecliptic, the same is the sun's place, or ncc:rly, at tlie time desired. Prob. 7- The Month and Day bein'j; giver, as al:;^ the p(v;icular Time of that Day, to find those Plucrs of I lie Globe to u;uii.h he Si'u is in the Meridian at that Time. The pole being elevated according to the latitude of the place whera you are^ bring the said place t..> the brazen meridian, and setting the 16 INTRODUCTION. 111 :i rt '■ index of the horary circle at the hour of the day, in the given place, or where you are, turn the glolx? till the index points at the upper figure of XII. 5 which done, tix the globe in tiiat situation, and observe what places are exactly under the upper hemisphere of die brazen meridian j for those are tlie places desired. Prob. 8. To krtoiv the Lcnt^th of the Den/ and Night in any Place of the EurtU lit (till/ Time. p ■ Elevate the pole (a) according to the latitude of the V p "^" ?■' gi^en place; hud the sun's place in the ecliptic (b) at (b) I- ROB. 0. that time; which being brought to the east side of the horizon, set the index of the hcjrary circle at noon, or tlie upper figin-e of XII. ; and turning the globe till tlie aforesaid place of the ecliptic touch the Vvcstern side of tlie horizon, look upon the liorary circle ;• and where the index points, reckon the number of hours to tlie upper figure of XII., for that is length of the day ; the complement of which to 24 hours is the length of the night. Prob. p. To know hu the Globe iihat o'Clock it is in any Part of the World at any Tunc, provided you know the Hour of the Day nhere you are at the same Time. ^ p ^ Bring the place in ^^ hich you are to the brazen merl^ ( J ROB. ^ ^i^xi^ tijf pole being raised (c) according to its latitude, and set the index of the horar)- circle to tlie hour of the day at tliat time. Then bring the desired jilaci; to the brazen meridian^ and the index will point out the hour at that place. Prob. IC. A Place bein^^iren in the Torrid Zotie, to find the ftvo Days cf the Year in uhich the Sun shall be vertical to the same. Bring tlie given j)lacc to the brazen meridian, and mark what degree of latitude is exactly above it. Move the globe round, and observe the two points of the ecliptic that pass through the said degree of latitude. Find upon the wooden horizon (or by proper tables of the sun's annual motion) on what days he passes through the aforesaid points of the ecliptic ; for those are the days required, in which the sun is vertical to the given place. Prob. 11. The Month and the Day being given, to find by the Globe thons^ Places of the Northern Frigid Zone, vJiere the Sun begins then to shine constantly idthout setting ; as also those Places of the Southern Frigid Zone, xvhere he then begins to be totally absent. The day given (which must be alw'ays one of those eitlier between the vernal equinox and the summer solstice, or bctwtH?n the autumnal equi- Cd)Ti "^ 6 "'^^■^ ^'^ ^1^ "^^"^^''i' solstice),* find (d) the sun's place in the ecliptic, and, marking the same, bring it to tlie brazen meridLin, and reckon die like number of degrees from the north pole towards tlie equator, as there is betw een the equator and the sun's place in the eclip ;c, making a mark where die reckoning ends. Tlien turn the globe round, and all die places passing under the said mark are those in which the sun begins to shine constantly without setdng, upon the given day. For solution of the latter part of tlie problem, set oif the same distance fiom the south, pole upon the brazen meridian towards tKe, equator, as .was iu the former case set off from the north j then marking as INTRODUCTION. 17 jlace, Of figure of at places for those :e of the e of tlie :ic (h) at e of the figure of touch the irhere the XII., for jrs is the art of the Uay 'iihere zen meriv- i latitude, that time, index will ;o Days cf degree of e the two ide. Find ial motion) lipticj for the given XGlohc thouR, ten to shine lem Frigid etwecn the Innal equi- Vs place in Itlie brazen ] north pole I sun's place ITlien turn mark are ^ting, upon set oiF the Inwards tKe, Imarking aS before, and turning the globe round, all places passing under tlie mark are those where the iun begins his total disappearance from tiie given day. pp. OB. 12. A Place bftn^ ^iven in either of the Frigid Zones, to find by the Olobe what Xutnbir of Day:: the Sun constantly shines upon the said Place, and what Days he is absent, as also the first and last Day qf'his Appearance, Bring tlte given place to the brazen meridian, and observing its lati* tude Cuj, elevate the globe accordingly j count the same , Prob 2 number of degrees vipon the meridian from each side of the equator as the place is distant from the pole; and making marks where the reckonings end, turn the globe, and carefiiUy observe what two degrees of the ecliptic p.iss exactly under the two points marked on the meridian ; first lor die northern arch of the circle, namely, that comprehended between the two degrees marked, which, being reduced to timt, will give the liuniber of days that tlie sun constantly shines above the horizon of the given pku e ; and the opposite arch of the said circle will, in like manner, give the number of days in which he 'n totally absent, and also v^ill point out v»hich days those art And in tiie interval he daily w ill rise and ^et. pROB. 13. The Month and Day bein;'; s^iven, to find those Places on the Globe^ to which the Sun, tvhen on the Meridian, shall be vertical on that Day. The sun's place in the eclii)tic being found (b), bring -. p_„_ g the same to the brazen meridian, on which make a small ^ mark exactly above the sun's place. I'hen turn the globe ; and those places which have the sun vea'tical in the meridian, will successively pass under the said mark. Prob. 14. The Month and Day being given, to find upon what Point of the Compass the Sun then rises and sets in any Place, Elevate the pole according to the latltuflc of the place, and, finding fhe sun's place in the ecliptic at the given time, bring the same to the ' eastern side of the liorizon, and it will show the point of the compass upon which he then rises. By turning the globe till his place coincides with the western side of the horizon, you may also see upon that circle tflie exact point of his setting. pROB. 15. To know by the Globe the Tuength of the longest and shortest > Days and Nights in any Part of the World, Elevate the pole according to the latitude of the given place, and bring the first degree of Cancer, if in the norlhcrn, or Capricorn, if in the southern hemisphere, to tl'.e eastern side ot the horizon. Then, setting the index of the horary circle at noon, turn the globe about till the sign of Cancer touches the western side of the hori/.on, and observe upon the horary circle the nr.mber of horns between the index and the, upper I'gure of XII., reckoning tlunn according to the motion of the index; {ox that is tlie length of the longest day, the complement of which "to 24 hours is the extent of the sbuvlest, niglit. The shortest day and longest night are only tlie reverse of the former. PnoB. lO. The Hour of the Day being given at any Place, to find those Places of the Earth ivhcre it is either Noon or Midnight, or anj/ other jiurticidar Hour, at the same Time. 3ring tlie given plawe to tlie brazen meridian, and set tlxe index of tho C 19 INTRODUCTION. mil: i' -i ^ horary circle at tj.e hour of the day in that place. Then turn the glohp till the index pAints at the upper figure of Xll., and observe what places .ire exactly under tlic upper semicircle of the brazen meridian; tor in them it is mid-day at the time given, WJiich done, turn the globe till the itidevx points at the lower figure of XII., and whatever places arc then in the lower semicircle of the meridian, in them it is midnight at the given time. After tlie same manner wc may find those places that havr any other particular hour at tlie time given, by moving tlie globe till the index points at the hour desired, and observing the places Uiat are then under the brazen meridian. ^ f I Prob. 17, The D(iT/ and Hour being given, to find hj the Globe thut par- ticular Place of the Earth to uhich the Sun is vertical at that Time. The sun's place in the ecliptic (a) being found, and (a) Prob. 6. brought to the brazen meridian, make a mark above the (bj pROB..lO\ same; then (b) find those places of tlie earth in whose meridian the sun is at that instant, and bring them to tlie brazen meridian ; which done, obsene that part of tlie earth which falls exactly under th(,' aforesaid mark in the brazen meridian ; for tliat is tlio particular place to which tlie sun is vertical at that time. Prob, ]8, The D'u/ and Jlot/r at ani/ Place being given, to find all those JHacex ulurc the Sitn is thin rising, or setting, or iii the Meridian ; con- scqucntli; all those Places xihich arc enlightened at that Time, and those " vJiich have Tivilight, or dark Night. This problem cr.nnot be solved by any globe fitted up in the common way, with tlie hour-circle Hxed upon the brass meridian, unless tlic sun be on or near either of the tropics on the given day. But by a globe fitted up witii the hour-circle on its surface below the meridian, it inay .be solved for any day in die year, according to tlie following method. Having found the place to which the sun is \ ertical at the giAen hour, if the place be in the northern hemisphere, elevate the north pole as many degrees above the horizon as are equal to the latitude of that 'place : if the place be in the southern hemisphere, elevate tlie south pole accordingly, and bring the said place to the brazen meridian. 1'heii, nil those places which are in the western semicircle of the horizon, have the •sun rising to thorn at that time, and those in the eastern semicircle ha\e it setting : to those under the upper semicircle of the brass meridian it is noon; and to those under the lower semicircle it is midnight. AH those places whicli are abo\e the horizon aie enlightened by the sun, and have the sun just as many degrees above them as they thenisehes are sihove the horizon; and this height tnay be known, by fixing the (pia- drant of altitude on the brazen meridian over the ])lace to which the .«uij is vertical; and then laying it over any other plgco, observing wh.at num- ber of degrees on the quadrant are intercepted between the s:i d place; and tlic horizon. In all those places that are 18 degrees Ix-Iow tlu'^ western semicircle of the horizon, the morning tw'Iight is iust beginning ; in all those places tliat are 18 degrees below the eastern semiciicle of the horizon, the evening twilight is ending; and all tho;e places that arc lower than IS degrees, have dark night. If any place i)e brought to the upj)er seniioirr le of the brazen meridian, and the hour index be set to the upper figure of }'!!., or noon, and Uit.'u the glol)e be turned round eastw.ird on its axis, — when thejjliicc comes to the -■w wdtern seniiciri;le of the hodzou, the inde." wiU bhov^' the time of tin. suii's INTRODUCnOX. 19 the globe liat plac»'3 \; for in globe till s are then jht at the Inces th;it the globe es Uiat are c that par- t Time. ■ound, and . above the [\ in Nvhose liem to tlie which falls tliat is tlie rising at that place ; and when the same place comes to the eastern semi- circle of the horizon, the index Svill show tlie time of ilie sun's setting. To those places which do not go under the horizon, the sun sets not on tliat day : and to tliose which do not come above it, tlic sun does not rise. Phob. 19. The Month and Day behig given, ivith the Pkicc of the Moon in the Zodii-iC; and her true Latitude, to find the exact Hour ichcn she will rise and set, together ivith her Southing, or Coining to tlie Meridian of the Place. > The nioon's place in the Zodiac may be found by an ordinary alma- nack } ,'ind her latitude, which is her distance from the ecliptic, by ap- plying the semicircle of position to her place in die zodiac. For tlie so- lution of the problem, elevate the pole (a) according ^^ /' ) p .„ .. the latitude of tlie given place; and the sun's place in ^"'^ lu • . the ecliptic at tlie time being (h) found, and marked, as <'/, ) pp p g also the moon's place at the same time, bring the sun's ^ ^ place to tlie brazen meridian, and set the index of the horary circle at noon ; tlien turn the globe till the moon's place successively meet witii tli» eastern and western side of the horizon, as also tlie brazen meridian ; and tlie index will point at those various times Uie particular hguri of her rising, setting, and southing. nd all those idinn; con- ', and those he common less the suti by a globe ian, it may iiethod. igiven hour, rth pole as de of that south pole Then, nil n, have the licirde have meridian it liglit. Ml y the sun, uselves are g the <iu;i- cb the .-un .vliat miiu- s'.i d place hclosv the. leginning ; rcle of the IS that an; meridian, |d Llien the Imcs to the If till, suii's GEOGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS. 1 . The latitude of any place is equal to tlie elevation of the pole above the horizon of that place, and tiie elevation of tlie equator is equal to th« complementof the latitu<le, that is, to wliat the latitude wants of 90 degrees. 2. Those places which lie on the ecpiator have no ktitudo, it being there that the latitude begins; and tliose places which lie on the first me- ridian have no longitude, it being there that the longitude begins. Con- st'(juejitly, that particular place of the earth where tiie fir^Jt meridian inter- sects the etjuator has neitlicr longitude nor latitude. 3. All places of the earth equallv enjoy tlie benefit of the sun, in re- spect of time, and are equally deprived of it. 4. All places upon the equator have tlieir days and nights equally long, that is, 12 hour* each at all times of tlie year. For altliough the sun declines alternately from the equator towards the north and towards th^ soutli, )et as tiie horizon of the equator cuts all the parallels of latiiudo and declination in halves, the sun must always continue above the hori- zon for one half a diurnal revolution about the earth, and for the othct half below it. 5. In all places of the earth between tlie equator and poJcc. the dayS and nights are equally long, viz. 12 hours each, when tlie sun is in the f(luinoctial : for, in all tlie elevations of the poic short of yo dcsrices (which is the greatest), one half of the cqdator or equinoctial will be <ibo\ e the horizon, and the other half below it. (5. The days and nights are never of an equnl length at any place 'be- tween tlie equator and polar circles, but when tlie sun enters the siLniS <Y» Arips and ^ Libra. For in e\*ery other part of the ecliptic, tlie circle of the sun's daily motion is divided into two unequal parts by the horizon. 7. The neariT any place is to tlie equator, the less is the ditference be- tween tlie lengiLi of the days and nights in that place ; and the more re- mote, the contrary ; — the circles \n hich the sun describes in the htaveni e\ery 24 lunirs being cut more nearly equal ifli tlie toimer case^ and nior* uncqviai ill the latter. C2 ii I; 1 20 INTRODUCTIOX. If ; i' ' ( lis li'; r Ml 8. In all places lyiniy upon any given parallel of latitude, howcvei- lonoj or short the day and nigiit be at any one of those places at any time of the" year, it is then of the same length at all the rest ; for, in turning the globe roiuid its axis (when rectified according to the sun's declination), alt those places will l-ieep equally long above and below the horizon. Q. Tlie sun is vertical twice a-year to every place between die tropIcSj to tliose under the tropics, once a-year, but never anywhere else. For there can be no • place between the tropics, b\it that there will be two points in the ecliplic A\'hose declination from the equator is equal to the latitude of that place ; and there is but one point of the ecliptic whicli has a declination equal to tlie latitude of places on the tropic whith that point of the ecliptic touches; and as the sun never goes without the tro- pics, he can never be vertical to any })lace that lies witliout them, 10. In all places lying exactly under tlie polar circles, the sun, wheir he is in the nearer tropic, continues 24 hours above the horizon without setting, because no part of that tropic is below their horizon. And when tlie sun is in the farther tropic, he is for the s;ime length of time without rising, because no p.irt of tliat tropic is below their horizon. But at all otiier times of the year, he rises and sets there as m other places ; because all the circles that can be drawn parallel to the equator, between the tropics, are more or less cut by the korizon, as they are; farther from, or nearer to, that tropic w hich is all above the horizon j and w hen the sun is not in either of the tropics, his diurnal course must be in one or other of those circles. 1 1 . 1 o all places in the northern hemisphere, from tlie equator to tlie polar circle, the longest day and shortest night is when the sun is in tlie northern tropic ; and tlie sh(jrtest day and longest night is when the sun is in the southern tropic j because no circle of the sun's daily motion is go much above the horizon, and so little below^ it, as the northern tropic ; and none so little above it, and so much below it, as the soutliern.. lix. tlie southern hemisphere, the contrary takes place. 12. In all places between the }x>lar circles and ptiles, tlie sun appears for some number of days (or rather diurnal revolutions) without setting, and at the opposite time of tlie year without rising; because some part of the ecliptic ne\er sets in the former case, and as much of the opposite part never rises in the latter. And the nearer unto, or the more remote from, the pole, these places are, the longer or shorter is the sun's continu- ing presence or abtence. Hi. If a ship set out from ;M\y port, and sail round the earth east- ward to the same port againj let. her perform her voyage in what time .she \sill, the people in that ship, in reckoning their time, will gain ono t:oinpleie day at their return, or count one day more tlian those who re- side at the same port; because, by going contrary to the sun's diurnal motion, and hein,.^ forwarder every evening than they were in the morn- injj, their horizon will get so much the sooner above- the setting sun, tlian if they li.td remained for a whole day at any particuUr place. And thus, by cutting off from llie length of every day a part proportionablf .to their own motion, tlicy will ;>-ain <i tomulote day at their returu, with- ■out gaining oiie moment of alisohite time. If they sail westward, they "will reckon one day k'ss than the pecijjle do why reside at the samo port; Jje(>au.-;e, by (.yadiially following the apparent diarn;d motion of the sun, they will keep him eaeJi particular day so mucii h.'iiger above the hori- //.on as answers to that day's course; and thereby ciu olf a whole day jn reckoniiig, at tiieir return, wiihoui Josiug one moment of absoluii* Vfkio.' Jar Mm vei INTRODUCTION. 21- ime of the ; the globe ation), alt >n. lie tropics J else. For vill be two qiial to the ptic which which that lUt thetro- sun, whciT on without zon. And rth of time :iv horizon. •<w in other ho equator, as they are he horizon $ course must uator to tlie mn ia in tlie hen the sun ly motion is liern tropic ; luUiern. la sun appears lOUt setting, se some part the opposite more remote .in's continu- ; earth east- lU what time will gain ono lose who re- sun's diurnal in the morn- setting sun. place. And iroportionabk retuvu, with- •stward, they 10 samo port ; m of the sun, ove the hori- a whole day n of absoluiw Honce, if two ships should set out at the same time from any port, End sail round the globe, one eastward and tlie other westward, so as to ijiieet at the same port on any di\y whatever, they will ditfer two days in reckoning die time, at their return. If tliey sail twice round the earth, tiiey %v ill difler four days j if thrice, tlien six, i:c. OF THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH. THE constituent parts of the Earth are two, the land and ica/cr. The parts of the land are continents, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, promontories, capes, coasts, mountains, &c. This land is divided into two great continents (besides the islands), viz. the eastern and ivestcrn continent. The eastern is subdivided into three parts, viz. Europe, on the nortli-west ; Asia, on the north-east ; and Africa (which is joined to Asia by the isthmus of Suez, ClO miles over), on the south. The ^vestenl continent consists of North and South America, joined by the isthmus of Darien, nearly 70 miles broad. A continent is a large portion of land, containing several countries or kingdoms, witliout any entire separation of its parts B^'• water, as Europe. An island is a smaller part of land, quite surrounded by water, as Great Britain. A peninsula is a tract of land, everywhere surrounded by water, except at one nan*ow neck, by which it joins the neighbouring continent, iis the Morea in Greece; and tliat neck of land which so joins it is called an istlimus; as the istiimus of Suez, which joins Africa to Asia, and the istlimus of Darien, which joins North and South Ame- rica. A promontory is a hill, or point of land, stretching itself into the cea, the end of which is called a cape ; as the cape of Good Hope. A coast or shore is that nart of a country which borders on the sea-side. Mountains, valleys, woods, deserts, plains, 8cc. need no description. The most remarkable are taken notice of, and described, in the body of this work. The parts of the water are oceans, seas, lakes, straits, gulfs, bays, or creeks, rivers, &c. The waters are divided into three extensive oceans (besides lesser seas, which are only branches of these), viz. tlie Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian Ocean, llie Atlantic or W^esteni Ocean divides the eastern and western continents, and is 3(X)0 miles wide. The Pacific divides America fr.im Asia, and is 10,000 miles over. The Indian Oci'an lies between tiic East Indies and Africa, being 3000 miles wide. An ocean is a vast collection of water, ■c'itliout any entire separation of its parts by land ; as the Atlantic Ocean. A sea is a smaller coileo- tion of water, which communicates with Uie ocean, confined by the land", as tlie Mediterranean and the Red Sea. A lake is a large coiiec- tiou of water, entirely surrounded by land; as tlie lake ot Geneva, and the lakes in Canada. A strait is a narrow part of the sea, confined or iying between two shores, and opening a p;isHage out of one sea into another, as the strait of Gibrahar, or that of JNIagellan. This is some- times called a sound, iltthe strait into the Baltic. A ii;ulf is a part of the sea rimning up into the land, and surrounded by it except at the passage by which it coniinunicates with the sea or ocean. If a gulf be very large, it is caljed an inland sea, as the Mediterranean ; if it do not go far into iJie land, it is called a bajj, as the bay of Biscay ; if it be very wmall, a cnc/x:, haven, slHtion, or road for ships, as ]Millord Haven. Ri- yvrif ci\iul;p^ Uruokb, iSrc. need no description j for tliese kbbcv diyidioa 22 INTRODUCTION. hi ^ ' I' I ^4' in ^'f of water, like those of land, arc to be met w'lih in niost coiintri??, and e,very one has a clear idea of what is meant by them. But in order to strerigthin the remembrance of tlie great part.s of the land and water we iiavc descrilx'd, it may be proper to ob.scrve tliat there is a strong ana>» logy or ruiemblance between them. The description of a continent re- sembles that of an orean ; an island encompassed with water resembles a lake encomp.issed wiih land. A peninsula of land is like a gulf or in- land sea. A promontor)- or cape of huid i.s like a bay or creek of the pea; and an isthmus, whereby two Lnuls arc joined, resembles a strait, which luiites one sea to another. . ' OF THE TKUE FIGTTRE AND DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH. Though we have hitherto spoken of the casth as a spherical or globular body, it is necessary to observe that it is not a perfect sphere. Its true iigure was the subject of great disputes botwecn tlie philosophers of tlie lasta'-^e, among whom sir Isaac Newton, and Cassini, a celebrated French astronomer,- were the leaders of two different parties. Sir Isaac showed, from matliematical principles, that the eartli must be an oblate spheroid, or tliat it Avas flatted at the poles and jutted out towards the c<iuator, so tiiat a line drawn tlu'ough tlie centre of the earth, and passing tlirough the poles, would not be so long as a line <lrawn through the same centre, and passing through the east and west points. The French mathemati- cian asserted precisely the reverse, that is, that its diameter was lengthened towards the poles. In order to decide this question, the king of France, in i736, sent out some able mathematicians to Lapland, to measure the lengtli of a degree of latitude at the polar circle, and likewise others to Peru, to make tlie same admeasurement near the equator. ■ Their obser- vations contirmcd the opinion of sir Isaac Newton beyond dispute, and proved that the eartli is tlatter towards the poles than towards the equator. 1'he nature of sir Isaac's reasoning may be in some measure elucidated by the simple experiment of fixing a ball of soft clay on a spindle, and whirling it round, for we shall find that it will jut out or project towards the middle, and flatten towards tlie poles. Sir Isaac, from his theory, liad determined that the polar diiimeter of the eartli must be to the equa- torial as 229 to 230, or about 35 miles shorter. Maupertuis, and the other French mathematicians who v ent to Lapland, deduced, from their mensuration of a degree, that the equatorial diameter is 79'12 miles, and the polar 7&52 miles ; so that the former exceeds the latter by t)0 miles. According to these calculations, the ciraimference of the earth under the equator will be 24,0.5 1 miles, which multiplied by the diameter will give Jp3,l60,842, the number of square miles (sixty-nine and a half to a cicgrec) in the spherical suiface of the earth ; and tliis number multiplied by one sixth of tlie diameter will give 524,541,748,7/4, the number of cubic miles in its solid contents. We here subjoin a table exhibiting the superficial contents in .square miles, sixty to a degree, of the seas and unknovri parts of the world, of tlie habitable eartli, the four quarters or continent*; likewise of the great empires, and principal islands^ placed as tliey are subordinate to each other in magnitude. INTRODUCTION. ar 1 order to water we .Square Miles. Islands. .Square IMilcs. The GIoIk; - - - 148,510,627 Seas and unknown Parts - 1 17,84.), S'21 Tlif Habitable World * - 30,666,806 Europe - - - '2,749,349 A^ia . - - . 10,'2J7,487 Africa - - - «,576,208 America ... 9,15^,762 Persian Empire under Darius 1 ,650,000 Kom. Em. in its utmost height 1,610,000 1 Russian ... 4,S64,000 Chinese - - - 1,298,000 Turkish - - - 652,960 Present Persian - - 800,000 British, oxclasivc of .Settle- ) .,,„ .^,^ mcntsin Africa icGibraltar ^ *^"'*-" United States - - 923,000 ISLAND.S. Borneo - - - 228,000 Madaj^ascar - - 168,000 Sumatra - - - 129,000 Japan ... - 118,000 Great Britain - - 77,24:) Celebes - - - 68,400 Manilla - - - .'jS.SOO tceland ... - 46,000 Terra del Fucgo - - 42,075 Mindanao - - - 39,200 Cuba - Java - - Hispaniola Newfoundl. Ceylon - Ireland - Formosa Aniau - Gilolo . Sicily - Timor - Sardinia Cyprus . Jamaica - Flores Cerani 1 Breton - Soeotra - Cnndia Porto Rico Corsica -, Zealand - Majorca - St.Jaso - Noftropout Tcnerifl'e - iGotliland I Madeira 38,400 38,250 36,000 35,500 27,730 27,457 17,000 1 1 ,900 10,401) 9,400 7,800 6,600 6,300 6,000 6,000 5,400 4,000 ;3,6l)0 3,220 3,200 2,520 1 ,9-35 1,400 1 ,400 1,300 1,000 - 950 Islands. Square; Miles. St. Michael Sky - - - Lewis - - - Fniien - - - Yvica - - - Minorca - - Rhodes - - Ceph^lonia Aujhoyiia . . Orkn, Pomona Scio - - - Martinico Lcnmos - - Corfu - - - Providence Man - - ■ Boruholm Wijiht - ■ Malta . Barbadocs Zanto - .Vntitiua - St. Christophe St. Heluna Guernsey Jersey Bernmdas Bhch; - r'« 920 9U0 880 7(^8 6-'5 520 480 420 4fiO 394 300 26t) 22U 1'.'4 168 iro 160 150 150 140 120 IOC 80 8(1 50 43 40 3C To these islands may be .idded the following, which have lately been discovered or more fully explored. The exact dimensions of them are not aicertained ; but they may be arranj^ed in the following order, accordin?^ to their magnitude, beuin- ninc; at the largest, whicli is supposed to be nearly equal in size to U»e whole eon tineut of Europe : ■.urope ; New Holland, New Guinea, New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Otaheite, or King Oeorce's Ljland, Friendly Islands, Sandwich Islands, Naviixatijr's Islands, Marquesas, Easter, or Davis's Island. rope contains - - 150 Millions. la - - - 450 nca - 50 nerica - 50 Total 700 Before we conclude this introductor\' part of our work, it will be proper tD give a brief explanation of the nature and cause of winds and tides. Winds.] The eartlx on which we live is everywhere surrounded by a fine invisible fluid, which extends to several miles above its surface, and is called Air. It is found by experiments, that a small quantity of air is capacle of being expanded, so as to till a very large space, or to be com- pressed into a much smaller compass tlian it occtipied before. The ge- neral cause of the expansion of the air is heat ; that of its compression, cold. ITence, if any part of the air or atmosphere receive a greater degree <)f cold or heat than it had befojre, its parts will be put in motion, and ex- panded or compressed. But when air is put in motion, we call it iviud in j^ciicral; and a bieciic, gale, or stunn, accoidini^ to the quickness or \ e- 34: INTRODIXIIOX. s : ■; Ki' ill ?; r il 1 III i, %A i .-i'- ii; ,1 1» i , locity of that motion. Winds, therefore, which are commonly consi- dered as things extremely variable and uncertain, depend on a general cause, and act with more- or less uniformity in proportion as tlie action of this cause is more or less constant. It is found, by observations mado at sea, that, from thirty degrees north latitude to thirty degrees sputh, tliere is a constant east wind throughout the year, blowing on the Atlan- tic and Pacific oceans, and called the Trade Wind. This is occasioned by tlie action of the sun, w hich, in moving from east to west, heats, and consequently expands, the air immediately under him ; by which means a stream or tide of air always accompanies him in his course, and occa- sions a perpetual east-wind within these limits. This general cause, how- ever, is modified by a number of particulars, the explication of which, would be too tedious and complicated for our present plan. The winds called the Tropical U'inds, Vhich blow from some par- ticular point of the compass without much variation, are of three kiuds; I. Ti)e Gene>'(d Trade Winds, which extend to nearly thirt}-^ degrees o? latitude on each side of the equator in tlie Atlantic, Ethiopic, and Pacific seas. 2. Tlie Monsoons, or shifting trade winds, which blow six months in one direction, and (he otJier six months in the opposite. These, a:e mostly in the Ir.dinn or f^astcrn Ocean, and do not extend above two hundred leagues from tiie land. Their change is at the vernal and au- tumnal equinoxes, and is accompanied with terrible storms of thunder, lightning, and rain. 3. The Sea and Land Breezes, which are another kind of periodical winds, that blow from tlie land from midnight to mid- day, and from tlie sea from about noon till midnight j these, hcwever, do not extend above two or three leagues from shore. Near the coast of Guinea in Africa, the wind blows nearly ahvD'/s from tlie west, south- west, or south. On the coast of Peni in South America, the wind blows constantly from the south-west. Beyond the latitude of thirty north and. south, the winds, as we daily perceive in Great Britain, arc more variable, though they blow oftener from tlie west tlian any other point. Between the fourth and tenth degrees of north latitude, and between the longitude of Cape Verd and that of tlie easternmost of the Cape Verd Islands, there is a tract of sea condemr^ed to perpetual calms, attended witli terriblo thunder and lightning, and such rains, that tliis sea has acquired tlie name of the Rains. Tides.] By the Tides is meant that regular motion of the sea, accord- ing to which it ebbs and fiows twice in twenty-four hours. The immortal sir Isaac Newton was tlie first who satisfactorily explained the cause ancf nature of tlie tides by his great principle of attr-ietion, in consequence of which all bodies mutually draw or attract each other, in proportion tc* tlieir masses and distance. By the action of this power, those parts of the sea which are immediately below the moon must be drawa towards it; and, consequent!}-, wherever the moon is nearly vertical, the sea will be raised, which occasions the flov'ng of the tide there. A similar cause produces the flowing of the tide likewisc'in tliosc places where the moon is in the nadir, and which must be diametrically opposite to the former: for, in the hemisphere farthest from tlie moon, the parts in tlie nadir, being less attracted by her than the other parts which are nearer to her, gravitate less towards the e:irtli's centre, and consequently must be higher than the rest. Those parts of the eartli, on the contrary, wliere the moon appears on the horizon, or ninety degrees distant from the zenith and nadir, will have low water ; for, as the waters in the zenith and nidir ris<' at tlie same time, tlie wate.s in tliiir neigl)b<Mir~ hood will press" tov/:uds tiiOiC pL'.cUj to niai:if;iiuiiic cf^nliibriuin , and t» ily consl- a general he action ons madp ;es sputh, he Atlan- )ccasioncil lieats, and ch means and occa- use, how- of which, ;ome par- :ee kiuds ; degrees of iopic, and 1 blow s\x, e. Thc^e above two il and au- f Hmndor, e another ht to raid- hawever, le coast of !Pt, south- ^ind blows nortli and. variable, Betweerv longitude nds, there 1 terrible uired the |a, accord- immortal ;ause and isequencc [portion ta. parts of towards ie sea will similar here the iitc to the irts in die nearer to must be [y, where llVom the |he zenith 'iirlibfMir- li , and t» le way, aiid so on to id nadir, where the vith tlie diurnal mo- le of the reason why It t\venty-foui hoUrs nonth, that is, about ' Tides : for at tliese :ed, and draw in the more elevated. At jie same side of tlie zenith, and conse- hen tlie earth is be- water in the zenith less than ordinaiy i' the moon, and ar« ;s tlie waters ^\•hcre )on raises tliemj so which the action ut' sun. These effects rfece of the eartli of islands and con-> er, a variety of ajp- ich cannot be ex- s, straits, and other frcnts in the ocean, ; ourse. There is a \ R'hich always runs ! rom the Atlantic, n. A current sets tween Sweden and io tides in the Bal- e of the ocean, the moutlis of river^ APS. or a part of it. A globe, as it would rles bounding such lies running across h of the eciuator, id the curve lines y tenth degree of )m the fi; St meri- id passing through xmces from which, id polar circles. draM'n on what is to navigators. In 1 the former eqtii- eiy parallel are the ng lengthened to- .oulhisorojeotioa. I . .■Asrrn iHo .\ o H i II i: K N I O r i: A \ .••,;vr/» ■X! r r 1^ ^.^.^y-v!^^ h J ■'•vy^ti^ ' /nit^f SAMvufJ i ' If ^ i, ^^ -^ I JiS(I)«*''nui^ XiM^tha Sound . ^-^ "KJ- ./ r / / / r A M R «^I V ^V^^M. , , , '<<v-/?M^a^ /rrl< I'ortujf al^i/,^/ . , i,r /"w/w / / /. »»*<*v«' ( l>«k >r,o- iiui>k/ ^ aV;„^tr^A> "^ /»jr/,«gC^. I) i K <l II I It c> r t I a I o n A I ij II I. I 11 p J*. ^y llfhrijat Tropic /. tnut \ .Xorliilk I s o I- r 1 1 I' a p r i c <> r n .V A' / ' b.i -u S J) I -f i .)" .1 IX-^.. I C.i^VT, yK< ;.AMhjK» . j /i nli- V J. J>4 .,/v ?.'/"i/ii//irtr tJUf. •fe'-i ™___ ""^' l.iDlrolii I.olulnii i;i> ()i) r.^iUV^Z/f/t/ / i-i'it.ihj I 'Ji/j.//-' '■rti/^ii.i 'tit/ 'u/uitiM I" t I r <• 1 I- . I ,. .»<> 1 (> 4~ :»" ' An s > "'-'^Y '^- .vk J n t: H >,i .1 ^ r « /y / ^ Ck.tik Okotsk ( S } f.uv \ mi i A F- U I (• r A- ./ .r ^^"'"■;^-v■■' .)" ■^, ('.''* n.'^ut ^y-' "••1 'i'^yrfiutuin »w-- ' 'ijTfXj'wn / .•V.Vr7l4« ^•''•Ui'/lhini f I :,<!,. I Kt I .VI. /atln'it^ i" .^^^C3>.«»«» ^ . • *-— V ' 11.. (nn.iyr, V-. J I *. V >2-*^^^. *^'ii:-. ^r.^^S'"''""'" ^ '^ .♦' f / Iti I It I ••.■/■i;i<i " '• " -• l^*inxl^ I'un i it^nftij- itutJ " < A. ./ .V }i.,Uhl (■ 1 I . I .»<< o ,»» 6o ;»•> iMiiyfUuilc r'asf I." ffoin r..iii,i„n 1 ^ liv %■ 'X, ;M locity of that motion dered as things extre cause, and act v/ith r ; of this cause is more < * at sea, that, from Ht there is a constant tea; tic and Pacific oceans by tlie action of the s consequently expand; a stream or tid; of ai sions a perpetuui east ever, is modified by Avould be too tedious The winds called ticulnr point of the c 1. Tiie Gaieral 'Fra latitude on each si Pacific seas. 2. Th months in one direc< aie mostly in the Ir.' hundred leagues fro tumnal equiiioxes» lightning, and rain; kind of periodical w da}', and from the do not extend abovi Guinea in Africa, t west, or south. O constantly from the south, the winds, as though they blow ( the fourth and tehtl of Cape \'erd and i is a tjact of sea C( thunder and lighti name of the Rainx Tides.] By the ing to which it ebb sir Isaac Newton ■< nature of tiie tides of which all bodie their masses and t the sea which are it 5 and, conseque; be raised, which cause produces th moon is in the na former : for, in t nadir, being less £ her, gravitate les higiier than the n the moon appeat zenith and nadir and nulir rise ~s hood will pre.-s'.tc 8o \o TaJronrP Capfictf^K ;() iernffirZitfui [,60 m IXTROCUCTION. P .'.y/Trt'/n": jo supply the place of these, otlicrs will move thf saniP way, aiid so on to the pkices ninety degrees distant from the '/•nlth and nadir, where the water will be lowest. By combining tiiis doctrine with th*^ diurnal mo- tion of the earth above explained, wt> shall be sensible of the reason why the tide ebb and tiow twice in a lanar day, or about twenty-four hoilrs tifty minutes. The tides aro higher than ordinary tn ice every month, that is, about the limes of new ainl full moon, and are cilled Spring Tides : for at lliese times the a.ctions of botii the sun nr.d moon are united, and draw in the samu btraight line ; and consetiuently the sea must be more elevated. At the conjunction, or when tlie sun and moon are on tlic same side of tlie tarth, lliey both conspire to raise the waters in the zenith, and conse- quently in the nadir ; and at the ojiposiiion^ or when the earth is be- tween tl^e sun and moon, while one occasions high water in the zenith and nadir, the other does the same. The tides are less than ordinary twice every month, about tlie fusst and last quarters of the moon, and ar« called Neap Tides: for in those quarters, the sun raises tlie waters where the moon depresses them, and depresses where the moon raises them j so that the tides are only occasioned by the ditference by which the action ol' the iTiooo, which is nearest us, prevails over that of tlie .sun. These etlects would fee produced unitbrmly, were the whole surface of the earth covered with water; but since there are a multitude of islands atid con- tinents which interrupt the natural course of the water, a variety of ap- pearances are to be met with in ditferent places, which caruiot be ex- plained wittiout a)usi(lering the situation of tlie shores, straits, and other objects tliat have a share in causing them. Currents.] There are frcciuently streams or currents in the ocean, which set ships a groat way beyond their intended course. There is a current between Florida and tiie Bahama islands, which always runs' frfwn soutli to north. A current runs constantly from the Atlantic, through the Strait of Gibraltar, into the Mediterranean. A current sets oiit of the Baltic Sea, through the Sound or strait between Sweden and Denmark, into the British channel, so that there are no titles in the Bal- tic. About smail islands and head-lands ui the middle of the ocean, the tides rise very little j but in some bays, and about the mouths of river^ Uiey rise from 12 to 50 feet. .^11 ifmms-Zanii CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF ]\f\PS. Maps.] A map is a representation of the earth, or a part of it. A /nap of the world is a delineation in perspective of the globe, as it would appear to an eve placcrl in a particular point. The circles bounding such a nwp fi-'prt'scnt tlie brass meridian, and the curve lines running across at e^'ery ten degrees show the latitude north or south of the C([uator, The top and bottom are the north and south poles ; and the curve lines luiiting them are other meridians passing through every tenth degree of the equator, and .showing the longitude east or west from the fi.st meri- <lian. The straight line intersecting these meridians, and passing through the centre, is the equator, or equinoctial ; at proper distances from which, on each side, are curve lines representing the tropics and polar circles. Maps and charts, especially the latter, are sometimes drawn on what is called Mercator's Vrnjection, which is particularly of use to navigators. In these the m<'ridians and parallels are straight lines, and the former equi- distant from each other. The degrees of longitude in cveiy parallel are the same, while the dv>-:roes of latitutie are all unequal, being lengthened to- wards tiie poles. \\'c have annexed y Cliart ui" the World on this urojeotiois.. i«1 I 2:& INTRODUCTION. . In maps of particular countries, the top is generally considered as the north, the bottom as the south ; and the east i'j consequently on the right hand, and the west on the left. Where this mle is not followed, a Jiower-de-luce is usually placed on some part of the map, pointing towards the north, by which the other points may be easily known. From die top to the bottom of the map are drawn meridians, or lines of long;itude ; aiid from side to side parallels of latitude.^ The outermost of the meri- dians and parallels are marked witli degrees of latitude and longitude, hy means of which, and the scale of miles commonly placed in the corner of tlie map, tlie situation, distance, &c. of places maybe found. Thus, ■Jo find the distance of two places, supix)se London ami Paris, by the iTiiip, we have only to uieasure tlic space between them with the com- passes, and to apply this distance to the :>cale of" miles, which shows tliat London is 210 miles distant from Paris, If tlie places lie directly north or south, cast or west, frona each other, we have only to observe the dcr grees on tlie meridians and parallels ; and by turning these into miles, we obtiiin tlie distance without measuring. Rivers are described in maps by black luies, and are wider towards tlie moutli than towards the head or spring. Mountains are sketched on maps as on a picture. Forests and woods are represented by a kind of shnib; bogs and morasses by shades j sands and shallows are described by small dots ; and roads usually by irfouble lines. Near harbours, tiic depth of the water is expressed by -•ligures denoting fathoms. Length ok miles in difffrent countries.] There is scarcely a greater variety in any thing tlian in this sort of measure : not only tliose of separate countries ditier, as the French from tlie Jinglish, but those of the same country vary in tlie ditferent provinces from each otlier, and from the standard. Thus tlie common English mile difters from tlie statute mile : and die French have tliree sorts of leagues. We shall here give the miles of st:veral countries, compared wi'h die English by Dr.Halley. The English statute mile consists of 5280 feet, 1 /OO yards, or 8 flirlongs. The Russian verst is little more than * of a mile English. The Scotch and Irish mile is about 1| English, The Dutch, Spanish, and Polish, is about 3^ English. The German is more than 4 English. The Swedish, Danish, and Hungarian, is from 5 to G Engljsli. * The French common league is near 3 English j and TJie English marine league is 3 English miles. . . PART II. OF THE ORIGIN OF NATIONS, LAWS, GOVERNMENT, AND COMMERCE. • HAVING, in the following work, mentioned the ancient names of conntrresj and even sometimes in speaking of those countries c;irried our researches beyond modern times, it was thought necessary, in order (o prepare die reader for enterhig upon the partlcidar history of each country wo describe, to present him with a general view of the iiistory of mankind, from the hrst ages of the world to the reformation in religion during the lU'th century. An account of the most interesting and innx)rtant events which have hapiiened among mankind, with the causes that have produced, and the etfects which h;uo followed from them, is certainly of great importiuice in itsvlf, and indispensably ru(juisitc to the luuitrstiUKiing of the preueut state of commerce, go\-ern* INTRODUCTION. ed as tilt? the right lowed, a g towards >oni die ongitude ; he nieri- ongitude, le corner Thus, , by the he coni- lows tliat tly north c the dcr iiiles, we maps by liead or estij and ^ shades ; ually bjr sssed by carcely a ly tliose tJiose of lier, and ioni tlie lall here glish by inlongs. NT, nies of cjirried •0. i" Lory ot' of the [nation resting til the ! from nsably nerU" tnent, arts, and manners, in any particular country : it ma}' be caHcd commercial and political geograpiiy, and, undoubtedly, constitutes tho most useful branch ot" that science. The gre^it event of tlie creation of the world, before which there was neither matter nor form of any tiling, is placed, according to tiie best chronologers, in the year before Christ 4001, and in the /lOtli year of what is called the Julian period, which has been adopted by some chro- nologers and historians, but is of little real service. Th(i sacred record* have.fully determined the question, that the world was not eternal, and also ascertained the time of its creation with great precision*. It appeius in general, from the tirst chapters in (ienesis, that tho world, before the flood, was extremely populous ; that mankind had made considerable improvement in tlie arts, and were become extieniely ticious, both in their sentiments and manners. Their wickedness gave occasion to a memorable catastrophe, by which the whole hu- „ p man race, except Noah and his family, were swept from the face <,A|o* of the earth. The deluge took place in the lt)5C»th year of the * world, and produced a very considerable change in tlu; soil and atmos- phere of this globe, rendering them less friendly to the frame and tex- ture of the human body. Hence the abridgement of the life of man, iuid that formidable train of diseases which has ever .since made such^ havock in the world. The memory of the three sons of Noah, the first * founders of nations, was long preserved among their several descendants. ' Japhet continued famous among the western nations, under the cele- brated name of lape'.us; the Hebrews paid an equal veneration to Shem, who was tlie founder of their race ; and, among the Egyptians, Ham was long revere.l as jf divinity, under tlie name of Jupiter Ilammon. It appears thiit hunting was the principal occupation some centuries after the deluge. The world teemed with wild beasts ; and the great heroism of those times consisted in destroying tliem. Hence Nimrod obtained immortal renown ; and, by the admiration which his courage and t. p dexterity universally excited, was enabled to found at Babylon ,,^4-* the first monarchy whose origin is particularly mentioned in his- ' '' tory. Not long after, the- foundation of Nineveh was hiidbyAssurj and in Eg>-pt the fcnir governments of Thebes, Theri, Memphis, and 'lanis, began to assume some appearance of form and regularity. That tlujse events should have -liappened so soon after the deluge, whate\er surprise it may have occasioned to the learned some centuries ago, need not in the smallest degree excite tlie wonder of the present age. We have seen, from many instances, the powerful etfects of the principles of population, and how speedily mankind increase, when the generative faculty lies under no restraint. The kingdoms of Mexico and Peru were incomparably more extensive than tlui'-e of Babylon, Nineveh, and Egypt, during that eaily age; and yet these kingdoms are not supposed to have exisfed tour centuries before the discoxery of America by Colum- bus. As mankind continued to multiply on the earth, a^id to se])anite from e^icli otlier, the tradition concerning the true God \\lt,s obli- p p. terated or obscured. This occasioned the calling of Abraham to ,',,,' be the father of a chosen people. From this period tJie history of -^ ancient nations begins to dawn, * The Snmarit.in copy of tiie Pciitatcuoh (or fivo books) of Moses, makes tlic ant« • diluvial! period only 1''07 yosirs, 34^ short of the llcl)iu\v V,\\t\v. eoinpiUatio'i , and tlie Scptiiai<iiit ropy stretches it to 'J26'2 years, wliicli is ()()(i years (ixewiiiim- it; but tUc Ik'brcw ciironolojy is gcacrally acknowledged to be of sinicrior authority\i 9§ INTRODUCTIONS i;|i ,1 'I II! •; Mankind had not long been united into societies before they begaif to oppress and destroy each other. Chedorlaomcr, king of the Elam- ites, or Persians, was already b»:fcomc a roiiber and a contjueror. Hi» force, hovevcr, could not have been very great, since, in one of hii ex- peditions, Abraham, assisted only by his household, set upon him in his retreat, and, after a fierce engagement, recovered all the spoil tliat had been taken. Abraham was soon obliged by a famine to leave Canaan, the country where God had commanded him to settle, and to go into Egypt. This jolirney gives occasion to Moses to mention some particulars respecting tlie Egy^nians, which evidently discover die cha- racteristics of an improved and powerful nation. » The court of the Egyp- tian monarch is described in die most brilliant colours. He was sur- rounded by a crowd of courtiers, solely occupied in gratifying his pas- sions. The particular governments into which that country was divided \vere now united under one powerful prince; and Ham, who led the co- lony into Eg3'pt, became thr founder of a mighty empire. We arc not, however, to imagine, that all the laws which took place in Egypt, and which have been so justly admired for tlicir wisdom, were the work of that early age. Diodorus Siculus, a Greek writer, mentions many suc- cessive princes who laboured for their establishment and perfection. But in the time of Jacob, two centuries after, the first principles of civil order and regvJar government seem to have been tolerably understood among the Egyptians. The countiy was divided into several district* or separate departments; councils couiposed of expeiieuced and select persons were ostablislied for the management of public attairs; gra- naries for preser\ ing i:oru were erected ; and, in line, tlie Egyptians in that age cnjnyed a oommerre far from iii<.:onsiderai)le. It is from the Egyptiarts tliat many of the rirt?, both of elegance and utility, have been handed down in an liriiaterriiptt'd chain to die modern nations of Eu- rope. The Egyptians cortimunicated their arts to the Greeks ; the Greeks taught the Konians n^ny impro\ements both in the arts of peace and war; and to the Romans the present inliahiiants of Europe are indebted for their civilisation and rerinement. The kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh remained sej>arate for several centuries : but we scarcely know even the names oi' tlie kings who governed them, except that of Nums, the successor of A^sur, who, fired vvilli the spirit of conquest, extended the bounds of his kingdom, added Babylon to his dominions, and laid tli6 foundation of tliat monarchy, which, raised to its meridian splendor liy his enterprising successor Semiramis, and (listinguished by the name oi' the Assyrian empire, ruled Asia for many ages. Javau, son of Japhet, and griuulson of Noal), was the stock from whom all the people known by the name of Greeks arc descended. Javan esta- blished himself in tlie islands on the western coast of Asia Minor, from w hence it Nvas imiiossible that some wanderers shwuld not pass over into Europe. The kingdom of Sicyon, near Corinth, founded by the Pela.sgi, is generally supposed to have commenced in tlie year before Christ '2()()t). To these first inlmbitantii succeeded a colony from Egypt, who, about 2000 )X'^irs before the Christian wra, penetrated into Greece, and, under the name of Tilansi, endeavoured to establish monarchy in that C(Muitry, and to introduce into it 'he laws and civil polity of tlio -Eg)pti.inss But the enipin; of the Titans was soon dissolved ; and the Greeks, who neeni to have been at this time as rude and barbarous as any people in the world, again fell back into tlicir lawless and savage manner of life. Several colouies, however, soon after passed over from Asia info Gici-cc, and, by rcinauiing in that country, produced a more toyauie- tNTRODUCTlON; *i9 ^atble alteration in tlie manner of its inhabitants. The most an- ^ ^ cient of these were tlie coloniei of Iiia<;hus and Ogyges ; of w horn jJcX' the former settled in Ai-gos, and the latter in Attica. Wu know verja Uttle of Ogyges or his successors. Tliose . Inachns endeavoured to tii Ixe tlie dispersed and wandering Greeks j ana their endeavours for tliis purpose were not altogether unsuccessful. But the history of tlie Israelites is the only one, with which wc ar« much acquainted during those ages. 1 he train of e-xtiaordinary events wliich occasioned the settling of Jacob and his family in that part of Egypt of which Tanis was the capital are universally known. That patriarch died, according to the Hebrew chronology, only lCi84> j, p years before Christ, and in the year of the world 2315. This is a j.jod* reniarlublc sera with respect to the nations of heathen antiquity, ~'' and concludes that period of time which the Greeks considered as alto- gether unknown, and which they have greatly distigured by tlielr ftbu- ious narrations. Let us examine, then, what we can learn from tlie sa- cred writings, witli respect to tiie arts, manners, and la^^'s, of ancient nations. it is a common error among writers on this subject, to consider all tlie nations of antiquity as being then alike in these respects. They find Home nations extremely rude and barbarous, and hence tliey conclude tliat all were in tlie same situation. They discover others acquainted with many arts, and hence they infer tlie wisdom of tlie first ages* There appears, liowevcr, to have bec'u as much ditierence between tha inhabitants of the ancient world, with regard to arts and retinement, as between the civilised kingdoms of modern Europe and the Indians of America, or the Negroes on the coast of Africa. Noah was undoubtedly acquainted with all tlie science and arts of the antediluvian world : these he would communicate to his children, and they again would hand them down to their posterity. Those nations, thereture, who settled nearest the original seat of mankind, aiul who had the best oppoitunities to avail tliemselves of the knowledge which tlieir great ancestor was possessed of, early formed tlienitclves into regular societies, imd made considerable improvements in the arts \\ Ivch iue most subserviei'.t to hu- man life. Agriculture appears to have been know n in the lirst ages of the world. Noah cultivated the vine : in the tinu; of Jacob, the lig-trce gnd the almond were well known in the land of Can.ian ; and tlie in- btrwments of husbandry, long before the iliscovcry of them in Greece, are often mentioned in the sacred writings. It is scarcely to bo supposed that tlie ancient cities, both in Ajia and Egypt (whose foundation, as wc have already nientionefi, ascends to the remotest nntiquity), could have bet;n built, unless the culture of the ground had been practised at that time. Nations w ho live by hunting or pasturage only, lead a wandering; life, and seldom li:<. their residence n» cities, (^ouunerce naturally fol-^ lows agriculture : and though wc cannot trace the steps by \\ Inch it was introduced among tlie ancient nations, we may, from detached passages hi sacred writ, ascertain the progr^^sj w hi^h had boe^i made in it during ihe patriarchal times. We know, from the history of civil society, that the commercial intercourse betwet>n men must be pretty considerable, be- fore the metals come to be cotisidered as the medium of trade ; and yet this was the c.nse even in the days of Abraliam. It appears, however, from the relations which establish this fact, tliat the use of money had not been of ancient date ; it had no mark to ascertain its weight or tinc'^ JICS8 ; and in a contract for a burying-place, in e.Kchanjc for w hich Abran llAni gave silver, the metal wiis V|'ei<5hcd in tlie presence of all the people, 30 lNTRt>DUCTlON. ■■ m- As commerce improved, and bargniiis of this sort became more common, this practice was bid aside^ and tlie quantity of silver was ascertained by a p;ii ticuhir mark, which saved Uie trouble of weighing it. ^ut tliis doe* not appear to have taken place till the time of Jacob, giandson of Abraham. The rcfilnh, of which we read in his time, was a piece of money, stamped with the ligure of a lamb, and of a precise and stated Value. The liistory of Joseph shows that commerce between different nations was then regularly carried on. The Ishmaelites and Midian- Jtes, who bought him of his brethren, were travelling merchants, re- sembling the modi^rn caravans, who canned spices, perfumes, and other rich commodities, from their own country into Kgypt. Job, who, ac- cording to the best writers, was a native of Arabia Felix, and also a con- temporary with Jacob, spealcs of the roads of Thema and Saba, i. c. of the caravans which set out from those cities of Arabia. If we reflect tiiat tlie commodities of that country were rather the hixuries tlian tlie necessaries of life, we shall have reason to conclude that tlie countries into which they were sent for sale, and particularly Kg}'pt, were con- siderably improved in arts and refinement. That branch of (I)e posterity of Noah who settled on tlie coasts of Pa- lestine, were tlie first people of the world among whom navigation was made subservient to commerce : tlu^ were distinguished by a word which in the Hebrew tongue signifies merchant!^, and are the same nation after- wards known to tlie Greeks by the name of Phaujicians. Inhabiting a barren and ungrateful soil, they applied themselves to improve their situ- ation by cultivating the arts. Commerce was their principal pursuit: and with all the writers of pagan antiquity, they pass for the inventors of what- ever tended to its achancement. At the time of Abraham they were re- garded as a powerful nation; their maritime commerce is mentioned by Jacob in his last words to his children; and, nccording to Herodotus, tlie Phaiiicians had by this time navigated the coasts of Greece^ and carried olf the daughter of Inachus. The arts of agriculture, commerce, and navigation, suppose the know- ledge of several others : astronomy, for instance, or a knowledge of the situation and revolutions of the heavenly bodies, is necessary both to agriculture and navigation ; tliat of working metals, to commerce; and 5*0 of other arts. In fact we find, that before tlie death of Jacob se- veral nations were so well acquainted with the revolutions of the moon, as to measure liy them the duration of their year. It had been a cvistom among all the nations of antiquity, an well as the Jews, to di- vide lime into portions of a week, or seven days: this undoubtedly arose from the tradition with ri^gard to the origin of the world. It was na- tural for those nations >aIio led a pastoral life, or who lived under a seretu; slcy, to observe that the various appearances of the moon were completed nearly in f>ur weeks: hence the division of a month. Those pi^ople, again, who lived by agriculture, and were become acquainted with the di\ision of the month, would naturally remark that twelve of these brought back tlie same temperature of the air, or the same seasons: ♦lence the origin of w hat is called the lunar year, which has e\'erywhere taken ]»lace in the infancy of science. 'I'iiis, together with the obser- vation of the fixed stars, which, as we leani from the book of Job, mu.<?t iiavi'bcen ven,' ancient, naturally prepared the way for the discovery of tin solar j/Kir, which at that time would be thought an immense improve- inent in astronomy. But, with regard to those branches of knowledge which we have mentioned, it is to be remembered that they were pe» culi.ii' to the Egyptians,. . and a t«:w nations qi" Asia. Europe yflxjra « INTRODUCTION. m gloomy spectacle during this period. Even the inhabitants of Greece, who in later ages became the patterns of politeness and of uvery elegant art, were then a savage race of men, traversing the woods and wilds, inliabiting the rocks and caverns, a wretched prey to wild animals, and sometimes to each other. Those descendants of Noah who had re- moved to a great distance from the plains of Shinar, lost all connexion witli the civilised part of mankind. Their posterity became still more Ignorant; and tlie human mind was at lengtJi sunk into an abyss of miser)' and wretchedness. We might naturally expect, that, from the death of Jacob, and as we advance forward in time, the history of the great empires of Egypt and Assyria would emerge from their obscurity. This, ho\vever. is far fri)ni BC. 1550. pe* astonishing blank in the history of that empire for no less tlian eight hun dred years. The silence of ancient history on this subject is commonly at- ti'ibuted to the softness and elfcminacy of the successors of Ninus, whose Hves afforded no events wortliy of narratioi). Wars and commotions are the great themes of the historian, while tho jjcntlu and happy reigns of wise princes, pass unobserved and unrecorded. Sct^ostris, a prince of •wonderful abilities, is supposed to ha\e succeeded Amt-nophis, who was swallowed up in the Red Sea about tlie )ear before Christ I892. liv his assi(hiity and attention, the civil and military establishments of the Egyptians received very considerable improvements. Egypt, in the time of Sesostris and his immediate successors, was, in all probal)iiity, the most powerful kingdom upon enrth, and is estimated to have contained 27 millions of inhabitants. But ancient histon' often excites, without gratifying, our curiosity ; for, from the reign of Sesostris to that of B(je- choris, in tlie year before Christ 17^1, ^ve have little knowledge of e\tn the names of the intermediate princes. Egypt, ho\\e\er, continued tc» pour forth her colonies into distant nations. Athens, that seat of learnini!: and politeness, tluit school for all who aspired to v\ isdom, owed its foundation to Cecrops, who landed in Greece with an Egyptian colony, and endeavoured to civilise tlie rough mannei's of the ori- ginal inhabitants. From the institutions which Cecrops established among the Atlienians, it is c^sy to infer in \vhat a condition tl">y musi ha\e lived before his arrival. I'he laws of n\inriage, which few nations are ho bar- barous as to be altogether unacquainted with, were not known in Greece. Mankind, like the Ix-asts of the held, were propagated b\- accidental con- nexions, aiul with little knowledge of tliose to whom they owed •., ^ tlieir birtli. Cranaiis, who succeeded Cecrons iu the kinrulom of Attic;i, pursued the same beneiicial plan, and eutlcavoined, by wise institutions, to bridle tlie keen passions of a rude people. Whilst these princes used their endeavours for civilising this corner of Greece, tlie other kingdoms into which this country, by the natural boiui- daries of rocks, mountains, and river?:, was divided, and which had been already ])Copled by colonics from Egypt and ilie East, began to assiune some apptnuanee of form and regularity. Aniphictyon conceived ,^ ^, the idea of uniting in one cont'ederacy the several independent r,' ".' •kingdoms of Greece, and thereby delivering them troui_ those '^ intestine divisions which must render them a pi^y to each other, or to tlie ■first enemy who might think proper to in\ade them, 'i his jjlan he com • luunicated to tlic kings or leaders in die different territories, and by his •dv'iuencc and addresi engaged twche cities tu uuitti tugetJier fur ilieir si INTRODUCTION'. V.l I'/ ': '! - '!,.iS ,. i « t4- !' : ri B.C. 1263. common presen'ation. Two deputies from eadi of thdse cities assemblad twice a-year at Thermopylae, and tormecl what, alter the name of its founder, was called the Amphictyonic Council, In this assembly, what- ever related to tlie general interest of the confederacy was discussed and finally determined. Amphictyon lilcewise, sensible that those political connexions are the most lasting which are strengtliened by leligion, com- mitted to tlie Amphictyons the care of tlie Temple at Delphi, and of di& riches which, from tlie dedicatioixs of those who consulted tJie oracle, had been amassed in it. This assembly Avas the great spring of action iii Greece, while that country preserved its independence ; ami, by Uie union •which it inspired among the Greeks, enabled them to defend their liber- ties against all the force of the Persian empire. Considering the eircum- Wances of tlie age in which it was instituted, the Amphictyonic council is* perhaps, the most remarkable political establishment which ever took place among mankind. In the yeai- before Christ 1322, tlie Isthmian games were instituted at Corintli; and in 130;) the famous Olympic games by Pelopsj which games, together with the Pythian and Nemoean, have been rendered im- mortal by the genius of Pindar. The Greek states, formerly unconnected with each other, except by- mutual inroads and hostilities, soon began to act with concert, and to undertake distant expeditious for the general interest of tlie con- federacy. Tlie fii'st of tliese was the famous expedition of tlie Argonauts, in which all Greece appears to have talcen part. The object of the Argonauts was to open the commerce of the Euxine Sea, and to establish colonies in die adjacent country of Colchis. The ship Argo, which was the admiral of the Heet, is tli« only one particularly named ; though we learn from Homi'r, and othef ancient writers, diat sexcijl vessels were emiiloyed in dint expedition. The fleet was long to»sccl about on ditlerent coasts ; but at length arrived at yEa, the capital of Coicliis, after performing a voyage, which, conside- ' ring the mean condition of the na\al art during that age, was not less important dian the circumnavigation of die earth by our moJern discover-^ „ p ers. During die interval betwc^in dns voyage and tlie war against liqV Troy, which was undertaken to recover the fair Helena, a qu(x.*n ^ ■ o4" Sparta, who had been carried otfby Paris, son of the I'rojaa king, the Greeks must have made a wonderfiil progress in arts, in po\MT, and f)pulence. No less than ]'100 vessels were employed in this ex- pedidon, each of which, at a medium, ('ontained upwards of one hundred men. These vessels, however, Mvre but half-decked j and it does not. appear that iron entered at all into dieir construction. If we add to these circumstances, that the Greeks had not the use ol' the saw, an in- strument so necessary to the carpenter, a motlern must form luit a meim notion of the strengdi or elegance of dils fleet. Having thus considered the" state of Greece as a whole, let us examine the circum-itances of the pr.riicular countries Into which it was divided. There appears originally to ha\e been a remarkable reHemlilaU'-L*, as to their political situation, between th(> ditl'ereut kingdoms of (ireeoe. They were governed each by a king, or rather by a chieftain, who wiw their le.uier in time of war, their judge in time of peace, and who pre- sided in the administration of tiien* n-ligious ceremonies. This jiriuce, Jiowever, was far from being absolutt;. In each scjciety there were a number of odier leiciers, who.'^c influence over their particular clans or titibe^i was not ka cuusidt'iiible Uiaa that of the lj,i;i^ ovvi" liis imim> INTRODUCTION* diate followers. These captains were often at war with each other, and xometimes with their sovereign ; and e»ch particular state was, in n^ini- aiivre, what the whole country had been before the time of Amphictyon. Theseus, king of Attica, about the year B. C. 1234, had, by his exploits^ acquired great reputation for valour and ability. He saw the incon« veniences to which his country, froni being divided into twelve d" tricts, was exposed ; and he conceived, that, by means (^ the influence which his personal character, united to the royal authority with which he was invested, had universally procured him, he ;night be able to remove them. For this purpose he endeavoured to maintain and even to increase his popularity among the peasants and artisans ; he detached, as much as possible, the different tribes from the leader^ who commanded them ; lie abolished the courts which liad been established in different parts of Attica, and appointed one council-hall common to all the Athenians. Theseus, however, did not trust solely to the force of political regula- tions. He called to his aid all the power of religious prejudices. By establishing conmion rites of religion to be performed in Atliens, and by inviting thither strangers from all quarters, by the prospect of pro- tection and privileges, he raised that city from an inconsiderable village to a powerful metropolis. The splendor of Atliens and of Theseus now totally eclipsed that of the other villages and their particular leaders. All the power of the state was united in one city, and under one sove- reign. The petty chieftains, who had formerly occasioned so much cou- jfusjon, being now divested of all intluence and consideration, became humble and submissive j and Attica remained under the peaceable go* rerninent of a monarch. Tins is a rude sketch of the origin of the first monarchy of which we liave a distinct account, and may, M'ithout much variation, be applied to tlie other states of Greece. Tl»is country, however, was not destined to continue long under the government of kings. A new influence arose, which in a short time proved too powerful both for the king and the nobles, Theseus had divided tlie Athenians into three distinct classes, —the nobles, the artisans, and tlic husbandmen. In order to abridge the exorbitant power of die nobles, he had bestowed many privilege* on the two other ranks of citizens. This plan of politics was followed by his successors ; and the low er ranks of the Athenians, partly from tJie countenance of their sovereign, and partly from the progress of arts and manufactures which gave them an opportunity of acquiring pro- perty, became considerable and independent. These circumstances were attended with a remarkable effect. Upon the death of Codrus, a prince of great merit, in the year before Clirist 10/0, the Athenians, become weary of the regal autliority, under pretence that they could find no one worthy of filling the tlirone of that monarch, who had devoted himself to death for the safety of his people, abolished the regal power, and pro- claimed that none but Jupiter should be king of Athens. The government of 'Ihebes, another of the Grecian states, mnch about the same time, assumed the republican form. Near a century before the Trojan war, Cadmus, with a colony from Phoenicia, had founded this city, which from that time had been governed by kings. But the last sovereign being overcome in single combat by a neigh* bom-ing prince, theThebaiis abolished the regal power. Till the days, however, of Pelopidas and Epaminondas (a period of se\'en hundred years), the Thebans performed nothing wjorthy of the republican spirit^ Other cities of Greece, after the example of Thebes and Athens, erected thems^>lvos into republics . But tiie revolutions of Athena and Sparta, two iiig -11 3 t .1 V: J'' lit n' w 34 INTRODUCTION. B.C. 684. T, p rival states, which, by means of the superiority they acquired, ga\'e il* tlie tone to the manners, genius, and pohtirs of the Greeks, deserve ^^' o\ir particular attention. The Athenians, by abolishing the name of king, on the death of Codrus, did not entirely subvert the regal authority : they established a perpetual magistrate, who, under the name of Archon, was invested with almost the same powers which tlieir kings had enjoyed ; but after that office had continued three hundred and thirty-one years in the family of Codrus, they endeavoured to lessen its dignity, not by abridfino- its power, but by shortening its duration. The first period a - signed for tlie continuance of tlie archonship jn the same person, .vas three years. Afterwards, still more to reduce the power of their archons, it was determined that nine amiual magistrates should be appointed under tliis title. These magistrates were not only thosen by the people, but accountable to them for their conduct at tlie expiration of their office. These alterations were too violent not to be attended with some dangerous consequences. The Athenians, intoxicated with their freedom, broke out into the most unruly licentiousness. No written laws had been as yet enacted in Athens; and it was hardly possible that the ancient customs of the country, which were naturally supposed to be in part abolished by the successive changes in the govern- ment, should sufficiently restrain tlie tumultuous spirits of tlie Athenians in the first paroxysm of tliejr independence. The wiser part of the state, therefore, who began to prefer any system of government to their present anarchy and confusion, were induced to cast tlieir eyes on Draco, a man of an austere but virtuous disposition, as the fittest person for composing a system of law to bridle the furious and unruly multitude. Draco un- dertook the office about tlie year 628, but exeaited it with so much rigour, that, in the words of an ancient historian, ** His laws were- ** written with blood, and not with hik." Death was tlie indiscriminate punishment of every offence ; and the code of Draco proved to be a remedy worse than the disease. Affairs again fell into confusion, which continued till those laws were reformed in the time of Solon, about the year before Christ 594. The wisdom, virtue, and amiable manners of Solon recommended him to the most important of all offices, the giving Jaws to a free people. This employment was assigned him by the unanimous voice of his countrj' ; but he long deliberated whether he should undertake it. At length, however, motives of public utility over- came all considerations of private ease, safety, and reputation. The first •tep of his legislation was to abolish all the laws of Draco, excepting those relative to murder. The punishment of this crime could not be too great ; but to consider other offences as equally criminal, was confound- liig all notions of right and wrong, and rendering the law ineffectual by its severity. Solon next proceeded to new-model the political law. He eeems to have thoiiglit, that a perfect republic, in which each citizen should have an equal political importance, was a system of government, beautiful indeed in theory, but not reducible to practice. He divided tho citizens tlien fore into four classes, according to the ^'ealtli which they possessed ; and the poorest class he rendered altogether incapable of any public office. They had a voice, however^ in the general council of tho ination, in w hich all matters of principal concern were determined in tlio last resort. But lest this assembly, which was composed of all the citi- zens, should, in the words of Plutarch, like a ship with too many .sails, be exposed to the gusts of folly, tumult, and disorder, he provided for its lafety by the two anchors of the Senate and Areopagus. The first of Ihese courts consisted of fcnir liundrcd pcrggus^ a hundred from each \ INTRODUCTION. 35 B.C. 894. tribe of the Athenians, who prepared all important bills that came before tlie assembly of the people; the second, though but a court of justice, gained a prodigious ascendency in the republic, by the wisdom and gra- vity of its members, who were not chosen but after the strictest scrutiny and the most serious deliberation. Such was the system of government established by Solon, which, the , nearer we examine it, will the more excite our admiration. Upon tlio *ame plan inost of tlie other ancient republics were Ciitablished. To insist on all of them, therefore, would neither be entertaining nor instructive. But die government of Sparia, or Lacedaemon, had something in it so peculiar, that tlie great outlines of it at least ought not to be here omitted. The comitiy, of which Sparta afterwards became the capital, was, like the otiier states of Greece, originally divided into several petty principa- lities, of which each was under the jurisdiction of its own immediate chieftiiin. Lelex is said to have been the iirst king, about the }'ear before Christ 1516. At length, the two brothers, Eurystlicnes and Pro- -p, p cles, obtaining possession of tliis country, became conjunct in die ' "* royalty ; and, what is extremely singular, tlieir posterity, in a direct line, continued to mle conjunctly for nine hundred years, end- ing with Cleomenes, anno 220 before the Christian aera. The Spartan government, however, did not take that singular form which renders it so remarkable, until the time of Lycurgus, the cele- brated legislator. The plan of policy devised by Lycurgus agreed with that already described, in comprehending a senate and assembly of tho people, and, in general, all those establishments which are deemed mc st requisite for the security of political independence, h ditfered fium that of Athens, and indeed from all other governments, in having two kint^s, whose office was hereditary, tliough their power was bufhciently cin:um- scribed by proper checks and restraints. But the great characteri.itic ()f tiie Spartan constitution arose from this, that, in all h:s laws liad at least as nmch respect to war as to political liberty, \^'it]l view, all sorts of luxury, all arts of elegance or entertainment, every thing, in fine, which had the smallest tendency to soften the minds of the Spartans, was absolutely proscribed. They were forbidden the use of money ; they lived at public tables on the coarsest iare ; the youn"ei: were taught to pay the utmost reverence to the more advanced in years • and all ranks capable of bearing arms were daily accustomed to the most painful exercises. To the Spartans, alone, war was a relaxation rather than a hardship ; and they behaved in it with a spirit, of whicli scarcely any but a Spartan could even form a conception. In order to see the etfect of these principles, and to connect under one point of view the history of tlie diiferent quarters of the globe, we must now cast our eyes on A^h, and observe the events w hich happened in those great empires of which we have so long lost sight. We have akeady mentioned in what obscurity the history of Egypt is in- p .^ volved, until the reign of Boechoris. From this period to the dis- ■^\ Bolution of their government by Cambyses of Persia, in the year ^ before Christ 524, the Egyptians are more celebrated for the wisdom of tlieir laws and political insiiiuiions, than fur the power of their arms. Several of these seem to have been dictated by the true spirit of civil wisdom, and were admirably calculated lor preserviiig order and good govennnent in an extensive kingdom. The great empire of Assyria likewise, which had so long disappeared, becomes again an object of atten- tion, and ati()rds the first instance we meet A\ith in history, of a kingdom which fell asunder by it^ own weigiit, sukI the efteiuinate weakness of l>2 , L}'curgu^ this n.-i sd INTRODUCTION. '.I « i: 11' Mi' ' B.C. 538. its soveretgris. Sardanapalus, tlie last emperor of Assyrt;?, negfectlnjf the administration of affairs, and shutting himself up in his palace with his women and eunuchs, fell into contempt with his subjects, Tlie governors of his provinces, to whom, like a weak and indolent prince, he had entirely committed the command of his armies, did not fail to seize this opportunity of raising their own fortune on the niins of their master's power. Arbaces, governor of Media, and Belesis, governor of Babylon, conspired against their sovereign, and having set tire to his capital (in which Sardanapalus perished), divided between them his Extensive dominions. These two kingdoms, sometimes united under One prince, and sometimes governed each by a particular sovereign, main- tained the chief sway in Asia for many years. Phul revived the kingdom of Assyria; and Shalmaneser, one of his successors, put an end to the kingdom of Israel, and carried thi; ten tribes captive into Assyria and Media. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, also, in the year befora Christ 587, overturned tlie kingdom of Judah, which had continued in the family of David from the year 1055, and conquered all the countries round him. But in the year 538, Cyrus the Great took Babylon, and reduced this quarter of the world under the Persian' yoke. The manners of this people, brave, hardy, and independent, as well as the government of Cynis in all its various departments, are elfgantly described by Xenophon, a Grecian philosopher and historian. The iTera of Cynis is in one respect extremely remarkable, besides that in it the Jews were delivered from their captivity, because with it the his- tory of tlie great nations of antiquity, which has hitherto engaged our at- teiition, may be said to terminate. Let us consider, then, tlie genius of the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, in arts and sciences, — and, if possible, discover what progress tliey had made in tliose acquirements Which are most subservient to the interests of society. The taste for the great and magnificent seems to have been tlie pre- vailing character of those nations j and they principally displayed it in their works of architecture. There are no vestiges, however, now re- maining, which confirm the testimony of ancient writers with regard tc» ♦he great works that adorned Babylon and Nineveh : neither is it clearly determined in what year they were l)egiin or finished. TJiere are three pyramids, stupendous fabrics, still remaining in Kgypt, at some league* distance fiom Cairo, and about nine miles from the Nile, which are supposed to have been the burying-places of the ancient Egyptian kings. TJie largest is five hundred feet in height, and each side of the base si?c hundred and ninety-three feet in lengtli. The apex is thirteen feet Square, The second covers as much ground as the first, but is t'oriy feet lower. It was a superstition among the Egyptians, ilerived from th« earliest times, that even after death the soul continued in the body as long as it remained uncornipted. Hence proceeded the custom of em- balming. The pyramids were erected with the same view. In them the bodies of the Egyptian kings, it has been supposed, were deposited. From what we read of the walls of Babylon, the temple of Iklus, and other works of the East, and from what travellers have recorded of tlie pyramids, it appears that they were really superb and magnificent struc* tures, but totally void of elegance. The arts in whicli those nations, next to architecture, chiefly excelled, were sculpture and embroidery. As to the sciences, they principally bestowed their attention on astronomy. It does not appear, however, that they had made great progress m explain- ing the causes of the phoenomena of the universe, or indeed iti any species ef rational and sound philosophy j as a proof of which it may be sufficient INTRODUCTION. 3? ■ague* \o observe, that, according to the testimony of sacred and profane writers, tlie absurd reveries of magic and astrology, which always decrease in pro- portion to tlie advancement of true science, were in high esteem among them during the latest period of their government. The countries w iiich they occupied were extremely fruiifal, and without much labour afford*, d all tlie necessaries, and even luxuries, of life. They had lon^j inhabited great cities. These circumstances had tainted their manners with ef- feminacy and corruption, and rendered them an easy prey to the Persians, a nation just emerging from barbarism, and, of consequence^ brave and warlike. The history of Perpia, after the rtign of Cjtus, who died in the year before Christ 529, offers little, considered in itself, that merits our re- gard ; but, when combined with that of Greece, it becomes particularly interesting. The monarchs who succeeded Cyrus gave an opportunity to the Greeks to exercise those virtues which the freedom of tlieir govern- ment had created and confirmed. Sparta remained under the influence of the institutions of Lycurgus : Atliens had just recovered from the tyranny of the Pisistratid.-e, a family who had trampled on the laws o!" Solon, and usurped the supreme power. Svich was their situation, when Parius (at the instigation of Hippias, who had been expelled „ ,, from Athens, and on account of the Athenians' burning the city of .' * Sardis) sent forth his numerous armies against Greece. But tlie ^ * Persians were no longer those invincible soldiers who, under Cyrus, liad conquered Asia. Their minds were enervated by luxury and servitude. Athens, on tlie contrary, teemed with great men, animated by the late recovery of their freedom. Miltiades, in the plains of Marathon, « p with ten thousand Athenians, overcame the Persian army of a ' '' hundred thousand foot and ten thousand cavalry. His country- ^ * men Themistocles and Aristides, the first celebrated for his abilities, the .second for his virtue, gained the next honours to the general. It does not fall within our plan to mention the events of this war, which, as the " noblest monuments of the triumph of virtue over force, of courage over nmnbers, of liberty over servitude, deserve to be read at length in ancient writers. Xerxes, the son of Darius, came in person into Greece, with an iraitiense army, which, according to Herodotus, amounted to two millions j, p and one hundred thousand men. This account has been justly ' ' considered, by some ingenious modern writers, as incredible. The truth cannot now be asiertaiaed ; but tliat the army of Xerxes was ex* tremely numerous, is tlie more probable, from the great extent of his empire ; and from the absurd practice of the eastern nations, of encum- bering tlieir camp with a superfluous multitude. Whatever tlie num- bers of his army were, he was everywhere defeated, by sea and land, and escaped to Asia in a fishing-boat. Such was the spirit of the Greeks, and so well did they know, that, " wanting virtue, lite is pain and woe ; *' that wanting liberty, even virtue mourns, and looks around for happi- ^' ness in vain." But though the Persian war concluded gloriously for the Greeks, it js in a great measure to tliis war that the subsequent misfortunes of tliat nation are to be attributed, It was not the battles in which tlvey suffered the loss of so many brave men, but those in which they acquired tlie spoils of Persia, — it was not their enduring so many hardships in the course of the war, but their connexicHis with the Persians after the conclusion of it,— which subverted the Grecian establishments, and mined the most virtuous confederacy tliat ever existed upon eartli, The Greeks became haughty after tlieir victories. Delivered frym tlit SB INTRODUCTION'. v|' Il:l« B.C. 431. B.C. 33y. common enemy, ihty began to quarrel among themselves ; and their quarrels were increased by Persian gold, of whirh they had acquired enough to make them desirous of more. Hence proceeded the famous Pi It ponnesian war, in which the Athenians and Lacedne- monians acted iis principals, and drew after them the other states of Greece. They continued to weaken thwnselvcs l)y these intestine di- visions, tijl Philip, king of Macedon (a country till this time little known, but which, by the active and crafty genius of that prince, became impor- tant and powerful), rendered himself tlie absolute master of Greece, by the battle uf Cha-ronea. But this conquest, is one of the first we meet «ith in history, which did not depend on tlie event of a battle, riiilip had laid his scheme so dee^jly, and by bribery, promises, and intrigxics, gained over such a number of considerable per- sons in the several states of Greece to his interest, that another day would have put in his possession what Chst-ronea had denied him. The Greeks had lo.-.t that \irtue wh.ch was the basis of tJieir confederacy. Their popular go\ernments served only t(j gi\e a sanction to their licentiousness and corruption. The principal orators in most of their states were bribed in the service of Pliiiip ; and all the eloquence of a Demostl)enes, assisted by truth and virtue, was unequal to the mean but more seductive arts of his oj)ponent3, who, by tiattering the people, used the siuvst method of gaining tlieir rifections. Phili]) had proposed to extend the boundaries of his empire beyond the narrow limits of Greece. J3ut he did not long sufvive the battle, of Choe- ronea. Upon his decease, his son Alexander was chosen general against the Persians, by all the Grecian states, except the Athenians and Thebans. Tiicse n'.iide a feeble etfort for expiring liberty j but they wero obliged tt) yield to superior force. Secure on the side of Greece, Alexander set out on his Persian expedition, at the head of thirty tliousand foot, ;ind rive thousand horse. The success of this army in con(}uering the whole force of Darius in three great battles, in over- running and subduing, not only the countries then known to the Greeks, but many parts of India, whose very names had never before reached an European car, has been described by many authors, both ancient and ■J, ,,, modern, and constitutes a singular part of the history of the world. Soon after Uiis rapid career of victory and success, Alexander died " ■ at Babylon. His captains, after sacririeing all liis family to tlieir ambition, di\idcd among them his dominions. ,_ . ..- During the periv)d which elapsed between the reign of Cyrus and that of Alexander, the arts Mere carried to the highest perfection. Though the eastern nations had raised magnificent and stupendous structures, the Greeks A\-ere the first people in the world, who, in their w'orks of archi- tecture, added beauty to magnificence, and elegance to grandeur. The temples of Jupiter Olympius and of the F.phesian Diana were the rirst monuments of good taste. They were erected by the Grecian colonies who settled in Asia Minor before tlie reign of Cyrus. Phidias, the Atlie- nian, ^ho died in the year B. C. 432, is the first sculptor whose works have been immortal. Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Timanthes, during the same age, first discovered the poAver of the pencil, and all the magic of painting. Composition, in all its various branches, reached a degree of perfection in the Greek language, of which a modern reader can scarcely form an idea. After Hesiod and Homer, who flourished 1000 years beff)re the Christian xra, the t -agic poets, iEsehylus, Sophocles, and' Eu- ripides, were the first considerable improvers of poetry. HerodtUus gave simplicity sind elegance to prosaic writhig. Isocrates gave it cadence and B.C. 334. INTRODUCTION. sr harmony ; but It was left to Thucydides and Demo»thcnc3 to discover the full force of tlie Greek tongue. It was not, however, in the finer an* alone tliat the Greeks excelled. Every species of philosophy was cultivated among them with the utmost success. Not to ^mention tlie divine Socrates, the virtues of vhose life, and the excellence of whose philosophy, justly entitled him to a very high degree of venera- tion, — his three discibles, Plato, Aristotle, and Zeuophon, inay> for strength of reasoning, ju.stiiess of sentiment, and propriety of expression, be considered as the equals of the best w riters of any age or eoumry. Experience, indeed, in a long course of years, has taught us many sea-ets in nature, with which those philosophers were unac(iuainted, and which no strengtli of genius could divine. But whatever some vain empirics in learning may pretend, the most learned and ingenious men, both in France and England, have acknowledged tlie superiority of the Greek philosophers, and have reckoned themselves happy in catching their turn of thinking and manner of expression. I'he Greeks were not less distin- guished for tlieir ixtive than for tlicir speculative talents. It would be t'ndlcss to recount the names of their famous statesmen and warriors ; and it is impossible to mention a few without doing injvisticc to a greater number. War was tirst reduced to a science by the Gix'cks. Their sol- diers fought from an allection to their country and an ardour for glory,' and not from a dread of their superiors. We have seen the effects of this military \ irtue in their wars against the Persians j the cause uf it was tlie wise laws which Aniphictyon, Solon, and Lycurgus, had established in Greece. But we must now leave this nation, whose history, both civil and philosophical, is as important as their territory was inconsiderable, and turn our attention to the Ronian affairs, which are still more inter-. esting, both on their own account, and from the relation in which tliey stand to those of modern Europe. The character of Romulus, thefounder of the Roman state, when we view him as a leader of a few lawless and wandering banditti, is an ob- t. p ■ ject of extreme insignificance. But when we consider him as tlie ^* ^' founder of an empire as extensive as the world, and whose progress '' and decline have occasioned tlie t\vo greatest resolutions that ever hap-" pened in Europe, we cannot but be interested in his conduct. He pos- sessed great military abilities, and a wide field for tlie display of these was aftbrded by the political state of Italy, divided into a number of small but independent districts. Romvdus was continually embroiled with' one or other of his neighbours j and war was the only employment by which he and his companions expected, not only to aggrandise 'them- selves, but even to subsist. In the conduct of his wars with the neigh- bouring people, \\'e may observe an adherence to the same maxitns by which the Romans afterwards became masters of the world. Instead of destroying the nations he had subjected, he united them to tlie Roman state 3 whereby Rome acquired a new accession of sti^ength from every war she undertook, and became powerful and populous from tliat very circumstance which ruins and depopulates other kingdoms. It' the ene- mies with whom he contended had, by means of die art or arms tliey employed, any considerable advantage, Rdmulus immediately adopted that practice, or the use of that weapon, and improved the military system of the Romans by the united experience of all their enemies. Of both these maxims we have an example in tlie war with the Sabines. Romulus, having conquered that nation, not only united tliem to the Ro- mans, but, finding their buckler preferable to the Ronian, instandy threw ni'ule tiie latter, and made use of the Sabine buckler in fighting agalnal INTRODUCTION. |l'l,'^ flf^ other states. Romulus, though principally attached to war, did not alto» gether neglect the civil polity of his infant kingdom. He instituted what was called the Senate, a court originally composed of a hundred persons distinguished for their wisdom and experience. He enacted laws for the administration of justice, and for bridling the fierce and unruly passions of his followers j and, after a long reign spent in promoting the •D p civil and military interests of his country, was, according to tlie ■^* y ' most probable conjecture, privately assassinated by some of tlie • ' * members of that senate which he himself had instituted. The successors of Romulus were all very extraordinaiy personages. Nuraa, who came next after him, established tlie religious ceremonies of the Romans, and inspired them with that veneration for an oath, which was ever after the soul of tlieir military discipline. TuUus Hosti- lius, Ancus Martius, Tarquinius Priscus, and Servius Tullius, laboured, each during his reign, for the greatness of Rome. But Tarquinius JSuperbus, the sevepUi and last king, having obtained the crown by tlie execrable ipurder of his father-in-law Servius, continued to support it by the most cruel and infamous tyranny. This, together with the in- solence of his son Sextus Tarquinius, who, by dishonouring Lucretia, 4 ■D p Roman lady, affronted the whole nation, occasioned tne expulsioti soa ' ^^ Tarquin family, and with it the dissolution of the regal go- *^' vernment, As the Romans, however, were continually engaged in war, they found it necessaiy to have some officer invested with su- preme anthority, who might conduct them to the field, and regulate itlieir military enterprises. In the room of thp kings, therefore, they ap- pointed two annupi magistrates, called consuls, who, without creating the same jealousy, succeeded to all the powers of their former sove- reigns. This revolution was very favourable to the Roman power and grandeur. The consuls, who enjoyed but a temporary power, were desi- rous of signalising their reign by sonie great action : each vied with those who had gone before him, and the Romans were daily led out against some new enemy. When we add to this, that the people, naturally war- like, were inspired to deeds of valour by every ponsideration which could excite them, — that the citizens of Rome were all soldiers, and fought for their lands, their children, and their liberties,— we shall not be surprised that they should, in the course of some centuries, extend their power pver all Italy. The Romans, now secure at home, and finding np enen^y to contend with in Italy, turned their eyes abroad, and met wifli a powerful rival in the Carthaginians. This state had been founded or enlarged on the coast of the Mediterranean in Africa, sppie time before Rome, by ^ colony of Phcenicians, anno B. C. 869 j and, according to tlie practice of their mptlier-country, they had cultivated commerce pnd paval greatness. Carthage, in this design, had proved wonderfujly successful. She now commanded both sides of the Mediterranean. Besides that of Africa, which she almost entirely possessed, she had extended herself on the Spanish side through the Straits. Thus mistress of the sea and of com- merce, she had spized on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Sicily ha4 B. C. ^^'^'^P'^y ^o defend itself j and the Ropaans were t jo nearly threat- 3(54,' ?"^^> ^"* ^9 take up arms. Hence a succession of hostilities be- - • tween tliese rival states, known in history by the name of Punic wars, in which the Carthaginians, with all their wealth and power, were «n unequal match for tl»e Romans. Carthage was a powerful republic when Rome was an inconsiderable itatej but she was now become CQr- INTROBUCnON. 41 ' power B.C. 251). mpt and effeminate, while Rome was in the vigofur of her political con- stitution. Carthage employed mercenaries to c^rry on her wars > Rome, as we have already mentioned, was composed qf soldiers. The first war with Carthagd lasted twenty-three years, and taught the Romans the art of fighting on the sea, with which they had hitlierto been unactjuainted. A Carthaginian vessel was wrecked on their coast ; they used »t ^ ^ for a model j in three months fitted out a fleet j and the consul ,^J^ ' Duilius, who fought tlu'ir first naval battle, was victorious. The behaviour of Regulus, the Roman general, may give us an idea of tlie spirit which then animated this people. Being taken prisoner in Africa, he was sent back on his parole to negotiate a change of prisoners. He maintained in the senate the propriety of that law which cut off from tliose who suffered themselves to be taken, all hopes of being saved j and returned to certain death. NeitJier was Carthage, though corrupted, deficient in great men. Of all the enemies the Romans ever had to contend with, Hannibal, tlie Car- thaginian, was the most intiexible and dangerous. His fatlier, Hamilcar, had imbibed an extreme hatred against the Romans ; and having settled the intestine troubles of his country, he took an early opportunity to in- spire his son, though but nine years old, with his own sentiments. For this purpose he ordered a solemn sacrifice to be offered to Jupiter, and, leading his son to the altar, ask^^d him whether he was willing to attend him in his expedition against the Romans. The courageous boy not oi.ly .consented to go, but conjured his father, by the gods present, to form liim to victory, and teach him the art of conquering. *' That I will joy- " fully do," replied Hamilcar, " and with all the care of a father who " loves you, if you will swear upon the altar to be an eternal enemy to " the Romans." Hannibal readily complied j and tlie solemnity of the ceremony, and the sacredness of the oath, made such an impression on his mind, as nothing aftenwtrds could ever efface. Being appointed ge- neral at twenty-five years of age, he crosses the Ebro, the Pjrences, and the Alps, and unexpectedly rushes down upon Italy. The loss of ,, p four batUes threatens the fall of Rome. Sicily sides with the con- ' ' queror. Hieronymus, king of Syracuse, declares against the Ro- mans, and almost all Italy abandons them. In tliis extremity, Rome owed its preservation to three great men. Fabius Maxinuis, despising popular clamour, and the military ardour of his countrjiiien, declines coming to an engagement. The strength of Rome has time to recover. Marcellus raises the siege of Nola, takes Syracuse, and revives the droop- ing spirits of his troops. The young Scipio, at the age of four and j, p twenty, flies into Spain, where both his father and uncle had lost * * their lives, attacks New Carthage, and carries it at tlie first assault. Upon his arrival in Africa, kings submit to him, Carthage trembles in her turn, and sees her armies defeated. Hannibal, sixteen years victorious, is in vain called home to defend his country. Carthage is ren- dered tributar}', gives hostages, and engages never to enter on a war, but with the consent oi the Roman people. At this time the world was divided, as it were, into two parts : in the one fought the Romans and Carthaginians j the othtT v as agitated by those quarrels which had lasted since the death of Alexander the Great J and of which the scene of action was Greece, Egypt, and the East. The states of Greece had once more disengaged themselves from a foreign yoke. They were divided into three confederacies, the A'lto iians, Achaeans, and Boeotians. Each of these was an association of free lilies, which had assemblies and inagibtrates in common. The .dilolian.-! B.C. 201. Pi ,j ?"t I*. ?> ;l 42 INTRODUCTION. were tlie most considerable of tliem all. The kings of Macedon maintained that superiority which, in ancient times, wlien the biilancd ©f power was little attended to, a great prince naturally possessed over bis less powerful neighbours. Philip, tlie monarch who then reigned in Macedon, had rendered himself odious to tlie Greeks by soma unpopular and tynmnical measures ; tlie ^tolians were most irritated ; and, hearing the fame of tlie Roman ai'ms, called tlicm into Greece, and overcame Philip by tlieir assistance. The victory, however, chicriy redounded to the advantage of the Romans. The Alacedonian garrisons were obliged to evacuate Gtfjcce j the cities wore all declared free ; but Philip becama a tributaiy to the Romans, and tlie states of Greece Ibecanie their depen- dents. The yEtolians, discovering tlieir first error, endeavoured to re- medy it by another still more dangerous to themselves, and more advan- tageous to the Romans. As they had called tlie Romans into Greece to defend tliem against king Philip, they now called in ^Vjitiochus, king of Syi-ia, to defend them against the Romans. The famous Han- nibal, too, had recourse to the same prince, who was at tliis time the most powerful monarch in tlie East, and the successor to the dominions of Alexander in Asia.' But Antioclnu did not follow his advice so much as that of tlie iEtolians j for, instead of renewing tlie war in Italy, where Hannibal, from experience, knew the Romans to be most vulnerable, he landed in Greece with a small body of troops, and, being overcome without difficulty, fled over into Asia. In this war the Romans made use of Philip for conquering Antiochus, as tliey had before done of the ■« ^ jfEtolians for conquering Philip. They now pursued Antiochus, ' ■ the last object of their resentment, into Asia, and, having van- ^ ' quished him by sea and land, compelled him to submit to a dis- graceful treaty. In these conquests the Romans still allowed the ancient uihabitants to possess tlieir territory. They did not even change the form of government. The conquered nations became the allies of die Rommi people ; which denomination, however, under a specious name, concealed a condition very servile, and inferred that they should submit to whatever \\as re- quired of them. Wiien we reflect on those easy conquests, we have rea- son to be astonished at the resistance which tlie Romans met \\ ith from Alithridates, king of Pontus, for tlu; space of twenty-six years. But this monarch had great resources. His kingdom, bordering on tlie inaccessi- ble mountains of Caucasus, abounded in a race of men whose minds were not enervated with pleasure, and whose bodies were firm and vigorotts j and he gave the Romans more trouble tlian even Hannilxd. The different slates of Greece and Asia, who now began to feel the weight of their yoke, but had not the spirit to shake it off, were transport- ed at finding a prince, who dared to show himself an enemy to tlie Ro- mans, and cheerfully submitted to his protection. Mithridates, however, was at last compelled to yield to tlie superior fortune of the Romans. Vanquished successively by Sylla and LucuUus, he was at length subdued by Pompey, jukI stripped of his dominions and his life, in the year before Clirist 0'3. In Africa, the Roman arms met with equal success. ^Marias, ^ Q in conquering Jugurtha, gave security to the republic in that quar- 1*06* *^^* ^^^'" ^^^^ barbarous nations beyond the Alps began to feel the weight of the Roman arms. Gallia Narboncnsis had been re- duced into a province. The Cimbri, Teutones, and the other northern nations of Europe, broke into this part of the empire. The same Marius, B.C. 102. whose name was so terrible in Africa, then made the north of Eu- rope to tremble. The barbarians retired to their \\ilds and deserts, less formidable tliau the Roman legions. But \\hile Rome cou- wail aftti seel ciail tliel disj wal introduction: 43 dis-< quered the world, there subsisted an incessant war within her walls. This war had continued from tl\e lirsr period of the government. Rome, after the expulsion of her kings, enjoyed but a partial liberty. The de- scendants of the senators, who were distinguished by tlie naine of Patri- cians, were invested with so many odious privileges, tliat the people felt tlieir dependence, and became cfetermined to shake it otf. A thousand disputes on the subject arose between them and the patricians, which al- ways terminated in favour of liberty. Tliese disputes, \\ hile the Romans preserved tlieir a irt'ie, were not at- tended with any sanguinary consequences. The patricians, who loved their country, cheerfully resigned some of tlieir privileges to satisfy the people; and the people, on the other hand, though tliey obtained . Jaws by which they might be admitted to enjoy the iirst otHces of the state, and though tliey had the power of nomination, always named pa- tricians. Eut when the Romans, by the conquest of foreign nations, be- came acquainted with all their luxuries and retinements, — w hen they be- came tainted with the etfeminacy and corruption of the eastern courts^ and sported with e\ery thing just and honourable in order to obtain them, —the state, torn by the tactions between its members, and without virtu* on either side to keep it together, became a prey to its own children. Hence the sanguinary seditions of the Gracchi, which paved the way for an inextinguishable hatred between the nobles and commons, and made it easy for any turbulent demagogue to put them in action against each other. 1'he love of their country was now no more than a specious name : tlie better sort were too wealthy and effeminate to submit to the rigours of military discipline ; and the soldiers, composed of the dregs of tlie repub- lic, were no longer citizens. They had little respect for any but their commander ; under his banner tliey fought, and conquered, and plun- dered ; and for him tliey were ready to die. He might command them to embrue their hands in the blood of their countr}^ I'hey who knew no country but the camp, and no authority but that of their general, were ever ready to obc}' him. The multiplicity of the Roman conquests, how- cvei, wiiich required their keeping on foot several armies at the same time, retarded the subversion of the republic. These armies were so many checks upon each other. Had it not been for the soldiers of Sylla, Rome would have surrendered its liberty to the array of Marius. Julius C.xsar at length appears. By subduing the Gauls, he .gained his coiuitry the most useful conquest it ever made. Porapey, his only j, p rival, is overcome in the plains of Pharsalia. Ccesar is victorious ' _ ' almost at the same time all over the world ; in Egypt, in Asia, in Mauritania, in Spain, in Gaul, and in Britain : conqueror on all sides, he is acknowledged master at Rome, and in the whole empire. Brutus and Cassius attempt to give Rome her liberty by stabbing him in t> p the senate-house. But though they tliereby deliver the Romans ' * from tlie tyratuiy of Julius, the r^'jnililic iloes not obtain its free- dom. It falls undc;r the dominion of Mark Antony ; young Cae§ar Oc- ta\i.'mus, nephew to Julius Cesar, wrests it from him by the sea- -p p fight at Actium; and there is no Brutus or Cassius to put an end ^, * to his life. Those friends of liberty had killed tliemseivcs in de- spair J and Octaviiis, under tiic name of Augustus, and title of emperor, remains the undisturbed master of the empire. Dining these civil com- motions, the Romans still preserved the glory of their arms timongst di- stant nations ; and while it was unknown who should be master of Rome, the Romans were, without dispute, the masters of the \s'orki. '^I'heir mi- litary discipline and valour abolished all the remains of the Carthagi- 'III 44 INTRODUCTION. ; i; ■:;;f I i B.C. 7. nlan, the Persian, the Greek, the Assyrian, and Macedonian gloiyj they were now only a name. No sooner, therefore, was Octavius established ©n the throne, than ambassadors from ail quarters of tiie known world crowd to make their submissions. ^Ethiopia snes for [)eace ; the Par- thiaiis, who had been a most formidable enemy, court his friendship j India seeks his alliance ; Pannonia acknowledges him j Germany dreads him ; and the Weser receives his laws. Victorious by sea and land, he shuts tlie temple of Janus. The whole earth li\'es in peace under his power ; and Jesus Christ comes into tlie world four years before the common e^ra. Having thus traced the progress of the Roman government while it remained a republic, our plan obliges us to say a few words witJi regard to the arts, sciences, and manners of that people. During tlie tirst ages of the republic, the Romans lived in a total neglect, or ratlier contempt, of all the elegant improvements of life. War, politics, and agriculture, were the only arts they studied, because they w ere (he only arts they esteemed. But upon tlie downfal of Carthage, the Romans, having no enemy to dread from abroad, began to taste tiie sweets of security, and to cultivate the arts. Their progress, however, was not gradual, as in the other countries we have described. I'he conquest of Greece at once j;ut them in possession of every thing most rare, curious, or elegant. Asia, ■x^hich was the next victim, offered all its stores ; and tlie Romans, from the most simple people, speedily became acquainted witli tlie arts, tlie luxuries, and refinements of the whole earth. Eloquence they had always cultivated as the high road to eminence and preferment. The orations of Cicero are inferior only to those of Demosthenes. In poetry, Virgil yields only to Homer, whose verse, like the p:.o'^ of Demosthenes, may be considered as inimitable. Horace, however, in Ms Satires and Epi- ^ties, had no model among the Greeks, and slands to this day unrivalled in that species of, writing. In history, the Romans can boast of Livy, w hr possesses all the natural ease of Herodotus, and is more descriptive, mort; ekxjuent, and sentimental. Tacitus, indeed, ilid not flourish in the Augustan age ; but his works do himself the greatest honour, while they disgrace his country and human nature, whose corruption and vices he paints in the most striking colours. In philosophy, if we except the works of Cicero, and the system of the Greek philosopher Epicurus, de- scribed in the nervous poetry of Lucretius, the Romans, during the time of the republic, made not the least attempt. In tragedy they never pro- duced any thing excellent ; and Terence, though remarkable for purity of 8h Je, wants that vis comica, or lively vein of humour, that distinguishes the writings of tlie comic poets of Greece, and those of our immortal Shakspeare. We now return to our histor}', and arc arrived at an aera which pre- sents us with a set of monsters, under the tuime of emperors, whose acts, a few excejrted, disgrace human nature. They did not, indeed, abolish iJie forms of the Roman republic, thougii they extinguished its liberi ties ; and while they Mere practising the most unwarrantable cnielties upon their sulVjects, tliey themselves were tlie slaves of their soldiers. I'luy made the world tremble, while they in their turn trembled at tlie army. Rome, from the time of Augustus, became the most despotic empire that ever subsisted in Europe ; and the court of its emi>erors ex- hibited the most odious scenes of that caprice, cruelty, and corruption, w hich universally prevail under a despotic government. When it is said that the Roman rcpulvlic conquered the world, it is only n tivilised part of it; chiefly Gic*:ce, CaiUuige, and Asia. A meant of th«jt mure 4i$* INTRODUCTION. 4S ciilt task still remained for the emperors : — to subdue the bnrbarous na- tions of Europe — (he Germans, tlie Gauls, the Britons, and even the /emote people of Scotland ; for though these countries had been disco- Tered, they were not effectually suMued by the Roman generals. These nations, though rude and ignorant, were brave and independent. It WM rather trom the superiority of their discipline, than of their courage, tliat the Romans gained any advantage over them. I'he Roman wars \vith the (Germans are described by I'acitus; and from his accounts, though a Roman, it is easy to discover with what bravery they fought, and with what reluctance tliey submitted to a foreign yoke. From the obstinate resistance of the Germans, we may judge of the difficulties the Romans met with in subduing the other nations of Europe. The con- tests were bloody ; the countries of Europe were successively laid waste ; numbers of the inhabitants perished in the field, many were carried into riaver}% and but a feeble remnai\t submitted to the Roman power. Thi» situation of affairs was extremely unfavourable to die happiness of man- kind. The bnrbarous nations, indeed, from their intercourse with the Romans, acqui'-nd some taste for the arts, sciences, language, and man- ners of their new masters. These, however, were but miserable con- solations for the loss of liberty, for being deprived of tlie use of arms, for being overawed by mercenary soldiers, kept in pay to restrain them, and for being delivered over to rapacious governors, who plundered theiu without mercy. The Roman empire, now stretched out to such an extent, had lost its spring and t<)rce. It contained within itself the seeds of dissolution ; and the violent irruptions of tlie (ioths, Vandals, Huns, and other barbarians, hastened its destruction. These tierce tribes, who came to take ven- geance on the empire, either inhabited the various parts of (iermany which had Jiever been subdued by the Romans, or were scattered over the vast countries of the north of Europe, and the norih-west of Asia, V hich arc now inhabited by tlie Danes, the Swedes, the Poles, the sub- jects of the Russian empire, and the Tartars. They were drawn from their native country by that restlessness which actuates the minds of bar- barians, and makes them rove from home iu quest of plunder or new set- tlements. The first invaders met with a powerful resistance from the .«)ui)erior discipline of tlie Roman legions ; but this, uistead of dauntini; men of a strong and impetuous tempsr, only roused them to vengeance. They returned to their companions, atxpiainted them with the unknown ennveniences and luxuries that abounded in countries better cultivated, or blessed with a milder climate, tlian their own ; they accjuainted iheni witii tljc battles they had fought, or the friends they had lost ; and wann- ed them with resentment against their opponents. Great Ixjdies of arm- ed men (says an elegant histor';:;i, in describing this scene of desolation), with their wives and chil Iren, and slaves, and fiocks, issued forth, like regular colonies, m quest of new settlements. New adventurers i'o\-, lowed them. The lands which tliey deserted were occupied by more remote tribes of barbarians. These in their turn pushed forward into more fertile countries ; and, like a torrent continui'.lly increasing, rolled on, and swept every thing before them. Wherever the barbarians marched, their route was marked with blood. They ravaged or destroy- ed all around them. They made no distinction between what was sacnd and what was pr.){;;ne. I'hey respected no age, or sex, or rank. If a man were called to fix upon the period in the liistory of the world, duriij» ivhich the conditim) i,f the human race was the njost calamitous and 4inictcd, he woukl, v/itljout hesitation^ name tliat \\ hich elapsed from 49 INTRODUCnOK. 9 M !tj the deadi of Theodosius the Great, A. D. 395, to tJie establishment of the Lombards in Italy, A. D, 571, The contemporary authors, who beheld that scene of desolation, labour and are at a loss for expression* to describe the horrors of it. T/ie scoi&ge. of God, the destroyer of nations, are the dreadful epithets by which they distinguish the most noted of the barbarous leaders. Constantine, who was emperor at the beginning of the fourth century, . jv and who had embraced Christianity, transferred the seat of em- Kiott W^ *^'""^ Rome to Constantinople. The western and eastern provinces were m consequence separated* from each other, and governed by different sovereigns. The withdrawing the Roman legions from the Rhine and the Danube to the east, threw down tlie western barriers of the empire, and laid it open to the invaders. Rome (now known by the name of the Western I'mphr, in contra- distinction to Constantinople, which, from its situation, was called the Eastern Empire), weakened by this division, became a prey to tlie bar- * Y\ barous nations. Its ancient glory, vainly deemed immortal, -«-as A'jR effaced 5 and Odoacer, a barbarian chieftain, was seated on the ' throne of the Caesars. These imiptions into the empire were gradual and successive. The immense fabric of the Roman empire was the work of many ages ; and several centuries were employed in demo- > lishing it. The ancient military discipliiie of the Romans was so effica- cious, that the remains cf it, which descended to tlieir .successors, must have rendered tliem superior to their enemies, had it not been for the vices of tlieir emperors, and the universal corruption of manners among the people. Satiated witli die luxuries of the known world, tlie em- perors were at a loss to find new provocatives. The most distant regions were explored, the ingenuity of mankind was exercised, and tlie tribute of provinces expended upon one favourite dish. The tyranny and the universal depravation of manners tliat prevailed under the emperors, or, as they are called, Caesars, could only be equalled by the barbarity of those nations of which the empire at length became the prey. Towards the close of the sixth century, the Saxons, a German nation, were masters of the southern and more fertile provinces of Britain ; the Franks, anotlier tribe of Germans, of Gaul ; the Gotlis, of Spain j tlie Goths and Lombards, of Italy and tlie adjacent provinces. Scarcely any vestige of the Roman policy, jurisprudence, arts, or literature, re- mained. New forms of government, new laws, new manners, new dresses, new languages, and new names of men and countries, were everywhere introduced. From this period, till the 15th century, Europe exhibited a picture of most melancholy Gothic barbarity. Literature, science, taste, were words scarcely in use during tliese ages. Persons of the highest rank, and in tlio most eminent stations, could not read or write. IVlliny of the clergy did not understand the Breviary, which they were obliged daily to recite j some of them could scarcely read it. I'he human mind, neglected, un- cultivated, and depressed, sunk into llie most profound ignorance. The superior genius of Charlemagne, who, in the beginning of the ninth cen- tury, governed France and Germany, with part of Italy, — and Alfred the Great in England, during the latter part of the same century, — en- deavoured to dispel this darkness, and give their subjects a short glimps« of light. But the ignorance of the age was too powerful for their ef- forts and institutions. The darkness returned, and even increased ; so tliat a still greater degree of ignorance and barbarism prevailed through"- •ut Europe. . • :.. „ .■'•...''.,•. ,. ., . ■ ^ INTRODUCTION. 47 A new division of property gradually introduced a now species of go. >ernment, formerly unknown -, which singular institiition is now distin- guished by the name of tlie Feudal Si/stcm. The king or general, who ied the barbarians to conquest, parcelled ovit the lands of the vanquished among his chief officers, binding those on whom they were bestowed to follow his standard with a number of men, and to bear arms in his de- fence. The chief officers imitated the example of the sovereign, and, in distributing portions of their lands among their dependents, annexed the same condition to the grant; a system admirably calculated for de- fence against a foreign enemy, but which degenerated into au engine of oppression. The usurpation of the nobles became unbounded and intolerable. They reduced the great body of the people into a state of actual servi- tude, and deprived them of the natural and most unalienable rights of humanity. They were slaves fixed to the soil which they cultivated, and together with it were transferred from one proprietor to anoth(;r, by sale or by conveyance. Every olfended baron or chieftain buckled on his armour, and sought redress at the head of his vassals. His adversarie.? met him in like hostile array. The kindred and dependents of tl^.e ag- gressor, as well as the defender, were involved m tlie quarrel. They had not even the libert)' of remaining neuter. The monarchs of Europe perceived the incroachments of their nobles with impatience. In order to create some power that might counterba- lance those potent vassals, who, while they enslaved the people, controlled •r gave laws to the crown, a plan was adopted of conferring new privi- leges on towns: These privileges abolished all marks of servitude; and the inhabitants of towns were formed into corporations, or bodies poli- tic, to be governed by a council and magistrates of tlieir own nomuia* tion. The acquisition of liberty soon produced a happy change in the condi- tion of mankind. A spirit of industry revived ; commerce became an object of attention, and began to ilourish. Various causes contributed to revive this spirit of commerce, and t* renew the intercourse between different nations. Constantinople, tlie capital of the Eastern or Greek empire, had escaped tlie ravages of the Goths and Vandals, w ho overthrew that of the West. In this city soma remains of literature and science were preserved : tliis, too, for many ages, was the great emporium of trade ; and the crasades, which wer« begun by the Christian powers of Europe witli a view to drive » ,^ the Saracens from Jerusalem, having opened a communication ,!w. * between Europe and the East, Constantinople Vk'as the general - ' place of rendezvous for the Christian armies, in their way to Palestine, or on their return from thence. Though tlie object of these exptnii- tions was conquest and not commerce, and though the issue of them proved unfortunate, their commercial effects were both beneficial vmI permanent. Soon alter the close of the holy war, the mariner's com[)ass wus iu- yented, which facilitated the communication between remote na- tions. I'he Italian states, particularly those of Venice and Ge- noa, began to establish a regular commerce with the East and the ports of Egypt, and drew Irom thence all the rich productions of India, These commodities they disposed of to great advantage among tlie other nations of Europe, who began to acquire some taste for elegance, un- known to their predecessors, or despised by them. Daring the 12th 9nd ISUi C(juti\ri(is the commerco of Europe waii almost ctUiroly in th« A. D. 1302. 'I , /J I' -I • I S^j ' "1 u 1 pi f v^. '. Ml l| 1 ji i 1. K 'j 1 ?j ; 4S INTKODUCTIQN, hands of the Italians, more commonly known in those ages by tlie name of Lombards. Companies or societies of Lombard merchants settled in ever\' different kingdom; they became the carriers, the manufacturers, and the bankers of Europe. One of tliese companies settled in London ; and thence the name of Lombard-street was derived. While the Italians in the south of Europe cultivated trade with such industry and success, the commercial spirit awakened in the north to- wards the middle of the 13th centuiy. As the Danes, Swedes, and other nations aroimd the Baltic, were at that time extremely barbarous, and hifested that sea with their piracies, the cities gf Lubec and Ham- burg, soon after they had begun to open some trade with the Italians, entered into a league of mutual defence. They derived such advantages from this union, .that other towns acceded to their confederacy ; and, in a short time, eighty of the most considerable cities, scattered through those large countries of Germany and Flanders which stretch from the bottom of the Baltic to Cologne on the Rhine, joined in an alliance, called the Hanseatic League, which became so formidable, that its fiiendship was courted and its emnity dreaded by the greatest monarchs. 7'he members of tliis powerful association formed the first systematic plan of commerce known in the middle ages, and conducted it by com- mon laws enacted in tlieir general assemblies. They supplied the rest of Europe with naval stores, and selected different towns, tlie most eminent of which was Bruges in Flanders, where they established staples, in which tlieir commerce was regularly carried on. Thither the Ix)m- bards brought the productions of India, together witli the manufactures of Italy, and exchanged them tor the more bulky but not less useful commodities of the north. As Binges became the ceptre of communication between the Lom^ bards and Hanseatic merchants, the Flemijigs traded with both in that city to such extent as well as advantage, as disused among tliem a gene- ral habit of industty, which long rendered Flanders and the adjacent pro- vinces the most opulent, the most populoiis, and best cultivated countries' in Europe. Stmck with the flourishing state of these provinces, of which he dis- A jj covered the true cause, Edward III. of England endeavoured to Vaio ^^'^^^*^ ^ spirit of industry among his own subjects, who, blind to the advantages of their situation, and ignorant of the source from which opulence was destined to flow into their country, totally neglected commerce, and did not even attempt those manufactures, tlie materials ot \\hich they fiirnished to foreigners. By alluring Flemish artisans to settle in his dominions, as well as by many wise laws for tlie encourage- ment and regulation of trade, he gave a beginning to the woollen manu- facture of England, and first turned the active and enterprising genius of his people towards tliose arts which have raised tlie English to the fiist raniv among commercial nations. The '"" enemies Christian princes, alarmed at the progress of their inveterate the Turks, endeavoured to gain the friendship and assistance of tiie kjians of Tartary. The Christian embassies were managed chiefly by monks, an active and entei-prising set of men, who, impelled by zeal, arid undaunted by difficulties and danger, penetrated to the remote courts of those infidels. The English philosopher, Roger Bacon, was so indus- trious as to collect from tlieir relations and traditions many particulars of the Tartars, which are to be found in Purchas's Pilgrim, and oUier book» of travels. Tlifi first regular traveller of the monkish kind. Who com- mitted his discoveries to writing, was John du Plant Carpio^ who^ witl» INTRODUCTION. 49 tame of his brethren, about the y6ar 1246, carried a letter from pope In- nocent to the great klian of Tartary, in favour of the Christian subjects in that prince's extensive dominions* Soon after this, a spirit of travel- ling into Tartary and India became general : and it would be no diffi- cult task to prove that many Europeans, about the end of the foi" • t^nth century, served in the armies of Timur, or Tamerlane, one of the greatest princes of Tartary, whose conquests reached to the remotest cor- ners of India ; and tliat they introduced into Europe the use of gunpow- der and artillery ; tlie discovery made by a German chemist being only partial and accidental. After the death of Timur, who, jealous of the rising power of the Turks, had checked tlieir progress, the Christian adventmers, upon their return, magnifying the vast riches of the East Indies, inspired their countrymen with a spirit of adventure and discovery, and were . j^ the first who suggested the practicability of a passage thither by , j^v,.* sea. The Portuguese had been always famous for their appli- ^' cation to maritime affairs j and to their discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, Great Britain is at this day indebted for her Indian commerce. The first adventurers contented themselves with shoit voyages, creep- ing along tlie coast of Afirica, discovering cape after cape j but by mak- ing a gradual progress soutliward, they, in the year 1497, at lengtli dis- covered and doubled the extreme cape of that continent, which opened a passage by sea to the Eastern Ocean, and all those countries known by the names of India, China, and Japan. While the Portuguese were intent upon a pass^e to India by the east, Columbus, a native of Genoa, conceived a project of sailing thither by the west. His proposal being condemned by his countrymen as chime- rical and absurd, he laid his scheme 8ucces.si^ ely before the courts of France, England, and Portugal, where he had no better success. Such repeated disappointments would have broken the spirit of" any man but Columbus. The expedition required expense, and he had notliing to defray it. Spain was now his only resource; and there, after eight years' attendance, he at length succeeded, through the interest of queen Isabella. This princess was prevailed up6n to pationise him by tlie representation of Juan Perez, guardian of the monastery of Rabi da. He was a man of considerable learning, and of some credit with qucen Isa- bella; and being warmly attached to Columbus, frotti his personal ac- quaintance with him, and knowledge of his merit, he had entered into aa accurate examination of that great man's project, in conjunciiou with a physician settled in his neighbourhood, who was eminent tor liis skill in mathematical knowledge. This investigation completely satisfied them of the solidity of the principles on which Columbus founded his opinion, and of the probability of success in executing tlie plan which he proposed. Perez, tlierefore, so strongly recommended it to queen Isabella, that sha warmly entered into tlie scheme, and even generously offered, to tho honour of her sex, to pledge her own jewels, in order to raise as much money as might be required in making preparations for the voyage. But Santangel, another friend and patron of Columbus, immediately engaged to advance the sum tliat was requisite, that tlie queen might not be reduced to the necessity of having recourse to that ex- pedient. Columbus now set sail, armo 1492, with a fleet of three ships, upon •ne of the most ddventurou* attempts ever undertakeu by m»fi, aa4 ia • E , 1. 1 (" |0|. INTRODUCTION. the fate of which the inhabitants of two worlds were interested. In thi» voyage he had a thousand difficulties to contend with ; and his sailors, who were often discontented, at length began to insist upon his return, threatening, in case of refusal, to throw him overboard ; but tlie firm- ness of the commander, and the discovery of land after a passage of 33 days, put an end to the commotion. From the appearance of the natives, he found to his surprise that this could not be the Indies he was in quest of, and that he had accidentally discovered a new world— of which the reader will find a more ciroimstantial account in that part of the follow- ing work which tieats of America. Europe now began to emerge out of that darkness in which she had been sunk since the subversion of the Roman empire. These discove- ries, from which such wealth was destined to flow to the commercial A T> nations of Europe, were accompanied and succeeded by others of "j^Ji ' unspeakable benefit to mankind. The invention of printing, the '^' revival of learning, arts, and sciences, and, lastly, the happy re- formation in religion, all distinguish the 15th and Itith centuries as the first aera of modern liistory. It was in these ages tliat tlie powers of Europe were formed into one great political system, in which each took a station, wherein it has since remained, with less variation tlian could have been expected after the shocks occasioned by so many in- ternal revolutions, and so many foreign wars, of which we sh;ill give some account, in the history of each particular state, in the following work. .; .»d iP X PART III. OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF RELIGION. DEITY is an awful object, and has ever roused the attention of man- kind } but they, being incapable of elevating their ideas to all tlie subli- mity of his perfections, have too often brought down his perfections to the level of their own ideas. This is more particularly true with regard to those nations whose religion had no otlier foundation but the natural feelings, and more often the irregular passions of the human heart, and who had received no light from heaveu respecting tliis unportant object. In deducing the history of religion, therefore, we must make the same distinction which we have hitlxerto ob^jei^ped in tracing the progress of arts, sciences, and civilisation among mankind. We must separate what is human from what is divine— what liad its origin from particular reve- lations trom what is the eft'ect of general laws, and of the unassisted ofjeratious of tlie human mind. Agreeably to this distinction, we find, that, in the first ages of tli« world, the religion of the eastern nations was pure and luminous. It arose from a divine source, and was not then disfigured by human fan- cies or caprice. In time, however, these began to have their influence; INtRODUCTlON. Si Inthia ; sailors, s return, he firm- ge of 33 ; natives, i in quest rhich the e foUow- '. she had discove- mmercial others of iting, the happy re- nturies as le powers hich each ation tlian many in- shall give ; following ON. n of maft- tlie subli- rfections to ,vith regard the natural heart, and tant object, Q the »amr progress of )arate what cular reve- i vmasslated ages of th« tninous. "It Himan fan- kafluencej the ray of tradition was obscured: «ad among those tribes which sepa- rated at the greatest distance, and in die smallest numl)ers, from the more improved societies of men, it was altogether obliterated. In this situation a particular people were selected by God himself to be the depositaries of his law and worship ; but the rest of mankind wer« left to form hypotheses upon tliese subjects, which were more or less perfect, according to an intinity of circumstances which cannot properly be reduced under any general heads. The most common religion of antiquity— that which prevailed the longest and extended tlie widest — was Polytheism, or the doctrine of a plurality of gods. The rage of sj'^stem, tlie ambition of reducing all the phaenomena of the moral world to a few general principles, has occa- sioned many imperfect accounts, both of the origin and nature ot tlu» species of worship. For, without entering into a minute detail, it is im- possible to give an adequate idea of tlie subject : and what is said upon it in general must always be liable to many exceptions. One thing, however, may be observed, that tiie jiolyfheism of the an* cients seems neither to have been the fruit of philo-iopliical spcculativons, nor of disfigured traditions concerning the nature of the Divinity. It seems to have arisen during the rudest ages of society, while the raiional powers were feeble, and while mankitid were under the tyranny of ima- gination and passion. It was built, therefore, solely upon sentiment. As each tribe of men had their heroes, so likewise they had their gods. Those heroes who led tliem forth to combat, who presided in their coimcils, whose image was engraven on their fancy, whose exploits were imprinted on their memory, even after death enjoyed an existence in the imagination of their followers. , The force of blood, of friendship, of atfection, among rude nations, is what we cannot easily conceive : but the power of imagination over the senses is what all men have in some degree experienced. Combine these two causes, and it will not appear strange that the image of departed heroes should have been seen by their companions. animating tlie battle, taking vengeance on their enemies, and executing, in a word, the same fmictions which they perfomied when alive. An appearance so unnatural would not excite terror among men unacquainted with evil spirits, and who had not learned to fear any thing but their enemies. On the contrary, it confirmed their courage, flattered their vanity ; and the testimony of tliose who hi'd seen it, sup- ported by the extreme credulity and romantic cast of those who had not, gained an universal assent among all the membei.i of their society. A small degree of reflexion, however, would be suiiiclcnt to convince. them, that, as their own heroes existed after death, the same might also be the case with tliose of their enemies. Two orders of gods, tlierefore, would be established — tlie propitious and the hostile; the gods who were to be loved, and those who were to be feared. But time, which effaces the impressions of traditions, and the frequent inva- sions by which the nations of antiquity were ravaged, desolated, or trans- planted, made them lose the names and confound tlie chai'acters of tlios* two orders of divinities, and fonn various systems of religion, which, though warped by a thousand particular circumstances, gave no small in- dications of their first texture and original materials. For, in general, tlie gods of tlie ancients gave abundant proof of human infirmity. They y/vrc subject to all the passions of men ; they partook even of their par- tial affections j and, in many instances, discoNeied their preference of one UQoax a^titto tg alji, others. They did not eat and drink the same sub- H'* 89^ INTRODUCTION. nil'- i^j 3: l,i 11 M ..; If Ml stances wifh men ; but they lived on nectar and ambrosia : they had a particular pleasure in smelling the steam of the sacrifices ; and they made love with an aidour unknown in northern climates. The rites by which they were worshipped natiu'ally resulted from their character. The most enlightened among the Greeks entertained nearly the same notions of gods and religion as those that are to be met with in the poems of Hesiod and Homer ; and Anaxagoras, who flourished 430 years betbre Ciu-lst, was the first, even in Greece, that publicly announced the existence of one Creator and Governor of the universe. It must be observed, however, tliat the religion o*f the ancients was not much connected either with tlieir private behaviour, or with their poll- tical arrangements. If we except a few fanatical societies, whose prin- ciples do not fall within our plan, the greater part of mankind were extremely tolerant in tlieir principles. They had tl>eir own gods, who watched over tliem; tlieir neighbours, tliey imagined, also had theirs : and there was room enough in the universe for both to live together in good fellowship, without interfering or jostling with each other. The introduction of Christianity, by inculcating the unity of God, by announcing tlie purjty of his character, and by explaining the service he requires of men, produced a total alteration in the religious sentiments and belief of the civilised part of mankind, among whom it rapidly made its way by the sublimity of its doctrine and precepts. It required not the aid of human power ; it sustained itself by die trutli and wis- dom by which it was characterised : but ui time it became corrupted by the introduction of worldly maxims, of maxims very inconsistent with the precepts of its divine author, and by tlie ambition of the clergy. The management of whatever related to the church bemg naturally conferred on tliose who had established it, first occasioned the elevation and then the domination of the clergy, and the exorbitant claims of the bishop of Rome over all the members of the Christian world. It is im- possible to describe within our narrow limits all tlie concomitant causes^ some of which were extremely delicate, by which this species of univer- sal monarchy was established. The bishops of Rome, by being removed from the controul of the Roman emperors, then residing in Constanti- nople J by borrowing, with little variation, the religious ceremonies and fites established among the heathen world, and other>vise working on the credulous minds of the barbarians by whom that empire began to be dis- membered ; and by availing themselves of every ciraimstance which fortune tlirew in their way, slowly erected the fabric of their antichcis- tian power, at first an object of veneration, and afterwards of terror, to all tempoial princes. Ihe causes of its happy dissolution are more pal- pable, and operated with greater activity. The most efficacious were th« invention of printing, the rapid improvement of«rts, govermnent, and commerce, which, after many. ages of barbarity, made their way into Eu- rope. The scandalous lives of those who called themselves the ** mifU' sta'sqf Jesus Christ," their ignorance and tyranny, the desire natural to sovereigns of delivering tliemselves from a foreign yoke, the opportunity of applying to national objects the immense wealth Wliich iiad been di- verted to the service of the church iu e\ery kingdom of Eurqpe, con- spired with tlie ardour of the first reformers, and hastened the progress of the reformation. The uiireasonableness of tlie claims of the diurch of fiome was demonstrated; xnany t>t' her doctrines were . proved >to.fae> ' had » J made ' which le most [ions of Hesiod Ciu-ist, tence of was not sir poU- se prin- id were n gods, ilso had to live ith each God, by jrvice he ntiments \\y made required and wis- rorrupted lonsistent 1 of the naturally elevation ms of the It is im- nt causes^ )f univer- ; removed Ilonstanti- Lonies and lug on the to be dis« ce which antichtls- terror, to more pal- svrere the ment, and y into Eu» le ** ffJj'Ht- natural to i|^ortunity I been di« rc^e, con- le progress 5 dxurcb of )Ked lobe t-r w>t«Mi##a)>.«mM Ji.ih- ///. m J" .(ttrr/>v "x / / ■'-oJ^'V ^id / j m / V / '■^-V"" "6/, .S' ?'<ft^ ^?/?r ^"' '*''^ji tLTi —t /■•%* SH :,«"' V.I .'.-< du ii,J. EucUnr ChanOo '• • '. . farnfO I \ V"^i"< •'/v/ll 'irnrii'. >j'r , , •. • ) * ii/'iiili^'iia ^■.-. .,T- / 7>» MA " "c -J -l' ■ f/trrny /j7 J' / \Grctno ° •«i"''*f 'Wmc W ^LrnOiurg^ f/Y/fcf ^, """^ Bwrra Ami. > rnr wl< (i'om tlu' l)(>st IHll» .ato" '\', t.Kiiiiil tiii<iii f(i l.i'iiilon . f ,', }f 'If Europe. 11 equally unscriptural and irrational ; and some of her absurd mummeries and superstitions were exposed both by argument and ridicule. The services of tlie reformers in this res^^ect give tliem a just claim to our veneration j but, involved as they had themselves been in the darkness of superstition, it was not to be expected that tliey should be able wholly to free themselves from errors ; they still retained an attachment to some absurd doctitnes, and preserved too much of the intolerant spirit of ihe church from which they had separated themsehes. With all their de- fects, they are entitled to our admiration and esteem; and the reforma- tion, begun by Luther in Gcmany, in the year 1517, and which took place in England, A. D. 1534, was an event highly favourable to the civil as well as to the religio i.-. rights of inraikind. We shall now proceed to the principal part of our work, beginning with EuaoPE. EUROPE. EUROPE, though the least extensive quarter of the globe (contain- ing, according to Zimmermann*, 2, 627,574 square miles, whereas the habitable parts of the world, in the other quarters, are estimated at 27>987.457 square miles), is, in many respects, that which most deserves our attention. Here the human mind has made the greatest progress towards improvement ; and here the arts, whetlier of utility or ornament, the scjf'nces, both military and civil, have been carried to the greatest perfection. If we except the earliest ages of the world, it is in Europe that we find the greatest variety of character, government, and manners ; and from its history we derive the greate ^t number of fa^^*^'- and memo- rials, either for our entertainment or instruction. Geography discovers to us two circumstances witli regard to Europe, which perhaps have had a considerable tendency in giving it the supe- riority over the rest of die world ; tirst, the happy temperature of its climate, no part of it lying within the torrid zone ; and secondly, the great variety of its surface. The effect of a moderate climate, both 011 plants and animals, is well known from experience. The immense num- ber of mountains, rivers, seas, \:c. which divide the dilierent countriefs of Europe from each other, is likt'wise oxtroniely commodious for its inhabitants. These natural lx)uiularies check the progress of conquest or despotism, which has always been so rapid in the t.'xtensive plains of , Africa and the East. The seas and rivers facilitate tlie intercourse and commerce between different nations ; and even the barren rocks and mountains are more favourable for exciting human industry and inven- tion, than the natural unsolicited luxuriancy of mure fertile soils. There is no part of Europe so diversified in its surface, so intermpted by natural boundaries or divisions, as Greece; and we have seen that it was tliere * Sod Zimmcrmann'i Political Surroy of E itopc. p. 5» ■ r-m Hf' f , ■1.1 ■ 54 EUROPE. the human mind began to know and to avail itself of its strength j an4 tliat many of tlie arts, subsement to utility or pleasure, were invented, or at least greatly improved, The Christian religion is established throughout every part of Europe, except Turkey) but from the various capacities of the human mind, and tlie different lights in which speculative opinions are apt to appear, when viewed by persons of ditferent educations and passions, that religion is divided into a number of different sects, but which may be compre- hended under three general denominations j 1st, the Greek church j 2d, Popery ; and, 3d, Protestantism ; which last is again divided into luiheranism and Calvinism, so called from Luther and Calvin, the di- stinguished reformers of the sixteenth century. The languages of Europe are derived from the five following : the Greek, Latin, Gothic (the parent of the Teutonic, or old Gernian), tlie Celtic, and Slavonic, GRAND DIVISIONS OF EUROPE. EUROPE is situated between the 10th degree west and 65th degree «ast longitude from London, and between the 36th and 72d degree of porth latitude. It is bounded on the north by the Frozen Ocean ; on the east, by Asia j on the south, by the Mediterranean Sea, which divides |t from Africa j and on the west, by the Atlantic Ocean, which separates it from America ; being 9000 mlef, long, from Cape St. Vincent in the west, to the mouth of tlie rivgr Oby in the north-east ? and 2500 broad from nortli to south, from the North Cape in Lapland, to Cape Caglia, or Mattipan, in the Morea, the most southern promontory in Europe, it contains the loilowing kingdoms ^nd 5l;ates ,• m^ EUROPE^ m Kingdoms and Stutes. .a c Chief Cities. Distance & Bearing fr. Lundon. Differenct of Time fr. London. Religions. 380 !270 1285 300 160 160 London . . . Miles. H. M. Calvinists, Luth. &c. Calvinists, &c. Calvinists & K.Cath. ■1 B^ ) Scotland . . . { Ireland . . . Ec^nbui-gh . . Dublin . . . 400. N. 270 N. W. 12 aft. 26 aft. Norway . . . Denmark . . 1100 '240 150 180 Borjjen . . . Copenhagen . 540 N. 500 N. E. 24 bcf. 50 bef. Lutherans. Lutherans. "' S'vedcn . , . 800 500 Stockholm . . 750 N. E. 1 10 bef. Lutherans. Russia .... 1500 1100 Petersburg . 1140 N. E. 2 4 bef. Greek Church. K.of Pr. Dom. 606 350 Berlin . . . . 540 E. 49 bef. Lutherans & Calvin. Geruiauy . . . C09 500 Vienna . . . 600 E. 1 5 bef. RCath.Luth. fitCaL Bohemia ... 200 150 Prague . . . 600 E. 1 4 bef. Rom. Catholics. ] Holland or ) Sataviau Rep. \ 150 100 Amsterdam . 180 E. 18 bef. Calvinists, France . . . 650 560 Paris .... 260 S. E. 9 bcf. Rom. Catholics. Spain .... 700 500 Madrid . • . 800 S. 17 aft. Rom. Catholics. Portugal . . . 300 100 Lisbon . . . 850 S. W. 38 aft. Rom. Catholics. Switzerland . . '220 130 Bcrn,Coire&c 4'20 S. E. 28 bef. Calvinists &, R.Cath. •*• 'Italian Rep. . 130 90 Milan .... 550 S. E. 37 bef. Rom. Catholics. Tuscany or 5 Kingdom of > Etruria . . ) 120 90 Florence . . 690 S. E. 44 bef. Rom, Catholics, State of tlMJ ) Churoii , . ^ '240 120 Rome .... 820 S. E. 50 bef. Rom. Catholics. -Naples .... 280 120 Naples . . . 910 S. E. 57 bef. Rom. Catholics. Turkey ia ) Euroi)e ^ 890 680 5 Constan- ) ',[ tinople. \ 13-20 S. E, 1 56 bef. 5 Mahometans and ( Greek Church. :1 * Italy likewise contains several smaller states; as the Republics of Genoa, Lucca, and {>an Marino, s$ DENMARK. J J <«i Exclusive of the BRITISH ISLES before mentioned, EUROPE conUius tlie following principal ISLANpS. I ISLANDS. In thp Northern , Ocean . . . < Iceland Baltic Sea Mediterranean Sea ;( Zealand, Funen,AIsen, Falster, Laa- land, Langcland, Femeren, Moen Bornholm .....,,..•. Gothland, Oeland, Aland, Ruf^en Osel, Oagho Usedoni, WoUin . . • « Ivira Majorca , Minorca • . • « Corsica • . Sardinia Sicily Adriatic, or 5 Cerigo, Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, St. ? Gulf of Venice^ Maura, Paxo, Theaki > Candia, Rhodes, Negrof)Ont, Lemnos, Tenedos, Scyros, Mitylene, Scio, Samos, Patmos, Paros, Santorin, &c. being part of ancient and mo- dern Greece Chief Towns. Skalholt . . Copenliagen Archipelago and Levant Seas Ivipa . . . Majorca . Port Mahou Bastia . . Cagliari . Palermo , Subject to Denmark. Ditto. Sweden. Russia. Prussia. Spain. Ditto. Ditto. France. K. of Sard. K. of 2 Sic ( Rep. of < Seven ( Islands Turkey. DENMARK. THE dominions of his Danish majesty, in Europe, consist of Denmark I'roper, or the peninsula of Jutland and the islands in the Baltic j the <Suchy of Holstein in Germany 5 Norway j the island of Iceland ; and Danish Lapland or Finmark. The dim'jnsipns and chief towns of thes^ jcpuntries are given in the following table. M Jutland . . . . Sleswick .... Holstein . . . . Zealand . . . . Funcn . . . . Falster . . . . Laaland .... Lan<;cland . . . Femoren .... Alscn Moen Bornholm . . . Iceland .... Norway .... Danish Lapland Square Miles. 6,866 2,640 2,768 2,112 J50 240 70 50 54 40 160 43,264 112,000 28,000 ^ 1.55 no 90 60 40 23 32 30 14 15 14 20 350 910 280 0) 98 63 50 60 30 12 12 3 5 6 5 12 240 170 170 Chief Towns. Viborg. Sleswick. Gliickstadt COVF.NHAGEN, Ode a see Nyekiobing. Naskow. Rudkioping. Burg. Surulerborge. Stegc. Ronne. Skalholt. Bergen. Wardhuvs. HI Lat. 55. Lon. 12. 41 35, Itaiius /•/./,//• .; MiTIiImIIoI Ol.lilKiiill. I«'KI.AN 1) I SLK DiMWU lo Uh" saiiu- Sciili- / (' ■iO ''" I- Jf/ / ''^, 1'- . , - '. i / 1 / / / f>: ''^/' '>«. '">/ liiili.i/i Slii/iili' Mi/>!< 7.1 /<•(> /,-,<> ;*»> 1^. ^^•ti7j^". . liiiHir/i ■-'SlXUv '"'••v^ l^S i'^ ^^ /• •"V* /v ■0 'iMrriilinn ol* I.oinliiii. .» /.>- < "'"V^ V<S^ i'^ ^ "'If r;> ^^^ ■ , ii«-i^lii iliiiiiilindl *>. ,/ \tiiiil>ri.i/iitiiiii \t ^'-' lliiriilioliii - V l).i»t/j.-,r,, J. s s I V 3n — VI— .'jcxn ,t /' !.i>n;ji/iii/i' j\(i<y liivii /.oiuion :i . .Vjill J; DENMARK. «7 DEJJMARK proper, or the PENINSnr.A OF Jim AND, INCLUDING THE ISLANDS IN TtlE liALTlC. Miles. EXTENT AND SITUATION. ' Length 240* 7 . . rJ4° 10' and 57* 45' noidi latitude. Breadth 114 5 °^^^^^*^" | S"^ lO' and 12° 40' east longitude. Containing 12,896 sc^uare miles, with 84 inliabitants to each. Name.] THE name of Denmark is derived by Saxo GrannTJaticus from Dan, the first founder, according to him, ot' the Danish monarchy ; and Mark, a boundary or country. But thi:i etymology is probably fabu- lous ; all we know witli certainty is, tliat tlie inhabitants of this part of Scandinavia were known by the name of Danes in the sixth century. JBouNDARiES AND 7 Denmark is divided on the north from Norway DIVISIONS. ) by the Scaggerac Soa, and from Sweden on the east by the Sound ; it is bounded on tlie soiith by Germany and the Bal- tic ; and the Gernian Sea divides it from Great Britain on the west. Denmark Proper is divided into two parts ; the peninsula of Jutland, anciently called Chersmiesus Civihrica, and the islands at the entrance of the Baltic mentioned in the table. It is remarkable, that, tluiU'^h all these together constitute the kingdom of Denmark, yet not any one of them is separately called by that name. Copenhagen, the rneLiojx)li.s, is in the island of Zealand. The Danish peninsula was formerly dt-nnminiUed Jutland, and di\ided into two parts — North Jutland and Soutli Jutland. The former of those is now called simply Jutiatid, and the latter Sleswiek. Jutland is divided into nine sj/ssels or districts, and Sleswick into fifteen counties. Denmark Proper is likewise divided into si.x. dioceses, or jurisdictions, ©f the following dimensions : The diocese of Zealand > Funen !. ' ■ ' Aarhuys Sq. Miles. 2,112 1,37() 1,696 Sq. Miles. The diocese of Ripen - 2,4 1(> Aalborg - 1 ,4 5(5 —————— Viborg ■ - 1,200 Mountains, lakes, rivers, canals.] The interior of the broad northern part of Denmark Proper contains some hills of a bleak and wild aspect, but none entitled to the name of mountains. There are many small but no large lakes. The small streams which intersect the country are numerous, but only two seem to deserve notice as rivers ; the Guden, which receives the waters of forty ri\ ulets, and runs a wind- ing course of an hundred miles before it falls into tlue Categat ; and die Eydar, the ancient boundary between Denmark and the German duchy <of Holstein. In the northern part of Jutland, an extensive creek of the sea, called Jjymfiord, penetrates from tlie Categat through an extent of above seventy miles, to within two or three miles of the German Ocean : it is navigable, and contains numerous small islands. A canal, called ihe Canal qf Kiel, a considerable town in the north of Holstein, has been made, at the expense of nearly eight hundred thou- sand pounds, to open a communication between the Baltic and the river * These dimensions are those of the peninsula of Jutland only, where lon^rest and l>roadcst, in which sense they are always to be uuderstood in this work. Jutland, jTor instance, is 114 mllvs in brsadth where broadest j tikOugU in some parts it is not more tixsM 30. ,%, ^, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^O /^A^ 1.0 I.I 128 ■ 2.2 2.0 I ||l.25 II U III 1.6 II = j|_ iiijj^ < 6" > ^ /a Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WIBSTER.N.Y. USSO (716) •72-4503 1 •ss v iV <^ 4 % ci\ ^^/^ >^ ci\ u 3« £8 DENMARIC. t > Kjdar, wliicli Hows Into tlic Germ.in Sea. It is above twenty miles in length, and ia navigable bv vessels of 120 tons. It was tinished in 1/85. Minerals.] Some fuller's-cartli, alum, and vitriol, foiud in Jutland, and porcelain clay obtained in the island of Bornholm, seem to constitute tlie vliolc of the mineral productions of D.nmailv Piopcr. Climatk, soil, and state oi AGRICULTURE."] The climate of Zea- land and the soutii of Jutland is more tem})ei-ate, on account of tlie va- pouis fidm tlie hUiToundiug sea, tlian it is in many n^ le southerly j)arts ofKurojTc. In the northern parts of Denmark, the \v niters are very se- vere, and .spring and autumn arc seasons scarrely known, on account of the sudden transitions from cold to heat, and from heat to cold. The en- trance of the Baltic in winter is generally so obstructed with ice, as to be innavigable, and sometimes so frozen, as to be cnjssed by sledges and loaded carriages. Ihe .soil of Zealand, Funen, and the south of Jutland, is fertile; and the agriculture of the two latter is compared by Mr. Marshal to that of England ; but in the northern parts, tlie country is less cultivated. Zea- land is for the most part a sandy .soil, but fertile in grain and pasturage, and agreeably variegated with woods and lakes. The greatest part of the lands in Denmark and Holstein are fiefs. The ancient nobility, by grants which they extorted at dilferent times from the crown, gained .such power over the farmers, and those who resided upon their estates, that at length tliey reduced them to a state of ex- treme slaveiy, so that they were bought aiid sold witli their lands, and were cstccnied the property of their lords. Many of tlie noble iand- lioldcrs of Slcswick and Holstein have the [xnvcr of lile and deatii. The situ;iti()n of tjic farmers has, indeed, been irade somewhat more agiee- able by some modern edicts ; but they nre still, if such an CApio^ion may be allowed, chained to tlieir farm», v:kI are disponed of at tiie will of their lords. The late count Bernstortt", liowe\cr, set a truly nobie ex- ample by the emancipation of his tenants ; and the prince-royal, ia w iioin the administration of the government is now vested, has als^j had iha magnanimity and true policy to give liberty to all the peasants ot the crown. Vegetable rnonrcTioNs, ani.mals.] Jutland contains woods of oak, tir, beech, birch, and other trees. Denmark and Holstein produce corn in such abundance, as often to be able to export in one year to the value of above 100,000/. j they also produce rape-!»eed, hops, and tlax. Th<-' horses of Denmark and Holstein are un excellent breed, boili for the saddle and the carriage. Besides great numbers of black-cattle, of which about 80,000 head are generally exported annually, they havo hogs, sheep, and game. The sea-coasts abound with various kinds of lish. CTrriosTTirs, vatural anp ARTiriciAL.] Denmark Proper affords ft'wcY of tliese ilian tlie other parts of his Danish majesty's dominions, if we except the contents of the Royal Museum at Copenhagen, which con- .sists of a numerous collectioi\ of botli. Here are preserved two famous anti(]ue drinking vessels, the one of gold, the other of silver, and both of thf; form of hunting horns. That of gold is about two feet nine inches long, weiorhs 102 ounces, contains two English pints aad a half, and was found in the diocese of IliiK'n, in i6M}. The other, of silver, \\eighs about four pounds, and is called the Ohlmhunr horn, because, as tradi- tion .iffirms, it was presenled to Otho, the lirst duke of Oldenburg, by a gliubi. I'liis museum contains a tine collection of paintings, and another DENMARK. 5* and ©f coins, as also a great number of astronomical, optical, and mathemati- cal instruments. Population.] By an actual enumeration maf^e in l/Sp, of his Danish majesty's bubjecis in his dominions of Denmark, Norway, Holstein, the islands in the Baltic, and the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst in Westphalia, they were said to amount to 2,444,000 souls, exclusive of the Icelanders and Greenlanders. The most accurate account of the po- pulation is that made vuider die direction of the famous Struensue^ in 1769; by which Jutland numbered 353,136 Zealand 283,466 Funen 14J,988 Norway 723,141 Islands of Ferro 4,754 Iceland 46,201 Duchy of Sleswick 243,(>05 Duchy of Holstein 134,665 Oldenburg 62,854 Delmenliorst 16,217 Sum Total 2,017,02/ Since this estimate was taken, the counties of Oldenburg and Delmen- horst have been exchanged for tlie remainder of Hoisiein ; and the popu- lation of tlie Danish dominions in Europe is tlius given lu Bouttichcr's Ublcs: The diocese of Zealand 345,740 Funen 151,512 f Aarhuys 125,282 Jutland) ^'P^" ^^'^^^ Jutland^ Aalborg 71.242 ( Viborg 53,488 The duchy of Sleswick 251 ,230 ————— Holstein 311,758 The kingdom of Norway 7(X),000 The Ferro islands 5,000 Iceland 50,000 2,148,438 Tlie population of Denmark Pi'oper, or Jutland, Sleswick, and the islands of tlie Baltic, exclusive of Holstein, will therefore amount to 1,081,680. National character and manners.] The ancient inhabitants of Denmark possessed a degree of courage which aj)proached even to fero- city : their national character in this respect, however, is much changed ; but, witji their former ferocious habits, tlicy have also laid aside in a great measure tlieir ancient simplicity and innocence. 'I'hough not a very en- terprising, tliey are a brave and humane jx'ople. I'hey value themselves extremely upon those titles and privileges, which tliey derive from the crown ; and are extremely fond of pomp and slunv. Ihey endeavour to imitate the French in their manners, dress, and even in their gallantry ; though they are naturally the very contrast of that nation. The Danes, )ike other northern nations, are given to intemperance in drinking, and convivial entertainments ; but their nobility, who begin now to visit the other courts of Europe, are refining from tlieir ancient national habits and vices. DENMARK. 1, '' i' " ■i. IM! CrriEs, CHTBF Towxs, BozrxcRS.] Cojienhagen, which is sihiate on the island of Zeal.ind, was originally a settlcinent of sailor.;, and first founded by some w-mLTiJig fi,:h. rnii u i-i the twelfth c<.^)itury, but is now the metropolis, and makvS a m:is:;n'ficent appearance at a distance. It is very strong, and defended by fo . . ,a.s or forts. It contains ten parish churches, besides nine otliers belonf^ing to the CaiviniHts and other religions sects, and some hospitals. Copenhagen is adorned by several public and private palaces, as they are called. Its .streets arc 186 in num- ber, the houses about 4,000, and its iiiliahitanls amount to 100,000. The houses in the principal streets are Iniilt of brick, and those in ihe lanes chiefly of timber. The harbour is spacious, :iud is formed by a large carud Howing through the city, which aJniits only one ship to enter at a umej but the harbour is capable of coiihiiuin:^^ .lOO. Several of die streets have canals and quays for ships to lie close to the houses ; and the naval arse- nal is said to exceed that of Venice. The road ii)\ shipping begins about two miles from the town, and is defended by tjO pieces of cannon, as well as the ditficulty of the navigation. Yet, notwithsianding all tlicsa advantages, there is little appear.tnce of industry or trade in this city ; and Copenhagen, thougii one of the linest ports in the world, cannot boast of it.-, conuuerce. Thd police of Coj)enhagen is extremely regular, and people may walk through the whole city at midni-ht with great safety. Indeed, it is usually almost as quiet here at eleven o'clock at night as in a country village. About twenty English miles from Copenhagen, is a noble palape be- longing to his Danish majesty, called Fredericsburg. It is a very large building, moated round witli a triple ditch, and calculated, like most of the ancient residences of princes, for defence against an enemy. It was built by Christian IV., and, according to tlie architecture of the times, partakes of the Greek and Gothic styles. In the front of the grand qua- drangle appear Tuscan and Doric pillars 5 and on the summit of the build- ing are .spires and turrets. Some of the rooms ai"e very .splendid, though furnished in the antique taste. The knights' hall is of great length. The tapestry represents tlie wars of Denmark, and the cieling is a most minute and laboured performance in sculptuje. The chimney-piece was once entirely covered with plates of silver, richly ornamented ; but the Swedes, \\'ho have often landed here, and even besieged the capital, tore them all away, and rifled the palace, notwithstanding its triple moat and formiflable appearance. The royal palace of Clu-istiansburg, one of the most commodious and most sumptuously furnished in Europe, was de- stroyed by fire on the 26th of February 1794. About two miles from Elsineur is a small royal palace, flat roofed, with twelve windows in front, said to be built on the place formerly occupied by the palace of Hamlet's father. In an adjoining garden is shown tlie very spot where, according to tradition, that prince was poisoned. Odensee Is the capital of the island of Funen. It is situated on a river which mns into a large bay about a mile below the town. It contains a cathedral and three churches : here is also a royal palace. The number of inhabitants is about 5,000. It has been said that tlie Danish language is spoken here in its greatest purity. Sleswick, the capital of the duchy of that name, is the largest town in the Danish peninsula. It is a long, irregular, but handsome town, con- taining between five and six thousand inhabitants. Elsmeur, or Helsingoer, is well built, contains 5,000 inhabitants, and witli respect to commerce is only exceeded by Copenhagen itself. It is I DENMARK: €l situate on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, is strongly fortified on the land side, nad trmards the sea deicnded by a strong tort. Here all vessels pay a toil, and, in passing, lower their top-sails. Manufactures and commerce.] The manufactures of Denmark are not very numerous or iuiporuint. lii the royal manufactures, as they are called, at Copenhagen, a late intelligent traveller tells us 400 looms are employed in fabricating all sorts of woollen cloth, from the iinest to that tor tlie use of the soldiery. Other manufactures liave also been encouraged by tlie cro^^ n, and by the patriotism of count Ron* cellen. Denmark is extremely well situate for commerce ; her harbours are well calculated for the rectption of ships of all burdens, and her mari- ners are very expert in the navigation of the ditterent parts of tlie ocean. The dominions of his Danish majesty also supply a great variety of tim- ber and other materials for ship-building; and some of his provinces afford many natural productions for exportation. Among tliese, beside £r and otiier timber, are black-cattle, horses, butter, stock-tish, tallow, hides, train-oil, tar, pitcli, and iron. I'o tliese we may add furs ; but the exportation of oats is forbidden. The imports are, salt, wine, brandy, and silk, from France, Portugal, and Italy. The Danes have great in- tercourse with England, and thence import bro;id-».loths, and all other articles manufactured in the great trading towns of England. Commercial companies are e^jtablished in Denmark, which trade to the East and West Indies, and to Africa. In the East-Indies, tliey pos- sess the settlement of 1 ranquebar, on the coast of Coromandel, and the small islands called the Nicobar islands, to the north of Sumatra ; in tlie West-Indies, tlie islands of St, Thomas and St. Croix, and the small island of St. John. On the coast of Guinea they have the fort of Christianburg. I'he Danes likewise carry on a considerable commerce in the Mediterrani^an.-^ Civil CONSTITUTION, GOVERN-") The ancient constitution of MENT. 3 Denmark was originally much the same with that of other Gothic governments. The king ranie to the throne by election ; and, in conjunction with the senate, where he presided, was invested with the executive puwt-r. He likewise com- manded the army, and decided finally all the disputes which arose be- tween his subjecth. T'ho Icgishitive power, together with the right of election of the king, was vested in the states, wTio were composed, first, of the order of nobility, and secondly, of tliat of the citizens and farmers. After die introduction of tl>e Christian religion, the < lergy were also ad- mitted, not only to be an order of the states, but to have seats likewise in the senate. These orders had their respective rights and privileges, and were independent of each other. I'he crown had also its prerogatives, and a certain fixed revenue arising out of lands which were appropriated to its support. This constitution had ninny evident advantages: but, unfortunately, the balance of this government was never properly ad- justed ; so that the nobles very soon assumed a dictatorial power, and greatly oppressed the people, as the national assemblies were not re- gularly held to redress their grievances; and when the Roman-catholic clergy came to have a share in the civil government, they far surpassed tlie nobility in pride and ambition. The representatives of the people had neither power, credit, nor talents, to counteract the efforts of the otlier two orders, who forced the crown to give up its prerogatives, and (o oppress and tyrannise over the people. Ciiristiati tlie Second, by en- ll r.l' at DENMARK. i 1: deavouring in an imprudent manner to stetti the torrent of their op- pression, Tost his crown and his libert)' ; but Christian tlie Third, by uniting with tl\e nobles and the senate, destroyed the power of the clergy^ though the oppression of the common people by the nobility still re- mained. At lengtli, in tlxe reign of Frederic the Third, when the nation had been exhausted by a war with Sweden, the people, exasperated by tlie arrogance and oppressions of the nobility, who claimed as their privilege an exemption from all taxes, determined to render the king despotic to free themselves from their tyranny. In conse<}ueiKe of this resolution in a meeting of tlie states, deputies from the clergy and tlie commons were appointed to make tlic king a solemn tender of their liberties and services. The monarch accepted tlieir otfer, promising tlieni relief and protection : the nobility, taken by surprise, were obliged to submit; and, on the iOth of January, ItiOl, the three orders of no- bility, clergy, and people, signed each a separate act, by which tliey con- sented that Uie crown should be hereditary in the royal family, as well in Uie female as in tlie male line, and invested the king witli absolute power, giving him tlie right to regulate the succession, and the regency, m case of a minority. This renunciation of Uieir right, subscribed by the first nobility, is still preserved as a precious relic among tlie archives of the royal family. After this extraordinary revolution in the government, the king of Denmark depri^ ed the nobility of many of the privileges which they had before enjoyed ; but he took no method to relieve those poor people who had been die instruments of investing him with the sovereign power, but left them in the same state of slaverj' in which they were before, and in which tlicy have remained to the present age. Laws.] The king unites in his person all tlie rights of sovereign power ; but in affairs of importance he for the most part decides in his council, die members of which are named and displaced at his will. lu this council, the laws are proposed, discussed, and receive the sanction of tlie royal ?uthority, and all great changes or establishments are proposed, and approved or rejected, by the king. Here likewise, or in the cabinet, he grants privileges, and decides upon die explication of laws, their extension, or restriction, and upon all die most important atiUirs of state. The supreme court of judicature for the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, is holden in the royal palace of Copenhagen, of which tho king is the nominal president. What are called the German provincws have likewise their supreme tribunal; which, for the duchy ofHol- stein, is holden at Gluckstadt j and for die duchy of Sleswick, in the town of that name. In this kingdom, as in many others, the king is supposed to be present to administer justice in his supreme court j and therefore, the kings of Denmark not only preside nominally in the sovereign court of justice, but diey have a throne erected in it, towards which die lawyers always address their discourses in pleading, as do the judges in delivering their opinion. Every year the king is present at die opening of this court, and often gives the judges such instiuctions as he thinks proper. Thts decision of diese judges is final in all civil actions ; but ao criminal sen- tence of a capital nature can be carried into execution till it is signed by the king. There are many excellent regulations for the administration of justice in Denmark ; but, notwithstanding diis, tt u> ^o far from being distri* DEN'MAllK. iKited in an equal and impartial manner, tliat a poor man rnn ?;<Mrivly ever obtain justiccin tliat country against one of the ntibility, or agaiast one who is fa^oured by tlie court. It the laws are so ilc-rly in favour of the former, that the judges are ashamed to decide against them, the latter, through the favour of tlie minister, obtains an onlor trom tlie king to stop all proceedings, or a dispensation from obser\ ing particiUar Jaws; and there the rruitter ends. The code of laws at presiMit esta- blished in Denmark was published by Christian V. : it is founded iii>on the code of Valdemar, and is nearly the same with that in use in Norway, These laws are very just and clear j and, if they were impartially carried into execution, would be productive of many beneficial consequences to tlie people. But as the king can alter and dispense with the law s as he pleases, and support his ministers and favourites in any acts of violence and injustice, the people of Denmark arc subject to great ty- ranny and oppression, and have abundant reason to regret the lameness and servility with which their liberties were, in ItJtJO, surrendered into the haiids of their monarchs. From that period, the peasants, till 17^7^ had been in a situation little better than tlie brute creation ; diey scarcely could be said to possess any loco-motive power, since tliey had no liberty to lea\e one estate, and ti» settle on another, witliout purchasing permission from their masters j and if they chanced to move witliout that permission, they were claimed as strayed cattle. Such was the state of those wretched beings, who, at best, only might be said to vegetate. I'hese chains of feudal slavery were tlien broken, through tlie interest of his royal highness tlie prince and heir-apparent to the crown ; and tlie prisoners, for such they cer- tainly might be called, were declared free. Notwitlistaiiding the re- monstrances, which were made against this by the landed geuLiy, ^^■ere very numerous, yet, after a minute examination of the whole, an edict was issued which restored the jxMsants to their long-lost liberty. A number of grievances, under which the peasantiy laboured, were like- wise abolished at the same time. Revenues.] His Danish majesty's revenues have three sources : the taxes he levies upon his own subjects j tlie duties paid by foreigners ; and his own demesne lands, including conliscations. The taxes consist af those on land and houses, the poll-tax, stamp-duties, taxes on salt and tobacco, and various other imposts. Ihe tolls paid by strangers arise chiefly from foreign ships that pass through the Sound into the Baltic, through the narrow strait of half a mile between Sciionen and the island of Zealand. These tolls are in proiwrtion to the size of the ship, and value of the cargo exhibited in the bills of lading. I'his tax, which formi a considerable part of his Danish majesty's revenue, has more than once thrown the nortliern parts of Europe into a llame. It has been often disputed by the English and Dutch, being nothing more originally than a voluntary contribution of the mercliants towards the expenses of the light-houses on the coast j and the Swedes, who command the opposite «ide of "the pass, for some time refused to pay it ; but in the treaty of 1/20, between Sweden and Denmark, under the guarantee of his Bri- tannic majesty George I., the Swedes agreed to pay the same rates as ar« paid by the subjects of Great Britain and the Netherlands. The first treaty relative to it was by the emiieror Charles V. on behalf of his subjects in the Low Countries. The toll is paid at Elsim^ur, a town hituatcd on tlie Sound, at the entrance of the Baltic Sea, and about 13 miles dlitaiit from Copenliagen. Illie whole r«venue of Deiyiwrk, in* M DEJ^IAJRK. eluding what is rccei^Td at Elsineur, amounts at present to about 1,520,000/. sterling yearly J of which Denmark contributes - Norway - - - - - Slcswick and Holstein - *3'he West- India islands The toll levied on ships 7 jwssing the Sound j A.ltoiia . - - - - £. 543,554 2^,000 300,000 202,300 - - 122,554 - - 3,150 By a list of the revenue taken in 1730, it tlien only amounted to En- glish money 454,700/. The expenses ot the state amount annually to above 1 ,0.")0,000/. ; and it is burdened with a debt of 2,(j00,000/. Akmv ANh NAVY.] The present military force of Denmark consist* of 75,000 men, of which Denmark fiirnishes 4O,000, and Norway 35,0(X) : of this force about 1 1 ,000 is cavalry, and 64,000 infantry. The fleet of Denmark, accortling to the otiicial gazette of the 15th of Octo- ber, 1803, consisted of \() ships of tlic line; of which were 1 ofgO; 2 of 80 5 12 of 74; and 4 of (i4 gims; 15 frigates, 8 brigs, and 13 gun- boats. An order was issued some time since to increase the number of frigates to 30, and constantly to keep up that number. This fleet is generally stationed at Copenhagen, where are tlie dock-yards, storehouses, jind all the materials necessary for the use of the marine. There are 2f),000 registered seamen, who cannot quit the kingdom without leave, nor ser\e on board a merchantman without permission firom the admi- ralty : 4000of tliese are kept in constant pay, and employed in the dock- yards : their pay, however, scarcely amounts to nine shillings per month ; hut they have a sort of uniform, \\ ith some provisions and lodging al- lowed for themselves and families. Royal titles, ordkus of knighthood.] The kings of Denmark in their public acts take the title of " king of Denmark and Norway, and of the Gotlis and Vandals, duke of Sleswick and Holstein, Stormar and Ditmarsch, count of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst." The orders of knightliood are tw o ; that of the Elephant, and that of Dancbwg. The former was instituted by Christian I. in the year 1478, and is deemed the most honourable ; its badge is an elephant surmounted with a castle, set in diamonds, and suspended to a sky-blue watered ribbon, worn, like the George in England, over the right shoulder : tlie number of it9 members, besides the sovereign, are tliirty j and the knights of it are addressed by the title of Excellency. The badges of the Danebrog order, which is said to have been instit\xted in the year 121 9, and after being long obsolete was revived in 1(J71 by Christian V., consist of awhile ribbon with red edges, worn scarf-wise over the right shoulder ; fi'om which depends a small cross of diamonds, and an embroidered star on the breast of tiie coat, surrounded with tlie motto, Pietate et Justitia. TJie badge is a cross patlee enamelled white, on the centre the letter C and 5 crowned with a regal crown, and this motto : Restitiitor. The num- ber of knights is not limited ; and they are vei7 munerous. Religion.] The religion of Denmark is the Lutheran. Th« kingdom is divided into six dioceses : Zealand, Funen, Viborg, Aarnuys, Aallx)rg, and Ripen ; besides four in Norway, and two iu Iceland. I'here is no archbishop ; but tJie bishop of Zealand is metro- politan in Denmark, as the bishop of Aggerhuys is in Norway. The «amual revenue of the bishopric of Zealand is about 1000/. a year. \ DENMARK. 99 > The Viborg, two in metro - . The a year. tJut of Funen 750/., the others are from 400/. to 600/. Tlie bishops have no temporiil power, nor more authority over the inferior clery thna is ne- cessary for the maintenance of good order in tlie church. Literature.] The Danes in general have made no great fig\ire in literature ; thougli astronomy and medicine are highly indebted to tlieir Tycho Brahe, Borrichius, and the Bartliolines : and tiie Round Tower and Christian's Haven display the mechanical genius of a Longomonta- nus. lliey begin now, however, to make some promising attempts in history, poetry, and the tlrama. But it appears that literature has re- ceived very little encouragement in Denmark ; which may be considered as the principal cause of its being so little cultivated by the Danes. Yet the names of Kmgebek, Suhm, and Holberg, have acquired some degree of deserved celebrity ; and the travels of Niebulir are distinguished for intelligent research and accurate information. Universitiks.] There are two universities in Denmark ; one at Copenhagen, and the other at Kiel in Holstein. The former has funds to the amount, it is said, of 300,000 rix-dollars, for tlie giatuitous sup- port of 32S students. Languaoe.] The language of Denmark is a dialect of the Teutonic ; but German and French are spoken at court ; and the nobility have lately made great advances in the English, which is now publicly taught at Copenhagen as a necessary part of education. A company of English comedians occasionally visit tliat capital, where tliey find tolerable en- couragement. The Lord's Prayer, in Danish, is as follows : Vorfudor som er i himmcUn ; htiligt lordc dit naffn ; tilkommc dit ryke ; vorde din villie paa jorden som i himmdin ; gif os i dag rort daglige hrod ; ogforlad os vor sh/ld som viforlade vorc skj/Idcner; og leed OS icke i fristrche, men fids osfra out ; thi irget er dit, og kraft og herglcd i evighed. Amen. ANTittuiTiEs.] The antiquities of Denmark consist only of some rude remains of tlie temples and cemeteries of tlie ancient Celtic and Gothic inhabitants of the country. In several parts of the Danish dominions are found circles of upright stones, disposed in a manner similar to those of Stonehenge. There arc also, on some rocks, Runic inscriptions, which are so ancient they can no longer be explained with certa'i-y j but they are supposed to record some remarkable e\ents. History.] The most ancient inhabitants of Denmark, c' whom we have any account, were tlie Cimbri, the Danish peninsula being called by the ancients Chersoncsus Cimbrica, or the peninsula of the Cimbri. After the conquest of the country by tlie Goths, we lind the possessors of it formidable to their neighbours, by their piracies and sanguinary de- predations, in the fifth century, under the name of Jutes or Vitae, and Angles ; and in the sixth, under that of Danes. But the history of Den- mark is fabulous and uncertain, till the tenth century. Harold Blaatand, who succeeded his father Gormo in p45, was the first Christian king of Denmark. He was followed by his son Swein, who invaded and laid waste England; and dying ui 1014, was succeeded by his son Canute tlie Great. Under Canute the Great, Denmark may be said to have been in its zenith of glory, as far as extent of dominion can give sanction to the ex- ptession. Few very interesting events in Denmark preceded the ycr 138/, when Margaret, daughter of Waldeniar III., who had married Hakon king of Norway, but was then a w idow, mounted tlie throne ; and, partly by her address, and partly by hereditary right, formed the union of Calmar, anno 139". ^'^' ^vhich she was acknowledged sovereign of F I?»» k m If f 66 DENMARK. k Sweden, Denmark, and N'orway. She held her dignity wiiJj such firm- ness and courage, ihat she was justly styled the Seniiraniis ot the North. Her successors being destitute of her great rjualilirations, the union of Cahnar, by which the (hn-e kingdoms were in future to be luider one sovereign, lost its effect ; but N(>rway still continued ainiexed to Den- mark. In the year lllH, the crown ot" Denmark fell to Chri^tlan, count of Oldenburg, from whom the present royal family of Denmark is de- scended. In 1513, Christian II., a tyrannical and sanguinary princi-, a^eended the throne of Denmarkj and married the .-.ister of the cmneror (.iiiirles V. Being driven f»ut of Sweden for hi-, atrocious cruelties, the Danes re- belled against him likewise ; and he fled, with his wife and ciiildren, into the Netlierlands, Frederic, duke of Holstein, wa^ unanimously called to the throne, on the deposition of his cruel nci)liew. He em- braced tlie opinions of lAithcr ; and about the year l.").'}!), tl;e protestant religion was established in Denmark by that wise and politic prince^ Christian III. Christian IV. of Denmark, in l6'2p, was chosen for the head of the. protestant leagixe formed agaiiir-t the house of Austria ; but, though brave in his own person, he was in. danger of losing his dominions ; when he was succeeded in tliat command by Gustavus Adi>lplnis king of Sweden. The Dutch having obliged Christian, who died in lO'lS, to lower the duties of tlie Sound, his son Frederic III. con.sented to iiecept of an an- nuity of 150,000 florins for the whole. The Dutch, after this, per- suaded him to declare war against Charles Gustavus king of Sweden ; which had almost cost him his crown. In 1C>57, Charlc^i stormed the for- tress of Fredcricstadt ; and in the succeeding w inter marched his army over the ice to the island of Funen, where he sur])ristd tiie Danish troops, took Odensce and Nyburg, and marched over the Great Belt to besiege Copenhagen itself Cromwell, who tlien governed England under the title of Protector, interposed ; and Frederic defended his capital with great magnanimity till the peace of Roschild, by which Frederic ceded the jjrovinccs of Halland, Blekingen, and Schonen, tlic iskud of Bornholm, and Bahus and Drontheim in Norway, to the Swedes. Frederic sought to elude these severe terms : but Charles took Cronenburg, and once more besieged Copenhagen by sea and land. The steady intrepid conduct of Frederic, \nuler tliesc misfortunes, en- deared him to his subjects ; and the citizens of Copenhagen made an ad- mirable defence, till a Duteli fleet arrived in the Baltic, and beat the Swedish fleet. The fortune of war was now entirely changed in favour of Frederic, who showed on every occasion great aliilities, both civil and military j and, having forced Charles to raise tlie siege of Copenhagen, might have carried the war into Sweden, had not the Fngli.ih fleet, under Montague, appeared in the Baltic. This enabled Charles to besiege Co- penhagen a third time ; but France and England oifering their mediation, a peace was concluded in that capital, by \\ hich tlie island of Bornholm was restored to the Danes ; but the island of Rugen, and the pro- vinces of Blecklngen, Halland, and Schonen, remained with the Swedes. Though this peace did not restore to Denmark all she had lost, yet tlie magnanimous behaviour of Frederic, under tlie most imminent dangers, and his attention to die safety of his subjects, even preferably to his own, greatly endeared him in their eyes ; and he at length became absolute, in the manner already related. Frederic was succeeded, in I670, by his soH Christian v., who obliged tlie duke of Holstein Gottorp to rcnounco DENMARK. 67 nil the advantages he had gained by the treaty of Roschild. He tlien re- covered a number of places in Schoncn : but his army was defeated in the bloody battle of Lunden, by Charles XI. of Sweden. Ihis defeat did not put an end to the w:>r, which Christian obstinately continued, till he was defeated entirely at the battle of Landscroon : and having al- inost exhausted his dominions in military operations, and being in a manner abandoned by all his allies, he w as forced to sign a treaty, on the terms prescribed by France, in 1 ()/(). Christian afterwards became the ally and subsidiary of Lewis XiV'., aiul tlied in lt)t)0. Hv was suc- ceeded by Freili-rio IV., who, like his predecessors, maintained his pre- tensions upon riolstein, ;!nd probably must have become master of that duchy, had not tlu- Engli-,h and Dutch fleets raised tlie siege of Tonnin- gen, while the young king of Sweden, Charles XII., whu was then no more than sixteen years of age, landed within eight miles of Copen- hagen, to a^.^isi his brother-in-law the duke of Holstein. Charles pro- bably would have made himself master of Copenhagen, had not his ■ Danish majesty agreed to the peace of Travcndahl, which was entirely in the duke's favour. By another treaty concluded with the States- General, Charles obliged himself to furnish a body of troops, who were to be paid by the confederates, and after\\'ards took a very active part against the French in the wars of queen Anne. Notwithstanding this peace, Frederic was perpetually engaged in wars with the Swedes ; and while Cliarles XII. was an exile at Bender, he made a descent upon Swedish Pt)merania, and another, in the year 1712, upon Bremen, and took tlie city of Stade. His troops, however, ■were totally defeated by the Swedes at Gadesbuch, and his favourite city of Altona was laid in ashes. Frederic revenged himself by seizing great part of Ducal Holstein, and forcing the Swedish general, count Steinbock, to surrender himself prisoner, with all his troops. In the year 1716, the successes of Frederic were so great, by taking Tonnin- gen and Stralsund, by driving the Swedes out of Norway, and reducing Wismar in Pomerania, that his allies began to suspect he was aiming at the sovereignty of all Scandinavia. Upon the return of Charles of Sweden from his exile, he renewed the war against Denmark with the most implacable violence j but, on the death of that prince, who was killed at the siege of Fredericshall, Frederic durst not reliise the otler of his Britannic majesty's mediation between him and tlie crown of Sweden : in consequence of which a peace was co'.cluded at Stockholm, which left him in possession of the duchy of Sleswick. Frederic died in die year 17i50, after having, two years before, seen his capital reduced to ashes by an accidental lire. His son and successor. Christian Frederic, or Christian VI., made the best use of his power, and the advantages with which he mounted the tiirone, by cultivating peace with all his neigh- bours, and promoting tlic happiness of his subjects, whom he eased of many oppressive taxes. In 1734, C istian sent 6OCO men to the assistance of the emperor, during the dispute of the succession to the crown of Poland. Though he was pacitic, yet he was jealous of his rights, especially over Hamburg. He obliged the Hamburgers to call in the mediation of Prussia, to abo'ish their bank, to admit tlie coin of Denmark as current, and to pay him a million of silver marks. In 1/38, he had a dispute with his Britannic majesty about the little lordship of Steinhorst, which had been mortgaged to the Matter by a duke of Holstein-Laueuburg, and which Christian said belonged to him. Some blood w as spilt during thccontest, which, how- ever, ended in a treary^ bv whicli, his Britannic majesity agreed to pa^ ¥2 m h-H i'ii WA i*. f It li :i i* t^m 4. X-' I 08 DEXMARK. Christ lan .1 Mibsitly of "0,000/. sterling a year, on ronditton of keeping ifi readiness 700() troops lor the pniteotion of Hiinover. 'Iliis was a painful bargain for Denmark. Two years after, he seized some Dutch ships, for trading without his leave to Ireland ; but the dirterence was made up by Ihe. mediation of Sweden. Cliristian died in 174(j, with the character ot being the father of liiii people. Mis son and succesM»r, I'rederic V., had, in \743, married the princess Louisa, daughter to his Hritannie majesty (Jeorge II. He improved upon his fatlin's plan for the happiness of his people, and took no con- cern, cxcc[)t tJjat of a mediator, in the German war. It was by his in- tt^rvcntiou iliat the treaty of (Moster-Seven was concluded between his loyrA Iviglincss tljc late duke of Cumberland and tlie French general Jlichclieu. Upon the dejih ot his first queen, who was motlier to his present DnnisJi majesty, he Ujarried a daughter of the duke of Brunswic- Wolfeubuttle} and died in l/tJti. His son, Cliristiau VII., nuinii-d his present Britannic majesty's young- est sister, the princess Carolina-Matilda. This alliance, though it wore at first a very promising appearance, had a. very unfortunate termination. In t})e month of January, I77'i, by the intrigues, or at least the active agency, of the queen-dowager, niolher-in-law to the present king, Matilda \\ as charged with an illicit commerce with count Struensee, the minister and favourite of the king; and witli being engaged with him, his brotlier, and count Brandt, in a conspiracy to deprive her husband and sovereigu ot his crown. She was J^i con.sequence arrested, and confined in the castle of Cronenburg. Her son, the prince-royal, who had entered into the titih )ear of his age, was put under the care of a lady of quality, who was' appointed governess, under the superintcndcncy of tJie queen-dowager. Struensee and Brandt were seized, put in irons, and very rigorously treated in j)ris()n : they botJi undervent long and frequent examinations, and at length received sentence of death. They were beheaded on the. 2Sth of April, having their right hands previously cut otF: but many ot their friends and adherents were afterwards set at liberty. Struensee at fust absolutely denied having any criminal intercxjurse with the queen : but this he afterwards confessed : and though he is said by some to ha\"e loeen induced to do this only by the fear of torture, the proofs of Iiis guilt in this respect were esteemed notorious, and his confessions full and explicit. In May, his Britannic majesty sent a small squadron of shipa to convey the queen Matilda to Germany, and appointed die city of Zell, in hij electoral dominions, for the place of her future residence. She died liiere of a malignant fever, on the 10th of May, 1775, aged 23 years a;id lu months. Iri 1780, his Danish majesty acceded to the armed neutrality proposed by the empress of Ilusbia. He appears at present to have such a debility •if understanding as to discjualify him for the proper management of pvib- lie atlairs. On the lOth of April, 17^4, another court revolution took jjJace. I'iie qiiccn-dowager's friends v\ ere removed, a new council formed under the auspices of the prince-royal, some of the former old members restored to the cabinet, and e\ery instriuuent must now be signed by th« kin>i, and ctnmtersigned by the prince-royal. '1 he conduct of this prince exhibits that consistency of l>ehavlour which enables him to pursue, with unremitting y.cal, the prudent and benevolent UK-isures which he has planned lor tlie bent lit of his grateful country. 'J 'he re-toration of tlie peasantry to their long-K>st liberty, and the abo- lition of many grievances under which they laboured, have already beea hw^uiioticd. lo Uiesc luay be aiiiied the c:;erliuiis he makes for the DENMARK. ^ ppiirral diffusion of khowk'dge ; the patronas:;c he affords to sorictios if k'aruing, arts, and science ; the excellent measures he has adopted lor tlio suppression of beggars, witli w honi tlie counixy was over-run, and tht- -n- couragenient of industry, by the most extensive inquiries into the state uf the poor tliroughout the kingdom ; the wise reguhuious he has introduced into tlie corn trade, equally benericial to the landed interest and to the poor ; and the judicious law?, which under his influence liave been made to encourage foreigners to settle in Iceland. The princess of Hcose- Cassel, his consort, is said to possess tlic must amiable di;>positions avA goodness of heart. Count Schimmelmann, minister of state, finances, and commerce, has the merit of projecting the abolition of the slave-trade among the subjects of Denmark. By his plan, \^hich was appro\ ed by the king on tlie 2*2(1 of February, 1792, and is to be gradual, all trade in negroes vas to cease on the part of the Danish sulyects in 1803. The disinterestedness of this minister, who possesses large estates in the Daiysh West-India islands, recommends his exertions to greater praise. The above ordinance doe* not seem to have caused any discontent in Denmark among the W'est- India merchants, and it is not thought it will cause any in the islands. A scheme for defraying the national debt has been suggested and fol- lowed, by which a considerable reduction of it has been effected. Denmark, from the beginning of the French revolution, formally re- jected every solicitation to join the coalition of potentates against ■ r^ ranee. In 1801, the Dani.sh government accedotl to the confederacy formed by the northern powers against the naval superiorit)' of Great Britain, under tlie title of a Convention of Neutrality, But this league was quickly dissolved by the appearance of an English fleet in the Baltic under the command of the gallant admiral Nelson, who, in the battle of the 2d of April of the same year, forced the line of defence formed by the Danish fleet before Copenhagen, and compelled the Danes to agree to a cessation of arms to preserve their capital. In this short war the Danes lost their islands in the West Indies, and their settlement of Tranquebar on the coast of Coromandcl, which were conquered by the Britisli arms. But the dispute between England and the northern powers being soon after amicably adjusted by a treaty, their foreign possessions have since been all restored to them. Christian VII., reigning king of Denmark and Norway, LL. D. and F. R. S., was born January 29, 17-*f)> i" 1 7^ lie was married to the princess Carolina-Matilda of England} and has issue — 1 . Frederic, prince- royal of Denmark, born January 28, 17^8, and married July 31, 17<)0, to the princess Mary-Sophia-Froderica of Hesse-Cassel. 3. Louisa- Augusta princess-royal, born July 7) 1/7 1> a"d married May 27, 1780", to Frederic, prince of Sleswick-Holstein, by v horn she has issue. Brothers and sisters to the king, — -1. Sophia Magdak'ue, born July 3, i746-j married to the late king of Sweden, Gustavus III. — 2. Wilhel- mina, born July 10, 1747; married Sept. 1. l/til, William, the present prince of Hesse-Cassel. — 3. Louisa, born Jan. 30, 1730; married Aug. 30, 170'(). Charles, brother to tlie prince of Hi'ss^-Caascl,*— 4. Frederic^ tprnOct. 2b, 1753. I 'Oil a \:.- 11 I" Miles. 70 y NORWAY. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Length 1 100 7 , . C 58° 5' and 71° O' north latitude. Breadth 150 3 ^ ^^'^^^ { 5° 10' and '25° O' east longitude. Containing 112,000 square miles, with six inhabitants to each'. Namb.] NOKWAY signifies the Nori/icm iLfii/, or country : li was anciently called Norrike, or the Northern ki)r^dom. Boundaries and divisions,] Norway is bounded on the south by tlie entrance into the Baltic ; on the west and north by (he Nortliern Ocean ; and ou tlie eajt it is divided from Sweden by a long chain of mountains called at ditterent parts by diifei-cnt names, as, DofVelcld, Filleteld, Runfeld, and Dourfeld. This extensive country is divided into the four governments, or dio- ceses, ofAggerhuus, or Chrisiiania, Christianaand, Bergen, and Dront- heini ; the latter is again subdivided into tlie two provinces of Nordland, and Finmark, or Danish Lapland. Mountains, lakes, river'-.;] Xt)rway is one of the most moun- tainous countries in the world; a chain of' uncc^uai mountains runs thiough it from soutli to nortli , to pass <jne of u Inch, called the Ardan- ger, a man must travel about seventy Eng'ish miles; and to pass otJiers, upwards of rifty. Dofrefeld is the highest of these mountains. The rivers and cataracts which inlcrsecl ih.ose dreadful precipices, and that are passable only by slight tottering wooden bridges, render tra\elling in this country \&cy terrible and dangerous ; thoiigli the government is at the expense of providing, at ditlerent stages, hou.ses accommtxlated with lire, light, and kitchen furniture. Detached fVoni this vast chain, other im- mense mountains present themsehes all over Norway ; some of them with reservoirs of water ou tlie top, and tiie whole forming a most stu- pendous landscape. The caverns that arc to be met with in these moun- tains are more wondei-ful tlian those, perhaps, in any otJier part of the world, though less liable to observation. One of them, called J)(jlstocn, was in 1/50 visited by two clergymen, who reported, tiiat they proceeded in it till they heard the sea dashing o\er their heads ; lluu the passage was as wide and as high as an ordinary church, tlu" side^: perpendicular, aiid the roof vaulted ; that tliey descended a Higbt of natuivil stairs ; but w ben they arrived at another, they durst not ^ cnture to prf)cccd, l:ur returned ; and that they consumed two cimdles going and returning. In a mountain in Nordland, called Torg Hallen, whose sununit has been fancifully ima- gined to resemble the ligurc of a giant with a hat on his head, there is a \ast per\ ious aperture a hundred )ards high ai^.d above two tliousand iu lengtli, along which a road runs. The lakes of Noruay are extremely numerous ; the largest of them is the Mioss, about .si.\ty miles in length, l.i^t of no great breadth except toward,s the centre, where it is from twehe to tifleen miles. It has in it an island nearly ten miles in circumference, i he lake of Rands Sion, near tljc Mioss, is almost fifty miles long, but scarcely more than two broad. The hike of Fanuind is thirty-li\e 'uiks long and eight broad; and that of Ojiren, formed by tiie river Glom, twenty-three miles long. Some of these lakes contain tloating islands :-ixty or eighty feet in diame- t' r, formed by the cohesion of roots of trees and shrubs; and wiiich, dioiigh torn from the main land, bear herbage and trees. The principal rivers of Norway are the Glom, or Glomen, called like- NORWAY. n Wise the Stor Elve, or Great River, which, from its source among the nKHuitains on the borders of Sweden, to the bay of Swincsund, where it falls into the sea, runs above three hundred English miles ; and the Dramnie, which flows into the bay of Christiana after having received the jSeina and other streams. There are many other smaller rivers. Metals, minerals.] Gold has been found in Norway, and some du- cats were coined of it in l645. The silver-mines of Konigsberg, about forty miles from Christiana, are reputed the richest in Europe. There are other hilver-miiies in different parts of the country ; and a mass of jiative silvtr, the produce of some of these, which is deposited in the royal cabinet at Copenhagen, weighs 409 marks, being worth 3000 rix-dollars, or ()00/. The copper-mines of Roraas arc extremely productive, and afford a consideral)lt revenue. But the iron-mines near Arendahl are, perhaps, tlie most profitable. Norway produces abundance of marble, quicksilver, sulphur, salt, coal, vitriol, and alum : mines of cobalt have likewise been discovered witliio these few years at Possum. Climatk, soil, vegetable productioxs.] The climate of Norway varies according to the latitude, and the position with respect to tlie sea. At Bergen the winter is moderate, and the sea not frozen. The eastern parts of Norway are commonly covered with snow ; and the cold generally sets in about tJie middle of October, and contiimes, with intense severity, to tlie middle of April ; the waters being all that time frozen to a considerable thickness. But even frost and snow have their conveniences, as tl^ey far cilitate the conveyance of goods by land. In tlic more northern parts of this country, tJie cold is extremely intense. In siunmcr, the inhabitants can read and write at midnight by the light of the sky j and in tlie most northerly parts, about midsummer, the sun is continually in view. I^i those parts, however, in the middle of winter, there is only a faint glim- mering of light at noon for about an hour and a half, owing to the reflec- tion of the sun's rays on the mountains. Nature, notwithstanding, luw been so kind t/) ilie Norwegians, tliat, in tlie midst of their darkness, tlio ftky is so serene, and tlu; moon and tluj aurora boiealis so bright, that they carry on their fishery, and work at tlicir several trades in the open air. Theairof Nonvay, in general, is extremely pure, and many of die na- tives live to a very great age. The soil and climate of Norway arc not very favourable to agriculture, and no parts of' that country yield suiVnient corn lor interior consump- tion ; but though it is deiicient in arable land, il is rich in pasture, and produces nmch cattle ; and a patriotic society Ivas so mlich encouraged agriculture, that within these iilty yi-ars estates have risen nearly one- third in value. I'lie principal vegetable production of Norway is wood. The extensive forests of tJiis country consist of fir, pine, oak, elm, ash, yew, birch, heedi, and alder trees. The fir of Norway is in high estimation, being tinner, more comi)act, and less liable to rot, than that of most othei countries. The sinns received from foreign nations for timber arc very great ; one-tenth of which is paid totlie king of Denmark, and forms uo inconsiderable pirt of Ids revenue. AxiMALs.] The horses, and in general the nHwr cattli' of Norway, are .small, but strong, hardy, and active. I'he wild animals are the elk, the rein-deer, the hare, the rabbit, the bear, the wolf, the lynx, the fox, the glutton, the lemiiig, the ermine, the marten, and the beaver. The elk is a tall ash-colourcil animal, its shape partiiking at once of the horse and J. 72 NORWAY. m :i i] W tlie stag ; it is harmless, and in the winter social ; and the fl«sh of it tastes like venison. The rein-deer is a species of stag ; but we shall have occasion to mention it more particularly hereafter. The hares are small, and are said to live upon mice in the winter time, and to change their cblour from brown to white. The Norwegian bears are strong and sagacious. The Norwegian wolves, tliough tierce, are shy even of a cow or goat, unless impelled by hunger : the natives are dexterous in digging traps for them, in which they are taken or killed. The lynx, by soma called the goupes, is smaller than a ^\ olf, but as dangerous ; they are of the cat kind, and have claws like tigers ; they dig under ground, and often undermine sheep-folds, where they make dreadful havoc. The skin of the lynx is beautiful and valuable, as is that of the black fox. White and red foxes are likewise found in Nor\v ay, and partake of the nature of that wily animal in other countries ; they have a particular \i'ay of drawing crabs ashore, by dipping their tails into the \\'ater, which the crab lays hold of. The glutton, otherwise called tlie ervan, or vielfras, resembles a turn- spit dog, with a long body, thick legs, sharp claws and teedi ; his fur, .which is variegated, is so valuable that he is shot with blunt arrows, to preserve the skin unhurt : he is bold, and extremely ravenous. The ermine is a little creature, remarkable for its shyness and clean- liness J and its fur forms a principal part even of royal magniticeuce. The leming, or Nor\vegian mouse," is a singular creature, of a red» .dish colour, and about five inches in lengdi. Vast multitudes of these animals sometimes proceed from the mountains towards the sea, devour- ing every j)roduction of the soil, and spreading desolation like tlie locust. When they have consumed every eatable, it is said they at last prey on each other. No country produces a greater variety of birds than Norway, especi- ally water-fowl. The auks, which breed on the rocks, frequently ap- pear in such numerous flocks that they darken the air, and the noise tliey make witli their wings resembles a storm. Various kinds of wild ducks and pigeons are also found here. The Nonvegian cock of the wood is a noble bird : he is of a black or dark-grey colour, with an eye re- sembling a pheasant ; and is said to be the largest of all eatable birds. Eagles of ditferent species breed among the mountains and rocks of Nor- way, some of which are of a prodigious size and strength, and will seize lanrbs and kids ; and, it is said, have been known to carry off a child of two years old. The sea eagles sometimes dart on large fishes with such force, that, Leing unable to extricate their talons, they are dragged into tlie water and dro\\'ned. The bird-men of Norway display remarkabh; agility and address in mounting the steepest rocks, and bringing away the young birds and their eggs ; the latter of which are nutritive food, and are pailfuiled in vinegar. I'he soas and lakes of Norway are extremely productive of most kinds of fish which are found on the sea-coasts of Europe. Stock-fish innu- nieral)le :ue dried upon the rocks without salting. The haac-moren is a species of sharic, ten fathoms in length, and its liver yields three casks of train-oil. The tuella fiynder is an excessively large turbot, which has been known to cover a man w ho has fallen overboard, to keep him frnnj ri.-;ing. The season for herring-fishing is announced to the fishermen by tiie .'^pouting of wati-r from the whales while following the herring shoals. 'I'lie coast of Norway may be said to be the native country of herrings. Jiinuineral)le shoals come from under the ice, near the north |jole. and, about the latitude of Iceland, di\ idc themselves into three w NORWAY. 73 bodies. One of these supplies the Western Isles and coasts of Scotland ; anotlier directs its course round the eastern part of Great Britain, down tlie Channel, and the tliird enters tlie Baltic through the Sound. They form great part of the food of the common people ; and tlic cod, ling, kabeliau, and torsk fishes follow them, to feed upon tlieir spawn, and are taken in prodigious numbers, in 50 or 0"O fathoms water : tliese, especially their roes, and the oil extracted froni their livers, are exported and sold to great advantage: and above 150,000 people are maintained by the herring and otiier lishing on the coast of Norway. The sea-de\ il is about six teet in length, and is so called from its monstrous appearance and voracity. The sea-scorpion is likewise of a hideous form, its head being larger than its whole body, which is about four feet in length ; and its bite is said to be poisonous *. Natural curiosities.] The dreadful vorte.\ or whirlpool of Mael- strom, or Moskoestrom, is the most remarkable of the natural cnriosi- ties of Norway. It is caused by a furious current, which runs among the Loftbden isles, particularly between the island of IMoskoe and the point of Moskoenas, where its violence is greatest, flowing, contrary to the motion of the tide, in a kind of circular stream. Twice in twenty- four hours, at the turn of ebb and tide, the current ceases, and the water is calm during almost an hour, after wl ich it gradually increases, till it becomes tremendous, and roars with a noise unequalled by die loudest cataracts. It is heard at the distance of many leagues, and fonns a vortex of great extent and depth, so violent, tliat if a ship comes near it, it is immediately drawn irresistibly into the whirl, and there disap- pears, being absorbed and carried down to the bottom in a moment, where it is dashed to pieces against Llie rocks ; and when tlie water be- * It may be proper to give Iirre KoniR account of those troinciulous monsters of the NorwcRian seas, the sea-serpent and th* kraken, since they have Imjcii doscvihed by Pontoppidan, and other writers of some repute, thuuf^h it is not probable that tiither of them ever had existence. A sea-snake, or ser|)ent of the ocean, it is said, was shot ill 1756, by tlie master of a ship : its head resembled that of a horse ; the mouth was large and black, as were the eyes; a white mane hung from its neck ; it floated on the surface of the water, and held its head at least two feet out of the sea. Between the head and neck were seven or eii^ht folds, n lii(!h were very thick ; and the length of this snake was more than a hundred yards — «ome say, fathoms. They are said to have a remarkable aversion to the smell of castor ; for which rea- son ship, boat, and bark masters provide themselves with quantities of that drug, to prevent bein;?, overset ; the serpent's olfactory nerves being remarkably exqui- site. The particulars related of this animal, however incredible, have been atteste«l upon oath. Egede (a very rc]mtable author) says, that on the tith day of July, 1734, a large and frightful sta-monster raised itself so high out of the watxjr, that it."i head reached above the maintop-mast of the ship j that it had a long sharp snout, broad paws, and spouted water like a whale ; and that the body sciimed to be covered with scales ; the skin was uneven and wrinkled, and the lower part was formed like a snake. Tlie botly of this monster is said to be as tliii-k as a hogshead ; his skill variegated like a tortoise-shell j and his excrement, which floats on the 3urface of tlie water, to be corrosive, and blister the bauds of the seamen if they haudle it. The kraken is said to be a mile and a half in circumference ; and that when part of it appears above the water, it resembles a number of small islands and sand- banks, ou which fishes sport, and sea-weeds grow. Upon his farther iinergimc, a number of pellucid antenna;, each about the height, form, and si/.c of a moderate mast, appear ; by the action and re-action of whiili Iw gathers his food, consisting of small fishes. When he sinks, which he does gradually, a dangerous Swell of the sea succeeds, and a kind of whirlpool is naturally formed in the water. In ITiHO, %e are told, a young kraken perished anump the rocks and elites of tiic parish of Alstahong; and his death was attended with &uoh u stouch, that the channel where he died was impassable. lit m IT m m m ■mm r4 NORWAY. comes again still, rlsrs in scattered fragments, scarcely to be known for thQ parts of a sliip. In tlic time of its greatest violence, the danger of its influence is said to extend to the distance of eight, or even twelve, En- glish miles from its centre. Whales, and other animals which happen to be caught by this dreadful whirlpool, are said to show themselves sen- sible of their approaching destruction by their hideous bellowings, and desperate but ineflcctual struggles to escape. Population.] The number of inhnbitants in Norway, nctwithstand- ing tlie great extent of die country, Joes not exceed 7^0,000, almost tJie whole of which is containo<.l in the soutliern part, or Norway Proper. National chahacter, manners.] The Norwegians in general ar* «frong, njbust, and bra\c ; but (luick in resenting real or supposed in- juries. The women are handsome and courteous ; and the Norwegian modes of living greatly resemble tho^e of the Saxon ancestors of the pre- sent English. Every inhabitant is ;ui artisan, and supplies his family in all its necessaries with his own manufactures j so that in Norway there are few who are by profession hatters, shoe-makers, tailors, tan- ners, weavers, carpenters, smiths, or joiners. They often mix with oat-meal the bark of the fir, made into a kind of flour ; and they are re- fluced to very extraordinary shifts for supplying the place of bread or fiirinaceous food. The luiddliug Norwegians lead that kind of life which wc may sr.y is Ixirnished with plenty ; but they ^re neither fond of luxu- ry, nor do they dread penury : and tliis middle state prolongs their liyes surprisingly. Though their dress is in many respects acconmiodated t€» their climate, yet, by custom, instead of guarding against tlie inclemency »)f the weather, tliey outbrave it j for tliey expose tiiemselves to cold, witliout any coAcring upon their breasts or necks. A Nonvegian of a. himdred years of age, is not accounted past his labour j and, in 1733, four couples were married, and danced before his Danish majesty, oi Fredericshall, whose ages, when joined, exceeded 800 years. Cities, chief towns.] Christiana is accounted the capital of Nor- way, because it is the seat of the supreme court of justice. It is situate about thirty English miles from the sea, in a large and pleasant valley, and is the handsomest town in the country. It contains about 9QOO in- liabitants. Bergen is much the largest and most commercial town in Norway, containing nearly 20,000 inhabitants. It is principally built of wood, and has sutl'ered by repeated fires j during one of which, in 1771, the flames, it is said, were visible, or at least their reflexion in tliC clouds, in the isles of Shetland. Drontheim, the capital of tJie diocese or pro\ince of the same name, contains about 8000 inhabitants. Commerce.] The exports of Norway are timber, hemp, flax, tar, turpentine, fish, tallow, copper, iron, hides, and the skins of bears, lynxes, and foxes. Ihe annual export of deal alone, is reckoned at 175,000/. and that of iron at 70,000/. They export annually 80,000 raw hides, and 1000 manufactured. I'he whole exjjorts of Norway, in 17OS, were stated at above I,7(->0,000/. sterlings and the imports at less than 1 ,24O,0(X)/. ; which seems to indicate a considerable balance in favour of the country. Government, laws.] Norwayis subject to Denmark ; but ii isgovern- jod by its own laws, contained in a particular code called the Norway Law, compihxl by Gritteliield, by order of Christian V. the great legislator of his coTttUry. Ey this huv, the palladium of Norway, the peasants are free, a few only excepted, on certain noble estates near Fredericstadt. 'i'he laws are adniiuistercd by proviiici:il courts and oflicers. The go- ICELAND. n Vernor is president of the supreme court at Christiana, from which ap* peals may be made to Copenhagen, Revenue, army, navy.] Denmark derives from Nol•^^^^y a revenue of about 300,000/. per annum. Tlie Norwegians maintain an army of 24,000 infantry, and dOOO cavahy j they can also supply about 14,000 excellent seamen. Religion.] The religion of Norway, like that of Denmark, is I,utheranism. The country is divided into four ilioceses, or provinces, mentioned above, each of which has its bishop ; but the see of Chris- tiana has precedence. The annual revenue of each is 400/, excepting die bishop of Ciu-istiansand, who has GOOl. Literature, language.] In the principal town of each diocese, there is a seminary called a liatin school ; and at Bergen one named Frederic College. The language of Norway is the Danish, with a mix- ture of Swedish wortls, and Swedish pronunciation, among the inhabi- tants of the eastern parts, bordering on Sweden ; hiU tlie gentry, and in- habitants of tlie principal towns, we are told by Wilse, a native of Nor- way, speak purer Danish than is usual even in Copenhagen. History.] The first inluibitants of Norway were probably tribes of the Finnish race, the ancestors of the modern Laplanders. These were conquered and driven out by the Gotlis. Norway, till about the latter end of tlie ninth century, was divided into ten or twelve small states, . under their several chiets, which were then united into one nation by- Harold Harfagre, who subdued the other petty princes, and rendered him- self sovereign of the whole country. From that time Norway remained a distinct and independent kingdom, e.^ccpt that twice in Uie tenth and eleventh centuries it was subjected, for a short time, to Denmark ; and in the Uiirteenth united likewise, for a time, with Sweden. At length, by the marriage of Hagen king of Norway with Margaret of Denmark, and the succession of tlieir son Olaf, in 1380, it became annexed to the «loininJons of die crown (jf Denmark, of wliich it still continues a part. ICELAND. .•I i m ill EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Lengtli 300 7 , ("GS" and 67° north latitude. Breadth 280 1 ^^'^^^''^^" | l(j° and 25°west longitude. Containing 43,000 scjuare miles, with somewhat more than one hilia- bitant to each. Namk.] ICELAND evidently derives its names from the great masses of ice which float in the ocean that surrounds its shores. Mountains, volcanoes, lakes, rivers.] The mountains of Ice- land range generally from the Houth-e;ist to the north-west. The prin- cipal summits, covered with perpetual snow, are called 7/0/, r/Av; and of these, Snaefials, which projects over the sea in the south-west part of the island, is esteemed the loftil^st: its height is computed at above 6800 feet. Almost all the Icelandic mountains either are, or appear to have been, volcanic. Of tliese, Heckla is most known to foreigners. I'his mountain is situated in the southern part of the island, about four miles from the sea-coast, and is divided into three points at the top, the highest of which is that in the middle, which is computed to be above ^OtX) feet higher than the sea. This mountain has frecjuently sent forth flames, and a torrent of burning matter. Its eruptions were particularly dread- i'.SCU 76 ICELAxVD. m m ful in 1693, "when they occasioned terrible devastations, the ashes being thrown all roinid die island to tlie distance of 180 English miles. An eruption of Mount Heckla happened in 1766. It began on the 5th of April, and continued to the 7th of September following. Flames pro- ceeded fromtlie mountain in December 1/71, and 1772} but no streams of \d\J. But the greatest of the eruptions of Iceland, and, in fact, the most tremendous of any recorded in liistor}', was tJiat in 1783, which, we are assured by the abbe Spallanzani *, who cites the authority of Mr. Pen- nant, extended ninety-four miles in length, and fifty in breadth, dried up twelve rivers, and overwhelmed not only all the villages it found in its way, but likew^ise many hills. The perpendicular height of the sides of this current was from eighty to a hundred feet, so tliat the entire surtaCc of the country was in a state of tiuidity, and formed a lake of fire, re- sembling a mass of melted metal. " In June 1783," says the abbe Ordinaire, in his Natural History of Volcanoes, " it was feared that this island (Iceland) would fall to pieces ; and it was even reported for some days that it had been swal- lowed up, so dreadful and multiplied were the convulsions produced by its volcanoes and internal fires. A thick sulphureous smoke rendered tlie island absolutely invisible to mariners at sea, while the people on shore were all in danger of being suffocated by it. 'i'he fog, which about that time spread over all P^urope, was considered as an cfi'ect of tliese exhala- tions. Frightful hollow roarings proceeded from the bottom of the sea. From Mount Shapton Gluver, a seventh volcano in the island, there poured a terrific torrent of fire, which fiowed for six weeks. It ran a distance of sixty miles to the sea ; its breadth was nearly twelve miles ; and in its course it dried up the river Shaptaga, which in some places is thirty, and in others six-and-thirty, feet deep." In the month of April of the same year, a volcanic island arose out of the sea, to the soutli of Iceland, which threw out fire from two of i!tA c«iinences, and continued to increase in size for some time, but at length disappeared. Of tlie lakes of Iceland, that railed ThingvallaVatu, in the south-wpst, said to be about forty miles in circuit, and ^ly VaUi, in the opposite part of the island, appear to be the principal. The chief rivers are the Skal- fanda, the Oxartird, and the Brua, which flow from south to nqrth. Minerals, fossils.] No mines are worked in Iceland, though large pieces of silver, copper, and iron ore, have been found on the surface of tlie ground. The principal minerals are sulphur, pumice, zeolite, cal- cedony, and malachite, or copper stalactites. The substance called sur- turbrand is a remarkable fossil : it is evidently w ood, not quite petrified, but indurated, which drops asunder as soon as exposed to the air. It is found at a great depth, and indicates trees to have been once much more plentiful in the island than they are at present. Climatk, soil.] The temperature of the air ;u Iceland, in its ordi- nary state, is moderate : the cold of winter is not rigorous ; but the wea- ther in summer is subject to great inequalities; and violent tempests, ac- companied sometimes with piercing cold, frequently destroy the fruits of Iho eartli. The soil is tolerably fruitful in grass, but differs according to differaiit situations, being in some places sandy, and in otliers a ftitf clay. \'ivGKT\BLEs, ANIMALS.] lu SO tudc a climatc as that of this countrv'j, * Ste Spallaiuani's Tiavcls in the Two Sicilies, vol. iv. ICELAXa 11 tio species of corn can be cultivated with advanlnge ; and ajrriciiUurc Is hardly known, except in the mannring of some pasture grounds, and tlie planting of a few potatoes, turnips, and cabbages, tliat may be found in live or six small gardens. Though there are indubitable proofs that Iceland formerly produced great quantities of timber, there are now very few trees to be found on Uie whole island, and those of a very stinted growth. Iceland has no wild quadrupeds, except rats, wild cats, and white and brown foxes. The horses are small, but stout and serviceable. IJirds are extremely numerous ; there are several kinds of falcons, swans, and cider-ducks, which furnish the inhabitants witli eggs, and a very valua- ble down. Natural cuniosixiEs.] Among the curiosities of Iceland none are more worthy of attention than tlie hot spouting-water springs with which this island abounds. Some of these throw up columns of water, of seve- ral feet in thickness, to the height, as many aftirm, of several hundred fiset. They are of an unequal degree of heat. From some the water flows gently, as from other springs, and it is then called a bath ; from others boiling wate- spouts with great noise, and it is then called a kettle. Though the degree of heat is unequal, yet Dr. \'an Troil says that he <loes not remember ever to have observed it under ISS of Fahrenheit's thermometer. At Geyser, Rcpynum, and Laugarvatu, he found it at 212 (the boiling heat) ; and in the last place, in the ground, in a small liot current of water, at 213 degrees. It is very comnifjn for some of the spou ting-springs to cease, and other to rise up in their stead. Fretjuent earthquakes, and subterranean noises, heard at the time, t;ause great ter- ror to the people who live in the neighbourhood. In several of these kot springs the inhabitants who live near them boil their \ictuals, onlv by .hanging a pot, into which tlic tiesh is put in cold water, in the water of the spring. The largest of all the spouting-springs in Iceland is called Geyser. It is about two days' journey from Heckla, and not far from Skalholt. In approaching towards it, a loud roaring noise is heard, like the rushing of a torrent precipitating itself from stupendous rocks. Tlie water here spouts several times a-day, but always by starts, and after certain inter- vals. Some travellers have affirmed that it s])nuts to the height of sixty fathoms. The water is thrown up much higher at some times than at wthcrs : when Dr. Van Troil was there, tlic utmost height to which it mounted was computed to be 92 feet, Basaliine pillars ^'.re likewise very connnon in Icrjand, w iii(^h are sup- posed to have been produced by subterraneous fires, I'hcy have gene- rally from three to seven sides, and are from four to seven feet in thick- ness, and from twelve to sixteen yards in kngth. wiii.out any horizontal divisions. In some places they are oi.lv seen here nml there among tlie lava in the mountains, but in others tJiey extend tuo or tln"ee miles in length, witliout interruption. Iceland contains great numbers of yawr.ing lissures fif the e.-*h, and 'prodigious caverns, formed by volcanic explosions. Tlie largest of these, fls yet described, is that of Surtheller, which is iibovenOOO foet, or about an English mile, in lengtlij above 50 fccL high, and 'i:> feet broad. At Almengaia, near the water uf Tingalhi, is a fissure of a great but unnuw snred length, from north to soutli, and 105 feet wide. Its western side, or wall, is above 10/ feet high, but its eastern only 45 feet. Imm(.'nse masses of ice are, e\ery j-e ir, the c;uise ot great damage to tkif countrv, and afl'eet tlic elimale of it. 'J'hov .irrive cuiu' 11 m ■r:;. , I #i ICELAND. l>9i''B :'h-^ i monly Vith a N. W. or N. N. W. wind from Greenland. The field ice is of two or three fathoms' thickness, is separated by the winds, and less dreaded ilian the rock or mountain ice, which is oftfMi seen fifty and more feet above water, and is, at least, nine times tlie depth below water. These prodigious nias,>es of ice are frequently left in shoal water, fixed, as it were, to die ground ; and in that state remain many months, nay, it is said even years, undissolved, cliiliing all the ambient part of the atmosphere for many miles round. Wlicn many such lofty and bulky masses of ice are floating together, the wood that is often drifted along between them is so much rhafcd, and pressed with so much violence to- gether, that it is said it s(/metimes takes iire ; which circumstance has occa- sioned fabulous accounts of the ice being in flames. A number of bears ar- rive yearly with the ice, which commit great ravages, particularly among the sheep J ihey are, however, conMiionly soon destroyed, for the govern- ment allows a premium of ten dollars e.u:h, for killing them, besides the price of tlie skins, which arc purchased for the king, and not allowed to be sold to any other person. Population.] The number of inhabitants in Iceland is computed to be about50,0(K). I'he country was formerly much mt^re populous, but it has frequently been ravaged by contagious di.sease.i. The plagvie, in the be- ginning of the rifteenth century, destroyed many diousands of tlie inhabi- tants, and aluiost depopulated the island; and in die years I707and 1/08, the suitdl ]X)x carried otl' 10,00() ]X'rsons. Iceland has, also, re- peatedly sutfered extremely by taniines, ihe couset^uence of .severe winters in that inclement climalc. Inhabitants, mannkks, customs.] Tlie Icelanders in general are middlc-siz'.d, and well-made, tho\igh not very strong. I'hey are an ho- nest, well-intcuiioncd peoj)le, moderately industrious, and are very faith- ful and obligir.g. I'heft is seldom iieard of among tliem. They are much inclineu to hospitality, and exercise it as far as their poverty will permit. Their chief employment is attending to Ashing and the care of their cattle. On the coasts, the men employ their time in fishing both w inter and summc/ ; and the \\'omen prepare the fish, and sew and spin. The men also prepaa- leather, work at several mechanic trades, and some few work in gold and sil\er. They likewise rrianufacture a coarse kind of cloth, which they call ivudiiutl. They have an uncommonly strong attachment to their native country, and think themselves no where else so happy. An Icelander, therefore, seldom settles in Copenhagen, though the most advantageous conditions should be offered him. Their dispositions are serious, and they are much inclined to religion. They never pass a river, or any other dangerous place, without previously taking off their hats, and imploring the divine protection; and they arc always thankful for their preservation when they have passed the danger. The dress of the Icelanders is not elegant or ornamental, but is neat, cleanly, and suited to the climate. ()n their lingers the women wear several gold, .silver, or brass rings. The poorer women dress in the coarse cloth called ivudiuul, and always wear black ; those who are in better circimistances wear broad-eloih, with silver ornaments, gilt. The houses of the Icelanders are generally bad : in some places they are built of drift Wood, and in others they are raised of lava, w^ith'moss stullcd between the lava. I'heir roofs are covered with soils laid over rafters, or sometimes over ribs of whales, which are both more durable and less expensive than wood. Titc}' have not even a chimney in their kitchens^ but only lay their fuel on the hearth, between three stones, and the smojce issues troiu a square hole in the roof. I'.hcir food princip;dly cou* ICELAND, 79 sists of dried fish, smir butter, vhich they consider as a great dainty, milk mixed with water and whey, and a little meat. Bread is so >carie among them, that there is hardly any peasant who eats it above three or four months in the year. Towns, TRADE, revenue.] There are no towns, or even vill.nges properly so called, in any part of this island, the inhabitants only dwelling in separate farms, which sometimes contain several distinct liabitations. The three or four houses of the Icelandic ccmipany at each of tlie twenty-two ports or harbours are, however, dignihed with the name of towns, thout^h they are only trading places. Ihe only manufacture vf Iceland is tliL- coarse cloth called ivadninl. The commerce of the island is monopolised by a Danish com]):iny, which })ays the king of Dcnmaik 6,000 dollars yearly for that privilege. This company sends annually between 2-1 and 30 vessels with corn, bread, wine, brandy, salt, linen, and other articles ; and exports dried fish, salted meat, butter, tallov/, train-oil, the coarse cloth called v:admal, raw-wool, skins, and eider- down; of which latter nearly 2,000 lbs. weight is annually exported. As Iceland affords no incitement for avarice or amliition, the inhabi- tants depend entirely on the protection of Denmark, which derives from the country a revenue of about 30,000 crowns a year. Government, laws.] The government of Iceland, after it became subjec^ to Norway and Denmark, wa» at first regulated by a marine officer who was sent there every year to inspect the state of the island : but the court of Denri^ark now appoints a governor, styled the stiftscuupt- munn, who constantly resides there, at a place called Bvsscstccdcr, in the south-west part of tlie island, and who appoints his own umptmann, or deputy. Each of the 18 sysscls, or districts, into which Iceland is di- vided, has a magistrate called a .si/suclman, who acts as a justice of the I)eace, and before whom actions are usually commenced ; but they may be carried by appeal to the courts of tv.'o superior judges, and thence ta the supreme court of judicature at Copenhagen. Justice is, in general, administered according to the Danish laws ; but sometimes, likewise, ac- cording to the old Icelandic ordinances. Men convicted of capital crimes are put to death by beheading or Iianging : but if a woman is condemned to die, she is .sewed up in a sa^k and thrown into the sea. liELiGfoN.] The inhabitants of Iceland were converted to Christianity about the year 1000; and in fjjl, lAitheranism, which is still the re- ligion of the country, was established. I'he island is divided into two dioceses, Skalholt and Hoolum; of vhich the former contains 12/ i)a- ri.>>hes, ami the latter ti2. The yearly revenue of these bishoprics is about 200/. each. All the ministers are native Icelanders, and are said by Van Troil to receive a yearly salar}"^ of four or five hundred rix-doUars from the king of Denmark, exclusive of what they obtain from their con- gregations. According to Mr. Coxe, however, some Itave not more thau three or four pounds atuiually. Literature.] From the introduction of the Christian religion into Iceland, till the year 1204, when this island became sidjject to Norway, it was one of tlie ieM countries in Europe, and the only one in the North. in which the sciences were cultivated and held in esteem. Eat thi* period of time .seems to have produced more learned nien in Icel.ind than any other period since. It appears from tlieir ancient chroni- cles, that they had considerable knowledge in morality, philosopliy, natural history, and astronomy. Most of ilieir works were wriiteu in the 11th, 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries ; and some of them have been printed, Mr. Banks, now Sir Joseph Banks, presented ow. I fll 1' ' ti >iik *! so THE FAnO OR FERRO ISLANDS. hun(!rcd ami sixty-two Icelandish manuscripts to tlie British Museum. I'liat gfutleman visited Iceland in 17/2, accompanied by Dr. Solander, Dr. \'an 'JVoil, and Dr. i^ind. Dr. Van Troil, who published an account tit' their voyage, obsenes, that he found more knowledge among the lower class in Iceland tlian is to be met with in most other places ; that many of them could repeat the worku of some of their poets by heart ; and that a peasant was seldom to be found, who, besides being well in- stmcted in the principles of religion, was not also acquainted with tho history of his country ; which j)roceeds from the frecjuent reading of their traditional histories, that being one of their principal amusements. L.VKGi.'AGE.] The Icelandic is a very ancient dialect of the Godiic, and has been preserved so pure that any Icelander can understand tlic most ancient chronicles of his country. The Lord's Prayer in Icelandic is as follows : Fader Tor mm eat i Ilimlum ; I Hals;ad warde tJdtt nama. TUkomnie ihitt Hikic. Skie ihitt vilie so som i Jl/mmalam so oi^h po Jordanne. Ifort ditchlicha Brodli s;if os i dagh ih^h forlat os nora S/iuUiar, so som o^k vifurldte than os Skitdighc arc Ogh inled os ikkie i Fratalsan. Utan J'rt/s OS ifra ondo. Amen. Anthiuitiks.] In Iceland are found circlps of upright stones, and stoi'os l.iid on each other, in a manner similar, though on a smaller scale, to Stoneheiige in England. They are there called domrings, or circles of judgement. There likewise still exists a bath built by Snorro, tlie cele- bnited Icelandic historian, in the thirteenth century. IIisToKY.] A Norwegian colony under the conduct of two chiefs, named Ingulfr and Leifr, settled in Iceland in the ninth century. Other colonics soon followed, consisting principally of emigrants who fled from \lic tyranny of Harold Hnrfagre, king of Norway. These formed sepa- rate independent communities \\ hich, in time, united into one common- wealth under a supreme elective magistrate. In consequence, however, of internal dissensions, and the arbitrary conduct of some ambitious citi- zens, the Icelandic Republic in the year 120'4 submitted, under certain conditions, to Hakan king of Norway ; and aften^'ards became, with lliar country, a part of the dominions of the crown of Denmark, to which it still remains subjt^ct. ;1 THE FARO on FERRO ISLANDS, SO called from their lying in a clust^T, and tlie inhabitants ferrj'inj; from one island to another. They are about 25 in number, though only 1/ are said to be inhabited, and lie between 6l and 63 deg. N. lat. avid 6 and 7 deg. W. long, from London. I'he space of this cluster extends about 70 miles in length and 40 in breadtli, 300 miles to the westward of Norway ; having Shetland and the Orkneys on the south-east, and Greenland and Iceland upon the north and north-west. Stromoe, the largest island of this group, is twenty-four miles long and eight broad. The trade and income of tlie inhabitants, who may be about 4000 oi 5000, add littltt or nothing to tlie revenues of Denmark. ii SWEDEN. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Di'grees. Length y7o7 . {50° and 70° North liititude. Breadth 0003 ^^^"^^^^^ I 12° and 30° East longitude. Containing 210,000 square miles, with M inhabitants to each. Name.] SWEDEN is called, in the present language of the country, Siaea-rikc, or the kingdom of Swea ; an ai)i)ellalion of great antiquity, and probably derived from the ancient Suiones, who appear to have in- habited this part of Scandinavia. BouNDvuiEs A.VD oivisioNS.] Swedeu is bounded on the south by the entrance of the R iliic Sea ; on the west by tlie mountains of Norway ; on tlie north by Danish Lapland, or Finmark j and on the east by Russia. The whole kingdom is divided into live general parts : 1. Sweden Proper. — 2. Gothland. — 3. Nordland. — 4. Swedish Lapland. .5. Finland. These are again subdivided into the following provinces : V3 s Sweden Pkoper. Upland, Sudermanland, Nerike, \\''estermanLuid, Dalecarlia, Gothland. r East-Golldand, J Smalland, or Smoland, j Island of Oeland, (^ Island of Gothland, fWest-Gothland, - < Wermeland, i Dalsland, V^Bohnslehn, Hochland, Schonen, Blekingen, NonDLAND. Gestrikeland, Helsingland, Medelpad, Jemtland, Herjedalen, Angermanland, "West-Bothnia, CHIEF TOWNS. Cc ( IsL lat. 50* 20'. (Upsil. Nikioping. Oerebro. Westeroes. (Fahlun. \ Hedemora. Korkiccping. Calmar. Borgholm. | Wesby. ^ ,, , C N. lat. 57° 42'. Gothenburg. I ^^j^^^/^.gg,^ Carlstadt. Amal. , Kongihall. , . . Halmstadt. Lund. Carlscrona. Geflc. Hadwik shall. Sundswall. Karlstrom. Linonedall. "HocrnoKand. Li^mea. TLi^mea. r-vx 1 * G . • 65" 50'. 24*" 12'. !i 1 nil r' >.„i . - * 1 > > ! ti :-r . f 'V - 1 • sa SWEDEN. IS'! *l Swedish Lai»land. Afele Lapniark, Umea Lapmark, - Pitea Lapmark, I.ulea Lapmark, Tomea Lapmark, Kimi Lapmark, Finland. East-Bothnia, CHIEF TOWWS. There are no towns in these <li- > stricts, and the inhabitants often change tlieir places of abode. 5 Ulcaborg. I Wasa. (Nystadt) Abo. Tavastchus. Castelholm. Helsingfors. J N. lat. 60' ?;'. |E. Ion. 22' J 7'. Finland Proper, Tavastland, Swedish Part of Savolax. Island of Aeland, - Nyland, - , - Swedish part of Kuopio Ka-1 relen, or Carelia, as far > Louisa, as the river Kymene, j Sweden likewise possesses, in the north of Germany, Anterior or Hither Pomerania, as far as the river Peene, with the island of Rugen, the town of Wismar, and the bailiwick of Neucloster, situated in the duchy of Mecklenburg. Swedish Pomerania, together with tlie island of Rugen, forms a territoiy of 1440 square miles, witli a population of from 100,000 to 1 J 0,000 inhabitants. Face of the country, mountains, forests.] The face of the country in Sweden presents a pleasing diversity of the romantic and the beautiful : a profusion of mountains, hills, and eminences, intermingled with extensive lakes, numerous rivers and winding streams, rocks, cata- racts, and cultivated lands. The principal mountains are found in tlie chain which separates Sweden from Norway. The mountain Swucku jg esteemed the highest of this chain. The mountain KinekuUe, on the banks of the lake Wenner, consists of a number of ten^aces rising one above another, the highest of which presents a scene equally rich and variegated. "Raetvik, another mountain, is estimated to be 6OOO feet high above the level of the sea. These, as well as all the other mountains of Sweden, are composed of granite, calcareous stone, and slate. The basis of the greater part of them is granite, which is frequently found in large separate masses, rising to a considerable height. Jetteberg in West- Gothland, forms a mass of this kind. Taberg in Smalland, is composed entirely of iron ore. Vast forests, principally of pine, overspread a gieat part of the coun- try, and the province of Dalecarlia in particular. Besides pine, birch, poplar, mountain-ash, and fir, abound in them. In these forests con- flagrations are remarkably frequent, which consume or scorch all the trees, sometimes for an extent of several miles. These are to be attri- buted, in part, to the carelessness of the peasants, who kindle fires in the woods without extinguishing them ; and in part to the privilege allowed the peasants to make use of the timber thus damaged in the crown forests, without paying the usual tax on it. Lakes, rivers, canals.] The lakes of Sweden are very numerous. The largest of them is the Wenner^ which is about 100 English miles len^, and between 50 and 60 broad. It contains several islands, and re- SWEDEN. ceives 24 rivers. The Wetter is about tlie same length, but of unequal breadth, being from only (i <o 26 miles broad. It is reported to be 200 fathoms deep, contains two isl.iuds, and receives about 40 small streami. The Maelar is about 70 miles in length, and 30 in breadth. It contains a prodigious number of small i-.Linds; (here --e reckoned to be 1290; several of which are three or four miles in ext( nt, and extremely fertile. • At Stockholm this lake coaim'micate-* wiiii the H.iltic, by two rapid cur- rents, one of which is called tl.i northern .iiid tJie other tiie southern stream. The Hielmar washes Sudcrmanland and Xerike : it is about 40 miles in length, and 20 in breadth, and communicates with the Maelar. In Finland, the lake Pejend is about 80 miles long and 15 broad. There are also a great number of smaller lakes in this country. The principal river of Sweden is the Dahl, which rlsei in the moun- tains that separate Sweden from Norway, and, after a course of about 2<'J0 miles, falls into the Gulf of Bothnia, about 10 miles to the east of Gefle. Near its mouth is a celebr;:teil cataract, scarcely inferior to that of the Rhine at Shatf hausen. Ihe breadth of the river there is about a quar- ter of a mile, and the perpendicular height of the fall between 30 and 40 feet. The rivers Gotha and Motala are the outlets of tlie lakes Wenner and Weter. The piincipal rivers of Finland are the Ulea, the Kano, and the Kymene, which Hows into the Gulf of Finland, and constitutes the boundary of the Swedish part of Carelia. Inland navigation has not been entirely unattended to in Sweden. The canal of Trolhaetta, lately completed, has been \^T0Ught with great labour, assisted by the powerful force of gunpow der, through the midst of rocks. Its object was to open a communication between the North Sea and the liake Wenner, by forming a new channel where the Gotha is rendered innavigable by cataracts. The length of this canal, in which there are nine locks, is nearly three miles, the width 30' feet, and the depth in some places above 50. " It is not easy," says a late judiciou* traveller, " for any one to form an idea of the ditfi equities that were to be surmounted in the formation of this wonderful canal, unless he were an eye-witness. It was undertaken and begun by Charles XII. ; formed part of a grand plan meditated by Gustavus Vasa, and attempted by some of his successors, for joining the Baltic with the North Sea, by means of a communication cut through tlie kingdom. If a canal should be ex- tended by the Lake of Wenner, by Oerebro, to the Lake of Hielmar, the Swedes may then, by a conjunction of this lake with that of Maelar through the sluices of Arboga, transport all kinds of merchandise in the same vessel from Gothenburg to Stockholm. Thus a passage would be opened between the North Sea and the Baltic j and, among other advantages, the duties of the Sound would be avoided. The canal of Trolhaetta may justly be considered as, in some respects, characteristical of the Swedish nation, for it represents them as they are, prone to the conception of grand enterprises, and distinguished by mechanical invention. As a work of art, and of bold and persevering design, it is not too much to say that it is the first in the world ; even the duke of Bridgewater's canal in England, and that of Languedoc in France, not excepted*." Metals, minerals.] The mines of silver, copper, lead, and iron, in Sweden, constitute the principal wealth of the country. In the year 1738 a gold-mine was likewise discovered near Adelfors, in the province of Smoland; but from the year 1741 to 1747 it produced only 2,889 goM ducats, each valued at 9s. 4d. sterling ; and at present will not defray the w ■M ^ Acerbi's Travels in Sweden, Finland, and Lapland, vol. i. pp. 2Q. G2 f'^ SWiiDEM. f^:l •*« ml If ''11 ;:i I expenje of vorking. Tiie siher mines, though grently reduced in vslufV are more pi oiitiii)le ; but by hr the most vaUiable arr. tht.' mines of copper and iron, though tliese are much less productive than they were formerly. The copper mines near Fahlun, in Dalecarlia, have been worked for nearly lOOO years : they are sunk to the depth of 1030 feet, and employ 1200 workmen. The copj)er is found, not in veins, but in great masses. The iron mincii near Danemora, in Smoland, are accounted to produce the best iron in the world. I'he metal is sometimes found in vast masses^ of which the most remarkable is the hill of Taberg, in Smoland, which is one immense lump of iron ore, above 400 feet high, and three Engiiah miles in circuit. I'he i''on mines in Sweden, together with the smelting houses and furnaces, are said to emplo}' nearly 26,000 workmen. Sweden likewise produces porphyr}', rock-crystal, cobalt, antimony, zinc, and mol}'bdena. Coal inines have been discovered within thcst few years in tlie province of Smoland. Climate, soil, aokicultuke.] The winter in every part of Sweden is extremely severe. The largest lakes, and the whole Gulf of Bothnia, is frozen over, and a kind of high ro.td is made o\ er the lattei* for sledges to pass into Finlnr.d. TJic southern parts have a somewhat milder tempera- ture than the northern. The spring continues only for a week or two, when the heat of summer becomes extreme, from the great length of the days, and the reflexion of the sun's rays from the rocks and mountains ; 80 that in some of the northern ; ■•ovmces the harvest is sown and reaped in the space of seven or eight weeks. Frequent ^^'inds purify the atmo- sphere, the salubrity of which is evinced i)y numerous instances of lon- gevity. The sojI is in general very indiiferent, but in some val- leys surprisingly fertile. Ihe Swedes, till of late years, had not industry sufficient to remedy the- one or iiiiprove the other. The j^easants uow follow the agriculture of France and England, and raise almcjst as much grain as is requisite for the consumption of the country. Even Finland produces rich pasturage, and coiiiiiderable crops of ditferent kinds of gram. The c;ilt;\ati(;n of tobacco has succeeded very ^^•ell tiiroughout tliB whole country It grows in the greatest quantities near Stockholm and Abo; and perhajjs Sv.cdeu at present does not require any importation, of this connnodity from foreign countries, except to have it some^vhat superior in quality to that of its own growth. Vegetablks, ammals.] I'he pine and the fir are the principal forest-trees of Sweden ; the birch grows in all the provinces; but it has been remarked that no beeches grow to the north of East-Gothland, and no oaks beyond 1 'pland. "Wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, and beans, are cultivated with success in Sweden ; and though beyond (ielie and Biorneburg fruit-trees are rarely to be met witi^j common cherries, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries, currants, and several sorts of pears and apples, ripen in the open air in. several of the provinces ; and melons, by artificial culture, arc brought to great perfection in d*-/ seasons. Among the pears which ripen in Swe- den, the principal is the bergamot ; and among the apples, tliat of Astra- can, which has a most agreeable taste. The wild animals of Sweden are wolves, bears, beavers, elks, rein- deer, wild-cats, foxes, hares, and squirrels. In winter the foxes and squirrels become gray, and the hares as white as snow. The horses and oxen, and tlie cattle in general, are smrdl, but hardy. Various kinds of birds arc found here, particularly two singular species of falcons. The riyers and Jakes abound in fish ; and se^enil speciei of them, pike« auni SWEDEN. 85 V- salmon in particular, are pickled and exported. The train-oil of the seal$ taken in the Gulf of Finland, is likewise a considerable article of ex- portation. Natukal curiosities.] The natural curiosities of Sweden consist in Its cataracts, and the scenerv of its forests and lakes. About 50 miles from Gothenburg are the famous cati'racts of Trolh-'Kita, formed by tlie river Gotha, which issues fi'om tJie lake of Wenner, and being united after several breaks, falls with its whole and undivided stream into so deep a bed of w ater that large masts, and other pieces of timber, precipitated down it, disappear for a very considerable time before they rise again to die surface. There is another cataract, on the river Dahl, about 10 miles to the cast of Gefle, esteemed little inferior to that of the Rhine at SchafF- hausen, the breadth of the river being nearly a quarter of a mile, and the fall being between 30 and 40 feet. I'he eifoct is likewise greatly heightened by tlie surrounding sccneiy. Population.] The number of inhabitaiits in Sweden is probably more correctly ascertained than in most other countries of Evurope, the states in 1/41 having erected an institution called the Com?Hissio7i of Re- gisters, the olfice of which was to collect and compare all the registers of marriages, births, and deaths, in Sweden. According to the tables constmcted from these registers, the number of inhabitants amounted in 1/51 to 2,22(j,66l J in 1/72, to 2,584,20'l ; and as from the same autho- rity it appears that the population, in the space of 30 years ending in 17S1, had increased by more than 5mj,000 souls, it may now be estimated to exceed 3,000,000. In Rcrtticher's tables the population of Sweden is given at 2,9/7,345, of which number Finland contains 024,000. Nation'al character, manners, customs.] The Swedes are in general tall, well-formed, and capable of enduring the greatest fatigues. ^I'hey are grave in their deportment, industrious, sincere, brave, and hos- p!UiI)Ie. The uj>per classes imitate closely the manners of the French, the fashions of which nation have long been followed by the ladies, few of whom adoj)ted the national dress which the late king endeavoured to introduce in 177/. This was worn, however, by many of the men, and consisted, for them, of a close coat, very wide breeches, a girdle, a round hat, and a cloak, x'lie women were to wear a black robe, with pulled gauze slw^evt^s, a coloured sash, and ribbons. The S-Acdes, in general, wear short dresses, and of a bh;e or black colour. Veils are much used by the women of all classes ; even the female peasants, while at work in the tiekli, cover their heads with black crape. There is no country in the voild v.herc the women do so much work as in Sweden; they ma- nage the ploogli, tiu'ash out the grain, row on the water, serv^e the brick- liivcr-, carry bii'"'lcns, and do all the conmion drudgeries of husbandry. CiTifts, CHIEF towns, EDiiicKS.] Au unusually small proportion of the population of Sweden, or not more than a tenth part, is collected in towns, the number of which is estimated at 104. Of tiiese, 24 are staple- towns, wlieie tlie mercl:.ints are allowed to import and export commodi- ties in their own shij)s. Those towns which have no foreign commerce i'.re called lantl-towns ; and a third class are termed mine-towns, as be- Uiiging to the mine d!t.tricts. i^tockJiolm is a stapUstown, and the capital of the kingdom. It stands upon seven sn:all rocky islands, besides two peninsulas, and is built upon piles. It strongly impresses a stranger with its singular and romantie scenery. A variety of contrasted and enchanting views are formed by numberless rcck.s vt' granite, rising boldly from the surface of the water, j>anly bare and era^igy, partly doited with houses, or ieatliered with wood. m I I f «l; 66 SWEDEN, tit' -I i ) * ^t 'P ft 'Hi The harbour, which is spacious and convenient, though difficult of ac- cess, is an inlet of the Baltic : the water is clear as crystal, and of such a depth that ships of the largest burden can approach tiie quay, which is of considerable breadtli, and lined with spacious buildings and warehouses. At the extremity of tlie harbour several streets rise one above another, in the form of an amphitheatre ; and the palace, a magnificent building, crowns the summit. Towards the sea, about two or three miles from the town, the harbour is contracted into a narrow strait, and, winding among high rocks, disappears from tlie sight ; the prospect is terminated by di- stant hills, overspread with forests. It is far beyond the power of words, or of the pencil, to delineate these singular views. The central island, from which the city derives its name, and the Ritterholm, are the hand- somest parts of the town. Excepting in tlie suburbs, where the houses are of wood, painted red, the generality of the buildings are of stone, or brick stuccoed white. The royal palace, which stands in the centre of Stockholm, and upon the • highest spot of ground, was begun by Charles XI. It is a large qua- drangular stone edifice, and the style of architecture is both elegant and magnificent*. The number of housekeepers who pay taxes are 60,000. This city is furnished with all the exterior marks of magnificence, and erections for manufactures and commerce that are common to other great European cities, particularly a national bank, tlie capital of which is 450,000/. sterling. Upsal, or Upsala, formerly the metropolis of Sweden, and the royal re- sidence, is the chief town of the province of Upland, and is famous for its university and its catliedral, the finest church in Sweden, built in imita- tion of the church of Notre Dame at Paris. It is a small but very neat town, divided into two almost equal parts by a small river named Sala j and the streets are drawn at right angles from a central kind of square. A few of the houses are built with brick, and stuccoed, but the generality, as in most of the towns of Sweden, are of wood painted rod. It con- tains, exclusively of the students, only about 3000 inhabitants. Gothenburg, tlie second city of Sweden in magnitude, stands partly on the ridges of rocks, and partly in a plain, and is divided from these situa- tions into the upper and lower town. The latter is entirely level, inter- sected by several canals, in the manner of the Dutch towns, and its houses are all constructed upon piles. The upper part hangs on the de- clivities ; and rows of buildings rise one above another like the seats of an amphitheatre. The whole is regularly fortified ; and its circumference is nearly three miles, exclusive of the suburbs, called Haga, which lie to- wards the harbour. The number of inhabitants is about 25, (XX). Carlscrona, tlie station of the royal navy in Sweden, has a harbour capable of containing 100 ships of tlie line. Its inhabitants are about 12,000. Manufactures and coMMRncEj The manufactures of Sweden are neither numerous nor flourishing. Even the manufacturing of iron was introduced into Sweden so late as the lO>h century, tor till that time they .sold their own crude ore to the Hanse-towns, and bought it back again manufactured into utensils. About the middle of the l/th centuiy, by the assistance of the Dutch and Flemings, they began some manufiictures of glass, starch, tin, woollens, silk, soap, and leather. They have now some of sail-clotl), cotten, linen, flistian, and other stuff's ; as also of * Co.ve, vol. ii. pp. 027, 328. ii SWEDEN. e; •lum and brimstone. In 1785, it was computed that tliosc of sail-cloth, wool, silk, and cotton, employed above 14,000 hands. Vast quantities of copper are now wrought in Sweden. They have also founderies for cannon, forges for anchors and tire-arms, armouries, wire and flatting mills, mills also for fulling, and for boring and stamping : they likewise build many ships for sale. The exports of Sweden principally consist of the native productions of the country ; as iron, the staple commodity, of which 400,000 ship-pounds are annually exported ; copper ; timber, the export of which produces a revenue of 315,000/. annually ; pitch, tar, herrings, and tish-oil. The imports are, rye and other kinds of grain, flax, hemp, tobacco, sugar, coffee, silk, and wines. In the year 1782, the exports of Sweden amounted to I,3t)8,830/. and tlie imports to 1,008,392/. leaving a balance in favour of tlie country of about 3do,000/. Government.] The government of Sweden has undergone many changes. The Swedes, like the Danes, were originally free, and during the course of many centuries the crown was elective ; but after various revolutions, Charles XII., who was killed in 1718, became despotic. He was succeeded by his sister Ulrica, who consented to the abolition of despotism, and restored the states to their former liberties ; and tlicy, in return, associated her husband, the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, with her in the government. A new model of the constitution was then drawn up, by which the royal pcjvv er was brought perhaps too low ; for the. king of Sweden could scarcely be called by that name, being limited in every exercise of government. The senate had even a power of im- posing upon the king a sub-committee of tlieir number, who were to attend upon his person, and to be a check upon all his proceedings, down to the very management of his family. But in August, 1772, the whole system of the Swedish government was totally changed by the late king, in the most unexpected manner. The circumstances which attended this extraordinary revolution will be found in our histoiy of Sweden. By tliat event tlie Swedes, instead of having the particular defects of their constitution rectified, found tlieir king invested with a degree of authority little inferior to that of tlie most despotic princes of Europe. By the form of government then introduced, the king may assemble and dissolve the states whenever he pleases : he has the sole disposal of the army, the navy, linances, and all employments civil and military j and though he cannot openly claim a power of im- posing taxes on all occasions, yet such as then subsisted were rendered per- petual ; and, in case of invasion or pressing necessity, he may impose some taxes till the states can be assembled ; but of this necessity he is to be the judge, and tlie meeting of the states depends wholly upon his will and pleasure ; and when they are assembled, tliey are to deliberate upon nothing but what tlie king thinks proper to lay before them. It is easy to perceive, that a government thus constituted can be little removed from one of the most despotic kind. Yet, in order to amuse the nation with some slight appearances of a legal and limited government in the new system, which consists of tifty-sevcn articles, a senate is appointed, consisting of seventeen members, comprehending the great oliicers of tlie crown and the governor of Pomerania ; and they are required to give their advice in all tlie aftairs of the state, whenever the king shall de- mand it. In that case, if the questions agitated are of great importance, and the advice of the senators should be contrary to the opinion of tlie king, and they unanimous therein, the king, it is said, shall follow their advice. But tins, it uiay be observed, is a circumstance ttiut can hurdl/ Ii if I *^. SWEDEN. 113!. !H W:'<-^ y^■. ever happen, since it is scarcely possible that all the members of a senate, consisting chiefly of ofiicers of the crown, should give llu.'ir opinions against the king ; and in every other case the king is to hear their opinions, and then to act as he thinks iM-oper. There are some other apparent restraints of the regal power in this s}'stcni of government ; but tliey are in reality very inconsiderable. It is said, indeed, that the king camiot establish any new law, nor abolish any old one, without the knowledge and consent of the states: but the king of Sweden, according to the present consti- tution, is invested with so much authority, power, and influence, that it is hardly to be expected that any person will venture to make an op- position to whatever he shall propose. Laws.] Sweden is not governed by the Roman or civil law, but by its own code, founded on die ancient Swedish laws, anl published with the sanction of the states in l/Sti. It was again revised, and such al- terations adopted as were suggested by the late king, and published in a new edition in 178I. There are four superior covirts, as also inferior tribunals in tlie principal towns. A kind of assizes is likewise held twice in the year by county-judges. Trials are had by a sort of jury of twelve persons, who, when they all agree, may decide against the opinion of tlie judge j but in general they are implicitly guided by his dictates. The common methods of execution in Sweden are beheading and hanging. For murder, the hand of the criminal is flrst chopped off, and he is then beheaded and quartered. Women, after beheading, instead of being quartered, are burned. No capital punishment is inflicted without the sentence being confirmed by the king. Every prisoner is at liberty to petition the king, witliin a month after the trial. The petition either complains of unjust condemnation, and in such a case demands a revisal of the sentence ; or else prays for pardon, or a mitigation of punishment. Malefactors are never put to death except for very atrocious crimes, such as murder, house-breaking, robbery upon the higlnvay, or repeated thefts. Other crimes, many of v\hich in some countries are considered as capital, are chiefly punished by whipping, condemnation to live upon bread and water, imprisonment and hard labour, either for life or a stated time, according to the nature of the crime. Criminals were tortured to extort confession, till the reign of the late king : but in 17/3 his Swedish majesty abolished this cruel and absurd practice. Revenue.] The revenue of Sweden, arising from tlie rents of crown- lands, capitation taxes, customs, and various other articles, amounts to •bout 1,450,000/. The r.nnual expenditure generally rather exceeds the revenue, and the debt of the crown amounted some years ago to 7,000,000/. Sweden, until lately, laboured under a very great scarcity of specie, the country being overwiielmed with paper-money ; but this inconvenience has been in some degree remedied by a coinage <yS. silver. Army and navy.] No country in the world has produced greater heroes, or braver troops, thnn the Swedes : and yet they cannot be said to maintain a standing army, as their forces principally consist of a regu- lated militia. The cavalry is clothed, armed, and maintained, by a rate raised upon the nobility and gentr)', ac cording to their estates ; and the infantry by the peasants. Each province is obliged to And its proportion of soldiers, according to the number of farms it contains. Every farm of 60 or 70/. per annum is charged with a foot soldier, furnishing him with diet, lodging, and ordinary clothes, and about 'iON. a year in money; or else a little wooden house is built him by the farmer^ who allawB hiin i>l SWEDEN 89 hay and pasturage for a cow, and ploughs and sows land enough to sup- ])ly him with broad. When embodied, they are subject to mihtary law, but otherwise to the civil law of the country. It may therefore literally be said that every Svvedi.sh soldier has a property in the country he de- fends. In 1/9 1 the standing regiments amounted to 13,500 infantry and ] ,000 cavalry ; nnd the national troops to 22,500 infantry, 7,000 cavalry, and 3,500 dragt)ou->". Svt^edcu formerly could have fitted out 40 shipt of the line : at present she has not more than 25, and 10 or 15 tri- gate.s. lloYAL TiTLK, ORDERS OF KNiGHTTioop.] The king takes the title of King of Sweden and of the Goths and Vandals; Grand-duke of Finland, Hereditary f ,')rd of Norway ; Duke of Sleswick, Stormarn, and Dit- jTiarsenj Count of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. I'he orders of knighthood are that of the Seraphim, or blue ribbon ; of the Sword, or yellow ribbon ; of the Polar Star, or black ribbon ; and ol Vasa, or the green ribbon. The order of the Sword is bestowed for mili- tary merit ; and that of the Polar Star for civil services. Religion.] Christianity was introduced into Sweden in the ninth century, and Lutheranism established by Gustavus Vasa. The national church is governed by the archbishop of Upsal and thirteen bishop.s. The bishoprics are those of Linkorping, Skara, Strengnses, Westeros, Vexjoe, Abo, Lund, Borgo, Gotheburg, Calmar, Carlstadt, Hernaesand, and Gothland. The Swedes were, till of- late years, very intolerant to those of other religious professions, and extremely severe laws were in force against the catholic priests. But they have now greatly relaxed from this bigotry : various sects are tolerated in Sweden, and Jews were permitted to ;;ettle there, and open synagogues at Stockholm, Gotheburg, Carlscrona, and Norkiceping, in 1/78. In 17'81 the catho- lics were likewise permitted to profess their religion publicly. Swede* who abandon their religion are, however, punishable by banishment and the loss of all their civil privileges. LiTEKATirRK.] In natural history, chcmistry, and metallurgy, several natives t;f Sweden have attained to paiticular eminence ; and in these departments of science the names of the great liinnseus, professor Berg- man, Wallerius, Cluist, Klingenstierna, and Thunberg, are espcciallj conspicuous. The Swedes have also not neglected the culture of the politer arts, and literature of almost every kind. Universities.] There are three universities in Sweden; those of Upsal, Lund, and Abo. Of these, the principal is that of Upsal. This university couL'iins about 500 students; that of Lund has about 300; and that of Abo n':':irly as many. There are, likewise, twelve seininnrie* for the educ uioa of youth, called };7/mnasia. In every large town there is also a school, maintained at the expense of the crown, in which boys generally continue till the age of eleven, when they are sent to the gj'm- iiasia, and thence, at sixteen, to one of the universities. The university of Upsal has a library containing about •40,tK)0 volumes. There are in Sweden t\\elve literary academies, most of which publish memoirs of their transactions. Languace.] The language of Sweden has a considerable resemblance to the Danisii and Icelandic, and, like them, is derived from the ancient Gothic, 'i'lie Lord's Prayer in Swedish is as follows. kinder :(,'«>' com ast i himloni; hclgul ivnrdt tit namn; tilkomme tit V 1 1 •1 \,H * BoisgcUu's Travels through Sweden, 90 SWEDEN. n rike; she tinmljc, sasom i himmden so. ock pajordene; gifoss i dag wart dagclige brod; ochforlat oss ware skulder, sasom ock xvi forlatom them oss tkyldige aro ; ocit inled oss icke i frestelse, utan frels oss if ran ondo ; ty riket ar tit, och maclucn, ocli htrligheten i eivighet. Amen. ANTiauiTiEs.] Sweden contains numerous ranges of stones, similar in pome degiee, though not comparable in dimensions, to those of Stone- henge. There are also great numbers of small mounts or tumuli, like the barrows of Britain, and ancient monuments inscribed with Runic clniracterfi, Ni^ar Upsal is the morastcn, or stone, on which tlie king used to be enthroned, as the Scottish monarchs anciently were at Scone. History.] The history of this kingdom, and indeed of all the northern nations, even during the first ages of Christianity, is confused and unin- teresting, and often doubtful ; but sufficiently replete with murders, massacres, and ravages. That of Sweden is void of consistency till about tlie middle of the fourteenth centurj', when it assumes a more regular appearance. At tliis time, however, the government of the Swedes was far from being clearly ascertained or uniformly administered. The crown was elective; though in this election the rights of blood were not altogether disregarded. The great lords possessed the most considerable part of the wcaltli of tlie kingdom, which consisted chiefly in landj conunerce being unknown or neglected, and even agriculture itself in a very rude and impeifcct state, I'he clergy, particularly those of a dig- nified rank, from tJie great respect paid to their character among the in- habitants of the North, had acciuired an immense influence in all public affairs, and obtained possession of the lands that had been left unoccupied by the nobility. U'hese two ranks of men, enjoying all the property of the state, formed a council, called the Senate, which deliberated on all public aflairs. This system of government was extremely unfavourable to the national prosperity. The Swedes perished in the dissensions be- tween their prelates and lay-barons, or between those and tlieir sove- reign ; they were drained of the little riches they possessed, to support the indolent pomp of a few magnificent bishops ; and, what was still more fatal, the unlucky situation of their internal affairs exposed them to the inroads and oppression of a foreign enemy. These were the Danes, who, by their neighbourhood and power, were always able to avail them- selves of tlie dissensions of Sweden, and to subject under a foreign yoke a countiy weakened and exhausted by its domestic broils. In this de- plorable situation Sweden remained for more than two centuries ; some- times under a nominal subjection to its own princes, sometimes united to the kingdom of Denmark, and in either case equally oppressed and insulted. Magnus Ladislaus, crowned in 1276, seems to have been the first king of Sweden who pursued a regular system to increase his authority. He was one of the ablest princes who ever sat on tlie Swedish tlirone. By his art and address he prevailed u^xin the convention of estates to ni:ik« very extraordinary grants to him for the support of his royal di|,:''ty. The augmentation of the revenues of the crown was naturally followed by a proportionable increase of the regal power : and whilst, by the steady and vigorous exertion of this power, Magnus humbled the haughty spirit of the nobles, and created in the rest of the nation a respect for the royal dignity, with which tl;ey appear before to have been but little ac(juainted, he, at tiie same time, by employing his authority in many respects for the public good, rccoiunled his subjects to acts of power whii'h in former monarchs Ihoy would Jiavc opposed with the utmost violence. The sue- SWEETEN. ty He By cessors of Magnus did not maintain their authority with equal ability ; - and several commotions and revolutions followed, which threw tho nation into great confiision. In the year 1387, Margaret, daughter of Valdemar king of Denmark, and widow of Huguin, king of Norway, reigned in botli these king- doms. That princess, to the ordinary ambition of her sex, added a penetration and enlargement of mind, which rendered her capable of conducting the greatest and most complicated designs. She has been called the Semiramis of the North, because, like Seiniramis, she found means to reduce by arms, or by intrigue, an immense extent of territory; and became queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, lieing elected to the throne of the latter in 130'4. She projected the union of Calmar, so famous in the North ; by which these kingdoms were for the future to remain imder one sovereign, elected by each kingdom in its turn, and who should divide his residence between them all. Several revolutions ensued after the death of ^Margaret ; and at length Christian II., the last king of Denmark who by virtue of the treaty of Calmar was also king of Sweden, engaged in a scheme to render himself entirely absolute. The barbarous policy by which he attempted to etfect tliis design proved the destruction of himself, and atforded an opportunity for changing the' face of atfairs in Sweden, In order to establish his authority in tliat kingdom, he laid a plot for massacring the principal nobility j and tliis horrid design was actually carried into execution, Nov. 8, 1520. Of all those who could opix)se the despotic purposes of Christian, no one remained iu Sweden but Gustavus Vasa, a young prince descended from tlie ancient kings of that country, and who had already signalised his arms against the king of Denmark. An immense price was set upon his head. The Danish soldiers were sent in pursuit of him j but by his dexterity and address he eluded all their attempts, and escaped under the disguise of a peasant to the mountains of Dalecarlia. After undergoing innumerable dangers and fatigues, and working in the brass-mines to prevent being discovered, he was betrayed by those in whom he reposed his confidence ; but at length, surmounting a diousand obstacles, he engaged tlie .savage but Warlike inhabitants of Dalecarlia to undertake his cause, and assist him to oppose and conquer his tyrannical oppressor. Sweden by his means again ac<juired independence. The ancient nobility were mostly de-i stroyed ; Gustavus was at the head of a victorious army, who admired his valour, and were attached to his person : he was created therefore, iirst, administrator, and afterwards king of Sweden, by universal consent, and with the shouts of tlie whole nation. His circumstances were much more favourable than those of ^ny former prince who had possessed this dignity. The massacre of the nobles had freed him from those proud and haughty enemies, who had so long l)een the bane of all regular go- vernment in Sweden. The clergy, indeed, were no less powerflil tlian dangerous ; but the opinions of Luther, which began at this time to pre- vail in the North, and the credit which they had acquired among the Svi'edes, gave him an opportunity of changing the religious system of that country ; and the exercise of the Roman-catholic religion was prohibited in the year 15-14, under the severest penalties. Instead of a Gothic aris- tocracy, the most turbulent of all governments, and, when empoisoned by religious tyranny, of all governments the most wretched, Sweden, in this manner, became a regular monarchy. Some favourable efforts of this change were soon visible: arts and manufactures were established and improved ; navigation and commerce began to flourish ; letters and civil improvements were introduced ; and a kingdom, luiown only by I, 'm II' §3 SWEDEN. 'S' r!i Ik mi name to the rest of Europe, began to be fonnid.ible by its arms, and to have a certain weight in nil public treaties and deliberations. Gustavus died in 155(), while his eldest sou Eric was preparing t<J embark for England to niarr^'^ queen Eliznbeth. Under Eric, who succeeded his fntlier Gustavtis Vasa, the titles of count and baron were introduced into Sweden, and made hereditary. Eric's miserable iind causeleis jealousy of his brothers forced them to take up arms; and the senate siding with them, he was de]x)se<l in I5dt7. His brother John succeeded him, and entered into a i-uinoas war with Eussia. John attempted, by the advice of lii-; queen, to re-establish thr. catliolic religion in Sweden ; but though he made strong eiforts for that purpose, and even reconciled himself to the }X)pe, he was opposed by his brotlier Charles, and the scheme provea i:i'.:d'eciual. His son Sigisuiund ■was chosen king of Poland in 158/; \\[wn which he endeavonied again to restore the Roman-cathoiio religion in his dominions j but ho died in 15p2. Charles, brother to John, was chosen administrator of Sweden; and being a strenuous prote,str.nt, his nephew Sigismund endeavoured to drives him from the administratorship, but without Ciiect ; till at last he and his family were excluded from the successiort to the crown, which \% as conferred upon Charles in 15gg. The reign of Charles, through the practices of Sigismund, who was a powerful prince, and at tl.e head of a great party both in Sweden and Russia, was turbulent ; which gave tho Danes encouragement to invade S\\'eden. Their conduct was checked by the great Gustavus Adolphus, heir-apparent to the crown of Sweden, though tlien a minor. Upon the death of his father, \\ hich happened in 1611, he was declared of age by the states, though tlien only in his eighteenth yean Gustavus, soon after his accession, tbnnd himself, tlirough the power and intrigues of the Poles, Russians, and Danes, en- gaged in a war with all his neighbours, under infinite disadvantages, all •which he surmounted. He had neiu-ly rendered himself sovereign of Russia. In lO'I7 he made a peace, under the mediation of James I. of England, by which he recovered Livonia, and four towns in the pre- fecture of Novogorod, with which he likewise received a sum of money. The ideas of Gustavus began now to extend. He had seen much military service, and he was assisted by the counsels of La Gardie, one of the best generals and wisest statesmen of his age. His troop* bad become the best disciplined and most warlike in Europe. The princes of the house of Austria were, it is certain, early jealous of his entei-prislng spirit, and supported his ancient implacable enemy Sigis- mund, whom he defeated. In 1 627, he formed the siege of Dantzick, in which he was unsuccessful ; but the attempt, which was defeated only by the sudden rise of the Vistula, added so much to his military character, that the protestant princes placed him at the head of the con- federacy for reducing the house of Austria. His life, from that time, vas a continued chain of the most rapid and wonderful successes. After taking Riga, and over-running Livonia, he entered Poland, where he was victorious; and from thence, in 1()30, he landed in Pomerania, drove the Germans out of Mci^klenburg, deleated the famous count Tilly, tlie Austrian geiicial who was till then thought invincible, and over-ran Iranconia, Upon the defeat and death of Tilly, Wallensteii}, anotJier Austrian general of equal reputation, was appointed to the command against Gustavus, who was killed upon tl)e plain of Lutzen in 1(J32, after gaining a victory, which, had he survi\v.d, would probably have put u, period to tlie Austrian greatness. ■• ;. SWEDEN. The amnzing abilities of Gustavus Adolpluii?, botli in the cabinet and the field, never appeared so fully as after his death. He left behind him a set of genenils trained by himself, who, maintained the glory of the Swedish army with most astonishing valour and success. The names of duke Bernard, Bannier, Torstcnson, Wrangel, and others, and their great actions in war, will long live in the annals of Europe. It it uncertain what course Gustavus would have pursued, had his life been prolonged, and his successes continued ; but there is the strongest reason to believe, that he had in view somewhat more than the relief of the protestants, and the restoration of the Palatine family. His chancellor Oxenstiern was as consummate a politician as he was a warrior; and during the niinority of his daughter Christina, lie managed the af- fairs of Sweden with such success, that she in a manner dictated th« peace of Westphalia, 10'4S, which gave a new system to the aliairs of Europe. Christina was but six years of age when her father was killed. She received a noble education; but her fine genius took an uncommon and inilced romantic turn. She invited to her court Descartes, Salmasius, and other learned men, to whom she was not, however, extremely libe- ral. She expressed a vulue for Grotius ; and she was an excellent judg« of the polite arts, but illiberal and indelicate in the choice of her private favourites. Slie at the same time discharged all tiie duties of her high •statio'i ; and though her generals were basely betrayed by France, shd- oontinued to support the honour of lier crown. Being resolved not to marry, the resigned her crown to her cousin Charles Gustavus, son to the duke of Deux- Fonts, in l654. Charles had great success against the Poles : he drove their king, John Casimir, into Silesia; and received from them an oath of allegi- ance, which, with their usual inconstancy, they broke. His progress upon the ice against Denmark has been already mentioned ; and he died of a fever in lO'OO. His son and succeasor, Charles XL, was not five years of age at his fatlier's death; and this rendered it necessary for hitf guardians to conclude a peace witli their neighbours, by which the iwedes gave up the island of Bornholm, and Drontheim in Norway. All difterences were accomn\odated at the same time with Russia and Holland ; arid Sweden continued to make a very respectable figure in the atl'airs of Europe. When Charles came to be of age, he received a subsidy from the French l:ing, Lewis XIV. ; but perceiving the liberties of EurojK to be in danger trom that monarch's ambition, he entered into tlie alliance with England and ir(jlland. He afterwards joined witli France against the house f)f Austria; but being defeated in Germany, vX Feleni Bellin, n powertul confederacy was formed against him. I'he elector of Brainlenburg made himself uKister of Swedish Pomerania ; the bishop of P.-IuMster over-ran Bremen and Verden, and Uie Danes took Wismar, and several places in Schonun. They were afterwards beaten; and Charkr^s, by tlie treaty of St. Germain, which foUov/ed tliat of Nime^ ^len in ib/S, rccovcied all he had lost, except some places in Germany. He then married Ulrica- Leonora, the king of Denmark's sister; but made a base use of the tranquillity he had regained, by employing hi*, army to enslave his people. The states lost all their power; and Sweden was now reduced to the condition of Denmark. He ordered the brave Patkul, wiio was at tlie head of tlie Livonian deputies, to lose his head aiid his right hand, for tlie boldness of his remonstrance in favour of his countrymen ; but Ue saved liiraself by flight ; and Charles became s» ■ii (i i I ^ i f 1 ^^mm 94 SWEDEN. §'iK^> powerful, that the conferences for a general peace at Rysuick, l6g7, were opened under his mediation. Charles XI. died in 1697, and was succeeded by his minor son, the famous Charles Xil. The history of no prince is better known than that of this hero. His father's will had fixed the age of his majority to eighteen ; but it was set aside for an earlier date by the management of count Piper, who became in consequence his first minister. Soon after his accession, the kings of Denmark and Poland, and the czar of Muscovy, formed a powerful contederacy against him, encouraged by tlie itiean opinicjn they had of his youth and abilities. He entered into a war with them all ; and besieging Copenhagen, dictated the peace of Travendahl to his Danish majesty, by which the duke of Holstein M'as re-established in his dominions. The czar Peter was at that time ra- vaging Ingria, at the head of 80,000 men, and had besieged Narva. The army of Charles did not exceed 20,000 men ; but such was his impatience, that he advanced at the head of 8000, entirely routed the main body of the Russians, and raised the siege. Such were his suc- cesses, and so numerous his prisoners, tliat tlie Russians attributed his actions to necromancy. Charles from thence marched into Saxony, where his warlike achievements equalled if they did not excel those of Gustavus Adolphus. He dethroned Augustus king of Poland ; but stained all his laurels by putting the brave count Patkul to a deatli e<iually cruel and ignominious. He raised Stanislaus to the crown cf Poland in 1/05 ; and his name carried with it such teiTor, that he was courted by all the powers of Europe, and among others by the duke of Marlijorough in the name of queen Anne, amidst the full career of her successes against France. His stubbornness and implacable disposition, however, were such, that he caimot be considered in a better light than that of an illustrious madman ; for he lost, in the battle of Pultowa, 170t), which he fought in his march to dethrone tlie czar, more tlian all he had gained by his victories. His brave army was ruined, and he was forced to take refuge among the I'mks at Bender. His actions there, in attempting to defend himself witli 300 Swedes against 30,000 'I'urks, prove him to have been worse tlian frantic. The Turks found it, however, convenient for their atfairs to set him at liberty. But his misfortunes did not citre his military madness ; and after his return to his dominions, he prosecuted his revenge against Denmark, till he was killed by a cannon-shot, as it is generally said, at the siege of Frederics- hall, in Norway, belonging to the Danes, in 1718, when he was not more than thirty-six years cf age. It has been supposed that Charles was not in reality killed by a shot from the walls of Fredericshall, but that a pistol from one of those about him gave the decisive blow which put an end to the life of tliis celebrated monarch. This opinion is said to be very prevalent among the best-informed persons in Sweden. And it appears that the Swedes were tired of a prince under whom they had lost their richest provinces, their bravest troops, and their national riches ; and who yet, untamed by adversity, pursued an unsuccessful and pernicious war, nor would ever have consented to restore tranquillity to his country. Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister, the princess Ulrica-Elea- nora, wife to the hereditary prince of Hesse. We have seen in what manner the Swedes recovered their liberties ; and given some account of the capitulation signed by the queen and her husband. Their first care was to naake peace with Great Britain, which the late king intend-^ 1 SWEDEN. |k ed to have invaded. The Swedes then, to prevent farther lo- s by the progress of the Russian, the Danisli, tlie Saxon, and other ,i,.n3, made many and great sacrifices to obtain peace from those powers. The French, however, about the year 1738, fotraed a dangerous party in Sweden, under the name of the Huts, which not only disturbed the internal quiet of the kingdom, but led it into a ruinous w ar with Russia. Their Swedish majesties having no children, it was necessary to settle the succession ; especially as the duke of Holstein was descended from the queen's eldest sister, and was at the same time the presumptive heir to the empire of Russia, Four competitors appeared — the duke of Holstcin-Gottorp, prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel (nephew to the king), the prince of Denmark, and the duke of Deux-Ponts. The duke of Holstein would have carried the election, had he not embraced the Greek religion, that he might mount the throne of Russia. The czarina interposed, and offered to restore all the conquests she had made from Sweden, excepting a small district in Finland, if the Swedes v/ould re- ceive tlie duke of Holstein's uncle, the bishop of Lubeck, as their he- reditary prince and successor to their crown. This was agreed to ; and a peace was concluded at Abo, under the mediation of his Rritannic ma- jesty. This peace was so firmly adhered to by the czarina, that his Danish majesty thought proper to drop all his resentment, and forget the indignity done to his son. The successor of Uiis prince, Adolphus Fjrederic, married the princess Ulrica, sister to the king of Prussia, ?ind entered into the possession of his new dignity in 1751. He was a prince of a mild and gentle temper, but much harassed by the contending Swedish factions, and found his situation extremely troublesome, in con- sequenceof the restraints and opposition which he met with from the senate. He passed the greatest part of his reign very disagreeably, and wan at length, through the intrigues of the queen, brought over to the French party. He died in February 1771> ^rid was succeeded by his son, Gus- tavus the Third, the late king, who possessed abilities greatly superior to those of his father. Gustavus was about five-and-twenty years of age when he was pro^^ claimed king of Sweden : his understanding had been much cultivated ; he had an insinuating address, and a graceful and commanding elocu- tion. He was at Paris at the time of his father's death, whence he wrote in the most gracious terms to tlie senate, repeatedly assuring them that he designed to govern according to the laws. In consequence of the death of his predecessor, an extraordinary diet was called to regulate the affairs of the government, and to settle tlie form of the coronaiion- oath. Some time after his arrival in Sweden, on the 28th of INIarch, 1772, his majesty solemnly signed and swore to support the government of the kingdom as then established ; to maintain the rights and liberties of the states, the liberty and security of all his subjects, and to reign with gentleness and equity according to the laws of the kingdom. But scarcely had he taken these solemn oaths, to rule according to the then- established form of government, and accepted the crown upon these con- ditions, before he formed a plan to govern as he thought proper ; regard- ing these oaths only as matters of ceremony. He made use of every art, the most profound dissimulation, and the utmost dexterity and address, in order to render this hazardous enterprise suc^cessful. On his first arrival at Stockholm, he adopted every method which could increase his popu- larity. Three times a week he regularly gave audience to all v.ho pre- sented themselves. Neither rank, fortune, nor interest, were necessary to obtain access to him; it was sufficient to ha-ve been injured, and to have 1' m^ 91 ' ! iri SWEDEN. Pit t legal cans* of complaint to lay before him. He li.st<?ncd to the mcaiieif of his subjects with atfability, and entered into tlie mimiti'st details that concerned them : he infirmotl himself of their j)hvate atlairs, and secnifd fo interest himself in their happiness. This conduct caused him to be considered as truly the father of his people, and the Swedes began to idolise him. At length, when he found his scheme ripe for execu- tion, having Liken the proper measures for bringing a considerable number of tlie otiicers and soldiers into his interest, on the lyih of August 1772 he totally overturned the Swedish constitution of governnn.nU. In less tlian an hour he made himself master of the whole military fijrce of Stoclcholm ; made all the members of the senate prisoners ; and sutlering no person to leave the city, tliat intelligence of these violent proceedings might not be carried to any odier part of the kingdom, issued a proclama- tion for an assi^nibly of the states to meet on the 21st, which ha\ing ac- cordingly met, he surrounded with troops, and planted cannon, over wliich foldiers stood witli lighted matches in their hands, facing the hall in which they w ere asseiubled. The king tlien, being seateil on his throne, surrounded by his guards, and a numerous band of (Jthccrs, atler having a:ldressed a speech to the states, yrdered a secretary to read a new ibrm ot" government, uiiich he ofiered to tlie states for their acceptance. As they were surrounded by an armed force, they thought proper to comply with what was required of them. The luarshal of tlie diet, and the sj)eakers ©f the otlier orders, signed the form of go\ ernment ; and the states took the oath to the king, which he dictated to them himself. He afterward:i gave tliem to understand, that he intended in six years' time again to convene an assembly of the states. Thus was this great revolution com- pleted without any bloodshed, in which the Swedes surrendered that con- stitution which their forefathers had betjueathed to tliein after the ileath of Charles the Twelfth, as a bulwark against any despotic attempt of their fliture nionarchs. The exorbitant power which Gustavus the Third had thus assumed, he exercised with some degree of moderation ; and at an assembly ot tlw? states in l/Sti, after many points were referred to them by the king, and debated w ith great freedom, he dismissed them with condescension and gentleness, at the same time remitting a tentli part of tlie subsidy which they had granted him. On the 12th of July, 1788, hostilities commenced on the frontiers of f inland, between a body of Russian light troops and a detacluuent of the Swedes posted on the bridge of Fomalasund. After various engage- ments both by land and sea, in which Gustavus displayed tli ■ greatest abilities, a peace, tixing the frontiers of Russia as they were ocfore tin- war broke out, was signed at Werela, on the river Kymene, between the. plenipotentiaries of tlie empress of Russia and the king of Sweden. The reign of this king was' terminated by a premature and tragic end. On the night of the lOth of March 1792> while at a masquerade in the opera-house at Stockholm, he was shot with a pistol, by an assassin named Ankerstroem, in consequence of a conspiracy among some of the discontented nobles; and having survived in great pain till the 2(}th of tliat month, expired, in the 46tli year of his age and 22d of his reign. The prince-royal, being fourteen years of age, was immediately pro- claimed king, by the name of Gustavus Adolphusj and the duke of Sudermania, his uncle, and brother to the late king, in compliance with Ills majesty's will, was declared sole regent, and guardian of the young sovereign, till he should attain his majority, which was hxed at tlie ag» ofeighteeQ. The reign of tliis prince has hitlierto been pacificj if T['» LAPIAND. <J7 except his entering vt ry \vavn\ly into the confedcrncy formed by the northern powers ;i";iin.->t Eiiglanil, by signing what was called a conven- tion of neutrality, in which claims were advanced which the British government considcn as injurious to its interests and derogatory to it* honour. But the signal victory obtained by lord Nelson, in the battle oft' Copenhagen, of uliich an account will be found in oui- summary of the atfairs of En-I nd, and the sudden death of the late emperor Paul of Russia, completi' dissolved this confederacy, and Sweden has now acceded to the tivai signed at St. Petersburg, June 17, 1801, which has restored peace to ilie North. Gustavus Adolpluis IV., the present king of Sweden, was born Nov. 1, 1778; and succeeded his lather, Gustavus III., March 29, 1/92; mar- ried Oct. 31, 1797, to the princess Frederica Dorothea Wilhelmina, daughter of Charles Louis, hereditary prince ot Baden, born Miurch 12, 1781 ; by whom he ha-, issue, ' • 1. Gustavus, prince-royal, born Nov. 9, 1799* • . 2. Sophia Wilhelmina, born May 21, I8O1'. Queen dowager — Sophia Magdalena, daughter of Frederic V. king of Denmark, born July 3, 174(i. Brothers and sisters to the late king : 1. Charles, duke of Sudermania, born Oct. 7> 1/48. 2. Frederic Adolpluis, duke of West-Gothland, bora July 18, 1750. 3. Sophia Albertina, abbess of Quedlingburg, born Oct. y, 1753. LAPLAND. THOUGH Lapland has no peculiar government as a distinct nation, but is divided among the three great northern powers, Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, the peculiar character and manners of its inhabitants entitle it to be treated of in a distinct section ; and as the Kugest and most cultivated part of it belongs to Sweden, it appears most proper to place the account of it after that of the country on which it i.s principally dependent. Name.] The name of Lappcs was gi\en to the Laplanders by the Swedes, and is of uncertain derivation. Some say tiiat it signities exiles or- fugitives, because they arc of the rare of the Fins driven out of their own country ; others, that it signities sorcerers. The Laplanders call them- selves Sufue, md their couutiy Samt'-cchiaiii ; wjjence it has been con- jectured that they are of tlie raceof tlie Sanioieds. Extent and divisions.] Lapland, taking together the whole of Swedish, Danish, and Russian Lapland, extends from 04 to 7 1 degrees north latitude, and from 15 to 40 degrees west Icnigitude, being in lengtli about 000 miles, and in breadth 500: it may contain about 120,000 square miles. The most southern part belongs to Sweden : the northern part appertains to Denmark, and is called Finmaik. Ihe distinction between the territory of the two countries, as agreed on by treaty ia 1750, is, according to Mr. Aeerbi, a late intelligent traveller into Lanland, that all that tract of country of .wliich the rivers run into the irozcn Ocean, shall belong to Denmark ; and all that of which the rivers fall into the Gulf of Bothnia, shall be considered as Swedish Lapland. The eastern extremity of Lapland belongs to Russia, and makes a part of the government of Archangel. The subdivisions of Swedish Lapland have already been given in the table of tiie Swedish provinces. H - - "' ■ '■ • ^ fi I M > mi s § I I p» LAPLAND. 11 »M '';r''. m Mountain's, lakes, rivers.] Lapland contains many mountain*, but none with which wc are sufficient Jy acquainted to notice them parti- cularly. The principal rivers are the Tornea, the Tana, and the Alten. Tlie Tornea springs from the lakf of the same name, and, after a course of 300 miles, falls into the Gulf of Bothnia. The Tana and Alten fall into the Frozen Ocean. The Paes divides Russian Lapland from the part subject to Denmark. The lakes in Lapland are numerous j those of Hernasba-Staer, or the Great Lake, Tornea, Lulea, and Enara in Russian Lapland, are tJie chief. Minerals, metals.] Lapland abounds in metals and minerals of every kind. Native gold has been found at Svappawara ; copper, iron, lead, zinc, and plumbago, or black-lead, are found in various parts j and in the south of Swedish Lapland there are mines worked by the Swedet, Limestone, marble, gypsum, rock-crystal, jasper, amethystsj and garnets, arc also among the mineral productions of this country. Pearls of con- siderable value are said to be found in the rivers. Climate, soil, vegetable puoductions.] The winter in Lapland, as may be expected in so northern a climate, is extremely severe. In the most northern parts the sun remains below the horizon from th« 20th of November to the 10th of January ; and from the beginning of September to the middle of March the whole country is covered with snow and ice j and in the deptli of winter tlie lakes and rivers are ge- nerally frozen to the depth of two Danish ells and a half In summer, on the other hand, the sun continues in like manner two months above the horizon ; and the heat in the valleys and plains is excessive. In- numerable insects are produced, and the inhabitants are infested with musquitoes to an intolerable degree. Mr. Acerbi, returning on the 20th of July from the North Cape, the most northern extremity of these regions, remarks in his Diary — ■' The sea was perfectly calm, and I do not remember having ever suifered greater heat in my life than in thi$ journey." With respect to the soil and vegetable productions of Lapland, the whole countiy is an immense wilderness, where agriculture is entirely unknown, except in a very few parts in the south, in which coi'n (prin- cipally rye and buckwheat) is cultivated. In the nortli, tracts of con- siderable extent are overgrown with moss, which is the principal food of the rein-deer. The trees are the fir, birch, larch, and small beech^ which form vast but not very thick forests. Animals.] The animals are nearly the same wiih those described in the account of Norway, excepting the rein-deer, which more peculiarly belongs to Lapland. This anim..l, the most useful, perhaps, of any in the creation, and which seems to have been provided by nature to re- compense iii3 Laplanders for the privafion of tlie other comforts of life, resembles the stag, only it somewhat droops the head, and the horns pro- ject forward. In simimer the rein-deer provide themselves with leaves and grass, and 'n the winter they live upon moss ; which they have a wondeiixil sagacity at finding, and, when found, scrape away the snovr that covers it with their feet. The scantiness of their fare is inconceiv- able, as is the length of the journeys which they can perform without any other support. They fix the rein-deer to a kind of sledge, shaped like a small boat, in which the traveller, well secured from' cold, is laced down ; with the reins, which are fastened to tlie horns of tlie ani-* inal, in one hand, and a kind of bludgeon in the other, to keep the car-* riagc clear of ice and snow. The doer, whose harnessing is very sim- ple, set* out, and contbiues tlie journey vvitli prodigious speed ) and xi so LAPLAj^. m In- with so snfe and tractable, that tlie driver is at little or no trouble in direct- ing him. At night they look out for tlieir own provender j and their milk often contributes to support their master. Their instinct in choosing their road, and directing their course, can only be accounted for by their being well acquainted with the country during the summer months when they live in the wooJs. Tiieir flesh is well-tasted food, whethei fresh or dried ; their skin forms excellent clothing botlj for the bed ani the body ; tlieir milk and cheese are nutritive and pleasant j and their intestines and tendons supply their masters with thread and cordage. 'When they run about wild in the fields, they may be shot at as other game. But it is said, that if one be killed in a flock, the survivors will gore and trample him to pieces ; tiierefore single stragglers are generally chosen. With all their exctllent qualities, how ever, the rein-deer hav« their inconveniences. It is difficult in summer to keep ihem from •traggling ; they are sometimes buried in the snow ; and they fre- quently grow restive, to the great danger of the driver and his carriage. Their surprising speed (for they are said to run at the rate of 200 miles a-day) seems to be owing to their impatience to get rid of their incum- brance. None but a Laplander could bear the uneasy posture in which he is placed, when he is conflned in one of these carriages or pulkhas j or would believe, that, by whispering tlie rein-deer in the ear, tliey know tlie place of their destinaiion. Population, INHABITANTS, manxees, customs.] Lapland is very thinly peopled. Russian Lapland, according to Mr. Tooke, does not contain more than 1200 families, or about 0000 persons. The popula- tion of the whole of tliis extensive region is supposed to be not nwro than 40,0(X), or one person to about tlirec square miles. Both men and women are in general considerably shorter than more southern Europeans. Maupertuis measured a woman who was suckling her child, whose height did not exceed four feet two inches and about a half. The Laplander is of a swarthy and dark complexion j his hair is black and short, his mouth wide, and his cheeks hollow, with a chin somewhat long and pointed. The women are complaisant, chaste, often well made, and extremely nervous, which is also observable among tha men, though more rarely. Agricuhuie ib not much attended to among the Laplander?. They are chiefly di\ided into Lapland flshers, and Lapland mountaineers. The former always make their habitations on the brink or in the neigh- bourhood of some lake, from which they draw their subsistence. The otliers seek their support upon the mountains and their environs, pos- sessing herds of rein-deer more or less numerous, which they use accord-' ing to the season, but go generally on foot. They are excellent and very industrious herdsmen, and are rich in comparison of the Lapland flshers. Some of them possess six hundred or a thousand rein-deer, atid have often money and plate besides. They mark every rein-deer on the ears, and divide them into classes ; so that they instantly perceiva whether any one has strayed, tliough they cannot count to so great a number as that to^xylucU, l^hey* s Lock often amounts. Those who pos- sess but a small ^tvj'pfcj.j^iJ/e jt» dA'o'ryji^dMdbyl:a;[)j-oper name. The Lapland fishers, wlio' arc 'aiso .'c'tJfed I;a}il}iKlty»_ ©f tlJd Woods, because in summer ihey dweli'ujjon the bord,e,rs.of^the lakes, and in winter in the forests, live i^y\ fljUitig, Rujl •himiini;, Und, phpiWd J^eir situation by its convenience lor either. The grer.feat'pact! of'.tlveiu however, have some rein-deer. They are active and expert in tlie chase : and the in- tfoductiou of flre-aitiu uniong them has almost entirely aboUshed the H 3 liil :i ll : ! ;'4 i* ' (I '4 i] k 100 LAPLAND. Vi*i< fi i. IS m use of tlic bow and arrow. "Besides looking after tlie rein-deer, the fishery, and the chase, the men employ themselves in the construction of their canoes, v.-hich are small, light, and compact. They also make sledges, -to which they give the form of a canoe, harness for the rein-deer, cups, bowls, and various other utensils, which are sometimes neatly carved, and sometimes ornamented with bones, brass, or horn. Tho employment of the women consists in making nets for the fishery, in drying fish and meat, in milking the rein-deer, in making cheese, and tanning hides ; but it is understood to be the business of the men to look after the kitchen, in which it is said the women never interfere. The Laplanders live in huts in tlie form of tents. A hut is from about twenty-five to thirty feet in diameter, and not much above six in height. They cover them, according to the season and the medns of the pos- sessor, some with briers, bark of birch or of linden, — others with turf, coarse cloth, or felt, or the old skins of rein-deer. The door is of felt, made like two curtains which open asunder. A little place surrounded with stones is made in the middle of the hut for the fire, over which a chain is suspended to hang the kettle upon They are scarcely able to stand upright in their huts, but constantly sit upon their heels round the fire. At night they lie down quite naked ; and, to separate the apart- ments, place upright sticks at small distances. They cover themselvea with their clothes, or lie upon them. In winter they put their naked feet into a fur bag. Their liousehold furniture consists of iron or cop- per kettles, wooden cups, bowls, spoons, and sometimes tin or even silver basons ; to which may be added the implements of fishing and hunting. That they may not be obliged to carry such a number ot things with thein in their excursions, they build in the forests, at cer- tain distances, little huts, made like pigeon-hous( s, and placed upou the trunk of a tree, cut otf at the height of about si. feet from the root. In these elevated Imts they keep their goods and provisions; and though they are never shut, yet they are never plundered. The rein-deer supply the Laplanders with the greatest part of their provisions : the chase and the fishery supply the rest. Tlieir principal dishes are the Hesh of the rein-deer, and pudding.'^ which they make of their blood, by putting it, either alone or mixed with wild borrics, into the stomach of the animal from whence it was taken, in which tliey cook it for food. But the llesh of the iK-.ir is Cdiisidcred by them as their mojjt delicate meat. They eat every kind cf fish, even the sea-dog ; as well as all kinds of wild animals, not excepting birds of prey and carnivorous ani- mals. Their winter ])rovisions consist chiefly of ik'sh and fish dried in theoix'u air, both of which thev eat lavv, witliout any sort of dressing. Their common drink is water, sometimes mixed witli milk. They make nlso broths ami iish-sonps. Eiaiuly is very iicarce with them, but they are extrenicly foud ot if. V/licnover ihcy are inclined to eat, the head of the family spreads a carpet on the ground ; and the men and women squat roeuul this mat, which is covered with dishes. Every Laplander mg, eacn srives tn« ctliber his hand. In their close bret ned skin, pnintetl and turned up before ; and In winter they put a little iijy in thena. Tiieir doublet is made to fit their uhape^ and open at th« L*ir drt's;,:flK*k'T,apJnn(.lerB; 'it^'e'nV)'.k''.i>VJ h{"\hhvi. The n^en wear eeches, ieaoln'ng ^;kA^iv to t'neir shoes,' which are made of untan- LAPLAND, 101 ■, the ictioa make deer, leatly Tha ', in treast. Over this tliey wear a close coat with narrow sleeves, the skirt J of which reach clown to the knees, and which is fastened round them by a leathern girdle, ornamented with plates of tin or hrass. To this girdle tliey tie tlieir knives, tlieir instmments for making fire, their pipes, and the rest of their snioaking apparatus. Their clothes are made of fxir, of leatlier, or of cloth ; the close coat, of clotli or leather, always bordered with fur, or bindings of cloth of different colours. Their caps are edged with fur, pointed at top, and the four seams adorned wi4i lists of a dilferent colour from that of the cap. The women wear breeches, shoes, tioublets, and close coats, in the same manner as the men ; but their girdle, at which they carry likewise the implements for smoaking tobacco, is commonly embroidered with brass wire. I'heir close coat has a collar, which comes up somewhat higher than that of the men. Besides these, they wear handkerchiefs, and little aprons, made of painted cloth, rings on their fingers, and ear-rings, to which tliey sometimes hang chains of silver, which pass two or three times round the neck. They are often dressed in caps folded after the manner of tiirbans. They wear also caps fitted to the shape of the head : and as they are much addicted to finery, they are all ornamented with the embroidery of brass . wire, or at least with list of ditferent colours. A young man is not permitted to marry till he be able to take and kill a rein-deer. When he is thus qualified, and has chosen a female to wligm he wishes to make proposals, lie communicates his desire to his own family, who then repair in a body to the dwelling of the parents of tlie girl, taking with them a (piantity of brandy to drink on the occasion, and a slight present for the young woman ; for instance, a girdle orna- mented with silver, a ring, or something of the like kind. When they come to the door of the hut in which she lives, the principal spokesman enters first, followed by the rest of the kindred, the suitor waiting with . out until he shall be imlled to enter. As soon as they are come in, the orator fills out a bumper of brandy, which he ofters to the girl's father,' who, if he accept it, show^ thereby that he approves of the match about to be moved for. The brandy is handed round, not only to the girl's fatlier and mother, and her friends assembled together, but likewise to the in- tended bride ; and in the course of tiiis compotation, leave is obtained for the young man to forward his suit in his own person. The orator then, in a set speech, makes a beginning : and in this stage of the courtship the lover is himself introduced, but takes his seat at a distiuice from the rest, placing himself near the door. The parents of the girl at lengtli signify- ing their full consent to the match, the suitor offers the maiden the present he has brought with him, and at the same time promises wed- ding-clotlies to the father and mother. If the parents, after having thus given tlieir consent, depart from their word, it is an established law amongst the Laplanders that all the expenses incurred must be made ' good, even to the brandy drank at the first visit. The parties being thus betrotlied, the young man is allo^ved to a isit his luistress from time to time. On the day of the nuptials the bride appears dressed in her gala habit, witli this dift'erence, that whereas her head is close covered at other times, upon this occasion her liair is left to flow loose upon her shoulders, and she wears a bandeau of ditlerent-eoloured sturts, and sometimes a fillet. The nuptials are celebrated in a frugal maimer, anJ without show. Such of the guests as are invited, and are of suliicient ability to do it, make the bride a present of money, rein-deer, or some- thing towards a stock *. * Acerbi, vol. il. p. ISb. <<^ 102 LAPLAND. The Laplanders, it is said, entertain an aversion to "wdt; and it ha§ never been found practicable to convert them into soldiers : but this is rather to be attributed to their habits of life, which disqualify them for military discipline j as they will brave the fury of tlie tempestuous ocean with astonishing intrepidity, and skait without fear along the edges of tremendous precipices. Language.] The language of Lnpland appears to have an affinity to the Finnish, witli an intermixture of some words evidently of Gothic origin, derived perhaps from their intercourse with the Danes and Swedes. Very difl-erent dialects, however, are spoken in different parts of the country. The Lord's Prayer in Lapland ish is as folU)ws : Atki mijamjuco lee alniemisnc. Ailis ziaddui tu Nam. Ziveigubntta tu Rifki Ziaddus tu Willio nuukvchte tilmcsne nau ei ednu munnal. Wadde vujai udni mijan fart pafivir laihchm. Juh andir^usloite nii jtmijan suddoid ruiukuchte mije undugasloitcbt kudi vdje v^clgngas lien. Juh sissa^ laidi mijulmi. JEte tocko kccckzidlebvia pahast. Amtn. Religion.] The Laplanders have been induced, by the missionaries sent among them from Denmark and Norway, to profess Christianity j but tills does not prevent them from sacrificing to tlie gods of their fore- fathers, and practising their ancient superstitions. The principal instru- ment of their magical rites, to which they are still addicted, is the Runic drum, which is a box of an oval shape, covered at one end with a skin, and fiamished on the otlier with several strings and pieces of iron to rattle and make a noise : strange figures, intended to represent the heavenly bodies, beasts and birds, with many otliers characters, are drawn on the skin. The noaaid, or sorcerer, puts a ring upon his drum, and beats on it with his drumstick, which is made of the horn of the rein-deer, and according to the figure on which the vibration of the skin causes the ring to fall, he answers all questions concerning former or future events. At the same time he invokes the spirits to assist his drum; and in the course pf this mummery falls into a fit, during which his soul is supposed to be with the spirits of the air, hearing their converse and learning tlie decrees of Heaven. Families in general possess such a drum, which the Lap- lander consults before he sets out on a journey, and which is his guide and director on all common occasions ; but in affairs of greater moment he applies to the Noaaids, or professed magicians, to consult it for him. These drums are preserved with great care and secrecy, and are hidden from sight except at the time they are used. A woman dare not ap- {}roach the place where one of these drums is concealed, much less durst she presume to touch it. Trade.] The Laplanders carry on a trade with the Swedes and Nor- wegians, by supplying tliem with the skins and furs of quadrupeds } such as ermines, sables, martens, squirrelsj black, white, and variously-coloured foxes ; bears, lynxes, and wolves. In return they purchase meal, cloth, various utensils, spirituous liquors, and tobacco. The fttrs in which they traffic are of extreme fineness, and bear a high price, so that the babncd of this trade is much in favour of tlie Laj^landcrs. I has 1 ^ s is for . ' egn J of I yto hilt les. -' 11 ill i '' ffl»*rff^-f rJMr«| iuifrl'l h^ lisf^ ^f-'^^A y^. Ijlanzaf ^ Peredawl ^St/ 'J Um^ida rSifH ieiS/ "^ 5^ ^(fcwryii^ anunffugc tiobtbt N . fc" ik "mm I IMMBB^S* r 5b AR- iP xjSfoW: il<t' A, ''""»^JlW"»-.«tf»rA- «tf»rA-!.,>-:. ,j..J:- •. ■*!fe* Vve^; jtx«Ma«i«t { f j! i /•/,lt.' I 3j»h — J \ ■f,o ;,o O i> (Si) f^-^^M^^ /? O Z E N r f j^" Kolgow- IsVc Kprptau^aJi ■ ^i not y ^'f'^koi ^'H J^ Oritur Ponon ,Pu^' z/rshf* .W5 tv*^- C^^- ^f\ cr U>fpnir :Jfyrifth>t .'■■ I W^ n iKiwrol — i^ ^ SfBTSW*^^ ^;firw*»« r' jftrelJ -y eJ j| ^ftifartrtfev T Ousliougi £a^h}i Btelo. BieJi \ h^' i>^% 9uir -<■ ■^ i iSbkxnii'**' sk0i \ ^^zeUfvibtH ^-J. Moiooo'i ] i L^f Parimew' yfockekon ( r\.^/^ JkiU< (JJuHWfc* / N I /t' «.«^«k^>''^--iS^ .^--ife*^' /tf/r r 11 <m ( 108 X ^ 'i IIUSSIA IN EUROPE. SITUATION AND EXTENT OP RUSSIA IN EUROPI. Miles. Degrees. Length 19601 u_t,,.^c„ ; Breadth ItiSOj "^^''-'-" |2i and 65 East longitude. Russia in Europe contains 1,220,000 square miles, with 25 inhabitants to each. £1' 5" -14 and 72 North btitude. I2I a SITUATION AND EXTENT OF THE WHOLE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. Miles. Degrees. Lengtli 6750I , „.,^.„^„ 521 and 190 E. or 170 W. longitude. Breadth 23203 ^^^^^^^^ -[44 and 78 North latitude. The whole Russian enijjire contains 4,900,000 square miles, witli less than 7 inhabitants to each. Name.] RUSSIA derives its name from the Russi or Rossi, a Slavonic tribe, who were the first known possessors of tlie country. It has very generally, how ever improperly, been denominated Muscovy, from Mos* cow, the capital, which takes its name from the river Moskva, on which it is situate. Boundaries, divisions.] Russia in Europe is bounded on tlie north by the Frozen Ocean ; on the east by the river Cara, the Uralian moun- tains, and the Volga; on the south by the Black Sea and Turkey} and on the west by Prussia, the Baltic Sea, and Sweden. The whole Russian empire is divided into 50 governments. GOVERNMENTS. Archangel Bratzlaii Cauca.sia Courland Ekaterincslav • Irkutsk - Kaluga - Kagan - Kharkof - Kief Kolhyvane Kostroma Kursk Mohilef - Minsk Moscow - Nisbftei Novgorod 64. 34. 38. 55, Mittau fN. CHIEF TOWNS. Bratzlau. Astracan l^'/^'i^- ^.^^ \E. Ion. 48. 2. lat. 56.40. Ion. 23. 50. (. Ekaterlnoslav. {Irkutsk l^-^^*-®2.1. Irkutsk j£^ j^^ J29. 43., Ochotsk. Kaluga. Kazan. Kharkof. Kief. Tomsk. Kostroma. Kursk. Mokilef. Minski. M«cn««, f ^- lat. 55. 45. ^°'"°^iE. Ion. 37.46. Nishiiei Ivovgorod. i i i (■: 104 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. '■}i' GOVERNMENTS. Novgorod Novgorod Sicversk Olonetz - - Orel Pensa Perm Petersburg PodoHa - Polotzk - Pscove - - . . Revel ■-•'■ - Riazan. • Riga Saratof - Simbirsk - " r Slonim - Smol'ensR Tambof- % Taurida - Toijolsk - - Tschernigdf Tula Tver Ufa - • Viaetka - • - Vilna - Vladimir - Volhynia - Vologda - Voronetsch Vorsnesensk Vyborg - " Yaroslaf - CHIEF TOWNS. • Novgorod. Novgorod Sieversk. Olonetz. Orel. Pensa. ' Perm. N. St. Petersburg Kaminieck Polotzk. Pscove. Revel. Riazan. Riga |p, Saratot". Simbirsk. Slonim. Smolensk". Tambof. Caffa. Tobolsk {£ lat. 5g. 56. Ion. 30. 19. lat. 5(5. 56. Ion. 23. 58. f N. lat. |E. Ion. 58. 12. (is. 25. '■{ Orenburs Tschernigof. Tula. Tver. Ufa. f N. lat. '■SJE.lon. Viaetka. Vilna. Vladimir. I-ucko. Vologda. Voronetsch. Vorsnesensk. Vyborg. -Yaroslaf. 51.46. 55. 5, Mountains, lakes, .rivers, canals.,] Russia is in general a plain •ountry, but betweeti" Pc<tei\sburg and JMoscow are the high grounds called the Valday Mountains, tliougl^ tlie highest is only 400 yards above the level of Petersburg, or thtk sea;:. Between the lakes Ladoga and Onega is the chain of Olonetz, wlilch_ runs in a direction almost due north for a great extent. The vast Uraliiin chain, which divides Euro- pean from Asiatic Russia, extends from- about the 50th to nearly the t)7th degree of N. lat. or more than 1000 English miles. The Russians call this range Lenwoipoijas, the Girdle -of the EartJi. Vnd also is a Tartarian word signifying a belt or girdle. These mountains are sup- posed to be the Mantes Hi/pahorwi, br Riphfel, of th'^ ancients. The principal lakes in European Russia are the Onega, in the govern- ment of Olonetz, about 150 utiles in l«;ngth by 30 in breadth ; the lake Ladoga in the g^)venmie«t of Vyborg, situate between the lake Onega and the Gulf of Finland, 185 miles in length by 70 in breadth, Tieing one of the largest lakes in Europe j the Peypus, which divides the go- vernments of Petersburg and Riga, about (JO miles in length and 30 ia RUSSIA iH EUROPE. 105 breadth; the Ilmen, on which stands the city of Novgorod ; and the Kidozersk, or White Lake, so' called from i*:r- bottom being of white clay. The most<:onsiderable rivers are the Volga, or Wolga, ranning east and south, which, atter traversing the greatest pait of Russia, and winding a course of 3(XX) English miles, falls into the Caspian Sea. It is re- markable, that in all this long course there is not a single cataract to in- terrupt the navigation. As it approaches to its mouth it divides itself into a greater number of arms than any known river in the world, and discharges itself hito the Caspian Sea by more than 70 mouths. By means of this noble river, the city of Moscow maintains a communica- tion, not only with all the southern parts of Russia, but even with Persia, Georgia, Tartary, and other countries bordering on the Caspian Sea. The Don, or Tanai's, divides the most eastern part of Russia frora Asia, and, in its course towards the east, approaches so near the Volga, that the czar Peter I. had undertaken to form a communication between them by means of a canal : this grand project, however, was defeated by the irruption of the Tartars. I'iiis river, exclusive of its turnings and windings, discharges itself into the Palus iVIaeotis, or sea of Asoph, about four hundred miles from its rise. The Borystlienes, or Dnieper, which is likewise one of the largest rivers in Europe, runs dirough Lithuania, tlie country of the Zaporog Cossacs, and that of the Nagaisch Tartars, and falls into the Euxine, or Elack Sea, at Kinburn, near Oczakow : it has thirteen cataracts within a small distance. To these may be added the Duna, or Dvina, which empties itself at Riga into the Baltic; tlieDwina, which has its source near Ustiaga, and, dividing itself into two branches near Archangel, there falls into tlie White Sea; and the Neva, which issues from tlie lake Ladoga, and falls into tlie Gulf of Finland belqw Petersburg. . •.*. Though the plan of Peter T. to unite tlie Volga and the Don by 3 canal, failed in the execution, a communication between Asti'acan and Petersburg is effected by the canal of Vishnei Voloshok, which unites the Twertza and tlie Shlina, The canal of Ladoga, which runs along the edge of tliat lake, joins the \'^oskof to the Neva, extending the length of 67 miles, and communicating with the canal of Vishnei Voloshok, Another canal is cut from Moscow to the river Don. Metals, minerals.] The principal mines of the Russian empire are in Siberia, but there are some likewise in the European part, in the mountains of Olonetz, where a gold mine was discovered in \7'M) ; but it yielded but 57 pounds of gold in tlie year, scarcely repaying the labour of working it. Climate, soil, agriculture.] The severity of the climate, iij Russia properly so called, is very great. Dr. John Glcn King, who resided eleven years in Russia, observes, that the cold in St. Petersburg, by Fahrenheit's scale, is, during the months of December, January, and February, usually from 8 to 1 5 or 20 degrees below ; that is, from 40 to .52 degrees below the freezing point; thtjugh commonly. In the course of the winter, it is for a week or ten days some degrees lower. The same writer remarks, that it is ver\' ditficult for an inhabitant of our temperate climate to liave any idea of a cold so great. It is such, that, when a person walks out in that sex ere weather, the cold makes the eyes wat^'r, and that water, freezing, hangs in little icicles on the eye- la.shes. As the common peasants usually wear their b( aids, icicles arc frequently seen hanging to their chins like a solid lump of ice. In ome very severe winters, sparrows, though a hardy species of birds, haye been seen quite numbed by the intense cold, and unable to fly : and drivers, when silting qjli tlieii loaded carriages, have sometimes been /•i 1-5; f I m 100 RUSSIA IN 7.UR0PE. found frozen to deatli in that posture. When the thermometer has stooi" at 25 degrees below 0, boiling water thrown up into the air by an en» gine, so as to spread, has fallen down perfectly dry, formed into ice. A pint-bottle of common water was found by Dr. King frozen into a solid piece of ice in an hour and a quarter. A bottle of strong ale has also been frozen in an hour and a half; but in this substance there was about a tea-cup- tuU in the middle unfrozen, which was as strong and in- flammable as brandy or spirits of wine. But, notwithstanding the se- Terity of the cold in Russia, the inliabitants have such various means and provisions to guard against it, that tliey suffer much less from it than might be expected. The houses of persons in tolerable circumstances are so well protected, both without doors and witliin, that they are seldom heard to complain of cold. The method of warming the houses in Russia, is by an oven constructed with several flues ; and they can re- gulate the warmth in their apartments by z tliermometer with great ex- actness, opening or shutting tlie flues to increase or diminish the heat. When the Russians go out, they are clothed so warmly, that they almost bid defiance to frost and snow ; and it is observable that tlie wind is seldom violent in the winter ; but when there is much wind, the cold Is exceedingly piercing. One advantage which tlie Russians derive from the severity of their climate, is the preserving of provisions by Uie frost. Good housewives, as soon as the frost sets in foi- the winter, about the end of October, kill their poultry, and keep them in tubs packed up with a layer of snow between them, and then take them out for use as occasion requires : by whicli means they save the nourishment of the animal for several months. Xetil frozen at Archangel, and brought to Petersburg, is esteemed the flnest they have j nor can it be distinguished from what is fresh killed, being equally juicy. The markets in Petersburg are by this means supplied in winter with all manner of provisions, at a cheaper rate tlian would otherwise be possible j and it is not a little curious to see the vast stacks of whole hogs, sheep, fish, and other animals, which are piled up in the markets for sale. The method of thawing frozen provisions in Russia is by immerging them in cold water } for when the operation of thawing them is effected by heat, it seems to occasion a • violent fermentation, and almost a sudden putrefaction j but when pro- duced by cold water, the ice seems to be attracted out of the body, and forms a transparent incrustation round it. If a cabbage, which is tho- roughly frozen, be thawed by cold water, it is as fresh as if just gathered out of the garden ; but if it be thawed by tire or hot water, it become* 60 rancid and strong that jt cannot be eaten. The quickness of vegetation in Russia is nearly the same as has been described in Sweden and Denmark. • The snow is the natural manure ol Russia, where grain grows in plenty, near Poland, and in the warmer provinces. The bulk of the people, however, are miserably fed ; the soil, indeed, produces a vast number of mushrooms for their subsistence. Peter the Great, and his successors down to the present time, have been ■t incredible pains to introduce agriculture into their dominions ; and thoitgh the soil is not everywhere proper for corn, yet its vast fertility in some provinces may make grain as common in Russia as it is in th« southern countries of Europe. The easy communication by means of rivers, which the inland parts of that empire have with each other, faci- litates the conveyance of those products of the earth which abound in one province, to another which may be deficient in tliem. Vegetable pkoductions, animals.] Russia contains numerous and extunsive forests uf piuc^ fir^ larch, niountain-aslv &c. Wheat, oats, hai^ w RUSSIA IN EUROPE. lOjr ley, rye, flax, hemp, and a variety of otlier vegetables, and fmits of dif- ferent kinds, are produced in Russia, esnecially in the southern pro- vinces. The animals of the northern par . of Russia do not greatly ditfer from thoise of Denmark and Sweden, to the account of which we reter the reader. The lynx, famous for its piercing eye, is a native of this empire ; it makes prey of e\ ery creature it can master, and is said to be produced chiefly in the fir-tree forests. Hyaenas, bears, wolves, foxes, and other creatures already de.st;ribed, afford their furs for clothing the inhabitants ; but the furs of the black foxes and ermine are more valuabls in Russia than elsewhere. The dromedary and camel were formerly almost the only beasts of burden known in many parts of Russia. The czar Peter encoiuaged a breed of large horses for war and carriages ; but those employed in the oidinary purposes of life are but small ; as are their cows and sheep. We know of few or no birds in Russia that have not been already described. The same may be said of fishes, except tiiat the Russians ar» better provided than their neighbours with sturgeon, cod, salmon, and beluga. The latter resembles a sturgeon, and is often called the largo sturgeon ; it is from twelve to fifteen feet in length, and weighs from 9 to It) and 18 hundred- weight j its flesh is white and delicious. Of the- roe of tlie sturgeon and the beluga the Russians make the famou* caviare, so much esteemed for its richness and flavour. Curiosities, natural and artificial.] Among the natural cu- riosities of Russia, tlie thirteen cataracts of the Dnieper may be enume- rated, as also may other cataracts in the government of Olonetz. TI1& prodigious rocks of ice, of several miles in extent and surprising height, which float in tlie ocean to the north of Russia, may likewise be reckoned among the natural curiosities of this country ; as among the artificial may be commemorated the palace of ice which the empress Anne caused to be built on the bank of the Neva in 1 740. This edifice, constructed of huge quadrats of ice hewn in the manner of freestone, was 52 feet in length, 16 in breadth, and 20 in height; the walls were three feet thick. In the several apartments were tables, chairs, beds, and all kind* of household furniture, of ice. In front of the palace, besides pyramids and statues, stood six cannons, carrying balls of six pounds weight, and two mortars of ice. From one of the former, as a trial, an iron ball, with only a quarter of a pound of powder, was fired oft' : tlie ball went through a two-inch board at sixty paces from the mouth of the cannon, and tlie piece of ice artillery, with its carriage, remained uninjured by the ex- plosion. The Illumination of the ice-palace at night had an astonishingly grand eflfect. In the cabinet of natural history at Petersburg, is a rhinoceros, dug tjp on the banks of the river Valui, with his skin, and the hair upon it, perfect. The Russians are extremely fond of tlie ringing of bells, which are always to be heard tinkling in every quarter. The great bell of Moscow weighs, according to Mr. Coxe, " 432,000 pounds, and exceeds iu big- •' ness every bell in the known world. Its size is so enormous," says that writer, " that I could scarcely have given credit to the account of " its magnitude, if I had not examined it myself, and ascertained its di- " mensions with great exactness. Its height is nineteen feet, its circum- •• ference at the bottom twenty-one yards eleven inches, its greatest " thickness twenty-three inches." It was cast in tlie reign of the empress Anne : but the beam on which it hung being burnt, it fell, and a large piece is broken out of itj so tliat it lately lay in a manner useless. Mr. Bruce ia his Memoirs meniioua a bell at Moscow, founded in the reii^m p m m 108 HUSSIA IN ELTIOPE. f^l im 1 "'} p\ i ^2 ¥^ km ©f the czar Bon's, nineteen feet high, twenty-three m diameter, an^ two in thicknciss, and weighing 33C>,000 pounds. Population.] Tlie population of* Russia lias beri variously repre- sented by difterent writers. Some years since it was generally estifnated at about twenty millions. Mr. Bostticher, a German writer, •" his ttatiitical tables, gives the population of the European part at 2O,ii8''^S^0, and that of the whole empire at 25 millions. Mr. Tooke, in his View of the Russian Empire, states, tliat by the lists of the revision of tlic em- pire, drawn up iu 1/83, as he assures us, with the greatest care and ac- curacy of examination, there were in the 41 govenfments of which Russia then consisted, male inhabitants 12,838,529. Supposing an equal number of females, the amount will be 25,677.000 Aliovving for the Cossacs and unnumbered ti'ibes and classes 1,720,000 We shall have for the whole population in 17S3 - 27,397,000 To this number he adds, for tlie increase of inhabitants in 12 years, , _ _ - - 3,000,000 And for tlie new acquisitions since 17S3, or the nine new governments 5,755,000 Consequently the present population of thq Russian ':rnpire ■will be at least 3(5,152,000 )'>i S He afterwards deduces, from 1 table of the births, deaths, and marriages in die eparchies of the Greek church throughout the Russinii empire, in the year 1799. faithfully extracted from the general ret tuns received by the syntKl, that the whole numbcT of inhabitants must have then amounted, on a moderate estimate, to upwards ot'fortj/ millinns. Profc«?;or Storch, in his " Historico-statistical Picture of the Russian Empire at tlie End of the Eighteenth Centwry," likewise rates the popula- tion of the whole of the Russian dominions at 36 millions of souls. Natioxal ciiAKACTjER, MANNERS, CUSTOMS.] The Russiaus, pro- perly so called, are in general a personable people, hardy, vigorous, an(i patient of labour, especially in tlie field, to an incredible degree. Their complexions dift'er little from those of the English or Scots; but the women think thi\l an addition of red heightens their beauty, and paFnt is said to be as necessary an article in the dress of a Rnssian lady as linen. Their eye-sight seems to be defective, occasioned, probably, by tlie snow, which for the greater part of the year is continually present to their eyes. Their officers and soldiers always possessed a large share of pas- sive valour ; and in several of the late wars ha\ e shown themselves as active as ;my troops in Europe. They are implicitly submissive to dis<- cipline, let it be ever so severe j endure extreme hardships with great patience ; and can content themselves with Very hard fare. Before the days ol i'eter the Great, the Russians were in general barbarous, ignorant, mean, and much addicted to drunkenness. Not only the canunon people, but many of the bo3'ars, or nobles, li\ cd in a continual state of idleni^ss and intoxirnfion ; and the most complete ob- jw^ts of misery and barbarity appeared in the streets, while the court of Moscow was the most splendid of a)]y upon the globe. The czar and the gnndees dressed after the mobt superb Asiatic manner j and their Miagnitirtuicc was astonishing. The earl of CsrliRle, in the iaccount of his embassy, says, that he could sCe nothing but gold and precious stones ill the r()bes of the czar and his covntiers. Peter saw the bulk of his Kubjfcts, at his accession to the throne, little better than beast's of bur- «k'U, destined to suppuit the pojiip of the court. He forced his gieat RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 109 pno, in men to lay aside their long robes, and dress in the European manner; and even obliged the Jaity to cut off their beards. At present a French ir English gentlethan may live as comfortably and sociably in Russia as in most other parts of Europe. Their polite assemblies, since the ac- cession of the late empress, have been put under proper regulations ; and few of the ancient usages remain. It is, however, to be observed, that, notwithstanding the severities of Peter and the prudence of suc- ceeding goveruments, drunkenness still continues among all ranks 5 nor are even priests or ladies ashamed of it on holidays. The Russians were formerly noted for so strong an attachment to their native soil, that they seldom visited fi^eign countries. This, however, was only the consequence of their pride and ignorance ; for Russian nobility, besides thoso who are in a public character, are now found at every court in Europe. Her late imperial majesty interested herself in tlie education of young men of quality, in the knowledge of the world, and foreign services, particularly tliat of the British fleet. It is said that tlie Russian ladies were formerly as submissive to their husbands in their families as the latter ai'e to their superiors in the fleld ; and that they thought tliemselves ill treated if they were not often re- minded of their duty by the discipline of a whip, manufactured by them- selves, which they presented to their husbands on the day of their mar- riage. I'heir nuptial ceremonies arc peculiar to themselves ; and for- merly consisted of some very whimsical rites, many of which are noMr disused. When the parents have agreed upon a match, though the par- ties perhaps ha\e never seen ciich otiier, the bride is critically examined by a certain number of females, who are to correct, if possible, any de- fect they find in her persun. On her wedding-day she is crowned with a garland of wormwood; and after the priest has tied the nuptial knot, his clerk or sexton throu s a handful of lu)|)s upon her head, wishing she may prove as l"ruitJ"ul as tliat plant. She is then led home, with abundance of coarse and indeed indecent ceremonies, wliich are now wearing oif even amongst the lower ranks ; and the barbarous treatment of wives by their husbands, which extended even to scourging or broil- ing them to death, is cither guarded against by tiie laws of the country, or by particular stipulations in the marriage-contract. The nobility, and almost all the peopie of quiijity, dross after tlie German fashion j and tlie ladies, c\en in the reaKjlcst parts of the country, appear more modishly attired than would ea»ily be irnagiiicd. The peasants, burghers, and mo.,t of the nif-rcantile ciass, still adhere to the national dress. They 1(4 their beards grow, whieh are conuiionlj long and bushy ; their liair is cut and combi'd. They wear a short shirt without any sort of collar, and loose trousers, over Vv'hi(ii tiie shirt usually hangs, and is girt round the waist with a string. 0\er the shirt they wear a short breast-eiotii, or vest, fiirnishrd with butt*.)iis, niid atKWt girt about with a sash that passes twice I'oniul the body. I'he ec»\ering for the head is either a Hat lur caj), with a narrow brim, or a cap which forms a bag of a span in depth, in v»hirh they keep their handkerchief on their head. Leg-wrajipers are worn instead of stockings, esjjecially by the lower class of people: these are tied about their li-et and legs vith packthread, so as to make them look \ery thick. The women wear a saruphan, or vest without hU'cvc.;, whiih is (^lose about the neck, and sits tight to the body down to tlie hips : from the hips it spreads without gathers, and reaches down to the sjioes. On the lacing it is garnished with a thick row of iltiio buttons, from the top to tlm very botlom ; it is, however, girt witli a sail), to which the bunch of keys hi "if n M iwj I }I0 RUSSIA la EUROPE. - . mi- li m If:- if'W : l;.v It Ml is suspended. The girls in general wear their hair uncovered more tliaa . the women : the former plait it in tlirce plaits, with ribbons and beadi tied to the points of them. In some provinces they wear a band across the forehead bedizened with pearls and beads of various colours j in ethers they wear caps in the form of an upright crescent. In the vici- nity of Moscow, and in several of the neighboiiring governments, the cap has a stiff flap before, like a jockey-cap, and is decorated with pearla and various coloured stones. In great towns the funeral obsequies of people of rank are conducted in much the same manner as in other countries of Europe j but the lower classes still retain some peculiar ceremonies. After the dead body ifi dressed, a priest is hired to pray for the soul, to purify the corpse with incense, and to sprinkle it with holy water while it remains above ground, which, among the better sort, it generally does for eight or ten days. When die body is carried to the grave, which is done with many gesticulations of sorrow, the priest produces a ticket, signed by tlieir bishop and another clergyman, as tJie deceased's passport to heaven. This is put into the coffin, between the fingers of the corpse ; after which the company return to tlie deceased's house, where they drown their sorrow in intoxication, which lasts, among the better sort, with a few intervals, forty days. During that time' a priest every day recites prayers over tlie grave of the deceased ; for though the Russians do not believe in purgatory, yet they imagine that their departed friend may be assisted by prayer in his long journey to the place of his destination after this life. At the new year is usually held a feast of the dead, on which every one visits the grave of his relations, lays some victuals upon it, and liears mass, in payment for which the priest gets the victuals. Profligates, such as have come to a miserable end, and all who have died without the sacrament were formerly thrown, without inhumation, into a hut for that purpose, and on the Thursc'ay before Whitsuntide were buried b}' the clergy, who said masses for ihcir souls, attended by the inha- bitants of the place. At pre:;ent greater indulgence is shown to thes^ poor wretches. Cities, chief towns, editices.] Petersburg, now the capital of Russia, is situate on both sides of the river Neva, between the lake of Ladoga and the bottom of the Gulf of Finland. In tlie year 1703, this city consisted of a few small fishing huts, on a spot so waterish and swampy, that the ground was formed into nine islands, by which its pjfincipal quarters ajc still divided. 'N\'Ithout entering into too minute a description of this wonderful city, it is sufficient to say that it ex- tends about six ni>]es every way, and contains every structure for niag-» Uiiicencc, the improvement of the arts, revenue, navigation, war, com- merce, and the like, tiiat is to be found in the most celebrated cities in Europe. f As Petcrsburfi; is ihc emporium of Rusr>in, the number of foreign ships tiaciing to it in the summer-time is extremely great. In winter 3000 one-hcrse sledges are employed for passengers in the streets. Tt is supposed that there are 1/0,000 inhabitants in this city; and it is ornanjcnted with thirty-five great churciies ; for in it almost every sect of Lhe Christian religion is tolerated. It also contains five palaces, some of T^hich are superb, particularly that which is called the New Summer- Palace, near the Triumphal Port, which is an elegant piece of architec- ture. There is likewise a foundling-hospital, assistant to the noble one at Moscow, where tlie motlier may come to be delivered privately ; after RUSSIA IN EUROPE. m in many tJieir which she leaves the child to the state, as a parent more capable of pro- moting its welfare. This magnificent city is defended on the side next the sea by tbo forti^ess of Cronstadt, which, considering the difficulty and danger of na- vigating a large naval force through the Gulf of Finland, is suriicicnt to guard it on that side from the attempts of any enemy, Petersburg is th» capital of the province of Ingria, one of \ cter the Great's conquests from the Swedes. In the neighbourhood of this city arc numerou* country-houses and gardens. The city of Moscow, or Moskoa, formerly the capital of th great empire, stands on the river from which it takes its name. ThoiigTi its streets are not regular, it presents a very picturesque apyjcarance ; for it contains such a number of gardens, groves, iawus, atvl streams, that it seems rather to be a cultivated country than a city. The ancient mag- nificence of this city would be incredible, were it not attested by the most unquestionable authors : but we are to make great allowances for the uncultivated state of the adjacent provinces, which might have niadd it appear with a greater lustre in a traveller's eyes, Busching speaks of it as the largest city in Europe ; but that can be only meant as to the ground it stands on, computed to be sixteen miles iu circumference. It is gene- rally admitted, that Moscow contains l600 churches and convents, and forty-three palaces or squares. The nierchants' exchange, according to Busching, contains about 6000 fine shops, which display a vast parade of commerce, especially to and from China. No city exhibits a greater contrast than Moscow, of magnificence and meanness in building. The houses of the inhabitants in general are miserable timber booths; but their palaces, churches, convents, and other public edifices, are spacious and lofty. The Kremlin, or grand imperial palace, is mentioned as one of the most superb structures in the world : it stands in the interior cir- cle of the city, and contains the old imperial palace, pleasure-house, and stables, a victualling-house, the palace which formerly belonged to the patriarch, the cathedral, five convents, four parish-churches, the arse- nal, with the public colleges, and other offices. All the churches in the Kremlin have beautiful spires, most of them gilt or covered with silver j the architecture is in the Gothic taste ; but the insides of the churches are richly ornamented ; and the pictures of the saints are decorated with gold, silver, and precious stones. The cathedral has nine towers, co- vered witli copper, double-gilt, and contains a silver branch with forty- eight lights, said to weigh 2S00 pounds. The foundling-hospital at Moscow is an excellent institution. It was founded by the late empress, and is supported by voluntary contributions, legacies, and other charitable endowments. It is an immense pile of building, of a quadrangular shape, and will contain 8000 foundlings. They are taken great care of, and at the age of fourteen have the liberty of choosing any trade ; for which purpose there are difl'erent species pf manufactures established in the hospital. Moscow, when lord Carlisle was the Engli.ni ambassador there, in tlie reign of Charles II., was twelve miles in compass, and the number of houses was computed at 40,000 According to Voltaire, when he wrote, it was twenty rriiles in circumference, and its inhabitants amounted to 500,000. Mr. Coxe confirms the account ol the circumference of this city, but tliinks the estimate of its population nuioh exaggerated : ac- cording to an account which was given to him h)- an English gentleman, which he received from a lieutenant of the police, and which he says may be relied on, Moscow contains within the raanxirts 250,000 souls. : ! m 112 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. ig Kt" roteisbuig, it sliil exports a consi- siul in the ndjaccnt villages 50,000. Two French travellers, who were there in l/ij'i, say its jx-pulalion consists of from 300,000 to 328,000 souls, in Kunniv r ; but in winter is increased to nearly 400,000. Aiclianj^el, situate at the mouth of the river Dwina, on the White Sea, was, belore the time («f Peter the Great, the only port by which Russia (omnuiiiicaied with tlie rest of Europe, h is about three English miles in length, ;;nd one in breailth, built all of wood, excepting the ex- change, which ir- of stone. Kot\vii]istandin;> the decrease of the trade of Aichangcl since the buildinj. derabie quantity of merchandise. Riga, a ftn.ng town, formerly the capital of Livonia, is, next to Pe- tersburg, the most commercial place in the Russian empire. It con- tains about p,(X)0 inhabitants within die fortifications, and in the suburbs 15,000. There is a floating wooden bridge over the Dvina 2(500 feet long, and 40 broad, which, in ^\ inter, when the ice sets in, is removed, and in summer replaced. Manufactures, commekck.] Several manufactures, among other* tliose of isinglass, oil, and soap, are conducted in Russia with considerable activity and success. There ai'e also manufactures of linen, silk, paper, and tobacco. Coarse cloths, carpets, and hats, are likewise made in Russia ; and the leadier which takes its name from the country is a kind of staple commodity. According to the best information, the annual exports of Russia at present amount to about 2,40C»,(XX)/. and her imports do not exceed 1,600,000/. ; SO that the balance of trade is yearly bOO,000/. sterling in her favour*. The productions and exports of Russia, in general, are many, and very valuable ; viz. furs and peltry of various kinds, red leather, linen and thread, iron, copper, sail-cloth, hemp and flax, pitch and tar, wax, honey, tallow, isinglass, linseed-oil, pot-ash, soap, feathers, train-oil, hogs' brisdes, musk, rhubarb, and other drugs, timber, and also raw ■ilk from China and Persia. The Ukraine may be called the granary of the empire: the best corn, hemp, flax, honey, and wax, come from this fertile province, and 10,CX30 head of horned cattle arc annually sent from its pastures into Silesia and Saxony. Russia carries on a commerce over land, by caravans, to China, chiefly infiirs: and aey bring back from tlience tea, silk, cott(jn, ;^()ld, &:c. To Bochary, near the river Oxus in Tartary, Russia sends her own mer- chandise, in return for Indi.'.n silks, curled hirab-skins, and ready money j and also to the annual fair at Samarcand : she likewise trades to Persia by Astracan, across the Caspian Sea, for rav/ and wrought silk. The late empress, in 1794, issued an edict, permitting all foreigners to carry on a free trade by sea aiul land Avitii the several countries bordering on the Euxine, which have Ijeen lately annexed to the enipiie. The same privileges, religious and civil, aYe allowed to them in the ports of Cherson, Sebastopolis, and I'lieodosia (formerly Calfa), in the province of Taurida, as in Petersburg. GovKKNMEXT.] Tlic sovereign of the Russian emj)lre is absolute and despou<- in the luUest extent of those terms, and master of tJie lives and properties of all his subjects, who, though they are of the first nobility, or have been highly instrumental in promoting the welfare of-the state, may, notwithstanding, for the most trifling offence, or even for no of- fc'i^jce at all, be seized upon and sent to Siberia, u" made to di'udge for * Coxc, vol. ii. p. ?47, RUSSIA IN EUROPE. lit )ife upon the public works, and have all their goods con^scated, when- ever the sovereign or his ministers shall think proper. Persons of any rank may be banished into Siberia, for the slightest political intrigue ; and their possessions being confiscated, a whole family may at once be ruined by the insinuations of an artful courtier. Laws.] The system of civil laws established in Russia is Very irn;)cr- fect, and in many instances barbarous and unjust ; being an assemblage of laws and regulations drawn from most of the states of Europe, iii digested, and in many respects not at all adapted to the genius of the Russian nation. But the late empress made some atten^pts to reform the iaws^ and put them upon a better footing. The courts of justice were in general very corrupt, and those by whom it was administered extremely ignorant; but the judicious regulations of Catharine II. fixed ;i certain salary to tlie office of judge, which before depended on the ix)ntributions of the unhappy clients ; and thus the poor were without hope or remedy. The Russians are remarkable for the severity and variety of their pu- nishments, which are both inflicted and endured with a wonderful in- sensibility. Peter the Great used to suspend the robbers upon the Volga, and other parts of his dominions, by iron hooks fixed to their ribs, on gibbets, where they writhed themselves to death, hundreds at a time. The single and double knout have been inflicted upon ladies as well as men of quality. Both of them are excruciating : but in the double knout the hands are bound behind the prisoner's back, and the cord being fixed to a pulley, lifts him from the ground, with the dislocation of both his shoulders j and then his back is in a manner scarified by the executioner with a hard thong cut from a wild ass's skin. This punish- ment has been so often fatal, that a surgeon generally attends the patient to pronounce tlie moment it should cease. It is ni" always the number of the strokes, but the method of applying them, which occasions tlie death of a criminal ; for tlie executioner can kill him in three or four strokes, by striking him upon the ribs j though persons are sometimes recovered, in a few weeks, who have received tliree hundred strokes moderately inflicted. The boring and cutting out of the tongue are likewise practised in Russia j and even the empress Elizabeth, though she prohibited capital punishments, was forced to give way to the sup- posed necessity of those tortiures. According to the strict letter of the law, there are no capital punish- ments in Russia, except in the case of high treason : but tliene is much less humanity in this than has been supposed. For there are many felons who expire under the knout ; and others die of fatigue in their journeys to Siberia, and from tlie hardships they suffer in the mines j so that there is reason to believe that no fewer criminals suffer death in Russia than in tliose countries where capital punishments are authorised by the laws. Felons, after receiving the knout, and having their cliceks and fore- head marked, are sometimes sentenced for lite to the public works at Cronstadt, Vishnei-Volotchok, and other places : but the common prac- tice is to send them into Siberia, where they are condemned for life to the mines at Nershink. There are, upon an average, from i()00 to 2000 convicts at these mines. The greatest part are confined in bar- racks, excepting those who jire married : the latter being permitted to build huts near the mines, for themselves and families. The prghibi^, tion of the torture does honour to the late empress Catharine II. Revgnue.] The revenue of Russia arises from the capitation tax, er I t 114 RUSSIA IN EUROPE; um i^tl head-naoney, the Uk on the capital of merchants, the produce of the imperial domains, tlie customs, the stamp-duties, the tax on kabaks or public-houses, the salt-trade, the mines, the mint, and other taxes. It amounts, according to the latest ai>d most authentic accounts to nearly 50 millions of rubles, or about ten millions sterling. When this sum is considered relatively, that rs, according to the high, value of money in that empire, compared to its low value in Great Bri- tain, it will be found that the national revenue of Russia far exceeds that of most other countries in Europe, and is amply sufficient, not only to answer all the expenses of government, but also to atFord considerable sums for the benefit and embellishment of the empire, though the late empress remitted many taxes, and abolished several monopolies. With the furtlier increase of commerce, it will naturally keep equal pace. According to Boetticher, however, Russia has a national debt of nearly nine millions sterling, for the greater part of which interest is paid at the rate of 8 per cent. The annual expenses of the state, according to the same autlior, amount only to 5,600,000/. Army and navy.} The army is generally calculated to amount t« from 400 to 450,000 men : according to Busching, it amounted, in 1772, to above 600,000; and according to an estimate taken in 1784, it then amounted to 368,901 . Mr. Tooke, in his View of the Russian Empire, estimates the whole military force of Russia at 600,000 men, of whom, he says, we may reckon at least 500,000 effective soldiers in actual service*. The Russian armies are raised witli little or no expense, ^nd, while in their own country, subsist chiefly on provisions furnished them by the country people according to their internal valuation. The pay of a soldier scarcely amounts to thirty shillings yearly ; in garrison he receives only five rubles yearly. The pay of a sailor and a gunner is a ruble a montli, and they are found with provisions when on shore. The Russian navy in tlie harbours of Cronstadt, Revel, and Archangel, in the year 179^, consisted of 50 ships of the line, of which 8 were of 1 10 guns, and the rest of 74 and 66 ; 27 frigates of 28, 32, and 38 guns; 50 galleys, 300 gun-boats, l6 fire-ships, and other smaller vessels; besides a fleet in the Black Sea, consisting of 17 ships of the line, and a still greater number of frigates, corvettes, &c. Twenty thousand sailers are kept in constant pay and service, either on board the ships or in the dock-yards. The harbour at Cronstsidt, seven leagues from Petersburg, is defended on one side by a fort of four bastions, and o« tlie other by a battery of 100 pieces of cannon. Tlie canal and large basin will contain near 600 sail of ships. Royal title, nobility, orders of knighthood.] The sovereign pf Russia is called tlie Czar, or more properly Tzar, or if an empress Tzari7ia, a Slavonic word signifying king or sovereign. He takes th», title in his ukases or royal decrees, and other public acts, of " Emperor and Autocrator of all the Russias." The term autocrator is a compound Greek word signifying se{f-ritkr or sole ruler, and is enjployed to ex- press the Russian word samoderjetz; but Mr. Tooke thinks that it does not come up to its meaning, which, perhaps, would be more truly ex- * The French travellers before quoted remark on tliis head — " If we rely on the gazettes, we shall estimate the forces of the Russian empire at more than 500,000 men; and he led into no small error. I'he armies of that power have never eic- cecded 150,000 men in both cavalrv . and infantry. This is the greatest effort the empire can make. The in9j;ular truapi and regiments in garrison are not iuoiuded in this estimate. lit'^i' t >'J r\% <>« RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 115 pressed by " uncontrollable ruler." The full title of the Russian monarchs is of considerable length, and enumerates a great numbe^ of the goveiu- tnents of Russia, and the countries subject to their sway. The distinctions of rank form a considerable part of the Russian con- stitution. The ancient nobility of Russia were divided into knezes or knazes, boyars, and vaivods. The knezes were sovereigns upon their own estates, till these were reduced by tlie czar : but they still retain the name. The boyars were nobility under the knezes ; and the vaivods were governors of provinces. Those titles, however, so often revived the ideas of their ancient power, that the late empresses introduced among then* subjects the titles of counts and princes, and tlie other di- stinctions of nobility that are common to the rest of Europe. The Russian orders of knightliood are six. The order of St. Andrevt was instituted by Peter the Great in l6g3, to animate his nobles and officers in his wars against the Turks. He chose St. Andrew for his patron, because by tradition he was the founder of Christianity in the country. The knights are persons of the first rank in the empire. The «rder of St. Alexander Newsici was also instituted by Peter tlie (ireat, and confirmed by the empress Catharine I. in the year 1725. The order of St. Catharine was instituted by Peter the Great, in honour of his em- press, for her assistance on tlie banks of the Pruth. The order of St. George, instituted by the empress Catharine II. in favour of the military officers in her service. The order of St. Vtodimir was instituted October ?d, 1782, by the late empress, in favour of those who serve in a civil capacity. The order of St. Anne of Holstein, in memory of Anne, daughter of Peter the Great, was introduced into Russia by Peter III. Religion.] The established religion of Russia is that of tlie Greek church, the tenets of which are by far too numerous and complicated to be discussed here : but tlie great article of faith by which that church has been so long separated from tlie Latin or Catholic church, is tlie doctrine that the Holy Spirit does no* proceed from the Fatlier and the .Son, but from the Father only. TLny deny the pope's supremacy j and Ithough they disclaim image-worship, tliey retain many idolatrous and ^peratitious customs. Their ciimches are full of pictures of saints, whom they consider as mediators. They observe a number of fasts and )ents, so that they live half tlie year very abstemiously— an institution which is extremely convenient for tlie soil and climate. They have many peculiar notions witii regard to the sacraments. They oblige their bishops, but not their priests, to celibacy. Peter die Great showed hi» profound knowledge in government in nothing more than in the reforma- tion of his church. He broke tlie dangerous powers of the patriarch and tlie great clergy. He declared himself the head of the church, aijd pctiserved the subordinations of metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops. Their priests have no fixed income, but depend, for subsistence, upon the benevolence of their flocks and hearers. Peter, after establishing this great political reformation, left his clergy in full possession of all their idle ceremonies ; nor did he cut off their beards : that impolitic fittempt was reserved for the emperor Peter III., and greatly contributed to his fatal catastrophe. Before his time, an incredible number of both jexes were shut up in convents : nor has it been found prudent entirely to abolish those societies. The abuses of them, however, are in a great measure removed ; for no male can become a monk till he is turned of thirty j and no female a nun till she is fifty ; and even then not without permission of their superiors. The conquered provinces^ as already observed, retain the exercise of 12 I I 116 HUSSIA IK EUROPE. m V;- I'i ■',. their own religion ; but sueh is the extent of the Russian empire, tlwt many of its subjects are Mahometans, and more of them no better than Pagans, in Siberia and the uncultivated countries. Many ill-judged at- tempts have been made to con\ert them by force, which have only tended to ronflrm them in their infidelity. On the banks of the river Sarpa, is a flourishing colony of Moravian brethren,' to which the found- ers have given the name of Sarcpta ; the beginning of the settlement was in J 705, with distinguislied privileges from the imperial court. Literature.] The Russians have hitherto made but an inconsiderabi* ligure in the republic of letters : but tlie great encouragement lately given by their sovereigns, in the institution of academies and other lite- rary societies, has produced sufficient proofs that they are no way defi- cient in intellectual abilities. The papers exJ^ibited by them at their academical meetings have been favourably received all over Europe ; especially tliose tliat relate to astronomy, the mathematics, and natural philosophy. Universities.] Three colleges were founded by Peter the Great at Moscow ; one for classical learning and philosophy, the second for ma- thematics, and the third for navigation and astronomy ; but they appear to have been neglected and suffered to fall to decay. The empress Ca- tharine II. also founded a university at Petersburg, and invited some of the most learned foreigners in every faculty, who are provided with good salaries ; and also a military academy, w^here the young nobility and officers' sons are taught the art of war. It ought also to be mentioned, to tlie honour of the same royal benefactress, that she founded a number of schools for the education of the lower classes of her subjects, tlirough-* out the best inh.ibited parts of tlie empire. Language.] The Russian language is an improved dtaleet of the Sla- vonian, which, with its characters, is still in use in the offices of religion. ITie Russian alphabet has thirty-six letters, tliough some make the num- ber amount to forty-one j but of these several are only notes of accent iit pronunciation. I'hey have a greiit resemblance in form to the Greek characters. Tlie language is copious, expresbive, and requires gi-eat pliancy in the organs of utterance. The Pater Noster in Russian is ai follows— 0/»Ac nash, eje est na nebescch ; da svyatitsya imya ivoye d(t priedet tzaratvye tvoi/e ; da boodet volya tvoya, yako no nebese ee na zcmlk ahlcb nash nasooshnie dajd nam dnes ; ec ostavtenam dolje itusha yakoje ik jnc ostavlyacin doljme/com nti-shim: ee ne vorede nan ro iskooshenie nd aezbave nas otloocavago; yako tvoe est tzarstvo, ee seela, ee slava, vo vekee vekov. Ameen. ANTiauiTiES.] Russia affords very few remains of antiquity : the eatacoiubs or burying-places near Kiow, which are a kind of subterranean kbyrinths of considerable extent ; and some brass idols of the pagan an- cestors of the Russians, occasionally found in tombs, containing likewise weapons and ornaments ; are perhaps all that can deser\'e notice. History.] We cannot, with the smallest degree of probability, carry our conjectures, with regard to tlie history of Russia, higher Uian thd introduction of Christianity, which happened about the tenth century^ when the princess of this country, called Olga, is said to have been bap- tised at Coastantinople, and refused the hand of tlie Greek emperor, John Zimisces, in marriage. Photius, the thmous Greek patriarch, sent priests to baptise the Russians, who were for some time subject tothtf see of Constantinople J but the Greek pjitriarchs afterwards resigneci all tht'ir aiitiiority over tiie Russian church ; and its bishops erected theniselvtis into patriarchs, \^ hu were In a manner iud«peqdetit of til* Gr< RUSSIA IK EUROPE. w. flvil power. It is certain, that, till the year 1450, tlie princes of Russia "were but very little considered, being chiefly subjected by the Tartars. About this time John Basilides, or Ivan Vassillievitch, conqucrtd the Tar" tars, and, among others, the duke of Great Novogurud, from whom I19 is said to have taken 300 cart-loads of gold and silver. His proni erwus reign of forty years gave a new aspect to Russia. His grandson, the famous John Basilowitz, or Vassillievitch, II., having cleared his country of the intrudingTartars, subdued the kingdoms of Kasan and AstracanTartary, in Asia, and annexed them to the Russiiui dominions. By his cruelty, however, he obliged the inlmbitants of some of his finest provinces, particularly Livonia and Esthonia, to throw themselves upder the protection of the Poles and Swedes. Before tlie time of 1 his John II. the sovereign of Russia took the title of Velike Knez, " great prince,'* great lord, or great chief; which the Christian nations afterwards ren- dered by that of great duke. The title of Tzar, or, as we call it. Czar (a word which signifies king, or emperor), was ad'led to tliat of die Russian sovereigns. Upon the death of JohnBasilowitz, the Russian succcwioo was filled by a set of weak cruel princes ; and their territories were torn in pieces by civil wars. In 159/, Boris Godonow assassinated Demetrij or Demetrius, the lawful heir, and usurped the throne. A young monk took the name of Demetrius, pretending to be that prince who had escaped from his murderers ; and with the assistance of the Poles, and a considerable party (which every tyrant has against him), he drovo^ out the usurper and seized the crown hirnself. The imposture was discovered as soon as he came to the sovereignty, because the people were not "pleased with him ; and he was murdered. Three other false Deme- triuses started tip, one after another. These imposttires prove the desfw^AWe state gf ignorance in which th* Russians were immerged. The country became by turns a prey to the roles and the Swedea, but was at lengtli delivered by tlie good sense of the boyars, impelled by their despair, sb late as the year lt)l3. Tlie in- dependency of Russia was then on tlie point of being extinguished. Uladislaus, son of Sigismund II. of Poland, had been declared czar j but tlie tyranny of the Poles was «uch, that it produced a general rebelr lion of the Russians, who drove the Poles out of Moscow, where they had for some time defended themselves with unexampled courage. Phi- laretes, archbishop of Rostow, whose wife was descended from the an- cient sovereigns of Russia, had been sent ambassador to Poland by Demetrius, one of the Russian tyrants, and there was detained prisoner, luider pretence that his countrymen had rebelled against Uladislau|. The boyars met in a body ; and such was their veneration for Phihv- retes, and his wife, whom the tyrant had shut up in a nunnery, that they elected their son Michael Feodorowitz, of the house of Romanoft", a youth of fifteen years of age, to be their sovereign. The tather being exchanged for some Polish' prisoners, returned to Russia; and being created patriarch by his son, reigned in the riglit of Michael with great prudence and success. He defeated the attempts of the Poles to replace Uladislaus upon the throne, and likewise tho claim of a brotlier of Gustavus Adolphus. The claims of the Swedes and Poles upon Russia occasioned a war between those two nations, which gave Michael a kind of breathing-time ; and he made use of it for the benefit of his subjects. He reigned thirty-three years ; and by his wisdom, aad th« mildness of his character, restored ease and tranquillity to his subjects. Alexius succeeded his fatlxer Miciiael. He appears to have b«eu a f ■I I i 118 RUSSIA IS EUROPE. f' ptince of great genius. H6 recovered Smolensko, Kiow, and the Ukraine, but was unfortunate in his wars with the Swedes. When thc grand-seignor, Mahomet IV., haughtily demanded some possessions from him in the Ukraine, his answer was, " that he scorned to submit to a " Mahometan dog, and that his cimeter was as good as the grand-seignor'f ** sabr«." He promoted agriculture } introduced into his empire arts and sciences, of which he was himself a lover ; published a code of laws, some of which are still used in the administration of justice j and greatly improved his army by establishing discipline. This he effected chiefly by the aid of foreigners, most of whom were Scotch. He subdued 4 chief of die Don Cossacs, named Stenka Rasin, who endeavoured ta make himself king of Astracan ; and the rebel, with 12,000 of his ad- herents, were hanged on the high roads. He introduced linen &nd mH mahufactui'es into his dominions ; and, instead of putting to death or en* slaving his Litliuanian, Polish, and Tartar prisoners, he sent them to people the banks of the Volga ajid the Kamma. Theodore succeeded his &thef Alexius in 1667. He reigned seven years; and having on hia death-bed called his boyars around him, in the presence of his brother and sister, Ivan and Sophia, and of Peter, who was afterwards so cele- brated, and who was his half-brother, he 8aid to them, " Hear my last ^ sentiments; they are dictated by toy love for the state, and by my af* " fection for my people. The bodily infirmities of Ivan necessarily must *' affect his mental faculties ; he is iiicdpable of ruling an empire like *' fhit of Russia; he cahnot take it aniiss if I recommend to you to set "him aside, and let your approbation fall on Peter, who, to a robust ** C(»stitution, joins great strength of mind, and marks of a superior uh- *'' derstanding." But this wise destination extremely offended the princesi Sophia, who was a woman of great ambition, and who, after the death of Theodore, found means to excite a violent sedition among the Strelitzes, v/ho then formed the standing army of Russia. Their excesses surpassed all description; but Sophia, by her management, replaced her brother Ivan in his birth-right, and exercised the government herself with the greatest severity and inhumanity; for all the Russian grandees who were related to Peter, or whom she supposed to favour him, were put to cruel deaths. The instances given of her barbarous administration are shocking to humanity. At length, in ld82, the two princes, Ivan and Peter, were declared joint sovereigns, and their, sister their associate C6-regent. Her administration was bloody and tumultuous ; nor durst «he venture to check the fury of the Strelitzes, and other insurgents. Finding this debility in her own person, she intended to have married prince Basil Galitzin, who is said to have been a man of sense and spirit, iand some leai-ning. Being placed at the head of the army by Sophia, he marched into Crim Tartary ; but Peter now was about 17 years of age, and asserted his right to the throne. Sophia and Ivan were then at Moscow 3 ancj upon Peter's publishing aloud that a conspiracy had been formed by his sister to murder him, he was joined by the Strelitzes, who defeated or destroyed Sophia's party, and forced herself to retire to a monastery. Galitzin's life was spared; but his great estate was eonfis" ; cated, and the folUjwing curipus sentence was pronounced as his punish- ment : " Thou art commanded by tlie most clericut czar to repair to - •* Kargn, a town under the pole, and there to co.itinue the remainder of • ♦' thy days. His majesty, out of his extieme goodness, allows th^e three " pence per day for thy subsistence." This left Peter with no other competitor, in the yenr l(ib9, than the mild and easy Ivanj and upoij^ ) I RUSSIA IN EUROPE* 119 the In the- Ifrom his death, which happened in 1696, Peter reigned alone, and cruelly prmjded for his own future security by tb : execution of above 30ob Strelitzes. Peter, though he had been but very indifferently educated through th« jealousy of his sister, associated himself with the Germans and Dutch ; with the tbrmer for the sake of their manufectures, which he early introduced into his dominions ; and with tlie latter tor their skill in navigation, which he practised himself. His indlnation for the arts was encouraged by his favourite Le Fort, a Piednionte»se ; and general Gordon, a Scotchman, disciplined the czar's own regiment, consisting of 5000 toreigners ; while Le Fort raised a regiment of 12,000, among whom he introduced the French and Grerman exercises of amis, with A view of emplo}'ing them in curbing the insolence of the Strelitzes, peter, after this, began his travels, leaving his military affairs in the hands of Crordon, He set out as an attendant upon his own ambassadors ; and his adventures in Holland and England, and other courts, are too numerous, and too well known, to be inserted here. By working as n . common ship-carpenter at Deptford and Saardam, he completed himself in ship-building and navigation } and through the excellent discipline introduced among his troops by the foreigners, he not only o\er-awed or crushed all civil ins;irrections, but all his enemies on this side of Asia; and at last lie even exterminated, excepting two feeble regiments, the whole body of tlie Strelitzes. He rose gradually through every rank and service both by sea and land ; and the many defeats which he received, especially that from Charles XII. at Nar\'a, stimulated him' to new exer- tions, Tlie battles he lost rendered him at length a conqueror, by add- ing experience to his courage ; and the generous friendship he showed to Augustus king of Poland, both betbre and after he was dethroned by the king of Sweden, redounds greatly to his honour. He had no regaad for rank distinct from merit ; and he at last married Catharine, a young Lithuanian woman, who had been betrotlied to a Swedish soldier ; be- cause, after a long co-habitation, he found her jiossessed of a soul formed to execute his plans and to assist his councils. Catharine was ro much a stranger to her own country, that her husband afterwards discovered her brotlier, who served as a common soldier in his armies. But military and naval triumphs, which succeeded one another after the battle of Pultowa in I70i), witli Charles XII., were not the chief glory of Peter's reign. He applied himself with equal assiduity to the cultivation «f commerce, arts, and sciences ; and made such accjuisitions of dominion, that he may be said at the time of his death, which happened in 1725, to have been the most powerful prince of his age, but more feared tlian beloved by his subjects. Peter the Great was unfortunate in his eldest son, who in Russia is entitled the Czarowitz, and who, marr}'ing without his consent, en- tered, as his father alleged, into some dangerous practices against his person and governmcn*: ; for %\'hich he was tried and condemned to death. Under a sovereign so despotic as Peter was, it is difficult to determine on tlie justice of the charge. It was undoubtedly his will that the young prince should be found g^iilty 5 and the very reading of the sentence appears to have been fatal to him. It is said, that, as soon as sentence of death was pronounced upon the prince, in which were the following words, ** The divine, ecclesiastical, civil, and mili- " tary law, condemns to death, without mercy, all those whose attempts '* against their father and their sovereign are manifest," he fell into the most violent convujsious, from which it was with great difficulty that he I I 120 r RUSSIA IN EUROPE. !H regained a little interval of sense, during which he desired his father would come to see him ; when he asked his pardon, and soon after died. According to other accounts, he was secretly executed in prison, and marshal Weyde was the person who beheaded him. After tliis event, in 1/24, Peter ordered his wife Catharine to be crowned, with the same magnificent ceremonies as if she had been a Greek empress, and to be recognised as his successor; which she accordingly was» and mounted the Russian throne upon the decease of her husband. She died, after a glo- rious reign, in 1 727, and was succeeded by Peter II., a minor, son to the czarowitz. Many domestic revolutions happened in Russia during tlie short reign of this prince j but none more remarkable than the disgrace and exile of prince Menzikoff, the favourite general in the two late reigns, and esteemed the richest subject in Europe. Peter II. died of the small pox, in 1/30. Notwithstanding the despotism of Peter and his w\{e, tho Russian senate and nobility, upon the death of Peter II., ventured to set aside the order of succession which they had established. The male issue of Peter was now extinguished ; and the duke of Holstein, son to the eldest daughter, was, by the destination of the late empress, entitled to the crown ; but the Russians, for political reasons, filled their tlirone with Anne, duchess of Courland, second daughter to Ivan, Peter's eldest brother, though her eldest sister, the duchess of Mecklenburg, was alive. Her reign was extremely prosperous ; and though she accepted the throne under limitations that some thought derogatory to her dignity, yet she broke them all, and asserted the prerogative of her ancestors. Upon her death in 1740, John, tlie son of her niece the princess ol Mecklenburg; by Anthony Ulric of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttle, was by her will entitled to the succession ; but being no more than two years old, Biron, who had been her favourite, and raised by her to the duchy of Courland, was appointed to be administrator of the empire during his nonage. This destination was disagreeable to the princess of Meck- lenburg and her husband, and unpopular among the Russians. Count Munich was employed by the princess of Mecklenburg to arrest Biron, who was tried, and condemned to die, but was sent into exile to Siberia. The administration of the princess Anne of Mecklenburg and her husband was on many accounts, but particularly that of her German connexions, disagreeable, not only to the Russians, but to other powers of Europe : and notwithstanding a prosperous war they carried on with the Swedes, tlie princess Elizabeth, daughter, by Catliarine, to Peter the Great, formed such a party, tliat in one night's time she was declared and proclaimed empress of the Russias j and tlie princess of Mecklen- burg, her husband, and son, were made prisoners. The reign of Elizabeth may be said to have been more glorious than that of any of her predecessors, her father excepted. She abolished capital punishnjcnts, and introduced into all civil and military proceedings a moderation, till her time unknoun in Russia : but at the same time she punished counts Munich and Ostcrmari, who had the chief manage- ment of aft'airs during the late administration, with exile. She made peace with Sweden, iind settled, as we have already seen, the succession to that crown, as well as to her own dominions, upon the most equitable* foundation. Having gloriously finished a war with Sweden, she restored tho natural order of t)Uccc.s>ion in hcT ov\n family, by declaring tha duke of Holstein-(ioitor]% who was descended from her eldest sister, her heir. She gave him tlie title of grand-duke of Russia; and, sowj after her accession to t]}t ihroncj called him to her courts where li« r«- RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 121 Bounced the succession of the crown of Sweden, which undoubtedly wa» his right, embraced the Greek religion, and married a princess of Anhalt- Zerbst, the late empress Catharine II., by whom he had a son, the lata emperor of Russia, Paul I. Few princes have had a more unintermpted career of glory than Eli- zabeth. She was completely victorious over the Swedes. Her alliance was courted by Great Britain, at the expense of a large subsidy ; but many political, and some private reasons, it is said, determined her to take part with the house of Austria against il,-; king of Prussia in 175^. Her arms alone gave a turn to the fortune tf tne war, which was in dis- favour of Prussia, notwithstanding that mona.ch's amazing abilities both in the field and cabinet. Her success was such as portended the entire destruction of the Prussian power, which was, perhaps, saved only by her critical death, on January 5, 1762. Elizabeth was succeeded by Peter III., grand-duke of Russia, and duke of Holstein, a prince whose conduct has been variously represented. He mounted the throne possessed of an enthusiastic admiration of his Pmssian majesty's yirtues ; to whom he gave jjeace, and whoso principles and practices he seems to have adopted as the rule of his future reign. He might have surnaounted the etlects even of those peculiarities, un- popular as tliey then were in Russia ; but it is said that he ainied at' reformation in his dominions, which even Peter the Great durst not attempt ; and that he even ventured to cut off the beards of his clergy. It is also alleged that he had formed a resolution to destroy both die empress and her son, though they had been declared heirs to the im- perial throne by the same autliority which had placed the crown upou his head : even the adv;ocates of Peter tliQ Third acknowledge that he had resolved to shut up his wife and son in a convent, to place hi.<s mistress upon the throne, and to change the order of succession. The execution of his designs was, however, prevented by an almost general conspiracy formed against him, in which the empress took a very active part ; and this unfortunate prince scarcely knew an interval between the loss of his crown and his life, of which he was deprived, while under an ignominious confinement, in July 1762. His wife, the late Catharine II., was proclaimed empress. The death of prince Ivan, son to the princess of Mecklenburg, wa« an act of state policy perfectly according witlx tlie means by which Ca- tharine ascended the throne. This young prince, as soon as he came into tlie world, was designed, though illegally, to wear the imperial crown of Russia, after the death of liis great-aunt, tlie empress Anne Ivannoyna; but, on the advancement of the empress Elizabetli, ha was condemned to lead an obscure life in the castle of Schlusselburg, under a strong guard, who had particular orders, that, if any person or any armed force was employed in attempting to deliver him, they should kill him immediately. He lived quietly in his prison, when tli(4 empress Catharine II. mounted the throne; and as the revolution which deposed her husband Peter III. had occasioned a strong ferment in the minds of the people, Catharine was apprehensive that some at- tempts might be made in favour of Ivan j she therefore doubled the giuircis of this unhappy prince, and particularly entrusted him to the care of two officers who were devoted to her interest. However, a lieutenant of infantry, who was born in the Ukraine, undertook, or at least pretended so, to deliver Ivan by force of arms, from tlie fortress of .Schlusselburg 5 and under this pretence the prince was put to death, ^iler an imprisonment of 2S years. The lieuteiuuit who attempted ti> i yiz RUSSIA IN EUROPE. deliver hira was arrested, and afterwards beheaded: but, notwithstanding this, it has been represented that he was a mere tool of the Court, though he suftered for executing the instructions he received. While this event excited the attention of the Russian nation, the flames of civil war broke out with great violence in Poland 3 which was generally the case when the throne was vacant. And as the internal tranquillity of Poland was a capital object with Russia, the empress Ca- tharine sent a body of troops into that country ; and by her influence count Poniatowski was raised to the throne. She also interposed, in <>rder to secure the rights which the treaty of Oliva had given to the Greek and protestant subjects of Poland. But the umbrage which her imperial majesty's armies gave to the Roman-catholic Poles, by their residence in Poland, increased the rage of civil war in that country, and rendered it a scene of blood and confusion. The conduct of Rus- «ia with regard to Poland gave so much offence to the Ottoman court, that the grand-seignor sent ObreskofF, the Russian minister, to the pri- son of tlie Seven Towers, declared war against Russia, and marched a very numerous army to the confines of Russia and Poland. Hostilitiet soon commenced between these rival and mighty empires. In the months of February and March, 17G9> Crim Gueray, khan of thd Tartars, at the head of a gi-eat body of Tartars, supported by 10,000 spahis, having forced the Russian lines of communication, penetrated into the province of New Servia, where he committed great ravages, burning many towns and villages, and carrying off some thousand families captive. In April following, the grand-vizir, at the head of a great army, began his march from Constantinople, and proceeded to- wards the Danube. In the mean time, prince Galitzin, who commanded the Russian army oa the banks of the Dniv^s' _'r, thought this a proper time to attempt something decisive, befo-e tlie arrival of the great Turkish force in that quarter. Having acccrdipwiy crossed the Dniester with his whole army, he advanced to Ciioczim, \\ here he encamped in sight of a body of 30,000 Turks, commanded by Caraman Pasha, and intrenched under the cannon of the town. The prince, having made the necessary dispositions, attacked the Turks in their intrenchments early in the morning of the 30th of April, and, notwithstanding an obstinate de- fence, and a dreadfiil fire from the fortress, at length beat them out of their trenches. The Turks endeavoured to cover their retreat, by de- taching a large body of cavalry to attack the right wing of the Russian army j but they met with such a warm reception from the artillery, that they sw)n retired in great disorder. Genoral StofJ'eln and prince Dolgo- rucki were then ordered to pursue the fugitives, at the head of eight battalions ; which they did so effectually, that they followed them into the suburbs of Choczim, and their pursuit was at lengtli only stopped "by tlie palisadoes of the fortress. On the I3th of July, a very obstinate batlle was fought between a considerable Turkish army, and the Russians under prince Galitzin, in the neighbourhood of Choczim, in which the I'urks were defeated. The Russians immediately invested Choczim ; but the garrison, being nume-f rous, made fretiuent sallies, and received great reinforcements from the grand-vizir's camp, who was now considerably advanced on this side of Uie Danube. Se\eral actions ensued} and prince Galitzin was at length obliged to retreat, and repass the Dniester. It was computed that the siege of Chnczim, and the actions consequent to it, cost the Russians pbove 2().(XK) men. Jn tiie man;igf.nient of this war, the -jvand-vizir had acted with ade- RUSSIA IN EUROPE^ 12> the grec of prttdence, which, it has been thought, would have proved fatal to the designs of the Russians, if the same conduct had been afterwards pursued. But the army of the vizir was extremely licentious, and his caution gave offence to the Janissaries ; so that, in consequence of their- clamours, and the weakness of the counsels that prevailed in the sersglto, he at lengtli became a sacrifice, and Moldovani Ali Pasha, ^ man of more courage than conduct, was Appointed his successor. During these transactions, general Romanzow committed great de- vastations upon the Turks on the borders of Bender and Oczakow, where he plundered and burnt several towns and villages, defeated a Turkish detachment, and carried off a great booty of cattle. The Tar- tars also committed great ravages in Poland, where they almost totally destroyed the palatinate of Bracklaw, besides do'mg much mischief in other places, in the beginning of September, tlie Russian army was again posted on the banks of the Dniester, and eflectually defended the passage of that river against the Turks, whose whole army, vmder the command of the new vizir, was arrived on the opposite shore. Having laid three bridges over the Dniester, the Turkish army began to pass tha river in the face of the enemy. Prince Galitzin having perceived tliis motiua early in the morning of the 9th of September, immediately at* tacked those troops that had crossed the river in the night, who conse- quently could neither choose their ground, nor have time to extend or form Uiemselves properly where they were. Notwithstanding these ex- treme disadvantages, the engagement was very severe, and continued from seven in the morning till noon. The Turks fought with great obstinacy, but were at length totally defeated, and obliged to repass the river with great loss, and in the utmost confusion. It was computed, that about B'0,000 Turks crossed the river before and during the time of the engagement. Prince Galitzin charged at the head of five columns of infantry, with fixed bayonets, and destroyed the flower of the Turk* ish cavalry. It is said that the loss of the Turks in this battle amoimted to 7000 men killed upon the spot, besides wounded and prisoners, and a great number who were drowned. Though tlie ill conduct of. the vizir had greatly contributed to this misfortune, yet this did not prevent him from engaging In another operation of the same nature. He now laid but one bridge over the river, which he had the precaution to cover with large batteries of cannon, and prepared to pass the whole army over. Accordingly, on the l^thof September, 8000 Janissaries and 4000 regular cavalry, the flower of the whole Ottoman army, passed over with a large train of artillery, and the rest of tlie army were in motion to follow, when a sudden and extraordinary swell of die waters of the Dniester carried away and totally destroyed the bridge. The Russians lost no time in making use of this great and unexpected advantage. A most desperate engagement ensued, in which the slaughter of the Turks was prodigious. Not only the field of battle, but the river over which some few hundreds of Turks mnde their escape by swimming, was for several miles covered with dead bodies. The Russians took ()4 pieces of cannon, and above 150 colours and horse-tails. .The Turks immediately broke up their camp, and abandoned tlie strong fortress of Clioczim, with all its stores and numerous artillery, and retired tumultuously to-, wards the Danube. They were much exasperated at tlie ill conduct of their commander the vizir : and it was computed that the Turks lost 28,000 of the best and bi'avest of tlif ir troops, within little mote tlian a fortnight; and 48,000 more abandoned tlie army, and totally deserted, in th^ tumultuous retreat (o tl)^ Panube. Prince G.ilitzin phiccd a giir- I I 1 II tl4 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. % ■ Wn m rison of four regiments in the fortress of Choczim, and soon after re* signed tlic command of the army to general count Romanzovr, and re-* tumcd to Petersburg covered with laurels. The Russians continued to carry on the war with success ; thejr over- ran the great prwince of Moldavia, and general Elmdt took possession of tlie Capital, Jassy, without opposition. As the Greek natives of this province had always secretly favoured the Russians, they now took thi» epportunity of their success and the absence of the Turks to declare themselves opeuly. The Greek inhabitants of Moldavia, and afterwards, those of WalLichia, acknowledged the empress of Russia their sovereign, and took oaths of fidelity to her. On the 18th of July, 1770, general Romanzow defeated a Turkish army near the river Larga : the Turks are said to have amounted to 80,000 men, and were commanded by th« khan of the Crimea. On the second of Augtist, tlie same Russian general obtained a still greater victory over another army of the Turks^ commanded by a new grand-vizir. This army was very numerous, but was totally defeated. It is said that above 70OO Turks were killed ii> the field of battle, and that the roads to the Danube were covered with dead bodies: a vast quantity of ammunition, 143 pieces of brass cannon, and some thousand carriages loaded witli provisions, fell into the hands of the Russians. : Rut it was not only by land that the Russians carried on the war suc- cessfully against the Turks. The empress sent a considerable fleet of men of war, Russian built, into the Mediterranean, to act against the Turks on that side j and by means of this fleet, under count Orlolf, the Russians spread ruin and desolation through the open islands of the Archipelago, and the neighbouring defenceless coasts of Greece and Asia. The issue of this war was a peace, concluded on the 21 st of July, 1774, highly honourable and benelicial to the Russians, by which they obtained the liberty of a free navigation over the Black Sea, and a free trade with all tlie ports of tlie Ottoman empire. Before the conclusion of the war with the Turks, a rebellion broke nut in Russia, which gave much alarm to the court of Petersburg. A Cbssac, whose name was PugatschefF, assumed tlie name and cha- racter of the late unfortunate emperor, Peter the Third. He appeared in the kingdom of Kasan, and pretended that he made his escape, through an extraordinary interposition of Providence, from the murderers who were employed to assassinate him ; and that the report of his death was only a Action invented by the court. There is said to have been a striking resemblance in his person to that of tlie late emperor j which induced him to engage in tliis enterprise. As he possessed abilities and addresi, his followers soon became very numerous ; and he at length found himself so powerful, his followers being armed and provided with artillery, tiiat he stood several engagements with able Russian generals, at the head of large bodies of troops, and committed great ravages in the country. But being at last totally defeated, and taken prisoner^ he was brought to Moscow in an iron cage, and there beheaded and quartered on the 21st of January, 1775. The peace of 1 77^ was then indispensably necessarj' to the immediate preservation of tlie Turkish empire ; but within so small a space of time as five years a new war was on the point of breaking out between tlia two empires, and was only prevented by a new treaty of pacification, which took place on the 21st of March, 1779. ^"t the great source of fiiscor<l still remained. The pretended independency of the Crimea'af- furded «uch lax opening to Russia into tltc \xry heart of the Turkish era« I I RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 125 {fire, and such opportiuiities of interference, that it was scarce! j possible that any lasting tranquillity could subsist between the two empires. A «laini, made and insisted on by Russia, of establishing consuls in tlie three provinces of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bessarabia, was exceedingljr grievous to the Porte. After long disputes, the Turkish ministers, more xirom a sense of the disability of die state for war, tlian from paoitic dis- positions, foimd it necessary, towards the close of the year 17SI, to girve up the point in debate witli respect to the consuls. This concession, however mortifying, produced but a short-lived effect. New troubles were continually breaking forth. The emperor of Germany having avowed his determination of supporting all the claims of Russia as well as his own, all the parties prepared, >\ iih the utmost vigour, tbi- the tnoit determined hostility. The year 1/83 accordingly exhibited the most formidable ap|)aratus of war on the northern and eastern borders of Europe. However, in the midst of all these appearances of war, nego- tiations for a peace continued to be carried on at Constantinople j which peace was at last signed, January 9th, 1734. By this treaty Russia retained the iiill sovereignty of her new acqui- sitions, viz. the Crimea, the isle of Taman, and part of Cuban. — A% the recovery and restoration of every thing Greek was the predominant passion of the court of Petersburg, so the Crimea and its dependencies were in future to be known by the name of Taurida ; particular places were likewise restored to their ancient appellations; and the celebrated port and city of CafFa resumed its long-forgotten name of Theodosia. iiince this accession of dominion, new towns, with Greek or Russian names, are rising fast in the deserts, and are peopled nwstly by colonies of Greeks and Armenians. The year 1787 opened with the extraordinaiy spectacle of the journey of the empress of Russia to Cherson, where it seems to have been her original intention to have been crowned witli all possible magnificence, and under the tiplendid titles of empress of the East, liberator of Greece, and reviver of the series of Roman emperors, who formerly swayed tk» sceptre over that division of the globe. But this coronation, for rea- sons we are unable to assign, did not take place. The splendor of tlie route of the czarina surpasses whatever the imagination would sponta- neously suggest. She was escorted by an army. Pioneers pracedei her march, whose business it was to render the road as even and plea- sant as it could ptissibly be made. At the end of each day's journey sIjo found a. temporary palace erected for her reception, together with aJi the accommodations and luxuries that Petersburg could have afforded- In the list of her followers were the ambassadors of London, Versaiiles., and Vienna ; and her own ambassador, as well as the envoy of tl)e tsm-* peror to the court of Constantinople, wore appointed to meet her a^ Cherson. The king of Poland met her in her journey j and tlie empe- ror, not satisfied with swelling her triumph at Cherson, appeared in that capital eight days before her, and proceeded to a considerable distanca up the Dnieper, to intercept her progress. Her route was through Kiow, where she remained three months, and was received under tri- umphal arches ; and upon her arrival at Cherson, having thought proper to extend the walls of the city, she inscribed over one of the gates, " Through this gate lies the road to Byzantium." Tlie caarina returned to Petersburg by the way of Moscow. Scarcely had the empress returned to her capital, before she was fal- lowed by the Turkish declaration of hostilities. The emperor of Ger- many joined her. in dsclaring war against tlie Porte, which, instead oi h I I :[fffl If; 111 I 126 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. being disheartened at the formtdableness of this confederacy, applied ft- jclf with redoubled ardour to prepare for resistance. The operations of the Russian forces were directed against Choczim and Oczakow. In (he former of these undertakings, they acted rather as auxiliaries to the emperor's general, the prince of Saxe Cobourg, who, from the last day of June to the 29th of September, 1788, continued a very powerful at- tack on Choczim, when it surrendered to the arms of the imperial forces. Oczakow, after an obstinate contest, in jvhich the Russians at length became exposed to all the rigours of a winter campaign, "was taken by storm on the 17th of December following. During the progress of these hostilities with the Porte, Russia found herself suddenly involved in a new and unexpected war. As a nation, Sweden had the greatest causes of resentment against Russia for past in- jury and loss, at tlie same time that she had every thing to dread from her present overgrown power and boundless ambition. Gustavus the Third was therefore induced to meditate a project of hostilities against Russia^ which commenced in Finland, a few days after the king's arrival in that province. The principal action of the campaign was the naval battle off Hoogland, in the Gulf of Finland. The engagement, which lasted Ave hours, was fought with considerable skill and obstinacy on both sides; but the victory was indecisive and claimed by both parties. At length, after several other engagements attended with various success, on the 14 th of August, 1790, R convention for a peace was signed between the. courts of Russia and Sweden, and ratified in six days after. At the close of the year \790> the empress had the satisfaction tose* her conquests no longer l)ounded by the coiu"8e of the Danube. The capture of Ismail was the last important action. It was taken by storm on tiie 22d of December, 1790; but it is said that the seige and assault fiid not cost the Russians less than 10,000 men. The most shocking j)art of tlte transaction is, that the garrison (whose bravery merited, and would have received from a generous foe, the highest honours) were massacred in cold blood by the merciless Russians, to the amount of Upwanls of 30,000 men, by their own account. The place was given up to the unrestrained fury of the brutal soldiery; and the most horrid out* rages were perpetrated on the defenceless inhabitants. England and Prussia, after a long and expensive armed negotiation, at length assented to the demand of the empress, which was strengthened by the interference of Spain and Denmark, that Oczakow, and the terri- tory between the rivers Bog and Dniester, should in full sovereignty be- long to Russia; that the river Dniester should for the future determine the frontiers of Russia and the Porte ; that the two poivers might erect on tlie shores of that river what fortresses they should think proper : and that Russia should engage to grant a free navigation on the river Dniester. The final treaty with the Turks was concluded at Jassy, the 9th of January, 1792. Catharine then applied herself to the improvenvent of Oczakow, and rendered it a place of great strength, importance, and commerce. At the same time she was not inattentive to European poli- tics. When the coalition of sovereign powers was formed against France, Gustavus III., tlie late king of Sweden, was to have conducted that expedition, which was afterwards made against France by the king of Prusiiia and the Prince of Brunswick. Catharine, on this occasion, promised to assist him and tlie alliance with twelve thousand Russian troops, and an annual subsidy of three hundred thousand rubles. She assured the pope that &lie would support him in the resumption ^af II RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 127 Avignon, aid published a strong manifesto against tlve French rcvolu-' lion and the progress of the new priuclples of liberty; but the only active part she took against that revolution was sending twelve ships of the line and eiglit frigates to join the English tieet, whidi were paid for by a subsidy, victualled and repaired in the British ports, and then re- turned home witliout rendering any eli'ectual service. But her attention was principally directed to Poland, and the etlbrts whicli that people made in the cause of liberty. Whilst she amused the v.orld with mani- festoes against France, she beheld, with pleasure, the greatest powers of Europe wasting tlieir strength and treasure ; and, undisturbed by an/ foreign interference, made a second partition of Poland, tiie circum- stances of which the reader will lind briefly narrated iii our account of that unfortunate country. By her intrigues, she in like manner annexed to the crown of Rus- sia the fertile and populous country of Courland. She invited tlwi duke of Courland to iier cotirt under the pretext that she wished to con- fer with him on some alfairs of importance ; and during his absence the states of Courland assembled, and the nobles proposed to renounce the sovereignty of Poland, and annex, the country to the empire of Russia. The principal members of the great council opposed thi» change ; but the Russian general Pahlen appeared in the assembly, and his presence silenced all objections. The next day (March 18, 17*^5) au act was drawn up, by which Courland, Semigallia, and the circle of Pilten, were surrendered to the empress of Russia. The act was sent to Petersburg, and the submission of the states accepted by the em- press. The duke of Courland was in no condition to refuse his nc- quiescence : he received very considerable presents from the empress, iii compensation, and retired to live on some extensive estates he had pur- chased iu Pinissia. But the acquisition, by intrigue and artifice, of countries incapable •f resistance, was not sulBcient to satisfy tlie ambition of Catliarine, Incessantly anxious to extend her dominions, she turned her arm* ^igainst Persia, under the pretext of defending Lolf Ali Khan, a de- scendant of the race of the Sophis; but in reality to seize on the Per- sian provinces which border on the Caspian Sea. Her general Vale- rian Soubow penetrated, at the head of a numerous army, into tlie pro- vince of Daghestan, and laid siege to Derbent. Having carried a higU tower which detende<l the place, he put all the garrison to tlie sword, and prepared to storm the city. The Persians, terriiied at tlie barbarou* fury of tlie Russians, demanded quarter ; and the keys of the city were delivered up to Soubow by the commandant, a venerable old man, a hundred and twenty years of age, who had before surrendered Derbent to Peter 1. at the beginning of the last century. Aga Mahnied wa* advancing to the relief of Derbent, when he learned that the place was already in the power of the Russians. Soubow drew out his army, and gave him battle j but victory declared in favour of tiie Persians, w ho forced the Russians to retire into Derbent ; in consequence of which defieat, a strong body of Russian troops were ordered to reinforce the army of Soubow. These martial preparations, and plans of ambition, ware, however,, interrupted by her death. On the morning of the gth of Novem- ber, 1796, she appeared very cheerful, and took her coffee as usual. Soon after she retired into the closet, where continuing unusually long, her attendants became alarmed, and at length opened the door, 'U'heu they found h«r on tlic floor in a state of insensibility, with her \ X 1«8 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. •^1 f;' feet against the door. Doctor Rogerson, her first physician, was im- mediately called, who bled her twice. At first she appeared rather to revive, but was unable to utter a word, and expired at ten o'clock at night. Catharine II. in her youth had been handsome, and presened in the close of life a graceful and majestio air. She was of a middle stature, "well proportioned, and, as she carried her head very erect, appeared taller than she really was. Her forehead was open, her nose aquiline, her mouth well made, and her chin somewhat long, though not so as to have a disagreeable effect. Her countenance did not want for expres- sion J but she was too well practised in the courtly habits of dissimulation to suffer it to express what she wished to conceal. With respect to her political character, she was undoubtedly a great sovereign. From tlie commencement of her reign she laboured, and with the greatest success, to increase the power and political consequence of her country. She encouraged learning and the arts, and made every exertion to extend, encourage, and enlarge tlie commerce of her subjects. S.he effected miuiy and important reguljitions in the interior police, and particularly in the courts of justice. She abolished the torture, and adopted an excellent plan for the reformation of prisons. The new code of laws, for which sh« gave instructions, will conU'ibute still more to miti- gate the rigour of despotism. In the execution, indeed, of her plans for the aggrandisement of her empire, she apjjears to have acknowledged no right but power, no law but interest. Of her private life, her paneg}'- rists, if prudent, will speak but little. They will dwell lightly on the means by which she mounted the throne. The only palliation of tliat conduct, which the most friendly ingenuity can suggest, will be derived from the frequent and bloody usurpations which, since the death of Peter the Great, had almost become tlie habit of the Russian court. But there are some aets, at the recital of which we should shudder, even if the •cene were laid in Morocxo. The mysterious fate of prince Iwan, in 17&3, cannot be obliterated from history; tlie blood spilt in the long- conceived scheme of expelling the Turks from Europe, and re-establish- ing the eastern empire in the person of a second Constantine, will not be expiated, in tlie estimation of humanity, by the gigantic magnificence of the project. Above all, the fate of Poland, the dissensions and civil wars, industriously fomented in that unhappy kingdom, for a period of thirty years — the horrible massacres which attended its final subjugation, and the impious mockery of returning solemn thanks to heaven for the suc- cess of such atrocious crimes, will be a foul and indelible stain on the memory of Catharine. She was succeeded by \.'T son, Paul I., who in the beginning of his reign appeared to display a milder and more pacific disposition than tliat of his mother. Immediately ou his accession to tlie throne, he ordered hostilities to cease between Russia and Persia ; and a peace was soon after concluded between the two countries. He set at liberty the un- fortunate Kosciusko, the general of the Polish patriots, with liberty either to reside in his dominions or retire to America, which latter country the general chose for his asylum, but whence he has since returned to Eu- rope, and now resides in France. He behaved with an honourable libe- rality towards the deposed king of Poland ; and restored to their estates it great number of Polish emigrants aud fugitives. In the year 179c) he, however, took a very active part in the war against France, and sent a powerful army, under the command of th« celebrated general Suwarrow, which, co-operaliiig with the Austriani, 1 1 // war th« 111%, RUSSIA IN EUROPE, 12g iflrove the French aUnost entirely out of Italy, entered Switzerland, and threatened the interior of the republic. He, at the same time, sent a considerable force to act witli the English army which had in\ aJed Hol- land. But suddenly, with a cnpriciousness which from this time ap- peared to attend all his actions, he recalled his general, Suwacrow, and his array from Switzerland, and appeared to have become more hostile ta England than he liad been to France. He seized all the British ships in his ports> detaining upwards of 200 trading vessels in the harbour of Riga aloncj and sending their crews up the country. From whatever cause proceeded his animosity against England — whether fnnii perceiving, as has been supposed, that it was not the intention of the British ministry to give him possession of Malta, of which he v.as eagerly desirous, or whet'ier it was a consequence of liis natural extravagance and caprice, which in many instances bordered on plirensy '■ — he entered into alliancts with France, and excited a formidable confederacy of the maritime powers of the North against the naval interests of Great Britain, which was broken by the glorious battle of Copenhagen. His frantic acts ap- pear to, have given great offenee to many of the principal nobles. But on the 23d of March 1800, he expired suddenly in the ni<^ht, of an apo- plexy. Respecting the cause and manner of his death a cautious silence has been maintained in Russia, and it might not be proper to repeat the reports concerning it circulated in this country. The day succeeding his decease, his eldest son, Alexander, was pro- claimed emperoi of all the Russias ; and the new emperor soon af:er visited the senate, and issued several popular ukases ; one in particular, reviving and confirming all the regulations of the empresi* Catharine for the encouragement of industry and commerce. The conduct of Alexander, since his accession to the throne, has been at least characterised by an apparent moderation, forming a sirong con- trast to the hasty violence of his predecessor. He soon entered into a pacific accommodation with Great Britain, relinquished the claim on Malta, and restored the English ships detained in the ports of Russia. He has at the same time acted in conjunction with the first consul of FrancCj in settling the indemnities allotted to the princes and states of the Ger- man empire, in which interference he probably has had a view (patriotic with respect to liis own subjects) to the extension of the inflience and power of Russia : how long he will continue thus to act in concert with the present ambitious ruler of France, time must show. Alexander, the present emperor of all the Russias, wns born Dec. 23, 1/77; married to the princess Louisa of Baden (born Jan. 24, 177Q) Oct. p, 1793. Brothers and sisters to the emperor : Constantine, born May 8, 1779? married tc the princess of Saxe Co- bourg Feb. 1-4, 1790'. Helena, born Dec. 24, 1784. Maria, born Feb. 13, ]7Sd. ' ' Catharine, born May 21, 17s 3. - Anne, born Jan. 18^ 17c>5. ' Nicholas Paulovitsch, born June 2, 1790. ' ' ' • * Particularly in the case of the extraordinary challenge which he iiwerted io the PetorsbarR gazette, proposing to the so\ ereigns of Eui'opc to end the wars in which they had so long been engaged, l)\- meeting liim, with their respective mini*, •iters, and engaRia^ io sin.^.le combat with hinvsolfand his minister. This challenge, it has since appeared, was writton under his diroctious by the c(jl«brate<l ivotzebne. K i 130 ENGLAND. ^ I Hi Michael l*aulovltsch, born Feb. 8, 1798. Empress dowager, Maria Feodorowna, (Sophia Dorothea Augusta,} daughter of duke Frederick Eugenius of Wurtemberg, born October 25, 1759. ENGLAND. EXTENT AND SITUATIOW. Miles. Degrees. I-cngtli 3()07 . , f50'* and 55" 45' North latitude. Breadth 300 J °^^'''''^^^ 1 1° 50' E. and 5" 40^ West longiti>de. England and Wales contain 57,680 square miles, wilh 164 inhabitant* to each. Name.] ANTIQUARIES are divided with regard to the etymology of the word E7is;land; some derive it from a Celtic word, signifying a l*»vel country, but the common etymology is doubtless the true one, ac- -cording to which it originated from the Angles, a nation of the Cimbric Ciiersonesus, or modern Jutland, who conquered a considerable part of this island. In the time of the Romans, tlie whole island went by the name of Britannia. The word brit, according to Mr. Cambden, signified painted or stained j the ancient inhabitants being famous for painting their bodies : other antiquaries, however, do not agree in this etymology. The western tract of England, which is ahnost separated from the rest by the rivers Severn and Dee, is called W ales ; a name which, according to some, is derived from a Celtic word, and signifies the land of strangers, because inhabited by the Belgic Gauls, who were driven tliither by the Romans, and were strangers to the old natives. Boundaries.] England is bounded on the north by that part of the island called Scotland j on the east by the German Ocean ; on the west by St. George's Channel ; and on the south by the English Channel, which parts it from France. Divisions, ancient and modern.] When the Romans provinciated England, they divided it into, 1. Britannia Prima, which contained the southern parts of the kingdom. 2. Britannia Secunda, contiining the western parts, comprehending Wales. And 3. Maxima Caesariensis, which reached from the Trent as far north- ward as the M-all of Severus, between Newcastle and Carlisle, and some- times as far as tliat of Adrian in Scotland, between the Forth and Clyde, 4. Flavia Caesariensis, which contained the midland counties. When the Saxons invaded England, about the year 450, and when they were established, in the year 582, their chief leaders appropriated to themselves, after tlie manner of other northern conquerors, tlie countries which each had been the nao<ft instrumental in conquering ; and the whole formed a heptarchy, or political confederacy consisting of seven kingdoms. In time of war, a chief was chosen from the seven kings, by public consent ; so that the Saxon heptarchy appears to have somo- wliat resembled the constitution of Greece during tht; heroic ago?. » ,J; ,m IIU.v , J <.,t, im ac- \\ 'i\Ai/.'-/ /.oihji/iiifi^ iVyiivm liMiifivi . — r r/,ii, n/i "^Ci-v.^T { ^»->^ 1 I anisic ) I." ^unriiThWil .U.M::/Cal,^ ( •■•' y^a^vii-/, ■""5;"?^ U^.v./ •V A' ./ tj: — .,- - - f ^^ — t I /.■r--\ SelAu-io "^ V'" l/'M'n - ./Mini/, lrriii,A-ti/'.'ri/ii,y,f "I .V,'/?r//4 CHaknJL^ -:iVen,n,He ^^mmoiit/i HcisalP''L -^ C^uA^^d- i ' -^ 'Jo VM \Be>erh '■"""- n^y i. ^ iv,^^7>f, ; / ^i\ J.u/uA' / -- liL »«^ ,s lA-^yy'"!-'^ At/>//Mvt,- .rlt' . . . ..1 //■'.•■y /,>//,7//,'/,/,' 7 in'/'/ /iv/i/ivi . '(< xca.- f-'.x :; ssaaj r 77 v )Jlrriiu-/c iif'.viliuvj -t\ ■-" Kitt/ihliri Ji -*» licl/iitfihani ■>" ■\ n h \ yuniiirfimit mFMiute ■-■' iw/imcniT ^ in -- \Pt.eetfi ■ ^'-, o . Doncafttp ncitphS J(d'or«.iia's to llioCoiiulies. I l'i'i7/inr// '11 ('■/i!in,yit,iihfiii-i I), I i\'l.--/i!n' OK '.\ /),'iy,/.'/i//' I .^i'/>ii/:ir/.>'/i/.''i- ; ;> imw/i.-rr (i //</.'>//'.'-/i/rr j 7 .i//,.-..v.f ■ lO //,v/-../wv I 1 1 ('itiuii;y/ri:<,'iiii' I 12 llr/rn/.-'/i/rr I .'l ////. •/■.iihi/iivn. 'inr, X-X Mu/Mm-.v \ !,'> /Iri//i>n/y/i//r Jli //ii//iiwi/y/i//i' . I7/:ov;,- J!<.i>///,V/- 2(^ I'linil'iii/itr.'/iirr 21 /liiJiliii,!J,\'i.'/iiri 2» /tiv./.;„',L.:'iin- 2!' ih,r/!t,t:;'/ir.'i.'/iirr 'MMVinl'iv/oy/iiir .52 ('r/i//i>ii/l.'/l//i' •'V 1 . //, v/A r< v//( / ; I. ■■////■( • .'> J .h'i'i .lUiiiMiifV 'M\ J). .'l/:;r/i..////r '?>1 i'i:rr!i,tr\on.'/iiiv ;vv '///■, /•..///.■,■ 41 J,i'iiV'i,:'y/iir,- 42 Rall,t,i,L'iin- 4.'> l.i/hv/iiy/iiiv 44 . 1 '( 'lli.'iii/iiii>i.</ini • 4.' Di-rh.'/n/r 4(i l7iiy/i/rr f \ li >! 47 / ii/ir,ry/i/ri' 22 .\W:/i,'t/iir/,'iiy/iiiv 4ii y,"/,y/i,rr 2\\ W.uiMr'Uiiir 4!> lUy/m.yr/.r.'i,/ 24 n','n;y/,'/:.-/iiiv M) /)iir/i.,/;i '2'i J/i/i'/i'/i/y////!' ,i| ('/i/n/'rrlr/li/ 2C< Mivii)iiVtl/iy/iiri' y2 .ViTi/i/t/>t/','r/i/,it/ , ;■/ n /ir///y/i .i'/,//,//r V/A:' ■ ShttlMJc Juttcn The Wash \\' TTteKelm. , '/v '■ fSttufbnt , Ijtohhelrl { . V " AUi^/i>"'ii ^ !. 2\ '' Oxford iiivriceftfr rjo y I.Vj/m,-/'0'A "ciH i/ade Uruitoll; 1.. l*«J/mjl^or, ■ la-,, '"''o-W/w . i. b uliityM ' ildhi^'VUf/i , Roohe' \lf<t,f!emm' \j, \?.. Tifr:Xi.'^^\y' \ V\ luiuif J // \ r I' , ///.'/ /( '/)i>//l/i/i ' ,')i//'t 'W /< w./. w . i ! |H*< ^fima i M ENGLAND. 131 Kingdoms erected by the Saxons, usually styled the Saxon Heptarchy. KINGDOMS. 1. Kent, founded by f* Hengist in 475, and <! Kent , endtSin 823 [_ 2. South Saxons, founded by Ella in 491, and ended in 6CX) COUNTIES. Sussex. Surry .. CHIEF TOWNS. Canterbury Chichester South wark 3. East Angles, found- Norfolk Suffolk. ed by Uffa in 575, < ^ _, .V *.'!' and ended in 793 -. ^ ^^'^^''^^^' ^-''^' Norwich ^ BuryStEdmund's Cambridge Ely • LThelsleofEly I f Cornwall "] Launceston Devon I Exeter 4. West Saxons, found- Dorset | Dorchester ed by Cerdic in 512, < Somerset ^ Bath and ended in 1060... Wilts Salisbury Hants Winch.^ster ^Berks J Abingdon ' Lancaster T Lancat ter York York Durham Durham Cumberland I Carlisle Westmorland f Appleby Northumberland and Scot- land, to the frith of Edin- Newcastle burgh ^ §. East Saxons, found- r Essex "] ed by Erchewin in <^ Middlesex, and part of |> London 527,'and ended in 74t) [ Hertford J Northumberland, founded by Ida m 574, 792. and ended in Mercia, founded by Cridda in 582, and« ended in 874 The other part of Hertford' Gloucester Hereford Worcester Warwick Leicester Rutland Northampton Lincoln Huntingdon Bedford Buckingham Oxford Stafford Derby Salop Nottingham Chester Hertford Gloucester Hereford Worcester Warwick Leicester Onkham Northampton Lincoln ' Huntingdon Bedford AvlesDury Oxford Stallbrd Derby Shrewsbury Nottingham Chester It is tlie more necessary to preserve these division?, as they account for different local customs, and many very essential modes of inheritance, which to this day prevail in England, and which took their rise front 1-i tSa m 132 SNGLAND, 4. A i 1.^ I I. tuit. cir- lirril'ord 'j7;^77 Kent JO/; 024... V Surry 20i),0'13 Sussex If/OJll. (liiViriMii in.-.titr.tions unJcr llic Snxo!is. Since the Norman invasiojij, iMigland lias bwn divideci iiiLo countic?, a certain number of which, cx- <'cj)ting Midiilfjt'x and Chc^iiire, are comprehended in six circuits, or nuiiial progresses of' tlie judges, for administering justice to the subject* ■v^ 111) are at a distance irom the capital. The circuitti are: tUH.VJTS. COUN'Tirs. CHIEF TOWNS. '' f Essex 220,4o7...1 Chelmsford, Colchester, Harwich, Maiden, SalTron-Walden, Bockinj^ Rrainti'ee, and Stratford. Hertford, St. Albans, Ware. Hitchin^ Baldock, Bishop's-Stortfurd, Berk- hnmstead, Hemsted, and Barnet. Maidstone, Canterbury, Chatham, llcxihester, Greenwich, Woolwich, Dover, Deal, Deptford, Fcversham, Dartford, Romney, Sandwicli, Shcerness, " .bridge, Margate, Gravesend, a-.i ..Vliltoii. SoutJiwark, Kingston, Guildford, Croydon, Epsom, Richmond, Wandsworth, Battersea, Putney, Farnham, Godalmin, Bagshot, Eg- ham, and Darkii;g. Chicliester, Lewes, Rye, East Grin- stead, Hastings, Horsham, Midliursr,. Shoreham, Anandel, Winchelsea, Battel, Brightlielmstone, and Pet- worth. Ayle»bury, Buckingham, High W ick- ham. Great Marlow, Stoney-Strat- ford, and Newport Pagnel. Bedford, Ampthill, Wooburn, Dun-* stable, I;Uton, and Biggleswade, Huntingdon, St, Ives, Kimbolton, Godmanchester, St. Neot's, Ram-. Key, and Yaxley. Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket, Pu>y- jton, and Wisbech, Bury, Ipswich, Sudbury, Leostoff, p:'.rt of Newmarket, Aldhorough, Bungay, Southwold, Brandoii, Ilalcaworth, Mildhenhall, Beccles, Framlingham, Stowmnrket, Wood- bridge, J.avenham, Hadley, LcJuji" Meltord, Stratford, and E.ister- bea'glHjit. Norwich, Thetford, Lynn, Yar- moutli. Oyford, Biuibury, Chipping-Xorton, J fenley, Ikirfcjrd, Whitney, Dor- t.heiter, Woodstock, and Thame, Al>i;jgdor, Windsor, Heading, A\'a!- Jingford, Newbniy, Hungerford, M.iidenlicad, Farriugdon, Wantage, «nd (Jakin^ham, . . ■ ('Bucks 107,444..." Ecdiord Ulj,303, Hiiniii.ig(l()n1[ II, Nf-7i*luik cir- < cuil ...... Cambridge | b().34Ci S '" Suilijik ■j.lO/i.il Norfolk 275,371 f f 'Oxua lOO.OUO..,- *1 ^ ill. 1 * Csfonl (•;!■• . BojI.3 1(J9,2IJ>... 1 Ktlii .u,,. 11,., w ENGLAND. 133 cincuiTS. ■ III. Oxfoid cir- cuit con- fiiiued , . , , COUNTIES. Gloucester 7 250,809 3 •• Worcester 7 139,333 3 "■ Monmouth") 45,582 j *■• Hereford 89,191 Salop lfJ7,C39 ... Stafford 239,153 ' Warwick 208,190 Leicester 130,081 Derby lGl,l42. IV Midland cir- < cult Nottingham 140,350 }.., ' •»••••• Lincoln 208,557 Rutland 1 6,356 Northampton 13 1,757 } V. Wt'sfonicir- «'uit Hants 2 19,656... Wilts 108,107, Dorset 115/319 CHIEF TOWNS. Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Cirenct^ster, part of Bristol, Camden, Sto\^-, Berkley, Durslcy, Lechlade, Tet- bury, Sudbury, Wotton, anil Marshfield. Worcester, Evesham, Droitwith, Bewdley, Stourbridge, Kiddermin- ster, and Pershore. Monmoutli, Chepstow, Abergavenny, > Caerlcon, and Newport. Hereford, Leominster, Weoblcy, Led- bury, Kynetoii, and Ross. Shrev.'sbur}', Ludlow, Bridgnorth, Wenlock, Bishop's Castle, Whit- church, Oswestry, Wem, and Newport. Stafford, Litchfield, Newcastle-undcr- Line, Wohcrhampton, Rugeley, Burton, Utoxeter, and Stone. "1 Warwick, Coventry, Birmingham, Stratford upon iVvon, Tamwurih, Aulcester,Nuneiiton,andAtherton. Leicester, Melton-JNFowbray, Ashby- de-la-Zouch, Bosworth, and Har- borousih, Derby, Chesterfield, Wirksworth, ■ Ashbourne, Bakewell, Balsover, and Buxton. Npttingham, Soui'nvell, Newark, East and AVcst Ret ford, Mansfield., Tiixford, Worksop, and Blithe. Lincoln, Stamford, Boston, Grant- ham, Croyland, Spalding, New Sleaford, Great Grimsby, Gainsbo- rough, Lontli, and 1 [orncastle. Oakham and l^p]tiiigham. Northampton, retevborough, Daven- try, Iligham- Ferrers, Rracklcy, Oundle, Wellingliorough, Thrap- ston, Towcester, Rockingham, Ket- tering, and Rothwell. Winchester, Southampton, Port*- mouth, Andover, BasIng;>toki-, Christchurch, Petersfield, Lyming- ton, Ringwood, Rvup.scy, Alreslbrd, and Newport, Yarmouth and Cowes, in the Lie of Wight. Salisbury, Devizes, Marlborough, [. Mahnsbury, Wilton, Chipj)enham, Caliie,Cricklade, Trowbridge, Brad- ford, and Warminster. Dorchester, Lyme, Sherborne, Shaftes- bury, Poole, Blandford, Bridport, Weymouth, Melccmbe, War^hiUU. and Winbura, :i iVn :■ 'H f ■* 134 ENGLAND. CIRCUITS. V. Western cir- cuit con- tinued.... COUNTIES. Somerset273,750 Devon 343,001 .. Cornwall 1 188,2693 ••• 'York 858,892....' VI. Nortliern J Durham l60,c,6\ circuit*. Northumber- land 157,101 Lancaster 1 6/2,731 ]■ • Westmorland 7 4J,6l7 J Cumberland 1 117,230 J *•• J CHIEF TOWNS. Bath, Wells, Bristol in part, Taunton, Bridgewater, Ilchester, !NIinehead, Milbourn-Port, Glastonbury, Wel- lington, Dulver{'on,Dunster,Watch- et, Yeovil, Somerton, Axbridge, Chard, Bniton, Shepton-Mallet, Croscomb, and Froome. Exeter, Plymouth, Barnstable, Bid- deford, Tiverton, Honiton, Dart- mouth, Tavistock, Topsham, Oke- hampton, Ashburton, Crediton, Moulton, Torrington, Totness, Ax- minster, Plympton, and Ilfracomb. Launceston, Fahnouth, Truro, Salt- ash, Bodmyn, St. Ives, Padstow, Tregony, Fowey, Penryn, Kelling- ton, Leskeard, Lestwithiel, Helston, Penzance, and Redruth. York, Leeds, Wakefield, Halifax, Rippon, Pontefract, Hull, Rich- mond, Scarborough, Borougbbridge, Malton, Sheffield, Doncaster, Whit- by, Beverley, Northallerton, Bur- lington, Knaresborough, Barnesley, Sherborne, Bradford, Tadcaster, Skipton, Wetherby, Ripley, Hey- don, Howden,Thirske, Gisborough, Pickering, and Yarum. Dcrham, Stockton, Sunderland, Stan- hope, Barnard-Castle, Darlington, Hartlepool, and Auckland. Newcastle, Tinmouth, North Shields, Morpeth, Alnwick, and Hexham. Lancaster, Manchester, Preston, Liver- pool, Wigan, Rochdale, Warring- ton, Bury, Ormskirk, Hawkshead, and Newton. Appleby, Kendal, Lonsdale, Kirby- Stcphen, Orton, Ambleside, Bur- ton, and Mihhorpc. Carlisle,Penrith,Cockermouth,AVhite- haven, Ravcnglass, Egremont, Kes- wick, WorkingtoUj and Ireby. Middlesex is not comprehended in these circuits j nor Cheshire, ■whir \ being a county palatine, enjoys municipal laws and privileges. The same may be .said of Walcf), whicli is divided into four circuits. Conn lies exclusive of< tiie circuits. Middlesex 1,000,929 tl London, first meridian, north lat. 51* 31', We-.tminster, Uxbridge, Brent- ford, Chelsea, Higiigate, Hamp- * In the I.eat, or Sprin? assizes, the nortl ti-i rirrult extends only to York an»l Lancaster : tl;c assize:? it Diirhiim, Nevvra tlf. Appleby, nnd Carlisle, hoing btjd only in till' .Viiliunn, aD;l disitrnmi.^hcd by thu appuHtttion of the lon^ circuit. f Imdudinsj London nud Wcstmiaster, ENGLAND. 135 Counties exclusive of ihe continued. :clusive of J Cli le circuits, j tntinued. | Chester 191,751 stead, Kensington, Hackney, and Hampton-Court. Chester, Nan twich, Macclesfield, Mal- pas, Northwich, Middlewich, Sand- bach, Congleton, Knotsford, Fro- disham, and Haulton. CIRCUITS OF WALES. CIRCUITS. COUNTIES, CHIEF TOWNS. ("Flint 39,(i2'2 North-East j Denbigh (J0,352 circuit.... j Montgomery") 47,978 I Flint, St. Asaph, and Holywell. Denbigh, Wrexham, and Ruthen. Montgomery, Llanvylin, and Welch- Pool. f Anglesey 33,806 ^ Beaumaris, Holyhead, and Newburgh. North West ^ ^''^^'■"^rvon 7 Bangor, Conway, Caernarron, and t 29,506 j "'J Dolgelly, Bala, and Haleigh. South-East circuit.... 'Radnor 19,050..." Brecon 33,633... Glamorgan 1 'Pembroke 56,280" l^oiitli-West Cardigan 42,956 circuit.... *) Caennarthen") 67,3 J 7 j lladnor, Presteigii, and Knighton. Brecknock, Builth, and Hay. ' Llandaff, Cardirt", Cowbridge, Neath, and Swansey. St. David's, Haverfordwest, Pem- broke, Tenby, Fiscard, and Mil- fordhaven. Cardigan, Aberystwith, and Llanba- darn-vawer. Caermarthen, Kidwelly, Llanymd- dovry, Llandilovawr, Llangharn, and Llaneltby. In ENGLAND. 40 Counties, which send up to parliament 80 knights. 25 Cities (Ely none, London four) 50 citizens. 167 Boroughs, two each 334 burgesses. 5 Boroughs (Abingdon, Banbury, Bewdley,") . burire'^ses Higham-Ferrers, and Monmouth), one each 3 = ' 2 Universities 4 roprescntatives, 8 Cinque ports (Hastings, Dover. Sandwich,! Roniney, Hithe, and tlieir throe dependents, > 16 barons. Rye, Winchelsea, and Seaford), two each J WALES. J2 Counties 13 knights. 12 Boroughs (Pembroke two, Merioneth none), 7 ,_ , one each : . J *- burgesses. SCOTLAND. 33 Shires 30 knights. 37 Cities and Boroughs 15 burgesses. IRELAND. 32 Counties , 64 knights. 36 Cities and Boroughs 36 citizens and Total. 658 burgesses. r^ ft 136 ENGLAND. m m r:i¥f;' y >'.' Besides the fifty-two counties into which England and Wales are di- vided, there are counties corporate, consisting of certain districts, to which the liberties and juri,-.dir'Lions peculiar to a county have been granted by royal cJiarter. Tlm.i the city of London is a county distinct Irom Middlesex; the cities of York, Chester, Bristol,. L:xter, Norwich, Worcester, and the towns of Kingston-upon-Hull and Newcastle-upon- Tyne, are counties of tljcm-i-Ivcs, distinct from those in which they lie. 'i'he same may be said of Berwick-upon-Tweed, -which lies in Srotland, and has within its jurisdiction a small territory of two miles on the north side of the river. Under the name of a town, boroughs and cities are cortained ; for^ every borough or city is a town, though e\"ery town is not a borough or city. A borough is so called, because it sends up burgesses to par- liament; and this makes the difference between a village or town, and a borough. Some boroughs are corporate, and some not corporate j. and though decayed, as Old Sarum, they still send burgesses to parlia- ment. A city is a coi*porate borough, that has, or has had, a bishop; for if die biihepric be dissolved, yet the city remains. To have sub- lubs, proves it to be a city. Some cities are uLo counties, as before mentioned. FiVCE OF THE COUNTRY.] No nation in the world can equal the cul- tivated parts of England in beautiful scenes. The ^ aricty of high-lands and Jow-iands, the former gently swelling, and both of them forming the most luxuriant prospects, the corn and meadow grounds, the inter- niixtures of enclosures and plantation, the noble i:cats, comfortable houses, cheerful villages, and well-stocked farms, often rising in th& neighbourhood of populous towns and cities, decoiated with the most vivid colours of nature, are objects of which an adecjuate idea cannot be com eyed by description. The most barren spots are not without their verdure. Ikit nothing can give us a higher idea of the English industry, than obscn ing that some of the pleasantest counties in the kingdom are naturally the most barren, but rendered fruitful by labour. Upon the ^vhole, it may be safely affirmed, that no country in l'',arope equals Ei>- gland in t!ie beauty of its prospects, or the opulence of its inhabitants. Mountains.] Though England is full of delightful rising grounds, and the most enchanting slopes, yet it ront.iiiis few mountains. The principal are the Pe;d; in Derlv,-shire, tlie Endlc iu I./aucashire, the Wold.s in Yorkshire, the Skiddaw and S.-.ddle-back in Cumberland, the Cheviot- hil'.s on the borders of Scotland, the Cliiltern in Bucks, Malvern in Worcestershire, Colswould in Gloucestershi.'-e, the -Wrekin in Shrop- shire; with those of Plinliramon and Saowdoi- in Wales. In general, ho\\e\cr, Wales and the northcin parts may be termed mountaimms, FoKi'.sTS.] I'lic iivst Norman king? of England, partly for political purpo.H's, t'vat they might the more cftectually enslave their new sub- jects, and partly from tbc wantonness of power, converted immense tracts of t; rounds into forests for hunti'ig : and these were governed by laws peculiar to llnMimelvcs : so that it was necessary, about the time of passing the Magna-Charta, to form a code of the forest-laws ;. and Juv tices in Eyre, .>o c.illed innu their sitting in the open air, were appointed to .SCO them uhscr^ed. By degrees those vast tracts were disforested: nnd the chief fijrcsts, properly so called, remaining out of no fewer tlian tig, are those (A Windsor, New-Forest, the Forest of l)r;an, and Sher- wocxl Forest. These forests produced tlirmcrly great quantitx's of ex- celletit o:ik, e!m, ash, and beech, besides wajnut-trees, poplar, maple, •ind cth-n- kit.:ia ■..:' wood. In tmcicnt limes England contained large ENGLAND. 137 vroods, if not forests, of chesnut trees, which exceeded all ether kinds of timber for the purposes of building, as appears from many great houses still standing, in which the chesnut beams and roofs remain still fre-sh and undecayed, though some of them are above 600 years old. Lakes.] The lakes of England are few; though it is evident from history and antiquity, and indeed, in same places, from the face of the country, that meres and fens have been frequent in England, till drained and converted into arable land. The chief lakes remaining are Sohani mere, Wittlesea mere, and Ramsey mere, in the isle of Ely, in Cam- bridgeshire. All these meres in a rainy season are overflowed, and form a lake of 40 or 50 miles in circumference. Winander mere lies in West- morland : there are besides some small lakes in Cumberland, the chief of which is Dervvent- water. Rivers, springs, and mineral waters.] The rivers in England add greatly to its beauty as well as to its opulence. The Thames, which, from thti situation of the capital on its banks, naturally claims tlie iirst place among the rivers of England, rises on the confines of Gloucestershire, a little S. W. of Cirencester; and after receiving the many ti*ibutary streams of otlier rivers, it passes to Oxford, then by Abingdon, Wal- Jingfchxi, Reading, Marlow, and Windsor; from thence to Kingston, wliere formerly it met the tide, which, since the building of Westmin- ster-bridge, is said to llow no higher than Richmond ; whence it flop's to London, and, after diviuiiig tlie coimties of Kent and Essex, widens in its pro^^icss, tin it falls into the sea at tlie Norc, from which it is navigable Jbr large sh^ps to Londuti-bridge. The river Medv.ay, which rises near Tunbridge, falls intathe Thames at Sheerness, and is navigable for the largest ships as tar as Chatiiam. The Severn, reckoned tlie second river for importance in England, and the first for rapidity, rises at Plinlimmon-hill in North- Wales ; becomes na\ i<^able at Welch-Pool ; runs east to Shrewsbury ; then, turning south, visits Bridgnortii, Worcester, and Tewkesbury; where it receives the Upper Avon : after having passed Gloucester, it takes a soutli-west di- rection ; is, near its mouth, increased by tl)c Wye and Ustre, and dis- charges itself into thc'livistol Channel, near King-road, where lie the great ships which cannot get up to Bristol. The Trent rises in tlic Moorlands of Statlbrdshire, and, running south-east by Newcastle- under- Line, divides that county into two parts; then, turning north-east on the coniines of Derbyshire, visits Nottingham, running the whole length of that coiuity to Lincolnshire, and, being joined by the Ouse and several other ri\t;rs towards the mouth, obtains the name of the Humber, falling into the sea south-east of Hull. The other principal rivers in England are the Ouse (a Gaelic word sig- nifying ivatcr in general) which falls into the Humber after receiving the waters of many other rivers. Another Ouse rises in Bucks, and falls into the sea near Lynn in Norfolk. The Tyne runs from west to east Ihrougii Northumberland, and falls into tlie German sea at Tinmouth, below Newcastle. The Tees runs from west to east, dividing Durham from Yorkshire, and falls into the German sea below Stockton. The Tweed runs from west to east, on the borders of Scotland, and falls into the Gennaii sea at Berwiek. The Eden runs from south to north ihrough Westmorland and Cumberland, and, passing by Carlisle, falls into Solway-Firth lielow that city. The Lower Avon runs west through Wiltshire to Bath, and then, dividing Somersetshire from Gloucester- shire, runs to Bristol, falling into the mouth of tlie Severn below that city. The* Derweut inns from east to west through Cumberland, ] J39 KXGLAXD. v :. 1 I- mm M'i, and, pissitig by Cookerniouth, falls into the Irish Sea a little Ij«Iow, 'Ihc nibble riius horn east to west ijiiough Liiiicashirc, and, passing by Preston, discharges it.sclt' into tlie Iri.sh Sea. Tiie Mersey runs 1V()!U the soiith-caiit to tlic north-west tlirovigh Cheshire, and theii, di- viding Chcsliirc from Lani:a.s!iirr, passes by I/ivcrpool, and falls into the Irisii Sea a little below that town, llic Dee rises in Wales, and di\ldes Flintshire iVom (Jhesiure, falling into tlie Irish channel below Ciiester, liie (.hainijaign parts of England arc generally supplied with excellent springs and fountains ; tlKnigh a discerning palate may perceive that they irec[iienrly contain sfinte mineral impregnation. In some very high lands, the inhal)itants are distressed for water, and supply themselves by trenches, or cligging deep wells. The constitutions (jf the English, and the diseases to which they are liable, have rendered them extremely impiisitive after salubrious waters, for tlie recovery and preservation of their health ; so that England contains as many mineral wells, of known eificacy, as per- hajw any country in the wtirld. The most celebrated are die hot-batlis of hath and Bristol in Somersetshire, and of Buxton and Matlock in Der- byshire : the mineral waters ofTuiibridge, Epsom, Cheltenham, Harrow- gate, and Scarborough. Sea-water is also much used for medical piu-- jposes : and so delicate are the tones of the English fibres, that the pa- tients can perceive, both in drinking and bathing, a differeuce between the sea-water of one coast and tiiat of auotlier. Caxals.] Within the last fifty years a great number of canals have been cut in various parts of England, which have greatly contributed to tlie improvement of the country, and tlie facilitating of commercial in- tercourse between the trading towns. The first of these, in point of date, is the Sankey canal, tlie act of parliament for which was obtained in 1755. It was cut to convey coals from the coal-pits at St. Helens ta t|ie river Mersey, and so to Liverpool, and is in length 12 miles. But the canals of the late duke of Bridgewater, the great father of in- land navigation in this country, are of much greater importance, both for tlie extent and the natural difficulties that were surmounted by the fertile genius of that extraordinary mechanic, Mr, Brindley. Of these great works, the first was begun in 1 758, at Worsley-mill, about seven miles from Manchester, where a basin is cut containing a great body of water which serves as a reservoir to tlie navigation. The canal runs through a hill, by a subterranean passage large enough for the admission pf long flat-bottomed boats towed by hand-rails on each side, near three quarters of a mile, to the duke's coal-works. There the passage divides into two channels, one of which goes 500 yards to the right, and the other as many to the left. In some places the passage is cut through solid rock, jn others arched over with brick. Air-funnels, some of which are 37 yards perpendicular, are cut, at certain distances, through the rock to tl»e top of the hill. At Bartonbridge, tliree miles from the basin, is an aqueduct, which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the ca- nal across a valley and the navigable river Irwell. There are three arches over tills river ; the centre one tiJ feet wide, and 38 feet high above the water, which will admit the largest barges to go through with masts and sails standing. The whole of the navigation is more tlian 29 miles : it tails i)5 feet ; and was finished in 5 years. The Grand Trunk or Staffordshire canal was begun in 1766, under the ^direction of Mr. Brindley, in order to form a communication between the Mersey and Trent, and in consequence between the Iiish Sea and the Gcrnimi Ocean, Jt was completed in 1 7/7, after tlie death of Mr. ENGLAND. 139 Brindley, who died in 1772, by his hrotht'r-in-law, Mr. Honsball. lu length is 2'2 miles; it is 2() t'oet broail <it the top ; 2(i at the bottctni, and tive deep. It is carried over the river Dove by an aqueduct of 'iJ arches, and over the '^I'rent by one of six. At the hill of Harecastle in StatKord- shire, it is conveyt;d through a tunnel more than 70 yards below the sur- face of the ground, and 2880 yards in length. In the same neighbour- hood there is another subterraneous passage of 350 yards, and at Preston on ;he Hill another 1241 yards in length. From the neighlM)uriiood of Statfoid a branch goes otf' from this canal, and joins the Severn near Jiewdley : two other branches go, tlic one to Birmingham, and tlie other to Worci'ster. The liraunston or Grand Junction canal (so called from its uniting the inland navigation of the central counties) extends from the Thames at Brentford, to the Oxford canal at Braunston in Northamptonshire. A branch of it likewise goes from Uxbridge to Paddington ; and a plan has been proixised, and considerable sums of money subscribed, for extend- ing a cut from the latter place to the new West-India docks at Blackwall : but whetlier this design will be carried into execution is as yet uncer- tain. A great number of other canals luive been cut in various parts of the kingdom -, as the Lancaster canal ; the canal from Liverpool to I/eeds, carried through an extent of 1 17 miles; the canal from Halifa.\ to Man- chester, 31 miles; a canal from Basingstoke in Hampshire to the Thames at Weybridge; another from Ando\er in the same county to the river near Southampton ; and many others, which it would be tedious here only to enumerate. Metals and minerals.] Among the minerals, the tin-mines of Cornwall deservedly take the lead. They were known to the Greeks and Phoenicians, the latter especially, some ages before the Christian sera; and since the English have found a method of manufacturing their tin into plates and white iron, they are of immense advantage to the na- tion, their annual produce amounting nearly to the value of 200,000/. including wliat is conveyed to foreign markets. These tin-works are under peculiar regulations, by what are called the stannary laws; and tJje miners have parliaments and privileges of tlieir own, which are ia force at this time. Iron is found in plenty in England : the principal mines of it are in Cfxilbrook-dale, Shropshire ; Dean's forest in Gioiices- tershire, and some parts of the north of England. I^ad is obtained in many parts of this island, particularly in Derbyshire, Yorksliire, Nor- tliumberland, and some counties in Wales. Near 20,000 tons of thl? metal are exported annually, notwithstanding great quantities are em* ployed in ditlerent fabrications within the country. Of copper, Cornwall is said to furnish the value of 200,000/. annually, and the whole of the island to the amount of a million ; the quantity exported having been estimated at above 1000 tons. The number of miners employed in Corn- wall is said to amount to 100,000. There are no gold or silver mines in Britain ; but particles of the former metal are found in the tin-mines of Cornwall, and some silver may be extracted from the ore of lead. Near Keswick in Cumberland is a rich mine of plumbago or black-lead, which the proprietors permit only to be opened once in six or seven years, to prevent tlie markets from being overstocked. Zinc, in the form of tapis calaminaris, is found in Cornwall and Derbyshire. Devonshire, and other counties of England, produce marble ; but the best kind, which resembles Egyptian granite, is excessively hard to work. Quarries of freestone are found in many places. Near Northwich in Cheshire ir". .\ ^, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) .V^ ^nv 1.0 I.I 11.25 no IM 12.2 IJU -1^ 1.4 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRIET WEBSTER, N.Y. U^SO (716) •73-4503 J4d ENGLAND. IHi 1 IT ■'^I'.Ri I immense mines of Tock-salt, wliicli were discover<rd about the beginning of the last century. Ihe ijuarries extend over many acres, and their crystal roof, supported by pillars, has a most beautiful appearance. The pit at Witton is of a circular form, 108 yards in diameter, and the roof is supported by 25 pillars, each containing 2^4 solid yards of rock-salt. The annual produce of rock-salt at Northu ich is estimated by Mr. Pen- nant at (J5,00a tons. Cheshire likewise produces alum. The fullers- earth found in Berkshire, and in some other counties, is of such conse- quence to the clothing trade, that its exportation is prohibited under se- vere penalties. Pit and sea coal is found in many counties of England; but the city of London, to encourage the nursery of seamen, is chiefly supplied from the pits of Northumberland and the county of Dur- liaiu. The cargoes are shipped at Newcastle and Sunderland. The e.Kportation of coals to other countries is very considerable. The mines of Northumberland alone semi every year upwards of ()00,000 chaldron of coals to London ; and 1500 vessels are employed in carrying them to tliat port along the eastern coast of Englar.d. CtiMATE, SOIL, AND AGKicuLTURe.] England, from its insular situa- tion and its proximity to the continent, is liable to a great uncertainty cf weather ; in consecjueijce of which, tlie inliabitants, espefcially on several parts of the sea-coast, frequently sulFcr by agues and fcvcrtj. The air, jn many places, is gciicrally loacled with vapours wafted Irom the Atlarxr tic Ocean by westerly wiuds ; and tlie weather is so excessively capricious, and unfavourable to certain constitutions, that many of the inhabitimts are induced to remove to a more regular climate for the restoration of their health. It cannot, however, be consiilercd as in general insalu-^ brious^ as appears from the various instances of longevity which the country has afforded. In consequence of tlie mutability of the clijuate, the seasons are very uncertain. Spring, summer, autumn, and winter, succeed each other; but in what month their different appearances will take place .is very undetermined. The spring begins sometimes in February and some- vtimes in April. In May, the face of the country is often covered with 4xoar-frost instead of blossoms. The beginning of June is sometimes as cold as the middle of December; yet at otiier times the thermometer rises in that month as high as it does in Italy. Even August has its vicis'^ situdes of heal and cold ; and, upon an average, September, and next to it October, arc tlic two most agreeable months in the year. The natives sometimes experience all the four seasons within the comjwss Of one day — cold, temperate, hot, and mild weather. This inconstancy, however, is not attended with the effects that might be naturally apprehended. A fortnight, or at mf)st three weeks, generally make up the dilVerence with ...regard to the maturity of the fruits of the earth ; and k is hardly ever ob.served that tlie inhabitants sutler by a hot summer. TJie soil of England and Wales differs in every count)', not merely iiom thi; nature of tlie ground, though that must be admitted to occasion a very considerable alteration, but liom the j)rogress niade in each in the cnlti\atiou of lands and gardens, tlie draining of marshes, and many other local improvements, which are here carried to a much greater de- gree of jicrfietion than they are perhaps in any other part of the world, if we except China. In no country is agriculture better understood, or pro.sec lUed u iiii greater zeal for improvement and assiduity. Excellent institutions for thp improvement of agriculture are now common in En- \hnid ; and ilieir members print periodical accounts of their discoveries and expfrimcuLs. I'hc publicaliwns ot the Batli Society upon the sub* ^c the pie 4-OI ENGLAND. Ul jpcrt of agriculture are well known j and such has been the attention of the nation to this important object, tiiat his present majeitty has beei4 pleasetl, August 31, 1793, by letters-patent under the great seal, tn constitute a board tor the encouragement of agriculture and internal im-* provement. The proper cultivation of the soil is an object so peculiarly interesting to the conununity at large, that those who most assiduously attend to it are perhaps to be accounted the most meritorious citizens of their country. The art of gardening is likewise cultivated with great success in several placeij in the vicinity of the metropolis : a single acre of land employed in the production of vegetables and fruits, will yield 120/. annually ; the ordinary consumption of such commodities in the capital being computed at more than a million sterling. Vegetables.] England produces in abundance wheat, barley, lycj peas, fceans, vetches, oats, and other grain. It is almost needless to mention, to the most uninformed reader, in what plenty tlie most ex- cellent fruits, apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, nectarine*, currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and other hortulan productions, grow here; and what quantities of cyder, perry, nietheglin, aijd the like li- quors, are made in some counties. The cyder of Devon and Hereford- jbhire, when kept, and made of proper apples, and in a particular manner^ is often preferred, by judicious palates, to French while-wine. The na- tives of England have made the ditferent fruits of the world tlieir own, >;ometimes by simple culture, but often by hot-beds and other means of forcing nature. The English pine-apples are delicious> and now plenti- ful. The same may be said of other natives of the East and West Indies^ Persia, and Turkey. The English grapes are pleasing to the taste, but tJieir flaVoin- is not exalted enough for making wuie ; and indeed wet weather injures the flavour of all the other line fniits raised here. Uur kitchen gardens abound with all sorts of greens, roots, and sallads,. iu perfection ; such as artichokes, asparagus, cauliflowers, cabbages, cole- worts, "broccoli, peas, beans, kidney-beans, spinnge, beets, lettuce, ce- lery, endive, turnips, carrots^ potatoes, mushrooms, leeks, onions, and shallots, Woad for dyeing is cultivalctl in Bucks and Bedfordshire, as hemp and flax are in other counties. In nothing, however, have tlie English been more successful than in the cultivation of clover, cinquefoil, trefoil, vaintfoin, li;cern, and other meliorating grahscs for the soil. It belongs to a botanist to recount tlie various kinds of useful and salutary herbs, iihrubs, and roots, tljat grow in difterent parts of En^jland. TliQ soil of Kent, Essex, Surr^, and Hampshire, is nioit favourable to the ditficuk and tender culture of hops, which are now become a very conaiderable. article of trade. Animals,] The English oxen are large and fat j but some prefer for the table Uie smaller breed of the Scotch and Welch cattle, after grazing in English pasiurcs, I'he English hovhcs are the bo;t in the world, \\\iv- tlicr we regard their spirit, strength, swit'tness, or docility, Incredibla Iwve been the pains taken, by all ranks, lor improving the breed of tjiis favourite and noble anim;il : and the success has been answerable ; for they now unite all the quidiiics and beauties of Indian, Persian, Arabian, Spanish, and other foreign horses. The irresistible spirit and weight of the English cavalry render them superior to all oihers in war j and at\ English hunter will perform what would appear incredible in a fox oc slag chase. Those which draw carriages in tlie sirocts of London are often particularly beautiful. Tho exportation of horses has of late be- \ 142 ENGLAND. if j m Come a considerable article of commerce. The breed of asses and mule* begins likewise to be improved and encouraged in England. The English sheep are of two kinds ; thcie tlwt are valuable for their fleece, and those that are proper for tlie table. The former are very large, and their fleeces constitute the original staple commodity of En- gland. In some counties the inhabitants are as curious in their breed of rams as in those of their horses and dogs: and in Lincolnshire, particularly, it is no uncommon thing for one of these animals to sell for 50/. It must, however, be owned, that those large fat sheep are very rank eat- ing. The late Mr. Bakewell of Leicestershire was particularly famous for his improvements in the breed of sheep. Four or five hundred, and, according to some accounts, a thousand guineas have been given for the use of one of his rams for a single season. It is thought that in England twelve millions of fleeces are shorn annually ; which, at a medium of •2s. a fleece, make 1,200,000/. The other kind of sheep which are fed upon the downs, such as those of Banstead, Bagshot-heath, and Devon- shire, where they have what the farmers call the short bite, is little, if at all, inferior in flavour and sweetness to venison. The English mastiffs and bull-dogs are said to be the strongest and fiercest of the canine si>ecies in the world ; but either from the change of soil, or feeding, they degenerate in foreign climates. James I. of England, by way of experiment, turned out two English bull-dogs upon one of the fiercest lions in the Tower, and they soon conquered him. The mastitf, however, has all the courage of the bull-dog, without its ferocity, and is particularly distinguished for his fidelity and docility. All the different species of dogs that abound in other countries, for tlie field as well as domestic uses, are to be found in England. What has been observed of the degeneracy of the English dogs in foreign Countries is applicable to the English game-cocks, which afford much barbarous diversion to our sportsmen. The courage of these bird* is astonishing, and one of the tiue breed never leaves the pit alive with- out victory. The proprietors and feeders of tliis generous animal are likewise extremely curious as to his blood and pedigree. Tame fow Is are much the same in England as in other countries j turkeys, pcr.cocks, common poultry,*uch as cocks, pullets, and capons, geese, swans, du(;ks, and tame pigeons. The wild sort are bustards, wild geese, wild ducks, teal, wigeon, plover, pheasants, partridges, woodcocks, grouse, quail, landrail, snipe, wood-pigeons, hawks of dif- ierent kinds, kites, owls, herons, crows, rooks, ravens, magpies, jack- daws and jays, blackbirds, thrushes, nightingales, goldfinches, linnets, larks, and a great vaiiety of small birds } Canary-birds also breed in En- glHtid. The wheat-ear is by many preferred to the ortolan, for the deli- cacy of its flesh and flavour, and is peculiar to England. Few countries are better supplied than England with river and sea fish. Iler rivers and ponds contain plenty of salmon, trout, eels, pike, perch, smelts, carp, tench, barbel, gudgeons, roach, dace, grey mullet, bream, plaice, flounders, and cray-fish ; besides a delicate lake-fish, called char, which is found in some fresh- water lakes ofWales and Cum- berland, and, as some say, no where else. The sea-fish are cod, mackerel, haddock, whiting, herrings, pilchard, skaitc, soles. The john-dory, found towards the western coast, is reckoned a great delicacy, as is the red mullet. Several other fish are found on the same coast. As to shell-fish, they are chiefly oysters, tlie propagation of which, upon their proper banlcs, requires a peculiar culture. Lobsters, crabs, shrimps. ENGLAND. 143 1 1 vnA escallops, one of the most delicious of shell-fishes, cockles, wilks, periwinkles, and muscles, with many other small shell-fish, abound in the English seas. The whales chiefly visit the northern coast ; but great numbers pf porpoises and seals appear in tlie Channel. With regard to reptiles, such as adders, vipers, snakes, and worms j and insects, such as ants, gnats, wasps, and flies, England nearly resem- bles the rest of Europe ; and the difl^erence, if any, becomes more pro- per for natural history than geography. Natural curiositiks.] Among the natural curiosities of this coun- try, those of Derbyshire appear to deserve the tirst place. Elden Hole, about four miles from Mam Tor, or the Mother Tower, which is super- stitiously said to be continually mouldering aw ay but never to diminish, is a chasm in the side of a mountain, nearly seven yards wide, and four- teen long, diminishing in extent within the rock ; but of what depth is not knolvn. A plummet once drew 884 yards of line after it, of which the last eighty were wet, witliout linding a bottom. The entrance of Poole's Hole, near Buxton, for several paces, is very low, but soon opens into a very lofty vault, like the inside of a Gothic cathedral. The height is certainly very great, yet much short of what some have asserted, who reckon it a quarter of a mile perpendicular ; though in length it exceetls that dimension : a current of water, which runs along the middle, adds, by its sounding stream, re-echoed on all sides, very much to the asto- nishment of all who visit this vast cavern. The drops of water which hang from tlie roof, and on the sides, have an amusing ettect ; for they not only reflect numberless rays from the candles carried by the guides, but, as they are of a petrifying quality, they harden in several places into various forms, which, with the help of a strong imagination, may pass for lions, fonts, organs, and the like. The entrance into that stu- pendous cavern at Castkton, which is from its hideousness named the Devil's Arse, is wide at tirsL, and upwards of thirty feet perpendicular. Several cottagers dwell under it, who in a great measure subsist by guiding strangers into the cavern, which is crossed by four streams of water, and then is thought impassable. The vault, in several places, makes a beautiful appearance, being chequered with various coloured stones. Other extraordinary caverns are found in the mountains of the north of England, as Yordas Cave, in the vale of Kingsdale in Yorkshire, which contains a subterraneous cascade. Wethercot Cave, not far from Ingleton, is divided by an arch of limestone, passing under which is seen a large cascade falling from a height of more than 20 yards. The lengtii of this cave is about (JO yards, and the breadth 30. There are also, in various parts of England, many remarkable springs, of which some are impregnated either with salt, as that of Droilwich in Worcestershire ; or sulphur, as the famous well of Wigan in Lan- cashire j or bituminous matter, as that at Pitchford in Shropshire, Others have a petrifying quality, as that near Lutterworth in Leicester- shire, and a dropping well in tlie West Riding of Yorkshire. And, Anally, some ebb and flow, as tliose of the Peak in Derbyshire ; and Laywell, near Torbay, whose waters rise and fall several times in an hour. To these we may add that remarkable fountain near Richard's Castle in Herefordshire, commonly called Bone-well, which is generally full of small bones, like those of frogs or fish, though often cleared out. At Anclifl^ near Wigan in Lancashire, is the famous Burning Well ; the water is cold, neither has it any smell ; yet there is so strong a vapour of sulphur issuing out witli the stream, tliat, upon applying a light to it, the. •i t 144 KXGI,AND. top of the xvatrr i;5 covered witii a flame, like that of burning spirit^ V liich lasts scver.il hours, and eniii^ s.o strong a heat that meat may be boiled over it. The fluid itself will not burn when taken out of the well*. PoptL.Miov.] The population of England has been variously esti- mated by dirtercnt writers 5 but according to the returns under the late act, which, though they may not be perfectly accurate, certainly form a tlocument of very considerable aulhority, tiie number of inhabitants is In England 8,dl4,234 Wales 541,546 Scotland 1,607,760 Army ly8,35 1 Na\y I26,27g Seamen in registered vessels 144,553 Convicts 1,410 Total 11,234,138 To which if Wc add fojir millions, or somewhat more, whith Ireland is estimated to contain, We shall have, for the whole population of tlie «nited kingdom, above fifteen millions of souls. National chauacter, manners, customs.] Engliihmen, in their persons, are generally well-sized, regidarly featured, commonly fair, rather than otherwise, and florid in their complexions. Ihe women, ia their shape, features, and complexion, apjMjar so graceful and lo\ oly, that England may be termed tlie native country of female beauty. But be- side the external graces so peculiar to the women in England, they are •Still more to be valued for their prudent behaviour, thorongh rletinliness, and a tender atfection for their husbands and children, and all the en- gaging duties of domestic life. Li their dispositions the English are rather grave and phlegmatic, but not \\ itiiout an occasional mixture of vivacity, as they are perhaps not inferior to any nation in tnie wit and genuine humour. They are re- markable for a nervous .sensibility, which has been considered -m one of the sources of those singuhirities which so strongly characterise the En- glisli nation. They sometimes magnify the slightest appearances into realities, and bring the most distant dangers immediately home to them- selves 3 and yet, when real danger approaches, no people face it with greater resolution or constancy of mind. They are fond of clubs and convivial associations ; and when tliese are kept w ithin the bounds of temperance and moderation, they prove the best cure for those mental e.vils, wliich are so peculiar to the EnglLih, that fereigiiers have pro- nounced them to be national, The English nobiiity and gentry of great fortunes no^ assimilate their manners to those of foreigners, with v.hom they cultivate a more fre- quent intercourse tluin their forefathers did. Tliey do not now travel only as pupils,, to bring home the vices of the countries they visit, under th'' tuition perhaps of a despicable pedant, or family dependant ; but they travel for the purposes of society, and at the more adsauced ages of life, \\hen their judgements are mature, and their passions rej^ilaied. Tliis }ias enlarged society in Eiigland, which foreigners now visit as connnonly as Englishmen visited tliem. and tlie cli"t;.L« of tJie intercourse become d o h u • This extraordinary hoat lias been found to proceed from a vein of coals, which haH t)cea «iuce dug t'lviu under thi& \v «11 ; at which time tb« uncuuuuua wanutli ccatod. ENGLAND. 14) fi ,it u ;iev Onily more visiblt*, esjx^cially as it is not now, as formerly, confined to one sex. Such of the Engliih noblemen and gcntlenvcn as do not enter into t!i»« higher walks of lite, all'cct wliat we call a snug ratlier liian a ^l)lendid way of living. They btudy, and understand better than any people in the world, eonvenieney in thcii' houses, gardens, equipages, and estates ; ftid they sjiare no cost to purchase it. It Jias however been observed, that this turn renders them less connnunieative than tliey ouyht to be : but, on the other hand, the few conn.'r.ions they form are sincere, cheer- ful, and indissoluble. The like habits descend pretty tar into the lower janks, and are often discernible among tradesmen. This love of sm\\i- ness and conveniency may be called the ruling passion of the Engli-lj people, and is the ultimate end of all their application, l,:boiirs, and fa- tigues. A good economist, with a brisk run of trade, is generally, when turned of Hfty, in a condition to retire from business : that is, cither to purchase an estate, or settle his money in the funds. He then co:nmonl\ residei in a comfortable house in the country, often his i:aii\e cimnt), and expects to be treated on tJie footing of a gentlcnian } but liis style oi' living is always judiciously suited to his circumstances. I'Jie Inmianity of the English is manifested in the large subscriptions for public charities, raised by all degrees of both se.\es. Poor and miserable objects are relieved in England with the greatest liberality. The very persons who contribute to those collections are at the ^ame lime asse^ssd in proportion to their property for their parochial poor, v. ho have a legal demand for their maintenance ; and ujiv^'ards of three mil- lions sterling is said to be collected yearly in this country for charitable purposes. The institutions, however, of extra -parochiid intiin:aries, hospitals, and the like, are in some cases reprelu iibible. The va^t suni'i bestowed in Imilding them, the contracts made by their governors, and even the election of physicians, who thereby, iinal:ii;;d or umiualilied, ac- quire credit, which is the same as j)rolii, very olte!i begci heats an;l cabals, which are very ditferent iVop.i tin; purposes of disiiiiercstcd cha- rity (owing to the violent atvachmc.its and {uvpi.'ssessions of fiiend.-.), and too often even to party considerations. An Englishman of education and reading, is, perhaps, the iiiost accom- plished gentlejnan in the world : he is, liowtner, shy and reserved in h'u communications. This unamiable coldness is so far from being atlected, that it is a part of his natural constitution. Living learning and genius often meet not with their suitable regard, even from the fn"st-rate Englishmen; and it is not unusual for them to t'lrovv a'-ide tlu* best pro- ductions of literature, if they are not acquainted with th.c author. A\'hile the state distinction of Whig and Tory sulisisted, the heads of each party affected to patronise men of literary abilities ; but the pecuniary encou- ragements given them were but very moderate ; and the very few who met with preferments in the state might have earned them by a compe- tent knowledge of business, and that pliability which the dependents in office generally possess. Wc scarcely have an instance, even in the ijiu- nificent reign of queen Anne, or of her preilecessors, who owed so much to the press, of a man of genius, as such, being made easy in his circum- stances. Mr. AcUlii.un had about 300/. a year of the pir'.jlic money to assist him in his travels ; and Mr. Pope, though a Roman-catholic, v. us offered the like pension, by Mr. Cragg«, tlie whig .secretary of state, but did not accept of it ; and it was remarked, that his tory friend and companion, the earl of Oxford, when sole miniier, did notliing for him but bewail his misfortune in being a papist. Iiuleed, a fcA men of tii.- I !46' ENGLAND. ■"i-i I btineuished literary abilities, as well as sonic without* have of late receivei pensions trom the crown ; but, from the rondiict of st)nie ot tlu-m, it should st'Lin that state and party si-rviix -^ have born expected in return. The untviimcss of tlie Kngiish in (lair ( cKversntiun is very rrniark- ablc: sometimes it is dtliciie, sprightly, and replete v ;»1) true wit; sometimes it is solid, ingenious, and ...g'lnKMitativv j soniciimes it is cold and phlegmatic, and borders upon disgust ; nud all in the same person. In many ot their convivial meetings they arc very noisy, and their wit is olteii oH"ensi\e, while the hmdest are the most applauded. This i.s particularly apt to be the case in large <ompanies ; but, in smaller and more select parties, all the pleasures of rational conversation and agreeable society are enjoyed in England in a veiy high ilegree. The courage of the English is cool andlirni; if they have not that ardour of attack .'.omciimcs displayed by the iMench, they can support and defeat such an attack. Iheir soldiers will keep up their lire in the mouth of danger ; but when they deliver it, it has a most dreadful etlect upon tlieir enemies ; and in naval cni;;agements tliey arc unequalletl. The Engli.sh arc not remarkable for invention, though they are for tlicir im- provements upon the inventions of otliers ; and in the mechanical art* they excel all nations in the world. The intense application which an Englishman gives to a favourite study is incredible, and, as it were, ab- sorbs all his other ideas. This is the cause of tlic numerous instances of mental absence tJiat are to be found intlie nation. All tliat has been said concerning the English is to be understood of them in general, as they arc at present, or rather, perhaps, as they were j for it is not to be dissembled, that every day produces strong indication* of great alterations in their manners. The great fortunes made during the late and tlie preceding wars, the immense acquisitions of territo: v as well as commercial property in tlie East Indies, have introduced a species ot I)eople among the English, who have become rich w itJiout industry, and, by diminishing the value of gold and silver, have created a new hystem ot finance in tlie nation. Among the commercial ranks we lind a spirit of luxury and gaming that is attended w ith the most fatal et^ects, and an emulation, among merchants and traders nf all kiinls, to equal or surpass the nobility and the courtiers. The plain frugal manners of men of bu- siness, which prevailed so lately as the accession of the prc^er.t family t* the crown, are now disregarded for tasteless extravagance of dress and equipage, and tlie most cxiiensive amusements and diversions, not only in the capital, but throughout the trading towns in the kingdom. Even die customs of Uie English have, since the beginning of the last century, undergone an almost total alteration. Their ancient hospitality subsists but in ti^w places in tlie country, or is revived only upon elec- tioneering occasions. Many of their favourite diversions are now disused : those remaining are operas, dramatic exhibitions, ridottos, and some- times masquerades in or near London ; but concerts of music, and card and dancing assemblies, are common all over the kingdom. Stag aiul fox hunting, and horse-races, are sports of whi(^h many of the English are fond, e\en to infatuation. Somewhat, however, may be offered bf way of apology for those diversions : the intense application which the English give to business, tlieir sedentary lives, and luxurious diet, re- quire exercise ; and some think tliat tlieir excellent breed of horses is iucreased and improved by those amusements. Next to iiorse-racing and hunting, cock-lighting, to the reproach of the nation, is a favourite diversion among the great as well as the vulgar. Multitudes of both chsses assemble round th« pit at one of tlios^ matches, and enjoy thr ENGLAND. 147 pangs and deatli of this generous animal -, e^ ery spectator being concerned in a bet, sometimes of a high sum. The athletic diversion of cricket is still kept up in the southern ami western parts at' England, and is soms- liines practised by people of tlie highest rank. Many other pastimes are common in England, sonu of tlieni of a very robust nature, such as cud- * gelling, wrestling, bowls, skittles, quoits, and prison-base ; not to mention lUick-hunting, foot and ass races, dancing, puppet-shows, May-gailands, and, above all, ringing of bells, a species of nuuic which the English beast they have brought into an art. The barbarous diversions of boxing and prize-tighting, which were as frequent in England as the shows of gladi- ators in Rome, are now prohibited, though often practised ; and all places of public diversion, excepting the royal thealies, are under regula- tions by act of parliament. Other di\ersions, which are common in other countries, such as tennis, lives, billiards, cards, swimming, angling, fowling, coursing, and the like, are familiar to the English. Two kinds, and those highly laudable, are perhaps peculiar to them j and these are rowing and sailing. The latter, if not introduced, was patronised and encouraged by his present majesty's fitl.er, ilie late prince of Wales, and may be considered as a national improvement. The English aro amazingly fond of skaitlng, in which, however, thty are not very expert} but they are adventurous in it, often to the danger and loss of their lives. The game acts iiave taken from tlic common peopla a great fund of di- version, though without answering the purposes of the rich ; for tlie farmer and country people destroy the game in the nest, which tiiey dare not kill with the gun. This monopoly of game, among so free a people as tlic English, has been considered in various lights. In the dress of both sexes, before the present reign of George III. they followed tlie French ; but that of the military otlicers partook of tlie German, in compliment to his late majesty. I'he English, at present, bid fair to be tlie dictators of dress to tlie French themselves, at least with regard to elegance, neatness, and richness of attire. People of quality and fortune, of both sexes, appear, on high occasions, in cloth of gold and silver, the richest brocades, satins, silks, and velvets, both flow- ered and plain : and it is tw the honour of the court, tliat tlie foreign manufactures of all these are discouraged. J- :ti)<; of these rich stuffs are said to be brought to as great perfection in Engipi^.ci as they are in France^ or any otlier nation. The quantities of jewels that appear on public oc- casions are incredible, especially since the vast acquisitions of the English in the East Indies. Ihe same nobility, and persons of distinction, on ordinary occasions, dress like creditable citizens — tliat is, neat, clean, and plain, in the finest cloth and be.:.t of liiien. The lull-dress of a clerg)'- man consists of his gown, cassock, scLirf, beaver-hat and rt»se, all of black ; his undress is a dark-grey frock, and plain liiien. The physicians, the formality <»f whose dress, in large tie-perukes, and sword.s, was for- merly remarkable, if not ridiculous, now dress like other gentlemen and tiien of business. The people of England love rather to bo neat than tine in their apparel j but since the accession of his piesent majesty, the dn sses rit court, on particular occasions, are superb beyond description. Few, even of the lowest tradesmen, on Sundays, carry about them less than lOZ. in clothing, comprehending hat. stockings, shoes, and linen • and even many beggars in the streets appear decent in their dress. In short, none but the most abandoned oi' both sexe-> are otherwise ; and the appearance of aa artisan or manufacturer, in holi-day times, is commonly^ £1^ indication of his industry and morals. ClTltS, CHIEF TOWNS, EDIFICKS PUELIC AND PiilVATE.] LondoU, L2 m 1-18 ENGLAND. the metropolis of tlie British empire, and perhaps tlxe most populous and wealthy city in tJie world, appears to have been founded between the reigns of Julius Cavsar and Nero; but by whom, is uncertain ; for we arc told by 'lacitus, that it was a place of great tratte in Nero's time, and soon after became the capital of the island. It wa« first walled round, witli lipwn stones and British bricks, by Con.-tantine the (ircat ; j'.iid the walls formed an oblong square, in compass about three miles, with xeven principd gates. The same emperor made it a bishop's see ; for it npjiears that tlie bishops of London and York, and another English bishoj), were at the council of Aries, in the year 31-1. He also established a mint in it, as is plain from some of his coins. London, in die extensive sen>e of the name, including Westminster, Southwark, .ind part of Middlesex, is a city of surprising extent, of pro- -digious wealth, :md of the most extensive trade. This city, when con- nidi-'red with all its advantages, is now what ancient Rome once was the seat of liberty, the encouragcr oi' arts, and the admiration of the whole world. London is the centre of trade j it has an intimate connexion with all the coimtics in the kingdom ; it is the grand mart of the nation, to which all part> send their commodities, from whence they are again Hent back into every town in the nation, and to every part of the world, Lroin hence innxtincrable c:frriages by land and water are constantly em- ployed ; and from hcMice arises the circulation in the national body, which renders every pint healthful, vigorous, and in a prosperous condition ; a circulation that is equally berjcficial to the head and the most distant nieinbers. Merchants are here as rich as noblemen — witness their large and numerous loans to government; and there is no place in the world where the shops of tradesmen make sudi a noble and elegant appearance, or are better stocked. It is situated on the banks of the Thames, a river which, though not the largest, is the richest and most commodiov.s for commerce of any in the world ; it being continually filled with fleets sailing to or from Hie most distant climates ; and its banks, from London-bridge to Black- wall, are almost one continued great magazine of naval stores, con- taining three large wet docks, 32 dry docks, and 33 yards for the build- ing of ships for the use of the merchants, beside the places allotted for the building of boats and lighters, and the king*«i yards, down the river, ihr tlie building of men »)f war. As this city is about 0"O miles distant from the sea, i rnjoys, by means of this noble river, all the benefits of navig;uioti, wit lout tlu^ danger of being .surprised by foreign fleets, or of being aii'ioyed i)y tiic moist vapours of the sea. It rises regularlv irom the water-side, and, extending itself on both sides along its l)rink«, reaches a prodigious length from east to west, in a kind of amphitheatit; towards the north, and is continued for near 20 miles on all sides, in a succession of mngnilieent villas and y)opulous villages, the country (Seats of gentlemen and tradesmen ; wliither tlie latter retire for the l>eneflt of fresh air, and to rela.x their minds from the hurry of business. The regard ])aid by the legislature to the property of the subject has hitherto prevented any bounds being fixed for its extension. The irreguli'.r form of this city makes it diilicult to ascertain its ex- tent. Houe\er. its length from east to west is generally allowed to lie above seven mile.-:, from Ilyde-park Corner to Poplar: I'.nd its breadth in some places liuve, in others two, and ia others, again, not much % above half a mile. Hence the circumference of the whole is almost 18 miles J or, according to a modern measurement, tlie extent of coritinued and still iucrerj^ing bwiijjiiiigs is 35 n:iiles, 2 furlongs, and 39 roods-, bfit. ENGLAND. 141) But it is much easier to form an idea of the large extent jt a city so ir- ix^alarly built, by the numb'-r of the people, aniouniing, by the reluriis tinder the late population act, to 885,577 j and from the immbcr ut rdirices devoted to the service of rclij^ioii. Of these, besides St. Paul's cathedral, and the collegiate ch>;n.h at Westminster, here are 102 pariili churches, an:l 0'9 chapcis, of the esta- blished religion; 21 French protcstani chapels; 11 chapels belonging to the Germans, Dutch, Danes, ike. ; 20 independent meetinijs ; 34 prcs- byterian meetings ; 20 baptist meetings ; U) popish chapels, and meet- ing-houses for the use of foreign ambassadors, and people of various sects ; and tliree Jews' synagogues. So that there are 305 places d;'- voted to religious worship, in the compass of this vast pile of buildings, ■without reckoning the 21 oui-parishes usually included in tlie bills of mortality, and a great number of methodist tabernacles. There are also in and near tliis city 100 alms-houses ; about 20 hos- pitals and infirmaries ; 3 colleges ; 10 public prisons ; 15 flesh-markets; 1 market for live cattle ; 2 other markets more particularly for herbs -, and 23 other markets for corn, coals, hay, &c.; 15 inns of court; 37 j)nblic squares, besides those within single buildings, as the Temple, &c.j 3 bridges ; •!() halls for companies; 8 pi;blic scliouls, called free-schools; and 131 charity schools, which provide education for 5034 poor chil- dren : 207 inns; 447 taverns; 551 t utite-houses ; 5t)75 ale-houses; 120-0 hackney-coaches; 400 ditto chairs; 7'J'^^ streets, lanct-, courts, and alleys; and 130,00t) dweiling-hc.uscs, ctanaining, as has bt^-u already observed, nearly yoO.tXKJ inlmbiianis, who. according to c.ilculationi made .so many years ago that they may be considered as low in the pre- sent enlarged state of this great city, consuiiK^ annually 101,000 black cattle; 710,000 .sheep; l{j.j,CX30 calves; 210,(X)0 swine and pigs ; 1,172,500 barrels of strong beer; 3000 tuns of forei'^n wines; and eleven millions of gallons of rum, brandy, and other di.-)tilled liquoik; with 500,000 chaldrons of coals ibr i'liel. London-bridge was first built of stone in the reign of llcnry IL about the year 11 ()3, by a tax laid upon wool, which, in the course of time, gave ri.se to the notion that it was built upon wool-packs : from that time it has undergone many alterations and improvements, particularly since the year 175(i, when the houses were taken down, and the whol^ rendered more convenient and beautiful. Tlie passage for carriages is 31 feet broad, and 7 ^eet on each side for foot passengers. It crosses the Thames where it is t)l5 feet broad, and has ig arches of about 20 feet wide each ; but the centre one is considerably larger. Westminster-bridge is reckoned one of the most complete and elegant .structures of the kind known in die world. It is built entirely of stone, and extended over the river at a place where it is 1,223 feet bro.id ; which is above 300 feet broader than at London-bridge, On each side is a tine balustrade of stone, witli places of shelter from the rain. The %'.idth of the bridge is 44 feet; having on each side a fine foot- way for passengers. It consists of 14 piers, and 13 large and two f.mall arches, all semicircular, that in the centre being 76 feet wide, athi the rest de- creasing four feet each from the other ; so that the two least arclies of the 13 great one^ are each 52 feel. This magnificent structure was begun in 1738, and finished 1/50, at the ospenic of 339,000/. defrayed^ by tlie parliament. Blackfriars-bridge is not inferior to that of Westminster, eithotvin magnificence or workmanship ; but the situation of the ground on Tne two shores obliged ilie architect to employ elliptical arches ; which. I PI Ikl 150 EXGLAXD. I ■M however, have a very fine effect ; and mnny persons even preffr it t« Westminster-bridge. Thii* bridge was begun in l/tk), and finished in 1770, at the expense of 152,840/. The cathedral of St. Paul is the most capacious, magnificent, and regul::r protestant church in the world. The length within is 500 feet ; and its height, from thp n^arble pavement to the cross on the top of thu cupola, is 340. It is built of Portland stone, according to the Greek and Roman orders, in the form of a cross, after the modfl of St. Peter's at. Rome, to which, in some respects, it is superior. St. Paul's church is the principal work of sir Christopher Wren, and, undoubtedly, the only work of the san^e magnitude that ever was completed by one man. He lived to a great age, and finished the building 37 years after he himself laid the first stone. It occupies six acres of ground, though the whole Ipogth of this church measures no more than the width of St. Peter's. The expense of building, or rather rebuilding it, after the fire of London, was defrayed by a duty on «)als, and is computed .it a million sterling. Westminster-abbey, or the collegiate church ot Westminster, is a ve- nerable pile pf building in the Gothic taste. It was first built by Ed- ward the Confessor [ king Henry III. .ebuih it from the ground, and Henry VII. added a fine chapel to the east end of it. Tliis is the repo- sitory of the deceased Briti«h kings and nobility ; and here are also mo- numents erected to the memoiy of many great and illustrious perso- nages, commanders by sea and lauvl, philosophers, ptiets, &:c. In the reign of queen Anne, 4000/. a yciir, out of the coal duty, was granted by parliament for keeping it in repair. The inside of the church of St. Stephen, Walbrook, is admired for Its lightness and elegance, and do6s honour to the memory of sir Chris- topher Wren. The same may be paid of tlie steeples of St. Mary's-lc-; Bow, and St. Bride's, which are .supj^osed to be the most complete in their kind of any in Europe. The simplicity of the portico in Covent- j.;arden is worthy the purest ages of ancient architecture. That of St. Martin's in the Fields would be noble and striking, could it be seen from a proper point of view. Several of the new churches are built in an elegant taste, and even some of the chapels have gracefulness and proportion to recommend tliem. The banqueting-house at Whitehall is but a very small part of a noble palace designed by Inigo Jones, for the royal residence ; and, as it now stands, under all its disadvantages, its symmetry and prnaments are in the highest style and execution of archi- tecture. Westminster-hall, though on the outside it makes no very advantnga- OU3 appearance, is a noble Gothic building, and is said to be the largest room in the world the roof of which is not supported by pillars -. ii being 230 feet long, and 70 broad. The roof is the finest of its kind. Here are held tlie cpronation-feasts of our kings and (jueon' ; also the courts of chancery, king's-bench, common-pleas, and exdietjuer. The Monument, erected at the charge of the city, to perpetuate tlie meitiory of its being destroyed by fiie, is worthy of notice. This co- lumn, which is of the Doric order, exceeds all the obelisks and jjil'ars of the ancients, it being 202 feet high, with a stair-ca.se in the middle to ascend to the balcony, whence there art- other steps to the top, which is la^hioned like an ;irn, with a flame issuing from it. On the base of the monuinent, next the street, the destruction of the city, and the relief gil'en to the sufferers by Charles II. and his bnither, are emblematically represented in bas-relief. The north ami south siiles of the ba.se have e:ich a Latin iuBcription^ tlie one describing its dreadful debolation^ aixl ENGLAND. I^J it t« \cd ill and feet; thii Ik and }r's af. rch in onlv He Im.self hole iter's. idon. tljc otlicr its s]>letulid resurrection ; and on the east side is an inscription, statinj^ « heii the pilhir was begun and finished. The rliaii^c ot" erecting this monument, which was bcj^iin by sir Chrislopher Wren in Ki/l. and finished by hi?n in 107", anionnted to upwards of i:{,()tX)/. The Royal I'.xcliange is a large and noble buiUling, and is said to have cost above HO.CKXJ/. The Terrace in the Adelphi is a very tine piece of architecture, and has laid open one of the tiin.st prospects in tJie world. We might here give a description of the Tower, Bank of England, the new Treasury, the Adiniralty^)tfice, and the Horse-guards at Wliite- hall, tlie Mausion-house, or house of the lord-mayor, tiie Custom-house, Excise-office, India-hou'^e, and a vast nutuber of other public buildings; beside the magniticent editiet-s raised by our nobility ; as lord Spencer's house, Marlborough-house, and Buckinghaiu-house, in St. Jaiues's-park ; the earl of Chesterfield's-house near Hyde-p;irk ; the duke of Devon- shire's, and the late earl of Bath's, in Piccadilly; the m uquis of I«ins- down's in Berkeley-square ; Northumberlaud-house in t!ie Strand ; Mon- tague-house (the British Museum*), in Blooinsbuiy; C.n Iton-house, the residence of his royal highness the prince of Wales, in Pall-Mall ; Foley-house, and Burlington-housc ; with a number of others of tlie no- bility and gentry : but these would be sufficient to fill a large volume. This great nnd poptilous city is supplied witli abundance of fresh wa- ter, from the Thames and the New River, which is not only of incon- ceivable .service to every family, but, by means of fire-plugs every where dispersed, the keys of which are deposited with the parish-otKcers, tlie city is in a great measure secured from the spreading of fire. Before the conflagration in lO'OC), London (whicli, like most other great cities, had arisen from small beginnings) was totally inelegant, in- convenient, and unhealth)' ; which latter misfortune, witliout doubt, pro- ceeded from the narrowness of the streets, and the unaccoutUable pro- jections of the buildings, that confined die putrid air, and, joined witli other circumstances, such as the want of water, rendered tlie city seldom free fi-om pestilential contagion, 'llu- fire, which consumed tlie greatest part of the city, dreadful as it was to the inhabitants at tiiat time, was productive of conseciuences wlych made ample amends for the losses sustained by individuals : a new city arose on the ruins of tlie old ; but, though more regular, open, convenient, and heakhtul than tlie former, yet it by no means had the character of magnificence or elegance, in many particulars ; and it is ever to be lamented that the magnificent, elegant, and useful plan of the great sir Christopher Wrei , was lotally dis- regarded and sacrifiied to tlie mean and selfish views of private property. The plan of London, in its present state, will in many in^tances ap- pear, to very moderate judges, to be as injudicious a disposition as can easily be conceived for a city of extensire commerce, on the border of so noble a river as the Thames. The wharfs and quays on its b-anks ate extremely mean and inconvenient ; and tlie want of regularity and * Sir TIaiis .SJonnp, hart, (wlio died in 1753) may not improperly be called tlit; foundiT of tlic British .Museum; f>»r its iK-iiig wstablished by parliuiuoiit was ouly in ••onsoqufiKc of his leaving, by will, bis noble collection of natural history, his lara:*; library, and his numerous curiosities, wliich cost him 50,000/., to the use of the public, on condition that the |)ariiament would pay '20,1)00/. to hi.s cxt^cutors. To this collection '.verc mlded tli<^ Cottonian library ; the Harleian mHuusoriptii, collected by the Oxford family, and purchased likewise by the parliament ; and a ^•ollection of books j!;i\ en by the lute major Edwards. His late majesty, in roMi- deration gf its (rrtat n.'^efulncss, was (rracioiisly j>k'ascd to add thereto the roya libraries of books and iiiauuscripts collected by tiic several kings of England. (ill U' ii^l I 152 ENGLAND. a in uniformity in the streets of the city of London, and tlie mean avenues to many parts of it, are also circumstances that greatly lessen the grandeur of its appearance. Many of the churches, and otJier public buildings, are likewise thrast up in corners, in such a manner as might tempt tb- re'fgners to believe that they vere designed to be concealed. The im- provements of tlie city of London for some years past have i:oue\cr been very great J and the new streets, which arc numerous, are spacious, and built with great regularity and clcganrc. In the centre of the town, and upon the banks of the noblest river in Europe, was a chain of wretched, ruinous houses, known by the name of IJurham-yard, the Sa\oy, and Son:ersct-house. The iirst, being private property, engaged the notice of the ingcni(;us Adams, who opene(l the way to a piece of scenery, which no city in Europe can ecjual. On the site of Durham-yard was raised, upon arches, the pile of the Adelphi, celebrated for its enchanting prospect, the utility of its wharfs, and its .^uhtcrraneor.s apartments, answering a variety of purposes of general benefit. Contiguous to the Adelphi stands the Sa\t)y, the property of govorument, hitherto a nuisance ; and, adjoining to the Savoy, towards the Temple, stood Somerset-house, where, being the property of govern- ment al.'^o, a pile of buildiii^^s ior public orlices has been erected ; an^ Iiere, in a very magnificent editice, are elegant apartments appropriated i(;r the use of the Hoyal Society, the Royal Academy of painting and sculpture, i\nd tlie Society of Antiqur.ries. Aloorliclds, long a waste and mean part of the town, has become the site of a square called Finsl)ury-s(juare, more regular and elegant thsii many of those at the west end of the metropolis. The narrow and in- convenient passage of Snow-hill has been opei;ed by a spacious street of lofiy and elegant houses. A considerable improvement of the same na- l.irc is likewise making at Temple-bar, though the gate is still sutfered to remain. Near Bedford-sciuare, which is likewise of recent date, the new hireets and squares now building on the estate of the duke of Bedford, and which .were planned and begun by the late iluke, are on a most ex- tensl\e and sumpiuous scde. A spirit of improvement, indeed, seems universal amntig all degrees (if people. 1 'iie roads leading to this great metropolis are not only lighted by lamps regularly jilaced on eacli side at short distances, but are rendered more se- cure by wauhmen stationed within call of each other. N(;thiMg can ap- l>ear more brilliant than those light.-., when viewed at a distance, espe- <'ia11y where the roads run across ; and even the princi[)al streets, such as I'all-iMall, New Bond-street, Oxford-street, vScc. convey an idea of ele- i;ance and niarrniiicence. Foreigners are surprised that t!ie monarch ot the richest nation in Eu- rope .should be so hiditierently lodged in his capital. The {Jidace of St. James is commodious, but has the air of a convent j and that 'of Kensington, which was purchased from the Finch family by king Wil- liam, is remarka^ile only for its gardens. Other houses, though belong- ing to the king, are l"ar from de-erving the name of royal. Windsor-castle is the only fa'n-i(^ that merits the name of a royal pa- lace in England ; and tliat chiefiy through its beautiful and commanding fcituation, w'lieh, with tiie form ot its constructioii, rendered it, before the iiuroduction of artillery, impregnable. Hampton-court was the ta- \ourite residence of king William. It is built in the Dutch taste, and lias f-ome good apartments, anil, like Windsor, is near the Thames. Botli the-e i)alaces have some good pictures; but nothing e(|ual to the ijja'niilicent collection x))ade by Charles 1. and disisipalcd ia the time of ENGLAND. 153 the civil wars. The cartoons of Raphael, which, for design and expres- sion, are reckoned the master-pieces of painting, have by his present ma- jesty been removed from tiie gallery built for them at Hampton-court, to the Queen's palace, formerly Buckingham-house, in St. James's Park. Next to the royal palaces, if not superior, in magnificence and expen- sive decorations, are many private seats in tlie neighbourhood of London, and in every part of the kingdom, in which the amazing opulence of tlie English nation shines forth in its fullest point of view. In tliese also the princely fortunes of the nobility are made subservient to the finest clas- sical taste ; witness the seats of the marquis of Buckingham and earl Pembroke. At the scat of tlie latter, more remains of antiquity are to be found than arc in the possession of, perhaps, any otlier subject. The houses of the English nobility and gentry are peculiarly distin- guished by the appropriate adaptation of their parts, tlie richness and ele- gance of their furniture, and tlie acUiiirable preservation in which the whole is kept ; as well as by tlieir hortulane and rural decorations, vistas, opening landscapes, temples ; — all the residt of that enchanting art of imi- tating nature, and uniting beauty with magnificence. It cannot be expected that we should here enter into a particular de- tail of all the cities and towns of England, which would far exceed the limits of this work : we shall tiierefure only mention some of the most considerable. York is a city of great antiquity, pleasantly situated on the river Ouse. It i^ surrounded with a good wall, through which are four gates and five posterns. Here are seventeen i)arish-churches, and a very noble cathedral, or minster — it being one of the finest Gothic buildings in England. It extends in length 525 feet, and in breadth 1 10 feet. The nave, which i« larger than any in Christendom, except that of St. Peter's church at Rome, is four feet and a half wider, and eleven feet higher, tlian that of St. Paul's cathedral at London. At the west end are two towers, con- nected and supported by an arch which forms the west entrance, and is reckoned the largest Gothic arch in Eurpoe. The windows are finely painted, and the front of the clioir is adorned with statues of all tlie kings of Englind,from William the Norman to Henry VI. 3 and there are thirty-two stalls, a'l of fine marble, with jjillars, each consisting of one piece of alabaster. Here is also a very neat Gotliic chapter-house. Near the catliedral is tlie Assembly-house, which is a noble structure, and which was designed by the late earl of Burlington. The city has a stone bridge of five arches over tlie river Ouse. It contains above 10,000 in- habitants. Bristol is reckoned the second city in the British dominions, for trade, wealth, and the number of its inhabitants. It stands upon tlie nortli and south side of the river Avon ; and the two parts of the city are con- nected by a stone bridge. The city is not well built; but, according to tlio late enumeration, contains 10,8t)() houses, and 0'3,0'45 inhabitants. Here is a cathedral and eighteen parish churches, besides seven or eight other places of worship. On the north side of a large squtue, called Queen's- .s(|uare, which is adorned with rows of trees, and an equestrian statue of \Villiam the I'hird, there is a custom-house, with a quay half a mile in Icngtli, said to be one of tlie most commodious in England, tor shipping and landing of uicrchanls' goods. The Exchange, where tlie merchants and traders met;t, is all of freeatune, and is one of the best of its kind in Europe. Liverpool, situate at the mouth tjf the river Mersey, carries on an ex- tensive traliic, and in population exceeds Bristol ; containing, in 1801, ;->» III ! ,1" M IM ENGLAND. i-'-ir 77,653 inliabitants. Its naturally advantageous situation has been con- siderably improved by art j particularly by the construction of three basins, or wet-docks, capable of containing near 400 ships dt 500 tons in perfect security. The city of Exeter was for some lime the seat of the AVest-Saxon kings; and the walls, which at thi:< time enclose it, were built by king Athelstan, who encompassed it also with a ditch. It is one of the first cities in England, as well on account of its buildings and wealth, as its extent, and the number of its inhabitants. It has six gates, and, includ- ing its suburbs, is more than two miles in circumference. There are sixteen pirish churches, besides chapels, and five large meeting-houses, within the walls of this city. I'he trade o( Exeter, in serges, perpetuans, long-cUs, druggets, kerseys, and other woollen goods, is very great. Ships come U}) to this city by means of sluices, ■ The city of Gloucester stands on a pleasant hill, with houses on every descent, and is a clean, well-built town, with the Severn on one side, a branch of which brings ships up to it. The cathedral here is an ancient and magnificent structure; and there are ;dso five parish churches. Litchfield stands in a valley, three mile^; south of the Trent, and is divided by a stream which runs into tliat river. The cathedral was founded in the year 1118: it. was much damaged during the civil war, but was so completely repaired soon after the Restoration, that it is now one of the noblest Gothic structures in England. Litchfield is thought to be the most considerable city in tJie north-west of England, except Chester. Chester is a large, popidous, and wealthy city, with a noble bridge, that has a gate at each end, and twelve arches over the Dee, whicn f-'lls into the sea. It has eleven parishes, and nine well-built churches. The streets are generally even and spacious, and, crossing one another in straight lines, meet in the centre. The walls were first erected by Edel- fleda, a Mercian lady, in the year pOS, and join on the south side of tbtt city to the castle, from whence there is a pleasant walk round the city upon the walls, except where it is intercepted by some of the towers <)\er the gates ; and from thence there is a prospect of Flintshire, and the mountains of Wales. •••^ Warwick is a town of great antiquity.'and appears to have been of eminence even in the time of the Romans. It stands upon a rock of free-stone, on the banks of the Avon : and a way is cut to it through the rocks, from each of the four cardinal points. The town is populous, and the streets art- spacious and regular, and all meet in the centre of the town. The city of Co\ entry is large and populous. It was fermerly sm*- ro! Ill (led by a strong wall, and had twelve noble gates. It hasahand- .some town-house, ami three parish churches, the steeple of one of which (St. Michael's) is esteemed a master-piece of architecture. Salisbury is a large, neat, and well-buil; city, situated in a valley, and watered iiy tiie Upper Avon on the west ami south, and by the Bourne on the east. The streets are generally spacious, and built at right angles. 'I'hcr cathedral, which was finished in 13.58, at the expen.se of above 20',0(X)/. is, lor a Gothic building, the most elegvnt and regular in tlie kingdom. It is in the form of a lantern, with a beautiful .spire of free- fitone in the midille, whiih i.-, 410 feet high, being the tallest in England. Ti<c lengtii of tiH> < hunh is 4/b feet, the breadth is yO feet, and the height of the vaiihiiig HO feet. Thtf church has a cloister, which is 150 feet stpiare, and of as fnie w cnkmanship as any in England, llie chap- ENGLAND. 1S3 t<>r-hou.>c, which is an octagon, is 150 feet in c'lrcumferenoe ; and yet tlie roof bears all upon one small pillar in the centre, so much too weak, in appearanre, for the support of such a prodigious weight, that the con- struction of this building is thought one of tlie greatest curiosities in England. Tile city of Bath took its name from some natural hot baths, for the medicinal w;iters of which this place has been long celebrated, and much frequented. The seasons for drinking the Bath waters are the s-jiring and autumn; tiie spring season begins with April, and ends with Junej the autumn season begins with September, and lasts to December ; and som« patients remain here all the winter. In the spring, this place is most fre- quented for health, and in the autumn for pleasure, when at least two tliirds of the company, consisting chiefly of persons of riink mul fortune, come to partake of the amusements of the place. In some seasons there have been no less than 81X)0 persons at Bath, besides its inhabitants. Some of tlie buildings lately erected here are extremely elegant, particu- larly Queen's-square, the North and South Parade, the iloyal Forum, 4he Circus, and Crescent. Nottingham is pleasantly situate on the ascent of a rock, overlook- ing the river Trent, which runs parallel with it about a mile to the south, and has been made navigable. It is orie of the neatest places in England, and has a considerable trade. Manchester, situate ai the confluence of the rivers Irk and Irwell in Lancashire, though considered only as a village or market-town, exceeds in population every other town or city in England e.\cept the metropolis j <he number of its inhabitants in 1801 being 84,0'iO. This it owes to its immense cottcMi manufactories, which, beside the towns-people, are said io give employment to tifty or sixty tliousand persons. Birmingham in Warwickshire, and Shetlield in the southern part of Yorkshire, contain extensive manufactories of different kinds of hardware and cutlery; and both (the former especially) are in consequence extreme- Jy populous, the number of inhabitants being in the former, in 1801, 73,670, aixl in the latter 31,314. No nation in the world, has such dock-yards, and all conveniences for construction and repairs of the royal navy, as Portsmouth (the most regular fortification in England), Plymouth (by far the best dock-yard), (^liatham, Woolwich, andDeptford. The Royal Hospital at Greenwich, for superannuated seamen, is scarcely exceeded by any royal palace, for its magnificence and expense. CoMMERCB AND M ANUi'ACTURF.s.] It is wcU knowu that commcroe and maimfactures have raised the English to be tlie first and most pow- erful people in the world. Historical reviews, on this 1k\u1, would be 4edious. It is sufiicient then to sar, that it was not till the reign of lilizabeth that England began to feel her true weight in the scale of commerce. She planned some settlements in America, particularly Virginra, but left the expense, attending tliem to be defrayed by her sub- jects ; and indeed she was too parsimonious to carry her own notions of trade into execution. James 1. entered upo!i great and beneficial schemes for the English trade. The East-India company owes to him their suc- cess and existence ; and British America saw her most flourishing colo- nies rise under him and his family. l"he spirit of commerce went hand in hand witli that of liberty; and tlunigh the Stuarts were not friendly to the latter, yet, during the reigns of the princes of that family, the Uade of llie nation was greatly increased. It is not intended to follow it iiii ;;«!' I ■4' 1^50 ENGLAND. Commerce through all her fluctuations, but only to give a general re^ presentation of the commercial interest of the nation. Tlu- present system of English politics may properly be said to have taken rise in tlie reign of queen Elizabeth. At that time the protcstant religion was established, which naturally allied us to the reformed stales, and made all the popish powers our enemies. We began in the same reign to extend our trade, by which it became necessary for us also to watch the commercial progress of our neighbours, and, if not to inconmiode and obstruct tlieir traftic, to hinder them from impairing ours. We then likewise settled colonies in America, which was become the great scene of European ambition ; for, seeing v itli what treasures the Spaniards were annually enriched from Mexico and Peru, every nation imagined that an American conquest or plantation would certainly fill the mother-country with gold and silver. The discoveries of new regions, which were then every day made, the profit of remote traffic, and the necessity of long voyages, produced, in a few years, a great multiplication of shipping. I'he sea was considered as the wealthy clement j and, by degrees, a new kind of sovereignty arose, called mtval dominion. As the chief trade of Europe, so the chief maritime power, was at first in the hands of the Portuguese and Spaniards, who, by a compact to which the consent of other princes was not asked, had divided tlie newly-dis- covered countries between them: but the crown of Portugal having fallen to tlie king of Spain, or being seized by him, he was master of tiie ship- ping of tlie two nations, with which lie kept all the coasts of Europe in alarm, till the armada he had raised at a vast expense for the conquest of England was destroyed ; which put a stop, and almost an end, to the naval power of the Spaniards. At this time the Dutch, who were oppressed by the Spaniards, and ieared yet greater evils tlian they felt, resolved no longer to endure tlie insolence of tlieir masters ; they tlierefore revolted, and, after a struggle in which they were assisted by tlie money and forces of Elizabeth, erect- ed an independent and powerful commonwealtli. When tlae inliabitants of tlie Low-Countiies had formed tlieir system of government, and some remission of tlie war gave them leisure to pro- vide for their future prosperity, they easily perceived, that, as tlieir terri- tories were narrow, and tlieir numbers small, they could preseiTe them- selves only by that power which is the consequence of wealth ; and that by a people, whose country produced only the necessaries of life, wealth was not to be acquired but from foreign dominions, and by transporta- tion of the products of one country into another. From this necessity, thus justly estimated, arose a plan of commerce, which was for many year» prosecuted with an industry and success per- baps never seen in the world before } and by which tlie poor teirauts of mud-walled villages and impassable bogs, erected themselves into high and mighty states, m ho set tlie greatest nionarchs at defiance, w hose al- liance was courted by the proudest, and whose power was dreaded by the fiercest nations. By the establishment of this state, there arose to JKngland a jiew ally, and a new rival. When queen Elizabeth entered upon the gov*»nniicnt, the customs produced only 3(5,0001. a year : at the Restoration, tliey were let to farm for400,tXX)/., and produced considerably above double that sum be- fore tlie Rerolution. The people of Loudon, before we had any planta- (ion! 100 and only us \ a tl ENGLAND. 157 {'ions, and when our trade was inconsiderable, were computed at about 100,000; at the death of queen Elizjibetli they were increased to 150,000, and are now nearly six times that number. In those days we had not only naval stores, but ships, from our neighbours. Germany furnished us with ail things made of meti'.l, even to nails : wine, paper, linen, and a thousand other things, camii from France. Portugal furnished us with sugars : all the produce of America was brought to us from Spain; and the Venetians and Genoese retailed to us tJie commodities of tlits East Indies at their own price. The legal interest of money was twelve per cent., and the common price of our land ten or twelve years' pur- chase. We may add, that our manufactures were few, and those but indifferent} the number of English merchants very small ; and our shit> ping much inferior to what latel}' belonged to the Amciicmi colonies. Great Britain Is, of all other countrie.^^ the most proper for trade ; as well from its situatiuii as an isbnd, ss from the frcedtvU and excfl- Icnc}' of its constitution, and from its natural products ami conside- rable manufactures. For exportation, our country produces many of tlie mo.st substantial and necessary commodities ; as butter, cheese, corn, cattle, wool, iron, lead, tin, copper, leather, copperas, pit-coal, alum> saffron, &:c. Our corn sometimes preserves other countries from sfarving. Our horses are the most seiviceable in the world, and highly valued b/ all nations for their hardiness, beauty, and strength. With beef, mut- ton, pork, poultry, biscuit, we victual not only our own fleets, butmaiiy foreign vei'sels that come and go. Our iron we export manufactured in great guns, carcasses, bombs, &c. Prodigious and almost incredible is the value likewise of other goods from hence exported, viz. hops, flax, hemp, hats, shoes, household-stufl*, ale, beer, red-herrings, pil- chards, salmon, oysters, liquorice, watches, ribands, toys, &c. There is scarcely a manufacture in Europe but what is brought to great perfection in England. The woollen maimfacture is the most considerable, and exceeds in goodness and quantity that of any other na- tion. Hardware is anotho;- principal arti<:le : locks, edge-tools, guns, swords, and other arms, are of superior excellence ; household utensils of brass, iron, and pewter, also, are very great articles; and our clocks and watches are in great esteem. Of the Br'.tish commerce, that branch which we enjoyed exclusively, viz. the coumic'rce with our colonies, was long regarded as the most ad- vantageous. Yet, since the separation of tlie American States truni Gre;it Britains the trade, the induslry, and manufactures ot the latter have continuiUy increased. New markets have opened, the return* from which are more certain and less tedious than those from America, By supplying a greater variety \>f markets, the skill and ingenuity of our artisans have taken a wider range; the productions of their labour have ■ been adapted to the wants, not or" rising colonies, but of nations the most wealthy and the most rctined; and our connnerclal system, no longer resting on the artificial basis of monopoly, has been rendered more solid 4s well as more libejal. The trade of England to the United States, in a variety of articles, is likewise very considerable. The principnl islands belonging to the English, In the West Indies, are Jamaica, BarhadoLS, St. Chrisloplier's, GreJKida, Antigua, St. Vincent, Dominica, AnguiUa, Nevis, JMontserrat, the Bonnudas or Someri,' Islands, and the Bahama or Lucayan Inlands in thr' Aiiantie Ocean ; he- Rides IViifidad, ceded to England by the lat-.; trcai y of Amiens, and St. Luciii, recently taken from the French. The English tiaiie with their West-ludia Inlands consist* chiefly 1j« iiW'l IJS ENGLAND. sugars^ rum, cotton, logwood, cocoa, coffee, pimento, ginger, inclfgoy materials for dyers, mahogany and maiuhincel pJanks, dnigs and pre- serves. For these, the exports from England are Osnaburgs, a coarse khid of linen, with uiiich the We.st-Indians now clothe their slaves ; linen of all sorts, with broad-cloth and kerseys, for the planters, their overseers, and families} silks and stufi's for their ladies, and household servants ; hats ; red caps for their slaves of both sexes j stockings and shoes of all sorts j gloves and millinery ware, and perukes; laces for linen, woollen, and silkb ; strong beer, pale beer, pickles, candles, but- ter, and cheese; iron- ware, as saws, files, axes, hatchets, chisels, adzes, hoes, mattocks, gouges, planes, augers, nails, lead, powder, and sliot; brass and copper wares ; toys, coals, and pantiles ; cabinet-wares, snuffs ; and in general whatever is raised or manufactured in Great Britain ; also negroes from Africa, and all sorts of Indian goods. The trade of England to the East Indies constitutes one of Uie most stupendous political as well as commercial machines that is to be met •with in history. The trade itself is exclusive, and lodged in a company which has a temporary monopoly of it, in consideration of money ad- vanced to the government. This company exports to tlie East Indies all kinds of v\oollen jnanufacture, all sorts of hardware, load, bullion, and quicksilver. Their imports consist of gold, diamonds, raw silks, drugs, tea, pepper, arrack, porcelain or China-ware, salt-petre for home- consumptioa ; and of wrought siiks, muslins, calicoes, cottons, and all the woven manufactures of India, for exportation to foreign countries. To Turkey, England sends, in her own bottoms, woollen cloths, tin, lead, and iron, hardware, iron utensils, clocks, watches, verdigris, spices, cochineal, and logwood. She imports from thence raw silks, carpets, skins, dyeing drugs, cotton, fruits, medicinal drugs, coffee, and some other articles. Formerly the balance of this trade was about 5(X),(XX)/. annually, in favour of Engi;ind, The English tnide was afterwards diminished tJirough the i)racticcs of the Freiich ; but the Turkey trada*' at present is at a very low ebb with the French as well as the English. Enghuid exports to Italy woollen goods of various kinds, peltry, lea- ther, lead, tin, fish, and East-India goods ; and brings back raw and tfirown silk, wines, oil, soaj), olives, oranges, lemon;., pomegranates, dried Iruits, colours, anchovies, and other articles of luxury. To Spain, England sends all kinds of woollen goods, leather, tin, lead-, fish, corn, iron and brass manufactures, haberdashery wares, assortments of linen, from Genuany and elsewhere, for the American colonies ; and receives in remrn, v.ines, oils, dried fruits, oranges, lemons, olives, wool, iiuligi), cochineal, and other dyeing drugs, colours, gold and silver coin. I'ortugal f(-rmc;rly wn--'. upon commercial accounts, the favourite ally of England, v/hosellccs and armies have more than once saved her from destruction. P^ngland sends to this country almost the same kind of merchandises as to Spain, anil receives in return vast quantities of wines, with oils, halt, dried and moi.st fruits, dyeing drugs, and gold coin. The direct trade w ith France, Plolland, and Flanders, has been inter- rupted by the late and present w;u-s, though great cju.intities of Engfuh commodities .'till continue to he introducecl into Uioae countries through the ports of the nortli of Germany. England scnd.^ to the const of (niinea sundry sortr, of coarse woollen and linen, iron, pewter, brass, and hardware manufactures, lead, shot^ swords, knives, fire-aiins, gunpowc.ir, and glass manufactures. And, besides its drav. ing nu niciRv oi;i of the kingdom, it lately supplied the Amei ltX),( other To mud of w those ENGLAND- l5Cf American colonies witli negro slaves, amounting in number to above 100,000 annually. I'he other returns arc in gold-dust, gum, dyeing and other drugs, red-wood, guinea-grains, and ivory. To Arabia, Persia, China, and other parts of Asia, England sends much foreign silver com ;'nd bullion, and sundry English manutacture* of woollen goods, and of lead, iron, and brass j and brings home from those remote regions, muslins and cottons of many various kinds, cali- coes, raw and wrought silk, chintz, teas, porcelain, gold-dust, coftee, salt-petre, and many other drugs. And so great a quantity of those va- rious merchandises is exported to foreign European nations, as more than abundantly compensates for all the silver bullion which England carries out. During the infancy of commerce to foreign parts, it was judged expedient to grant exclusive chavtcis to particular bodies or corporations of men; hencwthe East-India, South-Sea, Hudson's-Bay, Turkey, Russia, and Royal-African companies ; but the trade to Turkey, Russia, and Africa, is now laid open ; though the merchant ^\ ho proposes to trade tliither must becon:ie a member of the company, be subject to their law 3 and regulations, and advance a small sum at admission, for the purpose of supporting consuls, forts, ^'c. The prodigious extent of the trade of England, and its great and rapid increase of late years, will clearly appear from a comparative statcmeai. of the imports and exports at different periods ; the value of wiiicli, in- cluding foreign mercliandise and manufacturer, in the }'ear5 undcrmcu- Itoned, was as follows : Imports. Exports. 1772, 14,500,000/. 17,719,000/. 1783, 13,325,000/ 14,741,000/. i79'i, 1D,()2CJ,000/ 24,878,000/. 1797, 21,450,000/ 28,917,000/. And on the 22d of June, 1802, the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Addington, stated to the house of commons, that the real value of im- ports in the year ending the 5th of January, supposing the imports from the East Indies to be the same as in the preceding year, might be eati- mated at about 58,0'80,000/.; that the real value of Britisli manutac- tures exported in the year 1801 might be estimated at 41,770,000/. ; and that of foreign merchandise at 15,750,000/., making for the whole of the exportation 57,520,000/. lie at the same time st;itcd, that the number of registered vessels be- longing to the British dominions, emplo)ed in trade in the year 1801, was 19,7/2; their tonnage 2,037>317; and their number of men 143,987. As the quantity of circulating specie may in some measure indicate the extent of coamierce, we may judge of the increase of the latter by comparing the sums which the three last monarchs found it necessary ro coin. By George 1., 8,725,c)21/. sterling were coined. In the long leign (thirty-three years) of (nurge II., ll,9()(j,57<)/. sterling j and in the first twenty-four years of his present majesty's reign the sums coin- ed amounted to 33,089,274/. sterling. Our botujds will not afford room to enter into a particular detail of the places where those English manufactures, which are mentioned iu the above account, are tabricatedj a few general strictures, howeser, nifly be proper. Cornwall arul Devonshire supply tin and lead •, and woollen manuflic- t • ' 1^1 Miii/ir \'n I! Iji' m '!! 160 ENGLAND. i-i '1^ i Els ,1 turcs are common to almost all the western counties. Dorsetshire makes <:ordage for the navy, feeds an incredible number of hliecp, and has large Jace-nianufactures. Somersetshire, besides furnishing lead, copper, and , lapis calaminaris, has large manufactures of bone-lace, stockings, and laps. Bristol is said to employ 2000 vessels of all sizes, coasters as well as ships employed in foreign vojages. It has many very important manu- factures ; its glass-bottle and drini<ing-glass one alone occupying fifteen large houses : its brass-wire maiuifactures are also very considerable. Extensive manufactures of all kinds (glass, jewellery, clocks^ watches, and cutler}', in particular) are carried on in London, and its neighbour- hood ; the gold and silver manufactures of London through the encou- ragement given them by the court and tb.e nobility, alre:uly equal, iftliey do not exceed, those of any country in Europe. Colchester is famous for its nunufacture of baize and serges ; Exeter for serges and long-ells ; and Norwich for its excellent stutfs, camlets, druggets, and stockings. Birmingham, though no corporation, is one of the largest and most popu- lous towns in England, and carries on an amazing trade in excellent and ingenious hardware manutVictures, particularly snutf and tobacco boxes, buttons, buckles, etwees, and many other sorts of steel and brass wares. It is here, and in Sheffield, which is lamous for cutlery, tliat the true genius of English art and industry is to be seen ; for such are their excellent inventions for fabricating hardwares, that they can afford ikem for a fourth part of the price at which other nations can furnish tlie same of an inferior kind : the cheapness of coals and all necessaries, and the conveniency of situation, no doubt, contiibute greatly to this. One company of iron manufacturers in Shropshire use e\ery day 500 tons of coals in their iron works. In Great Britain there are made every year from 50 to 00,000 tons of pig-iron, and from 20 to 30,000 tons of bar-iron. The norlhern counties of England carry on a prodigious trade in the coarser and slighter woollen manufactures ; witness those of Halifax, Leeds, Wakefield, and Richmond ; and, above all, Manchester, which by its variety of beautiful cottons, dimities, ticken, checks, and the like ■stufis, is become a large and populous place, though only a village, and its highest magistrate a constable. Beautititl porcelain and earthen-ware have of late )ears been manufactured in different places in England, particularly in Worcestershire and Staffordshire. The English carpets, especially those of Axminster, Wilton, and Kidderminster, though but a late nianufacture, greatly excel in beauty any imported from Turkey, and are extremely durable, and consequently are a vast saving to the nation. Paper, v\liich was formerly imported in vast (quantities from France and Holland, is now uiade in every corner of the kingdom. The Elnglisli manufactures have been lately estimated at the annual value of ()3,t;(X)j00<)/., and suppo-^ed to employ 1,535,000 people : of this sum, the woollea numufacture is stated to produce about 15,000,000/.; the leather 10,(jOO,000/. j the iron, tin, and lead 10,000,000/. 3 and the cotton f),(K)0,OGO/. Constitution and Government.] Tacitus, in describing such a constitution as that of England, seems to think that, however beautiful it may be in theory, it will be found impracticable in the execution. Ex- perience has p]o\ ed this to be a mistake ; for, by contri\ ances unknown to antiquit}-, the English constitution has existed for ;'.bo\c 500 )ears. It must at tlie same time be admitted, that it has received, during that time, many amendmonts, and some interruptions; but its principles are the same with those described by the above-mentioned historian a& belonging to the Germany and tlic other iiorilicru ancestors of tlie ENGLAND. and English nation, and which are very iniproperly blended under tlie name wf Gothic, On the first invasion of England by tlie Saxons, who came from Germany and the neighbouring countries, their laws and manners were nearly the same as tlw^se mentioned by Taciius. The people had a leader in time of war. The conquered lands, in proportion to the merits of his followers, and their abiiities to serve Ixim, were distributed among them ; and tlie whole was considcied as the common property, which they were to unite in detiending against all invaders. Fr^sh ad- venturers coming over under separate leaders, the old inhabitants were driven into Wales; and those leaders at hst assumed the titles of kings over the several districts they had conquered. This change of appella- tion made them more respectable among tlie Britons, and tlieir neigh- bours the Scots and Picts, but did not increase tlieir power, tlie opera* tions of which continued to be confined to military affairs. All civil matters were proposed in a general assembly of the chief of- ficers and the people, till, by degrees, sheritfs and other civil officers were appointed. To Alfred we owe that master-piece of judicial policy, the subdivision of England into wapentakes and hundreds, and the sub- division of hundreds into tithings, names that still subsist in England ; and overseers were chosen to direct tliem for the good of tlie whole. The sheriff was the judge of all civil and criminal matters within the county; and to him, after the introduction of Christianity, was added the bishd^. In process of time, as business multiplied, itinerant and other judges were appointed ; but, by the earliest records, it appears that all civil matters were decided by 12 or l6 men, living in the neigh- bourhood of the place where the dispute lay ; and here we have the «rigin of English juries. It is certain that they were in use among the earliest Saxon colonies, their institution being ascribed by bishop Nicholson to Woden himself, their great legislator and leader. Hence we find traces of juries in the laws of all those nations which adopted th« feudal system, as in Germany, France, and Italy j who had all of them a tribunal composed of twelve good men and true, equals or peers of th» party litigant. In England we tind actual mention made of tliem so early as the laws of king Ethelred, and that not as a new invention. Before the ' introduction of Christianity, we know not whether the Saxons admitted of juries in criminal matters ; but we are certain tliat there was no action so criminal as not to be compensated for by money*. A mulct was imposed, in proportion to tlie guilt, even if it was murder of the king, upon the malefactor; and by paying it he purchased his pardon. Those barbarous usages seem to have ceased soon after th« Saxons were converted to Christianity; and cases of felony and murder ■were then tried, even in the king's court, by a jury. Royalty, among tlie Saxons, was not, strictly speaking, hereditary, though, in fact, it came to be rendered so tlurough the affection which the people bore for the blood of tlieir kings, and for preserving the re- gularity of government. Even estates and honours were not strictly he- reditary, till they were made so by William the Norman. In many respects, the first princes of the Norman line afterwords did all they could to efface from the mind3 of the people the remembrance of the Saxon constitution; but the attempt was to no puipose. Tha nobility, as well as the people, had their complaints against the crown; and, after much war and bloodshed, the famous charter of English li- berties, so well known by the name of Magna Charta, was forcibly, ifj * Called by tbf ^fxoni Gosltj and thence the word guiUy, in cr^ijn»l triain^ M lit W t IliSli' ' 163 EKGLANtt. i '..; a manner, obtained from king John, and confirmod by his son Henry , HI. who succeeded to the crown in 12l6. It does not appear that, (ill , this reign, and after a great deal of blood had been spilt, the commons . of England were represented in parliament, or the great council of the ^ nation; so entirely had the barons engiossed to themselves tlie disposal , of property. The precise year when the house of commons was formed is not known: but we are certain there was one in the reign of Henry III. , though we shall nut enter itito any disputes about their specific powers. - Wc therefore How proceed to describe tlte constitution, as it stands at , present. In all statQji there is an absolute supreme power, to which tlie right of . legislation belongs ; and which, by the singular constitution of tliese _ kingdoms, is here vested in the king, lords, and commons. Of the king.] The supreme executive power of Grertt Britain and . Ireland is vested by our constitution in a sihgle person, king or queen -. ; for it is indifferent to wliich sex tlie crown descends : the person entitled ta it, whether male or female, is immediately intrusted with all the en- . signs, rights, and prerogatives of sovereign power. The grand fundamental maxim, upon which the right of succession to the throne of these kingdoms depends, is, " that the crown, by common law and constitutional custoniy is hereditary, and this in a manner pecu- liar to itselfj but that the right of inheritance may, from time to tim», be changed, or limited, by act of parliament : under which limitations the crown still continues hereditary." That the reader may enter more clearly into the deduction of (lie foi- lowing royal succession, by its being transferred from the house of Tudor to tliat of Stuart, it may be proper to inform him, that, on the death of queen Elizabeth without issue, it became necessary to recur to the other issue of her grandfather Henry VII, by Elizabeth of York his queen, whose eldest daughter iVIargaret having married James IV. king of Scot- land, king James the Sixth of Scotland, and of England the First, wix the lineal descendant from that alliance. So that in his person, as clearly as in Henry VIII., centred all the claims of the diflferent competitor.', from the Norman invasion downward ; he bcirig indisputably the lineal heir of William I. And, what is still more remarkable, in his person also centred the riglrt of the Saxon monarchs, which had been suspended from the Norman invasion till his accession : for Margaret, the sister of Edgar Atheling, tlie daughter of Edward the Outlaw, and grand- daughter of king ixlmund Ironside, was the person in whom the heredi- tary right of the Saxon kings (supposing it not abolished by the Con- quest) resided. She married Malcolm III. king of Scotland; and Henry il., by a descent from Matilda their daughter, is generally called tlie re- storer of the Saxon line. But it must be remembered that Malcolm, by his Saxon queen, had sons as well as daughters ; and that the royai family of Scotland, from that time downward, were tlie offspring of Malcolm and Margaret. Of ti>at royal family king James I. was the direct and lineal descendant; and therefore united in his person every possible claim, by hereditary right, to the Englieli ns well as Scottish throne, being the heir both of Egbert and ^Vllliam the Norman. At the Revolution in 1(>88, the cotuontii.n of estates, or representa- tive body of the nation, declared that thi* niisceuduct of king James II,- amounted to an abdlcaiioiy of the government, and that the throne was ifiereby vacant. In constMiueiice of this vacanry, ;:tul from a reg^.rd to tlie ancient line/ 1485 150?) 1547 1553 1558 ENGLAND. 100 tte convention appointed the next protestant heirs of the blood-royal of king Charles I, to fill the vacant throne, in the old order of sjuccession.j with atemporary exception, or preference to the person of kingWilliam III. On the impending failure of the protestant line of king Charles I. (whereby the throne might again have become vacant) the king and par- liament extended the settleriient of the crown to the protestant, line of king James I. — viz. to tlie princess Sophia of Hanover, and the heurs of her body, being protestants ; and she is now tHe common stock, from \vholn the heirs of the crown descend*. * A chronoiegy of English K incs, since tiie time that this country became united tinder one monarchy, in the person of Egbert, who subdued the other princes of the Saxon heptarchy, and gave liie nninc Angle-land to this part of the island ; the Saxons and the Ant^les having, about four centuries l)efore, invaded and subdusd the ancient Britons, whom they drove into Wales and Carawall. Began to . reign. 800 Egbfert 838 Ethehvulf Ethelbald Ethelbert Ethel red Alfred the Great Edward the £ld«r Atholstan Edmund Edred Edwy Edgar Edward the Martyr 857 8^0 866 871 901 925 941 946 955 959 975 978 1016 1017 1035 1039 1041 10C5 Ethelred II. Edmund II. or Ironside Canute king of Denmark Harold Hardicanute Edward the Confessor ? -Saxon Princ«'\ Harold 1066 William I. 1087 William II. 1100 Hcnrvl. Danish. Saxon. (commonly called the Conqueror) duke of Normandy, a provlnott facing tiiesouthof England, now annexed to the French territory. sons of the Conqueror. 1135 Stephen, grandson to the Conqueror, by his fourth daughter Adcla. 1 1 "SI u IT 5 ( ''lantagenet) grandson of Henrv I. bv his daughter the empress 10* Mcnry li. ^ >iaud, and her second husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet. Henry III. son of John. Edward I. son of Henry III. Edward II. son of Edward I. Edward III. son of Edward 11. Richard II. grandson of Edward III. by his eldest son the Black Prince. 1399 He r*IV 5 ^*^" ^'^ "'*^''" ^'^ ^*""^»*'"^'-' °^^*'*'^*'**®''' ^ ' l fourth son of J^dward III. 1413 Henry V. son to Henry tV. 1422 Itenry Vj. son to Henry V. 1461 Edward TV. descended froip Edward III. by Lionel' bin third son. } xt ^e 1483 Edward V. son of Edward IV. >• ^ i U83 Richard III,, brother to Edward IV. ) ^°^*^' 1189 1199 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 ;on t1 Br,i House of Lancaattfr. 1485 Henry VII. 1547 1553 :m8 (Tuflor) son of the < ountess of Richmond, of the house of Lancaster. Henry Vlll.'son of Henry VII. Edward VI. son of Heury VlII. ElSbeth \ daughter!^ of Henry VIII. M2 House of Tudor, in whom were united the houses of Lancaster and York, by the marriage of Henry VI I. with Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IVi lilli Mil fflj ill ^ ENGLAND. The trae grounJ and principle, upon which the Revolution proceeded, was entirely a new case in politics, which had never before hapi)ened in our history ; the abtlication of the reigning moniirch, and the vacancy of the thronf ilicreupon. It was not a defca.sance of the right of succession, and a now limitation of the crown, by the king and !i:)th hnuse«of parlia- nient ; it wa^ {\w act of the nation alone, upon a ctjuviction that there was no king in li ing. For in a full assembly of the lords and commons, met ill convention upon tlie supposition of this vacancy, boili houses came to this rcsolutioj): " that king James II. having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract be- tween king and people } and, by tlie advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn nims(^lf out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government ; and that t.he throne is thereby vacant. * Tl'.us ended at once, by tliis sudden and unexpected revolution, the old line of succession, which, from the Nor- man invasion, had lasted above O'OO years, and, from tlie union of the ISaxon heptarchy in king Egbert, almost t)00. Though in some points the revolution was not so perfect as might have been wished, yet from thence a new a^ra commenced, in which the bounds of prerogative and liberty have been better defined, the principles of goveninient more thoroughly examined ;ind inulerstood, and the rights . of the subject more explicitly guarded by legal provisions, tJian in any «thcr period of the English historv'. In particular, it is worthy observa- tion, Uiat the convention avoided with great wisdom the extremes into whicli the visionary theories of some zealous republicans would have led them. They held that the misconduct of king James amounted to .in en- deavour to subvert the constitution, and not to an actual subversion or total dissolution of the govemmt-nt. They therefore very prudently voted it to amouu: to no more than an abdication of the government, and a con- sequent vacancy of the throne ; whereby the government was allowed to subsist, though the executive magistrate was gone ; and tlie kingly «Hice to remain, though James was no longer king. And thus the con- stitution was kept entire ; w hich, upon every sonnd principle of g-overn- ment, must otiierwise have fallen to pieces, had so principal and consti- tuent a part as tiie royal authority been abolished, or even suspended. Began to > reign. Tnn UttipsT 5 G""^^^ sranilson of James IV. kinp of Scotland, 1>y Marp.irct, iouj james i. ^ daughter of Henry V II., and thst of tlit Stuart family in llnglandi 1625 Cliarlrs I. son of Janiop I. Cofiimonwoaltli and protfctorate of Croin'.vcH. 1649 Charlf"3ll. ) _„, <.,,, , , liTor 1- IT ^ sons of Charles 1. 1685 Jamrs n. \ ('William ill. Kfj^how and ion in-law of James IT. ■j 2iid } Daughters of Janifs II., in v\ho!n cndrd the protectant line ©f / Alitry y- Charles I. For James II. upon his al)di<-atlng the throne, rar- AiiU9 ) ried u ith him his suppostd infant son (the late Pretender), w ho was o.vcludvd hy aetof parliament, wLieh st-ttled the suecejsion in the next protestant lu irs of Jamt's I. Thg surviving issue of J.imef, at the liiic of his death, were a son and a daughter, vi/. Charles who sncrecdod him, and the priuciss THi/ahcth, ■A ho nianicd the Kleetor Palatine, who took the title of king of" Bohemia, and left a daughter, the princess Sophia, who mar- ried the duke of Bmnswiek-Lunenhurg, hy whom she hai fJoorirc, elector of Hanover, who asesnded the throne by act of parlianifni expressly niado in favour of his jnotlier. George I. George II. son ofOcor^e I. Ceori^e III, ^'landion ttf Georgc 16!^» j^y- 2:-'4 ■ f,0 ;pre?si House of Hanover, m ENGLAND. 165 Hence it hi easy to collect, that the title to the crown is at present here- ditary, though not (|uite so absolutely hereditary as tormerly ; and the common stock or ancestor, from whom the descent must be derived, is also different. Fonnerly ilu' common stock was king Fgbert; tlieii Williani theConcucror ; afterwarri, in Junes I.'s time, tlie two comnK)U stocks united, ana so continneU till tljc vacancy of the throne in 1(J88 : now tt is the prinn s Sophi.i, in whoni tJif inheritance was vested by the new king and parliflment. l'orm<Tly the descent was absolute, and the crown went to the next heir withoul ,:uy restriction; but now, up- on the new settlement, the inh<Titiince is C(jndi(ioii;il ; being limited to fuch heirs only of the body of the princess Sophia as are protestant members of the church of England, and are married to iume but protestants. And in this due medium consists the true constitutional notion of tb« right of succession to tlie imperial crown of llieiie kingdoms. I'hc. ex- tremes between which it steers, have been thought each of them to be destructive of those ends for which societies were formed, and are kept on foot. Where the ni'igistratc, upon every succession, is elected bv the people, and may, by the express provision of the laws, be deposed (if not punished) by his subjects, t!iis may sound like the perfection of liberty, and look well enough when delineated on pajier j but in prac- tice will be ever found extremely ditlicult and dangerous. On tliC other kand, divine indefeasible hereditary right, when coupled with the doc- trine of unlimited passive obedience, is surely, of all constitutions, the most thoroughly slavish and dreadfnl. Rut when such an hereditary right as our laws have created and vested in the royal stock is closely in- terwoven with those liberties which are equally the inheritance of tlie subject, this union will form a constitution, in theory tlie ncost beautiful of any, in practice the must approved, and, in all probability, in duration the most i)ernianent. This constitution it is the duty of every Britou to tmderstand, to revere, and to def(!nd. Tlie principal duties of the king are expressed in his oath at the coro- nation, which is administered by one of the archbishops or bishops of the realm, in the presence of all tlie people, who, on their parts, do recipro- cally take the oath of allegiance to the crown. This coronation oatli is conceived in the following terms : " The archbishop, or bishop, ahull say, Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the domi- nions thereunto belonging, according to the statutes in parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same ? — The king or queen shall say, I solemnly promise so to do. " Archbishop or bishop. Will you, to your power, cause law and jus- tice, in mercy, to be executed in all your judgements ? — King or queen. I will. " Archbishop or bishop. Will you to the utmost of your power main- tain tlie laws of God, the true profession of the Gosjjel, and tlie protestunt reformed religion established by the law ^ And will you preserve unto the bishops and clergy of this realm, and to tlie churches ctjinmitted to their charge, all such rights and privileges as by the law do or shall ap- pertain utito them, or any of them ? — King or qucat. All tbi-j I promise to do. " After this, the Idng or queen, laying his or her hand vpon the holy Gospel, shall say. The things vi'hich 1 have here before promised, I will perform and keep : so help ine God ! and then Jdss the Ixtok." This is the form of the coronation oath, as it is wow pre-^cribed by ©vir 'Ilii y W m 106 ENGLAND. ■11 [i-' ■ S laws : and we may observe, tliat, in the king's part in this original eon- tract, are expressed all the duties that a monarch can owe to his people ; viz. to govern according to law ; to execute judgement in mercy j and to maintain the established religion. With respect to the latter of these three branches, we may further remark, that by the act of union, 5 Anne, c. 8., two preceding statutes are recited and confirmed ; the one of the parliament of Scotland, the other of tlie parliament of England j which enact, the former, tliat every king at his accession shall take and sub- scribe an oath, to presei-ve the protestant religion, and presbyterian dmrch government in Scotland : the latter, tliat, at his coronation, he shall take and subscribe a similar oatli, to preserve the settlement of the church of England widiiii England, Ireland, Wales, and Berwick, and tlie teiTitories thereunto belonging. The king of Great Britain, notwithstanding the limitations of tlie power of the crown already mentioned, is the greatest monarch reigning over a free people. His person is sacred in the eye of the law, which makes it high treason so much as to imagine or intend his deatli } neitlier can he, in himself, be deemed guilty of any crime : the law taking no cognisance of his actions, but only in the persons of his ministers, if they infringe the laws' of tl}b land. As to his power, it is very great, though he has no right to extend his prerogative beyond the ancient limits or the boundari-rs prescribed by the constitution ; he can make no new laws, nor raise any new taxes, nor act in opposition to any of the laws : but he can make war or peace j send and receive ambassa- dors J make treaties of leagiie and commerce } levy armies, and iit out fleets, for the defence of his kingdom, the annoyance of his enemies, ©r the suppression of rebellions ; grant commissions to his officers, both by sea and land, or revoke them at pleasure ; dispose of all magazines, castles, &:c. ; summon the parliament to meet, and, when met, adjourn, prorogue, or dissolve it at pleasure j refuse his assent to any bill, though it has passed both houses ; which, consequently, by such a refusal, has "lio more force than if it had never been moved — ^but this is a preroga- tive that the kings of England have very seldom ventured to exercise. He possesses the right of choosing his own council ; of nominating all the great officers of state, of the household, and the «hurch ; and, in fine, is the fountain of honour, from whom all degrees of nobility and knighthood are derived. Such is tlie dignity and pov/er of a king of Great Britain. Of the parliament.] Parliaments, or general councils, in some shape, are, as has been before observed, of as high atitiquity as tlie Saxon government in this island, and coeval with the kingdom itself. Black- stone, in his valuable Commentaries, says, " Ji is generally agreed, that in l! ^ main the constitution of parliament, as it now stands, was marked out so long ago as t\^e l/th of Jiiug John, A. D. 1215, in tlie Great Charter granted by that prince j wherein he promises to summon all archbishops, bishops, abbots, Iqrds, and greater barons, personally ; and all other tenants in chief under the crown, by tlie sheriffs and bailiffs, to meet 'M a certain place, with forty days' notice, to assess aids and scutages when necessary. And this constitution hatli subsisted, in fact, at least from the year 126'<5, 49 Henry III,; there being still extant writs of that date to sunimon knights, citizens, and burgesses to par- liament." The parliament is assembled by the king's writs, and its sitting must not be nitermitted above three years. Its constituent parts arc, thp king, .sitting there in his I'oyal political capacity^ and the three estates of the ENGLAND. 1^7 son- ople; nd to these Inne, ■ the hich sub- erian n, he the and Malm — tlie lords spiritual, the lords temporal, who sit together with tlie king in one house, and the commons, who sit by themselves in another. The king and tliese tliree estates, together, form tlie great corporation or body politic of the kingdom, of which die king is said to be caput, principium, et finis: for, upon their coming together, the king meets tliem, either in person or by representation ; witliout wliich there can be no beginning of a parliament ; and he also has alone the power of dissolving them. It is highly necessary, for preserving tlie balance of the constitution, that tiie £rxccuti\ e power shoukl be a branch, though not tlie whole, of the' legislature. The crown caniiot begin of itself any alterations in the present established law ; but it may approve or disapprove pf the altera- tions suggested and consented to by tht two houses. The legislative, therefore, cannot abridge tlic exccwtive power of any rights which it now has by law, without its own consent ; since the law must perpetu- ally stand as it now does, unless all the powers will agree to alter it. And herein indj^ed consists tlie true excellence of the English governm^t, that all the parts of it form a mutual check upon each other. In tlie Iftgislature, tiie people are a check upon tlie nobility, and tlie nobility a check upon the people, by tlie mutual privilege of rejecting what the other has resolved ; while the king is a check upon both ; which pre- serves the executive power from encroacliments. The lords spiritual consist of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, with four bishops from Ireland. The lords temporal consist of all the peers of the realm — the bishops not being in strictness held to lie sucli, but merely lords of parliament. Some pf the peers sit by descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as do all tlie new-made onesj others, since the unions witli Scotland and Ireland, by "election, which is the ease of Uie sixteen peers who represent the body of the Scotch nobility, and the twenry-eight Irish peers who represent the Irish nobility. The number of peers is indelinite, and may b« increased at will by the power of the crown. A body of nobility is more peculiarly necessiiry in our mixed and com- pounded constitution, in order to support the rights of both the crown and the people, by forming a barrier to withstand the encroachrhents of both. It creates and preserves that gradual scale of dignity, whicli pro- ceeds from the peasant to the prince ; rising like a pyrarhid- from a bipad fonndatipn, and diminishing to a point as it rises. The nobility therefore are the pillars, wliich are reared from among the people, more Imme- diately U) support the throne; and if tliat tails, they must also be buried ii«der ir ruitis. iV^cordipgly, when the commons in the long parUament Iiad determined to extirpate monarchy, they also voted the house of Iprds to be useless and dangerous. I'lie commons consist of ail such men of any property in the kingdom as have not seats In the house of lords j every one of whorn has a voice in parliament, either persomilly, or by his representative*. In a free .'^tate, every man who is supposed a free agent ought to be, in some mea- sure, his own governor j and tl .erefore a branch at least of tlie Icgisla- i\\€ pwsver siiould reside in tlie whole body of tlie people. In so large a * This must be understood with some limitation. Those who arp possessed of Jaiul estates, though to the value of only 40s. per annum, have a ri^lit to vote for jn^mbcrs of parliament ; as have most of the membcisof I'arporations, bbrougbs, &o'. EUt there are very lar^e trading towns, and populous plaees, which send no mem- bers to parliament ; and of those towns whioli do send members, gr^at numbers of tlwjSnhabitants have no votes. Many tliousand persons of great personal property Lave, thcrt-lure, no rqircsenttttives. 168 ENGLAND. sdite as ours, it is very wisely contrived that the people should do that by their representatives which it is impracticable to perform in person,—. representatives chosen by a number of minute and separate districts, \vherein all the voters are, or easily may be, distinguished. The coun- ties are therefore represented by knights, elected by tlae proprietors of lands ; the cities ana boronglis are represented by citizens and burgesses, chosen by the mercantile part, or supposed trading interest, of the nation. The number of English representatives is 513, of Scotch 45, and of Irish 100 ; in all 658. And every member, though chosen by one particular district, when elected and returned, serves for the whole realm. For the end of his gding thitlier is not particular, but general ; not merely to serve his constituents, but also tiie commonwealth, and to advise his majesty, as appeals from the writ of summons. These are the constituent parts of parliament, the king, the lords spiri- taal and temporal, and the commons ; parts, of which each is so neces- sary, that the consent of all three is required to make any new law that shall bind the subject. Whatever is enacted for law by one, or by two only, of the three, is no statute ; and to ii no regard is due, unless in matters relating to their own privileges. The power and jurisdiction of parliament, says sir Edward Coke, is so transcendant and absolute, tliat it camaot be confined, either for causes or persons, witliin any bounds. It hatli sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making, confirming, enlarging, restraining, abrogating, re- pealing, reviving, and expounding of l;uvo, concerning matters of all possible denominations, ecclesiastical or temporal, civil, militarj', mari- time, or criminal j this being the place where that absolute despotic power, which must in all governments reside 9omc\\'here, is intrusted by the constitution of these kingdoms. All mischiefs and grievances, oppressions and remedies, that transcend the ordinary course of the laws, are within tlie reach of this extraordinary tribunal. It can regu- late or new-model the succession to the cro\^n ; as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish tlio religion of the land ; as was done in a variety of instances in the reigns of Heru-y VIII. and his tliree children, Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. It can chango an.4 create afresh even the constitution of tlic kingdom, and of parliaments themselves ; as was done by the act of union, and the several statutes for triennial and septennial elections. It can, in short, do every thing tliat is not naturally impossible j and therefore some have not scrupled to call its power, by a figure rather too bold, the oirmipotence of parliumaU . But then its power, however great, was given to it in trust, and therefore ought to be employed according to the rules of justice, and for the promotion of tlie geneial welfare of tho people. And it is a matter most essential to the liberties of the king-^ dom, tliat such members be delegated to this importatit trust as are most eminent for their probity, their fortitude, and their knowledge ; for it was a known apophthegm ^f the great lord-treasurer Burleigh, " that England could never be mined but by a parliament j" and, as sir Mat- thew Hale observes, this being the highest and greatest court, over wliich none other can have jurisdiction in the kingdom, if. by any means a misgovemment should any way fiill upon it, the subjects^ of tliis king- dom are left without all manner of legal remedy. In order to prevent the mischiefs that might arise by placing this ex- tensive authority in hands that are either incapable or improper to ma- nage it, it is provided, that no one shall sit or vote in either house of parliament, unless ha be twenty-one years of age. To prevent inno- vat^(;ns in rejigion and govtrnment, it is enacted^ that no member sludl ENGIAND. 16^ rote or sit in either house, till he hatli, iu the presence of the house, taken tlie oaths of allegiclnce, supren^acy, and abjuration, and sub- scribed and repeated tlie declaration against transubstantiation, the in- vocation of saints, and the sacritice of the mass. To prevent dangers that may arise to tlie kingdom from foreign attachments, connexions, or dependencies, it is enacted, that no alien, born out of the dominions of the crown of Great Britain, even tliough he be naturalised, shall be capable of being a member of eitlier house of parliament. Some of the most important privileges of the members of either house are, privilege of speech, of person, of their domestics, and tlieir lands and goods. As to the first, privilege of speech, it is declared by tlie sta- tute of 1 W. & M. St. 2. c. 2., as one of the liberties of tlie people, " tliat the freedom of speech, and debates, and proceedings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of parlia- ment." And this freedom of speech is particularly demanded of the king in person, by the speaker of the house of commons, at liic opening of every new parliament. So are tlie other privileges, of person, ser- vants, lands, and gootls. This includes not only privilege I'roin illegal violence, but also from legal arrests, and seizures by process from the courts of law. To assault by violence a member of either house, or his menial servants, is a high contempt of parliament, ar.d there punished with tlie utmost severity. Neither can any member of either house be arrested and taken into custody, nor served with any process of tlie courts of law } nor can his menial servants be arrested ; nor can any entry be made on his lands ; nor formerly could his goods be distrained or seized,' witliout a breach of the privilege of parliament*. The house of lords have a right to be attended, and consequently are, by the judges of tht^ courts of king's bench and common pleas, and such of the barons of the exchequer as are of the degree of the coif, or have been made serjeants at law, as likewise by tl»e masters of the court of chancery, for their advice in points of law, and for the greater dignity of their proceedings. The speaker of the house of lords is generally the lord chancellor, or lord keeper of the great seal } which dignities are commonly vested in the same person. Each peer has a right, by leave of the house, as being his own repre- sentative, when a vote passes contrary to his sentiments, to enter his dissent on the jovmials of the house, with the reasons 'of such dissent j which is usually styled his protest. Upon particular occasions, however, tliese protests have been so bold as to gi\ e oil'ence to the majority of tlie house, and have therefore been expunged from tlicir journsUs ; but this has always been thought a violent me;is\nc. The house of commons maybe properly styled the grand inquest of Great Britain, empowered to inquire into nil national grievances. The peculiar laws and customs of tlie house of eonmions relate principally to the raising of taxes, and the elections of meniiiers to serve in parliament. With regard to taxes — it is the ancient inaisputable privilege and right of the house of coiumons, that all grants of su'oiiuies, or parliamentary aids, do begin in tlieir house, and are first bestowed by them ; although their grants are not eflectual, to all intents and piii po.-es, until they have the assent of tlie other two branches of the legislature. U'he general * This exemption from arrests for lawful debts was always consiil<^rc(l by th« public as .1 grievance. The lords and commons therefore generously relinquished tilt ir privileures by act of parliamt'iijti ia 1770 j and members of both houses may now be sued like other debtors. 170 ENGLAND. .'h E> M reason giwn for this exclusive privilege of tlie house of commons is, that the supplies are raised upon the body of the people, and therefore it in proper that they alone should have the right of taxing themselves : and so reasonably jealous are the commons of this privilege, that herein they will not suffer the other house to exert any power but that of rejecting j they will not permit the least alteration or amendment to be made by the lords in the mode of taxing the people by a money-bill. Under this appellation are included all bills by which money is directed to be raised npon the subject, for any purpose^ or in any shape whatsoever, eitlicr for the exigencies of government, and collected from the kingdom in ge- neral, as the land-tax, or for private benefit, and collected in any parti- cular district, as by turnpikes, parish-rates, or in any other manner. ITie method of making laws is mxich the same in both hoases. In each house, the act of the majority binds the whole ; and this majority is de- clared by votes publicly and openly given ; not privately, or by ballot. The latter method might, perhaps, be serviceable, to prevent intrigues and unconstitutional combinations ; but it is impossible to be practised with us, at least in the house of commons, where every meiubor's con- duct is subject to the future censure of his constituents, and tiierefore should be openly submitted to their inspection. To bring a bill into the house of commons, if tlie relief sought by it be of a private nature, it is first necessary to prefer a petition, which roust be presented by a member, and usually sets forth tlic giievanee desired to be remedied. This petition (when founded on facts tliat may be in their nature disputed) is referred to a committee of rriembers, who examine tlie matter alleged, and accordingly report it to tlie house ; and tlien (or, otherwise, upon the mere petition) leave is given to bring iu the bill. In public matters the bill is brought in u})oii motion mado to the house without any petition. (In tlie house of lords, if tlie bill begh) there, it is, when of a private nature, referred to two of tlie judges » lo examine and report the stat» of the facts alleged, to see tliat all ne-' cessary parties consent, and to settle all points of technical propriety.) Tliis is read 3 first time ; and, at a convenient distance, a second time ; and after each reading, the speaker opens to the house the substance of the bill, and puts the question whether it shall proceed any further. The introduction of the bill may be originally opposed, as the bill itself may, at either of tlie readings ; and if the opposition succeeds, the bill must be dropped for tliat session ; as it must also, if opposed with success in any of the subsequent stages. After tlie second reading, it is committed ; that is, refeired to a com- mittee, which is either selected by the house, in matters of small im- portance } or else, if the bill is a matter of great or national consequence, the house resolves itself into a committee of the whole house- A c6rn- mittee of the ^hole house is composed of every member ; and, to form it, tlie speaker quits the chair (another member being appointed chair- man), and may sit and debate as a private member. In these commit- tees, the bill is debated, clause by clause, amendments made, tlie blanks filled up, and sometimes the bill is entirely new-modelled. After it has gone through tlie committee, the chairman reports it to the house, wi^th such amendments as the committee have made : and then the house rc-^ consider the whole bill again, and the question is repeatedly put upon every clause and amendment. Wlien the house have agreed or dis- agreed to the amendments of the committee, and sometimes added uc^ amendments of their own, the bill is then ordered to bo engrossed, o^ written iu a strong gross hand, on one or me>re long r«lls «f par4;liment '■ *■ V ENGLANFD. 171 «ewed togetlier. When this is finished, it }s read a thud time, and amendments are sometimes then mad« to it j and, if a new clause be added, it is done by tacking a separate piece of parchment on the bill, which is called a rider, "i^'he speaker then again opens tlie contents, and, holding it up in his hands, puts the question whetlier the bill shall pass. If this be agreed to, the title to it is then settled. After tliis it is carriqd to the lords, for their concurrence, by one of the members, who, at- tended by several more, presents it at tne bar of the house of peers, and tliere delivers it to their speaker, who comes down from his woolsack to receive it. It there passes through the same forms as in tlie other liouse (except engrossing, which is already done), and, if rejected, no more notice is taken, but it passes sub silentiOf to prevent unbecoming altercations. But if it bt? agreed to, tlie lords send a message by two masters in chancery (or sometimes, in matters of high importance, by two of the judges) that they have agreed to the same : and the bill re- mains witli the lords, if they have made no amendment to it. But if any amendments are made, such amendments are sent down with the bill, to receive the concurrence of the commons. If the commons dis- agree to the amendments, a conference usually ibllows between mem- bers deputed from each house, who, for the most part, settle and adjust the dift'erence ; but if botlj houses remain inflexible, the billic droppcd. If the commons agree to the amendments, tlie bill is sent back* to tho lords by one of the members, with a message to acquaint them there- with. The same forms are observed, mutatis mutandis, when thd bill begins in the house of lords. But when an act of grace or pardoi^ i:; passed, it is first signed by his majesty, and then read once only in each of the houses, witliout any new engrossing or amendment. And wliea botli liouses hare done with any bill, it always is deposited in the hoiiso of peers, to await the royal assent j except in the case of a money-bjU, which, after receiving the concurrence of the lords, is sent back to the house of commons. It may be necessary here to acquaint the reader^ that, both in the honses and in their committees, the slightest expres- sion, or most minute alteration, does not pass till tlie speaker or the chairman puts the question ; which, in the house of commons, is an- swered by aye or no; and in the house of peers, by centait or not couicnt. I'he giving the royal assent to bills is a matter of great form. When tlic king is to pass bills in person, he appears on his throne in the house ol' peers, in his royal robes, with the crown on his head, and attended by his great officers of state, and heralds. A seat on th? right hand of the tiu'one, where tlie princes of Scotland, when poers of England, formerly sat, is reserved for the prince of Wales. The other princes of (he blood sit on the left hand of the king, and the chancellor on a close bench re- ni(3\ cd a little backwards. I'he viscounts and temporal barons, or lords, fi'ce pie throne, on benches, or wool-pucks, covered M'ith red cloth or baize. The bench of bishops runs along the house, to the bar on the right hand of the tlirone j as the dukes and earls' do on tlie loft. Tlie chancellor and judges, on (jrdinary days, sit upon wool-packs, bet.weert the barons and the iln*one. The common ©pinion is, tliat the house sit- tuig on wool is symhohcal of wool being formerly tlie staple commodity of the kingdom. Many of the peers, on solemn occasions, appear in tlieir parliamentary robes. None of the commons have any robes, excepting thp speaker, who wears a long black silk gown j and when he appears before tlie king, it is trimmed witli gold. The royal assent may be given two waj's ; 1, In person. When iImj h :■ 172 ENGLAND. ei^fJ king sends for the house of commons to the house of peers, the speaker carries up the monej bill or bills in his hanf*. j and, in delivering them, he addresses his majesty in a solemn speech, in which he seldom falls to extol the generosity and loyalty of the commons, and to tell his majesty how necessar}-^ it is to be fmgal of the public money. It is uponthis oc- casion that the commons of Great Britain appear in their highest lustre. The titles of all bills tliat have passed both houses are read ; and tlie king's answer is declared by the clerk of ^he parliament in Noriiian French. If the king consents to a public bill, the clerk usually declares, ie Toy le vent, " the king wills it so to be :" if to a private bill, soit fait comme il est desire, " be it as it is desired.'* If tlieking refuses his assent, it is in tlie gentle language of le roy s'atisera, " the king will advise upon it." When a money-bill is passed, it is carried up and presented to the king by the speaker of the house of commons, and the royal assent is thus expressed : le i-oy reimrcie ses loyal subjects, acccpte leur benevolence, ct aii^si le vent, " the king thanks his loyal subjects, accepts their benevo- *' lence, and wills it so to be." In case of an act of grace, which ori- ginally proceeds from the crown, and has the royal assent in the first stage of it, the clerk of the parliament tints pronounces the gratitude of the subject : le^ prelats, seii^ncurs, et commons, ai ce present parliament assembles, au nom de touts voi autres subjects, remcrcient trcs humhlement votre mnjeste, et prient a Dieu vons donncr en sante bonne vie et longue, • " the prelates, lords, and commons, in this present parliament assem- bled, in the name of all your otlicr subjects, most humbly thank your majesty, and pray to God to grant you in healtli aud wealth long to live." 2. ^y tlie statute 33 Henry VIII. c. 21, the king may give his assent by letters patent imder his gieat seal, signed witli his hancl, and notified, in his absence, to botli houses assembled togetlier in the high house, by commissioners consisting of certain peers named in the letters. And> when the bill has received the royal assent in either of tlaese ways, it i» then, and not before, a statute of act of parliament. ■ The statute or act is placed among the records of the kingdom; there needing no formal promulgation to give it the force of a law, as was ne- cessary by the civil law with regard to the imperial edicts ; because every man in England is, in judgement of law, party to tlie making of an act of parliament, being present thereat by his represeutatives. However, copies thereof aro usually printed at tlie king's press, for tlie informa- tion of the whole laud. From the above general view of the English constitution, it appenrs that no security for its permanency, which the wit of man can devise, is wanting. If it should be objected that parliaments may become so cor- rupted, as to give up or betray the liberties of tlie people, the answer is, that parli.iments, as every other body politic, are supposed to watch over their political existence, as a private person does over his natural life. If a parliament were to act in that manner, it must become ./i '. '^■: sc, an evil that no human provisions can guard against. But there vc great re- Bources of liberty in England ; andtliough the constitution has been some- times dangerously wounded, and even overturned, yet its own innate powers have recovered and still preserve it. The king of England, besides his high court of parliament, has sub- ordinate otficers and ministers to assist him, and who are responsible for their advice and conduct. They are made by the king's nomination, without eitlier patent or grant ; and, on taking the requisite oaths, they become immediately privy-councillors during the life of ^ the king that chouses them, but subject to removal at his pleasure. ENGLAND. 173 The duty of a privy-councillor appears from the bath of oflSoCj \idi\ch. consists of seven articles ; l. To advise the king accordiBg to tlie best of his cunning and discretion. 2. To advise for the king's honour, and good of the public, without partiality through affection, love, need, doubt, or dread. 3. To keep the king's counsel secret. 4. To avoid corruption. 5, To help and strengthen the execution of what shall be there resolved. a. To withstand all persons who would attempt the contrary. And, lastly, in general, 7. To observe, keep, and do all that a good and true counsellor ought to do to his sovereign lord. As no goveniment can be so complete as to be provided with laws tl;at faiay answer every unfores^fen emergency, tlie privy-council, in suck cases, can supply the deficiency. Upon great and urgent occasions, such as that of a famine, or the dread of one, they can supersede tlio operation of the law, if the parliament is not sitting ; but this is consi- dered as illegal, and an act of parliament must pass for tlie pardon and indemnification of tliose conceraed. The office of secretary of state was formerly divided into a southern and a northern department. The soutliem contained France, %)ain, Portugal, Italy, the Swiss cantons, Constantinople, and, in short, all the States in the southern parts. The northern comprehended tlie different states of Germany, Prussia, Poland, Piussia, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Flanders, and the Hanseatic towns. This distinction is now abolished ; and there is one secretary for foreign aiiairs, and anotlier for the home department. During the American •war, there was a tliird secretary of state, whose office was revived in 1/94, by the title of secretary for tlie war department. The cabinet-council is a committee of the privj'-council, consisting of a select number of ministers and noblemen, according to the king's ojm- nion of their integrity and abilities, or attachment to the views of the court J but though its operations are powerful and extensive, a cabinet- iouncil is not essential to the cons^tution of England. This obseiTation naturally leads us to mention the person who is so well known by the name of the first minister ; a term unknown to tlie English constitution, tliough tlie otiice, in etlect, is perhaps necessary. The constitution points out die lord high chancellor as minister ; but tlie aftairs of his own court give him sufficient employment. When Uic office of the first lord of the treasury is united with tliat of chancellor ' •f the exchequer (offices which we sliall explain hereafter) in the same person, he is considered as first minister. The truth is, bis majesty may make any of his servants his first minister. But though it is no office, yet there is a responsibility annexed to tlie name and common repute, that renders it a post of" olifficnlty and danger. We chall now take a short review of the nine great otfi'-ers of the crown, who, by their posts, take place next t'. i!i? princes of tlie royal family and the tW(* primates. The first is the lord iiigh steward of England . This is an office very ancient, and formerly was hereditary, or ii' least f(>r life : but now, and for centuries past, it is exercised only occasionally ; that is, at a corona- tion, or to sit as a judge 011 a peer or peeress, %\hcn tried for a capital crime. In coronations, it is held, for that day only, by some nobleman of tlie first rank. In cases of trials, it is exercised generally by the lord chancellor, or lord keeper, whose commission as high stew:u-d ends witli tlie trijil, by breaking his white rod, the badge of his office. The lord high chancellor presides in the court of chancery, to mode- rate the severitiQs of the law in all cases in which tlie property of the sub- 1' ( 'M 174 ENGLANti. :'!' I'll i t ject is toticfeined ; and he is to determine according to the dictate? of fequity and reason. He is an officer of the greatest weight and power of any now subsisting in tlie kingdom, and is superior in precedency to every temporal lord. He is a privy-councillor by his office ; and, ac- fcording to some, prolocutor of the house of lords by prescription. To him belongs the appointment of all justices of the peace j he is visitor, in right of the kin^, of all hospitals and colleges of the king's foundation, and patron of all the king's livings under die value of 20/. per annum in the king's books. He is the geiieral guardian of all irifimts, idiots, and lunatics, and hath the superintendance of all charitable uses in the king-" dom, over and above the extensive jurisdiction which he exercises in his judicial capacity in the court of chancery. The post of lord high treasurer has of late been vested ixi a commis- sion, consisting of live persons, who are called lords of the treasury : but -the first commissioner is supposed to possess the power of lord high treasurer. He has the management and charge of all tlie revenues of the crown kept in tlie exchequer ; as also the letting of the leases of alt crown lands, and the gift of all places belonging to tlie customs in the several ports of the kiiigdbm. The lord {iresideht of the council was an officer formerly of great power, and hath precedence next after the lord chancellor and lord trea- liwrer. His duty is to propose all the business transacted at the council- board, and to r&port to the king, •When his majesty is iiot present, all its (debates and probefedihgs. It is a place of great digiiity as well as diffi- culty, on account of the Aast number of American and West-Iiidinn causes, captures, and the like affairs that come before the board ; all which may be abridged, to tlie vast convenience of the subject, by an able president, The office of lord prhy seal consists in his putting tlie king's seal to all chartbi-s, grahts, arid the like, which arc signed by tlie king, in order to their passing the great seal ; and he is responsible if he shovvld apply the privy seal to any thing against the law of the land. The office of lord great chamberlain o'f England Is hereditary in the duke of Ancaster's family. He attends the king's person, oh his corona- tion, to dress hira : he has likewise charge of the house of lords during the sitting of parliament j and of fitting up A^'estminster-fiall for corona- tions, trials of peers, or impeachments. The office of lord high constable has been disused since the attainder and execution of Stafford duke of Buckingham, In the year 1521, but is occasionally revived for a coronation. The duke 6f Norfolk is hereditary carl marshal of England. Before England became so commercial a country as it has been for a hundred years past, this office required great abilities, learning, and knowledge of the English histor}*, for its dischaige. In var time he was judge of army causes, and decided accordiiig to the principles of the civil law. Jf the cause did not admit of such a decision, it was left to a personal combat, which was attended w ith a vast variety of ceremonies ; the ar- rangement of which, even to the smallest trifle, fell within the marshal's province. To this day he or his d» puly regulates all points of precedency according to the archives kept in the licrald's office, which is cnti.eiy within his jurisdiction. He directs all solemn processions, coronations, proclamntion'^, general mournings, and the like. The office of lord higli admiral of England* is now likewise hel 'jy * The la.^t lord l.i»h adiiiral was Ccorje prirce of Denmark and hnslftnd to qQ«en Ani.r. ENGLAND. 173 commission, and is equal in its importance to any of tlie precading;, especially since the increase ot the British naval power. The £nglish admiralty is a board of direction as well as execution, and is in its prO' ceedings independent of the crown itself. All trials upon life and death, in maritime alfairs, are appointed and held under a commission imme- diately issuing from that board j and the members must sign even tlic death-warrants for execution. The board of admiralty regulates the whole naval force of the realm, and names all its officers, or confirms them when named : iso that its jurisdiction is very extensive. The com- missioners appoint vice-admirals under them : but an appeal from them lies to the high court of admiralty, which is of a civil nature. Thii court is held in London 5 and all its processes and proceedings run in the lord hi'^h admiral's name, or those of the commissioners, and not in that of the king. The judge of this court is commonly a doctor of the civil law, ;md its proceedings are according to the method of the civil law; but all criminal matters, relating to piracies, and other cipital oli'onces committed at sea, are tried and determined according to the huvs of England, by witnesses and a jury, ever since tlie reign of If enry VIII. Courts of law and laws.] The court of chancery, which is tJie court of equity, is next in dignity to the high court of parliament, and is designed to relieve the subject against frauds, breaches of trust, and oilier oj)pressionsi and to mitigate the rigour of the law. The lord high chancellor sits as sole judge, and, in his absence, the master of the rollj, 'I'his court is always open j and if a man be sent to prison, tlie lord cluuicellor, in any vacation, can, if he sees reason for it, grant a habeas corpus.^ Tlie khig's bench — so called either from the kings of England some- times bitting there in person* or because all matters determinable by common law between the king and his subjects are here tried, except such aftijirs as properly belong to the court of exchequer — is, likewise, a kind of check upon all the inferior courts, their judges, and justices of the peace* Here preside four judges, tlie first of whom is styled lord chief justice of England, to express the great extent of his jurisdiction over tile kingdom : for this court can grant prohibitions in any cause de- pending either in spiritual or temporal courts : and the house of peers does often direct the lord chief justice to issue out his warrant for appre- hending j)erriotis under suspicion of high crimes. l"he other three judges iire called justices, or judges, of die king's bench. 'I'lie court of common pleas takes cognisance of all pleas debatabl*, and civil actions depending between subject and subject j and in it, be- sides all real actions, lines and recoveries are transacted, and prohi- bitions arc likewise issued out of it, as well as from the king's bench. I'he lir^t judge of this court is styled lord chief justice of the common pleas, or common bench : beside whom there are likewise three other judges or justices of this court* None but Serjeants at law are allowed to plead here. 'i'he court of exeheciuer was instituted for mana^iug the revenues of the (-'rown, auil has a power of judging both according to law and ac*- cordirii^ to equity. In the proceedings according to law, the k.rd chief baron of the exchequer, and three other barons, preside as judges. They -irc styled barons, because formerly none but barons of the realm werr allowed to be judges in this court. Eesides these, there is a fifth, called v'ursitor baron, who has not a judicial capacity, but is only employed fti administering the oath to sheiilli and oliic^r orliccrs, and also to seve- t ill ii! ';i" ;i 'I iii 170 ENGLAND. i£ *i 1 V! .' i' :"',., ^'Si f • . :1;- > ., 2' , r -3 Ml'/ ' ■^?- P^ i<i)^ 1 A ral of the officers of the custom-house. But when this court proceeds according to equity, then the lord treasurer and the chancellor of the exchequer preside, assisted by the other barons. All matters touching the king's trcnsurj', revenue, customs, and fines, are here tried and de- termined. Bvsides tlie officers alre;)dy mentioned, there belong to the exchequer, the Icing's rcnieaibrancer, who takes and states all accounts of the revenue, customs, excise, parliamentary aids and subsidies, &c. except the accounts of the sheritfs and their officers ; the lord treasurer's remembrancer, whose business it is to make out processes against sheriffs, receivers of tlie revenue, and other officers. For putting the laws etlectually in execution, a high-sheriff is annually appointed for every county (except Westmorland and Middlesex) by the king * ; whose oflice is both ministerial and judicial. He is to exe- cute the king's mandate, and all writs directed to him out of the king's courts of justice ; to impannel juries ; to bring causes and malefactors to trial ; to see sentence, Ijoth in civil and criminal affairs, executed j and at the assize to attend the judges, and guard them all the time they are in his county. He is likewise to decide the elections of knights of the shire, of coroners and verderers ; to judge of the qualifications of voters, and to return such as he shall determine to be duly elected. Jt is also part of his office to collect all public fines, distresses, amerciaments, into the exchet]uer, or where the king shall appoint, and to make oUch pay- ments out of them as his majesty shall think proper. As his office is judicial, he keeps a court called the county court, which is held by the sheriff, or his under-sheriffs, to hear and determine all civil causes in the county, under forty shillings : tliia, however, is no court of record ; but the court, formerly called the sheriff's tourn, was one, and the king's leet through all the county ; for in this court in- quiry was made into all criminal ollences against yh'", common law, where by the statute law there was no restraint. This court, however, has been long since abolished. . As the keeper of tiie king's peace, both by com- mon law and special commission, ho is the first man in the county, and superior in rank to any nobleman therein, during his ofhce. He may command all the people of his county to attend him, which is called the posse cotnitutus, or power of the county. Under the sheriff are various officers, as the under-sheriffs, clerks, stewards of courts, bailiffs (in London called Serjeants), constables, jailers, beadles, &c. The next officer to the sherifl^" is the justice of peace, several of whom are commissioned for each county : and to them is intrustetl the power of putting great part of the statute law in execution, in relation to tlie highways, the poor, vagrants, treasons, felonies, riots, the preservation of tlie game, Sec. ^c; and they examine and commit to prison all who break or disturb the peace, iuid disquiet the king's subjects. In order to punish the ofllnders, they meet every quarter at the county-town, when a jury of twelve men, called the grand inqutst of the county, is summoned to appear. This jury, upoh oath, is to inquire into tlie cases of all delinquents, and to jiresent them by bill, guilty of the in- dictment, or not guilty: the justices commit the fl.iiner to jail for their trial at the next assizes, and the latter are acquitted. This is called tlie quarter-sessions for tlie county. The justice of peace ought to be * Sheriffs were formerly chosen by the inb-ibitaots of the several counties. In SOOie counties the sheriflfsvrcre form^^rly hereditary, and still continue in the county; of Westmorland. The city of London iiatli also the uihcritancc of tlie shrievalty of Middlcbex vested in their body by charter. , ENGLAND. ^# a person of great good sense, sagacity, and integrity, ai. ' to b« not .tli- out some knowledge of the law : for otherwise he may txamnit mist. ':es, or abuse his authorit}' ; for which, however^ he is amenable to the cH>iirt of King's Bench. Each county contains two coroners, w ho are to inquire, by a jury of neigiibours, how and by whom any person came by a violent death, and to enter it on record as a plea of the crown. Another branch of their office is to inquire concerning shipwreck, and certify whether wreck or not, and who is in possession of the goods. In their ministerial oilice, they are the sheritl's subjititutes. i'he civil government of cities is a kind of small independent policy of itself; for every city hath, by cluirter from the king, a jurisdiction witliin itself, to judge in all matters civil and criminal ; with this re- straint only, tliat all civil causes may be removed from their courts to the higher courts at Westminster ; and all oti'ences that are capital are com- mitted to the judge of the assize. The government of cities diti'ers ac- cording to their different charters, immunities, and constitutions. They are constituted witli a mayor, aldermen, and ijurgesses, who, together, make the corporation of the city, and liold a court of judicature, where the mayor presides as judge. St)me cities are counties, and choose their own sheriffs ; and all of tliem have a power of making bye-laws for their own government. Some have thought the government of cities, by mayor, aldermen, and common-council, is an epitome of tlic English government, by king, lords, and commons. The government of incoi*porated boroughs is much after the same manner : in some there is a mayor, and in others two bailiffs ; all which, during tlicir mayoralty or magistracy, are justices of the peace within their liberties, and consequently esquires. The cin<iue-ports are tive havens, formerly esteemed most important ones, that lie on the east part of England towards France, as Dover, Sandwich, Romney, Hastings, and Hydic, to which Winclielsea and Jlye have been since added, with similar franchises in .many respects. These cinque ports were endowed witli particular privileges by our an- cient kings, upon condition that they should provide a certain number »f ships, at their own charge, to serve in the wars for forty days, as often as they were wanted. For the iiettcr government of villages, the lords of the soil or manor (who were formerly callot.1 barons) have generally a power to hold courts, called couris-leet and courts-baron, wliere their tenants are obliged to at- tend and receive justice. The business of courts-leet is chieHy to prevent and punish nuisances ;"and at courts-baron the conveyances and aliena* tions of the copyhold tenants are enrolled, and they are admitted to their estates on descent or purchase. A constable is a very ancient and respectable officer of the j>eace, under the English constitution. Every hundred has a high-constable, and every parish in that hundred a constable : and the latter are to attend the high- constable upon proper occasions. Ihey are assisted by another ancient oJficer called the tithingmau, who formerly superinte;i.led the tenth part of an lumdred, or ten Iree burghs, as they were called in the time of ilic vSaxons, each free burgh consisting of ten fmiilies. The busi- ness of constable in to keep the peace in all cases ot" quarrels aiul riots. Ke can imprison offenders till they are brought before a justice of peoce ; and it is his duty to execute, within his district, every warrant that is di- recte<l to him from tiiat magistrate, or a bench of justices The neglect of the old Saj^on courts, both for the presarvalion of the peace,' and th'j ' N IIB i;\GT,A\D. Ill Jl iM ^'ii it: f .:|; -1 'U. i*J' ^,: more cnsy rernvcrv orsniMll debts, h;is btrii rrgn'ttifd by mnny I'minerit lawyers; :inrl it h;is ntl.iti- biini tbuiiil lu-iessary tu revive siuae of them, iiiul to uppoiivt otlu-rs ol" a similar nature. I'esides these, tlu-ri- are courts uf eonseieiice in many parts (jf Ktn^hmd, Jbr the rehet'of th<' poor in the reco\ery ul' payment of small UcblSj nuL exroediii'^ five pounds. AmnriiT th.e peitili.ir iisai^es of the country, derived to us from the ve- nerable laws of our Saxon ancestors, the most remarkalile, perhaps, aro tlie customs of iiuvel-kiiid and tu)nnt'^h-l\u'j;iish, which still exist in Kent and some other counties. l\\ the former^ of these all the sons in- herit equally, and >>hare the estate between them ; and by the latter, the youngest son succeeds to the inheritance ; it being presumed, say thu old lawyers, that tiie elder sons have learned their father's oecupaiion, jind thus are proviik-d liir. Of the pri\ate relations of ])ersons, the first is that of marriage, whiclj includes tlie reciprocal rights and duties of husband and wife ; t)r, as most of our elder law books call them, hnron MXiXfeme. 'J'he hcdiness of the matrimonial state is left entirely to the ecclesiastical law ; the punish- ment, therefore, f)r annnlling of incestuous or otlier uiiseriplural mar- ri;!ges, is the province of spiritual courts. I'here are two kinds of divorce ; the one total, the other parti,: I. Thy total divorce nmst i)e for some of the canonical causes of impediment, and tiiose existing before the .n»arriage ; as consiinguinity, arliuity, or corjwreal imbecility. I'he issue of such marriage, as it is thus entirely dissolved, are bastards. The other kind of divorce is uIuMi the marriage is just and lawful, and therefore the law is tender of dissolving it ; but, for some supervenient cause, it becomes iujproper, or impossible, for tlie parties to li\ e together; as in the case of intolerable ill tem]K'r, or adultery, in eitlier of the par- ties. In this case the law allows alimony to the wife (except when, tor adultery, tin? parliament graius a total divorce, as has li-ipiKmed fre- quently of late years), A\hij'his that allowance which is nv.uk t) a woman for her support out of the husband's estate, l)eing seltlid at tl\e ilis- rretion of the ecclesiastical judge, on the consideration of all the circum- •Stances of the case, and the rank and (juality of the parties. In the civil law, the husband and the w ifearc considered as two di« J5tinct persons ; and may have .separate estates, contracts, ck-bts, and in- juries ; and therefore in our ecclesiastical courts a woman may sue, and be sued, without her husband. But though our law in general considers man and \\ it'e as one person, yet there are sonje instances iti which she is separatcl) consitlered as in- ferior to him, and acting by his compulsion. And therefore all tleeils executed, and acts done, by her, during her co>\;rture, are void ; excej)t it be a fine, or the like matter ot' record, in vhich cise she must be solely and secretly examined, to learn if hex act be voluntary. She cannot by will devise land to her huftlxmd, iinleds under special circumstances ; for, at the time of making it, she is supposed to be under his coercion. And some felonies, and other inferior crimes, committed by licr tlirough con- straint of her husband, the law excuses her; but this extends not to trea- son or murder. The husband also (by the old, and likewise by the civil Jaw) might give his wife moderate correction. Fur, as he is to answer for her mis- behaviour, the law thotjght it reasonable to intrust him with this power of restraining lier by domestic cliastisement, in the same moderation that u man is allawed to correct his servants or cliildren ; for whom tlio twas- ENGLAXO. 170 tcr or pnii-nt is also liable in some cnses to nnswcf, Puit in the politer rei>^n ot C'harles II. this power ot" correction bej^nn to be doubud ; and a wile rr ■ now have security of peace against her Inisband ; or, in re- turn, :i ' usband against his wife : yet the lower raiik;^ of people, who ■uere always fond vi the old common law, still claim and exert their ancient privilege : and the courts of law \\ ill still permit a husband to restra.r \ wife of ht-r lilierty, in case of any i^ross mi>!l>cha\ioiir. TJu's ire the chief legal etKects of marriage during the coverture ; upon V ,h we may observe, that even the diiabilities wliic-htlie wile lies under are for the most part intended tor her protection and benelit. So great a favourite is the temale ses. with the laws of England. 'llii-re neither is, nor ever was, any constitution provided with so many fences as that of England is, for the sicurity of personal liberty. Ewry mnn imprisoned has a right to bring a writ bet(<re a judge at ^\'est- mlnster-hnll, called his 1 fabeas Corpus. If that judge, alter considering tlu* caa-^e of commitment, shall lind that the olfence is bailable, the party i"> inmiediatcly admitted to bail, till he is condennied or aciiuiited in a proper court of justice. 'I'lie rights of individuals are so attentively guarded, that the subject may, without the least danger, sue his sovereign, or those who act in his name, and under his authority : he may do this in open court, where ihe king may be cast, and be obliged to pay damages to his sulijet t. The king cannot take away the liberty of the meane.'^t in.lividual, un- less he has, by some illegal act of which he is accused or bUi^pected upon oath, forfeited his right to liberty ; or except when the state is in danger, and the representatives of the j)eople think the jniblic safety makes it necessary that he should have power of conlining persons on such a suspicion of guilt ; such as the case of a rebellion within the kingdom, when the legislature has sometimes thought proi)er to pass a temporary suspension of the llabeas-Corpus act. 'Ihe king has a right to pardon ; but neither he, nor the judges to whom he delegates his authority, can condemn a man as a criminal, except he be lirst found guilty by twelve men, who must be his peers or his equals. 'I'hat the judges may not be inliuenced by the king or his ministers to misrepresent the case to the jur}', they have their salaries lijr life, and not during the pleasure of their sovereign. Neither can the king take away or en- danger the Jife of any subject, without trial, and the persons being first chargeable with a capital crime, as treason, nunder, felony, or some other act injurious to society J nor can any subject be deprived of his liberty, for the highest crime, till .some proof of his guilt be given upon oatli before a magistrate ; and he has then a right to insist upon his be- ing brought, the first opportunity, to a lair trial, or to be restored to li- berty on giving hiiil for his appearance. If a man is cliarged with a capital offence, he must not uniiergo the ignominy of being tried for fiis life till the evidences of his guilt are laid before the grand jury of the. tow n or county in which the fact is alleged to be committi'd, and not unless twelve of them agree to a bill of intlictment against him. If they do this, he is to stand a second trial before twehe other men, whose opinion is definitive, liy the 28 Edward HI. it is enacted, that where either party is an alien born, the jury shall be one half aliens, and the other denizens, if re<piired, for the more impartial trial ; — a privilege in- dulged to strangers in no other country in the world, but which is as an- cient with \is Mi the tiuie of kuig Etheldred *. In some case-, the prisoner •^ Stotuta df Montioolis WiiUia'. -\ 2 180 EXGLAXD. I 1 r !! (who is always supposed innocent till there be sufficient proof of his guilt) is nllowed a copy of the indictment, in order to assist him to make his defence. Me is also *urni.slRxl with tlie pannel, or list of the jury, who are his true and proi)er j\ul5<;es, tlrit he may leani their characters, and discover w hcther they want abilities, or whether tliey are prejudiced against him. lie may in opc?n court peremptorily object to twenty of tlie number * ; and to as many more as he can give reason for their not be- ing admitted as his judges' j till at last twelve unexceptionable men, the neighbours of the part}' accuseil, or living near tlic place M-here the sup- posed fact was conuiiittcd, are approved of, who take the following oath, that they nhnll iirll and truly try, and true deliverance make betiveen the kbif^ and the prisoner, v.hnm they shall have iti ckjrrrc, according to the evi- dence. By cnalleiiging the jury, the prisoner prevents all possibility of bribeiy, or the intiucnce of any superior power ; by their living near the place w here the fact was conunitted, they are supposed to be men who knew the prisoner's course of life, and the credit of the evidence. These only are the judges froni whose sentence the prisoner is to expect life or death; and upon their integrity and understanding tho lives of all that are brought in danger idtimately depend ; and from their judgement there lies no appeal : they are therefore to be all of one mind, and, after they have fully heard the evidence, are to he confined, without meat, drink, or candle, till they are unanimous in acquitting or condemning t!:o prisoner. Ever)' ji'.r^uian is therefore vested with a solemn and aw- ful trust : if he wituouc evidencj* submit his opinion to that of any other of the jury, or yield in comphiisanr^c to the opinion of the judge ; if he neglect lo examine with the utmost care, if he question the veracity of the witnesses, who may l)c of an iiif mious character ; or, after the most impartial hearing, have the least doubt upon his mind, and yet join in condemning the person accused, he will wound his own conscience, and bring upon himself the complicated guilt of i)crjury and murder. The freedom of Knglishuien consists in its being out of the power of the judge on the bencii to injure them, for declaring a man innocent whom he wishes to bring in ijuilty. Were not this the case, juries would bo use- less ; tor, far from being judges themseUes, ihey would only be the tools of another, whose province is not to guide, but to give a sanction to their determination. Tyranny mi'j;ht triumph over the lives and liberties of the subject, and the juilge on the bench be the minister of the prince's vengeance. Trial by jury is so capital a privilege, and so great a security to the lilxjvty of the subje<t, that it is much to be regretted that persons of education and pnij)erty are often too ready to evade serving the oliice. Vy this means juries frequently consist of ignorant and illiterate persorts, who neitiier have know ledge enotigh to understand their rights and tlie pri\il(\ges of Finglishmen, nor spirit enough to maintain them. No man shouki be above ser\ ing so important an olHce, m lien re>.!;u!arly called upon; and those who, from indolence or pride, decline discharging this duty to their country, seem hardly to desi rve that security and liberty whicli the inhabitants ol' llngland drrive from this invaluable institution. Juries have, iiulced, always been considered as giving the most eli'ectual check to tyranny : for iti a nition like this, where a king can do nothing against law , they are a security that he shall never make the laws, by a txid administration, tlu* instruments of cruelty and oppression. Were i^ U'jt for jurifs, thti advice given by father Paul, in his maxims of the tv. ■i' The party may cliallcngo thirty-five, in case of trcas«ii. ENGLAND. 181 public at Venice, might take eftect m its fullest latitude : " When the offence is coininittt-d l)y a nobleman against a subject," says he, " let all ways be tried to justity him ; and if Uial be not possible to be done, let him be chastised with greater noise than damage. If it be a subject that has affronted a nobleman, let him be punished with the utmost severity, ' that tlie subjects may not get too great a custom of laying tlieir bauds on the patrician order." In short, were ii not for juries, a corrupt nobleman might, whenever he pleased, act the tyrant, while the judge would have that power which is now denied to our kings. But by our happy consti- tution, which breathes nothing but liberty and ecjuity, all im:iginary iii)- dulgence is allowed to the meanest as well as the greatest. Wlien a prisoner is brought U) take his trial, ho is freed from all bonds ; and, though the judges are supposed to be counsel ior the prisoner, }et as lie may be incapable of vindicating his own cause, other counsel are aHowetl him: he aiay try the validity and legality of the indictment, and may set it aside, if it be contrary to law. Nothing is wanting to clear up the caiue of innocence, and to prevent the i^utferer from sinking under the power of corrupt judges, and the oppression of the grv*at. Tlic racks and tor- tures that are cruelly made use of in other parts of tluroj^e, to make a man accuse himself, are here unkuenvn, and none punished without con- viction, but he who refuses to plead in his own defenci\ As the trial of malefactors in England is very diri".-rcMit from that cf other nations, the following account may be useful to toreigners and others, who have not seen those proceedings. The court being met, and the prisoner called to the bar, the clerk commands him to hold up his hand, then charges him with the crime of which he is accused, and asks him whether he is f^nilti/ or >wi guilty. If the prisoner answer Guilti/, his trial is at an endj biit if he answer Sut ^uiltj/, the court proceeds on the trial, even though he may beiore have confessed the fact : for the law of En'j;laiul takes no notice oi such con- fession ; and unless the witnesses, who are upon oath, prove him guilt}' of the crime, the jurj'^ must acquit him ; for they are directed to bring in their verdict according to the e\idence given in court. If the prisoner refuse to plead, that is, if he will not say in court whether he is i;itiltj/ or not guilty, he might, till lately, by the law of England, be pressed to death, with a load of iron upon his breast ; but ai present the same sentence is passed on him as in case of conviction. 'tVhen the witnesses have given in their evidence, and the prisoner has, by himself or his counsel, cross-examined them, the judge recites to the jury the substance of the c\idence given against the prisoner, and bids them discharge their conscience : when, if the matter be very clear, they commonly give their verdict without going out of the court ; and the foreman, for himself and the rest, declares the prisoner (hdliy or .Vo/ piuliij, as it may happen to be. Iku if any doubt arise amongst the jury, and the matter require debate, they all \vitlKlraw into a room, with a ropy of the indictment, when* they are locked up till they are ttnani- mously agreed on the verdict ; and if any one of the jury should die du- ring this their conlincment, the prisoner v>'i!l be acquitted. When the jury have agreed on the verdict, they Inform the coiu't by an officer Mho waits witliout, and the prisoner is again set to the bar to htHir his verdict. This is unalterable, except in some doubtful cases, when the verdict is brought in special, and is therefore to be determined hy the twelve judges of England. If the prisoner be found guilty, he is tficn asked what reason he can give why sentence of death aliould not be passed uj)uu liini ? There is *1.R '■ 'iff • ' — 1S2 ENGLAND. r, h« ;*. ! v\ 4:i •i;i^' 5? r f! -. I now properly no benefit' of clergy ; it is changed to transportation, or burning in tiic hand. Upon a capital conviction, the sentence of death, «fter a summary account of the trial, is pronounced on the prisoner, in these words : T/tf laiv /.v, That ihou shall return to the place from ahcnce thou canust, amlfroiu thaicehe carried to the place qf' execution, iiherc thou, shall be haiv^ed by the neck till thy body be dead ; and the Lord have mercy on thy sold ! whereupon the sheriff is charged with the execution. All the prisoners I'ound no; g«i/(y by the jury, are immediately acquitted and discharged, and in some cases obtain a copy of their indictment from the court, to proceed at law against their prosecutors. Of punishments.] The law of Kngland includes all capital crimes luider hijT^h treason, petty treason, \x\\A felony. The first consists in plottujg, conspiring, or rising up in arms against tlie sovereign, or in counterfeit- ing the coin. I'he traitor is punished by being drawn on a sledge to the place of execution, when, after being lianged upon a gallows iiM* some minutes, the body is cut down alive, the heart taken out and exj)osed to public view, and the entrails burnt ; the head is tlieu cut off, and the. body quartered ; after which it Jia.s ijeeu usual to fi\ the heml on some conspicuous jihue. All the criminal's lands and goods are forfeited, his wife loses her dowry, and his children both their estates and nobility. But though coining of money is adjudged high treason, the criminal is only drawn upon a sledge to theplace of execution, and there hanged. Though the sentence passed upon all traitors is the same, yet, with re- ^5pect to persons of quality, the juniishment is generally altered to be- htfading : a scatfold is erected for that purpose, on which the criminal placing his head uj)On a block, it is struck otf with an axe *. The punishment for misprision of iiigh treason — that is, for neglecting or concealing it — is imprisonment for life, tlie forfeiture of all the of- fender's goods, and the profits arising from his landsr Vctly treason is when a child kills his fat ler, a wife her husbcnl, a clergyman his bishop, or a serMtnt his master or mistress. This crime is punished by the offender's being drawn on a sledge to the place of exe- cution, and there hanged upon a gallows till dead. Women guilty of this crime, or of high treason, were sentenced to l)e burnt ali\e ; but this law has been lately repealed, and the punishment of burning abolished. l<<7o»y includes murders, robberies, forging notes, bonds, deeds, ^c. These are all punished by hangiiii; : only murderers f are tc» be e\ecute(l soon after sentence is parsed, and then delivered to the smgeons in oriler to be publicly dissected. Persons guilty of robbery, when there are >iome alle\i;'.ting circumstances, are generally condemned to hard labour upon the river, or transported for aterni of years, or fur life, to llotauy Bay. Other crimes punished by the laws are, MansbniQ^hler, which is ilie unlawful killing of a perM)n without jux'" meditated malice, but with a present intent to kill; as when two, who formerly meant no harm to each other, quarrel, and the one kills tlie other; in this case the crinjiiuil is allowed the benerit of Ids clergy, for the first linie, and only bvnnt in tin. hand. Chance-medley is the accidental killing of a man without an evil intent ; for which the oti'ende.r \» also to be burnt in the hand, uidess the otfeniler ENGLAND. 183 Avas iIoiii<:j an iiulawful act ; which last ch'ciini'<tance makes the punish- ment death. S/iop-li/tiiii;, and receiving goods knowijii^ them to he stolen, are pu- nishi^d with hard hthour for a nuiuher ot" years, or l)urning in the hand. Pi-rjimf is punished witii the pillory and imprisonment. Pctfj/-l<ira'iii/, or small theft, luider the value of twelve-pence, is pu- nished by whippini;. Lihcllhii^, ii,sin'^ false xvciirfits and measures, ani\fi)rcstalling the market, are connnonly pinished with standing on the pillory. For striking, so as to draw blood, in a king's court, the criminal is pu- nished with losing his right hand. For striking in Westminster-hall while tlie courts ()f justice are sitting, tlic punishment is imprisonment for life, and forfeiture of all the otten- der's estate. Drunkards, vagabonds, and loose, idle, disorderly persons, are punish- ed by being s*.!t in the stocks, or in' ]);iving a tine. IIkvenuks or thk Hui- \ The kind's ectlesiastical revenues con- Tisji GOVKHNMKNT. j sisl in, 1. The custody of the tem])oraU- ties of vacant bishoprics ; from which he receives little or no advantage, '.i. Cornnlics and pensions^ formerly ari^iing from allowances of meat, drink, and clothing, due to the king from ..n ai)bey or monastery, and which he generally bestowed upon favourite si-rvants ; and his sending one of his chaplains to be maiiuained bv tlie bishop, or to have a ))en- ,sion bestowed upon him till the bishop jjromoted hiiu to a benefu-e. These corrodies are due of conunon right, but now, 1 believe, disused. ;{. Extra-parochial tithes. -1. The lirsl-fruits and tenths of benelices. ]Uit such has been the bounty of the crown to the church, that tliese four branches now afford little or no revenue. The king's ordinary temporal revenue consists ii'., ). Tlie demesne lands of the crown, which at present are contractetl within a narrow compass. '1. Tlie hereditary excise; being part of the consideration tor the purchase o\ his feudal profits, <md the prerogatives of pur\e)ance and pp'-emption. 3, An annual sum issuing from the duty on w ine li- censes: being the residue of the same consideration. 4. His forests, ."j. His courts of justice, \:c. In lieu (jf all which ytX),000/. per annum •is now granted for the support of his civil list. I'he extraordinary grants are usually called b\' the synonymous names of aids, tiubsidies, and supplies, and are granted, as has been before hinted, by the conunons of Great llritain in parlianiL-ut assembled; w!io, when they have voted a supjily to his majesty, and settled the (jiiantifin of that supply, usually resolve themselves into whul \ii calk-d a commit- tee of ways and nii^ans, to consider of the ways and means of raising the supply so voted. And in this comniitiee, everv member (tliough it is looked upon as the jieculiar province of the clumcellor of the exchequer) may propose such scheme of taxation as he thinks will be least detrimental 1o the public. The resolutions of this committee (when approved by a vote of (he house) arc in gcnend esteemed to be (its it were) final and conclusive. For though the supply cannot be acuially raised upon the ttuhji^et till directed by an act of the whole parliament, yet no moneyed man \\ ill scrupK' to advance to the government any ([tiantity of ready cash, if the proposed term-i beiuU'antageous, on the credit of the bare vote of the house of commons, though no law be yet passed to esiabliih it. The annual taxes are, 1. The land-lax*, or the ancient subsidy raised * Tills lias lately bcinsoKl to tlic pnipri'-tors of the rstafes on nhioft it in iisscis- i>J, or oilier iud'.viilu.ils, auJ tliui rcjlcvci pcqictual. 164 ENGLAXD. iii>i upon a new assessment. 2. The malt-tax, being an annual exc^^e on malt, mum, cider, and peny. The perpetual taxes are, 1. The customs, or tonnage and poundage of all merchandise exported or imported. 2. The excise duty, or inland imposition, on a great variety of commodities. 3. The salt duty. 4. The post-office, or duty tor tlie carriage of letters. ' 5. The stamp duty on paper, parchment, &:c. 15. The duty on houses and windows. 7' i^c duty on licenses for hackney coaches and chairs. 8. The duty on of- lices and pensions. The gross receipt of the permanent revenue, after deducting the re- payment of over-t'ntries, drawbacks, &c. aniountedf in the year ending the 5th of January 1804, according to a statement presented to the house of commons by Mr. Pitt, to 35,440,2/8/. ; besides the war taxes imposed in 1603 and 1604, amounting to nearly 13,000,000/. How liicse immense sums arc appropriated is next to be considered. And this" is, first and principally, to the payment of the interest of the national debt. In order to take a clear and comprehensive view of tlie nature of this NATiONAt DEBT, it must first be premised, that, after the Revolution, when our new connexions with Europe introduccnl a new .M:item of fo- reign politics, the expenses of tlie nation, not only in settling the new establishment, but in maintaining long wars, as principals on tlie conti- nent, for the security of the Dutch biirrier, reducing the French mo- narchy, settling the Spanish succession, supporting the Jiouse of Austria, maintaining tlie liberties of the Germnnic body, and other purposes, in- creased to an unusual degree ; ir.^onmch that it was not thought advi- sable to raise ail the expcn.-cs uf any one year by taxes to be levied with- in that YOvr, lest the imaccubtonied weight of them should create mur- murs among ihe people. It ^\■as iherefore the bad policy of the times to anticipate tlic rc^eiiues of their posterity, by borrowing immense iiunis for the current service of the state, and. to lay no more taxes upon tlie subject tliah would suffice to pay tlic annual interest of the sums sn borrowed : by this me;ms converting the princip;'.! debt into a new sjx>- cies of property ; tiaa.-^ feral )le from one pcrsun to another, at any time and in any quantity : a system which seems to have had its original in the state of Fit^rcncc. A. D. 13-i4; which go\ernment tlien owed about 60,000/. sterling; ami, being unable to pay it, formed the principal into an aggregate simi, called, metaphorically, a mount or bank ; the shares whereof were transferable like our stocks. This laid the foundation of what is called the national ni:BT — for a few loni^ainiuities, created in the rcignof Charles II., will hardly deserve that name ; and the example then set has been so closely followed since, that the total of all the sums bor- rowed, or the capital of the funded debt of Great Britain, amounted, on the 1st of i'ebruar)' 1:^-1, to 5y3,OOS,.07b/. of which 77,t).Q8,407/. had been purchased by the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt, and 21,147,188/. had been transferred to them on account of land- tax redeemed, lea\iiig a funded debt unredeemed of 484, 162,(322/. I'he imfundcd debt at the same time amounted to \6,305,607i., making the whole of the national di;bt 500,468,22f)/., exclusive of 23,()52,J2p.'.; on account of Ireland, and 7,012,805/. on account of the emperor of Grrmany. To check, in sonic measure, the too rapid accumulation of a debt al- ready so enormous a part of the supplies for the years I7i)8 and 179.0 ^cre raised viihiu tlie }ear. In l/yH a voluntary subscription was cnt^Tcd int.) llr tlic service of government, which produced about a mil- EXGL.\XD. 185 on gcof iland The ty on The m of- Iton and a h;ilf ; ami tlic taxes called the assessed taxes were trebled, and in some instances iiuatlmpled, with allowance ot" relief in certuin cases: these ])roduced about li\e millions. In the year 1/1)1) an act passed ior levying a tenth of all income upwards of 2U0/. per annum, with a tax, ac- ' cording to a certain scale, on all income from 200/. to bol. per annum. The expected produce of this tax was estimated at ten millions, but amounted only to about six. In the year lb03 a similar tax was laid on ■ all income arising from property, at the rate of live per cent, above 1 50/. per annum, and according to a certain scale below that sum to O'O/. The produce of this tax remains to be ascertained. The total sum to be raised for the expenditure of the year 1S(M, for the interest of the public debt, tlie civil list, the army, navy, pcn:^ions, bounties, extra .rdinaiy and secret services, lac, an\oumed, according to the statement of the chancellor of the exchequer (Mr. Pitt) to llic house of commons, to 7 1, '108,-13 1 /. ; and the total of the oi^inary reveime and -extraordinary resources, including a lottery and a loan u£ fourteen millions, to /1 ,3o;,'i7.s/. It is indisputably certain, that the present magnitude of our national incumbrances very far pxceeds all calculations of commerciLd bcnciit, and is productive ot the greatest inconveniences. For, tirst, the enormous taxes that are raised upon the necessaries of life, tor the payment of the interest of this debt, are a hurt both to trade ar.d manufaciures, by rais- t!ig t.he price as well of the artificer's subsihtcnce, as of the raw material, iiiid of course, in a much greater proportion, the price of the commodity itself. Secondly, if part of this debt Ik? owing to foreigners, either tiiey draw out of the kingdom annually a considerable quantity of specie for the interest, or else it is made an argument to gruit them unrcasoiiable privileges, in order to induce them to reside here, I'hirdly, if ihe whole be owing to subjects only, it is then charging tlie active and industrioa-s .subject, who pays his share of the taxes, to maintain the indolent and idle creditor who receives them. Lastly, and principally, it weakens tljc in- ternal strength of a state, by anticipating those resources wliich siiouid be reserved to defend it in case of necessity. 'I'he interest we now pay for our debts would be nearly suliicient to maintain any war that any national motives could require. jVnd if our ancestors in king William's time had annually paid, so long as their exigencies lasted, even a less ^\nn than we now nnnually rai.>e upon their account, they would, in time of war, have borne no greater burdens than tliey ha\e bequeathed to raid settled upon their posterity in the time of peace, tliat might liave been eased tne instant the exigence was over. Diritrtut schemes have been formed for paying the public debts: hut no method can be so expeditious and ctfectual us an unalienable sink- ing fund, as this money is inq>roved at compound interest, and tliereforc in the most perfect manner ; but money procured by a loan bears only simple interest. " A nation thereUirc, whenever it applies the income of such a fund to c\irrcnt expenses rather than tiie redemption of its debts, chooses to lose die benefit of compound interest in order to avoid' pav- ing simple interest, and the loss in this case is equal to the dillvrcnce be- tween the increase of money at compoiuid and shnplc interest*." * Dr. Prion's calculation planily slums what this dilTcrcncc is: — " One pvnny put out. at our Stiviour's birth, at :) per cent, cumpoi.iul iutercst, wouhl, in tlie year IT.'il, have iucivasi'd to a grtatcr sum than would Ik- eoatainoil in '2()(>,0()0,«'><^0 of earths, nil solid pold ; biit if put nut to *iinplo intciost, it at the same trme would hav« amounted to no mo'.c than se\cn shillings and sixpeucv. All jjovcni- mcnts that alwinaue fund* destined for rcimburst-'mcuts, choose to improve money 180 ENGLAND. I ii\ '• No pprmanent provision had ever lx>en made for the progressivT and certain payment <>f this immense debt, until l/Sf); when parliament liad the wisdom and the tirmncss to pass an act for vesting unalienably, in commissioners, the sum of one million annually: in which act every possible precaution was taken that could be devised for preventing tiu; s\irp)us from being diverted, at any future time, and for carrying to the uccount of the commissioners, for the purposes of the act, the interest ot* such stock as should be purchased, and such temporary annuities as Sihould fall in under the provisions o( this act. On the .5th of January, 1801, the commissioners had purchased 77,6gS,'l67l.o{ tlm capital of the debt. In the late reigns, the produce of certain Iwanches of the excise and customs, Uie post-otiice, the duty on wine-licenses, tlie revenues of thf remaining crown-lands, the profit arising fi'oni courts of justice (which articles include all the hereditary revenue of the crown), and also a clear annuity of 120,000/. in money, were settled on tlxe king for life, for tlie support of his majesty's household, and the honour aiid dignity of the crown. And as tlie amount of these several brandies was uncertain (though in the last reign diey were computed to have sometimes raised almost a million), if they did not rise annuiUy to 800,000/. tlie parlia- ment engaged to make up the deficiency. But his present majesty hav- ing, soon after his accession, spontaneously signified his consent, that his own hereditary revenues might be .so disposed of as might best conduce to the utility and satisfaction of the public, and having accepted the limited sum of 8(X),000/. (now increased to 900,000/.) per annum, for the sup- port of his civil list, the said liereditaiy and otlier revenues are now car- ried into and niade part of the aggregate liiud ; and the aggregate fund is charged with the payment of the annuity to the crown. The expenses defrayed by the civil list are those that, in any shape, relate to civil go- vernment, as the expenses of the household, all salaries to officers of ?>tatc, to the judges, and every one of tlie king's servants ; the appoint- ments to foreign ambassadors, tlie maintenance of the (jueen and royal family, the king's private expenses, or privy-purse ; and other very nu- merous outgoings, as secret-service money, jjensions, and other boun- ties. These, sometimes, have so far exceeded the revenues appointed for * that purpose, that application has been made to parliaiiient to discharge the debts contracted on the civil list, vlilch is properly the whole of tlu- king's revenue, in his own distinct capacity ; the rest being rather the revenue of the public, or its creditors, though collected and distributed again in the name and by the officers of the crown. Public companies.] The company of the Uaxk of Exglaxd was incorporated by parliament, in the 5th and Olh jears of king William and queen Mary, by the name of the Governors and Company of the Hank of England, in consiileration of the loan of 1,200,000/. granted to the go- venuncnt ; for which the subscribers received almost b per cent. Jiy this charier, the company are not to borrow under their common seal, un- in tlic Inxt rather than thcfrst of thr«if' ways." lie adds : " A iMTllion l>ftrro\ve(l an- nually, for twenty years, will pay oil", in thi«s time, 5!> millions :> per cent, stork, if discharged at (".0/. in nioiity for every 100/. stock ; and in 10 years more, witlioni tiny further aid from loans, ^'.V.i niillious (that is, :!;S8 millions iu all) would l»e paid oiT. •* The addition of nineteen years to this period wonld ))ay oft" 1000 millions. " A snrplusof half a million per aiuiuiu, made np to a million hy borrowin,' half a million every year for twenty years, woulil dis'.liar-^c the saincisuuts in the .•avne periods." ENGLAND. 187 and nent ly, ill iveiy tin; the St of »s as ami thf liidi clciir die the. rluiii aised irlia- less by act of parlianioiit j they arc not to trade, or suffer any person in I rust tor them to trade, in any goods or tnercjiandise ; but they may deal in bills of exchangf, in buying or selling bullion, and foreign gold and silver eoin. iiy an act f»f {larliament passed in the 8th and 9th years of William UI. they were empowered to enlarge their capital stock to 2,201,171/. 10.s\ It w as then also enacted, tlwt liank stock should be a personal and not a real estate ; iha't no contract, either in w ord t)r writing, for buying or selling Bank stock, should be good in law, luiless registered in tlie books of the Bank witliin seven days, and tlie stock transferred in fourteeu tlaysj and tliat it shoulil be felony, without the benefit of clerg}', tft counterfeit the common seal of the Bank, or any scaled Bank-bill, or any Bank-note, or to alter or erase such bills or notes. iiy another act, passed in the Jtli of queen Anne, the company were empowered to augment their capital to 4,402, .^43/., and they then ad- ^aiicv'd 400,000/. nu»re to the goxernmcnt; and in 1/14 they advanced another loan of 1 ,500,000/. Otiier loans were afterwards made, from time to time, by the compaDy to governm.ent, till hi 174(j the whole debt due to the Bank from the })ublic was 1 1 ,686,800/. ; and its divided capital had been raised by dif- terent calls and subscriptions to 10,780,000/, It had also been the con- stant practice of the company to assist government w ith money in antici- pation of the land and malt taxes, and by making temporary advances 00 exchequer bills and other securities. In the year 1/81 the sums thus lent to government amounted to upwards of eight millions, m addition to the permanent debt of ll,0"86,8OO/. An agreement was now entered into for the renewal of their charter, the term of w hich v as extended to August 1802, on the company's engaging to ad\-nnce 2,000,000/. on ex- chequer bills at 3 percent, interest, to be paid olf within tliree years out of the sinking fund. In order to enable them to make this advance, a call t)f 8 per cent, on dieir capital was thought necessary, by which their former capital stock of 10,780,000/. was increased to 11,0*42,000/. the .sum on which they now divide. The dividend w as also increased one iialf per cent., so that it b( came 6 per cent. h\ consequence of tliis agreement, the total of their advances to government on the land and malt taxes, extherjuer bills, and treasury bills, was increased, on the 25tli of February 1/82, to 9,99l,0"78/. The amount of the l)ank-notes in cir- culation must of course be augmented by the increase of advances to go- vernment. In consequence of large advances to governnK>nt, the great exportation of coin and bullion to Germany and Ireland, and several concurring cir- cnmstances, which at the commencement of the year l/C)/ produced an unusual demand of specie, from diiforciit parts of the coiuuvy, on the metropolis, an order of the priv) -council w as issued on the 2C)ih of Fe- bruary, prohil>iting the directors of the Bank from issuing any casli in j)aynient till the sense of parliament on the subject was obtained. This restriction was sanctioned bv parliament, and a secret conuniitee was appoiijled to examine the state of the outslanding demands on tlie Bank of England, and its funds for discharging the s.une. "^rhe statement of fhcnc demands and funds, to the 25th of February 1797* ^^^^ 3* ful- >:j\vs : 18S ENGLAND. Outstanding tli'mands ^ 13,770,3()(1 Funds tor discharging tliosc demands, not including » ilie permanent debt due from government, of/ _ ^ ^ ^ lljGyO; 600/.*, which bears an intereit of three pcrf '' -^'^ . ceiit.f ^ » I I Surplus of eftects of the Bank, exclusive of the above- 7 ^ „ 526 8QO mentioned permanent debt of 1 1,ti86,ti00/ j * ' ^ Soon after the meeting of parliament in November following, tlic com- mittee of sccresy appointed to inquire into the expediency ot continuing tlie restriction on the Bank, reported, that the total amount of the out- standing demands on the Bank on the 1 1th of November was 17,578,i;iO/., and of the funds for disc barging the same, exclusively of the permanent debt, 21,41 8,6'40/., leaving a balance in favour of the Bank at that time of 3,83p,550/. The report stated, that the advances to government had been reduced to 4,258,140/. aud tlist the cash and bullion in the Bank bad increased to more than five times the value at which they stood on tlie 25th of February 1797, when it was about 1,272,000/. ■ By these statements (though the restriction by successive acts of parlia- ment has been continued to the present time) the tolvenry and solidity of tlie Bank are satisfactorily evinced; aud, indeed, its stability must be cf)eval with tiiat of the British government. All that it has advanced to tlie public must be lost before its creditor.^ can sustain any loss. No otlier banking company in England can be established by act of parliament, or tan coniist oi more than six menibers. It acts not only as an ordinary- Bank^ but as a preat t nginc of state. It receives and pays the greater part of the annuities that are due to the creditors of the public ; it circulates rxcliequer bills ; and it advances to go\emment the annual amount of the land and malt uxes, which are frequently not paid up for some years. Jt likewise discounts the bills of merchants ; and has, upon several occa- sions, supi)orted the credit of the principal houses, not only of England, but of Hamburg and Holland. This company is under tlic direction of a governor, depmty-govcmor, and twenty-four directors, who are annually elected by the general couit of proprietors of Bank-slock. Thirteen, or more, compose a court of di- rectors for managing the '>Vairs of the company. The qualification of u dii-ector ia 2000/. ; of a deputy-governor 3000/. ; and of a governor •■' This debt arises and is formed by the following items : T'.p original sum at tliu time the charter was grajitcd X 1,200,000 Further Miin l<-iit to jrovfrrimeiit in ITU'J 400,000 Ditto, in 17i'.' 1,600,000 ■ 11 ' Now called the orisfinnl fund SiQOO.OOO lUs'.dtiiit.i -'.OOO.dUO/. e\cI)cqii*T bills rancellcd in 1716 500,000 Sou'h-SuaMoik- purrha.edin 1722 4,000,000 Loan tT^nvfinnicnt in ITi'tf 1,';.M),<>00 Ditto, ia IV-"i 1, '350,000 Ditto, 111 ITlti ^}8(i,800 £ 11,686,800 f <.^f fiv 'lulstiindinir di'iTiiinds, the Bank-notiis in cirr\ilation auauuntcd to ?,640,'.'5u'. niid tlif dritwin.'i' acfount, uripaicl dividends, «'vrlKiiucr bills, and other dtljt;-, tij .'),!)ii,140/. 'riio fnnds for «liMiiarging these consisted of advances on Ro- vernuH'Lt itrurity, to the nniount of 10,672,490/.; and cash, bullion, bills dis- counlcd, and oth<.r credits, to the amount of 6,y'i4,7l'0/. ,11 t I EXGLi\XD. ISO *tOOOJ. ; — 500/. Bank-Stork entitles the proprietor to vote nt the general c-ourts, provided he has b«'en in possession ol it six months, East-Ikdia company.] liic first iden 'if tliis company was formed in queen Elizabeth's time ; but it has sir .• unders^one great alterations. Its shares, or subscriptions, were originally only 50/. sterling, and its ca- pital only 3t)9,891/. !>s. ; but the directors having a considerable dividend to make in lOjti, it was agreed to join the protits to the capital ; by which the shares were doubled, and consequently tach became of 100^ value, and tlie capital 739,792/. 10«. ; to which capital, if 963 ,039/., thft profits of the company to the vear l(i95, be added, the whole stock will be found to be 1,703,10^/. 'f hough the establishment of this company was vindicated in the clearest manner by sir Josiah Child, and other able advocates, yet tho partiality which tlie duke of York, after\var»s James II., liad for his favourite Afiican trade, the losses \t sustained in wars with the Dutch, and the revolutions which had happened in the aii'uirs of Hindostan, damped the ardoiu: of tlie people to siipport it ; so that at the time of the Revolution, when the war broke out with France, it was in a very indifferent situation. This was in a great measure o\v ing to its having no parliamentary sanction ; in consequence of which, its stock often sold for one half less than it was really worth ; and it was resolved thiit a new company sliould be erected under the autliority of parlia- ment. The opposition given to all the public-spirited measures of king William, by faction, rendered tills proposal a matter of considerable <lifficulty ; but at last, after many parliamentary inquiries, the new subscription prevailed ; and the subscribers, upon advancini; two mil- lions to the public at 8 per cent., obtained an act of parliament iti their fevour. The old company^ however, retained a great interest both in the parliament and nation ; and the act being Ibund in some respects <lefectlve, so violent a struggle between the iwo companies arose, that in the year 1 702 they were united by an Indentuie tripartite. In the year 1/08, the yearly fund of 8 per cent, fur two millions, was reduced to 5 per cent., by a loan of 1 ,2t)0,C/00/. to the public without an addi- tional interest; for which consideration the company obtained a pro- longation of its exc:lusive privileges ; and a new charter was granted to them, under the title of" The United Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies." Its CKclusive right of trade was prolonged from time to time ; and a further sum was lent by the company in 1 730 ; by which, though the couApmy's {Privileges were extended for thirty-tlirce years, yet the interest of their capital, whidi then amounted to 3,1Q(),(XK)/,, was reduced to 3 per cent., and called the India 3 per cent, annuities. Those annuities are dljfc?rcnt from the trading stock of the company, the proprietors of which, instead of receiving a reguhir annuity, have, according to their ditfcrent shares, a dividend of the protits arising from the company's trade : and that divideinl rises or falls according to the circumstances of the company, either real, or, as is too often the case, pretended. A proprietor of slock to the an.junt of 1000/., whether man or woman, native or for^-igner, has a right to be a manager, and Uj give a vote in the general council. Two tliousand pounds is tha quaiitication for a director. The directors are twenty-four in number, including tlic chairman and dcputy-chainuan, who may be re-clecicd in turn, six a year, for four year.? .successively. The chairman Iws a salary of 200/. a •year, and each of the directors 150/. The meetings or courts of direc- tors ax*e to be held at least once a week ; but are commonly oftener, Jjeing summon«d as occasion requires, Out of the body of directors arc 190 EXGLAM>. mi chosen several committees, who have the peculiar inspection ofoertniti branches of the company's business ; as the committee ot" correspf)ti- dence, a committee of treasury, a house conunittee, a connuittee of ware- house, a committee of shippinj:;, a committee of accounts, a conunittee of hiwsuits, and a conuuiciee to prevent the grow th of private-tracie ; Avlio have under tliesa a secretary, cashier, clerk;i, and warehouse- keepers. The amazing territorial arqivisitions of tliis company, computed to contain above 200,(XK) square miles, and thirty millions of jx'ople, must be necessarily attended with a proportionable increase of trade*; and this, joined to (he dissensions among its managers both at Jiome and abroad, has of late greatly engaged the attention of the legis^lature. A restriction has occasionally been laid on their dividends ti^r a certain time. From the report of tlie committet-, in 17*3, appointed by parlia- mejit on Indian afl'airs, it appears that the India company, from the year 17O8 to the year 1756, ti)r the space of forty-seven )ears and a half, <nvided the sum of J'i,00(),(XX)/., or above 2SO,(X)0/. per annum, whicli, on a capital of 3,UjO,(XX)/., amounted to above eight and a half jier cent. ; and tliat at the last-mentioned jK'riod it app<.\ired, that, besides the abo\e dividend, the capital stock of the company had been increased 180,000/. Considerable alterations were matle in the aftairs and constitution of the East-India company, by an act' passed in 17/3, iiititided, " An act for " establishing certain rules and orders for the future management of the " affairs of the East-India company, as well in India as in Europe." It was thereby enacted, that the comt of directors should, in future, be elected for four years j six members animally 5 but none to hold their .seats longer than four years. That no persons should vote at the elec- tion of the directors who had not possessed their st«)ck twehe months. That the stock of qualitication shoukl, in-itejid of JtX)/. as it had formerly been, be KXX)/. That the nuuor's court of Calcutta should, for the future, be confined to small mercantile eauses, to which only irs juris- diction extendetl before the territorial at^quisition. I'hat, in lieu of this court, thus taken away, a new one be established, c'<jnsisting of a cliief justice and tlu-ee puisne judges, and tjiat these judges be appointed by the crown. That a superiority be given to the presidency of Hengal, over the other presidencies in India. That the riglit of nominating the governor and council of Bengal should be vested in the crown. 'I'he salaries of the judges were also fixed at 80(K)/. to the chief justice, an.d OOOOl. a y^ar to each of the other tliree. The aj)]>ointments of thf go- vernor-general and council were fixed, tlie first at 25,000/. and the Ibvu: gthers at 10,000/. each annually. In the month of November, 17S3, Mr. Fox, then secretary of state, brought forward a ImU for new-regulating the company, under the sup- position of the incompetency of the directors, and the insolvent state uf the company. The bill passed the commons ; but an op^wsition was made to it in tlie house of lords, as placing U.h> dangerous a power in the hands of any men, and which would be sure to operate against the necessary power of tlie crown j and, after long debates, it was thrown out by a majority ot" ^ According to lists laid before tlw bouse of cuininous, the company ciitjiloycd tlO siiips, and 8170 men. Bcbveen India and Europe, in carrying cargoes to and ? ^,. , ■ • - , o,n jj-j^m ....... \ TOsJiips and 7130UJCU. 6 pocketn . ^20 lo the country tfikde, and irom Oiina . . . • . 34cra)>s . . 720 < ENGLAND. 191 ertniti 'spon- warc- nittee ;r;i(le j lOUSC- s'JKk'Cii \\cerit. The conseqiuMuo of this was a chaiigt of the minUtr)-, and a general re\c)kiLit)n of the cabinet, Ry the new bill, which passed at the close of tlie sessions, six jTcrsons nre nominated by tlie king as commissioners for tlie atfairs of India, of whom on<.' of the secretaries of state, and the chancellor of the exclk.*- quer for tlie time being, shall be two ; the president to have the casting vote, if equally divided. New commissioners to be appointed at thit pleasure of the crown. This board is to sujMiriuteud, direct, and con- trol n\l acts, o}jeratious, and concerns, which in any wise relate to tlie civil and military government or revenues of the British territorial pos- schsions in the Eiist Indies. They arc sworn to execute tlw several powers and trusts reposed in them, without favour or attection, preju- dice or malice, to any jKJrson whatever. The court of directors of the <'ompany are to deliver to this board all minutes, orders, and resolutioiw ot" themselves, and of tlie courts of proprietors, and copies of all let- ters, orders, and instructions, proposed to l>e sent abroad, for tlieir ajj- probation or alteration ; none to be sent until after such previous com- munication, on any pretence wluitsoever. The directors are still to aj)- point the servants abrowd ; but the king has a power, by his secretary of state, to recall either of the governors or members of the councils, or any person holding any (itHce under the company in their settlements, anA make void their appointment. By this bill there is given to the govcmor and council of Bengal a control over the other presidencies, in all points wiiich relate to any transactions with the country powers, to peace and war, or to the application of their forces or revenues ; but the a)uncil Kjf Bengal are subjected to the absolute direction of the company at home, and, in all cases, except tliose of innnediiite danger and necessity, re- strained from acting without orders received from England. Sooji after the passing of this act, Mr. Dundas, who had long given unwearieil application to tlie atfairs of India, l)eing placed at the head oi' the board of control, introduced the laudable practice of bringing ;uanu- ally lx;tt)re a committee of the house of commons a statement of the tinancial concerns of the company abroad, exhibiting the balance upon the comparison of the revenues and charges of the several settlements. As the company's right to their exclusive trade was, by an act passed iu 1/81, to terminate in Marcli 179-^> it became necessary to make pn*- vision for tliat e\ent ; which was ettectually done by Mr. Dundas's l)ilJ, projMjsed the 25th of February 1/93, which, meeting the approbatioii ot parliament, had the singular good fortune of giving ec^ual saii.vfaction to (lie public and the company: to the public, because, instead of^OO.OCO/., they were to receive 500,000/. per annum from the revenues of Indixi ; and to the conipany, because they were still to preserve their power and privileges, as far as they contributed to proinoto the interests of their comnieixr. Tiie information which preceded or accompanied this salutary bill gave the most favourable view of the company's atfairs, and of the great national bcnetits which had already occurred, and which might be ex- pectetl in future to How iu still greater abundance, from the Indian trade and territory. The revenvies oi' the countries ceded to the company by 'i'i|ij)00 Sultan were stated at :J<.jO,.00()/. ; and the futaire revenues ot'tlic British possessions iii India were estimated at nearly 7,000,(X)0/. ; leav- ing a net surplus, after deducting tlie interest on the debts in ln<!ia, iuid the civil, militaiy, and commercial charges, of I,0J9,00(J/. per annum. The .'inuual sales of India goods ui Euro])e were estimated at nearly 5/)00,000/., yrhxdx escaeds tlie prime cost and ehaj-ges by 7J:j,(>00/.j K*-} 192 JLXGLAND. i!.'! and the not 'urj-ilMS oa the vlmlc of the rcvcimc^ and trade of the Ka,«t- In(ii:i ( n;iip:my, alter paying 8 per cent. <li^ idond on the cipital stock of .VK)0,(XK)/., is estimated at 1 ,23;),'i4l/. per niiinun. In Jnly, 17f)7, Mr. Duiul.is st;;tcd the totnl amount of the foreign re- venues at 8,15 ^S7'i/., and the rhaip;cs upon them at 6,517,037/., leaving a not suqihis of 1,0;{7,SI.5/. He sit tiic same time .stitcd the amount of the receipts and sales of the ronipany at home, at 7,P,\(i,(i\{il. SouT!r-Si;\ company.] Durinj; the long war with France in the reii^n of queen Anne, the payment of the sailors of the royal navy be- -Ug neglected, ami lliey receiving tickets instead of money, were fiv- •^luntly obliged by their necessities to sell these ticket* to :ivaricion.s men, at a discnimt of 40/. and .sometimes 50/. per cent. By this and other means, the debts of the nation, uiipro\ided for liy parliament, and which amounted to 9,17 1 ,32 1 /., fell into the hands of these usurers. On which Mr. ITarley, at that time chnncellor of the exchequer, and afterwards carl rf Oxford, proposed a scheme to allow the pro]>rietors of these dubts and deficiencies ()7. i)er cent, per anmm), and to incorjorate them, in order fo their carrj'ing on a trade to the South Sea; and they were accordingly incorpovitted muier the title of " The G(n-ernor nnd (^jmpany of Mer- cluuts of (Jreat I'ritaiii trading to the Sonth Se:is, and other Parts of America, and for encouraging the Fisiiery," he. 'i'hough this compatiy seemed formed for the sake of commerce, it is rertain that the ministry never thought seriously, during the course of the w.nr, ah(nit making any settlement on the coast of South Amoricj, trhich was what Ikittorcd the expcctalions of the people : nor was it in- deed ever carried into cvecution, or any trade c ver undertaken by thi*; rompany, c\cept the Assicnto, in pursuance of the treatv of Utrecht, for furnishing the Spaniards with negroes, of which this company was ffeprived, upon receiving 100, (KKV. in lie\i (>( all claims upon Spain, by a convention between the courts of Great Britain and Spain, soon after the treaty of Ai\-la-Chapelle, in 17-IS. Some other sums were lent lo the rrnvernment in the reign of queen Anne, at G per cent. In the tliird of ( Jeorge I. the interest of the whole was reduced to 5 jxr cent., and they ailvanced two millions more to the government at the s.-irne interest. I'.y the statute of the 6th of (icorgc I. it \\as declared, that this company miglit redeem all or any of the re- deemable national debts ; in consiileraiion of which, tlie company were empowered to augment their capital according to the sums they should discharge: and for enabling them to rai.se such sums for purchasing an- nuities, rxchrtnging for ready money new exchequer bill-, v arrying on their trade, \-c., they migfit, by such means as they should think proper, niisv' such sums of money as in a gentT;;! court of the conpany should b« judged necessary. 'I'he company \vf re also em}>owerc(4 to raise monev on the contracts, bonds, or obligations under their com; 'on seal, on the < redit of their public stock. But if the sub-governor, deputy-governor, vr other members of the company, should purchase lairds or revenues ot the crown npon account of the corporation, or knul iioneyby loan or aiiticipalion on any brandi of the revenue, other thau sr.ch part only on which a credit of loan was granted by parliament, such sub-governor, or other member of tlie company, should forfeit triple "lie value so lent. 'J'hc fatal South-Sea scheme, transacted .11 the y/ar l7'-^0, was execu- ted upon the last-mentioni.'d .s*'.itate. The company had at first set ovtt with good success; and the value of their stock, for the lirst tive years, h.nd risen faster th.ati that of any (;ther company} a.d his majesty, aftev pvi^ulusing lO/XO/. stock, liad condescended to be tl)cjr governor. ENGLAND. 193 fhiujjs wcrcs in this situation, \v!ien, taking advantage of the above sta- tiiK'j the South-Sea bubble was projected; the pretended design ot' %vhich was, to ruise a fund tbr carryini^ on a trade to the South-Sea, and purchasing annuities, 6cc. j)aid to the other companies: and proposals ■were printed anil distributed, sliowing tJic advantages ot the design, and inviting persons into it. 1'hc sum necessary for carrjing it on, together with the profits that were to arise from it, were divided into a certain number of shares, or subscriptions, to be purchased by persons disposed to adventure therein. And tlie better to carry on the deception, the di- rectors engaged to make very large dividends, and actually declared tJiat every 100/. original stock would yield 50/. per annum ; which occasioned so groat a rise of their stock, tliat a share of 100/. was sold for upwards of 800/. This was in die month of July ; but before tlie end of Sep- tember it fell tc lao/.; by which multitudes were mined, and such a scene of distress occasioned as is scai'cely to be conceived. Most of the directors were severely lined, to the loss of nearly all their property; even those who had no share in tlie deception, because they ought to have opposed arid prevented it. By a statute of the 6th of George II. it was enacted, that, from and after the 24th of June, 17^3, the capital stock of this company, which amounted to 14,651,103/. 85. Id. and the shares of the respective pro- prietors, should be divided into four equal parts ; three-fourths of which should be converted into a joint stock, attended with annuities after the rate of 4 per cent, until redemption by parliament, and should be called tlie New Soutli-Sea annuities, and the other fourth part should remain in the company as a trading capital stock, attended with the residue of the annuities or funds payable at the exchequer to the company for their whole capitnl, till redemption ; and attended with tlie same sums always allowed for tJie charge of management, with all etFects, profits of trade, debts, privileges, and advantages, belonging to tlie South-Sea company : that the accountant of tlie company should, twice every year, at Christ- mas ami Midsummer, or within one month after, state an account of the comoiiny's affairs, which should be laid before the next general court, in order to their declaring a dividend ; and all dividends should be made out of the clear profits, and should not exceed what the company might reasonably divide without incurring any further debt ; provided that the company should not at any time divide more than 4 per cent, per annum until their debts were tiischarged; and the South-Sea company, and their trading stock, should, exclusively from the new joint stock of an- nuities, be liable to all debts and incumbrances of the company ; and that the company should cause to be kept, within the city of London, an office and books, in which all transfers of the new annuities should be entered, and signed by the party making such transfer, or his attorney ; and the person to whom such transfer should be rnadc, or his attoriiv.)', should underwrite his acceptance ; and no otlier method of transferring the annuities should be good in law. The annuities of this companyj as weU as the otlier, are now reduced to 3 per cent. This company is under the direction of a governor, sub-governor, de- puty-governor, and twenty-one directors; but no person is qualified ro be governor, his majesty excepted, unless such governov has, in lus own name and right, 5000/. in tlie trading stock ; the sub-go\ ernor is to have 4000/. the deputy-governor 3000/. and a director 2000/. in tlie wwftne *tock, In ©very generiil court, evciv msniber having, in his own i| l>H'll ■'f5l 104 ENGLAND. Wn n f '14 name and right, 500/. in trnding stock, has one vote; if 2000f. two votes; if 30(0/. three votes; and if 5000/. four votes. The East-India tompany, the Bank of England, and the South-Sea (Company, are tlie only incorporated bodies to which the government is in- debted, except tlie million bank, whose capital is only one million, con- stituted to purcha::c the reversion of the long Exchequer orders. As every capital stock or ftmd of a company is raised for a particular pnrjiosc, and limited by government to a certain sum, it necessarily fol- lows, that, when that fund is completed, no stock can be bought of tlie company; tJiough shares, already purchased, may be transferred from one person to another, lliis being the case, tlicre is frequently a great disproportion between the original value of the shares, and what is given for tiiem when transferred ; for, if there are more buyers than sellers, k person who is indilferent about selling will not part witli his share with- out a considerable profit to himself; ami, on the contrary, if many are disposed lo .wll, and few inclined to buy, tlie value of .such shares will naturally fall, in proportion to the impatience of those who want to turn their stock into sjieeie. 'I'hcse observations may serve to give our readers some idea of the nature of that unjustitiable and di>iM)nest practice called stock -jobbin:^^ the mystery of wliich consists in nothing more than this: the persons concerned in that practice, who are denominated Stock'-jobbers, make contracts to buy or sell, at a certain distant time, a certain quantity of Some particular sUx k ; against which time they endeavour, according as their contract is, cither to raise or lower such stock, by sj)reading rumour.s and fictitious stories, in order to induce people either to sell out in a hurry, and conse{|uently cheap, if they are to deliver stm'k ; or to be- come unwilling to sell it, and conseijuently to make it dearer, if they are to R'ccive stock. The persons who nvike these contracts are not in general possessed of any real stock ; and when the time conies that tliey are to rec"eive or de- liver the quantity they have contracted for, thty only receive or pay such a sum of money as makes the difference between the \tx\ce the stojjl: was at when they made the contract, and the price it happens to be at when tlie contract is fulfilled ; and it is no uncommon thing for persons not worth 100 pounds to make contracts for the buying or selling 100,000 jwunds stock. In the language of Exchange-alley, the buyer is, in tliis ca.se, called the Bull, and the seller the Bear ; one is for raising or toss- ing uj\ aid the other for lowering or trampling upon, the stock. Besides "^hese, there is another set of men, who, though of a higher rank, may properly enough come under the same denomination. 'Ihese are the great nioniod men, who are dealers in stock, and contractors with the government whenever any money is to be borrowed. These, indeed, are not lietitioiis hu'. real buyers and ^^ellers of stock ; but by raising false liopcs, or creating groundless fears, by pretending to buy or .sell large quantities of stock on a suddeu'/'by lusing the before-mentioned set of men as their instruments, and oilier similar practices, tljey are enabled lo raise or fall stocks one or two per cent, at pleasure. While tfie annuities, and interest for money advanced, are regularly paid, atul the principal insured by both prince and people (a security not to be had in otlier nations), foreignerj will lend us their property, and all Kura|)e be inlereUed in our welfare ; the paper of the companies will, be converLcil into money and merchandise, and Great Britain can never want casb tu v.ntf her sche«ies into execution. In otlier njititais, credit Ui si< P' ta 1 EXGLAXD. 195 > votes; Uh-Se« it is in- n, con- rticular rily fol- t o( tlie d from a great is given ellers, a. e with- mhy arfr ires will L to turn of the -jobbin:^, persons s, make antity of )rding as rumours out in a )r to be- they are isessed of ve or (ie- pay sui4i itop^: was ; at when rsons not ; 100,000 is, in tliis g or toss- ■ a higher 1. 'these ctors with e, indeed, isins^ fiilse sell large jet of men ;d lo raise ! regularly icurity not perty, and Duuie^ will, can never Oils, credit is founded on the word of the prince, if a monarchy ; or that of the peo- ple, if a republic 5 but here it is estj|»bliihed on tiio interest of both j prince and people : which is the strongest security. Military and mauine fokce") The military state includes the OF Great Britain. j whole of the soldiery, or such per- • sons as are peculiarly appointed, among tlie rest of the people, for the safeguard and defence of the realm. In a land of liberty it is extremely dangerous to make a distinct order of the profession of arms. In such, no man should take up arms, but with a view to defend his country and its laws : he puts not oft' the ci- tizen when he enters the camp ; but it 'n because he is a citizen and would wish to continue so, that he makes himself for a v/hile a soldier. The laws and constitution of these kingdoms know no such state as that of a perpetual standing soldier, bred up to no other profession than tliat of war J and it was not till the roign of Henry VII. that the kings of England had so much as a guard about their persons. It seems universally agreed by all historians, that king Alfred first set- tled a national militia in this kingdom, and by his prudent discipline made all the subjects of his dominions soldiers. In the mean time we are not to imagine that the kingdom was left wholly without defence, in case of domestic insurrections, or the pro- spect of foreign invasions. Besides those who, by their military tenures, were hound to perform forty days' scr\ice in the field, the statute of Wincl'.ester obliged every man, according to his estate and degree, to proviiie a determinate quantity of such arms as wore then in use, in order to keep tlie peace ; and constables were appointed in all hundreds, to see that such arms were provided. I'hese weapons were changed by the statute 4 and 5 Ph. and M. c. 2. into others of more modern service ; but both tliis and the former provisions were rejxjaled in the reign of James I. While these continued in force, it was usual, from time to time, for our princes to issue commissions of array, and send into every county officers in whom they could confide, to muster and array (or set' in military order) the inhabitants of every district ; and die form of the commission of array was settled in parliament in the 5ih Henry IV. But at the same time it was provided, that no man should be comjK'lled to go out ofthe kingdom atany rate 5 nor out of his shire, but in cases of urgent necessity ; nor should provide soldiers unless by consent of parliament. About the reign of king Henry Vill. lord-lieulenaiits began to be intro- duced, as standing representatives of the ciown, to keep the counties in military order } for we find tlieni mentioned as known otiicers in the statute 4 and 5 Ph. and M. c. 3. though they had not been then long in use ; fur Camden speaks of them in the time of queen Elizabeth as extra- ' ordinaiy magistrates, constituted only in times of difficulty and dnnger. Soon after the restoration of king Charles II., when the military te- nures were abolished, it was thought proper to ascertain the pow or of the militia, to recognise tlie sole right of the crown to govern and command tlicm, and to put the whole into a more regular method of military sub- ordination ; and tlie order in which the militia now star.ds by law, is principally built upon the statutes which were then enacted. It is true, tlie two last of them are apparently rej)cale.d j but many of their provi- sions are re-enaoted, with the addition ot' some new regxdations, by tlio present militia laws j the general scheme of which is, to discipline a cer- tain number of the inhabitants of every county, chosen by lot foi five years, ami officered by the lord-lieutenant, the deputy-lieutenants, and flthcr principal latid-holdvis, under a commission from the crown. 'lUey 02 i-^ 19<5 KKGlvA^D. li.'-', \ /i are not compellable. <o march out of tlieir counties, unless In case of an invasion, or actual rebellion, nor in any case to be sent out of the king- dom. They are to be exercis >d at stated times, and their discipline ia general is liberal and easy : bi t when drawn out in actual service, they are subject to the rigours of martial law, as necessary to keep tlieni in order. This is the constitutional security which our laws have provided for the public peace, and for protecting the realm against foreign or do- mestic violence, and which the statutes declare is essentially necessary to tJie safety and prosperity of the kingdom. But as the mode of keeping standing armies has universally prevailed over all Europe of late jcars, it has also for many years past been annu- ally judged necessary by our legislature, tor the safety of tlie kingdom, the defence of the possessions of the crown of Great Britain, and the pre- servation of the balance of power in Kurope, to maintain, even in time of peace, a standing body of troops, under the command of the crown; who are, ho\\'cver, ipsn facto, disbanded at the expiration of every year, unless continued by parliament. The land forces of these kingdoms, in time of peace, amount to about 40,000 men, including troops and garrisons in Ireland, Gibraltar, the East Indies, and America ; but in time of war the number is much greater. The total number of tr«)ops on service in the year 1804, according to the statement of the secretary at war (Mr. Yorke), was 2.52,841 men, consisting of 20,324 regular cavalry; 133,267 regu- lar infantr)-^, including officers and men j 87,652 militia ; and 26,000 of the army of reserve : there was besides, of artillery, 14,202, making the total number of our actual force 267,243 men. To govern this body of troops, an annual act of jiarliament passes, " to punish muthiy and deser- tion, and for the better payment of the army and their quarters." This regulates the manner in which they are to be dispersed among the seve- ral inn-keepers and victuallers tliroughout tlie kingdom ; and establishes a law-martial for their government. To this great and efficient force we are also now to add nearly 400,000, volunteers, who have bravely taken up arms to defend their country, should our inveterate foe attempt to carry into execution his haughty and insolent menace of invasion. The MARITIME state is nearly related to the former, though much more agreeable to the principlen of our free constitution. The royal navy of England has ever be«n its greatest defence and ornanent ; it is its ancient and natural strength ; the floating bulwark of the island j an army, from which, however strong and powcrtal, no danger can ever be apprehended to liberty ; and accordingly it has been aiisiduously culti- vated, even from the earliest ages. To so juuch perfection was our naval reputation arrived in tlie twelfth century, that the code of maritime laws, which are called the Laws of Oleron, and are received by all nations in Europe as the groiuul and substruction of all Uieir marine constitution*, was confessedly compilcil by our king Richard I., at the isle of Oleron, on tlie coast of France, then part of the possessions of Uie crown of En- gland. An! yet, so vasitly inferior were our ancesjtors in this pomt to the ])ri's<jnt nf^c, that, even in the maritime reign of queen Eli/al)eth, sir Edward Coke liinks it matter of boaat that the royal navy of England, tlien consisted of 33 shi])-i. The present condition of our marine is in a great measure owing to the salutary provisions of the statute called the Navigation Act; v hereby a cjn.ifant increase of English shipping and .seamen was not only encouraged, but rendered uiuivoidably neces- .sarr. The mn:,i beneficial statute for the trade and commerce of tlies« kingdoms is that navigation act^ tiiit rudiments uf which wore iivst ENGLAND. 197 ffsmed in l650, partly witli a narrow view ; being intended to mortify the sugar islands, which were disaffected to the parliament, and still held out for Charles II., by stopping the gainful tratle which they then carried on witli the Dutch j and at the ;: .ue time to clip the wings of those our opulent and aspiring neighbours. This act prohibited all ships of foreign nations from trading with any English plantations without license from the council of state. In 10.51 the prohibition was extended also to the mother country ; and no goods were suffered to be imported into En- gland, or any of its dependencies, in any other than English bottoms, or in tlie ships of ihut European nation of which the merchandise imported was tiie genuine growth or manulacture. At the Restoration, the former provisions were continued by statute 12 Car. II. c. 18., M'ith this very material improvement, that the masters and three-fourths of the n'.aiiners shall also be English subjects. The complement of seamen, in time of peace, usually has amounti" ed to 12 or 15,000. In time of war, they formerly amounted to about 30,000 men ; and after the commencement of tlie American war, tp «bove 100,000, including marines. The vote of parliament for the service of the years 1798 and 1799 ^^''^ ^br 120,000 seamen, including marines. 'I'his navy is commonly divided into three squadrons, namely, the red, white, and blue, which are so termed from tlie ditfercnce of their co- lours. Each squadron has its admiral : but the admiral of the red squa- dron has the principal command of the whole, and is styled vice-admiral of Great Britain. Subject to each admiral is also a vice and rear admiral. But the supreme command of our naval force is, next to the king, in the lords commissioners of the admiralty. Notwithstanding our favourable situation for a maritime power, it was not until tlie vast armament sent to subdue us by Spain, in 1588, that the nation, by a \igorous effort, became fully sensible of its true interest and natural strength, which it has since so happily cultivated. We may safely affirm, that the British navy is able to cope with all tlie other fleets of Europe. The brilliant victories of lords St. Vincent, Duncan, and Nelson, and the late surrender of the whole Dutch fleet lying in the Texel, have ustablished the mirivalled superiority of Britain over all the maritime powers of Eunjpe. In the course of the late war she took from her enemies, including the Dutch ships surrendered for the Stadtholder, 83 ships of the line, 1 1 1 frigates, 223 other ships 01' war, and 713 privateer,-., amounting in the whole to 1 132 ships. At the beginning of the year IStX), the British naval force consisted of 144 ships of tlie line, in commission, 22 fifty-gim ships, 200 frigates, and 292 other ships of war : in the whole, tidS ships ; and, including receiving ships, ships in ordinary and building, 902, of which 224 were of the line. We shall close this account of tlie military and maritime strength of England, or rather of Great Britain, by observing, that though sea-offi- cers and sailors are subject to a perpetual act of parliament, which an- swers tlie annual military act that is passed for the government of the army, yet neither of those bodies is exempted from legal jurisdiction 'n\ civil or criminal cases, but in a few instances of no great moment. The ©oldiers, particularly, may be called upon by a civil magistrate to enable him to preserve the peace against all attempts to break it. The militnry officer who commands the soldiers on those occasions is to take his di- rections from tlie magistrate } and both he and they, if tlieir proceedings are jegular, are indemnified against all conseq\ienccs, bo they ever m M%<^ m' f$9 ENGLAND. * ?'■ W' , if fatal. Those civil magistrates who understand the principles of the cott- stitution are ho>vever extremely cautious in c^'l'Ug for the military on tliese occasions, or upon i:nv commotion Avhatevcr; and, indeed, with good reason j for the frequeal employmeiU ol* the military power in a free government is exceedingly dangerous, and cannot be guarded against viih too much caution. Royal titlks and arms.] The title of the king of England, since tlie union witli Ireland, is : in Latin, Dei Gratia, BriUmniarum Rex, Fidci Defensor; and in English, ]iy the Grace ot" God, of Great Britain an^ Ireland King, Defender of the Faith. The designation of tJie kings of England was f-rmerly his or her Grace, or Highness, till Heury VIII., to put himself on a tooting with the emperoi Charles V., assumed that of Majesty ; but the old designation was not abolished till towards the end of queen Elizabeth's reign. The title of Defender of the Faith, above uicntioned, wa.-. given to Hepry VIII. by the pope, on account of a book written by Uie king against Luther and the Reformation. Besides the titles already given, the king of Great Britain has others from his German dominions, as Elector of Hanover, Duke of Brunswick-Lunen- burg, &;c. Since the union between Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, the royal (ichtevemeut is marshalled as follows : quarterly, first and fourth, Mars^ three //o«f passant gwclaru in pale Sol, for England: Second, Sol, a. iwil I'umjhiiit liut/iin a double trcsstire Jlory and coimterflm'y Mars, for Scot- land : Third, J.tipiter, a harp Sol, strins;i'd Luna, for Ireland. On an escocheon of pretence, t^nsigned witli the Electoral bonnet, and divided per pale and per cheveron, eaarched into three compartments, the arms of his majesty's dominions in Germany, viz. First, Mars, tivo Horn pas- sant gardunt in pale Sol, for Brunswick : Second, Sol, setne of hearts, a lion rampant Jupiter, for liuncnburg : Third, Mars, a horse current Luna for Saxony, la tlie centre, on an incscocheon Mars, the croivn of Chark' tnagne, proper, being the badge of the ofHce of arch-treasurer of the Holy Roman Empire : the whole within a garter, as sovereign of tliat most noble order of knighthood. The motto of Ditu ct mnn Droit, that is, God and 7i{i/ Right, is as old as the reign of Richard I., who assumed it to show his independency upon all earthly powers. It w;:s afterwards revived by Edward III. whe^ he laid claim to the crown of France. Almost every king of England had dt particular badge or cognisance ; sometimes a white hart, sometimes a fetlock with a falcon, by which it is said Edward IV. alluded to the infi- delity of one of his mistresses ; and sometimes a portcullis, which was that of the house of Lancaster, many of the princes of which were born in the castle of Ikaufort. The white rose was the bearing of the house of York J and that of Lancaster, byway of cpntradiitinction, adopted tlie red. The thistle, which is now part, of the royal* armorial bearings, belonged to Scotland, and was very significant when joined to its motto, AVmo >ne iinpunc laccxsit, " None shall provoke me unpunished." The titles of the king's ekUst son are. Prince of Wales, duke of Corn- wall and Koth-ny, earl of Chester, electoral prince of Brunswick and Lunenburg, e.srl of Carriek, baron of Renfrew, lord of the Isles, great- bteward of Scotland, and captain-general of the nrtillery company. Okdeks oi" KNIGHTHOOD.] The ordcr of the Garter, the mcst honourable of any in the world, was instituted by Edward III. Janu- ary 19, 1344. It consists of tlie sovereign, who is always king or queen Oi" England, of 25 companions, called knights of the garter, who wear a niccul of St. George killing the dragon, supposed to be the t^..tcar i ; ENGLAND. m •saint of England, commonly enamelled on gold, suspended from a blue fibbon, which was formerly worn about their necks, but since the latter end of James I. now crosses their bodies from their shoulder. The garter, which is of blue velvet, bordered with gold, buckled under the left knee, and gives the name to the order, was designed as an ensign of unity and combination } on it are embroidered tlie words, Iloni sou qui mal y pcnse, " Evil to him who evil thinks." Knights of the Bath, so called from their bathing at tlie time of their creation, are supposed to have been instituted by Ilenry IV. about the year 1399 : but the order seems to be more ancient. For many reigns they were created at the coronation of a king or queen, or on otlier solenm occasions. They wear a scarlet ribbon hanging from the left shoulder, with aix enamelled medal, the badge of the order, a rose issuing from the dexter side of a sceptre, and a tliistle from the sinister, between three imperial crowns placed within tlie motto, Triajuncta in unum, " Three joined in one." This order being discontinued, was revived by king George I. on the 8th of May, 1/25 ; and tlie month following, eighteen noblemen, and as many commoners of the first rank, wer^j installed knights of the order with great ceremony, at Westminster, where the place of instalment is Henry VII. 's chapel. Their robes are splendid and showy, and tlie number of knights is undeterminate. The bishop of Rochester is perpetual dean ot* tlie order, which has likewise a register and other otHcers. The origin of the English peerage, or nobility, has been already men- tioned. Their titles, and order of dignity, are dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and lords or barons. Baronets can i -arcely be said to belong to an order, having no other badge tlian a bloody hand in a field argent, in tlieir arms. They are the only hereditaiy honour under tlie peerage, and would take place even of the knights of the garter, were it not that the latter are always privy-councillors j there being no intermediate honour between them and the parl'iamentaiy barons of England. They were instituted by James I, about the year 1615. Their number was then two hundred, and each paid about 1000/. on pretejice of reducing and planting the province of Ulster in Ireland : but at present their number amounts to 70Q. A knight is a term used almost in every nation in Europe, and in ge- , neral signifies a soldier serving on horseback j a rank of no mean esti- niatiou in aiicii.nt armies, and entitling the parties tliemselves to the appallation of Sir. Otlier knighthoods foi merly took place in England ; such as those of hannertts, bachelors, knigiits of the car}X't, and the like; but th'-y are now disused. Indeed, in the year 177'^, ^it a review of the royal navy at Portsmoutii, the king conferred the honour of Knights Bannerets on two admirals and three cnptains. They have no particular badge on their garments, but their arms are painted on a banner placed in the frames 9! the supporters. It is somewhat ditficult to account for the origin of tlie word esquire, which formerly signified a person bearing the arms of a nobleman or knight, and they were therefore called Armigeri. This title denoted any person, who, by his birth or property, was entitled to bear arms ; but it is at present applied promiscuously to any man who can atlord lo live in the ciiaracter of a gentleman, without trade; and even a tradesman, ir iie is a justice of peace, demands the appellation. This degree, so lato as in the reign of Henry IV., was an order, and conferred bv the kuig, Ify putting about the prtrty's ueck a coliiu: of SS. and givuig hm a pait m ,411 9 'Tt', ii i!! : u ll J , ( l1 200 ENGLAND. '||:; IM i i'-'l; of silver spurs. Gower the poet appears, from his effigies on hk tomfe in Southwark, to have been an esquire by crcatioti. Serjeants at law, and other Serjeants belonging to the king's household, justices of the, peace, doctors in divinit)', law, and physic, take place of other esquires } and it is remarkable, that all tlie sons of dukes, marquises, earls, vis- counts, and barons, are in the e}^e of the law no more than esquires, though commonly designated by noble titles. The appellation of gen-* tleman, tliough now bestowed so promiscuously, is the root of all En- glish honour; for every nobleman is presumed t«> be a gentlemanj^ though every gentleman is not a nobleman, Religion.] Eusebius, and other ancient writers, positively assert, that Christianity was first preached in South Britain by the apostles an4 tlieir disciples; and it is reasonalile to suppose that the success of the Romans opened a way for the triumphs ot the Gospel of peace. It is certain also, that many of the soldiers and officers in tlie Roman armies were Christians ; and as their legions were repeatedly sent over to En- gland to extend as well as preserve tlieir conquests, it is probable that thus Christianity was diffused among the natives. If any of the apostle* visited this country and our heathen ancestors, it was St. Paul, whose seal, diligence, and fortitude, were abundant. But who was the first preacher, or A^hen the precise year and period, is entirely Uncertain, fron^ the want of records ; and all the traditions about Joseph of Arixuathea and St. Peter's preaching tlie Gospel in Britain, and Simon Zelotes suf- fering martyrdom here, are romantic fables, and monkish legends. Wo have good autliority to say, that, about the year 150, a great number of persons professed the Christian taith here : and, according to archbishop. Usher, in ti/e year 182 there was a school of learning to provide tlie British churches with proper teachers ; and from that period it seems as if Chiistianily advanced its benign and salutar}' influences among the inhabitants in their several districts. It is unneccssaiy to repeat what has been said in the Introduction respecting the rise and fall of the church of Rome in Europe j we shall only obser\e in this place, that John Wicklitt'e, an Englishman, educated at Oxford in the reign of Ed- wai'd III., has the honour of being the first person in Europe who pub- licly called in question, and boldly refuted, those doctrines which had passed for certain during so many ages. The constitution of the church is episcopal, and it is governed by bishops, whose benefices were converted by the Norman conqueror into temporal baronies, in right of which every bishop has a seat and vote in the house of peers. The benefices of the inferior clergy are now frce- iiold J but in many places their tithes are impropriated in favour of the laitj\ The economy of the church of England has been accused for the inequality of its livings ; some of them extending from three hun- dred to fourteen hundred a year ; and many, particularly in Wales, be- ing too small to maintain a clergyman, especially if he has a family^ Willi any tolerable decency ; but this seems not easily to be remediod, unless the dignified clergy would adopt and support the reforming scheme. I'he crown, as well as private persons, has done much to- wards the augmentation of poor livings. The dignitaries of the church of England, such as deans, prebendaries, and the like, have generally large incomes, some of them exceeding in value those of bishoprics ; for which reason the revenues of a rich dean- ery, or other living, are often annexed to a poor bishopric. At |)rcsent, die clergy of the church of England, as to temporal matters, are in a most flourishing situation, because tlie value of their titlies increases with tomh t law, of thei aires } vis- uiresj, gen-» I En- emau^ ENGLAND. 201 <lie improvements of lands, which of late have been vciy grc2t in En- gland. The sovereigns of England, ever since the reiga of Heniy VIIL, have been called, in public writs, the supreme heads of the church ; but this title conveys no spiritual meaning} as it only denotes the regal j)ower to prevent any ecclesiastical diilerences, or, in other words, to substitute the king in place of the pc j)e before the Reformation, with re- gard to temporalities, and the internal economy of the church. The Jiings of England never intermeddle in ecclesiastical disputes, unless by preventing the convocation from sitting to agitate then and are con- tented to give a sanction to tlie legal rights of the clergy. The church of England, under this description of the monarchical power over it, is governed by two archbishops, and twenty-four bishops, Resides tlie bishop of Sodor and Man, who, not being possessed of an English barony, does not sit in the house of peers *. Tlie two arch- bishops are those of Canterbury and York, who are dignilied with the address of Your Grace. The former is the first peer of tlie realm, as •well as metropolitan of the English church. He takes precedence, next to the royal family, of all dukes and officers of state. He is enabled to hold ecclesiastical courts upon all affairs that were formerly cognisable in the court of Rome, when not repugnant to the law of God, or tlie king's prerogative. He has the privilege consequently of granting, in A;ertain cases, licenses and dispensations, together witli tlie probate of wills, when the party dying is wortli upwards of five pounds. Besides Jiis own diocese, he has under him the bishops of London, Winchester, £ly, Lincoln, Rochester, Litchfield and Coventry, 1 lercford, Worcester, Batli and Wells, Saiisbuiy, Exeter, Chichester, Norwich, Gloucester, Oxford, Peterborough, liristo! j and, ia Wales, St. David's, Landaif, St. Asaph, and Bangor. The archbishop of Canterbury has, by the constitution and laws of England, such extensive powers, that, ever since the death of archbisliop Laud (whose character will be hereafter given), the government of En- gland has pradently thought proper to raise to that dignity men of very moderate principles ; but they have generally been men of considerable learning and abilities. This practice has been attended with excellent cfiects, witli regard to tlie public tranquillity of tlic church, and conse- quently of the state. * To the following: list h subjoined the sum each sec is charged io the king's Looks} as also tliclj citimate.l real value at present. ARCHBISHOPRICS. CliarjioJ. Value Canterbury, 'X'ZO&l 12 2- -8,000 I York, BISHOPRICS. Charged. Value. .i? 1010 0—7,000 London, - - 2000 0^6,200 Purham, - - 1821 1 3—8,700 Winchester, - 312+1.2 8—7,400 'J'hese three bishoprics take preceden- cy of all otliers in Knglarid ; and the others according to the seniority of their consecrations. r-iy, - - a 134 J8 6_4,()C0 Dath «nd Wells, - .533 1 3— -i,'200 Hereford, - 108 11 0— .0,000 Hoehester, 358 4 0—2,400 Litchfield and ) Coventry, j 559 17 3—2,800 Chester, 4?0 1 8—2,700 Worcester, 92y 13 3—3,400 Chichester, St. Asaph, Salisbury, Eanfior, - Norwicii, Oloui ester, T.incoln, Landaff, - Bristol, Carlisle, Exeter, Peterborough, Oxford, St. David's, 677 187 1385 131 854 .-.15 894 154 294 531 500 . 414 . 381 426 1 11 5 IG 11 7 18 14 11 4 17 11 2 3~«,«00 8—1,500 0—3,500 3—1,200 7—3,000 3—2,000 1—3,200 2—1,600 0—1,500 9—2,800 0—2,700 8—1,700 3—2,800 1—1,400 I IJ If ,1 !ll u * •I- 202 ENGLAND. m ''• The arciibishop wf York takes plncc of all dukes not of the. blood- royal, and of all officers of state, the lord chancL'lIor excepted. He has in his province, besides his own diocese, tl)e bishoprics of Durham, Car- lisle, Chester, and Sodor and Man. in Nortlmniberland, he has the power of a palatine, and jurisdiction in all criminal proccetlings. The bishops are addressed by the appellation of Your TiOrdship, styled " Right rt'vercnd Fathers in God," and take jnecedence of all tem- poral barons. They have all the privileges of peers ; and the bishoprics of London, Winchester, Durham, Salisbury, Ely, and liincoln, require no additional revenues to support their prelates in ilie rank of noblemen. JOnglish bishops are to examine and ordain priests and deacons, to conse- crate churches and burying-places, and to administer the rite of confir- mation. Iheir juriMdiction relates to the probation of wills ; to grant administration of g(K)ds to such as die intestate ; to take care of perish- able goods when no one will administer ; to collate to benefices ; to grant institutions to livings ; to defend the liberties of the church } and to visit their own dioceses once in three years. Deans and prebendaries of catliedrals have been already mentioned : but it would perhaps be dillicult to assign their utility in the church, fur- ther than to add to the pomp of worship, and to make provision for clergymen of eminence and merit ; but interest often prevails over merit in the appointment. England contains about sixty archdeacons, whose orticc is to visit the chuirhes twice or tin ice every year j hut their offices are less lucrative than they are honourable. Subordinate to them are the niral deans, formerly styled arch-presbyters, who signify the bishop's pleasure to his clergy, tlie lower class of which consists of priests and d«;ac()ns. I'Ke ccclesia^tii-il g'lvernmont of England is, properly speaking, lodged in the convocation, which is a national reprc;.t:uativc body or synod, and answers pretty itearly to the ideas wo have of a parliament. They are convoked at the same lime with every parliament ; and their business is to consider of the state of the church, and to call those to an account who have advanced new opinions inconsistent with the doctrines of the churcli of England. Some clergymen of an int(>lerani and persecuting spirit during the reign of queen Anne, and in the beginning of that of Goor're I., raised the power of tlie convocation to a height that was in- consistent with the i)rinciples of religious toleration, and indeed of civil lilwrty ; so that the crown was obliged to exert its prerogative of calling tlic members togetiier, and of dissolving tliem ; and, ever since, tliey have not been permitted to sit for a time sufficient to enter into any tliscussions. Tiic court of arches is the most ancient consistory of tlie province of CnUerbnry ; and all appeals in church matters, from the judgement of tlie hiferior courts, are directed to this. The processes nui in the name of the judge, who is called dean of the arches ; and the advocates wh** p)lead in tliis court must be doctors of the civil law. The court of au- dience has the same authority with this, to which the archbishop's chan- cery was formerly joiii(?d. llie prerogative court is that wherein wills are proved, and administration taken out. The courts of peculiars, re- lating to certain parishes, have a jurisdiction among themselves, tbr tlie pix)bate <jf wills, and are therefore exempt from the bishoj)'s courts. Ihc see of Canterbury has no less than fifteen of these peculiars. The court 'i)i delegates receives its name from its consisting of commissioners dele- fatcd or appointe<l by the royal commission ; but it is no mtand^ng court, -very bishop has also u court of his own, called the coi>sistory court-, ENGLAND. Every archtleacon has likewise his court, as well as the dean atul chaptei of every cathedral. The church of Kngland is now, beyond any other national church, tolerant in its principles. JNIoderation is its go\erifnig «haracter ; and in Kngland no religiou.s sect is prevented from worsliipplnt (mk\ in that manner which their consciences approve. Some severe l'.i'..>; were, in- deed, lately in force against those protestant dissenters who diil not as- sent to tJie doctrinal articles of the church of Kngland ; but these laws were not executed ; and in 17/1) religious libei;ty received a conside- rable augmentitlion, by an act which was thon (Ki^hed for granting a legitt ^qleration to dissenting mhiisters and schoolmasters, without their .sidi- scribing any of the articles of the church of Kngland. Not to enter upon tlie motives of the reformation under Henry VIII., it is certain that epi- scopal government, excepting the few years from the civil wars under Charles I. to the restoration of his son, has ever since prevailwl in En- gland. The wisdom of acknowledging the king the head of the church, is conspicuous, in discouraging all religious persecution and intolerancy ; and if religious sectaries have nuikiplied in l*higland, it is from the sanio principle that civil licentiousness has prevailed — tliat is, a tenderness in matters that can aftect eitlier conscience or liberty. The bias which tha clergy had towards popery in the reigns of liemy VIII. and KilwardVI., and even so late ?.s that of Klizabeth, occasioned an interiK)sition of tlui civil power for a further reformation. Thence arose tlie puritans, sc» called from tlieir maintaining a singular purity of life and manners. Many of them were wortliy pious men, and some of them good patriots. Their descendants are the modern presbyterians, who retain tije s;;ip^ character, and have true principles of civil and religious lil)erfy ; but their theological sentiments have undergone a considerable change. Their doctrine, like that of the church of Scotl , .d, was originally derived from the Geneva plan instituted by Calvin, and tended to an abolition of epi- scopacy, and to vesting tlie government of the church in a parity of ]ires- bytpr^j. But the modern English presbyterians, in their ideas of church government^ difl'er very little from the independents, or congregationa- lists, who are so called from holding the independency of congregational churches, without any respect to doctrine ; and, in this sense, almost all the dissentrrs in Kngland ar<.^ now become independents. As to points of doctrine, the presbyterians are generally Arminians. Many of their mi- nisters have greatly distinguished themselves by their learning aud abili- ties 5 and some of their writings are held in high estimation by many of the clergy, and otiier members of the established church. The same may be iaid of some of the independent and baptist ministers. The in-.- dependents arc generally (Talvinists. The baptists do not believe that infants are proper sul)jects of baptism ; and in the baptism of adults they practise iniinersion into water. They are divided into two classes, whi<'li are styled general' baptists, and particular baptists. The general baptists are Arminians, and the particular baptists aie Calvinists. I'he mode- rate clergy of the church of Kngland treat the protestant dissenters with atlection and friendship : and though the hierarchy of their church, and the character of bishops, are great points in their religion, tltey consider their differences with the presbyterians, and even with the baptists, as hot being very material to salvation ; nor indeed do many of the esta- blished church think that they are strictly and conscientiously bound to believe the doctrinal parts of the thirty-nine articles, which they are obliged to subscribe before tliey can enter into holy orders. Several of Uiera have conteiidcdj hi their writings, tliat all subscriptions to rclij^ious Ifl ii::!! 204 ENGL^YND. m-f.' i^H '!•';: ^f systems are rqiugnant to the spirit of Christinnity, and to reformation. Some doctrines, which wore formerly generally considered as too sacred to he opposed, or even examined, are now pubhcly controverted, parti- ttilarly the dor(rine of the Trinity. Places of worship have been esta- blished, in which that doctrine has been openly renounced : and several clergymen liavc thrown up valuable livings in the chureli, and assigned- tlieir disbelief of that doctrine as the motive of their conduct. The Mci!rod:iitii are a sect of a late institution, of which the late Mr. George WhittieiJ and Mr. John Wesley are considered as the founders. They profess I'roat feiTour and devotion. Their teacher, Mr. V/hiitield, thought that the ibrm of ecclesiastical wnrshii., and prayers, whi'ther taken Irom a common-prayer book or poured forth extempore, were matters of inditlerenrc : lie therefore made use of both tliese methods. His fol- lowers are rigid observers of the doctrinal -icles of the church of En- gland, and profess then/selves to be Calvintst-. Mr, Whitlield died in the year 17/0; but the places of worship, erected by him near London, are still frequented by persons of the same principles ; and they profess a great respect for his memory. Mr. Wesley and his Ibllowers separated from Mr. Whitfield in consequence of their rejection of the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination. He erected a very large place of public worship near Moorfields, and had under him a considerable number of subordinate preachers, who submitted to their leader very implicitly, pro- pagated his opinions, and made proselytes tliroughout the kingdom with great industry. After a very long life, spent in the most stiemtous en- deavours to do good, and having been blest in reforming the morals of thousands of the lower ranks of society, he died in 1791. There are also a variety of subordinate sects (some of whom are frora Scotland, particularly the Sandananinm) who have their separate fol- lowers, but very i^v,' at London and other niaces in England. Of late years a sect called Sivt:dmbor<rians has arisen, who deri^■e their name from baron Swedenborg, a native of Sweden, whose reveries they have adopted. They resolve the scriptures almost entirely into allegory, and deal in a mysticism not easily explained. The Quakers are a religious sect which took its rise about the middle of the 17th century. They believe in the immediate influence of the. Divine Spirit, and leject all forms in worship, even the sacraments of Baptism and the fiord's Siipjier. I'hey declare against oaths and war, abiding literally by Christ's positive injunction, " Swear not at all." They disuse the nam.es of the months and days of the week, as being given in honour of the false gods of the heathens ; and the custom of speaking to a single person in the plural number, as having arivsen from motives of adulation. They declare it their decided judgement that it is contrary to the Gospel so sue each other at law ; and they enjoin all to end their ditferences by speedy and impartial arbitration according to rules laid down. If any refnse to adopt tins mode, or, having adopted it, >to submit to the award, it is the rule of the society that such be disowned. It is well known that William T'enn, one of tiiis society, founded the province <jf I'cnnsylvnriia, and introduced therein a plan of ci^ il ami reli- gious liberty, particularlj' of the latter, at that time unexampled. Tl»e governiTient of the province was at lirst, and for many years, chiefly in the hands of the quakers ; but as persons of other persuasions increased, and became partakers of power, they grew uneasy at the pacific plan of the quakers i and at length succeeding to wstablisli such modes of defence for tlicir counUy as did not accord vith the principlvs of tlie Litter, m ENGLAND. 209 Uie.se gradually withdrew thcniselvoa from active employments of tho sliite. For some time previous to the late revoluiioii, lew of them w er« found in any other station than that of private citizens ; and, during its progress, their refusing to arm exposed them to much surfering, by di- straints levied on them, in order to procure tlieir quota in support of the war. Many families in England still profess the Roman-catholic religion* and its exercise is under very mild and gentle restrictions. Though the penal laws against papists in England appear at rirst to be severe, yet they are either not executed, or with so much lenity that the Ronian^-. calliolic feels himself under few hardships. Legal evasions are found out for the double taxes upon their landed property ; and as tliey are subject to none of the expenses and troubles (unless voluntary) attending public oflices, parliamentary elections, and the like bindens, the En- glish papists are in general in good circumstances as to their private Ibr- lunes. Some of the penal laws against them have also lately been re- pealed, much to the satisfaction of all liberal-minded men, tiiough a ve- hement outcry was afterwards raised against the measure by ignorance and bigotry. l"he papists now seem to be convinced that a change of govewunent, instead of bettering, would hurt their situation, because it would increase the jealousy of the legislature ; which mu.^t \indoabledly expose them daily to greater burdens and heavier penalties. This sen- sible consideration has of late made the Roman-catholics to appear as Jutiful and zealous subjects as any his majesty has. Scarcely any En- glish papists, excepting those wjio were bred or had served abroad, were engaged in the rebellion of the year 17^15 ; and though those at home were most carefully observed, few, or none of tliem, wore found guilty ,<)f disloyal practices. As England has been famous for the variety of its religious sects, so it has also for its Free-thinkers ; but that term has been applied in ^ery »Hfferent senses. It has sometimes been used to denote opposers of re- ligion in general, and in particular of revealed religion ; but it has also been applied to those who have been far from disbelieving Christiar.itv, and who have only opposed some of those doctrines which are to hv- found in public creeds and formularies, but which they conceive to be no part of the original Christian system. As to those who are truly deists or infidels, there is abundant reason to believe that this class of .men is much more numerous in some popish countries than in England. Christianity is so mtich obscured and distigured by the fopperies and su- perstitions of the Roman church, that men who thiidc freely are natu- rally apt to be prejudiced against it, wlien they see it in so disadvan- tageous a form ; and this appears to be in fact very much the case abroad. But in England, where men ha\ e every oiiportunity ol seeing it exhibited in a more rational manner, tliey have less cause to be pre- judiced against it j and therefore are more ready to ent^r into an ex- amination of the evidence of its divine origin. Nor does it appear than the writings of the deists against Christianity have been of any real dis- service to it : on the contrary, they have 'uused the arguments in its favour to be used with greater force an^ oleainess, and have been the means of producing sucli defences of it, as all the acuteness (jf modern infidelity has been unable to overthrow. Literature, and the arts.] I'vUglaud may be considered the seat of learning and the Muses. Her great Alfred cultivated both, in the time of the Saxons, when barbarism and ignorance o\erspread the rest Qf Europe y nor has tliere, since his time, been wwnling a continual sue- Wj ENGLAND. III' 'ji ■5^ i .f> • cession of lonrnod men, who have distinguished themselves by tlieir writings or studies. These are so numerous, that a barti catiilogue of tlieir names, doun to this day, would form a moderate volume. Kven in the dark a«;es, England produced that prodigy of learning and iiaturjl plnl<>si)p!iy, Roger Bacon, who was the forerunner in science to- the great llicdn, lord Verulam, as the latter was to sir Isaac Newton. Among tiic curious works written by this illustrious man, we find trea- tises upon grammar, mathematics, physic^, tlie tiux and reflux of the British sea, optics, geography, astronomy, chronology, chemistrj'i logic, pietaphysics, ethics, medicine, theology, philology, and upon the impe- diments of knowledge. He lived under Henry III., and diet! at Oxford about the year lli.Q4. The honourable Mr. Walpole (the late lord Or- ford) has preserved tiic memory of some noble and royal English authors, ■who have done honour to learning and tlie Muses ; and to his worli we must refer. Sii'ce the Reformation, England resembles a galaxy of literature*; and it is but doing justice to the memory of cardinal Wolsey, though otherwise a dangerous and profligate minister, to acknowledge that both his example and encouragement laid the foundation of the polite arts, and greatly contributed to the revival of classical learning in England. As many of the English clergy had diiierent sentiments in religious matters at the time of the Reformation, encouragement was given to learned tbreigners to settle in England. Edward VI., during his short life, greatlj encouraged these foreigners, and showed dispositions for cultivating tlie most useful parts of learning, had he lived. Learning, as well as liberty, suffered an almost total eclipse in England, during the bloody bigoted reign of queen Mary. Elizabeth, her sister, was herself a learned princess. She advanced many persons of consummate abilities to high ranks, both in church and state ; but she seems to have considered tlieir literary ac- complishments as only secondary to their civil. In this she showed her- self a great politician ; but she would have been a more amiable queen, had she raised genius from obscurity : for though she was no stranger to Spenser's Muse, she suflered herself to be so much imposed upon by a tiisteless minister, tliat tlie poet languished and died in obscurity. Though she relished the beauties of tlie divine Shakspeare, yet we know not that he was distinguished by any particular acts of her munificence ; but her parsimony was nobly supplied by her favourite tlie earl of Essex, the politest scholar of his age, and his friend the earl of Soutliampton, who •were liberal patrons of genius. The encouragement of learned foreigners in England continued to the reign of James L, who was very munificent to Casaubon, and other foreign authors of distinction, even of ditTerent principles. He w^as himself nog! eat author; but his example had a considerable eft^ect upon his subjects ; for in his reign were formed those great masters of polemic divinity, whose works are almost inexhaustible mines of knowledge. Nor must it be forgotten, tliat the second Bacon, who has been already mentioned, was by him created viscount Veruhim, and lord high chan- cellor of England. He was likewise tlie patron of Camden and other historians, as well as antiquaries, whose works are to this day standards in those studies. Upon the whole, tliereforc, it cannot be denied, that English learning is under obligations to James L, though, as he had a very pedantic taste himself, he was the means of ditl'using a similar taste among his Ai1;jects. His son Charles 1. culti^ated tlie polite arts, especially sculpture^. ♦ Sep thf Eiographia Britannica. y ;H EN'GI..tM>. 20? tlu'ir leof and Ijce to- jivton. trea- iwinting, and archir«'cture. He was tlie patron of Rubeiw, Vniulyke, Inigo Jones, and otlicr t-ininent artists ; so that, had it not been for the civil-wars, he would probably have converted liis court aiid capital into a second Athens; and tlie collection:^ he made for tli.it purpose, con- sidering his pecuiiiary ditlicuUies, were astonishing. His favourite, th« duke of IkukiniThaiu, imitated him in tliat resjH-'ct, and laid out tlie vas* •urn of 400,000/. upon his cabinet of paintings and curiosities. Hie earl of Arundel was another Ma:cenas of that age. and greatly distinguished himself by his collection of antiquities, particularly \i\s famous marble inscriptions, called the Arundelian nvirbles, now pre- served at Oxford, diaries and his court had little or no relish for poetry} but such was his generosity in encouraging genius and merit of every kind, that he increased the salary of his poet laurciit, the famous Ben Jonson, from 100 marks to 100 povinds per aniuim, atid a tierce of Spanish wine ; which salary is continued to this day. The public encouragement of learning and the arts suffered indeed an eclipse, during the time of the civil wars, and the succeeding inter- regnum. Many very learned men, however, found their situations under Cromwell, though he was no stranger to their political sentinient.s, su «asy, that they followed their studies, to the vast beneiil of every braiK-li ©f learning : and many works of great literarj' merit appeared even iu those times of distraction. Usher, Walton, Willis^ Harrington, Wil- kins, and a prodigious number of other great names, were unmolest- ed and even favoured by that usurper ; and he would also have tilled tlxe universities with literary merit, could he have done it with any degree of safety to his government. The reign of Charles II. was chiefly distinguished by the great pro- ficiency made in natural knowledge, especially by the institution of tiie Royal Society, I'he king was a good judge of those studies; and, though irreligious himself, England never abounded more with learned and able divines tlian in his reign. He loved painting and poetry, but was far more munificent to the former than the latter. The incomparable Para- dise Lost, by Milton, was published in his reign, but was not read or attended to in proportion to its merit, though it was far from being dis- regarded so much as has been commonly apprehended. The reign of Charles II., notwitlistanding the bad taste of his court in several of the polite arts, by some is reckoned the Augustan age in England, and is digni- fied with the names of Boyle, Halley, Hooke, Sydenliam, Harvey, Temple, Tillotson, Barrow, Butler, Cowley, Waller, Drj'den, Wycher- ley, and Otway. The pulpit assumed more majesty, a better style, and truer energy, than it had ever luiown before. Classic literature recover- ed many of its native graces ; and though England could not, under him, boast of a Jones and a Vandyke, yet sir Christopher Wreti introduced a more general regularity than had ever been known before in architecture. Nor was sir Christopher Wren merely distinguished by his skill as an architect: his knowledge was very extensive; arid his discoveries in philosophy, mechanics, &c. contributed much to the reputation of the newly-Bstablished Royal Society. Some excellent English painters (for Lely and Kneller were foreigners) also flourished in tliis reign. That of Jiunes II., though he like\\ ise had a taste for th» line arts, is chiefly distinguished in the province of literature by those composition that were published by tlie English divines against popery, and which, for strength of reasoning and depth of erudition, never were equalled in any age or country. The names of Newton and Locke adorned tlie reign of William IIL^ I'll tm ENGLAKD. H^ i\ h' >i and he had a particular esteem for the latter, as ho had also for Tillotson and Burnet, though he was f:r from being liberal to men of genius. Learning flourished, however, in his reign, merely by the excellency of • the soil in which it had been planted. The most uninformed readers are not unacquainted with the improve- ments which learning, and all the polite arts, received linder the auspices of queen Anne, and which placed her court at least on a footing wltli that of Lewis XIV. in its most splendid days. Many of the great men who had figured in the reigns of the Stuarts and William, were still alive, and . in the full exercise of their faculties, when a new race sprang up in th republic of learning and the arts*. Addison, Prior. Pope, Swift, lord Bolingbroke, lord Shaftesbury, Arbuthnot, Congreve, Steele, Rowe, and many other excellent writers both in verse and prose, need but to be meotioned to be admired ; and the English were as triumphant in lite- rature as in war. Natural and moral philosophy kept pace with the po- lite arts ; and even religious and political disputes conttibuted to the ad- vancement of learning, by the unbounded liberty which the laws of En- gland allow in speculative matters, and which has been found highly ad- vantageous in the promotion of true and valuable knowledge. The ministers of George 1. were the patrons of erudition, and some of" them were no mean proficients themselves. George IL was himself na Maecenas : yet his reign yielded to none of the preceding, in the num- ber of learned and ingenious men it produced. The bertch of bishopgt' was never known to be so well provided w ith able prelates as it was in the early years of his reign ; a full proof that his nobility and ministers were judges of literary qualifications. In other departments of erudi- tion, the favour of the public generally supplied the coldness of the court. In tlie present reign, a great progress has been made in the polite arts in England. The Royal Academy has been instituted, f onie very able artists have arisen, and the annual public exhibitions of painting an^ sculpture have been extremely favourable to the arts* by promoting a .spirit of emulation, and exciting a greater attention to works of genius of this kind among the public in general. But, notwithstanding these favourable circumstances, the fine arts have been fitr from meeting with that public patronage to which they have so just a claim. Few of our public edifices are adorned with paintings or with statues. The sculptoiH meet with little employment j nor is tlie historical painter much pa- tronised } though British artists of the present age have proved that their' genius for the fine arts is equal to that of any oUier nation. Medicine and surgery, botany, anatomy, chemistry, and all the arts or studies f«jr prescning life, have been carried to a great degree of perfec- tion by the English. The same nwy be said of music, and tlieatrical exhibitions. Even agriculture is now reduced in England to a science, and that, too, without any public encouragement but such as is given by •private noblemen and gentlemen, who associate themselves for that pur- •pose. Universitie?.] The two universities of Oxford and Cambridge .'have produced more learned men than any in Europe. Their magnifi- tcent buildings, which in splendor and architecture rival the most superb iroyal edifices, the rich endowments, the liberal ease and tranquillity en- j oyed by those who inhabit them, surpass all tlie ideas which foreigners, \ vho visit them, conceive of literary societies. So respectable are they \n their foundations, that each university sends two members to the lUitisli parliament, and their chancellors and otHcers have a civil juris- <j ictipn ovet t^eir students, the better to secure tlieU: ipdepeadency. beer this it er to ■■ ) I ENGLAND. 20g Their colleges, in their revenues and buildings, exceed those of many other universities. In Oxford there are twenty colleges and five halls: the former are Very liberally endowed, but in the latter the students chiefly maintain themselves. This university is of great antiquity : it is supposed to have been a considerable place even in the time of the Romans ; and Camden says, that ** wise antiquity did, even in the British age, consecrate this place to the Muses." It is said to have been styled an university before the time of k'ng Alfred ; and the best historians admit, that this most excellent prince was only a restorer of learning here. Alfred built three colleges at Oxford j one for divinity, another for philosophy, and a third for grammar. The present colleges are, however, of a more recent elate, none being older than tlie 13th century. The number of ofHcers, (el- lows, and students, maintained at present by this university, is about 1000; and the number of such scholars as live at their own charge, usually about 2000. The university of Cambridge consists of twelve colleges, and four Ijalls ; but though they are distinguished by ditferent names, the privi- leges of the colleges and halls are in every respect the same. The num- ber of fellows at this university is 400, that of scholars 666, with 236 officers and servants of various kinds. A 11 these are maintained on the foundation. They are not, however, all the students here : there are others called pensioners; the greater and the less. The greater pen- sioners are sons of the nobility, and of gentlemen of large fortunes, and are called fellow -commoners, because, tliough they are scholars, tliey dine with the fellows. The lesser pensioners dine witli the scholars who are on the foundation, but live at their own expense. There are also a considerable number of poor scholars, called sizars, who wait upon the fellows and scholars, and pensioners of both ranks, by whom they are in a great degree maintained ; but the number of pensioners and sizars can- not be ascertained with any accuracy, as it is in a state of perpetiwl fluc- tuation. The senate-house at Cambridge is a most elegant edifice, executed entirely iu the Corinthian order, and is said to have cost sixteen thousand pounds. Trinity-college library is also a very magnificent structure; and in Corpus Christi college library is a valuable collection of ancient manuscripts, which were preserved at the dissolution of the monasteries, and given to this college by archbishop Parker. Language.] The English language is principally a compound of the Saxon and the French ; the Saxon, however, predominates ; and the words that are borrowed from the French, being radically Latin, are common to other nations, particularly the Spaniards and the Italians. A great number of words, especially scientific and technical terms, have been introduced from the Latin and Greek. A more minute account of this language wo'ild be superfluous to an English reader; but, relatively, it enjoys all the properties, without many of the defects, of other Euro- pean languages. It is more energetic, nicinly, and expressive, than' either tlie French or the IiaUan; more copious than the Si)anish, and uiove eloquent than the German, or the other northern tongues. It is, how- ever, subject to some considerable provincialities in its accent, tliere being much difference in the pronunciation of the inliabitants of dif- ferent comities : but this chiefly affects the lowest of the people ; for, as to well-educated and well-bred persons, there is little ditierence in their pronunciation all over the kingdom. People of fortune and education in £ngland; of both sexes^ also commonly either speak of uiidervtaud the 1 1 ■111 210 ENGLAND. French, nnd many of them the Italian and Spanish : but it has been ob- senx'd that foreign nations have great difHculty in understanding the few Enghsh who talk Latin ; which is ixfrhaps the reason why that language h much disused in England, even by the learned professions. AxTiauiTiEs.] The antiquities of England are either British, ilfl- man, Saxon, Danish, or Anglo- Xormann ic ; but these, excepting the Ilonian, throw no great light upon ancient history. The chief British antiquities are those circles of stones, particularly that called Stonehenge in Wiltshire, which have been attributed to die times of the Dniids. Stonehenge is, by Inigo Jones, Dr. Stukeley, and others, described as a regular circular structure. The body of the work consists of two circles and two o\als, which are thus comj)osed: the upriglit stones are placed at three feet and a half distance from each other, and joined at the top by over-thwart stones, witli tenons fitted to the mortises in the uprights, for keeping them in their due position. Some of these stones are extremely large, measuring two yards in breadth, one in thickness, and above seven in height J others arc less in proportion. The uprights are wrought a little with a chisel, and sometimes tajiered ; but the transoms, or over- thwart stones, are quite plain. 'J'he outside circle is nearly one hundred and eighty feet in diameter, between which and the next circle there n a walk of three hundred feet in circumference, which has a surprising and awful effect upon the beholders. Monumt^nts of the same kind as that of Stonehenge are to be met with in Cumberland, Oxfordshire, Cornwall, Devonshire, and many other parts of England, as well as in Scotland and tlie northern isles. The Roman antiquities in England consist chiefly of altars and monu- mental inscriptions, which instruct us as to th(j legionary stations of the Romans in Britain, and the names of some of Uieir commanders. The Roman military ways give us the highest idea of the civil as well as military policy of those conquerors. Their vestiges arc numerous : one is mentioned by Leland, as beginning at Dover, and passing through Kent to London, from thence to St. Alban's, Dunstable, Stratford, Towccster, Littleburn, St. Gilbert's Hill near Shrewsbury, then by Stratton, and so through the middle of Wales to Cardigan. The great Via Militaris, called Hermen-street, passed from London through Lin- coln, where a branch of it, from Ponlefract tt) Doncastcr, strikes out to the westward, passing througli Tadcaster to York, and from tlieuce to Aldby, where it again joined Hermen-street. There would, however, be no end of describing the vestiges of Uie Roman roads in Englaiuf, many of which serve as foundations to our present highways. The great earl of Arundel, the celebrated English auticjuary, lud formed a noble plan for describing those which pass Uirough Sussex and Siu^rey towards l/)ndon 5 but the civil war breaking out put an end to the undertakiii<j. The remains of many Roman camps are discernible all o\er England; one particularly, very little defaced, near Dorchester in Dorsetshire, where also is a Roman amphitlieatre. llieir situations are generally so well chosen, and tlieir fortilications appear to have been so complete, that there it some reason to bclie\e tliat they were tlie constart hrbita- tions of the Roman soldiers in England ; though it is certain, from the bath* and tessellated pavements, that have been found in dilferent fiarts, ihat their chief officers or magistrates lived in towns or ^i^las. loman walls have likewise been foupd in England; and, perhaps, upou the borders of Wales, many remains of tlieir fortifications and castles are blended with tliose of a later date. The private cabinets of noblemen «ttd gentlemen, as wtll as the public repo;>iioi-iCi>^ couuin a vatit number ENGLAND. 21i of Roman ariris, coins, fibulsc, tfinkets, ahd the like, which have been fouiid in England j but the most amazing monument of the Roman power in Ktigland is the praetenture or wall of Severus, commonly called the Picts' w;ill, running through Northumberland and Cumberland : begin- ning at Tiimiouth, and ending at Solway- Firth, being about eighty miles in lyngtli. The wall at tirst consisted only of stakes and tiirf, with a ditt'h ; but Severus built it with stone forts and turrets at proper di- stances, so that each n?ight have a speedy communication Avith tlie other; and it was attended all along by a deep ditch, or vallum, to tlie north> and a military highway to the sor di. The Saxon antiquities in Engkinl consist chiefly iii ecclesiastical edi- fices, and places of strength. At Winchester is slio\ni the round table of king Arthur, witli the names of his knights. I'he antiquity of this table has been disputed by Camden aud later writers, perhaps Mith rea- son ; but if it be not British, it certainly is Saxon. The cathedral of Winchester served as the burying-place of Several Saxon kings, whose bones were collected together by bishop Fox, in six large wooden chests. Many monuments of Saxun antiquity present thenlselves all over the kingdom, though they are often not to be discerned from tlie Norman- nic ; and the British Museum contains several striking original speci* iuons of tlieir learning. Many Saxon charters, signed I)y the king and his nobles, with a plain cross instead of their names, are still to be met with. The writing is neat and legible, and was always performed by a clergj'man, who affixed the name and quality of eveiy donor, or witness^ to his respective cross. The Danish erections in England are hardly dis- cernible from the Saxon. The form of their camps is round, and they are generally built upon eminences ; but their torts are square. All England is full of Anglo-Normannic monuments, which we choose to call so, because, though the princes under whom they were raised TRcre of Norman original, yet the expense w^as defrayed by Englishmen with English money. York minster, and Westminster hall and abbey^ are, perhaps, the linest specimens to be found in Europe of that Gothic manner which prevailed in building before the recovery of the Greek and Roman architecture. All the cathedrals and old churches in the king- dom are more or less in the same taste, if we except St. Paul's. It is un- certain whether tlie artificial e.Kcavations found in some parts of England are British, Saxon, or Norman. That under the old castle of Ryeorate in Surrey is very remarkable, and seems to have been designed for secreting the cattle and effects of tlie natives, in times of war and invasion. It contains an obloug-square hall, round which runs a bench, cut out of the same rock, for sitting upon ; and tradition says tli«t it was the room In which the barons of England riiet during the wars of king John. The rock itself is soft and very practicable; but it is hard to say where the excavation, which is continued irt a square passage, about six ieet high and four wide, terminateii, because the work is ^lleu ill, hi sum* places. '• ~ History.] It is generally agreed tliat the first inhabitaffts of Britain were a tribe of tlie Gauls, or Celtje, that settled on the opposite .shore ; a supposition founded Upon the evident conformity in their language, manners, governmer.t, religion, and complexion. ^^'hen Julius C*3ar, about fifty-two years before the birth of Christ,, meditated the coiujuest of Britain, tlie natives, undoubtedly, had great connexions with the Gauls, and other people of the conthient, in govern- iTient, religion, and commerce, rude as the latter was. Ciesar wrote ths history of his two expeditioni), which he adtijfitted were accumuaiticd witli P2 U 81S ENGLAND. I ",:S i:' '■< ' ■ B" " great difficulties, but attended by such advantages over tlie islanders, that they agreed to pay tribute. It plainly appears, however, from contem- porary and other authors, as well as Caesar's own narrative, that his vic- tories were incomplete and indecisive ; nor did the Romans receive the least advantage from his expedition, but a better knowledge of the island than they had before, 1'he Britons, at the time of Caesar's descent, were governed in the time of war by a political confederacy, of which Cassi- belan, whose territories lay in Hertfordshire and some of tlie adjacent counties, was the head; and this form of government continued among them for some time, • In their manner of life, as described by Caesar and the best authors, Ihey ditTered little from the rude inhabitants of the northern climates that have been already mentioned j but they certainly sowed corn, though 4)erhaps they thieily subsisted upon animal food and milk. Their cloth- ing was skins, — and tl)eir fortifications, beams of wood. They were in- credibly dexterous in the management of tlieir chariots ; and they fought with lances, darts, and swords. Women sometimes led their armies to the field, and were? recognised as sovereigns in their particular districts. They favoured the primogeniture or seniority in their succession to royal- ty, but set it aside on the smallest inconvenience attending it. They painted tlieir bodies with woad, which gave them a blueish or greenish cast J and they are said to have had figures of animals and the heavenly bodies on their skins. In their marriages they were not very delicate, for they formed themselves into what we may call matrimonial clubs. Twelve or fourteen men married as many wives, and each wife was in common to tliem all j but her children belonged to the original husband. The Britons lived, during tlie long reign of Augustus Caesar, rather ag the allies than tlie tributaries of the P.omansj but the communications between Rome and Great Britniu bsjing then extended, tlie emperor Claudius Csesar, about forty-two years afttr tlie birth of Christ, under- took an expedition in person, in which he seems to havg been successful, against Britain. His conquests, however, were impeti^it ; Caractacus, and Boadicea, though a woman, made noble stands against the Romans. The former was taken prisoner, after a desperate battle, and carried to Rome, where his undaunted behaviour before Claudius gained him the admiration of the victors, and is celebrated in the histories of the times. Boadicea being oppressed in a manner tliat disgraces the Roman name, and defeated, disdained to survive tlie liberties of her country; and Agri- cola, general to Domitian, after subduing South Britain, carried his arm* northwards into Scotland, where his successors had no reason to boast of their progress, every inch of ground being bravely defended. During the time llie Romans remained in this island, they erected walls to pro- tect tlie Britons from the invasions of the Caledonians, or Scots ; and we ;ire told that the Roman language, learning, and customs, became familiar in Britain. Theixi seems to be no great foundation for this as- sertion; and it is more probable that the Romans considered Britain chiefly as a nursery for their armies abroad, on account of tlie superior strength ef body and courage of the inhabitants when disciplined. That this was tlie case, appears plainly enough from the defenceless state of the Britons, wnen the government of Rome recalled her forces from that island. During the abode of die llomans in Britain, they introduced into it all the luxuries of Italy ; and under them the South? Britons wet;e re- duced to a state of great vassalage, while the genius of liberty retreated, northwards, where the natives had made a brave resistance against these tyronts of the WQrldi Fur though the Brituni were unquestioiiabl/ veiy ENGLAND. ais braye, when incorporatecl with die Fiomnn legions abroad, yet we know of no stmggle they made in later times, for their independency at home, notwithstanding the many favourable opportunities that presented them- selves. The Roman emperors and generals, while in this island, assisted by the Britons, were frequently employed in repelling the attacks of the Caledonians : but they aj)pear to have had no difficulty in maintaining their authority in the southern provinces. Upoii the mighty inundations of tliose barbarous nations, which, under the names of Goths and Vandals, invaded the Roman empire with inli- nite numbers, and with danger to Rome itself, the Roman legions were withdrawn out of Britain, with the flower of the British youth, for the defence of the capital and centre of the empire ; and that tliey might leave the island with a good grace, they assisted the Britons in rebuilding with stone tlie wall of Severus between Newcastle and Carlisle, whicK they lined with forts and watch-towers ; and, having done tliis good of- fice, took their last farewel of Britain about the year 448, ailer having been masters of the most fertile parts of it, if we reckon from the inva- sion of Julius Caesar, near 500 years. The Picts and Scots, finding the island finally deserted by the Roman legions, now regarded the whole as their prize, and attacked the wall of Severus with redoubled forces, ravaging all before them with a fury peculiar to northern nations in those ages, and which a remembrance of former injuries could not fail to inspire. The poor Britons, hke a helpless fa- mily deprived of their parent and protector, already subdued by their own fears, had again recourse to Rome, and sent over their miserable epistle for relief (still upon record), which was addressed in these words: To Aetius, thrice consul : The groans of the Britons ; and after other la- mentable complaints, said. That the barbarians drove them to the sen, and the sea back to the barbarians; and they had onlj/ the hard choice left of perishing bj/ the sivord or by the ivaves. But having no hopes given them by the Roman general of any succours from that side, they began ta consider what other nation they might call over to their relief. Gildas, who was himself a Briton, describes the degeneracy of his countrymen at this time in mournful strains, and gives some confused hints of their of- ficers, and the n'j.mes of some of their kings, particularly one V^ortigern, -«hief of the Danmonii, by whose advice the Britons made an engagement; with two Saxon chiefs, Hengist and Horsa, to protect them from th» Scots and Picts. The Saxons were in those days masters of what is now called the English Channel ; and their native countries, comprehending Scandinavia and the nortliern parts of Germany, being oveistocked with inhabitants, they readily accepted the invitatic-ii of the Brituns ; whoni they relieved, by checking the progress of the Scots and Picts, and had the island of Thanet allowed them for tlieir residence. But their own country was" so populous and barren, and the fertile lauds of Britain so agreeable and alluring, that in a very little time Hengist and Horsa be- gan to meditate a settlement for themselves ; and fresh supplies of their countrymen arriving daily, the Saxons soon became formidable to the Britons, whom, after a violent struggle of near 150 years, they subdued, or drove into Wales, where their language and their descendants still re- main. Literature at this time in England was so rude, that we know but little of its history. The Saxons were ignorant of letters ; and public trans- actions among the Britons were recorded only by their bards and poets, a ijpecies of men whom they held in great veneration. It does not fall witliin tlie design of this work to relate the separate ji"i i 1 SM ENGLAND. k "(i; [-1- ««': m f^ fi> history pt Gvcry particular nation that formed the hcjitarrhy. It is suf- ficient, to say, that the pope in Austin's time supplied England '.vith about 400 monks, and that the popish clerg}' took rare to keep their kings and laity in the most deplorable ignorance, but always magnifying the power and sanctity of his holiness. Hence it was that the Anglo-Saxons, during their heptarchy, were governed b}' priests and monks, who, as they saw convenient, persuaded tlieir kings either to shut themsclve? up in cloi- sters, or to undertake pilgrimages to Rome, where they finished tlieir days. No less tlian thirty Anglo-Saxon kings, during the heptarchy, re- signed their crowns in this manner ; jind among them was Ina, king of the West-Saxons, though in other respects he was a wise and bra^e prince. The bounty of those Anglo-Saxon kings to tlic see of Rome iV'as therefore unlimited; and Ethelv/ald, king of Mercia, imposed an annual tax of a penny upon every house, which was afterwards known by thp uamp of Peter's-pence, because paid on the holiday St. Peter ad viiicula, August 1st*. London was then a place of very considerable trade; and if we believe the Saxon chronicles (juoted by Tyrrel, Withred, king of Kent, paid at one time to Ina, king of Wessex, a sum in silver equal to ()0,000/. sterling, in tlie year t)i)4 ; and we read, in /Oy, of a Northumbrian prelate who was sened in silver plate. It must howe\er be owned, that the Saxon coins, which are generally of coj>per, are many of them illegible, and all of them mean. In this state was the Saxon heptarchy in England, when> about the year 800, niost of the Anglp-Saxons, tired out with the tyranny of their petty kings, united in calling to the government of the .heptarchy, Eg- bert, who was the eldest remaining branch of the race of Cerdic, one qf the Saxon chiefs who first arrived in Britain. On the submission of the Northumbrians in the year 827, he became king of all England. Charles the Great, otherwise Charlemagne, was then king of France, and emperor of Germany. Egbert had been obliged, by state jealousies, to fly to the court of Charles for protection from tlie persecutions qf End- burga, daughter of Otfa, wife to Brjthric, king of the West Saxons. Egbert acquired, at the court of Charles, the arts both of war and go- vernment, und therefore soon united the Saxon heptarchy in his own person, but without subduing Wales. He changed the name of his kingdom into that of Engle-lond or England ; Mit there is reason to be- lieve that some part of England continued still to be governed by inde- pendent princes of the blood of Cerdic, though they paid perhaps a small tribute to Egbert, who died in tdie year 838, at Winchester, his chief re- sidence. pjgbert was succeeded by his son Ethelwolf, who divided his powej- "Vvitli his eldest son Atlielstan. By tliis time England had become a scene of blood and ravages, through the renewal of the Danish invasions ; and P^thelwolf, after some time bravely opposing them, retired in a fit of ci'i- votion to Rome, to which he carried with him his youngest son, after- wards the famous Alfred, the father of the English constitution. The gifts which Ethelwolf made to the clergy on this occasion (lopies of which are still remaining) are so prodigious, even the tithes of all his dominions, that they show his intellect to have beeq disturbed by his de- * This tax was imposed at first for the support of a rollcpe »it Rome, fof tlie rdu- catioii of English yOuth, founded hy Ina, king of Wessex, under the name of Romf- Sivt ; but in proeess of time the popes claimed it as a tribute due to St. Peter »inJ l.is si>ccessor§. 3 Suf-' about, :s and owcr uring cloi-: tlieir re- led ar. ENGLAND. 21; votion, or that he was giiided by the arts of Swithin, bishop of Winchei- tcr. Upon his death, id'ter his return from Rome, he divided his domi- nions between two of his sons (Athelstan being then dead), Ethclbald and JKthelbert: but we know of no patrimony that was left to young Alfred. P>lielbcrt, who was the sim iving son, left his kingdom, in 8(Jt), to his brother Ethelred ; in whose time, notwithstanding the courage and con- duct of Alfred, the Danes became masters of the sea-coast, and the finest counties in England. Ethelred being killed, his brother Alfred mounted the throne in 8/1. He a\ as one"" of the greatest princes, botli in peaca and war, mentioned in history. He fought seven battles with the Danes with various success ; and, when defeated, found resources tliat rendered him as formidable as belore. He was, however, at one time reduced to a state of tiie greatest distress, being forced' to live in the disguise of a cow-herd : but still he maintained a secret correspondence with his brave friends, whom he collected together ; and by tlieir assistance gave the Danes many signal overthrows, till at last he recovered the kingdom of England, and obliged the Danes, who had settled in it, to swear obe- dience to his government: even part of Wales courted his protection; so that he was probably more powerful than any monarch tliat had ever reigned in England. Among the other glories of Alfred's reign, was that of raising a mari- time power in England, by which he secured her coasts from future in- i-asions. He rebuilt the city of London, which had been burnt down by the Danes, and founded the university of Oxford about the year 895. He divided England into counties, hundreds, and tithings : or rather he revived those divisions, and the use of juries, which had fallen into disuse by the ravages of the 13anes. Having been educated at Rome, he was not only a scholar, but an author j and he tells us, that upon his acces- sion to the throne he had scarcely a lay subject who could read English, or an ecclesiastic who understood Latin. He introduced stone and brick building into general use in palaces as well as churches j tliough it is cer- tain that his sul)jects, for many years after his death, were fond of timber buildings. His encouragement of commerce and navigation may seem incredible to modern times; but he had merchants who traded in East- India jewels ; and William of Malmsbury says, that some of their gems were repositevi in the church of Sherborne in his time. He received front one Octher, about the year 89O, a full discovery of the coast of Norway and Lapland, as far as Russia; and he tells the king, in his me- morial, printed by Hakluyt, " that he sailed along the Nonvay coast, so far north as commonly the whale-hunters used to travel." He invited numbers of learned men into his dominions, and found faithful and use- ful allies in the t\\ o Scotch kings, his contemporaries, Gregory and Do- nald, iigainst the Danes. He is said to have fought no less than fifty-six pitched battles. He was inexorable against his corrupt judges, whom he used to hang up in the public highways, as a terror to e^ il-doers. He died in the year [)0l ; and his character is so completely amiable and he- roic, that he is justly distinguished with the epithet of the Great* Alfred was succeeded by his son Edward the Elder, under whom tliough a brave prince, the Danes renewed their invasions. He died in the year ()25, and was succeeded by his eldest son Athelstan. This prince greatly encouraged commerce, and made a law, that every mercliant who had made three voyages on his own account to the Mediterranean should be considered as the equal of a tliane or nobleman of the first rank. He caused the Scriptures to be translated into the Saxon tongue. He encouraged coinage ; aqd we find by his laws, that archbishops, bishops, fii :||- 216 ENGLAND. \&/ ) kfi • »/■ *u, and even abbots, hnd then the privilege of coining monejr. He engaged in several wars witli tlie Scots, in which he was generally successful, and died in ()41, The reigns of his successors, Edmund, Edred, and Edwy, were weak and inglorious, they being either engaged in wars with the Danes, or disgraced by the influence of priests. Edgar, who mounted the throne about the )ear 959, revived the naval glory of England, and is said to have been rowed downtlie river Dee by eight kings, his vassals, he sitting at the helm j but, like nis predecessors, he was the slave of priests, particularly St. Dunstan. His reign, however, was pacific and happy, thougli he was obliged to cede to the Scots all the territory to the north of tlie Tyne. He was succeeded in Q/S by his eldest son Ed- ward, who was barbarously murdered by his step-mother, whose son Ethelred, by the aid of priests, mounted the throne in 978. The English nation, at this time, was over-run with barbarians, and the Danes by de- grees became possessed of the finest parts of the country, while their countrymen made sometimes dreadful descents in the western parts. To get rid of them, he agreed to pay them 30,000/., which was levied by way of tax, and called Duncgeld, and was the first land-tax in En- gland. In the year 1002 they had made such settrements in England, that Ethelred consented to a general massacre of them by tlie Enghsh -, but it is improbable that it was ever carried into execution. Sor le at- tempts of that kind were undoubtedly made in particular counties; but they served only to enrage the Danish king Swein, who, in 1013, drove Ethel- red, his queen, and two sons, out of England into Normandy, a province of France, at that time governed by its own princes, styled the dukes of Normandy. Swein being killed was succeeded by his son Canute the Great: but Ethelred returning to England forced Canute to retire to Denmark, from whence he invaded England with a vast army, and obliged Edmund Ironside (so called for his great bodily strength), Ethel- red's son, to divide with him the kingdom. Ednuind being assassinated, Canute succeeded to the undivided kingdom; and dying in 1035, his son, Harold Harefoot, did nothing memorable ; and his successor Hardi- canute was so degenerate a prince, that the Danish royalty ended with him in England. I'he family of Ethelred was now called to the throne ; and Edward, who is commonly called the Confessor, mounted it, though Edgar Athe- ling, by being descended from an elder branch, had the lineal right, and was alive. Upon the death of the Confessor, in the year IO66, Harold, son to Goodwin earl of Kent, mounted the throne of England. William duke of Normandy, though a bastard, was then in the unri- valled possession of -Jiat great duchy, and resolved to assert his right to the ciown of England. For that purpose he invited tlie neighbouring princes, as well as his own vassals, to join him, and made liberal promises to his followers, of lands and honours in England, to induce tJiem to as- sist him eflectually. By tliese means he collected 40,000 of tlie bravest and most regular troops in Europe ; and while Harold was embarrassed with fresh invasions by the Danes, William landed in England without opposition. Harold, returning from the north, encountered William at the place now called F>attle, which took its name from that event, near Hastings in Sussex, and a most bloody battle was fought between the two armies ; but Harold being killed, the crown of England devolved upon William, in the year lOOO'. We have very particular accounts of the value of provisions and ma- nufacturpfr in those days; a palfrey cost !».; an acre of land (according to bishop Fleetwood in his Chronicon Pretiosum) Is, -, a hide of landj ENGLAND. ai7 aged and dwy, the nted and sals, e of and containing 120 acres, 100*. ; a sheep was estimated at Is., an ox was computed at 6s., a cow at 4a., a man at 3/. ; but there is great ditticulty in forming tlie proiwition of value which those shillings bore to the pre- sent standard of money. Silk and cottrni were (juite unknown. Linen was not much used. In the Saxon times, land was divided among all the male children of the deceased. Entails were some*-imes practised in those times. With regard to the manners of the Anglo-Saxons, they were in gene- ral a rude uncultivated people, ignorant of letters, unskilful in the me- chanical arts, and addicted to intemperance, riot, and disorder. But amidst all those defects, public and personal liberty were well luiderstood and guarded by the Saxon institutions ; and we owe to them at this day the most valuable privileges of the English subject. The loss which both sides sutl'ered at the battle of Hastings is uncer-- tain. Anglo-Saxon authors .say, that Harold was so impatient to fight, that he attacked William with kilf of his army, so that the advantage of numbers was on the side of the Norman ; and, indeed, the death of Harold seems to have decided the day; and William, with very little further difficulty, took possession of the throne, and made a considerable alteration in the constitution of England, by converting lands into knights' fees, which are said to have amounted to 62,000, and were held of the Norman and otlier great persons who had assisted him in his conquest, and who were bound to attend him with their knights and their followers in his wars. He gave, for instance, to one of his barons the whole county of Chester, which he erected into a palatinate, and rendered by his grant cdmost indcpencient of the crown; and here, ac- cording to some historians, we have the rise of the feudal law in fin- gland. William found it no easy matter to keep possession of his erown. Edgar Atheling, and his sister, the next Anglo-Saxon heirs, were affec- tionately received in Scotland, and many of the Saxon lords took arms, ". and formed conspiracies in England. He, however, surmounted all dif- ficulties, especially after he had made a peace with Malcolm king of Scotland, who married Atheling's sister; but not without exercising horrible cruelties upon the Anglo-^Sax<ms. He introduced the Norman laws and language. He built the stone square tower at London, com- monly called the White Tower ; bridled the country with forts, and dis- armed the old inhabitants; in short, he attempted every thing possible to obliterate every trace of the Anglo-Saxon constitution ; though, at his coronation, he took the same oath that used to be taken by the ancient Saxon kings. He caused a general survey of all the lands in England to be made, or rather to be completed (for it was begwn in Edward the Confessor's time), and an account to be taken of the villains or servile tenants, slaves, arid live-stock, upon each estate ; all which were recorded in a book called Doomsday-book, which is now kept in the Exchequer, But the repose of this fortunate and victorious king was disturbed, in his old age, by the rebellion of his eldest son Robert, who had been appointed governor of Normandy, but assumed the government as sovereign of tliat pro- vince, in which he was favoured by the king of France. William, seeing a war inevitable, entered upon it witli his usual vigour; and with incredi- ble celerity transporting a brave English army, invaded France, where he was every where victorious ; but died before he had finished the war, in the year 1087, the sixty-first year of his age, and twenty-first of his reign in England, and was buried in his own abbey at Caen in Nor- mandy. rv 21S ENGLAND. 'II t; p, m hi to- Tiic succession to the crown of England was disputed bct^^■ccn flie Conqueror's sons Robert and William (< ommonly called Ruftis, from his being red-haired), and \vas carried in fa\our of the latter. He was a brave and intrepid prince, but no friend to the clergy, who have there- fore been unfavourable to his memory. He was likewise hated by tJie Normans, who loved his elder brother ; and, consequently, he was en- gaged in perpetual wars with his brothers and rebellious subjec»i>. About thin time the crusades of the Holy I^nd began j and Robert, who was among the first to engage, accommodated matters with Wil- liam for a sum of money, which he levied fi'om the. clergy. William behaved with great generosity towards Edgar Atheling and the court of Scotland, notwithstanding all the proAocations lie had recei\ed from that quarter ; but was accidentally killed, as he was hunting in New Forest in Hampshire, in the year 1100, and the forty-fourih year of his age. This prince built Westminster-hall, and added several works to tJie tower, which he surrounded with a wall and a ditch. In the year 1100 happened that inundation of the sea, which overflowed great part of earl Goodwin's estate in Kent, and formed tJ.iosc shallows in the Downs, now called the Goodwin-Sands, He was succeeded by his brother, Heniy I., surnamed Beauclerc on ac- count of his learnhig, though his brotlier Robert was then returning from the Holy Land. Henry may be said to have purchased tlie throne ; iirst, by liis brotlier's treasures, which he seized at Winchester 3 secondly, by a charter, in which he restored his subjects to tlie rights and privi- leges they had enjoyed under the Anglo-Saxon kings ; and, thirdly, by his marriagp with Matilda, daughter of ^laleolm HI. king of Scotland, and ni«jce to Edgar Atheling, ot the ancient Saxon line. His reign in a great measure restored the clergy to tlieir influence in the state ; and they formed, as it were, a separate body, dependent upon the pope, which aft- erwards created great convulsions in England. Henry, partly by force and partly by stratagem, made himself master of his brother Robert's person, and duchy of Normandy; and, ■with the most ungenerous mean- ness, detained him a prisoner twenty -eight years, till the time of his deatli. He was afterwards engaged in a blood)' but successful war with France.; and, before his deiith, h? settled tlie succession upon his daugh- ter, tlie empress Matilda, widow to Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and her son Henry, by her second husband Geotfrey Plantagenet, darl of Anjou. Henry died of a surfeit, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, in 1135. Notwithstanding, the late settlement of succession, the crown of En- gland was claimed and seized by Stephen, earl of Blois, the son of Adela, fourtli daughter to William tlie Con(]ueror. Matilda and her son were then abroad ; and Stephen was assisted in his usurpation by his brotJier tliti bishop of Winchester, and the other great prelates, that he might hold the crown dependent upon them. Matilda, however, found a gene- roujj protector in her uncle David, king of Scotland ; and a worthy sub- ject in her natural brother Robert, earl of Gloucester, who headed her party until her son grew up. A long and bloody war ensued, the clergy having absohed Stephen and all his friends from their guilt of breaknig • the act of succession : but at length the barons, v ho dreaded the power of the clergy, inclined towards Matilda ; and Stephen, who depended chiefly on foreign mercenaries, having been abandoned by tlie clergy, was defeated P.nd taken priso.ner in 1141 ; and, being carried before AlatUda. she seornfully upbraided him, and ordered him to be put in chains. . ENGLAND. 219 IVIatiljJa was proud and weak : the clergy were bold and anihitious ; and, when joined witii the nobility, who were tactions and turbulent, wcve an over-match for the crown, I'hey demanded to be governed by the Saxon laws, according to the cliarter tlj'at had been granted by lienry I. upon his accession; and hnding Matilda refractqry, they drove her out of England in 1142. Stephen, having been exchanged for the rirl of Gloucester, who had l)een taken prisoner likewise, u])on obr taining his liberty found that his clergy and nobility had in tad ex- cluded him from tiie government, by building 1 UK) castles, \\ here each owner lived as an independent prince. We do not, however, rind that this alleviated the feudal subjection of ihc inferior ranks. Stephen at- tempted to force them to declare his son Eustace heir-apparent to the kingdom ; and this exasperated the clergy so much, that they invited qver young Henry of Anjou, who had been acknow ledged duke of Normandy, and was son to the empress ; and he accordingly landed in England \\'\\h an army of foreigners, I'his measure divided the clergy from the barons, who were appre- hensive of a second conquest ; and tJie arl of Arundel, with the heads of the lay aristocracy, proposed an accommodation, to w hich both par- ties agreed. Stej)hen, who about that time lost his son Eustace, was to retain the name and oftice of king ; but Henry, who was in fact invested vith the chiefexecutive power, was acknowledged his successor. Though this accommodation was only precarious and imperfect, yet it was re- ceived by the English, who had sutfered so much during the late civil wars, Willi great joy 5 and Stephen dying very opportunely, Henr\' mouni- eil the throne, without a rival, in 1154. Henry II., surnamed Plantagenet, was by far the greatest priiice of his time. He soon discovered extraordinary abilities for government ; and had performed, in the sixteenth year of his age, actions that would h:\\c dignitied the most experienced warriors. At his accession to the throne, he found the condition of the English boroughs greatly improved, by the privileges granted them in the struggles between their late kings and the nobility, J-Ienry perceived the good policy of this, and still further ex- tended the franchises of the boroughs, so that if a bondman or servant re- mained in a borough a year and a day, he was by such residence made free. He erected Wallingford, Winchester, and Oxford, into free bo- roughs, for the services the inhabitants had done to his mother and him- self; by discharging them from every burden, excepting the fixed fee- farm rent of such towns ; and this throughout all England, excepting J,ondon. X'us gave a vast accession of power to the crown, Ix'cause the crown aUiUC cejuld support the boroughs against their feudal tyrants; and enabled Henry to reducp his overgrown nobility. Without being very scrupulous in adhering to his former engage- ments, he resumed the excessive grants of crown-lands made by Stephen, ^\ hich were rej)resented as illegal. He demolished many of the castles that lind been built by the barons ; but, when he came to attack the clergy, he foup.d thpir usurpations not to be shaken. He perceived that the root of all the pnqrnious disorders lay in Rome, where tlie poj)es had exempted churchmen, not only from lay courts, but civil taxes. Unfortunately for Henry, the head of the English church, and chancellor of the kingdom, was the celebrated Thomas Recket. This man, power- ful from his otfice, and still more so by his popularity, arising from a pre- tended sanctity, was violent, intrepid, and a determined enemy to tempo- ral power of every kind, but at the same time cool and politic. The king assenibled his nobility at Clarendon, the name of which place is still i ^r1 lAi 220 ENGLAND. famous for the ronstimtions there enacted, which, in fhct, aboh'shed tha authority of the Romish see over the English clergy. Beckef , tinding it in vain to resist the stream, signed those cDUstitutioiif. till tlu-y could be ratified by the pope, who, as he foresaw, rejected them. Henry, though a prince of the most determined spirit of any of his time, was then em- broiled with a\\ his neighbours 5 and the see of Rome was in its meridian grandeur. Becket having been arraigned and convicted of robbing the public while he was chancellor, fled to Fnlnce, where the pope and the i'rench king espoused his quarrel. The eti'ect was, that all the English clergy who were on the king's side were excommunicated, and the laity absolved from their allegiance. This disconcerted Henry so much, that he submitted to treat, and even to be insulted by his rebel prelate, who returned triumphantly through the streets of London in U 70. His re- turn swelled his pride, and increased his insolence, till both Ijecame in- supportable to Heiuy, who was then in Normandy. Finding that he was in fact only the lirst subject in his own dominions, he was licard to say, in the anguisli of his heart, " Is there none who will revenge his mo- narch's cause upon this audacious priest r" These words reached the ears of four knights, Reginald Fitzurse, William de Tracy, Hugh de Morville, and Richard Brito ; who, without apprising Henry of their in- tentions, went over to England, where they beat out Becket's brains be- fore the altar of his own church at Canterbury, in the year 11/1. Henry ■was in no condition to support tlie act of his knights } and the public re- sentment rose so high, on the supposition that he was privy to the mur- der, that he submitted to be scourged by monks at tlie tomb of the pre- tended martyr. Henry endeavoured to cancel all the grants which had been made by Stephen to the royal family of Scothi; 1, and actually resumed their most valuable possessions in the north of England. This occasioned a war between the two kingdoms, in which William king of Scotland was taken prisoner J and, to deliver himself from captivity, was obliged to pay liege homage to king Henry for his kingdom of Scotland, and for all his other dominions. It was also agreed, that liege homage should be done and fealty sworn to Henry, without reserve or exception, by all the earls and barons of the territories of the king of Scotland from whom Henry should desire it, in the same manner as by his other vassals. The heirs of the king of Scotland, and tlie heirs of his earls, barons, and tenants in chief, were likewise obliged to render liege homage to the heirs of the king of England. Henry likewise distinguished his reign by the conquest of Ireland ; and by marrying Eleanor, the divorced queen of Fiance, but the heiress of Guicnne and Poitou, he became almost as powerful in France as the French king himself, and tlie greatest prince in Christendom. In his last years he was unhappy, having embarrassed himself by intrigues with women, particularly tlie tair Rosamond. His infidelity was resented by his queen Eleanor, who even engaged her sons, Henry (whom his father had unadvisedly caused to be crowred in his own life-time), Richard, and Joim, in repeated rebellions, which atfecfed their father so much as to tlirow him into a fever, and he died at Chinon, in France, in the year 1 189, and fifty-seventh of his age. The sum he left in ready money at his deatli has periiaps been exaggerated ; but the most moderate accounts make it amount to 200,000 pounds of our money. Richard I.,- surnamed Cceur de Lion from his great courage, was the third but eldest siirviving son of Henry II. He engaged in a most mag- nificent but ruiiious crusade to tiie Holy Laiid^ where he took Ascaion, ENGLAND. 221 git be ugh and displayed his valour by many heroic acts. After several glorious but fruitless campaigns, he concluded a truce of three years with Saladin em- peror of tlie Saracens ; and in his return to England was treacherously surprised by the duke of Austria, wlio, in 1103, sent him a prisoner to the emperor Henry VI. His ransom was fixed by the sordid emperor at 150,000 marks, about 30(),(XX) pounds of our present money. On his return, he found his dominions in great disorder, through the practices of his brother John, whom, however, he pardoned ; and by the invasions of the French, whom he rci>elled ; but was slain wliile besieging tlie castle of Chalons, in the year 1 lyg, the forty-second of his age, and tenth of his reign. Tlie reign of his brother John, who succeeded him, is infamous in the English history. He is said to have put to death Arthur, tlie eldest «ion of his brother GeoHVey, who had the hereditary right to the crown. I'he young prince's mother, Constance, complained to Philip, the king c( France ; w ho, upon John's non-appearance at his court as a vassal* deprived him of Normandy. John, notwithstanding, in his wars with the French, Scotch, and Irish, gave many proofs of personal valour j but became at last so apprehensive of a French invasion, tliat he ren- dered himself a tributary to the pope, and laid his crown and regalia at the foot of the legate Pandulph, who kept tliem for five days. The great barons resented his meanness, by taking arms : but he repeated his shameful s ibmissions to the pope; and after experiencing various for- tunes of w iw, John was at last brought so low, that the barons obliged hinj^ in Tilt), to sign the great deed so well known by the name ot Magna Chitiui. Though this charter is deemed the foundation of EngHsh liber- ty, yet it is in fact no other tluu a renewal of those immunities which the barons and their followers had possessed under tlie Saxon princes, and which they claimed by the chaiters of Henry I. and Henry II. As the principles of liberty, liowever, came to be more enlarged, and property to be better secured, this charter, by. various subsequent acts and ex- planations, became applicable to every English subject, as well as to the barons, knights, and burgesses. John had scarcely signed it, when he retracted, and called upon the pope for protection; on which the barons withdrew their nllegiauce from John, and transferred it to Lewis, the eldest sen of Philip Augustus, king of France. This gave offence to the pope ; and the barons, being apprehensive of their country be- coming a province to France, returned to their allegiance to John : but he was unable to protect them, till tiie pope refused to confirm the title of Lewis. Jolin died in 12l6, in the eighteenth year of his reign, and the forty-ninth of his age. I'he city of Ixindon owes some of her privileges to him. The office of mayor,, before his reign, was for life; but he gave them a charter to choose a mayor out of their own'body annually, and to elect their sherifft and coniiTioi - 'ouncil annually, as at present. England was in a deplorable situation when the crown devolved upon ileniy HI., the late king's son, who was but nine years of age. The earl of Pembroke rvas cliosen his guardian ; and the pope taking part with the young prince, the French were defeated and driven out of the king- dom, and their king obliged to renounce all claims upon the crown of England, Tlie regejit, earl of Pembroke, who had thus retrieved the independency of bis co\intry, died 1219, and the regency devolved upon the bisho]) of Winchester. The ki: g was of a feeble and pliable disposi- tion, and had been persuaded to violate the Great Charter. Indeed he feemed always endeavouring to evade the privileges which he had been i HF 222 ttsCLJitlty. P>U r*i5.- IiS'm Ik I:' If ' 3 ; compelled to gr.itit niid confirm. An association of the barons -was formed against him and his govt-rnment } and a civil war commencing, Henry seemed to \ye abandoned by all but his Gascons and foreign mer- cenaries. His profusion brought him into great difficulties ; and the fa- mous Stephen Montfort, who had married his sister^ arid uijs made earl of Leicester, being chosen general of the assnciatioli, the king and his two sons were defe;ited, and taken prisoners, at the battle of Lewes. A dif- ference happening between Montfort and the earl of Gloucester^ a noble- man of great authority, prince Edward, Henry's eldest son, obtained liis liberty ; and assembling as many as he could of his father's subjects, who were jealous of Mont fort, and weary of the tyranny of the barons, he gave battle to the rebels, whom he defeated at Evesham, August 4th, r2(i5, and killed Montfort. The representatives of the commons of En- gland, both knights and burgesses, formed now part of the English legis- lature, in a separate house ; and tliis gave the tirst blow to feudal te- nures in England: but historians are not agreed in what manner the connnons before this time formed any part of the English parliatnents or great councils. Prince Edward being afterwards engaged in a crusade, Hemy, during his absence, died in 12/2, the sixty-fourth year of his a^e, and fifty-sixth of his reign, which was uncomfortable and inglorious j and, yet, to the stmggles of this reign tlie people in a great measure owe the liberties of the present time. Interest had in that age mounted to an enormous height. There are instances of 50 per cent, being paid for money; v.hich tempted the Jews to remain in England, notwithstanding the grievous oppressions they laboured under, from the bigotr)' of the age and Henry's extortions. L" 1255 Henry made a fresh demand of 8000 marks from the Jews, and threatened to hang them if they refused com- pliance. They now lost all patience, and desired leave to retire with thei; elfects out of the kingdom : but the king replied, " How can 1 re- medy ;he oppressions you complain of? I am myself a beggar; I am de- spoilec; I am stripped of all my revenues; I owe above 200,000 marks — if I had Slid 300,(XX) I should not have exceeded the trutli; I am obliged to pay my son prince Edward 15,000 marks a year ; I have not a farthing, and I must have money from any hand, from any quarter, or by any means." King John, his tath.'r, once demanded 10,000 marks from a Jew at Bristol ; and, on his refusal, ordered one of his teeth to be drawn every day till he should consent. The Jftw lost seven teeth, and then paid tlie sum required of him. Trial by ordeal was now entirely dis- used, and that by dud discourageil. Bracton's famous law-treatise was published in this reign. Edward returning to England, on the news of his father's death, in- vited all who held of his crown in capitc to his coronation dinner, which consisted (that the reader may have soine idea of the luxuiy of the times) of 278 bacon hogs, 450 hogs, 410 oxen, 430 sheep, 22,(J00 hen* and capons, and 13 fat goats. (See llymer's Fa*dera.) Alexander III., king of Scotland, was at the solemnity ; and a!i the occasion 500 horse* were let loose, for those that could catch tlieui to keep them. Edward was a brave and jK)litie jniiice ; and being ptrlcotly well ac- (juaintcd with the law.-;, interests, and constitution of his kingdom, hi^ regulations, and reformaiion of the laws, have justly given him the title of the English Justinian. He passed the I'amous Mortmain act, whereby all persons " were restrained tiom giving, by . ill or otlicmisc, their estates to (those m called) religious purposes, and- the societies that never die, without a license from the crown," He granted certaia privilege* to ilic Ciixjuc Porto, which^ though now veiy inconsiderable^ 1 ENGLAND. 223 was :ing. mer- e fh- earl two dif- )l)le- d Jiis who he 4th, En- .^f,'Cl■e tlien obliged to attend the king, when he went beyond sea, with titty-seven ships, each lia\ ing twenty armed soldiers on board, and to maintain them at their own costs for the space of tifteen days. He reduced the Welsh to pay him tribute, and annexed that principality to his crown J and was the tirst who gave the title of Prince of Wuleii to his eldest son. His vast connexions with the continent were productive of many benefits to his subjects, particularly by the; introduction of reading- glasses and spectacles; though they are said to lia\e been invented in the late reign by the tamous friar liacon. Winduiills wore erected in England about the same time, and the regulation uf gold and silver work- manship was ascertained by an assay, and marks of tlie goldsmiths' com- pany. Edward's continental wars were unfortunate both to himself and •the English, by draining them of their wealth ; and he was often em- broiled with the pope, especially upon the affairs of Scotland. He died hi 130/, in the si.xty-ninth year of his age, and thirty-fiftl* of his reign, while he was engaged in a nev/ expedition against Scotkmd. He ordered liis heart to be sent to the I loly Land, n\ ith 32,000 pounds for the uiaiu- tenance of the JIolj/ Sepu''''re. His son and successor, Edward II., showed early dispositions for en- couraging favourites; but Gaveston, his chief minion, a Gascon, be- ing banished by his father Edward, he mounted the throne with vast advantages, both political and personal, all which lie soon forieited by liis own imprudence. He recalled Ga\e3ton, and loaded liim with honoiu^s, and married Isabella, daughter of the French king, who re- stored to him part of the territories which Edward I. had lost in France. 1'he barons, however, obli;^ed him once more to banish his favourite, and to conlirnr the Great Charter; while king Robert Bruce recovered all Scotland, excepting the castle of Stirling; near to which, at Ban- nockburn, Edward in ])ersou recei\ed the greatest defeat England ever sutFered, in 1314. Gaveston being belieaded by the barons, they Ux«}d upon yoiuig Hugh Spencer as a spy upon the king ; but he soon be- came his lavourite. He, through his pride, avarice, and ambition, wa* bafiished, together with his father, whom he had procured to be made earl of \V incliester. The ijueen, a furious ambitious woman, per- suaded her husband to recall the Spencers, while the common people, from Iheir hatr-jd to tlie barons, joined the king s standard, and, after dell'ating them, restored liini to the exercise of all his prerogatives. A cruel use was made of those juecesses ; and many noble patriots, with their estates, fell victims to the ciueen's revenge ; but at last siie became enamoured Vvith Roger Mortimer, wLo was her prisoner, and had been one of tin; mobt active of the anti-royalist lords. A breach between her and the Spencers soon tbllowed ; and going o\ er to France with her lover, she found means to form such a party in England, that, return- ing witli some French troops, she put the eldest Spencer to an ignomi- nious death, made her hu5l)and prisoner, and forced him to abdicate his crown in favour of his sou Edward III., tli'en fifteen years of age. Nothing now but the death of Edwnrd II. was wanting to comp!et« her guilt; and he was niost. hiirharously murdered in }?erkley-castle, by ruriiaiis, snp[)osed to be citiployed by lier and her paramour Mortimer, in the )ear 1327. I'l t'''^ ^'^'S^^ ^''^- Ivnights Templars were suppressed* Edwjrd III. mounted the thnjue iu 1327- He was theti under tliu tuition of his niotlier, who c(jhabited with Morlimtir; and they en- deavoured to keep jjossession oi' their power, by adopting many populas measures, and putting an end to all nuUoaai differences with ..Scwt- |H:i ill .. i I 224 EXGIAND, r land, for which Mortimer w.-w rrented earl of ivlHidj. Edward, young as he was, was soon sensl-bie of dit-ir designs. He surprised them in person at tlie head of a few rhoHeu friends in tlie castle of iSlottingham. Mortimer was hanged as a frattor on the ecvinmon gallows at Tyburn, and the queen slnit up in conlincment t^venty-cight years, to her death. It was not long before Edwnrd found means to (juarrel with David, king of Scotland, though he had married his sister. David was driven to J^Vaiiee by ildward Raliol, who acted m Edward's tributar)', king of Scot- land, and general, and did tlie same homage to Edward for Scotland as his father had done to Echvard I. Soon after, upon the death of Charles the Fair, king of France, without issue, who had succeeded by virtue of the Salic law, which, the Frentrh pretended, cut off all female succes- fiion to that crown, Philip of Valois claimed it, as being the next heir male by succession ; but he was opposed by Edward, as being the son Of Isabella, who was sister to the three last-mentioned kings of France, and •first in the female succession. 'J'he former was preferred ; but tlie case being doubtful, Edward pursued his claim, and invaded France with a powerful nrmv. On this occasion, the vast di:Terence lietween the feudal constitutions of France, which were then in i\\\[ force, and the government of En- land, more tavc^urable to public liberty, ap[H.'ared. The French officers knew no subordination. They and tlieir men were equally undis- ciplined and disobedient, thougli far more numerous than their ene- mies in the lield. The Eu;;Ti.'!h freemen, on the other hand, having now vast property to fight for, which they could call their own, inde- pendent of a feudal law, knew its value, and had learned to defend it by providing themselves M'ith armour, and submitting to military exercises and proper subordinaii.n in the field. 'Jlie war, on tlie part of Edward, was therefore a continued scene of success and victory. In 1340 he took the title of king of France, using it in all public acts, nnd quartered the arms of France with liis own, adding rhis motto, Dk'u etnion droit, " God and my right." At Cressy, August 20th, 1346, nbove 100,000 French wore defeated, cJiiel^y by the valour of the prince of Wiiles, v.'iio wi'.s but sixteen years of agv' (his father Iieing no fnore than thirty-four), though the English did not exceed 30,(X}0. The losi of the French t>.r exceeded the number of the English army, whose loss consisted of no more than three knights and one esquire, and about fifty private men. The battle of Foietiers was fought in 1356, between the prince of Wales and the French king John, but with very superior advantage of numbers on the part of the French, who were totally de- feated, and their king and his tiivom'ite son Philip taken prisoners. It itt thought tliat the number of French killed in this battle was double that of all the English army ; but the njodesty and politeness with which the prince tieated liis royal prisoners formed the brightest wreath in his garlflnd. Edward's glories were not confined to France. Having left his queen Philippa, daugliter to tlie earl of Hair.ault, regent of Enghnid, she had the good fortune to take prisoner l)avid king of Scotland, who had ventured to invade Eiigland, about six weeks after the battle of Cressy was f )ught, and rcniaiiiod a prisoner eleven years. Thus Edward had the glory to see two crowned lieads his captivt's at London. Both king* were afterwards ransomed; David tor 100,000 marks, and John for thret! millions of gold crowns : but Jolui returned to England, and died at the palace of the Savoy. AfUM- the treaty u^ Jiretigni, into which Edwanl IH. is said to have been terrified by u J'r(wdfui stonn, hii king ene- ENGLAND. 225 fortunes declined. He had resigned his French rfominions entirely to the prince of Wales ; and he sunk in the esteem of his subjects at home, on account of his attachiii. /. to his mistress, Alice Pierce. The prince of Wales, commonly calKxl tlie Black Prince*, from his wearing black armour while he Ws making a glorious campaign in Spain, where he re- instated Peter the Cruel on the throne, was seized with a consumptive disorder, which carried him otf in tlie year 1372. His father did not long survive him ; for he died, dispirited and obscure, ix Shene in Surr)', in the year 137/^ the sixty-tifth of his age, and lifty- first of his reign. No pnnce ever understood the balance and interests of Europe bettet th'.m Edward did. He has the glory of inviting over and protecting fullers, dyers, weavers, and other artificers from Flanders, and of esta- blishing the \voollen manufacture among the English, who, till this time, generally exported the unwrought commodit)'. In his reign few of the English ships, even of v,-ar, exceeded forty or fifty tons. Historians are not agreed whether P>Jward made use of artillery in his first invasion of France :, but i't certainly was well kno'v^n beibre his death. The magni- ficent castle of Windsor was built by Edward 111. ; and his method of con- ducting that work may serve as a specimen of the condition of the peo- ple of that age. Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, he assessed every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpenters, as if he had been levying an army. Soldiers were enlisted only for a short time : they lived idle all the rest of tlie year, and commonly all the rest of their lives : one successful campaign, by pay and plunder, and the ransom of prisoners, was supposed to be a small fortune to a man ; which was a great allurement to e.iter into the ser\;ce. The wages of a master-carpenter were limited through the wliole year to Ihree-pence a day, those of a common carpenter to two-pence, money of that age. Dr. John Wicklifte, a secular priest, educated at Oxford, began, in the latter end of this reign, to spread the doctrines of reformation, by his discourses, sermons, and writings ; and he made many disciples of all ranks and stations. He was a man of parts, learning, and piety, and has the honour of being the first person in Europe who publicly called in question those doctrines which had geneiaily passed for certain 2nd undisputed, during so uiany ages. The doctrines of Wickliile, being derived from his search into the scriptures, and into ecclesiastical an- tiquity, wen; nearly the same with tl'.ose propagated by the reformers in the sixleenth century. But thou;;;h the rge seemed strongly dlioosed to receive tliem, all'airs were not yet lully ii],e for this great levolution, which was res-erved fi)r a more tree and ir.quiring age. He had many friends in the university of Oxlbrd, ;!nd at coarl, and was powerfullv protected against the evil designs of tl'.e pope and bishops hy John oV Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, one of the king's son^, and other great men. Hi"? disciples were distinguished by the name of Wickliffites or Lol- lards. Kichard IL, son of the Black Prince, v.-a? only eleven years of age when he mounted the throne. The Englisli arms were t'len unsttecess- fill both in France and Scotl-nid ; but the doctrines of Wicklide took root under the inlluence of the duke cf Lancaster, the king's uncle, and f . ,1: * lie was also the fivst in England that had tLo titlt; of Du'^c, being created by Ji'is fhthcv duki' i)t' Col nuall j and, ever bincc, tlic clJcst son ofthe kin^j- yf England is by ^fli dult v.vfCornwHll. a '120 ENGLAND. MS J \li '( — I one of his giwrdians, and gave enlarged notions of liberty to the villaiij.^j ;ind lower ranks of people. John of Gaiiiit's ft)reign connections vviili the crown;} of Portugal and IHpain were of prejudice to England ; and so many men were euiploj'ed in uiuuicces^ful wars, that the commons of England, like powder receiving a spark of lire, all at once flamed ov't into rebellion, under the conduct of IJall, a prient, Wat I'yjer, Jack Straw, and others, the lowest of the people. I'he conduct of these iu- .surgents was very violent 5 but it cannot be denied that tlic common peo- ple of England then lal)oured under many oppressions. Richard was not then above .sixteen; but he acted with great spirit and wisdom. He faced the storm (tf the insurgents, at the head of the. Londoners, while \V'alworth the mayor, and I'hilpt)t an alderman, had the courage to put Tyler, the leader (?f the malcontents, to death, in the midst of his adherents. Richard then associated to himself a new set (ft' favourites. Jlis people and great lords again ttxjk up arms ; and being headed by the duke of Gloucester, tlie king's uncle, (hey torced Richard once more into terms: but being insincere in all his compli- ances, he was upon the point of becoming more despotic than any king in England ever had been, when he lost liia crown and life by a sudden catastrophe. A <piarrel happened between the duke of Hereford, son to the duke of Lancaster, and the duke of Norfolk; and Richard I);mishcd tlieiii both, with particular acts of injustice to the former, who now became duke of Lancaster by his lather's death, Richard carrying o\er a greiit army to ciuell a rebellion iii Ireland, a strong party formcil in Engianil, the natural result of hi$ tyranny, who otfen-d the duke of Lancaster the crown. The duke landed from Erance at Ra'» enspur in Yorkshire, and WM soon at th*^ head of (i(),(X)0 men, all ot them English. Richard hurried back to England, where, his troops refusing to fight, and hi* subjects, whom he had afteeted to despise, generally deserting him, he was made prisoner with no more than twenty attendants ; aiA beinsj carried to London, was deposed in full parliament, upon a formal charge of tyranny and Misconduct ; and soon after is sujjpused to have been starved to death in prison, in the year 1;UH), the thirty-fourth of hi'? age, and the twenty-th'rd of his reign. Lie had no issue by either of hi,; two marriages. Though the nobility of EngLmd were poiiessed of great power at the time of tins revolution, yet we do not liiid lliat it abated tlie intiuence of the commons. They had the courage to lemonstrate l)oidly in par^r liament against the usur\', which was but too much practised in England, and other abuses ot both clergy and laity; and the destruction of Lhe feudal powers soon followed. Henry the Fourth, son of Jolui of Gaunt duke of Lancaster, fourth son of Edward IIL, being settled on the throne of England, in prejudice to the elder branches of Edwiu^d IIl.'s t'anuly, the great nobility were in hopes Uuit this glaring defect in his title would render hl:'i dependent np(jn them. Ai tir^t some conspiracies were formed against him by th« dukes of Surry and Ext tcr, the earls ot" Gloucester and Salisbury, and th«5 archbishop of York ; but he crushed tliem by his activity and steadiness^ and laid a [)]an fur reducing their overgrown power. Ibis was under^ stood by the Percv family, tlic greatest in the north of England, who com- plained that Henry had deprived them of some Scolci\ prisoners,, whom they had t.ilu'u in battle; ;i;id a dangen.nis rebellion broke out under the old earl of Nortliumberland, and his son tlie famous Henry Percy, siKnamed Hotspur; but it ended in the delleiil «jf the rebels, chifHy by 1?NGLAND. 227 the valour of the prince of Wales. With equal good furUine, Henry suppressed the insurrection of tlie Wolch, under Owen Glendower ; and by his prudent eoncessions to his parliament, to the commons particu- larly, he at last overcame all opposition, while, to salve the defect of his title, the parliani'.vit entailed the crown upon him, and the heirs male of his body lawfully uegotten, Uiereby shutting out all female succession. • The young duke of Ilothsay, heir to tlie crown of Scotland (afterwards James I. of that kingdom), falling a prisoner into Henry's hands about this time, was of infinite service to his go\ernment ; and before hi;* death, which happened in 1413, in the forty-sixtli year of his nge, and thirteenth of his reign, he had the satisfaction to see his son and succes- sor, the prince of Waletj, disengage himself from many youthful follies, which till then had disgraced his conduct. The English marine was now so greutly Increased, that we find an English vessel of 200 tons in the Baltic, and many other ships of equal burthen, canying on a great trade all over Europe, but with the Hans© towns in particular. With regard to public liberty, Henry IV., as has been aht^ady hinted, was the fust prince who gave the different orders Ml parliament, e.sj)ecially that of the commons, their due weight. It is ' howe\'eV somewhat surprising, that learning was at this lime in a much lower state in England, and all over Europe, tlwu it had been 200 years before. Bishops, when testifying synodal acts, were often forced to do " it by proxy, in the following terms, viz. " As I cannot read myself, N, N. hath subscribed for me:" or, " As my lord bishop cannot write ' hi iiself, at his request, 1 have subscribed." By tlie influence of tlie court, and the intrigxies of the clergy, an act was obtained in the sessions ' of parliament 1401, tor the burning of heretics, occasioned by the great increase of the Wickliflites or Lollards; and immediately after, one' Sawtrec, parish-priest of St. Osithe in London, was burnt alive by the' king's writ, directed to the mayor and sheriffs of London. At the aci.ession of Henry V., in 1413, the Lollards, or llie followers of Wickliffe, were excessively numerous ; and sir John Oldcastle lord Cob- ham having joined them, it was pretended that he had agreed to put him- ' stlf at their head, with a design to overturn the government; but tliis ap- pears to have been a groundless accusation by the clergy, though he was put to death in consequence of it. His only real crime seems to have been tlie spirit \\'ith \\ hicli he opposed the superstition of the age ; and he was the lirst of the nobility w lio suffered on account of religion. Henry was about this time engaged in a coutebt witli France, which he had many incitements for invading. He demanded a restitution of Nor- mandy, and other provinces that had been taken from England in the preceding reigus 3 also the payment ot certain ;urears due for king .fohn'.-^ nmsoni since the reign of Eduard IIL ; and avijiling himself of ihe distracted state of that kingdom by the Orleans and Burgundy fac- tions, he invack'd it, first took Hartlcur, and then defeated the French in ♦he battle ot' Agincourt, which equalled those of Cressy and Poictiers in ■;^loiy to the English, but exceeded tJieni in its consequences, on account jf tlie vast number of Freui.h princes of the blood, and other great no- l)lomen, who were there killed, Henry, who was as great a politician as a warrior, made such alliances, and divided the French among them- selves soeffectujlly, that he forced the queen of France, whose husband Charles VI. wa.'> a lunatic, to agree to his marrying her daughter, the princehs Catliarine, to disniheiit the dauphin, and to declare Henry re* gent of France during her iuisband's life, and him and his issue succes- sor? to tlic French mouarcliv, whieli must at this tjmc have been e.xter- (1 :-. f. ■' f'im 23» ILNGIAND. m minated, had not ihe Scots (though tbfir king still contxivied Henty^' capiive) furnished the dauphin with vast supplies, and preserved to him the French crown. Heniy, however, made a triumph.-il entry into peris, where i!ie dnuphin was proscribed ; and after receiving the fealty of tlie French nobility, he returned to England to levy a force tliaf might cmsh the dauphin and his Scottish .luxiliarics. He probably would have been siiccessful, had he not died of a pleuritic disorder, 1442, in the thirty-fourth year of his age, and the tenth of his reign. Henry V.'s \:)st successes in Fnince revived tlie trade of England, and at the same time increased and estahliihcd the privileges and liberties of the English ('oiunjoualtj'. Vry an authentic and exact account of th«ir ordinary revenues of the crowr. during this reign, it appears that they amounted only Ui 55,/l4l. a year, which is nearly the same with thr reveilues in Henry JII.'s time; and the kings of England had neither beco'me much richer r,nr poorer in the course of 200 years. The ordi- nary expen.ses of the government amounted to 52,5071 ■; so that the king had of surplus only 3,'207l. for the support of his household, for hi^ wardrobe, tor the expenses of embassies, and other articles. This sum was not nearly sulhcient even in time of peace; and, to carry on his wars, tliis great coufjueror was reduced tu the greatest difficulties j he contracted many debts, and pawned hi; jewels-, and sometimes the frown itself; he ran in arrears to his army ; and he was often obliged to stop in the midst of his career of victory, and to grant a truce to tlie »nemv. Henry VI., surnamed of Windsor, wns no more than nine months old.- when, in consequence of the treaty of Troyes, concluded by his father with the Frt;uch court, he was proclaimed king of France as well as England. He v.as under the tuition of his two uncles, the dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, both of them princes of great accomplish- ments, virtues, and courage, but unable to preserve their brother's con- quests. Upon the deatl. of Charles VI. tlie affections of the French for his family revived in tlie person of his son and successor Charles VII. The duke of Bedford, who was regent of France, performed many glo- rious actions, and at last laid sieire to Orleans, which, if taken, wouU! have completed the con(]nest of France. The siege was raised by the valoiu" and good conduct of the Maid of Orleans, a plia-nomenon hardly to be paralleled in history, she being born of the lowest extraction, and bred a cow-keeper, and some time a helper in stables iw public inns. She must, notwitlistanding, have possessed an amazing fund of sagaciiy .•js well as valour. After an unparalleled train of heroic actions, auii placing the cro\^n upon her sovereign's head, she was taken prisoner by tlie English in making a sally during the siege of Compiegne, who burnt her alive tor a wkcli, at Rouen, May :50, 1431. The death of the duke of Bedford, and the agreement of the duke of Tiurgundy, the great ally of the English, with Charles \'I1., contributed to the enrire ruin of the Kngli^h interest in France, and the loss of all their fine pro\in(.es in that kingdom, notwilhstanding the rotungc of TrJbot the ^rsl earl of Shrew. -,bTiry, and their other officers. The prin- cipal misl"ortune of England, at this time, was its di.sunion at home. The duke of (ikuicestcr lost his authority in the govcrnineMt -, and the king married Margaret of Anjou, tlaughter to the I'ccdy king of Sicily, a woman oi'a high spirit, but an iniphicable (lisposii:<>n ; while the car- «l»nal of ^^'!ncile^ter, who was the rielie-l subject in England, if not in Europi', presidetl at the lu td of tlie ticasr.ry, uimI by his avarice ntine*l Pke inleiest of J.'',ii-laud, b*. li at hmae and nbroad. NeKt lo the cardinat. him into ■alty that jably he. ENGLAND. 229 the dnke of York, who was lord lieutenant of Ireinnd, vk^b the most powerful subject in England. He '.vas descended by the mother's side trom Lionel, an elder son of Edward IlL, and prior in claim to the reign- ing king, who was descended from John of Gaunt, Edward's youngest son : and he affected to keep up the distinction of a white rose ; that of the house of Lancaster being red. It is certain that he paid no regard to the parliamentary entail of the crown upon the reigning family: and he lost no opportunity of forming a party to assert hi«j right ; but acted at first with a most profound dissimulation. The duke of Sutfolk was a favourite of the queen, who was a protessed enemy to the duke of York J but, being impeached in parliament, he was banished for rive years, and had his head struck off on board a ship by a common sailor. This was followed by an insurrection of 20,000 Kentish men, headed by one Jack Cade, a man ot low condition, who sent to the court a list of grievances ; but he was defeated by the valour of the citizens of London, and the queen seemed to be perfectly secure against the duke of York. The inglorious management of the English atfairs in France befriended him j and upon his arrival in England from Ireland, lie foimd a strong party of the nobility his friends ; but being considered as the fomenter of Cade's rebellion, he professed the most profound re- verence to Henry. I'he persons in high power and reputation in England, next to the duke of York, were tie earl of Salisbury, and his son the earl cf War- wick. The latter had the greatest land estate of any subject in England^ and ]»is vast abilities, joined to some virtues, i-endered him equally po- pular, Koth father aid son were secretly on the side of York; and tluring a fit of illness of the king, that duke was made protector of tlie lealm. Both sides now prepared for arms ; and the king recovering, tiic queen with wonderful activity assembled an army ; but the royalists ■were defeated in tlie first battle of St. Alban's, and the king himself was taken ])risoner. The duke of York was once more declared protector ^)f till' kir.gdom ; but it was not long before tlr; queen resumed all her influence in the government, and the king, though his weakness became every day more and more visible, recovered all his authority. I'iie dnke of York upon this threw off the mask, and in 1459 openly clniivied the crown ; and the queen was again defeated by tlie earl of Warwick, who was now called the king-maker. A parliament upon this being asscmbl-d, it v.-ns enacted that Henry should possess the throne for life, but that the duke of York should succeed him, to the e):olusion of all Honi ;, 's issue. The queen, however, refused to agree to this coniproinise She retreated norihv/ards -, and the king being still a prisoner, she pleaded his cause so well, th;it, assembling a fresh army, she fought the battle of Wakefield, where the uuke of York was dete:ued and slain, in MtiO. it is rejiiarkable that, though the duke of York and his party openly asserted his claim to the crown, they still professed allegiance to Henr)'; but ilie duke of Y«nk's son, afterwards Edward IV., prepared to revenge iiis father's death, v.vA (jbtained several victories over Hie royalists. The <]uecn., however, advanced towards Lond(jn ; and defeating the earl of Warwick, in thcsivond buttle of St. Alban's, she delivered her husband j but the disorders committed by her norlhern troops disgusted the Lon- doners to mich, tliat .she durst not enter London, where the duke of York was icoeived, on (he 28th of February M()l, while the queen and her husband were obliged to retreat northwards. She soon raised au- t)iher army, aiid fuugbt the battle of Towton, the most bloody pcrhap ^ il 230 EXGLAXD. ■-^I!*' ■ !' if 1 w* n- !.)., I 1 iifh fir i P 1 1 t , m M: jf?w*^ m>. ■ T that ever happened in any civil war. After prodigies of vnlour had been performed on both sides, the victory remained with young kin!>; Ed\vard» and near 40,000 men lay dead on the field of battle. Margaret and her husband were once more obliged to tly to Scotland, Mhere they met with generous protection. / This civil war was carried on with greater animosity than any perhap,-? ever known. Margaret w-as as blood-thirsty as her opponents ; and when prisoners on cither side were taken, their eleaths, especially if they Averc of any rank, were deferred only for a few hours. Margaret, by the concessions she made to the Scots, soon raised a fresh army in Scotland, and the north of England, but met with defeat ujion defeat, till at last her husband, tlie unfortunate Henry, was carried pri' soner to London. The duke of York, now Edwari IV., being crowned on the 20th of June, fell in love with, and privately married, Elizabeth the widow of sir John Gray, though he had some time before sent the earl of War- wick to demand the king of France's sister in marriage, in which em- bassy he was successful, and nothing remained but the bringing over the princess into England. When the secret of Edward's marriage was know"; the haughty carl, deeming himLCai' atfronted. returned to England intlamed with ra ;,c and inillgnarlon, and, from being Edward's best fri'.nd, became his most formidable enemy; and gaining over the duke of CJaienc'^, Edward was made trvsoner -, but escaping from his contine- ment, the earl of Warwick, and ;lie French king Lewis XL, declared for the restoration of Henry, who was replaced on the throne, and Ed- Wiud Hcirrowly escaped lo Holland. Rcmrning from tliencc, he ad- A^anced to Londi^in, under pretence of claiming his dukedom of York ; hut being received into the capital, he resumed the e.xfrcisc of royal authority, made king Henry once more his prisoner, and defeated and killed Warwick in the battle of Barnet. A few da}'3 after he defeated a fresh army of Lancastrians, and made queen Margirret prisoner, toge- tlier witii her son prince Edward, \\hom Edward's brotlier, the duke of Gloucester, murdered in cold blood, as he is said (but with no gnat appearance of probability) to have done his father Henry VL, then a pri- soner in the tower of London, a few days after, in the year 147 !• Edward, partly to amu>e tlie public, and partly to supply the vast ex- peni=es of his court, pretended sometimes to quarrel and sometimes to treat with France : butljis irregularities brought him to his death (1483) in the twenty-third year (A hh reign, and forty-second of his ,•^go. Notwitlistanding the turbulence of the times, the trade and manufac- tures of England, pirtieularly tlie woollen, increased during the reigns of Henry VL and Fdwarcl IV. So early as 1440, a navig;Uion act Mas proposed, as the only mpans to preserve to the Englisli the benefit of be- ing the sole carr:c!s of their own merchandize j but foreign influence prevented Henry from passing the bill for tliat purpose. The invention of printing, which is generally sup]X)sed to have been imported into En- gland by William Caxton, and which received some countenance from Ldwarl, is the chief glory of his reign j but learning in general was then in a mean state in England. Tlie lord Tiptoft was its great patroii, mu\ seems to have been the tirst English nobleman who cultivated what '^^'^ now called the belles iettves. The books printed by Caxton arc most- ly re-transLuions, or compilations from tlie French or moiikish Ijatinj but it must be acknowledged, at the same time, tliat literature, after tliis period, niad^ a njore rapid .'lyd general progress among t'le English than ildid iij any otlxer Kuropcaji natiqa. The famous Littleton, jutlge of thp ENGLAND. 231 been ward, id hor met Common Pleas, and Fortcscuf, chancellor of England, flourislied at tWis {KTiod. Edward IV. left two sons by his queen, who had exercised her power vith no great prudence, by ha> nig ennobled many of her f)bscure rela- tions. Her eldest son, Edward V., was about thirteen } and his uncle, tlie tluke of Gloucester, taking advantage of the queen's unpopularity among the nobility, found means to bastardise her issue, by act of parliament, under the scandalous pretext of a pre-contract between their tathcr and another ladv. The duke, at the same tinae, was declared {guardian <»f the kingdom, and at last accepted the crown, which was of-' Icred him by t'lc LondoiKTs ; having first pu! to deatli all the nobility and iniMi of lank whom he thought to be veil atfectcd to the late king's family. AVhether the king and his brother were murdered in the Tower, by his direction, is donblfnl. The most probable opinion is, that they were clandostlncly sent abroad hv his orders, and that the elder died, l)ut tliat tJie younger survived, and was the same who was well known by the name of Perkin Warbevk. I'>e this as it may, the English were prepossessed so strongly against Richard, as being the murderer of his ne- phews, tliat the carl of Richmond, w1k# still remained in France, carried on a secret correspondence with the remains of Edward IV.'s fi-iends ^ and by otferim; to marry his eldest daughter, be was encouraged t« in- vade England at the head of about 2000 foreign troops; but they were .soon joined by /^KX) English and Welch. A battle between him and Richard, who was at the hciid of 1.5,000 men, ensued at Rosworth-iield, in w Iiich Richard, after displaying astonishing acts of j)er.sonal valour, was killed, having been lirst abandoned by a main divibion of his iiiiiiy, mil- der lord Stanley ami his brother, in the y(;ar 1485. I'hough the same act of bastardy attected the daughters as well as th« sons of Uie late king, yet no disputes were raised njjon the legitimacy of the princess E];i;abeth, eldest daughter to Edward IV., and who, as had been before con(X'rted, m:nried Henry of Lanc;ister, earl of Richmond, thiTcby vuiiting both house, which happily put an end to the long and bloody wars between the contonding houseii of York and Lancaster. Henry, l«iwe\i'r, rested liis rigiu upon conquest, and seemed to pay lit- tle regard to the ad>autagcs ot'iiis marriage. He was the first who iii- stitutcd tkat guard called Yconun, v liieh still subsists; and, in imitation of his predecessors, lie gave an ivrccovcr.ible blow to the dangerous pri- vileges assumed by the barons, in abolishing li\eries and retainers, bv which every malciactor could shelter himself from (he law, on assuming a nobleman's li\ery, and attending his person. The despotic court of star-chamber owed it.'^ original to Henry j but at the same time it nmsL Ix" acknowledged, that Iw passed many acts, e^jicciully for trade and na- vigation, th»it\\rre highly tor the iK'nefitof his subjects ; and, as a finish- ing stroke to the fiiulnl tenures, an act passed, b/ which the barons and ;;entlenien of landed interest wore at liberty to .sell and mortgage their lautLi, without fines or licenses for the alietiation. Henr)', after encouutej-ing and siirmounting many difficulties both in FnuK'C and Ireland, was attacked in the j^os'-ession of hi?, throne by- a young ma!J, («ne I'eikin Wariieck, v.ho jjretrnded to be the duke' of York, second so!i to lulward IV., and was acknowledged as such by the duchess of Rurgvuidy, Edward's sister. V\*e shall not follow the adven- tures ot this young man, which were various and unconmion; but it is certain that many of the Engli^jh, with the courts of France and Scot- land, believed him to be wiiat he pretended. Henry endeavoured to p;-oYe the death of Ed^^a^d V. ajid his bruUier, b^t never did it to the i ' -t ln|ft I ;i .' .:' ,p:i': -t li ,11*' i 232 ENGIvAND. M public satisfaction : and ihnugh J.uuos iV, of Scotland diMiiissed Perkin out of Ills dominions, being < nga:;cd in a trc.ity of marriage with llenry's eldest dai'.ghtcr; yi-t, by the kind manner in Mhicli he entertained and dismiised him, il is pl.iin that lie beliL\.'d him to be the real dvike of Vork, especially as he rcfuned to deliver up his person ; whieh he might have done with honour, had lie tliought him an impostor. Perkin, idler various urJormnate adventmes, fell into Henry's liands, and was ^hut up in the. 'IVawt of Ixjudon, ironi whence he endt avoured to escape along wilh tlu- innocent carl of Warwick -, for whieh Peil:in was hang- d, ?r,d the cnrl beheaded. In UjK), Henry's eldest .-oti, Arthnr prince t)f Wales, w;is marrietl to t'le princess Catharine of An agon, danghter lo the kiP!\ ajul <juecn of Sj ain ; and he dying soon after, sucli was Henry's reiuct.mco to rcihud her great dowry, liOO.OOO crowns of gold, that he cons;'Hted to her being married again to his second son, then piince of Wales, on pietcnre thar the first match had not been con- ^.UIn^ialed. Soon allt r, Henry's eldest daughter, the princess Margaret, was sent with a UK^st magnilicent train to Scotland, where she was married to James IV. Henry, at the time of his death, which happened in \50Q, the f!fty-.^t•cond year of his age, and twenty-fourth of his reign, Mai posse:iscd of 1,800,000/. sterling, which is equivalent to five mil- lions at present ; so that he may be supposed to have been nia.ster of mo:"e ready money than all the kings in Europe besides possessed, the mines of Peru and Mexico being (hen only beginning to be worked. He was immoderately fond of replenishing his cotl'ers, and often prevail- ed on his pailiameuL to grant him subsidies tor foreign alliances which he never interdcd to form. The great alteration which happened in the C(institulion of England during Henry VII. 's reign has been already mentioned. His exces.sive love of money, and his a\ arice. were probably the reason why Jie did not become master of tlu' West Indies, he having the lirst oiler of the discovery from Cclmnbus ; \\'ho.se proposals being rejected by Henry, that great man applied to the court of .Spain, and he set out upon the fliscovery cf a new world in the year I4i)2, whiih he eriected after a passage of thirty-three days, and took possession of the country in the uaine of l!ie kirg and <]uet-!i of Spain. Heniy, however, made some nmends by cncour.'.ging Canot, a ^'enetian, who discovered the main land of North America, ia 1!()S; anil we m.iy observe, to the prai.sc of t};is king, that .scuk times, in order to promote commerce, he lent to merchar.ts sums v( mcncy v. ithont interest, when he knew that their stock was not sulhcient ior those enterprises which they had in view. Perhaps no prince ever entered with greater advantages on the exer- cise of ro3'.illy than Henry \ III. Young', \igorous, and rich, without any rival, lu- held the balance of jKiwer in P.urope; but it is certain that he ncgli cU'd those aihautages in conmierce wilh which his father be- came too l.itely accjuainted. Imagining he could not .?tand in need of a «np[ilv, he <lid not improve Cabot'.'i discoveries: and he sutlered the East r.nd VVesi Iivlies to be engrossed b) Portugal and Spain. His vanity engaged him too much in tJie atfairs of the continent ; and his flatterers encouraged him tt) make preparaiions for tlie conque.-it of all France. These prt.iect^ i.'i'i him into iiKredible expenses. He became a candi- date for the German empire, dnring its vaciucy ; but soon resigned his preie.;>iiui io I'rancis I. of France, and Charles of Austria, king et vSpa''i, v.lio w.:^ clccled in l.ilp. IIenry"s conduct, in the long and b!i.)odv wars betwec'i tb.('^e princi-.i, was directed by Wolscy'i* views iipoi, th'. po^'cdom, wliidi lie hoped to g.'iu by tlie intercut of Charles ; ENGLAND. 233 hut finding himself twice deceived, he persuaded his master to declare himself for Francis, who had been taken prisoner at the battle of l*avia. Henry, however, cuntinued to be the dupe of all parties, and to pay great ixirt of their expenses, till at last he was forced to lay vast burthens upon his subjects. Ihiiry continued all this time the great cnt-iny of ih;; reformation, and the chain|<ion ol the popes and the Ilomish church. He wrote a book against Luther, " Of the Seven Sucrcwicnts," about the year 152 J, for which the pope gave him the title of Defender of the h'ait/t, which his successors retain to tiiis day. But, about the year 1527, he began to have some smiple with regard to the validity of his marriage with his brother's widow. It may be diliicnlt to say at present how far he might he influenced by scruples of his conscience, or a\trsion to the (pieen, or the charms of the lamous Anne Boleyn, maid of honour to the (jueen, whom he married before he had obtained from Rome the projK-r bulls of divorce from the pope. 1'he dithculties he met with in this process ruined Wolsey, who died heart-broken, after being stript of his immense power and possessions. A variety of circumstances, it is well known, lnduct;d Henry at last to throw otf all relation to, or dependence upon, the church of Rome, ynd to cause a reformation ; in which, however, many of the Ilomish errors and bupersiitions were retained. Henry never could have etfect- ed this important change had it not been for his despotic disposition, which displayed itself on every occasion. Upon a slight suspicion of his queen's inconstancy, and after a mock trial, he cut off her head in the Tower, and put to death some of her nearest relations ; and in many re- spects he acted in the most arbitrary manner ; his wishes, however un- reasonable, being too readily comjilied w ith, in consequence of the shame- ful servility of his parliaments. The dissolution of the religious houses, and the immense w ealth that came to Henry by seizing all the ecclesias- tical property in his kingdom, enabled him to give full .scope to his san- gfiinary disposition J so that the best and' most innocent blood of En- gland was shed on scatiblds, and seldom any long time passed without being marked with some illustrious victim of his tyranny. — Among others, was the aged countess of Salisbury, descended immediately from Kdward IV., and mother to cardinal Pole ; the marquis of Exeter, tlie lord Montague, and others of the blood royal, for holding a correspon- dence with that cardinal. His third wife \\as Jai.e Seymour, daughter to a gentleman of forttin* and lamily ; but she died in bringing Edward VI. into the world. His fourth wife was Aime, sister to the duke of Cleves. He disliked her so much, that he soon obtalii'.'d a divorce, though he suffered her to reside in Knpland on a pension of oOOO/. a rear. His iifth wife was Catharine Howard, niece to tlie duke (jf Norfolk, whom he caused to be beheaded fcr ante-nuptial incontincncy. His last wife \ras Catharine Par, in whose possession he clit\l, alter she bad narrowly es'^apcd being brought to the stake, for licr rclit;i(>us opinions, which favoured the reformation. Henry's cruelty increased with his years, and was now exercised pro*- niiscuously on protestants and catholics. He put the brave earl of Surry to death, wiiiiout a crime being proved against him ; and his father, the tlnke of NortblA,niust have suttciod the next day, had he not been saved by tj'ie death of Henry himself, 154/, in the 56'th year of his age, and the oSth othis reign. liie ^tate of England, during the reign of Ilenry Vlll., is, by the means of printing, better known than that of his predecessors. His at- I V] / IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 ■^yi 12.5 i 1^ I2i2 12.2 I.I |l.25 II 1.4 III 1.6 III III! Photographic Sciences Corporation // ^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSYER.N.Y. MS80 (716) 873-4503 "^^ :34 FXGLAXD iff HI 1'^ tcntion lo tlie naval security of England vas hij^hly coinnjciid.ible ; and it IS certain that he employed the unjust and arhitnry poucr he fre- quently nssnmcd, in many respects, for the glory and interest of his .tuli- ject<. Without inquiring into his religious motives, it must be e;:n- didly conttNsed. th.it. had the r<'}'ovrn;Uion gone thvougli all the fDiin* prescribed by the laws and the courts of ju«.tice, it probably never cor.ld have taken place, or at least not for many years; and whatever H^Miry's ])erso!iaI crimes or failings might iiave been, tho partition hv^ !n::dv^ of the jjfoperty of the rlnu'clx among his cnin'tiers ^n<l f ivonrito'^, .md tliereby rescuing it from dead hands, undoubtedly promoted the present greatness of England, ^^^ith regard to learning and tiie arts, Henry was a generous encourager of both. He gave a pension to hrasnms, the most learned man of his age. He brought to England, enoouragetl, and protected Hans Holbein, that excellent painter and architect; and in his reign no- Wemcn's ho\ises began to have the air of Italian magniticence and regu- larity. He was a constant and generous friend to (.'ranmer : and though he was, upon the whole, rather whimsical than settled in his own ])rin- ciples of religion, he advanced and encouraged many who became attcr- Hiirds the instruments of a more pure reformation. In this reign the I3ible was ordered to b<.' printed in English. Wales was unitwl and incorp.orated with England. Ireland vas erected into a kingdom, and Henry took the title of king instead of lord ot Ireland. Eflward \'I. was bat nine years o( age at the time of liis father's deatli ; and after some disputes the regency was settled in tJic person of his uncl«i the earl of Hertford, afterwards tlie protector, and duke of Somerset, a declaied friend and patron of the reformation, and an im- placable enemy to the see of Home. The reader is to observe in general, that the reformation was not ef- fected without many public disturbances. The conuiion people, during the reigns of Henry and Edward, being deprived of the last relief they had from ahljeys aiid rt>ligious houses, and being ejected ironj their small corn-growing farm^, had often taken arms, but liad been as often sup- pressed by the government; and several of theic iiisurrccticn;» were crushed in tills reign. The jv'formation, however, went on rapidly, tlirough the 7,e.il of Crauraer and others, some of them foreign divines. Jn some rases, particularly with regard to the princess Mary, they lost siglit of that mo- deration which the reformers had before so strongly rcconmiended ; and some cruel sanguinary cNt-cutions, on account of religion, took place. Ed)var,d*s youth excuses binx from blame ; and his eh;iritable endow- ments, as iiridewcll and St. Thomas's hospitals, anil also several sciiools which still exist and llourish, ohqw the goodness of his licnrt. He died of a consumption in I5.i.'», in the 10th year of his age, and the ^'th of his reign. Edward, on Iiis dcafh-bcJ, fi-om his real for religion, had made a very uncou'^tiiutional will ; for he set asi.de his sister Mary from the .suc- cession, whicli V r,^ i.laimed by lady Jane Grey, daughter to tlu; duchess of Sutiblk, ^■^uIlger sister to Henry VIII. This lady, though sl;e had .scarcely riMelud her I'i'ih year, was a prodigy of learning ami virtue; but the bulk of thr Kngiish nation recogiiised the claim of the princess IMary. and lady Jane wa> beheaded. Her husband, Ion! Guildford Diidr ley, son to tile dui\e of iXoithumberland, also sutfered in the same manner. ^iarv being thus ?ettlcd on the throne, suppressed an insurreclion un- der Wyat, and proeec'ile4 lilm a fcrjiilp fury u le-establisii poppiy, whl ntsll Half Hoi glisl «»f evel dini luaJ nati ENGLAND. 23,5 ^vh^ch she did all over England. She recalled er\ruinnl Pole from hn- nishmem, made him instrumental in her cnu'hii's, and lij;litcd up the llames of persecution, in whieh arehbishopCranmer, the bi.sjiops Ridley, Hooper, and Latimer, and nj;'.ny other illustrious eont'essor.s of tlie En- };lish reformed t;hurth, were consumed ; not to meJition a vast number <»f other sacritices of both sexes, and all ranks, that sutlered through every quarter of the kingdom. Bonner, bishop of London, ;;nd Gar- diner, bishop of Winchester, were the chief cxciutioiiers of her bloody mandates: and had she lived, she would have endeavoured to extermi- nate all her protectant subjects. Mary now married Phil'p 11. of Spain, who, like herself, was an un- feHing bigot to popery ; and the chief praise of her reii;ii Is, that, by the marriage articles, provisioti was made for the independency of the En- glish crown. By the assi.->t;uice of troops whi<h she lurnished to her husband, he gained the important battle of St. Qnintin ; l)ut that victory was so ill improved, that the French, under the duke of Guise, soon yfter took Calais, the only place then remaining to the Etiglish it} France, and wliieh had lx?en held ever since tlie reign of EiKvard IIL This loss, which Avas chiefly owing to cardinal Pole's secret connexions witli the French court, is said to have broken Mary's heart, who died in 1558, in the 42d year of her life, and O'tli of her reign. " In the heat of her ptij'.secuting flames (says a contemporary writer of credit) were, burnt to ashes, 1 archbishop, 4 bishops, 21 divines, 8 gentlcn)cn, S4 artificers, and 100 husbandmen, servants, and labourer.s, 20 wives, 20 widows, 9 virgins, 2 boys, and 2 infants ; one of them whipjied to death by Bonner, and the other, springing out of the mother's womb from the stake as she burned, thrown again into the tire." Several also tlicd in pri.son, and many were otherwise cruelly treated. Elizal>cth, daughter to Henry VII L by Ainie Boleyn, monnttxl the throne under the most discouraging circumstances both at home and abroad. Popery was the established religion of liUgland; her title to tlie crown, on account of the circumstances attending her mother's marriage and death, was dispuied by IMary queen of Scots, grandchild to Heiny VIl.'s eltlest daugiiter, and wife to the dauphin of France j and the only ally .she hail on the continent was Hiilij) king of Spain, who was the main support of the popish cause, both abroad and in En- gland. Elizabeth was no more than 25 years of age at the time of her jinauguration J but her sutt'erings under her bigoted sister, joined to the superiority of Jier genius, had taught her caution and policy j and she soon surmounted al} difficulties. In matters of religion she succeeded with suq)risii)g facilitv ; for, in her rirst parliament in I5.^y, the laws establisliing popery were repealed, lier suprcniacy was restored, and an act of uniformity passed soon after. And it is observed, that of ().KK) beneliced clergymen in England, only about 120 refused to comply \vith the reformation. With regard to her title, she took advantage of the divided state of Scotland, and formed a party there, by wliich Mary, now become the widow of Francis II. of France, was obliged to renounce, or rather to su.spend, her claim. Eli- zabeth, not contented with this, sent troops and money, which support- ed the Scottish malcontents, till Mary's unhapjiy marriage with lord Darnley, and then with Botljwell, the supposed murderer of tlie former, and her other niLseonduct and misfortunes, drove Jier to take refuge in Klizabetii's dominions, where she had often been promised a safe and honourable asylum. It is well known how unfaitliful Elizabeth was to tliis profession of friendship, and that she detaineil the unhappy prisoner eighteen years in England, thini brqught her to a njock trial, preteudiijg m rm 'j. ■ ' ' 'Mil,, . 'Ill m 235 FXGLAND. mi <hat Mary aimed .^r the cm-xn, and, v.-ithout sufficient proof of her ^lilt, cut oiY her hcicl — an action whicli gteatly tarnished the glories ot her I'he snme Pliilip who had been tlie Imsband of her late sister, upon Elizabetn's acctsslon to the throne, oftcred to marry her : but she dex- terously avoided l-.'s addrt^>,,cs ; and, by a train of skilful negotiations be- tween her court nncl that of France, l^ept the balance of Europe so undetermined, that she had leisinc to unite her people at home, and to establish an ex* clL'tit iiucrnnl policy in iier donjinions. She supported the protestants of I'ranct' at_;.unst tlieir persecuting prinees and the pa- pists, and gave the dukes of Anjnu and Alentpn, brothers of the Frenrh king, the stior..;est assuvrii.ces that one or other of them should be her husband; by wliich she kept that court, who dreaded Spain, at the same lime in so good humour with her go\ernment, that it sliowed no resent- Kient when she beheaded fpieen Mary. When Philip was lU) longer to be imposed upon by the arts of Elizabeth, which had amused and batlled him in every quarter, he employed tlie immense sums he drew from Peru and Mexico in equipping the most for- micbble armament that perhaps ever had been put to sea, and a nume~ rous army of veterans, under the prince of Parma, the best general of that age, and procured a papal bull for absolving Elizabeth's subjects from t!>eir allegiance. The great size of the Spanish ships proved disad- vantageous to tiietn on the seas where they fouglit. I'he lord admiral Howard, and die bra\e sea-officers under him, engaged, beat, and chased the Spanish fleet for se\eral days; and the waves and tempests linished the destruction which the English arms had begun, so that few of the Spa- nish ships recovered their ports. Next to the admiral, lord Howard of Kftingham, sir Francis Drake, captain Hawkins, and captain Frobisher, distinguished thcinselves against this formidable invasion, in which the Spaniards are said to have lost SI ships of war, large and small, and 13,500 men. £lizal)<'th had lor some time supported the revolt of tlie Hollan<ler;3 from Pliilip, and had sent them her favourite, the earl of Leicester, who acted as her viceroy and general in the Low Countries, Though Lei- tester behaved ill, yet her measures were so wise, that the Dutch esta- blished their independency ; and then she sent forth her fleets under l>rake, Pialeigh, the earl of Cumberland, and other gallant naval officers, Into tlie East and West Indies, whence they brought prodigious trea- sures, taken from the Spaniards, into England. Elizabeth in her old age grew distrustful, peevish, and jealous. TJiougli slie undoubtedly loved the earl of Essex, she teased him by her capriciousnt.'ss into tlie madness of taking arms, and then cut olV hi* head. She c(»tnp]ained that .she had been betrayed into this sanguinary measure ; and this occasioned a sinking of her spirits, which brought her to her grave in 10"(X{, in the seventieth yeiir of her age, and 't5th of her reign, having previously named her kinsman James VL, king of S«.'otland, and son lo Mary, for her successor. Though the policy of ElizalK'th, with respect to foreign n;itions, was very wie and beneficial to her subjects, her internal government was far from being iVu-ndly to personal liberty, and she was guilty of many stretchc:; ol' {V)\\'t'r a<;;alnsi the most sacrtd rights of Englishmen. The jevcre r.tUi.ios ai:;,\inst the puritans, debarring them of lilxjrty of con- science, au.l l*y w!ii( h many sulfered death, must be condemned. \Vc can s(';ircc'iv rctiulre a stronger proof that the English began to Im* tired of Kli/abctli, thin the joy testified by all ranks at the accession of hrr r-i:ccc;»»jr, cot* :t!-,;>tand;jij: the long inveterate animosities betvveeu ENGLAND. :iS7 1- ^int, of her rtie t%vo kingdoms. James tvas far from being clcstitiUe of natural abi- lities for government ; but he liacl received wrong inipicssions of tlm regal otfite, and too hitrh an opinion of his own di«?,iruy, learning, and political talents. It was his misfortune that he mnintcd the LtigH-h throne under a full convi«:tion that he was entitled to all t^ie unconstiiu- tional powers that had been occasionally exerci-.ed by Elizabeth and tlie house of Tudor, and which various causes had prevented the ix-oplt- from opposing with proper vigour. Ihe nation had h.en wearied and exhausted by the long and desU-uclive wars ])cl\veen the Jiouses of Lan- caster and York, in the course of which the ancient nobility were in great part cut off; an<l the people vvere inclintkl to endiue much, ratlKT tlian again involve themselves in the nuaoiies of cixil war. Neither did James make any allowance for the gk>i ies of El^i'abcUi, u'hich, as Jias been observed, disguised her most arbitrary acts ; and Uv/r.c lor the free, libe- ral sentiments, which the improveiiu-tit of ki'.ow ledv;e ;:nd learning had diffused through England. It is needless to point out the vast increas* cf property through trade and navigation, wiiich ennbleil the English at the same time to c.efjnil their libtri i-s. James's ti:st attempt of great consequence was to ertlct an union between Enplaiul and Scotland ; but though he failed in this tlirongh the aversion of tl;e English to that mea- sure, on account of his loading his Scottish courtiers witli wealth and ho- nours, he showed no violent rc:.entuient at tlie disappointment. It was an advantage to him at the beginning of his reigji, that the courts of Rome and Spain were tliought to be ifis enemies ; and this opinion was increased by the discovery and defeat of the gunpowder treason ''. James and his ministers were I'ontinually inventing new ways to rai-i« money, as by monopolies, bcnc\o!cnces, loans, and otiier illegal methods. Among other expedients, he sold rlu" titles of baron, viscount, and earl, at a certain price ; made a number of knights of Nova Scotia, each to pay such a sum, ami instituted a new order of knights-baronets, whicli was to be hereditary, tor which each person j)aid 10i)5/. His pacilic reign w:is a series of tlieologicai contests with ecclesiastical * This was a .scliemc of the Tlon^aa-catholics to out off at one blow the king, lords, and cu!min.)iK . at. tlic iiit'etii^p; uf parliaincnt ; \,hoa it was also fXiJtctid that the queen and priacc of Walo-; \\ouUi Lf present, 'i'lic manner of enlisting any new conspirator was by oath, and cidininistcring the saerament ; and this dreadful secret, after btiirj; rclli^iouily kept near eigliteen months, was happily difeovored in the fol!owiii>? inaniitr: /.boat ten (htys before the lonpc-wished-for meefinji of parliament, a liO'.i.m-catholie i)eer rec'tivtd a k'ler, whieli had been delivered tw his servant by an unknown hand, earnestly advisinjj,- hiui to put ofl' his attondahcu in parliatccMt at that time; hut whicli contaltied no kind of explanatioti. The nobleman, thoucch he considered the letter as a !'ot;!i>li attempt to frighten and ridi- chIc him, tlioufclit proper to lay it before the kiiir,. who, studying the contents with more atlcnt^>n, bc,t<aii to suspo't some danj^trous euiitrivance by gunpowder ; and it was judta'd advisable to Insptet ;'.!! tiie vaults below the h'<«ises of parliament; bat the soruch was purj^uocly .lelayod till the nipj,!. immediately precodinij \hc tneetiiK^, when a jnstieeof peace was ^cai with proijn attendants; and before the door of tlio vault, under the uppi.T house, lii.'lmg ono Vaw kes, who had just fmished all his prt'])aiation;, he iniincdiatt.-ly seized liim, and at the same '.hue discovered ia the vault ;>) barrels of powc'i.r, wt'.>i?li iiad been carefully eonccaled under fat!;gots 4nd piles of wood. The match, with every tliin'j proper for .settini; fire to tlie train, was found in Fawkes'n pocket, whoso eo'.'.ntenance be;j)okc his sava;.re disposition, Hnd w!;o, aft'.'r rci^ietting that he had I vst tlie 'jjiportiinity of destroy ijii^ .so many heretics, male a full discovery ; and the ci.iusjjirators, who never esiccoikd eighty in numlwr, Uiing seized by the country people, confessod their suilt, and were cxe- outeri in diiTorent parts of Eiiwiand. Notwithstanui:!,u; this horrid crime, the bi- j»otcJ catholics w^y^ so devoted to Garnet, a Jesuit, one of the oonspirat'irs, that they fancied miraclcti to be wrougJit by his blood, .ind in Spain he v.n^ cousidercd as a martyr. i i I If 233 EXGLAND. i '■■$. casuists, ill whicli he provfd himself mote a theologian than a piinve : anH in 101 7 lie alttinpleil to establish episcopacy hi Scotland; but the aeal ottho peopK" ballli-d his design. wTinnes ga\c his diuightcr, t!u- princess Eli/aheth, In marriage to the elector Palatine, the most povcrlul i)rotestnnt prinet; in Germany, and he soon after assumed llie crown of Hoheinia. The nieniorv of Jamesj has been much abused for his tame behaviour, after that prince Isad lost liis kingdom and cltctorale by the imperial arms; but it is to be ob- ser\ed, that he ahva;,s oppo.sed his son-in-law's assuming the crown of Bohemia ; that, had he kindled a war to re-instate him in that and his electorate, he probably wtinld have stood single in the same, excepting the feeble and uncertain assistance he n:ight have recei\ed from th« elector's dependents and iiiends in Germany. It is certain, however, that Jiimes funfished the elector with large ."unis of money to retrieve them, and that he actually raised a rcsiiment of 2'iO() men under sir Ho- race Vere, who carried thcUi over to Germany, vihere the Germans, under the marquis of Anspach, refused to second them against Spinolri the Spanish general. James has been greatly and justly blamed for his partiality to fji- vourites. His tirsi was Robert C'arr, a private Scotch gentleman, who was raised to be hrst minister aiid earl ut Somerset. His next favourite AViw George Villiers, a private English gentleman, who, upon Somerset's disgrace, was admitted to an uuusual share of favour and tamiliarity witjj his sovereign. James had at that time formed a system (jf policy tor at- taching himself intimately to the court of Spain> that it might assist him in recovering the Palatinate ; and to this s) stem he had sacrificed the bjave sir Walter Raleigh on a charge of having committed hostilities against the Spanish settlements in the West Indies. James, on the death of his eldest son^ Henry prince of Wales, threw his eyes upon the hifanta of Spain as a proper wife tor liis son Charles, v ho had succeed- ed to that principality. Ihickingham, who was ecjually a favourite with the son as with the father, tc-ll in with the prince's romantic liumour ; and, iigaiuftt the king's will, they travelled in disguise to Spain, where a most K)ltnui farce of courtship was played : but the prince returned without his bride ; and had it not been for the royal partiality in his fa- vour, the oiirl of Bristol, who was then ambassador in Spain, would pro- bably have brought Buckingham to the block. James was all this while perpetually jarring with his parliament, whom he could not persuade to furnish money equal to his demands ; and at last heagreed Ihathis son should marry the princess Henrietta Maria, sister in Lewis XMI. and daughter to Henry the Great of France. James died beti)re the completion of this match ; and it is thought that, liad he U\ed, he would La^e discarded Buckingham. His death happeneil in 16'25, in the !)()\h )ear «)f his age, after a reign over England of twen- ty-two years. James cncotuaged ai.d emi)loytd that excellent painter sir Peter Paul Rubens, as \\v\\ as Initio Jones, \\ho restored the pure taste of architecture in England ; and in his reign poetical genius, though not much encouraged at court, shone with great lustre. Mr. JVIiddicton also at this lime prcjjectcd tlie bringing water from Hertford- shire (o London, and suppl)ing the city with it by means of pipes. Ihi^ canal is still called tlie Ani' Rixei'. diaries I. v\ as unfortunate in his marriage with tlie princess Henrietta Mari.i. She had a high spirit, and despised whatever was incompatible Vith the pri'judice.s of Ik'V arbitrajy education. The spirit of the people had forced the late king into a rupture with Spain ; and Charles early pav ENGLAND. 239 pa\T surh indications of Jiis partiality fur Biickinjjhr.ru^ atid his own de- spotic t<MuiK:r, that the parUaiiieiit was remiss in fuiuiihing him with money fur carrying on the war. liuci^inj'hani periiutdi-d Cliailes tu espouif the cause of tlje I'n neh Hugoiiot» iii iheir (|v::inrl with that crown. 'Ihey were, however, so ill bU])porLed, ihoiij'li Cliarles v-s sincere in his intentions to serve them, lli.il llochclle \\a.s reduced to ex- tremity, by wIucIj the proles»ant intere»i received an irrecoveralile blow m l-'ranie. The blame of all the public miscarriagci and disgraces was thrown by the almost unaniuious \oiee l)olh ot tlie pariianieni and peo- ple upon the favourite; but he shellered himself Irom lliej'.- v.ngcnco under the roy;il proteciion, till he was murdered by one I'elton, a Mibai- tern otlicer, as he was prei)aring to embark l<-r tiiu relief of lluchcJle, which, soon after, surrendered xo cardinal Uichelleu. The death of the duke of Buckingham did nut deter Charles from Iiisi arbitrary proceedings, wiiich the English patriots in tliai enlightened agw justly considered as so many acts ut lyrauuy. IK', without authority of p;irliaracnt, laid aibitrar)' impositioni upon trade, w hi.h \\er« refused to be paid by many of the merchants raul meniber» vt' the house of con:- mons. Some of them vere imprisoned, and the judges were chec ked for admitting them to bail, 'I'he house of commons n-icuted those pro* veed'Hgs by drawing up a protest, and den\ ing admittance to the gentle* man-usher of the bkck rod, who « ame to adjourn tliem, till it was lini.«.hed. I'his served only to widen tlie breach, and the king dis- -solved the parliament; after which he exhibited intbrmati(jns agaiuat nine of the most eminent members, among whom was the great Mr. Seiden, who was as much distinguished by his love of libcriy ;is by his unconmion <?rudition. Ihey objected to the jurisdiction of the court; but tlieir plea was o\er-ruled, and they were sent to prison during tho king's pleasure. Every thing now operated towards the destruction of Charles, TJio commons would vote no supplies w iihout some redrcss of the national grievances; upon which, Chirles, presuming on what had been prac- tised in reigns when the principles of liberty were impeifectly or not at all understood, levied money upon monojiolies of \ialr, .'■oiip, i^nd such necessaries, and other obsolete claims, paiiiculariy lor knighthood ; and raised various taxes without authority of parliament. HU government becoming every day more and moro unpopvdar, Burton, a divine, Prynne^ a lawyer, and IJastwick, a physician, men of no great eminence or abili- ties, but warm and resolute, published several pieces which gave gffence to llie court, and which contained sonic severe strictures against tha fuling clergy. They were prosecuted for iliese pieces in the s vsr-cliam? ber in a very arbitrary and cruel mani^er; and punished with so much rigour, as excited an almost universal indignation ogaiust the autliors of their sufferings. Thus was the government rendered still mor? odious; and unfortunately for Charles, he put his conscience into tl^e iiands of Laud, .nrchbUhop cf Canterbur}', who was as great a bigot as hiniself, both ip church and state. Lriud ad'.iied hirn to prosecute the puritans, and, in the year 1037, to introduce episcop;tcy into Scotl^id. Th« Scots upon this formed secret conne.\ii.ns w ith tlic discontented JEogljsh, and invaded England in August IG-IO, whrre Ciiarles was sp ijl serve4 by his otficers and his army, that he was forced to agree to an inglorious. g*ace with the Scots, who made then^scives masters of Newcastle and urharh ; and being now openly befriended by the house of commons, they obliged tl^; king to comply V'ith thtir demands. Qiaries had made Wentworth, eari ot Strafford, a man of great a^Uit lii^i m 1^ 340 knglakd. %k4 m if' i ties, president of the council of the North, and lovd-tieutenanf (^f Ire- land: and he was generally brlievtd to be the fiist minister of state. Stratford had been a le.idin}^ mtmbci of the r.pp().-.ition to the court ; \>\\t he alterwards, in conjunction with Laud, exerted himself so vigorously in carrying tlie kinj;'s despotic schemes into execution, that he liecame an object of public detestation. As lord-prciident of the North, as lord- lieutenant of Ireland, and as a minister and privy-counsellor in England, he behaved in a very arbitrary manner, and was guilty of m::ny acts of great injustice r.nd oppression. Jle v>as, in consequence, at length, on the 22d of May ltJ4l, brmight to the i)lock, though much against tha inclinations of the king, who was in a manner forced by the parliament ;ind people to sign the warrant for' his exeeiUion. Archbishop Laud was also beheaded ; but his execution did not take place till a consiiU-rable time after that of vStrarifbrd, the 10th of January, 10 J. 5. In tfic fourth year of his reign, Charlc.s had passed (he petition of riii^/d into a law, which was intended by the parliament as the future security of the li- berty of the subject. It established particularly, " That no man here- after be compelled to make or yield any gift, lo.m, benevolence, tax, or such like charge, without common consent liy act of parliament ;" but he afterwards violated it in ntmierous instances, so that ai\ universal dis- content at his administration prevailed throughout the nation. A rebel- lion also broke out in Ireland, on October 23, l()4l, where the pro- testants, without distinction of age, sex, or condition, to tlie amount of many thousands, were massacred by the papists ; and great pains w ere taken to persuade the public that Charles secretly favoured them, out of hati'ed to his English sid>iects. 'i'lie bi.;hops were expelled the house of peers, on account of their constantly opposing the designs and bills of the other house ; and the leaders of the Knglish house of commons still maintained a correspondence with tlie discontented Scots. Charles was ill enough ad\ised to go in person to the house of coaunons, January 4, 1642, and tlierc demand Uiat lord Kiinbolton, Mr. Pym, Mr. Hampden, Mr. Holli.s, sir Arthur Haselrig, and Mr. Stroud, should be apjjrehended -, but they had previously made their escape. This act of Charles was re- sented as high treason against his jieople ; and the commons rejected all tlie offers of satisf letion he could make them. Notwithstanding the many acts of tyranny and o]>pression. of which the king and his ministers had been guilty, yet, ^\hc^ the civil wiir broke out, there were great numbers who repaired to the regal standard. Many of the nobility and gentry were much attached to the crown, and considered their own honours as connected with it ; and a great part of the landed interest was joined to the royal party. The parliament, how- ever, took upon themselves the executi\e power, and were favoured by most of the trading towns and corporations ; but its great resource lay in London. The king's general was the earl of Lindsey, a brave but not an enterprising commander; but he had great dependence ou his ne- phews, the princes Rupert and Maurice, sons to the elector Palatine, by his sister the princess Elizabeth. In the beginning of the war, the royal army had the ascendency ; biU in the j)rogress of it, atfairs look a very ditferent turn. TJie carl of Essex was made general under the parlia- ment, and the first battle was fought at Pklgehill in Warwickshire, the 23d of October, ld'12. Both parties claimed the victory, though the advantage lay with ('harles; for tlie parliament was so much distressed, that they invited the Scots to conie to their assistance, and they accord- *fngly entered England anew, with about 20,000 horse and foot. Charles aitempfed to remove the parliament to Oxford, where many members ol' now presl near the disn byte werr king but ficei ENGLAND. 341 both houses mrt j hut his enemies were still sitting at Westminster, and continued to carry on the war against hiiu with great animosity. Tha independent party, which had s-tarcely before b.ten thought vi\ began now to inirease and to tigure at Westminster. They were averse to tije presbyterians, who till then had conducted the war a!;ain.,t tho king, ' nearly as much as to the royalists; and such was their mauL'.gement, under the direction of the famoiis Oliver Cromwt il, tliat a plan was formed for dismissing the earls of Es.sex and JMan<hcstL'r, and the heads of the pres- byterians, from the parliament's service, on the suggestion tljai they ■were not for bringing tin* war to a sptedy enil, or noi for reducing the king too low; and for introducing Fairfax, who was an excellent ofHcer, but more manageable, lh<ni;;,h a picsb) terian, and some indep..'ndcnt of- ficers. In the mean w'.iile the war went on wit^h re;^entmcj!t and loss on both sides. I'wo battles were fought at Newbury, one on September 20tli, 1043, and the other Oclobc) 'z/tli, lti4-l, in which the advantage inclined to the king, lie had likewise many oilier siKccsjei; and having defeated sir Williiiui ^^'ailer, he pur;;ued tlie earl of Lssex, who re- xi\ained still in command, into (A»rnwall, wiu-nce he was obliged to escape by sea; but his infautiy smrendered tlieinselNcs prisoners to the royalists, though his ca\a]ry delivered thomselv».s by their valour. The first fatal blow the kiiiv^'s army reciiud was at Marston-moor, July 2d, l(J-}-l, where, through the imprudi-nce v{ prince Rupert, the earl of Manchester del'cated the royA army, of which -JUIXJ were killed, and 1500 taken prisoners. Ihis victory was owing chielly to thccuurage and conduct of Cromwell; and tluuigli it might have been retrieved by llie successes of Charles in the We.-,t, )'et his whole conduct was a series of mistakes, till at last his atiairs became irretrievable. It is true, many treaties of peace, particidarly one at IJxbridge, vsere set on foot during the war; and the heads of the presb)ierian party would have agreed to terms that very little bounded the king's prerogative. They were out- witted and over-ruled by the independents ; who were assisted by the stiffness, insincerity, and imainiable behaviour of Charles himself. In shcit, the independents at last hucceeiled in persuading the members at Westminster that Charles was not to be trusted, whatever his concessions might be. From that moment the affairs of the royalists continually be- came more desperate ; Charles successiv«^ly lost all his towns and forts, and was defeated 'uy Fairfax and C'- niwell, at the decisive battle of Naseby, June 14, W45, owing partly, ;'s usual, to the misconduct of prince Rupert. This battle was folKn ed with fresh mi-sfortunes to Charles, who retired to Oxford, the only place ^here he thought he could be safe. The Scots were then besieging Newark, and no good understanding subsisted between them and the English parliamentarians ; but the best and most loyal friends Charles had, thought it prudent to make tlie^ peace. In this melancholy situation of his alihirs, he escaped in disguise iVom Oxford, and came to the Scotch army before Newark, on May (3, Iti-H), upon a promise of protection. The Scots, however, were so inti- midated by the resolutions of the parliiiment at Westminster, that, in consideration of -liX),00(3/. of their arrears b;'ing paid, tlu-y delivered tJje person of Charles into the hands of the parliamcut's ccmniissioners, pro- bably not susjHjeiiug the couscquer»ces. I'he pre.sbytcriiUJS were now more inclined than ev^sr to make peace Aviti'. the king; but they were no longer masters, being forced ' . receive laws from LiiC army aw*, tlie ir4^p«:ndents. The army now avowed their imenucus. Tiie/ tir^t l)y force toojc ChaUy< cut cf ihe land* of tii* If n. I r^I *,: 242 ENGLAV^). ■ t■.;^ ; , ?{ m commissioners, Jane 4, 164", nnd tli< ii, (Ireadlnj; that a treaty might still t:ikc phice -with the king, they imprisoned 41 of the presbyterian mem- bers, Voted the house oi" iM'crs to Ik' useless, and reduced that of the conmions to ijO, most of tliem officers of the army. In the mean time, Charles, who unhappily promised himself relief from those dissen- sion , \vas carried from prison to ])rison, and sometimes cajoled by tkr independents with Iiojtos of deliverance, but always narrowly watched. Several treaties were begun, but miscarried; and he had been imprudent enough, after his etfecting an escape, to put himself into the hands ol" colonel Hammond, the parliament's governor of the Isle of Wight. A fresh neg(;tiation was commenced, and almost tinished, when the inde- pendents, dreading the general disposition of the people for peace, and strongly persuaded of the insincerity of the king, once more seised upon ins person, brought him prisoner to London, carried him before a court of jus'icc of their own erecting; and, after an extraordinary trial, his head was cut off, before his own palace at Whitehall, on the 30th of January, l0'48-9, bi-'ing the 49tli year of his age, and the 24th of his reign. Charles is allowed to have had many virtues ; and notwithstanding the errors of his government, his death was exceedingly lamented by great numbers; and many, who, in the course of the civil war, had been his great opponents in parliament, became converts to his cause, in which they iost their lives aiul fortunes. I'he surviving children of Ciiarles were, Charles and James, who were successively kings of En- glaml; Henry duke of Gloucester, who died soon after his brother',* restoration; the jjrincess Mary, married to the prince of Orange, and mother to William prince of Orange, who was afterwards king of En- gland; and die princess Henrietta Maria, who Mas married to the duke* tif Orleans, and whose daughter was married to \'ictor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, and king of Sardinia. They who brought Charles to the block were men of dit^ercnt per- suasions and principles ; but many of them possessed very extraordinary abilities for government. They omitted no measure that could give a perpetual exclusion to kingly power in England ; and it cannot be de- uied, that, after they erected themselves into a commonwealth, they made very successful exertions for retrieving tlie glory of England by sea. They were joined by many of the presbyterians, aud botli partie.5 liated Cromwell and Ireton, though they were forced to employ them in the reducti(jn of Ireland, and afterwards against the Scots, who had received Charles II. as tlieir king. By cutting down the timber upon the royal domains, they produced a fleet superior to any that had ever been seen in Europe. Their general, Cromwell, invaded Scotland; and though he was tiiere reduced to great difhciillies, he totally defeated the Scots at the battles of Dunbar luid Worcester. The saine common- wealth passed an act of navigation : and declaring war against the Dutch, wlio were thought till then invincible by 4ci\, they elleitually humbled tliose republicans in repeated engagements. By tliis time, Cromwell, who hated sulwrdination to a parliament, had the address to procure himself to be declared commander-in-chief of the English army. Admiral Blake, and the otlier English admirals, carried die terror of the English name by sea to all quarters of the globe ; %nd Cromwell, having now but little employment, began to be afraid tliat his service") would be forgotten ; for which reason he went, April 20, 1(J53, widiout any ceremony, witli aljout 300 musketeers, and dissolved the parliiunent, oppi-obriously driving all die meuibers, abgut a hundred, out ht still niem- of the mean dissen- by tkr atched. n'udent ands of It. A inde- e, and seised efore a trial, JOth of of his ENGLAND. 243 of their house. He next annihilated the council of state, with whom the executive '■'ower was lodged, and traubfencJ the adminTitration of government to about \U) persons, whom he sununoned to Whilehali, en the 4th of July, 1053. The war with Holland, in which the English were again victorious, still continued. Seven bloody engagements by •^ea were fought in little more than the compass of one year; and in the last, which was decisive in favour of England, the Dutch lost iheii brave admiral. Van Trump. Cromwell all tl^is time wished to be detlared king; but he i)erceived tliat he must eniounter unsurmountable ditHculties from Fleetwood and Iiis other friends, it" he should persist in his resolution. He was, how- ever, dt'LiA'.cd lord protector oi' tho conmionwcallh of England; a title vuider which he eiierciscd all the power lii.it had been tbrmerly annexed to ilic regal dignity. No king ever acted, eitlier in England or Scotland, more despotically in some respects than he did ; yet no tyi-ant c\er had fewer real f; lends; and even those iew threatened to oppose him, if he should take upon him the title of king. Historians, in pourtraying tlie character of Cromwell, have been imposed upon by his amazing sutf- cess, and dazzleJ by the lustre of hio fortune ; but w lum we consult his secretary Thurloe's, and other state papers, the imposition in a great measure vanishes. Afier a mont uncomfortable us'upruion of four years eight months and thirteen days, he died on the 3d of September, luj8, in the Ooih year of his age. It is not to be denied that England acquired nuK'h more resjii-ct from foreign powers, between the death of Cliarles I. and that of Cromwell, than she had been treated with since the death of Elizabeth. This was owing to the great men who formed the republic which Cromwell abo- lished, and who, as it were instantaneously, c;;lled forth the nival strength of the kingdom. In tlie year lt>50, the charge of the public amounted to one million three hundred thousand pounds, of which a million went to the support of the navy and army, and the remainder to that of tlitt civil government. In the same year Cromwell abolished all tenures in capite, by knigljt's service, and the socage in chief, and likewise the courts of wards and liveries. Several other grievances that had been com- plained of during the late reigns were likeuise removed. Next year the total charge or public expense of England amounted to two millions three hundred twenty-six thousand nine hundred and eighty-nine pounds. The collections by assessments, excise, and eastoms, paid into the ex- chequer, amounted to two millions three hundred and sixty-two thou- sand pounds four shillings. Upon the v.:io!e, it appears that Englanl, from the year 1648 to the year lujS, wa**; improved ecjualiy in rieh.-i and in power. I'he legal in- terest of money was reduced from 8 to p(r cent. — a sure symptom of increasing conniierce. The famous and beneficial navigation act, that palladium of the English traJ.e, was nov/ planned and e>tablished, and afterwards coulirmed under Charles H. Alomojiolies of all kinds were abolished, and liberty of conscience to all sects was granted, to tlie vast advantage of population and manufai tures, which had sutlercd greatly by Laud's intolerant schemes, having driven numbers of artisans to America and foreign countries. Cromv.ell maintained the honour of the nation, and in many instances interposed effectually in favour of the protestants abroad. ' Arts and sciences were not much patronised, and yet he had the good fortune to meet, in the person of Ccwper, an excellent minia- ture painter; and his coins, done by Simon, exceed in beauty and work- manship any of that age. He certainly did many things worthy of praise j R2 1 n ii ii 1 i •1 )' 1 f: ',1 lili m il ! ' M 214 EXGLANIX f'-ii.. an:\, as Ui.s genius and cnpacity led him to the choiee of fit persons for the several pnrts of administratimi, so ho slimvtHJ some reg:n(l to mvn oi leirniii'^, and paiticul.iily t«< those iiitmstod with the cnrc ol'youtii at the Mu'wcr^.v.c:.. The I'ltc of Richnrd Cromwvll, who surcfcdrd his fjtLer, Oliver, a'? protocior, suiriri^Mi ly plows the groat liitlcrcnce tJiere was betweeti them, as t.) -pirit .uil abilitic;, in the ntV.iirs of government. Richard was piaccd in his dignity by those who wautnl to make him the tool of their own govormncut ; and he was soon after driven, %vithont the lenst struggle or opposition, into ol);rurity. The restoration of Charla> II. (who, wiili 1h.s inotluT an.l brothers, duritii:; tlie usurpation, had lived ahriad on n \ery procarioui subsislor.co) wa.^ etlVt ted by the general eon- cujTcnc-* of the people, \^ho seemed to have lluni5;ht that Ui itl)er pence ' '' nbr protc'-tion wcxe to be tilitained, bvjt by rcitoring tiie ancient consii- ^ tution of the m'T.iiirchy. •• ■enor.d Monk, a mm oi' military abilitii!--, but. r,t no piinclples, e.\oopl ^uoh as served bis ambition or intere*;t, had the s.n;;u-i'y to i;h;crve tlus; an.l, after temporising in various shapes, being at the head (f the army, he aited tlR> principal j)art in n>storing Ch:irien II. For ihiu he was ereatcd duke of Albeinarle, coHlirmed in the command of the army, and loaded with honours and riches. Charles II. being restored in \()60, in flie fu-,-<t year of his rei;jri seem- ed to hn-e a real desire t-o protnotc his people's happiness. Upon hi^ tuntirming the abolition of ail the feudal tenures, he received from the parliament a gilt oi the cxci-ie for life; and in tliis act, coffee and tea are tiist menti<)iic 1. lie knew and cultivated the true interests of liis kintr- dom, till ho was .va:-pcd by pleasure, and sunk in indolence, — failingsj that had tlie same coii-e^iut'iues as despotism itself. He apj^ated to ia- tero>t himself in tlie sutteriiigs of his citizens, v/hen London was burnt down iti l(ji'Jtij but there were no bounds to his love of pleasure, which led him to the most eKlravagint expenses. He has been severely cen- sured for selling Dankir!:. to the I'reneh king to supply his necessities^ after he had sijuandered the inunense si-ns granted him by parliament. The price was ai)out 2.")0,;)00i. ste-rling. But, even in this, his conduct was more defcn.-.ible than in his .secret connexions with France, which were of the mo-.t scandalous nature, utterly repugnant to the welfare of the kingdom, and such as nuist ever relleet infamy on his memory. The lir.^t Dutch war, which began in l665, was earrietl on with great resolution and spirit under the duke of York ; but, through Charles's misapplica!i(ai ^li the public money, which had been granted for the war,, the Dutch, whili' a treaty of peace was depending at Breda, found means to insult the r«)yal ii..vy of England, by suling up the Medway as far as Chatham, and destroying several capit«l ships of war. Soon after this, a jx\'.ce v/as cQUcluded at lireda between Great Rrit:iin and tlie States- General, for tiie preset vatioa of the Sj)anish Netherlands j and Swedcu having acceded to the tieaty, lod^, it was called the iriple alliance. In 10/1 J Cljaries wris so ill advised as tosei/.e upt)n the inoney of the bankers, which had Ix'cn lent iiim at 8/. per cent., and to shut up the exchequer. This was an io.defensible step ; though Charles pretended to justify it by the necessity of his alfairs, being then on the eve of a fresih war witJi H)!land. This was declared in Ui/'i, and had almost proved fatal to th.it republic ; for in this war the English fleet and army acted in conjuuetion with those of France, '^rhe duke of York commanded ti'ie Etigli-,!! lieet, and displa^'ed great g:u!ant-y in that station. The duke of Moiauo\i{!», the eldest and favourite natural son of Charles, "«Mmvnn.l!.'<l uO*->i> English fori:es, who joined the French la the Low Ins fnr licri ot It the ENGLAND. 2Ai Coinitrics; aiwl all Holland must lia\f f.\llen intri the hnnds of thu French, had it not been lor the vanity ot" their nu)nar(h, I.e.vis XIV., win. was ill a hurry to enjoy his triumph in his lajjiiil, and som .-■vy uuUicucii rirciini.^tiina-s. All ttinllviciuv wa-. niAv lot biiALcit Lhiuleii ■: \i p.ii parlianunt, noiwithstaa.hii;; the jjlory which the lai«;'i»h lleet ohiainod at sta .ij^ainst the Dm* h. The i)upular cLnuuur M la . oblige;! Ch.ait's to give pCiiwC to that republie, n; cunji'Jeraii'ju vi -:uo,0OC/ uaicii w.mJ |)aiil liiin. Jn soiue tlihigs Ciiailes iictcJ very dv-'spotiea'ly. He complainwl o( the f'rtvdom takfu with liis pn'ro;.;ali\«' in itiri«.e-liousi'S, and oracred. them to Ixi shut up; but in a It'W ilays at'icr they wc:e upcui-d a'_,aiii. Cireat riu;our and severity wore exercised agaiiisi ibc pn^h) lerlau«i, and all olhtr iionc<)nrornii>ta to episcopacy, whi. h wi» ;ij_aiii e.-.iabiisiied with a. higfi hand in Scotland as v.cll as in Eni^hiui. His parhaiiient aduies^td limi, but in vam, to make war with I'Vance, in il.o year iG/7 >* for htr^^ ■ was em irely devoted to tliat crown, regularly nceived its monry as a f»' pensioner, and hoped, tljrcu'^li its inflnc.i.'^ and ;-.uver, to Ix* alHohue. It is not, however, to he denied, th^it the tiade ol Liij^laLd was un,v in- credibly incrca.sed, and Charles entered into many \ i^juroiis measures i'ui* its protection anil support. In Iti/H, the fanu li IS 'I'itus Oates, and sonu oiher.-, pretended to dis- cover a plot, chargint^ the papists with a de.si_;,n to mn:dcr the king, and to iiitrtviiice popery by nteans ol' Jesuits in KiiLJiand aud irom St. Onier's. Thou^^li noUiiiJi^ could be more ridiculous, and nioie .-eit-coiitriurK lui v, tfiau bonu; parts ot their narrative, yet it was supported wiih liio utmost zciil on the part ot" the pailiameat. The aged lord Statibrd, Coleman, b«.;cretary to the duke ot" York, witii many Jehuits, and other papists, were publicly executed on the testimony ot evidences no doubt perjured. The quecMi herself escaped with diiliculty ; the duke of York was oi)lig(;d to retire into foreign p.irts ; ami C'harles, though con\iiK<:d, as it is said, that ilie whole was .in imposture, yielded to the torrent. At last it spent its torec. 'l"he larl oi Siiaftesbury, who was at the head ot the opposition, pushed on the total exclusion of the duke of Yoik liom the tiirone. He was seconded by the ill-advised duke t)f MonnuiUih; and the bill, after passing; the <onnuous, misc.uTied in the house of pe^fs. The duke of York and his party nuule a scandalous use of tiieir vic- tory. I'hey fabricated on their side a pretended pi >! of ilie [)rote.^ta;its tor seising and killing tlui king, and alter, ii ^ the go\eni.nv.'nl. '1 his plot V as as false as that with wluch the papist., had been charged. The ex- cellent lord Rubsel, who had been renuirkable in hi> ()ppo.->ition to tho popish taiccessioUj Algeiuon Sydney, and se\ eval other uistiiiiiuisiu-d pro- testants, were tried, condemned, and suilered dv^th. 'ilie ciukeof Mon- m;)Uth and llie earl oi Shaftesbury were oiiliged to Uy, and the duke of York returnetl in triumph to Whitehall. v.li;'.r!ej died, February Oih, 1j4o, in the j5th year of hi-, age, and 25lh of his rei^^n. I le had married Catharuie, iiifania of Portugal, with whom he rccei\ed a large fortune in ready i\ioney, besides liie loun and fortress of Tanjjier in Alric.i j but he kit behind no i.u; fwl is^ue. 1'tio tlcscendanLs of his natural sons and davighlers arc now auK>nga the most distinguished of the Briii.sii nobility. TJjc reiirii of Clutrles has been celebrated for wit and gallantry, but botii were coarse and indelicate. Tiie court w;is a nursery tit vice, and the stage exhibited •..••cues of impurity. Some readers were found, w])0 could ad;n\re Aidton, as. well as Diydcu ; and never perliaps were tha p'llpits of England so v/ell supplied with preachers as in this reign. Oi^ language waa harmonised, reiined, and rendered natural ; and the :lay y !■ ■is 246 ENGLAXt). '■'':$ t »14 if w I II IP m P of Charles may be cnlled the Augustan age of mathematics and natural philosophy, Charles loved and understood the arts more than he en- couraged or rewarded them, especially those of English growth ; but this neglect proceedfd not from narrow-mindedness, but indolence and want of reflection. It Charles II. be censured for being the first English prince w ho ft^rmed a body of standing forces, as guards to'his person, it ought to be remembered, at the sam« t'me, that he carried the art of ship-building to the highest perfection 5 and that the royal navy of En- gland, at this day, owes its finest improvements to his and his bro- ther's knowledge of naval affairs and architecture. All the opposition which, during the late reign, had shaken the" throne, seemed to have vanished at the accession of Jar. 2s II. The po- pular affection towards him was increased by the early declaration he made in favour of the church of England. The army and people sup- ported him in crushing an ill-concerted rebellion of tlie duke of Mon- mouth, who pretended to be the lawful son of Charles II., and as such J»ad assumed the title of king. That duke being beheaded, July 15, 1085, and some hundreds of his fol'owers hanged, drawn, and quarter- ed, in the West of England — exhibiting a scene of barbarity scarcely ever known in this country, by the instrumentality of JefFeries and colonel Kirke — James desperately resolved to try how far the practice of the church of EiiglanLl would agree witli her doctrine of non-resistance'. The experiment failed him. He had recourse to the most offensive and at the iame time iTiost injudicious measure, to render popery the esta- blished religion of his dominions. He pretended to a power of dispensing with the known laws; he instituted an illegal ecclesiastical court; he openly received and admitted into his privy-council the pope's emissarieSj^ and showed them more respect than was due to the ministers of a sove- reign prince. He sent an embassy to Rome, and received at his covurt the poi)c's nuncio. The abrupt encroachments he made upon both the civil and religious liberties of his people were disapproved of even by the pope himself, and all sober Roman-cathoiics. His sending to prison, and prosecuting for a libel, seven bishops, for presenting a petition against reading his declaration for liberty of conscience, and their acquittal upon a legal trial, alarmed his most loyal protestant subjects. In this cxtrtmity, many great men in England and Scotland, though they wished well to James, applied for relief to William prince of Orange, in Holland, a pritue of great abilities, and the inveterate enemy of Louis XIV., who tlx'n threatened Europe wiih chains. The prince of Orange was the nephew and son-in-law of James, having mavried th^ princess Mary, that king's eldest daughter. He, in consequence, embarked with a fleet of .500 sail for England, avowing it to be his design to restore tht- church and state to their true rights. Upon his arrival in England, he was joined not only by tlie Whigs, but by many whom James had con- sidered as his best friends-, and even his daughter, the princess Anne, and her hu.ihand, George prince of Uenniark, left him, and joined the prince of Orange. James might still have reigned ; but he was sur- rounded with French emissaries and ignorant Jesuits, who wished him not to rei:.'n ratlier tlian not t- restore popery. They secretly persuaded him to .-end his cjiieen, and son, real or pretended, then but six months old, to France, and to follow them in person, — which he did ; and thus, in lO'bS. en. ltd his reign u. England j whiih event in English history \i Lirmed tkt lirLolntiitn. It is well known that king William's chief object was to humble the power of Frarice, anci his reiga was pa-^'^ed in an .ilniost uninlerrnjited '..©iu"se of hosiiiltifs with that power, v.'hieh were snppoiteU h\ Liu^l.aul., coil ENGLAND. 247 natural he en- th; but nee and English ;rson, it art of of En- bro- at an expense she had never known before. The mtion had grown cau- tious, through the experience of the two last reigns ; and obtained his consent to the bill of rights, by w hich tlie liberties of the people were confirmed and secured ; tliough tlie friends of liberty in general com- plained that the bill of rights was veiy inadequate to what Quglit to have been insisted on, at a period so favourable to tlic enlargement and bccu- rity of liberty, as a crown bestowed by the free voice of tlie people. The two last kings had made a very bad use of the whole national re- venue, which was put into their hands, and whicli was found to !)e suf- ficient to raise and maintain a standing anny. The revenue was therc'- fore now divided: part was allotted for tlie current national service of the year, and was to be accounted for to parliament : and part, which is still called the civil-list money, was given to tlie king, for the support of his house and dignity. It was the just sense the people of England had «f tlieir civil and reli- gious rights alone that could provoke them to consent to tlie late revo- lution, for the nation had never before attained to so high a degree of ■wealth and prosperity as in the year 1088. The tonnage ol" their uiCr- chant ships, as appears from Dr. Davenant, was, that year, nearly double what it had bpen in l(i0(j; and the tonnage of the royal navy, which in 1660 was only 0'2,5g4 tons, was in J 088 increased to 101,032 tons. The increase of the customs, and the annual rental of England, was in the same proportion. The war with France, \vhich, on the king's part, was far from being successful, required an enormous expense ; and the Irish continued, in general, faithfwl to king James. But luany English, who wished well to the Stuart family, dreaded their being restored by conquest : and the parliament enabled tlie king to reduce Ireland, and to gain the battle of the Boyne against James, who there lost all the mili- tary honour he had acquired before. The marine of France proved su- perior to that of England in the beginning of the war ; but in the year 1O92 that of France received an irrecoverable blow in the defeat at I,a Hog lie. Invasions were tlircatencd, and conspiracies discovered every day against the government, and the supply of the continental war forced the parliament to open new resources for money. A land-tax was imposed, and e\ eiy subject's lands were taxed, according to their valuations given in b}' the several counties. Those who were the most loj'al gave the higliest valuations, and were the heaviest taxed ; and this preposterous burdi.'n continues. But the greatest and boldest operation in finance that ever t^ok place was established in tliat reign, which ^\as the carrying on the war by borrowing money upon the parliamentary securities, and w hich form what are now called the public funds. The chief projector of this .scheme is said to have been Charles Montague, afterwards lord Halifax. His principal argument for .«uch a project was, that it would oblige the moneyed part of the nation to befriend the Ilevolution interest, because, after lending their money, they coidd have no hopes of being repaid but by supporting that interest, and the weight of taxes would oblige liie coniniercial people to be more industrious. William, notwithstanding the great service he had rendered to the na- tion, and tlie public henelits which took j)lacc under his auspices, pnrti- ciilarly in the establishment of the bank of England, rnd the re-coining the silver money, met with so many mortihcations from his parliament, that he actually resolved upon an abdication, ancl had drawn up a speech t\)V lliat purpose, which he was prevailed upon to suppress. He long bore the aifronti he met with, in hopes of being supported in hi^ w;u: 1 i C'll i'll! ;U' i^^i;^:a 1^^ 111 if i^h^ ■24S ENGLAND. ^# H v^ M with France.; Imt at last, iii 1697, he was forced to conclude tJie peface of Ryswirk, v ith the French king, who acknowledged his title to tho crown of England. Wiliiam IukI lost his queen, December 28, 1()94, but the government was continued in hifl person. After peace was restored, the commons obliged him to disband his army, all but an' inconsiderable number, and to dismiss his favourite Dutch guards. Towards the end of his reiyn, his fears of seeing the whole Spanish monarchy in possession of France ;it the death ot' the catholic king, Charles 11., which was every day exiieciid, led him into a \ery impolitic measure, M'hich was the par- tition treaty with France, by which that monarchy was to be divided between the hoxi^-es of Bourbon and Austria. This treaty was highly resented by the jiarliament, and some of his ministr}' were impeached for advising it. It was thought William saw his error when it was too late. His ministers were acquitted from their impeacliment ; and the death of kir.g J-'mes discovered the insincerity of the French court, which immiidiately proclaimed his son king of Great Britain. Tl)is pertitly rendered William again jxipular in England. The two liouses passed the bill of abjuration, and an address for a war with France. Tlie last and most glorious act of William's reign was his passing the bill for settling the succession to the crown in tlie house of t-Tanover, on the 12th of June, 1701. His death was hastened by a fall from his horse, soon after he had renewed the grand alliance against France, on the 8th of March, 1 702, in the 52d year of his age, and the l4tli of his leign in England.^ — ^This prince was not made by nature for popularity. His manners were cold and forbidding ; he seemed also sometimes almost to lose sight of those principles t)f liberty, for the sup- port (»t' which he had been raised to the thr^me ; and though he owed his royalty to the Wliigs, yet he often favoured the Tories. The former had the mortification of seeinci; those who had acted the n:ost inimical to (heir party, and the free principles of the constitution, as the luarquis of Halifax, the earl of DaMi)y, and lord Nottingham, taken into tavour, and re'^ume their places in the cabinet ; and tlie v. hole inHuence of go- vcrnnrtnt extended to silence all inquiries into the gu'lt of those who had bee!\ die chief instruments in the cruel persecutions of the past reign, and to the obtaining such an act of indenmity as effectually screened cAery delinquent from the just retaliation of injured patriotism. The rescue and pre''er\ ation of religion and jniblic liberty were the chief glory of William's reign ; for England under him suffered severely both by sea and land ; and the public debt, at the time of his death, amounted to the then unheard-of sum of i4,000,0('>0/. Anne, princess of Denmark, by virtue of the act of settlemerit, and being the next protestant heir to her father James II., succeeded to the throne. As she had been ill treated by the late king, it was thought slie would have deviated from his measures; but the behaviour of the Frencli in acknowledging the title of her bn)ther, who has since l)een well known by the name of the Pretender, left her no choice; and she re- solved to fulfil all William's engagements with his allies, and to employ the carl of IMarlborough, who had l)een imprisoned in the late reign on 11 suspicion of Jacobitisin, and whose wife was her fluourite, as her gt>- neral. She could not have made a better choice of a general and states- man, i'pv that earl excelled in both capacities. No sooner was he placed at the head of the English army abroad, than his genius and activity gave a new turn to the war, autl he beeanie as nruch the lavourite of the Dutch as his wile was of the (jueen. Ciiades II. of Spain, in consequence of the intrigues of France, and attl iiot JQU, kinj I'ra son Clu lun< Boi tke ENGIJIND. 24§ 'I •=. at the same time resenting the partition treaty, t> which his consent had iiot been asked, left his whole ilominions by will to Philip, duke of An- JQU, grandson of Lewis XiV.j and Piiilip was inimediaiely proclaimed king of Spain ; which laid (.he foundation of the family alliance between i'rance and tliat nation. Pliilip's succession was di.spuif.d hy the second son of the emperor of Geiuiany, who took upon himself the title of Charles III., and his cause was favoured by ilie empire, England, Hol- land, and other powers who joined in a confederacy against die house erf" Bourbon, now l^ecc^me more dangerous than ever bj' the acquisition of tke whole Spiinish dominions. In tlie course of the war, several glorious victories were obtained by tlie earl, who was soon made duke of Marlborough. Those of Bleniieim and Rannllies gave tJio tirst elVectual chocks to the French power. By tliat of Blenheim, in 1704, (he empire of Germany was saved from ina- mediate destruction. I'hough pruice Eugene was that day joined in command widi the duke, yet the glory of Uie day was confessedly owing to tiie latter. I'he Fr«MK:h general Talhrd was taken prisoner, and sent to England ; and 20,000 French and Bavarians were killed, wounded, or drowned in die Danube, bei^ides about 13,000 who were taken, and a proportionable numWr of cannon, artillery, and trophies of war. About the same time, die English admiral, sir Gc-oige llooke, reduced Gibraltar, which still remains in our possession. The battle of Ramillies, in 1/06, was fought and gained und; r the duke of Aiarihorough alone. The loss of due enemy diere has l)c<.'n variously rcjjortcd; it is generally supposed to have been 8000 killed or wounded, and (JOOO taken prisoners; but die consequences showed its impoitance. After the battle of Ramillies, the states of Flanders assembled at Ghent, find recognised Charles ibr their sovereign, while die confederates took possession of Louvain, Brussels, iMechlin, Ghent, Oudenarde, Bruges, and Ant'wcrp; and several oiJier considerable places in Fiaiiders and Brabant acknowledgetl the title of king Charles. The next great battle gained over die French was at Oudenarde, 1/08, where they lost 3000 ■ on the field, and ai)out 7000 taken prisoners; and the year after, Sep- tember 11, 170(), die allies forced the French lines at JNIalpiaquet near JVIons, after a bloody action, in which die French lost 15,000 men. These flattering successes of die Eiiglisli were balanced, however, by great misfortunes. The queen had sent a very hne army to assist Charles III. in Spain, under the command of lord Gaiw.iy ; but in 1707. after he had been joined by the Portuguese, tlie J'inglish were defeated in tlie plains of Al- luanza, chiefly thrtmgh die cowardice of their allies. Though some ad- vantages were obtained at sea, ytt that war in general was carried on to the detriment, if not the disgrace, of England. Prince George of Deut- mark, husband to the (jneeji, was then lord high-adriiiral. At the same time J^ngland felt severely die scarcity of hands in carrying on her trade and manufactures. As Eewis Xf V. )M-(^fessed a readiness for peace, and sued earnestly for if, the AN'^higs at last gave way to a treaty, and the conferences were held at Gertruydenbnrg, 1710. 'They were managed on the part of England by the duke of IJailborough and the lord Townshend, and by the mar- quis de Torcy for the Frencii. But all the otfers of the latter were re- jected by the tluke and his associates, as only designed to amuse and' di- vide the allies; and the war was continued. The unrcasonahle haughthiess oi' the English plenipotentiaries at Ger- tfuydenbin-g (as boui-. tcini ii), and the then cxpeolcd ciiange of die mir- ■jifif 250 ENGLAND. m rt ii, k:<'!*' mstry in England, saved France ; and affairs from that diy took a turn in its favour. Means were found to persuade the queen, who was tiiith- fnlly attached to the church of England, tliat the war, in the end, if con- tinued, must prove ruijious to her and Jier people, and that the Whigs were no friends to the national religion. The general cry of the deluded people was, tJiut " the church was in danger," which, though ground- less, had great elfects. One Sacheverel, an ignorant, worthless preacher, had espoused «his clamour in one of his sermons, with the ridiculous, impracticable doctrines of passive obedience and non-resistance. It was, as it were, ap;reed by both parties to try tlieir strengtli in this man's cause. He was impeafhed by the commons, and found guilty by the lords, who ventured to pass upon him only a very small censure. After this trial, tlie queen's affections were entirely alienated from the duchess of Marl- borough, and the Whig administration. Her friends Ipst their places, which were supplied by Tories ; and even tJie command of the army was taken from the duke of Marlborough, in 1712, and given to the duke of Onnond, who produced orders for a cessation of arms ; but they were disregarded by tiie queen's allies in the British pay. And, indeed, the rcnicvaJ of the d\ike of Marlborough from the command of tlie army, while the war contiijued, was an act of the greatest imprudence, and ex- cited the astonishment of all Europe. So numerous had been his suc- cesses, and so great his reputation, that his very name was almost equi- valent to an army. But tlie honour and interest of the nation were sa- crificed to private court intrigues, managed by Mrs. Masham, a relation vf the duchess of Marlborough, who had supplanted her benefactress, and by Mr. Harley. Conferences were opened for peace at Utrecht, in Januaiy 1/12, to which the (jneen and the French king sent plenipotentiaries; and the al- lies being defeated at Denain, they grew sensible they were no match for the French, now that they were abandoned by the English. A treaty was therefore concluded, by which it was agreed, that Philip should be established on the Spanish throne, but tliat he should renounce all claim to the crov/n of France? j and the heirs to the French monarchy in like manner renounce all right to the crown of Spain. It was stipulated like- wise that the fortifications of Dunkirk should be demolished, and the harbour filled up. The rest of the queen's life was rendered uneasy by the jarring of partle"!, and the contentions among her ministers. It has been conjec- tured that she was inclined to call her brotlier to the succession. The Whi^'js flemanded a writ for the electoral prince of Hanover, as duke of Canibridge, to come to England; and she was obliged hastily to dismiss her lord-treasurer, when she ft?ll into a lethargic disorder, which carried her oft' the first of August, 1714, in the fiftieth year of her age, and the ihirrecnth ol her reign*. * With lier ended H)e line of ihf. Stuarts, Mho, from the agression of James I., anno lt;i);3, had swnycd the s(Vpt)i' of Entfland 1 1 1 years, and that nf ScotUind 34'5 }«!ars, from the aocossion of Itohert II. anno \Mi, James, tl<e late pretender, son m" James II. and biother to queen Anne, upon liis father'.s deeease, anno 1701, wa.s proclaimed king of Lngland, by Lewis XIV., at St. (Germain's, and for some time treated as such by the courts of Rome, France, Sixain, and Turin. H^ resided at Kome, where he kepf up tlie appearance of a court, and continued firm in tlic Komi>h faith till his death, which happened in 1765. He left two sons, viz. (.'harhs luh\ard, iMjrn ia 17J(l, who was defeated at Culloden in 174(i, and upon his father's death n:pair»d to Komc, wiiirc he continued for .some time, and afterwards residetl at Flore nee, under tie title of count Albany, but died some years sine*-. Hi'nry, his "ccond sou, wliodii d lat.dy, enjoyed a dij^nilic I jilaw i» the chur( li of Rome, and was known by tlit, name of cardinal Vuik. ENGLAND. 251 Anne had no strength of mind, by herself, to carry any unportant re- folve into execution ; and upon her death, the succession took place in terms of the act of settlement, and George I. elector of Hanover, son of the princess Sophia, grand-daui^hter of James I., was proclaimed king of Great Britain.-^his mother, who would have been next in succession, liaving died but a few days before. He came over to England with strong prejinssessions against the Tory ministry, most of whom he dis- placed. This did not make any .great alteration to his prejudice in En- gland ; but many of the Scots, by the influence of the earl of Mar, and other chiefs, were driven into rebellion in 1715, which was happily sup- pressed the beginning of the next year. The nation was, however, in such a disposition that the ministry durst not venture to call a new parliament ; and the members of that which was sitting voted a continuance of their duration from three to seven }'ears. Several other extraordinary measures took place about the same time. Mr. Shippen, an excellent speaker, and member of parliament, was sent to tfie Tower for saying that the king's speech was calculated for the meridian of Hanover rather than that of London ; and one Mat- thews, a young journeyman printer, was hanged for composing a silly pamphlet, that in later times would not have been thought worthy of animadversion. The trutli is, the Whig ministry were excessively jea- lous of every thing that seemed to atfect their master's title : and George L, though a sagacious moderate prince, undoubtedly rendered England too tubservient to his continental connexions, which were very \arious and complicated. On ticcount of these he entered into a dispute, with the czar or emperor of Russia j and had not Charles XIL, king of Sweden, been killed so critically as he was. Great Britain probably would have been invaded by that northern conqueror, great preparations being mad« for that purpose, — he being incensed at George, as elector of Hanover, for purchasing Bremen and Verden of tlie Daac^, which had been a part of his dominions. In 1/18, a war commenced with Spain on account of the quadruple alliance that had been formed between Great Britain, France, Germany, and the States-General ; and sir George Kyng destroyed the Spanish fleet at Syracuse. But iliis war was soon ended by the Spaniards deli- vering up Sardinia and Sicily, the former to the duke of Savoy, and tiia latter to the emperor. The year 1720 was rendered remarkable by the fraud practised on the nati(4i in the sudden rise of South-Sea stock, of which an account hag already been given under the article Public Companies. The Jacobites thought to avail themselves of the national discontent at the Sotuh-Sea st:heme, and the new connexions \Vith the continent, which e»ery day increased. One Layer, a lawyer, was tried and exe- cuted for high treason. Several persons of great quality and distinction were apprehended on suspicion : but the storm fell chiefly on Francis Atlcrbury, lord bishop of Rochester, wh*^ was deprived of his see, and seat in parliament, and banished for life. Tliere was some irregularity in the proceeding-; against him ; and therefoie the justice of the bishop's sentence has been rui'stioned, though there is little or no reason to d>mbt there was sulMciciit pmcif ofhis guilt. So fluctuating was the state of Europe at this time, that, in September 17'25, a new treaty was cotieluded at Hanover, between the kin>>;s of Great Britain, Franeey and I'russia, to counterbalance ;ui alliance that had been formed between tlie courts of Vienna and Madrid. A squa- dioa was sent Lo ihc IJullic, tu prevent the ilusiiaus from attacking Svve- III ii'ifr ' !: m 353 ENGLANIX m ■ 'i I* m n !' 1^-^ d«n, another to the Mediterranean, and a third, under admiral Hosier, te (h© West Indies, to watch the Spanish plate-fleets. This last was a fotal as well as an inglorious expedition. The admiral and most of his men peii^hed by epidemical diseases, and tlie hulks of his ships rotted so as to render them uniit tor ^)«*rvice. The management of the Spaniards ■was little better. I'hey lost nearly ip,000 men in the siege of Gibraltar, Vhich they were obliged to raise. A quarrel with the emperor was the most dangerous to Hanover of any tliat could happen ; and though an opposition in the house of com- mons was forn?ied by sir William Wyndham and Mr. Pulteney, the par- liament contiiiued to be more and more lavish in granting money and subsidies for the protection of Hanover, to tiie kings of Denmark and Sweden, and the landgrave of Hcsse-Cassel. Such was tlie state of af- fairs in Europe, when George I. suddenly died on the Utli of June, 1727, ^t Osnaburg, in tlie sixty-eightii year of his age, and the tliirteenth of his Tiiign. Sir Robert Walpole was considered as first minister of England when George I. died ; and someditterences having happen^^d between him and t-he prince of Wales, it was generally thought, upon the accession of the latter to the crown, thnt sir Robert would be displaced. That might have been the case, could another person have been found equally ca- pable t',> manage the house of commons, and to gratify that predilection for Hanover which George II. inheritetl from his father. jSio minister ever understood better tiie tenijwr of the people of England, and none, perhaps, e\'er tried it more. He hlled all places of power, trust, and groiit, and almost the house of commons itrelf, with his own creatures ; l*at peace was his darling object, because he thought that war must be iatal to his power. During bis long administration he never lost a que- stion that he was in earnest to cany. The excise scheme was the tirst measure that gave a shock to his power : and even that he could have carried, had he nr.t been afraid of tiie spirit of the people without- doors, which might have cither prodiiccd an iniuiTection, or endangered his iR- terest in the next general election. Queen Caiolinc, consort to George 11., had been alwaj's a firm friend to the minister: but she died November 20th, 1/37, when a variance subsisted between the king and his son, tlie prince of Wales. 1 he lat- ter C(5mplained, that through Walpole's influence he was deprived not only of tile power but the provision to which his birth entitled him; and he ]HiL liiiust'lf at tlic head of tlio oj)pasiiitin with so much firmness, tliat it was gcnernily foieseen Wnlpcde's power was drawing to a crisis. Ad- Hiiral Versiot), who hated the minister, was sent, in 1/39, ^'i^^^ ^ squa- clron of six ships to the W«.,-<1 Indies, where he took and demolished I'oito B«;llo ; but being a hot, intractable man, he miscarried in his fttlwr atteiv, jts, tipeci.iiiy iluit upon Carthagena, in which some tliou- sands qf Biiiisli lives were wantonly thrown away. The opposition ex- wileKl in Vernon's success, iuid atlerwards imputed his miscarriages to tiiC minister's starving the war, by wiih-holding the means for carrying it on. The i^tntra! clccti'in approaching, so jirevalent was tlie interest fif the prince of Wide? in Knglaiul, atul that of the duke of Argyle in Scotland, tJ-al a niajfnity was returned to parliament who were no ffieuda to the ^nini^tc■r ; and, after a few trying divisions, he retired from tlic liousc : on t!ii? <)\h of Februar;-, I7'l'-i> h*^ ^vas created earl of OrfoKi, and on the 1 1th resiguid all his employments. George II. bore the loss of his miriisttr with the greatest cquanhnity, and even conttired titles of honour* and posts of disthiotiou, upon the |r, 'a lis ENGLAND. 2SS heads of th« opposition. At the same time, the dfath of the -omperor Charles VI., the danger of the pragmatic sain-tioii (which nieiint the .suc- cession of his daughter to all the Austrian dominions), through the anibition of France, who had filled all Gerniany with her armies, aftd many other concurrent causes, induced George to thko the leading part in a continental war. He was encouraged to this by lord Carteret- — afterwards earl of Granville, an able but head-strong minister, whom George had made his secretary of state — and indeed by the voice of the nation in general. George accordingly put himself at tlie head of his army, fought and gained the battlu of Dettingen, June JO', 174;i; but would not sutter his general, the earl of Slair, to improve the blow, w-^hich was thought to proceed from icndernebs for his electoral domi- nions. Great Britain was then engaged in a very expensive war lioth against the French and Spaniards ; and her enemies thought to avail tlicmselvcs of the general discontent that had prevailed in England on ^iccount of Hanover. I'his naturally suggested to tiiem the idea of applying to tlie •Pretender, who resided at Uome ; and he agreed that his eldest son Charles should repair to France ; from whence he set sail, and narrowly- escaped, with a tew followers, in a frigate, to the western coasts of Scot- land, between the islands ot Mull and Sky, where he discovered himself, assembled his followers, and published a manifesto exciting tl)e nation to a rebellion. But, before w'e relate the occurrences of tliis enterprise, it will be propt^i" to give a brief account of some preceding events, I'he war ot' 1/41 proved unfortunate in tlie West Indies, through the fatal tlivisions between the admiral Vernon, and general Wentworth, who commanded tlic land troops ; and it was thought tliat about 20,000 British soldiers and seamen perished in the impracticable attotnpt on Car- thageiia, and by the in<-lemency of the air and climate during otlier idle ex[)editions. The year IJ42 had been spent in negotiations with the courts of Peterbburg and Berhn, which, though expensive, proved of little or no serxiee to Great Britain ; so that the victory of Dettingen left the French troops in much the same sitviation as bc;lbre. A dilte- renec between the admir.ils Mattliews and lAJstoek had given an oppor- tunity to the iSpanish and French fleets to escape out of loulon v/ith but little loss ; and soon after, the French, who had before only acted as al- lies to tlie Spaniards, d?«lared war against (rreat Britain, who, in her turn, declared waj- against tl»€ Frtnth. I'he Dutch, the natural allies of England, dm-ing this war carried on a most lucrative trade ; nor could they be brought to act against the French till the [xiople entered into as- sociations and insurrections against the government. Tlieir marine wai 111 a miserable condition; and when they at ki.^t sent a body of troops to join the British and Austrian armies, which had been wretchedly com- manded for one or two camjjaigns, they did it in iiuch a manner, that it was plain they did not intend to a'jt in earnest. When the duke cf Cumberland took upon himself the command of the army, the French, to tiie great reproach of the allies, were almost masters of the br.rrier ot the ISJetlierlands, and were besieging Toarna_v. 1 he duke at- tempted to raise ilie siege _; but, by the col(hiess ot" the Austr'ians, and the cowardice of the Dutch, whose uoveiument all along held a secret cor- re"*jx»ndence witli France, he lost the battle of Fontenoy, an i 700()of his best men; though it is generally allowed that his dis^'ositious were ex- cellent, and both he and his troops beh:i\ed with uneKumpled intrepidity. To counterbalance such a train of mis'i.riunes, adminil /Vn^oii returned this ye;u: to England v.ith an iimuaiiS;; u'caiure (about a million ster- '<fl \\' tH VH I 254 ENGLAND. r> P^ ^|., P ling), which he liad taken from the Spaninrds in his voyage round tlie world ; and commodore Warren, with colonel Pe})i)crcl, took from the French the important town and fortress of Louisburg, in the island of Cajie Breton. Such was the state of affairs abroad in August 1*45, when the Pre- tender's eldest son, at the head of some Hi^l l:md fijllower.s, surprised and disarmed a party of the king's troops in the we tern Highlands, and advanced with gre.it rapidity to Pertli. TJie goveriiinejit never .'-o tho- roughly experienced, as it did at that time, the benelit of tiie public debt for the support of the Revolution. The French and the Jacobite party (for such tiiere was at that time in England) had laid a deep scheme of distressing the Bank ; but common dangei .ibolished all distinctions, and united them in the defence of one interest, ^^■hich was pri\ ate pro- perty. The merchants undertook, in tiieir address to the kin^, to sup- port it by receiving bmk notes in payuient. This seasonable measure saved public credit ; but the defeat of the rebels by tlie duke oi Cumber- land at Culloden, in tlie year 1/46, did not restore tranquillity to Eu- rope. Though the prince of Orange, son in-law to his majesty George II., was, by the credit of his majesty, and the spirit of the people of the United Provinces, raised to be their stadtholder, the Dutch never could be brought to act heartily in the war. The allies were defeated at Val, near Maestricht, and the duke of Cumberland was in danger of being made prisoner. Bergen-op-Zoom was taken. The allies sutFered other disgraces on the continent ; and it now became the general opinion in England, that peace was necessary to save the duke and his army from total destruction. By this time, however, the French marine and com- merce were in danger of being annihilated by tiie English at sea, under the command of the admirals Anson, Wari-en, Hawke, and other gal- lant officers : but the English arms were not so succe;;sful as could have been wished under rear-admiral Boscawen in the East Indies. In tliis state of affairs, the successes of the French and English during the war maybe said to have been balanced} and both ministers turned their thoughts to peace. The preliminaries for peace were signed in April 1/48, and a defini- tive treaty was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle in October ; the basis of which was the restitution, on both sides, of all places taken during the war. The next year the interest of the national debt was reduced from four to three and a half per cent, for seven years, after which tlie whole was to stand reduced to three per cent, A new ti'eaty of commerce was signed at Madrid, between Great Bri- tain and Spain, by which, in consideration of 100,000/., the Soutli-Sea company gave up all tlieir future claims to the assicnto contract, by vir- tue of which that company had supplied tlie Spanish West Indies with negroes. In March l7->0 died, universally lamented, his royal highness Frederic, prince of Wales. In May 1^51 an act passed for regulat- ing the Gommencement of the yeai-, by which the old style was abolish- ed, and the new style established, to the vast conveniency of the sub- jects. This was done by sinking eleven days in September 1/52, and trom that time beginning the year on the first of January. In 1753 the famous act passed for preventing clandestine marriages. In consequence of the encroachments of tlic French, who liad built farts on our back settlements in America, and the dispositions they made for sendmg over vast bodies of veteran troops to support those encroach- ments, admiral Boscawen was ordered, in April 1755, to sail with eleven sliips of tlie line, beside.'t a frijji;ale and two regiments^ to Llie Banks of ENGLAND. 255 NewfoumllanJ, wliere he came up with and took two French men of war, — the rest of their fleet escaping up the river St. Laurence, by the Straits of Belleislc. Orders were also issued for making general reprisaJs in Europe as well as in America; and that all the French ships, whether outward or liomeward bound, should be stopped, and brought into Bri- tish ports. These orders were so effectual, that, before the end of tiie year 1/55, above 5()0 of the richest French merchant ships, and abov«e bOOO of iheir best sailors, were brought into the kingdom. In July 1755 general Braddock, who had been injudiciously sent from England to attack the French, and reduce tlie forts on the Ohio, was defeated and killed, by falling into an ambuscade of the French and Indians near Fort du Qu£ne (now called Fort Pitt, or Pittsburg) : but major-general Johnson defeated a body of French near Crown Point, of whom he killed about 1000. In proportion as the spirits of the public were elevated by tlie formida- ble armaments which were prepared for carrying on the war, they were depressed by the intelligence that the French had landed J 1,(XX) men in Minorca, to attack Fort St. Philip ; that admiral Byng, who had been sent out with a squadron at least eciual to that of the i'rench, had been balfled, if not defeated, by their admiral Gallissoniere ; and' that at last Minorca was surrendered by general Blakeney. The public outcry was such, that the king gave up Byng to public justice, and he was shot at I'ortsmouth for not doing all that was in his power against the enemy. About this time Mr. Pilt was placed, as secretary of state, at the head of administration. He had long been known to be a bold, eloquent, and energetic speaker, and he soon proved himself to be as spirited a mini- ster. The miscarriages in the Mediterranean had no consecjuence but the loss of Fort St. Philij), which was more than repaired by the vast suc- cess of the English privateers, both in P^urope and America. The suc- cesses of the English in the East Indies, under colonel Clive, are almost incredible. lie defeated Suraja Dowla, nabob of Bengal, Baliar, and Orixa, and placed Jatfier Ally Cawn in the ancient seat of the nabobs of those provinces. Suraja Dowla, who was in the French interest, a few days after his being defeated, was taken by the new nabob, JatHer Ally Cawn's son, and put to death. This event laid the foundation of the great extent of territory which the English now possess in the East In- dies. Mr. Pitt introduced into the cabinet a new system of operations against France, than which nothing could be better calculated to restore the spi- rits of his countrymen, and to alarm their enemies. Far from dreading an invasion, he planned an expedition for carrying the arms of England into France itself; and the descent was to be made at Rochefort under general sir John Mordaunt, who was to command the land troops. No- thing could be more promising than the dispositions for this expedition. It sailed on the 8th of September 1/57; but admiral Hawke brought both the sea and land forces back on the 6tli of October, to St. Helen's, without any attempt having been made to l:uid on the coast of France. The French having attacked the electorate of Hanover with a most powerful army, the English parliament voted large supplies of men and money in defence of tlie electoral dominions. The duke of Cumberland had been sent thither to conmiand an army of observation, but was so powerfully pressed by a superior armv, th.U he found himself obliged to lay down his arms ; and the French, under the duke of Richelieu, took possession of that electorate and its capital. At this time, a scar- city, next to a famine, raged in England ; and tlia Hessiiyi troops, who. 25(} ENGLAND. I 1^^ m' '■■ 5' ;!> I- with the Hanowrians, had been sent to defend the kingdom from an m- vahion throatened by the Frcncii, remained stiJl in England. Si) many difficukies concurring, in I75fi a treaty «>t niutnal defence wa? agreed to between his ninjcsty and the king ot Prussia : in consequence of which, tlie parliament voted d7o,tXXJ/. to his Prussian majesty ; and also larg-e suMjs, amounting in tiie whole to nearly two millions a year, for tiie payment ot 50,000 ot the troops of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Saxe-Gotha, Wolfenbuttie, and Backeburg. ' This tr«aty, which proved afterwards BO burthensome to England, was intended to unite the protestant interest in Gtjrmany. George II., with the consent of his Pmssian majesty, declaring that the French had violated t!ie convention concluded between them and tin; duke of Ciunlx^rland at Cjosterseven, ordered his Hanoverian subjects to resume their anus, und-r prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, a Pru.ssiaii general, who instantly tirove the French out of Hanover : and the duke of JMarlborough, after the English had repeatedly insulted the Freneh coasts by destroying their stores and shipping at St. Malo and Cher- bourg, niarchid into Germany, and joined prince Ferdinand w ith r2,00C) British troops, which were afterwards increased to '25,000. The English every wheie performed wonders, and were ever)'where victorious : but no- thing decisive toUovvt d j and the enemy opened every campaign with ad- vantage. Even the battle of Muidcn, the most glorious perhaps in the English annals, in which about 7(XX) English defeated 80,000 of the French regular troops, contributed nothing to the conclusion of the war, or towards weakening the Freiich in Germany. The expenses of the war were borne with cheerfulness, and the acti- vity and spirit of Mr. Pitt's administration were greatly applauded. Ad- miral Boscawen and general Amherst, in August 1/58, reduc^ and de- molished Louisburg in North America, wliich iiad been restored \o the French by the treaty at Aix-la-Chapelle, and was become the scourge of the British trade, and took five or six French ships of the line. Fron- tenac and Fort du Queue, in the same quarter, fell also into the hands of the Eiigli.>h : acquisitions that tar overbalanced a check which the English received at Ticonderoga, and the loss of above 3(X) ot" the En- glish guards, as they were returning under general Bligh from the coast •of France. I'he Eiiglish affairs this year proved cqnnlly fortunate in the East In- dies, where admiral Poeo< ke gained considerable advantages over the French tieet : and general Lally, having besieged Madras, was obliged to raise the siege, and retire with precipitation, leaving behind him fort/ pieces of cannon. The year 1/59 '^^'^s introduced by the taking of the island of Goree, on tiie coast of Africa, by commodore Koppel. Three great expedition* had been planned for this year in America, and all of them proved suc- cessful. One of tliem wasaji^ainsttb.c French islands in the West Indies, vhere Guadaloupe was reduced. The second expexliiion was against Quebec, the capital of Canada. The command was given, by the mi- nu'ter's advice, to general Wolfe, a }()ung officer of a truly military ge- nius. "NVuife was opposed, with far sui>eri<)r ibrce, by Montcalme, the best and most successful general Uie French liad. Ihough the situation of the country whicii Wolfe was to attack, and the works the French tlircw up to prevent a descent of Lh(i English, wcic deemed impregnable, .jet M&:;tcalme never relaxed in his vigilance. Wolfe's courage and per- -severjiuee, however, surmounted incredible difficulties : he gained the ihu'ighu.of 'Abriiham, near U^ebcc^ where iic fought and defeated. tli«* ERGLAf^t). 357 French army, but was himself killed, as was Mohtcalme. General Moiickton, who was next in command, being wounded, tlie completion of the French defeat, and the glory of reducing Quebec, ti'as resen'cd for brii^adicr-general (afterwards lord viscount) Townshend. General Amherst, who was the first English general in command in America, conducted the third expedition. His orders wert to reduce all Canada, and to join the army under general Wolfe on the banks of the river St. Lawrencci By the success of these expeditions the French «m- pire in North America became subject to Great Britain. The affairs of the Flinch being now desperate, and their credit ruined, they resolved upon an atlempt to retrieve all by an invasion of Great Britain: but on the 8th of August, 17'>9> admiral Boscawen attacked the Toulon squadron, commanded by M. de la Clue, near the Stiaits of (Gibraltar, took three ships of the line and burnt two. The rest of th«S fleet, consisting of seven ships of the line and three frigates, made their escape in the night ; and on Nov. 20, sir Edward Hawke entirely de- feated the Brest tloet, commanded by admiral Contlans, otf the island of IJumet, in the bay of Biscay. After this engagement, the French gave over all thoughts oi tlieir invasion of Great Britain; In Febiiiary 1/(50, captain Thurot, a French marine adventurer, who had, with three sloops of war, alarmed the coasts of Scotland, and ac* t'lally made a descent at Carrickfergus in Ireland, was, on his return from thence, met, defeated, and killed by captain Elliot, the commo- dore of three ships, inferior in force to the Frenchman's squadron. In short. Great Britain now reigned as sole mistress of the main, and suc^ ceeded in every measure that had been projected for her own safety and advantage. The war in Germany, however, continued still as Undecisive as it Waa E^xpensive ; and many in England began to consider it now as foreign to the internal interests of Great Britain. The French again and again showed dispositions for treating j and the charges of the war, which be- gtin now to amount to little less than eighteen millions sterling yearly, inclined the British minister to listen to their proposals. A negotiation was accordingly entered upon, which proved abhortive, as did many other projects for accommodation ; but on the 25th of October 1/60, Cmorge II. died suddenly (from a rupture m the right ventricle of the heart) full of years and glory, in the 77tli year of his age, and 34th of his reign, and was sutreeded by his grandson, now George III. eldest son to the late prince of Wales. The memory of George ll. is reprehensible on no h6ad but his predi- lection for his electoral dominions. He never could admit that there was any difterence between them and his regal dominions ; and he was sometimes ill enough advised to declare so much in his speeches to parliament. W(; arc, however, to remember, that his people gratified Iiim in tliis partiality, and that he never acted by power or preroga* tive. He was not very accessible to conversation ; and therefore it was no wonder, that, having left Germany after he had attained to man's es- tate, he still retained foreign notions both of men and things. In go- vernment lie had no favourite, for he parted with sir Robert Walpole with gr^at indifference, and showed very little concern at the subsequent revolutions among his servants. In his personal disposition he Was pas- iiionate, but placable^ fearless of danger, fond of military parade, and en- joyed tho memory of the campaigns in which he ser\'ed when young; His affections, either public or private, wore never knovtTi to interfere With the ordinary course of justice : and though his reign was distracted by party, the courts of justice were never better filled thjtti tinder him* 8 m if! 3>«1 ^^ K3 ENGLAND. I'.i'<' ^^ 1:" H King George III. ascended the throne with great advantages. He was a native ot England, in the bloom of youth, in his person tall and comely, and, at tlic time othis accession, Great Britain was in the highest degree of power and prosperity, and the most salutary unanimity and harmony prevailed among the people. 'I'he first acts of his reign seem- ed also calculated to convince the public that the deatli of his predeces- sor should not relax the operations of the war. In 17til, the island nt' fielleisle, on the coa.st of France, surrendered to his majcsty'.s ships and forces under aimmodore Keppel and general Hodgson; as did the im- portant fortress of I'ondicherry, in the Kast Indies, to colonel Cootc anil admiral Stevens. In l/tj'i, the island of JVIartiMico, hitherto deemed im- pregnable, withtlie islands of Grenada, St. Luci.i, Grenadillas, St. Vincent, and others of less note, were subdued by the British arms with incon- ceivable rapidity. As his majesty could not espouse a Romau catholic, he was presented from intermarrying into any of the great families of Europe; he tliere- fore chose a wife from the house of Mechlenburg Strditz, tlie head of a ■mall but sovereign state in the north-west of Germany ; and the con- duct of his excellent consort has constantly been such as most highly to justify his choice. She was conveyed to England in great pomp, and the nuptials were celebrated on tlie very night of her arrival, viz. Sept. b, lybl ; and on the '22d of the same month tlie ceremony of tlie corona- tion was performed with great magnificence in A\''estminster-abbey. In the mean time, Mr. Pitt, who had conducted the war against France with such eminent ability, and who had received tlie best information of the hostile intentions and private intrigues of the court of Spain, pro- posed in council an immediate declaration of war against that khigdom. But ht was over-ruled in the coun/il, all the members of which declared thems^ves of a contrary opinion, excepting his brothar-in-law, earl T&raple. Air. Pitt now found the decline of his influence ; and it was supposed that the eml of Bute, who had a considerable share in direct- ing the education of the king, had acquired an ascendency in the royfi^ fiivour*. Mr. Pitt, however, said, '• that, as he was called to the mini- stry by the voice of the people, to M'hom he considered liimself as ac- countable for his conduct, he would no longer reriain in a situation which made him responsible for measures that he was not allowed to guide." He therefore resigned the seals, and lord Temple also gave up the post which he held in the administration. But the next day the king settled a pension of three thousand pounds a year upon Mr. Pitt, and at the same time a title was conferred upon his lady and her issue ; and the pension was to be continued for three lives. Tlie vnv still continued to be carried on with vigour after tlie resigna- tion of Mr. Pitt, and the plans were pursued that he liad previously con- certed. Lord Egremont was appointed to succeed him, as seci-etary for ike southern depaitment. It was at length also found indispensably ne- cessary to engage in a •wur with Spain; the famous family compact among ail the diiiercnt braqcbe-i of tlie Bourbpn family being generally known ; and accoraingly war was declared against that kingdom, on tlie 4th of January, 1/62. A respectable armament was fitted out un- der admiral Pococke, having the earl of Albemarle on board to com- mand the latid forces ; and the vitals of the Spanish monarchy were struck at by the reduction of the Havannah, the strongest and most im- ^ It wa^ou the '25th of March, 1T61, that the cmI of But* was appointed one of the principal .tecictartes uf lit&te ; and Ob the 3tli wf Octobtr fvU«vving Mr. Pitt re- ENGLAND. 359 portant fort which hi* catholic majesty held in the West Indies, after a siege of two months and eight days. The capture of the Hermione, a large Spanish register shi^), bound from Lima to Cadiz, the sargo of which «\»s valued at a million hterling, preceded the birth of the prince of Wales, and tlie treasure passed in triumph through Westminster to the bank in the very hour he was born. The loss of the Havannah, v,\'\ tiie ships and trc ures there taken from the Spaniards, was suc- ceeded by tli«,* reduction of Manilla and the Philippino islands in the East indies, uider general f)r iper and admiral Cornish, with the cap- ture of xhc Trinidad, icrkoned wuilh three millions of dollars. To counteract tho<ic Jrcadiul bio a i given to tlie family compact, the French and Spaniards employed their last resource, which was to quarrel with and invade Portugal, which had been alwaya under tlie peculiar protec- tion of the British arms. Whether this quarrel was real or pretended, is not easy to decide. It cerlainl) embarrassed his Britannic majesty, who was obliged to send thither armaments both by sea and land. The negotiations for peace were now resumed ; and the enemy at last olfered such terms as tlie British ministry thought admissible and ade- quate on the occasion. The defection of the Russians from the confe- deracy against the king of Prussia, and his consequent successes, pro- duced a cessation of arms in Germany, and in all other quarters ; and on the 10th of February, 176-i» the definitive treaty of peace between his Britannic majesty, the king of France, and the king of Spain, wat» concluded at Paris, and acceded to by the king of Portugal : Man h 10, the ratifications were exchanged at Paris : the 22d, the peace was so- lemnly proclaimed at Westminster and London ; and the treaty having on the 18th been laid before the parliament, it met the approbation of a majority of both houses. By this treaty the extensive province of Canada, with the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and St. John, were confirmed to Great- Britain } also the two Floridas, containing the whole of the continent of North America, on this side the Mississippi (except the town of New Orleans, with a small district round it), were surrendered to us by France and Spain, in consideration of restoring to Spain the island of Cuba ; and to France the islands of Martinico, Guadaloupe, Mariega- lante, and Desirade ; and in consideration of our granting to the French the two small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon on the coast of New- foundland, and quitting our pretensions to tiie neutral island of St. Lucia, tliey yielded to us the islands of Grenada and the Grenadillas, and quitted their pretensions to the neutral islands of St. Vincent, Do- ininicn, and Tobago. In Africa we retained the settlement of Senegal, by which we nearly engrossed the whole gum-trade of tliat country j but we returned Gor6e, a small island of little value. The article that relates to the East Indies was dictated by the directors of the English company, and restored to the French all the places they had at the beginning of the war, on condition that they should maintain neitlief forts nor forces in the province of Bengal j and the city of Manilla was restored to the Spaniards ; but they confirmed to us the liberty of cutting logwood in the bay of Honduras in America. In Europe, like- wise, the French restored to us the island of Minorca, and we restored to them the island of Belleisle. In Germany, after six years spent in marches and counter-marches, numerous skirmishes and bloody oattles. Great Britain acquired much militar)' fame, but at the expense of thirty millions sterling ! As to the objects of that war, it was agreed that a mutual restitution and gblivion should take place, and each party sit S2 2d0 ENdLAND. mm^' li to' ml- . down at the end of die \rar in the same situation in \vlilch they began it. Peace was also restored betueen Portugal mid Spain, both sides to be upon the same footing as before the war. The war to which a period was now put was the most brilliant, and distinguished with the most glorious events, in the British annals. jSJo national prejudices or party disputes then existed. The same truly British spirit by which the minister was animated, tired thcbreast of the soldier and seaman. The nation had then arrived at a degree of wealth unknown to former ages : and tlie moneyed man, pleased with the aspect of the times, confiding in the abilities of the minister, and courage of the people, cheerfully opened his purse. The sums of 18, ip, and 22nuilions, raised by a few citizens of London, upon a short notice, for the ser\'icc of Uie years l/Sp, I76O, and 1/(51, were no less astonishing to Europe, than the success v hich attended the British fleets and annie* in every quarter of the world. But the peace, though it received the sanction of a majorit)- of both houses of parliament, vas far from giving universal satisfaction to th« people. And from Uiis period, various causes contributed to occasion a great discontent to jnvvail throughout the nation. On tiie 30th of April, 1763, three of the king's messengers entered the house of John Wilkes, esq. member of parliament for Aylesbury, and seized his person, by virtue of a warrant from the secretary of state, which directed thcra to seize " the authors, printers, and publishers of a editions and treasonable paper, entitled the North Briton, N'^ 45." Tlie papers published under this title severely arraigned the conduct of the administration, and represented the earl of Bute as the favourite of the king, and the person from whom measures of government of a very pernicious tendency originated. The 45th number contained strictures on the king's speech. Mr, Wilkes was suspected to be the author, but his name was not mentioned in the warrant by which he was appre- hended. He objected to being taken into custody by iuch a warrant, alleging that it was illegal. However, lie was forcibly carried bcfor®. the secretaries of state for examination, and they committed him close prisoner to the Tower, his papers being also seized. He was likewise deprived of his commission as colonel of tlie Buckinghamshire militia. A writ of habeas corpus being procured by his friends, he was brought up to the court of Conmion-Pleas^ and the matter being there argued, he was ordered to be discharged. This affair excited great attention; people of all ranks interested themselves u) it ; and Westminster-hall re^^ sounded with acclamations when he was set at liberty. An informa- tion, however, was tiled against him in the court of King's-Bench, at liis majesty's suit, as author of the North Briton, N" 4,5. On the fi.st day of the meeting of parliament after these transactions, Mr. \\'ilkes stood up in his place, and made a speech, in which he complained to the house, that in his person, the rights of all the commons of England, and the privileges of parliament, had been vKjlated by his imprisoiunent, the plundering of his house, and the seizure of his jiapers. The sam« day a message was sent to acquaint the house of commons with the in- formation his majesty had received, that John Wilkes, estp a member of tliat house, was the author of a most seditioius and dangerous libel, and the measures that had been taken thereupon. The next day a duel was fought in Hyde Park, between Mr. Wilkes and Mr. Martyn, ano- ther member of parliament, and secretary of the treasury, in which Mi*. Wilkes received a dangerous woiuid in the bslly w ith a pistol bullet. Botli house,? of j)arhu.'iient su-jn amourred in voting the Nortli Briton, ENGLANp. 261 TsTMj, to be a false, scandalous, and seditious libel, and ordered it to be burnt by the common hangman. This order was accordingly executed, though not without great opposition from the populace ; and Mr, Harley, one of the sheriffs who attended, was wounded, and obliged to take shelter in the Mansion-house. Another prosecution was com* nienced against Mr. Wilkes, for having caused an obscene and profane poem to be printed, entitled " An Essay on Woman." Of this, only twelve copies had been privately printed : and it did not appear to have been intended for publication. Finding, however, that he should con- tinue to be prosecuted with the utmost rigour, when his wound was in some degree healed, he thought proper to quit the kingdom. He was «oon after expelled the house of commons ; verdicts were also given against him, both on accovuit of the North Briton and the Essay on Woman ; and towards the end of the year 1/64 he was outlawed. Sun- dry other persons had been taken up for being concerned in printing and publishing the North Briton ; but some of them obtained verdicts against the king's messengers for false imprisonment. In the mean time, the earl of Bute, who had been made first lord of the treasury, resigned that office, and was succeeded by Mr. George GrenvJlle j and under this gentleman's administration an act was passed, said to have been framed by him, v hich was productive of the most pernicious consequences to Great Britain ; " an act for laying a stamp duty in the British cf)lonies of North America," which received the r^^val jissent on the 22d of March, 1/65. Some other injudicious previous re- gulations had also been made, under pretence of preventing smuggling in America, hut which in etfect so cramped the trade of the colonies, as to be prejudicial botli to them and the mother country. As soon as it was known in North America that the stamp-act was passed, the whole contincmt was kindled into a flame ; and when the act, printed by royal authority, reached the colonies, it was treated with every mark of indignation and contempt. Several acts of violence were likewise committed, with a view of preventing the operations of the stamp-act ; and associations were also formed in the ditferent colonies, by which the people bound themselves not to import or purchase any British manufactures, till that act should be repealed. The inhabitants of the different r<jlonies also established committees from every colony to correspond A\ith each other, concerning the general affairs of the M'hole, and e\en appointed deputi*"s from these committees to meet itx Cvsc.m.es at New York. They assembled together in that city, in Oc- tober ljtj5 } and this was the first congress held on the American con- tinent. These commotions in America occasioned so great an alann in En- gland, that tlie king tiiought proper to dismiss his ministers. The mar- quis of Bo( kingham %\ as appointed first lord of the treasury ; and some of his lordship's friends succeeded to the vacant places. In March, 1766, an act was passed for repealing the American stamp act. This^ was countenanced and supported by the new ministry ; and Mr. Pitt, though not connected \vith them, ) ct spoke witii great force in favour of the repeal. At the time that the stamp-act was repealed, an act was also passed fi)v securing the dependence of the American colonics on Great Britain. 'I'ht? marquis of Rockingham, and his friends, continued in admtni" .•itration but a short time ; though, during their continuance in jwwer, several public measures were adopted, tending to relieve the burthens «f the people, and to the .security of thc'ir liberticg. But on the 30th of n 261 ENGLANI>. k-\ ^ July, 1766, the duke of Grafton was appointed first lord of the trea- sury, in the room of the marquis of Rockingham ; tlie earl of Shelburne, secretary of state, in the room of the duke of Richmond ; Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer} and Mr. Pitt, afttrwards created earl of Chatham, was appointed lord privy seal j but that emi- nent statesman's acceptance of a peerage, as it removed him from the house of commons, greatly lessened his weight and influence. Indeed, this political arrangement was not of any long continuance, and sundry changes followed. Mr. C. Townshend, who was a gentleman of great sbilities and eloquence, made for some time a considerable tigure both in the cabinet and in parliament ; but on his death, tiie place of chan- cellor of the exchequer was supplied by lord North, who afterwards be- came first lord of the ti-easury, and obtained a great ascendency in the administration. In the year 17 6S, Mr. Wilkes, who had for a considerable time re- sided in France, came over to England, and again became an otjject of public attention. His outlawry was reversed ; but, on account of the verdicts found against him as the author of the North Briton, and the indecent poem, " Essay on W'oman," he was sentenced to tw o years' im- prisonment, and to pay two fines o(50()l. each. On the 'J8th of March, 1768, he was chosen member for the county of Middlesex ; but was again expelled the house of commons for being the author of some pre- fatory remarks on a letter which he published, written by one of the se- cretaries of state to the chairman of the quarter sessions at Lambeth, in •which the secretary had recommended to the riagislrates, previou.s to the unhappy affair of St. Geoige's Fields, their calling in the assistance of tiie military, and employing them eJFtctuallj/, if there should be occa- sion. In the vote for his expulsion, his former otlences, for which he was now suflering imprisonment, were complicated with this charge ; and a new writ was ordeicd to be issued for the election of a member for the county of Miilcllcsex. The rigour with which Mr. Wilkes was prosecuted only increased his popularity, which was also much augmented by the spirit and firmness which on every occasion he displayed. Before his expulsion he had been chosen an alderman ot' London: and on tlic Ibth of February, 1769^ he was re-elected at Brentford, member for the county of Mid- dlesex, witlioutoppasition. The return having been made to the house, it was resolved, that Mr. Wilkes, having been expelled that session, w.'.» incapable of being elected a nfiember of that parliament. The late elec- tion, therefore, was again declared void, and a new writ issued for an- otiier. He was once more unanimously re-elected by tlie freeholders, and the election was again declared void by the house of common^. After this, a new election being ordered, colonel Luttrell, in order to recommend himself to the court, vacated the seat which he already had in parliament, by the acceptance of a nominal place, and declared him- self a candidate tor the county of Middlesex. Ihovigh the whole weight of court inteiest was thrown into the scale in this gentleman's favour, yet a majority of near four to one appeared against him on tlie day of election ; the lumibers for Wilkes being 1 143, &M for Luttrel only 23t). Notwitiihtanding this, two days after the election, it was resolved in the house of commons, that Mr. Luttrell ought to have been returned a knight of the shire for the county of Middlesex; and the deputy clerk of the crown was ordered to amend the return, by erasing the name of Mr. Wilkes, and inserting that of colonel Luttrel in its place. Ihe latter accordingly took his scat in parliament ; but this wus tiiought su ENGLAND. s€d gTo.vS fl violation of the rights of the electors, that it excited a very ge- neral discontent, and loud complaints were made against It in every part of the kingdom. After the term of Mr. Wilkes's imprisonment was expired, in the year 1771, he was chosen one of the sheritFs for London and Middlesex ; and was afterwards again chosen member of the county of Middlesex in the subsequent parliament, and permitted quietly to take his seat there. In the year J 775, he executed the office of lord-mayor of the city of Ix>n- <lon ; and was afterwards elected to the lucrative office of chamb«nlain of' that city. In the year 1783, after the change of lord North's admi- nistration, on Mr. Wilkes's motion, all tlie declarations, orders, and re- solutions of the house of commons respecting his election for the county of Middlesex were ordered to be expunged from the journals nf that house, " as being subversive of the rights of the whole body of electors of this kingdom. " And it should be remembered, that, .in consequence of his ctjulests with the government, general warrants were declared to be illegal, and an end was p\it to such warrants, and to the unlawful seizure of an Englishman's papers by state messengers. After the repeal of the stamp act, which was received with great joy in America, tranquillity was restored hi t4ie colonies : but unliappily new attempts were made to tax them in the British parliament. In 1 7ti7 an act was passed, laying certain duties on paper, glass, tea, &c. imported into America, to be paid by the colonies, for the purpose of raising a reveime to the government. About two years after, it was thought proper to repeal these duties, excepting that on tea j but as it was not the amount of the duties, but the right of the parliament of Great Britain to impose taxes in America, which was the subject of dis- pute, the re|>caling the other duties answered no purpose while that on tea remained ; which accordingly became a fresh subject of contest be- tween the uKJther-countiy and the colonies. In order to induce the East-India company to become instrumental in enforcing the tea-duty in America, an act was passed, by which they were enabled to export their teas, duty free, to all pliices whatsoever. Several ships were accordingly freighted with teas for the different co- lonies by the company, who also appointed agents there for the disposal of that commixlity. This was considered by the Americans as a scheme calculated merely to ci.tjumvent them into a compliance with the reve- nue law, and thereby pave the way to an unlimited taxation. For it was easily comprehended, that if the tea were once landed, and in the cus- tody of the consignees, no associations, or other measures, would be sutlicieMt to prevent its sale and consumption: and it was not to be sup- posed, that, when taxation was established in one instance, it would be restrained in others. These ideas being generally prevalent in America, it wiis resolved by the colonists to prevent the landing of tea-cargoes amongst them, at whatever hazard. Accordingly, three ships laden with tea having arrived in the port of Boston, in December 1 773, a number of armed men, under the disguise of Mohawk Indians, boarded these ships, and in a few liours discharged their whole cargoes of tea into the sea, willjout doing any other damage, or offering any injury to the captains or crews. Some smaller quantities of tea met afterwards with a similar fate at Boston, and a few other j)lace8 ; but in o;enoral the couimissioners for the sale of that conmiodity were obliged to re- jiiiquisli their employments j and the masters of the tea-ve.»sels, from an apjirehension of danger, returned again to England witli their cargoes. At New York, indeed, the tea was lauded under the cannon of a mam ! -u Q64 ENGLAND. ;^4 *'Li. of war ; but th« persons in the service of t^nvcniinent llwrr wore oMijTcci to Consent to its being locked up from use. In South Cnrolinri some was thrown into tJic river, iis at jioston, and t lie rest put into 4uinn warehouses, wJicre it perished. These proceedings in America excited so much indignation in the go- vernment of England, that, on the 3Jsl of Man h, 17/4, an act wa< passed for removing the custom-house olHcers lutm ihc town of Jiosl.on, and shutting up the port, Anfrther ai'l was soon after passed " for better regulating tlic governiuent in the province of Massachusetts Bay." The design of this act was to alter the conslitulion ol" that ])rovince as it Stood by the charter of king William ; to taki' the whole executivo power out of the hands of the people, and to vest the nomination of tlio counsellors, judges, and magistrates of all kinds, iiK lulling sheiilfs, itj the crown, .and in some cjjses in the king's governor, and all to be rc- moveab),e at (he pleasure of the ( row n. Another act was also ])assed, \yhicJi was considered as highly injurious, cruel, and vmconslitutional, empowering the governor of Massachusetts IViy to send persons accused «f crimes there to be tried in Kngland tor such otl'cnccs. Some time after, an act was likewise passed " for making more elfectual provision for the government of the province of Quebec," which exciteil a great ninrm both in England and Aiuerica, By this act, a legislative council was to be established for all the allairs of the provinct; of Quebec, ex- cept taxation ; which council was to be aj)])ointed by the crown, thu ofticc to be held during pleasure ; and his majesty's ('anadian lloman- catholie subjects were entitled to a place itt it. The Ercnch laws, and a trial without jury, were also established in civil cases, and the i'lnglish laws, with a trial by jury, in crinfmal ; ami the popish clergy were in- vested with a legal right to their tithes Iromall who were ot their own religion. No assembly of the people, as in other Ibitish colonies, was appointed, — it being said in the act, that it was then inexpedient : — but the king was to erect such courts of criminal, civil, and etrlesiastical jurisdiction as he should think proper. The boundaries of the provinco of Quebec were likewise extended, by the act, thousamls of miles at the back of the other colonies, whereby, it was said, a government little better than despotic was established throughout an extensive coimtry. The measures of goverptrient respecting America hud so universally exasperated tlie colonists, that pnnincial or town meeting.'! were held in every part of the continent, in Mijich they avowed their intentions of opposing, in the most vigonnis nuinner, the measures »)f administration. Agreements were entered into in the ditlcreut colonies, wliereby the 5ubscril)ors bound ihcmsphes, in (he most solenni matmer, and in the presence of God, to susj>cnd all cojumercial intercourse with Great Jiri- tain from the last day of the month of August, \77^, «i^til <'ii' Boston port bill, and the other la(e obnoxious laws, slundd be repealed, and the colony of Mass.'^chu.setts Bay ttilly restored to i(s chartereil righ(s. Other transactions succtvdwl ; and the llame continued to increase and ex- tend in America, (ill a( length twelve of the coK»nies, including the whole extent of coun(ry which stretches from Nova Scotia to (Geor- gia, had appointed deputies to attend a general congress, w hich was held at Philadelphia, and opened the 5th ot September 1/7 i. 'Ihe number of delegsites amounted to tifty-one, who represented the several English colonies; of New Hampshire (2 delegates), Massachusetts BAy (4), Rhode I.«l«nd and Providence plantations (2), Coimecticut {:)), New York (7), New Jersey (4), Pennsylvania (7), the lower counties on Delaw;ire (J), Maryland (4), Virgiuia (7), Nortli Carolina (3), anil ENGIAXD. Q$^ Soiidi CaroVim (5 dclcgntes) ; Gewpa afterwards acceded to thicconfc- tltTiUy, atui sfiU dt;putics to the congress. 'I'hey drew up a petition to tlie king, in \vhi<'h thpy cnuinerntud tijeir Bfveral u;rievaiues, and Mjlicited liis majesty to j^viint them peace, liberty, iUid satety. 'J'hev likewise published an jiddress to the people of Cireal Britain, another to the eulonies in yencnd, and another to the inhahi- tints t»f the proviiue of Quebec. The eongrc.vs broke up on the 2()th <if ()c'tr)l)er, having resolved, that anotlier congress should be held in the same place on the lOth of May foll«)wing, unless the grievances of which tlK>y complained should be redressed l)efore that time; and the)' rwom* HK'Mdcd to all the colonies to choose deputies, as soon as possible, for that purpose. Shoi tly after tliese events, some- measures were proposed in the par- liament of (ircat Hrilain, lor puttiiu'; a st()p to the commotions which iiidiappily subsisted in America. 'Ihe earl of Chatham, who had been long in an infivm state of health, aj>peared in the house of lords, and expressed in (h'> .strongest terms his disapprobation of the whole system of American i\uMsines. He also m;ule a motion for iiniuediately re- lalliiig the troops from Boston ; but this ni<»tion was rejected by a large majority, as was also a bUl which he bnnight in soon after for settling the American iruublcs. The methods proposed in the house of com- mons for promoting an accommodation met al.so with a similar fate,. The number of his majcst.y's trooi)s was ordered to be augmented ; and an ;Ht was passed lor n-straiuing tlie conunerce of the New England co- lonies, and to pr6hil)it their fishery on the banks of Nowfotmdland, A motion was, indeed, afterwards made hi the house of commons, by lord North, lirsl lonl of the treasury, for suspending the exercise of the right of taxation in America, <hiimcd by the British parliament, in such of the colonies as should, in their general assemblies, raise such contribt - tions as were approved of by the king in pnrliament. This motion was tarried, and afterwards communicated to .some provincial a.ssemhlies: but it was rejected by them as delusiv<? and unsatisfactory, and only cal- < tdatcd hi distuiile thenu The petition from the congress to the king M as ordered by his majesty to be laid bei'ore the parliament ; whereupon Dr. Kraiil^lin, and two other American agents, solieitetl to be heard at Ihe bar of the house of connnonr,, on behalf of the colonies, in .support of that petition : but their a))pli(ation was rejected; it Ijeing .said, that the American eongr<'ss was no legal assembly, and that theretbre no pe- tition ct)uld U» received from it by the parliament with propriety. It was on the Ijjth of April, 1 77.^), that the first blood was drawn in tliis unhappy civil war, at l^'xiii_i',ton and Concord in Now England. Thi.i M,'iUi occasiof.ed by general C-Jage .sending a body of troops to destroy sonie military stores thai were at Cojicord, 'I'hey succeeded in their design, biit were extivmcly harassed, and forced to a quick retreat ; <,».'» of them were killed, 1 /U wounded, and about 20 made prisoners. 'I'he Aiui'ricans were coiuputed not to have lost more than ()(), including hilhd and wounded. Inunediately after, luiiucrous bodies of the Ame- rl<an militia in\ested the town of Boston, in which general Gage and his trottps were. In all the colonics they jjrcpared tor war with the utmost <lispatch ; and a stop was ahnost every- where put to the cxpwr- tatioM of provisions. The continental congress met at Philadelphia on tlie lOth of May 17/5, as proposed, and soon adopted such measures as toiifMined the people iu their resolutions to oppose the British govcrn- Ment to the utmost. Among their first acts, were resolutions for the raising of an army, and the establishment of a large paper currency for ■ «■* ; r; 260 ENGLAND. ■.I its paytpent. They assumed the appellation of *' The United Colonics of America," who were securities^for realizing the nominal value of this currency. They also striijtly prohibited the supplying of tiie British fisheries with any kind of proV'isions ; and, to render this order the more effectual, stopped all exportation to tliose colonies, islands, and jplaces, which still retained their obedience. In the mean time, a body of provincial adventurers, amounting to about 240 men, surprised the garrisons of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. These fortresses were taken witliout the loss of a man on either Side : and the provincials found in the forts a considerable number of pieces of cannon, besides mortars, and sundry kinds of military stores. The iforce of Great Britain in America was now augmented, by the ar- rival at Boston from England of the generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton, with considerable reinforcements. But the continental con- grep^ were so little intimidated by this, that they voted, a tew days fifter, that the compact between the crown and the people of Massa- chusetts Bay was dissolved, by the violation of the charter of William and Mary ; and therefore recommended to the people of that province, to proceed to the establishment of a new government, by electing a go- vernor, assistants, and house of assembly, according to the powers con- tained in tlieir original charter. Our limits will not permit us to relate all the particulars of this fatal war. We can only mention some of the most important transactions. On the l/th of June, 1775, a bloody action took place at Bunkers Hill, near Boston, in which the king's troops had the advantage, but with the loss of 226 killed, and more than 800 wounded, including many officers. After this action, the Americans immediately threw up works upon another hill, opposite to it, on their side of Charlestown neck ; so that the. troops were as closely invested in that peninsula as tJiey had been in Boston. About this time the congress appointed George Washington, esq. a gentleman of large fortune in Virginia, of great military tali'iits, and who had aajuired considerable experience in the command of dif- ferent bodies of provincials during the preceding war with France, to be general and commander in chief of all the American forces. They also published a declaration, in which they styled themselves " The Re- presentatives of the United Colonies of Nortli AMierica," and assigned their reasons for taking up arms, A second petition to the king was likewise voted by the congress, which petition was presented by Mr. Perin, late governor, and one of the proprietors of Pennsylvania, throiigix the hands of lord Dartmouth, secretary of state for the American de- partment: but Mr. Penn was soon after informed, that no answer would be given to it. An address now also was published, by tlie congress, to the inhabitants of Great Britain, and to the people of IreUuid. But as no conciliatory measures were adopted, hostilitit.'s stiil con- tinued j and an expedition was set on foot by tlie Americans agaiii-.t Canada, to which they were induced by a commission given to genorai Carleton, the governor of Canada ; by which h* vas empoAveied to cm- body and arm the Canadians, to march out oi he country for the sul)- jugation of the other colonies, and to proceed even to capital punish- ments against all tho.se wl>om he should deem rebels and opposers oi" the laws. l"he American expedition against Canada was chiefly conduced by Richard Montgomery, a gentleman of considerable military skill, on whom the congress conferred the rank of brigadier-general. On the 31st of December Montgomery attempted to gain possession of Quebec by storm, but was killed in the rirsi lire iiom a battery, as advancing in ENGLAND. 267 lies his ish the Hid ti)e front of his men : Arnold was also dangerously wounded ; about 60 of their men were killed or v/ouuded, and 300 taken prisoners. The besiegers iuimediaidy tiuitied their camp, and retired about three milos from tlie city, and the siege was for some months converted into a blockade. On general Carleton's receiving considerable reinforcements and supplies of provisions from England, in May 177^. Arnold was obliged to make a precipitate retreat : Montreal, Chamblee, and St. John's, were retaken, and all Canada recovered by the king's troops. During these transactions, the royal army at Boston was reduced to great distress for want of provisions j the town was bombarded by the Americans ; and general Howe, who now commanded the king's troops, which amounted to upwards of seven thousand men, was obliged to quit Boston, and embark for Halifax, leaving a considerable quantity of artillery and some stores behind. The town was evacuated on the 17th of March, 17/0, and general Washington immediately took possession of it. On the 4th of July following, the congress published a solemn declaration, in which they assigned their reasons tor with- drawing their allegiance from the king of Great Britain. In the name and by the authority of the inhabitants of the united colonies, they de- clared that they then were, and of right ought to be, " free and inde- pendent states ;" tliat they were absolved from all allegiance, to the Bri- tish crown, and that all political conn^ection between them and the kingdom of Great Britain was totally dissolved T «'"d also that, as free and independent states, they had full power to levy war, conclutle peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do." They likewise published articles of confederation and perpetual union between the united co- lonies, in w^hich they assumed the title of " The United States of America." In July 1775, an attempt was made by commodore sir Peter Parker, and lieutenant-general Clinton, upon Charlestown in South Carolina. But this place was so ably defended by the Americans, under general Lee, that the British commodore and general were obliged to retire, the king's sliips having sustained considerable loss ; and a twenty-eight gun ship, which ran a-ground, was obliged to be burnt by tlte officers and seamen. However, a much more iniportant and successfiil attjick against the Americans was soon after ;,iade under the command of general Howe, tJien joined by a large body of Hessians, and a conKiderable number of Highlanders, so tklt his whole force was now extremel}' for- midable. The fleet was commanded by his brother, vice-admiral lord Howe; and both the general and the admiral were invested with a power, imder the title of "Commissioners for granting peace to the colonies," of granting pardon to those who would lay down their arms. But their otfers of this kind were treated by the Americans with con- tempt. An attack upon the town of New York seems to have been expected by the provincials, atid therefore they had fortified it in the best ntamier they were able. On Long Island, near New York, tlie Americans had also a large body of troops encamped, and several works thrown up. On the '22d of August tifteen thousand British troopi landed on tJiat island. Various actions and skirmishes took place dti- ring several successive days, and the Americans suftered exceedingly. Finding themselves overpowered, the American troops withdrew from the island in the night, and retired to New York, which city they likewise soon after abandoned. The royal army also obtained some other congiderable advantages over tlie Americans, at tlie White Plains, 265 ENGLAND. Ml . m F;'''i!. : r Js taking Fort Washington, vitli a garrison of 2500 men, and Fort Lee with A great tjuantity of stores } which losses obliged tlie American ge- neral to retreat 'thrbftgli the Jerseys to the river Delaware, a distance of ninety niiles.'' -On ^'f he.' 8th'- of December, general Ciinton and sir Peter Farkcfc&tiiined possession of livedo Island : and the British troops covered- the- Jerstr?.- Ihis was the crisis, of Anierican danger. All their lt)rts'viere liiken, the lime of tlie greatest i);irt of their army to serve w^s -expired, jndifie few that remained with their otHcers were in a de8^it■ilte state, with a -u'ell-clothed and disciplined army pursuing. Had general Howe pii'shrd on at tJiat time to Philadelphia, after Wash- ington^, it has iTeen-maiiitiVrned there would have been an end to tlie contest 3 but this delay gave lime for numerous volunteer reinforce- ments to join general Washington, who, in the night of the 25th of December, amidst snow, storms,- and ice, with a small detachment, crossed the DchnVare, and surprised a brigade of the Hessian troops at Trenton. He took uj) wards of (K^ of them prisoners, Midi whom he repassed the river; having also taken tJiree standards, six pieces of brass cannon, and near one thousand stand of arms. Immediately after tliis surprise of the Hessians, and depositing them in safety, Washington re- crossed the river to resume his former posts at Trenton. The BritisJi troops collected in force to attack him, and only waited for the morn- ing ; but the Americans, by a happy stroke of generalship, defeated tlie plan, Washington, to disguise his retreat in the night, ordered a line of Jircs in front of his camp, as an indication of their going to rest, aiid to conceal what was acting behind them. He then moved completely front tlie ground with his baggage and artiller}', and, by a circuitous march of eighteen miles, reached Prince-town early in the morning, carried tlie British post at tliat place, and set otf witli near 300 prisoners on his re- turn to Delaware, just as the British troops at Trenton were under arms^ and proceeding to attack him, supposing him in his former position. In tiie month of September 17/7, two actions of some importance happened lietween the armies of general Howe and general Washington, in both of which the former had the advantage ; and soon after, tho city of Philadelphia surrendered to the king's troops. But an expedi- tion, that had tor some time been concerted, of invading the northern colonies by way of Canada, proved extremely unsuccessful. l"he com- mand of tliis exjiedition had been givca to lieutenant-general Burgoyne, a verj' experienced officer. He set out from Quebec with an army of near 10,000 men, and an extraordinary fine train of artillery, and was joined by a considerable body of Indians. For some time he drove the Americans before him, and made himself master of Ticcnderoga ; but at length he encountered such difficulties, and was so vigorously opposed by the Americans, under Gates and Arnold, tliat, afler two severe ac- tions, in which great numbers fell, general Burgoyne, and his army of 5l)O0 men, were obliged to lay down their arms, October 17, 1777' About the same time, sir Henry Clinton and general Vaughan made a successful expedition against the Americans up tlic North lliver ; and made tlicmselves masters of several forts. General Howe soon after re- turned to England, and the command of the British army in America devolved upon general Clinton : hut it was now found necessary to evacuate Philadelphia ; and accordingly general Clint(m retreated w ith the amy to New York, in June 1778. The British tr jops were attacked on their march by tlie Americans ; but the retrei't was so ably con- ducted, that tlieir loss did not amount to 300, killed a 1 wounded. During part of this uuliappy war between Great L itain and the co- ENGLAND. 269 lonlbs, the latter reteivod considerable supplies of arms and ammunition ironi France ; and the French court thought this a tavourablc oppor- tunity for iessetiing the power of Great Britain. Some French officers also entered into the American service ; and on tlie Gtli of February, 1/78, a treaty of alliance was concluded at Paris between the French king and the thirteen united colonies ; and in this treaty it waa de- clared, that the essential and direct end of it was " to maintain eftec- tually the liberty, sovereignty, and independence, absolute and unlimited, of the United States of North iVmerica, as well in matters of govern- fnent as of commerce." The parliament and people of Great Britain now began to be in ge- neral alarmed at the fatal teridcncy of the American war : and in June, 177s. the earl of Carlisle, William Eden, and George Johuiitone, esqrs. arrived at Philadelphia, as commissioners from his majesty, to settle the disputes between the moUier country and the colonies. But it was now too late : the terms which, at an earlier period of the contest, would have been accepted with gratitude, were now.; rejected with disdain j and the congress positively refused. to enter into any treaty with the British commissioners, if the iudciiendency of the ujiited states of Ame- rica were not previously acknowledged, or the British fleets and armies withdrawn from Ameripa. Neither, of these' requisitions being complied with, tlie war contiimed to be carried pn witii mutual animosity. The co'.iduct of France towards Great Britain, in taking part with th« revolted colonies, occasioned hostilities tQ be oomm.t^nced between the two nations, though without any i'ormal declaration .of war on either side. On the 27th of June, 1778, the Licorne and La Belle Poule, two French frigates, were taken by admiral Keppel. Orders were imme- diately issued by tiie French court for making reprisiils on the shiijs of Great Britain ; and on the U7th of July a battle was fought otF Brest, between the English fleet) under the command of admiwl Keppel, and the French fleet, under the command of count d'Orvilliers. The En- glish fleet consisted of 30 ships of the lipe, and the French of 33, besides frigates : they engaged for about three hours ; but the action was not decisive, no ship being taken on either side, and the French fleet at length retreated into the harbour of Brest. Of tlie English 133 were killed in the action, and 3/3 wounded ; and tl>e loss of the French is supposed to have been very great. After the engagement, there -was much muriiuiring thi'oughout the English fleet, because a decisive vic- tory had not been ohiained over the French ; and the blame was thrown upon sir Hugh Palliser, vice-admiral of tlie blue, who soon after preferred a charge against ;idmiral Kcpix'l, upon whom a court-martial was iield. Admiral Keppel \v:i% honoiuably acciuitted. and at'rcrv.'anls sir liugli Palliser was tiled by a court martial. He likewist- was acquitted, diougli a siii;ht cetisvire was passed on him for not making the state of his ship known to the admiral : his conduct in other respects was. de- clared to have been meritorious. In tlie East Indit^'S also an engagement happened between some En- glish slijps of war, under the conimand of sir Edward Vernon, and some French ships under the comnuind of moiis. de Tronjolly, on the 1,0th of August, in which the former (obliged the latter to retire j and on the 17th of October following, Pondicherry surrendered to the anus of Great Britain. In the course of the same year, the island of St. Lucia, in the West Indies, was taken from the French j but the latter made themselves masteru of Dominica,, and the following year tlicy obtained P'' ?^l 270 ENGLAND. Mf ■. ■u m. I , possession of (he isLinds of St. Vincent and Gren^ida. In September, 1779. tl»« aumt D'Kstaing arrived at the mouth of the river Savannah, with a large fleet, and a considerable body of Freni.h troops, to the as- sistance of the Arnerioans. Tlie French and Americans soon made an united attack noon the British troops at Savannah, under the command of general Prevost ; but the latter defended themselves so well, that tlie French and Americans were driven olV with great loss, and D'Estaing soon after totally abandoned the coast of America. At the close of the year l/'/j), several French shij)s of war, aiul merchant ships, were taken in the West Indies, by a tleet under the command of sir Hyde Parker. By the intrigues of the Frencii court, Spain was at length broTight to engage witli France in tlie war against England. One of the iirst enter- prises in w hich the Spaniards engagi'd, was the siege of Gibraltar, which was defended by the garrison with great vigour. The naval force of Spain was also added to that of France, now become extremely formi- dable, and their cinnbined fleets seemed for a time to ride almost trium- phant in the British Channel. So great were their armaments, that the nation was under no inconsiderable apprehensions of an invasion 5 but they did not venture to make an exiieriment of that kind, and, after pariading for some time in the Chamiel, thought proper to retire to their own ports, without effecting any thii^g. On the Sth of January, l/SO, sir George Brydges Rodney, who had a large tlct '.. uniler his command, captured seven Spanish shij^ and -vcsi^els of w-ar bt long! no; to the royal company of Caraccas, with a number of trading vessels under their con- voy J and in a few days atief, tlife same admiral engaged, near Cape St. Vincent, a Spanish fleet, consisting oi' ele\ en ships of the line a'ad two feigates, under Don Juan de L;mi(ara. Four of the largest Spanish ships were taken, and caraed into Gibraltar, and two others driven on shore, one of which was afteiwards recovered by the English. A Spanish "O ^n ship, with t5Q0 men» was alsi> blown uj) in the a*;tion. In April and May three actions likewise hap^ i .led in the West Indies, between the English ileet under admiral Koctney, who was now arrived in that part of tlKi world (having previously thrown supplies into Gibraltar), and tlje French fleet under the count de Guichcn ; but none of these actions were decisive, nor was any ship taken on either side. In July loUowing, admiral Geary took twelv-^ valuable French merchant ships tiom Port au Prince ; but on the 8th of August, tlie combiiicd fleets of France and Spain t(x>k five English East-Indiamen, and tifty English mercliant ships bound for the West Indies, which was one of the most complete naval captures ever made, and a very severe stroke to the commer -e of Great Britain. Such a prize never before entered the harbour of Cadiz. On tlie 4th of May, 1/30, sir Henry Clinton made himself master of Charlestown, South Carolina : and on the ItJth of August earl Corn- wall is obtained a \ ery signal victory over general Gates in that province, ill which about a thousand American pris(jiiers were taken. Soon after, major-general Arnold deserted the service of the congress, made his escape to New York, and was made a brigadier-general in the royql ser\-ice. Major Andre, wlio negotiated this desertion, and was concerting measures with him for betraying the important post of West Point into the hands of the English, was taken in the American lines, io his return to New York, and. being considered as a spy, suftered death accordingly, much regretted for his amiable qualities. 11^ l^eat e.xipenses of th£ Amerlcau war^ and the burthens whic!) were t tent in necess counti ning prcsen tiiig tl ENGLANK 2-1 were ilicrcby laid vipon tlic people, natnid^' occn >iied much dUcon-' tent in the nation, and seemed to conviiu lers' ns of lanksof tha necessity of public economy. Meetings weic tlitiefor eld in various counties of ihe kingdom, at the close of tin ear \77y '»d tfie b^gin- i»ing of the year 178O, at which great nuuiLitfrs of fi. .holdei -re present, who agreed to present petitions to the house of cuin!n(i>v, 1- tir.g the evils wliith the profuse expenditure of the public money ucca- sioned, &c. Some trivial attempts were made in parliament to renjedy the grrcv- ances slated in the petitions ; but nothing important w^s etffcti.'d : the ministry soon found means to maintain their influence in parliament j a diversity of sentiment occasioned some disunion amou;^ the popular leaders ; (lie spirit which had appeared among the people, by degrees subsided ; and various causes at length conspired to bring the grtatest part of the nation to a patient acquiescence tfi the measures of admi- nistration. The middle of the year 1/80 wa.s distinguished by one of the most disgraceful exhibitions of religious bigotry that had ever appeared in this country ; especially if it be considereil as happening in an age in which the principles of toleration were well understood, and very prevalent. An act of parliament had been lately passed " for rjjlieving his majesty's " subjects, professing the Romish religion, from certain penalties and " disabilities imposed upon them in the Uth and I'ith years of the reign. " of king William III." This act was generally approved by men of sense and of liberal sentiments, by whom the laws against papists wera justly deemed too severe. The act at first seemed to give little ortence to persons of an)' class in England j but in Scotland it excited much in- dignation, though it did not extend to that kingdom, lle-solutions were formed to oppose any law ibr granting indulgencies to papists in Scot- land ; and a Romish chapel was burned, and the houses uf several pa- pists demolished in the city of Edinburgh. The contagion of bigotry at leugtli reached England ; a number of persons assembled themselvea togetiier, with a view of promoting a petition to parliament, for a repeal of the late act in favour of the papists, and they as.sumed tlie title of the I'rotestant Association. It was tiien resolved, in order to give the more weight (V their petition, that it should be attended by great numbers of petiiii/n^-rs in person ; and a ijublic advertisement was issued for that purpose, signed by lord George Gordon. Fifty thousand persons are supposed to have assembled witli this view, on Friday the 2d of June, in St. George's Fields j from whence they proceeded, with blue cockades in their hats, to the house of commorw,- 'where their petition was presented by their president. In die course of the day several members of both houses of parliament were grossly in- suUed and ill-treated by the populace ; and a mob assembled the same* evening, by which tlie Sardinian chapel;, in Lincoln' s-inn Fields, An<\ an- other Romish chapel in Warwick-street, Golden-square, were entirely demolished. On the Sunday following, another mob assembled, and destroyed a popish chapel in Rope-maker's alley, Moorfields. On Monday they demolished several other houses, and destroyed all the household furniture of sir George Saville, one of tlie liiost respectable men of the kingdom, because he had brought in tha bill in favour ©f the papi.sts. On Tuesday great numbers agaiij ijssemhled about the parliamciit-house, and bahaved so tumultuously, that both . houses thought proper to adjourn. In the o\'ening^ a moit darijig'aftd' vjdleftt attempt was made to foijce open the gates of Newgate-, m o^ier tore*' 272 ENGLA.VD. :^,' r^K■,i. hk^H ^::•< '^ !'i: i' lease the rioters who were conlined there ; and the Tccepe r hiving fe- fuscd to deliver the keys, his house was set o\\ fire, the prison was :,o\m in tlamcs, and great part of it consunit'd, though a new stone cdilTcc ot' uneomniuii strength ; and more than thrte liuudred priscjnefs made their escape, many ot'^vhoni joined tJie mob. A committse oKtlie pro- testant association now ciroulatfd hantl-biUs, request iug all true protest- ants to show their attachment to their best interest, l7y a legal and peaceable deportment : but none of" them stepped t'orth, notwithstand- ing tlieir boastfid numbers, to extinguish the ti-'ines they had occasioned: violence, tumult, and devastation, still continued. The IVofestant Asso- ciation, as they thought proper to style theirtselves^ had been chiefly actuated by ignorance ami bigotry ; and their new confederAles v e-re animated by the love of mischiet", and the hope of j)luntk'f. Two other prisons, the houses of lord Mansfield and sir John Fielding, and several other private houses, were destroyed the same eveninir. I'he following day, the King's Uench prison, the New Bridewell in Si. George's Fudds, some popish chajxds, several private houses of the papists, and other buildings, were destroyed by the rioters j some were pulled down, and others set vn fire ; and every part of the metropolis exiiibitcd vioknce and disorder, tumults and contJagrations. Durirjg these extraordinary scenes, there was a shameful inactlvrty in the lord-mayor of I>ondon, ami in most of the otlier magistrates of the metropolis, and its neighbourlnwd { and even the ministry appeared to be panic-struck, and to be only attentive to the preservatik^n of t'heir own houses, and of the rojal palace. The magistrates, at the beginning of tlie riots, declined giving any orders to the military to fire upon the insurgents ; but at length, as all ppojverty began to be insecure, men of all classes began to see the necessity of vigorous opposition to the- ri- oters : large bodies of troops were lo-ought to the metro}>olis from many miles round it ; and an order was issticd, by the authority ot' tht king in council, " for the military to act without waiting for directions from the civil magistrates, ^nd to use force for dispersing the illegal and tu- mnltuous assemblies of the people.*" The troops exorted tliemi^elvi^s with diligence in the suppression of these alarmiiTg tumults, great num- bers of the rioters w ere killed, mainy were apprehended, ^vho were af- terwards tried and executed for felony *, and the metrtipolis v.as at- length restored to order and tranquillity. About the close ot this year a war with Holland commenced in con- sequence of the clandestine commerce carrrcd on between the Dutch and the Americans j it was prosecuted with great vigour ; and that re- public soon suffered a very severe blow in the loss of the island of St. Eu.statius, which was taken by the English on the 2d of February, 1/81. On the 5th of August the same year, an engagement was fought be- tween an English squadron of ships of wur, under the command of ad-« jtniral Hyde Parker, and a Dutch squadron under the command of ad- miral Zoutman, olf the Dogger Bank. Both the contending squadrons fought with great gallantry, and by both tl>e \ ictory was claimed. The war continued to be prosecuted w ith various success ; tlie French made themselves masters of the island of Toliago ; and the Spaniards ot Pensacola, and the whole province of West Florida, with little etl'ectual resistance. Earl Cornwaliis obtained a victory over the Americans im- der general Greene, at Guildford, in North Carolina, March 15, l^Sl ; * Lord Georfn) Gdrdoa Wat lM|Btjk;IFcottttiitted to the ToMer, and tried for hifh Reason,— -but aequlttcd^ ENGLAND. 273 V»iit it was a hard fought battle, and the loss on both sides considerable. Indeed the victory was productive of all the conse<]ucnccs of a dcfieaf ; for, three days after, lord CornwalUs was ubliged to leave part of hiti sick and wounded behind him to tin; care of his enemy, and to make a circuitous retreat of 200 miles to Wilmington before he could find shel- ter, and so left South Carolina entirely exposed to the American general. By difteront reinforcements, lord Coinwaliis's force amounted to about 7000 excellent troops : but his situation b.'canic at length very criticnl. Sir Henry Clinton, the commander in chief, was prtvented from send- ing those succours to him v.hich lie otherwise would Ik.vc done, by h\i fears for New York, against which lie apprehended Washington medi- tated a formidable attack. The American general played a game of great address. As many of his dispatcht's had been intercepted, and the letters published witli great parade and triumph in the New York papers, to ex|)ose the poverty, w eakness, and disunion of the Americans ; he wrote letters to the southern olHcers and others, informing them of his total inability to relieve Virginia, unless by a direct attack with the French troops on New Y'ork. He asserted it was absolutely determined on, and would soon be executed. These letters were intercepted (as it was intended they should be), with others of tlie like kind from the French officers ; and the project was successful. Sir Henry Clinton was thus amused and deceived, and kept from forming any suspicion of the real design of the enemy. By a variety of judicious military manoeuvres, Washington kept New York and its dependencies in a continual state of alarm for about six weeks, and then suddenly marched across tlie Jerseys, and through Pennsylvania, to tlie head of Elk, at the bottom of the Chesapeak, from which the light troops were conveyed by shipping down the bay j and the bulk of tJie army, after reaching Maryland by forced marches, was also tliere embarked, and soon joined the other body under the marquis tie la Fayette. Sir Henry Clinton, receiving information that the count de Grasse was expected every moment in the Chesapeak, with a large French fleet to co-operate with Washington, now seri(jusly attempted to reinforce lord Cornwallis, but without success ; for on the .'Sih of September, after a partial action of a few hours between the British fleet under admiral Graves, and that of the French under De Grasse, Graves returned to New York to refit, and left the French masters of the navigation of the Chesapeak. Presently the most clfectual measures were adopted by general Washington for surrounding lord Cornwallis's army ; and on tlie last of September it was closely investeJ in Y''oilfc Town, and at Gloucester on the opposite side of the river, \-ith a con- siderable body of troops on one side, and a large naval force on tlie other. The trenches were opened in the night between the 5th and 7th of October, with a large train of artillery. The works which had been raised by the British sunk under the weight of the enemies' bat- teries ; the troops were much diminished by the sv/ord and sickness^ and worn down by constant watching and fatigue ; and all lioj)e of re- lief failing, on the 19th of October lord Cornwallis surrendered himself, and his whole army, by capitulation to general Washington as prisoner^ of war. Fifteen hundred seamen underwent the fate of the garrison ; but these, with tlie Guadaloupe frigate of 24 guns, and a number of transports, were assigned to M. de Grasse, as a return for the French naval assistance. Such was the issue of the Virginian war. The capture of this army, under lord Coi;nwalJLis4 was .too heavy a blow to be sooo or easily rewu-* N '■A ':• n -A ^ m n. li 274 ENGLAND. vered ; it threw a gloom over the whole court and cabinet at home^ \ and put a total period to the hopes of thoso who had flattered them- selves with the subjugation of the colonics by arms, The surrender of this second British army may l)e considered as the closing scene of the continental war in America } for the inmiense exp ;;nse of carrying it on, so distant from the seat of preparations and power; the great accu- mulation of public debt it had brought upon the natiqn ; the plentiful eftu-;ion of human blood it had occasioned ; the diminution of trade, and the vast increase of taxes — these were evils of such a magnitude, arising from this ever-to-be-lamented contest, as could scarcely be over- lot)ked even by the most insensible and stupid. Accordingly, on the ifirst of March 1/82, after repeated struggles in the house of commons, the bouse addressed the king, requesting him to put a otop to any further prosecution of the war against the American colonies. This was' a n:ost important event : it rendered a change of moa.'iures and of conn- cils absolutely necessary, aud diffused universal joy throughout tlie kingdom. Those country gentlemen who had generally voted with the miniitr)' saw the dangers to which the nation was exposed in an ex- pensive war with France, Spain, and Holland, witliout a single ally; and feeling the pressure of the public burthens, they at length deserted tlie standard of administration, and a complete revolution in the cabinet was effected, March 'i/th, 1/82, under the auspices of the marquis of Rockinghan), who was appointed tirst lord of the treasury. The iirst business of the new ministiy was the taking measures for effectuating a general pvace, JVIr, Grenville was invested with full powers to treat at Paris with all the parties at war, and was also di- rected to propose the independency of the Thirtetn United Provinces of America in the first instance, instead of making it a condition of a general treaty. The conmianders in chief ui America were also di- rected to acquaint the congress with the pacitic views of the British court, and with the offer to acknowledge the independency of th« United States. l*eafe every day became more desirable to the nation. A series of losses agitated the minds of the i)eople. January I4th, 1/82, the French took Nevis. On the 5th of February the island of iSlinorca surrendered to the Spaniards ; and on the lath of the same month the island of St. Christopher's was given up to the French. The valuable inland of Ja* niaica would soon probably have shared the same fate, hail not the Bri- tish fleet, under admiral Rodney, fallen in wiili that of the French un- der the count de Grasse, in their way to join the Spanish fleet at St, Domingo. I'he van of the French was too far advanced to support the centre, and a signal victory was obtained over them. The French ad- miral, in the Ville de Paris of 1 10 guns (a present from the city of Paris to tlie French king), was taken, with two seventy-fours, and one of 0'4 guns ; a 74 %hn ship blew up by accident soon after she was in our pos- session, and niiuther 74 sunk during the t'ngagement. A few days after, two more cf the same fleet, of 04 guns each, were captured. By this victory of the I2ih of April the design against Jamaica was frustrated. The new mini>:tr)' had superseded admiral Rodney, and intended to have prosecmcd the inquiry uUo his transactions at St. Eustatius; but this viciuiy silenced all complaints, and procured hhu the dignity of an liMori>h peer. ^f■^y lb, tin* Bahama islands s-jrrcndercd to the Spaniards; but the (T«vlit of the P.ritish arms v,a$ well sustaiiued at Gibraltar, under general Kiiiwt, liiv- gonrriMir; sadtlie furtnidable attiii.-k, on tlit; 13th of Sfpt<«n- ENGLAND. 275 ber, with floating batteries of 212 brass cannon, &c. in aliips from 1400 to 000 tons burtiien, ended in disappointment, and the destruction of all the ships and most of the assailants in them. The garrison was relieved by lord Howe in tlie month of October, who offered battle to tlie com- bined force of France and Spain, though twelve sail of the line inferior. The military operations after this were few, and of little consequence. Negapatnam, a settlement in tlie East-Indies, and Trincomale on the island of Ceylon, were taken from the Dutch by the British forces ; but the French, soon receiving considerable succoJtrs from Europe, took Cuddalore, retook Trincomale, forced the British fleet in several actions, but none decisive, and enabled Hyder Ally to withstand, witli various success, all the etforts of sir Eyre Coote and his troops. The death of the marquis of Rockingham, on the 1st of July, occa'* - Sioned a violent commotion in the cabinet, and lessened the hopes which had been formed of important national benefits from the new administra- tion. Lord Shelbnrne succeeded the marquis as first lord of the treasury, and, it is said, without the knowledge of his colleagues. By thi^ trei'.ty of peace between Great Britain and France, the preli" Ujinaries of which wcio signed January 20, 17S3, Great Britain ceded to France all her possessions iiefore the war, the islands of Tobago, St. Lu- ciaj St. Pierre, Miquelon, and'Goree; with Pondicherry, Karical, Mahe, Chandernagore, and Surat, in the East Indies, which had been conquered from the French during tb.e war. France, on the other hand, restored to Great Britain the islands of Grenada, and the Grenadines, St. Christo- pher's, St- Vincent, Dominica, Nevis, and Montserrat. By the treaty with Spain, Great Britain gave up to that power East Florida, and also ceded West Florida and Minorca, which Spain had taken during the war. Spain agreed to restore the islands of Providence and the Bahamas to Great Bi iiain ; but tliey had been retaken befoce the j)eace was signed. By the treaty \n ith Holland It was stipulated that Great Britain should restore Trincomale in the island of Ceylon, but the French had already taken it ; and that the D^itch should give up to England the town of Negaj)atnam and its dependencies. In the treaty with the Lailted States of America, the king of Great Britain acknowledged New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Nortli Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, to he fn-e,!ioicreigti'^ and independent. states; and for himself, his heirs and successors, relinquished all claims to the government, pro* perty, and territorial rights of the same, and e\ ery part thereof. Thus a period was put to a most calamitous war, in which Great Britain lost the best part of her American colonies, and many thousand valuable lives, and expended or squandered nearly 150 millions of money. The terms of peace were strongly objected to by many; and the address in approbation of tlie treaty, Uiough carried \iy the house of lords by a majority of 72 to 5y, was lost in the house of commons bv a majority of 224 to 208. The majority of the commons thus enlisting vuider tlie banners of th©^ famous coalition leaders, Mr. Fox and lord North, plainly indicated ministerial revolution to be near at hand, unless the cabinet would call a new [jarliame^t. As they did not, the peace-makers were obliged ta withdraw from power. The two gentlemen just mentioned were mad*, secretaries of stale, and the duke of Portland first lord of the, treasury, OE April the 2d, 1783. Mr. I ox soon after brought into parliament his 1' 2 iif. P m ' ^ :Mi I; J 276 ENGLAND. his bill for new regulating the government of the East-India company, and their commercial affairs and territories. This bill being rejected in the house of lords, on December 1", by a majority of 19, (K'casioned a great ferment in tlie cabinet, and in both houses of parliament. A royal message was sent between twelve and one of the morning of the 19th of December, to desire the two secretaries to send the seals of their office immediately ; and Mr. Pitt succeeded the duke of Portland as first lord of the treasury, bringing in his friends into tlie respective de- partments. Strong and repeated contests ensued between the two parties, which were at length terminated by a dissolution of the parliament. On the 18th of May a new parliament assembled ; and Mr. Pitt, on the 5tli of July, brought in his famous East-India bill, of the principal -provisions or regulations introduced by which we have given an account, under the arlricle; Public Companies. The business of parliamentary reform having been taken up by Mr. Pitt, he accordingly introduced a specific plan for that purpose on the 18th of April, 1785. Tlie plan was to give one hundred members to the popular interest of the kingdom, and to extend the right of election to above one hundred tliousand persons, who, by the existing provisions of law, were excluded from it. This accession to the popular interest was to be obtained principally by the suppression of decayed boroughs, and the transfer of their representatives to the counties; so that the num- her of the house of commons would remain the same. — After a debate of considerable length, it w'as rejected by a majority of 74 ; the noes being 248, and the ayes 174. In 1780' the plan for establishing a sinking fund, and employing a million annually for reducing the national debt, was proposed, and re- ceived the sanction of parliament. We come now to a very important transaction of the present times, the impeachment of ^Mr. "\VaiTi i Hastings, late governor-general of Ben- gal. On the 17th of February, 1780'> Mr. Ihirkc, who took the lead in this tedious and expensive business, explained the mode of proceeding he was desirous to adopt; and, in the course of the session, moved for a multitude of papers to ground and substantiate his charges upon. These were produced, and Mr. Hastings heard at tlie bar of the house of com- mons in his defence. The debates which arose on the subject termi- nated in resolutions, that certain of the charges contained matter of im- 'peachnient against the late governor-general of IJengal. Mr, Hastings was therefore impeached by the commons at tlie bar of the house of peers. P!is trial occupied a considerable portion of eight sessions of par- liament; and on the 'i^th of April 1795 the lord chancellor pronounced the decision of the peers in the following words : — " Mr. Hastings, the house of lords, after a very minute inveoiigatlou, have acquitted you of ail the charges of high crimes and misdemeanors prefeued agairist you by tiie commons, and every article tJiereof ; and you and your bail are discharged, upon paying your i'ws." Thus ended a trial, which, for length uf time, exceeded any in llie hi- story of the wgild, having lasted seven years and three rtionths. The trade carried on by this country, and other European nationfi, upon die coast of Africa, for the purpose of purchasing negro slaves, to tip employed in the cultivation of the VvVst-lndia islands and certain parts of tlie continent of America, tlocs not appear, till of late years, to liave been considered witli tliat general attention which such a practice uiight have been expected to excite; a practice so abhorrcijt ifi its nature ENGLAND. 2/7 any, !d in ed a igof Is of land de- tlie to the mild principles of modern policy and manners. Tlie first public attempt, we believe, tliat was made to put a stop to this traffic, was by the Quakers of the southern provinces of America. In Great Britain the same society appears also to have taken the lead, and, after the ex- ample of their American bretliren, presented a similar petition to the parliament of tliis kingdom. The cause soon after became eKtromely popular. A great number of pamphlets were published upon this subject : several eminent divines re- coiimiended it from tlie pulpit, and in printed discourses ; and petitions were presented to the legirslature from the two universities, and trom se- veral of the most considerable t.jwns and corporations in t!ie kingdom. His majesty's ministers thought it proper to institute an inquiry, before a committee of die privy-councii, iuto tlie facts and allegations contained in the representations of bo'h parties. The first public notice that was taken of the subject v.'as ar information communicated by Mr. Wilber- tbrce, soon after the nieetiiig of parliament, of his intention to bring for- ward a measure respecting the slave-trade. That gentleman being much indisposed, Mr. Pitt came forward on the pth of May, l/BS, in the name of his friend, and moved the following resolution : " That this house will, early in the next session of parliament, proceed to take into consideration the circumstances of the slave-trade, complained of in the petitions presented to the hottse, and what may be tit to be done there- upon j" which was unanimously carried. After this, on the 21st of May, sir William Dolben moved the house for leave to bring in a bill to regulate the transportation of the natives of Africa to the British colo- nics in the West Indies*. By the hill now proposed, the number of slaves to be transported in any ship was to be regulated according to its bulk or tonnage, allowing nearly one ton lo each man. This was only intended as a temporary re- lief, till some more permanent expedient could be devised by the legisla- ture. Having passed through the commons, it was carried up to the lor-'s, where it also passed, after having re'^eived several amendments; some of which being thought to interfere with the privileges of the lower house, a new bill was brought in, which passed both houses, and re- ceived the royal assent. In the autumn of 17^^> tl^e nation was suddenly alarmed by the re- ports of his majesty being attacked witli an unexpected and dangerous illness. I'he precise nature of it was for several days una«i:ertained and unexplained ; but at length it was known to have fallen upon the brain, and to have produced a temporary privation of rea;ion. A species of in- terregnum took place j though unaccompanied by any of those circum- * That there was a necessity for adopting tliis proposition, wilLmost clearly ap- pear from the facts which were proved in the covirsc of the debate. It appeared that five feet six inches in length, and sixteen inches in breadth, was the share yf room allowed on an average to cucli slave. Tlie lower deck of the vessels was en- tirely covered with bodies, and the space between the floor of tiiat dock and tht roof above, which seldom amounted to five feet eight inches, was divided by a plat- form also covered with l)odies. Five persons in every hundred per^slied, at the lowest computation, in a voyage of six weoks' continuanci.*; which, according to the most accurate es.Imates of human life, was seventeen times the usual rate of mortality. It w;is indeed much more, because, in the estimiite of mortality, persons' of every age were included, while in an African voyage the ;fged were entirely cx- cludid, and few infants were admitted. Such was the ruinous nature of the trade in the most favourable circumstances; but, in the voyage to the more dintant parts of Africa, the mf>rtality was stati'd to be twice as great ; and, consequently, thirtv- four ])frsons perished at the lowest estimation, i^^r one that would huvc died in tUt crdiu.iry cocuc u» nature. pi mm:- Fir 3r8 i;NGLAi\T?. stances wluch usually characterize and accompany that unfortunate state. The kingdom, anxious, and with eye.' directed towards tlieir sovereign, betrayed no symptoms of confusion, anarchy, or civil commotion. Yet, as it was necessary to provide f<jr the due exercise of the royal functions, thus unhappily suspended, parliament, aft(?r having adjourneri for some time, decided that the prince of Wales should be invited and requested to accept the regency under certain limitations. A very .short period, probably not exceeding three days, must ha\-^ <:ompleted the bill, which was to declare the incapacity of the sovereign to conduct the national aliairs, and to transfer the sceptrt', though with diminished influence, to his son j when the disorder, under which the king had suffered during three month.s, and whose violence had hitherto appeared to bafile all njedical skill and exertion, gradually, but rapidly, subsided. Sanity of mind and reason resumed their seat, and left no trace of their temporary subversion. Time confirmed the cure, and restored to his su*^ jects a prince, rendered supremely and peculiarly dear to them by tlie recent prospect and apprehension of his loss. The demonstra- tions of national joy on this occasion far exceeded any recorded in tiiq English annals, and were probably more real and unfeigned than ever were offered on similar occasions. No efforts of despotism; or mandates of arbitiary power, could have pn>duced the illuminations which not only the capital, but almost every town and village throughout the king- dom, exhibited in testimony of its loyalty ; and these proofs of attach- ment were renewed, and even augmented, on the occasion Of his ma- jesty's first appearance in public, and his solemn procession to St. Paul's (on the 23d of April, 178(>) to return thanks to heaven for his recovery. Whilst the ancient government of France was entirely overtlirown, and a revolution the most unexpected was effected, it is difficult to ima- gine a picture of more complete serenity than England presented. At peace with all the world, in the bosom of repose, she saw her comnierco and manufactures extend, her credit augment, and her name excite respect among tlie most distant nations j while many of tlie great sur- rounding European kingdoms were either involved in forcij^n war, or desolated by domestic troubles. This tranquillity, however, now ap- peared to be endangered by a dispute with Spain. Some English mer- chants having engaged in speculations in tlie fur trade, had established rx factory at Nootka Sound, on the north-west canst of America, after having taken possession of the country, in the name of tlie .sovereign and crown of England. Tlie Spaniards, ever jealous of settlements on tliat side of America, soon after sent some armed vessels from Mexico, seised all the sliips on the coast, and obliged the English to abandon tlie settlement. No sooner was this act of violence made known to tlie English go- vernment, than spirited remonstrances wore made to the court of Spain, and a cons icier. ible armament prepared to enforce redress. The Spanish cabinet, however, thought it expedient fo concede the point in dispute, and an amicable convention was signed at ilie Escurial, by tiie plenipo- tentiaries of tlie two nations, on the 'iSth ol October, Ijno. But though Great Britain was thus happily rescued from war in this quarter of the globe, accident or ambition involved our Indian po.sses- sions in contest and in blood. At .?o remote a distance, it is ditHcult lo judge accurately of causes and effects j but, as nearly as a diiigent inquiry iia.s Linibled us to collect the truth, we shall give it in our historical nar- rative of that country, under which it will more naturally fall. Ou the 25th of May, in t^jis year, Mr. Fox presented his bill for re- ENGLAND. ■279 giiilty. With a slight opposition pleted its progress through the house of commons. In the house oT lords, where the influence of the law is more predominant, it expe- rienced a very diflerent reception, and was strongly opposed. How- ever, in the following year, this great constitutional point was at last de- cided by the lords and common*, tliat juaias ake judges of both THE LAW AND THE I'ACT. . In the beginning of the year 179I, a large naval armament was pre- pared, the (ibjecl of w hich was to .support the Turks against the Uus, eians ; but the projiosed Russian war being found to be extremely un- popular, the design of interfering between tl»ose two remote coutendiiig powers was abandoned by the minister. Soon after the rising of parliament this year, the nation was disgraced by the devastations- committed by a riotous mob at Biruiingham. — In the beginning of the French revolution, aad previous to the usuq)ation of power by that furious party which brought the unfortunate monarch to the scaftbld, many i)ersons equally respectable for their learning, strength of mind, and liberality of .sentiment, though not possessing the gift of prophecy, rejoiced in the emancipation of a neighbouring nation, and flat- tered themselves that they saw, in the establishment of the first French constitution, not only the annihilation of despotism in that country, but the commencement of a new system of politics in Europe, the basis of which was peace, happiness, and mutual concord. They formed as- sociations therefore for the celebration of that event, by anniversary din- ners on the 14th of July. In consequence of a meeting of this kind at Birmingham, a mob, influenced by handbills distributed by a violent party, assembled and demolished the hou.se of the late celebrated Dr. Priestley (though he was not present at the dinner, but dined at home). The whole of xhe doctor's library, his valuable philosophical apparatus, his manuscripts and papers were destroyed by the mob. The meeting- houses were likewise demolished, as were also the houses of Mr. Ryland, Mr. Taylor, Mr. Hutton (the ingenious historian of Birmingham), Mr. Humphrey, Mr. Russel, and several others. Of the unfortunate and infatuated wretclies who were taken in tijc act of rioting, five were tried at Worce ,ter, and one ^'as found guilty aiid executed. At War-» wick twelve were tried, and three executed. The marriage of the duke of York with the princess-royal of Prussia took place on the 29th of September, this year, at Berlin : aiid on the 2.5th of October tht^y arrived in England, and were Received \vith public joy and applause. The royal proclamation on the 21st of May, 1/92, against seditious writinjr^, whirij was followed by orders for the embodying the militia of the kingdom, engaged a considerable share of the public atteiuion. |t had the intended eti'cct, and excited numerous addresses testifying the loyalty ot'tbe people. In the beginning of the year 1703. numerous associations were formed throughout the kingdon"} against republican priiuipies and tlicpries, or, as the phr;|se usually acjupted by such associations was, against republi- cans and levellers. To say that there were no persons who had em- braced republican principles, and would have been \yilling to concur iii changing the form of tlie government of this country, would be absurd; but ther«; appears no rea?jon to suppose that the cijuce fqr alarm was so ^ 'U ir ) ' U i W'J V: -J' hi' 280 ENGLAND. m ;• great as many imagined, and othiers at least affected to believe. Tho truth lies between the two extremes. The controversies occasioned by the • pamphlets of Messrs. Burke and Calonne, and particularly the writings of Mr. Paine, writings well adapted to the comprehension of the lower class of people, and pregnant with pointed remarks on some existing abuses, though, perhaps, with little of sound policy or principle to re- commend tliem, had undoubtedly contributed to render the example of the French revolution in some degree contagious. But the disaftected party was neither numerous nor respectable. The church, the aristo- cracy, and all the most opulent of the community, were averse to any change or innovation whatever. It was among the lower part of the middle class of society that democratical opinions were chiefly enter- tained, and among them more probably as a matter of conversation than as a project to be i\"duced to practice. The violent proceedings of tlie French, however, had terrified the well-disposed part of the people, and almost disgusted them with the very name of reform. From the period of the fatal 1 0th of August, the converts from the French system were numerous : the proscription and persecution of the emigrants rapidly in- creased the number} and the premeditated ill-trtatment and unjust death of the king almost entirely annihilated the spirit of republicanism in this country. The public wanted only to be excited to give the most forcible proofs of its attachment to a constitution which had so wisely provided against tlie intolerable persecutions of tyranny, and the no less deplorable mischiefs of faction. The first disposition manifested by Great Britain to break witli France regarded the navigation of the Scheldt, whieh the French had determined to o]>en for the benefit of Antwerp and the NetJierlands. This impedi- ment however might perhaps have been removed, from the little dispo- sition which was evinced by Holland to assert its right to the exclusive navigation, and from the readiness of the French to refer the whole afi fair to a negotiation. The next exception which was taken by the English ministrj' was to the decree of fraternity, which was offered by the French convention to the revolting subjects of any monarchical (or, as they said, tyrannical) government, and which was construed into a direct affront to this coun-. try, and a plot against her peace. The alien bill, which the French complained was an infraction of the commercial treaty, was the next cause of dispute ; and this offence was augmented by the prohibition to export corn to France, while it was freely allowed to the powers at war with that country. At length, towards the end of January, M. Chauvelin was officially informed by the English court, that his character and functions, so long suspended, had entirely terminated by the fatal death of the king of France } that he had no more any public character here, where his fur- tlier residence was forbidden. Eight days were allowed for his depar- ture; and this notification was published in the Gazette. M. Maret had been sent by the executive council of France with enlarged powers, and, it was said, with very advantageous proposals to Great Britain ; but ar- riving in England exactly at the period of M. Chauvelin's dismission, he thought it prudent inunedialely to return honie. Mr. secretary Pundas, on the 'iSih of Janviary, presented to the house of commons a mes.sHgc from the king, in which his niajehly expressed the necessity of makitig ,1 furtluT augmentation (>( his Torres by ^^^•a and land, for maintaining the security and rijjjds ot' his own dominions, for supyurtlJig his allies, and for opposing viewj of agi^; indiseui'.iu ;uk1 lun- ENGLAND. m bition on the part of France. Tlic question in relation to this .subject Wiis carried by a grcit majority in favour of niinisters. On the 2.5th of March, 17p4, lord (rrenville and count Woron- zow signed a convention .it London, on behalf of his Britannic majesty and the empress of Russia, in wliicli their majesties agwed to employ their respective furces in carryinj^ on the " just and necessary w.nr" in which they were enj^aged against France; and they reciprocally pro- mised not to laj/ doivn their anus but by rommi/n consent. Notwith- standing this solenni treaty, Catharine took no active part whatever iu the war. Another treaty was eonch.ided between his liritannic majesty and the king of Sardinia, signed at London the 2.';th of April, by which Great Britain engaged to pay 20(J,(J00/. per aimuin to the king of S.ir- dinia, and three months in advance. A treaty was likewise concluded between his highness the prince of ITcsse-Cassel and his Britannic ma--^ jesty ; the former was to furnish 8,CXX^ men for the war, during three years; in return for which, England was to pay 100,000/. levy-money, and 50",0(X)/. sterling per annum for six years. For the military operations of the war, we must refer our readers to our account of France, to the history of which country they moit pro- perly appertain. On ihe rith of May, l7P-i> ^ message from his majesty was brought down to the house by Mr. secretary Duiidas, in which he informed theia " that the seditious practices which had been for .some time carried oa by certain societies in London, in correspondence with societies in dif- ferent parts of the country, had lately lieen pursued with increased acti- vity and boldness, and had been avowedly directed to the object of as- sembling a pretended general convention of the people, in contempt and defiance of the authority of parliament ; that his majesty had given or- ders for seizing the books and papers of these societies, which were to be laid before the ho\;se ; and that it was recommended to the house to consider them, and to piu'sue such measures as uerc necessary in order to prevent their pernicious tendency." The same day Thomas Hardy, a shoemaker in Piccadilly, who had acted as secretary to the London (Corresponding Society, and Daniel Adams, tlic secretary tt> the Society for Constitutional Intorniation, were appn'hended, by a warrant from Mr. Dnndas, for treasonable practices, and their books and papers seised. Mr. Home Tooke, Mr. Jeremiah Joyce, preceptor to lord Mahon, and Mr. Thelwall, \\ ho had for somo time read political lectures, were afterwards, in the course of the week, arrested and committed to the Tower, on a charge of high treason. i)i\ the day following the seisure of the papers of these societies, they were brought down sealed to the house of conunons by Mr. Dundas, and referred to a committee of secrecy, consisting <;f twenty- one mem- bers ; in consecjuence of tiie report of w hich committee, a suspension "cf the JIahcas Corpus act was voted by a considerable majority. On the tirst of June, 17}H, the British fleet under the command of admiral l(jrd Howe obtained a signal victory over that of the French, in which two ships were sunk, one burnt, and six brought into Purtsmoutli harbour. On the 10th of September a special commission of oyer and terminer was issued for the trial of the prisoners confined on a charge of high Irea- hon in the Tower of London; and on the second of Oclolier it wis opened at the sessions-house, Clerkenwell, by the lord chief justice Eyre, in an elaborate charge to the gran<l jury ; and in the course of their proceeding:* the jury found a bijl of indictmvnt against 'lliomas Hardy, John Hoiiw •v^ T.,v" >■&■■■■- 1' •.«■) Ifi Jj m 282 EiXGLAND. Tookc, and ten others; and on the 29th of October, Thomas Hardy, the late secretary lo the London Corresponding Society, was put on his trial at the Old-Baiky. The trial lasted eight days, the jury retiring every night, and during the intervening Sunday, under the care of the shcrilfs, to th^ Hnmmums in Covcnt-garden, where beds were provided for then). At length, on Wednesday, November 5, the procfcdings being finished, tlic jury left the court, and after two hours and a half returned :nid delivered their vei'dict — Not guilty. Oi Monday, November IT, the court again met, and proceeded on the trial of John Home Tooke, esq. on the ^arne charge of high-tieason. This trial was conducted in the same manner as the preceding, and ♦•nded on the Saturday following about eiglit in the evening, whjn the jury rctiied, and in a few minutes retunicd with their verdict — Not guilty. On Monday the 6tli of December, the court again met, and John Au- gustus Bonney, Jeremiah Joyce, Stewart Kyd, and Tiiomas Jiolcroft (who much to his lionour, though not in custody, had surrendered himself as soon as the bill was found agaijist him by the grand jury), were arraigned ; and a jury was sworn in ; w hen the attornc}-general informed tlie court that he should decline eroing into the evidence against the priso;ici"s, as it was the same tint had been adduced on the tv\o late triads, Hud on which, after the most m;iture consideration, a verdict of acquittal had been given. The prisoners were of course acquitted and discharged. Mr. Thelwall was tlien put to the bar, and, after a trial of five days, acquitted. Tims ended tliesc memorable trials, tlie issue of which the country awaited with the utmost agitation and anxious suspense, until the just and temperate verdict of an honest juiy had defended the law of the ' laiid against the dangerous innovation of constmctive treasons. On the 8th of April, 1795, were celebrated the nuptials of his roval highness the prince of Wales with her highness the princess Caroline ©f Brunswick : on which occasion a bill was passed for enabling his ma- jesty to grant a suitable establishment to his royal highness, and for re» gnlaiing the licjuidation of his debts. Another bill was likewise passed l^br preventing future princes of Wales from incurring debts. On tlie 8tl) of December, a message from his majesty was brought down to the nouse of cojintions, signifying a disposition to enter into a negotiation with Trance, tlie government of that countrj' having at length a^suined .-uch a form as to render a treaty w ith it practicable. Mr. Wickham, the British plenipotentiary to the Swiss Cantons, was ap- pointed, in conscqirence, to niake some overtures, through the medium of Mr. Baitlrelemi, the French envoy at Basle; but this feeble attempt at negotiation soon terminated without effect. An apparently much more ^erious (ifl'er of thi.s nature was made the following year. About the latter end of the month of September, 17<)<^ through the intervention of the Danish minister at Paris, a passport was applied for and obtained for a confidential person to be sent to Paris from the court of I/ondon, commissioned to discuss with the French go- vernment tlie means most proper for conducing to the re-establishmcnt of peace. Lord Malmesbury was the person appointed by the British court to undertake this mission. His lordship accordingly repaired to Paris, where he continued about two months. It was proposed, on tha part of England, as the basis of the treaty, that France should restore the Ncthtriands to the emperor, and e\ acuatc Italy ; in which case Efi- ENGLAND. 293 gland engaged to restore all the ronquests made on that power in the East and West Indies. The French diiectory replied, that tluy could not consent to propusals contrary to the; constitution, to the laws, and to the treaties which bir.d the republic. Tluis ended this negotiaiion. The beginning of tiie year 17c»7 was distinguished by as extraori-.inary an event as perhaj>s ever occurreil in this or any other war — die invasion of Great Britain by a force of 1200 men, without artillciy, ai.^l almost witliout accoutrements. The alarm at tirst was goni.Mal, anil groat, throughout the whole of Pembrokeshire, on the coabt of whtcii tiie Jand- ing was made ; but the men surrendered on the approach of a very in- adequate ft)rce, and almost without resistance. On iiujuiry, it appeared that they consisted entirely of galley-slaves, and other crisjiinals, from Brest ; and die object was supposed to be at (mce to create an alarm on the British coast, and to rid the French republic of a number of de^pe- rate persons : but whatever the intentions of the enemy might be, they met, on the whole, with a complete disapi)oiutment ; for not only tho expedition pixjved entirely fruitless, but, as two of tlie ships which dis- embarked the men weie returning into Brest harbour, tlic}' were cap- tured by the St. Fiorenzo and Nymph frigates. The apj)rehensions excitetl by this circumstance had scarcely subsided,- when a more serious cause of alarm occurred to agitate the minds of the public. The bank of England discontinued the issuing of specie hi their customary payments. A run (to speak in the commercial phraseology) had taken place upon .«onie of the country banks j and the great demand for specie from t}ie bank of Enghmd induced the directors to lay the state of their compiuiy before the minister ; in consequence of which an order of council was made on the 2()th of Februarj', prohibiting the furtlier issue of specie from the bank. This order was alierwaras sanc- tioned and ratified by an act of parliament, by which tJie restriction was continued to midsummer, and it has since been continued by otlier acts to tlie present time. On the third of March, government received intelligence of an im- portant advantage obtained by the British fleet, under the command of «ir Joini Jervis, over a Spanish fleet of much superior force, on ilie 14th of February, ofl'Cape St. Vincent. The English admiral, by a successful mana'uvre, .separated the rear of the enemy's fleet from the main body, and ciptured two sjiips of 112 guns, one of 84, and one of J4. The seamen of England, however, who had so long been the defence and glory of the nation, seemed suddenly to conspire its overthrow. In the middle of April a most alarming mutiny broke out on board tho grand Channel fleet at Spithead, under the command of lord Bridport. The sailors required an advance of their pay, and certain regulations to be adopted relative to the allowance of provisions. 1'hey apj)ointed de- legates, two tor each ship, who for se\eral days had the entire com- mand of the whole fleet, over which no otficer had the least authority. In this critical situation, government deemed it most expedient to pro- mise a full compliance with all tiiesir demafnds ; on which they cheer- fully returned to their duty. But in a week or two afterwards, no act of indemnity Iiaving been offered in parliament for the security of those <'oncerned in the mutiny, they again rose, deprived their officers of their authority, and the dispute seemed to wear a more gloomy aspect than before. A bill, securing to the seamen what they had been promised, "was therefore hastily passed through both houses, and lord Mowe went 4own to Portsnaouth to act iu mediato;-. The delegates of the fleet de- .;.i *fll ¥ i Htfc^' ^64 ENGLAND. i: it W.{^ '^' wm |, i ehrcd thfmsdves satisfied, and harmony and good order were immedw at«'ly restored. The ferment, however, still remained in other parts of the navy; and *■<■>< )n after, the j?e;Mm'n of sonic ships lying at Slie«!rness began to mutiny, and behaved riotously ; and so contagious was tlie spirit of insurrection now become amoncj tlie seamen, that ainjost all tlie ships of admiral Duncan's fleet at Yarmouth appointed del(;gatcs, and sailed away to the Nore, to join the ships from Slieerncss. New grievances were required to be redressed, and new and extravagant demands to be complied with. Government was now convinced that to yield would only be to encou- rage a repetition of similar proceedings) and e\"cry disposition was there- tore made to force these shij>s to submission. All commMuiiation be- tween them and the shore wa' cut off, and no provisions or wat,er suf- tered to go to them. The mutineers, to supply tliemsehes witli tliese, detained all vessels coming up the river, and took cut of them whatcvej,* they chose j for which their delegates, the principal of whom was one Richard Parker^ a man of strong natural abilities, gave draughts on tli» treasury, as taken for tlie use of the navy of England. At length, being reduced to great want of water, and dissensions and distrust prevailing among themselves, several ships left the mutinous fleet, and surrendered themselves at Sheemess. Some of these were fired upon by the others j but at length they all came in, and gave up their delegates, who, with a number of others that were considered as principals in the mutiny, were tried by a court-martial. Some of them were executed, others sen- tenced to different punishments, and the rest pardoned. Richard Par- ker, who had acted as commander of tlie fleet while in a state of mutiny,, was the first who was tried and executed. He displayed great presence of mind, and suffered witli the utmost firmness and fortitude. As if to erase tliis stain from the annals of the British navy, the fleet of admiral Duncan, consisting principally of the ships which had been engaged in this unhappy ancl di-sj^raceful mutiny, sailed soon after ta watch the motici-ns of the Dutch licet in the Texcl, where it remained fw some time blockaded, till, on its venturing out, an engagement en- sued, in which the English licet obtained a complete victory, taking the Dutch admiral De Winter, the vice-adniiral, and nine ships. In consequence of this signal victory, admiral Duncan was created viscount Duncan ; and on account of this ajid the other naval successes of the war, the 1 9th uf December was appointed to be observed as a tiianksgiving day, on which day his majesty and both houses of parlia- ment went in solemn procession to ht. Paul's, to return thanks to hea- ven for the victories gained by his fleets. In the course of this year, another attempt was made by the British cabinet to negotiate a treaty of peace witli France. 'Ihe preliminaries of a peace between the French republic and the emperor of Germany having been signed at Leoben, in tlie niontli of April, by which tiur Ne- therlands were given up to France, the difficulty which had broken off the last negotiation appeared to be in some measure removed, and applications were again made to the French government for passports for a person uho might enter into discussions relative to the basis of a future treaty. Lord Malmesbury was again appointed to tliis mission } but the l''ren<:b directory objected to his coming to Paris, and appointed Lisle for tlie place of the conference with commissioners they sent tliither for tluit purpose. What tlje Netherlands, however, had been in the former at- tempt to treat, the Cape of Good Hope and Ceylon pro\ed in the pre ' / EXGLiVND. 23S wnt ; find, after a stay of nearly three months, lord Malmesbury, not bf'ing able ti) declare himself empowered to consent to the surrender of all the comiuests made from France or her allies, was abruptly ordered to depart, and, on ihe 20tli of September, returned as beture, not having; ciTected the object of his mission. In the following month, the definitive treaty between the ^renrh re- public and the emperur was concluded and ratified ; and the Frenclj, having little other employment tor their armies, Legaii to talk loudly of an immediate invasion of England. The directory assembled a large army along the coasts opposite to Great Britain, which they called tlie army of England : and a variety of idle reports were propagated relaii\ e to preparations said to be making in th<" ports of France; among olliers, tliat rafts of an enormous size and peculiar construction were building for the conveyance of troops. I'he British minister did not sutler these ridiculous exaggerations, nor even the evident abaurdity and rashness of any attempt at an invasion of England, in the face of a fleet so decidedly superior to that of every enemy united, to produce an improper security, but took such measures of pr<'caution as were most proper for tlie gene- ral defence of the kingdom, and to guurd the dilferent parts of the coun- try from the mischievous consequences of a sudden attack, liut the threats of the enemy were not even attempted to be carried into execu- tion ; and the directory soon after turned tiieir views towards another quarter of the globe, by fitting out, at 1 onion, a formidable expedition, which, about the latter end of May, sailed for Egypt, under the com- mand of Buonaparte, probably wiili a view to prepare the way, by the conquest of tint country, for an attack on the British settlements in India. In the course of the preparations made for the invasion of England, a number of transports had been litted out at Flushiiig, and some (Jther of the ports of Holland, which were to come round by the canals to Dun- kirk and Ostend, in order to avoid the British cruizers. An expedition was therefore litted "out in May 17P8> under tlie command of captain Home Popham, and major-general Coote, >^'hich landed a body of troops at Ostend, wlio blew up and entirely destroyed the sluice-gates and workg of the canal at that place, and burnt several vessels that \\ ere in- tended for transports. Unfortunately, when the troops were ready to reimbark, the wind had changed, and the sea ran so high, that it was found to be impossible ; and the enemy, in tlie mean time, collected round them in such tbrce, that general Coote, and those who had land- ed with him, amounting to nearly a tliousand men, were obliged to sur- render themselves prisoners. Towards the latter end of this year, intelligence was received of thw most brilliant victory ever gained at sea, even by the Bi itish navy, m hich lias obtained such unequalled glory, on so many o<;casioiis, in the cour.si,'* of the present war. On the lirst of August, admiral sir Horatio Nelson, who had been detached by earl St. Vincent in pursuit of the FjciicIi fleet, which, a.s was mentioned above, sailed irom Toulon in May, having received a reinforccnicnt of ten sail t)f the line, arrived otf thu Rioutli of the Nile, where he found the enemy, and innncdiately made dispositions for an attack. The French fleet was at anchor in the bay of Aboukir. The admiral's shij) carried a hundred and twenty guns, and above a thousand menj three had eiglity guns each, and nine had se- venty-four. They were drawn up near tlie shore in a strong and com- pact line of battle, flanked by four frigates and many jjun-hoats, auil protected in tlie van by a battery planted in a small ishmd. I'heir situa-? lioDj therefore, was extremely advantageous toe defence . but tlie greit Hill ;■ i: m HI mmmm 28S ENGLAND. l-: d.inger of nn ntfack did rot deter the British admiral from making the attempt. He was desirous to break the line of the French, and sur- ruumi » p.irl of the fleet, and he ably executed his piu-pose. At sun-set the engstitiiieiU commenced; and both parties fought with the utmost fury, ^\'])ile the victory was yet undecided, the Fteiu']i iidmiral Brueys received t«/o wounds, and, having changed his situntion, was, soon after, depriveii ot life by a cannon shot. Wlien the action had continued for tvo hour.^, tv.-o of the French ships were captured ; .' third struck .soon after; and the wlwle van was in tlie power of tlie Kiii;!ish, who eagerly ptoceeded to a completion of their victor}'. About nine at night, a firo was observed on board L'Orient, the French admiral's ship, which in-i creased ^^•ith great rapidity till about ten o'clock, wlicn she blew up with a dreadful explosion. An awful pause and silence for about three minutes succeeded, when the wreck of the raast«. and yards, which had been carried to a vast height, fell down into the water, and on Iward the surrounding ships. After this av.fnl scene, the engagemeiit was prose- cuted at intervals till day-break ; and only two of the French ships of the line, and two frigates, escaped l ipture or destruction. Nine sail of tlie line were taken, and one, be^^idcs J/Orient, was burned, her own captain setting fire to her, A frigate also was burned by her comman- der. Captain Hood, in the Zealous, pursued the rctirujg vessels; but he was soon recalled by tlie admiral, atr aowc of the ships ccadd support him in the chace. Tliis .signal victory not oidy gave the British fleet the entire tommanU of the Mediterranean, but appeared to infuse fresh courage into all the powers on the continent to renew their exertions against France. Tiie Turks declared war with the republic, and the king of Naples attacked and took possession of Rome, then in the power of the French. But the reverse he afterwards experienced, and the c ler events of the campaign, in Italy, will be related in otir summary of the.afl^airs of France. About the same time that intelligence of this glorious victory was re- ceived, sir John Borlase Warren defeated, olf the coa.st of Ireland, a French squadron consisting of one ship of the line, the Hoche, and eight frigates, with troops and ammunKiou on board. On the 1 1th of Octo- ber they were descried by the British .squadron. At half past seven on tlie morning of the 12th the action commenced; and at eleven the Hochc, after a gallant defence, struck : the frigates theu made sail away, and the signal ibr a general chace was immediately made by tlie admiral. After a running tight of Ave hours, three of the frigates were captured ; and three others afterwards becauie prizes. Thus the whole squadron, two frigate.? excepted, fell into the hands of the British ; and the hopes of the French, as v\ell as of the malcontents in Ireland, were completely defeated. To complete the succei^.ses of the year, thv" fortress of Ciudadella, and tlie island of Minorca, surrendered un the i 5lIi uf Noveniber to general Stuart and comn.odoie Duckv orih. Thi- atciuisition was made with- out tlie los.4 of a man. In the beginiwng of May, l/po, a ne^\ war having taken place in In- ^ia w#lh Tippoo Saib, Seringapatam, his i-.;pital, <\as taken, and himself killed ia the assault, by tlic British trofn)s under the command of lieu- tenant- gcneial Harris. Of the capture of this important place, and the consequent addition of the g.^eater p i of the Mysore country to the territory of tlie EHSt-India cjuipany, a turther account will be found ia if^ir hi.'-torv «)f the "lilLSJi transixtions and conquests in Hindoostan. Id tiie moti'.h of August ibllowiiig, an t^xpedition was fitted out in th* n ENGLAND. 2fiT •Westlndi©6 under thr command of lieutenanl-gencral Trli^i^^, and \\rp. admiral lord Hugh Seymour, consisting of two ships ol rh'.' line, fi\e frigates, and several transports carrying stores «ntl pnn ixions : it ar- rived on the l6th of that month oft' the mouth of the ri\er Surinam : wlien the tort New Amsterdam, and the town of Paramaribo, the capi- tal of the Dutch colonv of Surinam, surrendered by ciipitulalioti to tlio British commanders witiiout attempting resistance. But the principal military operation undertaiicn hy Great Britain, in this year, was the expedition fitted out to rescue Holland from the yoke of the French, in which about 30.000 British troops v.cic employed, t-zho were joined in Holland by 17,000 Russians, taken iato the p;iy of Kngland. The first division of this armament, under sir Raljjh Aber- cromhie, sailed from Deal and Mtu-gate on the 13f!i of August for tho Helder-point, at the mouth of the Texel ; but encounlered %udi mi- lin-ouraWe and violent gales, that the troops could not etfect a landino; at the place of their destination till the niorning of the "i/th. A hotly contested action then took place between the British and the French aud Dutch troops : but the valour of the former ultimately triumphed ; and the enemy evacuated the batteries and works of the Heider , and seven Dutch men of war and thirteen Indiamen surrendered to the ileet under admiral Mitchell, who immediately after stood down into the l'c:;el, and ottered battle to the Dutch fleet lying there, tlie whole of w hich, con- sisting of twelve ships of war, surrendered to the English admiral, the Dutch sailors reliising to fight, and compelling their (nficeia to give up their ships for tlie service of the prince of Orange. On the lyth the duke of York arrived in Holland, with the second division, and took upon him the command of the army ; and on the Jythan engagement took place between the British and 11 ussiaus and the French, in which tlie former failed in their attack, in consetjuence of the Russians .sutFering themselves to be thrown into disorder by their .impetuosity and haste, which occasioned them to sotier severely — their loss amounting to J 500 men, and their general, who was Uiken prisoner. .The army, however, soon recovered froin the etfects of this check, and on the 2d of October, after a hard-fought battle of twelve hours, com- pelled the enemy to retreat, and took possession of tlie town of Allonaar. iJut here the success of the expedition terminated. The enemy had re- ceived a reinforcement of about 6000 men, and occupied a strongly for- tified position, which it would be necessary to carry before the army could advance; besides which, the state of the weather, the ruined con- dition of the roads, and the consequent total want of the supplies iieces- >ary for tliu army, presented such insurmountable difficulties, that in two days afterwards it was judged expedient to withdraw the troops from their advanced position : and as it now appeared that there could be no hope of success in any attemp' to prosecute further the object of tlie expedition, the duke, in conjunction with vice-admiral Mitchell, con- cluded an armistice with general Brune, who coxrmianded the French fnd Batavian armies, the principal conditions of which were, that eight r thousand French and Batavian prisoners, talien before that campailai, should be restored to their respective countries; that the combined jfen- glish and Russian army should evacuate the territory, coasts, islands, and ipternal navigation of the Dutch republic, by the 30ih of November 1799» without committing any devastation by inundations, cutting tho dykes, or otlierwise injuring the sources of navigation ; tmd that the mounted batteries taken possession of at tiie Heider, or at otiier poiiiiicns, s^Qul4 be ro^torod in the state in which they were take(i^ or, in axuti- cf ■ i ■m m 'mJ: m ii si'!! 288 ENGLAND. It, \i M i*" sjjj'^' 1 improvement, in the state in which they tlien were, together with all tlwj Dutch artillery taken in them. Such was the termination of an expedition, the failure of which, when it was planned, was considered as almost impossible ; and which, in fact, commerxe I with such brilliant advantages, and so fair a pro- spect of complete success. Yet it must not be forgotten, that the cap- ture of the Dutcli fleet nearly annihilated the naval power of the new Eatavian rcpubiic, and secured still more to Britain the sovereignty of the seas, which is her only protection, tlie source of all her v/eaJth and all her glory. In the moiith of Novetnber, a new revolution took place in the go- vernment of France. I'he ci'lel)rated Buonaparte having returned from Egypt, displaced the directory, and assumed a kind of dictatorial power, under the title of first Consul, according to a U'^av constitution which he procured to be fi-amed and accepted. In order to induce the people to comcnt to this change, by which he was invested with the supreme au- tJiority, he promised them that he would take effectual measures to put an end to the miseries and destruction of war. In pursuance of this pro- mise, on the very day on which he entered on his new dignity, he ad- dressed a note immediately to the king of Great Britain, in which he ex- pressed a wish to contribute effectually to a general pacification ; and in a second note, afterwards transmitted by M. Talleyrand, to the En-* glish ministry, proposed " an immediate suspension of arms, and that plenipotentiaries on each side should repair to Dunkirk, or any other town as advantageously situated, for the quickness of the respective com- munications, and who should apply themselves, without any delay, to effect the re-establishment of peace and a good understanding between the French republic and' England." — The British ministiy, however, showed no disposition to accede to the overture, probably conceiving the new government of France not to have as yet accj^uired sufficient stability to be treated with, and encouraged, by the .success which had attended the arms of tlie allies in the preceding campaign, to hope that they should be able still more effectually to humble and weaken France' by a continuance of the war. But this expectation was not verified by the event. The emperor of Russia, influenced, perhaps, by French intrigues, recalled his troops from Italy and Switzerland ; and Buonaparte, raising a new and well- appointed army, and passing the Alps by a route thought impracticable^ defeated the Austrians (who seemed not to suppose that he could have entered Italy till he had taken Milan) at the fatal battle of Marengo ; the consequence of which was, that the Austrian general, Melas, proposed ^m armistice, and surrendered the whole of Piedmont and Genoa to the Pretich. General Moreau having at the same time prosecuted the wai with great success in Germany, where he had made himself master of tlie capital and tlie greater part of Bavaria, the Austrian government thought it adviseable to conacnt to an armistice likewise in- that quarter, and propositions were made tor peace. Count St. Julian went to Pari* to conduct the negotiations, and preliminaries were signed ; but, some delay occurring in the ratification of theio, hostilities recommenced, and Moreau gained the decisive battle of Hohenlinden } after which an ar- mistice was again agreed to, the negotiations wi.^re renewed, and a peace between France and Austria, on the basis of the treaty ofCampo Forraio, was concluded at Luneville o.. the 3d of Februar: ibOl . In the mean time a serious dispute had taken !j)lace between EnglanJ and tlie northern powers, relative lo the right of search of ujiiutrgl >hipv ENGLAND* 96g and BOitoe other deman<3s of those powers, which were judged i6compa« tible with tlie honour and interests of Great Britain. The emperor of Russia, so lately the determined foe of France, had now become her ally, and the enemy of England, aad had incited and supported this coalition of the maritime powers of tlie north against the naval superiority of Bri- tain. To suppress this dangerous combination, before it had attained maturity, au armament was titled out in the British ports, consisting of seventeen sail of the line, three frigates, and about twenty bomb-ketches and gun-brig^, under the command of sir Hyde Parker and lord Nelson. This fleet sailed from Yarmouth on the 12th of March, and triumphantly passed the Sound, M'hicii was deemed impossible, and reached the capi- tal of Denmark. The Danes had made very formidable dispositions. Before tlie city was stationed an armed flotilla consisting of ships of the line, galleys, flre-ships, and gun-boats, 1'hese were flanked and sup- ported by extensive batteries, on the two islands called die Crowns, the largest of which mounted from fifty to seventy pieces of cannon. Th» attack was made on the 2d of April by a division of the English fleet under lord Nelson, consisting of twelve ships of tlie line and four fri- gates. After a very severe engagement, an end was put to the contest by lord Nelson spontaneously ofliering a cessation of arms. The Danes Jost in the battle eighteen ships, among which were seven men of war of the line fitted up for that particular occasion. Lord Nelson had pro- ceeded to approadi Copenhagen, into which some bombs were thrown j but an attack on tlie city was prevented by a flag of truce, which was sent on board lord Nelson's ship, and an armistice was soon after .con- cluded with sir Hyde Parker by the Danish courts On the 19th of April the British fleet appeared off Carlscrona, and the admiral acquainted the governor that the court of Denmark, having con- cluded an armistice by which the unfortunate dispute with the court of St James's had been accommodated, he vt'as directed to require an ex- plicit answer from his Swedish majesty, relative to his intention of ad- hering to or abandoning the hostile measures he had taken in conjunc- tion with Russia. An official answer to this demand was comnuuiica- ted from the king of Sweden to sir Hyde Parker, intimating tliat Iiig Swedish majesty would not fail to fulfil tlie engagements entered into with his allies ; but that he would not refuse to listen to equitable pro* pQsals made by deputies furoished with proper autjvoritj to regulate th» matters in dispute. The termination of the contest, however, at that time, was, perhaps, not so much to be attributed either to the battle of Copenhagen, or to the victorious progress of the British fleet, as to the death of the em- peror Paul of Russia, who on the 23d of March expired suddtaly, and was succeeded by his son AleJiander, who soon after his accession eiv- tered into negotiations for a pacific acconimodntion with England, in .consequence of which a convention was at length signed at St. Peters- J)urg, by which the principal claims of Great Britain were recognise^ .and ratified. Previous to these transactions the administration of Mr. Pitt, which Jbad continued eighteen years, unexpectedly terminated by the resigna* lion of that statesman on the 1 1th of Jan. 1801 ; which was immediately followed by that of Mr.Dundas and the other principal members of thecail* binet who had acted with him. What his reasons were for withdrawing from power do not api)ear to have been very satisfactorily explained. By pome it was alleged, that the ditficult and dangerous circumstances ip which the country was placed had induced him to abandoj^ Uie Xsm 9t'§f3m n^^ .':€ :'>m k- r m 290 ENGLAND. lii lii'i m ^'■i;: vemment, whtch he found he could no longer guide with success ; while others asserted, that a difference in the cabinet relative to the ful- ti^lment of the promise of what is called emancipation, made to the ca- tholics of Ireland when the measure of the union was carried, was the real and sole cai se of his resigning his power. If the latter be the true reason, it certainly does him much honour that he rather chose to de cend from his high station than falsity a solemn engagement. Mr. Pitt was ' succeeded as chancellor of the exchequer and fir.'^t lord of the treasury by Mr. Addington, at that time speaker of the house of commons. Lord Hawkesbury took (he management of foreign affairs as secretary of state, and otlier suitable arrangements were made. In consequence however of some delay in making these arrangements, and the indispo- sition of his majesty about that time, the new ministers did not enter into the exercise of their official functions till nearly the middle of March. By the dissolution of the confederacy of the northern po\\'ers, one of the great obstacles to the peace between Great Britain and the French Republic was happily removed ; as was another, soon after, by the com- plete conquest of Egypt from the French, by general Hutchinson ; gene- ral Abercromby, who originally had the command of that expedition, having unfortunately but gloriously fallen in the battle of Alexandria on the 21st of March. The ministry therefore entered seriously into nego- tiations for peace with tlie French government, the preliminaries of which were signed at London on the 1st of October 1801, between M, Otto on the part of the French republic, and lord Hawkesbury on the part of his Britannic majesty ; and after fiirtlier negotiations, the defini- tive treaty was signed at Amiens on the 27th of March 1802, by marquis Cornwallis on the part of England, and Joseph Bonaparte, the brother of the First Consul, on the part of the French republic. By this treaty Great Britain agreed to restore all her conquests, tfie island of Trinidad, and the Dutch possessions in Ceylon, excepted. The Cape of Good Hope waS to remain a free port to all the contracting parties, who were to enjoy the same advantages. The island of Malta was to be evacuated by the British troops and restored to the order of St. John of Jerusalem, but under the guarantee of the principal powers' of Europe. Egypt was to be restored to the Ottoman Porte. The territory of Portugal was to be maintained in its integrity, and the French troops were to evacuate the territories of Rome and Naples. The republic of the Seven Islands was recognised by France, and the fishery of New- foundland was established on its former footing. But the restless and insatiable ambition of the French government did not suffer tliis treaty long to remain unviolated. It affected to treat England as comjjelled by necessity to conclude peace, and incapable of resisting the incroachmenls of France, unsupported by foreign allies. But the principal subject of dispute was the island of Malta, which En- gland reftised to evacuate without the guarantees for which she had stipu- lated in the treaty of Amiens. At length, after a protracted negotiation, \n the course of which the First Consul expressed himself with equal petulance and insolence, descending even, in a conference with the En- '^lish ambassador lord Whitworth, to the contetnptible threat of invasion, a message from the throne was sent to the house of connwons on the iCith of May 1803, stating, tliat the conduct of the French government had obliged his majesty to recall his ambassador from Paris, and that the French ambassador had left London. Since tliat time Bonaparte [who has now avowedly clmnged tlic con« #«• ENGLAND. 291 etitution of France to that of an absolute monarchy, 'and assumed th* title of emperor of the French) kas been employed in causing a prodigious number of gun-boats and other small vessels to be built in the ports of France and Holland, in order to carry into eifect his ambitious and inso- lent menace of u- asion ; but hitherto the utmost achievement of thesfe armaments has been to creep cautiously along their own shores, from the ports iu which they are built to those where it is said they are to reudezr vous, occasionally losing not a few of their number, taken or destroyed by English cruizers, when they venture, or are driven by the violence of unfavourable winds, into deep water. The people of Britain, roused by insult, and animated by conscious integrity and honour, have risen as one man, and with patriotic enthusiasm taken up arms in defence of their king, their constitution, and their liberties, convinced that the most wretched of slavery must be their lot, should the despot of France succeed in his ambitious and ferocious designs. — But that he can succeed must be impossible, while the natives of this free and happy country re« tain one particle of their ancient spirit. Genealogical List op the Royal Family of Great Britain. George-William-Frederic IIL born June 4, 1738; proclaimed king of Great Britain, Franee, and Ireland, and elector of Hanover, October ' 26, 1760 ; and maiTied, September 8, 1/61, to the princess Sophia- Charlotte, of Mecklenburg Stielitz, born May 16, 1744, crowned Sep- tember 22, 1761, and now have issue : 1 . George- Augustus-Frederic, prince of Wales, bom August 12, 17625 married, April 8, 1 7^5 , to her highness tlie princess Caroline of Bruns- wick; has issue, Jan. 7, 1796, a princess. 2. Prince Frederic, born August 16, 1763; elected bishop of Osna- burg, February 27, 1 764 ; created duke of York and Albany, Novem- ber 7j 1784, K. G. and K. B. ; married, September 29, I791j Frederica- Charlotta-Ulrica-Catharina, princess royal of Prussia. 3. Prince William-Henry, born August 21, 1765 ; created duke of Clarence, K. G. and K. T. 4. Charlotte- Augusta-Matilda, princess royal of England, bom Sep- tember 29, 1766; married. May 18, 1797. to his serene highness Fre- deric-William, hereditary prince of Wurtemberg Stuttg?'-(!t. 5. Prince Edward, born November 2, 1767 ; created duke of Kent, April, 1799- 6. Princess Augusta-Sophia, born November 8, 1768. 7. Princess Elizabetli, born May 27, 17/0- 8. Prince Ernest- Augustus, born June 5, 1771 j created duke of Cum- berland, April, 1799. 9. Prince Augustus-Frederic, born January 27> 1/7^. created duke of Sussex, November 24<, 1801. 10. Prince Adolphus-Frederic, born February 24, 1774, created duke of Cambridge, November 24, ISOI. 11. Princess Mary, born April 23, 1776. • - • 12. Princess Sophia, horn November 3, 1777' • • 13. Princess Amelia, bom August 7, 1783. Issue of the late prince of Wales by the princess Augusta of Sajce-Go- tha, now Hving : 1. Her royal highness Augusta, bom August U, 1737 j married the U2 « 114 ' ■m m *er iff! "WALES. heivditary prince (now duke) of Brunswick Ltmenburg, January l6, 17t)4. 2. His present majesty. 3. Prince William-Hcnrv, du'i of Gloucester, bom NovTember 25, 1^43. "' ■; ill WALES. THOUGH this principality is politicnlly included in England, yet, a* it has distinction in language and niiuiners, we have, in conlbiniity with common custom, assigned it a separate article. EXTENT AND SITUATION. ml Milci5. I-ength 130 7 Jiivadth i)(ii Wales contains 701 1 square miles with 77 inhabitants to each. DegrccK. u^. ,,,,„ f 51 ,2()° and .'53,2.')° North latitude, oeiwttn ^ ,^^^jo and ^.^0'' West longitude. Name.] The Welch are supposed to be the descendants of the Cinibrian or Cymraig Gauls, who made a settlement in England about Iburscore years before the first descent of Julius C.xsar, and tiiereby ob- , tained the name of Gallies or Wallies (the G and W being promiscu- ously used by the ancient Britons), that is. Strangers. In the tinie of tJie Romans Wales contained three nations, called the Demetae, tlicOr- dovices. and the Silures. MouNDAKiRs, DIVISIONS.] Walcs was formerly of greater extent than It is at present, being bounded only by the Severn and tlie Dee; but after the Saxons had made themselves masters of all the plain coun- try, the Welch, or ancient Britons, w<Me shut up within more narrow bounds, and obliged gradually to retreat westward. It does not however appear that the Saxons ever made any furtiier conquests in their country than Motuuouthshire ami Herefordshire, which are now reckoned part of England. This country is divided into four circuits, comprehending twelve counties. See England. Mountains, lakes, iuvers.] Wales abounds in mountains, esp«» rially in the northeinpart. Snowdon in (Caernarvonshire, and Piiulim- mon, which lies partly in Montgomery-and partly in Cardiganshire, and forms a boundary of North Wales, are the princijial. I'he height of >»nowdon i>? 350ii feet above the level of the sea. The mountainous si- tuation of the country greatly assisted the natives to make so noble and Jong a struggle against the Romans, Saxons, and Normans. There are several lakes in Wales, though not remarkable for tlicir size ; as Llynn Tigid, or Pimple Mere j and Lynn Savedhan, or Breck- nock Mere; the latter of wliich is so full of lish tliat die inhabitants say two-thirds of it is water and the rest Hsh. The principal rivers of Wales are the Severn, the Clwyd, the WlitJck;r, tlie Dee, the Elwy, und the Alen. Metals, minerals.] Wales contains many quarries of free-stone and slate, several mines of lead, and abundance of coal-pits. The Parrya wouutuin Ml Anglesea is a rich mine of copper, not iound in veins but ic WALES. 293 This a prodigious heap, wliich is worked in the manner of a quarry. valuable mine \v;is discovered about thirty years ago. Climatf., soil.] The seasoub aic nearly tlie same as in the northern parts of England, and the air is siiarp, but wholesome. Tiie soil of Wales, espei iully tow:irds the north, is mountainous, but contains rich valley^, which produce ciopsof wheat, rye, and other corn. VEGKTAnLF.s, ANIMALS.] In thesc Wales ditlers little from England. The horses an- snialler, but can entlure great fatigue; the black cattle are small likewise, but excellent beef j I'ud their cows are remarkable for yielding large quantities of miik. Great numbers of goats feed oa the mountains. Natural cuhiosities.] Among the natural curiosities of this couytry, are the following : At a snuU village called Newton, in Gla- morganshire, is a remarkal)le si)ring nigh the sea, wiiich ebbs and flows contrary to the tide. In Merionethshire is Kader Idris, a mountain re- markable for its heiglit, which affords variety of aipine plants. In Flintshire is a famous well, known by the name of St. Wenefred's well, at which, accoriling to the legendary tales of the common people, mira- culous cures have been pcrlbrmed. The spring boils with vast impetuo- sity out of a rock, and is lormed into a beautiful polygonal well, ctjvered vitii a rich arch, supported by pillars, and the root is most exquisitely carved in stone. Over the spring is also a chapei, a neat piece of Gothio architecture, but in a very ruinous state. King James II, paid a visit to the well of St. Wenefred in l(i8(), and was rewarded for his piety by a present which was made him of the very shift in which his great grand- mother, Mary Stuart, lost her heavl. The spring is suj)posed to Ue one of the finest in the Hritish dominions, and is found to tlirow out about twenty-one tons of water in a miiuite. It never freezes, or scarcely varies in the quantity of water either in dry or rainy seasons ; but in consequence of the latter it assumes a wheyish tinge. The small towu ailjoining to the well is known by the name of Holywell. In Caernar- vonshire is the high mountain of IVnmanmawr, across the edge of which tlie pul)lic road lies, and occasions no small terror to many travellers : from one hand the impending rocks seem every minute ready to crush them to pieces ; and the great precipice below, which hangs over the sea, is so hideous, and till very lately (when a wall was raised on the side of the road) full of danger, tliat one false step was of dismal conse- quence. Near Caormarthen is a fountain, which, like the sea, ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours. There are a great number of pleasing prospects and picturesque views in Wales : and this country is highly worthy the attention of tlie curious traveller. inhabitants of Wales, accord- returns under the late popu- lation act, amount to .'541,54(3. I'he \Vi;lch are, if possible, more jealous of their liberties than the English, and far more irascible: but their anger soon abates ; and they are remarkal)le for their sincerity and fide- lity. 1 hey are very fond of carrying back their pedigrees to the most remote anticpiity ; but we have no criterion for the authetuicity of their manuscripts, some of which they pretend to be coeval wUl» the beginning of the Christian a^ra. It is however certain, that great part »*f their his- tpry, especially the ecclesiastical, is more aticienl, and better attested, dian that of the Anglo-Saxons. Wales was formerly famous for it* bai'ds and iK>tts, particularly Tbaliessin, who lived about the year 450, and vvhose wuikii were certainly extant at the time of tlio UetWmatioii, traveller. Population, inhabitants,! The in! MANNKKS, AND CUSTOMS. t iug tO the lation act, amount to .'541,54(3. The \Vi;lch a ill 2^ WALES. !■."« and clearly evince that Geoffrey of Monmouth was not tlie im'entor o^ the history which makes the present Welch the descendants of the ai)- cient Troj^s. This poetical genius seems to have influenced the an- cient Welch with an enthusiasm for independency ; for which reason, Edward I. is said to have made a general massacre of the bards ; an in-r humanity which was characteristical of that ambitiom prince. The Welch may be called an unmixed people, and are remarkable for still maintaining the ancient hospitality, and their strict adherence to ancient customs and manners. This appears even among gentlemen of fortune, who in otiier countries commonly follow the stream of fashion. We are not however to imagine, that many of the nobility and gentry of Wales do not comply with the modes and manner of living in England and France. All the better sort of the Welch speak the English lan- guage, though numbers of them understand the Welch. Cities, towns, edifices.] Wales contains no cities or, towns that - are remarkable either for populousness or magniticencc. Beaumaris is- the chief town pf Anglesey*, and has a harbour for ships. Brecknock trades in clotliing. Cardigan is a large populous town, and lies in the neighbourhood of lead and silver mines. Caermarthen has a large bridge, and iis governed by a mayor, two sheriffs, and aldermen, who wear scar- let gowns and ptlier ensigns of state. The other towns of Wales hava nothing particular. It i^, however, to be observed, that Wales, in an-, cient times, was a far more populous and wealthy country than it is at present j and though jt contains no regular fortifications, yet many of its old castles are so iti-ongly built, and so well situated, that they might be turned into strong forts at a small expense. Commerce and manufactures.] The Welch are on an equality, as to their commerce and manufactures, with many of the western and northern counties of England. Their trade is mostly inland, or ivitli England, into which they import numbers of black cattle. Milford ha- ven, which is reckoned the finest harbour in Europe, lies in Pembroke- shire j but the Welch have hitherto reaped no great benefit from it, though of late considerable sums have been granted by parliament for its fortification. The town of Pembroke employs near 200 merchant ships, - and its inliabitants carry on an extensive trade. In Brecknockshire are several wcollen manufactm'es ; and Wales in general carries on a great coal trade with England and Ireland. Constitution and government.] Wales was united and incor-, porated with England in the 'i/th of Henry VIII. ; when, by act of par- liament, tlie government of it was modelled according to the English fprm ; alj laws, customs, and tenures, contrary to those of England, be- ing abrogated, and the inhabitants admitted to a participation of all the; English liberties and privileges, particularly that of sending memberi to parliament, viz. a knight for every shire, and a burgess for every shire- tpwn, except Merioneth. By the 3-:^ th ancl 35th of the same reign, there were ordained four several circuits for the administration of justice in the said shires, each of which was to include three shires; so that tli«. chief-justice of Chester has under his jurisdiction the throe several shires of Flint, Denbigh, and Montgomery. The shire-? of Caernarvon, Me- rioneth, and Anglesey, are under the justice* of North Wales. ThosQ * The Isle of Anglesey, which is the most western county of North Wales, is sur- rounde<J on all slides hy the \x'vA\ Sea, except on the south-cast, where it is divided from Britain by a narrow strait, called Meneu, which in some places maybe passed' on foot at low water. The island is about 24 miles long;, and 18 broad, and contain* %4 parishes. It was theaacicnt seat of the Britith'Driuds. . . . .-. WALES. son,. lin-r •f Caermarthen, Pembrokeshire, and Cardigan, have also their justices ; as have likewise tliose of Radnor, Brecknock, and Glamorgan. By the 18th of queen Elizabeth, one otlier justice-assistant was ordained to the former justices ; so that now every one of the said four circuits has two justices, viz, one chief-justice, and a second justice-assistant. Revenues.] The crown has a certain though small property in th« product of the sih er and lead muies ; but it is said that the revenue ac- cruing to the princ^ of Wales, from his principality, does not exceed 7 or 8000/. a year. Arms.] The arms of the prince of Wales differ from those of En- gland, only by the addition of a label of three points. His cap, or badg« of ostrich featlicrs, was occasioned by a aophy of that kind, which Ed- ward tlie Black Prince took from the king of Bohemia, when he was killed at the battle of Poitiers, and the motto is Ich dien, I serve. St. David, commonly called St. Taffy, is tlie tutelar saint of the Welch ; and his badge is a leek, which is worn on his day, the 1st of March. Religion.] The established religion in Wales is that of the church of England ; but the common people in many places are so tenacious of their ancient customs, that they retain several of the Romish supersti- tions, and some ancient families among tliem ai'e still Roman-catliolics. It is likewise said that Wales abounds with Romish priests in disguise; The principality also contains great numbers of protestant dissenters. For BisHOPRicics, — .see England. In former times, Wales contained more bishopricks than it does now ; and al>out tlie time of the Norman invasion, the religious foundations thei'e far exceeded the wealth of all the other parts of (he principality. Literature, learning, and learned men.] Wales was a seat of learning at a very early period; but it suffered much by the repeated massacres of the bards and clergy. Wicklitfism took shelter in Wales; when it was persecuted in England. The Welch and Scotch dispute about the nativity of certain learned men, particularly four of tlie name of Gildas. Giraldus Cambrcnsis, whose history was published by (Jam- den, was certainly a Welchman ; and Leland mentions several learned men of the .same country, who flourished before the Reformation. The discovery of the famous king Arthur's and his wife's buiying-place was owing to some lines of Thaliessin, which were repeated before Henry II. of England by a Welch bard. Since the Reformation, Wales has pro- duced .several excellent antiquaries and divines. Among the latter were Hugh BrouglitcHi, and Hugh Holland, who was a Roman-catholic, and is mentioned by Fuller in his Worthies. Among the former were seve- ral gentlemen of the name of Llhuyd, particulai'ly the author of that in- valuable weak, the Archaeologia. Rowland, the learned author of the Mona Anrujua, was likewise a Welchman ; as was that great statesman and prelate, the lord-keeper Williams, archbishop of York in the time of king Charles I. After all, it appears that the great merit of tlie Welch learning, in fomier times, lay in the knowledge of the antiqui- ties, language, and history of their own country. Wales, notwithstand- ing all that Dr. Hicks and other antiquaries have said to the contrary, furnished the Anglo-Saxons with an alphabet. This is clearly demon- stratetl by Mr. Llhuyd, in his Welch preface to his Archaeologia, andii cotitirmed by various monumental inscriptions of undoubted audiority. (See Rowland's Mona Autiqua.) The excellent history of Henry VIII., ' writti:n by lord Herbert of Cherbur)', may be adduced as another pro- duction of Welch literature. Language.] The Welch have still preserved their ancient language ■i;''«: S9G WALES. ■■' 1 lurhidi 5s a dialect of the Celtic, though vety different from the Erse or Irish. The Lord's prayer in Welch is as follows : Ein Tad, yr k\un -xyt yn y nefoedd, sancteiddier dy enw ; deued dy deyr* nas; bydded dy ewyllys ar y d da tar, mei^is y mac yn ynefoed: dyrd in i heddy'M ein bara beunyddiol ; a madden i ni ein dyiedion, fel y mud* deuivn ni i'n dyiedu:yr ; ac nac anvain ni i broftdigueth eithr gicared ni rhag drwg : canys eiddot ti yiv'r deyrnas, aUr gallu, a'r gogoniujit, yn oe$ oesoedd. Amen. ANTiauiTiEs.] Wales abounds in remains of antiquity. Several of its castles are stupendously large ; and in some, the remains of Human architecture are plainly discernible. I'he architecture of otiiers is doubt- ful ; and some appear to be partly British and partly Roman. In Breck- nockshire are some rude sculptures, upon a stone six teet high, called the Maiden-stone ; but the remains of the Druidical institutions, and places of worship, are chiefly discernible in the Isle of Anglesey, the ancient Mona, mentioned by Tacitus, who describes it as being the chief semi- nary of the Druidical rites and religion. Caerphilly-castle in Glamor- ganshire is said to have been the largest in Great Britain, excepting Windsor j and the remains of it show it to have been a most beautiful fabric. One half of a round tower has fallen quite down j but tlie other overhangs its basis more tlian nine feet, and is as great a curiosity as the leaning tower of Pisa in Italy. History,] The ancient history of Wales is uncertain, on account of the number of petty princes who governed it. That they were so- vereign and independent, appears from the English history. It was formerly inhabited by tliree different tribes of Britons j the Silures, the Dimetae, and the Ordovices, These people were never entirely sub- dued by the Romans, though part of their country, as appears from tlie ruins of castles, was bridled by garrisons. The Saxons, as has been al- teady obser\ed, conquered the counties of Monmoutli and Hereford) but they never penetrated further, and the Welch remained an independent people, governed by theTr own princes and their own laws. About the year 870, Roderic, king of Wales, divided his dominions among his tliree sons J and the names of these divisions were, Dimetia, or South Wales j Povesia, or Powis land ; and Venedotia, or North Wales. This division gave a mortal blow to the independency of Wales. About the year 1112, Homy I. ot England planted a colony of Flemings on tlie frontiers of Wales, to serve as a barrier to England. The Welch made many brave attempts to maintain tlieir liberiies against the Norman kings of England. In 1237> tlie crown of England was first supplied with a pre- text for the future conquest of Wales ; their old and infirm prince Lleweilin, in order to be safe from the persecutions of his undutiful sou Gryilyn, having put himself under the protection of Henry III., to whom he did homage. But no capitulation could satisfy the ambition of Edward I., who re- solved to annex Wales to the crown of England ; and Llewellin, prince of Wales, disdaining the subjection to which old Llewellin had sub- mitted, Edward raised an army at a prodigious expense, with which he penetrated as far as Flint, and, taking possessiwn of the Isle of Anglesey, drove tlie Welch to ihe mountains of Snowdon, and obliged them to submit to pay a tribute. The Welch, however, made several ertbrts under young Llewellin j but at last, 1282, he was killed in battle. He was succeeded by his brother David, the last independent prince of Wales, who, falling into Edward's hands through treachery, was by him most barbarously and unjustly hanged ) and Edward, from tliat time. ENGLISH ISLES. W pretended that Wales was annexed to his cro\vn of England. It was alx)ut this time, probably, that Edward perpetrated the inhuman massacr* of the Welch bards. Perceiving that this cruelty was not sufficient to complete his conquest, he sent his queen, in the year 1 264, to be deli- vered in Caernarvon castle, that the Welch, having a prince bora among themselves, might the more readily recognise his authority. Thii prince was the unhappy Edward IL ; and from him the title of prince of Wales has always since descended ro t'le eldest sons of the EuglLsli kings. The history of Wales and England becomes now the same. It is proper, however, to observe, that the kings of England have always found it their interest to soothe the Welch with particular marks of . their regard. Their eldest sons not only held their titular dignity, but actually kept a court at Ludlow ; and a regular council, witlia president, was named by the crown, for tlie administjation of all the atfairs of the principality. This was thought so necessary a piece of policy, that when Henry Vlll. had no son, his daughter Mary was created princess of Wales. ENGLISH ISLES. THE ISLE OF WIGHT is situate opposite tlie coast of Hampshire, from which it is separated by a channel, varying in breadlii from two to seven miles j it is considered as part of the county of Southampton, and is within the diocese of Winchester. Its greatest lengtli, extending from east to west, measures nearly twenty-three miles j its breadth, from north to south, above thirteen. The air is in general healthy, particu- larly in the southern parts : the soil is various ; but so great is its ferti-. lity, that it was many je 3 ago computed, that more wheat was grown here in one year than could be consumed by the inhabitants in eight ; and it is supposed that its present produce, under the great improve- ments of agriculture, and the additional quantity of land lately brought into tillage, has more tlian kept pace with tlie increase of population. A range of hills, which atford tine pasture for sheep, extends from east to west, through the middle of the island. The interior parts of tlie island, as well as its extremities, afford a great number of beautiful and picturesque prospects, not only in the pastoral but also in the great and romantic style. Of these beauties the gentlemen of the island have availed themselves, as well in tlie choice of situations for their houses, as in their other improvements. Domestic fowls and poultry are bred here in great numbers j the outward-bound ships and vessels at Spit- head, the Mother-bank, and Cowes, commonly furnishing themselves from this island. Such is the purity of the air, the fertility of tlie soil, and the beauty and variety of the landscapes of tliis island, that it has been called the garden of England ; it has some very tine gentlemen's seats ; and it is often visited by parties of pleasure on account of its delightful scenes. The island is divided into thirty parishes ; and, according to a very accurate calculation made in the year l "J'T , the inhabifcmts then amount- ed to eighteen thousand and twenty-four, exclusive of tlie troops quar- tered there. Most of the farm-houses are built with stone, and even the cottages appear neat and coinibrtable, having each its little garden. 29S ISLE OP WIGHT, JERSEY. IV;' ^■ mJi- I IC ■ ti^^r^ Ml RBBShK'^* Iffir 9iff '' i'' ^W! ■ t i Pg j,;,'' ^^; :;',|/' W%i^ ".f 1 M^ '^ '^ IS' fill I Mi ^1 p:^ fw.: ■' ft ^: ^l Tlife tcKvn of Newport standi nearly in the centre of the island, of which it may be considered as the capital. The river Medina empties itself into the channel at Cowes hjnbour, distant about five mites, and, being navigable up to the quay, is very commodious for trade. The three princip-il streets of Newport extend from east to west, and are crossed at right angles by tJiree otliers, all which are spacious, clean, and well paved. Carisbrook castle, in the Isle of Wight, has been rendered remark- able by the confinement of king Charles I., who, taking refuge here, was detained a prisoner from November 1647 to September l64S. After tlie execution of the king, this castle was converted into a place of confinement for his children ; and his daughter, the princess Eliza- beth, died in it. There are several other forts in this island, which were all erected about the 3dth year of the reign ot Henry VIII., when many other forts and blockhouses were built in ditferent parts of the coast of England. In the English Channel are four islands subject to England : these are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark ; which, tiiough they lie much nearer to the coast of Normandy than to that of England, are witliin the diocese of Winchester. They lie in a cluster in Mou;it St. Michael's bay, between Cape la Hogue in Normandy, and Cape Frebelle in Britany. The computed distance between Jersey and Sark is four leagues ; between that and Guernsey, seven leagues ; and between the same and Alderney, nine leagues. JERSEY, anciently CiESAREA, was known to the Romans,' and lies farthest within the bay, in forty-nine degrees seven minutes north latitude, in the second degree twenty-six minutes west longitude, 18 miles west of Normandy, and 84 miles south of Portland. The north side is inaccessible through loft) cliffs ; the south is almost level with the water ; the higher land, in its midland part, is well planted, and iabounds with orchards, from which is made an incredible quantity of excellent cider. The valleys are fruitful and well cultivated, and contain plenty of cattle and sheep. The inhabitants neglect tillage too much, being intent upon the culture of cider, the improvement of com- merce, and particularly the manufacture of stockings. The honey in Jersey is remarkably fine ; and the island is well supplied with fish and wild-fowl of almost ever}' kind, some of both being peculiar to the island, and very delicious. •The island is not above twelve miles in length, and is divided into twelve parishes. The air is so salubrious, that, in Camden's time, it was said there was here no business for a physician. I'he inhabitants are in number about 20,000. The capital town of St. Helier, or Hilary, which contains above 400 houses, has a good harbour and castle, and makes a handsome appearance. The property of this island belonged formerly to the Carterets, a Norman family, who have been always at- tached to the royal interest, and gave protection to Charles II. botli when king and prince of Wales, at a time when no part of the British domi- nions durst recognise him. The language of the inhabitants is French, "witli which most of them intermingle English words. Knit stockings and caps form their staple commodity ; but they carry on a considerable trade; in fish witli Newfoundland, and dispose of their cargoes in tlie Mediterranean. The governor is appointed by tlie crown of England, but the civil administration rests with a bailiff, assisted by twelve ju- rats. As this island is tlie principal remain of the duchy of Normandy depending on the kings of England, it preserves the old feudal forms j GUERNSEY, ALDZRNEY; SARK, SCILLY ISLES. 2QQ ', of Jties land, iThe are land and particularly the assembly of states, which Is, as it were a miniature of the British parliament, as settled in the time of Edward I. GUERNSEY is thirteen miles and a half from south-west to north- east, and twelve and a half where broadest, east and west. It is divided into ten parishes, which have only eight churches, four of the parishes being united, and Alderney and Sark, which are appendages of Guern- sey, forming each a separate parish with its appropriate minister. Though this is naturally a finer island than that of Jersey,, yet it is fitf. less valuable ; because it is not so well cultivated, nor is it so populous. It abounds in cider. The inhabitants speak French. Want of fuel i» the greatest inconveniency tiiat both islands labour under. The conven- tion of the states consists of a governor, coroners, jurats, clergy, and con- stables, I'hc inhabitants carry on a considerable trade to Newfoundland and the Mediterranean. The staple manufacture is knit stockings* The only harbour here is at St. Peter-le-Poi t, which is guarded by two forts, one called the Old-Castle, and the other Castle-Cornet. Guern- sey is likewise part of the ancient Norman patrimony. ALDERNEY is about eight miles in compass, and is by much die nearest of all these islands to Normandy, from which it is separated by a narrow strait, called the Race of Alderney, which is a dangerous pas- sage in stormy weather, when die two currents meet ; odierwise it is safe, and has depth of water for the largest ships. To die west lie a range of rocks extending near three leagues, called the, Caskets, among which are several very dangerous whirlpools er eddies. The sons of king Henry I, were cast away and drowned here, passing to Normandy: here, likewise, the \^ictory man of war, commanded by admiral Bal-« chen, was lost. This island is healdiy, and the soil is remarkable for a fine breed of cows, SARK is a small island depending upon Guernsey; Uie inhabitants are long-lived, and enjoy from nature all the conveniences of liie ; their number is about 300. TJie inhabitants of die diree last- mentioned islands, together, are thought to be about 20,000, The religion of all the four islands is that of i lie church of England. The SCILLY ISLES, anciendy the SILURES, are a cluster of dan- gerous rocks, to the number of 140, lying about thirty miles from the Land's End in Cornwall, of which county they were reckoned a parti By their situation between the English Channel and St. George's Chan- nel, they have been die destruction of many ships and lives. Sir Cloudesley Shovel, returning from a fruitless expedition against Toulon, was lost here in October, 1/07, St. Mary's is the largest of diese islands, being about nine or ten miles in circumference, and containing as many houses and inhabitants as all the rest. The niunber of the latter is about 700 ; several of the other islands are well inhabited, and have large and secure iwrbours. The ISLE OF MAN has been supposed to take its name from the Saxon word Mang (or among), because lying in St. George's Channel.' It is almost at an ecjual distance from England, Scotland, and Ireland.. It is certain the Mona mentioned by Tacitus was not this island, but the Isle of Anglesey, Mona, indeed, seems to have been a generical name widi the an(;ients for any iletached island. Its length from north to south is rather more than thirty miles, its breaddi from eight to fifteen; and the latitude of the middle; of the island is fifty-four degrees sixteen minutes north. It is said that on a clear day three Britannic kingdoms may be seen from this island. The air here is wholesome, aiiddie cli- m *5^ .■It I V 4 300 ISLE OF MAN. / '' mate, only making an allowance for the situation, nearly the same as that in the north of England, from which it docs not ditfer much in other respects. The hilly parts are barren, and the champaign fruitful in wheat, barley, oats, r\e, Hax, hemp, roots, and pulse. The ridge of mountains, which, as it were, divide tlie island, botli protects and fer- tilises the valleys, where there is good pasturage. The better sort of inhabitants have good sizeable horses, and a small kind, which is swift and hardy j n^r are they troubled with any noxious animtUs, I'he coasts abound with sea fowlj and tlie putHns, which breed in rabbit-holes, ara almost lumps of fat, and esteemed very delicious. It is said tliat thn island aboutids with iron, lead, and copper mines, tliough uuwrought ) as are the «iuarries of niarble, slate, and stone. The Isle of Man contains seventeen parihhes, and four towns on the sea-co ists. Castle-town is the metropolis of the island, and the seat of its government j Peele of late years begins to flourish ; Douglas has tlic best iiiai l<et and best trade in the island, and is tlie richest and most populous town, on account of its excellent harbour, and its line mole, extending into the sea. It contauis about <jtX) houses, and is a neat pleasant town : the buildings are lofty, but the streets narrow and close. Kanisey has likewise a considerable commerce, on account of its spacious bay, in which ships may ride safe from all wimls, excepting tlie nortli- rast. This island is situated extremely convenient for being the store- liouse of smugglers, which it was till within tliese few years. 'I'he established religion of Man is that of the church of England. Tlie bishop of Sodor and Man enjoys all tlie spiritual rights and pre- eminences of the other bishops, but does not sit in the British house of peers — his see never having been erected into an English barony. One of the most excellent prelates who ever adorned the episcopal character, was Dr. Thomas Wilson, bishop of Man, who presided over die diocese upwards of fifty-seven years, and died in the year 1/55, aged ninety- tliree. He was eminently distinguished ibr the piety and the exempla- riness of his life, his benevolence and hospitality, and his unremitting attention to the happiness of the people intrusted to his care. He en- couraged agriculture, established schools for the instruction of the child- ren of the inhabitants of the island, translated some of his devotional pieces into the Manks' language, to render them more generally useful to them, and founded parochial libraries in every parish in his diocese. Some of ills notions respecting government and church discipline were in)t of the most liberal kind : but his foilinos were so few, and his vir- tues so numerous and conspicuous, that he was a great blessing to the Isle of Man, and an ornament to human nature. Cardinal Fleury had so much veneration for his character, that, out of regard to him, he ob- tained an order from the court of France, tliat no privateer of that nation should ravage the Isle of Man. The ecclesiastical government is well maintained in this island, and ilm livings are comfortable. The language, which is called the Manks, anil is spoken by the common people, is radically Erse, or Irish, but with a mixture of other languages. The New Testament and the Com- mon prayer book have beei^ translated into the Manks' language. The natives, who amount to about 30,000, are inotlensive, charitable, and hospitable. I'he better sort live in stone houses, and the poorer in thatched; and their ordinary bread is made of oatmeal. Their pro- ducts for exportation consist of wool, hides, and tallow ; which they exchange with foceign shipping for commodities they may have occa- %\vii for froqa otlier ^arts, Before tlie svutli promontory of Man is a same ch iu ful in ♦ ge of t I fer- »rt of swift 'oasts i, ara ' . tlu4 f- IglU } -^1 1 th« at of s tlic \ n I" V \ Vv A ■•is ^•.> c:a "' , I') I.' 1 t •ft • 4 ( IliJ •1 It /'///.■ I'll. /'///,■ in. SCOTLAND. 301 lofi little island, called the Calf of Man: it is about three miles in circuit, and separated from Man by a channel about two furlongs broad. This island affords some curiosities which may amuse an antiquary. They consist chiefly of Runic sepulchral inscriptions and monuments, of ancient brass daggers, and other weapons of that metal, and partly of pure gold, which are sometimes dug up, and seem to indicate the spien- Uor of its ancient possc:sors. Witli respect to tliv. hi tor)' of this island, it was the rendezvous of the Scandinavian rovers, ai'l tlieir chief force was here collected ; and from hence they annoyed the Hebrides, Great Britain, and Ireland. The kings of Man are ofteii mentioned in history ; and though we liave no regular account of their succession, and know but tew of their names, yet iJiey undoubtedly were for some ages masters of tliose seas. About the year I'iOS, Alexander II., king of Scotland, a spirited prince, having defeated die Danes, laid claim to the sui)eriority of Man, and ooiiged Owen or John, its king, to acknowledge him as lord paramount. It seems to have continued tributary to the kings of Scotland, till it was reduced by Edward I.j and the kings of England, from that time, exer- cised the superiority over the island ; though we iind it stili possessed by the posterity of its Danish princes, in the reign of Edward III., who dis- j)Ossessed tlie last queen of tlie island, and bestowed it on his tavourite, Montague, earl of Salisbury. His family honours and estate being for- feited, Henry IV. bestowed Man, and the patronage of tiie bishopric, first upon the Northumberland family, and, that beuig forft- ited, upon sir John Stanley, whose posterity, the earls of Derby, enjoyed it, till, by failure of heirs male, it devolved uix>n the duke of Athol, who married the sister of the last lord Derby. Reasons of state rendered it necessary for the crown of Great Britain to purchase the custom* of the island from the Athol family : and the bargain was completed by 70^000/. bein^ paid to the duke in l/O'S. The duke, however, retails his territorial pro]5erty in the island, though the fornii of its government is altered j 4nd the king has now die same rights, powers, and prerogatives, as th». duke formerly enjoyed. The inhabitants also retain many of tlieir aa* cient constitutiuiKs and customs. SCOTLAND. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Degrees, length 270 7 , . ^55"* and sg^ nordi latitude. Breadth 100) "®*^^^^ | i^ and ()« west longitude. Contiiining 27,794 square miles, with 58 inllabitants to each. Name.] SCOTLAND was known to the Romans by the name of Caledonia, a name, according to some, derived from a Celtic word, sig» nifying forests or mountains : or, perhaps, it is related to the word Gad, by which name tl'.e northern or Highland Scots still call themselves. After the expiration of the Roman power, Scotlanvl became the country of die Picts or Peohts, who were either die Rritoii': driven nordiwai'ds, or, as some think, a new colony from the south of Norway. At length, ia thd eleventh cuulury, tlie Scot! coming over from Ireland aud nilX'' 202 SCOTLAND. m. blishii^ themselves in Scotlaod, the name of Scotia was transferred from Ireland to Scotland. BouMDAAiES.] Scotland is bounded on the south by England ; and on the north, east, and west by the Deucaledooian, German, and Irish Seas, or more properly, the Atlantic Ocean. Division aud subdivisions.] Scotland is divided into tlie counties south of the Firth of Fortii, tlie capital of which, and of all tlie king- dom, is Edinburgh ; and tliose to the north of the same river, of which the chief town is Aberdeen. Ihis was the ancient national division j but some modern writers, with less accuracy, have divided it into High- lands and Lowlands, on account of tlie different habits, manners, and customs of the inhabitants of each. Eighteen counties, or shires, are allotted to the southern division, and fifteen to die northern : and tiiose counties are subdivided into sheriff- doms, stewartries, and bailiwicks, according to tlie ancient tenures and privileges of the landholders. Shires. Chief Towns. Mid Lothain . Sheriffdoms and other Subdivisions. Edinburgh, W. long. 3.35. N. lat. 55.5t*. Musselburgh, Leith, and Dalkeith. 2. Haddington 7 lFn<:t Tntlnin 7 Dunbar, Haddington, 29,9S6 I • • ••• 1^^^' Gotham | ^^^ ^^^^^^ Berwick. and' I. Edinburgh") 122,954* X .Dunse and Lauder. 3. Merse, anciently") fThe Merches, Berwick,! 30,621 J | Lauderdale. Ro.xborough33,382|'^|r',°i^f^' V'*'''!?^?'i"^l'l^r^^' ^^^'"' ""'^ *^ * * Eskdale, & Ewesdale \ Melross. I 5. Selkirk 5,070 Ettr.ck Forest Selkirk. 6. Peebles 8,735 Tweedale Peebles. 7. Lanark 146,699 . Clydesdale "I Glasgow,\V.lon.4. 15. N. lat. 55. 52. Ha- milton, Lanark, and Rulherglen. Dumfries, Annsn. « i\r . oo,MQ ^ r' u Air .. i. 1 Wigtown, Stranraer, 9. Wigtown 22,918. . ] Galloway, West part . | ^^^^ Whitehorn. xr:. 10. Kircudbright S.'Dttmfries 54,597- . Nithsdale, Annandale bright \ 29,211 r Kvle Carrick and! ^>''' I^'lni'^rnock, Ir- U. Ayr 84,306 \ ^^'?' . , '^''' ^"'^ V vine, ISIaybole, Stew- ^ ' I Cnnmngham [ ' j o u *. l^ » J arton, and Saltcots, 12. Dumbarton 20,7 10 Lenox Dumbarton. Rothsay. >-,.■< Galloway, East part . • Kircudbright. \)] 13. Bute 11,791, and 1 Bute, Arran,andCaith-f Wick, W, Ion. 3.2. N,. 14. Caithness 22,009 . J ness C lat. 58. 40. and Thur- * The numbers show the population of each county, according to the return* under the •act passed in IKOl. f Berwick, on the north side of the Tweed, heionged formerly to Scotland, and gave aains to a connty in that kingdom ; but it is now formed into a town and county of itself, in a political leate distinct £rom £ngl<iud and Scotlaiid, having it» «wn privileges. ., . SCOTLAND. ao3 and [rish )ties ing- hich iojij igh- and • Shires. '> 15. Renfrew 78,056. 1(5, Stirling 50,325 Sheriffdoms and other Subdivisions. Chief Towns. C 1 Renfrew, Paisley, -? Renfrew > Greenock, and Port (^ 3 Glasgow, Stirling Stirluig and Falkirk. C ^ Linlitiigow, Bunough- 17. Linlithgow 17,844 < West Lothian > stonness, and Queen's (^ ) ferry. V«i 18. Argyle7l,859... < Argyle, Cowal, Knap- "j dale, Kintire, and Lorn, with part of Inverary, DunstafF- the Western Isles, > nagc, Killonnier, and particularly Ila, Ju- ra, Mull, Uist, Te- ri, Cul, and Lismore f Perth, Athol, Gowry, I Broadalbin, Mon- 19. Perth 126,366.... ^ teith, Strathern,Stor- ^ Wane, Blair, and 20.Kincardine, or") Mcaras26,34()j niont, Glenshield, and Raynock ...... Mearns 21. Aberdeen 123,082 < Cuinbeltown. Perth, Scone, Dum- Dunkeld. Mar, Buchan, Garioch, and Strathbogie .... 22. Inverness s 74,292.^ Bervie, Stonehive, and Kincardine. Old Aberdeen, \V. loa. 1.55. N. lat. 57. 7. New Aberdeen, Fra- scrsburgh, Peterhead, Kintore, Strathbogie, Inverary, and Old Meldrum. • . . Aird, Stratliglass, Sky,") j^^, Inverkichv R:irr;c Rnrlpnnrl, f ^"verness, inveriDcny, Harris, Badenoch, Lochaber, and Glen- morison \ Fort Augustus, • Bdi- leau. 23. Nanne 8,257 and ( Western part of Mur-7 ^.^ . ^ • . .,. f, .. ,y'r.^ i 1/- .• >■ Nairne, Cromarcie. 24. Croniartie 3,052 . ( ray and Cromartie . . ) ' 25. Fife 93,743. \ Fife 26. Forflir or An- 1 gvis99>1^7 3 27. Banff 35,807.. St. Andre w.'s, Cowper, Falkland, Kirkaldy, Innerkydien, Ely, Burnt Island, Bum- fermline, Dysar^TjAii- stnither &: Aberdour. i Montrose ,jFor far, Dun- Forfar, Angus > dee, Arbrotli, anc^ ) Brechin. Banff, Strathdovern,"^ Boyne Euzy, Bal- f g^^^g. ^^^ ^.^jj^^^ - veny , Strathawm, and ( part of Bachan ) 38. Sutherland 23,117 {^Shnd!' .!".'! . ^T.} ^^'"^'"^'^>' ^^^ ^°"^°^^- iJ9. ClacmannanT. C 30. Kinross 6725 . . . . f 10,858 and Culross, Clacmannan, Fife part V Alloa, and Kinross. 30i Sbiies. 31. Ross 52,29 1 SCOTLAND. SherifKloms and other Subdivisions, f Easter and Wester" Ross, Isles of Lewis, Lc;-'r.brooiTi, Loch- cjiiTeii, Ardnieanach, >• Rcdcastle, Ferrintosh, Straihpefter, and Fer- rindonald Chief Towns. Taine, Dingwall, Fort- rose, Roseniarkie^ apd New Kelso. *^' fl^^ 705^^'"^'} {^^^'irrayand Strathspeyj Elgin and Forres. 33^. Orkaey 46,844 . 'isles of Orkney and' Slietland Kirkwall, W. Ion. 3. 8. N. lat. 58. 58. • Lerwick, W.lon. 1.30. N. lat. 00. 20. Scalloway. In all thirty-three shires, Vhich choose thirty representatives to sit in tlie parliament of Great Britain; Bute and Caithness choosing alternate- ly, as do Nairne and Cromartie, and Clacnianuan and Kinross. * The royal boroughs which choo.se representatives are. Edinburgh Kirkwall, Wick, Dornoch.. Dingwall, and Tayne Fortrose, Iiiveniess, Nainie,) and Forres j Elgin, CuHen, Banff, Inve ' } 1 rary, and Kintore. Aberdeen, Bervie, Montrose, Aberbrothe, and Brechin . Forfar, Pertli, Dundee, Cow- 7 per, and St. Andrew's . . . . j Crail, Kilrenny, Anstrutlier^ East and West, and Pitten- > ween ) Dysart, Kirkaldy, Kinghome, and Burnt Isbnd } Innerkythen, Dumfermlin, "1 Queensferr}', Culross, and> Stirling ) Gla.sgow, Renfrew, Ruther- 7 glen, and Dumbarton y Haddington, Dunbar, N. Ber- ^ wick, Lauder, and Jedburgh f Selkirk, Peebles, Linlithgow, T and Lanark j Dumfries, Sanquehar, Annan, Lochmaban, and Kircud- bright Wigtown, New Galloway,") Stranraer, and Whitehorn . J Ayr, Irvine, Rothsay, Cambel town, and Inverary } } ] Face of the country.] The apjx?arance of the soutliern part of Scotland has a great resemblance to that of England ; and, with respect both to the general aspect of die country, and to the progress of culti- vation, exhibits every kind ot rural variety : the northern part is chiefly an assemblage of vast dreary mountains, not, however, without some fertije valleys on the nortliern and eastern coasts. The name of High- lands is properly given to Argyleshire, the western part of Perthshire, and the counties of Ross,, Sutherland, and Caithness. The nudity of the country in many parts, in consequence of tlie want of wood, is generally observed by the traveller from the .south ; but the extensive plantations of trets continually making by tlie nobility and gentry must, in a few years, greatly remedy, if not entirely remove, tliis defect, Scotland is in general diversified witli a pleasing intermixture of natural objects. The vast inequalities of the ground, if unfavourable to the labours of the hus- bandman, are particularly pleasing to a traveller, and afford those de- lighUiU situatious for country houses, of which many of tlie ScottisU !»«• SCOTLAND. 305 oit- 1 1 bility and gentry have so judiciously availed themselves. It is their situation, more than any expensive magniticence, that occasions tlie scats of the dukes of Argyle and Athol, of lord Hopetoun, and many others, to fix tlie attention of every traveller. , Mountains.] The principal mountains in Scotland are the Gram- pian Hills, which rmi from east to west, from near Aberdeen to Cowal in Argyleshire, almost the whole breadth of the kingdom. Another chain of mountains, called the Pentland-hills, runs through Lothian, and joins those of Tweeddale. A third, called Luiiuiier-Muir, rises near tha eastern coast, and runs westward through the IMcrse. Besides those continued chains, among which we may reckon the Che\i{)t or Tiviot Hills on the borders of England, Scotland contains many detached moun- tains, which, from their conical figure, are sometimes called by tlie Cel- tic name. Lair*. One of the most remarkable of the Scottish moun- tains is Ben Fouaish, in the east part of Ross-shire. It rises nearly in the form of a rick of hay to the height of 4200 feet, and ends in a flat sum- mit or plain three miles long and half a mile broad. Ben Nevis, near Fort William; is reputed to be the highest mountain in Britain, bemg 4350 feet above the level of the sea. Its summit is covered with snow during the whole year. Forests.] The face of Scotland, even where it is most uninviting, presents us with the most incontrovertible evidences of its having for- merly.abounded with timber. The deepest mosses, or morasses, con- tain large logs of wood ; and their waters being impregnated with tur- pentine, have an antiseptic quality. The Sylva Caledonia, or Caledo- nian forest, is supposed to have been Ettrick Forest, by which name the Avhole county of Selkirk was formerly called. Several parts of Scot- land are still denominated forests ; as Abernethy Forest in Aberdeen- shire; Parff Forest, Reay Forest; and Broachiltive Forest in xYrgylesiiire. Fir-trees grow in great perfection almost all over Scotland, and form beautiful plantations. The Scotch oak is excellent in the Highlands, where some woods reach 20 or 30 miles in length, and four or live iu breadth. Lakes.] The lakes of Scotland (there called Lochs) are too many to be particularly described. Those called liOch-Tay, Loch-Lomond, Loch- Ness, Loch- An, and one or two more, present us with such picturesque scenes as are scarcely ecjualled in any other country ol' Europe. Se\e- ral of these lakes arc beautil'ullv fringed with woods, and contain great tjuantities of fresh-water fish. The Scotch someiimes give the name of a Loch to an arm of the sea ; for example, Loch-F}'u, A\hich is Oo milei long, and four broad, and is famous tin- its excellent herrings. Ths Loch of Spinie, near Elgin, is remarkable for sv/ans and cyjniets, m hick are there extremely numerous ; owin;.'', iii some think, to the r.laut oiorbtu, which grows in iti waters. Near Lueh-Ness is a high hiii, on the top of which is a lake of cold Ircsh wak'r about 30 fatliums ia length, so deep that it has not yet been fathomed, and which ne\ er fn.'e/.es ; whereas, but IJ miles from thence, the Lake Lochanv.yn, or Green Lake, is covered with ice nil the year round. The ancient province of Lochaber receives tliat nanu; from being the mouth of the lochs. The coasts of Scotland are in many parts indented with large, bold, navigable Bays or arms ot" the sea, as the Bay of Glenluce and Wigti^wn Bay ; sometimes they arc called Firths, as the Solway Firth, which sejxirates Scotland from Ejigland on- the west; the Firth of Forth, Murray Firth, and those of Croinmtie and Dornoch. lliVfiKS.] The lorge'it river in Scotl lud is the Forth, which riijs in fill mm* i ,306 SCOTLAND. l^Tonteith, near Callendar, and passing by Stirling, after » number of beautiful meanders, discharges itself near Edinburgh into that aim of the German Sea to which it gives the name of P'irth of Forth. Second to the Forth is the Tay, which issues out of Loch-Tay, in Broadalbin, and, running south-east, passes the town of Pertli, and falls into the sea at Dundee. The Spey, which is called tJie aiost rapid river in Scotland, issues from a lake of the same name in Badenoch, and, running from south-west to north-east, falls into the sea near Elgin ; as do the rivers Dee and Don, which run from west to east, and disembogue tliemselves at Aberdeen. The Tweed rises on the borders of Lanarkshire, and, after many serpentine turnings, discharges itself into the sea at Berwick, where it serves as a boundary between Scotland and England, on the eastern side. The Clyde is a large river on the west of Scotland, has its -rise in Annandal©, runs north-west through tlie valley of that name, and, after passing by Lanark, Hamilton, tlie city of Glasgow, Renfrew, Dum- barton, and Greenock, falls into the Firth of Clyde, opposite to the Isle of Bute. Besides tlicse, principal rivers, Scotland contains many of an inferior size, well provided with salmon, trout, and oilier fish, which •qually enrich and beautify die country. Several of those rivers have the name of Esk, which is ;;n old Celtic word for water. Canals.] A canal forming a junction between the rivers Forth and Clyde, was begun in 1708, and finished in 1 790; when, on the 28th of July, a hogshead of the water of the Forth was poured into the Clyde, as a symbol of their junction. This canal, in its dimensions, is much superior to any work of the same nature in England. It is 35 miles \u length; in the course of which navigation the vessels are raised by means ^►f 20 locks, to the heiglit of 1.55 feet above die level of the sea. Pro- ceeding afterwards on the summit of the country, for 18 miles, it then descends by It) other locks into the Clyde. It is carried over 36 rivers and rivulets, and two great roads, by 38 aqueducts of hewn stone. By one of these, 4CX) feet in length, it passes the Kelvin, near Glasgow, at the height of 70 feet above the bed of the river in the valley below. It crosses the great road from Edinburgh to Glasgow, by a tine aqueduct- bridge ; and is canned over the v.-ater of Logic; by anoUier aqueduct- bridge, the arch of which is 90 feet broad. The great utility of thi^ communication between the Eastern and Western Seas to the trade of Great Britain and Ireland must be evident, from die consideration that it shortens the distance between them by the shortest passage, that of tho Pentland Firdi, nearly GOO miles. Other canals are executing and projecting in Scodand, The canal of Crinan, which will save a circuitous and ditticult na\ igation round Can- tire, is begun, and in a considerable state of forwardness ; and in April, 1804, a bill was brought into parliament for making an inland navigation from Inverness to Fort William, through Loeh-Ness and Loch-Lochie, to Loch-Linney. Metals and minerals.] Though Scotland does not at present boast of its gold minch-, yet it fonucrly afforded a considerable quantity of that metal for its coinage. James V. and his father contracted with certain Germans for v/orking the mines of Crawford-M<.)or : and when the former married the French king's daughter, a number of covered dishes, filled wit!) <xjin.s of Scotch gold, were presented to the guests by way of dessert. The civil wars and troubles which followed, under his (Uugliter, in the minority of his grandson, drove those foreigners, the chief of whom was called Cornelius, from their works, which since that time l»av« never been resuined. Soine small piccco of gold have beczi tbynd SCOTLAND. 307 in those parts, washed down by tlie floods. It likewise appears by the public records, that those beautiful coins, struck by James V., called bonnet pieces, were fabricated of gold found in Scotland, as were otlier medals of the same metal. The lead mines of Scotland are very productive and profitable, and, it is said, contain great quantities of silver j but tliere are no silver mines that are worked at present. Some copper-mines have been found near Edinburgh ; and many parts of Scotland, in the east, west, and nort:iern counties, produce excellent coal of various kinds, large quantities of which are exported. Lime-stone is found here in great plenty, as are also free-stone and several kinds of znarble. Lapis lazuli is dug up in Lanarkshire ; alum-mines have been found in Banffshire ; crystal variegated pebbles, and other transparent stones, which admit of the tinest polish for seals, are found in various parts ; as are talc, potter's clay, and fuller's eartli. The new earth of the moderu mineralogists and chemists called strontian, is found in Argyleshire. No country produces greater plenty of iron ore, both in mines and stones, than Scotland ; of which the proprietors now begin to reap the profits, in their founderies, as at Carron, and other metalline manufactures. Climate, soil, and agriculture.] The air of Scotland is more temperate than could be expected in so northerly a climate. This arises partly from the variety of its hills, valleys, rivers, and lakes ; but still more, as in England, from the vicinity of the sea, which atfords those warm breezes, that not only soften the natural keenness of the air, but, by keeping it in perpetual agitation, render it ])ure and healthful, and prevent those epidemic distempers that prevail in many other countries, in the neighbourhood of some high mountains, however, which are ge- nerally covered with snow, the air is keen and piercing for about nine nvjiiths in the year. The soil in general is not so fertile as that of En- gland ; and in many places less fitted for agriculture than tor pasture. At the same time, tliere are particular plains and valleys of the most luxuriant fertility ; though experience has proved, that many vegetables and hortulane productions do not come so soon to maturity in this coun- try as in England. The soil of Scotland may be rendered, in many parts, nearly as fruit- ful as that of England. It is even said that some tracts of the Low- counlries exceed in value English estates of the same extent, because they are less exhausted and worn out tlian those of the southern parts of the island : and agriculture is now perhaps as well understood, both in theory and practice, among many of the Scotch landlords and farmers, as it is in any part of Eiu'ope. But the fruits of skill and industry are chiefly perceivable in the coun- ties l}'lng upon the river Forth, called the Lothians, where the farmers, as vvell as in Angus, generally rent from 3 to 500/. per aim. are well fed, well clothed, and comfortably lodged. The reverse, however, may be obser\cd of a very considerable part of Scotland, tliere tlie landlords, ignorant of tlieir real interest, refuse to grant such leases as would en- courage the tenant to improve his own farm. In such places, the hus- bandman barely exists upon the gleanings of a scanty farm, seldom ex- ceeding 20 or 30/. per ann. tlie cattle are lean and small, the houses mean beyond expression, and the face of the country exhibits the most deplorable marks of poverty and oppression. Vegetables.] Scotland in general produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, hemp, flax, hay, and pasture. In the southern counties the finest garden fruits, particularly apricots, nectarines, and peaclies, are little, if 303 SCOTI,AND. li M nt all, inforior to those in Eiighnd ; nnd tlie snmc mny tio said of tlie. cominon friiiis. The uncnUivatt'd jKirts of the Ifighhinds abound in variuus kinds of siUubii(ms and p'r:iiant-tnstcd borries; tJiough it must be owned that many extensive tracts are covered with a strong heath. The ^ea-eoast produces the a!ga-marina, dulse or dulish, a most wliole- fionie nutririve weed, in great quantities, and other marine plants, which are eaten for nourishment or pleasure. Animals.] This country contains few or no kinds either of wild or tlomcstic animals that arc not conimon with its neighbours. The red-deer and roe-buck are found in the Highlands ; but their llesh is not comparable to English venison. Kares, and all other an'mals for game, are here plentiful ; as are the grouse and heath-cock, which is a most delicicMis bin!, as likewise the ca})perkaily, and the ptarmigan, uhich is of the pheasant kind; but these birds are scarce e\ en in the Higiilands, and, when discovered, are very shy. Eagles and beautiful talcons are n(jt unfrequent here, and the shores abound in various kinds of sea-fowl. The ruur.bcrs of bL'.ek cattle that co'.er the hills of Scot- land towards the Highlands, and sheep that are fed upon the beautiful mfuiniains of Tweeddale, end other parts of the south, are almost incre- dible; and tlii; black cattle, when fattened on the soutliern pastures, have been reckoned superior to English beef. Formerly the kings of Scotland t(^ok great pains to mend the breed of fhe Scotcji hors(>s, by importing a larger and more generous kind from tlie continent : but, notwithstanding all the care that was taken, it was found that the chmate and soil of Scotland were unfavourable to that roble animal ; for they diminished both in size and spirit ; so that, about the time of the union, few horses, natives of Scotland, were of rnich value. Great eiibrts have been made of late to introduce tlie En- glish and foreign breeds, and such care has l)cen taken to provide tliem with proper food and management, that success has equalled tlie most sanguine expectations. Natural cunio^iriFS.] Traces of ancient volcanoes are not un- frequent in Scotland. The hill of Finchaven is one instance ; and the hill of Bergonium, near DunstalFage castle, is another, yielding vast cj!iantitie3 of pnuiices or: scoria^, of diiierent kinds, many of which are of the same specie- m itii those of the Icelandic volcanoes. Among other natural curiosities (;f this country, is a Iieap of white stones, most ot tiiem clear like crystal, together with great cjiuuitities of oyster and other sea ikhells, t'ound on the top of a mountain called Scorna-Eappich, in lloss- »hire, twcjity miles distant Iroiii the sea. Slains, in Aberdeenshire, is haid to be remarkable for a ])etritying cave, c.iliod the Dropping Cave, v.'here wnter oo/ing tlirour:'lr a spon^;y porous rock at the top, quickly to[HC)]id:;i!.;i at'ter it dn)[)s to the bunom. Scotland, like other moun- tfiinous countries, abounds in wild imd picturesque scenes, rocks, cata- racts, and caverns. Of tin- latter tlierc are ^onie in Fifeshire, of extra- crdinary dimensions, in v.hicli inhuman ciuelties are said to have been perpetrated. Population-.] The popidatinn of Scotland, according to the very accurate estimate given in sir John Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scot- kmd, vva3, in 1708, 1,52S,U)2 ; in 1755, it was only 1,2(35,380; so that in 43 years it had inaeased 20'1,1]2. By the returns made to the Po- pidatinn bill, passed in 1801, the present number of inhabitants in Scot- land is l,5y(J,0(iy ; to wl)ich if we add 8,0'92, the estimated number of inhabitants in the places liom wlucli uu rcluraji had been niade^ the total will bo 1,(507,700. , • . ., , SCOTLAND. 309 ■•National charactf.ii, mannf.ks, Axn customs.] The people of Scotland are generally raw-boned, anil a kind of charaeterisiical Icalure, ^luit of high cheek-bones, prevails in their faces ; they arc lean, but flean-linibed, and can endure incredible fatigues. Tlitir adventurous spirit was chiefly owing to their laws of succession, w hich in\ ested llic elder brother, as head of the family, with the inheritance, and left but a ^ery scanty portion for the other sons. This obliged the latter to seek their fortunes abroad, though no people liave more alfcction for their na- tive soil than the Scotch have in general. It is true, this disparity of fortune among the sons of one family prevails in England likewise; but the resources which younger brothers have in England are numerctus, Compared to those of a couittry so narrow, and so little impro\ed, either by commerce or agriculture, as Scotlantl was formerly. An intelligent reader may easily percei\e that the ridiculous family- pride, which is perhapi not yet entirely extiuguisiied in Scotland, v au owing to the feudal institalicjns which prevailed tlu re Ioniser than in England. The family dirferences, e-.pecially ot" the Highlanders, fimi- liaiised them to blootl and slaughter; and the most feioeiuus passions \vere authorised and cherished by their chieftains. Their kings, ex- cepting some of them who were endued with extraoidinary virtues, were considered only as conuwanders of the arnjy in time of war ; for in time (;f peace their civil authority was so little, that every clan or family, even in the most civilised parts of Scotland, looked upon its own chieftain as its sowreign. U'hese prejudices were coiitirmed even by the laws, which gave tho'-e petty tyrants a po\\er of life and death upon their own estates; and they generally executed their, hasty sen- tences in four-and-twenty hours after the party was ajjprehendcd. 'I'hci pride which those chieftains had of out\}'ing each other ereateil perpe- tual animosities, which seldom or ne\«r ended wilhovit b'ood.-ihed ; so that tlie common people, Avhose best qualitication was a blind devotion to the will of their master, and the aggrandisement of his name, li\ ed in d state of continual hostility. The late Archibald, duke of Arg}le, was the first chieftain w ho had tlie patriotism to attempt to reform his de-r pendents, and to banish from them those barbarous ideas. His example has been followed by others ; and there can scarcely be a doubt, but that a very few years will reconcile the Highlanders to all the milder habits of society. TJie gentry of Scotland who reside npon their estates, dlfrer litttle, at •)re5cnt, in their manners and style of living from tb.eir English neigh- Jours of the like fortunes. The peasantry have their peculiarities ; their ideas are confined, but no people can form their tempers better than they do to their stations. They are taught from their iminicy to bridle their passions, to behave submissively to their superiors, and live \yiihia the bounds of the most rigid economy. Hence they save their money and their c"nstitutions ; and few instances of murder, perjury, robbery, and other atrocious vices, occur at present in Scotland. Tliey seldom enter singly upon any daring enterprise; but when they act in concert, the secrecy, sagacity and resolution, with which they carry on anv de- sperate undertaking, is not to be paralleled; and their fidelity to one another, under the strongest ten)piations arising iVoni their poverty, is still more extraordinary. Their mobs are managed witli all the caution of conspiracies ; wihiess that which put Portcu;? to death in 1/30, in open defiance of law and government, and in the midst of 20,000 people : and tliongh the agents were well known, and some of them apprehended and put on their trials with a reward of 5(X)/. annexed ty ' 1; i.' li. in 310 SCOTLAND. it: ; 1 i.'i 1*^ their conviction, yet no evidence could be found suflRcient to bring tJicm to imnishnient. 'I'he fidelity of the Highlanders of both sexes, under a still greater temptation, to the young pretender, after his defeat at Cullo- den. I'ould scarcely be believed, were it not well attested. They aftbet a fondness for the memory and language of their forefa- thers beyond perhaps any people in the world. They are fond of an- cient Scotch dishes, such as the liaggess, tlic sheep's head singed, the fish in sauce, tlic chicken broth, and minced coUops. These dishes, in their original dressing, were savoury and nutritive for keen appetites ; but ihe modern improvements that have been made in the Scotch cookery have rendered them agreeable to the most delicate palates. The inhabitants of most parts of Scotland, who live chiefly by pastiire, have a natural vein for poetry ; and the beautiful simplicity of the Scotch tunes is relished by all true judges of nature. Those of a lively and merry strain have been introduced into the army by the files, an in- strument for which they are remaikably well suited. It has been ridi- culously supposed that Ri/,/,io, the unhappy Italian secretary of Mary c]ueen of Scots, reformed the Scotch music. I'his is a falsehood in- ventH by his country, in envy to the Scots, Their finest tunes existed in their churcli music, loiicc before Rizzio's arrival; nor docs it appear that llizzio, who was chiefly employed by his mistress in foreign dis- patchi\s, rvv r composed an air during the short time he Uved in Scotland: but were then' no otlier evidences to confute tliis report, the original character of the music itself is sufficient, 111!' common people cf Scotland retain the solemn decent manner of their incestors at burials. When a relation dies in a town, the parish beadle is sent round with a passsing-bell ; but he stops at certain places, and with a slow melancholy tone annoiuices the name of the party de- ceased, and the time of his interment, to which he invites all his fellow countrymen. At T hour ajipointed, if the deceased was beloved in the place, vast numbers attend. The procession is sometimes preceded by {''■■ magistrates and their ofiicers. and the body is carried in a coffin, covered by a velvet pall, with chair-poles, to the grave, where it is in- tened, without a.iy oration or address to the people, or prayers, or fur- tlier ceremon) , than the nearest relation thanking the company for their attendant e. The funerals of the nobility and gentry are pertbrmed in much the same manner as in England, but without any funeral service. The Highland funerals were generally preceded by bagpipes, which played certain dirges, called coronachs, and were accompanied by the voices of die attendants of both se,\cs. Dancing is a favourite amusement in this country ; but little regard is paid to nrt or gracefulness : the whole consists in agility, and in keep- ing time to their own tunes, which they do with great exactness. One of tb- peculiar diversions practised by the gentlemen, is the Croff", which requires an eciual degree of art and strength : it is played with a bat and a ball, and resembles that of the Mull, which was common in England ill ihe middle of the seventeenth century. The diversion of Cirr/m^is,per- h.^ps, peculiar to the Scots. It is performed upon ice, with large flat stones, often from twenty to two hundred pounds weight each, which they hurl from a common stand towards a mark at a certain distance ; and who- ever is nea«i;t the mark is the victor. These two may be called the ^landing winier and summer diversions in Scotland. I'iie 'iress of the Highlanders is a kind of national characteristic, a description of which must not be omitted. The Highland plaid is touipujed of a woollen stufi", sometimes very fine, called turlun. This eonsi Tighl skill shirl the thej SCOl'LAND. 311 iicm ler a lUo. efa- an- tho in tes; )tch consists of varioas colours, forming sti'ipes which cross cncli otlier at right J\figles } anJ the natives v:iluc iheiuselves on the judicious arrange- nicnt, or what they call sets of those stripes and colours, which, when skilfully managed, protlucc a pleasing etfect to the eye. Alxivc the shirt, tlie Highlander wears a waistcoat of the same composition with the plaid, whioh commonly consists of twelve jards in width, and which they throw over the shoulder nearly in the form of a Roman toga, as represented in ancient statues ; sometimes it is fastened round the mid- dle witli a leathern belt, so that part of the plaid hangs down before and behind like a petticoat, and supplies the want of breeches. This they call being dressed in a pliclii^, but the Lowlanders call it a kilt, which la probably the same word with Celt. Sometimes they wear a kind of petticoat of tlie same variegated stuff, buckled round the waist j and this they term the plielihcj:, w hich seems to be of Milesian extraction. Their stockings are likewise of tartan, tied below the knee with tartan garters formed into Uissels, The poorer people wear upon their feet brogues made of uiV.anued or unch-essed leather ; for their heads a blue flat cap is used, called a bonnet, of a particular woollen manufacture. From iJie belt of the {)helibeg hung generally their knives and a dagger, which they called a dirk, and an iron pistol, sometimes of tine workmanship, iind curiously inlaid with silver. The introduction of the broad sword of Andrea Ferrara, a Spaniard, (which was always part of the Highland dress) seems to be no earlier than the reign of James III., who invited that excellent workman to Scotland. A large leathern purse, richly adorned with silver, hanging before, was always part of a Highland chieftain's dress. The dress of the Highland women consisted of a petticoat and jerkin, with strait sleeves, trimmed or not trimmed, according to the quality of the wearer. Over this they wore a plaid, which they either held close under their chins with tlie hand, or fastened with a buckle of a parti- cular fashion. On the head they woie a kerchief of tine linen of dif- ferent forms. The women's plaid has been but lately disused in Scot- land by the ladies, who wore it m a graceful manner, the drapery falling towards the feet in large folds. A curious virtuoso may find a strong resemblance between the variegated and fimbriated draperies of tlie Scots, and those of the Tuscans (who were unquestionably of Celtic ori- ginal) as they are to be seen in tlie monuments of antiquity. The attachment of the Highlanders to this dress rendered it a bond of union, which often proved dangerous to the government. Many eftbrts had been made by the legislature, after the rebellion in 1715, to disarm them, and oblige them to conform to the Lowcountry dresses. The dis- arming scheme was the most successful ; for when the rebellion in 1745 broke out, tlie common peoj)le had scmxely any other arms tlian those which tjiey took from the king's troops. Their overtlirow at Culloden rendered it no dithcuk matter for the legislature to force them into a to- tal change of their dress. Its conveniency, however, for the purposes of tlie tield, is so great, that the Highland regiments still retain it. Even tlie common people have of late resumed the use of it ; and, for its lightivss and the freedom it gives to the body, many of the Highland gentlemen wear it in the summer time. The dress of tlie higher and middle ranks of the Low-country diiiiirs little or nothing from the En- glish J but many of tlie peasantry still retain tlie bonnet, for the Cheap- ness and lightness of the wear. Cities, chief towns, and fdifices.] Edinburgh, the capital ot ^^otland, naturally claims tlie hri>t place under this head. Tlie castle. il I \i\ n ','11 312 SCOTLAND., ];efore the use of artillery, ■was deemed to be impregnable. It was pro- bably built by the Saxon king lidwiii, whose territory reached to the Firth of Forth, and who gave his name to Edinburgh, as it certainly did noi fall into the hands of the Scots till the reign of Indulphus, who lived in the year [)5ii. I'he town was built for the benetit of protection from the castle ; and a more inconvenient situation for a capital can scarcely be conceived ; the High-street, which is on the ridge of a hill, lying east and west ; and the lanes running down its sides north and south. In former times, the town was surrounded by water, excepting towards the east ; so that, when the French landed in Scotland during the re- gency of Mary of Guise, they gave it the name of Lislebourg. This .situation suggested tlie idea of building very lofty houses, divided into stories, each of which contains a suite of rooms, generally large and commodious, for the use of a farnily ; so that the High-street of Edin- burgh, which is chiefly of hewn stone, broad, and well paved, makes a grand appearance, esj)ccially as it rises a full mile in a direct line and gradual ascent from the palace of Holyrood-house on the east, and is terminated on the west by the rude majesty of its castle, built upon a }ot\y rock, inaccessible on all sides, except where it joins to the city. The castle not only overlooks the city, its environs, gardens, the new town, and a fine rich neighbouring country, but conmiands a most ex- tensive prospect of the river Forth, t!ie shipping, tlie opposite coast of Fife, and even some hills at the distance of 4<) or 50 miles, which border upon the Highlands. I'his crowded population, however, was so ex- tremely inconvenient, that the English, who seldom went fiirther into the couutiT, returned with the deepest impression of Scotch nastiness, which became proverbial. The castle has some good apartments, a to- lerable train of artillery, and has not only a large magazine of arms and ammunition, but contains the regalia, which were deposited here under the most solemn legal instruments, engaging that they should not be removed tVt)m thence. All that is known at present of those regalia is contained in the instrument which \\as taken at the time of their being deposited, where they are fully described. Facing the castle, as has been already observed, at a mile's distance, stands the abbc\-, or rather palace, of Hol-'-rood house. The inner <iUadraugIe of this palace, begun by James V. and linished by Charles I., is of n::!gniiieent modern architecture, built according to the plan and luiuer tliC direction of sir William Bruce, a Scotch gentleman of family, jind one of tlie greatest architects of that age. Round the quadrangle run-, an are.i.le, adorned w ith pilasters j and the inside contains raagni- ii.'ont apartnjents. its long gallery contains lig-ures, some of which are from portraits, but all of them painted by modern artists, of the kings of JScoiland down to the time of the llevolution. James VII., when duke f)fYork, intended to have maile great improvements about this palace ; for at present nothing can be more uncomfortable than its situation, at the bottom of bleak, unimproved crags and mountains, witli scarcely a single tree in its neighbourJiood. 'I'he hos[)ital, foiuidcd by George Hcrriot, goldsmith to James VI., cgmmcnly called Herriot's Work, stands to the south-west of the castle, in a noble situation. It is the linest anti most regular specimen which Ini^o Jones (who went to Scotland ai architect to queen Anne, wife of king James V'l.), has left us of I-"s Gotliic maimer, and far exceeding any thing of that kind to be seen ih raigland. One Balcangiihille, a di- vine, whom Herriot left his executor, is said to have prevailed upon Jones to admit some barbarous devices into the building, particularly tito . WIJ soil upl gaJ chl \ui| Wi kill wll sail nel SCOTLAND. 313 windows, and to have insisted that the ornaments of each should b« somewhat dirterent from those of the others. It is, nolwitiistanding, upon the whole, a delightful fabric, and adorned with gardens not inele- gantly laid out. It was Imilt for tlie maintenance and education of poor children belonging to the citizens and tradesmen of Edinburgh, and is xuidcr the direction of the city magistrates. Among the other public editices of Edinburgh, before the Revolution, ^yas tiie college, which claims the privileges of an university, founded by king Ja:nes VI., and by him put under the direction of the magistrates, who have the power of chancellor and vice-chancellor. Little can be said of its buildings, which were calculated for the sober literary man- ners of those days ; they are, however, improvable, and may be rendered elegant. What is of tar more importance, it is supplied with excellent professors in the several branches of learning ; and its schools for every part of the medical art are reckoned ec^ual to any in Europe. This col- lege is provided with a library, founded by one Clement Little, which has been of late greatly augmented ; and a museum belonging to it was given b} „ir Andrew Balfour, a physician. The Parliament Square, or, as it is there called. Close, was formerly the most ornamental ^>art of this city : it is formed into a very noble quadrangle, part of which consists of lofty buildings ; and in the middle is a fine equestrian statue of Charles II. The room built by Charles L for the parliament-house, though not so large, is better proportioned than Westminster-hall ; and its roof, tliough executed in the same man- ner, has been by good judges held to be superior. It is now converted into a court of law, where a single judge, called the lord-ordin:ny, pre* sides by rotation : in a room near it sit the other judges ; and adjoining are the public offices of the law, exchequer, chancery, shrievalty, and magistracy of Edinburgh ; and the valuable library of tlie lawyers. The latter equals any thing of the kind to be found in England, or perhaps in any part of Europe, and w is at first entirely fbundeil and furnished by lawyers. The number of printed books it contains is amazing; and the collection has been made with exquisite taste and judgment. It contains likewise the most valuable m;uiuscript remains of the Scottish history, chartularies, and other papers of antiquity, witli a series of medals. The high church of Edinburgh, called that c( St. Giles, is now di- vided into four churches, ami a room where the gcnerjl assembly sits. It is a large Gothic building, and its steeple is surmounted by arches, formed into an imperial crown, which his a good effect. The modern editices in and near Edinburgh, such as the Exchange, public oihces, its hospiuils, bridges, and the like, demonstrate the great inipiovement of the t;iste of the Scots in their public works. Parallel to the city of Edinburgh, on the iu>rlh, the nobility, gentry, and otiiers, hive erected a new town, liie streets and squares are laid out with the utmost regularity, and the houses are built with stone, in an ele- gant tastf'. Eetwecn the old and the new town lies a narro'.V bottom or vale, which, agreenbly to the (.)riginal plan, w as to have been formed into a sheet oi' water, bordered bv a terrace-walk, and the asi;ent towards the new town covered with pl<,'iisure-gardens, shrubberies, &:c. This design, however, has not yet "Oeen carried into execution. At the west or upper end of this \:ile, the castle, a solid rock, noi less than twenty stories high, looks clown witli awful mngnllicence. The eastern extremity is bounded by a lofty bridge, tlic middle aich being uhwiy feet high, which joins the tR 1 1 i|ljW V '' 'ill 1 i 1 'ill,, i 314 SCOTLAND. new buildings to the city, and renders tlic descent on each side the vale (there being no water in tliis place) more connnodious for carriages. Edinburgh contains a playhouse, sanctioned by act of parliament j and concerts, assemblies, balls, music-meetings, and other polite amuse- ments, are as frequent and brilliant here, as in any part of his majesty's dominions, London and Bath excepted. In the new town are several handsome and convenient hotels, and tlie cotl'ee-houses and taverns ax tlie old town arc much improved. Edinburgh is governed by a lord provost, four bailies, a dean of guild, and a treasurer, annually chosen from the common-council. The lord provost is colonel of the town-guard, a military institution to be found in no part of his majest)''s dominions but in Edinburgh ; they ser\'c for tlie city watch, and patrol the streets, are useful in suppicssing smal! commotions, and attend the execution of criminals. Besitles this guard, Edinburgh raises sixteen companies of trained bands, which serve as militia. The number of inhabitanis m Edinburgh, according to the oe- turns under the late act, is H2,56o. The revenues of the city consist chiefly of that tax which is now common in most of tlie bodies corporate in Scotland, of two Scotch pennies, amounting in the whole to two thirds of a farthing, laid on every Scotch pint of ale (containing two English quarts) consumed within the precincts of the city. Its product has been sufficient to defray the expense of supplying the city with ex- cellent water, brought in leaden pipes from the distance of four miles ; of erecting reservoirs, enlarging the harbour of Leith, and completing other public works, of great expense and utility. Leith, though near two miles distant, may l>e pro[->erly called tlie har- bour of Edinburgh, being under die same jurisdiction. It contains no- thing remarkable but the remains of two citadels (if they are not the same), which were fortilied and bravely defended by the French, under Mary of Guise, against the English, and afterwards repaired by Crom* well. l"he neighbourhood of Edinburgh is adorned \\ itii noble seats, which are daily increasing : some of them yield to few in England. About four miles from Edinburgh is Roslin, noted for a stately Gothic rhapel, esteemed one of the most curious pieces of workmanship hi Europe; founded in the year 1440, by Wil.'iam St. Clair, prince of Orkney, and duke of Oldenburgh. Glasgow, in the shire ot Lanark, situated ori a gentle declivity sloping towards the river Clyde, 44 miles west of Edinburgh, is, for population, commerce, and rii hes, the s-econd city in Scotland, and, considering its size, the first in Great Britain, and perhaps in Europe, as to elegance, regularity, and tlie beautilVd materials of its buildings. The streets cross each other at right angles, and are broad, straight, well paved, and conscfjueiuiy clean. Tiie houses make a grand a[)pearance, and are in general four or five stories high, and many of them, towards the centre of t!ie city, are suppiU'ted by arcades, which Ibrm pia/.zas,, and give the vliole an lir of maLrnificeuce. Some of the modern-built churches are in the finest style of arihitecture ; and the cathedral is a stupendous Gothic building, liardly to be paralleletl in that kind of architecture. It contains three t hnrches, one of which stands above another, and is fur- nished v.iili a \ cry line spire springing Irom a tower; the whole being reckoneil a masterly and matchless fabric. It was dedicated to St. IVhuigo, (>•• Kentigern, v. ho was l)i^h(lp of (Jlasgow in the (Jth century. The cathedral is upwards of tjkX) years old, and was preserved from the fury oi' the rigid refurmerft by the resolution of the citizens. The tqwu*- lious traie any it is fort chui nom SCOTLAND. 315 the lor house is a lofty building, and has very noble apartments for the magis- trates. The university is esteemed the most spacious and best built of any in Scothind. In this city are several well-endowed hospitals ; and it is particularly well supplied with large and convenient inns, proper for the acconnuodation of strangers of any rank. In Glasgow are seven churches, and eight or ton meeting houses for sectaries of various de- nominations. The uumbt-r of its inhabitants is 17,385. Aberdeen may be consitlered as the third town in Scotland for im- provement and population. It is the capital of a shire, to which it gives its name, and contains two towns, New and Old Aberdeen. The former is the shire town, and evidently built for the purpose of conunerce. It is a hirge well-built city, and has a good quay, or tidcharbour : in it are three churches, and se\eral episcojial meeting-houses. It has a con- siderable degree of foreign commerce and much shipping, a well-fre- quented university, and about '20,0(.)0 inhabitant.s. Old Aberdeen, near a niilf distant, though almost joined to the New by means of along village, has no dependence on the other ; it is a moderately large market town, but has no haven. In each of these two places there is a well-en- dowed college, lu)th together being termed the university of Aberdeen, althoughquiie independent of eacli other. Perth, the capital town of Perthshire, lying on the river Tay, trades to Norw ay and the Baltic :, is finely situated, has an improving linen nianufactory, and lies in tliD neighbourhood of one of the most fertile .spots in Great Britain, called the Carse of Gowry. Perth was once the capital of Scotland. Here iht courts of justice sat, the parliament as- sembled, and the king resided : it was then defended by a strong castle, and is at present one of the raost regular and handsome towns i«i Scot- land: it contains about lo,0(.)0 inhabitants, Dundee contains about 26,000 inhabitants; it lies near the moutli of the river T.ty^ it is a town of considerable tra.de, exporting much linen, grain, herrings, ;'nd peltry, to sundry l"()reiL;n parts ; and has three churches. Montrose, Aberbrothick, and Brechin, lie in the same county of Angus : the first has M great and flourishing foreign trade, and the manufactures of the other two are in an improving state. CoM.MERCK, MANUi'ACTURKS.] The trade and manufactures of Scot- land are in most respects similar to those of England, though on a smaller scale, and li;" many years past have been rapidly improving. The ciiief exports are linen, grain, iron, lead, glass, woollen stuff's, soap, 8:c.; the imports are wines, brandy; and from the West Indies and America, rum, sugar, rice, cotton, and indigo. The total amount of the exports from Scotland in 17})3 was computed at 1,024,7-12/. and the number of ships employed were 2,234. The fisheries of Si-olland have been greatly improved of late years, and send large supplies to the Kngiisli and foreign markets. The busses, or vessels ein]>loyed in the greaf herring fishery on the western coasts of ScotlamL, are fitted out from the north-west parts of England, the north of Irelarui, as well as tlie numerous ports of the Clyde and neighbour- ing islands. The grand rendezvous is at Campbeltown,^ commodious port of Argyl(\-,hire, facing the north of Irelauti, where sometimes 300 vessels have been as.^rmbled. They clear out on the Tith of September, and must rerurn to tiieir diflerent ports on the 13th of January. They are also uniler certain regulations respecting the number of tons, men, nets, \c. But tliough the politie.d existence of Great l^ritain dei)ends n[)on the number ami braver) of l;er seamen, this fishery has hitherto la- boured -andcr man)- difficulties ; the adventurers m it having frequently 11 3l6 SCOTLAXD, been losers, in consequence of the bounty of 50s. per ton (since reduced to 30a-.), not having been regularly paid. The chief manufacture of Scotland is that of linen of vnriou.; kr.clr, cf which several years ago -IOO.CKjO yanls ^\ere yearly whitened i,i one hieachery on the banks of the Tay, and the wiiole quantiiy stamped fov iale in Scotland, be^ide what was made t<)r piuate n.se, ani'nuit^fl to above seventeen millions of yards, in value nearl) v;(tO,(i()0/. wLivl^ qa.:n- tity has been since increased. In liie town of Paisie) and its ntighbouv- hood on the Clyde, the quantity of w hite sew irig thread aniuuiily road"? was valued at 50,0(X)/. j and that of silk gauze, whieli is iieve afforded cheaper than in any otlier place, at 0'0,CXX)/. ; which mamiLcmres, tcge- ther with several others, have since coi,,iiderab]}' incie.'.sed, al /\'i lo,0(X) persons being employed and mainiainetl by tliiir,. Of t!^? vooUen manufactures c'' Scotland, that of carpels appears to be i>:e tnnst successful and productive. The iron works at Carron. one mile from Falkirk, are said to be the Im-gest in Europe ; above a thousand men are employed in them, and all sorts of iron goods are made from the smallest article to the largest cannon, a great quantity of which are exported to Germany, Russia, and other foreisrn cou'.itries. The siiort ])icce of ordinu.ce called a car- ronadc was tii lade here, and hence received its name. Constitution, govkknment, a\d laws.] The ancient "constitu- tion and government in Scotland have been higlily ap]">l;uuied, as excel- lently adapted to the preserviition of liberty ; and it is ceriam that the power of the king was greatly limited, and that there were many checks in the constitution upon him, which were well calculated to preveni his assuming or exercising a despotic authority. lUit the Scottish cr.; li- lution of government was loo much of the aristocraiit" kind u) ailbrd to the common people that equal liberty whicli tluy hail a right to expect. The king's authority was sutiiciently restrained; b.ut tiie nobJes, chief- tains, and great landholders, had it too much in their power to tyrannise over and oppress their tenants, and the common people. The ancient kings of Scotland, at their coronation, look the foUowinsi oath, coniaining three promises, viz. ' " 111 the name of Christ, I promise these tiu-ce things to the Christian people my subjects : First, that I shall give order. a;ul employ my force iuid assistance, that the church of Cod, and the Cliristian people, may rnjoy true [jcace during our time under onr government. Secondly, I shall prohibit and hinder all persons, of whatever degree, from vic/lence and injustice. I'hirdly, in all judgments 1 siiali follow the prescriptions of justice and mercy, to the end that our element and merciiij Go4 m:\v show mercy unto me and to )()u." TliC parliament of Scotland anciently consi;,ted of all w ho held any portion of land, however small, of the crown, l)y miiitary service. This parliament aj)pointed the time of its ovrii meetings aixl adjournments, iind committees to .superintend the admiui^tra'.'on duriiig the inierxals of j)arlianicnt ; it liad a cuUimanding power in all matters of govern- ment : it apprcfjniated the ])ublie inonty, ordered the keeping of it, and called for the accounts ; it armed the pcoj^Ie, and rippc/mtcd comniand- «'r.s ; it named and com;ni>>;oiied atul),i>vad<irs ; il granted .lud linfited paiflons ; it app>'inted judges and couvts ol judicature ; it named ollicers «')f state and piivy-counsellors ; it annexed and alienated the revenues (>f the crown,' and restrained grants by the king. The king of Scotland had no negative voice in jvn'lianunt ; nor could he dcx'lare war, make peace, or conclude any other public bu.siness of importance, without liie advlcj BO bo| the contc parli;| iis a)! aristcl b)- til duceci r'. the c'lIUl SCOTLAND. 317 advice mid npprohation of pnrliament. The prerogative of the king wtw «o bounded, that lie was not even intrusted with the executive part of the goMTiiniciit. And so kite as the minority of James IV., who wai contemporary w ith, and son-in-law to, Henry VII. of England, the pnilianient pointed out to him his duty, as the tirst servant of his people j as aj.'pears by the acL siili e\t:int. In short, the constitution was ratlier tirislocratical than monarchicar. The abuse of these aristocratical powers^ by the eliieftains and great landholders, gave the king, however, a very coiihiderable interest among the lower ranks j and a prince who had •ease and address to retain I he atl'eet ions (*f his people, was generally iible to ii'.unble the most overgrown of his suhjec ts ; but when, on the other hand, a king of Seoiland, like James III., showed a disres}.x'ct to liis parliament, the event was eomuionly fatal to the crown. Tlic king* of Scotland, notw ithstanding this paramount power in the parliament, found means to weaken and elude its force ; and in this tliey were as- sisted by the clergv, v\'hose revenues were immense, and who had very little dependence upon the pope, and were always jealous of the powerful liohility. I'liis wa;; done by establishing a select body of members, wlio were called the lords of the articles. These were chosen men out of tlia clergy, nobility, knights, and burge.ises. The bishops, for instance, ckos? eight peers, and the j)eers eiglit bishops ; and these sixteen jointly dio.se eight barons (or knights of the shiie), and eight commissioners for burglis ; and to all tluise were added eight great othcers of state, tli^ chancellor being president of the wliole. Their business was to prepare all ijuostions and bills, and other mat- ters brought into parliament; so 'hat in liict, though the king could give no negati\e, yet being, by his clergy, and the places he had to bestow, alwavs sure of the k)ids of the articles, nothing coidd conni into parliament that could call for his negative. It must be acknow- ledged that this institution seems to have prevailed by stealth; nor wfis it e\er brought into any regular system ; even its modes varied ; and the greatest law yers are ignorant \s hen it took place. The Scots, how- ever, never lost sight. ot their original ])rincipies ; and though Cliarles J. wished to form these lords of iiie ariieles huo regular machines for his own despotic purpo'.es, he tound it impracticable ; and the melancholy conse(|ue:ices are well known. At the revolution, the Scots gave a fresh instance how w oil tiu'y understood the princii)les of liberty, by finiitting all pedantic debates about ahdiciiiion, and the like terms, and voting king .lames at once to lun^; foifeited his cruwii ; which lliey gave to the priiiee arid ])rineess of Orange, This ,-,]iiii( ,)f resi.taiiee was the more '•emarkable, as the people of Scotland had groaned eiider t!)e most insupportable ministerial tyranny ever since the He.-.U)iation. If it lie abked. Why did they submit to that tyranny r — the ;'.uswer is, In ordf^r to prescr\e that independency of England, w hieh Ciomwell and his parliament endeavoured to destroy by unili'.ig them with Kugland. Thty theretore chose rather to submit to a temporary evil ; but they took the first opportunity tu get rid of their oppressois. Scotland^ when it was a ?cpirate kin!::;dom, cannot be said to h.ave had any pceiT, in the Englidi seii.e of the word. The nitbililv, who were dukes, mar(iuisc,-;, eaiK, ;uid lords, weie by the king made hereditary member;' of parliament ; but they formed no distinct hoUiO : for they sat in list s.'jme room with the ee-mmons, who had the same delibera- tive and <leeisive vote with ihem in all p\iblie matters. A baron, though nut a bjiou of :a:nc:it, might )it r;:)o:i .:>. Lrd'a as.-;i/,c in mattors of r^ 1^ i if ''« i 313 SCOTLAND. ■^. W I J;l |: ..S i if •>■ life and death ; nor was it necessary for the assizers, or jury, to be una-- rimous in their verdict. The feudal customs, even at the time of the Restoration, were so prevalent, and the rescue of the great criminal was commonly so much appi-ehended, that seldom above two days passed between the sentence and execution. Great uncertainty occurs in the Scottish history, by" confounding par- liaments with conventions : the diiferencc was, that a parHamcnt could enact laws as well as impose taxes ; a convention, or meeting of the states, only met for the purpose of taxation, ikforc the Union, the kings of Scotland had four great and four lesser officers of state : the great were, the lord high chancellor, high treasurer, privy seal, and se- cretary j (he four lesser were, the lords register, advocate, treasurer- depute, and justice clerk. Since the Union, none of these continue, excepting the lords privy-seal, register, advocate, and justice-cLik. A tliird secretary of state has occasionally been nominated by the king fur Scottish aflairs, but under the same denomination as the otlier two se- cretaries. The above otficcrs of state sat in the Scotch parhament by virtue of their offices. The officers of the crown were, the high-chamberlain, constable, ad- miral, and marshal. The offices of constable and marshal were heredi- tary. A nobleman has still a pension as admiral 5 and tlie office of marshal is exercised by a knight-marshal. The office of chancellor of Scotlnnd diffiincd little from the same in England. The same may be said of the lords treasurer, privy-seal, and secretaiy. The lord-register was head-clerk to the parliament, conven- tion, treasury, exchequer, and session, and keeper of all public records. Though this office was only durmg the king's ple:isure, yet it was very lucrative by the di!-pos:il of the deputation, which lasted during life. He acted as teller to the piiliamcnt ; and it was dnngerous for any member to dispute his report of the numbers upon division. The lord ad\ ocate's office resembles that of the attorney-general in England, only his powers are far rncre extensive ; because, by tlie Scottish laws, he is the prose- cutor of all capital crimes before the justiciary, and likewise concurs iu all pursuits before sovereign courts, for breaches of the peace, and also in :ill matters civil, wherein the king or his donator hath interest. Two solicitors are iKimcd by his majesty, by way of assistants to the lord ad- vocate. The office of justice-clerk entitles the pas.ses.sor to {.reside in the criminal court of justice, while the justice-general, an otEce which will hereafter be mentioned, is absent. The ancient constitution of Scotland admitted of many other oflices both of tile crown and state,; but they are either now extinct, ()•• too in- O-insiderable to be described here. That cf Lyon king at arms, or the rex fsEcialium, or grand herald of Scotland, is still in l)elng ; and it was foimerly an office of great splendour and importance, insomuch that the science of hcraldiy was preserxed there in greater purity than in any otlier country in Europe. This officer was exen crow ned solemnly in parliament with a golden circle; and his autliorii^ (wliich is not the case in England), in all armorial affairs, might be cairitd into execution by rhe civil law. The pri\y coancil of Scotland, before the Revolution, had, or as- sumed, in(|uisitorial powers, even that of torture ; but it is now sunk iu the parliament and j)rivy-council of Great Kritain ; and the civil smd niminal causes in Scotland are chietiy cognisable by two courts of ju- dicature. Tlie iirst i» dut of tibc cjllegc yf justiix", which was instituted by SCOTLAND. 31c» James V., after the moderof the French pailiament, to supply an am- bulatory committee of parliament, who took to themselves the names of the loids of council and session, which tlie present members of the col- lege of justice still retain. This court consists of a president and four- teen ordinary members, besides extraordinary ones named by the king, who may sit and vote, but have no salaries and are not bound to attend- ance. This court may be called a standing jury in all matters of pro- perty tliat lie before them. The civil law is their directory in all mat- ters that come not withm the municipal laws of the kingdom. It has been often matter of surprise, that the Scots w ere so tenacious of the forms of their court, and the essence of their laws, as to reserve them by the articles of the Union. This, however, may be easily accounted for, because those laws and forms were essential to tlie possession of estates and lands, which in Scotland are often held by modes incompa- tible with the laws of England. The lords of council and session act likewise as a court of equity ; but their decrees are (fortunately perhaps for the subject) reve'-sible by tlie British house of lords, to which an appeal lies. The supreme criminal judge was named the Justiciar, and tJie court of justiciary succeeded to his power. The justice-court is the highest criminal tribunal in Scotland ; but in its present form it was instituted so late as the year 1072, when a lord- justice-general, removable at the king's pleasure, was appointed. This lucrative olhce still exists in the person of one of the chief nobility j but tlie ordinary members of the court are the justice-cierk and five other judges, who are always nominated from the lords of session. In this court the verdict of a jury condenu)s or acquits ; but, as has been already hinted, witliout the necessity of tlioir being unanimous. Besides liiese two great courts of law, the Scots, by the articles of the Union, ha\e a court of exchequer, lliis court has the same power, aulliority, privilege, and jurisdiction, over the revenue of Scotland, as the court of exchequer in England has over the revenue thei e ; and all matters and tliings competert to the court of exchequer in England relating thereto, are likewise competent to the exchequer of Scotland. The judges of the exchequer in Scotland exercise certain powers which formerly belonged to the treasury, and are stiil vested in that o^ England. TJie court of admiralty in Scotland was, in the reign of Charles II., by act cf parliament, declared to be a supreme court, in all causes com- petent to its own jurisdiction : and tlie lord iu.j,h admiral is declared to be th^^ king's lieutenant and justioe-reneral upon the; seas, and in all ports, haru'nirs, and creeks of the same ; and upon fresh v/atcrs and na- vigable rivcr'J. below the tirst bridge, or within Hood-maik j so that no- thing competent lo its jurisdiction can be meddled with, in the lirst in- stance, but by the lord high-admiral and judges "f his court. Sentence^j passed in all interior courts of admiralty may be brought again before this court : but no appeal lies from it to the lot ds of the session, or any othei judicatory, unless in cases not maritime. Caascs are tried in this couit by tiic civil law, which in some c.:sl-s is likewise the common law of Scotland, as weil as by the laws t>f Oleruu, Wisby, and the Ilanse-l owns, and other maritime practices and decisions common upon the continent. The place of lord-admiral uf Scotland is little more than nominal : but the salary anne:ied to it is reckoned worth 1000/. a year j and the judge of the admiralty is connuunly a lawyer of distinction, with considerable perquisites pertaining tq liib office. m. n mi ii' 320 SCOTLAND. The college or faculty of advocates, which answers to the English inns of court, may be cjilled the seminary of Scottish lawyers. They are within themselves an orderly court, and their forms require great precision and examination to qualify the candidates for admission. Sub- ordinate to them is a body of inferior lawyerSj or, as they may be called, attorneys, who call themselves writers to the signet, because they alone can subscribe the writs that pass the signet ; they likewise have a by- government for their own regulation. Such are the difterent law-court* that are held in the capital of Scotland : we shall pass to those that are inferior. The government of the counties in Scotland was formerly vested in shcrilf"^ and stewards, courts of regality, baron-courts, commissaries, jus- tices of the peace, and coroners. Formerly sheriti'doms were generally hereditable ; but by act of par- liament, they are now all vested in the crown ; it being enacted, that all liigh sheriffs, or stewarils, shall, for the future, be nominated and ap- pointed annually by his majesty, liis heirs, ainl successors. In regard to the sheriff-deputes, and steward-deputes, it is enacted that there shall only be one in each county, or stewartry, who must be an advocate, of three years standing at least. For the space of seven years, these de- puties arc to be noniina^ed by tlie king, with such continuance as his majesty shall think tit; after which they are to enjoy their office rtrf vi- trim uut ctdpam, that is, for life, unless guilty of some olfence. Some otiiev regulations have been likewise introduced, highly for the credit of tiie sheritFs courts. Stewartries were formerly part of the ancient royal domain ; and the stc\\-ards had much the same power in them as the sheriti' had in hia county. Courtsof regality of old were held by virtue of a royal jurisdiction vested in the lord, with particular immunities and privileges ; but tliese were so dangerous and so extravagant, that all the Scotch regalities ar« now dissolved by act of parliament. Baron courts belong to every person who holds a barony of the king. In civil matters they extend to causes not exceeding forty shillings ster- ling ; and in criminal ca.^es, to petty actions of assault and battery; but the punishme'\c is not to exceed twenty shillings sterling, or setting the delincjuent in the stocks for three hoars in the day-time. These courts, ho\ve\er petty, were in former days invested A\'ith tlie power of life and dealh, v/hich they have now lost. The courts of commissaries in Scotland answer to those of the English diocesan chancellors, the higiiest of which is kept at Edinburgh; where- in, before four judges, actions are pleaded concerning matters relating to ^\'ills and testaments, the right of patnjuage to ecclesiastical benetices, tithes, divorces, and causes of that nature; but in almost all other parts of the kingdom there sits but one judge on these causes. Accord. ng to the present institution, justices of ilie peace In Scotland exercise nearly tlie same powers as those in England. In former times their otiice, though of very old standing, v/as insignificant, being cranij)ed by the powers of the great feudjil tyrants, wiio tibtained an act of"parliam(,'nt, that they were not to take cognisance of riots till fifteen days after the fact. The institution of coroner is as old as the reign of Malcolm II. the great legislator of Scotland, who lived before the Norman invasion of England. They took cjgnisauca of all breaches of the king's peace j an te se h£ SCOTLAND. 331 and ihey were required to have clefks to register depositions and mat- ters of fact, as well as verdicts of jurors ; the office, however, is at pre- sent, much disused in Scotland. The legal punishments in Scotland are nearly the same as in England, cnly that of beheading is performed by an instrument called the Maiden, which resembles the French guillotine ; and of which the model was brought from Halifax in England, to Scotland, by the regent, earl Mor- ton ; where it was first used for the execution of himself. From the above short view of the Scotch laws and institutions, it is plain that tliey were radically the same witli those of tlie English. The latter allege, indeed, that the Scots borrowed the contents of their Re- giam Majestatem, tljeir oldest law-book, from the work of Glanville, who was a judge under Henry II. of England. The Scots, on the other hand, say that Glanville's work was copied from their Regiam MajestU" tern, even with the peculiarities of the latter, which do not now, and never did, exist in the laws of England. The royal burghs in Scotland form, as it were, a commercial parlia- ment, which meets once a year at Edinburgh, consisting of a represen- tative from each burg, to consult upon the common good of the whole. Their powers are extensive ; and before the Union they made laws re- lating to shipping, to masters and owners of ships, to mariners and mer- chants by wliom they were freighted ; to manufactures, such ks plaid- ing, linen, and yarn ; to the curing and packing of fish, salmon, and herrings, and to the importing and exporting several commodities. The trade between Scotland and the Netherlands was subject to their regula- tion ; they fixed the staple port, which was formerly at Dort, and after- wards at Campvere. Their conservator is indeed nominated by the crown j but then their convention regulates his power, approves his deputies, and appoints his salary : so that m truth the whole staple trade is sub- jected to their management. Upon the whole, this is a very singular institution, and sufficiently proves the vast attention which the govern- ment of Scotland formerly paid to trade. It took its present form in tlie reign of James III. 1487> and had excellent consequences for the benefit of commerce. The conformity between the practice of the civil law of Scotland, and that in England, is remarkable. The English law-reports are of the same nature with the Scotch practice ; and their acts of scdcruiit answer to the English rules of court ; the Scottish wadsetts and reversions, to the English mortgages and defeasances ; their poinding of goods, after letters of horning, is much tlie same as the English executions upon outlawries ; and an appeal against the king's pardon, in cases of mur- der, by the next of kin to the deceased, is admitted in Scotland as well as in England. Many other usages are the same in both kingdoms. Tliere was in particular an ancient custom, which proves the similarity between the English and Scottish constitutions. In old times, all the freohc^ders in Scotland met together in presence of the king, who was seated on the top of a hillock, which, in the old Scottish constitution, was called the Moot, or Mute-hill ; all national affairs were here trans- acted, judgements given, and uifierences ended. This Moot-hill was probably of the same nature as the Saxon Folcmote, and signified only the hill of meeting. Order of the thistle.] This is a rrjlitary order instituted, as tlie Scotch writers assert, by their king Achaius, in the ninth centxiry, upon. his making an offensive and defensive IcajTJe with Charlemagne, king of France j or, as others say, on account of his victory over Athelstan., j. 322 ]}'' ^' SCOTLAND. If;; i king of England, when he vowed in the kirk of St. Andww, that li^; and his posterity should ever bear in their ensigns the hgure of tiiat cross on which the saint suffered. It has been frequently neglected, and as often resumed. It consists of the sovereign and twelve companions, who are callf;d Knights of the Thistle, and have on their ensign this significant motto, Ntmo me impiiM laccaet, " None shall safely pro- voke me." KelktIon.] Ancient Scottish historians, with Bcde and other writ- cr.>, generally agree that Christianity was first taught hi Scotland by some of the disciples of St. John the Apo.tlc, who lied to tliis nortliern country to avoid tlie persecution of Domiiian, the Roman emperor ; though it was not publicly professed till tlie beginning of the third cen- tury, when a prince, whom Scotch historians call Donald the First, his queen, and several of his nobles, were solemnly baptised. It was far- ther confirmed by emigrations from South Britain, during the persecu- tions of Aurelius and Dioclesian, when it became the established reli- gion of Scotland, under the management of ceitsiin learned and pious men, named Culdees, who seem to have been the first regular clergy in Scotland, and were governed by overseers or bishops chosen by ihem- selves from among their ov.'n body, and who had no pre-eminence of rank over the rest of their brethren. Thus, independetit of the church of Rome, Christianity seems to have been taught, planted, and finally confirmed in Scotland as a national church, where it flourished in its native simplicity, till the arrival oi Palladius, a priest sent by rhe bishop of Rome in the fifth century, who found means to introduce the modes and ceremonies of the Romish church, which at length prevailed, and Scotland became involved in that darkness which for ages overspread Europe ; though its dependency: upon the pope was very slender, when compared to the blind subjection of many other nations. The Culdees long maintained their original manners, and remained a distinct order, notwithstanding the oppres.sion of the Romish clergy. till the age of Robert Brace in the 14th ceiitur}', when they dis appeared. Soon after the power of the pope in England was • destroyed by -Henry VIII. a similar reformation begai% in Scotland, in the reign ot James V. ; it made great progress under U^t of his daughter Mary, and was completed through the preaching of John Knox, who had adopted the doctrines of Calvin, and was the chief reformer of Scotland. The religion at present established by law in Scotland, ditl'crs chiefly from that of the church of England, in having for its fundamental prin- ciple a parity of rank and authority among its clergy ; all its ecclesi- astics, or presbyters, being equal in dignity, and forming among them- selves a kind of ecclesiastical commonwealth of the democratic .species. It agrees with the reformed churches abroad in its opposition to popery; but it is modelled principally after the Calvinistical plan established at Geneva. This establishment, at various i>eriods, proved so tyrannical over the laity, by having the power of the great and lesser excommuni- cation, which were attended by a forfeiture? of estate, and sometimes of life, that the kirk sessions, and other bodies, have been abridged of ail their d nigerous powers over the laity, who were extremely jealous of their being revivetl. Even that relic of popery, the obliging fornicators of both sexes to sit upon what they call a repenting stool, in the church, and in full view of the congregation, begins to wear out, it having beeii found that tlie Scotcli women, on account of that penayice. SCOTLAND. 828 were the £;re.itei3t infanticides in the world. In short, the power of the .Sc^..tc]i clei;;/ i^ at present vary niddfrate, or at least very moderately cxcrciacdj nor are they accountable for tJie extravagancy of their pre- decessors. They have been, ever since the Revolution^ fn'ni adherents to ci\ il liberty, and the huuse of Hanover, and acted ^\ ith remarkable intrepidi'v during the rebellion in 17-45. They dress without clerical r(jbes : bat some of them appear in the pulpit in gown-., after the Ge- neva form, and bands. Tiicy make no use of set forms in worship. The rents of the bislu)ps, since the abolition of episcopacy, are paid to the king, who coanrionly appropriates them to pious purposes. A thousand pounds a year is always sent by his niajt'sty for the uac of pro- testant schools erected by act of parliament in North Britain, and the western isles ; and the Scotch clergy, of late, have instituted funds for tho support of their widows and orphans. T'he number of parishes in Scotland is g4l, of whlcli 31 are collegiate churches, that is, where the cure is served by inor-' than one minister. The highest ccclciiastical authority in Scr)t]and is the general assem- bly, which we may call tlie ccclesiasiical parliament of Scotland. It consists of commissioners, some of whom are laymen, under the title of ruling elders, from presbyLeries, royal burghs, and universities. A presbytery, consisting of less than tvveive rainisreri^v. ;-e;Hts \wo ministers and one ruling elder ; if it contain between twene and eighteen mi- nisters, it sends three, and one ruling elder ; if it contain between eighteen and twenty-four ministers, it sends four ministers and two ruling elders ; but if the presbytery have twenty-four :ninisters, it sends five ministers and two ruling elders. Every royal burgh sends one ruling elder, and Edinburgh two ; whose election must be attested by the respective kirk sessions of their own burghs. Every university sends one commissioner, usvxally a minister of their own body. These com- mi.ssioj.iers are chosen yearly, six weeks before the meeting of the as- sembly. The ruling elders are often persons of the first quality of the country. The king presides by his commissioner (who is always a no- bleman) in this assembly, which meets annually in May ; but he has no • voice in their deliberations. This assembly chooses a clergyman for \ic moderator, or speaker. Appeals are brought from all the other eccle- siastical courts in Scotland to the general assembly ; and no appeal lies from its determination in religious matters. Provincial synods are next in authority to the general assembly. They are composed of a number of the adjacent presbyteries, over v.-horri they have a power ; and there are fifteen of them in Scotland ; but their tictii are reversible by the gcjieral assembly. Subordinate to the synods, are presbyteries, of which tliere are sixty- nine in Scotland, each consisting of a number of contiguous parishes. The ministers of these parishes, with one ruling elder chosen ha^yearly out of every session, compose a presbytery. These presbyteries meet iii the head town of that division, but ii.ive no jurisdiction beyond their own bounds, though within these they iiave cognisance of all ecclesiastical causes and matters. A chief part of their business is the ordination of candidates for livings, in which they are regular and solemn. I'he pa- tron of a living is bound to nominate or present in six. months after a vacancy; otherwise the pre-.bylery rills the place ji«r<.' dcvoiiuo; but that privilege does not hold in royal burghs. A kirk session is the lowest ecclesi;stical judicatory in Scotland, and its authority does not extend beyond its own parish. The rT:cralc s con- siit of the ministers, elders, luid deacons. Tlie deacons aie lavinen, and Y 2 ..^... IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) '"^^#$^ (! ^j.4^ d ^o 1.0 I.I I L25 i 1.4 1^ Uk 1^ 1 2.2 1.6 III Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 4^ ^ . o^ |i : . Hi fel"*'' 9f 324 SCOTLAND. act nearly as cluuTluvnrdens do in England, by having the suj^crintend- cncy of tlic jioor, and taking care of otlier parochial affairs. The elder, or, as he is called, the ruling elder, is a place of great parochial trust, and he is generally a by-person of quality or interest in the parish. The elders are supposed to act in a kind of co-ordinacy with the minister, and to be assisting to him in many of his clerical duties, particularly in cate- chising, visiting tlie sick, and at the comminiion table. The olHce of ministers, or preaching presbyters, includes the offices of deacons and ruling elders ; they alone can preach, administer the sacra- ment, catechise, pronounce church censures, ordain deacons and ruling elders, assist at the imposition of hands upon other ministers, and mode- rate or preside in all ecclesiastical judicatories, The established religion of Scotland formerly partook of all the auste- rities of Cah inisni, and of too much of the intolerance of popery : but at present it is mikl and gentle ; and the sermons and oUier theological >\ritings of many of the njodern Scotch divines are equally distinguished by good sense and moderation. In the Low-lands there are a great num- ber of congrej^atiorv? who dissent from the presbyterian establishment and doctrines in several particulars, and are called Seceders. These are again subdivided into Burghers and Anti-burgbcrs. They maintain tlieir r)\vi\ preachers, though scarcely any two congregations agree eitlier in principle or practice with each other. The other dis'^enters, in Scotland, consist of tlic episcopalians, a few (piakers, many baptists, and other sectaries, who an^ denominated from tlieir preachers. Kpiscopacy, from the time of the llcstoration in 16QO, t() that of tlie Revolution in lti89, was the established religion of Scot- laiul ; and would j^robably have continued so, had not the bishops, who were in general very weak men, and creatures of the duke of York, .?fter\vards Jauie^ ML and IL, refused to recognise king William's title. 'J'lie partisans of that unhapp;, prince retained the episcopal religion : and king William's government was rendered so unpopular in Scotland, that in (jween Aime'.s time, the episcopalians were more numerous in some parts than the presliyterians ; and tlieir meetings, which they held under the act of toleration, as well attended. A Scotch episcopalian thus becoming another name for a Jacobite, they received some checks after the rclx'llion in l/ln; but they recovered themselves so well, that, at the breaking out of the rebellion in 1/45, they became again nume- rous J after which the government foun.d means to in\ alidate the acts of their clerical order. Their meetings, however, still subsist, but thinl)- j the decline of the nonjurors having suppressed episcopacy in Scotland. The English bishops supply them with clergy qualilied according to law, whose chapels are chiefly tilled by the Miiglish, and such Scotch hearers of that persuasion as have places under government. The defection of some great families from the cause of popery, and (be extinction of otlicrs, have rendered its votaries inconsiderable ia S(-'otland. They are chieHy conliued to the nrirthern parts, and tlie islands: and thcynpixjar to be as quiet nud inotlensive as protostant Sub- jects. Scotland, daring the time of episcopacy, contained two archbishoprics, St. Andrew's and (jlasgow; and twelve bishoprics, Edinburgh, Dunkeldj Aberdeen, Murray, Brechin, Dumblain, Roth, Caithness, Orkney, Gal- loway, Argyle, and the Isles. LiTKR\T\;nF.] For this articlr we may refer to the literary histon- of Rurojie for MOO yiars past. The western pans and isles of Scotland produced St. Patrick, Uie celebrated npuule of Ireland. The writings o tl S a SCOTLAND. 325 of Adamnanus, and other authors who lived before and at the timt^ of »hc NornKin invasion, which are still extant, are specimens of early Scotch learning. Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, most tuniuestion- abl} iieid a correspondence by letters with the kings of Scotland, wilJi whom he entered into a league ; and employed Scots in pLirMiin;^, set- tling, and ruling his favourite universities, and other seniinarieti of learn- ing, in France, lialy, and Germany. It is an undonbted truth, though a seeming paradoxical fact, that Barbour, a Scottish poet, philosoph. r, and historian, though prior in time to Chaucer, ha\ In^ flourished in the year 136'8, wrote, according to the modern ideas, as pure English as that bard ; and his versification is perhaps luore harmonious. T.he destruc- tion of tho Scottish monuments of learning and antitpiity has rendered their early annals lame, and often tabulous ; but the Latin style of Bu- chanan's history is equal in classical purity to that of any modern pro- ductions. The letters of tlie Scottish kings to the neighbouring princes are incomparably the finest compositions of the times in which they were written, and are free from the barbarisms of those sent tliem in answer. This has been considered as a proof that classical learning was more cul- tivated at the court of Scotland than at any other in Europe. The discovery of tlie logarithms, a discovery which in jxiint of in- genuity and utility may vie with jyiy tliat has been made in modern times, is tlie indisputable right of Napier of Merchistone. And sinrf his time, tlie matliematical sciences have been cultivated in Scotland with great success, Keil, in his physico-mathematical works, to tlic clearness of his reasoning, has sometimes added the colouring of a poet. Of all writers on aatrouomy, Gregory is allowed to be one of the mTs^t perfect and elegant. Maclaurin, the companion and the friend of sir Isaac Newton, was endowed with all tliat precision and foic« of mind which rendered him peculiarly fitted for bringing dov/n the ideas ot ilnt great man to tlie level of ordinary apprehensions, and for dilfusingthat light tlirough tlie world which Newton had confined within the sphere of tht; learned. His Treatise on Fluxions is regarded by the best judges in Eu- rope an the clearest account of the most refined and subtile speculations on which the human mind ever exerted itjelf with succ(\ss, V/hilc Maclaurin pursued tliis new career, a geometrician no less famous di- stinguished himself in the almost deserted track of antitjuity. This was tJie late Dr. Simpson, so w ell known for his illustrations of the ancient geometry. His Elements of Euclid, and, above all, his Conic Sections, are sufficient of tliemselves to establish the scientilic reputation of hii» native country. lu tlie department of history the highcit celebrity has been acquired by Scottish writers. Hume was the first who, with any pretensions to classical elegance, wrote the history of England. Dr. Robertson began his literary career of glory with the history of his own country. Tliis was followed by that of all Europe, iu the reign of the emperor Charles V. The captivating account of the discovery of Americti was next presented to the world ; and an historical disquisition concernino India was tlie last production of this philosophical historian, To Dr. Henry his country and the world are indebted for a history of Great Britain, on a plan entirely new, in which he has brought within one glance of the eye every thing hitercsting in tlie civil history, constitu- tion, learning, arts, commerce, and manners of the people, from llie earliest authenticity. The investigations of Dr. Adam Smith on ll.e sub- ject of national wealth and politics, have perhaps never been ecjualled , i \l ) 1 ! I I ! .4 326 SCOTLAND. -( '.>■' I/- i '^ and the moral philosf^phy of Hutoheson will be allowedj evtn by its op- poiiems, tu De iii^eiiioub and piau.uMy suppt^rteu. In medicine Uio namt>> Pitcairn, Arbuidnot, Monro, Smellie, Whytt, Cullen. Brown, and Gre^oiy, hoid a disiin^uished place. Ni)i have ihe ScoL, been unsuccessful in cuilnaiing the belles lettres. Foreigners who inhabit warmer climates, and conceive tho northern natioiis incapable of tsnderness and feeling, are asioninhed at the poetic gtiiius and ilolicate seri^ioilicy of Thomson, and the various powers ot Aim^trcni^, Beaitie, and Burns. Universities.} The universities of Scotland Are four — that of St. Andre- VV5, founded by bishop WardLaw, in 1411 • it consists of three col- leges, two of which are now united, and in which, some year» Hg«», the number of students was said to be only ICK)} that of Glasgow, Ibunded by bishop Turnbull, in 1453, containing between five and six hundied students ; that of Abeideen, consisting of two colleges, in tlie old town, founded by bishop fllphinstone, in the year 150(), and one in the new town, founded by George Keith, fifth earl-marshal, in 1593 ; and that of Edinburgh, founded by James VI,, in 15B0, which usually contains about 1000 students. The old buildings of this university having fallen to decay, the foundation of a new edifice, to which our most gracious sovereign has been a very liberal benefactor, was laiti in l/bt), and may be exjjected s(X)n to becoiTpieita on awlx an elegant and magnificent plan, as shall render it a noLi;e mouuinent of national nmnificence and taste. Language.] The Earse or Gaelic, a dial»?ct of the Celtic, nearly the same with the Irish, is still spoken in the Highlands ; but the language of the Low-countries, w hich is of the same origin with the English, is continually extending. The English and Scotch are written in the same niaiiiier ; and liie pronunciation of tlie latter is scarcely more dirferent from that of London than we find it in many ot the northern and western English counties. ANTiftuiTiES.] The Roman and other antiquities found in Scotland have of themseh es furnished matter for large volumes. The stations of the Roman legions, their ca.iteila, the pr*tentuies or walls reaching across the island, have been traced with great precision by antiquaries and historians j so that, without some new discoveries, an account of them could afford no instiuction to the learned, and but little amuse- ment to the ignorant ; because at present they can be discovered only by critical eyes. Some mention of the chief, however, may be proper. The course of tlie Roman wall, (or, as it is called by the country peo- ple, GrukmnsDifkey Irom a tradition that a Scottish warrior of that name first broke over it), between the Cl}dc and Forth, which was first mai"ked out by Agricola, and completed by Antoninus Pius, is still dis- cernible, as are several Roman camps in the neighbourhood. Agricola's carnp, at the bottom of the Grampian Hills, is a striking remain of Roman ijntiquity. It is situated at Ardoch, in Perthshire, and is generally thought to have been the camp occupied by Agricola, before he fought the bloody battle, recorded by Tacitus, with the Caledonian king Galga- cus, who was defeated. Some writers think that this remain of anti- quity at Ardoch was, on account of the numerous Roman coins and in- scriptions tound near it, a Roman castellum or fort. Be that as it may, it certainly is the most entire and best preserved of any Roman antiquity of that kind in North Britain, having no less than five rows of ditches and six ramparts on tJie south side; and of the four gates which lead in- SCOTLAND. 327 op- ihe Mho |c of I tie, St. :ol- Jthc Ided lied ivn, jiew ;hat to the area, three are very distinct and plain, viz. the praetoria, decuma- «a, and dexlra. The Roman temple, or building in the form of the Pantheon at Rome, or (jf the dome of St. Paul's at London, stood upon the banks of the river Cjrroii in Stirlingshire, but was barbarously demolished by a neigh- bouring Goth, for tlie piupose of mending a miil-pond. Its height was twenty-two feet, and its external circumference at the base was cighty- f i;^lit foot ; so that upon the whole it was one of the most complete Koin;ui antiquities in the world. It is thought to have b;jen built by A ^ricola, or some of his successors, as a temple to the god Terminus, as it stood near the praitenture which bounded the Roman empire in JJritnin to the north. Ne;ir it are some artiticial conical mounds of v-anh, which still retain the name of Dani-pace, or Duni-pacis ; which serve to prove that tliere was a kind of solemn compromise between the Romans and the Caledonians, that tlie former should not extend their ♦empire farther to the northward. Innumerable are the coins, urns, utensils, inscriptions, and other re- mains of the uomans, thst ka^-e been found in ditFcrent pans of Scot- land : some of them to the north of die wall, where, however, it does not appear that they made any establishment. By the inscriptions found near the wall, Uie names of the legions that built it, and how far fhey carried it on, may be learned. The remains of Roman highways are frequent in the southern parts. Danish camps and fortifications are easily discernible in several northern counties, and are known by their square ligures and dirficult situations. Some houses or stupendous fabrics remain in Ross-shire j but whi^ther they are Danish, Pictish, or Scottish, does not appear. They arc, perhaps, Ni)rw»."gian or Scandinavian structures, and built about the fifth century, to favour the descents of tliat people upon those coasts. Two Pictish monuments, as ihey have been supposed to be, of a very extraordinary consU'uction, w ere lately standing in Scotland ; one of them at Abernethy in Perthshire, the other at Rrechin in Angus j both of them are columns, hollow in the inside, and without tlie stair-case ; that of Brecliin is the most entire, being covered at the lop with a spiral roof of stone, with three or four windows above the cornice ; it consists of sixty regular courses of hewn free-stone, laid circularly, and regu- larly tapering towards the top. If these columns are really Pictish, tiiat people must have had among them architects who far exceeded tlioiie of any coeval monuments to be found in Europe, as they have all the ap- pe.irance of an order; and the building is neat, and in the Roman style of architecture. It is, however, dithcult to assign thcni to any but the Picts, as they stand in their dominions : and some sculpiun's upon that ;it Brechin denote it to be of Christian origin. It is not indeed impos- sibls that these sculptures are of a later date. Besides these two pillars, many other Pictish buildings are found in Scotland, but not in the same style. The vestiges of erections by the ancient Scots themselves are not only curious but instructive, as they regard many important events of their liistory. That people had amongst them a rude notion of sculpture, by which^they traUKmitted the actions of their kings and heroes. At a piacc called Aberlemno, near Brechin, four or five aiuunt obelisks are still to be seen, called the Danish stones of Aberlemno. They are eiected as commemorations of the Scotch victories over that people ; and are adorned with, bas-reliefs of men on horseback, tiMd manv emblematical i 328 SCOTLAND. :.-■ w m El I 'i'.i ■ '|j^ r figures and hieroglyphics, not intelligible at this day. Many other hi" storical monuments of tJie Scots have been discovered ; but it must bo acknowledged that tlie obscurity of their sculptures has opened a field <)f boundless and frivolous conjectures, so tliat tlie interpretations of many of them are often fonciful. Among these the stone near the town of Forrcss, or Fortrose, in Murray, far surpasses all the otliers in niag- nilicence and grandeur, " and is," says Mr. Gordon, " |)erhaps oriC of the most stately monuments of that kind in Europe. It rises about 23 feet in height above ground, and is, as I am credibly informed, no lesi than 12 or 15 feet below; so that the whole height is at least 35 feet, and its breadth near five. It is all one single and entire stone ; great variety of figures in relievo are carved on it, and some of them are still tlistinct and visible; but the injury of the weather has obscuied those towards the upper part." Though this monument has been generally considered as Danish, yet it is not improbable that it is Scottish, and was erected in commemoration of the final expulsion of the Danes out of IVIurray, where they held their last settlement in Scotland, after the defeat they received from Alalcoim, a f»w years before the Norman in- vasion. At Sandwick, in Ross-shire, is a very splendid ancient obelisk, sur- rounded at the base with large, well-cut flag stones, formed like steps. Both sides of the column are covered with various enrichments, in well- finished carved work. One face presents a sumptuous cross, with a figure of St. Andrew on each hand, and some uncouth animals and flowerings underneath. The central division on tlie re\ crse c.\hibits a variety of curious figures, birds, and animals. The ruins of the cathedral of Elgin are very striking ; and many parts of that fine building have still the remains of much grandeur and dignity in them. The west door is highly ornamented ; there is much elegance in the carvings, and the whole edifice displa)s very elaborate workman- ship. Among the remains of ancient castles, may be mentioned Kildrumy castle in the north of Scotland, which wjs formerly a plare of great strength and magnificence, and often used as an asylum to noble fauillies in times of civil war. Invenjgie castle, the ancient seat of the earl- mareschals of Scotland, is also a large and lofty pile, situated on a steep bank of the river : two very high towers bound tlie front, and, even ia their decaying state, give the castle an air of much grandeur and anti- quity. Long rows of venerable trees, inclosing the adjoining garden, add to the effect of the decayed buildings. Near the town of Huntley are the ruins of Huntley castle. On the avenue tliat leads to it, are two large square towers, which had defended the gateway. The castle seems to be very old, and a groat part of it is demolished ; but there is a massy building of a more modcni date, in which some of the apartments, and in particular, their curious ceilings, are still in tolerable preservation. They are painted with a great variety of subjects, in small divisions, in which are contained many emblematical figures. Besides these remains of Roman, Pictish, Danish, and Scottish anti- quities, many Druidical monuments and temples are discernible in the northern parts of Scotland, as well as in the isles, where we may sup- pose that paganism took its last refiige. They are easily perceived by their circular fomis ; but though they are equally regular, yet none of them are on so large a scale as the Druidical erections in South Britain. I'here is in Pertlishire a baiTow which seems to be a British erection, cmd the n)ost beautiful of the kind perhaps in the world. It exactly rc- sembl peoplj of ea« ercct^ the from I Hi f«nd I other pie. Pictsl Belg| and SCOTLAND. 329 sembles the figure of a ship with the keel uppermoKt. The common people call it Tcrnay, which some interpret to bf terra nutis, the ship of earth. It seems to be ot the most remote amiquity, and perhaps was erected to tlie memory of some British prince, who acted as auxiliary to the Romans; for it is situate near Auchterarder, not many miles liisUiut from the great scene of Agricola's operations. History.] Though the writers of ancient Scottish histoiy are too fond of ihble, yet it is easy to collect, from the lloinan avitliors, and other evidences, that Scotland was formerly inhabited by dirterent peo- ple. The Caledonians appear to have been the lirst iiihabitants ; thu Picts probably were the Britons who were forceil northwards by the Belgic Gauls, ybout fourscore years before the descent of Juliui Caesar, and who, settling in Scotland, were joined by great numbers of their countrymen, that were driven northwards by the Romans. 'l"he tract lying southward of the Forth appears to have been inliabited by the 8axous, and by the Briton:}, who formed the kingdom of Alcuith, thi capital of which was Dumbarton : bnt all those pcoj)le in process of time were subdued by the Scots. It does not appear that the Caledonians, tlie ancient Celtic inh:il)iiants of Scotland, were attacked by any of the Roman generals before Agri- cola, aimo 7Q. The name of the prince he fought with was G.ililus, by Tacitus named Galgacus ; and the histoiy of that war is not only trans- mitted with great precision, but corroborated by tlie remains of ihe Ro- man encampments and forts, raised by Agricola in his march toward Dunkeld, the capital of the Caledonians. The brave stand made by Galdus against that great general, does honour to the valour of both people ; and the sentiments of tlie Caledonian, concerning the freedom and independency of his country, appear to have warmetl the noble hi- storian with the same generous passion. It is evident, however, tliat Ta- citus thought it for the honour of Agricola to conceal some parts of this war J for though he makes his countrymen victorious, yet they certainly returned southward to the province of Horesti, v.iiicli was the county of Fife, witliout improving their advantage. Galdus, otlierwise called Corbrcd, was, according to the Scottish hi- stwians, tlie twenty-first in a lineal descent fnjui Fergus I., the founder of their monarchy ; and though this genealogy has been disputed, yet nothing can be more ccrtiiin, from the Roman histories, than that the Caledonians, or Scots, were governed by a succession of brave and wise princes, during the abode of the Romans in Britain, Their valiant re- sistance obliged Agricola himself, and, after him, the emperors Adrian and Severus, to build the two tiimons prsetentures or walls, one between the FritJis of Clyde and Forth already mentioned, and the otlier between Tinmoutli and the Solway-Fritli, which is described in our account of England, to defend the Romans from the Caledonians and Scots ; and which prove that the independence of the latter was never subdued, Christianity was introduced into Scotland about the year 201 of the Christian aera, by Donald I, Tlie Picts had at this time gained a footing in Scotland j and, being often defeated by the ancient inhabitants, joined die Romans against the Scots and Caledonians, who were of tha same original, and considered themselves as one people ; so that the Scots monarchy suffered a short eclipse ; but it broke out with more lustre tlian ever, under Fergus 11., who recovered his crown ; and his succes- sors gave many severe overthrows to the Romans and Britons. When the RomjRis left Britain in 1448, the Scots, as appears by Gil- das, a British historian, were a powerful nation^ andj; in conjunction I i 'i ' i; ) i. II 330 SCOTLAND, '' 11 I'l ■ 1 U '<4 "^r tvith the Picts, invndccl the Britons; and havini; forced the Roman \vall», drove tlicm to die \ery aea; so tliat the Britons ai)|)licd to the Romans for relief; and in the famous letter, which tlicy called their ff mans, ihfv tell them, that thcv had no choice left, but that of being swallowed up by the sea, or perishing by the sword of the barbarians : for so all na- tions were called who were not Konians, or under the Roman pro- tection. Dongard was then king of Scotland ; and it appears from the oldest histories, and those that are least favourable to monarchy, that tlie suc- cession to the crown of Scotland still continued in the family of Fergus, but generally descended collaterally; till the incouveniencies of that mode of succession wer* so much felt, that by degrees it fell into disuse, and it was at last settled in the descending line. About the year 7po, the Scots were governed by Achaius, a prince «f> much respected, that his friendship was courted by Charlemagne, anil a league was concl'^ded between them, which conllnued in^-iolaie while the monarchy of Scotland had an existence. No fact o^ e«jual antifjuity is better attested than this league, toq,(.ther with the great service per- formed by the learned men of Scotland, in civilising the vast dominions of that great conqueror, as has been already observed under the article Literature. The Picts still remained in Scotland, as a separate natio!i, and were powerful enough to make war upon the Scots; who, about the year 843, when Kenr.eth Mac Alpin was king of Scotland, finally sub- dued them; but not in the savage manner mentioned by some histo- rians, by extermination ; foi he obliged them to incorporate themselves with their conquerors, by taking th(-ir names, and adopting their laws. The successors of Kenneth Mac Alpin maintained almost perpetual wars with the Saxons on the southward, and the Danes and other barbarou^t nations towards the east ; who, being masters of the sea, harassed the Scots by powerful invasions. The latter, however, were more fortunate than the English: for while the Danes were erecting a monarchy in En- glandj they were every w here overthrown in Scotland by bloody battles, and at la^t driven out oi th<^ kingdom. The Saxon and Danish mo- narchs who then governed England were not more successful against the Scots, who maintained their freedom and independency, not only against foreigners, but against their own kings, when they thought thei)i endangered. The feudal law was introduced among them by Malcolm II. Malcolm III., commonly called Malcolm Canmore, from two Gaelic words which signify a lurtie head, but most probably from his great ca- pacity, was the eighty-sixth king of Scotland, from Fergus I., the sup- posed founder of the monarchy; the forty-seventh from its restorer, Fergus 11.; and the twenty-second from Kenneth III., who conquered the kingdom of the Picts. Every reader who is acquainted with the tragedy of Macbeth, as written by the inimitable Shakspeare, who keeps close to the facts delivered by historians, can be no stranger to the fate of Malcolm's father, and his own history, previous to his mounting the throne in the year 105/, He was a wise and inagnajiimous prince, and in no res})ect inferior to his cotemporary the Norman con(jueror, with ■whom he was often at war. He married Margaret, daughter to Edward, surnaraed the Outlaw, son to Edmund Ironside, king of England. By the death of her brother, Edgar Atheling, the Saxon right to the crown of England devolved upon the posterity of that princess, who was one of the wisest and worthiest women of the age; and her daughter Ma\id «was accordingly married to Henry I. of England., Malcolm, after « falb, nans ihev (i up riH- pro- Idest suo SCOTLAND. 331 glorious reign, v.\is killed, with his son, treacherously, it is said, at the siive of Alnwick, by ihe bcsiL-ged. iSIalcolin III. was surceedcd by liis brother Donald VII., and he was dethroneti by Demean II., whose legilim.try was disputed. They were succeeded by lidgjr, the son of Malcohn III., uho was a wise and va- liant prince ; hewas succeeded by iVlc.\ander I., and, upon his deaths Da\id I. uKiunitd ihii throne. David was otie of ilie greatest princes of that age, whether we regard him as a luan, a warrior, or a legislator. To him Henr)' II., the mightiest prince of his age, owed his cro\\n ; and his possessions in En- gland, joined to the kingdom of Scotland, placed David's power nearly on an ec|uality with that of Kngland. The code of laws drawn up by h\rr., do h:r !^.!eoinry ir.:niortal honour. They are said to have been compiled under his inspect ioi\ by learned men, whom he assemb)e4 from all parts of Europe in his magnificent abbey of Mclross. He was succeeded by his grandson, Malcolm IV., and he by William, surnamed, from his valour, The Lion. William's son, AlexTmder II., was suc- ceeded, in 124ij, by Alexander III., who was a good king. He married, tirst, Margaret, daughter to Henry III. of England, by whom he had Alexander, the prince who married the earl of Flanders's daughter; Da\ id ; and Margaret, w ho married Hangowan, or, as some call him, Eric, son to Magnus IV., king of Norway, who bore to him a daughter named Margaret, commonly called the Maiden of Norway ; in whom king Wdli.uu's whole posterity failed ; and the crown of Scotland re- turned to the descendants of David, earl of Huntingdon, brother to king Malcolm 1V^ and king William, This detail has been given, because it is connected with great events. Upon the death of Alexander III., John Baliol.who was great-grandson to David, earl of Huntingdon, by his eldest daughter Margaret; and Robert Bruce (grandfather to the great king Robert Bruce) » grandson to the same earl of Huutingiion by his youngest daughter Isabel j became competitors for the crown of Scotland. The laws of succession, which were not so well established in Europe as they are at present, rendered the case very ditHcult. Both parties were almost equally matched in interest; but after a confused inter-regnuiu of soiue years, the great nobility agreed in referring the decision to Edward I. of England, the most politic and ambitious prince of his age. He accepted the otfice of arbit?x : but having long had an eye to the crown of Scotland, he revived f.-.-u-i ob- solete absurd claims of its dependency upon that of England j and find- ing that Baliol was disposed to hold it by tliat disgraceful tenme, he awarded it to him ; but afterward.? detlironed him, and treated him as a sl.ue, without Baliol's resenting it. After this, Edward used many endeavours to annex the crown of Scotland to his own, which were often defeated ; and though for a short time he made himself master of Scotland, yet the Scots were ready to revolt agaii'ist him on every favourable opportunity. Those who were .so zt'-ajonsly attached to the indep<:ndency of their country, as to be re- solved to hazard every thing for it, were indeed but few, compared to tho.-e in the interest of Eelward and Baliol, which was the same: and for some time thv.y were obliged to temporise. Edward availed himself of their weakness and his ov n power. He accepted of a formal surrender of the crown of Baliol, to whom he allowed a pension, but detained him in England 3 and sent every noblcuian in Scotland, whom he in the least'suspected, to ditferent prisons in or near London. He then forced theScjts to sign instruaients ucknowjedgi'.'g their subjection to him ; and >i t 'i w 'J62 SCOTLAND. •!1 M '■ ino%t barbarously carried off or dcslroye;! all the i.ioi.iimer.ts of their hi- fttovy, ami tlic evidence of their indcpcndcnry j and particularly the fa- Dious fatiiiival or prophetic stone, which i< htill to be seen in We>tmin- i»ler Abbe}'. These severe proceedings, wliilc tJicy rendered tht' Scots spn:;ible of tJieir slavery, re\ ivctl in them the ideas of their frccdon^ } and Edward, lindinj; their spirits were not to be subdued, endeavoured to caress tlieui, and adecli'd to treat Uuin on a fooling of equality widi his own subject/, by projecting a union, the chief articles of which have since taken place between tiio two kingdoms. The Scotch patriots treated this project \vitJi di.sdain, and united under the brave William Wallace, to expel the English. Wallace performed actions that entitled hira to eternal re- nown, in executing this scheme. Being however no more tliau a privata gentleman, niid iii.. jR.pulriiity d;ii!y incrMsing, the Scotch nobility, among whom \\as U;>bert Bruce, tlio son of the first ctmipctitor, begau to suspect that he had 'an ctye upon the crow n : especially after he had defeated the earl of Surry, Edward's viceroy of Scotland, in the battle of Stirling; Jiad reduced the garrisons of Berwick and Roxburgh; and was declared by the statffs of Scotland their protector. Their jealousy ope- raled so far, that they formed violent cabals against the brave Wallace. Edw.ird, upon this, ome more invaded Scotland, at tlie head of the most luimerous .ind best di.sciplined army England had ever seen; for it con- «i.^tcd of SO.OOf) fool, oCXyO horsemen completely armed, and 4000 light- armed ; and was attendcil by a licet to supply it wiUi provisions. These, besides the troops wlio ioinrd him in Scotl.nid, formed an inosistible body ; Edward, ho?, ever, was obliged to divide it, reserving tiie com- mand of 40,000 of lii.s best troops to himself. With these he attacked tiic Scotch army under \S'j!l;;ce at Falkirk, while their di^putcs ran so high, that the brave regent was deserted by Gumming, tlie most power- ful nobleman in Scotland, and at the heid of the best division of hi.s countrymen. Wallace, whose troops did not exceed 30,000, being thus betrayed, was defeated with va.'it loss, but made an orderly retreat ; during which he found means to have a conltrence with Bruce, and to convince him of his error in joining with Edward. Wallace still con- tinued in arms, and performed many gallant actions against thft English; but was betrayed into the hairds of Edward, who most ungenerously put hira to deatli at London, as a traitor. Ed^atd died as he was pre- paring to renew his invasion of Scotland with a still more desolating spirit of ambition, after having destroyed 100,000 of her inhabitants. Bruce died sown after the battle of Falknk, but not before he had in.ipired his son, who was a prisoner at large about the English court, witJi the glorious rerolution of vindicating his own rights, and the inde- pendence of his countiy. He escaped from London, and with his own nand killed Cumming, for hi,'^ attachment to Edward; and after collecting a few patriots, among whom were his own four brothers, he assumed tho crown, but was defeated by the English (who had a great army in Scot- land) at the battI(?of Methvcn. After his defeat, he fled with one or two friends to tjie western isles and parts of Scotland, where his h- ligue-. and suflcrings wcuct a^ eAtreme, as the courage with which he and "his few friends boro them (the lord iJonglas Ci^pceially) was incredible. Though his wife and daughters ^\■crc sent prisoners to England, where the best of his friends and two of his brothers were put to death, yet sucli wa.s his persevering spirit, that he recovered all Scotland, except- ing the castle of Stirling, and improved every advantage that was given him by the dissipated conduct of Edward IL; who raised an army moio hi. fa. nin- lie ol" rard, ^euj, rets. [lace pject the rc- |vate lity. SCOTLAND. 333 l.iimprons aiiA better appointed than that of his father, to nuke a totcil conquest of '^■•olland. It is slid thiu it coiisisicd of lOJ.OOO inon, though ihli has been suppojcd to be an exaggerated cu!H[)Ut;ition : how- tver, it h admitted tluit tlie army of Bruce did not cxa-ed 30,000 j but all of them veteran?, v.'ho had been bred up in a detestation of tyranny. Edward, who was uoi dericieni m courage, led his powerful nnny xo- wards Stirling, then be.iio/ed by Bruce, wlio h:id chosen, with the greatest judi^ment, a «arnp Tienr Bnnnockburn. The chief o!Hror;und«'r Kdward were, tiie tails of Gloucester, Hereford, Pembiol-.e, and sir Ciiles Ar^entoii. Thoa* undm Rnice were, his own brotlu-r sir Edu ard, who, next to him?e!f, was re' koned to Imj the best l.nl'^ht fii Scotland; his nepiyjw, Riiido'; h, earl of Murray; and the youn;^^ lord Walter, hij^U steward of Sjotir.n.i. Td ward's attack of the Scotch army wa^ exceed- ingly finion.s, and required ;ill the courage and lirmuevi of Ijtuce and his friends to re5i-.t it, which they did so etlectually, that thc-y i; iltK-d one of the nio^t complete victories that is recorded in history. I'he great Ic^s of the English fell upon the bravest part of their troops, wiio were led on by Edward in person against Bruce himself The Scotcii writers make the loss of the English amount to 50,000 men. There certainly never was a more tc»tal defeat, though the conquerors lost 4000. The flower of the English nobility were either killed or taken prisoners. Their camp, which was immensely rich, and calculated for the purpose rather of a triumph than a campaign, fell into the hands of the Scots; and Edward himself, with a few followeri«, was pursued by Douglas to the gates of Berwick, from whence he escaped in a fishing-boat. This great and decisive battle happened in the year 1314. The remainder of Robert's reign was a series of the most glorious successes; and .so well did his nobility understand the principles of civil liberty, and so unfettiTed were they by religious considerations, that, in a letter they sent to tiw pope, they acknowledged that they had sot aside Baliol for debasing the crown, by liolding it of England ; and that they would i\o the same by Robert, if he should make the like attempt. Robert, having thus di'livcred Scotland, sent his brother Edward to Ire- land, at the he.id of an ••irmy, with which he conquered the greatest part of that kingdom, and was proclaimed its king; but by exposing iiimself too much, he was killed. Robert, before his death, made an advantage- ous peace with England ; and died in 1328, with the chnra-ner of beinr; the gi-eatest hero of the age. The glory of the Scots may be said to have been in its zenith under Robert 1., who was succeeded by hi> son David II He was a \iriiu»iis prince; but liis abilities, both in war and peace, were eclipood by his brother-in-law and enemy, Edward III. of England, whose sister he married. Edward, who was as eager as any of his predeces.sors to etfect the conquest of Sootland, espoused the cause of Baliol, sou to Baliol the original conipetitor. His progress at first was amazingly rapid, and he and Edward defeated the royal party in many bloody battles ; but Ba- liol was at last driven out of his usurped kingdom by the Scottish patriots. David had the misi rtune to be taken prisoner by the English at the bat- tle of Durham ; and, after continuing above eleven years in captivity, paid 100,000 marks for his ransom; ai\d died in peace, without issue, in the year 1371. The crown of Scotland then devolved upon the family of Stuart, by Its head having been married to the daughter of Robert I. The first kiogof that name was Robert II., a wise and brave prince. He was succeeded by his son Robert III., whose age and infirmities di^^qualitied ' I II 334 SCOTLAND. t i^f :<!'. him from reigning ; so that he was forced to cnnfi 1e tlic f^ovcrnincnt to his brother, tJic duke of Alt)any, an aiuUitious pi inc, wl:o seems to have had an intention to procure the crown for his t>\vn f.sn:ily. Hohert, upop this, attempted to send his second son to Funce ; but he am- most ungenerously intercepted by Honry IV. of E'l^jland ; and, atter surte. ing along captivity, he was obli>;eJ t>) pav an exorl>itant ransom. !).i:iiig the imprisonment of James in England, the iniUtary gloi) of tiie Sa)t.s was carried to its greatest lieight in France; wh'/re they supported that tottering monarchy against England, and their j^eneraLs obtained some oi' the tirst titles of the kingdom. James, the first of tlut name, upon his return to Scotlaiid, discovered great talents for government, enacted many wise laws, and was beloved by the people. He had received an excellent educ.nion in England du- ring the reigns of Henry IV. and V., where he saw the feudal system refined from many of the imperfections which still adhered to it in his own kingdom ; he determined therefore to abridge the overgrown power of the nobles and to recover such lands as had been unjustly wrested from the crown during his minority and the preceding reigns : but the execution of these designs cost him his life; hi- being murdered in his bed by some of the chief luV'ility m 1-13", and the forty-fourth year of his age. A long minority succeeded ; but James II. would prohnbly have equalled the greatest of his antestorij both in warlike and civil virtues, had he not been suddenly killed by the accidental bursting of a cannon, in the thirtieth year of liis age, as he was besieging the castle of Rox- burgh, which was defended by the English. Suspicion, indolence, immoderate attachment to females, and many of the errors of a feeble mind, are visible in the conduct of James III. j and his turbulent reign was closed by a rebellion of his subjects, being slain in battle in 1488, aged thirty-five. His son, James IV. was tlie most accomplished prince of the age : he was naturally generous and brave : he loved magnificence, he delighted in war, and was eager to obtain lame. He emoinaged and protected the commerce of his subjects, so that they greatly increased in riches ; and the court of James, at the time ofhis marriige with the daughter of Henry VII. was splendid and respectable. Even this alliance could not cure him ofhis family distemper, a predilection for the French ; into whose cause he rashly entered, antl was killed, with the Hower ofhis nobility, by the English, In the battle of Flodden, anno ijl3, and the fortieth of his age. The minority of his son, James V. was long and turbulent : and when he graw up, he married two French ladies ; the lirst being daughter to the king of France, and the latter of the house of Guise. He instituted the court of session, enacted many salutary laws, and greatly promoted the trade of Scotland, particularly the working of the mines. At this time the balance of power was so equally poised between the contend- ing princes of Europe, tliat James's friendship was comtc^l by the 'pope, the emperor, the king of FVance, and his uncle Henry VIII. of En- gland, from all whom he received magnificent presents. But James took little share in foreign atlairs ; he seemed rather to imitate his pre- decessors iti their attempts to humble the nobility : and the doctrines of the refomniUion beginning to be propagated in Scotjand, he permitted, at the instigation of the clergy, a religious persecution; though it is generally believed, that, had he lived longer, he would have seizeil. all the church revenues, in inxitation of Henry. IlaviUij rather slighted 6om*. i>y g twee folk. Alu this who at gavt ing SCOTLAND. SJO It to to XTt, IKJSt ,ir;g :rijr red eii u- "in lis cr ted the his 6ome friendly overtures made to him by the king of Kiii^land, and there- by given great urnbr.igo tJ that priiuv, n war ai l',Mii;th broke out be- tween them. A large army, un^ler llie CDmmind of the dake of \')r- fnlk, entered Scotland, and rav-i'^ed the c»)untry north of the Tweed. After this short expedition, the English army retired to Berwick. Upon this the king of Scotland sent ten ilionsand m.Mi to the western borders, who entered England at Solway-Firih ; and he himself followed tljeni at a small distance, ready to join them upon occasion. He soon after gave great ollence to the nobility and the army, by imprudently depriv- ing their general, lord Maxwell, of his comiuisiion, and conferring the roinni.md on Oliver SincLir, a private :;enikMnjn, who wai his favourite. Tlie army were so much disgusted with iliis alteration, that they wore ready to disband, when a small bndy of English horse appeared, not ex- reeding live hundred. A panic seised the Scots, who immediately took to flight, supposing themselves to be attacked by the whole body <4' the. English army. The English horse, seeinij them llee with such prccipi-. tation, closely pursued them, and slew great numbers ; taking prisoners seven lords, two liundred gentler »en, aiiu eiglu hundred soldiers, with twenty-four pieces of ordnance. Tiiis disaster so much atiected king James, tlial it threw him into a tit of illness, of which he soon after died, on tlie l4th of December, 1542. His daughter and successor, Mary, was but a few jjours old at the time of her father's death. Her be.mty, her misconduct, and her mis- fortunes, are alike famous in history. It is suliicieni here to say, that during her iTiliiority, and while she was wife to Francis II. of France, the reformation advanced in Scotland ; that being called to the throne of her ancestors while a widow, she married her own cousin-german, the lord Darnlqy, whose untimely dcatli has given rise to so much contro- versy. The consequence of her husband's death, and of her marriage with llothwell, who was considered as his murderer, was an iasurrec- tion of her subjects, fi-om whom she fled into England, where she was ungenerously detained a prisoner for eighteen years, and afterwards, on motives of state-policy, beheaded by queen Elizabeth in 1587, hi the forty- sixth year of her age. Mary's son, James VI. of Scotland, succeeded, in ;i i;lit of his blood from Henry VII., upon the death of <}ueen Elizabcili, to the English crown, after manifesting considerable abilities in the g(jvernment of Scot- land. This union of the two crowns, in fact, destroyed the indepm- dency, as it impoverishetl the people, of Scotland : tor, the seat of go- vernment being removed to England, their trade was <'hecked, their agriculture neglected, and their genUy obliv^ed to seek for situations in other countries. James, after a splendid but troublesome reign o\tt his three kingdoms, left them, in 1()35, to hU son, the unfortunate Chnrles I. That prince by his despotic principles and conduct inducetl both his Scottish and English subject., to take up arms against him^ and, indeed, it was in Scotland that the sword was lir.'^t drawn against Charles. But when the royal party was totail\ defeated in England, the king put hims.'lf into the power of the Scottish army ; they at first treated him with respect, but afterw.'.rds delivered him up to the En- glish parliament, on condition of their paying 40'),()CX) pounds to the Scots, wliich was said to be due to them for arrears. However, the Scots afterwards made several bloody but unsuccessful atieiiipts to re- store his son. C!'.arics II. That prince was tinally defeated by Crom- welJ, at Liie battle of Worcester, l(jjl; alter which, tt> tiie tiuie of his !i i H I I ! i 1! it ! 336 ISLES OV SCOTLAND. restoration, tlie common -wealth of England and tlie protector gave law to Scotland. ' / The state of parties in England, at the accession of queen Anne, was such, that the Whigs once more had recourse to the Scots, and ottered them tlieir own terms, if tliey would agree to the incorporate union as it now stands. It was long before the majority of the Scotch parlia- ment would listen to the proposal ; b\it, at last, partly from conviction, and partly through the effects of money distributed among the needy nobility, it was agreed to ; since which event, the history of Scotland becomes the fame with that of England. ISLES OF SCOTLAND. m( ht isl: iU< .1 THE isles of Scotland consist of tjiree clusters ; the Hebrides*^ or Western Islands, tlie Orkneys, and the Islands of Shetland. The WESTERN ISLANDS, or HEBRIDES, are situate on tlie nortli- west coast of Scotland, between 35 aitd 59 degrees of north latitude, and are .supposed to exceed 300 in number ; but there are not more tJian tiiirty whose sizes render them deserving notiijc. Of these the principal art; Arran, Hay, Jura, Mull, Skye, Lewis and Harris which form one island, Nortli tJist, and South Uist, lona or Icolm-kill, Stafta, and Hirta or St. Kilda. The isle of Arran is about twenty-four miles in lengtli, and where widest about fourteen in breadth. It consists chiefly of a series of rough and broken mountains, from one of the highest summits of which, named Goatfell, in the centre of the island, tlie view extends at once to Ireland and the Isle of Man, and even into South Britain, There are several rivulets and four or live lakes of fresh water in this island. The number of inhabituUs i.< about 7>000, and the chief place the village of Ranza. This island with the island of Bute, which is about twelve miles long and four bro>;d, and some others of inconsiderable sizo, con- stitute the county or iihire of Bute. The chief town of Bute is Roth- say, which has a castle, and gave the title of duke to tlie eldest sons of the kings of Scotland, as it now does to the prince of Wales. Rothsay is likewise a royal burgh. The number of inhabitants in the island of Bute is about 4,000. The island ot Hay is twenty-f<jur miles long and nearly eighteen broad. The .soil is good, and niight by industry be rendered extremely productive. I'he whole island is the property of Mr. Campbell of Shaw- lield. A lead mine was discovered here in 170'3. The number of in- habitants is about 7,000, Jura, about thirty miles long and seven or eight broad, is separated from Hay ly a narrow sound from one to four miles broad. It is one of the most rugged of tlie Western Islands, which arc in general moun- tainous. The mountains called the paps of Jura, which are a range of eminences of a conical form, present a singular appearance. One of them has been found to have an elevation of 8.50 yards, tliough it is jjreatly exceeded in heiglit by the loftiest, named Ben-an-Oir. The jiumber of inhabitants is supposed to be not more tlian 1,000. • Anciently called the HehuJet. The origin of the modern name IlobiiJcs is not known, cxcvpt it be a corruption of HeluJet. ill ISLES Ot^ SCOTLAND. at Tlie isle of Mull is ncarlv thirty miles long, and in aor.ia places al- tnost as broad. It \s\ery rugged and mountainous, liketlie other west- ern isles. It ooniains two parishes, but only one village, named Tober- moiy, near the northern part of the island, where a tishing station has lately been erected. There are several ruin:, of ancient castles in this island. The number of inhabitants is between rive and six thousand. The isle of Skye is the largest of the Hebrides, bting about fifty miles In length, and, in sunii^ places, above tweuty broad. . It abounds, espe- cially in the interior parts, in locks, mountains, and bogs. The inhabi- tants are about 15,000 in number. This islahd forms a part of Inver- ness-shire. Long island, to the we.'^tward of Skye, consists of two peninsulas, the northern of which is dcuoinin.:ted Lewes, and the aouihern Harris. Tlie extent of botli these together is about ni.iety milc.i in length, and ten or tweh"^, and in some parts twenty, miles in breadth. Tiie isles of North Uist, South L^ist, and Earra, continue this chain of islrPads to the south 110 miles more, including about sixteen miles of water. The number of inhabitants in them all is about, 120,000 ; the only town is Stornoway, in the east part of Lewes, a considerable and tiourishing place, with an ex- cellent harbour, and containing above 2,000 inhabitants. At the village of Classernoss, in the .soutliern pan of the same peninsula, is a D.iiidical temple, as well prcser\cd and perfect, though not of such large Uirnen- «ions, as that of Stoneher.ge. The celebrated island of lona or Hyona, called also Hui or }Jy, and . 1 Coluim Kill, or the Isle of Columba's church, seems to have served as u sanctuary for St. Columba, and other holy men of learning, while Ira- land, England, and Scotland, were desolated by barbarism. The church ©f St. Mary, which is built in the ibrm of a cathedral, is a beautiful fabric. It contains the bodies of some Scotch, Irish, gnd Norwegian kings, with «ome Gaelic insciiptions. The tomb of Columba, who lies buri^-d here, is uninscribed. The steeple is large, the cupola is twenty-one feet equate, the doors and windows are curiously carved, and the altar is of the finest marble. Innumerable are the inscriptions of ancient customs and ceremonies, that are discernible upon this island, and which give countenance to the welKknown observation, that, when learning was nearly extinct on the continent of Europe, it found a refuge in Scotland, *r rather in these islands. Staffa, situate ten miles to the north-east of Tona, is a small island, ©nly one mile long and half a mile broad, and inhabited by a single family. It is, however, remarkable for consisting of one entire pile of basaltic pillars, arranged in natural colonnades wonderfully magnificervt. Mr. Banks, now Sir Joseph Banks, in relating his voyage through the Hebrides, in 1 772, s.^ys : " We were no sooner arrived than we were; struck witli .1 scene of magnificence which exceeded our expectations, tliough founded, as we thought, upon the most sanguine foundations : the whole of tliat end of the island (Staffa) supported by ranges of na- tural pillars, mostly above fifty feet high, standing in natural colonnades, according as the bays or points of land formed themselves ; upon a firm basis of solid unformed rock, above tliese, the stiatum %\hich reaches to the soil or surface of the island, varied In tliickness as tlie island itself formed into hills or valleys ; each hill, t^'hich hung over the columns below, forming an ainpl^ pediment ; some of these, above sixty teet in tliickncss from tlie base to the point, formed, by the sloping of the liiU on each side, almost in the shape of those used in architecture." Tiia i»v« of Fiiigal, a vast and magnificent cavern ib this island, 371 Z I h 11 '( • - 333 ISLES OF SCOTLAND. h\ h 1 feet long, .^3 broad, and I17 high, CQinposed of such pillars, is thus de- scribed by Mr. Banks. — " We proceeded along the shore, treading upon another Giants' Cumnva^y every stone being regularly formed into a cer- tain number of sides and angles ; till, in a short time, we arrived at the mouth of a cave, the most magnificent, 1 suppose, that has ever been de- scribed by travellers. I'he mind can hardly form an idea more mag- nificent than such a space, supported on each side by ranges of columiis, and roofed by the bottoms of those which have been broken oft* in order to form it : between tlie angles of which a yellow stalagmitic matter has exuded, which ser\'es to define the aiiglcs precisely, and at the same time vary the colour, with a great deal of elegance ; and to render it still more agreeable, the whole is lighted from without ; so that tha farthest extremity is very plainly seen from without } and the air within, being agitated with the flux ami reflux of the tide, is perfectly dry and wholesome, free entirely from the damp of vapours, with which "natural caverns in general abountl." To the north-west of Mull are the islands of Tirey and Col ; the former of which produces a beautiful marble of a rose colom'. Tirey is level and fertile, but Col is rocky, or rather, as Dr. Johnson has observed, one continued rock covered with a thin layer of earth. Tkin latter island is about thirteen miles long and three broad, and contains about 800 inhabitants. Hirta, or St. Kilda, is tlie most western island of the Hebrides, and is three miles lon^ and two broad, 'I'he soil is I'ertlle, but the arable land scarcely exceeds eighty acres, though by industrj' more miglit be added. The mountain or rock of Congara, in this island, is accounted the Tene- riff.of the British islands, its height above the level of the sea being 1800 yards. I'he whole island' is siirroiaided with the inost tremendous rocks, and has only one landing-place, and even there it is impossible to land except in calm weather. About twenty-seven families reside here, in a small village on the eastern side of the island. These people dis- play the most astonishing courage and dexterity in climbing the dread- ful precipices in quest of sea-fowls and their eggs, which furnish them witli food during a great part of the year. I'he nniltitudes of these birds are prodigious, the rocks round the island biding so covered with them that tljey appear like mountains covered witli snow ; yet they so intirely disappear in November, that from the middle of tliat month to the middle of February not one is to be seen. The people of tlie He- . brides are clothed and live like the Scotch Highlanders. They are simi- lar in persons, constitutions, customs, aud prejuditvs ; but with this dif- ference, that the more polished manners of the Lowlanders are every day gaining ground in the Highlands. Perhaps tlie dcsci \dents of the ancient Caledonians^ in a few years, will be discernible only in the He- brides. Those islands alone retain the ancient usages of the Celts, as described by the oldest and best authors ; but with a strpng tirjcture of the feudal constitution. Their shanachies, or story-tellers, supply tlie place of the ancient bards. So tiimous in history j and are the historians, or rather genealogists, as well as poets, of the nation and family. The chief is likewise attended, when he appears abroad, wiJJi his musician} M'ho is generally a bagpiper, and dressed in the manner of the English minstrels of former times, but, as it is said, much more sumptuously. Notwith- standing the contempt into which tliat music is fallen, it is almost incre- dible with what care and attention it was cultivated among these islanders so Jaie ai th(i bcgiiuiing of the last centujy. They liad regular col- f I ISLES OF SCOTLAND. 339 leges and professors, and the students took degrees according to their proficiency. Many of the Celtic rites, some of which were too bar- barous to be retained or even mentioned, are now abolished. The in- habitants, however, still preserve the most profound respect and affec- tion for their several chieftains, notwithstanding all tlie pains that have been taken by the British legislature to break those connexions, which experience has shown to be so dangerous to government. The com- mon people are but little better lodged than the Norwegians and Lap- landers : tliough they certainly fare better j for they have oatmeal, plenty offish and fowl, cheese, butter, milk and wheyj and also mut- ton, beef, goat, kid, and venison. They indulge themselves, like their forefathers, in a romantic poetical turn ; and the agility of both sexes in tlie exercises of tlie field, and ia dancing to their favourite music, is re- markable. The inhabitants of the Hebrides, particularly of the isle of Skye, for- merly protended, at least many of them, to the power of foreknowing future events by what was termed the second-sight. This gift, which in tl»e Erse language is called Taisli, is supposed to be a supernatural fiiculty of seeing visions of events before they happen. Many extraordinary stories m support of tills delusion are related in these islands, and soma of them liave been vouchod by persons of sense, character, and learning. The adepts of the second sight pretend that tliey have certain revelations, or Mther presentations either really or t^'pically to their eyes, of certain events that are to happen in the compass of t\vei|ty-four or forty-sight hours. We do not, however, from the best information, observe that any two of those adepts agree as to the maimer and form of those revela- tions, or that they have any fixed metliod for interpreting their typical appearances. I'he truth seems to be, tliat tliose islanders, by indulging themselves in lazy habits, acquire visionary ideas, and overheat their imaginations, till they are presented with those phantasms, which they mistake for fatidical or prophetic manifestations. They instantly begin to prophesy J and it would be absurd to suppose, that, amidst many thousand predictions, some may not happen to be fulfilled ; and these, being well attested, give a sanction to tiie whole. Many learned men have been of opinion, that the Hebrides being the most westerly islands where the Celts settled, their language must re- main there in its greatest purity. This opinion, though very piausible, has failed in experience. Many Celtic words, it is true, as well as cus- toms, are there foiind ; but the vast intercourse which the Hebrides had with tJie Danes, the Norwegians, and other northern people, whose language has no affinity with the Celtic, has rendered tlielr language \ compound J srt that it approaches in no degree to the purity of the Cel- tic, commonly called Erse, which was spoken by their neighbours in Ixxliaber and the opposite coasts of Scotland, the undoubted descen- tlents of the Celts, among whom their language remains more un- mixed. The religion professed in the Hebrides is chiefly presbyterian, as esta- blished in the church of Scotland : but popery and ignorance are still but too prevalent. The ORKNEY ISLANDS, anclentjy the Orcades, lie to the north of Dungsby-hcad, bctv.een 58° 48' and 5^ 2Qf of north latitude ; being se- parated from the most northern part of Scotland by a tempestuous strait called the Pentland Firth, twenty-four miles long and tvvelve broad, lliey are nearly eighty in number, but only twenty-six are inhabited, the rest consisting of what are called holms and skerries j the former 6i" Z2 \r ' Hi"' L S40 ISLES OF SCOTLAND. hi "which are islands entirely consigned to pasturage, and the latter barrel rocks. , The largest of the Orkney islands is Pomona, called also tlie Main- land. Its length is about twenty -four miles, and its breadth in sonri places nine, in others only two, as it is of an extremely irregular figure. It contains four excellent harbours, one of which is that of Kirkwall, the principal town in the island, and the capital of the Orkneys. Thi.^ town extends nearly a rnile in length, but contains only about three hun- dred houses. The cathedral of Kirkwall is a line Gothic building, dedi- cated to St. Magnus, but now converted into a parish church. Its roof is supported by fourteen pillars on each side ; and its steeple, in which is a good ring of bells, by four large pillars. The three gates of the church are chequered with red and white polished stone, embossed and elegantly flowered. The whole island is div ided into nine parishes. The other principal islands of tiiis group are South llonaldsha. Hoy, Sanda, Westra, and Nortli Ronaldsha. South Ronaldsha is one of the most fertile of the Orkneys : it is about seven miles long and from tw^o to five broad. Hoy is about tew miles in length and four or live in breadth ; and at high tides is divided' into two islands, the southern, named Waes or AValls, and the northern. Hoy. In this island is a mountain called \Vart-hill, the height of which is estimated at Id'lO feet, tlie summit of which, in the months of May, June, and July, shines and sparkles in an extraordinary manner when seen at a distance, though this brightness disappears on a nearer approach. The peasants on this account call it tlie tnchanted curhunclv. The causo of this phenomenon has been suspeeted to be the reflexion of the rays of the sun from some watei- ; but no such water, when sought for, has been discovered. In a dark valley of Hoy is a kind-of hermitage cut out of stone, called the dwartie stone, thirty-eight feet long, eighteen broad, and nine thick ; in which is a square hole, about two feet high, for an entrance, with a stone of tlie same size for a door. Within this entrance is the resemblance of a bed, with a pillaw cut out of the stone, large enough for two men to lie on : at the other end is a couch, and in the middle a hearth, ^\ ith a hole cut out above for a chimney. The island of Sanda is twelve miles long, from one to three broad, and of an extremely irregular form. Westra is eight miles long and two broad. North Ronaldsha, tlie most northern of tliese islands, is only about three miles in length and one iu breadth. The number of inhabitants in the Orkneys is computed at 23,000. They consist of the mixed descendents of Norwegian colonists and Low- land Scots. The town of Kirkwall has so much trade, that in 1790 tho exports were estimated at 26,598/. and the imports at 20,803/. The exports consist of beef, pork, butter, tallow, hides, salted li?h, linen yarn, coarse linen clotli, and kelp, of which the island of Sanda in parti- cular produces great quantities 5 and the imports of coal, wood, sugar, spirits, wines, tobacco, snuff, hardware, printed linens and cottons, ,^i:c. The manufactures are linen yarn, coarse linen, and kelp. The language spoken here was formerly the Norse, or Norwegian ; btit this is now superseded bv the Jlriglish, or that of the Lowland Scots. The SHETLAND ISLES are situate about twenty leagues to th« north-east of the Orkneys, between lat. 59** 45' and Ol' lO' nortlu They aro r(^:koned to be lorty-si^c in number, besides about tliirty holnig and forty skerries. The princijial of them is, as in the Orkneys, called the Mainland, which island iii about 67 miles in length, aud 10 or 12 in kureadtii ; but h $0 biaken by creeks aud uAcU, that scarcely any purt ISLES OF SCOTLAND. 341 re« ^f it is distant more than two miles from the sea. These inlets form at least 20 harbours, six of which are very spacious and coinnnxiicnis. Tlie town or Lerwick, the only town of these islands, stands on the eastern side of Mainland, ojjposite the harbour called Brassa-scmnd, which is capable of containing above 2000 ships coinniodiously and safely. Thij town contains about 3(X) families. Skalloway, on the western side, which was once a town of s.nne importance, is now dwindled into a very inconsiderable village, though the ruins of a castle are still to bo ijeen there, and it is the seat of a presbytery. The other islands of thia group present nothing which merits particular notice. Yell, situate to the north east of Mainland, is Id miles long, and five or six broad. It contains eight considerable harbours. Unst, at the northern extremity of this group, is eight mile^i long, and four broad, and has two excellent harbours. The coasts of all these islands are in general rugged and precipitous, presenting in many places scenes truly grand and magnificent, and their interior is a rugged and bleak scene of barren rocks, with here and there a few scanty portions of cultivated ground. They are at present desti- tute of trees, though there is reason to believe they were not in former limes. The air is keen and salubrious, and many of the natives live to a very great age. Fron) their northern situation they enjoy, during two months in tlie middle of summer, almost perpetual day— there being sufficient light at midnight, in the months of June and July, for any per- son lo see to read, when the sky is dear. In tlie opposite season of the year the duration of the night is correspondent. Though there is littla frost or snow, fogs, rain, storms, and a tempestuous sea, prevent the Shetlanders from having any connnunioation, during the seven or eight winter months, either with the neighbouring islands or other countries. A remarkable instance of this is, that a Scottish fishciman was impri- boned in Maj'^, for publishing the account of the prince and princess oit Orange being raised to the throne of England the pa-ccding November; and he would probably have been hanged, had not the news been con- firmed by the arri\ al of a ship. Tlie number of inhabitants in tlie Shetland Islands was computed, in J 798, at 2(),lSt), llieir chief food consi.sts offish, and various kinds ol j»ea-fowl which cover the rocks, and in taking which they display ex- traordinary address and courage. Agriculture here is in a very low state, oats and here being the only grain sown. The cattlo are rather larger than tiiose in tlie Orkneys. These islands are famous for a very small breed of horses, which are extremely active, strong, and hardy j and are frequently employed to draw die carriages of the wealthy and curious of the capital, especially the ladies, on account of tlieir diminu- tive size, and beauty. The trade «»f the Shetland Isles consists princi- pally in the export of fish, chietiy herrings, cod, ling, and torsk or tusk. The Dutch, in time of peace, carry on a great fishery in the neighbour- hood of these islands ; three thousand busses, or fibbing vessels, having been known to be employed by them in one season in the herring- fishery, besides tliOke fitted out I'miu Hamburg, JJremen, and oilier northern parts. The natives of these islands difi-er little in their character and liabits from the Lowland Scots, except that their manners are more simple, and their minds less cultivated. Their religion is ilie protestaut, ac* cording to the discipline of the church of Scotlaiid ; and their civil in- stitutions are iim«h the same witli those of tlie c6ui;try to which tli^f belong. ■ -. 342 IRELAND. 'ri«lW,.»^ -O O .atrt.- In some 'of the northern islands, the Norwegian, which is called the Norse language, is still spoken. Their great intert-ourse with the Dutch, during the fishing season, renders that laiiguiige likewise common. The islands both ot Shetland and Orkney were anciently subject to Norway ; and were sold in the thirteentli century, by Magnus ot" Nor- way, to Alexander, king of Scotland, by whom they were given as liels to a nobleman of the name of Six;ire. After this, they were claimed by, and became subject to, the crown of Denmark. Christian I., in tlie reign of James III., conveyed them in property to the crown of Scotland, as a marriage portion with his daughter Margaiet : and all future preten- sions were entirely ceded on the marriage of James VI. of Scotland with Anne ef Denmark. The isles of Shetland and Orkney now form a stewartry, or shire, which sends a member to parliament. Ai (■•l .'i.:, i'fi? S IRELAND. SITU.\TION AND EXTENT. Miles. Length Breadtli 280 7 l60j between f 51° 30' and 55" 20' North latitude. I 5" 20' and 10" 15' West longitucU;. Ireland contains 27,457 S(]uare miles, with 145 inhabitants to each. . Name.] IT appears that Ireland was known to the Greeks by the tiAme of Juverna. The Romans called it Hibernia. In the middle 9ges it frequently was termed Scotia, which name was transferred to Scotland when the Scoti from Ireland settled in the latter country. The native denomination is Erin, which, it is said, signifies the Land of tlie West } and from which both the ancient appellation Hibernia, and the modern name IrelamI, are probably derived. Boundaries.] By the boundaries of an island we must be under- stood to mean the ditterent nanies given to the sea by which it is sur- rounded in different parts. Thus Ireland has to the, north, west, and south, the Atlantic Ocwan^ and to the east St. Gecivge's Channel, which separates it from Wales; the Irish Sea, which divides it from the En- glish counties of Lancashire and Cumberland } and the North Channel, which separates it from Scotland. The distance from Dublin to f ioly- hcad in Nortli Wales, the usual passage from England, is about 00 miles j but from Donaghadee to the Mull of Galloway in Scotland, it is only about 20 miles. L>ivisioNS.] Ireland is divided into four provinces, Leinster, Ulster, Connaught, and Munster ; which are again subdivided into 32 counties : i. 4: Leinster, 12 counties Counties. DubUn Dublin Chief Towns, lat. Ion. CN. |W. i3" 21'. (j" 0'. I-/Outh Drogheda. Wi klow Wicklow. Wexford Wexford. Longford Longford. East Meath Trim. WVst Meath MuUingar. King's County Philipstown. Queen's County Maryborough. .)7 .<i ,yj 1 ' r/.i/i-rx /•/.i/.n. I h .rfj«..*«.- •« f h- f.'. i: .> I { 4ipi* '»M¥^- ^Mfc I ! < ■#■■-. ,i. ( f I' ,. \ . / f if ^SW*.- /■, .- .-. ..»-vt,j ,^-, Vi«l-i'.-... •-■-.. ,#■•-.»...». K.>..lt, rta.-.v,>.tfi».... '. i lUELANO. nj3 Ulster, 9 counties Countia?. Chief Towns. I Kilkenny Kilkenny. I Kildare Naas and Athy* l.Carlo\v Carlow. ' Down Down Patrick. Armagh Armagh. Monaghan Monaghan. Cavan Cavan. Antrim Carrickfergus. Londonderry Derry. Tyrone Omagh. Fermanagh Enniskillen. ' , Donegal Lilford. TLeitrim Carrick on Shannon. 1 Roscommon Roscommon. Connaught, 5 counties < Mayo Rallinrobe and Castlebar, i Sligo Sligo. V.G'*l^^'''^y Gal way. I Clare Ennis. Cork Cork. Kcrr>' Tralec. Limerick Limerick. Tipperary Clonmel. Waterford Waterford. Munster, <5 counties Face or the countrv.] Ireland is in general a level country, the face of which is pleasingly diversified by nature with occasional hills and gentle undulations, and clothed by the mild temperature and humi- dity of the air with an unfading verdure. Yet a great part of the island, from the scarcity of trees, and the want of improvement by the cultiva- tion which it seems to invite, presents only a naked aspect. Mountains.] Ireland, as has been above observed, cannot be con- sidered as a mountainous country, though several chains of high hills are found in different parts. In the county of Down are ridges, called the mountains of Mourne and Ireagh, one of which, Slieve Donard, or Mount Donard, has been calculatcxi at a perpendicular height of 1050 yards. Many other mountains are found in Ireland, which contain beds of mincriils, coals, stone, slate, and marble, with veins of iron, lead, and copper. TJie mountains Nephin and Croagh Patrick, i« the county of Mayo, are 880 yards high. The latter is in tlie form of an immense cone, and discernible at the distance of 60 miles. Forests.] There were tbrmerly extensive forests in the counties of Donegal, Tyrone, Fermanagh, and Antrim j and considerable woods in those of Wicklow, Wexford, Tipperary, and Cork. But these have now disappeared, or at least have been greatly diminished, partly by the extension of tillage, and partly by tlie consumption of them in fuel for domestic uses, and for the iron manufactories. Ireknid, however, affords excellent turf and moss, which are of great service for firing, where wood and coals are scarce. Bogs.] The bogs of Ireland, or, as they are called by the north- CTii Irish, mosses, form a principal feature of this country. They differ from the English morasses in being rarely level, but rising into hills. In Donegal tliere is a bog which presents a perfect scenery cl iiill and dale. Many of them are very extensive j that of Allen, not*. ■I ■ i 344 'IRELAND. xvithstnndin? it has been much Jimlnisiied by the rcclaimlnj* a 'r^nt por- tion ot it, 4I11I extends 70 mile.- in longih, rjiJ is computed to contain 2t)0,t>0() acios. Tlicre ai-e many ollicrs of great extrnt, and smaller Ones uru scattered o\er the Mhole island. Where thev do not occupy loo grf>;ii a proportlun of the lanl, they are ot" utility to the inhabiianig, by the abund;uice ot'fael which iluy I'Tnish. The w.:;eis ot these bngs, far from eiuiiiiiig putrid t-.\halaii ons like standing pools and marches, are of an nnti^cptiv: and str.jngly antrlngent quahiy ; as av-pearh from their presers ing for ag'N, and t-vcn adding tf) th^ durability of, the tiuibev which is found every where buried beneath their .surtace^i, and fioni their cimvcrting into a kind of leather the skins of nun and anirn;''.* who have had the mifafurtune of beiug lost, and remaining in ihein any lenjjth of time. Lakks.] There are in Ireland a great number of lakes, or, as Uicy Were formerly called, loughs, particularly in the provinces of Ulster an4 Coiu*aught. Tlie principal are that of Erne, in the county of Ferraa- nagli, which is moie than 30 English miles in length, and twelve in its greatest breadth, at ts northern extremity; that of Corrib, in the county of Gahvay, about 20 miles in length, and from two to ti\e wide; and tlie great lake Neagh, between tlie counties of Antrim, Down, and Armagh, above 18 miles in Icngh, and nine in breadth, and occupying ;in area of nearly (i)0,000 Irish, or above <)0,000 English acres. The wateV of the latter lake is said to have a petrifying tjuality. Some of liie Irish lakes afford die most beautiful and romaatic prospects, particularly that of Killarney, which takes its name from a small town in the county of Kerry. I'his lake, which mny be divided into three, is entirely sur- rouiided with njonntains, rocks, and precij)ices, the inniiense decliviticij of which are covered with woods, intermixed with ever-grecns, from near their tops to the lakes themselves; among which are a number of rivu]ets limibiing over the precipices, sonie iVom heights of little less than 3C0 feet. On tlie top of one of tlie surrounding moimtains is a sti.all round lake, about a quarter of a mile in diameter, called the De- vils Pum li-Bowl. From the surface of the lake to the top of the ca- vity, or brim of llie bowl, may be about 300 yards ; and when \'ie\vcd from the circular top, it h.is a most astonisliing appearance. I'he depth of it is vastly great ; but not unlathoniahle, as the natives pretend. The cUscharrre of die supertluons waters of ti.is bowl, thrmigh a chasm int» the middle lake, forms one of tlie tine^t * a.-cados in the world, visible for 150 yards. The echoes among the bids surrounding the soLuhern pait,'> of the lake, which is mostly inclosed, are equally dt'liglitful and a,-.to- nishing. I'he proprietoi , the earl of Kenmore, has placed some cannoii in tlie most prope; places, for the amusement of tra\ oilers ; and the dis- charge of these pieces is tremendous, resembling almost the rolling of a violent peal of thutuier, which seems to travel the surrounding scenery, and die a\\'ay amc.ng the distant mountains. Here also musical in- struments, especially the horn and trumpet, alTord the mo.-.t delightful entertainment, and raise a concert superior to tiiat of a hiuuhed per- formers. Among the vast and craggy heights that surround the lake, is one stupend.'Us and frightfiil rock, the front of which towards the water }s a most horrid precipice, called the au^ie's nest, from the numbtjr of those birds which have iJieir nests in that place. Rivers.] The largest river in Ireland is the Shannon, which issues from Lough-Allen, in the county of Ix-iirim, serves as a boundary ber tween Connaught and the three other provinces, and, after a course of 150 miles, foraiing in its nrogress many beautifiU lakes, h\\^ into thf I., tRFI.AND. 3<| Atlantic Ocrnn, between Korry-pnint nu.l lAinp-hcad, whore it is nino miles broad. The navlgaiioii <it' this river is iiiierrupted by a ridge of rocks spreading quite across it, -Mjuth of Kill;il(H' ; but this might bo re- mcdiotl by a sliort canal ; and c )ninuli>icaii<)ii ini^ht al-u be made with other rivers. The Kami tails into theKlci'iin lU'nr Coleiaine ; the Boyno tails into St. Gcorgr's ChanitM at Drojh.ed.i, ih <'.o«?s tlio Litiey at the bay of Dul>lifi, and is (>nly . •niarkabi*' for wMttiuig Hiat capital, whero i; forms a spacious harbour. The Barrow, I ho Nore, and the Suir, water the sotttli part of the kingdom, .-.nd, iiftcr uniting fheir streams below iloss, fall into the channel at Watcrturd jiiwen. Bays .vno marbouks.] Hut the hays, hnvens, harbours, and cfcvks, which e\ery-\vlu;re indent the coast, form tlie chief glory of Ireland, anj render that country beyond any country in Euro|K> be.it lifted fin- f(T"ign commerce. The moit considerable are those of Carricklergus, Slang- ford, Dimdruin, Carlingfovd, Dundalk, Dublin, Waterford, iJungarvan, Cork, Kinsale, Baltimore, Ghmdore, Diuimanu.s, Ranlry, Kenniare, Dingle, Shannonmouih, Galway, SligOj Duncgalj Killebcgs, Lough- Swilly, and Lough -I'oyle. Canals.] The improvements of inland tiavigation have not been unatter.ded lo in Irei.ind. P.y the canal of New ly a communication is formed between the great lake Neagh and the bay of Carlingford, and by tlial of Lisburn a navij,ation is opened between the .same lake and the bay of (-"arrickfergus. Two great canals, called tlu- Royal Canal and the Grand Canal, have been planned and l)egun at J^ublin, tm opposite sidts of the river Litfey. Ihey were intended to form a na\igation across tlie i^lind, from the bay of Dublin to the Shannon. The latter has been carried at)ove forty miles to the river Barrow, while a branch proceeds in another direction towards the Shannon ; but tiie former wa« stopped at tlie bog of v\den, and has long remained unfinished. ^IETALS AN'D .MixiiUALS.] Iiclaud Contains mines of iron, copper, lead, silver, and gold. I'lie latter has been discovered within these few years, in tlie county of W'ieklow. It is nyw worked for governmetU, and it is said that a new and very ri<;h vein has been lately discovered. The silver and lead mine in the county of Antrim yields a pound of pure silver from thirty pound,'^ (<t' lead. 'I'here are also silver mines, though not equally protluctive, in the counties of Sligo aiid lainerick. There !.■? a rich mine of copper at a place called Crone Bawn in the cour.ty of Wicklow, aivl another at lledhills in the county of Kildare. Extensive iron-works have been e.^labl^shc^l within Uicse few years, at Arigna, in thD county of Leitrim. Some of the Irish marble quarrie.s contain a kind of poiphyr}', Mhich is red striped with white. Quarries of tine slate are found in r^^t of the counties. Mines of coal are found in many parts of Ireland, parti- cularly near Castlecomer iii the coriity of Kilkenny ; the coal from which being of a hard sort, and proper for llie forging of iron, is con- veyed, even by land carriage, to very distant part.s oi I he island. Ci.i.MATE, SOIL, AijfD AGRICULTURE.] The liimate of Ireland dithers ■not much from that of England, excepting that it is more moist, the sea- sons in general being much wetter. From the reports of various regi- sters, it appears that the numt)er of days on which ram liad fallen in Ire- land was much greater than in the same years in England. But, in manj respects, the climate of Ireland is more agreeable than that of England — tJie summers being cooler, and the winters less severe. The piercing frosts, die deep snows^ and tlie dreadful eltccts of tliuud^r and lightning, ,^ i 346 IREI.AM), If 'li v'liifh are so frequently obsenccl in the latter countrj-, arc never cxpc» ricnced here. The moisture above alluded to, being peculiarl}' favourable to the growth of grass, has been urged as an aigaini.ut why the inhabitants should conhne their attention to iho rearing of cattle, to tlic toiai dvser- tion of tillage, and consequent injury to the growth of ixjpuiation; but the soil is so infinitely variou,4, as to be capabkvof ahuohi every species of cuhivaticjn suitable to such latitude, with a fertility equal to its va- riety. This is so conspicuous, that it has been observed by Mr. Young, that " natural fertility, acre for acre, over the two kingdoms, is certainly in favour of Ireland ; of this there can scarcely be a doubt entertained, A^'henit is considered that some of the more beautiful, and even the best cultivated counties in England, owe almost uvery thing to the capital, art, and industry, of its inhabitants." " The circumstance which strikes me as tlie greatest singularity of Ireland," adds the same respectable traveller, " is the rockiness of the soil, which should seem at first sight against that degree of fertility ; but the contrary is the fact. Stone is so general, that 1 have good reason to be- lieve the whole island is one vast rock, of diflerent strata and kinds, rising out of the sea. I have rarely heard of any great depths being sunk with- out meeting with it- In general it appears on the surface in every part of the kingdom ; the flattest and most fertile parts, »:> Limerick, Tippe- rary, snd Kleath, have it at no great d'\)ih, almost as n)uch as the more barren ones. INIay wc not recogniie in this the hand of bounteous Pro- vidence, which has" given, perhaps, the most stony soil in Europe to the moistcst climate in it ? J fas much rain fell upon the clays in England (a soil very rarely met with in Ireland, and never witliout much stone), as falls up)n the rocks ot'her sister island, those lands could not be cul- tivated. But the roeks here are clotlied with verdure ; those of lime- stone, with Old) a tliin cosering of mould, ha\c the .softest and most beautilui turf imagiiiabl!.\" Tillage in Ireland has been too much discountenanced, and is ill un- derstood, even in the be>t corn counties. The favmers are oppressed by the persons called middle riicn, who rent farms of the landloi'ds, aiid let them out to the real occupiers. Ireland rears vast nundicrs ot black cattle and sheep, and the Irish wool is e.KCcUent. Tlie prodigious supplies of butter and salt provisions (iish excepted) shipped at Cork, and carried to all parts of the world, iiflbrd the strongest proofs of the natural fertility of the Irish soil. Vegetaelks.] The vegetable productions of Ireland are nearly the sanK; as those of England. Eew countries yield better grain than what is produced in the parts of the island where the cultivation of it is at- tendt-Hl to. Great (quantities of hemp and flax are raised, especially in the northern cotuuics, where the linen maimfacture is principally car- ried on. Potatoes, as is well known, seem especially to suit the soil of the country, and are a particular object of cultivation in all parts of Ire- l«uid. Animals.] Wolves were formerly found in Ireland, and were not exterminated till near the end of the seventeenth century. The Irish wolf-dogs, a sjxjcies of large grey-hounds, near four feet in height, are now very nearly extinct. In some parts of the country some herds of red deer are still found wild, particularly in tlie mountainous tract near the lake of Kiliarne)'. Whether it be owing to ihe soil or tlie climate, it is certain that in ii eland there are neither moles nor toads, nor any kind of serpents ; and it is uoL ttiorc than eighty or liiuety ) ears since frogs. ^»^^ IRELAND. 347 tlie itatus but art. / of which there are now abundance, were first imported from England. The niHgpye and the nigiitingalc ate Strangers liere ; and it is said tliat the latter bird, if brought o^•cr in a ca^e, suon pines and dies. There are also some oilier birds and several kind* of lish, which abound in En- gland, but are unknown in Ireland. Natural cuuiosities.] The greatest natural curiosity in Ireland is the Giants' Causeway in the county of Antrim, about eight miles from Coleraine, wliich is thus descrii^ed l)y Dr. Pococke, Lite bishop of Ossory, a celebrated traveller and antiquary. He says, " that he measured the most westerly point at high water, to the distance of JdO feet from the clitf J but he was told, that at low water it extended CiU feet farther upon a descent, till it was lost in the sea. Upon measuring the ea-itern point, Jie found it 540 feet from the clilfj and saw as much more of it as of the other, where it %\ inds to the e^st, and is, like that, lost in the water. " The causeway is ccmposed uf pillars, all of angular shapes, from three sides to eight. The eastern point, where it joins the rock, termi- nates in a perpendicular clilf, formed by the upright sides of the pillars, bornc of which are thirty-three leet four inches high. Each pillar con- sists of sexeral joints or stones, lying one upon anotiier, iVom six inches to about one fo;)t in thickness; and, vliat is very a.urprising.-some of these joints are so convex, that their prominences are naarly quarters of spheres, round each of which is a ledge, which holds them together , with the greatest firmriess, every stone being concave on the other side, and tilting \n the exactest manner the convexity of the upper part of that beneaili it. The pillars are from one to two feet in diameter, and generally consist of about forty joints, most of which separate \Try easily, and one may walk along upon the tops of the pillars as far as to the edge of the water. " liut this IS not the most singular part of this extranrdinav}' curiosity, the cliffs themselves i)eing still more surprising. From the bottom* whicii is of black stone, to the litight of about sixty feet, they are di- vided at eqxial distances by stripes of a reddish stone, tliat resembles a cement, about four inches in thickness j upon this there is another stratum of the .same black s-tone, with a stratum cf five inches thick of the red. Over this is another stratum, ten feet tliick, divided iti the sanje manner; then a stratum of the red stone twenty teet deep, and above that a stratum of ujjright pillars ; above these pillars hes auotlier stratum of black stone, tw enty feet high ; and above this again, another stratum of upright pillars, rising in some places to the (ops of the cliffs, in others not so high, and in others again above it, where they are called the Chimneys. The face of tliese clifis extends about tiirce English miles." Ireland abounds in cataracts, caverns, and nnnantic prospects. The scenery of the kike of Killainey has Ijeen already described. In the side of the mouiUain of Kisheeorran, in the county of Sligo, are six caverns, which e.\t(Mul to the ilistance of tiO or i)0 leet. The sides are covered with a smooth white sub.->lance, like ]>laister. The largest has, at the entrance, a kind of hall of a circular form, about 30 feet in diameter, and as many in height. Near the city of Cork there is a vast subler- rancan labyrinth, called tlie Oven, the extent of which lias never been explored, though it has been advanced into to the distance of a quarter of a mile or more. But the most celebrated cavt.ra in Ireland is the cave of Duimiore, about three miles from Kilkemiv. This has only been e\]>lored as far as a subterranean river which runs through it about a quar- twr of a niik^ from the entrance, where in a ditticuit desctitit of about 100 i« p ' 111 i 2A8 ttlElAND. feet. One part of this cavern resembles a grand Gothic structure in ruins ; the other has the ap{)earance of a magniticent temple, from tlto ceiling of which depend stalactic concretions, in the forms of inverted cones and pyramids, which, when strongly illuminated, shine witla asto- nishing brilliance, and produce a most extraordinary effect. The largest cataract in Ireland is that of Adragool, in Bantry-bay. On the top of a rocky mountain, which rises almost perpendicularly. Is a lake of considerable size, from which issues a sheet of water at first 30 feet wide, which expands as it descends^ and, dashing from rock to rock, forms a series of cataracts, fill it is projecled in the form of an arch, over a lower hill into the sea. It is visible at the town of Bantry, at the di- stance of 14 miles. Popuj.ATioN.j At the commencement of the last century, the num- ber of inhabitants in Ireland was thought to be about two millions; whereas, in 1 072, there were, according to sir William Petty, no more than 1,10(^,()00. But from th.e accounts laid before the house of com- mons in I73fi (as retiu-ned by the hearth-money collectors), tlic num- ber of houses in Ireland amounted to 4/4,234. If we add to this the probable increase since, and allow for the nimnbers intentionally or un- avoidably overk;oked in such returns, we may reasonably conclvidc that the present actual amount is 500,000. We are next to consider what average number of persons we should allow to eacii house. In the peasants' cottages in Ireland (perhaps the most populous in the world), Mr. Young in son:ie parts found the aver- age 6 and 61 ; others have found it in diflerent places to be 7 j and Dr. Hmnilton, in his account of the island of Raghory, enumerates the houses, and discovered the a^'erage therein to be 8. In the cities and principal towns, the houses, particularly in the nianuiacturing parts, ge- nerally contain several families ; and from different accounts, tlie num- bers in such are from 10 up so high as 70. From these data, then, it will not perhaps be erroneous, if we fix the Average for the whole island at 8 persons to, each house; which, multi- plied by the number of houses, makes the population oi Ireland amount to four millions. National CHARACTER, MAN- 7 It is justly obserx-ed by Dr. I^c- NEKS, AND CUSTOMS. ^ land, with regard tp the manners of the ancient Irish, that if we make our inquiries on this subject in En- glish writers, we find their representations ixiious and disgusting : if from writers of their own race, they frequently break out into Uie most animated encomiums of their great ancestors. The one can scai'cely allow tliem any virtue : the otlier, in their enthusiastic ardour, can scarcely discover the least imperfection in tl;eir laws, government, or nianners. The historian of England sometimes regards them as tlie most detestable and contemptible of the human race. The antiquary of Ireland raises them to an illustrious eminenc^e above all other Euro- f>ean countries. Yet when we examine tl:eir records, wiihout regard tf» Legendary talcs or jioetic fictions, we find them, even in their most bril- liant periods, advanced only to an imperfect civilisation ; a state which exhibits tlie most striking instances both of the virtues and tlie vices of humanity. With respect to the present desccndents of the oW Irish, or, as they are termed by the protest:uits, the fnac Irish, they are generally rc])re- gented as an ignorant, uncivilised, and blundering, sort of people. Im- patient of abuse and injury, they are implacable and violent in all tlicir €^ecii0n«; but quick of apprehension, ccJurteou* to stran^ci-s, and pa- IRELAND. '349 bay. On ■ly, Ls a first 30 to rock, ch, over tiie di- fient of liardiliip. Tliough in tliese respects there is, perhaps, little . ditFereiicc between llieni and the more uninformed part of their neigh- bours, ytt their barbarisms are more easy to be acccaiitcd ior, from dc- ■ cidental than natural causes. By fur the greater number of tliem are papists ; and it is the interest of their priests, who govern tliem with absolute sway, to keep them in the mo-^t profoiind ignorance. Thaj have also labovu-ed under many discouragements, which in their own country have prevented the exertion both of their meiital and bodily fa- culties ; but when employed in the service of foreign princes, they hav« been distinguished for intrepidity, courage, and tidelity. Alany of their nurnames iiave an 0, or Mac, placed belore LJiem, which sigriify grand- son and son. Formtirly the was used by their chiefs only, or such as piqued themselves on the antiquity of their families. Their music is tlie bagpipe, but their tunes are generally of a melancholy ^strain ; though «ome of their latest airs are lively, and, when sung by an Irishman, are extremely diverting. The old Irish is g,enerally spoken in the ii\terior parts of the kingdcun, where some oT the old uncouth customs still pre- vail, particularly tlie\r fitneral bowlings ; but this custom may be traced in many countries of the continent. Their custom of placing a dead corpse before tlieir doors, laid out upon tables, having a plate ujxju the body to excite the charity of pas.icngers, is ])ractised even in the skirt;? of Dublin. Their conviviiil meetings on Sunday afternoon, with d luciiig to the bagpipe, and more often quarrelling amtjng tliemsclves, are ollbii-. sive to every stranger. But, as we have already observed, these oustoma are chiefly confined to tlie more unpolished provinces of the kingdom, particularly Connaught — the common people there having tlie least sense of law and government of any in Ireland, while their tynuinical land- lords or leaseholders squeeze the poor witliout mercy. The commou I rial), in their ^nanner of living, seem to resemble the ancient Britons, as described by Roman authors, or the present Indian inhabitants of America. Mean huts or cabins built of clay and shaw, ['.irtitionetl in the middle by a wall of the same materials, serve the double purpose ot* accommodating the family, wlw live and sleep pii)miscuou.'>)y, having their fires of turf iu tlie .middle of the floor, with an opening througli the roof for a chimney j the other being occupied by a cow, or such pieces of fun^iiture as are not in immediate use. Their wealth consists of a cow, sometimes a horse, some poultry, and . a spot for potatoes. Coarse bre;id, potatoes, eggs, mill: and bometimei fish, constitute their food 3 for, however plentifully the fields may h& stocked with cattle^ these poor natives seldom taste batchers' rne:!t of any kuKi. Their children, plump, robust, and hearty, scarcely kno.v the use of clotlies, and are not ashamed to appear naked in the roadj, and gaze upon strangers. In tliis idle and deplorable state, many thousands have been lost to the community, and to themselves, who, if they had but an equal chance with their fieighbours, of being instructed in the real principles of Christianity, and being iimred and encouraged to industry and labour^ would have added considerable strength to government, The descendents of the English and Scots, since tiie conquest of Ire- land by Henry II., though not the most numerous, form tlic wealthiest part of the nation. Of theee are most of the nobility, gentry, and prin- cipal traders, who inhabit the eastevn and northern coasts, where most of tl^c trade of Ireland is carried on } especially Belfast, Londonderry i and other parts of the province of Ulster; which, though tlie poorest »vil, is, n*At to publitt auU its nei|ghbowrhood, by far the bast cultivated 350 IRELAND. and most flourishing pnrt of the kingdom. Hero a rnlony of Scots in the reign of James I. and other presbyterinns who tied from persecution in thai country in tlie succeeding reigns, planted themselves, and esta- blisiied that great staple of Irish wealth, the linen manufacture, which they have since carried on and brought to the utirH)st i>erfection. Fron\ this short review, it appears, that the present inhabitants are composed of three distinct classes of people j the old Irish, poor, ignorant, and de- pressed, who inhabit, or rather exist upon, the interior and western parts ; the descendents of the English, wl-o inhabit Dublin, Waterford, and Cork, and wlio gave a new .ippearance to the whole coast facing England, by the introduction of nrts, comiuerce, science, and more libe- ral ideas of religion ; antl, thirdly, emigrants from Scotland in the northern provinces, who, like the others, are so zealously attached to their o\vn religion and manner of living, that it will require some ages before the inhabitants of Ireland are so thorou':rhU' consolidated and blended as to become one people. The getury, and better sort of the Irish nation, in general ditier little in language, dress, manners, and cus- toms, from tiiose of the same rank in Great Britain, whom they imitate. Their h()spitality is well known; but in. this tliey are sometimes su- spected of more ostentation tlian real friendship. CiTiKs, cuiKF TOWNS, 7 Dublin, the capital of Ireland, is, in mag- AN'P KDii-icFs. J uitude and number of inhabitants, the se- cond city in the l^riti^h dominions. It is about ten miles in circum- ference, being nearly two miles and a half in length, and as much jh broadtli ; and" is hi;pposed to contain alxuit 1.5C»,o6o inhabitants. It st.inds about seven miles frcm the sea, at the bottoni of a large and spa- cious bay, to which it gives name, upon the liver Lilfey, which divides it almost into two ccjual parts, an! is banked in, through the whole length of tiie ci':y, on both sides, \\hich ibrm spacious and noble quays, vhore vessfls below the first bridge load and unload before the mer- chants' doors r.nd warehouses. To protect the harbour from the winds, a mole or huge wall h is been constructetl, nearly four miles in length, vvitii a light-lion>^' on its extiemity, and another corresponding to it on the opposite jironiovitury, t:alltHl the hill of Howth. A stranger, on entering the bay of Dublin, which is about seven miles broad, and in stormy weather e\Lrcniely dangerous, is agreeably surprised wit!) the beautiful pro^pt^ct on each side, and the distant view of Wicklow moim- tains; but the city itself, from its low situation, makes no great appear- ance. The increase of Dublin within these last tliirty years is incredi- ble. The number of liuusc'? in the year 1/77. ^^'^is 17,1j1, and they are now estimated at not less than 2'i,6<.>0. This city, in its appearance, bears a near resemblance to London. The houses are of brick ; the ohl streets are narrow and mean, but the new streets are as elegant as thosft of the metropolis of Great Britain. Sackville-street, which is sometimes called the Mall, is particularly noble. Tlie houses are elegant, lofty, Hiid uniformlv built, and a giavel-walk runs through the whole at an e<]ual distance from the sides. I'he river Litl'ev, thoug!'. navigable for sea vessels as far as the cus- tom-house, or centre of the city, is but small, when compared with the Thames at London. It is crossed by six bridges, three of which, Esncx- bridge, Queen's-bridge, and Sarah's-bridge, are elegant, especially the last, which has been finished but a few }eais. It consists of one arch, 106 feet in the span or width across the stream, and 28 feet high. Many of the public edifices of Dublin are very niiignilicent ; among 'W'hleU may be enumerated tlie late parliament-house^ the university^ the IRELAND. 551 courts of jvi<;ti<-p, the custom-house, the royal eschnnse.rompletedin 1779. and which is an elegant struciurc of white stone, willi semi-coiunuis of the Corintliian order, a cupola, :y:id otiicr ornaments. The castK> which is the residence of the viceroy, stands On a rising ground, ni.'ar the centre of the city, awl c onsists of two courts, one of which is of an oblong rectangular fi'Vin, the other a less regularly shaped quadrilatend. St. Steplieu's-green Is a very spricic.us and beautiful square, round which there is a gravfl-wall<, a mile in circuit. Many of the houses in tliis sijuare are very elegant ; but a want of uniformity is observable througliout. In this ivspeci it is greatly exceeded by Uie new square near it, called Merrlon- s(i'.nire ; the liouses of which being lofty and uniform, and built v/ith stone as high as the lirst floor, give the whole an air of niagnilicencc nt.t, perhaps, exceeded by any place iu England. The ci\il government of Dublin is by a lord-mayor, <kc., the same as in London. Every thinl year, tlie lord-mayor, and the twenty-four comp:'.nies, by virtue of au old charter, are obliged to jx^rambulate the city, and its liiierties, wh'ch they c:dl Hiding the Franchises. Upon this occasion the citizens vie with each other in show and ostentation, which is sometimes productive of di.-agrceable consequences to many of tiieir families. In Dubliii there are twenty parishes, a cathedral, eighteen parish-ciiurches, eight chapels, three chnrche-s tor French and one for Dutch protestarits, seven pn;'sbyterian met;ting-houses, two tor metho- dists, two for quakers, and sixteen Roman-c-aiholic chapels. There are als;) two tlieatres ; a royal hospital, like that at Chelsea, for invalids; a lying-in hospital, with gardens, built and laid out in the finest taste ; an Iiospital for lunatics, founded by the famous Dean Swift, who himself' died a lunatic ; and sundry other hospitals tor patients of every descrip- tion. Some of the churches ha\e been lately rebuilt in a more elegant manner. Indeed, whatever way a stranger turns himself in this city, he will perceive a spirit of elegance and magnificence; and if he ex- tends his view over the whole kingdom, will be convinced that works of ornament and public utility are no where more encouraged tlian in Ire- land. Cork is deservedly reckoned the second city in Ireland, in magjiitnde, Riches, and commerce. It lies ]2g miles south-west of Dublin, and contains a500 houses, and about 70,000 inhabitants. Its haven is deep, and well sheltered from ail winds ; but small vessels only can come up to the city, which stands about seven miles up the river Lee. This is the chief port of merchants in the kingdom; and there is, perhaps, mere beef, tallow, and buiti'r, shipped off here, than in all the other ports of Ireland taken together. Hence there is a great re.-ort of ships to tliis port, particularly of tliose bound from Great Britain to Jamaica, Barbadoes, and all the Cn.ibbee islands, which put in here to victual and complete their lading. It appears, that in the reign of Edward IV. tliere were ele\en churches in Cork, tliough there are now only seven, and yet it has ever since that time been esteemed a thriving city: but it must be observed, thar, besides the' churches, there are at this time six mass- houses^, two dissenting meeting-houses, another for quakers, and a chapel for Frencli protestants. Kinsale is a populous and strong town, with an excellent harbour, and considerable commerce and shipping. Wattrford is reckoiuxl next to Cork for riches and shipping; but it suf- fered greatly in the late rebellion, and cannot now be estimated to con- tain above 30,0(X) inhabitants. It is commanded by Duncannon Fort, and on the west side of the town is a citadei. Limerick is a handsome. 851 IRELAND. fc .^1 ! il J! H populous, commercial, strong city; it lies on both sides the Shanftoiry and contains 5257 houses, and about 45,000 inhabiianls. Belfast is a large sea-port and trading town at tlie nior.th of the Lageri Water, where it falls into Carrickfergus Bay. Dow npatrick has a flou- rishing linen manufacture. Cairickfergus (or Knockfergus), by some deemed the capital town of the province, has a good harbour and caatle^- isut little commerce. Derry (or Londonderry, as it is most usually called) stands on Lough-Foyl, is a strong little city, having linen manufactures, with some shipping. Donegal, the county town of the same nam«J (otlierwise cnlkd the county of Tyrconnel), is a place of sonic trade j a» is likewise Enniskilling. Commerce and MAXurACTURES.] The exports of Ireland are liilcii cloth, yarn, lawns, and cambrics, horses and black cattle, beef, pork, green hides, tanned leather, calf-skins dried, tallow, butter, candles^ cheese, ox and cow-horns, ox-hair, horsf-hair, lead, copper ore, herring&< dried tish, rabbit-skins and fur, ottc^-skins, goat-skins, salmon, and some ©tlier commodities. In the year 1 799. the exportii from Ireland amounted to 4,575,2507., and her imports to 'l,3go,{XXjL The manufacture of linen yields an exportation to the amount of nearly 2,000,000/. annually. The Irish ha\e carried their inland manufictures, even those of luxury, to a considerable hiight ; and their lord-lieutejiants and their courts havtj of late encouraged them by their examples, and, while they are in that government, make use of no other. GovEUKMENT AKD Laws.] Ireland formerly was only entitled thA' dominion or lcr:!\hip of Ireland, and the king's style was no other tlian Dominus Hiberuiae, lord of Ireland, till the o3d year of king Henry VIII. when he assumed the title of king, which is recognised by act of parliament in the same reign. Before the union in 1 bOl , Ireland was governed by its own parliament, consisting of a house of commons, composed of 300 members, and a house of peers, while the king was represented by a lord-lieutenant or Viceroy. By the articles of union, which took place on the 1st of Jan, 1801, England, Scotland, and Ireland, have become one kingdom, by tlie name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The office of lord-lieutenant is still continued. Of the peers of Ireland at the time of the union, four spiritual lords, by rotation of sessions, and twenty-eight temporal peers for life, sit and vote in the house of lords ; and one hundred commoners (viz. two for each county of Ireland, two for the city of Dublin, two for the city of Cork, and one for each of the thirty-two most considerable cities, towns, and boroughs), are the r.uin- l)er of representatives of Ireland in tlie house of commons of the parlia- Uient of the united kingdom. It is also provided by these articles " that, for the space of twenty years after the union shall take place, the contribution of Great Britain pnd Ireland respectively towards the expenditure of the united kingdom in each year shall be defrayed in the proportion of fifteen parts for (trreat Britain, and two parts for Ireland," this proportion at the expira* tion of tliai time to be subject to revision and regulation from other cen- sid^ations. Tlielaws of Ireland dilfer very little from those of England ; for;, after the conquest of Ireland by king Henry II., the liws of England were re- ceived and sworn to by the Irish nation, assembled at the council of Lismore : and by subsequent paj-ticulnr acts made in Ireland, the sta. tj(2^68 la force in England luvo bccu aduptcdp and dcci;>ioa« iii cauunon I I iheland. 3d$ lony ail law have been taken as precedents ; so tkit the laws of the two coun- tries are nearly the same : there are however some minute variations. For the regular distribution of justice, there are in Ireland four terms held annually for the decision of causes j and four couxts of justice — the chancdry, king's-bench, common-pleas, and exchequer. The high she- riffs of the several coun^es were formerly chosen by tlie people, but are now nominated by the lord-lieutenant. Revenue.] In Ireland the public revenue arises from hereditary ani temporary duties, of which the king is the trustee, fur applying it to particular purposes : but there is, besides this, a private revenue arising from the ancient demesne lands, from forfeitures for treason and telony, prisage of wines, light-house duties, and a small part of the casuai reve- nue, not granted by parliament ; and in this the crown has the same unlimited property that a subject has in his own freehold. The revenue of Ireland amounts at present to 2,800,0001.; but that the expenditure considerably exceeds that sum, is manifest from the magnitude of the public debt of that country ; which, according to the statement of Mr. Foster, the Irish member in the house of commons, amounted in 1600 to 25 millions sterling, and at present (1804) is 52 millions and a half. To pay the interest of this debt, several new taxes have lately been imposed. Military Force.] In consequence of the late rebellion, and the threats of a French invasion, a very considerable military force is notv^ kept up in Ireland j consisting of regular troops and militia from Eng- land, Irish militia, and yeomanry. In the year 1800, the force main- tained in Ireland consisted of 45,839 regulars, 27,104 militia, and 53,557 yeomanry ; making in the whole 12d,500 men in arms. Order of St. Patrick.] This order was instituted February 5, and the installation of the first knights was performed on the 17th of March, 1783. It consists of tlie sovereign and fifteen other knights' companions. The lord-lieutenants of Ireland for the time being officiate us grand masters of the order, and the archbishop of Armagh is the prelate, the archbishop of Dublin the chancellor, and the dean of St. Patrick the re- gister of the order. The knights are installed in tlie cathedral of St. Patrick, Dublin. Their robes are splendid, and the badge is tliree crowns united together on a cross, with the motto round, 2uis separabit ? 17 S3, fastened by an Irish harp to the crown imperial. A star of eight points encircles it on the coat. Religion.] The established religion and ecclesiastical discipline of Ireland is the same witli that of England. Among the bulk of the peo- ple in the most uncultivated parts, popery, and that too of the most absurd, illiberal kind, is prevalent. The Irish papists still retain their nominal bishops and dignitaries, who subsist on the voluntary contribu- tions of their votaries. Bat even the blind submission of the latter to their clergy, does not prevent protestantism from making a very rapid progress in the towns and communities. How far it may be the interest of England, that some kind of balance between the two religions should be kept up, we shall not here inquire. Ireland contains at least as many sectaries as England, parficularly presbyterians, baptists, quakers, and methodists, who are all of theni tolerated or connived at. Great efforts have been made, ever since th« days of James I., in erecting free-schools for civilising and converting the Irish papists to protiestantism. I'he institution of the incorporate^ lociety for promoting English protestant workincr-ichoiils^ has been ejn^ 2 A ¥ 334 IRELAND. Mi f ' ■ TV* '■' : If It A ■; If iremely siiccMsful, as hare lieen many institutions of' the rame kind, ia introducing industry and knowledge among tlie Irish. The arclibishopricks are tour ; Armagh, Dublin, C;ishel, and Tuani. • The bishopricks are eighteen ; viz. Clogher, Clontcrt, Cloyne, Cork, Derry, Down, Dromore, Elphin, Kildare, Killala, Kilniorc, Killaloe, Leighlin, Limerick, Meath, Ossory, llaphoe, and Waterford. IjITerature.] Learning seems to have been cukivatcd in Ireland at a very early period. Mr. 6'Halloran says, that the Irish " appear to have been, from the most remote nntiqiiity, a polished people, and that with propriety they may bo called tltc fathers of letters," It is said, that when St. Patrick * landed in Ireland, he found many holy and learned Christian preachers there, whose votaries were pious and obedient. Camden observes, that " the Irish scholars of St. Patrick profited so notiibly in Christianity, that, in the succeeding age, Ireland was termed Sanctorum Vatriu. Their monks so greatly excelled in learning and piety, that they sent ■whole flocks of most learned men into all parts of Europe, who were the first founders of Lieu-Dieu-abbey, la Rurgimdy ; of the abbey llobie, in Italy ; of Wirtzburg, in Franconia; St. Gall, in Switzerland ; and of Malmsbury, Lindisfarran, and many other monasteries, in Britain." We have also the testimony of venerable Bi'de, that, about the middle of the seveiith centur>', many nobles, ajid other orders of the Anglo-Saxons, retired from their own country into Ireland, either for instruction, or for an opportunity of living in monas- teries of stricter discipline : and that the Stots (as he styles the Irish )r Bjaiijtained them, .taught them, and furnished tliem witli books, without fee or reward : " a most honourable testimony," says lord I-yttelton, •' not only to the lerjrning, but likewise to the hospitality and bounty oi that nation." Dr. Leland remarks, that a conflux of foreigners to a retired island, at a time when Europe was in ignorance and confusion, gave peculiar lustre to this seat of learning : nor is it improbable or sur- prising, that seven thousand students studied .it Armagh, agreeably \6 the accounts of Irish writers, though the seminary of Armagh was but «)ne of the many colkges erected in Ireland. In modern times, ilie Irish have also distinguished themselves in th^ re^rnblic of letters. Archbishop Usher does honour to literature itself Dcnn Swift, who was a native of Ireland, h.is pcriiaps never been e<|iialled in the Walks of wit, luuuour, and satire. Die sprightlinessof Farquhar's wit is well known to all lovers of the drama. And aiuoiig the men of distingaished genius whom Ireland has produced, may ;il.so be panimlarly mentioned, sir Richard Steele, bishop Berkeley, Parnel, Sterne, Gold- smith, and the late celebrated Mr. Burke. i L"''mvj;i{sity.] Ireland contains but one university, which is deno- minated Trinity-cnllege. It consists of two quadrangles, in the whole o^ which are thirty-three buildings, of eight rooms each. It has an excel- lent library, a great })art oi' the bouka of which were collected by arch- bishop Usher. This seminary was founded and endowed by (jueen Elizabeth 5 but the original foundation consisted only of a provost, three fellows, and tJirec* scholars ; -which has from time to time been augmented to twent}-- two fellows, seventy schcilars, and thirty sizers. Mowever, the whol» ©umber of students is at present about four hundved, who are of tlire« f ••' • ■ ■ * It lias been .iffirnled, th.nt St. P.ntrick w.os a Scotchm.nn'r hut Mr. O'Hallorad Ue^ics this, and sa/5, that " it appeurft ttovx tho must iiuUjeiitic records tliat Patricia was from VValLV ' . IRELAND. classes — fellow-commoners, pensioneiSj and sizers or servitors. Of tlie fellows, M'V«i;il are called seniors j and the annual income of each of these is about seven hundred pounds. There are thirteen professors of various sciences. The provust-.liip is bupposed to be worth three tliousaud pounds a year. Trinity-colic .^e has a power of conferring degrcesj of bachelors, nia^:ters, and do'.lo!>:, in all the .•.i[. or ficuUies. I'he \i3itor8 are, the chancellor or vicc-rhancellor, and liie archl)isliop of Dublin. Lan'gua(*e.] The language of the Irish is ,1 dialect of the ancient Celtic, and nearly the same with ihat of the Sccilish Highlanders, opposite the Irisli const. The usage of the Irish language occasions among ttie common people, who apeak both tliat and the English, a peculiar tone iii speaking, wlaic-h is general among the \ailgar, and prevails even among the better sort who do not understand Iriiili. It is probable that, a fe\T ages hence, the latter will be accounted among the dead languages. The liord's prayer in Irish i.-> as follows : Ar nolhairiu: ula ar ncionJi, naomhlhar hairm ; tigeadh do riogachd ; deimtur do thoil, ar an ttuluinli /luir aia ar naunli ; tubknir dhuirn a niu ar narun ktlmmhail ; a'^ns muilhdhuira ar bhfiaca aniail mar multhnidrne mar hhfiilhcaiidinuihhftin ; agi(.'> na hig s/nn a cuthughudh, achd saor siiin o olc : oir is Icat fcln an riogluichd, agua an cumhachd, agus an gliloir guffioruige. Amen. ANT.auiTiEs.] Among the principal antiquities of Ireland are tlie round towers, which arc tail hollow pillars of stone and lime, of a nearly cylindrical form, but narro^ving somewhat upv\'ard3, with a conical roof. Fifty-six of these to\v(n-s, from fifty to ,i hundred and fifty feet high, and from eight to twelve in diameter, are still staliding in dilferent parts of Ireland. Anti(juaries do not appear to be agreed with respect to their origin and use; some supposing th;U lliey were buiit by the Danes and ■ Norwegians in their piratical incursions, who made use of them as spy- towers, light-houses, or beacons ; and others, that they ser\"ed as belfries to tlie monasteries J which it is said is agreeable to the import of their Irish name cloghad. In Ireland are likewise found cairns, carncdhs, or piles oi loose stones heaped up on the topii of hills, for the celebration of some Pagan rites ; circles of stones ; barrows or artificial hillocks ; cromlyeeaglis, or largts flat stones raised from the ground, horiz(tntai or inclined, intended pro- bably for the purposes of superstition ; and rude fortresses called ratiis and diens, supposed to ha\ e been built by Scandinavian invaders. T^ie ruin;* of stately castles erected towards the end of the twelfth century, by the Anglo-Norni;in colonists, are found in almost every part of th« country. History.] The history of Ireland has been carried" to a very remot"^ antiquity, and may, with greater justice than that; of almost any otht^r country, be di:itiuguished i.ito the lcgc:ndary and authontic. In the reign of Edward II. an Ulster priu'^e boa.-;' el to '.Ire; popr uf .' 1 uninterrupted sticcession of one hundred and nine(;}'-sevcn kings of Ireland, to the year 1170. E\eii the more moderate Iridh ar.liqu;!:-;es carry iheir history up to 500 years before the Christian f.era, at wliicli tinu' iliey assert that a colony of Sc}'thians, immediately from Spain, settled in Irclai.d, and introduced the Flucnician language and letters iiito this country: and that however it might have b; en iKi-nled still earlier i\\nx\. Gaitl or Bri- tain; yet Heber, l-(ercmon, a.iid ith, the sens (jf Ivlilesiu::, gave a race of kiiigs to the Irish, dislinguisjied Jiom i!»eir days by the irame of Ga- delians and Scitits, or Scots. But as our limits will not permit us to en- large Oil the dark and contested parts of tlie Irish iiislorv, we shall only 2 A3 \\\ si' 35(3 IRELAND. m I S obseiTc, that It was about the middle of tlie fifth ccntuty that the great apostle of Ireland, St. Patrick, was employed in the propagation of Christianity in tJiis country, though there had been Christian mission- aries here long before, by whose means it had made a considerable pro- gross among Uie iniiiibitants of Ireland. After this period, Ireland was occasionally invaded by tlic Saxon kings of England} but in tlie years 795 and 798, the Danes and Norwegians, or, as they were called, Easter- lings, invaded tlie coast of Ireland, and were the first who erected some edifices in tliat kingdom. The common habitations of the Irish, till that time, were hurdles covered witli straw and rushes, arvd but very few of solid timber. The natives defended themselves bravely against the Easterlings, who built Dublin, Waterford, Limerick, Wexford, and Cork ; but they resided chiefly at Dublin, or in its neighbourhood, which, by the old Irish, was called Fingal, or the Land of Strangers. Tiie natives, about die year 962, seem to have called to their assistance the Anglo-Saxon king Edgar, who had then a considerable maritime- power ; and this might have given occasion for his clergy to call him king of great part of Ireland. It is certain that Dublin was about that time a flourishing city, and that the native Irish gave the Easterlings se- veral defeats, though supported by their countrymen from the continent, the Isle of Man, and tlie Hebrides. In the twelfth century, Henry the Second of England formed a design of annexing Ireland to his dominions. He is said to have been induced to this by the provocation he had received from some of the Irish chief- tains, who had afl^brdcd considerable assistance to his enemies. His de- sign was patronised by the pope, and a fair pretext of attacking Ireland oiiercd about the year llO'S, Dcrmot Mac Murrough, king of Lein- ster, and an oppressive tyrant, quarrelled with all his neighbours, and carried otF the wife of a petty prince, O'Roirk. A confederacy being formed against him, under Roderic O'Connor (who, it seems, was tlie paramount king of Ireland), he was »».riven from his countiy, and took refuge in the court of Henry II., who promised to restore him, upon taking an oath of fidelity to the crown of England, for himself and all the petty kings depending on him, who were very numerous. Henry* who was then in France, recommended Mac Dermot's cause to tlie Eng- lish barons, and particularly to Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, Robert Fitz-Stephen, and Maurice Fitzgerald. Those noblemen undertook the expedition upon much tlie same principles as tlie Norman and Breton lords did the conquest of England under William I. ; and Strongbow was to marry Mac Dennot's daughter Eva. In 1 itif), the adventurers reduced the towns of Wexford and vVaterford ; and the next year, Strongbow arriving with a str(yig rcinlorcement, his marriage was celebrated. The descendants of the Danes continued still possessed of Dublin, which, after some iueft'ectual opposition made by the king O'Connor, was taken and plundered by the EngUsh soldiers : but Mac Turkil, the Danish king, es(.'a])ed to his shipping. Upon die death of Derraot, Henry IL became jealous of earl Strongbow, seized upon his estates in England and W^ales, and recalled his subjects from Ireland. The Irish about the same time, to the amount of above 60,000, besieged Dublin, under king O'Connor ; but though all Strongbow's Irish friends and allies had now left him, and the city was reduced to great extremity, he forced the Irish U) raise the siege with great loss; and going over to England, he. appeased Henry by swearing fealty to him and his heirs, and resigning into his hands all the Irish cities and forts he held. During Strongbow's •ibsence, Mac Turkil returned with a great fleet, and attejuopted to retake iheland. 357 flie city of Dublin, but was killed at the siege j and in him endcil the race of tlie Eastejling princes in Ireland. In J 172, Henry II, attended by 4fX) knights, 4000 veteran soldiers, nml the flower of his English nobility, landed near ^Vaterford; and not only all the petty princes of Ireland, excepting the king of Ulster, but tha great king Roderic O'Connor, submitted to Henry, who pretended that O'Connor's submission included that of Ulster, and that consequently he was the paramount sovereign of IreUmd. Be that as it w ill, he all'ected to keep a raagniticcnt court, and held a parliament at Dublin, where he parcelled out the states of Ireland, as William the Conc^ueror had done in England, to his English nobility. He then settled a civil admini- stration at Dublin, as nearly similar as possible to that of England, to which he returned in 1173, having tirst settled an English colony from Bristol in Dublin, with all the liberties, free customs, and charters, which tho citizens of Bristol enjoyed. From tliat time Dublin began to flourish. — Thus the conquest of Ireland was elFected by the English alnioat witii as much ease as that of Mexico was by the Spaniards, anil for much tho same reasons, — the rude ano unarmed state of the natives, and the dif- ferences tliat prevailed among their princes or leaders. Henry gave tlie title of lord of Ireliuid to his son John, wiio in 11 85 went over in person to Ireland ; but John and his giikly Norman i:our- tiers made a very ill use of tiieir power, and rendered themselves hateful to the Irish, who were otlierwise very well disposed towards the En- glish. Richard I. was too much taken up with the crusades to pay any great regard to the atfairs of Ireirmd ; but king John, after his accession, made amends for his former behaviour towards the Irish. He enlarged his father's plan of introducing into Ireland English laws and officers, aid he erected tliat part of the provinces of Leinster and Munster, which was within the English pale, into twelve counties. We find, liowever, that the descendants of tlie ancient princes in other places, paid him no more than a nominal subjection. They governed by their old Brehon laws, and exercised ail acts of sovereignty within their own states ; and indeed tliis was pretty much the case so late as tlie reign of James 1. The unsettled reign of Henry III., his wars and captivity, gave the Iri.-li a very mean opinion of the English government during his reign j but they seem to have continued quiet under his son Edward 1. Gaveston, the famous favourite of Edward II., acquired great credit while he ac[,cd as lieutenant of Iieland ; but the successes of the Scotch king, Robert Bruce, had almost proved fatal to the English interest in Ireland, aiul suggested to the Irish the idea of transferring their allegiance from the kings of England to Edward Bruce, king Robert's brother. That prinep accordin^y invaded Ireland, where he gave repeated ilefeats to the En- glish governors and armies ; and being supported by his brother in per- son, he was actually crowned king at Dundalk, and narrowly missed be- ing master of Dubhn. The younger Bruce seems to have been violent in the exercise of his sovereignty, and he was at last defeated and killed by Bermingham, the Englisli general. After this, Edwanl II. ruled Ire- land with great moderation, and passed several excellent acts w ith re- gard to that country. But during the minority of Edward III. commotions were again re- newed in Ireland, and not suppressed without great loss and disgrace ou tlie side of the English. In 1333 a rebellion broke out, in whivh the English inhabitants had no inconsiderable share. A .sucoessiun of vigo- rous, brave governors at last quieted the insurgents ; ;ind about tlie year 1361^ prince Lionel, soato Edward III., having married the heiress 61 S59 JRELAND. I.' I l!: ,S .« I S5 1 ,1! 1 Ulster, was sent over to govern Ireland, and, if possible, to reduce its inhabiiants to an entire conformity with the laws of P'nglaiid. In this hi- luailc a i:;roat progress:, but did not entirely accomplish it. It appears, at tiiis time, that the Iiisli were in a very nourishing condition, and that one of the greatest grievances they complained of was, that the English sent o. •;• nit'n of mean biith ♦.) gi)\ern them. In i:3y4, ilichard II. find ;;>); that the exiOatiun of iiis despotic schemes in England must be abortive wi^'^out lurilicr support, passed over to Ireland with an army of 34,CK)0 nun, well armt-d and appointed. As he made no use of force, the lr,.-.h l(),)ked i.j lyu liis prcsenre to be a high compliment to their na- tion, antl ;idmiied tiie mapiificenee ot" his court. Richard, on the other hand, courted tliem by all the arts he could employ, and bestowed the honour of kniglithood on their chiefs. In ihort, he behaved so as en- tirely to win their atilctions. But in 13pp, after having acted in a very despotic maimer in England, he luidertook a fresii expeclition to Ireland, to revenge the dcatli of his lord-lieutenant, the carl of March, who had been killed by the wild Iri;-h, His army again struck the natives with consternation, and they threw themselves upon his mercy. It was dur- ing this expedition that tiie duke of Lancaster landed in England; and Richard, upon his return, tiniling himself deserted i)y his English sub- jects on account of his tvi-iniiy, and that he could not di.pend upon the Irish, surrendered his crown to his rival. The Irish, after liichani's death, still retained a warm affection for the house of York : and, upon the revival of that family's claim to die crown, embraced its cause. Edward IV. made the earl of Desmond lord-lieutenant of Ireland for his services against the Ormond party and other adherents of the house of Lancaster, and he was the first Irish chieftain that obtained this honour. Even the accession of Henry VII. to the cr wn of England did not reconcile the Irish to his title as duke of Lancaster : tliey theretore readily joined Lambert Simnel, who pre- tended to be the eldest son of Edward IV. : but for this they paid dear, being defeated in their attempt to invade fclngland. This made tliem somewhat cautious at iirst of joining Perkin Warbeck, notwithstanding his plausible pretences to be the duke of York, second son of Edward IV. He was, however, at last recognised as king by the Irish ; and in the preceding pages, under the history of England, the reader may learn the event of his })retensions. Henry behaved with moderation towards his favourers, and was contented with requiring tlic Irish nobility to take a fresh oath of allegiance to his go^ ernmcnt. This lenity had the desired effect during the administration of the two earls of Kildare, the earl of Surry, and the earl of Ormond. Henry VIII. governed Ireland by supporting its chiefs against each other : but the emperor Charles V. endeavouring to ga^n them to his interest, Henry made his natural son. the duke of Richmond, his lord-lieutenant. This did not prevent the Irish fjom breaking out into rebellion in the year 1540, under Fitz- Gerald, who had been lord-deputy, and was won over by the emperor, but was at last hanged at Tyburn. After this the hoiise of Austria found their account, in their (quarrels with England, to form a strong party among the Irish. About the year 1542, James V., king of Scotland, form.ed some pre- tensions to the crown of Ireland, and was favoured by a strong party among the Irish themselves. It is hard to say, had he lived, \\ hat the conse(juence of his claim might have been. Henry xuiderstood that the Irish had a mean opinion of his dignity, as the kings of England had hitherto assumed no highpr title than that of lords of Ireland. He' iftELAXi). 359 duce its J a til is ippcars, lid that English liard II. ■nust be army of torcc, leir mi- le otiier ed the as VII' a very eiand, 10 Jiad s with as diir- d ; and h siib- )on the therefore took that of V ng of Ireland ; w liU h had n great cflTect with the native Irisli, who thou jit that allt^ance was not due to a lord : and, t<^ «peak the trwth, it is somewhat .sttrpri»iiig that this expedient was nut tiiought of before. It produced a more pertect submission of the nati^e Jrish to Ik'nry's go' -1 ument than ever had been known; and even O'Neil, who preteiul .1 to be siK'cessor to the last paramount king of Ireland, swore allegiance to Henry, who created him earl of Tyrone. The pope, however, and the princes of tlie house of Austria, by re- mitting money, ant: sometimes sending over troops to the Irish, stift kept up their inten- in that kingdom, and drew from them vast num- bers of [lien to tlif i annies, where they proved as good soldiers as any in Europe. I'his created inexpressible ditiiculties to the English goverp- nient, even in th' reign of Edward VI. ; but it is remarkable, that the reformation took place in the English part of Ireland with little or no op- position. The Irish sj'cm to have betni very (luiet during the reign of queen Mary; Imt they proved thorns in the side of queen Elizabeth. The ijerpctual disputes sl>e had with the Roman-catholics, both at homtf and abroad, gave her great uneasiness ; and tlie pope antl the house of Austria always found new resources against her in Ireland. The Spa- niards possessed themselves of Kinsale; nnd the rebellions of Tyrone, who batlled and outwitted her favourite general the eiirl of Esse.K^, are well known in English history. •'•• ■ •; "' - ] Tiie lord-de}>uty Mouutjoy, who succeeded Essex, was the' first 'En- glishniiui « ho gave a mortiil blow to the ])ractices of the Spaniards in' Ireland, by defeating them and the Irish before Kinsale, and bringing Tyrone prisoner to England, where he was pardoned by queen Elizabeth in lb'02. This lenity, shown to such an offender, is a proof of the great apprehensions Elizabeth had tVom the popish interest in Ireland. James I. confirmed the possessions of the Irish ; but such was the influence of the pope and tlie Spaniards, that the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconncl, and their party, planned a new rebellion, and attempted to seize the castld of Dublin ; but their plot he'mg discovered, their chiefs fled beyond seas. They were not idle abroad j for in l(508 they instigated sir Ca- lim O'Dogherty to a fresh rebellion, by promising him speedy supplies of men and money from Spain. Sir Cahm was killed in the dispute, and his adherents were taken and executed. The attainders of the Irish' rebels, which passed in the reigns of James and Elizabeth, ^■ested in the crown 5I1,4(J5 acres, in the several counties of Uonegall, Tyrone, Co- lerain, Fermanagh, Cavan, and Armagh j and enabled the king to make that protestaiit plantation in the north of Ireland, which, from the most rebeliioijs pi .nince of the kingdom, became, for many years, the most quiet and industrious. Those prodigious attainders, however just and necessary they might' be, operated fatally for the English in the reign of Charles I. The Irislj lloman-catholics in general were influenced by their priests to hope not only to repossess the lands of their forefathers, but to restore the jxjpisli religion in iTeland. They therefore entered into a deep and detestnble conspiracy for massacreing all the English protestants in that kingdom. In this they were encouraged by .th6 unhappy dissenswns that broke out between the king and his parliaments in England and Scotland. Thair bloody plan being discovered by the English government at Dublin, pre- vented that city from falling into their hands. They, however, partly executed, in l64l, their horrid scheme of massacre j but authors have not agreed as to the numbers who were murdered j perhaps they have piea exaggerated by warm protectant writers : some of the more mode-* I ■.'!(' Vi 3Cb IRELAND. Jl'vl Ml : « J J li.l I ; li is I : rate ha^'« estimated the number* of the sufferers at 40,000 ; other ac- counts speak of 10,000 or 12,000; and some have diminished thatnum- oer *. What followed in consequence of tliis rebellion, and the reduc- tion of Ireland by Cromwell, ,\vho retaliated the cruelties of the Irish papists upon themselves, belongs to ^he history of England. It is cer- tain that they suffered so severely, that they were quiet during the reign of Charleg II. His popish successor, and brotlier, James II,, even after the revolution took place, found an asylum in Ireland ; and was en- couraged to hope, that, by the assistance of the natives there, he might remount his tlirone : but he was deceived, and his own pusillanimity co-operated with his disappointment. He was driven out of Ireland by hisi ^on-in-law; after the battle of the Boyne, the only victory that king "VVilliam ever gained ip person ; a victory, however, on which depended the safety of the protestant religion, and the liberties of tlie British em- j)^e. Had James been victorious, he probably would have been re- instated on the throne ; and nothing else could be expected than that, teing irritated by opposition, victorious over his enemies, and free from ^very restraint, he would have trampled upon all rights, civil and reli- gious, and pursued more arbitrar}' designs tlian before. The army of William consisted of 36,000 men, that of James of 33,000, but advan- tageously situated. James, it is true, fought at tlie head of an undisci- plined rabble : but his French auxiliaries were far from behaving like heroee. It must be acknowledged, however, tliat he left both the field ^nd the kingdom too soon for a brave man. The forfeitures that fell to the crown, on account of the Irish rebel- lions and the revolution, are almost incredible ; and had the acts of parliament, which gave them away, been strictly enforced, Ireland must have been peopled with British inhabitants. But many political reasons occurred for not driving the Irish to despair. The friends of the revo- lution and the protestant religion were sufficiently gratified out of the forfeited estates. Too many of the Roman-catholics might have been forced abroad j and it was proper that a due balance should be preserved between the Roman-catholic and the protestant interest. It was there- fore thought prudent to relax the reins of government, and not to put the forfeitures too rigorously into execution. The experience of half a century has confirmed the wisdom of the above considerations. The lenity of the measures pursued in regard to the Irish Roman-catholics, and the great pains taken for the instruction of their children, with the progress which knowledge and the arts have made in tliat country, have greatly diminished the popish interest. The spirit of industry has ena- bled the Irish to know their own strength and importance ; to which some accidental circumstances have concurred. AH her porta were opened for the exportation of wool and woollen yarn to any part of GrciU Britain ; and of late years, acts of parliament have been made occasionally for permitting tiie importation of salt beef, pork, butter, cattle, and tallow, from Ireland to Great Britain. But tiiough some laws and regulations had occasionally taken place favourable to Ireland, it must be acknowledged, that the inhabitants of tliat country laboured under considerable grievances, in consequence of 'M * Mr. Hume, after enumerating the various barbaritlei practised by the papists irpon the piotestants, say», " By some computations, those who perished by all " those cruelties are made to amount to an hundred and fifty or two hundred ••thousand'; by the most moderate, and probably the most reasonable account, •• they must have been near 40,000." History of England, vel vi. p. 317. tditi 8yo- no'S. her sc> tnutn- reduc- 2 Irish is cer- e reign n after i^as en- might nimity and by It king Tended JRFLAND. 3ft sundry unjust and injudicious restraints of the parlininent of England, respecting their trade. These restraints had injured Ireland, without benefiting Great Britain. The Irish had been prohibited fio;n nianur- facturing their own wool, in order to favour the woollen manufactory of England ; the consequence of which was, that the Irish \\ ool u as smug- gled over into France, and the people of tliat country were thereby en* abled to rival us in our woollen manufacture, and to deprive us of a part of that trade. An embargo had also been laid on the exportation of provisions from Ireland, which had been extremely prejudiciiil to that Kingdom. The distresses of the Irish manufacturers, as well as those of Great Britain, had likewise been much increased by the consequences of the American war. These circumstances occasioned great murmuring in Ireland, and some attenvpts were made for tlie relief of the inhabi- tants of that kingdom in tlie British parliament, but for some time with- out success ; for a partiality in favour of the trade of England prevented justice from being done to Ireland. But several incidents, which hap- pened afterwards, at length operated strongly in favour of that king- dom. When a large body of the king's troops had been withdrawn from Ireland, in order to be employed in the American war, a consider- able number of Irish gentlemen, farmers, traders, and other persons, armed and formed themselves into volunteer companies and associations, for the defence of Ireland against any foreign invaders. By degrees, these volunteer associations became numerous and well-disciplined ; and it was soon discovered, that they were inclined to maintain their rights at home, as well as to defend themselves against foreign enemies. When tliese armed associations became numerous and funuidable, the Irish began to assvune a higher tone than that to which they had befora been accustomed ; and it was soon manifest, that tlieir remonstrances met witli unusual attention, both from their own parliament and from that of Great Britain. The latter, on the 1 1th of May, 1779, presented an address to the king, recommending to his majesty's most serioua consideration the distressed and impoverished state of the loyal and wtll-" deserving people of Ireland 5 and desiring him to direct that there should be prepared and laid before parliament, such particulars relative to ther trade and manufactures of Great Britain and Ireland as should enable the national wisdom to pursue etl'ectual measures for promoting the com- mon strength, weallJi, and commerce of his majesty's subjects in both kingdoms. To this address tlie king returned a favourable answer ; and in October, the same year, botli houses of the Irish parliament also pre- sented addresses to his majesty, in which they declared, that nothing* but granting- Ireland a free trade could save it from ruin. Notwith.stand- ing which, it being soon after suspected, by many of tlie people of that kingdom, that tlie members of tlieir parliament Would not exert them-- selves with vigour in promoting the interests of the nation, a very tiaring and numerous mob assembled before the parliament-house in Dublin, crying out i'ox A fret: trade and a short money-bill. They as- saulted the members, and endeavoured to compel them to swear that they would support the interest of their country by voting for a short nionej-bill; and they demolished the house of the attorney-general. The tumult at length subsided : and two Irish money-bills for six months only were sent over to England, where they passed the gicat seal, and were immediately returned, without any dissatisfaction being expressed by government at this limited grant. In the mean time the members of the opposition in the English par- !Lin)ent very strongly represented the necessity of an immc4i<ite attcn- n 1. ;fl h 9 *■ \ B 1", fl. 1 ^ ■)>,■ V I iiiit 362 IRELAND. I 'I tion to the complaints of the people of Ireland, and of a compliance with their wi^shes. The arguments on this side of the question were also en- forced by the accounts which came from Ireland; that the volunteer as» sociations in that kingdom amounted to forty thousand men, unpaid, seh-appointed, and independent of government, well armed and ac- coutred, daily improving in discipline, and which afterwards' increased to eighty thousand. Tiie British luinistry appeared for some time to be undetermined what part they should act in this important business ; but the remembrance of the fatal effects of rigorous measures respecting America, and tlie very critical situation of Great Britain, at length iii- duted the first lord of the treasury to bring in such bilks as were cal- tjulated to afford effectual commercial relief to the people of Ireland. Liiws .were accordingly passed, by which all those acts were repealed which had prohibited tlie exportation of woollen manufactures from Ireland, and other acts by which the trade of that kmgdoni to foreign couniiies had been restrained ; and it was likewise enacted, that a trade between Iieland and the British colonies in America and the West Ii\- dies, and tha British settlements on tlie coast of Africa, should be al" lowed to be carried on, in the same manner, and subject to similar regu- lations and restrictions, with that carried on between Great Britain and tUe said colonies and settlements. ' Ttiese laws in favour of Ireland were received with much joy and exultation in that kingdom : and tlic Irish nation being indulged in their rcijuivitions respecting trade, now began als(t to aim at important con-^ stitutionrJ reformations } and in various counties and cities of Ireland, the right of the British parliament to make laws, which should bind tliat hingciom, was denied in public resolutions. By degrees, the spirit which had been manifested by the Irish parliament seemed a little to subside ; and a remarkable instance of this was, their agreeing to a perpetual mutiny-bill, for the regulation of the Irish army, thoitgh that of England had always been passed, with a true fconstitutic-ial caution, only from year to year. This was much exclaimed against by some of the Irish patriots ', and it is indeed not easy to clear their parliament from the charge of inconsistency : but this bill was afterwards repealed, and the commercial advantages afforded them by several acts in their fa- vour greatly contributed to promote the prosperity of Ireland. As be- foje observed, by the act repealing tlie statute of the Oth of George I, they were fully and completely emancipated from the jurisdiction of the lirilish parliament j and the appellant jurisdiction of tlie British hous« of peers in Irish causes was likewise g'ven up. in the year 17S3, the government, the nobility, and the people of Ire- land, vied with each other in countenancing and giving an asylum to many families of the Genevese who were banished from their city, and to ot:hers who voluntarily exiled themselves for the cause of liberty, not wiJiing to submit to an aristocracy of their own citizens, supported by the swords of France and Sardinia. A large tract of land in the countjr of Waterford was allotted for their reception, a town was marked out, entitled New Geneva, and a sum of money granted for erecting the ne- ces.'^ary buildings. These preparations for their accommodation were, however, rendered ultimately useless, by some mi-sunderstanding (not fully comprehended) which arose between the parties j and the scheuio accordingly fell to the ground. li-on the occasion of the unhappy malady with which *he king >\as aijl icied in 1 788, the lords and commUhs of Ireland came to a resolution to autirbss tiie priucagf Walc^ rec|iiesting htm to take upon liirn tite ^ovv;^- IRELAND. 363 ica with also en- »teer as- unpaid, and ac- sasevl to to be >; but pecting gth in- ere cal- . .1, mcnt of that kingdom daring his majesty's indisposition, under the style and tiUj lA'Prliwc I'i;ifiunflnlnmi; and lo t-xorcLse luid administer, ac- conlia !o the la>vs rui>l the constitution of the rcahii, all the royal au- thoiiii..,, jurisdiction ^, and prerogatives, to the crown and government thereof b'^.'long!ng. Tlic uianiuis <jr liuekingh^m (being then lord lieu- "ten.11,1) h;ivi:ig dec! ineci presenting tiic address, iis contrary lo his oritli and the laws, tiie two housi;& resolved on appointing delegates Irom each ; the lords appointed the duke of Lcinstcr, and the earl of Charle- mont J and the commons, four of th'^ir members. The delegates pro- ceeded to London, and. In February 1789, presented the address to his royal highness, by whom they were most graciously receiyed j but his majesty having, to the uifmite joy of all his subjects,, xecovi^i^d from his Bevere indisposition, the prince returned them an answer fraught witlj the w armest sentiments of regard for tlie kingdom, and of gratitude to parliament, for the generous manner in which they proposed investing liiinwith the regency, though the happy recovery of his iToyal father had now rendtjred his acceptimce of it unnecessary. The parliament of Ireland afterwards extended liberal indulgences to the Roman-catholics of that kingdom, by establishing the legality of inr ter-marriage between them and the protestants, by admitting them to the profession of the law, and the benetit of education, and by removing all obstructions upon their industry in trade and manufactures j and in the year 1 793, in consequence of the concessions of government, a bill passed the legislature, by which tlie Roman-catholics, being freeholders, were entitled to vote for members to serve in parliament. But notwithstanding the catliolics of Ireland had been restored, in some measure, to their civil rights, by the concession of tlie elective fran- chise J it does not appear that either tlieir own leaders or tlieir parlia- mentary adherents were satisfied with what had been granted, or were likely to be contented witli less tlian a total repeal of all remaining dis- qualifications j. and when, in the beginning of tlie year 1795, earl Fitz- vvilliam was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, after the accession of the Portland party to administration, they considered the point in dispute as absolutely conceded by the ministry, A committee was therefore appointed to bring forward a petition to parliament for a repeal of all re- maining disqualifications. Notice of tliis his lordship transmitted to the fiiinistcrj stating at the same time his own opinion of the absolute neces- sity of concessi(.)i\, as a measure not only wise but essential to the public tranquillity. To this no answer was received, and on the 12th of Fcbru- iir)' INIr. Giattan moved for leave to bring in a bill for the further re- lief of his majesty's subjects professing tlie Roman-catholic religion; and after a feeble opposition leave was given. By the intrigues, however, of aniHher political party, at the head of which was a Mr, Beresford, a gentleman wlio had united in his own person, or in that of his son, the important and discordant oflSces of minister— commissioner of the trea- .sur}— of revenue — counsel to the commissioners — store-keeper, and banker — the measure was defeated, and lord Fitzwilliam suddenly re- called, llis lortt-.hip left Dublin for England on the 25th of March, which day was observed' in that city as a day of general mourning : tlie shops were shut ; no business was transacted ; and tlio citizens appeared in deep mourning. In College-green a number of respectable gentle- inen, dressed in black, took tlie horses from his excellency's carriage, and drew it lo the wateir-slde. Hii lordship wished, as usual on such occa- sions, to disiiibute money ; but, with (he noblest enthusiasm, tlie offer was rejvicled, e\ea by a mob. Xiic military had bceii ordered out, in It ! ill 304 IRELAND. mm m II |r ' i i i«* Hi!!! txpectatlon of some disturbance ; but nothing nppeared among th« populace but the serious emotions of sorrow, and the utmost order and decorum. Earl Camden, who was appointed to succeed his lordship, arrived in Dublin on the 31st of March. The whole system of administration was now changed ; all ideas of concession on the part of government were abandoned, and coercive measures alone employed to silence all com- plaints. Of tliis harsh and unyielding S3'stem, the faAious and disaf- fected took advantage to promote their designs, and increase the numbers of their adherents. About tlie beginning of the year 1791> the society which has sincft become so notoricfus under the name of IMf'ed Irishmen was instituted ; the ostensible principles of which were parliamentary reform, and what they chose to terra catholic emancipation, or a full restoration of the catholics to all the privileges of Irish subjects. This society is said to have owed its origin to ia person whose life has since paid the forfeit of his treasonable intrigues, Mr. Theobald Wolfe Tone, and its constitution Certainly evinced much ability and political knowledge. The real views ojf the authors and leaders, which, latterly at least, appear to hav& been no less than to eflfect a total separation of the country from Great Britain, and the erection of a republic, after the plan and under the pro- tection of France, ,were probably scarcely mistrusted by the great body of the members. The first and principal article expressed that " the Society was constituted for the purpose of forwarding a brotherhood of affection, a community of rights, and an union of power among Irishmen of every religious jiersuasion ; and thereby to obtain a complete reform ixy the legislature, founded on tlie priivjiples of civil, political, and reli- gious liberty." For several years this society, from the secrecy and cir- cumspection with which its affairs were conducted, attracted but little the attention of government. But the violence of party disputes which followed on the recall of earl Fitzwilliam consid^irably increased the num- ber of its adherents, and added to them several persons of abilities and influence, in particular Mr. Arthur O'Connor, who had distinguished himself by his able support of earl Fitzwilliam's administration in tlie house of commons ; Dr. M'Ncvin, who had been chairman of the com- mittee for enforcing the claims set forth in the catliolic petition ; and Mr. Oliver Bond, an opulent citizen of Dublin, who had been an active fiupporter of the same principles. From the confession of these very persons, it appears, however, that when they joined this society the views of its leader were no longer confined to parliamentarj' or consti- tutional relief of any kind j since in thej'ear 1795, through the medium of Mr. Tone, and other Irish refugees who had fled to France, a regu- lar communication was opened between the French directory and the United Irishmen j and in the course of the summer of 179^, lord Ed- ward Fitzgerald proceeded to Switzerland, and had an interview, near tlie French frontier, \\ ith general Hoche, when it is believed the whole plan of an invasion wa« finally adjusted. An attempt to carry it into execution was made in the December following, when the French fleet took the opportunity afforded by a thick fog to elude the vigilance of admiral Colpoys, by whom they had been for several montlis blocked up in Brest, and set sail for Ireland. But the fleet was dispersed by violent storms : a part of it, however, consisting of eight two-deckers, and nine other vessels of different classes, anchored, on the 24th, in Bantry bay. llie violence of the weather preventing any attempt to effect a land- ing, tlH'y quitted the coast on the 27th in the evening $ but an officer r I'Mdihto IRELAND. 3€» ong thr, der and auil seven men were driven on shore in a boat belonging to one of the I'rench ships. This officer, upon exancKnation, stated that the fleet when it left Brest consisted of about fifty sail, and that it had on boaid twenty- five thousand nien^ commanded by genei-al Hoche. A considerable degree of alarm was excited in Ireland by the appearance of this armament j but the people in general in tliis part of the kingdom evinced the most de- termined loyalty, and manifested the greatest readiness to meet and re- sist the enemy wherever they might attempt a descent. . - . The failure of the expedition under Hoche did not, however, discou- rage the members of the Irish Union } they, on tlie contrary, endea- voured more firmly to cement their alliance with France, and established a regular communication and correspondence witli that country. New surangements were made for an invasion j andDr. M'Nevin, about this time, transmitted to the Erench government a memorial, in which he stated that 150,000 United Irishmen were enrolled and organised in the province of Ulster. During the summer of 1797» great preparations were therefore made for a second attempt, both at Brest and in the Texel ; it havitiig been determined that the Dutch should supply a fleet and land forces to co-operate in this design. But this plan was rendered abortive by the memorable victory of lord Duncan over the Dutch fleet, on the 1 ith of October of tliat year. In the beginning of the year 1799, Mr. O'Connor camo to England, with an intention, as it aftenj^'ards appeared, of going over to France, in ccmjunction witli John Binns, an active member of the London Cor- responding Society, James Coigley, an Irish priest, and a person of the uame of Allen. Being however suspected, they were apprehended, and tried at Maidstone, where they were all acquitted except Coigley, on whom had been found a treasonable, though exti-emely absurd paper, purporting to be an address from tlie " Secret Committee of England to the Executive Directory of France." He was tlierefore convicted and executed. O'Connor, after his acquittal, was detained on anotlier chargd of treason preferred against him, and sent back to Ireland^ In the course of tlaese different negotiations witli the enemy, the vio- lence of some of the disaffected party in Ireland could scarcely be re- strained from breaking out into open insurrection, without waiting for the promised assistance from the Gallic republic ; but they were over- ruled by those who had more coolness and caution. I'he government of Ireland, in the mean time, recei^ ed only obscure and perplexed in- telligence of these proceedings, which appear to have been conducted with so much art and secrecy as to prevent administration from discover- ing, for a considerable time, the real views and conduct of the society. But at length they received information that a seditious meeting was to be held at tlie house of a person of the name of Alexander, at Belfast, on the 14th of April, 1797 > ^nd, in consequence, colonel Barber, with ai detachment of soldiers, proceeded on that day to the place of meeting, where he found two societies or committees actually sitting, and seized iheir papers and minutes, among which were the printed declaration and constitution of tlie United Irishmen, various reports from provii\ciai ajid county committees, and several other important documents, which no longer left a doubt respecting the extent and views of this formi- dable conspiracy. About the same time, likewise, tlie magistrates in otlier parts of the kingdom discovered other papers that were circu- lated by the society, and which served to confirm the discoveries already made, and to ihrow additional light on t]ie proceedings of tlie cunspL- rators. ,i (I n if I '1*1 't i: >i ' .-!! V l\ 366 IRELAND. The most active and vigorous measures were now adopted by govern- ment. A very considerable addition was made to the military force of the kingdom 3 a bill was passed, prohibiting seditious meetings; the habeas corpus act was suspended; whole counties were proclaimed out of the king's' i>eace, and seizures made of great quantities of concealed arms. In the enforcement of these rrieasures, many acts of rigour, and even of cruelty, appear to have been committed by the agents of government ; but it should be at the same time remembered, that nu-' merous acts of atrocious barbarity were likewise committed by the re- bels. The loyalists knew that if the schemes of their enemies proved successful, the plunder and confiscation of their property was the least evil they had to fear. The concealment and obscurity of the danger, which they knew to be imminent, might well excite a dread, which ren- dered them incapable of listening to the dictates of moderation, or even in some cases to those of justice. These rigorous measures were, likewise, in some degree, still further justiHed by ihe more complete discovery which government soon after made of the traitorous designs nnd proceedings of the society. Among other m.oiTibors of it was a Air. Reynolds', who hadfornievly been a silk- manufactnn'r of ^ome note in the city of Dublin. He hod- been sworn a United Irishman in February l/fij, and in the winter follov. i;ig ap- ' pointed treasurer for the county of Kildare in which Ik; resided, and also a colonel in the rebel arniy. 'J'liis person, whether moved by remorse and returning love for his country, or by otlier iu()tivtH, if is not necesj-ary to incjuire, rii.-.closed to government, aboi^.t the latter end of February 1798. the nature and extent of the conspiracy; and a meeting of dele- gates being summoned for the 12th of March, at thi- liouse of Mr. Oli- ver Bond, he gave information of it ; in consequence of which fourteen of the delegate, wer* apprehended, with their secretar}', INICan ; and at the same time Dr. M'Nevin, counsellor Emmett, and some other active members of the societies were taken into custody. A warrant had been issued against lord Edward Fitzgerald, but he escaped 3 he was afterwards, however, discoverpd in the place of his concealment, when, on the po- lice officers entering the room, the unhappy nobleman made a desperate detence: he wounded tvvo of the principal of them, Mr. justice Swan, and captain Ryan, dangerously; and was hiiuse'f so severcl}' wounded, tliat he languished a few days only before he expired. The seizure of the delegates gave a flital blow to all the plans of the United Irishmen, A new directory was chosen ; but their proceedings were soon disclosed by another informer, a captain Armstrong, who had pretended to enter into the conspiracy with the intention of discovering their schemes and betraying them to government. The co4ifusion and alarm into which the rebels were thrown by the discovery of their plots^ and the apprehending of their leaders, determined them to make a de- ' sperate effort ; and a general insurrection was resolved on by the military ' committee, to take place on the 23d of March. But government being perfectly informed of the intentions of the conspirators, caused several ©f tlie principal of them to be apprehended ; on the ipth and 21st the.^ city and county of Dublin were proclaimed, by the lord-lieutenant and council, in a state of insurrection ; the guards of tlie castle and ol all tlie principal objects of attack w(.tc trebled, and tlie \\hole city in fact con- ' verted into a garrison. The infatuated multitude, however, implicitly obedient to the directions they had received li-om their leaders, rose at the time appointed in various parts of tlie coiintrvi and, on the 25th, ap- peared in great force, their nuuiber lunouuting to not Icas than 15;000, IRELAND. 367 in the neighbourhood of Wexford and Enniscorthv, and nttackcd and cut in pieces the whole of a party of the North Cork militia, except colonel Foote, and two privatesf. I'hcy then niade an attack, on tli« 28th, on the town of Enniscorthv, which they carried sword in hand j and on the 30tli made themselves masters of Wexford, where they libe- rated from prison Mr. Beauchauip Bajjenal Har\'ey, who wjs atterwanh nominated to the chief command of their army. Under hira^ as their general, they attacked the town of New Ross, but wei'e repulsed with great slaughter. They were likewise repulsed in their attacks on som« other places. The royal forces, however, suffered a check on the 4th of June, when the strong post of the rebels being attacked by colonel Wal- pole, he was unfortunately killed in the beginning of the action, and his corps, being in a i^ituatioa in which it was unable to act, was forced t» retire to Arklow. Plncouraged by this success, the rebel army, on the J)th, presented itself before Arklow, where general Needham commanded a considerable body of the king's troops; but the position that general had taken, and the dispositions he made, were such tliat they were de« feated with great loss. On the 21st of June, general I>3ke made his grand attack on the strong position of the rebels ou Vinegar-hill, Acar Enniscorthy, having gradually collected troops from every part ti\l he had almost surrounded tiiem. They maintained their ground obstinately for an hour and a halt^ but at length tied with precipitation, leaving behind them a great num- ber of killed and wounded ; and thirteen small pieces of ordnance of dif- , ferent calibres. Immediately after this action, a large body of the king's forces advan- -«ed to Wexford, which general Moore entered so opportunely, as to prevent the town from being laid in ashes. The rebels, before they eva- cuated the town, offered to treat ; but general Lake refused to sign any terms with rebels with arms in their hands ; though to the deluded multitude he promised pardon, on condition of delivering up their leader* and returning to their allegiance. The rebel troops immediately eva- cuated tlie town. Their general, Bagenal Harvey, had quitted tliem soon after the battle of New Ross ; but being discovered and taken with some others in a cave, he was tried by a court-martial, and executed oa the bridge of Wexford. In the beginning of June ahrming commotions likewise took place in the North of Ireland, and the insurrection soon became almost general in the counties of Down and Antrim; but on the 12th the rebels receiv- ed a complete defeat at Ballyaahinch, where tliey lost upwards of four hundred men. They fought with great obstinacy, and their leader Mimro was taken prisoner, and afterwaids executed. The English government, in the mean time, tliough not dissatisfied V'lth the conduct of lord Camden, resolved to give Ireland a military lord-lieutenant ; and the marquis Cornwallis arrived at Dublin in that capacity on the 20th of June, and immediately assumed the reins of governnaent. Tlie conduct of his lordship was temperate and judicious. On the 17th of July he sent a massage to the house of commons by lord Castlereagh, intimating that he had received his majesty's commands to acquaint them, ** that he had signified his gracious intention of granting a general pardon for all offences committed on or before a ccr- taiA day, upon such conditions, , and with such exceptions, as might be compatible with the general safety." — Rut " these offers of mercy to the repentant wece uot to preclude mtjaaufea of vigoui- against the obsti- nate." if I !l 368 IRELAND. ^'1 '^1 iri'i \ ' I 1 :,: 'i' A special commission was now opened in Dublin for the trial of the principal delinquents, — several of whom were tried and executed. Among them Mr. Oliver Bond was tried, convicted, and condemned ; and in his fate the other conspirators began to foresee tlieir own. The rebellion appeared to be completely crushed ; the fugitive rebels were every where illuming to tlieir allegiance, and delivering up their arms, and no ho})e remained of any eifectual assistance from France. In tins situation a negotiation was opened betweeti the Irish government and the state prisoners j the issue of which was, that government consented to p;u-don jVIr. Bond, and desist from any furtlier prosecution of tlie other leaders of the conspiracy, who on their parts engaged to make a foil con- fession of all tlie proceedings and plans of the society j after which they were to be permitted to transport themselves to any country not at war witli liis majesty. The information they communicated was laid before the Irish house of commons, and has furnished materials for the brief ac- count here given. Mr. Oliver Bond survived his pardon only a few days ; and Mr. Arthur OConnor, Dr. M'Nevin, and tlie rest, after having been a considerable time confined in Ireland, were removed to prisons in Scotland ; whence, after the conclusion of the late peace, they were permitted to transport themselves to France, where they still remain. After the failure of the expedition under general Hoche, France, for- tunately for Great Britain, made no attempt to assist the Irish insurgents till it was too late ; and the aid then sent was very feeble, and inade- «juate to tlie end proposed. On the 22d of August, some frigates and transports from France appeared in Killala Bay, and landed about a thousand men, with a quantity of arms and ammunition. The number of insurgents who joined the invaders was not considerable j but the French general Humbert, by his conduct, proved himself an officer of ability, and worthy of command where there was a fairer prospect of success. He advanced without loss of time to Castlebar, where general Lake was collecting his forces, attacked, and compelled him to retreat with the loss of six pieces of cannon and a few men j after which he ad- vanced towards Tuam : but on tlie /th of September the marquis Corn- wallis came up with tlie French in the vicinity of Castlebar, when they retreated, and the next morning, after a slight resistance, surrendered at discretion. The rebels who had joined them were dispersed, and a great number of them killed or taken Another effort was afterwards made by the French to support, or rather to rekindle the flames of re- bellion in Ireland. On tlie 17th of September a fleet sailed from France, consisting of one ship of the line (the Hoche) and eight frigates, with troops and ammunition on lioard, destined for Ireland ; but this arma- inent was completely defeated by the squadron under tlie command of sir John Borlase Warren, as has been already related in our summaiy of the affairs of England. The few remaining troops of rebels, who were dispersed among the woods and mountains, now successively laid down their arras. A chief of the n<ime of Holt, at the head of a number of banditti, continued for some time to commit depredations in the mountainous parts of the county of Wicklow : but at last it was believed that he made terms with government, and was permitted to save his life by relinquishing for ever his native coimiry. Every estimate of the number of thos* who lost their lives in this de- plorable contest must necessarily be vague and uncertain. Sbnjie have stated it at thirty thousand, while others have swelled it to a hundred thousand^ — of whom tliey say, nine tenths were of the insurgents i th« IRELAND. I of the :ecuted. Bmned ; TJie Is were arms. In tliis ent and nted to other iill cou- ch they ac V ar before riefac- days ; 3^ loss of the royalists being about ten thousand men. Slaughter and de- solation at length procured a kind of poace ; but the great problem was, to discover by what means the flames of "discord might be prevented from bursting out xifrosh. As the most effectual preventative of a repe- tition of these calamities, government recommended a legislative union of the two kingdoms. A proposition for such- an union was submitted to the parliament of England and Leland on the s.im2 day (January 22, ^799^ > iind in both houses of the English parlianaent, tl»t^ address, which is considered as an approbation of the measure, passed \\ ithout division. A similar address was carried in the Irisii iiouse of lords by a majority of thirty-three, but rejected in the commons by a majority of two, which the ne.\t day increased to six against the measure, which was therefore laid aside for that time. Government, however, by no means totally abandoned it j for, in the beginning of the next session, on the 1.5th of January 1800, the proposition was again submitted to tha parliament of Ireland ; when the address in tlic house of lords passed without a debate ; and, after an animated discussion in the commons, which lasted till the noon of the fullowing day, was approved by a ma- jority of forty-two. The act of union afterwards passed the British par- liament, received the royal assent on the 2nd of July ] 800, and took pliice on the 1st of January 1801. How far this union will prove a remedy for the distressed condition and discontents of the poor, time must discover. At first view it seems difficult to say how a legislative union can remove the cause of the civil commotions which have lately distracted that unfortunate kingdom; how it can lessen religiotis prejudices, or prevent, what it seems rather calculated to increase, the expenditure of Irish property at a distance from the country whence it is derived. Yet it must not be denied that unity in government has many advantages, and is indeed essentially ne- cessary J and that a close connexion and tirm consolidation of the three kingdoms, with an impartial and equal d'stiribution of protection and rights, tairly granted and faithfully maintai led, must tend to infuse new life into every part of the united nation, '.^-hiie it adds to the prosperity, tlie wealth, and the power, of the whole. Notwithstanding the union, however, a spirit of discontent and dis- aflfection still manifests itself among tiie lower orders in many parts of Ireland. The agents of the leaders in llie last rebellion, who, after the late peace, were permitted to transport themselves to France, soon re- newed their attempts to excite an insurrection similar to the former : but, fearing that their designs were discovered, in consequence of tlie blowing up of a house in v/hich tliey had concealed a quantity of gun- powder and arms, they were induced to rise before their plans were matured. On the 23d of July 1803, great numbers of persons of the lower classes suddenly flocked to Dublin from diflerent parts of th<i country; and a riotous mob assembled with a view to surprise the castle. Meeting in Thomas-street with lord Kihvarden, the chief justice of Ireland, who had 'conducted the prosecutions after the last rebellion, as attorney-general, tjiey forced him and his nephew, who was with him, out of his carriage, and barbarously murdered tliem with their pikes. The delay which the perpetration of tliis atrocious act occasioned, has been supposed (so little were government appriiied of their designs) to have saved the castle, by affording time for the Li- berty Rangers, and some regular troops, to collect, who attacked and dispersed them, but not till lieutenant-colonel Brown, of the 2 1st recri- meut, and six or seven others of the niilit?.ry had unfortunately lost the'r II 70 rilAXCE. lives. Many persons were apprehended ;:nil tried, and several suffered dcatli, tor this feeble and frantic attempt at rebellion. Among those executed was Emmet, the son of the counsellor of that name, who, it h probable, was the principal director and leader of the misguided rabble. Government has since taken the necessary precautions to guard against ihe danger of any similar attempts, and the country now appears to be in a tolerable state of tranquillity. FRANCE. %': II *3: i'l Miles. Length 610 7 Breadth 500 f RXTENT ASD SITUATION. between { 42° 5"* C and 5 1° o' north lafitude. 0' west and 8'' east longitude. France, before the revolution, contained l6l,8lO sqazte miles, with 172 inhabitants to each. At present, including all the conquered countries annexed to its terri- tory, it contains 191,700 square miles, with IJti inhabitants to each. Name.] France tooK its name from the Francs, or Freemen, a Ger* man nation, restless and enterprising, who conquered the .Gauls, the an- cient inhabitants : and the Roman force not being able to repress them^ they were permitted to settle in the country by treaty. Boundaries.] It is bounded by tlie English Channel and Holland on the north j by Italy, Switzerland, and Germany, from which it is sepa- rated by the Rhine, on the east; by the Mediterranean and the Pyrenean Mountains, which divide it from Spain, on tha south ; and by the Bay of Biscay on the west. Divisions.] The ancient provinces of France were divided by the first national assembly into 83 departments, which have been increased by new acquisitions to 108, including the six departments into which Ficdmiont, recently declared a part of France, has been divided. The situation, names, extent in square miles, and population, of these depart- ments, according to the accounts lately published by the French govern- ment, are as follows :— Ancient Provin(»et. . Departmentit French Flanders Nord Artois Pas de Calais . Picardy Somme /' Lower Seine. . 1 Calvados .... Normandy < Manche i Orne ........ . (_Eure. ., ■seme ........ Chief Towni. Douai Arras Amiens . . . , Rouen .... Caen Coutances . Alengon. . . Evreux . . . , Square Miles. 1759 2054 1900 1858 1645. 2009 1859 1803 Popula- tion. 774,450 566,061 465,034 642,773 480,317 528,912 397,931 415,574 Pari: Islflt of France , . Seine and Oise lOise Aisne Versailles Beauvais Laon \ 132 629,763 1715 1774 2165 429,523 3^,086 430,62^ suffered ng those vho, it i5 d rabbit*, d against ars to be f »'WV jf^M '^ K»»ii ■ I l^'t i' r.-*' ' 4 I . XsitTh's of fhe Mi'trnjwlitoii Circles ' 'i ^ Hu'dHVif c(' ihr Ctiofmd . \ the Kiut ,"> . - ilw .toHih h'nft j<i tht'dnnU (I't^t'JltdriemtrMm 7 ^f Jinith IB ihe.ivM Wejt IS) tht-Airifihirt lO. .dw Otuiv I 0!m:i\ ■f /Jl M Exp]irnatinn. Bctrndariet of'lhe Melritpctifitn ("irrlix. • />?' (y'^ft*" Tkt\irtmtnu. •■•-. ..'■....., State o(' the Me<n>p(<htaiu Df if'ihe BMvfv ; rimtu- t/iniur a Xa>rw if ii Dufn'ft /. £(*' natvutaTribttnol cfJti,-'iHV . . Iki-pmc^ii plAv ineach'Departmmtinl'niittui^'M'n , " - - Viiv > Brititk Jhlute MiW ' JO 10 40 ,y' S» I'nruh iMfliter ?j toatknnw » 10 10 ,?r> I, • -/ TMUI. J. 1 . , i^.ltn-t m Huie mau- AirK LfiintuJe IVort/hm tondon . TiriBf" S I' A r N :r t) 3r . _i \y < !.t,i llnu ifunt,-J ,, ^ Unjfy/fl '' /{.j'l m/ru A< "i^iiiintir ■ I- • tu" Tw/.f •a/uf' 'M r ! O f X K "WiJ .'iliea-aui-ais r/««il/ ^ /iu^..^;:c£i- .^(-•iV^^Saif^hin tf./zt 1/ .^>iSnup^ JtHK fol veifi flBllS ikine- _,^ ■ L/?*: Ciiate M.'tUin\>ri 0n vn:- R ' /fewwi^M -ulin ' A A A '4fmtaii>iiU'' lacon n>.rfl^«,. • Ucrne '^'-?"swri'''^'*^''^^^^^i 'C<neva O Slifl lulei ^:-^to^- -yW«5^^^"' 'JoA/t: Jmpctty VW )&>«m< P^ .y A I^ Jltlixr "■./■««• iftaW :'(:»Ir^ jlootpelii ,t, )ief> •Jf^>^ /./WA.v ■ - /«vt//. ryr' ->. . / 4'fcrnffnan .fllwV*. ••1i»we^ nfttmifkr CTciSUt M ^: It I r H K d J«'*N kin 'vMl>M'>i m ilCj m ' 1 1 if *■■■»**>' Hi N, « w )W w V »'.■■■ '.•.•M..>^>»» JMfc ^ — !■■«* -.^r^.*,^ -/^ v<? •v; i 1 PUteX o I ■'nam 7 ^ fformt o\ y 'Manhrim Spirt ; 'puorW'^ -JP tS iv** PUteX O i A X J) j^^ ><'•--«'' ^.xJ7 i«f'vight^^^ p:nv "••■■"■J nc>'''" •'•■""V*? >' AJ ■ ^■■'VGmi'tlinef ■^ 'udais- SfOrrtir., ■:-, N K T' "''■ I.i y'fcl .Irrxur ' ^Ul*me,v j^^'l'^Jtoff"' C 8'^' -,V>^ 'l8 r.ei Pontcro Jiuiant \ V .... . R V 'T f?^'* -^ Jt«ame, .1//./ / '^J ^ X^ c; JTl: ../.. '^leruiebcn ttfehtfcrt loi'* / ^"^^"NZ'^ir \ g, v'Alioiirgo »^X oO •' I X Of L'S ^^SladatTt /Bou o T O JtiSr^ec ^6 ~l~l Britifh StatiUt Mite^. uy -30 to ^e ^c joo -- 1 ■ ' i ( to 70 .ir 40 Ji A Y Jcunfonaa . '^-"^ ^?^o^ V »<_ Ji MOV s J y ■■, : .('!■• -tS ; or I S C A Y ^v aJcUme Tnria.t^c'^ \ Condt^m \Zaiour J'^ ^i^^r^ Yihv . MiLiTAR Y Cover. VMcy ^ longitude /Hft rrvm Icruicn. ' yretio-. ' '% ... .^J r. ra.'Vfcin. ~l M^V^ //*' > y 3 SfOmr^ / / liruJsels oLvnturff Y"" CobUiU Oifonr ' Igr^icnt Mi, I ( " -'-1 v^S Saarieury' VSayt^/ / -fuxrrre^ Jllobt /)u£/ru ijicnnv •KS'.'lnrQeAii > .ralivicaf\f^ ^ \iaautrUr' ''^!^ (Jkat^jwuPcii.Tf V Ynumf Sy^ CAateaiifiiux Vfytnr o . - i-ZT A . zi^ .T n » A>7>0 r c N „ 1 y6 / J^t- ^'^'" ^ ^ND \jiuu»^ jlf/tUow/^^^ /6* i..j^i ',5^-x, ^ ^- \, ,'V-T^t^ /"Ox ^ ■^-^j£?4'^ Tao 'al"' CO 4Aurh 9 •^ • . - • " , ■ • - . • .-. • \ ' ' ;• ,7 7 ,; TaiUa'- S E \i \ lon^ntitde raft Avm london : ** m Mi H I FRANXE. 371 Ancient Froviacu. Champagne . . . , Lorrain Alsace Tiretagne Maine & Perche Anjou Touraine Orleannois .... Eerry Nivernois. , . . . . Bourbonnois. . . . Burgundy Franche Comtc . Poitou Saintonge and Aunis Angouniols . . . . Marche Limosin Auvergne Lyonnois Dauphinc Guyenne ..,.., Departments. S Seine cScMarne Marne Ardennes .... Aube Upper Marne . f Meuse J Moselle j Meurthe .... ' Vosges J Lower Rhine . I Upper Rhine . r Isle and Vilaine \ Lower Loire . < Cotes du Nord J Finisteixe .... \Mcrbilian.. . . f Sarthe (^iVIayenne .... JMayenne and) \ Loire j Indre and Loire 5Loiret . Euro and Loire (^ Loire and Cher V Clier I Indre Nievre Allier f Yonne ^ Cote dOr. . . . (Saoneand Loire { Upper Saone . J Doubs J Jura '. (Ain fVienne < Deux Sevres. . I Vendee f Lower Cha-") \ rente J Charente .... Creuse Upper Vienne Correze Puy de Dome . Cantal J Rhone ^ Loire ....... f Isere < Drome {Upper Alps.. Girunde 2 Chief Towns. Square Popular Miles. tion. Melnn 1787 298,815 Chalons sur Marne 2473 310,493 Sedan 1 820 264,036 Troyes ; 1820 240,601 Chaumont I907 225,350 Bar sur Ornain . . 1830 275,898 Metz 1910 353,788 Nancy 1875 342,107 Epinal I902 308,052 Strasburg IO61 444,858 Colmar 1758 382,285 Rennts 20S7 488,605 Nantes 2232 363,506 St. Brieux 2207 499,927 Cluimper 2226 474,349 Vannes 206l 425,485 LeMans 1886 387,166 Laval 1590 328,597 Angers 2227 376,03? Tours. 1882 278,758 Orleans 2055 289,723 Chartres 1794 259,967 Blois 19.59 211,152 Bourges 2154 218,297 Chateauroux 2157 207,91 1 Nevers 2148 251,158 Moulins 2165 272,616 Auxerre 2257 333,278 Dijon 2681 347,842 Macon 2600 447,565 Vesoul 1628 287,461 Besan^on 1557 22f,075 Lons le Soulnier . 1538 289,865 Bourg I68I 284,455 Poitiers 2141 250,807 Niort 1848 242,658 FontenayleComte 2112 270,271 Sainte.«i 2114 402,105 Angouleme 1 840 32 1 ,477 (Gueret 1721 216,255 Limoges 1 750 25g,7g5 Tulles 17O8 243,654 Clermont 2464 508,444 St. Flour 1731 237,224 Lyon 856 345,644 Montbrison 1498 292,5S3 Grenoble 2494 441,208 Valence 2020 21 1, 188 Gap 1648 1 18,322 Bourdeaux,,,... 3287 510,685 B2 372 Ancient ProvJifcea. FRANCE. Departments. Chief Towns. Perigord jP°tT^ ° I I-ot iv Gail Querc}' Rovenjne and Marcl,c i ^''"y""" I . Perigueux onne Ageii .... Lot Cahors . . Rodcs Beam . . . . Rousillon . , i- ■ I. .^ . Languedoc 3CS Pau 'rpignan 'Landcs Mont de Marson « \ Gers Audi Gascony «^ Arriege Foix Upper Pyre- 1 ^^^ nces J Lower Pyre- 7 ncps 3 Eastern Pvre-I t> nces ...... I ^^-^1 f Upper Ga.| ^^^^ ronne 3 Tarn Alby Aude Carcassone. . j Herault ..... Montpellicr (_Gard Nismes . . . . C Lozere Mende .... Cevennes < Ardeche Privas f Upper I oire. . Le Puy .... riVlouths of the! Square Mik-s. 2766 1780 2168 2764 2763 2055 1473 H40 Pontjfs- tion. 410,350 352,i;i08 383/683 328,195 228,88{> 291 ,845 191,693 206,680 2354 384,030 1265 117.764 i2356 432,263 Provence •rsica ) Rhone;.:V|^'^-- j Lower Alps . . Digne . f Var Toulon CGolo Bastia . j^Liamone .... AjiKcio 1774 272,163 1908 226,193 1982 291,957 1832 309,052 1572 155,936 1665 267,525 1540 237,90* 1550 320,072 2162 140,121 2190 269,142 953 103,465 862 63,347 N Ancient Names, New united Departments. Departments. Chief Towns. Ter ri tory of A vi g- ") hon and Coun- > Vaucld.se .... Avignon. . ty of Venaissin ) .Savoy Mont Blanc . . Chambery County of Nice Maritime Alps Nice .... City and territory 7 ^^^^^ ^^^^^ _ _ «f tieneva. ... 3 Square Miles. Popula- tion, 1079 190,18© 564 1008 48,794 87,071 1140 215,884 Ancient Names. natKlers . . . JBrabant Netherlands. Departments. Chief Towns. Square Popula- Allles. tion. fLys Bruges ., IO68 470,707 ■^ Scheldt Ghent lOOl 595,258 ( Jemmappe . . . Mons : 1127 412,129 f Deux Nethes 1 Antwerp 771 249,876 |Dyle. ^ Brussels 951 363,95« / I " ,' FRANCE. 373 M1F.1- 1,350 1,683 ,845 ,693 1,680 Ancient Name». Department*. Chief Towns. Square Popular Miles. tion. ^Sand ^"^^" 1 ^^^'''^'^ ^^^"""^ Maestricht 2056 232,662 "^'iSiSH^-^^^ ""''' '''' '''-''' County of Na-j Sambre andj j^^^^^ ^3^3 jg^ ^ mur j Meuse j "^embuj .^"^S ^"""^^^ Luxemburg .... 2065 225,549 German Territory on the Left Bank of the Rhine. Ancient Names. Departments. Chief Towns. Square PopuU- Miles. tion. ^'?obgnT'' .°^} ^'^^ Aix-la-Chapelle. . 1953 516,246 ^ TrelST!^°.^} ^^^^^ ^^^^ 203,290 ^"ptV^",^!^"!'} Sarre .'.'..'. Treves ...:...: 1878 219,049 ^ mST'.*'..''.! ^^°"* '^°""'''' Mentz 1779 342,3is' Piedmont. /., . Ivrea Ivrea 1383 252,200 :;.-•-' Marengo Alexandria 99O 373,400 Po Turin 778 437,500 i { .. I:' '; ; : Sesia Vergeil 576 206,200 Stnra Coni 1800 396,500- . ' Tanaro . . Asti 864 281,000 , ■; Each department is divided into three, four, or five districts, called conununal arrondissenicnts. These districts are again subdivided into cantons, which are composed of a certain number of communes. A commune is sometimes a single town, and sometimes a union of several villages, possessing a mayor and communal municipality. All the con- siderable cities are divided into several communes. Face of the country.] France is in general a plain country, and its appearance is very various in dirterent parts. The departments of Up- per Vienne and Correze, and others in the soutli, afford many rich and beautiful landscapes ; while those of the old provinces of Bretagne, An- jou, and Maine, present extensive wastes of heath, and have almost the appearance of a desert. Mountains.] The chief mountains in France, or its borders, are the Alps, which divide France from Italy; the Pyrenees, which divide France from Spain ; the Vosges, which separate the department of that name from the departments of Upper Saone and Upper Rhine ; Mount Jura, which divides France from Switzerland ; tha Cevennes, in the late pro- vince of Languedoc j and Mont d'Or, in Puy de Dome. PoRESTs.] The chief forests of France ore those of Orleans, which contain 14,000 acres of wood of various kinds, oak, elm, ash, &c., and the forest of Fontainebleau, near as large ; and near Morchismoir is a forest of tall, straight timber, of 4000 trees. Besides these, there are numbers of w®ods^ some of them deserving the name of forests, in difi 374 FRANCE. l-i f .1 ■|':! I ^- {treat departments; but too remote from sea-carriage to be of much na- tional utility. Lakes.] Few lakes are found in this countiy. There is one at die top of a hill near Alegre, which is so deep that the vulgar report it to be bottomless. There is another at Issoire, in Puy.de Dome: and one at La Besse, into which if a stone be thrown^ it causes a noise like thunder. Rivers.] The principal rivers in France are the Loire, the Rh6ne, the Garonne, and tlie Seine. The Loire takes its course nortli and north-west, being, with all its windings from its source to the sea, com- puted to run about 500 miles. The Rhone flows on the south-west to Lyons, and then runs on due south, till it falls into the Mediterranean. The Garonne rises in the Pyrenean mountains, takes its course first north-east, and has a communication with the Mediterranean, by means of a canal, the work of Lewis XIV. The Seine, soon iitter its rise, runs to the north-west, visiting Troyes, Paris, and Rouen, in its way, nnd falls into th& English Channel at Havre. To these we may add the Saone, vrhich falls into the Rhone at Lyons ; tlic Charente, which rises near Havre de Grace, and discharges itself in the Bay of Biscay at Roche- fort j the Rhine, which rises in Switzerland, is the eastern boundary between France and Germany, and receives the Moselle and the Sarte in its passage ; the Somme, which rises in the department of Aisne, and passing by St. Quentin, Peronne, and Amiens, falls into the English Channel below Abbeville j the Var, whicli rises in the Alps, and i-uns south, dividing France from Italy, and falling into the MediteiTanean, west of Nice ; and the Adour, which rises in the department of the Upper Pyrenees, and, running from east to west by Tarbes and Dax, falls into the Bay of Biscay, below Bayonne. Canals.] The vast advantage, both in commerce and convcniency, which arises to France from th(jse rivers, is wonderfully improved by the artificial rivers and canals which form the chief glory of the rci;:n of Lewis XIV. That of Languedoc was begun in the year I'J.j, and completed in l680j it was intended for a communication betwi en the Ocean and the Mediterranean, for tlie speedier passage of the French fleet: but though it was carried on at an immense expense for 100 miles, over hills and valleys, and even through a mountain in one place, it has not answered tha*^^ purpose. By t'\e canal of Paris, travellers easily pass by water from thence to St. Oracr, Graveline, Dunkirk, Ypres, and other places. The canal of Orleans is another noble work, and runs a course of eighteen leagues, to tlie immense benefit of the public and the royal revenue. France abounds with other canals of the like kind, which render her inland navigation inexpressibly commodious and bene- ficial. Mineral waters and remarkable springs. mountains, have been preferred to all the others of France, for the re- covery of health : but probably the cures performed by them are more owing to their accidental success witli some great persons, and the salu* brity of the air and soil, than to the virtues of the waters. The waters of Sultzbach, in the department of the Upper Rhine, are said to cure the pal^y, weak nerves, and the stone. At I3agneres, not far from Bar- rege, are celebratttd mineral- waters and baths, to which people re.s6rt as to the English baths, at spring and autumn. Forges, in the depart- ment of the Lower Seine^ is celebrated for its mineral waters; and those of St. Amand cure the gravel and obstructions. It would be 1 The waters of Barrege, which lie near 3 the borders of Spain, under the Pyrenean FRANCE. d;i •ndlcus to enumerate all tlie other real or pretended mineral wells in France, as well as many remarkable springs ; but there is one near Aigne, in Puy de Dome, which boils violently, and makes a noise like water tlirown upon lime; it has little or no taste, but has a poisonous quality, and tlio birds tliat drink of it, it is siid, di» instantly. Metals and minerals.] France has many unworked tnines, wlich would be very productive, if duly attended to ; but at present do aot yield minerals suHicient for consumption. The ^alue of the iron, cop- per, tin, and other metals, imported from abroad, in a raw state, amounted, in tlie year 1/87, to c)00,000/., and tliat of manufactured steel to above 250,000/. ICxertions have, however, since been made to work the native mines of iron, with which the northern departments especially abound; and, in 17y8, it was computed that there were 2000 furnaces and forges for the working of iron and steel. The late pro- vince of Langucdoc is said to contain veins of gold and silver. Alsace Jias mines of silver and copper, but they arc too expensive to be wrought. Alabaster, black marble, jasper, and coal, are found in many parts of the kingdom. Bretagne abounds in mines of iron, cop[)er, tin, and lead. Salt-petre is made in every part of the kingdom, and seasalt is no\v pro- cured free from oppressive duty, but not remarkable for its purity. At Laverdau, in Coniinges, there is a mine of chalk. At Berry tliere is a mine of oker ; which serves for melting of metals, and for dyeing, parti- cularly the best drab cloth : and in the province of Aiijou are several quar- ries of fine white stone. Some excellent turquoises (the only gem that France produces) are found in Languedoc; and great care is taken to keep tiie mines of marble and free-stone open all over tlie kingdom. Climate, soil, and agriculture.] The air, particularly tliat of the interior parts of tlie country, is iu general mild and wholest)me ; but some authors think it is not nearly so salubrious f.s js pretended ; and it must be acknowledged, that the French have been but too successful in giving the inhabitawis of Great Britain false prepossessions in favour of their own country. It must indeed be owned, that their weatlier i.s more clear and settled than in England. In the nortliern provinces, howevw, the winters are more intensely cold, and the inliabitants not so well sup- plied with firing, which in France is chiefly of wood. The soil is ex- cellent, and produces corn, wine, oil, and almost every luxur}"^ of life. Some of the fruits have a higher llavour than those of England ; but neither the pasturage nor tillage are comparable to ours. The heats, in many parts, burn up tlie ground, so tliat it has no verdure; and the soil barely produces as much rye and chesnuts as serve to subsist tlie poor iu* habitants. ' Notwithstanding great efforts made in agriculture, much of the land remains uncultivated; and although .some provinces, as. Alsace and Lan- guedoc, yield an exuberance of corn, it is frequently iiiSported. Vegetables.] Oak, elm, asli, and other timber, common in En* gland, is found in France ; but it is said, that the internal parts of the kingdom begin to feel the want of fuel. France abounds in escu- lent roots, in all kinds of sallads, and in excellent fruits, particu- larly grapes, figs, prunes, chesnuts, apples in the northern provinces, and capers in the southern. It produces annually, though not enough for consumption, above twelve million jiouuds of tobacco, besides hemp, flax, manna, saffron, and many drugs. Alsace, Burgundy, Lorrain^ and especially the Pyrcnean mountains, supply it plentifulfy with timber sad other wood. Silk is so abundantly produced, besides what is im- 37S FRANCE. 1; i^ m ported, as to afford a considerable trade. The province of Gatinols pro- duces great quantities of satlron. Tiic wines of Champagne, Burpundy, Bourdeaux, Gascony, and other provinces of France, are so well known, that they need only to be mentioned. It is sutficient to observe, that though they ditier very sensibly in their taste and properties, yet all of them are excellent, particularly those of Champagne, Burgundy, Bour- deaux, Pontacke, Hermitage, and Frontiniac : and there are few consti- tutions, be they ever so valetudinary, to which some one or other of them is not adapted. Wine, the staple, is made to the value of 15,000,000/. annually, more than an eighth part of which, besides brandy and vinegar, was exported. Olive oil is made in large quantities, particularly in the provinces next the Mediterranean ; but the consumption is so great, that much of it is imported from Italy ; the interior sort supplies the soap manufactories of Marseilles. Languedoc produces an herb called kali, which, when burnt, makes excellent barilla, or pot-ashes. The French formerly were famous for horticulture, but they are at present far inferior to the Englibh both in the management and disposition of their gardens. Prunes and capers are produced at Bourdeaux, and near Toulon. France contains few animals, either wild or tame, that are not to.be found in fJngland, excepting wolves and wild boars. Their horses, black cattle, and sheep, are far inferior to the English ; nor is the wool of their sheep so fine. The hair and skin of the chamois, or mountain-goats, are more valuable than those of England, We know of no diflf'erenco between the marine productions of France and those of England, but that the former is not so well served, even on the sea-coast, witli salt- water fish. Natukal curiosities.] The natural curiosities of France consist chiefly in subterraneous caverns and remarkable springs. Near Salins, in the department of Jura, are several remarkable caves, the extent of which, taken together, is about 400 feet in length, and 60 in breadth. The descent into them is by 40 stone steps, and i;6 of wood. At the bottom, by the aid of lighted torches, may be seen six springs of salt water, and two of fresh, gushing out and nuining with great rapidity. The streams are kept separate by proper trenches, which conduct them into other vaults, supported by large pillars ; wherein are placed reser- voirs for the reception of the salt water, which is afterwards conveyed to the top by proper engines, and, being put into pans, great quantities of salt are extracted from it. At Baulme, 12 miles from Besangon, is a cavern above 300 feet under ground, full of icicles, and at the bottom a little river, which, it is said, flows in the winter, and is frozen in the summer. In the neighbourhood of Nismes is a subterraneous cavern, which, tlie vulgar pretend, reaches to Aries, passing under the Rhone a distance of 20 miles. Among tlie natural curiosities of this country may likewise be rec- koned the plain of La Crau, in Provence, near the mouth of the Rhone, which is the most singular stoney desert perhaps in Europe. It is about five leagues in diameter, and contains between 20 and 25 square leagues, or about 150,000 English acres. It is entirely composed of shingle, or round gravel ; some of the stones are as large as the head of a man. Population.] The population of France, before the revolution, was estimated at about 2G,000,000; but the number of inhabitants in the original territory of France is now found to amoiint, according to tlie enumeration lately published by the French government, to 27,989,924. To which if we add tlie population of the recently united FRANCE. ^71 ois pro- •piindy, known, e, that ;t ;ill of Uour- consti- ther of more 'orted. s next )f it Is cfories wJien nierly to the t) ■'" runes to, be bJack their ?oats, renc» i. but salt- onsist alins, !nt of adth. t thQ ' salt dity. hem ?ser- -yed !S of is a m a the im, re a ec- ne, XI t es, or m, in ,g ... to departments, or the countries which the ambition of tVat government has violently tmnexcd to its own territory, including riedniont, tlio XV hole will be swelled to the prodigious amount of 35,051,143. National CHARACTEu, MAN -7 The Frturh, in their persons, are NERs, AND CUSTOMS. J mtlier lower than their neighbours^ but they are well proi)ortioned and active, and more free than other na- tions, in general, from bodily delbrrailics. The ladies are celebrate4 more for their sprightly wit than personal beauty: the peasantry in ge- neral are remarkably onliiiary, and are best described by being contrast- ed with women of the same rank in England. Tiie upper classes ac- complish themselves in die e.\crci.ses of dancing, fencing, and riding, in the practice of which they excel all their neighbours in skill and gracefulness. They are fond of hunting ; and the gentry, before the revolution, had left oft' their heavy jack-boots, their huge war-saddle, and monstrous ciu'b bridle, iu that exercise, and accommodated them- selves to the English manners. U'he genius and manners of the French are well known, and have been the subject of many able pens. A national vanity is tlieir predo- minant character: and they are perhaps the only people ever hcarcl of, who have derived great utility from a national weakness. It support* them under misfortunes, and impels them to actions to which true courage inspires other nations. I'his character has been conspicuous both in the higher and middling ranks, where it produces excellent of- licers ; and in the common soldiers of France, who, it must be con- fessed, in tlie late war against the allied powers, exhibited prodigies of valour. The French affect freedom and witj but fashionable dresses and di- versions engross too much of their conversation. Their diversions are much the same with those of the English; but their gallantry is of a very difterent complexion. Their attention to the fair degenerates into gross foppery in the men, and in tiie ladies it is kept up by admitting of indecent freedoms ; but the seeming levities of both sexes are seldom attended with that criminality, which, to people not used to their man- ners, they seem to indicate ; nor are the husbands so indifterent as we arc apt to imagine about the conduct of their wives. The French are excessively credulous and litigious : but of all people in the world they bear adversity and reduction of circumstances with the best grace j though in prosperity tmwy of them are apt to be insolent, vain, arbi- trary, and huperioqs. The French have been much censured for insincerity; but this charge has been carried too far, and tho imputation is generally owing to their pxcess of civility, which renders tlieir candour suspicious ; iu private life, tliey have certainly many amiable qualities ; and a great niunber of instances of generosity and disinterestedness may be found amongst them. It is doing the French no more than justice to acknowledge, that, as they are themselves polite, so they have given a polish to the ferocious manners, and even virtues, of other nations. Before the revolution, they were disposed to think very favourably of the English. They both imitate and admire our writers ; the names of Bacon, Locke, Newton, JVIilton, Pope, Addison, Hume, Robertson, Richardson, and many otliei's, are sacred among the French of any education. With several defects, the French liave many good quaKties ; polite- ness of manners, attention to strangers, and a g«nei"al taste for literature among those in tlie better ranks of life. UfiiMwM 37s FRANXEr. 1 1 / h'1 ' f I 1 ? 1. ■ 4 'f ^ 1.: 1 .1 ■ I i • I ^(j ■' , The Frencli dress of both sexes is so well known, that it is needless to expatiate upon it here ; out, indeed, their dies8 in cities and towns is so \ariable, that it is next to impossible to describe it. They certainly have more invention in tliat particular tlian any ot' their neighbours, and their constantly changing tlieir fashions is of service to their manufactures. CiiiEs AND CHiKK TOWNS.] Paris, the capital ot France, is divided into three parts, — the city, the university, and that which was formerly called the town. The city is old Paris ; the university and tlie town ai^ the new. Paris contains more works of public maguiticence thart utili- ty. Its palaces are showy, and some of its streets, stjviares, hotels, hos- pitals, and churches, superbly decorated with a prolusion of paintings, tapestry, images, and statues ; but Paris, notwithstanding its boasted po- lice, is gi'eatly inferior to J<ondon in many of the conveniencies of life, and the solid enjoyments of society. Without entering into more mi- nute disquisitions, Paris, it nmst b«; owned, is the paradise of splendour and dissipation. The tapesiry of the Gobelins* is uneijualled tor beauty and richness. The Louvre is a building that does honour to architectuie itself: it was adorned by many excellont institutions for the arts and sciences, particularly the three academies, and ennobled by the residence of the learned. The Tuilleries, the palace of Luxemburg, where a ^a- luable collection of paintings are shown, the royal palace and library, tlie guild-h ill, and the hospital for invalids, are superb to the highest degree. I'he city of Paris is said to be iifteen miles in circumference. The streets arc very narrow, and the houses very high, many of them seven stories. The houses are built of stone, and often contain a dif- ferent family on every floor. The river Seine, which runs through the centre of the city, is not half so large as the I'hames at London ; it is ttoo far distant from the sea for the purjwscs of navigation, and is not furnished, as tlie Thames, with vessels or boats of any sort ; o\«- it are many stone and wooden bridges, which have nothing to recommend them. The streets of Paris are generally cro\\ded, particularly with coaches, which gives that capital the appearance of wealth and grandeur; though, in reality, there is more show than substance. The glittering carriages tliat dazzle the eyes of strangers are mostly common hacks, hired by tlie day or week to the numerous foreigners who visit tliat city 5 and, in truth, the greatest part of the trade of Paris arises from tlie con* stant succession of strangers that arrive daily from every nation and quarter of the globe. This ascendency is undoubtedly owing to the re- putation of their language, tlieir public buildings, tlieir libraries, and collections of paintings, that are open to tlie public ; tlie cheapness of pro- visions, excellency of the French wines, and, above all, the purity of the air and climate in France, With all these advantages, Paris, in general, will not bear a comparison with London, in the more essential circum- stances of a thriving foreign and domestic trade, the cleanliness of their streets, neatness of their houses, especially within; the plenty of water, and tliat of a better quality tlian the Seine, which, it is said, disagrees with strangers, as do likewise their small wines. In the houses of Paris most of the floors are of brick, and have no other kind of cleaning than that of being sprinkled with water, and swept once a day. These brick floors, the stone stairs, the want of wainscoting in the rooms, and the thick party- walls of stone, are, however, good preser\'atives against fire. » ». .: t »» % * One Goblei, a noted dyer at Rheinw, was the first who settled in this place, In the reign of Francis I., and the house has retained his naine ever since : and here the great Colbert, about the year 16G7, established that valuable manufactory. FRANCE. 979 which seldom does any damnge in thi» city. Instentl of wainscoting th« walls are covered with tapestry or damask. The bedi in general mm very good, and well ornamented with tester and curtains. Their shop* are but poorly stored with goods ; and the shop-keepers and tradcsmea are an indolent, loitering people. There is a remarkable conUast be- tween thii class of persons and those of the same rank in London. la Paris, the women pack up parcels, enter the orders, and do most of Uie? drudgery business of the shop, while the husband loiters about, talks of the great, of fashions and diversions, and the invincible force of their armies. The splendour of the grand monarque used to be also with them a favourite topic of conversation, previous to the change in their political system. The Parisians, howc\ or, as well as the natives of France in ge- neral, are remarkably temperate in their living ; and to be intoxicated with liquor is ronsidereJ as intamous. Bread, and ail manner of butcher's meat and poultry, are exticmely good in Paris ; the beef is excellent 5 the wine they generally drink is a very thin kind of Burgundy. The com- mon people, in tlie summer season, live chiefly on bread, butter, grapes, and small wine. The Parisians, till lately, scarcely knew the use of tea j but they have coft'ee in plenty. The population of this city has been greatly exaggerated botli by the Parisians and by travellers : the number of inhabitants, according to the official statements of tlie government, is 546,856. The environs of Paris are very pleasant, and contain a number of fine seats, small towns, and villages ; some of tham, being scattered on the edges of hills rising from the Seine, are remarkably delightful. The palace of Versailles, which stands twelve miles from Paris, tliough magnificent and expensive beyond conception, and adorned with all that art can furnish, is a collection of buildings, each of exquisite archi- tecture, but not forming a whole, agreeable to the grand and sublime of tliat art. Tlie gardens, and water-works (which are supplied by means of prodigious engines, across the Seine at Marli, abi^ut tliree miles distance), are astonishing proofs of the fertile genius of man, and highly worthy of a stranger's attention. Trianon, Marli, St. Germain en Laye, Meudon, and other royal palaces, are laid out with taste and judgement; each has its peculiar beauties for the entertainment and amusemeiit of that luxurious court which lately occupied them. Bourdeaux and Marseilles were formerly cities of extensive commerce and opulence. They still rank next to Paris in populatioUj tlie former containing 1 12,844, and the latter 111,130 inhabitants. Lyons a rich manufacturing city, suffered greatly in the civil wars of the revolution, but is stated still to contain 109,5CX) inhabitants. The ancient city of Orleans stands on the Loire, in the department of Loiret, about sixty miles to the south of Paris. It has a noble cathedral, which commands a view of the Loire for an extent of thirty miles, and a stately bridge of nine elliptic arches, nearly a quarter of a mile in length, and forty-five feet broad. The centre arch is above a hundred feet wide. The population of this city is, however, only 36,1/5. Strasburg is a strongly fortified city, and has a Gotliic catliedral, the spire of which is 5/4 feet high. Brest is a small but very strong town upon the English channel, with a most spacious and finely fortified road and harbour, the best and saiest in all the kingdom j yet its entrance is difficult, by reason of many roclcs lying under water. At Brest there are docks, magazines for all kinds of naval stores, rope-yards, store-houses, &c. Lewis XiV. rendered Touloa^ ixom a pitiful village, a sea-port oi 380 I'RAN'CE If' ¥'■ . ;#':■ ■i; J ^ great importance. Uc fortified both the town and harbour for the re- ception and protection of the navy. Its old and its new harbour lie contiguous ; and, by means of a canaJ, ships pass from the one to the other, botl) of them having an outlet into the spacious outer-harbour. Its Mrsenal, established also by tliat king, has a particular store-house for each sliip of war ; its guns, cordage, 8cc. being separately laid up. Here are spacious workshops, for blacksmiths, joiners, carpenters, lock- smiths, carvers, kc. Its ropo-waik, of stone, is 320 toises.or fathoms in length, with three-arched walks. Its general magazine supplies whatever may be wanting in tlie particular store-houses, and contains an immense qi.uintity of all kinds of stores, disposed in tlie greatest order. CoM.-MEncE AND MAKUFACTURES.] Next to Henry IV., justly styled , the Great, the famous Colbert, minister to Lewis XIV., may be called tlie father of the French commej*cc and manufactures. Under him tliere was a great appearance that France would make as illustrious a figure, as a trading, as .•^iie did then as a warlike people ; but the truth is, the French do not naturally jx)ssess that undaunted perseverance which is necessary for commerce and colonisation ; though no people, in tlieory, understand them better. It is to be considered at the same time, tliat France, by her situation, by the turn of her inhabitants for certain ma- nufjctures, and tlie happiness of her soil, must be always possessed cl' great inland and neighbcjuring trade. The ijilk manufacture was introduced into France so late as the reign of Henry IV. ; and in the age of his grandson Lewis XIV. the city of Tours alone employed 8000 looms and 800 mills. The city of Lyons then employed 1 8,000 looms ; but after the impolitic and unjust re- vocation of the edict of Nantes, tlie expulsion of the protestants, and the ruinoUs wars maintained by France, they decreased to 4000 ; and tlieir silk manufacture is now rivalled by that of England, where the French protestants took refuge, and were happily encouraged. Next to Tours and Lyons, Paris, Chatillon, and Nisincs, are most celebrated for silk manufactures. France before tJie revolution contained 1,500 silk mills, 21,000 looms for .s tufts, 12,000 for ribands and lace, 20,000 for silk stockings, all of which employed two millioHs of people. They also ma-- nufacture gloves and stockings from spider-silk. On the other hand, the French woollen cloths and stuff's, more especially at Abbeville, Amiens, and Paris, are said to be now little inferior to those of England, and have greatly injured them, particularly in the Turkish market, assisted by the clandestine importation of English and Irish wool, and workmen from this country. In manufactures, the French have always been distinguished for their invention, and the English for their superior improvement. Abbeville is famous for cloth, linen, sail-cloth, and soap j Auvergne for fine thread, lace, stuffs, and paper j Nismcs for fine serges j Cambray for cambrics j St. Quintin for lawn«; and Picardy for plate glass. Mr. Anderson gives the following account of the trade of France before the revolution : " Her land trade to Switzerland and Italy is by way of J-yons — to Cnnmany, through Metz and Strasbourg — to the ?Tetherlands, through Lisle — to Spain (a most profitable one), through JJayonne and Perpignan, As fi)r lier naval commerce, her ports in the Channel, and on the Western Ocean, are freciuented by all the trading nations in. Eu- rope, to the great advantage of France, more especially respecting what i& rarrifdon with England, Holland, and Italy. The trade from her Me- ♦litciiaucan ports ^more particularly froui Marseilles) with Turkey and %, the r©» our lie 3 to the arbour, use for Here lock- athoms upplics ontains reatest styled called there lure, as tlie ich is heory, tliat TRANCE. iSt Africa, has long been very considerable. The negro trade from Guinea supplies her sugar colonics, besides the gold, ivory, and drugs, got from thence." The exports are wine, vinegar, brandy, oil, silks, satins, linens, woollen cloth, tapestries, laces, gold and silver embroideries, toys, trinkets, per- fumery, paper, prints, books, drugs, dyes, &c. I'iie imports are hard- ware, earthen ware, cottcnis, metals, hemp, tlax, silk, wool, horses. East and West India goods, i^-c. Before the revolution France employed one million tons of shipping, with near 50,000 seamen ; the imports wera valued at 9,583,333 /. the exports at 12,500,000/. and tlie nation had a balance of trade of more than two million in its favour ; but its manu- factures have since greatly declined, and its foreign commerce may bo considered as annihilated while Llie war witJi I'liigland continues, th© superiority of the British navy not sutfering a French trading vessel to ajjpear on the seas. Constitution and govkrnmknt.] France, by the revolution in 1789, founded a iiciv constitution, upo:i the principle that all men are free, and equal in their rights. After the dt.Mtli of the king, in the yecu" 1/93, another constitution was framed, and adopted, which was again suc- ceeded by another, usually called the constitution of the third i/ear. Jiy this constitution the government was ve.Ued in a directory of rive mem- bers ; and a legislative body composed of a council ofancientSj of tw» lumdred arid fifty members, and a council of five hundred. But in November 1799 ^"^^''^ oonstitiuion was likewise overthrown, and a r.<.'w form of government erected, consisting of what is called a conservative senate of eighty members ; a tribunate of one hundred ; u legislative body of three hundred ; and three consuls, nominated for ten years and indefinitely re-eligible. The first consul, which otiicv^ was held by general Bonaparte, possessed all the real powers of govern n^ent. Bonaparte afterwanls procured himself to ha declared consul for life : ana has since, wiih equal arrogance and vanity, assumed the title of Em- peror, and remains in ihe possession and exercise of the most arbitrary power. The imperial autliority is declared lieroditary in the mal(3 line of his posterity, or, that tailing, in that cf his imperial brothers Joseph and Louis Bonaparte. Laws.] With respect to the judicial administration of the covmtry, when the will of the present despot does not interfere, the 1 aws are grennd- edftn the U(»man, or civil and particular local cu-toms. Each district has a primary judicial tribunal, and each department a criminal tribunal. — Every three departmeius possess a tribunal ot appeal, w:hich Uxkon cogni- zance by appeal of all the causes determined by the tribunals of the dis- tricts under its jurisdiction. Each canton has a justice of tho peace. All the tribunals of appeal acknowledge a sviperlgr tribunal, called the court of cassation, possessing the power of annulling the sentences of tlni tribunals of appeal which appear to it illegal, and of referring tho exa- ntlnati'.'n of the cause tu any t>ther tribunal it shall please to ap- point, Pkvenite.] The revenue in the year 17SS, before the revolution, \vas 20 millions and a half sterling ; and its ordinary expenditure exceeded th» jrevenue five millions and a half 'J'he extraordinary expenses of the war carried on by the republic have been principally defrayed by the seizure of church lands, confiscations, n.'quisitions and contributions iinpoi^ed on the conquered countries, which are vtiry different from permanent revenue, in tJiaycar 17y7> C/Ubert, a niembi;r of tha council o( five hunJre4, l' 382 FRANCE. 'V,, Stated the revenue for the 6th year at 4/9,593,5^9 livres, or 19,980,000 /. sterling. On tlie 13th of Octoberj 1799, ♦^s executive directory sent a message to the council of five hundred, stating the amount of the receipts of the 7th year of the republic at 47^,000,000 livres, or somewhat above 19,800,000/. sterling. The expenses of the year they stated, at the same time, at 726,000,000 livres, or 30,350,000 1, sterling. The annual contributions now charged on the one hundred and two departments, for land tax, tax on moveables and sumptuary, houses and Windows, additional hundredths, &c. amount, according to official statements, to 351,438,997 livres, or 14,643,291/. ArmV ANr> Navy.] The peace establishment of the army, for the year I7y2, was 111,000 infantiy, 30,000 cavalr)', and 11,000 artillery ; in tl)e whole 152,000 men. But when the allied powers made war on the French, the number of forces the latter brought into the field al- most exceeds belief In the year 1798, they had 780,000 men in arms. The military establishment of France, in the beginning of the year 1802, was, •Men. 84 Regiments of cavalry, amounting to . , 46,3.70 J 10 Regiments of infantry 341,000 10 Demi brigades of veterans 13,90o Artillery, toot and horse , i. 26,60O ' ' ' Total 427,910 The repeated victories of the English by sea, in the course of the late and present war, have now extremely reduced, and, indeed, nearly ajv»^ nihilated, the navy of France. She may, perhaps, however still possess about forty ships of the lino, and some frigates j but they are ill-manned, and are blocked up in the ports in which they lie, by the British squadrons. Titles, &c.] The first national assembly abolished all nobilit)-, here- ditary distinctions, difference of orders, titles, denominations, and prero- gatives. Even the appellation of Monszcjrt' was disused, and that of Citizen substituted in its stead. Since, however, the accession of Bonaparte to sovereign power, the term citizen is laid aside, and that of Monsieur re- vived. He has himself taken the title of His Imperial Majesty, and his brothers are styled T/ieir Imperial Ilighnexaes. He has appointed mar- shals of the empire, grand dignitaries, an arch-elector, arch-chancellor, &:c. He has likewise instituted what is called a legion of honour, tlie commanders and members of which are nominated by himself, and which may perhaps be intended as an introduction to orders of nobility and hereditajy distinctions to be derived from tlie imperial fountain of honour. Religion.] By the laws of the constitution framed by the first na- tional assembly, no man was to be molested for his opinions, or inter- rupted In the exercise of his religion. The territorial possessions of the Gallican church were claimed as national property, and disposed of through the medium of a j)aper money, called assignats, for tlie credi- tors of the state : and the clergy made dependent upon pensionary esta- blishments, j>a:d out of the national treasury ; out of which were al?opaid the expenses of worsliip, the religious, and the poor. All monastic esta- blishments were suppressed 5 but the friars and nuns were allowed to observe their vo'.vs, and nuns optionally to remain in their convents, or .retire u^jon petu'oas. By subsequent coiiiititutions, it was declared tliat |i-.- FRANCE. 383 there is no predominant religion in Fi-ance, and tliat none is patronised or paid by the state ; bat tliat all sects and modes of worship shall enjoj equal toleration. But since the administration of the government has been vested in Bo- naparte, he has concVvded a concordat or convention with the pope, by which the catholic religion is declared the religion of the great majority of the French citizens, and the government engages to make a suitable provision for the bishops and ministers. No bull or brief, however, of the court of Rome can have any effect in Fran<. e \ ithout the consent of the government ; and none of the clergy are to ^ ve the nuptial bene- diction, except to those who have been married by the civil officers. The concordat bears date, September 10, ISOl. The protestant religion, as professed by the ditferent reformed churches, is also tolerated, and tlie maintenance of the ministers, when necessary, provided for in like manner by the state. Before the revolution there were in France nineteen archbishoprics, and 118 bishoprics: by the concordat there arc 10 arclibiuhoprics : Paris, Maines, Bensan(,-on, Lyons, Aix, Toulouse, Bourdeaux, Bourges, Tours, and Rouen ; and 50 bishoprics. Literature.] The French, like the otiier nations of Europe, were for many centuries immersed in barbarity. The first learning they be- gan to acquire, was not of that kind which improves the understanding, corrects the taste, or regulates tlie affections. It consisted in a subtle and quibbling logic, which was more adapted to pervert than to improve the faculties. But the study of the Greek and Roman ^\'riters, which first arose in Italy, ditfused itself among the French, and gave a new turn to their literary pursuits. This, together with the encouragement which the polite and learned Francis L gave to all men of merit, was ex- tremely beneficial to French literature. During this reign, many learned men appeared in France, who greatly distinguished themselves by their writings ; among whom were Budaeus, Clement JNIarot, Peter du Chatel, Rabelais, and Peter Ramus. The names of Henry and Robert Stephens are also mentioned by every real scholar with respect. It was not, how- ever, till the seventeenth century, that the French began to write with elegance in their own language. The Acidemie Frangoise was formed ior this purpose ; and though tlieir labours, considered as a body, were not so successful as might have been expected, some particular acadame- tians have done great service to letters. In fact, literary copartnerships are seldom very successful. Of this -we have a remarkable example in the present case. The academy published a dictionary for imjnoving tlie French language, which was univerijally despised ; Furetitres, a single academician, published another, tiiat met with universal approba- ftion. liewis XIV. was the Augustus of France. TJie protection he gave to letters, and the pensions he bestowed on learned men, both at home and abroad, which, by calculation, did not amount to above 12,000/. per annum, have gained him more glory than all the military enterprises upon which he expended so many millions. The learned men who appeared Ml France during this reign are too numerous to be mentioned. The tragic poets, Racine acd Corneille, have deservedly obtained a very high reputation ; the first was distinguished for skill in moving the passions ; the second, for majesty ; and both, for the strength and justness of their painting, the elegance of their taste, and their strict adherence to ilie lules of the drama. Molicre would have exliaustcd the st\bjects of co- medy, wwe ihcy Dot every-vt'here inexhaustible, aud particularly in i I i : li 384 4 ^*. rHANCE. ?''^'. J, France. In works of satire and criticism, Boilcau, who was a close imi- tator of the ancients, possessed uncommon merit. But France has not yet produced an epic poem that can be mentioned with million's ; nor a . genius of the same extensive and universal kind with Shakspeare, equally litted for the gay and the serious, the humorous and the sublime. In the eloquence of the pulpit and of the bar, - the French are greatly our superiors j Bossuet, Eourdaloue, Flechier, and Massillon, have carried pulpit eloquence to a degree of perfection which we may approach to, but can hardly be expected ever to surpass. The genius, however, of tiieir religion and government was extremely unfavourable to all improve- iiients in the most useful branches of philosophy. All the establishments of Lewis XIV. for the advancement of science, were not able to coun- terbalance the influence of the clergy, whose interest it was to keep man- kind ignorant in matteis of religion and morality ; and the influence of the court and ministry, who had an equal interest in concealing the natural rights of mankind, and every sound principle of government. The French have not therefore so many good writers on moral, religious, or political subjects, as have appeared in Great Britain, But France has produced some great men, who do honour to humanity ; whose career jio obstacle could stop ; wliose freedom no government, however des- potic, no religion, however superstitious, could curb or restrain. As an historian, De Thou is entitled to tlie highest praise ; and who is ignorant of Pascal, or of the archbishop of Cambray ? Few men have done more service to religion, either by their writings or their lives. As for Mon- tesquieu, he is the legislator of nations : his works are read in every country and language 3 and wherever they are p^ad, they enlighten and invigorate the human n/uid. And indeed the d.st'.iguished literary pro- ductions of the reign of I^ewis XV. universally breathe sentiments in- compatible with superstition or despotism ; but too '^lany jf thcra incur tlie opposite reproaeh of irreligion and licentiousness. In the belles lettres, the lighter kinds of poetry, and lively essays, no nation ever produced more agreeable writers : among whom we may place Montaigne, D'Argens, and \''oltaire, as the most considerable. Before the immortal Newton appeared in England, Descartes was the greatest philosopher in modern times. He was the tirst who applied algebra to the solution of geometrical problems ; A\'hich naturally pre- pared the way for the analytical discoveries of Newton. IVIany emi- nent mathematicians have flourished in the present age, particularly Clairaut, Buzout, and D'Alcnibert; the latter of whom, to the precision of a geometer, has united the talents of a fine writer. Since the beginning of the last century, the French have almost vied with the English in natural philosophy, Buflbn would deserve to be reck«ned among men of science, were he not still more remarkable for his elo<]uence than for his philojiophy. He is to be regarded as a philo- sophical painter of nature ; and, under this view, his Natvu"al History ia the hrst work of its kind. Their j)ainters, I'oussin, licBrun, and, above all, Le Sueur, did honour to the age of I^ewis XIV. '^i'hcy have none at present to compare with thtni in the more noble kind of painting : but JNI. Greuse, for portraits ajul cuiiversatiou pieces, ne\ er perhaps was excelled. Sculpture is in general better understood in France than in most other countries of Kurcjpe. Their engravings on copper-plates have been universally and justly celebrated ; but such a lil^eral patronage has been atibrded to English artists, that tliey are now thought to excel their ingenious neigiibourj, and have rivalled them also in the manufacture FBANCE. M no of paper proper for such impressions. Their treatise* 6n sliip-buildin^ and engineering stand unrivaled j but in tiie practice of both they are outdone by tlie Endish. I^o genius has hi^h6rto equalled \ auban in the theory or practice of fortitication. The French were long our superior* in architecture; though we now are their equal's hi this art. UxivEKsiTiEs, PUBLIC COLLEGES,! Belxirc the revolution, ther4' AND ACADEMICS. . j wcre ih France twenty-eight universities or public colleges, as folloNv ,: Aix, Angers, Aries,. A\ignon> Besan^on, Bourdeaux, Bourges, Caen, Cahors, £)or, Dou'uy, La tieclie,' Montauban, Montpelier, Nantes, Orange^ Orleaiis, Paris, Perpfgnan, Poitiers, Pont-a-Mousson, Richlieu^ Rheims, Soissons, Strasbourg, Toulouse, Tournon, and Valence. Among tli'ese, the Soibjrm'e atParif was the most celebrated. The following literarv estahlishments were supported out pf thft natioiuil tre.isury: tlie French Academy, Academy of Belles Lettres^' Academy of Sciences, Royal Society of Medicine, King's Library, Oh* servatoiy, and the Free School of Design. Under the republic, primary, central, and special schools have been established j a primary school for each cantcni} a central school for each department; an'd special schools for the higher s'ciences, such as astronomy, and for those arts which re- quire a particular cducatioti for the public sei;vice, jstich as medicine and ii\irgery. Education in these establishments is at the public expense, but the scholars are maintained by their parents or friends. An academy called the National Institute has likewise been fouh(fed« the installation of which took place in the hall of tlie forxtier Academy of Sciences, in the palace of the National Museiirti, formerly the Louvre, It is composed of a hundred aiid forty-four members ; among tlie ,firstof \yhoin were fouiid the nam6s of La liande. La Place, Foiircroy, Keynel, Marmotitel, Volney, Bertliollet, Bittaube, &C. This national academy holds a.public mfeeting On thfe 15th o£ everj' month ; its conferences poin£ out and promote the progress of tlie art^ and sci^nc^s ; but it has no ao* thority whatever gvertliesdiools. ^ • Language.] The French language lit chie/ly corhpbsed of words ra« dically Latin, with many German derivatives introduced by the Franks, It is now rather on the decay: its corner-stories, fixed under Lewis XlV., are, as it were, looseiied j and, in the present niode of writliig and ex- pressing themselves, the ma'ern French too often disregard that purity <)f expression which alone can render a language classical and permanent. One of the wisest measures of Lewis XIV. v^as his encourateeraent of every proposal tliat tended' to tlie purity' and perfectioii of flic Rench lan- guage, lie succeeded so far as to rendei: it the niost universal of all the 1i\ ing tongues ; a circumstance (haf tended equally to his greatness andf his glory j for his court and iiation thereby becrmie the school of arts/ sciences, and politeness. As to the properties of the kingu'agc, they are undoiibbdly greatly iri* ferior to the English : but they are well adapted to subjects void of ele- \^tion or passion ; and well accommodated to dalliianCe, coinplimertts, and compion conversation. The Lord's Prayer in French is as follows: — N6trc "Pert, qiu^ atix tieux,ton noi»k soil saMtiji6 ; toii re^nc vienne ; ta volorui soil faite en tai tare comme au del; donrk nbus anjouriThui noire pairi (pio'idicn ; par* donne nous nos oj'cnses, coimie nous purdonnoiu a ceux qui nous ont offensisi et nt nous indui point en tehtation, muis nous ddivre du mat : car a ioi Hi k regnCf la puissance f et la gloire, nux si4clci de« siicltf, AUxeo, M.M-' M f - I SH FRANCE, ANTianiTiES.] Few countries, if we except Italy, can boast of more va- luable remains of antiquity than France. Some of th« French antiquities belong to the time of the Celts; and consequently, compared to thein, those of Rome are modern. Father MabiUon has given us a most curious account of the sepulchres of their kings> which have been discovered so far back as Pharamond; and some of which, when broken open, were found to contain ornaments and jewels of value. At Rheims, and other parts of France, are to be seen triumphal arches : but the most entire is at Orange, erected on account of the victory obtained over the Cimbri and the Teutones by Caius Marius and Luctatius Catulus. After Gaul was reduced to a Roman province, the Romans took de- li^ht in adorning it with magnificent edifices, both civil and sacred ; some of which are more entire than any to be met with in Italy itself. The ruins of an amphitheatre are to be found in Chalons, and likewise at'Vienne. Nismes, however, exhibits the most valuable remains of ancient architecture of any place in France. The famous Pont du Garde was raised in the Augustan age, by the Roman colony of Nismes, to convey a stream of water between two mountains for the use ef that city : it consists of three bridges, or tiers of arches, one above another 5 the height is 174 feet, and tlie length extends to 723. Many other ruins of antii^uity are found at Nismes ; but the chief are the temple of Diana, aild the amphitheatre, which is thought to be the finest and most entire of the kind of any in Europe } but, above all, the house erected by the emperor Adrian, called the Maison Carree. The architecture and sculpture of this building are so exquisitely beautiful, that it enchants even the most ignorant : and it is still entire, being very little alfected either by the ravages of time or the havoc of war. At Paris, in la Rue de la Harpe, may be seen tlie remains of the Thermae, supposed to have been built by the emperor Julian, surnamed the Apostate, about the year 356, after the same model as the baths of Dioclesian. Hie remains of this ancient edifice are many arches, and within them a large saloon. It is fabricated of a kind of mastic, the composition of which is not now known, intermixed with small square pieces of £ree-8tone and bricks« But the most extraordinary of ail artificial cu- riosities is the subterraneous cavern at Paris. For the first building ©f that city, it was necessary to get tlie stone in the envircn?.. As Paris was enlarged, the streets and suburbs extended to and were built on the ancient quarries from which the stone had been taken ; and hence proceed the caverns or frightful cavities which are found under thehouses in several quarters of the city. Eight persons some years since perished in one of them, a gulf of 150 feet deep, which excited the police and government to cause the buildings of several quarters to be privately propped up. All the suburbs of St. James's, Harpe-street, and even the street of Tournon, stand upon the ancient quarries ; and pillars have been erected to support the weight of the houses ; but as the lofty buildings, towers, and steeples, now tell the eye that what is seen in the air is wanting under the feet, so it would not require a very violent shock to throw back the stones to the places from whence they wera raised. At Aries in Provence is an obelisk of oriental granite, 52 feet high, and seven feet diameter at the base, and all but one stone. Roman temples and aqueducts are frequent in France. The most remarkable are in Burgundy and Guienne ; the passage cut tlirough the middle of a rock near Brian9on in Dauphine is thought to be a Roman work, if FRANCE. S87 reva- juities them, urious red so were , and most d over » atulus. )k de- iacred j itseif. ikewise ains of ont du •Jismes, of that nother ; ler ruins ' Diana, it entire by the ure and jnchants atfected Is, in Id mpposed apostate, loclesian. bin them isition of jieces of iicial cu- building en?.. As irere built ind hence the houses 5 perished lolice and privately and even Uars have the lofty is seen in !ry violent iiey were, feet high, . Roman emarkable iddle of a I work, if not of greater antiquity. The round buckler of massy silver, taken out of the Rhone in \665, being twenty inches in diameter, and weighing twenty-one pounds, containing tlie story of Scipio's continence, is thought to be coeval with that great general. History.] The history of no country is better authenticated than that of France, and it is particularly interesting to an English reader. This country, which was by the Romans called Transalpine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the Alps, to distinguish it from Cisalpine Gaul, on the Ita- lian side of the Alps, was probably peopled from Italy, to which it lies contiguous. I,ike other European nations, it soon became a desirable object to the ambitious Romans ; and, after a brave resistance, was an- nexed to their empire, by the invincible arms of Julius Caesar, about forty-eight years before Christ. Gaul continued in the possession of the Romans, till the downfal of that empire in the fifth century j when it became a prey to the Goths, the Burgundians, and the Franks, who sub- dued but did not extirpate the ancient natives. The Franks themselves, who gave it the name of France, or Frankenland, were a collection of several people inhabiting Germany ; and particularly the Salli, who lived on the banks of the river Sale, and who cultivated the principles of ju- risprudence better than their neighbours. These Salii had a rule, which the rest of the Franks are said to have adopted, and has been by tlie mo* dern Franks applied to the succession of the throne, excluding all females from the inheritance of sovereignty, and is well known by the name of tlie Salic Law. The Franks and Burgundians, after establishing their power, and re- ducing the original Hatives to a state of slavery, parcelled out the lands among their principal leaders; and succeeding kings found it necessary to confirm their privileges, allowing them to exercise sovereign authority in their respective governments, until they at length assumed an inde- pendency, only acknowledging the ki ig as their head. This gave rise to those numerous principalities that were formerly in France, and to tho several parliaments; for every province became, in its policy and govern- ment, an epitome of the whole kingdom; and no laws were made, or taxes raised, without tlie concurrence of the grand council, consisting of the clergy and of the nobility. Thus, as in other European nations, immediately after the dissolution of the Roman empire, the first government in France seems to hav« been a kind of mixed monarchy, antl the power of their kings extiemely circumscribed and limited by the feudal l()arons. The first Christian monarch of the Franks (accof ding to Daniel, one of the best French historians) wasClovis, who began hii reign aono 481 j and was baptised, and introduced Christianity, in the year 496. The mind of Clovis had been alf«cted by the pathetic tale of the passion and the death of Christ ; and, insensible of the beneficial consequences of the mysterious sacrifice, he exclaimed, with religious fervour, ''Had I been present with my valiant Franks, I would have revenged his injuries !'* But though he publicly profe:'sed to acknowledge the truth of tho gospel, its divine precepts were but little respected. From this period the French history exhibits a series of great events; and we find them generally en- gaged in domestic broils, or foreign wars. The first race of their kings, prior to Charlemagne, found a cruel enemy in the Saracens, who then over-ran Europe, and retaliated the barbarities of the Goths and Van- dals upon tlieir posterity. In the year 600, Charlemagne, king of France, the glory of those dark ages, became master of Germany, 2C a 9H FRANCE. it ** f I :iP^\ Spain, and part of Italy, and was crowned kinj; of the Rouuns by th« pope. He divided his empire, by will, among his sons ; wliich proved fatal to his family and posterity. Soon after this, the Normans, a fierce warlike people from Norway, Denmark, and other parts of Scandi- navia, ravaged the kingdom of France; and, about the year ()(X), obli^tJ the French to yield Normandy and Bretagne to Kollo, their IcacTer, who married the king's daughter, and w;is persuaded to profess himself a Christian. This laid the foundation of the Norman power in France, which afterwards gave a king to England, in the person t)f William duke of Normandy, who subdued Harold, the last Saxon king, In the year 1066. lliis event proved unfortunate and ruinous to France, as it engaged that nation in almost perpetual wars with England, for which it was not an equal match, notwithstanding its numbers, and tlie assist^ice it received from Scotland. . The rage of crusading, which broke out at this time, was of infinite service to the French crown, in two respects : in the first place, it car- ried oft' many thousands of its turbulent subjects, and their leaders, who were almost independent of tlie king j in the next, the king succeeded to the estates of many of the nobility, who died abroad withovU heirs. ll/\\t, passing over the dark ages of the crusades, the expedition to the Hoiy Land, and wars witli England, which have already been mention- ed, we shall proceed to that period when the French began to extend their influence over Europe, in the reign of Fnnicis I., contemporary with Henry VIU. of England. This pdncc, though he was brave to ■excess in his own person, and had defeated the Swiss, who till tlieu were deemed inviiicible, was an unfortunate warrior. He had great abilities and great defects. He was a candidate for the empire of Ger- many, but lost the im{)erial crown — Charles V. of the house of Austria, and king of Spain, being chosen. In the year 1520, Francis having in- vited Henry VIII. of England to an interview, tlie two kings met iu an open plain, near Calais ; where they and their attendants displayed their magnificence, with such enrulation and proflise expense, as gave it tlie name of the Field of the t'lotk of Gold. Feats of chivalry, parties ©f gallantry^ together with such exercises and pastimes as were in that age reckoned manly or elegant, rather than serious business, occupied both courts during eighteen days that they continued together** Francis made some sucecssful expeditions against Spain, but sulfered his mother, of whom he was very fond, to abuse bis power: by which he disobliged the constable of Botirbon, the greatest of his subjects, who joined in a confederacy against him with the emperor and Heiury VIII. of England. In his adventureus expedition into Italy, he was taken prisoner at the battle of Paviaj in the year 1524, aud obliged to agree to dishonourable *The French and En^Ush histerians describe the poirp of this iiHorview, and the Various spectacles, with great minuteness. One circumstance mentioned by the mareschal de I'leuranges, who was present, and which appears singular in the preient age, is commonly omitted. " After the tournament," says he, " the Frcncb and Bnghoh wrestlers iti.;de their appearance, and wrestled in presence of the king*. and the ladies; and as thttre wer< many stout wrestlers there, it aflbrded excellent pa»titQc; biit as the king of France had neglected to bTing any wrestlers out of Bre- la||tie, th« EngliiUi g;iined the prize. — After this the kings of France and F-ngland tetitcd to a tent, where they drank together; Xad the kln^ of £n^and seizing ther king of France by the coHaT, said, " My hrttbery 1 mtiit ivrettU with yfu" andendea* ^oure<i^ once or twice, to trip up his heels; but t&«kh)g of France, who was a dex-< trout wrectlier, twisted him round, and threw him «>a the earth with prodigiou* violence. The king of England wanted to ren«w the combati but wa< preveated,** FRANCE. 389 terms, which iie never meant to perform, to regain his liberty. Hit !U)n-i)erfonn;ince of liiose conditions was atterwanls the source ofxsauf wars between liim anil the emperor; and he died in 154". France, at tlio time of his death, notwithstanding the variety' of dis« agreeable events during the late reign, was in a flourishing condition, I'Vaneis 1. was succeeded by his son ilenry II., who, upon the whole, wa^ an cscel'ent and foriunale prince. He continued Uie war with the em- |x»ror of Guruiauy to great advantage for his own dominions ; and was so well served by the duke of Guise, that, though he lost the battle of St, Ciuentin against the Sjianiards and the English, he retook Calais from the latter, who never since had any fucting in France. He married his ."<on the dauphin to Mary (pieen of Scots, in hopes of uniting that king- dom to his crosvn ; but in thi* scheme, he, or rather his country, was unfortunate, as may be seen in the history of Scotland. He was killed in tlie year 15 ')g, at an unhappy tilling-match, by tlie count of Mont- gomery. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., a weak, sickly, inactive prince, and o:Ay thirteen years of age, whose po\\cr was entirely en- cMossed by a prince of the hou' e o( Guise, uncle to his wife, tlie beau* tiful queen of Scotland. This engrossment of power encouraged the iJourbon, the Montinurenci, and other great families, to form a strong op{x>sition against the government. Antony, king of Navarre, was ac the head of tlje I'.uurbon famUy; but the queen-mother, the famou* Catliarine of Medicis, bfing obliged to take part with the Gui-ses, the confederacy, which had adopted the cause of Hugucnotisnj, was brokeri in pieces, when the sudden deatli of Francis happened, in the year 1500. This event took place while the prince of Conde, brother to the jkitig r)( Navarre, was mider sentence of deaili for a conspiracy againskthe court; but the queen-mother saved him, to balance the interest oifthe CJuises; so tJiat the sole direction of affairs fell into her handj^ dui>ing tiie minority of her second son, Charles IX. Her regency was a conU- nued series of dissimulation, treachery, and murder. The duke of (iuise, who was the .scourge of the protestiu»ts, was assassinated by one i'oltrot, at the siege of Orleans; and the murderer was unjustly thought to have been instigated by the famous Coiigni, admiral of France, who was then at the head of the protcstant party. Three civil wars succeeded. At length the court pretended to grant the Huguenots a very advantage- ous peace; and a match was concluded between Henry, the young king of Navarre, a protestant, and the French king's sister. The heads of the protestants were invited to celebrate the nuptials at Paris, with tiie infernal view of butchering tliemi all, if possible, iii one night. The jirojecr proved but too successful, though it was not completely exe- cuted, un St. Bartholomew's day, 15/2. The king himself assisted In the massacre, in which the admiral Coiigni fell. The signal for the in? human slauohter of so many thousands was to be made by striking thf j^re.u bell of the palace. At that dreadful knell, the work of death waj bejjnn, and humanity recoils from the horrors of the fatal night of St, JJarihoiomew; yet the reader may expect, amidst the general carnage, that some few moments should be devoted to the fate of Coiigni. H^ iiad long retired to rest, when he was aroused by the noise of the agsa,s* sins, who had surroimded his Iiouse. A German, named JJesme, en- tered })is chamber; and tlie admiral, apprehending hi§ intentions, pre- pared to meet death with that fortitude which had pver di'>llnguishe4 liiui. Inca^^able of resisiauoc?^ frot^ tlie wounds he had received by 390 FRANCE. )!. H' two balls, in a late attempt to assassinate him, with an undismayed countenance, he had scarce uttered die words — " Young man, respect these grey hairs, nor stain them with Mood," when 3csnie plunged his sword into his bosoni^ and, with his bjrbarous associates, threw the body into the court. The young duke of Gui^e contcniplaied it in si- lence; but Henry, count «l'An;^<)u'.ime, natural brother to Charles, spurned itwit!i hi« foot, cxclwiming — " Courage, my friends ! we have "begiui well ; let us finish in the .•i;;nie manner." It is said that about 30,000 prot.'siants were murdered at Paris, and other parts of France; and this brought on a fourth civil war. Though a fijjsh peace was con- cluded in \5J'3 with the protestants, yet a uiu'i civil war broke out the next year, when the bloody Charles JX. I'.lcd without heirs. His third brother, the duke of Ar.jou, had some time before been chosen king of Polai.d; and hearing of lis brother's death, he with some dithcuky escaped to France, where he took (juiet possession of that crown, by the name of Henry IJI. Religion at that time supplied to the reformed nobility of France the feudal powers they had lost. The heads of the piotestants could raise armies of Huguenots. The governors of provinces behaved in them as if they kad been independent of the crown; and the parties were so equally balanced, that tlie name of the king alone turned the scale. A holi/ league was formed for the defence of the catholic religion, at the head of which was tlie duke of Guise. The protestants, under the prince of Conde and the duke of Alen^on, the king's brother, called the German princes to their assistance ; and a sixth civil war broke out in 1577* hi which the king of Spain tOv>k tlie part of the league, in revenge of the duke of Alen^on declaring himself lord of the Nether- lands. The civil war was finished within the year, by another pre- tended peace. The king, from his first accession to the crown, had plunged himself into a course of infamous debauchery and religious extravagances. He was entirely go\crned by his j)rofiig;ite favourites, but he possessed natural good sense. He began to suspect that the proscriptions of the protestants, and the setting aside from the suc- cession the king of Navarre, on account of his religion, which was iiimed at by the holy league, was with a view to place the duke of Guise, the idol of the Ronian-catliolics, on the throne ; to which that duke had some distant pretensions. To secure himself on the throne, a seventh civil war broke out in 1579, ^nd another in the year 1585, both of them to the <iisad\antage of the protestants, through the abilities of the duke of Guise. The king tliought him now so dangerous, that, after inviting him in a friendly manner to court, both he, and his brotlier the cardinal, wert by his majesty's orders, and in a man- ner under his eyes, basely assassinated in 1588. The leaguers, upon this, declared that Henry had forfeited his crown, and was an enemy to religion. This obliged him to throw himself into the arms of the protestants ; but whiie he was besieging Paris, where the leaguers had their greatest force, he was in his tvirn assassinated by one Clement, a young enthusiastic monk, in. l5Sg. In Henry III. ended the line of Valois. ' The readers of history are well acquainted with the difficulties, on account of his religion, which Henry IV. king of Navarre*, head of * A small kingdom lying upon the Pyreneaa mountains, of the greatest part of which. Upper Navarre, Henry's predecessors had been unjustly dispossessed bj Ferdinand, Idng of Spain, about the year 1512. FRANCE. S91 the house of Bourbon, and tlie next heir by tlie Salic law, had to en« counter before he mounted the throne. The leaguers were headed by the duke of Maine, brother to the late duke of Guise ; and they drew from his cell the decrepit cardmal of Bourbon, uncle of tlie king of Navarre, to proclaim him king of France. Their party being strongly supported by the power of Spain and Rome, all tlie glorious actions per- formed by Henry, his courage and magnanimity, seemed only to inako him more illustriously unfortunate : for he and his little court werd sometimes witliout common necessaries. He was, however, personally beloved j and no objection lay against him, but that of religion. Tho leaguers, on the other hand, split among themselves ; and the French nation in general were jealous of tlie Spaniards. Henry, after experi- encing a variety of good and bad fortune, came secretly to a resolution of declaring himself a Roman-catholic. This was called a measure of prudence, if not of necessity ; as the king of Spain had offered his daugh- ter Isabella Clara Eugenia to be (;[ueen of France^ and would have mar- ried her to the young duke of Guise. In 1593, Henry went publicly to mass, as a mark of his conversioB. This complaisance wrought wonders in his favour ; and having with great difficulty obtained absolution from the pope, all France submittetd to his authority, and he had only the crown of Spain to contend with ; which he did for several years with various fortune. In I598, he pub- lished tlie famous edict of Nantes, which secured to his old friends, the protestants, the free exercise of tlieir religion ; and next year the treaty .of Vervins was concluded with Spain. Henry next chastised the duka of Savoy, who had taken advantage of the late troubles in his kingdom ; and applied himself with wonderful attention and success (assisted in all his undertakings by his minister, tlie great Sully) to cultivate the happi- ness of his people, by encouraging manufactures, particularly tliat of silk, tlie benefit of which France experiences at this day. Having re- established the tranquillity, and in a great measure secured the happiness, of his people, he formed connexions with the neighbouring powers, for reducing the ambition of the house of Austria ; for which purpose, it is said, he had formed great schemes, and collected a formidable army ; others say (for his intention does not clearly appear), thai he designed to have formed Christendom into a great republic, of which France was to be the head, and to drive the Turks out of Europe ; while others at- tribute his preparations to more ignoble motives, that of a criminal pas- sion for a favourite princess, whose husband had carried her for protec- tion into the Austrian dominions. Whatever may be in these conjec- , tures, it is certain, that, while he was making preparations for the coro- nation of his queen, Mary of Medicis, and was ready to enter upon his grand expedition, he was assassinated in his coach, in the streets of Paris, by one Ravaillac, another young enthusiast like Clement, in iblO. Lewis XIII. son to Henry IV. was but nine years of age at the time of his father's death. As he grew up, he discarded his mother and her favourites ; and chose for his minister the famous cardinal Ricnelieu, who put a period, by his resolute and bloody measures, to the remain- ing liberties of France, and to the religious establishment of the protes- tants there, by taking from tht.'m Rocheile ; though Charles I. of En- gland, who had married the French king's sister, made some weak ef- forts, by his fleet and armies, to prevent it. This put an end to the civil wars on account of religion in France. Historians say, that in tiiese wars above a million of men lost their lives ; that 150,000,000 livres were spent in canying them on ; and that nine citieg, four hundred vii- 1^ I rat! ■( I '.' ' t Hi I I l! : ,i ■ |! ii,; 'hi\ I 'I i I w M ;i I m \ K\ I ■ . I 99% FRANCE. fages, two tliousnnJ churches, two thousand mona«teric!i, and ten thou? 'land housca, were burnt or otherwise destroyed during their con- ■^inunnce. Richch'eu, by a masterly train of politics, though himself bigoted to popery, supported the protestants of Germany, and Gustavus Ailolplius, ■agiiinst the honso of Austria. After qucllinir all ilic iel)eilion.i and con- ipirarie,'? which had been formed again.it him in France, he died some montiis before Lewis XIII. ; who, in I(j-I3, left his son, afterwards the iamnu.4 Lewis XIV., to inherit his kingdom. During that pritice's non-age, the kingdom was torn in pieces uadt»r tha administration of his mother, Anne of Austrii, by tlie factions of the si'eat, and the divisions btnween the court and parliament, for the mo.st trifling causes, and upon the most despicable principles. Tli6 prince of Conde flamed like a blazing star ; somelimes a patriot, some- times a courtier, and sometimes a rebel. lie was opposed by the cele- brated Tureiine, who from a protestant had turned papist. The nation of France was involved at once in civil wars and domestic dissensions. But the queen-mother having made choice of cardinal Mazarin for her first minister, he fouijd means to turn the arms even of Cromwell against the Spaniards ; and to divide the domestic enemies of tlic court so effectually among themselves, that when Lewis assumed the reins of government in his own hands, he found himself the most ab>olute mq- narch that had ever sat upon the throne of France. He had the good jfortune, on the deatli of Mazarin, to put the domestic administration of his affairs into the hands of Colbert ; who formed new systems for tlie glory, comineice, and iijauufuctures of Prance, in all of which he wa» ifixtremely successful. To writ€ the history of th/s reignj would be to wrijLe that qf all Eu- rope.' Ignorance and ambition were the, only enemies of Lewis ; through the fofther, he was blind to every patriotic duty of a king, and promoted the interests of his subjects only" that they might the better answer the purposes of his greatness : by the latter heembroile4 himself witli all his neighbours, and wantonly rendered Germany a dismal scene of devasta-^ tion. By his imi>olitic and unjust revocatioii of the edict of Nantes in the year ldS5, and his persecutions of U)e protestants, he obliged th^n^ to take shelter in England, Holland^ and different parts of Germany, where they established the silk manufacture, to the great prejudice of their own coimtry. He was so blinded by flattery, that he arrogated to himself the divine honours paid to the pagjin emjierors pf Rome. He made and broke treaties for his own cbnveniendy, and at last raised sgainst himself a cgnfederacy of almost all the other princes of Europe ; at the head of which was king William Ii|. of England. He was s6 ^'cU served, that he rnade head' for some years against this alliance ; but having provoked the English by his repeated infidelities, their arms under the duke of Marlborough, and the Austrians mider the prince Eugene, rendered the latter part of his life as miserable as the beginning of it had been splendid. His reign, from the year 1/03 to 1712, was pne continued series of defeats arid calamities j and he had the mortifi- cation of seeing those places taken from him, which, in tho former part of his reign, were acquired at the expense of rnauy thousand lives. Just as he Was rediiced, oW as he was, to the desperate resolution of collect- ing his people^ and dying at their head, he was paved, by the English tory mi'nistry deserting the cau'sp, withdrawing from their allies, and concluding tlie peace of Utrecht in 1713. He survived his deliverance but two years j and, in his last hours, displayed a greatness of mind rRAXCE. 393 wortliy of his elevatetl situntion r " Why Jo yon weep?" said he to his Amnesties ; " did you think me immortd ?" Ho died on the 1st of September, 1715, and was succeeded by his crent-grandson, lAiwisXV. The partiality ot" Lewis XIV. to his natural chilihen might have in- volved France in a eivii war, hnd not t!ie regency been seized npin by tlie duke of Orleans, a man of seiijC and spirit, and tlie nc>;t legitimato |)rince of the blood ; who h.'^vini^enibro'led himself with Spain, the king wa.s tleclared of age in 172'^, :ind tlie regent, on the 5tli of December, 172:1, was r,nrried olf by an apoplexy. Among the tirst arts of the government of Lewis XV. was his nomi- nating his preceptor, afterwards cardinal Fleury, to be his first minister. Tlion^di his system was entirely pacilie, yet the situation of fifl'airs in Europe, upon the death of the king of Poland in 1734, more than once embroili'd him with the house of Austria. The intention of the French king was to replace his father-in-law, Stanislaus, on the throne of Po- land. In this he failed, through the iiuerposition of the Russians and Austrians ; Init Stanislaus enjoyed the title of king, and the revenues of Lorraine, during tlie remainder of iiis life. The connexion between P'niiK^e and Sp.iin forced the former to become principals in a war against Great Hritaln, which >vas terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapello in 17-18. In the year 1/57, Frnnciu Damicn, an unhappy wretch, whose sullen ^mind, naturally unsottled, was inflamed hy the disputes between the king and his parliament relative to religion, embraced the desiieratc ro- sokiti'jii of attotnpting the life of his sovereign. In the dusk of tho t'voning, as the king prepared to enter his coach, he was suddenly wounded, though slightly, with a penknife, between the fourtii and fifth ribs, in the presence of his son, and in the midst of his g^iards. The daring assassin had mingled with the crowd of courtiers, but was instantly betrayed by his distracted countenance. He decbred it was never his intention to kill the king ; but that he only meant to wound him, that God might touch his heart, and incline him to restore tho Iranqvjillity of his doiiiinions by re-establishing the parliament, and ba- nishing- the archbishop of Paris, whomiie regarded as the source of th©' present ccnnuutions. In these frantic and incoherent declarations ho jKTsiste.d, aijiidst the most exquisite tortures ; and after human ingenuitr had been exhausted in devising new modes of torment, his judges, tired cut with his obstinacy, consigned hirn to a death, the inhumanity of witich is increased by the evident madness that stimulated him to tho desperate attempt, and whieh might fill the licarts of savages with horror ; he was conducted to the common place pf execution, amidst ;j vast coiicouvse of the populace : stripped naked, and fastened to tlie scaffold by iron gy\es. One of his hands was tlien burnt in liquid tlani- ing .sulplmr ; his thighs, legs, and arms, were torn witli red hot pincers j boiling oil, melted lead, resin, and sulphur, were poured into tho wounds ; and, to complete the liorrid catastrophe, he was torn to pieces by horses. The Jesuits, having rendered themselves universally odious by their share in the conspiracy against the late king of Portugal, tell in Franco under the lash of the civil power, for certiiin fraudulent mercantile trans- actions. They refused to discharge the debts of one of their body, who had become bankrupt for a large sum, and who was suppospd to act for. the benefit of the whole society. As a monk, indeed, he must neces- sarily do so. The patliaments eagerly seized an opportunity of Utim- blitig their spiritual pnenpss, The •Fesuitit were every-where ci^ be» I It 394 FRANCE. [Ij f '' I Wfiil y 'I 1 li 1 fore those high tribunals in 1761, and ordered to do justice to their cre- ditors. Tliey seemed to acquiesce in tlie decision, but delayed pay- ment under various pretences. New suits were commenced against them u 17G2, on account of tlie pernicious tendency of their writings. In the courbc of these proceedings, which the kuig endeavoured in vain to prevent, they were compelled to produce their Institute, or the rules of their order, hitherto studiously concealed. That mysterious volume, which was found to contain maxims subversive of all civil government, and even of the fundamental principles of morals, completed their ruin. All their colleges were seized, all their elfects conhscated j and the king, ashamed or afraid to protect them, not only resigned them to tlieir fate, but finally expelled them the kingdom by a solemn edict, and utterly abolished tlie order of Jesus in France. Elated with this victory over ecclesiastical tyranny, the French par- liaments attempted to set bounds to the absolute power of the crown, and seemed determined to confine it within the limits of law. Not sa- tisfied with refusing, as usual, to register certain oppressive edicts, or with remonstrating against them, tliey ordered criminal prosecutions to be commenced against the governors of several provinces, acting in the king's name, who had enforced tlie registration of those edicts. The itnagnanimity of these assemblies had awakened new ideas in the bo- eoms of the French j they were taught by the late remonstrances to consider their inherent rights ; and this flame, in the succeeding reign, burst forth with accumulated force, and overwhelmed the tlirone of despotism. As to the war with Great Britain, which was ended by the peace of Fontainetileau in 1/63, the chief events attending it, so humiliating to France, have been already mentioned in the history of England, and therefore need not be recapitulated here. Corsica, a small island in the Mediterranean, had long resisted with manly firmness tlie oppressive loouncils of the Genoese, who claim«d the sovereignty over it by right of conquest. But, unable to support those pretensions, Genoa transtierred them to FraiKe, on condition that Lewit should put her in full possession of the adjacent island of Capraia, ■which the Corsicans had lately invaded and reduced. To execute his engagements, powerful armaments were fitted out by Lewis, at Antibes and Touion j twenty battalions of French were landed in Corsica j and the n.itives, wnose free sufuages had summoned Paoli, one of their princi[i.».l ciiiefs, to the supreme government of the island, determined to deienu tJieir liberties to tlic utmost. A sharp and bloody war, such as suited the inferior numbers of the inhabitants and the nature of the country, was carried on in all the fast- nesses aud mountainous parts of the island ; and it was not till after the French had fatally experienced, in two successive campaigns, the en- thusiastic courage which animates the champions of freedom, that they overwhelmed, by their superior numbers, this unfortunate people ; nor had Lewis much reason to triumph in an acquisition, to attain which he had sacrificed several thousands of his bravest troops, and only ex- tended his dominion over a ragged and unproductive island. The late unf -iiunjHe king, Lewis XVL, succeeded his grandfather, Lewis XV, on the 10th of May, 1774. Several regulations were made after his accession, highly tavourable to the general intcri sis of the na- tion ; particularly the suppression of the Mousquetaires, and some other corps, uliich, being adapted more to the parade of guarding the royal p«tsou tbaii any real juilitaiy service, were supported at a great ex- FRANCE. SQS pense, without an adequate return of benefit to the state. One re- markable circumstance which attended tJiis reign, was the placing of M. Necker, a protestant and a native of Switzerland, at the head of tlie French finances, in 1776. Possessed of distinguisiied and acknow- ledged abilities, his appointment would have excited no surprise, had it not been contrary to tlie constant policy of Fiance, which had care- fully excludeil tlie aliens of her coiMitry and faith from the controul of the revenue. Under the direction of Necker, a general reform took place in France, through every department of the revenue. When hostilities commenced, in 1777, Ijctween France and Great Britain, in consequence of the assistance atlbrded by the former to the revolted British colonies in America, the people of France were not burdened with liew taxes for carrying on tiie war j but the public revenue was augmented by the economy, improvements, and reformation, that were introduced into the management of the finances. In consequence of this national economy, the navy of France was also raised to so great a height as lo become truly formidable to Great Britain. In ihe beginnmg of tlie year i^^yj, in consequence of the representa- tions of Mr. Necker, a variety of unnecessary ottices in the household of the queen were abolished } and sundry otlier important regulations a- dopted for the ease of the subject, and the general benefit of the king- dom. Could we implicitly credit his memorial, he changed the excess of tlie disbursements (at least one million sterling) of the year 1 776> into an excess of revenue in the year 178O, to the amount of 445,000/. But the rpeasures of Mr. Necker were not calculated to procure him friends at court : tiie vain, the interested, and the ambitious, naturally became his enemies ; and the king appears not to liave possessed sufficient firm- ness of mind to support an upright and able minister. He was there- fore displaced, and is said to have been particularly opposed by tlie queen's party. The freedom of America had been the grand object 'f France j and that having been acknowledged in the fullest and most express terms by Great Britain, the preliminary articles of peace were signed at Paris on the 20th of January, 1783 ; but the immense expenses incurred were found at last to be much more than tlie revenues of the kingdom could by any means support; and the miserable exigencies to which govern- ment was reduced contributed no doubt to bring aboat tlie late revo- lution. The ambition of the French government made its subjects acquainted with liberty, by assisting the insurgents ii^ America and Holland 5 and ex- cited a spirit among the people, which could not well ac'niit of the con- tinuance of arbitrary power at home. Mr. Nk Uer having been dis- missed from the direction of public affairs, and succeeding ministers being endowed neither with his integrity nor abilities, the finances of the nation were on the point of being entirely ruined. When the edict for registering the loan at the conclusion of i785, which amounted to the sum of three millions three hundrtd and thirty thousand {)ounds, was presented to the parliament ot Paris, the muiniurs of the people, and tlie remonstrances of that assembly, assunjod a more legal and ibrmidable ap- pearance. The king, however, signified to the select deputations that were commissioned to convey to him their remonstrances, that he expected to he obeyed without farther delay. The ceremony of registering "took place on the next day, but was accompanied vith a resolution, im- porting, that public economy was the only genuine source of abundant revciiue, tlie only means of providing for the necessity of the state. '■:-■■ s m: |-S^ 1 I ^i! mw^ ■ 'I N I 3fi« FRANCE. and rcstoriiig that credit which borrowing had reduced to the brink of ruin. This proceeding was no sooner known, than the king required the at- tendance of the grand deputation of parliament ; he erased from fhpir records the resolution that had bccxi adopted; and declared Jiimself eatisfied witli the conduct of monsieur de Cahnuie, his comptroller- general. However gratified by the support of his sovereign, monsieur de Ca- lonne could not fiiil of feeling himself deeply mortified by the oj)position of the parliament. An anxious inquiry into the state of the public fi- nances had convinced him tliat the expenditure had far exceeded the re- venues 5 in the present situation, to impose new taxes was impossible, to continue the method of borrowing was ruinous, and to have recourse only to economical reforms would be found wholly inadequate j and he hesitated not to declare,' that it would be impossible to place tlie fi- nances on a solid basis, but by the reformation of whatever was vicious irj the constitution of the state. To give weiglit to this reform, the minister was sensible tlint something more was necessary than royal authority j fie perceived that the parliament was neidier a fit instrument for intro- ducing a new order into public atJairs, nor woiUd submit to be a passive machine for sanctioning the plans of a minister, even if those plans were the emanations of perfect wisdom. Under these circumstances, the only alternative that seemed to remain was to have recoiirse to some other assembly, more dignified and solemn in its character ; and that should consist, in a greater degree, of n^enibers from the vaiious orders of the state, and the diiVercnt provinces of the kingdom. But the true and legitimate asscuibly of the nation, the states-general, had not met since the year ltil4. Another assembly had occasionally been substituted in the room of (he states-general ; — this was' distinguished by the title of the notables, or nicn of note, and consisted of a number of persons from all jjarts of the ktni;dom, chiefly selected from the highc-r orders of tlie state, and nominated by the king hims<'If. Tfiis assembly had been convened by Henr)' the Fourth, and again by Lewis the Thirteenth j and was now once more su)nmoned by the au- thority of the presiTii monarch ; and the 2ytli of January, 1/87. '^^^s the jxriod appointed thv their opening. It was vnider great diilicuities tliat monsieur dc Calonnc first met th« assembly of the notables, and opened his long-expected plan. He be- gan I)y stating, thai the public expenditure had fof centuries past exceed- ed the revenues ; that a very considerable deficiency had of course ex- isted ; and that, at his own accession to office, it was three nnllions three hundred and thirtj: thousand pmnds. To remedy this l-\ il, the comptroller-general reconnnended a territo- rial impost, in the nature otthe Knglinh land-tax, from whiih no rank «5 order of men were to be exempted ; and an inquiry into the possessions of the clergy, which hitheito had been exemjited from bearing a propor- tion of the public burdens. The various branclies of internal taxation ivere also to undergo a strict examination ; and a considerable resource was presented in mortgaging the demesne lands of the croun. Betbre monsieur IS'ecKer retired from the management of the finance.';, he had published his " Comple rendu an Uoi," in which France was re-- presented as possessing a clear surplus of four hunilred and twenty-riv{^ thousand pounds sterling. This performance had Ijceu read withaviditv, and had iMicn considered as an aera in the history of France, The cr«fdit oi tiiia Btatemcut was ably vindicated by monsieur dc Brienne, uichbi- FRANCE. »07 tliop of Teulous^, and by the count dc Mirabeau, a still more fonnlda* Lie enemy to ()ak)niie. His eloquence, however, might liave suecess- tiilly vindicated his system and reputation against the calculations of Brienne, and invectives of Mirabeau, but the genius of the comptroller-* feneral sunk under the influence of the three great bodies of the nation- he grand and es.'»tnuial object ofretbnn was to equalise the public bur- dens, and, by rendering the taxes general, to diminish the load of tlie lower and most useful classes of Uie pet)ple. The ancient nobility and tlie clergy had ever been tree from all public assessment j the crowds of new noblesse, who had purchased their patents, were by that i^hanieful custom exempted, both themselves and their posterity, from coiitil- buting proportionably to the expenses of tlie state : the magistiacie* likewise throughout llie kingdom enjoyed their share of exemptions: so that the whole weight of llie taxes fell on those who were least able* to bear them. I'hus the nobility, the clergy, and the magistracy, wert; united against the minister 5 and the event was such as might be expect- ed. The intrij^ues ot those three bodies raised against him so loud a cla- niour, that, tinding it impossible to stem the torrent, monsieur de Ca- lonne not only resigned his place on tlie Tiih of April, but soon after r,etired to England from the storm of p-rsecution. 1 The notables proceeded in their inqviiries ; and it was now suggested that an assembly of the states shwuld be called, as the notaliles were not •ompeteiit to impose a new tax. As the delibcn-atioiK of the notable* were not carried on in secret, this proposal was instantly circulated tlirough the capit<U, aivd supposed to be a new discovery. The notablet were soon after dissolved, without having accomplished any thing except the justification of monsieur Necker. Tlu' stamp-act, however, was established, and a bed of justice was hell l>y the king on the rn\i of August, l/H/, at whicli th^ parliament of Pa- ris was obliged to attend, and the edict w;is registered, notwithstaadinj their protest to the contrary. But the parliament, though defeated, were tar from subdued : on the day after the king had held his bed of justice, they entered a formal prote«it against the concession that had bceu ex- torted from tliem, Painful as every appearance of violence must have proved to the mild ilisposiiion of Lewis, he could not consent to surrender, without a struggle, that autliority wifich had been so long exercised by his predecessora.. Since the coaiuieucement of the present discontents, the capital iud been gradually tilled with considerable bodies of troops ; and about n week after the jjarllament had entered the protest, au otHcer of thd French guards, with a party of soldiers, went at break of day to th« house ot" each individual nieuiber, to signify to liiiu the king's com- mand, that he should iunnediately get into his carriage and proceed to Troyes, a city of Champagne, about seventy miles from Paris, without writing or speaking to any person out of his own house bsfore his de- parture. Ihcse orders were served at the same instant ; and before the citizens ol' Paris were ai'qualnted with the trans^actiou, the parliament were already on the road to tlie sce!;e of their baiiishment. So great was the resentment of the whole nation on account of the lianishmeut of the parliament, that after a mouth's exile it was recalled. This was scarcely done, when they were desired to register a hwn ; at which they hesitated, notwithstanding all tlie manceuvres of the minit iters. At last the king came to the house, and held what is called a royal session. The edicts were now registered ; but the duke of Orlearii protested, ia the prttseace of the king, against the legality of the pro- .:i ! 1*. . 1 • «' ' 1 V ' 1 '. ,' ■3'i' 1:1 i 1 m' W'i\ i 1^ •?) ■I,'!' 1 I ' 99B FRANCE, ceeding. The parliament protested against the legality of the session it- self, but to no purpose. The duke of Orleans, with four others, were banished ; the king called for the journals of the house, destro) ed the protest, and forbade it to be inserted again. Great clamours wtre raised by the banishment of the duke of Orleans, and the oih(.*r mepibers of parliament ; remonstrances were presented by the parliaments of Faris, Bourdeaux, and Rennes j but the exiles were not recalletl till tlie spring of 1788. No alternative remained now to Lewis, but to plunge his country into' all the calamitj* of civil war ; or to comply with the wishes of his people, and re-establish the states-general. In the first case, he must have ex- pected to encounter the majority uf the people, animated by tiie exhor- tation^ and examples of their magistrates : the peers of the realm had expressed the strongest disapprobation of his measures, nor could he even depend any longer on the princes of his blood ; but what afforded most serious matter of alarm was the spirit lately displayed among the military, who, during the disturbances in ihe provinces, had reluctantly been brought to draw their swords against their countrymen ; and many of those otficers, who had recently served in America^ publicly pro- claimed their abhorrence of despotism. It was under the.^e impressions, in the t.giiining of August, an arret was published, which fixed the meeting of the states-general to the first of May in the ensuing year, viz. 1789 j at the same time every step was taken to secure the favourable opinion of the public. New arrange- ments took place .in the administration ; and monsieur Necker, whom the confidence of the people had long followed, was again introduced into the management of the finances ; the torture, which by a former edict had been restricted in part, was entirely abolished ; every person accused was allowed the assistance of counsel, and permitted to avail himself of any jwint of law; and it was decreed, that, in fijture, sentence of death should net be pasjed on aiiy person, unless the party accused should be pronounced guilty by a majority at least of three judges. The eyes of all Eiuope were now turned on tlie states-general, or na- tional assembly, whose re-establishment, in the month of May, l7iiy, pre- sented a new sera in ihe government of France. But the moment of this meeting was tar from auspicious to the court, but greatly so to the in- terests of the natiiJi). Tlie minds of the French had long been agitated by various rumours ; the unanimity that had been expected from the different orders of the states was extinguished by the jarring pretensions of each ; and their mutual jealousies were attributed by the suspicions of the people to the intrigues of tlie court, who were supposed already to repent of the hasty assent tliat had been extorted. A dearth that per- vaded the kingdom increased the general gloom and discontent j and the people, pressed by hunger and intlamed by resentment, were ripe for revolt. The sovereign also, equally impatient of the obstacles he inces- santly encountered, could not conceal his chagrin ; the influence of the queen in the cabinet was again established, and was attended by the immediate removal of monsieur Necker. This step, which evinced a total change of resolutions, and which, from the popularity of the mi- nister, was likely to produce a violent fenxientatiou in every order of men, was followed by others equally injudicious. Tlie states-general were driven into the Salle dcs Etats, where they held their meetings, by detachments of the guards, who surrounded them, and who waited only the orders of the court to proceed to greater extremities agauist iho obnoxious representatives of th.^ nation. FRANCE. 399 Had these manifestations of vigour been only sustained by instantly at- tacking aad entering Paris, it is not to be doubted, that, unprepared as it still was, and unwilling to expose to the licence of an incensed sol- diery the lives and properties of its citizens, the capital would have been_ without difficulty reduced to obedience. Bat the delay which succeeded gave the inhabitants time to recover from their hrst emotions of surprise and apprehension. They saw the timidity and imbecility of the go- vernment, which, having sounded the charge, dared not advance to the attack. They profited by this want of exertion ; and passing from one extreme rapidly to another, they almost unanimously took up arms a- gainst their rulers. Joined by the French guards, who, from a long re- sidence in the capital, had been peculiarly exposed to seduction, and who at this decisive moment abandoned their sovereign, tlie Parisians broke through every obstacle by which they had hitlierto been restrain- ed. The supplies of arras and ammunition which had been provided for their subjugation, were turned against the crown ; and the Hotel des Invalides, the great repository of military stores, after a faint resistance, surrendered. The prince de Iiambesc, who alone, of all the officers commanding the royal troops in the vicinity of PiU'is, attempted to carry into execu- tion the plan for disarming the capital, was repulsed in a premature and injudicious attack, which he made at the head of his dragoons, near the entrance of the garden of the Tuilleries. Already the Prevot des Marchands, m.onsieur de Flesselles, convicted of entertaining a corre- spondence with the court, and detected in sending private intelligence to monsieur de Launay, governor of the Bastile, had been seized by tlie peofl:, and fallen the first victim to general indignation. His head, borne on a lance, exhibited an alarming spectacle of the danger to which adherence to the sovereign must expose in a time of anarchy and insurrection. The Bastile alone remained : and while it continued in the power of the crown, Paris could not be regarded as secure from the severest vhas- tiseraent. It was instantly invested, on the I4th of July, j 789, i)y a mixed multitude, composed of citizens and soldiers who had joined the popular baimer. De Launay, who commanded in the castle, by an act of perfidy unjustifiable under any circumstances, and which rendered his fate less regretted, rather accelerated than delayed the capture of that important fortress. He displayed a flag of truce, and demanded a parley ; but abusing the confidence which these signals inspired, he dis- chained a heavy fire from the cannon and musketry of tlie place upon the besiegers, and made considerable carnage. Far from intimidating he only augmented, by so treacherous a breach of faith, the rage of an incensed populace. They renewed their exertions with a valour raised. to phrensy, and were crowaed with success. The Bastile, tiiat awful engine of despotism, whcse name alone diffused terror, and which for many ages had been sacred to silence and despair, was entered by the victorious assailantg. De Launay, seized and dragged to tlie Place de Greve, was instantly dispatched, and his head carried in triumph through the streets of Paiis. In this prison were found the most hoiTible engines for putting to the severest tortures those unhappy persons whom the cruelty or jealousy of despotism had determined to destroy. An iron cage, about twelve ton* in weight, was found with the skele.ton of a man in it, who had pro[)a- bly hngered out a great part of his days in that horrid mansion. Among the prisoners released by its destruction, wic major White a Scotsman, ^00 FRANCE. m 1 1 I earl Massarcne an Irish nobleman, and the count de Ix)rge!». The f-j"- mar appeaivtl to hiivc his iiUellcctuai faculties almosl totalfy impaired by the lontj auilinenicnt luid miseries he had endured ; and, by being nnaccustonifcd to cynverse with any human creatuio, had turf^itten tiie. use ot" hpecch. Earl Massarene, at his arrival on (he Kritisli hhore. eagerly jutiipedout of the boat, fell down on his knees, and, kissing the ground llnko, exciainifd, " God bless tliis land of liberty !" '!:-». coiini tie Lorgt'S, at a veiy advanced period of life, ^\■as also libiiated. ai.d cx^ • liibited to the public curiosity in the PaLis Royal. His scjuaiia ap- pearance, his white beard which descended to his wai.-t, iind, abuve all, his imbecility, resulting probabiy from tJie eifeet of an ini^ lisoi.nn ut of thirty-two years, were objects higiily calculated to operate v.pon iho sei>i>es and passions of every hehc»ider. It is indeed iuipo.-isible not to par- ticipate in tlie exultation v.hich a capital and a country, so long op- pressed, must have cxijcrienced at the extinction of (his Uetesliable and justly-dreaded prison of state. ^V^th the Bastile expired tlie despotism of ihe French princes, which long Jjrescription, stibmissk)n, aft-* riiilitary strength, seemed to render equally sacred and unassailable j which neither the e:il;u-nitie« of the close of Lewis XI V.'s reign, the profligacy and enormities of the suc- ceeding regency, nor tlie stiUe of degradation into which the monarchy «unk under Lewis XV., had ever shaken : th*t power which appeared to derive its support ahnost as nTuth from the loyalty and veneration as from' the dread aud terrors cf tire subject, fell prostrate in tlie dust, and never betrayed any symptom of reluming life. « The next morning after the capture of the Bastile, the monarch ap- peared in the national assembly, but without the pomp and paiade of Sesp iti»ra. His address w<is affectionate and consolator}'. He la- mentc:! Jie disturbances at Paris } disavowed all consciousness of any meditated attack on the persons of the deputies j and added, that ho had issued orders for tlie imaiediate removal of the troops from the vlci« iiity of tlie metropolis. The tear of sympathy started into almost every eye. An ex])ressive iilence iirst pervaded the assembly, which presently was succeeded by a Inirsl of applause and acclamation. On the l6th tlie king having intimated to the national assembly his intention of visiting Paris the following day, he accordingly, on the morning of the l-7th, left Versailles in a plain dress, and with no other equipage tlian tw'o car-< riages with eight horses each, in the first of which he rode himself. A part of the national assembly in their robes accompanied him on foot ; and tlie militia of Versailles cramposcd his only guard till the procession arrived at the Seve, where they were relieved by tlie Paris militia, with- the marquis de la Fayette at their head : and from this place the suite of the monarch auiounied to al)out 2O,0CX) men. The progress was re- markably slow j and no shout was to be heard but ViTt la mtion'! Mr. Bailiy, on presenting the keys of the city, addressed his majesty iu a short speech, tlic exordium of v.hich was : — " These, sir, are tlie keys which were presented to Henry IV. He came to re-conqucr his people ; it is our happinoss to have re-conquered our king." On receiving tlie com- plimentary addresses of the mayor. Sec. the king exclaimed, with an air of pathetic emotion which scarcely allowed bim tulerance, " My ptM)- ple may always rely upon my ad'ectiou." He i^ceived from the hmdff of the mayor the national cockade ; aiid when he showed himself at tho' window Willi this badge of pattiotism, the joy of the people could no- longer be restrained ; the shout of Vive le Roi I which hlid scarcely been hditi in the former part of tlie day, tilled the whule vtmosphoref and FRANCE. 401 resouiHk'd from one t'x.tremity of the city to the other. The rctuni of the kii;g to N'ersailles was a real triumph. The citi/eiis, almost intox- icated with joy, siurt)undecl his carriage : his countenance, which in the" morning bore the aspect of melancholy, was now cheerful and smiling ; and he appeared sincerely to partake in tlu general satisfaction. I'he events which followed, are, by the candid of all parties, allowed to be enveloped in an almost impenetrable \'eil of obscurity. An inci- dent which occurred at Versailles contributed to excile a most unhappy commotion. On the 1st of October an entertainment was given by ths gardcs-du-corps, or king's body-guards, to the ollicers of a regiment oi" Flanders, who had just joined tliem in the service of guarding tlie mo- narch. Several of the olficers of tlie national guard, with odiers of the military, were invited. At the second course four toasts were given — *' the king, the queen, the dauphin, and the royal family." " The na- lion" was proposed, but, according to a number of wiinesses, expressly rejected by the ^qarJcs-du-corps. After this, the (jueen, having been informed of the gaiety of the scene, persuaded his majesty, who was just returned from hunting, to acconipany her, with the heir apparent, to the saloon. She appeared with the dauphin in her arms, atyectionate as she was lovely, and carried the royal infant through the saloon, amidst the acclamations and murmurs of the spectators. Fired with enthu- siasm, the soldiers drank the health of the king, the queen, and the dau- phin, with their swords drawn ; and the royal guests bowed respectfully and retired. The rntertainment, which had hitherto been conducted with some degree of order, now became a scene of entire confusion. Nothing was omitted, to inllame the passions of the military. The music played the favourite air — " O Richard, O my king, the world abandons thee!" the ladies of the court distributed ii-hitc cockades, the anti-patriot ensign ; and even some of the national guard, it is said^ did not refuse to ac- cept them. During these transactions, the city of Paris was affliolcd witli all the evils of fanrine. At this juncture the news arrived of the friial banquet at Versailles, with every circumstance greatly magnilicd. Early on the morning of the memorable 5th of October, a woman sallied out fr©m the quarter of St. Eustache, and entering the cnrps-d('-^;aidc, and seiz- ing a drum, paraded the adjacent streets beating an alarm, and exciting the people by clamours respecting the scarcity of bread. She was sooiv joined by a very numerous mob, chietiy of women, (o the amount of 800, who proceeded to Versailles; where the king, upon hearing their complaints, signed an order for bringii'^ corn from Senlis and Lagni, and for removing every obstacle which impeded the supply of Paris. This order was reported to the womeUj and tliey retired with gratitude and joy. ^ This band of Amazons was no sooner dispersed, than it was succeed- ed by another. The national assembly continued silting; but the session was tumultuous, and interrupted by the shouts and harangues of ihe Pa- risian fish-women, who tilled the galleries ; their applause was mingled with affecting murnmrs and complaints — the multitude crying out that they were actually starving, ?.nd that the majority of them had eaten no- thing for upwards of twenty-four hours. The president therefore hu- manely ordered that provisions should be sought for in every part of the town; and the hall of the assembly was the scene of a miserable, scanty, and tumultuous banquet. Indeed, suth was the dreadful famine, that 2D U1 402 FRAiNXE. Ill •■: < <i< I ! In III li' ; xt m the horse of one of the frurdcs-dii-corps being killed in n tumult, it wis immediately roasted, and greedily de\oured by the mob. Darkness and a deluge of rain added to the horrors of the night. The wretched multitudes who had travelled from Paris, were exposed, almost famished, to the inclemencies of the weather, in the open streets : M'ith- in the castle all was trepidation ; nothing was to be heard fijf m witliout but imprecations, and the voices of enraged multitudes demanding tlv» life of the queen and the garfkn-dii-corpis. T\)uard midnight, however, all appeared tolerably siill and peaceable; wJien the Ix^ating of drums, and the light of innumerable torches, announced the approach of the Pa- risian army. I'he day began to break at about half |wst five ; and at this period crowds of women, and other desperate persons, breathing vengeance, and thirsting for bkH>d, advanced to the castle, which, in an hour of fatal security, was left unguarded in several places. An immense crowd found its way into every part. The (jueen iuul been awakened a quar- ter of an hoiu" betbre by the clamours of the women who assembled upon tlie terrace; but her waiting-woman had satislicd her, by saying " that they were only the women of Paris, \\ho, she suyjiosed, nut being able to lind a lodging, were walking about." Put the tumult ap- proaching, and becoming apparently more serious, she rose, dressed her- self in haste, and ran to the king's apartment ()y a priv;ite passage. ]n her way she heard the noise of a pistol and a nuis(]uet, \\ hich redoubled, her terror. " My tViend," said .-.he to every jierson she met, "' save me and my children !" In the king's chamber she found the (iiuphiri, who had been brought thitlier by one of her wouuii : but the king was gone. Awakened by the tmnult, he had seen iVoni a window tlie mul- titude pressing towards the stair-case; and alarmed for the queen, he hastened to her apartment, and entcpcd it at one door at the moment she had quitted it by the other. He returned without loss of time ; a. id having witli the queen brought the princess-royal into tl;e chamber, they prepared to f.ice the multitude. In the mean time the noise and tumult increased, and appeared at the very door of the chamber. Nothing wa:; to bt> heard but the most, dreadful exclamations, with violent and repeated blows against the outer door; a pannel of which was broken, n:ul instant death was expected by the royal company. Suddenly, however, the tmnult seemed to cease — every thing was quiet, and a moment after a gentle rap was heard at the door. The door was opened, and in an instant the apartments were fdled with the Parisian giuird. The ollicer who conducted them order- ed them to ground tlw^ir arms. " We come," said he, " to save the king;" and turning to such of the g,:irdfs-du-c()ri)s as were in the apart- ments, " We will save you also, gentlemen; lei us from this moment be united." The royal family now ventured to show themselves at the balcony, and received the most lively acclamations of lespect from the soldier* and the people. A single voice, or a few \-oices, exclaimed — *' The king to Paris !" ami this w^as instantly followed by an universal acclamation enforcing the same demand. The king addressed them : — " You wish me to go to Paris: — I will go, on the condition that 1 am to be accom- panied by my wiff» and children." — He was answered by re-ite- rated acclamations of " Vive k roi !*' It was two in the afternoon be- fore the procession set out. During the progre.-^s dW wm ;jaiety and joy •iuoug tlie .ioldiers and »pecLitoiii : aiul such was tlie rcspsct ia whick FKANCE. 4oa , It \VS3 It. The i, almost s : with- witliout ding th'" \o\scvcr, ■ drums, f tlie Pa- is period ucc, nnd of tiital croud 1 a qr.nr- iserablcd y sayino- ).sed, nut mull ap- ssed bor- age. In L'douliled, , "■ save (liuphiri, king was tlic muU ueen, he^ moment lue ; a. id .'haniber, ed at the ihc most the outer X rted by J cease — ird at the nts were •m order- save the he apart- moment balcony. 2 soldier* The king lamation You \vi.slj. le accom- )y re-ite- noon be- y and joy iu wliick the French nation still held the name and person of their king, that the multitude were superstitiously persuaded that the royal presence woxild actually put an end to the famine. On his arrival, the king was con- gratulated by the municipality, and declared his approbation of the loy- alty which the city of Paris manifested. The spirit of the nation was so entirely averse from the principles of the higli aristocratic parly, that numbers of them, particularly the king'a two brothers, and some of the first rank and fortune, took refuge in fo- reign countries, where they applied themselves indefatigably to the pin- pose of exciting v/ar against their country. Great piep.iralions were made for the celebration of a grand confe- deration ; m winch the representati\es of the nation, the king, the sol- diery, and all who were in ostensible situations, should solemnly, and in the face of the whole nation, renew their oaths of fidelity to the new constitution ; and this confederation was decreed to take place on the 14th of July l/CjO, in honour of the taking of the Bastile, and of the first establishment of Gallic liberty. The Chimp dc Mars, so famout for having betu the rendezvous of the troops which in the preceding year were intended to over-awe the capital, was chosen for this solemni- ty. This piece of ground, which is about 400 toises (or 800 yards) in diameter, is bounded on the right and left by lofty trees, and commands at the further extremityta view of the Military Academy. In the mid- dle of this vast plain an altar was erectad for the purpose of administer- ing the civic oath ; and round it an immense amphitheatre was thrown up, of a league in circumference, and capable of containing 400,000 spectators. The entrance was through triumphal arches. The king's throne was placed under an elegant pavilion in the middle, and on each side of it were seats for the members of the national assembly. Tlie important 14th of July at length arrived. The national guart-i of the departments, distinguished by their respective standards, the bat- talions of inflmtry, and the different troops of cavalry, the marine of France, and the foreigners who served under its banners, being arranged in military oixler, the king and the national assembly took a solemn oath to maintain the constitution ; the armed citizens repeated it amongst the applauses of innumerable spectators. They swore to liv;^ free, or diej and this oath was taken on the same day through the whole extent of die kingdom. The escape of the king and queen with their infant children, and monsieur and madame, on the 20th of June 171)1, menaced France with the convulsions of anarchy and tlie horrors of civil war. The route of the royal fugitives, which had been expected to have been towards the Austrian Netherlands, the nearest frontier of the kingdom, was- in fact directedt oward:, Mctzj from the presence of so gallant and accomplish- ed a royalist as M. de Bouille in that quarter, from its vicinity to thr prince of Conde's army in Germany, and from the probabl? reluctanc« of Leopold to hazard the tranquillity of his Netherlands by permitting any incursion from them into France. — ^They reached St. Menehould, a small town about 150 miles froHi Paris. I'he king was there recognised by tlie postillion, who said to him, " Man roi,je voiis .connais, inaisjei%c vans trahiml pus." " I know you, my king, but I will not betray you." But the post-master, M. DrQUt'.t, less full of monarchic prejudice, adopted a dilft-rent conduct. He avoided, with great dexterity and pre- sence of mind, betraying his knowledge of the rank of the royal travel- lers, being much struck with the resemblance wliich his majesty's fouHtewatice bore to his ellijjy on an assignat of 50 livrefs. The car- 2D2 401 r^vA^xE. 1-^ mi i' i ill riagcs taking the road to Varcnnes, he went a cross-ronK to rejoin tlicin ; and arrivitig before them at Vareuiies, he ahirniecl the town and as- sembled the national guards, who, notwithstanding the detachment of hussars by which tlii^y were escorted, disarmed them, and the King was then made a prisoner ; and at six o'clock in the afternoon of the 25lh of June, their majesties, with the dauphin and madamc ro}'ale, arrived at the Tuilleries. The new constitution was presented fo the king on the 3d of Septem- ber 171)1 : who, on the 13th, signitied his acceptance of it in writing; and the following day appeared in the assejubly, introvluced by a depu- tation of sixty members, and solemnly consecrated the assent which he had already given, and concluded with an oath "" to be faithful to the nation and to the law, and to employ the powers \ estetl in him tor the maintenance of the constitution, and the due execution of the law." Soon after this, the second national council assembled, with abilities far inferior to the first. The dubious and undecided conduct of the emperor, and the refuge and protection found in the German empire by the emigrant princes, excited France to vigorous resolutions ; and a manife.itOj addressed to all states and nations, made its appearance. The forcible measures pur- sued, had the etfect of intimidating the German princes ; and the emi- i^rants were constrained to an ignominious dispcVsion from the frontiers. i5ut the protection of the emperor and the Prussian king alforded them asylums more remote and less obtrusive. Irresolution seemed to pre- side in the councils of the emperor; a monarch more eminent for the mild virtues of peace, tlian for the exertions of war. He had acknow- Jedged the national Rag ; he had declared that he regarded the king of the French as absolutely free ; — while the league of Pilnitz (which, as was avowed by the court of Vienna, was not only intended to secure Germany from such a revolution as France had experienced, but even to extinguish the dreaded source), and the protection atforded to the emi- grants, were infallible proofs that the emperor could not be regarded as a friend. His sudden death, on the first of Match 1/92, excited great consternation among the aristocrats, and afforded joy and exultation to the supporters of the constitution. Another event, no less unexpected, happened in the death of the Swedish monarch, on the 29tli of the same auonth ; and the supt?rstitious vulgar imagined that they beheld the pe- culiar protection of hea\en iu the removal of the two chief foes of France in so short a time. Ill the progress of the negotiations between the national assembly and the court of Vienna, the young king of Hungary, excited by tJie influ- ence of Prussia, began to exhibit more enmity, and to use severer lan- guage. At length, on the 5th of April, M. de Noailles, in his dispatches to the French minister for foreign afiiiirs, explained the propositions of the Imperial court — that satisfaction should be given to the German princes, proprietors of Alsace ; that Avignon, which had been appropri- ated by France, should be restored to the pope ; and that the internal government of France should be invested with sufficient efficiency, tliat die other powers might have no apprehensions of being troubled by France. These terms produced a declaration of war against Francir, I., king of Hungary and Bohemia ; decreed by the assembly, and ratified by the French king, on the 24th of April. The first movement of the French was stained with defeat ; and witli Uie unpropitious murder of Theobald Dillon, their leader, who fell a ^)rey to the sv.spiclous and savage ferocity of some of h's soldiers, M'h'd FRAXCE. Ao: fled from the etn-niv, but attntkcil their gtmeral. The court of Vicmu had, in the beginning ut' July, published a declaration, explaining the cause ot'thc war, andretorting on the French nation some of the heavy charges contained in its declaration of war against the king of Hungary Jiud Bohemia, now emperor of Germany. On the 20'th day of the samr month, the Prnssian monarch issued a concise exposition of the reasons which determined him to take up arms against France. He pleaded his nlliance with the emperor ; and that, as sovereign of a German state, he was bound to interfere to prevent the violation of the rights of tlie Crer- nian princes of Alsad; and Lorrain, and the invasion of the territories of others : and he concluded bv honestly avowing that it was his intention to repress the too great liberty of France, which might atfbrd a danger- ous example to neighboming countries. At tiie same time the duke of Brunswick, general of the combined armies of Austria and Prussia, published, at Coblentz, a declaration to the inhabitants of France, con- ceived in the most haughty and presumptuous terms : he declaped hi ; intention of putting a stop to the anarchy whi(?h pre\ailed in I'Vancc, and of restoring the king to his power ; and yet lie afterwards says liis design was not to interfere in the internal government. It is unneces- sary to dwell on the other parts of this insolent memorial ; in which France was already regarded as a conquered country, and directions w ere given to the magistrates, national guards, and inhabitants at large : bu; the threat that the city of Paris should be given up to military execution, in case the least outrage should be offered to the king, queen, or royal family, is worthy of a Finn. The excesses of the night between the ()th and 10th of August wc re- late with pain. At midnight the alarm-bell sounded in every (]uarter of Paris, the gcneralc was beat, and the citizens flew to arms. The palace of the Tuilleries was attacked by the multitude ; and the king, queon, and royal family, were forced to take refuge in the national assembly. At first the Swiss guards (who Mere obnoxious to the people, and had been inetFectually proscribed by repeated decrees of the assembly, the king not being allowed to have a foreign guard) repelled the jiopulace ; but these being rc-inforced by the Marseillois, and federates tVom Brest, (bodies which the Jacobins seem to have brought to Paris to balat«ee ilie Swiss), and by national guards, the gates of thep.ilaee were burst open. The artillery joined the assailants. The consequences Vvere, that, alter a slaughter of about four hundred on each side, the Swiss guai Ji were exterminated, and the palace ransacked. The month of September seemed pregnant with the total ruin o\ French freedom ; while the three foUov. iuL'^ months reversed the scene, and exhibited a tide of success on the part of France, perhaps unex- ampled in modern history. — It is with intinite concern that we direct the attention of our readers to the prison scene, which occurred on the 2d and 3d of September. The horrid massacre of the defenceless prisoners, and other aristocrats, which took place at that period, is an eternal liis- grace to the Parisian populace j wlio, in their fury, spart;d not even t'lat gentle sex which all civilised nations hold in tlic highcot respect. I'he number of the slain has doubtless been exaggerated, as usual ; yet sup- posing that, by Uie most moderate account, only two thousa'id perished, the enormity of the deed remains the same. Some exteiui.itibn might be offered for the affair of the 10th of August in which a people ; wlio supposed themselves betrayed to slavery and all its evil.s, so recently ex- perienced and shaken off, assumed their re\enge and tiieir cau;'>e into their own hands : but no dctcnce can be clTertd iov this unnecessary IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^ i'A ■^w'^ ^o VI '^^J^ % > ,> 7 '>> w ''W '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 f 400 FRANCE. i crime. Had the combined armies besieged Paris, it is difficult to con- ceive nhat aid they could have found from two or three thousand aristo-. . crats, and many of these secured in chains. A national convention had been called, to determine on the charges brought against the king. They met on the 24th of September : and, on tlie first day of the meeting, tlie abolition of royalty in France was decreed by acclamation j and the following day it was ordered that all public acts should be dated " tlie first ) ear of the French republic." But hardly was this convention constituted, whan a violent faction ap- peared, headed by Marat*, Robespierre, and others, who repeatedly de- graded its transactions by their fanaticism ; and, being supported by the Jacobins and Parisian populace, proved too powerful for the convention to punish them as it wished. Repeated instances have proved that tlie con- vention was not free, but must vote as the mob of Paris dictated ; the moderation of the meniljers being often obliged to yield to the indecent applauses and hisses of the galleries. So rapid was tlie progress of the French arms ; and so great were the distresses in the combined armies, arising from a scarcity of provisions, from a long rainy season, and from a considerable mortality among th« Prussians (by the French accounts, estimated at one half), that the Pnis- sians retreated from the dominions of France : which example the Au- gtrians soon followed. Even at the very time when Paris was in the greatest danger, the in- vasion of Savoy was ordered. On the 2 1st of September general Mon- tesquiou entered the Savoyard territories, seised on the frontier posts and castles without resistance, and two days after took Montmelian. Cham- berry and all Savoy soon followed ; but the conquest, not being resisted, was productive of no military glory. The imprudence of the national convention, in permitting Savoy to incorporate itself with France, has excited wonder. After frequent declarations that the French woul4 enter into no war with any view to conquest, their conduct in this re- spect was absurd and impolitic. It subjected them to the merited re- proach that, under the pretence of liberty, they maintained the destruc- tive maxims of their ancient government j and that their wishes to in- crease their territory, perhaps to subjugate f^urope, remained the same. Admiral Triguet, commanding a .squadron in the Mediterranean, cap- tured Nice, \i\la Franca, and the fortress of Montalban, belonging to the king of Sardinia. The conquest of Savoy was regarded as a trifle ; but when Custine began his acquisitions in Germany, every e}'e was turned to the rapidity and importance of his progress, till diverted by the wonders of Dumou- riez. Spires yielded to the French arms on tlie 30tli of September, and Worms soon after followed : ample supplies of provisions and ammuni- tion were found in these cities. Custine, pursuing his course along the left bank of the Rhine, next captured Mentz, and afterwards Frankfort, He was eager to proceed to Cobientz, that noted seat of the counter- * Marat fell by the hands of female vonn;cance. Marie Anne Charlotte Cordey, strongly impressed with the calaniities which he had brought uppn her countrj', took a journey to Paris, in July, 179.3, on purpose to put a period to his existence. Meeting Marat as he was coming from tlie bath, and entering into conversation with him (the more certainly to identify his person), she plunged a dagger into his breast ; upon which he fell, and soon expired. Glorying in having exterminated a monster, she delivered herself up to the oilicers of justice ; and vrith the utmost firmness submitted to her fate, in having hut head severed by the guillotine, in the 25th year of her age. FRANCE. 407 to pon- arifctO" charges and, ice was that all lublic." tion ap- ?dly de- by the ivention revolutionist-. ; but the Prussians and Austrians at length indicated a re- newal of hostilities by garrisoning that townj and encamping in th« ad- jacent country. The cenqutist cf the Austrian Netherlands forms the next grand ob- ject. Duinourie/s had promised to pass his Christmas at Brussels j and \vJiat was reganlcd iis an idle vaunt proved very modest, for that city was in his hands by the 14th of November. That able general, having entered the Ncthci lands on the 1st or 2nd of that raontli, witli au army o\' forty tluniiand men, and with a most formidable train of artil- lery, occupied the hrst li\e days in repeated engagements with tlie Aus- trian army, commanded by the duke of Saxe-1'eschen, governor of the Austrian Netherlaud-;, and by general Beauiicu; which, however, ex- ceeded not twenty th(jusand. At length, on tlie (Jthof November, a de- cisive liattl« was tiiiight at Jemappe, which decided the fate of the Ne- therlands. Tiie cuiitest was very general : all the points of the enemy's tlanks and lines were attacked at once ; all the bodies of the French were in action, and almost every individual fought personally. The cannonade be^an at .-e\ en in the morning. Dumouriez ordered the vil- lage of Carillon to be attacked, because he could not attempt the heightsof Jemappe till he had taken that village. At noon the French infantry formed in columns, and rapidly advanced to decide the aftair by the bayonet. After an obstinate defence, the Austrians at two o'clock retired in the utmost disorder. Dumouriez immediately advanced, and took possession of tlie neighf bouring town of Mons, where the French were received as brethren. The tidings arriving at Brussels, the court was struck with an indescri- bable panic, and instantly fled to liuremondj whence it was again to be driven by the arms of Miranda. Tournay surrendered to a detachment on ilie Sth of November. Dumouriez, having refreshed his troops at Mons, advanced to Brussels ; where, after an indecisive engagement be- tween his van and the Austrian rear, he was received with acclamations on the 1 4th of that month. — Ghent, Charleroi, Antwerp, Malines (or IVIechlin), Louvain, Ostend, Namur, in short all the Austrian Nether- lands except Luxembourg, successively followed the example of the capital J and the conquests t>f Louis XIV. wi'rc not more rapid. Many of the priests, who \\ere banished, came to England, and were received with great benevolence ; this was followed by the decree of the national convention against the emigrants j by which they were de- clared dead in law, their elt'ects confiscated, and themselves adjudged to immediate death if they appeared in France. Another decree, of the U)ih of November, attracted the attention of e\ery nation in Europe. It is in tlic fallowing terms : " The national convention declare, in the name of the French nation, that they will grant fraternity and assistance to all tliose people who wish to procure liberty ; and they charge the cxecuti\ e power to send orders to the ge- nerals to give assistance to such pcwple, and to defend citizens who have surt'ered, or are now sutlering, in the cause of liberty." This decree, and others of a similar tendency, seemed to institute a political crusade against all the pmvers of F.urope. No sooner had Antwerp yielded to the French arms, than, in order to conciliate the Belgians, the opening of the ua\ igation of the Scheldt (shut up by the treaty of Munster, in lti48) was projected and ordered ; notwithstanding this treaty, so far as respects the shutting up of the na-. vigation of this river, had been confirmed to the Dutch in succeeding treaties, guarantied both by the coui ts of \'crsailles and London. The FHANCE. Dutch ngiirdcd this measure as injurious tn their trade ; for Antwerp might pro\e a dangerous rival to Amsterdam. The infraction of this treaty was one of the reasons whicli induced the parHament of Great Bri- tain to oppose the unwarrantable pretensions of die French. The memorable trial of the king commenced on the 1 1th of Decem- ber. The issue is too well known. The firmness of this unfortunate monarch during his trial, and at the place of execution (on the 21st of January, 1 /();>), increased the conuuiseration of every inditlerent specta- tor J and callous indeed must be the person who does not partake of tlie sympathy which was felt through all Europe upon this transaction. It would he a tedious and disagreeable undertaking to trace minutely and gradually the progress of the dispute between France and England. Without afhxing any degree of credit to the refK^rts tlint Great Britain had early hut bccretly acceded to the concert of princes, and the treaty of Pilnitz, it is natural to belie\c that the British ministry had long viewed with a jealous eye the progress of the French vo\ olution towards a turbulent democracy. We, nuist, h(nve\er, do the French n.ntiou the justice to confess, that tlie unanimous voice of that people was clamorous from the first for peace and alliance with Englnnd. A series of events changed this uiclinalion. A bill for forcibly transporting aliens out of the kingdom was introduced into parliament. The ports of Great Bri- tain were shut against the exportation of corn to France, while it was permitted to her enemies. In the end, the ambassador cf the republic, M. Chauvelin, was ordered, under the authority of the alien bill, at a ^hort notice, out of the kingdom : immediately after which dismission, the convention declared that the Fr'nirh republic was at war with the king of England, and the stadtholder of the United Provinces. In consetjuence of these measures, general Dumouricz proceeded with a large body of troops to invade Holland ; exhorting the Batavians, in a violent manifesto, to reject the tyrannic aristocracy of the stadtholder and his party, and to become a free republic. The Dutch made prepara- tions for defending themselve*; and the English cabinet seconded their efforts, by an immediate embarkation of troops, to the command of which the duke of York was appointed. The subjugation of Holland was the fust project of general Dumou- riez : and when the ease with which h.e had effected tlie conquest of the Netherlands, and the courage and ability displayed by him and his army at the famous battle of Jemappe, were considered, there seemed reason to apprehend that he would soon make an impression on these provinces; and the easy surrender of Breda and Gertruydenberg encouraged him to boast that he would terminate the contest by a speedy approach to Am- sterdam. Certain events, however, ensued, which ettectually prevented the performance of this promise. General Miranda, who had besieged the city of IMaestricht, and sum- moned the governor to surrender, was attacked by j)rince Frederic of Brunswick, and defeated with considerable loss. 'J he Austrians, after this, divided themselves into three columns j two of which marched to- wards Maestricht, and the siege of that place was immediately raised. The third pursued the advanced guard of the republic ; and the absence of several conunanding ofhcers was sujiposed to have greatly facilitated the success of the Prussians in these rencounters. On the 14th of March, the Imperialists advanced from Tongres to- wards Tirlemont, by St. Tron ; and were attacked by general Dumouricz buceessively on the 15tli and following days. The first attempts were attended with sueeeuii: the Austritm advanced po.sts were ubliged to FRANCE. 409 r^-^tiro to St. Tron, through Tirlemont, which they had already passed. Oil the lyth, a general engagement took place at Neerwinden ; the French army beiny; covered on the left by Doimael, and on the right by Landen. The actiijn continued, with treat obstinacy on both sides, tVom seven in the morning till rive in the afternoon : when the French were obliged to fall back ; and the Austrian cavalry, coming up, put tliem entirely to flight. The loss in each army was great. The French dis- j)iayed considerable courage and address ; but were overpowered by the superior numbers, and perhaps by the more regular discipline, of their enemies. Dumouriez was now suspected of treachery ; and roncral Mira)\da in- timated his suspicions, in a conlidential K-lter to Pi'tiun, dated tbe 2!.st of March. Four commissioners were immediately sent from Paris, with powers to suspend and arrest <ill generals and military othcers whom Uiey should suspect, and bring them to the bai-'of the convention. I'heso commissioners, on the 1st of April, proceeded to St. Amand, the liead- <juarters of Dumouriez ; and, being admitted to his presence, explained to iiim the object of their mission. After a conference of some hours, tlie general, finding that he could not persuade tliem to favour his in- tentions, gave the signal for a body of soldiers who were in waiting j and t)rdered the minister of war, Boumonville (wlio was sent to supersede him), and the commissioners Camus, Jilancal, La Marque, and Quiiiftte, to bo immediately conveyed to general Clairfait's head-quarters at 'iour- nay, as hostages for the safety of the royal family. Dumouriez, notwithstanding his splendid talents, found himself grossly mistaken with respect to the disposition of his army. They had resented the attront so imprudently otlered to their general : but when he came to explain to them his plan, and propose the restoration of royalty in the person of the prince, they all forsook him ; and he was obliged to fly with a very few attendants, making his escape through a dreadful dis- charge of musketry, which the whole column poured upon him and his associates. The latter end of June, and the beginning of July, were chiefly di- stinguished, in the north, by some petty skirmishes between the two grand armies. In the latter part of July, the Austrians obtained some .successes of more importance. The garrison of Condc, after sustaiuing a blockade of three months, surrendered on the lOth, by ca{)iiiilation, to the prince of Colxnirg : and Valenciennes, on the 2i)lh of the same iiioutli, to the duke of York, not without some suspicions of treachery in both cases. Kucouraged by these successes, a large detachment from the combliietl army, umler the command of the duke of York, proceeded, without lo!>s of time, to attack the port and town of Dunkirk. On the 22d of August, the duke of York marched from Fumes to attack the French camp at Ghivelde; which was abandoned at Jiis approach, and ho was iilmost inmieuialely enabled to take the ground whicii it was hij inten- tion to occupy iluring the siege. On the 24th, he attacked the outposts of the French ; who, with some k)ss, were driven into tiie town. In Lliis action, the lamous Austrian general Dalton, and some otlier otficers of iiote, were killed. The succi-eding day, the siege might be said regu- larly to commence. A considerable naval armament from Great Britain was to have co-operated in the siege ; but, by some neglect, admiral JNIacbride was not able to sail so early as was expected. In the mean time, the hostile army was extremely harassed by the gun-boats of the X'lcuch ; a successful ioriie Mas eriected by the ganisou ou the (Kh of 410 FIIAXCE. f-^ $f * -'1 #i PL September ; and the French collecting in superior force, tJie dtike of yt)rk, on the 7th, after several severe actions, in which the allied forces suffered very considerably, was compelled to raise the siege, and lea^ e behind him his numerous train of ariillery. General Monchinxl was af- terwards impeached by the convention, and behca«led, for not having improved his auccess to the best advantage ; as it was assorted that he had it in his power to capture almost the \\hole of the duke of York's army. The disatiection of the southern provinces of France was at this time productive of serious dangers to the new republic. It is well known that the deputies and people of these provinces were among the most active to promote the dethroning of the king on the 10th of August, 1792. It 'is, therefore, somewhat extraordinary, that the same men f-hould be among the first to rebel against the aiithf)rity of the conven- tion. The formidable union which took place, under the name ot ftderaie rcpublicunistn , between the cities of Marseilles, Lyor.?, and Tou- lon, in the course oi the months of June and July, seemed to threaten almost the dissolution of tJie existing authorities. A considerable army was, however, dispatched against Lyons, and the city closely besieged. The Marseilloi ,. in the mean time, opened their gates on the approach of the republican army, and submitted: but the jieople of Toidon en- tered into a negotiation with the Knglish admiral, lord Hood, who wan then cruising in the Mediterranean ; and he took possession both of the town and shipping, in the naiiie of Lewis XVII., and under the. positive stipulation tliat lie should as.Mst in restoring the constitution of V/*iC). Among the victims of popular resentment v ho fell abotit this pe- riod, was the celebrated general Custine ; whose tbrrner services, what- ever might have been his subsequent demerits, ought to have .secured him more lenient treatment. He was recalled to Paris, from the com- mand of tlxe northern army, in the beginning of July j and, on the 22d, committed, under a decree of the convention, a prisoner to the Abbey. He was tried by the revolutionary tribunal ; and accused of having main- tained an improper correspondence with tiie Prussians w hile he com- nianded on tiie Khine, and of having neglected various opportunities of tlirowing reinforcements into Valenciennes. It is needless to say that he was found guilty ; to be suspected was then to be condemned : and the populace of Paris, now accustomed to such scenes, beheld th« sacrifice of their former deft nder with calm indilforencc, or with blind exultation. The trial and condemnation of the queen immediately followed that rif general Custine. She had been removed, on the night of the 1st of August, from tlie Temple, to a small and miserable apartment in the prison of the Conciergerie ; where she remained til! she was brought be- fore the revolutionary tribunal, on the 15th of Oi:loher. The act of ac- cusation consisted of several charges, many of which were frivolous and incredible, and few of tliem appeared to be sufficiently substantiated by evidence 5 but had tlie conduct of Majie Antoinette been more unex- ceptionable than there is reason to believe it was, it is not very proba- ble tliat she would have escaped. Af"ter an hour's consultation, there- fore, the jury brought in their verdict — " Guilty of all the charges." The (jiieen heard the sanguinary sentence with dignity and resigna- tion ; perhaps, indeed, it might be considered by her less as a puni.sh- ment than as a release. On tlie l(Jtli of October, at about elp\en c'clocK in the forenoon, she %vas condtact^d iu a goachj (roai the prison PRANCE. 411 pf tiic Cont Wgerle, to n seaftbld prepared in the Place de la Ilcvolution, '.vhere lur unfortunate husband had previtjusly suttered. The j)eople, whf) crowded the streets as she passed, exhibited no signs of pity or coniiiunctii;n. Her liehnviour, as her last sufferings approached, was decent anil componcd. She met her fete in the thirty-eighth year of her age. Soon after the ronvention liad brought the queen to the scaffold, they entered upon the trial of Brissot, and his supposed accomplices. Brissot was cl)a'-;:od with having r,aid and written, at the commencement of the revolution, th.ai Fayette's retiring from the public service was a national niislortune •, with ha\ing distinguished himself three times in the Jacobiq club by speeches, of which one provoked the ruin of the colonies, an- r)tiier the niass.K re of the patriots in the Champ de Mars, and the third the war against Austria. Upon these- and other vague accusations, Brissot, and twenty-one more of the convention, were brought to trial before the revolutionary tribunal, on the 24 ih of October ; a few days afterwards the jury de- clared all the accused members to be accomplices in a conspiracy which had existed against the unity and indivisibility of tlie French republic j atul the tribunal immediately condemned them all to the punishment of uleath. Valaze, after he had heard his sentence, stabbed himself; and the remaining twenty-one were executed on the 30th of October. The wretched and intriguing Egalite, late duke of Orleans, was Boon after brought to the block. He was accused of having aspired to the sovereignty from the commencement of the revolution ; but how well founded the charge was, it is not easy to determine. He was con- veyed in a cart, on the evening of the 6th of November, to the place of execution; and suffered withgrfiat firmness, amidst the insults and re- proaches of the populace. In the south of France, neither the exertions of the allies, nor tlie surrender of the Toulonese, w6re sufficient to produce the expected con- sequence of establishing a monarchical government. On the 30th of November, the garrison of Toulon made a vigorous sortie, in order to destroy some batteries which the French were erecting on certain heights within cannon-shot of the city. The detachment sent for this purpfise accomplished it ; and the French troops were surprised, and fled. The r.Uies, too much elated with their success, pursued the fugitives till they unexpectedly encountered a considerable force which had been sent to cover their retreat. At this moment, general O'Hara, com- mander in chief at Toulon, came up ; and, while he was exerting him- self to bring oiY his troops with regularity, received a wound in his arm, and was made prisoner by the republicans. Near a thousand of the British and allied forces were killed, wounded, or taken prisoners, on this occasion. Soon after the capture of the British general O'Hara, the city of Tou- lon was evacuated by the allies. On the morning of the 19tli of De- cember, the attack began belbre all the republican forces had time to come up. It was chiefly directed against an English redoubt (Fort Mu]- grave) defended by more than three thousand men, twenty pieces of cannon, and several mortars. This formidable post was attacked about five o'clock in the morning, and at six the republican flag was flying upon it. The town was then bombarded from noon till ten o'clock the same night J when the allies and part of tlie inhabitants, having first set fire jto tlic town and •hipping, precipitated their flight. Two chaloupes. I 412 FRANCE. . filloilwith tlic fugitives, were sunk by the batteries, 'Tiic preripi|,i>ion vith whicli the evacuation was cHected, caused a prcat part at' the ships and pr(>ii(?rly to tall into the hands of the French, ami was altendeil with the most melancholy consequences to tlu" wretched inhabitants — who, as soon as they o1)served the preparations for tlight, crowded to tlio shores, and demanded tlie protection which had been promised them on the failii of the Ihitish crown. A scene of confu.iion, riot, and plimder, . ensued ; and though great clForts were made to convey as many as pos- sii)]e of the people into the slni)s, thousands were left to all the horrors of liillini; into the hands of their enraged countrymen. Many of them plunged into the sea, and made a vain attempt to swim on board the shi])s ; others were seen to shout themselves on thi- beach, that, they riiglH not endure the greater tortures they might expect from the re- publicans. ])urin<; all this, the flames were spreadini; in every direc- tion; and tlie ships tliat had bean set on lire were threatening csery in- stant to explotle, and blow all around them into the air. This is but a faint description of the s«.'enc on shore, and it was scarcely less dreadful on board the ships — loaded with the heterogenous mixture of nations ; with aged men and intants, as well as women ; with the sick from all .the hospitals, and with the mangled soldiers from the posts just deserted, their wounds still undrest. Nothing could equal the horrors of the sight ; except the still more appalling cries of distrnction and agony, that lilleil the e.ir, for husbands, fathers, and children, left on shore. In the latter end of March, the party called the Ilebertists, consisting of Hebert, Momoro, Vincent, and some others, were arrested, brought to trial before the revolutionary tribunal, and twenty of them executed. A few days after, tlie celebrated Danton, Fabre d'Eglantine, Ba/irc, . Chabot, and other.s, were arrested sis conspirators against the republic, tried in a a cry summary way, and sentenced to death ; which sentence was executed on the 5ih of April, 1/94. In consequence of these executions, the government of France, how- ever nominally republican, became almost entirely vested in one man, the usurper Ilobcspierrc — a luime vhich will probably be transmitted witli infamy to late posterity. Under his sanguinary administration, the prisons of I'aris, at one time, contained between seven and eight thousand p«rst>ns. Of the nmriber of those tried and executed, wo have no precise account ; but they in general appeared rather to be sacriticcd in multitudes to a jealous and cowardly cruelty, t^an con- demned with even the shadow of justice. In one of these barbarous slaughters, the jnincess Kli'zabeth, the sister of the late vmfortiuiate monarch, having been condemned on the most frivolous pretexts, \\as executed the last of twenty-six persons who were carried to the scaftbld on the same day. But, after the death of Danton, the fall of this tyrannical demagogue rapidly approached. A strong party was secretly formed against him in the convention j headed by Tallien, Legcndre, and some others. Finding tliemselvcs sutficientiy strong, Tallien moved the arrest of Robespierre and his creatures j which decree was passed witJi applauses from every quarter. The president then ordered one of the ushers of the hall to take Robespierre into custody : but such was the awe which the presence of this man was accustomed to inspire, tliat the officer hesitUed to perform his duty ; till Robespierre himself made a sign of obedience, and followed tlie usher out of the hall. The prisoners were conducteil by a few peace-officers to the prison of the Luxembourg : but the admi- nistrator of tlie police on duty thcr», wlio was one of their creatures. FRANCE". 4U refused to receive them -/and they were then led, rather in triumph than as prisoners, ff) tlie Ilitlcl de Ville. in the menu time, Meiiriot, another leader of the party, had cilsobeen arrested, but found means to escape and rai.se his parusans; who took lK)sf with him and Robespierre in the Hotel de Vil'.e, wliere they pre- tended to (orm themselves into a new con\ention, and declared the other repreientatives traitors to their country. The people, however, did not espouse their cause; the national guard, who liad at lirsl obeyed llieir orders with reluctance, forsook them ; and tlie liepulieswho had been dispatched for that purpose, attacked them in the Hotel de Ville. 15onr- tlon de roise, after having read the proclamation of ihe comenlion, rushed into the hall of the conunune, with a sabre and pistols; the in- surgents were completely deserteil, and now endeavoured to turn llitir arms against themselves. Ilobespierre the elder discharged a pistol iu liis mouth ; which, however, failed of its ell'ect, and only wounded him in the jaw, while he received another wound from a gcnsdarnie in th« side. The younger Robespierre threw himself out of a window, and broke a leg and an arm ; Le Kas shot himself upon the spot ; Couthon stabbed himself twice with a knife j and Henriot was tlnow n out of a window. The prisoners were immediately conveyed before the revolutionary tribunal; and their persons being identitied, they were condemned ta SUlKer death in the Place de la Revolution : where the tw o Robes- plerres, and nineteen others, were executed at seven in the evening of tlie 28lh of July, 17t>l. In the campaign of this year, the arms of the new republic were suc- cessful on every side against the allies. In Flanders, general Jourdan gained the battle of h'leurus ; and Charleroi, Ypres, Bruges, and Cour- tray, surrendered to the French : Ostend was evacuated ; general Clair- fait defeated near Mons, \\ hich immediately surrendered ; and the prince of Cobourg compelled to abandon the whole of the Netherlands, while the victtjrs, without opposition, entered Brussels and Antwerp. Landrecy, Quesnoi, Valenciennes, and Conde, were successively re- taken ; and tlie French armies, pvuTuing their success, took Aix-la- Chapelle, defeated Clairfait near Julicrs, and made themselves masters •f Cologne and Bonn. Maestricht and Nimeguen were likewise takrr;. The United Provinces began now to be seriously alarmed. 'i <<•; states of Friesland were the lirst to feel their danger; and, in the month »if October, tliese states determined to acknowledge the French. repuWic, to break their alliance with England, and to enter into a treaty of peace and^alliance with France. In some of the other provinces, resolutions hos- tile to the stadtliolder and his government were likewise passed ; and such appeared to he the temper of the people, even at Amsterdam, that on the 17th of October, the government of Holland published a proclama- tion, prohibiting the presenting of any petition or memorial upon public or political subjects, and all popular meetings or assemblies of tlie people upon any occasion. On the 7th of December, the French made a feeble attempt to cross the Waal, but were repulsed with lossj but on the 15th the frost set in with unusual rigour, and opened a new road to the French armies. In (he course of a week, the Maes and the Waal were both frozen over; and on the 27th, a strong column of French (tossed the Maes, ncai the village of Driel. They attacked the allied army for an extent of above twelve leagues; and, according to the report of general Pichegra, " were, as usual, victorious hi every quarter." Tlie army of the all.ei retreatrt<i PRANCE. before thtm; and, in its retreat, endured iocredii)le hardships i'fotn the «- verity of tJie weatlicr and the w;int of neccisaries. On the loth of Ja- nuary, 179''>, general Picljegni, having completed Jiis arrangements, niade his grand movement. The French crossed the Waal at ililUrent points ; with a fierce, according to some accounts, of 7(),(XXJ men. A ge- neral attack was made upon VValmodcn's position between Niniegueu and Arnheim. The allies were delcated in ev«ry <|uarter ; and, utterly unprepared either for resistance or lor Hight, buiieitd equally from tli« elements and the enemy. It was in vain that tlic stadthokler issued manifestoes, proclamations, and exhortatiofis to the Dutch peasantry, conjuring them to rise in a mass for the defence of the country. The French continued to ad- vance, and the allies to Hy Itefore thej)», till Ikrecht taurcuaerecl to them on the Ib'th of January, Rotterdam on the i«t!i, and Doit on the suc- ceeding day. The utmost consternation now prevailed auu>iig tho partisans of th« stadtholder. 1 he princess of Orange, with the younger and female pan ot the family, and with all the plate, jewels, and move- ables, that coukl be parked up, escaped on the 15th. I'he ttadtholder and the hereditary prince did iu»t leave Holland till tlie l.gth. His se- rene highness embarked at Scheveling, in an open boat, with only three men to navigate her; and arrived safe at Harwich. In lingland, ilie pa- lace of Hanijxon-court was as.signed hiu) for his reaidonce. On the 20ih of January, gtaural Pichegru entered Amsterdam iii triumph, at the head of 5,UOO men ; and was received by the inhabi- tants with the loudest acclamations. The whole of the United Pro- vinces either submitted to, or was reduced by, the French, in a few weeks. An assembly of the provisional rejiresentatives of the people met on the 27tli of January; and tlie whole government was changed, and modelled nearly after the French plan. In tho mean time, the king of Prussia, tinding he could derive no ad- vantage from the war, bagaii to relax his eliorts. The Prussian and Austrian forces, as well as their leaders, were on bad terms w itii each other ; but it was not suspected that any defection was about to take place on the part of the Prussians, tdl they began to retreat towards the Rhine, which they soon after pas.sed. A negotiation betw een Prussia and France followed ; which ended in a treaty of peace signed at hasle, on the 5th of April, 1793, by which his Prussian majesty entirely aban- doned the coalition. The Prussian negotiation was followed by the treaty made between the French republic and Spain, in whiih country tlie arms of France had made a progress equally successful and rapid. Fontaiabia, which guards the entrance of Spain, and which had cost the duke of Berwick C,000 men, had been taken, almost immediately, by a detachment from the French army : Rosas was likewise taken ; and the troops of the re- public had made themselves ma&ters of the greater part of the rich pro- vinces of Biscay and Catalonia, and were, in fact, in full march for the capital of the kingdom. Orders were thvirefore dispatched to M. D'Yriarte, at Basle, immediately to conclude a treaty ; which was ac- cordingly signed by the Spanish minister and M. Barthelemi, at Basle, on the 2^ of July. About the middle of this year, died the infant son of the unfortunate Lewis XVI. An unjust and close iinprisonment, if it did not produce, at least, it is probable, hastened his idle. He had always been an un- healthy child, and subject to a scrofulous complaint ; a disorder in which cootinemcQt and inactiYity are ire(]u6utly fatal. For some time prcviuiu FRANCE. 415 tp his decease, he liad been afflicted with a s'^eHing In his Icnce, nnd auitther in his wrist. Itis appetite failed, and nr was at lent^tli ait.u ked with a ti'ver. It dues not ap|>ear that medical aid was denied him, or nei^lected. The disease, however, continued to increase ; and on th« morning of the ()ih of June, he expired in the prison of the Temple, ' where he had been confined from the fatal autumn of 179'^' Moved perhaps by this cvt-nt, or influeneed by the general sympathy of the jw.-ople of l''nnc(', the committee of public safely, iu th*; Ijc- gianing of July, proposed tlie ixcliange of the princess, sister of tii* dauphin (who was Hke.vise a prisoner in the Temple), for the deputie* delivered up to Austria 1j) the treachery of Dumouricz ; and for tlie two ambassadors SenKniville and Miiret, who had been sci7A'.d, contrary to the law of nations, on a neutral territory, by au Austrian corps. Tlio emperor, after some hesitation, ace ceded to the jjroposal ; and before the conclusion of the year, the priiu:ess was delivered to the Austrian en- voy, at Basle in Switzerland, and the deputies were restored lo their country. In tlie course of this year, an expedition was planned by the English ministry, to invade the coast of France, in that part wliere the royalist* (known by the name of Cluntans) were in armsagaiust the republicans. The force employed consistcci cliietly of emigrants ; under the com- mand of M. I'uisaye, M. d'Hcrvilly, and the count de Soinbreuil. I'liey landed in the l)ay of Quil)eron, and t(jok the fort of the same name ; but soon after eiiperienccd a sad reverse: — the fort i>«ing surprised by the republican troops, mider the command of general Hoche ; who killed or made prisomrs tlie greater part of the emigrants, Chuuans, and English, in the fort, amounting nearly to 10,000 men. Tlie count de Sombreuil, the bishop of Do! (with his clergy who accompanied him), and most of the emigrant officers, who were made prisoners, wertj tried by a military tribunal, and put to death. Before the month of April in the ensuing year (l/yCJ), iJie fbixe of the insurgents in this part of France was entirely broken ; and their chiefs, Charette and SlolUct, taken prisoners and put to death. In Germany, the Frrncii army had croi?sed the Rhine near Man- heim, and blockaded Mentz, to which they had already laid siege for several months. In this attem])t, however, they were unsuccessful r they suffered a defeat from the Austrians, and were com{)elled tore.-pas* the river. A suspension of arms, for three months, was soon after agn-cd to by the generals of the contending armies, which was ratified by the respective powers. In the succeeding year (l/Ofi), the campaign opened in the south, ©n the yth of April ; when the rapid and sigH.il victories of the republican troops, under the coiniuand of the then obscure and little known, bvit now celebrated Buonaparte (which name he ha; since chosen to write Bonaparte) ended, ii> little more than a month, the war with Sardinia. The battles of Miliesinio, Dego, Mondovi, JNlonte Lenno, and Monte Notte, compelled liis Sardinian majesty to acce])t such terms as tlie conquerors thought propt'i" offer; and a treaty of peace, by which h« ceded Savoy and Nice to France, was signed on the ] 7th of May. Buonaparte pursued his success ; and, agaiti defeating Beaulieu, thft Austrian general, at the battle ot the bridge ot I.O'ii, forced the slwttered remains of the Austrian army to retire towards Mantua, pursued by one part of the republican fprces : while the remainder enterid Milan on the J 8th of May without farther resistance, and the French aruiiea gained possession of the whole of Lonibaid) , 4\6 FRANCE. •'-J 'I'lic nrmisticr which IkkI Ikvii coiirludod on tlu- Rfiino,* was nffi-f w.inls iMitloiiiTfil, 1)111 ;it k'lij^fli iltil.iit'd lo \n- at :im nid on tin- .'list nt* Al.i\ , wlii-n llic ;irmy ot" thf S.nnlin- aiut Mfusc, uiuUt i^cncial .lom- (lan, jiiiiniii'^ foiisultuhli- ailvaiilagfs over tin* Au^lii iiis, aJxanrrd into tlio ln'.irf I't tin- crupiic ; while anolhiT armv, u\n\ri i^cncral Morcaii, Hassid till- Khiiic .It SiMsbouig, took thv lint o( K»hl (a post olfnal iiupoil.inci' on lliir opposite bank), and, p<nt'tratin!; thromdi IJavari i lu'.iilv to Iiali'hon. ••nd(.'a\()invd to form a jujudon uiili the army ot Joiirdaii. 'I'hi.s attnupt, howi-vcr, did iioi succii-d ; both ainiifs cxpc- ricncnl a iVM'i.sf. ol' ioituno, and wcrr oblipod In ri'tiv.it till they rc- crosscil the Hliine. The siiiu'.lion ol"^<'ncial ^b)^l^m v;Ls liii;ldy- i-riti- c.'il ; ami hi^ vi'l real is ai-knowledivd. on ail sides, lo ha\e beiMi eon- tliieteil \vitl> great i\iilitary skill, 'riu.' aichdiiki- (•liarKs, \\lio lom- inaiided llie Ausfrian army, tbliowed Moivan in Ins retreat ; and laid tieu;e to tlu; 1 .a ot Kehl, whirh he rc-took at'ler .i most obstinate le,- sistanieoii the pan ol ilie Krentlj. 'I'o restore the ailairs of Italy, the oniperor assembled a new :irn!y, composed of the flower of the (Jerman troops servin;; on tin- Hhiiic; and j;avo the eoinmand of it to gen^'ral Wurmser, «)ne ot' the ohUst nnd ablest of tlie Imperial generals. I'liis foreo, on its /irst arri\al, wa;* successtul : tlio Fieueh w«trc repulsed, defeated, and compelled lo raise tlie sies;e of Mantua. Bonaparte, however, .soon returned to ilie cJiarge ; and, altera series of hwtly-eontesled.irtions, ihearmy of Wurm- ser was so reduced and harassed, that he was oblii;ed to shut himself up in Mantua: where he was closily besieged by il;e \iitors, wlu) at the eanie time made incursions into the 'I'yrol ; and, by \\\e baltli' of Uove- redo, and the possession of IVent, became niastersof tlje passes that le«i to Vienna, 'l"he Austrians, at the .same time, madt; a great ellort, un- der general Alvin/y, {o rescue the gallant Wmniser and his l)esieg(<l amiy ; but the battle of Arcole completely defeated their ilesign^ ;ind Mautua was .soon nftrr obliged to surrender, Ihe victories of lluonaparte compelled the pope, the king of Na- ples, and the inferitir princes of Itiily, to conclude such treaties as the Frencli thought proj)er to dictate. The victors likewisi- founded a new republic in Italy, at tirst called the C'ispadane, but altcrwards the Cisal- pine republic, to Vv Inch they aunexeil such parts of the papal territory as lliey judged convenient. After the taking of iMantua, the victorious Buonaparte penetiated into the 'I'vrol, and direeted his cour.se towards the Imperial capital. 'J'he nrehtluke Charles was opposed to him, but w:is unable to check hii progress, 'I'he republican armies had at length advanced .so near to V ieiina, that the uiiuost alarm aud contusion prevailed in that city. 'I'Jie 'bank suspended its payments ; and the empc-ror was preparing to forsake his capital, and remove to Olnuitz. In this critical situation of his af- fairs, his Imperial majesty opened a negotiation with Buonaparte j a short armistice was agreed to ; and tlie preliminaries of peace between the en)- fHTor and king of Hungary, and the French republic, were signed at- I.eoben, in the month of April, l/PZ- In the mean time, a tu«iult having taken place at Venice, in wliicJi a tuuuber of the I'rench soldiers wer« murdi'red in the hospitals of that citv. the I'Vench armies, on their return, abolished the ancient govern- ment of Wnice, planted the tree of liberty in St. Mark's Place, rsta- blished a municipality, and proposed to annex the city and territory to the new Cisalpine republic. But the conclusion of the delinltive treaty «f peace w iih tlie emperor being protracted on actouut of tliu- Ftciit-^i IRANCF. 417 Trfvis'iiijT to restore Matitim, ns il is alli'm'd it \rns «itipulaf('d tJjcy slinuld, i»« tlio picliininarifs, tlii-y at lt'nf;tli agiced toiiili.' to liiin tlic ciiy and a J»art oi liw territory ol' Veiiiee, in compel wut it aj ti>r Maiilua. The deliiiilive tn- .ty ol" peace iK'tv.i'cii France anil the emperor was . sij-ned ai C'ampo I'ormit). on the l/tli ol Octohcr. 1 707. Hy tliis treaty tlie eniperov (('tied to Kiance tlie wImjIc of the Netherlands, and all hii fornuT terrilorv in Italy. 1 1»-' p'ceivrd in reiitrn the city of Venice, Istria, and D.ilmatia, and tlie \ enetian idands in the /Vdriutic : the French were to poasess tin; other Venetian islands, VViiile the negotiation whi( h terminateil in ll^is treaty was cirryinj; on, the disputes ot two coniendini'j j)arties were produi in<j^ a new revolution in France. ih\ (he r»th ot iMarch, the two councils drew the lots, wliicli depri\ed on«' third ot' their memhers of tlu ir seats in the legislature, and tlie new deputies j-lected in their room took their seals on the 'JOtli of the sunu^ month. It soon appearetl that tin- anti-directorial parly had received a considerable accession of strenj^th. 'J'he conduct of the directory was very freely canvassed; retienchiuetit ofexpenic inhothei\il and military otiiees was proposed j the laws relative to polygamy were ordered to be revised ; and the severity of thobe ai'aiiist ])riesls and emigrants v.ui j^reatly relaxed. The proi-eediu'^a of the dire( lory, willi respect to tlu? Venetian, (ienoese, and Helvetic republics, wi'te severely censured, and it was evident that an opi-n rupture between the directory and tlie conr.- cils was inevitable. Unlbrtunalely tor the party in opptisition to the di- rectory, die armies took part with the latter. The army oi' Italy trar.s- niitted to the Oirectory a nvM \iolent address relative to the.'.e ilispiUc!, and its e.K.ample was lollc)wed by the <»ther armies of the lepublii:. 'i Ik: ojiposition parly were slow ;;ud irrcMilute in tlie measures they took for their defence : they probably relietl wiih too much confidence on their supposed stren<;lli, as ihey had a decisive majority in the couiuil of live hundred, and two out of ilie fi\e ilirectors, Carnot and Karlhelemi, weic in their interests. i?arras, however, and his party, supported by the armies, resolved on a prompt and violent measuie, wliicli eflcctually decideil the contest. On the morning of the -lilt of September, at the early lioiir f-f three o'clock, IJarras, and the two directors who acted with him, oidcied thu alami-gun-s to be fired, and the halls of the coimcils to be surrounded with a military force. General Au<i;eieau, wlio was changed with the execu- tion of these orders, repaired to thc> barracks, and addressed the guard of the legi'/iative body, assuring them thai he (auieonly to preserve there- public from the conspiracy of royalists. 'I'he soldiers di-claied, with shouts of approbatit)n, that he had only to command, and tliey utre ready to obey. 'I'hus relnfoieed by the very I'.u'i to whom alone the councils could look for tlef'ei>ee, Augercau tuleicd the hall of th(r fiv« hundred, and sei/.ed Pichcgrii, ilu? presiilcnt, wiili his own hands, and ordered about eighteen others (jf the most conspicuous characters to be arrested and committed to the temple. The halls were shut up, and the members of both councils appointed to meet in oilier places which were pointed out to them. C'arnot and liarihelemi were implicated in the fate of their friends in the councils. I'he foinier took advantage of the tumult and fled; the Ij'.tler calmly awaited the storm, and was put under arrest. Barthelemi, I'ichegru, and a number of the deputies who were seized by Augereau, \\ere transported to Ca}enne, whence the two former, and some others, afterwards ibuud means to return to Europe. The power of the directorv, or rather of the party of Eaxras, being now 3£ V- 3 Hs'i 11 ,» W'*, .•'f ■ 8-''' ■ ■> iii ■u ;|f t i <. ■ 1' t ' 1 !: ! |i(i|M ;f!::;i||l 418 FRANCE. rendered complete by this decisive victory over the councils, they pro- jected new schemes of ambition and conquest, in order to give employ- ment to the armies, and aftbrd them an opportunity of enriching them- selves by plunder. A tumult having taken place at Rome, in which a French general was killed, tliey subverted the government of that city, deposed the pope, and erected a new republic, which they called tlie Ro- man republic. They likewise found a pretext to invade and levy heavy contributions on Switzerland, which they endeavpured to transform into a new republic, under the title of the Helvetic republic ; the government of which would, in consequence, be delivered into tlie hands of their own officers and partisans. Of these invasions the reader will tind a further account under the heads of Italy and Switzerland. In the beginning of the year 1798, a congress of deputfes from tlie states of the German empire met at Rastadt, to negotiate a pe;ice between France and the empire, on the basis of tlie treaty of Campo Formio : Bonapaite repaired thither, met the assembled plenipotentiaries, and ex- changed with count Meerfeldt the ratification of the treaty of peace witk tlie court of Vienna ; after which he returned to Paris, leaving the com- missioners, Trielhard and Bonnier, to conduct the negotiations, which were protracted to a great length. After the conclusion of peace with the eniperor, the army became a burthen which it was found difficult to support ; and tliough a part of it had been Cinployed in the plundering of Rome, and the oppression of Switzerland, there still remained a large body of troops in a state of inac- tivity that might ultimately prove dangerous to the government. An im- mediate invasion of England was therefore announced to be resolved on, and an army collected along the coasts of France opposite to Great Bri- tain, to which was given the pompous title of the Army of England. Con- vinced, however, of the impracticability of such an invasion, if ever it were really intended, the project was changed for anotlier, likewise suffi- ciently absurd, which was an expedition to Eg}'pt, under the command of Bonaparte; and the ultimate object of which, it is believed, waste penetrate, cither by the Isthmus of Suez, or by the Red Sea, to the Indian Ocean, embark the troops, and, by a co-operation witli Tippoo Sultan, endeavour to effect the overthrow of the British empire in the East. While preparations were secretly making for this expedition, the public were amused with strange and monstrous stories of rafts to be constructed for the invasion of England, and troops were collected on the nortliern coast of France, while the navy of the republic were secretly repairing to Toulon. At length the preparations being completed, Bonaparte em- barkctl on board the tlcet, under the coniuiand of admiral Brueys, with about 40,000 men, chiefly the veterans of the Italian army, and sailed from Toulon in the latter t^nd of May. On the ()ih of June he arrived off the island of Malta, where he demanded leave to water the fleet, which was refused by tlie grand-master, in consequence of which the French on the following day landed a body of troops. The little island of Gozzo was taken by one detachment, while the southern parts of ^lalta were reduced by another. The greater part of the inhabitants took refuge in the garrison, which, however, made but a feeble resistance, the grami-master on the 11th agreeing to a capitulation, by which the whole khnd and its dependencies were surrcndercft to the French republic. After leaving a garrison of 4,0(X)n-ien in Malta, Bonaparte proceeded on his voyage, about the 21st of Jiaie, and arrived at Alexandria on the 1st of Jnly^ havirg dcapcd the Bntish squadron which was detached in Wf FR.VNCE. 419 pursuit of hhto under the command of admiral Nelson. His usual good fortune appeared to attend him in all his first attempts. The town of Alexandria was taken by assault, on the night of the 5th, with the loss of between two and three hundred men, and on tlie 21st the French army appeared before Cairo, which was defended by Morad Bey with a con- siderable body of the Mamalukes } but on the 23d it was attacked and carried. The beys, however, attempted to rally, and collected a formi- dable force in the neighbourhood of Cairo j but the battle of the pyra- mids, which was fought on the 26th, rendered tlie French masters of the greater part of the country. In that engagement, twenty-three beys, with all the forces they could bring into the fiefd, were completely defeated. Two tliousand of the Mamalukes were slain, and four hundred camels with their baggage, and fifty nieces of cannon, were taken, with a very trifling loss on the part of the French. The conquest of Kgypt now appeared to be complete ; but on the 1 st of August the expedition received a terrible blow in the defeat and de- struction of the fleet, by admiral Nelson, of which an account has already been given in our historical summary of the alfairs of England. The Fiench land-forces, however, remained in possession of Egypt ; and, to secure his conquest, Bonaparte advanced into Syria, where, after gaining some advantages, he received a decisive check before St. John d'Acre. The English squadron, under sir Sydney Smith, intercepted a flotilla which was bringing his battering artillery and ammunition from Egypt j and, sir Sydney acting in concert witli the Turks, he was completely re- pulsed in every assault, and obliged to raise the siege, and retreat back to Egypt with the shattered remains <5f his army. From Egj'pt, Bona>-' parte soon after took an opportunity to make his escape to France j where, as we shall presently see, he became the author of a new and extraordi- nary revolution in the constitution and government. The unprincipled attack on Egypt, contrary to the faith of treaties, so incensed the Turks, that they immediately declared war against the French republic ; and tlie emperor of Russia, having accepted a subsidy from Great Britain, entered into a treaty of alliance witlx the Ottoman Porte and with England, and gave orders for a large body of troops to be raised to act against France. Austria likewise appeared disposed to avail itself of the as.«istance of th's new aiJy ; and the French directory having applied to the emperor for an explanation on this subject, and received none which they deemed satisfactory, sent orders to general Jourdan to pass the Rhine, with the avowed intention of forcing thp diet of Ratig- bon to declare against tlie march of the Russian troops. He executed these orders on the 1st of March, 1799 ; ^nd nearly about the same time, general Bernadotte, at the head of an army of observation, passed the Rhine at Waldeck, invested Philipsburg, and summoned tliat fortress to surrender, while general Noy sent a similar summons to Manheim, which immediately opened its gates to him. Yet, notwithstanding tliese pro- ceedings, the French ambassador declmcd to tlie congress of Rastadt, which, though it had sat so long, had as yet come to no conclusion, that these hostile movements were undertaken solely to prevent the interfe- rence of the court of Petersburg, and accelerate a general peace. The congress soon after was broken up, and two of the three French plenipo- tentiaries basely and inhumanly murdered, as they were leaving the town, by some Austrian hussars^ or persona who had assumed tliat disguise. The cabinet of Vienna being now certain of the aid of Russia, the Austrian army, under the command of the arciiduke Charles, passed the Lech, on the 4lh of March,: and the war, which iiad so long desolated 3 £1 2 ■■ "I m I'i 'fi*j P! 420 FRANCE. Europe, was renewt'd. Fortune, nt first, appeared to declare in favour of the French. A body of troops ot that nation, advancing through Schaft- hausen towards Suabia, were opposed by a detachment of Austrians, whom they defeated, taking the general and three thousand men prison- ers. They were also successful for a short time in Italy. Their troops occupied the whole of Tuscany ; and the king of Sardinia was reduced, ni tlie month of January, to the cruel necessity of formally renouncing Uie sovereignty of Piedmont, and retiring with his family and adherents to the island w hence he derived his title. The king of Naples likewise, J)aving taken up arms and ii^aded the Roman republic, after being at iirst so successful as to obtain possession of Rome, was totally defeated, and obliged to take refuge in the island of Sicily. But soon after tlie commencement of hostilities with Austria, the Freucii arms experienced a fatal reverse. On the 25th of March, general Jourdan attacked the Austrians near Stockach, but was defeated, and obliged to retire in disorder; and on the 'itJth of the same month general Kray beat the French on tlae Adige near Verona, and again defeated tliem on the 30th. On the 14tli of April, marshal Suwarrow arrived with the first column of the Russian troops, and the successes of the allies became rapid and uninterrupted. ();i the 24th of the same month, the Austrians and Russians passed the Oglio, and drove tlie French before tliem. They then crossed the Adda, and Suwarrow, on the 27th, de- feated Moreau at Cassano : and so decisive was his victor)', that general Serrurier and three thousand men were taken i)nsoners, and Milan opened its gates to the coiKiucrors on tlie 30lh. Peschiera was taken on the 6th of May, and, on the lOth, Pizzighetone surrendered to general Kray : on the 12th the Austrians entered Bologna, and took twelve hundred prison- ers j and on the 2jd they took possession of Ferrara. In Piedmont, the French, notwithstanding theetforts ofMoreau, Macdonald, and Joubert, beheld themselves successively deprived of all their strong holds. The Austrians entered Turin on tlie 27th of May, and the citadel surrendered on tlie 20th of Jane. Maiuun, after a short siege for so strong a place, surrendered on the 30th of Jaly ; tiie city of Alessandria on the same day ; and such was the success of thecamjxiign, that the French were obliged to abandon Llie whole of Italy — Genoa, and a small portion oi' the adjoin- ing territory, only excepted. On the '25th of August a desperate battle was fought between the French and the Austrians and Russians at Novi, to the territory of Genoa, in which the French are sujjpo^ed to have los- not less than ten tluuisand men ; but this victory was purchased \\ith a loss nearly as great on the part of the allies. On the side of Switzerland, the atJairs of tlie republic at first wore a less disastrous aspect — IVIassena having obtained some blight advantages. These, however, were soon counterbalanced by e\ents more favoural)]e to tlie allies; the French general being obliged to abandon Ziuieh, which was immediately occupied by the Austrian troops under Hotze. Italy being now rescued from tiie power of the French, it was re- solved that Suwarrow should proceed with his army to Switzerland, to drive the French back into tJi^fjr own territories, and enter France ; where he was to endeavour to rc'establi.-.h the fallen monarchy. The di- rectory were now convinced of their danger, and made ever}' exertion to reinforce their armies in Switzerland, and the most active preparation* jor a vigorous defence. General Massena, who comm.inded the repub- lican army in that country, di«;nlayed great military genius, and evinced uncommon abilities in all his enterprises. Knowing that if Suwarrow ^fleeted a jtanction with the Uoops already acting again.-^t him, he must FRANCE. 421 be inevitably overpowered, he determined to attack the latter; and in a variety of actions, during four whole days Ixitwecnthe 14th and 20th of September, repeatedly defeated the Austrian and Riissian armies — many thousands beinj; killed and taken prisoners, among the former of which was the brave Austrian general Hotze. Suwarrow, in consequence, on his arrival in Switzerland, found it impossible to join his defeated and dispirited allies ; his piiins were all rendered abortive ; he was tmdcr the necessity of immediately with- drawing into Germany ; anil during his retreat over mountains covered with snow, and throne !i roads ncarl}- impassable, he sulTeredas much loss as could have ensued afler a signal defeat. On the J 3th of October, Bonaparte, having found means to escai?© from Egypt, and elude the vigilance of the British cruisers, arrived in France, accompanied by general Berthier and some other officers. The recent losses which the republic had sustained, and tlie imminent dan- ger which threatened its very existence, had greatly weakened the au- thority of the directory, and prepared the way for the total alteration of the constitution and government which had probably been projected by the abbe Sleyes, and which the popularity and enterprising spirit of Bonaparte enabled him to carry into execution. The first step towards this revolution was taken by the council of au- cients ; which, on the ()th of November, passed a decree consisting of five articles, the chief of which were, tliat the legislative body should, en the next day, be removed to St. Cloud; that Bonajxirte should be commissioned to carry into execution this decree ; and, for this purpose, should be appointed commandant of all the troops in Paris or its neigh- bourhood, of the guard of the legi<ilative body, of that of tlie directory, and of the statronary national guard ; that this decree should be com- municated by message to the council of five hundred, and to the exe- cutive directory, and transmitted to all the eonnnunes of the republic by extraordinary couriers. After this decree had been passed, the coun- cil of ancients proceeded to publish an address to the French nation, justificatory of their own conduct, and asserting " that the (common safety, and common prosperity, were the objects of this constitutional measure : the inhabitants of Paris were desired to remain tranquil, since the presence of the legislative body would soon be restored to them, and the result would show whether the legislative body was worthy and capable of preparing the means of happiness." — General Bonaparte soon after appeared at the bar, accompanied by several officers of his staff, and addressed the council in a short speech, in which he represented that the republic was perishing, and they knew it, but that tlie decree they had just passed had saveit it: — " Yes," said he, " we will have a republic founded on true liberty, and national representation. I swear it in my name, and that of my companions in arms." Most of the members present received these extrlanuitions with applauses ; and the assembly broke up with shouts of " live the republic !" On the same day the council of five hundred, having been informed, by a message from the council of ancients, of the decree passed by the latter, adjourned, in conse<juence, to the following day, when they were to meet at St. Cloud. In the sitting which was held tliere on the 10th, they appointed a committee of seven members, commissioned to make a report on the situation of affairs. The sitting was very tumul- tuous, many members exclaiming — " No dictator ! No dictatorship !" The secretary read a letter from the director Barras, stating that " the jlory which accompanied the return of tlie illustrious warrior, to vvhoni 'J. • 422 FRANCE. -i : I). J : ;l Si *^ 1». U' he had had tlie happiness to open the career of renown, the distinguished marks of confidence shown him by the legislative body, and the decree of the national representation, had convinced him that the perils of li- berty were then surmounted, and the interest of the armies secured; and that he returned with joy to the rank of a simple citizen, happy to transfer, complete, and render more respectable than ever, the destinies of the republic, of which he had been one of the depositaries." While some of tlie members were urging the propriety of choosing another director in the room of Barras, general Bonaparte entered the hall, attended by some officers and grenadiers, and walked up towards the president. A violent agitation immediately ensued among the members, some of whom rushed precipitately from their seats, and en- deavoured to seize him by the collar ; others cried — " Outlaw him !" and one attempted to stab him with a dagger, but the blow was warded off by a grenadier. The tumult increased to a most violent degree. All the members quitted their seats; — the president, Lucien Bona- parte, laid down his badge of office on the table, and resigned ; upon which the doors of the hall were opened, and an officer entered with a guard, exclaiming — " G^;ncral Bonaparte orders the hall to be cleared." The order was carried into effect in a few minutes. The sittings were resumed in the evening, and Lucien Bonaparte took the president's chair. A decree was passed, abolishing the direc- tory, and appointing a consular government of three, namely, Sieyes, Bonaparte, and Pioger Ducos, who all appeared, and took the oath to be faithful to the republic; after which, the council adjourned its sit- tings till the 20th of February. On the same day, the council of an- cients met also at St. Cloud, the proceedings of which day were almost a copy of those of the council of live hundred, They likewise voted the abolishing of the directory, tlic appointment of a consular executive of three persons, and then adjourned till the 20th of February. By the same decrees, sixty-one members were expelled from the legislative body ; and thus was the national representation, and the vaunted con- stitution of the third year, overturned by one maUj and the bayonets of a few soldiers. A new constitution was then formed, which was accepted by the ar- mies, and, apparently at least, by the people. By this constitution, the whole of the executive, and indeed all other power, was vested in the tirst consul, general Bonaparte, who entered on the administration of his government by making propositions for commencing negotiations for peace. His applications to the government of Great Britain on that subject have been already mentioned in our account of the affairs of England. He afterwards made similar applications to the court of Vienna, but his overtures, whlrh indeed appear to have been sufficiently vague, being rejected by both those powers, the most active preparations were made on all sides for the prosecution of the war. The last campaign had closed with the taking of Coni, and the re- treat of the French army into the territory of Genoa, which was now the only inip<.)rtant place in Italy that remained in its possession. The Austrians took the field on the 6'th of April 1800; and Massena, who commanded the French army, was attacked by general Melas, and ibrced to retire to Savona and Vado, whence he was compelled to fall back to Genoa, with the remainder of his army, which consisted of 18,000 men. In Genoa he defended himself during two months with the most determined obstinacy, and did not surrentier till every hope of succour had vjmished ; till every kind of provijkiij had Lf on cxhvtustcd ; .^1 FRANCE. 42^ till 15,000 of the inhabitants of the city had perished by the famine, and his army was reduced to only 8000 men. Genoa was given up to the Austrians on the 5th of June. In the mean time Bonapnrte, having assembled an army at Dijon, put himself at the head of it on the 6'th of May, passed the mountains St. Gothard and St, Bernard, and, surmounting apparently insuperable ob- stacles, entered Italy, wliere he immediately made himself master of Milan, Pavia, Piacenza, Cremona, and the whole course of the Po. The Austrian general Melas appears to have been so confident that it was impossible for an array to enter Italy by the route the French had taken, that he took no measures to oppose the passage of Bonapart« till it was too late. At length he dispatched general Otto with tJiirty battalions, to stop the progress of the French army which was march- ing towards Piedmont} but that general was defeated at Casteggio, with the loss of 3000 men killed, and 6000 taken prisoners. This victory was the prelude to the great and decisive battle of Ma- rengo, fought five days afterwards, and which fixed the fate of Italy. Melas, having assembled the whole of his forces, marched to meet his enemy, and took post in the village of Marengo. In the battle which ensued, victory appeared at first to have declared decidedly for the Austrians. The centre of the French was compelled to retreat with great slaughter ; but the body of reserve, under general Desaix, impe- tuously charging the Austrians, who were thrown into some confusion by the eagerness of pursuit, and tlieir confidence that the battle was gained, turned the fortune of the day ; and, though Desaix himself fell in the attack, gave the French a complete victory. The Austrians lost, by the French accounts, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 15,000 men ; and the loss of the French could not be much less. Yet so important was this battle in its consequences, that the next day, general Melas, finding his situation no longer tenable, proposed an ar- mistice, which was accepted by Eonaparte, and by which Genoa was immediately surrendered to the French, together with all the strong places of Lombardy and Piedmont, In Germany the French had opened the campaign with similar suc- cess. They crossed the Ehine in three divisions, at Kehl, Brisao, and Basle, and forced the Austrian army to fall back on the line of Stock- ach, where a battle took place on the 4th of May, in which tlie French were victorious, and which in a great degree decided the fate of tlie campaign, as the Austrians were not able afterwards to make any ef- fectual resistance, but continued to retreat and suftcr successive de- feats. When the armistice was concluded in Italy, the Austrian general of the army in Germany endeavoured to avail himself of it, to put an end to the progress of the troops under Moreau, but the French general would not listen to such a proposition : on the contrary, l)eing in pos- session of Munich, and the greater part of Bavaria, he detached Le- courbc towards the Tyrol to seize upon the Vorarlberg and the Grisons,. and form a junction with the army of Italy. The otter of a suspen- sion of arms however having been repeated, and count St. Julien hav- ing arrived at Paris, with proposals for peace, an armistice was at length concluded for the armies in Germany, leaving each in possession of the posts it occupied at tlie time it was signed. In the negotiations now carried on at Paris, the court of Vienna inti- mated that it was bound in honour only to treat for peace in concert with Great Britain. The first consul signified his consent that tiie ne" 424 FFxANCE. 'i^il 'l^h gotiations should includo a peace with England, but required a ravai armistice as a preliminary. This demand, under certain conditions - the British ministry did not reject ; but they would not permit the Brest fleet to be supplied with stores, or succours to be sent to tlie French army in Egypt. This proposal therefore not being accepted, Bona- parte reftised to negotiate with England, and the emperor refused to ratify the preliminaries of peace which had been signed by his envoy count St. Julien at Paris. The rupture of these negotiations was followed by that of tlie ar- mistice in Germany, which had been renewed by the emperor, at the espense of surrendering the important fortresses of Ulm, Ingolstadt, and Philipsburg, into the hands of the French, as a pledge of his sin- cere desire of peace. The eampaign recommenced on the 24th of November, and in the beginning of December the AusLrians were de- feated by Moreau in the decisi^battle of Hohenlinden, in ^\•hich the French took 10,000 prisoners, with 80 pieces of cannon: the archduke Charles was likewise defeated, with the loss of 8CKX) men, and the em- peror was convinced that he had no resource but in a peace. Another armistice was therefore concluded on the 27th of Decem- ber, and negotiations for peace were opened at Luneville, and carried on with such dispatch, that the preliminary tieaty was signed on the 3d of February 1801, by count Cobcntzel and Joseph Bonaparte, and soon after ratified by the emperor. By this treaty, the cession of tlie Belgic provinces to France, as stipulated by the treaty of Campo Formio, was ratified in a more formal manner; and the whole of the countr)- on the left side of the Rhine, the cession of which had been assented to at the congress of llastadt, was likewise given up to France. The boundaries of the Cisalpine, now called the Italian repub- lic, were enlarged; and the dukes of Tuscany and Modena were com- pelled to renounce tlieir territories, and accept such indemnities as should be provided for them in Germany. Of tlie conclusion of the peace of Amiens between France and Eng- land, and the causes of its rupture, a concise account has already been given in our history of England. As soon as the preliminaries of the latter peace were signed, and the cessation of hostilities with England had left the seas open to the French marine, Bonaparte fitted out a great expedition for St. Domingo, to restore, as he said, tlie French West India colonies to tranquillity and order. On board the fleet and the transports which accompanied it, an army of 25,000 men, the flower of the French soldiery, and completely equipped, was embarked. The famous negro chief, Tous- saint rOuverture, who was at the head of a formidable body of ne- groes, was successively defeated, and at length concluded a capitula- tion with the French generals ; who afterwards seized him, pretending they had discovered that he was engaged in a plot against them, and sent him to France, where he soon ended his days in the dungeon in which he was confined. The recommencement of tlie war with Great Britain Jiaving deprived the first consul of the means of sending any reinforcements to his troops in St. Domingo, the French, after suffering still more from the climate than from the enemy, have been at length entirely driven out of the island. The unbounded ambition of Bonaparte now began to display itself in its true colours. He had assumed the title of president of the Italian republic, with, in reality, the same unlimited authority which he ex- 4; ••' erciscd in France: and not contented with holding the title and FRANCE. 425 power of first consul, according to the constitution he had introduced, he procured himself to be appointed consul for life, with the power of noniuiating his successor. These new assumptions were, however, only steps to the throne t(i which he aspired. In the beginning of the present year (1804) a conspiracy, it appears, was formed against him, in which the late general Pichegru and Georges, formerly a leader of the insurgents in La Vendee, were engaged. They had endeavoured to induce general Moreau, who lived in retirement, and had never condescended servilely to flatter Bonaparte, to join them 5 but this, he seems to have refused, probably disapproving somo part of their pkm. Before they could determine whether they should proceed or abandon their designs, they were discovered and apprehended by the sp'es and agents of Bonaparte. Pichegru was found dead in hi» bed, in prison, before his trial, having died, as was said, by his own hands ; Georges and eleven others suffered death by the guillotine ; and Moreau, who was condemned to two years imprisonment, has been permitted, by the despot, to take his departure for America. In consequence of this conspiracy, the abject and venal senate of Bo- naparte, at the suggestion of his creatures, solicited him to take on him- self the imperial dignity, and declare it hereditary in his family, under pretence that the government of the republic will thus become perma- nently established, and secure from the attacks of all its enemies. This application was made by the senate, in a body, on the 20th of May .1804 ; and the. first consul was graciously pleased, for the good of his country, to comply with their request, and has accordingly assumed the title of Emperor of the French', and has appointed his imperial highness prince Joseph Bonaparte, grand elector j and his imperial highness prince Louis Bonaparte, constable of the empire. His two colleagues, the second and third consuls, having proved their fidelity to him by not interfering in the smallest degree in the affairs of government, except as directed by him, have been gratified with the high-sounding titles of arch-chancellor and arch-treasurer of the empire. Thus has the French nation, after wading through rivers of blood, and suffering the greatest calamities for the abolition of royalty, returned to the point from which it set out, and submitted to the same, or a still more arbitrary form of government. May its example not be lost on other nations ; since it forcibly ilisplays how certainly all endeavours to establish a visionary and impracticable liberty, lead to the opposite ex- treme of despotism and slavery ! Lewis XVL the late unfortunate king of the French, was boni Au- gust 24, 1/54 J married April 9, 17/0, to Maria- Antoinetta, arch- duchess of Austria, born November 2, 1755; succeeded his grand- father Lewis XV. May 10, 1774 ; crowned at Rheims, June ll, 1775 ; beheaded January 21, 1793. — ^The issue of Lewis XVL and Maria- Antoinetta is, 1. Madame Maria-Theresn-Charlotta, born December 19, 1 778, mar- ried June 10, 1799, to Lewis Antoine, duke d'Angouleme. Brothers to liis late Majesty. 1. Lewis-Stanislaus-XAvier, count de Provence, born November 17, 1755 J married, May 14, 1/71, Maria- Joseuha-Louisaj daughter of the kingof Sardinia, born September 2j 1753. ; 420 NETHERLANDS. 2. Charlea- Philip, count d'Artois, born October g, 1757; married November 6, 177S, to Maria-Theresa, daughter of the king of Sardinia, born January 21, 1776. ,:1 [!■■ M Napoleon Bonapaitc, who has assumed tlie title of Emperor of the French, was born August 15, 1769. i NETHERLANDS, or BELGIUM. THOUGH the provinces of the Netherlands, which were formerly subject to the house of Austria, are now become part of France, yet, as they have been so recently annexed to that country, and are still dis- tinguished from it by the name of Belgium, as well as by the natural characteristics of tlie country and its inhabitants, we shall here describe them in a separate article. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Degrees. Length 180 7 i^.„.--_ C 49" 20' and 5 1*» Sty North latitude. Breadth 1703 °*=^^^^" | 2° 30' and 6** 30' East longitude. Containing 10,572 square miles, with 285 inhabitants to each. Name.] The country formerly divided into seventeen provinces, and known by the name of the Netherlands, was formerly part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the circle of Belgium, or Burgundy, in the German empire. They obtained the general name of the Ne- therlands, or Low Countries, from their low situation with respect to Germany. BouNDj^RiES.] That part of these provinces, which is now usually called the Netherlands or Belgium, is bounded on the north by Hol- land ; on the east by the part of Germany lately annexed to France ; on the south by the French departments of the Moselle, Ardennes and the North 3 and on the west by the North or English sea. Division.] The Netherlands, in the full extent of the term, an- ciently consisted of seventeen provinces, of which seven constituted the seven united provinces, usually known by the name of Holland. The remaining ten, till tliey were ceded by Austria to France at the con- clusion of the late war, were divided between the Dutch, the Austrians, and the French. Austria possessed the whole of the provinces of An- twerp, Malines, and Namurj and the French the whole of tliose of Artois and Cambresis. Brabant and Limburg were possessed partly by Austria and partly by Holland ; and Hainault and Luxemburg were in like manner divided between Austria and France. The province of Flanders was shared between all these three powers, under the names of Austrian, Dutch, and French Flanders. The whole of these ten provinces, except the part of Brabant possessed by Holland, is now in- corporaterl with France, and divided into the nine departments of the Lys, thf. Schtldt, Jemappe, the two Nethes, the Dyle, the Lower Meuse, Oiu the, Sambre and Meusc, and Forests — See Table of the Departments of France. Face of the country.] The Netherlands are a flat country, con- Ilatr Mil. ■narried » ardinla. 1/ A; '-/l.wiii,:,- ■ \'-^ >-,■»/> til ;,■ ,/,i,. , ,V , E -v7 /'///// xm. r_,;'^V^^ \\^ ■ , ^ \> y«.l/.V7AA.vt«r7/ ip/'K'iil.A- -..V //' / •^""'^ It U-//A li \ e'ktIPkl-,, rii.i. «x ■ y. '""•'4 ttjivWi- • « yA /.'"'■"' L ''• '■"" I A ,\ . Mt'"'" riiro r«v/r ' n.-arii /-, *///«/( .MniilM'ir^i", ii-rni'V ' Hill , ///////r- '*" [)'.'' ->.-</ <:::y^'j[?i;T?'>* i^ .\/;>ww/(;.- ^''<"C.— Itofitn' (>. :^3' ;;/*".. ^/ if / •I /.<■!, /■Ml... )i/,»./7.}"""'''. ,/ ; \ > ^' X A .iftiitr'// :• A fhillkl'lj f-ji.i. //Ar,/c ,. o ''■'>',i - , A/l'l-'-'it'-l 1,. ' - ' - o ■ • - Hi/m/Zircitro i'.Hii- " I'liiirii i^' ^' y.ijtvl ■ilW \'*'/^ .'»'V;i<«c'' .,,1.''' , /•/«///!• *i* llllV '"If ^ ■ J f!ii)/i,-ill (hi CW,/ ;<r-«//«)<v/fxj',,^.,;*c! fj,. '«. :'■■ y »'lr.irlfiin>i ~i _ At .''•ih'iil'ilkif SIK'S /./ix.vi;/) ''MannilxMii-' i- _ ■Um.,uH'/-"">IY{ . ,{. . \ If,,;,"' ..* hfi'f/n/i '^ lirtHiiliiih'n \ IhiTi*^ V ;Kjiii..m.«^l.. ),„„v,.|,l,..r .nil jj^l <JlUii'//l-nf lilihl*^ I'w.iv" ', 1"""/'" 'i//**// ^ \ 'yW **„. / Mnlliitlir' "*'({ \i '" tli.' '■*^v<''-^^ »Mi..j;iiK- /^•iflii'iiiiT Art Tr/ UirtUil \iu>l M .-■'.'U\l.i -, : Miiifiiiir } »> w Y* -■U'lmtuiit _^^'mliii ■j Miiifiiii //ir/r>7itki \ I , .. - ... 11 I K (;; li,rih/.i l.iiiilmivV:;/,/*" -( /.r ./i 1)U '"ii'/«'i hiv ' V' * fun' J- ' ^h,- SoCi^, N> ,7/ bnitmn^ wik'iiiii . •3! ' ^i<ihiiliit'''Tii "I .i.liiiJi'*' t'l.n'ilk'ni '> .\ * Kir '^2* - V - /.-.'".l/.w*)' 1 /'//,•.•,•', ^<» <^5/i:. lib tilitu/l.thitm' .Mikr <i> .*!<' ':,i.:iiir;\ UiHIIIiJIi \ ^^KivlllitM \.iar,^ I,', ''''r,'-. Xiv/iiiiitii, _ fiun'it t\lllili<. ■:!.■»" j*«i Kiiitii '.(ii.i,y{ .///,r/o ■,////•/• '•"«/ /iv//v i nil hi MirtiT/i .',.-^ (,<:l,»)ir(, oiTi,i//7/iii . ■^ J.iim-iuInii-^''' y,t,vi^ .*//»//;.*■ • /it/riijAii 'iriii»mif/iinM''-^'Of' '? , / .1 i\ : ^liiulillklf \ la.^^of Loiipn-j ■--... ^ "'™' Urn ' '.^ :. Iiiiii'ii i l'liiiiii\ lilllii-ll' lit, ■Uini \.. V .■J^ l> ! .fit ,( ■f, 1! pi If i 1 !■ t I 'If llj i 1 ■:vll '# : 1 NETHERLANDS. 427 taining no mountains, and but few hills. ** The rural scene," says Mr. Shaw, " presents here pleasing pr(>.|)e<;ts on all sides : fields crowned with fruitful crops, meadows covered with numerous herds, neat and commodious farm-houses set singly or in gr"up cheerful and ex« tended villages embowered among trees, and dividt'd from each other by small intervals; while through such fair landscapes wind the rivers, and extend the clear canals of Fiand i s and Brabfiiir." In the duchy of Luxemburg, or the department of ih*' Forests, the country is less cultivated, and presents a less lively scene. Forests.] In the department of Jemappe is the forest of Soignes ; and in that of the Foresta, are ample remains of the ancient forest of Ardennes, which formerly extended from the Moselle to the se<L Rivers, canals.] The chief rivers are the Maeseor Meuse, Sambre, Demer, Dyle, Nethe, Gect, Sanna, Uuppel, Scheldt, Lis, Scarpa, Deule, and Dender. The principal canals are those of Brussels, Ghent, and Ostend. MsTArs, MINERALS.] Miucs of iron, copper, lead, and sulphur, are found in Luxemburg and Limburg, at present the departnaents of the Forests and of Onrthe, as are some marble quarries ; and in the pro- vince of Namui, or tlie department of the Sambre and ISIeuse, there are coal-pits, and a species of bituminous fat earth, proper for fuel, with great plenty of fossile nitre. Climate, soil, agriculture.] The air of Brabant, and upon the coast of Flanders, is bad ; that in the interior parts is more healthful, and the seasons more ssttled, both in winter and summer, than they are in England. The soil and its produce are rich, especially in corn and fruits. They have abundance of pasture ; and Flanders itself has been reckoned the granary of France and Germany, and sometimes of England. The most barren parts for corn rear far more profitable crops of fiax, which is here cultivated to great perfection. The state of agri- culture in the Netherlands has received the highest praise from those well qualified to judge of it ; and has, indeed, been celebrated for these 600 years past. Upon the whole, the late Austrian Netherlands, by the culture, commerce, and industry of the inhabitants, was formerly the richest and most beautiful spot in Europe, whetlier we regard the variety of its manufactures, the magnificence and riches of its cities, the pleasantness of its roads and villages, or the fertility of its land. If it has fallen off in latter times, it is owing partly to the neglect of its go- vernment, but chiefly to its vicinity to England and Holland j but it is still a most desirable and agreeable country. Vegetables, animals.] Great quantities of corn, flax, and madder, are grown in the Netherlands, and tlie pasturage is particularly abun- dant. The cattle, which are purchased lean in the more northern countries, soon fatten and grow to a large size. The general tlie same as in the neighbouring covmtries Holland. Natural curiosities.] No precipices, cataracts, nor any grand and romantic natural scenery can be expected in this flat and low coun- try. A stone quarry, under a hill near Maestricht, which is worked into a kind of subterranean palace, supported by pillars twenty feet high, may be mentioned under this head, tliough it may seem ratlier an arti- iicial tlian a natural curiosity. ' Population.] The number of inhabitants in this country has usu- ally been estimated at about two millions ; but according to tlie enu- meration published by the French government, the nine departments animals are m of France and " ti •f-f •; i '{■ 3 ij - vf; i '?! ■«i ''I ii 428 NETHERLANDS. of Belgium conUiin 3,018,703 inhabitants. — See Table of the DErART- MKNTS of F"rANCE. National character, manners.] The Flemings, by which name the natives of the Low Countries were usually called, though the appel- lation was strictly applicable only to tliose of Flanders, have been gene- rally esteemed a heavy, blunt, honest people, but their manners are somewhat indelicate. They are ignorant, and fond of religious cere- monies and exliibitions. Their diversions are tlie same with those of. the peasants of the neighbouring countries. In tlie part of the Nether- lands which has been long in possession of the French, the inhabitants are become entirely French in their dress, language, and manners ; but in the other parts the peasants dress like the Dutch boors, though tho upper classes have long since adopted the French fashions. Cities, CHIEF TOWNS, EDiricES.] Brussels, the former residence of the governor or vice-roy of the Austrian Netlierlands, is an elegant city, adorned witli a noble scjuare, one side of which is occupied by a spacious town-house. The late palace of the Austrian governor is a magnificent structure. The city stands on the small river Senne, and contained in its flourishing state above 100,000 inhabitants : at present the number is 66,000. The walls of Ghent, fonncrly the capital of Fhnders, and celebrated for its linen and woollen manufactures, contain the circuit often miles j but now unoccupied, and great part of i\ in a manner a void : the num- ber of inhabitants, however, is still 56,000. Bruges, formerly so noted for its trade and manufactures, but above all for its fine canals, is now dwindled to an inconsiderable place. Antwerp, once the emporium of the European continent, is now reduced to be a tapestry and thread- lace shop, with the houses of some bankers, jewellers, and painters, ad- joining. One of the first acts of the Dutch, soon after they threw off the Spanish ytke, was to ruin at once the commerce of Antwerp, by sinking vessels, loaded with stone, in the mouth of the Scheldt } thus shutting up the entrance of that river to ships of large burden. I'his was the more cruel, as the people of Antwerp had been their friends and fellow-sufferers in the cause of liberty j but they foresaw tliat the prosperit}' of tlieir own commerce was at stake. In 1568, when its trade is supposed to have been at its greatest height, it was computed to contain above 200,000 inhabitants : at present tlie number is only 61,800. The other principal cities of tlie Netherlands, are Mons, containing 18,000 inhabitants; Maestricht 17,000 j Malines or Mechlin 16,000$ Namur l6,000; Bruges 15,000; and Luxemburg 10,000. Commerce and manufactures.] The chief manufactures of the Netherlands, are their beautiful linens aiftl laces ; in which, notwith- standing the boasted improvements of their neighbours, they are yet uiurivaled; particularly in that species called cambrics, from Cambray. the chief place of its manufacture. These manufactures form the prin» cipal article of their commerr-^ . Government.] These provinces, being now incorporated witli France, are under the i '.remediate government and laws of that country. Religion.] Before tlie conquest of tliis countr)' by the Frtnch, the established religion was the Roman-catholic ; but protestants, and other sects, were not molested : at present, as making a part of France, it is subject to tlie regulations of the Concordat concluded between tliat power and tlie see of Rome. ;-,...> . NETHERLANDS. 429 The archbishopric of Malines or Mechlin was the metropolitan see j Cambray was also an archbishopric. The bishoprics were Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, Arras> Ypres, Touriiay, St. Oniers, Namur, and Ruremonde. In the present ecclesiastical division of France, Malines is an arch- bishopric, containing seven bishoprics. Literature and the arts.] The societies of Jesuits formerly pro- duced the most learned men in the Austrian Low Countries, in which they had many eligible settlements. Works of theology, and the civil and canon law, Latin poems and plays, were their chief productions. Strada is an elegant historian and poet. The French historians Frois- sart and Philip de Comines were natives of Flanders j the learned Lip- si us was born near Brussels. The Flemish painters and sculptors have great merit, and form a scliool by lJiemsel\es. The works of Reubens and Vandyke cannot be sufficiently admired. The models for heads of Fiamingo, or tlie Flem- ing, particularly those of children, have never yet been equalled j and ilin Flemings formerly engrossed tapestry-weaving to themselves. Universities.] These are Louvain, Douay, Tournay, and St. Oiners. The tirst was founded in I42d, by John IV. duke of Brabant, and enjoys great privileges. By a grant of pope Sixtus IV. this univer- sity liad the privilege of presenting to all the livings in tlie Netlierlands, ex(.-ept in Holland. ^ Language.] Uie vernacular language of tliis country is the Flemish, a dialect of the Dutch ; but it is nearly superseded, except among the peasantry, by the French. ANTiauiTiEs.] Some Roman temples and other buildings, and tlie remains of Roman roads, are found in the Netherlands. There are also nwny churches and convents, venerable for tlieir antiquity ; and the magnificent old edifices of every kind, in all the cities, give evidence of tiieir former grandeur. \i\ 1607, some labourers found 16OO gold coins, and ancient medc/.s, of Antoninus Pius, Aurelius, and Lucius Yerus. History.] The seventeen provinces, and that part of Germany which lies west of tlie Rhine, were called Gallia Belgiea by the Romans. About a century before the Christian fcra, the Battae removed from Hesse to the marshy country bounded by the Rhine and the Maese. I'hey gave the name of Batavia to their new country. Generous and brave, the Balavians were treated by the Romans with great respect, be- ing exempted from tribute, governed by their own laws, and obliged only to perform military services. Upon the decline of that empire, the Gotlis, and other northern pvople, possessed themselves of thesa provinces tir.st, as the^'^ passed through them in their way to France, and other parts of the Roman empire ; and afterwards being erected into small governments, the heads of which were despotic within their own dominions, Batavia and Holland became independent of Germany, to which it had been united under one of the g.'-andsons of Charlemagne, in the beginning of the lOih century, when the supreme authority was lodged in the three united powers, of a count, the nobles, and the towns. At last, they were swallowed up by the House of Burgundy, aimo 1433. The emperor Charles V., tlie heir of that family, tran-^ferred them, in the year 1477. to the House of Austria, and ranked them as part of the empire, under the title of the Circle of Burgundy. The tyranny of his son Philip II., who succeeded to the throne of Spain, made the inhabi- •ants attempt to throw oft" bis yoke, which occaijioncd a general insur- 430 NETHERLANDS. ' 1 ( m rectlon, the counts Hoorn and Egmont, and tlie prince of Orange, itp^ pearing at tlie head of it ; and Luther's reformation gaining ground about the same time in the Netherlands, his disciples were forced by persecution to join the malcontents. Pliilip IL in consequence intro- duced a kind of inquisition, which, from the inhumanity of its proceed- ings, was called the " Council of Blood," in order to suppress them ; and many thousands were put to death by that court, besides those that perished by the sword. Count Hoorn and count Egmont were taken and beheaded ; but the prince of Orange, whom they elected to be their stidtholder, retiring into Holland, that and the adjacent provinces en- tered into a treaty for their mutual defence, at Utrecht, in the year 1570. And though these revolters at first were thought so despicabla as to be termed Bcgi^ars by their tyrants, their perseverance and courage were such, under the prince of Oriuige, and with the assistance aftbi'ded them by queen Elizabetli, both in troops and money, that tlicy forced the crown of Spain to declare them a free people, in the year 1609 ; and afterwards they were acknowledged i<y all Europe to be an inde- pendent state, imder the title of The United Provinces. After the independency of the Seven United Provinces was acknow- ledged, the Spaniards remained possessed of the otlier ten provinces, or, as they are termed, the Low Countries, until the duke of Marlborough, as general of the allies, gained the memorable victory of Ilamillies, in the year 1 70() ; after which, Brussels, the capital, and great part of these provinces, acknowledged Charles VL, afterwards emperor of Ger- many, for their sovereign ; and his daughter, Maria Theresa, remained possessed of them until tlie war of 1741, when the French reduced them, except part of the province of Luxemburg ; and would have retained them from that time, but for the exertions of the Dutch, and chiefly of the English, in favour of the House of Austria, which con- tinued in undisturbed possession of the part of the Netherlands secured to it by the peace of 1/48, till the disputes which took place between these provinces and the emperor Joseph, in the years 1788 and l/Sp. The quarrel originated, like those in other countries, concerning the prerogatives assumed by the emperor, which were more extensive than his subjects wished to allow j and the emperor making use of force to assert his claims, the territories of the United States became a refuge for the discontented Brabanters. On the part of his imperial majesty, the insm'gents were not treated with lenity. A proclamation was issued by count TrautmansdorfF, go- vernor of Brussels, intimating, that no quarter should be given them, and that the villages in which they concealed tlicmselves should be set on fire. General Dalton marched with 70OO men to retake the forts, proclaiming that he meant to become master of them by assault, and would put every ioul he found in them to the sword. In opposition to this sanguinary proclamation, the patriots issued a manifesto, in which they declared the emperor to have forfeited his authority, by his various opprcasion.i and cmelties, his annulling his oath, and infringing the constitution. Banishment was threatened to such as took part with him ; and all were exhorted to take up arms in defence of their co'.nitry, thotigh strict orders were given that no crowds or mobs should be allowed to pillage ; and whoever was found doing so, should be treated as an enemy to his country. This was dated at Iloogstraien, in Brabant, October the 24tli, 178(). Almost every town in Austrian Klanders slRn^ed its determination to oppose the emperor, and the nioit enthuslabtic attachiucut to uulitary NETHERLANDS. 431 affaire displayed Itself in all ranks of men. Even the ecclesiastics ma- nifested their valour on this occasion ; wliich perhaps was naturally to be expected, as the emperor had been very active in depriving them of their revenues. A formidable army was soon raised, which, at\er some successful skirmishes, made themselves masters of Ghent, Bruges, Tour- nay, Malines, and Ostend ; so that general Dalton was obliged to retire to Brussels. A battle was fought before the city of Ghent, in wliich tli6 patriots were victorious, though with the loss of 1000 men, besides wo- men and children. It reflects indelible disgrace on die emperor, as well as on the commanders of his troops, that they committed the most dreadful acts of ci-uelty on Uie unhappy objects who fell into tlieir hands: Orders were given to plunder and destroy whereever they could obtain any booty ; while the merciless savages not only destroyed the men, but killed women and sucking infants. Some of them plunged tlieir bayo- nets into the bodies of children in the cradle, or pinned them against the walls of the houses. By these monstrous cruellies, they insured success to their adversaries ; for tlie whole countries of Brabant, Flanders, and Malines, almost instantly declared in tlieir favour. They published a memorial for their justification, in which they gave, as reasons for tlieir conduct, the many oppressive edicts with which they had been lia^ rassed since the death of the em^jress-queen ; the unwarrantable ex- tension of tlie imperial prerogatives, contrary to the coronation-oath of the emperor, and which could not be done without perjury on his part j the violence committed on his subjects, by forcibly entering their houses at midnight, and sending them prisoners to Vienna, to perish in a dun- geon, or on the banks of the Danube. Not content with this, he had openly massacred his subjects ; he had consigned towns and villages to the flames, and entered into a design of exterminating people who con- tended only for tlieir rights. These tilings, they owned, might be ter- rible at the time, and easily impose upon weak minds, but " the natural courage of a nation, roused by repeated injuries, and animated by de- spair, would rise superior to those last efforts of vindictive tyranny, and render them as impotent and abortive, as they were wicked and unex- ampled." For all which reasons they dci:lared themselves iudepeudewt, and for ever released from the house of Austria. Tlie emperor, now perceiving the bad effects of hiscmelty, publishei proclamations of indemnity, &c., but they were treated with the utmost contempt. The patriots m.ide tlie most rapid conquests ; insomuch, that, before the end of the year, they were masters of every place in the Ne- therlands, except Antwerp and [Ai.\eniburg. Notwitlistanding they thus appeared for ever separated from the house of Austria, yet the death of Joseph, happening soon after, produced such a chaiigu iti tht- conduct of government, as ga\e a very unexpected turn to the situation of affairs ; and the mild and pacific disposition of Leo- pold, who succeeded liis brother, the conciliatory measures he adopted, together with the mediation of Great Britain, Prussia, and Holland, made a material alteration in the affair* of these provinces ; and a con- vention, which was signed at Reichenbacli, on the 27th of July l/pO, by the above-mentioned high contracting powers, had for its object the re-establishment of peace and good order in the Belgic provinces of his imperial majesty. Their majesties of Great Britain and Prussia, and the states-general of Holland, became, in the most solemn manner, guarantees to the em- peror aud his succesiors for the sovereignty of the Belgic provinces, now re-united under his donjinion. 1 W 432 HOLLAND. II ■: M* J IM The ratification of this convention was exchanged between the con- tracting parties, within two months from the date of signing, which was executed at the Hague, on tiie J 0th of December 1790. The incursion of the French into these provinces, their complete conquest, the cession of them to France by tlie treaty of Campo Formio, and the confirmation of that cession by the peace of Luneville, have already been related in our history of the late transactions of that people. THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, OR HOLLAND. r ■ EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Degrees, Length 150] , . 7 51° 20' and 53° 30' North latitude. Breadth I'iOj °^^^^'^^" | 3" 30' and 7° 0' East longitude. Containing 9,400 square miles, with 2S0 inhabitants to each. Name.] This country was a part of that inhabited by the ancient Bativi : it is usually called Holland, from the name of the chief pro- vince ; which is formed from the German words Itohl and laud, and sig- nifies a hoHo-JO or low country. Since the revolution occasioned by the incursion of the French in 1/95, it has taken tlie name of the Bataviar. Republic. Boundaries.] It is bounded on the north and west by the German ocean, and the Zuyder sea j on the east by Germany j and on the south by the Netherlands, or Belgium. Divisions.] The United Provinces were, properly speaking, eight, viz. Holland, Overyssel, Zealand, Friesland, Utrecht, Groningen, Guel- derland, andZutphen; but the two latter forming only one sovereignty, they generally are termed the Seven United Provinces. Besides these, the Dutch republic contained the county of Drenthe, a kind of separate province in Overyssel, which had no share in the government ; and what was called the Land of the Generality, or Dutch Brabant, Dutch Flanders, and the part of Limburg which belonged to the republic. Of tliese tlie two latter are now annexed to France, being included in the new Belgic departments. The extent and population of these provinces are stated as follows in Boetticher's Tables : Provinces. Sq. miles. Population. Chief Towns. Lower Guelderland^ , ' and > 1,840 . Nimeguen. county of Zutphen. 3 Holland ...2,000 980,000 Amsterdam, j^^' f"' ^.' }^^' t 4 51 L. Ion. Zealand 480 85^000 Middleburg. Utrecht.,. 513 75,000 Utrecht. ^ '■/,,.; \// JJ tt f.onffUude t.'arf /hint Loiuton HOLLAND. 433 « Provinces. Sq. miles. Population. Chief Towns. Friesland 880 140,000 Leuwarden. Overyssel 1,792 Deventer. Groeningen 640 100,000 Groeningen. County of Drenthe. Lands of the Generality 2,000 435,000 From the latter are now to be deducted about 600 square miles, with 124,000 inhabitants, for the part taken into the French Belgic de- partments. Since the expulsion of tlie stadtholder, and the introduction of a new form of government under the influence of the French, the Batavian. republic has been divided into eight departments, as follows : Ancient Provinces. Departments. Chief Towns. Groeningen and Friesland Ems. Leuwarden. Overyssel, and part of Guel-7 >-.ij ^ 1 ^y n derland and Zutphen | ^^^^ Yssel. Zwoll. Remainder of Guclderland and I „, . a 1 • Zutphen, and part of UtrechtJ ^'""«- Arnheim. Part of Holland Amtel. Amsterdam., North part of Holland, and) south part, to Leyden in- V Texel. Alkmaar. elusive } Remainder of south part of^ Holland, and remainder of > Delft. Utrecht. Ulrecht ) Eastern part of Dutch Brabant .. Dommel. Bois le Due, ^"^r<r&£d!.™.™} Scheldt and Meuse. Middleburg. Each of these departments is divided into seven circles or districts. Face of the country.] Holland is situate opposite to England, at the distance of 90 miles, upon the east side of the English Channel} and is only a narrow slip of low swampy land, lying between the mouths of several great rivers ; and what the industry of the inhabitants have gained from the sea by means of dykes, which they have raised, and still support, with incredible labour and expense. Here are no mountains, nor rising grounds, no plantations, purling streams, or cataracts. The whole face of the country, when viewed from a tower or steeple, has tlie appearance of a continued marsh or bog, drained, at certain distances, by innumerable ditches ; and many of the canals, which in that country serve as high roads, are in the summer months highly offensive to the smell. Rivers, lakes, canals.] The chief rwers of Holland are the Rhine (one of tlie largest rivers in Europe), the Maese or Meuse, the Dommel, the Waal, the Issel, the Scheldt, and the Vecht. There are many other small rivers that fall into these. The principal lake of Holland is the Sea of Haerlem ; there are also some small lakes in the north of the province of Holland, and in Fries- land and Groeningen. The canals of these provinces are almost innumerable. The usual way of passing from town to town is by covered boat' , called treckscuits, which are dragged along the canals by horses bn a ^iow uniform trot, so that passengers reach the ditferent towns where they are to stop pre- cisely at the appointed instant of time. Tiiis method of travelling, 2 F ifeil^i:. N / ii! 4a4>,' HOLLAND. ■ , *. : -r •lili!' . i;^i w • though to strnngeriJ nthc^r dull, is extremely convenient to the tnhabi- tants, juul very clK'ap. Jiy means of these canals an extensive inland commerce 'nf not only carried on throns^h the whole country, but,- aa they couimunicate with the Khiue ami other hiri^e rivers, the production* of every eotnitry are conveyed at a small expense into various parts of Germany and I'kinders. A ireckseuit is divided into two ditJerent apart- ments, called the roof and the mini ; the lirst for gentlemen, and the other for common people. Near Amsterdam and other large cities, a traveller is astonished when he beholils the elVects of an extensive and flourishing conunerce. Here the canals are lined for miles together with elegant Jieal country-houses, seated in the midst of gardens and pleasure-grounds, intenni\ed u ifh figures, busts, statues, temples, &c. to the very water's edge. AIetals, mini uai.s.J Holland produces npither metals nor minerals, except a little iron ; iu>v any mineral waters. Climati;, soil, AiriiiiM r.Ti.Ki;.] The air of the United Provinces in foggy and gross, until it is purilied by the frost in winter, when the east wind usually sets in I'or about four months, and their harbours are I'rozen up. The moisture of the air cl'.umvs metals to rust, ami wood to mould, more than ir\ any other coimlrj , whirh is tlie reason of their per]>etually rubbing and scouring, and of the brightness and cleanliness in their liouses, ^(l mucii t:iki'ii notice of. The soil is unfavourable to vegetation ; but, by tlie industrv ot the inhabitants in mskiug canals, it is reiKlcretl tit for pasture, and in niiiiiv place-; t'ur tillage. Vr.or.TARLEs, ANIMAL.-. J 'liio quantity ofgrahi produced liere is not sufficient for home con.-umption ; but, by draining the bogs and- marshes, the l.Xit(-Ii hi\c many excellent mertdows, which tiitteu lean CJcrmanand l):ini.-ih <:utlc to avast size ; andtiiey make prodigious quan- tities of the be.-it buitcr and cheese in Europe. Their country prodvc"* turf, madder, tobacco, some fruit, ami iron 5 but all the pit-coal and tim- ber used there, and, indeed, most of the comforts, and even die neces- <5aries of life, are imported. They have a good breed of .sheep, whose wool is highly valued : and their horses and horned cattle are of a larger size than in any other nation in Europe. It is said that there are some wild bears and wolves here. Storks build and hatch on their chimneys; but being birds of passage, they leave the country about the middle oif August, u ith their young, and return the February following. I'heir river-lish are much the same as ours; but their sea-fish are generally larger, owing perhaps to their limbing in deep water. No herrings vi^il their coasts ; but they have many excellent oyster-beds about the islands of the Tei:.el, producing \cry large and well-tasted oysters. Notwilh- staudhig all the inconvenicncos, the industry of the Hollanders fur- nishes as great a plenty of the necessaries and commodities of life, and upon as easy terms (except tcj travellers and strangers), as can he met with hi any pan of Europe, Curiosities.] Holland, like the Netherlands, presents none of the yast and gr;iud scenery of nature. The nunieroas caji.ils with which the countiy is interiectcd may be considered as interesting to the curiosity of tJic traveller ; and the prodigious dykes (some of which arc said to be seventeen ells in thickness) mounds, and canals, constructed by the Dutch, to preser\e their cauutry from those dreadful inundations by which it formerly suflered so much, are works ecjually stupendous and singular. The Stadthouse of Amsterdam is perhaps the best building of" that kind in the world : it stands upon 13,05C) large piles, driven into tiie ground j aad the inside is eq^u::lly convenient and magnificent. Se- HOLLAND. 43 :i mot vcral mlis( um=5, containing antiquities and curiosities, artificial nnd na- tural, are to be found in Holland and the other provinces, particularly in the university ot Leyden. Toi-uLATioN.] The Seven United Provinces are perhaps tho best peopled ut'any spot utthe same eMent in the world. Tliey contained in 17^5, according to a public account then given, 1 13 cities and towns, 14(X) villages, ami 'i,7>j8,o'J'i inhabitants; besides tlie twenty-live towTis, and the people in wliat is called the Lands ot the Gcnerali(y, or con- quered countries and towns of other parts of the Netherlands. Later estimates make the population amount at present to 2,6'33,U70. National chakacteu, man- } I'he manners, habits, and even NKKS, CUSTOMS.] '^ the minds of the Dutch (for so the inlial)itnnt,s of the Iniletl Provinces are in general called), seem to be formed by their hituatiun, and to arise from their natural wants. Their country, which i,< preserved by mounds and dykes, is a perpetual incen- tive to labour ; and the arlilicial drains, with which it is every where intersected, must be kept in perpetual repair. Even what may be trailed their natural connnodities, their butter antl cheese, are produced by a constant attention to the laborious parts of life. 1 heir principal food they earn out of the sea, by their herring fisheries; ti^r they dispose of most of their valuable fish to the English, and other nations, tor the sake of gain. Ihe air and temperature of their climate incline them to phlegmatic, slow dispositions, both of body and mind; and yet they are irascible, especially if heated with liquor. Even their virtues are owing to their coldne.-is with regard to every object that does not immediately concern their own interests ; for, in all oLlicr respects, they are quiet neighbours and peacealile subjects. I'he valour of the Dutch becomes warm and active, when they be- lieve their interests at stake ; witness their sea-wars with England and France, I'heir boors, though slow (jf understanding, are manageable by fair means, I'heir seamen are plain, blunt, but rough, surly, and an ill- natured sort of people, and appear to be insensible of public spirit and arfection for each other. Their tradesmen in general are reckoned ho- nest in their dealings, and very sparing of their words. Smoking to- bacco is practised by old and young, of both sexes ; and as they are ge- nerally plodding upon ways and means of getting money, no people are so unsociable. A Dutchman of low rank, when drunk, is giiihy of every species of brutality. The Dutch liave also been known to exercise the most dreadt'ul inhumanities for interest abroad, where they thought fhemseh es free from discovery ; but they are in general quiet and inof- fensive in their own country, wliich exhibits but t'cw instances of mur- tler, rapine, or violence. As to the habitual tippling and drinking charged upon both sexes, it is owing, in a great m.easure to the nature of their soil and climate. In genend, all appetites and passions seem to run lower and cooler here than in most other countries, that of avarice excepted. 'I'heir tempers are not airy enough for joy, or any unusual sti'ains of pleasant humour ; nor warm enough for love; so that the softer passions seem no natives of this country; and love itself is little better than a mechanical atfection, arising from interest, convenience, or habit j it is talked of sometimes among the ) oung men, but as a tiling they have heard of, rather than felt, and as a discourse that becomes them, rather than affects them. In whatever relates to tJie management of pecuniary affairs, the Dutch are certainly the most expert of any people ; as, to the knowledge ©f acc^uiring wealth, Uiev unite the no less uecessary science of prescrv- 'i F 2 I 436 HOLLAND. Vi )m ing it. It is a kind of general rule for every mnn to spend less than Iha income, be tJiat what it will ; nor docs it often enter into the heads of this sagacious people, that the common course of expense should equal the revenue; and when this happens, they think, nt least, they have lived that year to no purpose ; and the report of it used to discredit a man among them, as much as any vicious or prodigal extravagance does in other countries. But this rigid frugality is not so universal among the Dutch as it was formerly ; for a greater degree of luxury and extrava- Mnce has been introduced among them, as well as the other nations of Europe, Gaining is likewise practised by many of their fashionable la- dies, and some of them discover more propensity to gallantry than was known there in former times. No countr>' can vie with Holland in tl)o number of those inhabitants whose lot, if not riches, is at least a com- fortable sufficiency ; and no where fewer failures or bankrupti:ies occur. Hence, in the midst of a world of taxes and contributions, they flourish and grow rich. From tliis systematic spirit of regularity and modera- tion, joined to the most obstinate perseverance, they succeeded in the stu- pendous works of draining their country of those immense deluges of water, that had overflowed so large a part of it during many ages, while, at the same time, they brought under their subjection and command the rivers and seas that surround them, by dykes of incredible thickness and strength, and made them the principal bulwarks on which they rely for the protection and safety of their territories against the danger of an enemy. This they have done by covering their frontiers and cities with innume- rable sluices; by means of which, at the shortest notice, the most rapid inundations are let in, and they become, in a few hours, inaccessible. From that frugality and perseverance by which they have been so much characterised, they were enabled, though labouring under the greatest difficulties, not only to throw oft' the Spanish yoke, but to attack that powerful nation in the most tender parts, by seizing her rich galleons, and forming new establishments in Africa, and the East and West In- dies, at the expense of Spain, and thereby becoming, from a despicable province, a most powerful and formidable enemy. Ecjually wonderful was the rise of their military and marine establishments; maintaining, during tlieir celebrated contention with Lewis, XIV. and Charles II. of England, not less than 150,000 men, and upwards of eighty ships of the line. But a spirit of frugality being now less universal among them, Uie rich traders and mechanics begin to approximate to the luxuries of tJie Englisli and French ; and their nobility and high magistrates, who have retired from trade, rival those of any otiier part of Europe in their table, buildings, farniture, and equipages. The diversions of tlie Dutch ditfer not much from those of the En- glish, who seem to have borrowed from them the neatness of their drink- ing booths, skittle and other grounds, and small pieces of water, whicli form the amusements of the middling ranks; not to mention their hand- organs, and other musical inventions. They are the best skaters upon the ice in the world. It is amazing to see the crowds in a hard frost ujjon the ice, and ilie great dexterity both of men and women in darting along, or ratlier flying, with inconceivable velocity. The dress of the Dutch formerly was noted for the large breeches of the men, and the jerkins, plain mobs, short petticoats, and other odditic* of tlie women ; all which, added to the natural thickness and clumsiness of tlieir persons, gave them a very grotesque appearance. These dresses now prevail only among tlie lower ranks, and more particularly among, the sea-faring people. HOLLAND. 437 Cities, chikp towns, eijifices.] Amsterdam, which xa built upon piles of wood, is thought to contain 212^000 people, and to be, next to l-.<)nd()ii, the must comm- 'cial city in the world. It stands on the river Ainstej. Its convoniean « for commerce, and the grandeur of its public works, are almost beyond description. In thia and all other cities of the United rrovinces. the beauty ( 4 the canals and walks under trees planted on their bortU- ^ is adminble ; but above all, we are struck V'itli the neatness and i ,< anliness that is every where observed within doors. This city, however, labours under two great disadvantages— • bad air, and the want of fresh wholesome water, which obliges the inha- bitants to preser\e tlu- rain water in reservoirs. Rotterdam is next to Amsterdam for commerce and wealth ; its inhabitants are computed at 48,000. 'Ilie Hague, though but a village, is the seat of government in the United Provinces, and is celebrated for the magnificence and beauty of its buildings, the resort of foreign ambassadors and strangers of all di- stinctions who live in it, the abundance and cheapness of its provisions, and the politeness of its inhabitants, who are computed to be about forty thousand j it is no place of trade, but it has been for many years noted as an em])orium of pleasure and politics. Middleburg in Zealand has a large town-iiall, and was the scat of the provincial states, and of the council of Flanders. Leyden and Utrecht are fine cities, as well as fa- mous for their universities. Delft, Dort, and Groeningen, are likewise considerable towns, containing each about 20,000 inhabitants. Saardam, though a wealthy trading place, is mentioned here as the workshop where Peter the Great of Muscovy in person served his apprenticeship to ship-building, and laboured as a common handicraft. The upper part of Guelderland is subject to Prussia, and the capital city ia Guelder. Commerce, manufactures.] An account of the Dutch commerce, previous to the late revolution, would have comprehended that of al- most all Europe. There is scarcely a manufacture that they did not carry on, or a state to wiiich they did not trade. In this they are as- sited by the populousness of their country, the cheapness of their la- bour, and, above all, by .their water-carriage, which, by means of their canals, gives them advantages beyond all other nations. The United Provinces were the grand magazine of Europe : and goods might be pur- chased here sometimes cheaper tlian in tlie countries where they grow. The East-India company has had the monopoly of the most valuable spice* for more than a hwndred years, and, till the late and present wars with England, was extremely opulent and powerful. Their capital city in India is Batavia, which is said to exceed in ma;;nificence, opulence, and commerce, all the cities of Asia. Here the vicciays appear in greater splendor tiian the stadtholder; and some of the Dutch subjects in Ba- tavia scarcely acknowledge any dependence on the mother country. They have other settlements in India ; but the island of Ceylon is now in possession of the English. Not to mention their herring and whala fisheries, which they have carried off from tlie native proprietors, they are distinguished for their pottery, tobacco-pipes. Delft-ware, finely refined salt ; their oil-mills, and starch-manufactures ; their hemp and fine paper mnnutaotures j their fine linen and table-damasks; their saw-mills for timber, either for shipping or houses, in immense quanti- ties; tlieir great sugar-baking; their vast woollen, cotton, and silk ma- nufactures ; wax-bleaching ; leather-dressing ; the great quantity of coin and specie, assisted by their banks, especially by that of Amster- dam} their East-India uu^ej and tlieir general industry and frugality^ !i m. !l i i ■■ I- : t 1 M .pa t lii m i 1 4£a HOLLAND. life: ''% Their commerce, however, must have greatly suffered during the late and present war, p.nd especially since the French entered the countiy. Public trading companies.] Of these, the principal is the East- India company, incorporated in l602, by whi'h formerly the Dutch ac- quired iinnien.^o wealth, divided forty percent, .and sometimes sixty, about the year J 600 ; at present the dividends are much reduced ; but in a hiundred and twenty-four years, the proprietors, on an average, one year with another, divided somewhat above twenty-four per cent. So • iate as tlic year 1/60, they divided fifteen per cent. ; i)ut the Dutcli "West-India company the same year divided no more than two and a half per cent. I'his company was incorporated in lO'il. The bank of Amstenlam was thought to be inexhaustibly rich, and was under an excellent direction; it is said, by sir William Temple, to contain tlie greatest trecisure, either real or imai;;inary, that is known any where in the world. What may seem a paradox, is, tliat this bank was so far from payin^T any interest, that the money in it was worth somewhat more than tJie current cash is in common payments. jVIr. Anderson supposes, that the cash, bullion, and pawned jewels in this bank, which were kept in the ^aults of the Stadthouse, amounted to thirty-six (though others say only to thirty) millions sterling. (>o\STiTUTioN', oovEHXMENT, LAWS.] Bcforc thc Frcnch entered Holland, in January l/g.'i, the United Provinces formed a common con- federacy ; yet each province had an internal go^ ernment or constitution independent of the others; this governmen': was called the utatis of that province ; and the delegates from them formed the statcs-iroieral, in whom the soven^iguty of the whole confederacy was vested ; but t])ough a province should send two or more delegates, yet such province had no more than one voice in every resolution ; and before that resolution could have the force of a law, it must be apj)roved of by every prt)vince, and by every city and republic in that province. This formality in times of great duiger and emergency has been set aside. Jlvery resolution of the states of a particular province must be carried unanimously. The council o/'s/w.'c consisted iikeu ise of dejnities from the several pro- vinces ; but its constitution was ditferent from that of the states-general; it was com]iosed of twelve persons, whereof Guelderland .sent two ; Hol- land, three ; Zealand, two; Utrecht, two; Friesland, one ; Overyssel, one ; and Groeningen, one. These deputies, however, did not vote pro- viucially, but personally. Their business was to prepare estimates, and \yays and means for raising the revenue, as well as other matters that wwe to be laid l>efore the states-general. The states of the provinces were styled "Noble and Mighty Lords;'" but 'Ijose of Holland, " Noble and Most Mighty Lords;" and the states-general, " High and Mighty Lords," or, " The Lord., the States-general of the United Netherlands ;" or, " Their High Mightinesses." Subordinate to these two bodies, was the chamber ot' accompts, which was likewise composed of provin- cial deputies, who audited ;'!! public accompts. The admiralty formed a separate Ijoard, and the ext'cuiive p:ntuf it was conuuillcd to live col- Jegcs in the three maritime province's of Holland, /eahmd, and Frieslaiid. In HoU ind thc peoj)le had nothing to do either in choosing tiieir rejjre- sentaiives or their magistrates. In Amsterdam, which took the lead in all public deliberations, the magistrncj' was lodged in thirty-si\ hcnaU'rs, wiio were ciiosen for life, and every vacancy among them was tilled up by the survivors. I'iie same senate also elected the deputies to represent the cities in the province of Holl.md. Tiie above particulars are mentioned^ because, \vitliout a knowledge HOLLAND. 439 «f tliem, k is impossible to understand the lustoiy of the United Pro- \-inces from the dtath of king William to the year 1 747, when tiie btadt- holder.ship was made herediiary in tlie male and lijinale representatives of the fiimily of Oange. Thib otHcc in a manner supei'seded the con- stitution already deseribed. The stadtholder was president of the states of every province ; and such was his power and iiiiiuenee, that he could change the deputies, magistrates, and oiKeers, in every province and city. -By this lie held the moulding of the assembly of the states-general, tliough he had no voice in it : in short, though he h;id not the title, he had more real power and authority tlKin some kings ; lor, besides tlie .'nfluenee and revenue he derived from the stadlholdership, he had se- veral principalities and large estates of his own. The lata stadtholder, who was expelled by the French, was William V, prince of Orange and Nassau, son of the stadtholder William Charles, who married Anne, princess royal of Great Britain, and died in 1/51. Though Holland under this constitution was called a republic, yet its governiuent was far from being of the popular kind : nor did the people eryoj that degree of liberty \\ hich might at first view be apprehended. It was indeed rather an oligart^hy than a commonwealth ; for the bulk of the people were not suft'ered to have the least share in any part of the go- vernment, not even in the choice of tlie deputies. It may also be ob- served that very few persons in this state dared speak their real senti- ments freely ; and they were generally educated in principles so extreme- ly cautious, that they could not relinquish them when they entered more into public life. After tlie departure of the stadtholder, on the conquest of Holland by die French, in 1/95, a convention was assembled to administer the go- vernment, and frame a constitution for the new Batavian republic. The lirst plan they presented was rejected by the people in the primary as- semblies ; but another was afterwards drawn up, which was accepted. This constitution ^\•as again changed in several particulars in 17()8 ; and the Batavian republic is now governed by a directory of twelve members, the president of which is changed every three months, and of which one member g(»es out annually ; and a legislative body of 35 members, which assembles twice, and if necessary oftener, in the year, and appoints a committeeof twelve of its members to examine and report on thv* laws and regulations proposed by the directory, Witii respect to the administration of justice in this coimtry, eveiy province has its tribunal, to which, except in criminal causes, a})peal lies from the petty and county courts j and it is said that justice is no where distributed with more impartiality. Kkvkni'k.] The late governmejit of the United Provinces propor- (ioned their taxes according to the abilities of each province or city. Those taxes consisted of an almost general excise, a land-tax, poll-tax, and hearth-money ; so that the public revenue amounted annually to about three millions and a half sterling, The province of Holland paid nearly half of this revenue. The folU»wing is ijie rate at which each of the Se\ en Uiiited Provinces contributed towards the public expense ; Of every million of ducats, the province of 7 400 (VK) Holland contributed j ' ' Zealand 130,000 Friesland 1/0,000 Utrecht 85,00O (Tioeningen 75,000 Guelderland 70,QQO Ovcrysscl 50,000 • lii t r. 440 HOLLAND. ( > Ami ■■,.'« i ; au: Of die 420,000 ducats paid by the province of Holland, the city of* Amsterdam furnished upwards of 320,000. The taxes in these pro- vinces are so heavy, and so many, that it is not without reason a certain author asserts, thnt the only thing which has escaped taxation there is the air they breathe. But for the encouragement of trade, the duties on goods and merchandise are exceedingly low. I'he expenses occasioned by the present war, and the contributions required by their new allies the French, cannot but have considerably increased their taxes. In the ycnr 1 7g7, after the defeat of tlie Dutch fleet by admiral Duncan, a tax of eight per cent, on all inc©me was imposed for the re-establishment of tlieir navy. A forced loan of three per cent, on all capital and property, and a tax of seven per cent, besides, on all income, were likewise de- creed ; and additional taxes of the same kind have since been imposed. The public debt of the United Provinces is stated by Boetticher at one hundred and tJiirty millions sterling ; but by an estimate lately pub- lished, which appears to be from authority, it amounts only to one tliou- sand millions of ilorins, or about one hundred millions sterling. Army, Ni^vv.] The number of land forces in the United Provinces, in time of peace, conunonly amounted to about forty thousand. At pre- sent, tJiough they are at war, they have not more than twenty thousand; but their new allies, the French, oblige tliem to keep in their pa)- a nu- merous body of French troops, generally to the amount of twenty-five or thirty thousand, who iiold the country in subjectiiMi to France. The marine force of the United Provinces used to be very great, aiul they for- merly fitted out very formidable fleets j but their navy has for many years been much neglected. Their late war with Great Britain obliged them t(j increase it ; and they have great resources for that purpose. At present it must be in a very feeble and shattered state, inconsequence of the surrender of admiral Lucas's ^quudron at the Cape of Good Hope, the victory gained by admiral Duncan, and especially the surrender of the fleet in the Texel to admiral Mitchel. Their naval force may, howevi-T, still amount to fifteen ships of the line, and a.-, many frigates. Religion.] Since the irruption of the French into Holland, the new government of the Bat.ivi.ui republic has declared that no religion is esta- bli'^hed or paid by the state } but prior to that event the established reli- gion here wa^ the presbytcrian and Calvinism ; none but presbylerians were admitted to any oiiice or post in the government, excepting in the army ; yet all religions and sects were tolerated, and had tlieir respec- tive meetiui^s or assemblies for pni)lic worship, among which the papihts and .Tews were very numcrocs. And, indeed, this country may be con- sidered as a striking instance jf the benehis arising to a nation from uni- versal tulcratiivi. As every man is allowed to worship God according to tho ciictat s ot'his ownciiscieiicc, persons ot'tlie most opposite opiiiions live togolher in the mosi perfect harmony and peace. No man in this republic bar. ."..ny reason to compiain of being oppressed on account ol his religious principles; noriuiy hopes, by advancing his reHgion, to form a party, or to break in upun the government j ;ind tneretiore, in Holland, men live; togeiher as citizens of the world ; their ditferences in opiiiion make none in aflection, and the) are a'^soci.iud together by the comnion ties of iiunianity and bonds of j^eiice, under the protection oi the laws of the stite, with equal cnc»i.raL,viuunt to arts andindusLiy, and equal Iree- dom (^f sprculalion and in.juny. LiTrH\TiTK£.] Kr.ismus atid Grotius, who were both natives of this country, stand almost at the head of inodern learning. Haarlem dis- putes (he invention of piintiug wit'i the Ge';;;ans, and the magistrates L^Cy two copies yf a book entitled i:>j)ccutufn Salvationist printed by HOLLAND. 441 Koster in 1440; and the most elegant editions of the classics camefroni the Dutch presses of Amsterdam, Rottevdaii, Utrecht, Leyden, and other towns. The Dutch have excelled in controversial divinity, which insinuated itself so much inttj the state, thai, befor;; principles of univer- sal toleration prevailed, it had almost proved fatal to the government j witness the violent disputes about Anninianism, fiee-will, predestina- tion, and the like. Besides Boerhaave, they have produced excellent writers in all branches of medioine. Graevius, Gronovius father and son, and Burman, are ranked among the principal of their numerous com- mentators upon the classics. In the other departments of literature, the Dutch publications are mechanical, and arise chiefly from their employ- ments, in universities, church, or state. Universities.] These are Leyden, Utrecht, Groeningen, Harder- '.vicke, and Franeker. The university of Leyden, which was founded in 15/5, is the largest and most ancient in all the United Netherlands. Its library, besides a number of printed books, contains above two thousand oriental manu- 6cri|>ts. Here is also a physic-garden, and an anatomical theatre. The university of Utrecht was changed from a school into an Uni- versity in lo3t); but it has not all the privileges of the other universi- ties, being «ntirely subject to the magisLrates of the city. The physic- garden here is very curious ; and for the recreation of the students, on the east side of the city, just without the gate, is a beautiful mall, con- sisting of seven straight walks, two thousmd paces in length, regularly planted with limes ; out that in the middle is pn.perly the mall. There are abundance of youth, of the principal nobility and gentry from most countries in Europe, at these semiiinries of literature j and as every one may live as he pleases, without he'vv^ obliged to be profuse in his expenses, or so much as quitting his uiu;:it-go'.vii for either weeks or monihs together, foreigners of all ranks and conditions are to be seen here. The force of exami)le is strikingly exhibited at these universities; for frugality in expense, order, ace iposed b'juaviour, attention to study, and assiduity in all things, being the characteristics of the natives, stran- gers who continue amongst tliem soon adopt their m'.mucirs and form of living. And though the students live as ihey ploase, and study as much or as little as they think fit, yei they are in general remarkable for their sobriety and good manners, and the assiduity and success with which they apply then)selves to their studii's. No oaths are imposed, nor any reli- gious tests; so that Roman-catholic parents, and even Jews, send their cliildren here with as little scruple as protesLints. Language.] The language of the Uriiied Provinces is Low Dutch, which is a corrupted dialect of the Gerni:iii ; but the people of fashion speak English and French, The Lord's Prayer runs thus • (hisc Vader, die in de licmdin zyn, nxcn naam worde {i^chinjli^hl: ivxchonin^kri/k koine : tnve zvUle gcscliicde <>;clj/ck in den hviiicl :oo onk op den nrdcn, mi.; dagelicks lii'oot :^<itf om htriicn, tnh' z-cviraft oiise schuldm '^cli/k ook ny vergceven case schuldcnuaren : ends cnlauL ons niet in vcrsocckin<rc, maer verlast p/w ran dtr hooscn. Amen. Antk-iuities.] Holland contiins few aitiquities. Near Catwyk is a ruinous lloaian tower ; and in tlic middle of Lryden an artificial mount, on which is a round tower built, according to traditional report, by Hen- g'.sT. the leader of die Saxons who in'. acli:d England. HifiioRY.] Afier the Seven United Provinces had obtained their in- dej)e;idence, a> related in the preoeciin ■• su'nmary of the history of tli& Netherlands, they soon became distiiiguished as a cumniorcial and mari- I 44'i TIOLLAND. h. f rii S.|( time state ; raul by tlicir sea-wars with Kngland, under the Common- wealth, Cromwell, and Charles II., justly acquired the reputation of a formidable naval power. When the house of Austria, which for some ages ruled oxer Germany, Spain, and part of Italy, with which they afterwards continued to carr)- on bloody wars, w;vs become no longer formidable ; and when the pid)lie jealousy was directed against that of Bourbon, which was favoured by (lie government of Holland, who had dispossessed the ])rinee of ( )range of the stadtholdership ; the spirit of the peo])lev,as such, that they revived it in the person of the prince, who was afterwards AVilliam III. king of (Ireat IJritain ; and during his reign, and tliat ofcjui-en Anne, tliey wcvc principals in the grand confederacy against Lewis XIV^ king of France. Their conduct towards England in tlie wars of 17I2 and l/TyG has been menti(;ned in the hi.iliMy of that countiy, as also the occurrences which led to a rupture between them and the English in the year 178O, As it was urged that they refused to fulfil the treaties which subsisted between them ami Great Ikitain, so all the treaties wliich bound Great Ikitain to them were declared null and \oid, as if none had ever existed. Py this war, their trade suffered considerably ; but Xegapatnain, in the East Indies, was the only place not restored to them by tiie peace of J7S3. Piobably, to tlieir separation from Great Britain may be attributed the ditlerences between the States-General and the emperor Joseph II., who, from tlie exhausted state of several of the European powers, seemed to liavc a favourable opportunity of accomplishing his designs, Jn the year l/Bl, lie had been allowed to demolish the Dutch barrier in Jiis dominions, for which they had contendeil so desperately in the time of queen Anne; and he now seemed willing to encroach upon their territories. A conference concerning tl>e boiuularies of their respective nations was proposed to the stales ; but before this could take place, he began to commit sonv acts f)f hostility, and extendctl his dominions a lit- tle by way of preliminary. Tvvo small forts, St. Donat, and St. Paul, were seized upon, as well as some part of the marshes in the neighbourhood ofSluys. As a prelude to the neg(»tiations, he also demanded that the. Dutch guiird-ship should be removed from before Eillo, in acknow- jedgemt-nt that one of the prerogatives of his Imperial majesty was the free navig;:tion of the Scheldt. This being complied with, the negotia- tions wore opened at Brussels, on the 24th of April, 1/34, when several other demands of small portions of territory and little sums of money were made ; the mo.-t material requisition b(;ing the town of Maestrieht r'lnd its territory. For some time the conferences were carried on in that dry and tedious manner which generally marks the proceedings of the Dutch ; but the emperor urged 011 liis demands with great vigour, and matters seemed fast tending towards an open rupture. On the 2Jd of August, he delivered in hi-; ultimatum to the commissioners at Brussels, in which he otferetl to give up his demand on Maestrieht, in conside- ration of having the tree anil unliniited navigation of the Scheldt, in both its branches, to the sea ; and, in token of his contidence t)f the good in- tentions of the states, lie detennined to consider the ri\er as open from the date of that paper. Any insult on his llags, in the execution of tliesu piu'poses, he would com.'lude to be a direct act of hostility, and a formal declaration of war un the part of the republic. To prevent all injuries contrary to the incontestable rights of his Imperial majesty, and to leave no doubts of his unalterable resolution to adhere to the proi)ositions con- tained in the ullimatuni, liis majesty could not forbciu* determining to HOLLAND. 443 tn fipud to sea, from Antwerp, a ship umlcr h\^ flap;, after liaving declared Joni^ enough Vx'tore in what manner lie should ((insider all violent oppo- sition that^ni;j;ht be made to the free passage of the said ship. The ship was stopped in its passage, as was another, ordered to sail from Ostend uj) the Seheldt to Antwerp. 15iit the Dutch olfered to dismiss the vessels, if the captains would engage to return to tlieir respective places, and not continue their voyage on the river; which they refused to do. This the emperor called insulting his flag, and declared to all fo- reign courts, he cou.ld not look on this fact but as " an etfectivc decla- raiion of war on the part of the republic." In answer to their conduct in stopping the Imperial shi])s, whicji the emperor styled an insult to his tlag, and by \\hi( h he declared them to have begun hostilities, the Dutch ministers at Brussels, in a paper delivered to that court, protested " that a> their sole aim was to sup])ort tlieir unccjntrovertible right, they could not, with a!\y a])pearance of jastice, be considered as guilty of a hostile af:i"gression." iireat preparations were made for immediate hostilities against the Dutch ; a\Kl several hundred of the Imperialists, with some field-pieces, advancing towards the counterscarp of Lillo, the commanding otHcer of that ]ila(-c ordered the sluices to be opened, November 7, 1/84, which effected an invuidation that laid under water many miles of llie flat country around tlie forts on the Scheldt, to preserve them from an at- tack. Both parties exerted tliemselvcs in case they should be called forth to open a campaign in the next spring ; but France and Prussia interposed as negoli;:t ts and mediators, and succeeded in bringing alx)ut a reconciliation. F"'wever, from the conduct of the emperor in (he partition of I'oland, aiid in demolishing (he fortifications of the barrier places in the Netherlands, and demanding a free navigation of the Scheldt and to the JOast Indies — advancing from one pretension to an- other — it is apparent that the most solemn treaties will be no longer ob- Kcrved, by some courts and statesmen, than till tliey have an opportunity, witli ability, to liicak them. During the progress of their contentions with the emperor, this conn- try was greatly distressed by intestine animosities, which it may be pro- per in this place briefly to state. The continued series of losses which they had sustained in the late war with Great Britain was peculiarly dis- graceful to the republic. All (heir settlements in the West Indies fell into the hands of the British, without rt;sistance ; their ships were cap- tured, and trade rained j while the disasters of the war excited the ani- mosity of liie two factions against e;K;li other to the highest degree. The patriots, or aristfjcratic party, attributed these defeats to the stadtholder, who lii'.d openly exi)ressed his predilection for tJie English at the begin- nuig of lilt.' American <iuarrel. I'o this conduct the patriots now very artl'ully reverted. They accused liim of having achised the aggression of the Englisii. and of contributing to their success by treachery. The tniilent ine(|ualitv ot' tlie stru'.;gle, tlic notorious deliciency of all war- like articles in the iloek-\ards and arsenals of the republic, the frecpient and public reclamations made by the prince and i)y the council of state on the subject of that deliciency, were forgotten; and the wilful miscon- duct of ihe stadtholder was boldly alleged by tlii" patriots as the sole i-ause of that miserable succession of deteat and disgrace which imme- diately followed the commencement of hostilities. Whilst these were the recrinfinations of the patriots, the monarchical or Orange party ac- cused their antagonists of having involved the crnmtry in a dangerous war, at a time when it was entifely unprepared for \i. M' 1 ^vlfrl GERMANY. Tliis prodnred various accusations and vindications between the two parties, until at last, in the month of May 17*^6, the stadtholder gave orders to seize on Vreeswick, a post of importance to the city of Utrecht, on account of its situation on the canal between that city and the territories of South Holland; containing also the sluices, by which botli these provinces might be overflowed. This brought on a skirmish between the troops of the stadtholder and the burghers of Utrecht, in '^^'hich the latter proved victorious. Some other unimportant hostilities took place ; but while the military operations were carried on in such a languid manner, a violent tumult happened at Amsterdam, in which se- veral persons were killed. This was followed by a revolt of most of tlie regular troops of Holland, who went over to the stadtliolder ; but not- witlistanding this apparent advantage, and some others which afterwards took place, the disputes still continued with extreme violence, insomuch that the princess of Orange herselt was seized, and detained prisoner a niglit by the patriots. These turbulent commotions were, however, at last settled by the king of Prussia, who for this pui-jjose marched an army into the terri- tories of the United Provinces, and took possession of the city of ilotter- dam, and some other places, without resistance. This so much over- awed both parties, that they quickly came to an accpmmodati(*n, and a treaty was concluded between that monarch and the states of Holland. By this, the two contending parties were formally reconciled, and the courts of r^ondon and Berlin guaranteed the stadtholdership, as well as the hcivditary government of each province, in the House of Orange, with all the riglits and prerogatives settled in the years 1/47 and 1748 j by wiiioh all attempts to disturb the domestic tranquillity of the republic, by means of any foreign interference, appeared to be etfectually guarded against by the close union that subsisted between those two important powers. I'he late revolution in Holland, in consequence of the irruption of the French, and the expulsion of the stadtholder I'rom that country, has Already l^eon liiiefly narrated in our history of France, to which we must refer the reader. GERMANY. :i I' ;.«'■ Extent and Situation'. ,Ari!cs. Er..rdth53o| ^^^^^^^^" t 6° O' and 19' 0' East long. Containing 180,000 square miles, witli 128 inhabitants to each. "{ 45^ 30' and 55° 30* ^Jorth lat. Xamk.] GREAT part of modern Germany lay in ancient Gaul, as has been already mentioned: and the word Germany itself may be consi- riered as modern. Many fnnciful derivations have been given of the word ; the most probable is, that it is compounded of Gvr or Gar, and Man, \\ hich, in the ancient Teutonic, signifies a warlike man. The Germans were called by various other names, such as AUemanni, Teu- tones : which last appears to have been their most ancient designation i and the Ge;niau3 themselves call their country Teutschland. two GERMANY. 445 Boundaries.] Germany is bounded on the north by thi? Gernua Ocean, Dcrimatk, and the Baltic ; on the ea^t by Prussia, Gallicia, and Hungary; on the south by the vVdiiatic Sea, Italy, and Swit/.erland j and on tlje west by France, from which it is separated by the Uhiue, Holland, and the North Sea. Divisions.] Geiniany formerly was divided into the Upper or South- ern, and the Lower or iSTorthern. The emperor Maximilian, predecessor and grandfather to the emperor Cluirles V., divided it into ten great cir- cles j and the division was conlijnied in the diet of Nuremberg, ia 1552 ; but the circle of Burgundy, or the seventeen provinces of the Low Countries, being afterwards detached from the empire, we are to confine ourselves to nine of tho.ie divisions, as they now subsist. Of these, three are in the north, three in the middle, and three iu the south. ( Upper Saxony. The northern circles < Lower Saxony. (^ Westphalia. i LTpper Rhine. The circles in the middle < Ltnver RJiine. (^Franconia. i Swabia. The southern circles < Bavaria. (^ Austria. Divisions. Pomerania, sub. to Prussia ■ and Sweden. Electorate of Brandenburg, sub. to its elector, the k. of Prussia. L Circle of UPPER SAXONY, Containing 31/200 square miles. Subdivisions. S. Miles. Populat. Chief Tov/us, (Stettin, hit. 5:}. 7,200 540,000^ 32. N. long. ( 14. 55. E. 1,200 110,000 Stralsund Stendal Bkhlin, lat. 52.31.N.lon. > 1 0,670 1 ,200,0o0 ^ 1 3 . 2 1 . K. Perlebers Prus. Pomera. Swcd. Pomera. Old Mark Middle Mark Electorate of Saxony, sub. 10 its elector^. Friegnitz Ucker Mark New Mark r Meisbcn l-l 600,(X)0 ElecCircle Ji < Thuringia Leipsic 10^1 TO Erzgebirge Voigtland Neustadt ,0 rMerseburg Oh j Naumburg ►c j Princip. of j .W (. <°iuerfurtj • The whole of the territories of the elector of Saxony comprehend 11,77C square iiiilcs, with 2,1U0,0C() iiiliubitantj. Prentzlow ^Custria Dresden, , lat. 51.0. N. Ion. 13.50. K Wittenberg Langonsalza T • • l.eipsic • Freybcrg Plaueii Neustadt Merseburg Naumburg Querfuit «f| Iff* 446 (JERMANY. f J m. rr ■ Principality of the house of Saxony,sub.to their respec- tive princes. Divisions. Subdivisions. 'Saxe Weimar 7 and Eisenacli J SaxeGotliawith part of Altei burg Saxe Coburg Saalfeld Saxe Coburg Meinungen Saxe Coburg ^Hildburghausen. Prin. ofAnlialt, f Auhalt Dessau i subject to its-J Anh. IJeniburg > princes. (_AnhaltCotlK'n j Tt ■ ■ 1-, f ( Schwarzburg 1 Pnncipanty of i n j ^ i c u ' / •< SonderhauHen > ^^^^'''"'^"'■S-iSch.lliulolstadt) County of J Stolberg Stolberg ^' ( Stolb. Weniigcrode County of Ilohonstein, sub. part- ly to Prussia and partly to the a counts of Stolberg. Coun.ofRcuss. C.ofMansfeld, sub. part toelec.l of Saxony, part to Prussia. j" Ter. of late abbey of Queillin burg, given as indemnity to Prussia. Ter. of late abbey of Walkcnricd, incorporated with p. of Blank- enburg, sub. to d. of liruns- wick Wulfenbuttle. Late free Imperial tow n ofKrfurt,"|_ given us indcnin. to I'russia. ^ The Eichsfeld territorv, sub. to Prussia as indenm., late be- of JNlcjilz. . Miles. 4 SO 830 352 800 721 112 SO iy2 3S4 208 lunging to elee. } 32 O'JO P(^)u}at. Chief Tovvw. 100,000 i)y'-''"^'''5 P'>isenach ^^"^"^lAltenburg f Ci;burg 70,000 <i Sonncnburg j Hildburghau- l sen f Dessau 115,a)0^ Rernburg i Cothen ( Arnstadt 100,000^ I lludolstadt 20,0(X) CStolbergeinthc < Harze. l->,000 (Wernigcrode 2 5, (XX) Tlcfeld rOreifz 80,000 .}!?7f. j Schleiz (^ Lobenstei j Eislebon j^Gerbstad 43,000 tern 1 adt J 2,000 Quedlinburg i ,U(J0 \\'alkenricd 4(j*,000 70.000 Ileiligenstadc 2. CiKLi.K OF LOWER SAXONY, Containing 17.0"00 sijuare miles. Terr. sub. Prussia. D. <>f Magdeliurg P.ofHalberstadtandJ lordship of Dereu- [• burg 3 to k. of -J P. late Rk. of dcsheim IIil-7 V . "o r Muhlhauseu '■^ p' S < Nordhauseix H^'.^ ^Goslar w^ w 15j3 200,000 Magdeburj; 480 100,000 Halberstadt OiO 90,000 Hilde*helni 9,000 10,000 6,000 GERMANY, 447 Divlbionfi. Subdivisions. S ■p. of C.ilenberg, or| Hanover. S P. ol" lAineburg, or 7 Elect, of Hanover, sub. to its j dt'ct. the kiugofG. Britain. Cclle. Duihy of Saxe Lau- enburg, w ith ter- )f rP. of Vvolteu- 7 } buttle. 3 ^ /. P. of Ulankcnb. ( ritory of ITadaii. Ducliy of Broiiu'n T. of duke of fP. of Vyolteu- Brunsvvick W'olfenbuttle. ( V. of Ulankcnb Duchy of rMevklenburg Mecklen- -^ Schwcrln burg. (_Meck, Strclitz Lordship of \\'isiniar, sub. to king! of Sweden. 3 D. ofHolstt Pinnebers zau, sub T. ofd. of I lolsteinOl- 7 Part of Kk denburg, as indenui. j ^f Lubec The free Imperial Hans towns tlieir territor Miles. 1,2^8 512 i,(ioo 101 4,800 Poi)uJat. Chief Towns. 200,000 I Jf^"";"'" ' JGoettnigcn 230,000 4?^";;^^^^''?,,. ' J^Celle or Zell« 70,000 Lauenburg 200,000 Stade 12,000 niankenbur^ ( Schwerin 400,000 ^ Gustrow (^ New Strclitz C,000 Wismar ein, with lordship of) f Ki^ I and county of Ran- > 2,304 3oO,000 -J ,^jj^ to king of Uenmark. j *■ ' " teinbl-7 Partof E' ndenm.j ofLubt serial 7 Hamburg s, and V I.ubec ries. 3 Brcincii } lO'f) 0'4 20,000 Eutin 1 50,000 .50,000 50,000 3. CincLr, or \VKSTPIIAUA, ♦"'ontaining (after the deduction of 4,000 sijuarc miles anne.\ed to France) HiXKHJ s(]uare inile-^. to ^ <! Prin. of East Friesland, and Ter. of Harlinger } Principality of Minden Remainder of D. of Clcves County of Mark (langen | Counties of -^ Tecklcnburg 3 ( Ra\ensberg P. late ]}k. of Paderboni P. late IJk. of Minister ra ( Herlbrden - - ' Essen Wcrdiu _ElLen Principalitv of Verdcn P. laleBk! of t),.nabruck ^^ . rilova Counties ) uf Diepholz ( Hcntlu'ii tu E. of Bavaria. I), ol' Berg 8G4 100,000 - ' Embdcn [ f iCer 4yO- O'O.tXX) Mindeu 4(X} 55,000 Wesel 4H0 121,000 Hanmi 20s 30,Q)00 ■ ("Eingen [_ Tecklcnburg 272 35, (XK) Ravensberg 1,.j28 1 20,000 Rulerborn l,:]0'o 200,000 Mnnster :)2 2,000 Hcrfijrden 40 5,500 Essen 40 5,000 Werdea ;}2 4,000 E:itcn 102 30,000 V'crden b(i() 125,000 Oauahruck ()50 50,000 Hoya 128 10,000 Diephol^ :J42 25,000 Bentheini 1,040 230,000 Dusseldorf . * This country was held in pledge by the elector of Hanover since 17J3; but •ince the seizure of the electorate by the trench, the count of Bentheim Srcinfurt has entered into possession. ; iiil- ^^. m 44B GERMANY. 1,440 Divisions. Subdivisions. S. Miles. Sub. to its fDuchyol'OJdenburg'^ own duke. I witli iudemnity . . fP.ofDillenburg P. of Nassau Siegeri r. of Dietz P, of Hadamar C. of Spielberg Town of Dortmund 1^ Abbey ofCorvey C.of Lippe,sub. C Lippe Detmold 7 to its counts. \ L.Schauenberg 3 C. of Schauenberg, sub, partly t<^ Lippe Schauenberg, partly to Hesse Cassel r> ^<-ixr-«i fWiedrunkel ^•^^^^'^^^-jwiedNeuwied Counties Territ. of house of Orangx;- Nassau, or Nass. Dietz* Populat. 135,000 800 180,000 560 70,000 384 50,000 Chief Towns. Oldenburg " Delraenhorst "Dillenburg Siegen Dietz < Hadamar Coppenbrugge Dortmund Corvey Detmold Blomberg fRinteln XStadthagen 164 26,000 ■ J Sayn I Pyrniont Rietberg, sub. to Hesse Cassel t^ /"Diike of Aremberg ° VDukeofCroy •g < DukeofLorsandCorswaren ju j Prince of Salm Kyburg 7 ^ (^Prince of Salm Salm 3 ^ .. /■ ("Gehmen Counties of I jj^j^gpf.^j 32 64 528 83 48 4,500 10,000 36,000 9,000 4,500 Runkel Neuwied Altenkirchen Pyrmont Uietberg Meppen 304 27,000 4. Circle op the UPPER RHINE, Containing (after the deduction of 2,400 square miles annexed to France) 5,600 square miles. Lower Hesse \^'ith*^ part of LTpper Hesse on the Lahn Electorate of Hesse, ^"^•'°|^^^ Lower C. of Catzen- J» elec. late ellenbcgen, county of Hanau Mun* zenberg Up. C. of Catzenel-' lenbogen Part of Upper Hesse i P.oflateB.ofWorn,- f late free L C. Fried landgr. Landgrav. of Hesse Darm- stadt t 4,224 500,000 -J ^ Cassel Hanau berg '■\ 1,120 C Darmstadt o.ao,o<x>|g--g m -x c ("Nassau Usiiiren 7 Territory pf | Nassau Weilburg \ Sub. to Orange Nas- f Princi. oft sau as indemn. \ Fulda y County of Waldeck ()0,C00 768 576 ' Usingcn l Idstein 90,000 Fulda 75,000 Corbach • The whole territory of the house of Orange Nassau including the late indern* sities, contains about 1,600 square miles, with 300/XX..' uihabitants. f The whole territory of 'Hesse Daonstadt contains a,240 square miles, witlj. 400,000 inbaUitanti. \'> HOLLAND. 433 Provinces. Sq. miles. Population. Chief Towns. Friesland 880 140,000 Leuwarden. , , Overyssel 1,792 Deventer, ,..> Groeningen 640 100,000 Croeningen. County of Drenthe, Lands of the Generality 2,000 435,000 ,, i ',, From the latter are now to be deducted about 600 square miles, with 124,000 inhabitants, for the part taken into the French Belgic de* partments. Since the expulsion of the stadtholder, and the introduction of a new form of government under the influence of the French, the Bataviaa republic has been divided into eight departments, as fuUow'Sj : Ancient Provinces. Departments. Chief Towns. Groeningen and Friesland Ems. Leuwarden. Remainder of Guelderland and 7 m • a t • « ^ , , .en., i.r Rhme. Arnheim. Zutphen, and part of Utrecht J Part of Holland . Amstel. Amsterdam. North part of Holland, and^ south part, to Leyden in- > TexeL Alkmaar. elusive y Remainder of south part of^ Holland, and remainder of > Delft. Utrecht. Utrecht ) Eastern part of Dutch Brabant .. Dommel. Bois le Due. '^tTzIhndL^.T!^.^^^^^^ Scheldt and Mouse. Middleburg. Each of these departments is divided into seven circles or districts. Face of the country.] Holland is situate opposite to England, at. the distance of 90 miles, upon the east side of the English Channel} and is only a narrow slip of low swampy land, lying between the mouUis of several great rivers ; and what the industry of the inhabitants have gained from the sea by means of dykes, which they have raised, and still support, with incredible labour and expense. Here are no mountains, nor rising grounds, no plantations, purling streams, or cataracts. The whole face of the country, when viewed from a tower or steeple, has the appearance of a continued marsh or bog, drained, at certain distances, by innumerable ditches j and many of the canals, which in that country serve as high roads, are in the summer months highly offensive to the smell. Rivers, lakes, canals.] The chieif rivers of Holland are the Rhine (one of tlie largest rivers in Europe), the Maese or Mease, the Dommel, the Waal, the Issel, tlie Scheldt, and the Vecht. There are many other small rivers that fall into these. The principal lake of Holland is the Sea of Haerltm ; there are also tome small lakes in tlie north of the province of Holland, and in Fries- land and Groeningen. The canals of these provinces are almost innumerable. The usual way of passing from town to town is by covered boats, called treckscuits, which are dragged along the canals by horses on a slow uniform trot, so tjiat passengers reach the different towns where they are to stop pre- cisely at the appointed instant of time. This method of travelling; »F i^ 434 HOLLAND. -m tliough to strangciii ratlic-r dull, is extremely convenient to the inhabi- tants, and very cheap. J{y means of these canals an extensive inland commerce is not only carried on through the whole country, but, a^ they communicate with the Rhine and other large rivers, tlie production* of every country are conveyed at a small expense into various parts of Gcrnumy and I'landers. A trecksciiit is divideil into two ditferent apart- ments, called the roof and the ruim ; the rirsl for jfentlcmen, and the other for comiiion people. Near Amsterdam and other large cities, a traveller is astonished when he beholds the ellei;ts of an extensive and flourishing commerci. Here the canals are lined for miles together with elegant neat cou.jtry-houses, seated in the midst of gardens and pleasure-grounds, intermixed with figures, busts, statues, temples, ike. to the very water's edge. Metals, minkkai.s.] Holland prmluces neither metals nor minerals, except a little in)n ; nor any mineral w aters. Ci-iMATK, SOIL, ArjRicuLTi'Rt;.] Thc air of the United Provinces is fogg)' and gross, until it is purified by the frost in winter, when the east wind usually sets in for about four months, and their harbours are frozen up. TJie moisture of the air causes metals to rust, and wood to mould, more than In any other i-oxintiy, which is the reason of their perpetually rubbing and scoiuinir, and oi the brightness and cleanliness in their houses, so much taki'ii noricc of. The soil is unfavourable to vegetation ; but, by thc industry of the inhabitants in msking, canals, it is rendered tit for pasture, aird in m;in) places for tillage. Vecf.tablfs, animals.] Thc quantity of grain produced here is not suftitient for lionie consumption ; but, by draining the bogs and marshes, thc Dutch hue many excellent meadows, which fatten lean German and Danish cattle to avast size -, andtliey make jirodigious quan- tities of thc best butter and cheese in Euro[>e. Their country produces turf, madder, tobacco, some fruit, and iron; but all the pit-coal and tim- ber used there, and, indeed, most of the comforts, and even the neces- saries of Hfc, arc imported. They have a good breed of sheep, whose wool is highly valued : aiul their horses and horned cattle are of a larger siae than in any other nation in Europe. It is said that there are some wild bears and wolves here. Storks build and hatch on their chimneys 5 but being birds of passage, tliey leave the country about the middle of August, with their young, and return the February following. Their river-fish are much the same as ours ; but their sea-fish are generally larger, owing perhaps to tlieir fishing in deep water. No herrings vi>;it their coasts ; but they have many excellent oyster-beds about the islands of the Texel, producing very large and well-tasted oysters. Notwith- staiiding all the inconveniences, the industry of the Hollanders fur-, nishes as great a plenty of the necessaries and commodities of life, and upon as easy terms (except to travellers and strangers), as cau be met with in any ^wrt of Europe. CuHiosiTiES.] Holland, like thc Netherlands, presents none of the yast and grand scenery of nature. TTie numerous ciiruils with which the country is intersected may be considered as interesting to tlie curiosity ortlie traveller ; and the piodigious dykes (some of which are said to be seventeen ells in thickness) mounds, and canals, constructed by the Dutch, to preserve their country from those dreadful intmdatious by which it formerly suffered so much, are works equally stupendous and shigular. The Stadthousc of Amsterdam is perhaps the best building of that kind in the world : it stands upon 13,059 large piles, driven into the ground ; and the inside is equally convenient and magixificent. Se- HOLLAND. 435 f the li the iosity to b« the by and ng of into Se- lls vt'Wl nu)8onms, containing antiquities and curiosities, artificial and na- tural, are to be found in Holland and the other province*, particulaily iti the university of l.eyden. I'opiTLATiox.] Ihc Seven United t'rovinces are perhaps the best pec^pled of any spot of the same exti;nt in the world. They contained in 1/85, according to a public account then given, 1 13 cities and towns, 1400 villages, and '2,758,0'J'i inhabitants; besides the twenty-five towns, and the people in what is called the Lnnds of the Geneialiiyi or con- c]uered countries ami towns of other parts of the Netherlands. Later estimates make the population amount at present to 2,Oi3o,070. National chakactbk, man-) The manners, habits, and even NKKS, cusiOMs.] j the minds of the Dutch (for so the inhabitants of tlie I'nited Provinces are in general called), seem to be formed by their situation, and to arise from their natural wants. Their country, which is preserved by mounds and dykes, is a perpetual incen- tive to labour ; and the artificial drains, with which it is every where intersected, must be kept in perpetual repair. Even what may be called their natural commodities, their butter and cheese, are produced by a constant attention to the laborious parts of life. Their principal food they earn out of the sea, by tlieir herring fisheries ; for they dispose of most of their valuable fish to the English, and other nations, for the sake cf gain. The air and temperature of their climate incline them to phlegmatic, slow dispositions, both of body and mindj and yet they are irascible, especially if heated with liquor. Even their virtues are owing to their coldness with regard to every object that does not immediately concern tlieir own interests j for, in all other respects, they are quiet neighbours and peaceable subjects. Ihe valour of the Dutch becomes warm and active, when they be- lieve their interests at stake ; witness their sea-wars with England and Erance. Tlieir boors, though slow of understanding, arc manageable by fair means. Their seamen are plain, blunt, but roug'., iiurly, and an ill- natured sort of people, and appear to be insensib'., of public spirit and affection for each other. Their tradesmen in gf.neral are reckoned ho- nest in tlieir dealings, atid very sparing of tlie.r words. Smoking to- bacco is practised by old and young, of botli sexes ; and as they are ge- nerally plodding upon ways and means of getting money, no people are so unsociable. A Dutchman of low rank, when drunk, is guilty of e\ ery species of brutality. I'he Dutch have also been known to exercise the most dreadful inhumanities for interest abroad, w here they thought themselves free from discovery ; but they arc in general quiet and inof- fensive in their own country, which exhibits but few instances of mur- der, rapine, or violence. As to the habitual tippling and drinking charged upon both sexes, it is owing, in a great measure to the nature of their soil and climate. In general, all appetites and passions seem to run lower and cooler here than in most other countries, that of avarice excepted. Their tempers are not airy enough for joy, or any unusual strains of pleasant humour ; nor warm enough for love ; so that the softer passions seem no natives of this country; and love itself is little better than a mechanical afl^ection, arising from interest, convenience, or habit > , it is talked of sometimes among the young men, but as a thing they have heard of, rather than felt, and as a discourse that becomes them, rather than affects them. In whatever relates to the management of pccuntary affairs, the , Dutch are certainly the most expert of any people ; as, to the knowledge ; of acquiring wealth, they vuiile the no less necessary science ofpieserv- » •J F 2 ' t 435 HOLLAND. '.m ing it. It is a kind of general rule for every man to spend less tlian hh income, be that what it will ; nor does it often enter into the heads of this sagacious people, that the common course of expense should equal the revenue j and when this happens, they tliink, at least, they have lived that year to no purpose j and the report of it used to discredit a riian among them, as much as any vicious or prodigal extravagance does in other countries. But this rigid frugality is not so universal among the Dutch as it was formerly ; for a greater degree of luxury and extrava- gance has been introduced among them, as well as the other nations of Europe. Gaming is likewise practised by many of their fashionable la- dies, and some of them discover more propensity to gallantry tlian was known there in former times. No country can vie with Holland in the number of those inhabitants whose lot, if not riches, is at least a com- fortable sufficiency j and no where fewer failures or bankruptcies occur. Hence, in the midst of a world of taxes and contributions, they flourish and grow rich. From this systematic spirit of regularity and modera- tion, joined to the most obstinate perseverance, they succeeded in the stu- pendous works of draining their country of those immense deluges of water, that had overflowed so large a part of it during many ages, while, at the same time, they brought under their subjection and conmiarid tlie rivers and seas that surround them, by dykes of incredible thickness and strength, and made them the principal bulwarks on which they rely for the protection and safety of their territories against the danger of an enemy. This they have done by covering their frontiers and cities with innume- rable sluices J by means of which, at the shortest notice, the most rapid inundations are let in, and they become, in a few hours, inaccessible. From that frugality and perseverance by which they have been so much characterised, they were enabled, though labouring under the greatest di^culties, not only to throw oft' the Spanish yoke, but to attack that powerful nation in the most tender parts, by seizing her rich gilleons, and forming new establishments in Africa, and the East and We.st In- dies, at the expense of Spain, and thereby becoming, from a despicable province, a most powerlul and formidable enemy. Ecjually wonderful was the rise of their military and marine establisimieuis ; maintaining, during their celebrated contention with Lewis XIV. and Charles H. of England, not less than 150,000 men, and upwards of eighty ships of the line. But a spirit of frugality being now less universal among them, tlie rich traders and mechanics begin to approximate to the luxuries of the English and French j and their nobility and high magistrates, who have retired from trade, rival those of any otlier part of Europe in their table, buildings, fiirniture, and equipages. The diversions of tlie Dutch dift'er not much from those of the En- glish, who seem to have borrowed from them the neatness of their drink- ing booths, skittle and other grounds, and small pieces of water, which form the amusements of the middhng ranks j not to mention their hand- organs, and other musical inventions. They are the best skaters upon tlie ice in the world. It is amazing to see the crowds in a hard frost upon the Ice, and the great dexterity both of men and women in darting along, or ratlier flying, with inconceivable velocity. The dress of tlie Dutch formerly was noted for the large breeches of tlie men, and the jerkins, plain mobs, short petticoats, and other oddities of the women j all which, added to the natural thickness and clunisiness of their persons, gave them a very grotesque appearance. These dresses now prevail only among the lower ranks, and more piu-ticularly among the sea-faring people. liOLLAXD. 437 Cities, chief towns, edifices.] Amsterdam, which is built upon piles of wood, is thought to contain 212,000 people, and to be, next to London, tlie most commercial city in the world. It stands on the river Amstel. Its conveniences for commerce, and tlie grandeur of its public xvorks, are ahnost beyond description. In this and all other cities of the United Provinces, the beauty of the canals and walks under treea planted on their borders is admirable ; but above all, wc are struck with tlie neatness and cleanliness that is every where observed within doors. This city, however, labours under two great disadvantages- bad air, and the want of fresh wholesome water, which obliges the inha« bitants to preserve the rain water in reservoirs. Rotterdam is next to Amsterdam for commerce and wealth ; its inhabitants are computed at 48,000. The Hague, though but a village, is the seat of government in tlie United Provinces, and is celebrated for the magnificence and beauty of its buildings, the resort of foreign ambassadors and strangers of all di- stinctions who live in it, the abundance and cheapness of its provisions, and the politeness of its inhabitants, who are computed to be about forty thousand ; it is no place of trade, but it has been for many years noted as an emporium of pleasure and politics. Middleburg in Zealand has a large town-hall, and was the seat of the provincial states, and of the council of Flanders. I^yden and Utrecht are fine cities, as well as fa- mous for their univeipities. Delft, Dort, and Groeningen, are likewise considerable towns, containing each about 20,000 inhabitants. Saardam, though a wealthy troMing place, is mentioned here as the workshop where Peter the Great of Muscovy in person served his apprenticeship to ship-building, and laboured as a common handicraft. The upper part of Guelderland is subject to Prussia, and the capital city is Guelder. Commerce, manufactures.] An account of the Dutch commerce, previous to the late revolution, would have comprehended that of al- most all Europe. There is scarcely a manufacture that they did not carry on, or a state to which they did not tiade. In this they are as« sited by the populousness of their country, the cheapness of their la- bour, and, above all, by their water-carriage, which, by means of their canals, gives them advantages beyond all other nations. The United Provinces were the grand magazine of Europe : and goods might be pur- chased here sometimes cheaper than in the countries where they grow. The East-India company has had the monopoly of the most valuable spicea for more than a hundred years, and, till the late and present wai"s with England, was extremely opulent and powerful. Their capital city in India is Batavia, which is said to exceed in magmficence, opulence, and commerce, all the cities of Asia. Here the viceroys appear in greater splendor than the stadtholder; and some of the Dutch subjects in Ba- tavia scarcely acknowledge any dependence on the mother country. They have other settlements in India ; but the island of Ceylon is now in possession of the English. Not to mention their herring and whale fisheries, which they have carried off from the native proprietors, they are distinguished for their pottery, tobacco-pipes, Delft-ware, finely refined sa|t ; their oil-mills, and starch-manufactures j their hemp and fine paper rnanufactures ; their fine linen and table-damasks j their saw-mills for timber, either for shipping or houses, in immense quanti- ties ; their great sugar-baking ; their vast woollen, cotton, and silk ma- luUactures ; waxThleaching ; leather-dressing ; the great quantity of coin and specie, assisted by their banks, especially by that of Amster- dim; thuir East-India trade ^ and tiieir general iodustry and frugality* m 4S8 HOLLAND. 1 !1: Their comtperce, however, must have greatly suffered during the late and present war, and especially since the French entered the country. Public trading companies.] Of these, the principal is the East-» India company, incorporated in l002, by which formerly the Dutch ac-r quired immense wealth, divided forty per cent, and sometimes sixty, about the year lOCiO; at present llie dividends are much reduced; but in a hundred and twenty-four years, the proprietors, on an average, one year with anotJier, divided somewhat alwve twenty-four per cent. So . Jate as tiie year 17<30, they divided fifteen per cent. ; but the Dutch ., West-India company the same year divided no more than two and a half per cent. This company was incorporated in l(j'2] . The bank of Amsterdam was thougiit to be inexhaustii)ly rich, and was under au excellent direction ; it is said, by sir William Temple, to contain tJie greatest tre.i.sure, either real or imaginary, that is known a'-iy where in tJie world. What may seem a paradox, is, that this bank was so far from paying any interest, that the money in it was worth somewhat more than tJie current cash is in common payments. Mr. Anderson supposes, that the cash, bullion, and pawned jewels in this bank, which were kept in the vaults of the Stadthouse, amounted to thirty-six (though others say pnly to thirty) millions sterling. Constitution, government, laws.] Before the French entered Holland, in January 1795, the United Provinces formed a common conr fedoracy ; yet each province had an internal governnient or constitution independent of the others; this government was called the !<t(ttcs of that province ; and tlie ik-legates from them formed the stuti-s-^aicrnl, in whom the sovereignty of the whole confederacy was vested ; but though a province should send two or more delegates, yet such province had no more tlian one voice in every reiolution ; and before that resolution could have the force of a law, it must be approved of by every province, and by every city and republic in that province. This formality in times of great danger and emergency has been set aside. Every resolution o<^the states of a particular p/ovince must he carried unanimously. Th<; council (pf state i'om\sitid likewise of deputies from the several pror vinces ; but its constitution wa.^ ditVerent from that of the states-general; it was composed of twelve perstJiis, whereof Guelderland sent two j Hol- land, three ; Zealand, two ; Utrecht, two ; Friesland, one ; Overyssel, one ; and Groeningen, one. These deputies, however, did not vote pro- vincialiy, but personally. Their business was to prepare estimates, and ways and means tor raising the revenue, as well as other matters that w«re to be laid before the states-general. The states of the provinces were styled " Noble and Mighty J.ords;" but those of Holland, " Noble and Most Mighty Lords;" and' the states-general, " High and Mighty Lords," or, " The Lords the States-General of the United Netherlands ;" or, '• Their High Mightinesses." Subordinate to tliese t\\ o bodies, was tiie chamber of accompts, which was likewise composed of provin- cial deputies, who audited all public accompts. The admiralty formed a separate bo.ud, and the execuiive p;iil of it was committed to tive col- leges in the tinee maritime provinces ot Holland. Zealand, and Friesland. Jn Hoii.iJia tiie people had nothing to do ei'.her in choosing their repre- sentaoves 01 tiieir m.gi.stralcs. In Amsterdam, which took the lead ia all public ddiberatioMs, the magistracy was lodged in thirty-six senators, who were ciiosen t()r life, :ind every vacancy among them was tilled up by t-ie sui\ !\'ors. The same senate i:Uo elected the deputies to represent the cities in the piovince of Holland. The above paiticuJars arc mentioued, because, without a knowledge HOLLAND. 439 of them, it is impossible to understand the history of tlie United Pro- vinces from the dtath of king William to the year 1 747, when the stadt- holdership was made hereditary in the male anv' Vmale representatives of ihii family of Orange. This office in a manner superseded the con- stitution already described. The stadtholder was president of the states of every province ; and such was his power and intluence, that he could change the deputies, magistrates, and officers, in every province and city. By this he held the moulding of the assembly of the states-general, though he had no voice in it : in short, though he had not the title, he had more real power and authority than some kings ; for, besides tlie influence and revenue he derived from the stadlholdership, he had se- veral principalities and large estates of his own. The latu stadtholder, wlio was expelled by the French, was Yv'illiam V. prince of Orange and Nassau, son of the stadtholder William Charles, who married Anne, princess royal of Great Britain, and died in 1751. Tlu)ngh Holland under this constitution was railed a republic, yet its government was far from being of the popular kind : nor did the people enjoy that degree of liberty which might at first view be apprehended. It was indeed rather an oligarchy than a commonwealtli ; for tlie bulk of die people were not suffered to have the least share in any part of the go- vernment, not even in the choice of the deputies. It may also be ob- served that very few persons in this state dared speak their real senti-. nients freely ; and they were generally educated in principles so extreme- ly cautious, tliat they could not relinquish them when they entered more into public Hfe. After the departure of the stadtliolder, on the conquest of Holland by the French, in 1795, a convention was assembled to administer tlie go* vernment, and frame a constitution for the new Batavian republic. Tlip first plan they presented was rejected by the people in tlie primarj' as- semblies ; but another was afterwards drawn up, which was accepted. Tiiis constitution was again changed in several particulars in 1798 j and the Batavian republic is now governed by a directory of twelve members, the president of v hich is changed every three months, and of which one member goes out annually ; and a legislative body of 35 members, which assembles twice, and if necessary oftener, in the year, and appointB a committee of twelve of its members to examine and report on the laws and regulations proposed by the directory. Witli respect to the administration of justice in this country, e\*ciy province has its tribunal, to which, except in criminal causes, appeal lies from the petty and county courts ; and it is said that justice is no V liere distributed with more impartiality. Rev KNUR.] The late government of tlie United Provinces propor- tioned their taxes according to the abilities of each province or city. Those taxes consisted of an almost general excise, a land-tax, poll-tax, and hearth-money ; so that the public revenue amounted annually to about three millions and a half sterling. The province, of Holland paid nearly half of this revenue. The following is the rate at which each of the Seven United Provinces contributed towards the public expense : Of e\ery million of ducats, the province of | .^^ ^^ , Holland contributed. . , 3 * t Zealand 130,000 , , Friesland 170,000 Utrecht 85,000 CTioeningen 7«'>000 Guelderland , 70,000 Ovcryssel 50,000 440 HOLLAND. -» c m Of tlie 420,000 ducats paid by the province of Holland, the city of Amsterdam furnished upwards of 320,000. The taxes in, these pro- vinces are so heavy, and so many, that it is not without reason a certain author asserts, that the only thing which has escaped taxation there is the air they breathe. But for the encouragement of trade, the duties on goods and merchandise are exceedingly low. The expenses occasioned by the present war, and the contributions required by their new allies the French, cannot but have considerably increased their taxes. In the year 1797, after the defeat of the Dutch fleet by admiral Duncan, a tax of eight per cent, on nil income was imposed for the re-establishment of their navy. A lorced loan of three per cent, on all capital and property, and a tax of seven per cent, besides, on all income, were likewise de- creed; and additional taxes of tlie same kind have since been imposed. The public debt of tlie United Provinces is stated by Boetticher at one hundred and thirty miliion.i sterling ; but by an estimate lately pub- lished, which appears to be from authority, it amounts only to one thou- sand raiUions of florins, cr abotxt one hundred millions sterling. Army, navy.] The number of land forces in the Ui\ited Provinces, in time of peace, commonly amounted to about forty tliousand. At pre- sent, though tliey are »>t war, they have not more than twenty thousand j but their new allies, the French, oblige thorn to keep in their pay a nu», merous body of French troops, generally to tlie amount of twenty-five or thirty thousand, who hold the country in subjection to France. The marine force of the United Provinces used to be very great, and they for- merly ntleA out very formidable fleets; but their navy has for many years been much neglected. Their late war witli Great Britain obliged them to increase it j an i they have great resources for that purpose. At pi'esent it must be in a very feeble and shattered state, inconsequence of the surrender of admiraj Lucas's squadron at tlie Cape of Good Hope, the victory gained by admiral Duncan, and especially the surrender of the fleet in tlie Texel to admiral Mitchel. Their naval force may, however, still amount to fifteen ships of the line, and as many frigates. Religion,] Since tlie irruption of the French into Holland, the new government of the Batavian republic has declared that no religion is esta- blished or paid by the state ; but j)rior to that event the established reli- gion here was the presbyterian and Calvinism ; none but presbyterians were admitted to any office or post in the government, cxceptlUj^- in the army ; yet all religions and sects were tolerated, and had their respec- tive meetings or assemblies for public worship, among which the papists and Jews were very mmicrous. And, indeed, this country may be con- sidered as a striking instance of the benefits arising to a nation from uni- versal toleration. As every man is allowed to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience, persons of the most opposite opinions live together in the most perfect harmony and peace. No man in thin republic has any reason to complain of being oppressed on account of his religious principles; nor any hopes, by advancing his religion, to form a party, or to break in upon the government ; und therefore, in Holland, men live together as citizens olthe world ; their differences in opinion make none in aft'ection, and tlity are associated together by the common ties of lu;n\inlty and bonds ol peace, under the protection of tlie laws of the . tatc, A itii equal encauragement to arts and indusuy, and equal free- dom of sprrulation and inquiry. LiTF.RATURE.] Era.imus ynd Grotius, who were both natives of this ccnitry, sti-iid almost at the head of modern learning. Haarlem dis- putes \!e invention of printing witli the Geriiians, and the magistrates leep two copies cf a book entitled Speculum Sulvatio7iiSf printed by HOLLAND. 441 Koster in 1440; and tlie most elegant editions of the classics came from the Dutch presses of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht, Leyden, and other towns. The Dutch have excelled in controversial divinity, which insinuated itself so much into the state, that, before principles of univer- sal tolemtion prevailed, it had almost proved fatal to the government j witness the violent disputes about Arminianism, free-will, predestina- tion, and the like. Besides Boerhaave, they have produced excellent writers in all branches of mcdioine. Graevius, Gronovius father and son, and Burman, are ranked amotig the principal of their numerous com- mentators upon the classics. In the other departments of literature, the Dutch publications are mechanical, and arise chiefly from their employ- ments, in universities, church, or state. Universities.] These are Leyden, Utrecht, Groeningen, Harder- wicke, and Franeker. The university of Leyden, which was founded in 15/5, is the largest and most ancient in all the United Netherlands. Its library, besides a number of primed books, contains above two thousand oriental manu- scripts. Here is also a physic-garden, anJ an anatomical theatre. The university of Utrecht was changed from a school into an uni- versity in 1(336 ; but it has not all the privileges of the other universi- ties, being entirely subject to the magistrates of the city. The physic- garden here is very curious ; and for the recreation of the students, on the east side of the city, just without the gate, is a beautiful mall, con- sisting of seven straight walks, two thousand paces in length, regularly planted with limes ; but that in the middle is properly the mall. There are abundance of youth, of the principal nobhity and gentry from most countries in Europe, at these seminaries of literature; and as every one may live as he pleases, without being obliged to be profuse in his expenses, or so much as quitting his niglit-gown for either weeks or months together, foreigners of all ranks and conditions are to be seen here. The force of example is strikingly exhibited at tiiese universities j for frugality in expense, order, a composed behaviour, attention to sbudy, and assiduity in all things, being the characteristics of the natives, stran- gers who continue amongst them soon adopt their manners and form of living. And though the students live as they please, and study as much or a^ijiittle as tliey think fit, yet they are in general remarkable for their sobriety and good manners, and the assidu-ty and success with which thejr apply themselves to their studies. No o.uhs are imposed, nor any reli- gious tests; so that Roman-catholic parents, and even Jews, send tlieir children here with as little scruple as protestanrs. Language.] The language of the United Provinces is Low Dutch, which is a corrupted dialect of the German ; but tlic people of fashion speak English and French, Tiie Lord's Prayer runs tlius : Ome Vader, die in de hcmclin zijn, mven naam worde jrchci/li^/il : uweiionin^kryk kome: tnve ivUle genfhirdc ;^elj^ck in den hand zoo ook op den arden, om dagelicks hrooL 'jretf om kcedcn, endc ver^eeft on.se sc/utlden i^eli/h ook tyy vergeeven unse sckuldcnaarm : ende cnlaat ons niet in vsrsocckinge, nuter vertust ont tan der booscn. Amen. ANTiauiTiEs.] Holland contains few antiquities. Near Catwyk is 2 ruinous Roman tower ; and in the middle of lieydon an artificial mount, on v/hi':h is a round tower built, according to traditional report, by Hen- gist the leader of the Saxons who invaded England. History.] Alter the Seven United Pro\ inces had obtained their in- dependence, as related in the precedin;^ suumiary of the history of the Netherlands, they soon became distinguished us a commercial and mari- 441 HOLLAND. , A ' ..yi ' l.il I time state ; and by their sea-wars witli England, under the Common- wealth, Cromwell, and Charles IL, justly acquired the reputation of a formidable naval power. When the house of Austria, which for some ages ruled over Germany, Spain, and part of Italy, witli which they afterwards continued to carry on bloody wars, was become no longer formidable j and when the public jealousy was directed against that of Bourbon, which was favoured by jhe government of Holland, who had dispossessed the prince of Orange of the stadtJioldership ; the spirit of tliB people was such, that they revived it in the person of the prince, who was afterwards William IIL king of Great Britain ; and during his reign, and tliat of queen Anne, they were principals in the grand confederacy against Lewis XIV. king of France. Their conduct towards England in the wars of 1743 and 1756 has been mentioned in the history of that countr}', as also the occurrences which led to a rupture between them and the English in the year 1780. As it was urged that they refused to fulfil the treaties which subsisted between them and Great Britain, so all the treaties which bound Great Britain to them were declared null and void, as if none had ever existed. By this war, tlieir trade suffered considerably ; but Ncgapatnam, in the East Indies, was the only place not restored to them by tlic peace of 17S3. Probably, to their .separatitw from Great Britain may be attributed the differences between the States-General and the emperor Joseph II., who, from the exhausted state of several of th^ European powers, .«ieenicd to have a favourable opportimity of accomplishing his designs. In the year 1731, he had been allowed to demolish the Dutch barrier in his dominions, for which they had contended so desperately in the time of queen Anne ; and he now seemed willing to encroach upon their territories. A conference concerning the boundaries of their respective nations was proposed to the states ; but before this could take place, he began to rximmit some acts of hostility, and extended his dominions a lit- tle by waj' of preliniinary. Two small forts, St. Donat, and St. Paul, were seized upon, as well as some part of the marshes in the neighbourhood ofSluys. As a prelude to the negotiations, he also demanded that the Dutcli guard-ship should be removetl from before Lillo, in acknow- ledgement that one of the prerogatives of his Imperial majesty w^' thej free navigation of the Scheldt. This being complied with, the negotia^ tions were opened at Brussels, on the 24th of April, 1784, when several other demands of small portions of territory and little sums of money were made ; the most material requisition behig the town of Maestricht and its territorj-. For some time the conferences were carried on in that dry and tedious manner which generally marks the proceedings of the Dutch ; but the emperor urgeil on his demands with great vigour, and matters seemed fast tending towards an open rupture. On the 23d of August, he delivered in his ultimatum to the commissioners at Brussels, in which he otlered to give up his demand on Maestricht, in conside- ration of having the free and luilimited navigation of the Scheldt, in both its branches, to the sea ; and, in token of his confidence of the good in- tentions of the states, he determined to consider tlic river as open from tlie date of that paper. Any insult on his tlags, in the execution of these purposes, he would conclude to be a direct act of hostility, and a formal declaration of war «n the part of the republic. To prevent all injuries contrary to the incontestable rights of his Imperial majesty, and to leave no doubts of his unalterable resolution tt) atlhere to the propositions con-» taincd in the ultimatum, his majesty could not forbear determining to HOLLAND. 443 send to sea, from Antwerp, a ship under his flag, after having declared long enough before in what manner he sliould consider all violent oppo- sition that might be made to the free passage of the said ship. The ship was stopped in its passage, as was another, ordered to sail from Ostend up the Scheldt to Antwerp. But the Dutch offered to dismiss the vessels, if the captains would engage to return to their respectivo ^ilaces, and not continue their voyage on the river 3 \.hich they refused to do. ""I'liis the emperor called insulting his flag, and declared to all fo- reign courts, he could not look on this fact but as " an effective decla- ration of war on the part of the republic." In answer to their conduct in stopping the Imperial ships, which the empenn- styled an insult to his flag, and by which he declared them to have begun hostilities, the Dutch ministers at Brussels, in a paper delivered to that court, protested *' that as their sole aim was to support their uncontrovertible right, they coijld not, with any appearance of justice, be considered as guilty of a hostile aggression." Crreat preparations were made for immediate hostilities against th^ Dutch ; and several hundred of the Imperialists, with some field-pieces, advancing towards the counterscarp of Lillo, the commanding oUicer of that place ordered the sluices to be opened, November 7, 1/84, which effected an inundation that laid under water many miles of the flat country around the forts on the Scheldt, to preserve them from an at- tack. Both parties exerted themselves in case they should be called forth to open a campaign in the next spring ; but France and Prussia interposed as negotiators and mediators, and succeeded in bringing about a reconciliation. However, from the conduct of the emperor in the partition of Poland, and in demolishing the fortifications of the barrier places ia the Netlierlands, and demanding a free navigation of the ischeldt and to the East Indies — advancing fiom one pretension to an- other — it is apparent that the most solemn treaties \\\\\ be no longer ob- served, by some courts and statesmen, than till they have an opportunity, with ability, to break tUem. During the progress of their contentions with the emperor, this coun- try was greatly distressed by intestine animosities, which it may be pro- j)cr in tliis place briefly to state. The continued series of losses which they had sustained in the late war with Great Britain was peculiarly dis- graceful to the republic. All their settlements in the West Indies fell into the hands of the British, without resistance ; their ships were cap- tured, and trade ruined j while the disasters of the war excited the ani- mosity of the two factions I'.gainst each other to the highest degree. The patriots, or aristocratic party, attributed these defeats to the stadtholder, who had openly expressed his predilection for the English at the begin- ning of the American quarrel. To this conduct the patriots now very artfully reverted. They accused him of having advised the aggression of the English, and of contributing to their success by treachery. The evident inetpiality of the struggle, tlie notorious deficiency of all war- like articles in the dock-yards and arsenals of the republic, the frequent and public reclamations made by the prince and by the council of state on the subject of that deticiency, were forgotten; and the wilful miscon- duct of the stadtholder was boldly alleged by the patriots as the sole oausc of that miserable succession of defeat and disgrace which imme- diately followed the commencement of hostilities. Whilst these were thi? recriminations of the patriots, the monarchical or Orange party ac- cused their antagonists of ha\ ing involved tlie country in a dangerous war, at u time when it was entirely tuiprepared for i4. 44i GERIMANY. Tills produced vai lous accusations and vindications between the two parties, until at last, in the month of May 178^, the stadtholder gave orders to seize on Vreeswick, a post of importance to the city of Utrecht, on account of its situation on the canal between tliat city and the territories of South HoUandj containing also the sluices, by which both these provinces might be oveiHowed. This brought on a skirmish between the troops of the stadtholder and the burghers of Utrecht, in which the latter proved victorious. Some other unimportant hostilities took place j but while the military operations were carried on in such a langtiid manner, a violent tumult happened at Amsterdam, in which se- veral persons were killed. This was followed by a revolt of most of the regular troops of Holland, who went over to the stadtlioldcr ; but not- •witlistanding this apparent advantage, and some others which afterwards took place, die disputes still continued with extreme violence, insomuch that the princess of Orange herself was seized, and detained prisoner a night by the patriots. These turbulent commotions were, however, at last settled by the king of Prussia, who for this puipose marched an army into the terri- tories of the United Provinces, and took possession of the city of Rotter- dam, and some other places, without resistance. This so much over- awed both parties, that they quickly came to an accommodation, and a treaty was concluded between that monarch and the states of Holland. By this, the two contending parties were formally reconciled, and the . courts of London and Berlin guaranteed the stadtholdership, as well as the hereditary government of each province, in the House of Orange, with all the rights and prerogatives settled in the years 1/47 ^nd 1748 ; by which all attcrnpts to disturb the domestic tranq\iillity of the republic, by means of any foreign interference, appeared to be effectually guarded against by the close union that subsisted between those two important powers. The late revolution in Holland, in consequence of the irruption of the French, and the expulsion of ihe stadtholder from that country, has already been briefly narrated in our history of France, to which we must refer the reader. 34 5» .'•Oi 48 1 GERMANY. Extent and Situxtion. ^Tilcs. md 5.')'' 30' Xorth lat. Ipn-:(h <i207 , . f 4.)° aC ;i r-raikh 530j '^^^^^'^^^^ | (f 0' and IQ^ 0' East long. Cout'iining 180,000 square miles, with 128 inhabitants to each. 4(J m :ii K \MK.] GREAT part of modern Germany hy in ancient Gaul, as has ht^cn already mentioned: and the word Germany itself may be consi- dered as modern. Many fanciful derivations have been given of the wortl ; the most probable is, that it is compounded of (rcr or (Jar, and Man, which, in the ancient Teutonic, signifies a warlike man. The Germ;in> were called by various other names, such as Allemanni, Te\i- tones : which last appears to have been their most ancient designation; and the Germans themsclvc* call tlieir country I'eutschland. littuxmi k ft liuu.xim O y.\lcU,>rf> J .- V \ }it '^ T» ^"Sii? ZeU i..,.c //,'/riAn^ yi if ,u y .//uwn t^ 'lf\'niift>nrij V^. ''<.vM«4 >• ,0. fol»injt- iulemt\ v^lf-^^f*' KijiJ. ifin -- \ Doiuitvi-il i2^ij^^ .S' //•y.^iirstiiiiff 1 <S JO l-J I I •io .V A- (',>lhiT,i liUUf °iA".»> JXa'n^'-'^' \; .1.1 nrtllit' fSlottin .t'ttinfi"''^ aliorn W "^ ' iftiflii^ltl BKliJAS tui-ff*' Ol /v//<«f ' Hrunswi -~ is. ,i...„J: /Anhalt d^'^'!** T ) .. AlV-.iiic lt>rl ^>»'>..<« o /v'J ,7<">i/»»"' \ lllunarDRK up. k'iAtu.i V Atiifii'i ('> h-f-f Tr{ith S 1, \/. ?.///</;; Io ".llhiibiu^f, KsuK^ •i*v*'<(!''iJ* V li"^^ ** .^ tV'rt ,^. V<''» t' V* »^Mutcratcl ,.l,«,/«w.i- ' -^ TT i'Uir, tbiiujm rim .^r A u. ir '.^-\ ,i * t^r hvu\)t'fi Aiio's hiw't;;" 'l^'"^ SL'mntiiufrn " -f /T* " -"V \rii .fhtii ^ Vie SNA Presl^urg P^ •m^' /i.inU Jl j^ L>' /^fe:>-. SaU/butuAj^ (remutit ^ f*//>- of^flnien '■^\y ■Su^l •nhur \ \J^ Yen .ctnt ;v. y-' ^ ^- - 3V » '^^ >^ " ^^^-'''^D — K,..^-^&P^»-f \ -^ -li ■ r-'- ?Z'^ -^ Zntemunet ^-^^ — ^' IVK XQ 14 I.ong'iuulf Kusl i(> frojji Luiuluu iS ill* i\ M I ■«Sa. ♦ 1 t- ..w ■*«r-;-.i./-^..,,,V--J * ..-♦►*■ ,.-.,. ■#• ■ ■ • ■ ■ -*'■- < » 1 . ^ ^-'^;'- '■■-_ .^ ■* * ' ' *-■ *",' r T '\ '^ •, 1 \ 1 i i ( < 1 ' 4 : • , >, ' f y' 1 t ; " - 1 ; r».-l.,.* '('''■' ' '■'i: ■■ ', - 1 ■ -\-.-^^^^^ '.t, -T-'j'^"" -;■* L-^;. -t.:.'Vi*.=*W.'*b,.l-'*'»*«-."«*^ 'It-f^mi-J'^'i^ (■ GERMANY. 44S BouNDABiRs] Germany is bounded on the nortli li^ the Geimm Ocean, Derunaik, and the Baltic; on the east by Pru.i.sia, Gallicia, aiui Hungary J on the sovitli by the Adriatic Sea, Italy, and Swit.'.crljnd j and on the west by Inajice, lioni which it is separated by the llliiiie, Holland, and the North Sea. Divisions."] Gerniary torinerly was divided into the l^pper or South- ern, and the Lower or Nor! hern. The emperor Maximilian, predecessor and grandfather to the emperor Charles V., divided it into ton great cir- cles; and the division v. as coutirmed in the diet of Nuren)bei!5, in 1552; but the ciiclc of Burgundy, or the seventeen provinces oi" the Low Countries, being afteru arJs detached from tlie empire, we are la confine ourh;elves to nir.e of those divisii^ns, as they ncnv subsist. Of thejc, three are in the nonh, ihiee in the middle, and three iii the «outl^ r Upper Saxony. The northern circles , -^ Lower Saxony, (^ Westphalia. ( L^pper J\iiine. The circles in the middle ^ Lower Rhine. (^Franconia. i Swabia. The southern circles < Bavaria. (^ Austria. Divisions. Pomerania, sub. to Prussia • and Sweden. Electorate of Brandenburg, sub. to its elector, the k. of Prussia. 1. Circle of UPPER SAXONY, Containing 31/200 square miles. Subdivisions. S. Miles. Populat. Electorate of Saxony, sub. to its elector*. Prus. Pomera. Swcd. Pomera. Old Mark Middle Mark Priegnitz Ucker Mark New Mark 'Meissen "| o 7,200 1,200 540,000 110,000 10,670 1,200,000 u ElecCircle Thuringia Leipsic Erzgebirge Voigtland NeusLadt o rMerseburg &, 1 Naumburg J Princip. of .^ V Guerfurt 10,170 6oo,axD Chief To\ms. f Stettin, lat. 53. < 32. N. long. i 14.55. E. Stralsund r Stendal Berlin, lat. 52.31.N.lon. 13.21. E. Perleberg Prentzlow Custria 'Dresden, lat, 51.0. N, Ion. 13.50. E Wittenberg Langensalza Leipsic ' Freyberg Plauen Neustadt Merseburg Naumburg Querfurt • The whole of the territories of the elector of Saxory comprehend 1 !,7T6 square miles, with 2,100,000 iahabitAnts. ) 446 GERMANY. Divisions. Subdivisions. S. Miles. Populat. Chief TowM; #.. ; r i .1 Principality of the house of 'Saxc Weimar and Eisenach SaxeGothawith part of Alten- burg 1 their respec- tive princes. Saxony,sub.to < Saxe Coburg Saalfeld Saxe Coburg Meinungen Saxe Coburg Hildburghausen . Prin. ofAnhalt, fAnhalt Dessau i subject to its-J Anh. BernburgS- princes. (. Anhalt Cothen j «.. . ,.^ ^ ( Schwarzburgr 1 Principality of > Sonderhaurcn t ^'^^^^"^"^g-iSch.Rudolstadti County of ( Stolberg Stolberg »' (^Stolb. Wernigerode County of Hohenstein, sub. part- ly to Prussia and partly to the counts of Stolberg. ( Reuss Greifz } f Reuss Greifz 1 J Reuss Gcra f ' J Reuss Schleiz t ^ Re. Lobenstein ) 480 830 352 800 721 112 80 192 Coun. of Reuss C. of Mansfeld, sub. part to elec. 1 of Saxony, part to Prussia. 3 Ter. of late abbey of Quedlin-" burg, given as indemnity to Prussia. Tor. of late abbey of Walkenried, ' incorporated with p. of Blank- ' enbnrg, sub. to d. of Bruns-i wick Wolfenbuttle. Late free Imperial town of Erfurt,' gJNen as indcnin. to Prussia. The Eichsfcld territory, sub. to' Prussia as indenin,, late be- longing to elcc. of Men! z. 384 208 106,000 j^^''"^?; I bisenach r Coburg 70,000 -j Sonnenburg I Hildburghau- l^sen {Dessau Bernburg Cothen ( Arnstadt 100,000^ ( Rudolstadt 20,000 ( Stolbergein thcs < Harze. 14,000 (Wernigerode 25,000 Ilefeld rCreifa ^ Lobenstein 32 12,000 Quedlinburg 32 5.000 Walkenried 4Q,000 640 70,000 Heiligenstadt 2. Circle of LOWER SAXONY, jgontainlng 17,GOO square miles. IVrr. sub. '' D. of Magdeburg P.of Halberstadt and lordship of Der burg tandl ircri- > to k. of <. P. late Bk. of Ilil- Prussia. dcoheini ^ .'o (Muhlhauseu •^ f S «? Nordhausen J ^"3 (Goslar 1552 290,000 Magdeburg 480 100,000 Halberstadt 640 90,000 Hilde«he'un 9,000 10,000 • * ■■ '^^" 6^000 GERMANY. 44; 1,218 Divibloiui. Subdivisions. S. Miles. rP. of Calenberg, or 7 Elect, of Hanover. 3 Hanover, P. of Luneburg, or 7 sub. to its J Celle. j" elect, the J Duchy of Saxe Lau- ) kiiigof G. eiiburg, with ter- > Britain. ritory of Hadtin. } Duchy of Rr^^'racii T. of duke of rP. of Wolfen- 7 Brunswick } battle. 3 Wolfenbuttle. {.P. of l^lankenb. Duchy of r Mecklenburg 1 Mecklen- } Schwcrin > burg. (^Meck. Strelitz ) Lordship of ^^^ismar, sub. to kingi of Sweden. j D. of H«lstein, with lordship ofl Pinneberg and county of Ran- > 2,304 zan, sub. to king of Denmark. J T,ofd.ofHolstein01-7 Part of Bk 7 denburg, as indenm. J of Lubec J The free Imperial 1 Hamburg C^ Hans towns, and > Lubec 80 tlieir territories. ) Bremen 64 1,6'00 ()ao 101 4,800 Popujat. Chief Towns., 200,000 jJJ^""y«'^ . ^ JGoetluigen 230,000 I J^""^^"''g,, ' I Celle or Zell« 512 70,000 Lauenburg 200,000 Stade 12,000 Blaukenburg 5Schwerin , — . Gustrow I (New Strelitz 6,000 Wismar I Go 20,000 Eutin 150,000 50,000 50,000 3. Circle of WESTPHALIA, C;)ontaining (after the deduction of 4,000 square miles annexed to France) iCiOOO .square miles. 3 tn i jn o Sub. Prin. of East Friesland, and 7 Ter. of Harlinger J Principality of Minden Remainder of D. of Cloves County of Mark (Lingen 7 Counties ot < Tccklcnburg y ( Raven sberg P. late Rk. of Paderborn P. late Bk. of Munster I* ■« ( Herforileu <i; S >« 1 Lsscn w 1^^ i Werilen Principality of Verden P. late Bk. of Osnabruck f Hova * 8G4 100,000 i Hova ■^ Diepiio (^Benilieirn to E. of Bavaria. I), of lierg Counties of 4gQ 4CX> 480 208 272 J v"2H i,jao 32 40 40 32 192 spa 050 123 342 1,040 0O,(X)O 55,000 124,000 30,000 35,000 120,000 200,000 2,00>) 5,500 5,CXX) 4,000 30,000 125,Oa) 50,(XX) 10,000 25,000 230,000 f Embdeii \Leer Minden Wesel Hamm f Lingen (^Tecklenburg Ravensberg Paderborn Munster Herforden Kssen Werden Elten Verden Osnabruck Hoy a Diephol* ; Bentheira Dusseldorf • This country was held in pledge by the elector of Hanover since 1733; but lince the seizure of the electorate by th« French, the count ol' Bentheim Steinfurt hat entered into powettion. 448 GERMANY. Divisions. Territof house of Orange- Nassau, ©r Nass. Dietz* Sub. to its f Duchy ofOldenburg") own duke. \ witli indemnity . . J 'P.ofDillenburg P. of Nassau Siegen P. of Dietz P, of Hadamar C. of Spielberg Town of Dortmund _ Abbey of Cor\ cy C.ofLippe^sub. ( Lippe Detmold? to its counts. (_ L.Schauenbergj C. of Schauenberg, sub. partly to Lippe Schauenberg, partly to Hesse Cassel fWiedrunkel "j^WiedNeuwied Counties j'^^^^" , l^ Pyrmont Hietberg, sub, to Hesse Cassel ■ D '.ike of A reniberg I Duke of Croy Duke of LorsandCorswaren Prince of Salm Kyburg Prince of Salm Salm /^ .. r ("Gehraen Counties of I j^^j^^p^^j Subdivisions. S. Miles. Populat. 1,440 135,000 C. of Wied. 1 } } 560 384 32 30-t Chief Townf. f Oldenburg I Delraenliorst' Dillenburg Siegen Dietz 800 180,000. 70,000 50,000 164 20,000 4,500 64 10,000 528 36,000 88 9,000 48 4,500 Hadaxnar Coppenbrugge Dortmund Corvey Detmold Blomberg fRinteln '[Stadthagen ■Runkel Neuwied 'Altenkirchep Pyrmont Rietberg Meppen 27,000 4. Circle op the UPPER RHINE, Containing (after the deduction of 2,400 square miles annexed to France)L 5,600 square miles. Electorate ofHesse, sub. to its elec. late landgr. 'Lower Hesse with' part of tjpper Hesse on the Lahn Lower C. of Catzen- ellenbogen, ((uinty of Hanau Mun- zenberg _ , fUp. C. of Catzenel- Lajg""^^- lenbogen of Hesse I p^j.^ ^f Upper Hesse Uarm- < p.oflateB. of Worms *^*^'t late free LC.Fried- l berg »« .. r ("Nassau UsinRen ' .Territory of | Nassau Weilburg Sub. to Orange Nas- f Princi. off sau as indemn. \ Fulda J County of Waldeck 4,224 . 1,120 ros 576 ^^^\^ ' \ Darmstadt 250,000 \ f^''^ ^ ' " Fiicdberg go,coo|;^^*"?'^^ ^ ' |_iclsiein 90,000 Fulda 75,000 Corbach • The whole territory of the house of Oran,efe Nassau, including the late indem- nities, contains aliout ],6(X> square miles, with .500,000 in M.abi; ants. f The whole territory of Hesse Darmstadt contains 2,ai0 siiuare miieS| wi»U- 4Q0,000 inhabitants. GERMANY. Divisions. Subdivisions. Sq. M. County of J Solms Hohensolms f oog Solnis j Solms Laubach T (^ Solms Roclelheim J L } 240 lacn I fipunty of T.einingeu V/eslerbuig Coimty of Wiltgenstein County of WctzJar, subject to elect. 7 arch-chcincellor ) The imperial city of Frankfort on the 7 Maine, and its territory 3 44.9 Pop. Chief Towns. C Brauntels. 42,000 ^La^u^b,'^^^^^^^^ (^ Rodelhelm. f Birstefn. 35 000 ) f'"^'^"^gen. ' j Wachtersdach. {^Meerholz. Westerburs:. Wittgenstein. 8jO00 Wetzlar. 50,000 I t[k% ' Tim t'"Q 'si m 1 5. Circle of the Lower Rhine. Containing, after the deduction of 2,3(58 square miles ceded to France, 4-JSO square miles. Divisions. Sub. to the elect, arch- chancellor* T. of elect, of Baden, as indem T. of elect, of Hesse, as indem T. of Nas- sauUsingen as indem.... T. of Nas- sau Weil- burg, as indem T. of C. of Leiningen, as indem.... T. of P. of Wiedrun- kel as indem T. of P. of Salm Rei- ferscheid Bedburg, as u]dem... Subdivisions. Principality of Aschaf- fenburg. 1 Part of palatinate of the 1 Rhine, and late bi- > 480 shopric of Spire j r Duchy of Westphalia 4 Part of elect, of Mentz l_ Part of palatina te {Part of late electorates') of Mentz and Co-> logne ) J Part of late electorate f J of Treves C Sq. M. Pop. Chief Towns. 272 45,000 Aschaftenburg, f Heidelberg. 130,000 ;j?'^"t''f' ' 1 BrachsaL (^ Philipsburg. 100,000 Brilon. 37,000 Gernsheim. 10,000 landenfels. 100,000 j^llfj^'^^^""- Part of the late electo- rate of Mentz 1120 208 56 540 240 36,000 Ehrenbreitstein } ' Part of the late electo- ^ rates of Cologne and > Treves ..) Part f)f the electorate of Mentz TAmorbach. 33G 40,000 ^ Bischoffsheim. (^Mosbach. 36 6,200 Altenwied. Krautheim * The elector aroh-rlianccllor likewise poRsossft-. the princip.nlity of Ratisbon, the county of Wetzlar, and the abbey of Conii)ostolla at riiuikfort. His >vhule trrritorv uwiituin.s -ibU tquArs miles, ani! 100,000 iuhabitatitv, 2G 11;':'' iV \l 450 GERMANY. piv istons. Subdivisions. T. of iluke r County of Recklingjs- of Arem- j berg, as j hnusen, part of the ' late electorate of Co- i logne , Divided be- tween Nas- sau Weil- burg and Wiedrun- kel Lordship of Bielsteiu County of Lower Isenburg Sq.M. Pop. Chief Towns. { Recklings- ^93 18.000^ ^^^^ Bielstein Isenburg II :' ■ ■.m 0. Circle of Franconia, Containing 7680 square miles. Dinsions. Territ.oflhe king of .Prussia.... Territory of elector of Bavaria ... Subdivisions. Bflyreutli or P. late bk. of Bamberg P. late bk. tS Wurz- '^«>g Rothenburg... Schweinfurt... Wcissenburg. . Windhheim ... Gocli.shcim. Sennfeid 1 a *■> 1120 1056 1392 16 iCi Pop. 220,000 275,000 200,noo 240,GJ0 24,000 0,000 6,000 4,500 Prill, late bishopriek of Kichstadt, or Aich Htadt Sub. partly to E. of Salzburg, . and part to E. of Ba- varia 1\ of leu- tonic order Sab. to E. and other branches of tlse IL of Saxony r IIohenloheOeringcnNeu L'nslcin I f()lii'nU)he Langf nburg f loht'uiohe ) ngcllingea I Hoheulohe Kircliberg I Hoheulohe B.utciislein l^ I loheiilohc St hillingsfarst , } Chief Towns. Bayreuth. Anspach. Bamberg. Wurzburg. Rotlenburg. Schweinfurt. Weissenburg. Windsheim. Gochsheim Sennfeid 353 70,000 Aichstadt. [ Dist. of Mcrgentheim SO 12,000 iSIergenthcim. X),000J^J^\''^""^'"-^^"- ' J^Meiningen. County of Henneberg (j40 H > 41(5 100,000 ' Ncuenstein. Lan;:;enburg. Ingeilingen. Kirehborg. Barti'ustein. Scliillingsfurst. GERMANY. 4:51 Divisions. Sij, M. Pop. Chief Towns. County oi' Worthelm. Wcrthcini. Connty of Schwarzonberg 224 25,000 Schwarzciiberg. County of CastL 11 " Castcll. CoLUily of Krtxich 240 25,000 Erbach, County of Li npurg 152 lO'/XX) GaiKlorf. County of \Vie;sentheid . ■ , Wiesentheid County of RIer-cck Rieneck 1'Vlv imperial city of Nurcuibtm ) oca- r ,„^n. tvt i and terntory.... .! | ^bO .^u,000 Nuremberg. •'•'•■ 7- Circle OF SwABiA, ■ '' Containing 11/200 square iniks. Divisions. Subdivisions. Sq. M. Pop. Clilef Towns. ; Klecto. of CD. of Wurte[nb:;rg 2/40 C"50,000 Stuttgart. b""^^ t- asindemn........} ^^^ ' iRoJuvdl" r ^Nlargravt. of Baden 96O 180,000 Baden. Electo. of J Prin. on the lake of ^ cr ] h Baden*... S Constance, late J- 720 100,000 -J V;:"^™^' ( bk. of Constance) iMorsburg. '^Blrt°'|l^[!?'"'T" I 2990 127,000 f^'"'"f"- with ind. (6 } ^''''^'''' S . ^ ^^^r^moi^- r- ^Ulni 15,000 , ... J"£ 2 (Nordlingen... 7,000 i G-S ( Dinkelsbuhl . . • ' 7,000 (»5 3 Boptingen . 1,600 rHohenzoUern He- ^ - T Hechingeii. ^' °^^"""<T//""^'?l •^•">- 209 32,OOoX. . henzollem J Hohcnzollern Sig- f ' j bigmaringen. (^ niaringen 3 C ^tenbtS" '^' I ^'*° ^°'^^^ Doneschlngen . r> f /A I. f Octtino-eiiSr/ielberg") f^ , . C of Oet- \ o,ttu,gcn Wallers- C 384 Go,000 j ^T^- tingcn ) t^= \ (_ vVallerstein. Terrlt. of prin. of Tour and Taxis 144 20,000 Dihchlngen. Pruicipallty of Kk'ttgau 0'4 9,000 Thlengen. T. of Counts. ( C. Kitchberc ) ,.7^ or> r.r« tr- 1 1 T. s f- i\' ■ I Y 1^0 20,0C0 Kircnberg. Inig'iei ^ C \V eiiieuhorii j & • C. of. late abbey of Weingarten,") given as indemnities to P. uf> Qd l],0fX) Weingarten. Oraiige Nassau ) Free imperial city of Augsburg... 30,000 This circle likewise contains s( \cral other small baronies and rieeu' larized abbeys with their teniturlcs, given ixn indeninities to Uiii'erent • princes. , . . * Tlie whole territory of the olt'ctora'c of Baden, including the country In ti.e rirde of the Lower Rhiiie, is e tiiaated to eouta 11 '3UbU square miles, w.th 4ii0,00a iuhahitaiit'i. 3G2 Jl m , 4 m ■ in I w I v.'l 111 ^■ m fM f ^ ; ' :m i % 452 Div GERMANY. iSlOUS. Subdivisions. * rt eq o « o ■4-J o Scj. M. Top. Duchy of Bavaria 8^320 1,000,000- Chief Towns. C Munich, N. 1. 3 48. 5. E. 1. S 11.32. ^ Ingolstadt. Duchy of Upper Palatinate . 2^080 200,000 Amberg. Ducliy of Ncuburg and lord- 7 g„^ ship of Ehrenfels J Duchy of Sulzbach 448 County of Haag 128 Prin. late bishop, of Freysingen 288 Part of late bishop, of Passau Late imperial abbey of Kai- 7 sersheim....k ■ 3 Prin. of Ratisbon, indemnity to elec tor arch-chancellor . . . . » County of Or tenburg, subject tol its own count J County of Sternstein, territory 7 of P. Lobkowitz 3 } ti4 160 32 100,000 Neuburg. 50,000 Sulzbach. 18,000 Haag. 30,000 Freysingen. 15,000 Passau. 6,000 Kaisersheim. TRatisbon,]. 43. 40,000^ 58. N 1. 12. ( 5.E. 3,000 Ortenburg. Ncustadt. Divisions. g. Circle oi' Austria, Containing 44,528 square miles. Subdivisions. Sq. M. Pop. .2 tr. < O o I ''A o o Lower 7 Archduchy of Aus- 7 Austria 3 tria Proper ) «• rDuchy of Stiria 4,592 ^ I Duchy of Carinthia 3,344 _5 j Duchy of Carniola 3,424 Friul, or Gorilla 1,600 _ Territory of Triest. w ^ The county of Tyrol, the") \7"/">t«.ii*ll%cii'nc n«rt Irit^ i\L*L! ''. Vorarlberg and late bks. > O',c)(j>0 (550,000 - of Trent and Brixen. Margraviate of Burgau 1 Landgraviatc Nellenburg > County of Hoheiihcrg ) Territ. of E. rPrinc, laie"l>k. of of SaKburg 1 Sal zburg late grand < Prin. late abbey of duke of i Jierchtolsgadt-n j* Tuscany... ' P. late bk. of Passau T. givenas indeni. f^,,^^, p^,.^,. .^^^ ^ *?.i^/?^ )TheOrtenauj' Chief Town.?. J Vienna, N. J. 10,000 2,000,000 > 48-7G. E. 1. ) 16-22. 900,000 Gratz. 300,000 Clagenfurt. 450,000 Laybaeh. 1 15,000 1^°'^^- ( Gradisca. 40,000 Triesf. finspruck. Botzen. Bregenz. 112 l.O'OO 3,,'320 1 00 192 b32 Roveredo, Trent. Brixen. 5Gunsburg. , « Stockach. ( Rotenburg. 400,000 Salzburg. 20,000 Berchtolsgadeu 30,000 Hafnerzeli. pf Modena. 115,000 Freyburg. OldBrdsach. • The whole ten itory of the elector of Bnvan'a, including his possessloni in Swabia, Francouia, and U'citphalia, contains lb,yiu iquare nulw, with 2,517,00(» inhabitant}. I GERMANY. 453 Face of the cotj^jtry.] The southern part of Germany is moun- tainous and hilly j the northern presents wide sandy plains, with scarcely tlie appearance of a hill. On the eastern side arc the most extended plains, and the greatest chains of mountains. Mountain's.] The chief mountains of Germany are the Alps, which divide it from Italy, and those which separate Saxony, Bavaria, and Moravia, from Bohemia, called the Erzgebirge and the Sudcttcs. In the north are the mountains of the Harz, which extend about fifty miles through part of Lower and Uiijier Saxony. Many other large tracts of mountains are fotmd in ditferent parts of the empire. Forests.] The great passion which the Germans have for hunting the wild boar is the reason why, perhaps, there are more woods and chases yet standing in Germany than in many other countries. The Hercynian forest, which In Caesar's time was nine daj-s' journey in length, and six in breadth, is now cut down in many places, or parcelled out into \\'oods, which go by particular names. Most of the woods ;u*e pine, fir, oak, and beech. There is a vast member of forests of less note in every part of this country ; almost every count, baron, or gentleman, having a chase or park, adorned with pleasure-houses, and well-stocked with game, viz. deer, of which there cure se^en or eight sorts, as roe- bucks, stags, &c. of all sizes and colours, and many of a vast growth ; plenty of hares, coneys, foxes, and boars. They abound so mucli also with wild fowl, that in many places tlie peasants have tliem, as well as venison, for their ordinary food. Lakes.] The chief lakes of Germany, not to mention many infrrior ones, are those of Constance (called the Bodeu-see) and iiiv-'utz. Besides these, are the Chiem-see, or the hike of Bavaria ; and the Zir- nitzer-sec, in the duchy of Carniola, whose waters often rv.n olf, and return again, in an extraordinary manner. Rivers and lakes.] No countr}- can boast a greater variety of no- ble large rivers than Germany. At their head stands the Danube or Dojiau, so called from tlie swiftness of the current, and the course of which, without reckoning its windings, is computed to be lO'iO miles. The otlier principal rivers are the Rhine, the length of the course of which is above G'OO miles, the Elbe, Oder, Wcser, and Necker. Mineral waters and baThs.] Germany is said to contain more of these than all Europe besides. The Spa waters, and those of Seltzer and Pyrmont, are well known. Those of Aix-la-Chapellc am fitill more noted. They are divided into the Emperor's Bath, and the Little Bath ; and the springs of b(jth are so hot, that tiiey let them cool ten or twelve hours before they use theiu. The l)aths and medicinal waters of Enibs, Wisbaden, Schwaibach, and Wiklungen, are reported to be extreiuely efficacious in almost all diseases. Tho niinci-al springs at the last-mentioned place arc said to intoxicate as. soon as wine, and therefore they are inclosed. Carlsbad and Kaden baths have been described and recommended by many great physicians, and used with great success by many ro}'al personages. It is, how- ever, not improbabhs that great part of tlie salutary virtxies ascribed to these waters is owing to the exercises and aniuscmeuts of the* patients,. and numbers of the eompanv which crowd to them from all parts of the world ; many of whom do not repair thiilier for health, but for amusement and comersation. Metals and .mivkuals.] Germany abounds in both. Many places in tl)e circle of Austria, and other parts of Germany, contain mines of silver, quicksilver, copper, tin, iron, lead, sulphur, nitre, and vitriol. Salt-petre, salt-mines, and salt-pits, are found in Austria, Bavaria, Silesia^ i 4H GERMANY. ■1'! I ^:| P I' nnd tlie- Lower Saxony ; as are carbuncles, amethysts, jasper, sapphire, agate, alabaster, several sorts of pearl, tuniuois stones, and the liiiost of rubies, which adorn the cabinets of the greatest princes and virtuosi, la Bavaria and Tyrol, are quarries of curious marble, slate, chalk, ochre, red lead, alum, and bitumen ; besides other fossils. Several of the German circles furnish coal-pits; and the terra sigillaia of Mentz, with white, yellow, and red veins, has been pretended to be an antidote against poi.^on. Climate, soil, agriculture.] The climate of Germany, as in all extensive countries, dift'ers greatly, not only on account ol' the situation to the north, or south, or east, or west, but according to the im- provement of the .soil, which has a great elfect on tiie climate. The most mild and settled weather is fouiv,! in the middle of the country, at an equal distance from the hca and tiie alps. In the north it is sharp ; towards the south it is more temperate. The seasons vary as much as the soil : in the south and western parts they are more regular than in those that lie near the sea, cr that abound in lakes and rivers. The soil of Germany is not improved to'tliefull by culture; and therefore in many places it is bare and steril; tliough in (thers it is extremely fertile. A greater attention, however, is now given to agri- rultuic in tliis country, and many improvements have been made of late years, V^EGtiTABLEs.] Amoug tlic Vegetable productions of Germany are all kinds of grain, flax, hemp, hops, saftron, tobacco, and excellent orchard-fruits. The vine is found to flourish throughout more than the half of Germany, but the most esteemed wines are produced in the eiircles of Swabia and the Rhine. Tlie wines of tliese countries are com- monly called Rhenish and Moselle, and differ from those of other coun- tries in a peculiar lightness, and detersive qualities, more sovereign in some diseases tlian any medicine. Animals.] Germany yields abundance of excellent heavy horses ; but their horses, oxen, and sheep, are not comparable to those of England, probably owing to want of skill in feeding and rearing them. The German wild bo.u's ditfer in colour from our common hogs, and are four times as large. Their flesh, and the hams made of it, are pre- ferred by many even to those of Westmoreland, for flavour and graip. The glutton of Germany is said to be the most voracious of all animah. Its prey is almost every thing that has life, which it can manage, espe- cially birds, hares, rabbits, goats, and fawns ; which it surprises artfully and devours greedily. On these the glutton feeds so ravenously, that it falls into a kind of a torpid state, and, not being able to move, he is killed by the huntsinen ; but though both boars and wolves will kill him ja that condition, they will not eat him. His colour is a beautiful brown, \vith a faint tinge of red. Some parts of Gerniany are remarkable for line larks and great variety of singing birds, which are sent to all parts of iMirope. Curiosities natural an'o aktieicial.] In describing the mineral and other springs, a great part of this article, which is very copious, has been idready anticipated. Next to the lakes and waters, the caves nnd rocks are the chief natural curio.'^ilies of Geimany. There is said to be a cave, near 15'aekenburg, in Ifartz-forest, of which no person has yet found the end, though many hrve advanced into it for twenty miles. Rut the most remarkable curiosity of that kind is near II imelen, about thirty miles from Hanover, where, at the mouth of a cave, stands a monument which commemo- rates the loss of 130 children, who were there swallowed up in 12^4. GERMANY, 455 Tliis fact, liowever, thoup,h it is ^ ery strongly attested, has horn dis- puted by some critics. Vrequent mention is made of two iocks> near Blackenbuig, exactly representing two monks in the i." proper habits ; and of many stones which seem to be petrifactions of h^iies, frog-*, tree-*, and leaves. With respect to artificial curiosities, the Gcrnjans have always ac- counted as one of the principal, the tun at Heidelberg, which holds 800 hogsheads, and, though no;\' empt}', was formerly full of ilu- best Rhenish wine, from which stranwrs were seldom sutfered to retire sober, iivery court of Germany produces a cabinet ot curiosities, artilicial and natural, ancient and modern. Vienna itself is a curiosity ; for liere may be seen the greatest variety of inhabitants to be met with any where, as Greeks, Transylvanians, Sclavonians, Turks, Tartars, Hungivians Croats, Germnns, Poles, Spa- niards, French, anditalians, in tlieir proper habits. Ihe imperial library at Vienna is a great literary rarity, on account of its ancient manuscripts. It contains upwards of b(),uoo volumes, an'Ong which are m.iny va- luable manuscripts m Hljicw, Syriac, Arabic, Turkisii, Armenian, Coptic, and Chinese ; but the antitjuit) of some of them is (juestionable, particularly a New le.itament in Greek, said to have been written 15(WJ years ago, in gold letters, upon purple. Here are likewise many thou- sand Greek, lioman, and Gothic coins and medals ; with a va.^t collec- tion of other curiosities of art and nature. PopuLATIO^f.] The population of the German empire, before the alienation of the territory on the left side of the Pihine, was generally estimated at between 2(5 and 2'/ millions. By that cession Ciermany loses about three millions and a half of inhabitants, transferred to France, and consequently now only contains about 23 mihions. The particular population of most of the ditferent states of the empire has already been given in the Table of the Circles. -,**. National chahacteh,! The Germans in their persons are tall, fair, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, j and stroug built. The ladies have generally fine complexions ; and some of them, especially in Saxony, have all the delicacy of features and shape that are so bewitching in some other countries. Both men and women affect rich dresses, which in fashion are the same as in France and England : but the better sort <.>f men are ex<:cs- sively fond of gold and silver lace, espe<nally if they are in the army. The ladies at the principal courts dill'er not much in their dress liom the French and English, antl at Vienna are said to be as fond of paint as the former. At some courts they appear in rich furs ; and :iil of them aro loaded with jewels, if they can obtain them. I'he female p.nt of the burghers' families, in many of the German towns, dress in a very ditfe- rent maimer, and some of them inconceivably fantastic j but in this re- spetL they are gradually reforming, and many of t.hcin make (juite a clitferent appearance in ilieir dress from what they d;d thirty or forty years ago. As to tjic peasantry and iaboiu'ers, the) dress, as in other parts of Europe, according to their employments, cf)n\einency, and cir- cumstances. The stoves made use of in G .!vai»my i'.re the same wit'i those already mentioned in our a'X'oiuit of othei- northern nations, aii.l are sometimes made portable, so that the ladies carry them to church, In Westphalia, and many other parts of Gcruiany. they sleep between two feather-beds, with sheets .stiiched to them, which, by use, becomes a very comfortable practice. The most unhappy part of the Gen:'aans are tlie tenants of little ijeecly prliices, wiio squec-ie them to keep up I 456 GERMANY. '«' i . II their own grandeur ; but, in general, the circumstances of the common people arc more comfortable than those of their neighbours. 'Ihe Germans are naturally a frank, honest, hospi(able people, free from artifice and disguise. The higher orders are ridiculously proud of titles, ancestry, and show. The Germans in general arj thought to want animation, as their persons promise more vigour and activity than they cojumonly exert, even in the tield of battle. But when com- manded by able generals, they have aeiiieved great things botli against tlie Turks and the French -, and in tiie late war tlie Austrians exhibited prodigies of military valour and genius. lnd:istry, application, and perse\erance, are tlic great characteristics of the German nation, especially the mcchanir.il part of it. Their works of art would l;e incredible, were they not well known j especially in watch- and clock-making, jewellery, turnery, seulpiure, drawing, painting, and certain kinds of architeeturc. I'he Germiuis have been charged with intemperance in eating and drinking, and perhaps not un- justly, in consequence of the vast plenty of their country in wine and provisions of every kind : but such excesses are now less comnion. At the greatest tables, though the guests drink pretty freely at dinner, yet the repast is commonly finished by coffje, after tinee or four public toasts have been given. But no people have more feasting at ma^■iage,^, fonerals, and on birth-days. The German nobility are generally men of so much honour, that a sharper, in otlier countries, especially in England, meets with more credit if he pretends to be a German, rather than of any other nation. All the sons of noblemen inherit their fathers' titles j which greatly peipiexes the heralds and genealogists of that country. The German husbands are not quite so complaisant as those of some other cnuiitricfj to theii ladies, who are not entitled to any pre-eminence at the taole ; nor indeed do they seem to aftect it, being far from either ambition or lo<]uacity, though they are said to be somewhat too fond of gaming. Many of tho German nobility, having no other hereditary estate than a high-sounding title, easily enter into their annies, and those of other sovereigns. Tlieir fondness for title is attended witl\ many t)ther inconveniences, — their gen- tlemen of property think the cultivation of their lands, though it might treble their revenue, below their attention, and that they should degrade themselves by being concerned in the improvement of their grounds. The aomestic diversions of the Germans are the same as in England; billiards, cards, dice, fencing, dancing, and the like. In summer, peo- ple of fashion repair to places of public resort, and drink the waters. As to their field diversions, besides their favourite one of hunting, they have bull- and bear-baiting, and t^c like. The inhabitants of Vienna live luxuriously, a greai part of tlieir time being spent in feasting and carousing j and in winter, when the se\eral branches of the Danubt^ arc frozen over, and the ground covered with snow, the ladies take their re- creation in sledges of different shapes, such as griffins, tigers, swans, scallop-shells, &c. Here tlic lady sits, dressed in velvet lined with rich furs, and adorned with laces an(l jewels, having on her head a velvet cap J and tlie sledge is drawn by one horse, stag, or other creature, set off with plumes of feathers, ribbands, and bells. As this diversion is taken chiefly in the night-time, .servants ride before the sledges with torches ; and a gentleman, standing on the sledge behind, guides the horse. Cities, chief towns, 1 This is a copious head in all countries, but FORTS, AND EDIFICES. J morc particularly so in Germany, on account of the numerous independent states it contains. GEKMANY. 457 Vienna is the capital oFihe circle of Austria, and, boins; tlic residence of the eiupcror, i.s nt-nerally considered as the capital of Germany. It is a mVole nnd a strong city, and the princes of iJie house of Austiia have omitted notliing that could contribute to its grandeur and riches. Vienna contains an excellent university, a bank, which is in the m;inagemcnt of its own magistrates, and a court of cunimerce, immediately subject to the auiic council. Its relij^ious buildinsrs, with the walks and gardens, occupy a sixth part of th(J town ; hut tlie suburbs are larger than the eity. It woulil be endless to enumerate the many palaces of this capital, two of which are imperial; it* squares, academies, libraries j and the imperial cabinets of cnrio-.ities. Among its rich convents, is one of the Scotch nation, built in honour of their countryman St. Colman, the jlptron of Austi'ia ; and one of the six gates of this city is called the Scots' gate, in remembrance of some notable exploit pcrtormed there by the troops of tliat nation. The inhabitants of Vienna, i:>-;luding the suburbs, amounted in the year 1/05 to 231,105; and the encouragement given by the sovereign has rendered this city the rendezvous of Ibreigncri?. The streets, except those in the suburbs, are narrow and dirty. The houses of this city are generally of stone, five or six stories high, and Hat rooted. They have three or four collars under one nnother, w ith an ojjen space in the middle of each arched roof, for the comnuniicalion of air; and from the lowermost of all there is a tube to tlic ti)p, to let in air from the streets. The winds often hlcnv so strong, thai it is trouble- some to walk the streets. A remarkable prerogative of the soM^eign here is, that the .second floor of every house bi. lorigs to hini, and is assigned to whomsoever he thinks proper : and hence there is no part of Germany where lodging is so dear as at Vienna. An odfi custom pre- vails here of putting iron bars to all the windows, up to the \cry tops of the iiouses ; which makes them all look like so many prisons. The houses and furniture of the citizens are greatly disproportlonrj to the magnificence of the palaces, scjuares, and other public buildings; but the excessive imposts laid by the house of Austria upon every com- modity in its dominions, must always keep the manufacturing part of its subjects poor. Berlin, the capltnl of the electorate of Brandenburg, and of the domi- nions of the king of Prussia, is situate on the river Spree, and, boides the royal palace, has mimy other sujjerb edifices ; it contains fourteen Lutheran and eleven Calvinist church.es, besides a Catholic one. Its streets and squares are spacious, and built in a ^ery regular manner; but the houses, though neat without, arc ill finished, and ill furnished within, and very indifferently provided with inhabitants. The Ung'.s palace here, and that of prince Henry, are very magnificent buildings. The opera-house is also a beautiful structure : and the arsenal, vhich is handsomely built, in the form of a square, contains arms for 200,000 men. I'here are sundry manufiictures in Berlin, and several schools, libraries, and charitable foundation.!. The number of its inhal)itants, according to Busching, in 1/55, was I'iG.CitJl, including the garrison. In the same year, and according to the same author, there were tio fewer than 443 silk looms, 14Q of half silks, 2856 tor woollen stulVs, 45'} for cotton, 248 for linen, 45 1 for lace-work, 30 frames for silk stockings, and 310 for worsted ones. In the year 1803, the nnjnher of inhabitants was 153,128, exclusive of the soldiers of the garrison, and their wives and children. They have here matmfactures of tapestry, gold and silver lace, and mirrors. Dresden, the capital of tlie elector of Saxony^ is remarkable for its fur- ill'i'iji \ t -4iS GERMANY. i If ' !i ' i i tjiications, p.iluccs, public buildings, chuiches, and charitable foundii- lions ; it is bt.';nitiluUy situated on both sides the Elbe, and is tlie school «)f Germany tl«r statuary, paiming, enaindliiiif, and carving; not to nii'Mtion its mirrors, and tounderics for bells and cannon, and its foreigu coniint-Tcc carried on by means of the Elbe. The inhabitants of Dres- den, by the latest accounts, arc computed to amount to about (io.ooo. Tiic electorate of Saxony is by nature the richest country in Germany, if not in Euiopc; it contains 210 walled towns, (jl market-towns, and aixmt ;J000 villages, at;cording to the latest accounts of the Germans .themselves (to which, however, we arc not to give an imi/iicit belief) j :iiid the revenue, cstimatijig each rix-dollar at four shillings aiulsix-jience, amounts to 1 ,3.50,CXX)/. I'his sum is so moderate, when compared to tlio ric.'jne.s, of the soil (which, if we are to believe Dr. Busching, pro- duces even diamonds, and almost all the precious stones to be found in t.'ic E.ist-liidies and elsewhere) and the variety of splendid manufactures, rhjt the Saxon princes appear to have been the most moderate and pritr'otio of any in Germany. The city of f,eipsic in Upper Saxony, 46 miles distant from Dresden, is situated in a pleasant and t'ertile plain on the Pleisse, and the inhabit- ants are said to amount to about 30,000. There are also large and well- built suburbs, with handsome gardens. Between these suburbs and the t'.nvn is a fine walk of lime-trees, which was laid out in tlje year 1/02, and encompasses the city. IMulberry-trees are also planted in the town- ditches : but the fortifications seetti rather calculated for the use of the inhabitants to walk on, than for defence. The streets are clean, conir modious, and agreeable, and are lighted in the night with seven hundred lamps, Ihey reckon 430' merchant houses, and ig2 manufactories of ditlerent artJcUs, as brocadt-s, paper, cards, &rc. Leipsic has long been distinguished for the liberty of conscience allowed licre to persons of diflbrent sentiments in religion. Here is a university, which is still very considerable, with six churches for the Lutherans (theirs being the c>fablis!icd religion), one for the Calvinists, and aH:hapel in the castle for tho'ie of the Romish church. Tlie university-library consists of about 2L),(.)0'J volumes, (j(XK) of which are folios. Here is also a library for the iriagi^^trates, which consists of about 3&',000 voli^mes and near 2000 manuscripts, and contains cabinets of urns, antiques, and medals, with many curiosities of art and nature. The exchange is an elegant buiiiiing. 'I iic city of Hanover, the capital of that ekctorate, stands on the river l/clue, and is a neat, thriving, and agreeable city. It contains about twehc hundred houses, among which there is an electoral palace. It carries on some manutactures ; and in its neighbourhood are the palace and elegant gardens of Herenhausen. The dominions of the electorate of Hanover contain about seven hundred and fifty thousand people, who live in fifty-eight cities, and sixty market-towns, besides villages. The city and suburbs of Brenjcn, which duchy belongs, by purchase, to the said elector, contain about fifty thousand inhabitants, who have a considerable trade by ilio Weser. Tlie other towns belonging to this electorate have trade and manufactures : but, in general, it must be remarked, that the clectorntc h.is sulfereii g i eat lyl)y the accession of the Hanover family to the crou n of Gre.'.t f5ritain. It may be proper to mention, on acroimt of its relation to our royal i'amily, the secularised bishopric of Osn;ii)urg, lying between the rivers Weser and Ems. The chief city, <.)snaburg, has been long famous all over Europe for tlie manufacture known by the GERMANY. 4.'59 nnmc of the ducliy, and for the manufacture of the hc>t W^Ntphalia hams. The win)!*.' revenue of the bishopric amounttil to about :iu,(K)(j/, Munich, tlie capital of the electorate of IJav.iria, i-> a very jn)pu!ou» nntl beautitul city, biiuate on ihc l&er. Tl»e houses arc l4li;h, ami thd streets spacious, with canals in several of lliem. It is estcenieil l!u', most elegant city in Germany, and contains about 2,JUO lioiiscs and 40,000 inhabitants. The electoral palace is a v«.ry sumptuous editice; iKJsides whicii there are two other elecKiral palaces at a little di'^taneo from the city ; that of Nymphenburg, admired lor its gardens, and that of Schlesheim. llatisbon, or Regenshnrg, where the diet of the empire assembles, i.s of considerable size, but of a dark and dull appearance, and contains 22,i)00 inhabitants. It is remarkable for an ancient bridge ot Jifteen arches over the Danuln^ in length lijO yards. It was lately a free im- perial city, but is now the capital of the principality of llatisbon, i)art of the territory of the new elector arcli-chanceU'-r. Augsburr^ is .'.till a free imperial ciiy, and the lar;Tost and mo^l ancient in Swabia. It is situate between the rivers l.ech and Wertach, which unite in its environs, and llow to the Danube. It was once a i)lace of considerable trade, and is said to be nine miles in circuit : i't present it coiitains only about ;i<i,000 inhabitants. Frankfort on the Maine, so called to distinguish it from another of the same name on the Oder, is situated in a healthful, feriiL', and tie- lightful country on the river just mentioned, by which it is divided into two parts, distinguished by the names of Frankfort and Saxenhausen. The former of these, being the largest, is divided into twelve wards, and the latter into two ; and both are coiHput,ed to contain al)out three thou- san(i liouses. Ti'.e loriifications, which are both regular and solid, form a decagon, or tigure consisting of ten baUions, faced with hewn .stone; the ditches are deep, and lilletl with frc.-.h w.irer ; and ail the oiu-works are placed before the gates. Frankfort is the usual place of the election and coronation of the ki!igs of the Romans, and is also a uvo and im|)e- rial city. Ji is of a circular form, without any suburbs ; but the .streets are .generally narrow, and the houses are mostly built of timber and plaster, and covered wnth slate ; though there are some handsome pri- vate structiu'es, of a kind of red muble, that deserve the name of palaces -, as the buildings called the Com\)estt;i and Fronhof, the Tritu- shof, the Cullenhnf, the (jerman-house, an august edifice, situated near the bridge over the Maine, the Ilesse Darmsiadthof, the palace of tl;e prince tie la Imu", and the houses of the counts oi' Solms, Schauenburg, and Schonborn. There are likewise three ])rincipal squares. Tlie imperial city of Hamburg is situate on the Elbe at the conflux of the rivers Alster and Rille. The houses are in general high ; the streets irregular and narrow. There are many canals which run through liie. city, and there are 84 l)ridges over then). Tlie fortifications are strong, ill the old Dutcli style, with great ditches, :ind wails of such thickness, that several carriages can dri\e abiea.it on the ramparts, wliich are planted with rows of trees. Though the city h n>:arly 70 miles from the sea, the Kibe is h.ere betwet n four and live miles broad, II imburg contains above VlO.iKK) inhabiiatits. It has long been the most com- mercial city In Germany, and its trade lias great!)' increased during the late aiiil pre-.cnt wars between ICngland, and Trance ;uul Holland. ("o.MMERCK AND M ASUFACTi.' KKs.] Gerai.iiiy has vast advantages in point of commerce, from its situation in the heart of Europe, and being iaitersected, as it were, with i^reat rivers. Its natiu- materials for cc:u- \i\ »Ji . ^ 4(50 GERMANY. jj- ?; ? (I mcrce, besides mines mid minerals, are hemp, liops, flnfc, aiiise, cumin, tobacco, saffron, madde-r, truffles, variety of excellent ro(;ts and pot- herbs, and iine fruits, equal to those of France and Italy, Gerniany exports to other countries, corn, tobacco, horses, lean cattle, butter, cheese, honey, wax, wines, linen and woollen jarn, ribbands, silk and cotton stuffs, toys, turnery-wares in wood, meTals, and i^ ory, goat-skins, wool, timber both for ship-building and houses, caimon and bullets, bt)mbs and bomb-shells, iron plates and stoves, tinned plates, steel-work, copper, brass-wire, porcelain, the finest upon earth, earthen-ware, glasses, mirrors, hogs' bristles, r.mm, beer, tartar, smalt, zaffer, Prus- sian blue, printers' ink, and many other articles. The revocation of the edict of Nantes by Ixjuis XIV., which o!)lIged the French piolestnnis to settle in different parts of Europe, was of inlhiite service to the German manufactures. They now make velvets, silks, stuffs of all kinds, tine and coarse linen and thread, and every thing necessary tor wear, in great perfection. I'lie j)orcelain of Meissen, in the electorate of Saxony, and its paintings, have been long in great repute. Constitution, Govr.rvV-7 Almost cveiy prince in Germany (and MKNT, AND LAWS. j there are nearly 3(30 of them) is arbitrary with regard to the government of his own estates ; but the whole of them form a great conteileracy, governed by political laws, at the head of which is tiie emperor, w hone power in tiie collective body, or the diet, is not directorial, but executive: but even that gives him vast in- fluence. The supreme pfu\'er in German}- is the diet, wliidi is composed of the emperor, or, in his absence, of his jonmiissary, and of the threa colleges of the empire. I'lie Ijrst of these i^ ilic electoral college j the. second is the college of princes ; and the third, the college of iu'.perial towns. The empire was hereditary under the race of Charlemagne ^ but, after tlia?, became elective; and in the beginni'-.g, all the princes, nobility> and deputies of cities, enjoyed the rui, hege of Voting. ]n the reign of Henry V. the chief oihcers of t.Ve empire altered the mode of election in their own favour. In the year 1 239, f'^c innnber of electors was re- duced to seven. One elector was added in I'oA'j, and another in lfK)2. Ill consequence of the late secularizations, and other alterations made in the constitution of the empire, under the influence of France and Russia, thev are novv ten in immber, \i/,. one ecclesiastical and nine secular electors. The dignity of the emigre, though elective, has for some centuries belonged to the house oi' Austria, as being the most powerful of the German princes : but, by French management, upon the death of Charles VJ. granilfather, by the mothc/'s side, to the emperor Jose])h II, the elecior of Bavaiia was chosen to that dignity, and died, as it i.s supposed, heart-broken, after a short uncomfortable reign. The power of the emperor is regulated by the capitulation he signs at iiis election; and the person wlio in lus life-time is chosen king of tJic Romans .succeeds, without :\ new eleciion, to the empire. He can confer title.j and enfranchisements upon cities and towns; but, as emperor, he can levy no taxes, nor m;d\e w ar or peace, without the consent of the diet. When that consent is obtained, every jirince must contribute his (juota of men and money, as valued in the matriculation roll, tliough,]- .;haps, as an elector or prince, he may espouse a dilTerent side from tlial of the diet. This fonns the intricacy of the German constitution ; for George II. of England^ as elector of Hanover, was obliged to furnish his (^uotc^ GERMANY. 461 against the house of Austria, and also against the long; of Prussia, while he was righting for them both. Tlic emperor claims u piLceJcncy tor ills ambassadors in all Christian courts. The ten electors of tlie empire, who liavc the sole election of the em- peror, are in order as follow : I'he elector of llatisbon (or Aschaffonburg), arch-eluinc'-llor of tho empire. The elector and king of Bohemia (the present cm[)ercr), who ii grand cup-bearer. Tho elector of Bavaria, who is grand sewer, or otficer who serves out the feasts. The elector of Saxony, who is great marshal of the empire. The elector of iJrandenburg (king of Prussia), who is arch-chamber- lain. The elector of Brunswick Lunenburg (Hanover — tlie king of Great Britain), who is arcii-treasurer. The elector of Salzburg (late grand duke of Tuscany). The elector of Wurtemberg, who is arch-pantler. The elector of Baden . Tiie elector of Hesse. It is necessary i'ov the emperor, before he calls a diet, to have the ad- vice of those members ; and during the vacancy of the imperial throne the electors of Saxony and Bavaria have jurisdictions, the former over the northern, and the latter over the sontliern circles. Tiie diet is composed of the electoral college, the college of princes, and the college of imperial towns. The electoral college consists of the ten electors above enumerated, each of whom has a personal vote, termed by the German lawyers voltim virile. The college of princes is divided into two classes — tiie proj)er princes of the empire, as dukes, margravines, landgraves, princes and princely counts, who have each a {personal vote, and the counts and lords of the empire, who are arranged in four colleges or benches, \'iz. theWetteravian, Swabian, Franconian, and Westphalian, e?ch of which has but one \ow, styled votum curiutum. In this college Austria and Salzburg have tlie directory by turns. The college of imperial citiei consists of deputies from the Hans towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and IvUbeck, and the imperial cities Frankfort on the Maine, Nuremberg, and Augsburg. The imperial cities are free republics under no pariicu- lar sovereign, but immediately under the emperor and the enjpiio. The imperial chamber, and that of Vienna, which i: better known by the name of tlie Aulic council, are the two supreme courts Ibr ileler- mining the great cauBCii of the empire, arising between its respective members. The imperial council consists of rii'ty judges or rjs^-esatjrs. I'he president, and four of them, are appointed by the empenn-, and each cf the electors chooses one, and the other ])rinces and states the rest. '1 his court is at present held at Wetzlar, but foi nierly resided at S])ire ; and causes may be brought before it by appeal. 'J'Jk; Aiilic council was originally only a revenue court of the dominions of the house .of Austria. As that family's power increajed, the jurisdiction of Uie Aulic council was extendiid upon the powen of ilf imperi.d chamber, and even of the diet. It consists of a president, .i \iee-ehanccllt)r, a vice-president, and a certain nura!)er oi' Aulie ( ouusellors, of wlutm six are protestants, besides other uJfux rs -, but the emperor, in fact, is master of the court. These court -i tijilow tlie ancient lav\s ^A tha empire for their guides^ the golden bull, the pacilicutiuti of I'assau, .uid the civil law. Ic. I m 462. GERMANY. ^ I' J. i- -if t *:l i'^l Besides (ficso courts of jiistire, r;u h of the nine circlcf? has a director, to take cnie of the peace and order or liie circle. This director is in general one of the most powerful princes of the circle. Jn case of i>rcat public olfences, at'ier the votes of ihc diet arc col- lected, and Miilence pronounced, the emperor, by his preroi^ativG,- roanuils the rveculion of it to a particular prince or princess, vliose tioops live at free (]u;uter upon the estates of the delinquent, and he is obliged^ to make good all expenses. Kvery staty which acts direr! !y or indirectly against the fundamental, laws of the empire, is sQbjcct to the punisliment of the ban, or pro- scription of the empire. The ban is of luo kinds : t!ie one is piivatoiy,; the other provisionary. 'I'he first consists in dcpri\ ing a prince or slate yf the empire of all their rights, privileges, dignities, &c. : the second consists in taking away the actual goveriuuent of the sttites, and com- tnitling them to the care of somo other, until it be otherwise ordered. But this sentence of proscription is dillicult to obtain, because it is difli- cult to unite ail the orders of the empire in the same measure. I'he execution of it belongs to the director ot" the circle wiiere tiie prince resides, and every leudal state of the empire is subject to it. The constitution of the Germanic body is a study of no small dilficnlty. However plausibly invented the several checks upon the imperial power may be, it is certain that the house of vVustria has more than once en- dangered the liberties of the empire, and that thuy ha\e been saved by France. The house of Austria, indeed, met with a poweiful opposition from the iiouse of Brandenburg, in con.senucncc oi the activity and abi- lities vif the king of Prus; ia. It ma.y licre be proper lo inform the reader of the meaning of a term which frequently appears in the German history — that of the Praij^inatic Sanction. This is no other than a pro\i- sioii made by the emperor Charles \ I. for preserving the indi\ isibility of the Austrian dominions in the person of tlie next descendant of the la.;t possessor, whether male or teniale. Ihis provision has been often disputed by other branches oi' the liou.se of Austria, who have been oc- casionally sujiported by France iVom political views, thoiigl] the pragmatic sanction is strt)ugly guarantied by almost all the powers ot Kuroj)e. The eui[)eror Charles VII., elector of Ba\aria, and Augustus, king oj" Poland, aticmined to overthrow it, as being descended from the daughters of the emperor Joseph, elder brother to Charles \'l. It has likewise bLcn re- peatedly opposed by the. court of Sp.tin. ^ , lew ot' the territories of the Genr.an prince, are .so large as to be as- signed to \ iceroys, to be oppressed ami iieeced at plc.ihurc; nor arc they riiiirely without redress v\hcn they si-.tier any grie\ai'.ee ; as they may- appeal to (he general diet, or great c./aneii of the empiie, lor relief The fcubjfcts of the petty primes in Germany are generally tlic most un- hap/py J lor these princes, affecting the graf.deur and splendor of the luoie powerful, in the number and appeavaiice of their ollicers and do- me.sties, in their palaces, gardens, pictures ci riositles, guards, bands of nuLslc, tables, dress, and t'urn'.Lure, ate oliliged t«) support all this \aiii . puiii]) and j)arade at the cxpcnjic of their vassals and deper.dants. With re^ptcl to the Tjurghers and j)e.asants ol' Gerjaany, ihe Ibritier in many [ilaces enjoy great privileges : the Jailer also, in some parts, as in Fran- tuiiia, bvvabia, and on the Rhine, are giiicrally a free people, orjKnIbrm tnlv certain sct\ ices lo their superi(;rs, and pay the taxes j whervas, in llic niarqui.saie of Brandenburg, romer.iuia, laisitia, Moravia, Bo- liemia, Austria, tkc. iJieir condition is various, indeed, bvil uni\ersally verv servile. The judici.il covuls thrcAighov.l Germany Follow in their dccibiona ihg . GERMANY. 46i Roman or civil law, except where tkat taw is altcrcil or suj^errietloil by the statutes of the several states ; which are very various, as the states tiuMnselves are extremely numerous. IIkvknuf.s AM) MILITARY FoucE.] Roth the military foreo and re- veiuie of the emperor, merely as the head of the Gennanic leai;;ue or Iloinaii em;)ire, are very intonsiuciable. He has only an annual iiiconie of about 5(XX) or d(XX)i. sterling, arising from some in',:onsideral)le ficf-i in the tjlack I'brcst, and some trithng eonlrihutions from tliL' inij)eri;il cities, of which, it is said, scarcely 20()<)/. come into the imperial trea- sury. The extraordinary revenues levied t)n tlie dili'erent states are called Roman months, because they were formerly raised by monthly assessments, for the maintenance of the troops who escorted the empe- ror to Rome, when that was the place of his coronation. A Roman Miontii is about 5000/. j and a certain number of these sutiis is paid bv each state, according to the proportions for the ditferint princes and .states regiblered in what is called the matriculation-book, kept by the arch-chancellor ot' the empire. In the same book are registered the contingents or inmiber of troops to be vasied by each state, when war is decreed by the diet. I'hese together would compose an army of about :-50,000 men ; but the whole force of the empire, were it exerted in one etrbrt, would amount, ex- clusive of those countries wliich, though subject to German princes, are not a part of Germany, to 400,000 men : and the revenues of .lie dif- ferent princes and states of the empire, with the same lin:itation, have been estimated at above iG niillions .sterling. The revenues of the electorates and principal states of tly.j empire, and the military force usually maintained by them, accordino to the latCftt and most authentic accounts, are as follow ; ; 111 Princes. Revenue. Elector of Saxony - .£ 1 ,250,t)00 tllector of Bavaria - 1,2(X>,000 Elector of Hanover - ()0'o,()00 Elector of Wurtemberg - (XJO.tXX) Eleclujr of Baden - ^OO.CKX) Elector of Hesse - 300,000 Elector of Salzburg - 300,000 Elector arch-chancellor - 100,000 Duke of Brunswick Wolfenbutlle 280,000 Dukes of the house of Saxony 277,000 Dukes of Mecklenburg - 230,000 Princes of Hohenlolie - 150,000 Military Force, 32,00(> 2S,00O 18,000 7,000 4,(K)0 I '2,000 2,.'500 3.500 1,3CK» 1,500 . The electors of Brandenburg and Bohemia (the king of Prussia aud Iiead of the house of A\i,>,tria) are not included in this list, as their ivve- imes and armies :u-e raided from the whole of the Prussian and Austrian iiominions. JMPK.niAr,, uoYAf., AND othek") The (Hiiperor of Germany prctetids TITLK3, ARMS, AND OKUKRS. j to b(.' succcssor to tlic emi)crors of Rome, and lias long, on that account, been ailmitted to a tacit prece- dency on all public occa-ions among the powers of Kurope. Austria is but an archdukedom ; nor has he, as the heael of that house, a vote in the election of emperor, which is limited to iiulieinia. lniuinicr,.Me are the titles of princi])aruies, dukedoms, b:ironie-i, and the like, with which ho is vested aw aiulidnke ; and he bus iat-Jy, by a putcia l»eaiinu; n 'i 4b'4 GERMANY. Is ' mu'i . i. date the 10th of August 1804, assumed the title of hereditary emperor of Austria. The arms of the empire are a black eagle with two heads iiovering with expanded wings in a field of gold; and over the heads of the eagle is seen tlie imperial crown. On the breast of the eagle is an escutcheon quarterly of eight, for Hungary, Naples, Jerusalem, Arragon, Anjou, Gueldyrs, Brabant, and Barr. It would Ikj as useless as ditHcult to enumerate ail the ditierent quarterings and armorial bearings of the archducal family. Every elector, and indeed every independent princu of any importance in Germany, claims a right of instituting orders; but the emjierors pretend that They are not admissible unless confirmed by them. Tlie emperors of Germany, as well as the kings of Spain, contor tlie order of the Golden Fleece, as descended from the house of Burgundy. The empress dowager Eleonora, in l6(5'2 and ItiGQ, created two orders of ladies, or female knights ; and I'le late evi?;^^ress-queen instituted tlie order of St. Theresa. The " Order of the Golikn Fleece" was instituted at Bruges, in Flan- ders, on the lOih of January 142r(), by Philip duke of Burgundy, on liie day of his marri^ige with his third wife. It is supposed that he chose the badge, as being the chief of tlie staple manufactures of his country. It at first consisted of thirty knights, including the sovenMgn, who were of the first families in the Low Count! ic:i ; and still continues to bo classed with the most illustrious orders of kniguUiood in Europe. At jiresent there are two branches of it ; of the one the emperor is sovereign, and the king of Spain of the other; all must prove their noble descent from the twelfth century. The motto of tlie order is " Fret i tan non vUe lobor/im." The " Teutonic Order" owed its origin to some religious Germans in Jerusalem during the crusades, who assumed the title of "Teutonic knights, or brethren of the ho>pital of our I.,ady of the Ger- mans at Jerusalem," Conrade, duke of Swabia, invited them into Prus,sia, about the year 1 230 ; soon after they comjuered Prussia for themselves, and became one of the most powerful orders in Europe. By their in- ternal quarrcj.s, thcv afterwards loj-t their power and possessions : and Albert, marquis of Brandenburg, grand-master of the order, on his ab- juring popery, abdicated the grand-mastership, subdued Prussia, and expelled ail the papists who would not follow his example. The order is now divided into two branches: the profestant branch, which had a house at Utrecht; and that lor papists, which has ;v house at Mergentheim, in Germany, and of which the members must take the oath of celibacy. The ensign distinguishing this branch is worn round the neck, pendent to a gold chain The time of the institution of the " Order of (he RtdTlu^le'^ is un(?er- fain. The marQ;rave of Bareith is s(nereignof it, and it is giMierally be- .stowcd on military officers. In tin; yoir 1 ()()(), J(thi)-Geon:,v, elector of Saxony, and Frederic 111. elector of Brander:hurg, on terminating their disputes, established the " Order nf Siiurr/'tj/," as a confirmation and se- curity hereafter of their amity. The knights ol" this order wear a brace- let of gold ; on one side are llie names of the two prince^;, with tliis de- vice, '* Amkie sincere ;" on the other side are two armed hands, joined together, and jdaced on two swords wiih two palm-branches crossed, with this motto, " Luis povr jamais." John-George, duke of Haxe Weisscnfels, instit\ited the " Order of the Noble Pa.ssion," in tlu- yi^ar 17^)-^, ol uhich the iluke is the sovereign. Each knight of the onler i* to contribute to the UKiint'-'nance of the maimed or decayed soldiers in the service of the sovereign. In the year 17^9* Louisa-Eii/.abuth, widow of Philip duke of Sa.xo Merseburg, r«« GERMANY. 465 vlvetl the " Order of the Death's lie. a!," first instituted in lG52 by hev lather, the duke of Wiiiloinb'jrg. A princess of that house clone can be sovereign of it, and none l,ut women of virtue v.ud merit (buth r.nd fortune noi regarded) be ivceiveu into it. They are to avoid ga-.r.ino;, theatrical amL^senients, and luxuries of all kinds. 'I'iie br'l^e ot the order is a Death's head enauielled wliiLe, surmounted with a cross patlec, black ; above the cro->s p;;ttc;e, auotlier cross, composed of tivc jeu'eh', by which it hangs to a black ribbon edged with white, and on tlie rib- bon these words, " Memento mori," worn at the ljrc:..t. The great order of Wurtcniberg is that " of tin: i.'/i:i^c," instituted in the year 1702 by the then duke, and improved in the \ear l/iy. On the left side of the coat is a siiver star embroidered, of the same figure as the badge, in the middle of a grc'-n circle, with t!;e niouo " ylmiciUiB Vivtutisque t'otdusT The ii:'slival of this order is on St. Hubert's day, he being the patron of sportsmen. In the year l/Oi), the elector Palatine re\ i ved the " Onkr of St. Hu- bert," tirsi instituted by a duke of Juliers and Clcves, in nienKj'.y of a victory gained by him on St. Hubert's day, in 144/. All the knights have either military employments or pensions. The archbishop of Salz- burg, in 1701, instituti.:d the " Order of Si. Rupert," in honour of the founder and patron of the see he held, and as the apostle of his country. As the archbishop was the richest and most powertid prince of Bavaria, next to the elector, his order is in good esteem. In tlie year l'/2g, Albert, elector of IJavaria, instituted the " Order of St. Ceorgc, the De- fender of the Immaculate Conception," the knights ot which are obliged to prove their nobility by father and mother for five generatiouh. The " Order of the Golden Lion," instituted by the late landgrave of Hesse- A^assel, is equally a military and civil order, but nioily conferred on general otticers. Ihe landgrave also instituted the military " Order of Merit," the badge of which is a gold cross, of eight p;);nts, enameled vhite, and in the centre this motto, " Pro Virtute et t'tdchtate " it i-i worn at the coat button-hole, pendent to a blue ribbon edged with silver. Heligion.] Before the reforniation introduced by Luther, the Ger- man bishops were possessed (as indeed many of them continued to be till tlie late secularisations) of prodigious power and revenues, and were the tyrants of the emperors as well as of the people. Their ignorance was only equalled by their superstition. The Bohemians were the first who had an idea of reformation, and made so glorious a stand, ft)r many years, against the errors of Rome, that they were indulged in tlie liberty of taking the sacrament in both kinds, and other freedoms net tolerated hi the Romish church. This was in a great measure owing to the cele- brated Englishman John Wicklili'e, who went much further in icform- ing the real errors of popery than Luther himself, though he !i\ ed al)()ut a century and a half before hinv Wicklitfe was seconded l^y Jolui IIuss and Jerome of Prague, who, notwithstanding the emptrur s sale- conduct, were infamously bunU at the council of Constance. The reforniation introduced afterwards by Luther*, of whicii w.yliavo spoken in the Introduction, though it struck at the chief abuses in tlie clmrch of Rome, was thoughr in solne points (pariicularl) tli;!i of con- substantiation, by which the real body of Christ, as well as the eleuicnts «t bread and v;ine, is supposed to be taken in the sacrament) to be im- ii • Born in ."faxonv, in the' year 1 183 ; began to di:;putc the Joctrine* of the Rvmish «!»urch 1517 ; and d cd l.J4«j, in the t: d vt-ar of his age 2H -..,..^<^:, ' 46fi GERMANY. ii I ^i ' t , I ml ■! ." -H perfect. Calvinism "^j therefore, or the religion of Geneva (.is now practised in the church of Scolhmd), was intnulucecl into Cermnny, and is the rdigion profej<st^l in tlic territories of the king of Prussii, the ]<indgi-avc gf Hesse, and some other prinech, '.vho maintain a parity of orders in the church. Some even assert, that the numbers of protcstanl* and papists in the empire are now ahnost ctjual. Germany, pariicukirly JNIoravia and- the Palatinate, as also IJoh'emia, is over-run with sectaries of all kinds ; nnd Jews abound in the empire. At ])resent, the modes of worship and forms of church government are, by the prolestaut German pritTCCS, considered ii> a civil rather tlian a religious liglu. The elector archchancel lor (the late elector and archbisliopof Ment/) h primate and metropolitan of all Germany ; and the see of Mentz has been transferred to Ratisbon. Germany ibrmerl}- contained six arch- bishoprics and thirty-eight bishoprics. At present the hierarchy appears to be thrown into some confusion by the \i\tf secularisations; and it concordat is expei-ted to be shortly concluded between the pope and the empire, to restore it to order. LiTERATURr..} No couutry has produced a greater variety of authors tlian Germany, and there is no where a more general taste for reading, esj)ccia}ly in the protestant countries. Printing is encouraged to a fault ; almost every man of letters is an author : they multiply books without number in every department of literature ; and thousands of theses and disputations are annually published; for no man can be a graduate in their imiversities who has not published one disputation at least. Many of the Germans have greatly di.<rtinguished thcmsselvcs in va- rious branches of learning and science. They have written largely upoit the J^oman and canon laws. Stahl, Van Swiefen, Slork, Hotfman, and Halle •, have contributed greatly to the improvement of physic; Iluvinu* and Dhl^.fias, of botany; Heister, of anatomy and surgery; and Neu- mann, Zimmerraann, Pott, and Margraff, f)f chemistry, Jn astronomy, Kepler deservedly obtained a great reputation; and l-*utfendorf is one of the iirst writers on the law of nature and nations, and has aliio merit as an historian. But at the end of tlie list century, and the beginning of the i^resent, Germany, by her divines, and b}' her religious sects, was so niuch involved in disputes about systematic theology, that few coiTT- paratively jiaid any attention to other parts of learning, or to polity literature. The language also, and the style of writing in German books, which at the time of the Reformation was jnire and original, became ridiculous, by a continual intermixture of T,atin and French words ; vvhicli, though they were not understood by the people in general, werm thought to give an au- of superiority to the writers, and therefore nuich atfectcd : for an oi)inion pvevailed among the iearued in Germanv. and many have not yet divcsled themselves of ir.that comjjiling liuge volumes, and larding them with numberless quotations from all sorts of authors, and from all languages^ was the true test of grc'it erudition. Their pro- ductions, therefore, became heavy and ivtlantic, and were in conse- (juence, disregarded by other nations. Jt was about tiie }ear 1/30 that the prospects of literature in Qer- * John C;iivlii was hoiii in tlie pnr.inct' of Pirarcly, in ihc north cf France, ,atii;» 1 50G. l'x'n\ir ()|)i;^r( J to fly from tiiat: kJn,q:aom, he s.-ttkd at Cicneva, in I5^Jy, whore he estiihlibhtd a nfw tonii df chiuoh disc:j:I',iu', whi^'h was soon after ciul)r.u-cd Iw several nations .and statoi, who arc now doiiorilnated Prcsbvieriaiv,, a.-nl, rr;)ni tlicir do>-trina! artirl.'v;, C.dviiiisti.. Ht died at Uciicva, iu tJu' yert'r i J(j'1 ; and La writinvrs maictf nitw vv>iuit>c^ iu folio. GERMANY. 467 Many began to briglitcn. Leibnitz and Wolff opened the wny to a better philosophy than had hitherto prevailed. Gottschcd, nn author and professor at Leipsic, who was greatly honoured by Frederic II. king of Prussia, introduced a- better taste of writing, by publishing a German grammar, and by instituting a literary society for polisliing and restoring to its purity the German language, and by promoting the study of the belles-lettres. We may consider this .as the epocha from \\ hich the Germans began to write with elegance in their own kin^uage upou learned subjects, and to free themselves, in a considerable degree, froni that verbosencss and ped.uitry by which they had been characterised. About this time, several young men in the university of Leipsic, and other parts of Lower Germany, luiited in publishing soaie periodical works, calculated for the general entertainment of persons of I'.terary taste. Some of these gentlemen afterwards became eminent authors j -lid their works are held in Germany in high estimation. The style of preaching among the German divines also now under- went a considerable change. They began to translate the best English and French sermons, particularly those of Tillotson, Sherlock, SauriHj Bourdaloue, and others. They improved by these models ; and Mos- heim, Spalding, Zollikofer, and others, have published sermons which would do credit to any coiuitry ; although they still retain too much of that prolixity for which German divines and commentators have been so much censured. Nor can it be denied, that great numbers of the German preachers, even in large and opulent towns, are still too much distinguished by vulgai' language, absurd opinions, and an inattention to the dictates of reason and good sense. Some of the English periodical writings, such as the Spectator, Tatlef, and Guardian, being translated into the German language, excited great emulation among the writers of that country, and a number of periodical papers appeared, of various merit. One of the first and l^e^t was {)ub- lished at Hamburg, under the title of " The Patriot ;" in which Dr. Thomas, the late bishop of Salisbury, was concerned ; he being at that time chaplain to the Eritish factory at Hambijrg, and a considerable master of the German language. The late professor Gillert, who is one of the most elegant of the German authors, and one t)f the most es- teemed, has greatly contributed to the improvement of their taste. His Nvay of writing is particularly adapted to touch the heart, and to inspire aentimcnti of niorality and piety. Hi^; fables and narrations, written in German verse, his letters, and his moral romances, are so much read in (Jeimany, that even many of the iadijs have them all by heart. His comedias are also very popular; though they are rather too sentimcTitai, and better adapted for the oioset than fur the stage. Haller the famous physician. Hagedorn, U/, Croneigh, Le.-^sing, Gleim, Gerstenbcrgcr, Klcist, Klop^tock, Ramler, Zacarie, Wicland, and others, have ex.cell(,'d in pwtry. Schiegel, Cronegh, Lessing, Wje- larid, Wiese, Schiller, and Kol'//jljue, have ac(juircd fame by their di'a- niatic writings. Ral'encr has, by his satu'ioal works, immoi talised his name among the Gei luans ; though some of his pieces aie u\' too local a nature, and too much confmed to German customs, manners, and cha- racters, to be read witli an)- high dei^ree oi' pic Nure by persons of ulher nations. Gcsner, w Lose Idyli^ :.iul \h\\\\\ oi A'oel have been translated into the Knglisli language, and ia\ourably received, is better known to .III Kiigii.-,h reader Ju thouiijUv .^uJ ia mi-Jicinc, tiie merit of tl^e Gcjnians is verv i m ! I ;i con ',) ! il 469 GERMANY. »' •' ' ■ ■' r ijl 1 f ■'^'' M ' 1. I: 1 ^ •' '1 i i < )^ ,! ^ ■'f. i i! : t. i'.i i: t,i : ■! spicunus ; ami Iletmnrus, Zimmermann, A1)t, K.i;stncr, Segncr, I/nrn- bcrt, Mayer, Krii!j,vi*, tuul Sijger, have acquired fame by their pliilo- sophical writings. Hiisehing is an excellent geograpiiiciil writer ; and JVIasco, Biinau, Putter, Ciatlerer, (.ichaur, and Schmidt, have excelled in historical works. But it cannot be denied that the Germans, in tiieir romances, are a century l)ehind iis. Most of their publications of this kind are imitations of ours, or else very dry and uninteresting ; m hieh perhaps is owing to education, to false delicacy, or to a certain taste of knight-errantry which is still predominant among some of their novel- •*vri(ers. Tn works relating (o antiquity, and the arts known among the an- cients, the names of Winckelman, Klog, and Lessing, are fiuniliar with those who are skilled in this branch of literature. In ecclesi:rAaI, philosophical and literary histPry, the names of Albcrtus Fabricnis, jVIosheim, ^' mler, and Bmcker, are well known among us. Baphe- liiis, Michaelis, and Walch, arc famous in sacred literature. Cella- rius, Burman, Taubman, Reiske, Ernest i, Reimarus, Havercamp, and Hcyne, have published some of the best editions of Greek and Latin classics. It is an unfavourable circumstance for German literature, that the French languasre should be so fashionable in the German Cv^urts instead of the German, and that so many of their princes should give it so de- cided a preference. Frederic II., king (.if Prussia, h.ul ordered the Phi- losophical Transactions of jiis royal society at Berlin, from the beginning of its institution, to be published in the French tongue j by which, some of the Gei>rians think his majesty cast a very undeserved reproach upoii his native language. With respect lo the fine arts, the Germans have acquitted tliemselvcs very \ve\i. tiermany has produced some good painters, architects, sculptors, and engravers. They even pretend to have been the first in- ventors of engravit}g, etching, and mezzotinto. Printing, if first in- vented in Holland, was soon after greatly improved in Germany. Tlu^ Germans are generally allowed to Iiave been the first inventors of great ginis, as also of gunpowder, in Kurope, about the year 1320. Ger- many has likewise produrcd some excellent mu-icians, — Mandel, Bac h, Ilasse, and Ilaydn, of whom Mandel stands at the head, having arrived at the suhlime of nmsic. Un'ivf.ksitiks."] There are at present To Germany thirty-one uni- T'ersitics, of which fomteen, iw't. those of Leipsic, Uostork, Greifswalde, Wittenberg, Tubingen, lena, Ifclnistadt, Giessen, Rinteln, Altorf, Kiel, ITalle, Goeltingen, and Erlangen, are I-utheran; three, viz. F'nvikfortoii the Odor, Marburg, and Duishurg, of the reformed or Calvinistic religion j twelve, viz.. Prague, Vienna, Wur/burg, Freyburg, Larftlshut, Uillin- gen,'01inuUz, Gratz, I'aderborn, Salxiburg, Fukia, and Bamberg, catho- lic ; and Iwi), Heidelberg and Erfurt, mixed, or both catholic and pro- testant. 'I'here are also a nuii^ber of colleges, gymnasia, ped-agogies, «nd Latin schools. There are also many academies and societies for promoting the .study of natural philosophy, the belles-lettres, antiquities, painting, sculpture, architecture, tVc, as the Imperial LeopoldineAca- drmv of the IS'atiira: Ciirinsi : the Academy of Sciences at Vienna, at Berlin, at (Toetting(!i, at Elrfurt, at Leipsic, at Duisburg, at Giesen, and at I famburg. At Dresden and Nuremberg are academies for painting : at Berlin a royal military academy ; and at Augsburg is the Imperial Franciscan Acadeiny of Fine Arts ; to which we may add tlu.' Latin Society GERMANY-. 469 at lena. Of the pnblic libraries the most cfk-bratrd arc th:)-;c of Vien- na, Berlin, Halle, Wolfeiibuulc, Hanover, Goetlingen, Wciinar, and Loipsic. Language.] The German language is derived from thi> oUl Teuto- nic and Gotliie. it varies considerably in it-i dialects as spokiui in dif- ferent parts of the country, and is purest iu Saxnny and Hanover, and in the southern and eastern provinces nrjst ci)rrupted and uncouth. Latin antl French are the most useful laugiuiges lu Germany, when a traveller is ignorant of Iligli Dutch. The German Paternoster is as follows: — Uiiscr Vutfr, dcr <!:i bist i/n hinimd, '^rhcili'^et iirrdt dcin mime. Zuhnmnic dciu rekh. iJtin vjillc genclu'hef ivic hit liiinmcl also aiich aiif tvdcn, i'nrer tai^lich brodt yjb uiit hx'iitc. i'lid vtniib tins unscir .tchiddfii, (ds ivir vcr;j:ebtii tuixtrn scluildi' ^f/'H. Uiid fia'hrc uns uicitt in vcvsudutnr. S:)ndi.'rii trl(i'se itiis von dcia hivscn. Dm dein tst das rcicli, mid die krnj't, and die heiriichlctii, in tiii^^/ieit. Amen. ANTiauiTiKs.] A few remains of Roman edifices and other anti- quities are found in Germany. The vast Gothic palaces, caihedr.ils, castles, and, above all, town-houses, in Germany, are very curious, and impress the beholder with their rude magniticence : many castles iiave the same ajjpearauce, probably, as tiiey had 401) years ago; and their ibrtitications generally consist of a brick wall, trenches tilleil with wakT, and bastions or h»Tf-mcons. HtsTORV.] The manners of the ancl(^nt Germans are well described by the elegant and manly pencil of Tacitus, the Roman historiun. They were a brave and indcpemlent race of men, aiul peculiarly distinguislied hy their love of liberty and arms. They opposed the force of the Ro- in.nn empire, not in its origin or in its decline, but after it had arrived at nraturity, and still continued in its full vigour. The country was di- vided into a number of principalities, imlepcndent of each other, though occasionally connected by a military union for defending themselves p.guin-.t such enemies as threatened the lib-.Aies of them all. At length, the Roman power, supported by art r.ud policy, prevailed over a great part of Germany, and it was reduced to the condition of a province, When the Roman empire was shattered by the northern ba,Darianj>, Germany was over-run by the Franks, about the year 4yo, aivl a con- siderable part of it long remained in subjection to ei^rls and manjuises of that nation. In this situation Germany continued, notwithstanding the ciforts of particular chieftains or princes to reduce the rest into sub- jection, uiitil the beginning of the ninth cenlury; then it was that Charlemagne, oiie of those eccentric and superior geniuses who some- times start up in a barbarous age, first extended h.s military power, and afterwards his civil authority, o,er the whole of this empire. The pos- terity of Charlenuignc inherited the empire of Germany until tlie death of Lewis IIL, in the year £))1; at which time the dittt-rent princes, as- suming their original independence, rejected the Carlovingian line, and placed Conrade, duke of Francunia, on the throne. Since this time, Germany has ever been considered as an elvctive monarchy. Princes of different families, according to the prevalence of their interest and ^rms, have mounted the throne. Of these, the most considerable, un- til the Austrian line acquired t!ie imperial power, were the liouses of Saxony, Franconia, and Swabia. The reigns t)f these empert)rs contain nothing more remarkable than the contests between.tlicm and the popes. Trora these, in the beginning of the thirtc^'nth century, arose the fic- tions <}f the Gtbclphs and GlubcUfiOij of which the formex v\ u^ attached 'I J f! li' if 4?0 GERMANY, , JS '■*'! nu V I li m to tlic pope, and th*? latter to the emperor ; and' both, by their violcne« and i live to racy, tendofl to disquiet the empire for several ages. I'he empe^ rors too weiv often at war uith the Turks; and somctiracs the German princes, as happens in all elective kingdoms, with one an£)tlier about the succession. But what more deserves the attention of a judicious reader than all tho^e noisy but nninieresting di^putes, is the progrt'ss of go- vernment in Germany, which was, in some measure, opjiosite to tlxat of the other kingdoms of Jiiurope. When the em[)ire raised by Charle- magne fell asunder, all the diiierent independent princes assumed the right of elcrtiun ; and those now distingui-Led by tlie name of electors had no peculiar or legal inliuence in appointing a successor to the impe- rial throne ; they were only the olHcers of the king's household, his se-. cretary, his steward, chaplain, marshal, or master of his horse, ^'C. By tlegrees, as the) lived near the king's person, and, like all other princes, had independent territories belonging to them, they increased their in- ilucnce and authority; and in the reign of Otho 111., of the house of Saxony, in the year ()84, acquired the sole right of electing the em- peror*. Thus, while, in other kingdoms of Europe, the dignity of the great lords, who were all originally allodial or independent barons, was diminished by the power of tlic kmg, as in 1'" ranee, and by the influence of the people, as in Great Britain — m Germany, on the other hand, the power of the electors was raised upon the ruins of the emperor's supre- macy, and of the jurisdiction of the people. Otho I. having, in the ycav (02j united Italy to the empire of Germany, procured a decree ironi the clergy, that he and his successors should have the power of nomi- nating the pope, and of granting investitures to bishops. Henry V., a weak arid wicked prince, in the year 1122 surrendered up the right of investiture and other powers, to the disgrace of the imperial dignity ; but pope Benedict XII. refusing absolution to Louis V. of Bavaiia, in .»338, it was declared, in the diet of the empire, Uiat the majority of sufriages of the electoral college should confer the empire without the consent of the pope, and that he had no superiority over the emperor, nor any right to reject or to approve of elections. In HoS, Albert JI., archduke of Austria, was elected emperor, and the imperial dignity continued in the male line of that tamily for three hundred years. One of his successors, Maximilian, married the heiress of Charles duke of JBurgundy, whereby Burgundy, and the .seventeen provinces qf the Ne- therhmds, were annexed to the house of Austria. Charles V,, grand- son of Maximilian, and heir to the kingdom of Spain in right of his mother, vas elected emperor in the year 15 19. Under him Mexico and Peru were conquered by the Spaniards: and in his reign happened the reformation of religion in several parts of Germany ; which, how- ever, was not confirmed by public authority till the year 1648, by the tn.-aty of Westphalia, and in the reign of Ferdinand IJI. The reign of Charles V. was continually disturbed by his wars with the German })rlnces, and the French king, Francis I. Though successful in the be- ginning of his reign, his good fortune toward the conclusi^ of it be- gan to Ibrsakc him ; which, with other reasons, occasioned his abdica- tion of the crown. His brother, Ferdinand I., who in 1558 succeeded to the throne, pro\ed a moderate prince with regard to religion. He had the address * Wiquefort says, that nothing was settled as to the number of electors, 6r the electoral dignity, till Charles IV., who was chosen tmperor in 1347, and made thjit. famous constitution for the election of emperors called the Gald<:n Bull. GERMANY. 4;i tr> pi-ocurc his son, Mnximilian, in be dotlared king of tlio Rnniniw, in his own lit'o-tinie. and died in 1564. By his hist will lie orji-ivd, that, i/ eiihcr his own niak' ioiui.- or that of his brother C'hark'.->, s!i(juld lail, his AuMiian estates slionid revert to his second daughter Anne, wile to the clecti>r oi" Bavaria, and her issue. Tliis de.^ti ;]■.;! i(i:. i.s uoticed, as it gave rise to the opposition niado by the h ess-' ousc of B iv'ria to tiie pragmatic sanction in favour of the late eni- jnecn of Hungary, on the death of her father, Charles \'I. I'he- and iX^ign of Maximilian II. was disturbed witli internal coniniotions, ai an invasion from the Turks ; but he died in peace in I5y6. He was suc- ceeded by his hon ilodolph, w Iio was involved iv. wars with the Hungarians, and in diiTt reuces with his brother Mattliias, to whom he ceded Hun- gary and Austria in his life-time. To him succeeded hi the empire, Mat- thias, under wham the icformers, who went by the names of Lutheran^ ^nd CaUinists, were so nuich divid(;d among themselves as to threaten the empire with a civil war. The ambition of Matthias at last recon- ciled tlu-nij but the Bohemians revolted, and threw the imperial eom- jjiissaries out of a window at I'rague. This gave rise to a ruinous war, which lasted thirty years. INIatthias thought to have eKtermiuated both parties ; but they formed a confederacy, called the Evangelic Lcui^uc, which was counterbalanced by a C>it/iilic League. Matthias dying in l6l8 was Kucwicded by his cousin, Ferdinand II.; lull the Bohemians oflered their crown to Frederic, the elector palatine, the mo.-.t powerful prolestant priiice in Gerniany, and son-iu-lav/ to his* JJriiannic majesty, Jiinjes I, That prince was incautious enough to ac- cept of the crown ; but he lost it, being entirely defeated by the duke of Bri\aria and the imperial generals, at the battle of Prague : and ho was also deprived of his own electorate, the best part of which was given to the duke of Bavaria. The protestaut princes of (Germany, however, liad among them at this time many able commanders, who ■\veie at the head of armies, and continued the war with great tirmness and intrepitlity : among them were the margrave of Baden Dourlach, Christian duke of Bruuswie, and coijnt Mauslield ; the last was one of the ablest generals «)f the age. Christian IV., king of Denmark, de- clared for tliem •, aijd Richelieu, the French minister, did not wisli to see the hoa-;e of Austria aggrandised. The emix-'ror, on the other hand, l;ad exctj^Uent generajs j and Christian, having put himself at the head of ■the e\ a:)gelic league, was defeated by Tilly, an imperialist of great re- putation in war. Ferdinand so grossly abused the advantages obtained over tiie protestants, that they formed a fresh confetkracy at Leipsic, of which the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was the head. His victories and progress, till ho was killed at the battle of I.titzep in l(j;)2, have already been related. But the protestaut cause did n()t die with him. He had brought up a set of heroes, such as the ^nkp of Saxe Weimar, T(jrstenson, Banicr, and others, who shook the Aus^iiiu power, till, under the mediation of Sweden, a general peace vas coi-uluded among all the powers at war, ^at Munster, in the year lt)48; which forms the basis of the present political sy.stem of Eurype. Fcrditjand II. died in 163/, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinaml III., \yht) died i?i 1^57, and was succeeded by the emperor Le<)ppld, '4 ^cvere, unamiable, and not very fortunate prince. He h.ad two great powers to contend with ; France on the one side, and the Turks on the Qther; and was a loser ia his war with both. Fraii^^e look from him Alsace, ami many other frotiticr places of the empire ; and the Turks ■\vould have taken Vienna, had not tlu^ siege been raised by John So- l^ieskij king of Poland. Prince Fugete, of Savoy, was q young ad* Mil ii IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 1.1 li^|2£ |Z5 ■^ Uii 12.2 ^ 144 "^ 1.8 1.25 III 1.4 6" Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WfST MAIN STRf IT VyiBSTER.N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 6^ 472 GERMANY. f: if My % • u fr' El' ■ 1 m i venturer in ra-nis, a' out the year l6g7 ; and, being one of the hnperiar generr.ls gare the Turks the iivst checks they rv^'ceived in Hungary j and by the I'cace of Carlowitz, in l6gg, I'ransylvania was ceiled to the eiTipeidj-. The empire, liowever, could not have w ithstood the power of France, had not the prince of Orange, afterwards king WiHiam III. of Erglaiui, laid the foundation of the grand confederacy against the French power, the consecjuences of whish have been already described. 1'he Hunguiiius, secretly encouraged by the French, and exn-perated by tiie unfeeling t}Tanny of Leopold, were still in arms, under tlie proiec- J.ion of the I'orte, when that prince died, in 1/0.5. He was succeeded by his sou Jo>epli. who put the electors of Cologne rnd Bavaria to the ban of the empire : but being very ill served by })riuce Lewis of Baden, the general ot' the empire, the French partly recovtied their alVairs, notwitii^t:;nding their repeated defeats. The duke of M.Mll/orou^h, thou2,h he obtained very splendid victories, had not all the suece?s he expected or deserved. Joseph himself was sur spected of a design to subvert the Germanic liberties ; and it was evi- dent, by his conduct, that he expected England should take the princi- pal part in the war, which was chiefly carried on for his benefit. The £nglish \v ere disgusted at his slowness and selfishness ; but he died in 171 i> bcfuic he IkuI reduced the Hungarians; and, leaving no male issue, was succeeded in the empire l-y his brother, Charles VL, whon^ the allies were endeavouring to place on the throne of Spain, in oppo- sition to Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson to IvCvvis XIV. Vv'Jieu the peace of Uti^eht touk place, in 1713, Charles at first made a shov%' as if he would continue the war; but found himself unable, now that he was forsaken by the English. He therefore was obliged to con- clude a pe^HP with France, at Baden, in 17L^. that he might oppose the progress of ti.e Turks in Hungary, where they received a total defeat hum prince Jliigenc, at the battle of Peterwaradin. They received an- other, of equal importance, from the same general, in 17)/, before Bel- grade, which fell into the hands of the imperialists; and the following year the peace ol' Passarowitz, between them and the Turks, was con- cluded. Charles was continually employed in making arrangements for increasing a;id preserving his hereditary domiraons in Ital}' and the Me- ciiterranean. Happily for him, the crown of Britain devolved to 'the house of Hanover ; an event which gave him a very decisive weight in Europe, by tlie connexions of George I. and II. with the empire. Colutrles was sensible of this, and carried matters with so high a hand, that, about the years 1724 and 17'-i5, a breath ensu;^d between him and George 1. ; and so unsteady was the syatcm of alVairs all over Eur6pe at that time, that the principal powers often changed their old alliances, and concluded new ones, contrary to their interest. Without enterinj' iruo partic\ilars, it is sufficient to observe, that the safety of Hanover, and its aggrandisement, was the main object of the British court ; as t'lat of the emperor was the establishment of the pragmatic sanction, in favour of his daughter, the .kite empress-queen, he having no male issue. Mutual concessions upon those great points restored a good un- derstanding between George II. and the emperor Charles ; and the elec- tor of^yaxony, being prevailed upon by the prospect of gaining the tlirone of Poland, relin([uished the claims lie had upon the Austrian succession. Ihe cirperor, after this, had vcr)- ill sucress in a war he entered into with the lurks, -which he had undertaken chiefly to indenuiif\' himself for ihe great sacrifices he had made in Italy to the princes of the house of JBourbon. Prince Eugeuc was tlicn dead, and he had no general P T ti h a C GERMANY. A73 at } le er I. le 1. / to suj)ply liis place. The system of Fnnce, uuJor cardinal Fleury, hap- pened at th;it time to be pacific; and she olitained lor him, from tlin Turks, a U'tter peace than he had reason to cvpect. Ciiavk's, to pacify the (German and other European powers, Iwd, before his death, give'i his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, in ni.n riage to the duke of Lorraine, a prince who could brhig no accession of power to tiie Austrian lamily. Charles died in 1740. '» He was no sooner in the grave, then all he had so loiLg laboured for must have been overthrown, had it not boon for the tirmness of George II. Tlie pragmatic sanclicju was alLicked on all sides. The young king of Prussia, wldi a powerful army, entered and conquered Silesia, which lie said hud been wron^jfully dismembered from his family. The king of Spain and the elector of Bavaria set up claims directly incompatible M'ith the pragmatic sanction j and in this they were joined by France ; thougli ail tiiose powers had solemnly guaranteed it. TJio im|jerial throne, after a (X)nsiderable vacancy, was tilled by the elector of l?a- \'aria, who took the title of Charles VIl., in January 174'i. The French poured tlieir armies into Bohemia, v.- here they took Prague: and tlie tjueen of Hungary, to take otf the weight of Prussia, was forced to cede to that princo the most valuable part of the duchy of Silesia, by a lormal treaty. Her youth, her beauty, and sufferings, and the noble fortitude with v^hich she bore them, touched the hearts of the Hungarians, under whose protection she threw hersetfand her infant son : and though they had always been remarkable for their disatfeclion to the house of Austria, they declared unaniniously in her favour. Her generals drove the French-out of IJohemia; and George II., at the head of an English and Hanoverian army, gained the battle of Dettingen, in 1743. Charles VII. was at this time distressed on the imperial throne, and driven out of his electoral dominions (as had been his ancestor, in (jueen Anne's reign, for siding with France) and would have given the (jueen oi Hun- gary almost her owai terms ; but she haughtily and impoliticly n^jected all accomtnodation, though advised to it by his Britannic majesty, her best and indeed only friend. This obstinacy gave a colour for tlij king of Prussia to invade Bohemia, under pretence of supporting the impe- rial dignity ; but though he took Prague, and subdued the greatest part of the kingdom, he was not support^'d by the French ; upon w hich he abandoned all his conquests, and retired to Silesia. This event con- firmed the obstinacy of the (jueen of Hungary, who came to an acroiii- Jiiodation with the emperor, thar she mi ',lu recover Silesia. Soon alter, Ifis imperial majesty, in the begi;ining of il»e year 17^"J. died ; and the duke of Lorraine, then grand-duke of Tuh^cany, consort to her Hun- garian majesty, alter surmoimting some diiiiculties, was chosen em- peror, by the title of Francis I. The bad success of the allies against the French and Bavarians in the Low Countries, and tJie loss of t!ie battle of Fonti-.ioy, retarded the operations of the empress-queen against his Prussian majesty. The lat- ter defeated the emperor's brother, prince CI .ulcs of Lorraine, who had before driven the Prussians out of Bohemii; in.d the conduct of the empress-queen was such, that his Britannic m:'j;-.s 7 thought proper to guarantee to him the possession of Silesia, as c 'ilc-i '17 treaty. Soon after, his Prussian majesty pretended that he had i'n>c)vtn'ed a secret' convention which iiad been entered iiivo bi^'tv.'tH'n i le cmpress-ciucen, the empress of Russia, and the king of Poland, as el \:\.oy ();■S:^xon^ , to strip him of his dominions, and to divide them among tlic o-vlves. Upon this tie suddenly attacked tlie king of PoLuid, d;-o\e hiiu out cf Sa.\ony, \ 4r< &i:rma\"y. ,4 defeated his troops, and look possession of Dresden, vhich lie held lUl a treaiy \\:is iiiiuk" vnulcc the mediation of his Britinnic majesty, by whicii (lie klni^ of I'aissia ackrowledgod the duke ot Lorraine, now bct come grcat-dnke of Tuscany, for einpnor. 'i'he war cnntinncd in the Low C'.iUntries, nut only to tlie disadv.nitage but to the discredit of the Austrians wvd Uvnch, till it wTis linislied l;y tiie treaty of Aix-ia-Cha- pellr, ill Anrd J 7-18. By tliat treaty, Sile.sia was <jnec more guaranteed to the kin;;: of Pii!s»ia. It wa.i not iong before that monarch's jealousies were nnrv.rd <::u\ verified; and the empress of Russia's vJe\Vs falling in wiih those of the empress-cjueen and the king of Poland, who weve linnatnrally fiui)jir)rted by Iraiicc in their new sehemes, a fresh way was kinJlcd in the empire, in the? year lyji). Th.e king of IVussia deekn-ed .^gain-st the ndminsion of the lUissians into Germany, and his Britannic majesty ag.iin>.l that of the French. L'pon those two j/ruieiples, all former ditferences between these monarchs wire forgotten, and tlie British parliament agreed to pay an ammal subsidy of O/O.UOO/. to h\% I'riissian majesty during the continuance of the war, the tlames of wliich were now rekindled with more fury than ever. His Prussian ni;'jesty once more broke into Sa^^ony, defeated the im- perial general Brown at the battle ot Lowositz, forced the Sa\ons to lay down their arms though almost imprcgnably fortified at Pirna ; and the electcij- of Saxony again fled to his a-gal donfinions in Poland. After this, his Prussian majesty was put to the lian of the empire ; and the Frenol'i poured, by one (juarter, their armies, as the Russians did by another, into Germany. The conduct of his Prussian majesty on this occasion is .scarcely to be paralleled in history. He broke once more into Bohemia with inconceivable rapidity, and deleatt'd an army of 100,000 Austrians, under general Brown, who was killed, as the brave marshal Schwerin was on the side of the Prussians. He then besieged Prague, and plied it with a most tremendous artillery ; but, just as he was beginning ta imagine that his troops were invincible, they were defeated at Colin, by the Austrian general Daun, obliged to raise the siege, and to fall back upon Eisenach. I'he operations of the war now nndtiplied every day. The imperialists, under count Daun, were formed into excellent troops; but they were beaten at the battle of Lissa, and the Prussians tpok Bres- lau, and obtaitied many other great ad\antages. The Uussiaus, after entering Gerntany, gave a new turn to the aspect of the war ; and the r.iniious yet enterprising genius of count Daun laid his Prus.ian niajesty under intinvte difticulties, notwithstanding all his great victories. At firsi he defeated the Russians at Zorndorf ; but an attack made upon hig armv, in the ni2;ht-time, by count Daiui at Huchkirchen, had nearly proved fatal to his aiTairs, though he retrieved them \\i\l\ adnfirable pve- sencf (;f mind. He was obliged, however, to sacrifice Saxony, for the «afety of Silesia: and it has been observed, that few jieriods of history aft'ord sij( h room for relicxion as this campaign did: six sieges were raised almost at the same time ; tfiat of C'olberg, by the llussians j that of I/eipsic, by the duke of Deux Ponts, who commanded the army of the empire; that of Dresden, by count Daun; and thooe of Neiss» C-osel, and Torgau, also by th(i Austrians. Many impori.int 'Events which passed at tlie sRi^ie time in Germany, between the French, who were driven out of Hanover, and tlie English, or their allies, mtist be omitted on account pf tiie brevity necessary tq be observed in tlii.s con'pcndium. The operations on both sides are of little inij)ortar,ce to history, because nothing was done that w as decisive, thongh the war was e.xfrennly bloody ind burdensome to Great Britain, Great 'vas tl^J ingralilude oi the empre.^s-queen to his Pii|aunie majesty { GERMANY. 475 and H'h nlllrs, who were now daily thveatenii'. with the ban of tlie oin- pire. Ihe Russians hail takiMi piwsession of the kingdom of rrnssi<i> iind laid siege ti» Colbcrs^, the only port of his Prussian majesty in the . l*..tltic. Till then, he had t-ntcrtnined too mean an opinion of the Rus- hians ; bi;r. he soon tbinid them by far the most formidable enemies he had to eneonnter. They advaneid, vnider count Soltikoff, in a body of lon.OOO men, lo Sile.iia. In tliis distress he acted with a coinage and resolution that hordeied upon despair; but was, at last, totally defeated by the Russians, u ith the loss of 20,(X)0 of his t)est trotjps, in a battle jiear i'Vankfort on thet)der. Me became now tiie tennis-ball of for- tune. Succeeding defeats seemed to announce his ruin, and all avenues towards peace were shut up. He liad lost, since the hrst of October 1/56, the brave marshal Keith, and forty bra\e generals, besides those who were wounded and made prisoners. At Landschut, the imperial gene- ral Laudohn defeated his army under Foutjuet, on which hv had great dependence, and thereby opened to the Austrians an easy passage into Silesia. None but Frederic II. would have thought of continuing the war under such repeated losses ; but every defeat he received .seemed to give him fresh spirits. It is not, perhaps, very easy to account for the iiKictivity ct' his enemies ;;fler his defeat near Frankfort, but by the jealousy which the imperial genera's entertained of tlicir Russian allies. They had taken Rerlin, ami i.iid the inhabitants under pecuniary contri- butions ; but towards the end of the campaign he delieated tiie impe- rialists in the battle of Torgau, in which count Daun was wounded. I'his was the best fought action the king of Prussia had ever been en- gashed in ; but it cost him K),000 of his best troops, and was attended with no great cons-equences in his fiivour. New reinforcements which arrived every day from Russia, the taking of Colberg by the Russians, and of Schweidnitz by the Austrians, seemed almost to have com- pleted Jiis ruin ; when his most formidable eneiny, the empress of Rus- sia, died, January 5, 1702. George li. had died on the 2 5th of October Tlie deaths of tho.'je illustrious personages were followedby great con- sequences. The RritiKh ministry of George III. were solicitous to put an end to the war, and tlie new emperor of Russia recalled his armies. His Prussian majesty was, notwithstanding, so very mmdi re<iiiced by his losses, that tlie empre.ss-queen, probably, would have completed his destruction, had it lurf been for the prudent reluctance of the other Ger- man princes to a.mihilate the house of Brandenburg. At hrst the em- press-queen rejected ail terms proposed to her, and ordered 30,000 men to be added to her armies. The visible unwillingness of her generals to execute her orders, and the successes obtained by his Prussian majesty, at last prevailed upon her to agree to an armistice, w hich was soon fol- lf)wed by the treaty of Hubertsberg, February 15, 17t)3, which again necured to his Prussian majesty the possession of Silesia. Upwn the death of the emperor, the husband of Maria Theresa, in I7ti5, her son Josepli, \ ho had been crowned king of the Romans ia, l/iU, succeeded him in the empire. Soon after his accession, he dis- covered great activity and ambition. He joined in the dismemberment of Poland, with Ru.ssia and Prussia. He paid a visit incognito, and with moderate attendants, to Rome, and the principal courts of Italy; and Iiad a per.sonal interview with .his Prussian majesty, though this did not prevent hostilities from heing commenced between Austria and Prussia, on aeeouni of the succession to the electorate of Bavaria. Tiie Austrian claims on this occasion were very unjust j but, in the support of them. I' 476 GERMANT. i. ' I '■J' <; fi '■ . t i I- V while t!ie contest mntimi^d, the emperor displayed great military skill. I'hough \M.st armii's were brought into the lield on l>oth sides, no nrtion happened uf niiiih imiwrtance, and an acooujinodation at length i(»ok place. The emperor atferwards deman«led of tlie Dutch the trie navi- gr.tion of the Scheldt, but in this ho likewise failed. He endeavoured, iiowevtr, to promote the happiness of his subjects; grantetl a most li- beral religious toleration, and suppressed most of the religious orilers of both sexes, as bcinu; utterly usele.is, and even pernicious to society ; and in 178:}, bv an edict, abolished the remains of servitude and Villanage, and fixed also the lees ol the lawyers at a moderate amount, granting (hem a jiension in lieu. He also abolished the use of torture in his he- retlitary dominions, and removed many of ijie grievances under which the ])easniit.s and common people laboured. He was a prince who mixed •with Jiis .subjects with an ea^e and atiability which are very uncommon in jKisons of hi-i nmk. He lu\fd the conversation of ingenious men, and appeared solicitous to cultivate knowledge. IVter-Leopold, grand-duke of I'uscany, succeeded his brother Joseph II., and engawd liie pul)lic praise by repeated instances of moderation sind .s(<lid principles. His lormer management of his Italian sove- reignty, vhicii wr.s prudent and beneficent, showed that he aspired to more just reputation tlian can be acquired by the mere s])letidors of royalty. One of the bislu.ps of Hungary having refused his license to a c.itholic subject to marry a protectant woman, the emperor dismissed him froni his see ; but pardoned him afterwards, upon com ession, and de- sired I he bisJK^i tt> exhort his brethren to comply with the imperial or- donnunccs, else no favour shoula l)e shown. Tiie French i evolution now attracted the attention of the powers of Europe. A eonierence was held at Pilnitz, between the emperor, the king of Prussia, r.nd tJie elei tor oi Saxony, at which the plan of at> tacking France was proposed and discussed. 1-eopold for some time vas very irresolute, but at last seemed to be resolved on war, wiicn he died of a pleuritic fever, on the ist of March l/^'i, afler an illness of four days. His son Francis was raised to the imperial throne in the middle of July following. He embarked with zeal in the contl-deracy formed xigr.inst. France. The disastrous conse(|uences of this Wctr to the house of Austria, till its* conclusion, or rather suspension, by the treaty of Campo Formio ; v,i\i\ tlie transient success, but final failure, whicii attended its renfcwal, till its termination by the peace cf Luneville^ have been re- lated Ju our accoiuit of the aflairs of France. Francis IT., emperor of Germany, was born February .3, 1/68; mar- ried, January (J, l/HS, Kli/abeth, princess of Wurtemberg, wlio died I/tK). He married 2diy, September 17^0, Maria-Theresa, of Naples, Jiis cousin. On the death of his fither IVter-lA^'opold, late emperor, March l.st, ^'/i\2, he .succeeded to tlie crown of Hungary and Bohemia 3 and July 1.5, 1792, VIS elected emperor of Germany. He had no issue by his first marriage. By the latter he has Maiia-Loui a, born Decemlvr 12, 17pi. Ferdinand-CJiarli's, born April It), 17<)3. Leopoldina-Carolina-Jo.s<>pha, born Jaii\iary 22, 1797" • Maria-Cicineniiua-Fraiices-Josepha, born March 1, 1798. GERMANY. Jo<;eph-Fr.incis-Ij€opol(l, l)orn April p, l/OO- Caroline-R'rJinandu-Joat'plu-Demetria, born. April 8, 1801. 477 Brothers and Sisters of the Knipenn-, FerdinaiiJ-Joscph, elector of Salzburg (late «;,rand-duke of Tascaiw"), born May 0", l/W); married, September lu, 1790, Louisa- Ameli;*- i'heresa, daiiyjliter of Ferdiiund IV., king of Naples. * Charles-Lewis, born September .5, 177L Joseph-Antony, IxM'n Miareli c), 1771), palatine of Ilungiry. Antony-Victur-Joseph, born Au;j,nst ;{1, 177L>- John-Baplist-Jo^.eph, burn January 20, 1782. Rcgnier-Joseph, born September 30, 17SJ. Lo'.iis-JtJsrph, born J3>.vemi)er 14, 1784. Ilodol|)h-John-Jos;'])hIle.^nier, born January 8, 178B. Maria-Theresa-Josepiia-CMiarlotta, born Jannary 14, 17'^7; married, Oetober IS, 17H7, to Antony, brother to the elector of Saxony. Muria-Anna-F^rdinanda, born April 21, 177^} elected prinees.s abbess •f the chapter of Prague, l/^L Electors of the Empire. Charles-Theodore, elector of Ratishon, nrchclianrellor of the holy Roman empire, prim:!te and nietropulit.'.n of Genn my, born l'Vbrn;n-y 8, 1744 J elected coadjutor of the archbishopric of Mentz, June .'5, 17S7 ; succeeded to the archbishopric July 20, 1S02 ; elector of llatis- bon IS02. Franeis-Joscph-Chnrles, emperor of Gcrmnny, and king of Hungary, elector of Bohemia, born February 12, 170'8. Frederic-Augustus IV., elector and duke of Saxony, born Dec(Mnber- 23, 1750.; succeeded his f.tther December 17. 17^^^ married, January 29, 17^9. t" <'i^' princess Amelia- Augusta, of Deux-Ponts. Frederic-William III., king of Prussia, elector of Brandenburg, born Augusts, 177<J- George III., king of Great Britain, elector of Brunswick-Luiieburg, born June 4, 17^B. Ferdinand- Joseph (late grand-duke of Tuscany), elector of Salzburg, born May (J, 1 70ij. Frederic II., duke and elector of Wurtemberg, born November 6, 1754; married, in second marriage, to the princess-royal of England, Charlotte-A\igusta-Matilda, May 18, 1797; .succeeded liis father, duke Frederic-Eugene, December 23, 1797 J elector 1802. Charles-Frederic, elector of Baden, born November 22, 1 728 j suc- ceeded the margrave, his grandfather. May 12, 1738, and to tha estates of tlie branch of. Baden-Baden, October 21, 177 1 ; married, in second marriage, November 24, 178/, to Louisa-Caroline, counters of Hocii- berg ; elector 1 802. William IX., elector of Hesse, born June 3, 1743; married, Sep- ' tember 1, 17^4, to Wilhelmina-Caroline, daughter of Frederic V., king of Denmark ; svicceeded his father as landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, Ociu- iier 31, 1785 ; electur 1802. . ... '•■'•- > .J ( 478 ) m ;' Gknei(al View of thk AUSTRIAN' DOMINIONS. THE CNtt-'iisive and powerful nionnrchyof Aiisti'l.i is composed of th«^ follow iiij; provinces and countric>, vliioli form tlic licroditary (iotniiiiou* of the present •.-mj-cror of Gorniar.y, \vho has latrly assumed tlu!,hercditary title of emperor of Aubtria. Provinrc^ and Countries. fiq. Miles. Population. ArelKhuliy of A'vniia I'lopcr lO.ObO 1, 820,000 ( Stiria t»,592 hlX),OUi) Duchies of ^ Cariut'iia ;},100 30(),0(XJ ( Cariiiola 3,424 4ai,a)0 I'erritory of Triest 120 40,000 ("ounty of Tyrol G,(jOO OlO.OOO Principality of Suabia 1,1)00 200,000 Kingdom of Pohemia 14,400 2,810,000 Marquisateot Moravia 6,400 1,200,000 Austrian Silesia . . 1 ,2[)6 250,000 Kingdom of Gallicia and Lodomerla 37,000 3,C;00,00O Kingdom of Hungary 5f),500 6,300,000 Transylvania 10,400 1,500,000 The liuckowinc 2,()00 130,0(X) lUyria, or Sclavoni.i and (Croatia 12,b00 CKX),00O Hungarian and \'cnctian Dahnatia 4,040 300,000 The Venetian Territory 8,000 2,0(X),000 Total. . 195/212 23,820,000 The Austrian dominions are situate between 45 and 52 degrees of north latitude, and bi rween 12 and 27 degrees of east longitude. Their length, from the frontiers of Switzerland to the utmost limits of Tran- sylvania, may be estimated at about 7OO miles ; and their breadth, from the river I'ug, which forms a boundary bet ween Austria and Prussi:m I'oland, to the Save, which divides Austria from Turkey, at about 520- The number of inhabitants to the s(juare mile is, as appears from the preceding tabic of the extent and population of the countries of v\hich lliey arc composed, nearly 1 10. The name of Austria has been formed by the Italian and French pro- nunciation c>f the German words ihtcr Reich, the eastern kingdom, which name this territory received on acconnt of its situation with resi)cct to the western empire established by Charlemagne. The archduchy of Austria Proper exceeds all the other provinces of ■ Germany in the fertility of its soil (productive especially in corn, fruits, and wine), the abundance of its pastures, and the salubrity of the air. It is divided by the rivf^ Kiis into Upper and Lower Austria; the capital of the former of which is Vieinia, already described: besides which it coili- tains 35 cities and 250" mark( ;-rowns. The c?ipital of the latter is Tiintz, a strong town, defended by two ca'-tles, atid containing about 15,000 Inha- bitants : besides which it has 13 otlur cities and 88 market-to\\ ns. The duchy of Stiria, situate to tl: ■ south of ihe archduchy of Aus- tria, with Hungary on the cast and Ca:niola to the houih, is about 125 miles long, and 17 broad. ''rho";.,di a numntaiii >us country, it is well cultivated, and pudueci every kind of grain. The luouuU. is contain AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. m lilvfer, lead, copper, and particularly, iron. The Muehr aiul tlie Kiis are the principal rivers. Tlie iron mines have been worked aho\c lOW years, yet still continue extremely productive ; and the Siiriaii steel U in great estimation. In the whole duchy there are nearly I'iO towns, and jiX) citadels, many ot" the latter built on the summits of roeks. The capital is Grat'i, uituate on the Muehr) a regularly Ibrtilied city, with a itrong citadel. It kis a university, and contains about 30,0(X) inha- bitants. The duchy of Cariuthia, situate to the south-west of Stiria, is like- wise a moiuitainous and wooily couutry, and contains niiii?s of iron and lead ; but there are many fertile valleys which yield wheat and otlier );rain, though not sulHcicnt to supply the wants of the inhabitants. If. contains 31 towns; the principal of which is Clagenfurt, on the river Glan, surrounded by a strong wall, and containing six churches, threw ccnveuts, and lO.tXX) inhabitants. I'he duchy of Carniola, to the south of Stiria, is 120 miles long and ItKJ broad. It is in general mountainous ; but many parts yield not only good pasturage, but excellent corn^ hemp, flax^ and millet. In the mountains are mines of iron, lead, and copper. Tlie (]uicksilver minen of Idria, in this duchy, maybe considered as a natural curiosity. They were discovered in 1400, and yield aniuially 300,000 pounds weight of mercury. I'he descent into them is by stone stairs and ladders, and the length of the galleries is computed at 1580 feet. T.he priueipal rivers are the Sare, the Laybach, the Gurk, and the Culpa. \^irious kinds of fruits, as chesnuts, walnuts, olives, oranges, citrons, lenujn.s, pomegra- nates, almonds, and tigs, abound here ; and blac:k cattle and horses are bred in great mmibers. This dueliy is estimated to contain 5i) towns, 200 citadels, and 4O0O villages. The capital is L-iyhach, situite on the river of the same name, and containing a cathedral, and abuui 20,(XX) inhabitants. Austrian Friuli is situate between Carinthia, Carnioh, the duchy of Venice, and the territory of Triest. It is divided into the iwo counties of Gorz, or Goritz, and Gradisea. It is principnily mountainous, but has large and fertile valleys, which produce corn, fruits, wine, and silk. The chief town is Gor/., or Goritz, containing a castlo, and about 10,000 inliabitants. The small territory of Triest, situate between O'.-uiola, Friuli, and the Adriatic Sea, produces uine, excellent fruits, an.l sea salt, [)rocuied from the salt-works at Zaula and Servola. The capital, Triest, stands on the Adriatic : it is a free port, with a consideinble and increasing, trade — from six to eight thousand ships annually arriving tliere fr.;iii me ditierent countries of Europe. It is likewise a bishop's see; contains a vathedral and 30,000 inhabitants. The duchies of Stiria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and the territories of Friuli and Triest, are comprehended under the den'.iuiination of Ir.iur Austria, and, together with the county of Tyrol, are inclutied, as a pLii t of Germany, "in the circle of Austria. The county of Tyrol, situate to the east of Cavintliia, is 150 milej long and 120 broad. It U extremely mountainous, the chain of tiiC Noric or Rhattian Alps ruiuiing through its whole length, and rivallin!.?; the Alps of Switzerland in numorous glaciers. It contains nuncs ot" silver, copper, and lead, and produces corn and wine, veiy fuio flax, and silk. The wild animals are bears, wolves, and foxes; and \.\vc doniestlt^ horses, black cattle, and sheep. Great numbers of canary-birds are br;:d harc> and carried, for sale, to almost every part of Kurope. The in, :. i- W 460 BOHE>riA ArrtJ MORAVIA. il ■'.^>f, lu ■* '1{ tWk' .4:' 8V ^ :, 1 *' J / I '■ 1 . n^v If ficlurcs arc (luxse of si!k, velvet, and kntlicr, as also of iron and sfecl. iJir jiriiuij)!!! itiwn is Inspmck on ihe Inn ; a university, with a cdh- kiderablc library, formerly the re^iiU'iue of the archdukes of Austria, with a strong t.i^tle, anti containing about 12,1)00 inhabitants. Tyrol, in the more extensive sense of the denomination, like\\ise couiprehends the bishopries of Trent and Jirixen, formerly subject to their respeetive bishops, biil lile'.y seculdri,>fcd, and given as indemnities to the iK/'se of Austria, 'J'iie farmer of these cities, rendered celebrated by the great count il of Trent, held here from 1545 to ldd3, contains about bCKK) inlnhitants, and the latter about 4(XX). I'he religion of all these provinces is the Roman-ratholir, attended indeed with a coibiderable degree of toleration in the archduchy of Austria, at least at Vienna ; but in Stiria no other doctrine or worship is j)crmitteil but the Roman-caiholie. The language, in gemral. is the German, tliough somewhat impure; but in some parts the Wendish is spoken by tlie comnion ptNiple ; and in the southern provinces, the Italian, at least a dialccf of that language, prevails. The other countries which compose tJic Austrian monarchy, and lie without Germany, ^\ ill be treated of separately in order. Revenue.] The revenues of the Austrian monarchy are estimated at about JO millions sterling, of which the archduchy of Austria contri- butes nearly one-tliird. 'J'he portions of this revenue which Hungary, and the other countries, subject to the house of Austria, ccnitribute, will be found in the accounts of those countries. The revenue formerly ex- ceeded the expenses; but tlie different wars in which the house of Austria has engaged in modern times, especially the late arduous strug- gle with France, ha\e accumulated a debt> which is now estimated at above 70 millions sterling. Ahmy.] The army of Austria, on the peacc-establisiiment, in the year ) 801 , was stated, from official returns, at 328,600 men ; and though all these might not be effective troops, it seems scarcely to be doubted that, in case of war, this monarchy, notwithstanding what it may have suffered in the late contest with France, may still be able to bring into the lield an army even exceeding that number. Title.] The title of the sovereign of Austria, since the late as- sumption of the hereditary imperial dignity, is as follows : — Francis II., by the grace of God, elected emperor ot the Romans, always august, hereditary emperor of Au.stria, king of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, &c., archduke of Austria, duke of liorraine, Venice, Salzburg, Sec. BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. SITUATION AND EXTENT OF BOHEMIA. Miles. Degrees. Length 210 1 , 7 12. and id. 30. east long. Ureadth J/j j ^'^^^'^'^^ J 43. 30. and 51. north la\itude. Containing 14,400 square miles, witli 195 ii*lubitant8 to each. BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. 48 i SITUATION AND EXTENT OF MORAVIA. Miles. Length 140} Breadth 903 between Degrees. 7 15. 30. and 19. 30. east lonj^itude. j 48. 40. and 50. north latitude. Containing 6400 sqmre mile>, with 196 inhabitants to each. Names.] BOHEMIA, or Boheim, or Bojenljeim, signifies the home or residence of the Boii, a Cehic nation, who removed into that couniry from Gaul, before the expedition of Julius C.rsar, The present inha- bitants call tliemselves Czcchj/, or, as the Germans generally write the name, Tsdiechs, from Czech, or Tschech, the name of one of their ancient chiefs. Tliey are of Slavonic origin. Moravia derives its name from the river Morawa, which runs through it. BouNDAniEs.'] Bohemia is boiuided on the north byMisnia and Lu- s;itia, in Upper Saxony ; on the east by Silesia and Moravia ; on the south by the archduchy of Austria ; and on the west by Franconia, and the palatinate of Bavaria. Moravia is bounded on the north by Silesia; on the east by Hungary j on tlie south by the archduchy of Austria ; and on the west by Bohe- mia. Divisions.] Bohemia is divided into tlio sixteen circles of P'anzlau, Konigingratz, Chrudim, Kaurzim, Beraun, Rakonitz, Saas, Leutmeritz, Biczow, Czashu, Tabor, Brdweis, PiMchin, Klattau, Bilsen, nnd Elbo- gen. The city of Prau;ue is not included in either of these circles, but forms a kind of circle, or district, of itself. Moravia is divided into ilie six circles of Olniutz, Brun, Znaim, Ig- lau, Hradisch, and I'rerau j which are the names of their respective chiel towns. Mountains and roRESTs.] Bohemia is surrounded with mountains and woods. On the north-west it is divided from Upper Saxony by the Erzgebirge, a word signifying mountains containing mines ; and to the north-east from Silesia by the Sudetic chain and the giant mountain; on tlie south-cast and south it is separated from Moravia and the arch- duchy of Austria by the Moravian mountains ; and on the west it has for its boundary the Fichtel mountains and the Bohemian forest. RiVEus AND LAKES.] The chief rivers of Bohemia are the Elbe, the Muldau, and the Egra ; those of Moravia are the Morawa, which gives name to the country, and the Oder, which rises in the circle of Olmutz, and falls into the Bjfitic at Stettin, in Pomerania. In Bohemia are a few small lakes, but which have nothing to merit notice. Metals and minerals.] Bohemia contains rich mines of silver, quicksilver, iron, copper, lead, and especially tin ; as also sulphur and' saltpetre. Above a hundred towns and places might be named where' mine-woiKs have been established. Various species of marble and al-' most every kind of precious stones are found here ; but, in general, de- ficient in hardness. In ^loravia, in the circle of Brunn, are iron-mines, and quarries of marble ; and in the circle of Znaim were formerly gold- mines : at present there are mines of iron, sulphur, salt]ietre, and vitriol. Climate, soil, and produce.] The climate of Bohemia is warm, pleasant, and wholesome ; the soil is in general rich, but in some places sandy. It is very fertile iu corn, considerable quantities of which are- 21 453 rOHEMIA Avn MORAVIA. ;:i rxportrd. a"; .iNo Ir. pnsfurnpo, ganlcn- ;i:iil «ir( hnnl-fruits, nnJ cxcsllcut luips. Moii'.Ma ri'si'iubUs lUiln-'mia in its cl'iuiitc, soil, and produre ; ^ut agriculture, jiccordiuj; lo Mr, ^liirsiuill, is konu;\vhat btiltT uniler- stocnl ;;ik1 condiu'tod in the 1. liter eountry. Animals.] 1'he wild aniin.:!-. .-t IJoiit-niia nre berirs, lynxes, wolves, foxes, niiirieiis, l)ad;j;rrs, be;iver.>. ; the t.une. I)l;uk e.ittle, sheep, and an rxeellont l)recd of li((i,i's. 'J hi- woods al'utKid in ;j,nnic and wild fowl. In Mor.ivia is found a sixcle-> of leopanls, of the size of dogs, but thicker, ealit'd, by the iiih.ibitants, ryjowc. r<ji'ULATioN, natkkmAl cnARAc-") 'J'lio population of Bohemia TKn, MANNEHS, AM) iisTOMs. j is estimated by Iloeck* at 2,S06,l(j;j, and that t^f Mora\ia at 1 ,250','24o. 'I'he Bohemians, in tlicir persons, habits, and manners, resemble the '-ermans. 'J here is among tJiem no middle state of people; for every lord is a Hovcreicfn, and every tenant a slave. But the emperor Joseph II. generously discharged tlie Uoheniian peasants, on the imperial demesnes, from tlie state of villa- nage in which they have been so long and so uiijustjy retained; and it will be happy if his example should be followed by thr Bohemian no- bility, and they be thcreliy induced no longer to deprive their vassals of tJie rights of human nature. Although the Bohemians, at present, are not remarkable either for arts or arms, yet tliey formerly distinguislied tJiemselvcs as the most intrepid assertors of civil and religions liberty in Europe; witness the early introduction of the reformed religion into their country, when it was scarcely known in any other ; the many glo- rious defeats they gave to the Austrian power; and their generous strug- gles for incfependency. Their virtues may be considered as the causes of their decay, as no means were left unemployed by their despotic masters for breaking their spirit: though it is certain their internal jealousies and dissensions greatly contributed to their subjection. Their customs and diversions are the same as in Germany. Cities, chikk towns.] The capital of Bohemia is Prague, situate almost in the centre of the kingdom, on both sides of the river Muldau. It is three German, or more than twelve English, miles in circumfe- rence ; contains a cathedral, ninety-two churches and chapels, about forty convents, and StJ.OOO inhabitants, of whom about 10,000 are Jews. Here is a noble bridge of eighteen arches over tlie Muldau, which separates what is called the old-tow n from the new. It is a place of little or no trade, and thtrelbre the mi.ldling inhabitants are not wealthy; but the Jews are said to carry on a large commejcq in jewels. Roichenberg, in the circle of Runzlau, is the next city to Prague for Importance and population, containing about 10,000 mhabitantSj and having considerable linen manutactures. Olmutz, an ancient and strongly fortified city, was formerly the capi- tal of Moravia ; but Bruiui is now considered as such, being the seat of the administration of the Austrian government. Brunu is Hkewise a strong city, contaiifing about Ki.OOO inhabitants, and having manufac- tures of cloth, velvets, and plush. Manufactures, com.mkrck.] The manufactufes of Bohemia are numerous and floiuishing. The linen manufacture it is computed em- ploys above 300,000 persons, the woollen 00,0(X), and the cotton 30,000. Bohemia is likewise celebrated for beautiful glass and paper. The ma- • Aper^u vStatisque de» Etat» d'AlJtrnifne, pir Iloeck, comclllef d« justice dti ruidePrusic. Parii, lt<01. BOHEMIA AN-D INIOnAVIA. 4dJ n\if.ictui'cs of Moravia arc ncvirly the same. The exports of lliesc from botli countries riro vciy cuDHitleraljI''. Co>;sTrruTioN and <w)vi.kn'Mknt.") The forms, aivl only th-.' fornix, of the okl Buheini'.ui coiistitntiun still subsist ; but ihei:^overiiintiii umli-r the einpeioi is ilo^potif. Tiie stales ate composed of" the elerg}-, iioiji* lily, gentry, and repn'.sLiU;u'iV'.-> ui towns. 'I'hcir s;jvfii.'iL;!is of inte invu not been fonil of provokitig them by ill usas;e, as they luse u general aversion towards the Auslrit'.ii^. Thi-. kiiiiMJ oiu is tie»]aentl) deserihed as part of Germany, but witl) littU- ren'(<!i; tor it is not in any of tiu; nine cireKs, nor does it ooulributc any thiii<> toward i the fon es or reve- nues of thi' empire, nor i . it subject to any <j1 its laws. What skives 'ome colour to lliis mistake, is, that I'lc king oi Hol-fuiia is the hrsl st.cu'ar elector of the empire, and their kin;^s iia;e been clecttd emperors of (ierinany for many ) i-ars. The government (jf Moravia, whicii since the yt'^r ^520 has been subject to the house of Austria, is a huinistiTod by a council and presi- dent apix)inted b) the em[)eror. The ; tatcs, however, which are similar in their composition to those of iiuhemi-ij meet annually on a certain ^ay, as a matter of form. Arms.] The arms of Piohenfia are, ar^t-nt, a lion gules, the tail moved, and passed in saltier, crowned, lan-ued, and aiuied, (Jr. Uhe arms of Moravia are a crowned e-aglc in a ticld azure. Pi-.VKNUK.] Bohemia contributis to the rc\enue of Austria about 8,C)00,0tK) lix dollars (or nearly 1 ,4f)u,0(X) /. .sterling), and Mura\ia about 2,f)()0,0(X)/. or -l-JO.OCK)/. sterling. BKLKiiON.] The established religion ()f Buhenfia is the Roman-catho- lic, yet there arc many protectants among the inhabitants, wlio are now tolerated in the free ocercise of their religion, I'ho religion of Mora- via is in like manner Catholicism : but there are many lAUhcrans ; ami some of the Moravians have embraced .1 visionary uifuileiligible protest- antism, if it deserves that name, which they have propagated by their zealous missionaries in several parts of the globe. Tliey have a meeting- house in London, an establishment at Bedford, and ai • found in various of the American states. IVague is an archbishopric, and Kcinigingratz a bishopric. In Mo- tavio* Olmutz is a bishopric, under the archliishopric of Prague. ITniversities,] The only university in Bohemia is that of Prague, fouiaded in 1347 : it once could boast 30,(XK) students, but now has not more than 2CXJ. In Moravia is tlie university of Olmutz, founded in 150"7. Language.] The language of Bohemia is a dialect of the Slavonic j that of Moravia differs very little from it ; but German is very coiw. monly spoken in both countries. History.] The Boii, from whom, as mentioned above, the country derived its name, were driven out by the Marcomanni. Bohemia be- came afterwards a province of the Ostrogoths, Lombards, Thuringians, and Franks, till in 534 it was overrun by the Slavi. Charlemagne and some of his successors made tliese new inhabitants tributary ; but they soon regained their independence, though they still preserved a certain connexion with the German empire. The Bohemian nobility however elected their own princes, though the emperors of Germany sometimas imposed a king upon them, and at length usurped that throne them- lelves. In the year 143S, Albert II. of Austria received three crowns : Hungary, the P'mpire, and Bohemia. In 1414, John I luss, and Jerome of Pragme, two of the first reformers, 2l2 ■ <1S4 GAtlJCIA AND LODOMEHIA. 1 ■■'» an4 Bolicminns, were burnt at the council of Constance, though tlic cm* pi'ioi- of Gcmiany had given thcni Jiis protection. I'his occasioned an insurrection in J^oheinia : the people of Prague tlirew the emperor's offi- cers out of the windows of the council-chamber j and the famous Zisca, asicmbling an army of 40,000 Bohemians, defeated tJie emperor's forces in several engagements, and drove the imperialists out of the kihgdom. 1'he divisions of the Hussites amorig themselves enabled the emperor to regain and keep possession of Bx)lienii3, though an attempt was made t» throw olTthc imperial yoke, by electing in the year 16I8 a protestant king in tlie person of the prince palatine, son-in-law to James I. of England. I'hc misfortunes of this prince are well known. He was tlri\en from Bohemia by the emperor's generals, and, being stripped of Jiis other dominions, was force<l to depend on the court of England for a subsistence. Since the war of thirty years, which desolated tlie whole empire, the Bohemians have remained subject tc the house of Austria. Aloravia was anciently inhabited by the Quadi, who were driven out by the Slavi. Trom the beginning of the eighth to the end of the ninth century, it was a pow erful independc!!*: kingdom ; in the eleventh it was subdued by the German emperors ; and in the twelfth inade a mar- gravate ; in the fifteenth century it came into the possession of the house of Austria, to which it has ever since remained subject. GALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. Extent and Situation. Miles. Length 320 7 ^ C-li Breadth 290 1 ^^^^*^" j ij Containing 'o7,000 square miles, witli 105 inhabitants to eacfi. Degrees. 18 and 52 20. Nortli lat. 18 and 20 East Ion. BouNPMUF.s.] GALLICIA is bounded on the north and east % I'nissian and l^iissian Poland ; on the south by Hungary, Transylvania, and Silesia ; and on the west by Silesia, Divisions.] This country, which is composed entirely of the pro- vinces of dismembered Poland, is divided into East and West Gallicia, the former consisting of the territory assigned to Austria, in the first ilrvision of Poland in 1772 : and the latter of the part added on the final division and extinction of that kingdom in 1795. East Gallicia is divided into eighteen circles or districts ; viz. those of Mislowitz, Duela, Rseszow, Sanok, Sambor, Lx-iiiberg, Tomaschow, Zamo.sk, Belz, Brody, Zloczow, Mariainpol, Stanislow, Zaleszik, Lub- lin, Chelm, Bial, and Siedlitz. West (iallicia is divided into the following t.velve circles : Bochnia, Sandez, Przemislaw, Tornow, Cracow, Kielz, Konsk, Oikusch, Rado- mir, Ingul, Radom, and Lanow. Fa( K OF THF. COUNTRY, 1 Gallicia is in general a level country, MOUNTAINS, KoHKSTS. J cxccpt towards the south, on which side it is separated from Hungary by the Carpathian mountains. In some parts thertf are wide sandy plains^ and extcjisive forests and moiabbes. GALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. 495 in i- ;s 1. o o It )f IS Rivers.] The principal rivers are the Vistula, which rising in the Carpathian mountains traverses the country, and falls into the Baltic sea near Dantzick after a course of about 450 miles ; the Bug, which divides Gallicia fr jm Russian and Prussian Poland ; the Dniester, and the Ruth. Metals, minerals.] This country contains mines of iron, lead, and copper, and quarries of marble. Near Olkuscli are mines of silver and lead. The salt-mines of Wieliczka near Cracow are the richest and most productive in Europe, atfording a revenue of 100,000 1, sterling annually; tliough it is said their produce has considerably declined since they became subject to Austria. Out of some mines at Itza, about 70 miles north-east of Cracow, are dug sevenU kinds of eartli, which aic excellently adapted to the potter's use, and svipply ail the country vi'ith earthen-ware. Climate, soil, produce.] Gallicia is that part of the late kingdom of Poland, which is situate in the mildest climate, and of which the soil is nio.st productive. Except a few sandy tracts, it is extremely fertile both in corn and pasturage. It produces, plentifully, grain of every kind, as also hemp, flax, and tobacco, and would be better cultivated, were there sufficient means of disposing of its produce. Honey and wax are obtained here in great abundance. The manna of this and the other parts of Poland is produced by a herb that grows in the mea- dows and marshy grounds : in the months of June and July the inhabi- tants gather it by sweeping it into sie\es, with the dew. It is estoenicd a great delicacy by the Poles, who dress it in a variety of ways. '^Ihe woods abound in oak, beech, pine, and tir trees. Animals.] The forests in the northern parts of Gallicia, and tliose of Warsovia or Masovia in Prussian Polsnd, contain great numbers of uri, or buft'aloes, whose flesh the Poles powder, and esteem it an excellent dish. Wolves, boars, the glutton, lynx^ elks, and deer, all of them wild, ar** common iu the Polish forests ; there are also wild horses and asses, and wild oxen. A kind of wolf, resembling a hart, with spots on his belly and legs, is found here, and alfords the best fur in the country. I'he elk, which is coTimonin the northern parts of this country, is a very ex- traordinary animal. The flesh of the Polish elk forms the most deli- cious part of their greatest feasts. His body is of tlie deer make, but much thicker and longer ; the legs high, the feet broad, like a wild goat's. Naturalists have observed, that, upon dissecting an t;ik, tl^ere are freqently found in his head some large flics, and the brain almost eatcui away; and it is an observation sutHcienlly attested, that, in the Inrge woods and wildernesses of the north, this poor animal is attacked, towards tlie winter chiefly, by a larger sort of flies, that, through its ears, attempt to take up tlieir winter-quarters in its head. This persecution is thought to aflect the elk with the falling sickness, by which moans it is ite- qucntly taken more easily than it would be otherwise. Poland produces a creature called bohac, which resembles a guinea-pivj, but seems to be of the beaver kind. They are noted for digging holes in the ground, which they enter in October, and do not come out, ei- cept occasionally for food, till April : they have separate apartmei ts for their provisions, lodgings, and their dead ; they li\e together by ten err twelve in a herd. In the northern parts of this country, and in Lithua- nia, are found eagles and vultures. Tlie quails, it is said, have ;;re(;ix legs, and their flesh is reckoned to be unwholesome. The remiz, or little species of titmouse, is frequently foaad in these parts : it is re- 486 GALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. I ,i 111 i m :i M'-|kI 1 1^ r !Sj i '^'■^11 'w im I m- iByV •l -ftU^^ ilft ■ i li markable for the wondrous structure of its pendent nest, formed in the shape of a long purse, with amazing art. The domestic animals are numerous ; black cattle, horses of a good breed, and sheep the wool of which is said to be very fine. Natural curiositibs.] The principal natural curiosity of this coun- try is the -alt-niincs of Wieliczka, which have been mentioned. They consist of wonderful caverns, several hundred yards deep, at tlie bottom of which are many intricate windings and labyrinths. Out o'f these arc dug four diflerent kinds of salts; one extremely hard, like crystal ; an- otlier softer, but clearer ; a third white, but brittle ; these are all brackish, but th(! fourth is somewhat, fresher. These four kinds are dug in dilfc- rent mines near the city of Cracowj on one siile of them is a stream of sa]t-\v«ter, and on the other one of fresh. 'I'he descent into these mines is by pits of great depth ; and the gnlleries and chambers are of immense size, commonly supported by timber, or by vast pillars of salt, out of whieli material even .subterraneous chapels are formed : but the splen- dour and extent of these saline apartuicats have been exaggerated by travellers. The virtues of a spring in the vicinity of Cracow, wiv.ch increases and decreases with the moon, are said to be wontlerful for the preservation of life; and it is reported that the neighbouring inhabitants commonly live to IGO, and some of them to 150 years of age. This spring is hi- flammable, and, by appl}'ing a torch to it, it ilames like the subtlest spi- lit of wine. I'he flame, however, dances on the surface witliout heat- ing the water : and if neglected to l)e extinguished, which it may easily be, it communicates itself, by subterraneous conduits, to the roots of trees in a neighbouring wood, which it consumes; and about seventy years ago the Ilames are said to have lasted for three years before they could be entirely extinguished. roi'Ui.ATioN, KATioxAL CHARACTLR,7 The uumbcr of uihabi- MANN'ERS, Axn CUSTOMS. J tfluts iu Eastern Gallicia is estimated by Hoeckat 2,707,119, and in We.'^toru Gallicia at 1, 105,178, amounting together to 3,903,'2(j7, The population of the whole of Po- land, before its iirst dismemberment in 17/2, was estimated at 3 3,404,000. The Poles, in their persons, make a noble appearance ; their com- plexion is fair, and their sha])es are well proportioned. They are brave, honest, and hospitable ; and their women sprightly, yet modest, and submissive to their husbands. Their mode of salute is to incline their heads, and to strike their breasts with one of their hands, while they stretch the other towards the ground ; but when a common person meets fi superior, he bows his head near to tJie earth, and witJi his head touches tiie leg near to the heel of the person to whom he pays obeisance. Their diversions are warlike and manly : vaulting, dancing, and riding the great horse, hunting, skaiting, bujl- and bear-baiting. They usu-. ally travel on horseback ; a Polish gentleman will not travel a stone's- throw without his horse ; and they are so hardy, that tliey will sleep upon the ground, without any bed or covering, in frost and snow. The Poles never live above stairs, and their apartments are not united : the kiichep is on one side, the stable on another, the dwelling-house on the third, and tlie gate in (he front. Tkey content themselves with a few small beds ; and if any lodge at their houses, they must carry their bed- ding with them. When they sit down to dinner or supper, they have trwwjicts jind other musip pjajirv^j, and n uui^iber of geulleniea to GALLICIA AND LODOMEHIA. 487 wait on them nt table, all profound respect ; fo serving with the most protound tile nobles who are poor, frequently find themselves imder tijc rtecessity of serving those tluU are rich : bnt their patron usually treats' tlieni with f ivility, and permits the eldest to eat with him at his table, with his cap off; and ev^ery one of them has his peasant-boy to v/ait on him, main- tained by the mister of the family. At an entertainment, the Poles lay neither knives, forks, nor spoons, but every guest brings them with him ; and they no sooner sit down to table, than all the doors are shut, and not opened till the company return home. It is usual for a noble- man to give his servant part of his meat, which lie eats as he stands be- hind him, and to let him drink out of the same cup with himself; but this is the less extraordinary, if it be <'onsidered that these servants are esteemed his e(]uals. Bumpers are much in fashion, both here and in Russia; nor will they easily excuse any person from pledging them. It would exceed the bounds of (his work to describe the grandeur and equipages of the Polish nobility ; and the reader niust figure to himself an idea of all that is fastidious, ceremonious, expensive, and showy in life, to have any conception of their way of living. They carry the pomp ©t their attendance, when they appear abroad, even to ridicule; for it is not unusual to see the lady of a Polish grandee, besides a coach and six, with a great number of servants, attei.ded by an old gentleman-usher, an old gentlewoman for her gouvernante, and a dwarf of each sex to hold up her train ; and if it be night, her coach is surrounded by a groat number of flambeaux. Tile Poles arc divided into nobles, clergy, citizens or burghers, and peasants : the peasants were of two sorts — tliose of the crown, and those belonging to indi\iduals. Though Poland had its princes, counts, and .l^rons, yet the wiiole body of the nobility were naturiilly on a level, except the difference that arose from the public jwsts th(>y enjoyccf. Hence uU who were of noble birth called one another hrothers. I'hey did not value titles of honour, i)Ut thought a gentleman of Potand the highest appellation they could enjoy. Tlicy had many considerable pri- vilegei'; and, indeed, the boasted K'lish libeity v/as properly limited to them alone, partly by the indulgence of former kings, but more gene- rally from ancient custoiu and prescription. T'^ntlcr their ancient con- ftitution, before the last partition of ilie country, liiey had a power of life and death over their tenants and vassals ; paid no taxes ; were sub- ject to none but the king; might choose whom they would for their king; and none but they, and the burgliers of some particular town^, could purcliase lands. In short, they were almost entirely independent, enjoying many other privileges entirely incompatible witii a well regu- lated state; but if they engaged iti trade, they forfeited their nobility. Tiiese great privileges made the Polish gentry powerful : many of them liad large territories, with a despotic power over their tenants, whont they called their subjects, and transferred or a-^^igned over with tlir lands, cattle, and furniture. Until Casimir the Great, the lord could piu his peasant to death with impunity ; and, when the latter had no chil- flren, ctmsidered himself as the iieir, and seized all his etVeets. In 1347, Casimir prescribed a line for the murder of a peasant ; and enacted that, in case of liis decease without issue, his next heir should inherit. But these and other regulations proved inetfeciual against the power and ty- ranny of "the nobles, and \\-ere either abrogated or eluded. Some of them liad estates from five to thirty leagues in e.Mrnt, nnd were also hereditary Bovereigns of cities, with which the king had nu ctMuern. One of their nobles sometimes possessed ubu\e 4,000 towns and vi'.Ja^o-s, Some of 488 GALUCIA AND LODOMERIA. i'i >l it! 41 ■ Si: them could raise 8 or 10,000 men. The house of a nobleman was a se- cure asylum for persons xvho had committed any crime ; for none might presume to take them from thence by force. They had their horse and foot guards, which were upon duty day and night before their palaces and in their ante-chambers, and marched before them when they went abroad. ' They made an extraordinary figure when they came to the diet, some of them having 5,000 guards and attendants ; and their de- bates in the senate were often determined by the sword. When great men had suits at law, the diet or other tribunals decided them; yet the execution of the sentence must be left to the longest sword ; for the justice of the kingdom was commonly too weak for tlie grandees. Some- times they would raise 6,000 men of a side, plunder and burn one an- other's cities, and besiege castles and forts j for they tliought it below them to submit to the sentence of judges, without a field»battle. As to the peasants, tliey were born slaves, and had no idea of liberty. If one lord killed the peasant of another, he was not capitally convicted, but only obliged to make reparation by another peasant equal in value. The peasants were at the absolute disposal of their master, and all their acquisitions served only to enrich him. They were indispensably obliged to cultivate the earth ; they were incapable of entering upon any condition of life that might procure them freedom, without the permis- sion of their lords : and they were exposed to the dismal and frequently fatal effects of tlic caprice, cruelty, and barbarity of their tyrannical masters. In modern times, indeed, a few nobles of enlightened under- standings ventured to give liberty to their vassals. The rirslwho granted this freedom v/as Zcmoiski, formerly great chancellor, who in 17()0 enfranchised six villages in the palatinate of Masovia, and afterwards on all his estates. The event showed the project to be no less judicious than humane, equally conducive, to die interests of the nobles and the happiness of the peasants : for it'appearcd that, in the districts in which the new mrangements had been introduced, the population of the viU- lages considerably increased, and the revenues of their estates were aug- mented in a triple proportion. Prince Stanislaus, nephew of the late king of Poland, likewise enfranchined four villages near Warsaw ; and not only emancipated his peasants from slavery, but condescended to di- ' rect tlieir alVairs. Whether the same liberal policy will be adopted by the govcrnmenfi ■ "which have seized and divided Poland, time must show ; but in tlieir do- minions, especially in Russia, many of the peasants do not appear to be in a much better condition. The inns in this country are lon;^ stables, built with boards, and co- vered with straw, without furniture or windows ; there arc chambers at one end ; but none can lodge there, b.caiisc of flies and other vermin ; so that strangers generally choose rather to lodge among the horses. Travellers arc obliged to carry provision witlitheni; and when foreigners want a supply, they apply to the lord of the village, who forthwith pro- vides them with necessaries. Dhkss.] The dress of the Poles is rather singular. They shave their heads, leaving only a circle of hair upon the crown, and men of all ranks generally wear large whiskers. They wear a vest which reaches down to the middle of the leg, and a kind of gown over it lined with fur, and girded with a sash ; but the sleeves tit as close to their arms as a waist- coat. Their breeches are wide, and make but one piece with their stockings. They wear a fur cap or bonnet ; their shirts are without collar or wristbands, and they wear neither stodi nor ucckcloUi. In- GALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. 489 stead of shoes, they wear Turkey leather boots, witli thin soles, and deep iron lieels bent like a half' moon. They carry a pole-axe, and a sabre, or cutlass, by their sides. When they appear on horseback, they wear over all a short cloak, which is commonly covered with furs both within and without. The people of the best quality wear sabks, and others the skins of tigers, leopards, &c. Some of them have lift/ suits of clothes, all as rich as possible, and which descend from tather to son. Were it not for our own partiality to short drosses, we must ac- knowledge that of the Poles to be picturesque and majestic. Cliarles II. of England tliought of introducing the Polish dresss into his court, and, after his restoration, wore it for two years, chiefly for the encou- ragement of the English broad-cloth ; but discontinued it through his coniiections with tlie French. The habit of the women very much resembles that of the men ; a simple Polonaise, or long robe edged witli fur ; but some people of fa- shion, of botli sexes, atiect the French or English modes. As to the peasants, in winter they wear a sheep's-skin with the wool inwards, and" in summer a thick coarse cloth ; but as to linen, they wear none. Their boots are tlic rinds of trees wrapped about their legs, widi tiic tliicker parts to guard the soles of their teet. Cities, chiei" towns.] Lemberg, or Leopol, is the capital of Gal- Jicia, and the seat of the Austrian government of Eiist Gallicij. It is a large and opulent city, situate on the Peltew, which soon after falls uito tlie Bug. it is the see of a Roman-catholic archbishop, and also of a Greek bishop and an Armenian bishop. It is defended by two castles, has a cathedral, and conliiins about 40,000 inhabitants. Brody is a com- mercial town, with a fortitied castle, and nearly 20.000 inhabitants, one- third of whom are Jews. Lublin carries on a considerable trade iti cloth, corn, and Hungarian wines. Tlnee annual fairs are held here, which are frequented by Russian, Turkish, Greek, and Armenian mer- chants. Chelm, and Luckow, both bishops' sees, ai"e likewise among the principal towns of East Gallicia. Cracow is the seat of the Austrian government of West Gallicia ; and was anciently the capital of the kingdom of Poland. The city and sub- urbs are of great es.tent, but do nut now contain more than '24,000 in- habitants. It is tlie see of a bishop, and a university. Here is a mag- niticent cathedral, in which the kings of Poland were crowned, and an ancient and strongly fortitied castle, which was tlie residence of those sovereigns before they removed their court to Warsaw. Scndomir, situate on an eminence near the Vistula, is another considerable town of West Gallicia. It is well fortified both by nature and art, and its de- lightful situation rendered it the favoiyite residence of Casimir tlie Great, and other kings of Poland. Warsaw, the late capital of Poland, will be described in our account of Prussia, to which monarchy it now appertains. Manufactukks, commerce.] The manufactures of Gallicia are not very considerable, and are contined to articles of immediate necessity. They are however greatly favoured by the Austrian government, and arc iacieasing and improving. The commerce of this country is prin- cipally carried on by the Jews. Salt is the most important article oi' the ex[iorts, which consist besides of corn, tobacco, cattle, wool, ski«s, tallow, bristles, honey, and wax. GovEUNMENT. — Anciest") Gallicia, as making a part of the Aus- coNSTiTUTioN OF POLANo. j" tfiau domliiions, is now necessarily un- der an absolute luoniirchical government, Tlie old constitution of n \'\ 490 CALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. i: I' I t I! i Polniul dirTored littlo from aristocracy ; hence- it has been cflUcd » kingdom and commonwealth. The king was h^ad of the repubiic, iiiii was elected by tlie nobility and clergy in the plaiiis of Warsaw. I'hey elected him on horseback ; :nid in case there should be a refractory minority, the majority had no confrnl over tliem but to cut them in pieces with their sabres ; but if the minority were sufHciently .strong, a civil war ensued. Immediately c.ficr his election, he signed tlie pnc.a comcnta of the kingdom, iiy ^vhich he engaged that the crowti .should be elective: — tliat his succes.S(jr should be cppointed during his life — that the diets should be assembled every two ye;;rs^tuat every noble or gen- tleman in the realm should have a vote in the diet of election — and tliat, in case the king should infringe the laws and privileges of the nation, his .subjects should be absolved from the't allegiance, — In fact, the king was no more than president of the senate, \\ hicli was com})osed of the j)rimate, the archbishop of Lembcrg, fifteen bishops, and 1:30 laymen, consisting of the great officers of state, the palatines, and castellans. The palatines were the governors of the provinces, who held their offices for life. — ^I'he offices of the castellans in time of peace were almost nominal ; but when the military or feudal services were required, tliey were the lieutenants of the palatines, and commanded the troops of their several districts. The diets of Poland were ordinary and extraordinary : tlie former met once ill two, and sometimes three years ; the latter was summoned by tlie king, upon critical emergencies, and continued no longer than a fortnight j but one dissenting voice rendered all their deliberations in- effectual. Previous to a general diet, either ordinaiy or extraordinary, which could sit but six weeks, there were dietines, or provincial diets, held in dilFerent districts. The king, with the advice of the permanent council, sent them Inters, containii--; tho heads of the business that wa^ to be treated of in the general di;t. 'I'he gentry of each palatinate miglit sit in the dietine, a:;d choose nuncios or deputies to carry their resolutions to the gran.d di'.l. The great diet consisted of the king, senators, and deputies from Tiroviiices and towns, \i7.. 178 for Poland and Litluiania, and 70 for Prussia: it met fwicc a( Warsaw, and oiue fit Grodno, by turns, for (he convenience of the Lithuanians, who m;«(lc it one of the articles of their luiion with Poland ; but in tJie late reign they were always summoned to War.saw. IIevenuk.] Austria derives from CTallicia a revenue of from ten to twelve millions of florins, or about l,'ifX),OOD^ sterling. The whole revenue of the late kingdom of Poland \\ as Cbliniatcd at only 440,000/. sterling. Polish onnF.us op kmohthoot).] '^I1ie " Order nf the W/tilc Eagle" was first instituted by riadislaus, in the year 1325, but revived by Augustus I. in (he year Ijory, to attach to him some of the Polisli nob'cs, who, he feared, were inclined to Stanislaus, his competitor : it was conferred also on the czar, P<.'ter the Gnat, of Russia. Its en«iign is a cross of gold enamelled with red, and apptnidant to a blue ribband : the motto. Pro J!dc, rt-ge et U'^e. The late king instituti-d th<j " Order of St. Sianislau.i," soon after his election to the crown in l/O'j, The badge is a gold cross enamelled red, and on the centre of it is a nn'daU lion, with the image of St. Stanislaus, enamelled in proper colours. It is worn pendent to a red ribband edged with white. 'J'lic star ot" tins order is silver, and in the centre is a cypher of S. A.R. (Stanislaus Au- gustus Rex), encircled with the inotto *' l^eimiando hicituf." Religion.] The established religion of this country Is the Rum:'.R- GALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. 491 catholic : but Lutherans, Calvinists and Greeks are tolerated ; and the Jews, who are very numerous, e.ijoy considerable privileges, as they do in the rest of the Austrian states. The principles of Sociuianism made a very early and considerable pro- gress iu Poland. A translation of the bible into the Polish language was published in 1572 ; and two years after, under tlie direction of the same persons, the catechism, or confession, of the Unitarians was published at Cracow. The abilities and writings of Socinus greatly contributed to the extensive propagation of his opinions ; but though the Socinians in Poland have been \ery numerous, they have at ditlerent times been greatly persecuted. At present a more liberal toleration prevails. Lemberg, as mentioned above, is an archbishopric 3 the bishoprics are Cracow, Chelm, and l.uckow. In the late kingdom of Poland were two archbishoprics, Gnesna and Lemberg. The archbishop of the former was primate, and always a cardinal. Daring an interregnum he acted as regent of tlie kingdom. Gnesna is now in the territory of Prussia. LiTKRATURE.] Though Copemicus, the great restorer of the tnie astronomical system, Vorstius, and some other learned men, were natives of Poland, yet many circumstances in this country are tar from being favourable to learning. Latin is spoken, though incorrectly, by the common people in some parts. But the contempt which the nobility, who place their chief importance in the privileges of their rank, have ever shown for learning ; the servitude of the lower people ; and the universal superstition among all ranks of them, have wonderfully re- tarded, and, notwithstanding the liberal efforts of his late majesty, still continue to retard, the progress of letters in tliis kingdom. However, of late, a taste for science has spread itself among the nobles, and begins to be regarded as an accomplishment. Universities.] The university of Cracow was founded in 1364. It consists of eleven colleges, and had the superintendance of 14 gram- mar schools dispersed through the city. The number of students in 1778 amcnuited to ClOO. Of the other two universities of Poland, Wilna, and Posna or Posen ; the former has become subject to Russia, and the latter to Prussia. Language.] The native language of this countiy is the Polish : the German, however, is understood in many parts of it ; and, as above observed, an impure and incorrect Latin is also in use. The Polish language is a dialect of the Slavonic ; it is harsh and unharmonious, from the great number of consonants it employs. The Lord's prayer in Polish is as follows : Vj/cze miss ktory na niebicsicch iestes ; nitch sle sivieci imie tivoic ; niech przyidzic ono kroU\'!tti;o tivoie, nicch sic sianie ona nola tivoia iako u nicbie tuk 1/ na ziemi. Chkba nasseso 07iego poii'ssednici:;o day nam dzisin, y odpuse nam luisse ninj/, iakoy my od ptissczatny vclnoxvaycoin nussym ; y nic u xvodz 7ifis ic poki<ssenie ; ale xvyrwi nas od om'^o skgo : iz Vjjoic icst krokstxvo, y mocy y c/avula 7ui n'ldci. Amen. History.] As the whole of this country was a part of the late king- dom of Poland, its history will necessarily be included in tlie history of Poland, a summary of which we shall here give. Poland, in ancient times, was possessed by the Vandals, wiw were af- terwards partly expelled by the Russ and Tartars. It was divided into many small states or principalities, each almost independent of the other, though they generally had some prince who was paramount over the rest. Iji tlie year 700, the people^ through the oppression of their petty chiefs. :i'i ii^ 4.02 GALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. I ■3; I. 111 J pave the supipmc command, under the title of duke, to Cracus, the tbunder of the city of Cracow. His posterity failing, in tlie year 830, a pei^^ant, named Piasftis, wm, t'lfctcd to the ducal dignity. He lived to the ago of I'JO years; and his reign was so long and auspicious, thai evrry native Pole who has since been elected king is called a Piast. from this period till the accession of Micislaus II. t)tJ4, we have no very certain records of the histoiy of Poland. The title of duke was retained till the year .0()<), when Bolcslaus assumed the title of kin^, and con- quered Moravia, Prussia, and Bohenfia, making them tributary to Poland. Boleslaus II. added Red Russia to Poland, by marrying the heiress of that duchy, anno 1050. JagcUo, who in 1384 mounted the throne, ■was grand duke of Lithuania, and a pagan; but on his being elected king of Poland, he not only became a Christian, but used every endea- vour to bring over his subjects to that religion. He united his heredi- tary dominions to those of Poland; which gave such int^uence to his posterity over the hearts of the Poles, that the crown was preserved in his family, until the male line became extinct in Sigismund Augustus, in J 572, who admitted the reformed, with Greeks and all other sects, to a scat in tlic diet, and to all the honours and privileges before con- lined to the catholics. He gave such evident marks of favour to the protestant confession, that he was suspected of being inclined to change his religion. At this time two powerful competitors appeared for the crown of Poland : these were, Henry duke of Anjou, brother to Charles IX. king of France, and Maximilian of Austria. The French interest prevailed, by private bribes to the nobles, and a stipulation to pay an annual pension to the republic from the revenues of France; but Henry had not been four months on the throne of Poland when his brother died, and he returned privately to France, which kingdom he governed by tlie name of Henry III. The party who had espoused the interest of Maximilian, endeavoured once more to revive his pretensions ; but the majority of the Poles being desirous to choose a prince who might reside among them, made choice of Stephen Batori, prince of Transylvania, who, in the beginning of his reign, meeting witli some opposition from tlie Austrian faction, took the wisest method to establish himself on the throne, by marrying Anne, Uie sister of Sigismund Augustus, and of the royal house of the Jagellons. Stephen produced a great change in the military affairs of tJie Poles, by establishing a new militia, composed of Cossacs, a rough and barbarous race of men, on whom he bestowed the Ukraine, or frontiers of his kingdom. Upon his death, in 1586, the Poles chose Sigismund, son of John, king of Sweden, by Catliarinc, sister of Sigismund II., for their king. Sigismund was crowned king of Sweden after his father's death ; but being expelled, as we have seen in the history of Sweden, by the Swedes, a long war ensued between them and the Poles, but terminated in favour of the latter. Sigismund being secured in the throne of Poland aspired to that of Russia as uell as Sweden ; but after long wars he was de- feated in botli \ icws. He was afterwards engaged in a variety of unsuc- cessful wars witii the I'urks and Swedes. At last a truce was concluded under tlie mediation of France and England : but the Poles were forced to agree that the Swedes should keep Elbing, Memel, Braunsherg, and Fillau, together with all they had taken in Livonia. In ld2;3, Sigiamund died, and IJladislaus, his son, succeeded. This prince was successful both again.';t the Turks and the Russians, and obliged the Swedes to re tore all the Polish dominions they had taken in Prussia. His reign, iHC»\re\er, was uufortunate, by hi& being inbtigated, through tlxe ?ivaric« GALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. 493 the to liaL list. df hij nobles and generals, to encroach upon the privileges of Uie Cossacs in the Ukraine. As the war which followed was ci\rried on against the C'ossacs upon ambitious and perfidious principles, tlic Cossaca, naturally n brave people, became desperate; and on the suiicession of John II, brother to Uladislaus, tlie Cossac general Sdmiielinski defeated the Poles in two great battles, and forced them to a dishonourable peace. It appears that, during the course of tliis war, the Polish nobility behaved as Uie worst of ruffiiuis, and their conduct was highly condemned by John; while his nobility disapproved of the peace he had concluded with them. As the jealousy hereby occasionod continued, the Russians came to a rupture with the Poles; and being joined by many of the Cossacs, they in l654 took Smolensko. This was followed by the taking of Wilna, and other places ; and they committed most horrid ravages in Lithuania. Next year Charles X. of Sweden, after over-run- ning Great and Little Poland, entered into Polish Prussia, all the town* of which received him, except Dant/.ic. The resistance made by that; city gave the Poles time to re-assemble ; and ihc^lr king, John C;!simir, who had tied into Silesia, was joined by the Tartars as well as the Poles: so that the Swedes, who were dispersed through the country, were every where cut in pieces. The Lithuanians, at the same time, dis- owned tlie allegiance they had been forced to yield to Charles, who returned to Sweden with no more than a handful of his army. It was during tliis expedition that the Dutch and English protected Dantzic, and the elector of Brandenburg ac(iuired the sovereignty of Ducal Prussia, which had submitted to Charles. Thus tlie latter lost Poland, of which lie had made an almost complete conquest. The treaty of Oliva was begun after the Swedes had been driven out of Cracow and Thorn, by which Royal Prussia wa:: restored to the Poles. They were, however, forced to quit all pretensions to Livonia, and to cede Smolensko, Kiow, and the duchy of Siveria, to the Russians. During these transactions, the Polish nobility grew dissatisfied with the concessions their king had made to the Cossacs, many of whom had thrown off the Polish yoke; others charged him with want of capacity ; and some, with an intention to rule by a mercenary army of Germans. Casimir, who very possibly had no such intentions, and was fond of re- tirement and study, finding tliat cabals and factions increased every day, and that he himself might fall a sacrifice to the public discontent, abdi- cated his throne, and died abbot of St. Germain in France, employing the remainder of his days in Latin poeticai compositions, which are far from being despicable. The most remote descendants of the ancient kings ending in John Casimir, many foreign candidates presented themselves for tlie crown of Poland ; but the Poles chose for their king a private geutleman, of littla interest and less capacity, one Michatl Wiesnowiski, l)ocause he was de- scended fi'om a Piast. His reign was disgraceful to Poland. Lar;;e bodies of Cossacs had put themselves under tlie protection of the Turks,. who conquered all the provinces of Podolia, and took Kaminieck, till then thought impregnable. The greatest part of Poland was then ravaged, and the Poles were obliged to pay an annual tribute to the Sultaii. Not- withstanding those disgraceful events, the credit of the Polish arms was in some measure maintained by John Sobieski, the cj own-general, a brave and active commander, who had given the Turks several defeats. Michael dying in 1673, Sobieski was chosen king; and in iCjO" he was 80 successful against the infidels, that he forced them to remit the tribute they had imposed upon Poland ; but they kept possession of Kaminieck. i:j l| pi f! IM I* i 494 GALLICIA AND LODOMEUIA. In l683, Sobieski, though he had not been well treated by the house of Austria, was so public-spirited as to enter into the league that was tbrmed lor the defence ot" Christendom against Llie infidels, and acquired inunor- tal honour, by obliging the Tiu-ks to raise the siege ot" N'ienna, and making a terrible slaughter of the enemy ; for al! which glorious services, and dri\ ing the Turks out of Hungary, he w as ungratefully requited liy the emperor Leopold. Sobieski returning to Poland continued the war against thc<Turk,s, but unfortunately quarrelled witli the senate, who suspected that he a\ anted to make the crown hereditary in his tamily. He died, after a glorious reign, in lOpO. After the death of Sobieski, Poland M\ into gi-cat distractions. Many confederacies were formed, but all parties seemed inclined to exclude tlic Sobieski family. In tlie mean time Poland was insulted by the Tar- tars, and the crown in a manner put up to sale. The prince of Conti, of the blood royal of France, was the most liberal bidder ; but while he thought the election almost sure, he was disappointed by the intrig-ues of the queen-dowager, in fiivour of her young«ir son, prince Alexander So- bieski, for which she was driven from Warsaw to Dantzlc. tSuddenly Augustus, elector of Saxony, started up as a candidate : and after a sham election, being proclaimed by the bishop of Cujavia, he took possession of Cracow with a Saxon army, and actually was crowned in that city in 1697- IJ^e prince of Conti made several unsuccessful cttbrts to re-es- tablish his interest, and pretended that he had been actually chosen ; but he was afterwards obliged to return to France, and the other powers of Europe seemed to acquiesce in Uie election of Augustus. The manner in which tlie latter was driv-^n from tlie throne, by Charles Xll. of Swe- den (who procured the advancement of Stanislaus), and afterwanls re- stored by the czar, Peter the Great, has been already related in tl\e history of Sweden. It was not till the year l"r2 that Augustus was fliUy confirmed on the throne, which he held upon precarious and dis- agreeable terms. The Poles wera naturally attaclieil to Stanislaus, and were perpetually forming conspiracies and plots against Augustus, who was obliged to maintain his authority by means of his Saxon guards and regiments. In 1/25, his natural son, prince jMaurice. afterwards ths famous count Saxe, was chosen duke of Courland ; but Augustus was not able to maintain him in that dignity against the power of iUissia and the jealousy of tlie Poles. Augustus died, after an unquiet reign, in 1733, having done all he could to insure the succession ot Poland to his son Augustus II. (or, as he is called by some, III.) This occasioned a war, in which tlie French king maintained the interest ot' his faUier-in- law, Stanislaus, who was actually re-elected to the throne by a consider- able party, of which the prince-primate was the hi^ad. Rnl Ar.gustus. entering Poland with a powerful army of Sax(",ns and lUr^sians, compelled his rival to retreat to Dantzic, whence he eacapeil with great dit^culty into France. In the history of Germany, the war between Auritstus II. as elector of Saxony, or rather as the ally of Kussia and Austria, and Frederic II. king of Prussia, has been already noticed. It is sutiicient to say, that though Augustus was a mild and nioderato prince, and did every thing t» satisfy the Poles, he ne\er coaid gain their hearts ; and all he obtained from them wns merely shelter, wlien the king of Prussia drove hmi from his capital and electorate. Augustus died at Dresden in 1763, upon which count Stanislaas Poniatowslu was chosen king, by the name of Stanislaus Augustus ; though it is said that the (.'lection was conducted irregularly, and tiwt he obtained the crywu chiefly through i GALLICIA A.vD I.ODOMERIA. 4C)5 lilt' iiifliUMir? of ikc ernpH'Ss of Rii '^i.i. II'* wa^ a nr.in of nljiliiu'j niul addr but, fi I'.ad th vjrioui cuncurniiy; caii'^es, to sti- I'oland, during his reign, a sct'iK- of ilesulation ami r.ilainity. In l"d(j a petifiun \v:R presentoci to tlu' kiiv^, in tho name of all the pro- test.iiu nobility, aiul in b(>li:ilf also oi the lUfUibcrs of the Greek. r]mr*-!i, conjointly calkd the dissidents, in wiiich they deinanded tobei'e-iiLstated in their ancient rights and privileges, and to be placed upf-n the saim; footinsj ill every respect as the Roman-catholic subjects of the kinL;;doni. The king gave no answer to the petition of the dissidents j but the mat- ter was referred to the diet, which w.ts hold the following yuir, when the ministers of the courts of Russia, London, IJcrlin, and Copenhagen, supported their pretensions. The diet appeared to receive the com- plaints of the dissidents with great moderation, as to the free exercise of their worsliip ; which gave some flattering expectations that the atfiir Would be happily terminated. But the intrigues of the king of Prnssiii appear to have prevented this ; for, though he openly professed to be a zealous defender of the cause of the dissidents, it was manifest, from the event, that his great aim was to promote the views of his own ambition. The intervention of the Russians in the affairs of Poland also gave great disgust to all parties in the kingdom. The whole nation ran into con- federacies formed in distinct provinces ; the popish clergy were active in opposing the cause of the dissidents ; and tJiis unfortiuiate country becau:o the theatre of the most cruel and complicated of all wars, partly civil, partly religious, and partly foreign. The confusion, devastation, and ('ivil war, continued in Poland during the years l/dp, 1770, a^d 1771> whereby the whole fare of the country wag almost destroyed; many of the principal popi.-.h families retired into foreign states with tlieir elfects ; and had it not been for a body of Russian troops, which acted as guards to tiie king at Warsaw, that city had likewise exhibited a .scene of plunder and masisacre. To those complicated evils wera added, in the year 1 770, that most dreadful scourge tlie pestilence, which spread from the frontiers of Turkey to the adjoining provinces of Podolin, Volhynia, and the Tkraiiie; and in the-.e provinces, it is said, swept otF 250,000 pople. Aleanwhilesomo of the Polish confederates interceded with the Turks to as.^ist them against their powerful oppres- sors ; and a war ensued bttv.een the Russians and the Turks on account «r»f Poland. The conduct of the grand seignior, and of the Ottonrm Porte, towards the di.ii tested Poles, was just and honourable, and the very reverse of that of their Christian, cathoiiCj and apostolic neigii- bours *. • In 1764, the empress of Russia transmittrJ to the court of Waisiw nn 3"t of rcnuni'Iution, signed with her own hauil, and bCiled with the seal ot" the emphc; ia which she declares, "T hat she did by no means anogatc fiihtr to l.crsoli", Jirr heir* and successors, or to her empire, any right or tlaim to the districts or territoiif* whiv'h are actuallv in posseision, or subject to the authority, of the kingdom of Po- land, or great ducliy of Lithuania ; but that, on the contrary, hf>r s.iid mai(j*ty would guaranty to the said kingdom of Poland and duchy of Lithu:in!a all tlic immunities, /ands, territorif s, and districts, which the said kin<;dora and ducliy nuj^hi by right to possess, or did now actually posr-ecs ; and would at all times, and for ever, mamtain them in th« full and free enjoyment thereof, ag.iin.t the attempts of all and every one who should, at any time, or on any pretext, endcnvour to disporisess th.'m of the «ame." — In the same year did the king of Prussia sign, with his own Land, .nn ^ot, wherein he declared, " 'I'hat he had no claims, formed no pretensions on Poland, or «ny part thereof: that he renounced all claims on that kitigdom, either as king of Prussia, elector of Brandenburg, or duke of Ponier inia." In the same instrument hi gvnranties, in the most solemn manni-^r, the ten ituiic.^ and rights of Poland against every power what*vw.~The empress-queon of Hiinrary, so Jale .^J the moiuK i^i 4ijd GALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. In the year 1"72, it appp.ircd that tlit- king of Pnissin, tlic cmpcmr aiul cniprt'ss-queen, ami iinprt'ss of Russia, liad entered into an aliianee to divide and dismember the kingdom of Poland} though IViissia was formerly in a state of vassalage to Poland, and the title of king of Prussia was never acknowledged by tlie Poles till 1/(54. Russia also, in the beginning of the 17th century, saw its capital and throne possessed by the Poles J while Austria, in l683, was indebted to a king of Poland for the preserA alion of its metropolis, and almost for its very existence. Tliese three allied powers, acting in concert, set up their formal pretensions to the respective districts which thty had allotted for and guarantied to each oilier ; — Folish or Western Prussia, and some districts hi rdering upon Brandenburg, for the king of Prussia ; almost all tJie soutli-east parts of the kingdom bordering upon Hungary, togctJier with the rich salt-works of tlie crown, for the empress-queen of Hungarj' and Bohe- mia ; jmd a large district of country about Mohilow, upon the banks of tlie Dnieper, for tlie empress of Russia. But though each of these powers pretended to have a legal title to the territories which were allotted them respectively, and published manifestoes in justification of the measures which they had taken, yet as they were conscious that the fallacies by which they supported their pretensions were too gross to impose upon mankind, they forced tlie Poles to call a new diet, and threatened them, that if they did not consent unaaimousiy to sign a treaty for the ceding of those provinces to them respectively, the whole kingdom should be laid under a military' execution, and treated as a con- quered state. Ill this extremity of distress, several of the Polish no- bility protested against this violent act of tyranny, and retired into fo- reign states, choosing rather to live in exile, and to have all their landed proix'rty contiscated, than to be instruments of bringing their country to utter ruin : but the king, under the threatening of deposition and im- prisonment, was prevailed upon to sigu lliis act, and his example was followed by many of his subjects. The conduct t)f the king oi' Prussia in Poland was the most tyrannical that can be conctfived. In the year I771, his troops entered into Great Poland, and carried oft' from that province and its neighbourhood, at a moderate computation, 1 2, (XX) families. On the 2yth of October, in the same year, he published an edict, commanding every person, under the severest penalties, r.nd e^•en corporeal punishment, to take in pay- ment, for forage, provisions, corn, iiorses, &c. the money offered by liis troops and commissaries. This money was either silver, bearing the impression of Poland, and exactly worth one-third of its nominal value, or ducats struck in imitation of Dvitch ducats, sevrnteen per cent, infe- rior to the real dacats of Holland. With this base money he bought up corn and forage enough, not only to supply hi.s army for two whole years, but to stock magazines in the country itself, w here the inhabitants were forced to come and re-})urchase corn for their daily subsistence, at an advanced price, and with good money, his commissaries refusing to take the same coin they had paid. At the lowest calculation, he gained, January 1771, wrote a letter with her own h.ind to the kinp^ of Poland, in wliich she gave hiin the strongest assurances, " Th;it her friendship for him and the republic was firm and unalterable ; that the motions of her troops ought not to alarm him; that she had never entertained a thought of seizing any part of his dominions, nor would even suffer any other power to do it." From which, according to the political creed of princcR, we may infer, that to guaranty the rights, liberties, and revenues of a state, means to annihilate those liberties, seize upon those rights, and appro* priatc those revenues to their own use.— Such is the faith of prince* ! GALLICIA A8»D LODOMERIA. 4y7 by this honest m.inoenvre, seven millions of dollars. Hanng stripped the country of mcri y and provisions, his next attempt was to tliin it still more of its iaiiaoitants. To people his own dominions at th<3 expense of Poland had been his great aim : for this purpose, he devised a new contrihuti-n j evrrv i. wn and village was obliged to furnish a certain number of marriageablt ?irls ; Uie parents to give, as a portion, a fcather-b» J four pillow?*, a cow, two hogs, and three ducats in gold. Some were boi nd hand and foot, and carried off as criminals. His exactions from the abbey:, convents, caii/t'drals, and nobles, were so heavy, and exceeded at last their abilities so much, tii t the priests aban- doned their churches, and the nobles their lands. These exactions con* tinned with unabated rigour, from the yc:\f 177 i to the time the troaty of partition was declared, and possession taken ol \li>: provinces usurped. From these proceedings, it would appear that his Prussian n^ajesty knew of no rights but his own ; no pretensions but those of the house of Brandenburg ; uo other rule of justice but his own pride and am* bition. In the year l/SS, the Poles made some endeavours to assert their in- dependence. The diet met, and the king proposed a confederation, which was agreed to, and the army ordered to be reinforced to 100,(X)0 men. As tlie evils of an elective monarchy had been the cltief causo that Poland had almost ceased to be considered as a nation, a new con^ stitution was framed, and approved by the diet and the king, on the 3d of May 179^' By this constitution the line of the future kings of Po- land was to commence in Frederic- Augustus, elector of Saxony j and, in case he should have no male issue, a husband chosen by iiim for hii daughter was to commence the dynasty. But this constitution was opposed by the partitioning powers ; and, after a short and unequal suuggle widi Russia, this unhappy country was forced to abandon it. The manifesto of the Russian empress, replete with sentiments disgraceful to humanity, was followed by some skirmishes ; but it is said that a letter, writteii with her own hand to the Polish king, in which she declared her reso- hition to double or triple her troops, rather than abandon her preten- sions, induced that benignant monarcli to prevent the further eli'asion of blood. On the 6tli of Januaiy 1793, tbe king of Prussia issued a declaration re- specting the march of his troops into Poland, and soon after the Prussian army advanced, and one of its detachments appeared under the walls of , Thorn. The inhabitants refusing entrance to the troops, the gates were forced, the municipal guard dislodged from their post, and the Prussian regiments entered tlie defenceless city, as if it h:ul l)een a place takea by assault. At the same time different Polish detachments, dispersed throughout Great Poland, were attacked and driven from their posti by superior force, /: On the 2d of April the Prussian troops took possession of Dantzic ; and, about the same time, the empress of Russia commanded the king of Poland to remove to Grodno, under the escort of Russian tioops, for the express purpose of sanctioning the alienation and partition of his kingdom. The means employed to effect the mock ratification of the partition of this unfortunate country were entirely characteristic of tire baseiiasn of the cause. The diet, in the month of September, was assailed for three successive days with official notes from the Russian ambassiJor and tlie Prussian minister, full of threats, pressing the signature of th« tr^t/. The states, however, persisted in tint'a refusal. At last M. d{t 3 K 498 GALUCIA AND LODO'MERIA, , I '■ • m: ; l-i] < ft; , '1 Sievcrs, the Rassinn ambassador, sent his ultimatum in a note, whicli ended with the toilowin^ remarkable expressions : — " The underwritten nni-t bevides int'onn the states of the republie assembled in the coule- . derate diet, that he thought it of absolute nercssity, in order to prevent t'verv disorder, to order tun hattalion.s />/ c^rciuiditrs, with four pieces of ranriou, to surnniiMl the fastlc, to secure t!ie tranquillily of their delibe- rations. M he \mdt.r\\ritten cxprcts that the sitting will not teixninatrf until the demamlcd signature of the featv is decided." Conformably to this threat, tiie Russian so!dici-s -o closely surrounded the castle,- that no person was suffered to go out -. -^ome of the officers took their station in the senate, pretending ta guaii! hi> majesty's person ;:gainst conspirators. The king, limwver, sent a delegation to the Russian ambassador, Jeelaring that he would not open the session m the presence of the Rus- sian oflicers. In eiiiisequenee, they were ordered to retire, except the general, who declared juibiicly, that no member should be permittwd to quit tlie senate before consent to the ire;!ty w as given. The debates were long and violent ; and it was not luitil three o'clock the next morn- ing, after three successive divisions, tiiat the diet came to a resolution^ in which the)' tiecl;ire, betiore all Europe, to whom they had ffetjuentlr a])pealed, that, " Contrary to the faith of treaties mo.st sacredly ob.served on their part, as well as to that of the treaty recently entered into with "his majesty the king of Prussia, and at his own desire, in the year l/OO, whereby the independence and Jie intregrity of Poland w^re guaranteed in the most solemn manner ; that, being deprived of free-will, sur- rounded at the moment of the present act by an armed foreign force, and threatened with a furtlicr imasioii of the Prussian troops, they arc forcTed to commission and authorise a deputation ajipointed to treat with the said king, to sign the treaty, such as it was planned and amended under the mediation of tlie Russian ambassador." On the /th of February 179"^} the baron d'Ingelstrohm, who had succeeded the count de Sievers as ambassador at Warsaw, demanded a public annulling of the acts of the diets of l/SS ar.d 1791, togethei' with the form of tlie constitution then established, and the surrenJer of every paper, whether in public records or private cabinets, respecting that transaction. The court of Piussia soon afterwards issued its man- date for the reduction of the military force to l6,000 men. This was opposed by several regiments, particularly in South Prussia, where th« insurgents, headed by the gallant Madalinski, a Polish nobleman, aud brigadier t»f the national troops, peremptorily refused to disband. The spirit of resistance was widely dilFused, and the capital assumed a mili- tary aspect. In this situation fifteen thousand Russian troops were sent into Poland, the ambassador was instructed to deliver to ths perma- nent council an o<iici;U document representing the danger that threaten- ed the king, and requesting the commissioners of war to dispatch an army to oppose Madalinslci ; and the pemianent council was desired tu take into custody every suspected I>er!s6u. Both these requisitions were, however, refused : jnd it wiTs pointedly replied to the latter, that, ac- i:ordiiig to the laws of the re])ul)lic, no Polish nobleiuan could be ar- rested, without being legally convicted. Tlie imperious conduct of the Russian;* drove the oppressed Poles to .desperation. T)ie peasants were compelled to lodge and board the Rus- sian soldiers, and transport them iiom place to plat\>, without receivinsj the Icrst rennuieratioii., or any other reward th.m bmtality and inso- lence. It could not be; expected that a i-allant and liigh-spiriled peopU* would long iauK^ly submit t j such iusuii »rs\ ijijury. Their patriotic; GALLICIA AND LODOMERIA. 4D9 spirit, tlimigh latent, was not extinguished. It was roused into nctinii by incessant sufferings, and by continued efforts of the intrepid Kos- ciusko, who early in February appeared at the head of a considerable body of Polish insurgents, attacked the FiUhsians who had taken pos- sion of their country, forced them to rclreat, and pursued them to a considerable distance. The Russian troops having evacuated Cracow oii the 23d of March, Kosciusko entered tliat town on the night of the 24th, and next morning ordered the gates to be shut, and declared him- self commander in chief of all Uie Polish forces. He then imposed jn oath of hdeiity on all the military in the city, took possession of the l)ublic treasure, and proceeded to measures of military se(iuestr:ition. On the day on which he entered Cracow, he issued a proclauKition, couched in the most cnersielic terms, inviting the nation to shake oil" tlieir disgraceful fetters, and to unite in forming a new confederation. The proclamation was received with unanimous applause ; and " Long live Kosciusko!" resounded from every quarter. He was conducted to the town-house, and presented to the principal nobility, who had :;s- sembled there to receive him ; and by (hem he was formally in-, esled with the title of general. Every article for the suppmt of his army Wi'.'i abundantly supplied. On the 20'l.h, the ditTerent corporations ass* nibled under their respective banners beibre the town-house, wlu'ucc tiie ma- gistrates led them in procession to the church of ihe Holy ^'irgiH, v.hcrtf the constitution of the 3d of May 17^1 was publiciy rtad with great solemnity, and an oath tikcn to defend it. The Polish nobles had no sooner takun the oaths in the presence of Kosciusko, than they departed for their respective estates, in order to arm and assemble their vassals. Baron d'Ingelstrohm, about the samci time, surrounded the diet at Warsaw with a niilitary force, and demand- ed th^ surrender of the arsenal. This demand was spiritedly resisted ; and notice of it having been sent to Kosciusko, he, about the end of IMarch, took the route to Warsiiw witlijiis army, ^and a reinforcement of 4000 peasants, armed with pikes, S:c. — On the 4th of April he was met by a detachment of ()()(.)0 Russians, with a park of heavy artillery, On their march to reduce Cracow. A fierce encounter ensued. 'I'lie Polish peasants being driven to desperation, made a dreadful slaughter of the Russian phuiderers. General Woron/.ow was taken prisoner, and above 1000 Russians killed on the spot ; while the Poles lo^t t)nly .sixty men, and took eleven pieces of cannon and all the ammunition. After tlie battle, Kosciusko fell back with his anny towards Cracow, where he was joined by a very considerable body of disatfectcd Polish troops. On the : Jth of April, baron d'Ingelstrohm demanded the surrender of the arsenal, the disarming of the military, aiKl that twenty persons of the first consequence should be arrested, and, if found guilty, punished with death. I'his occasloiK'd a general commotion, in which tl\e citi- zens, having proctu'cd arms from the arsenal, after an incessant com- ])iit of thirty-six hours, drove the Russians out of the city with great slaughter. A deputation had been sent to inform the king of the at- tempt of the Russians to seize the arsenal ; when the monarch re- plied, " Go, and defend your honour." The situation of the king after the contest became very critical, and the people were extremely jealous at' every movement he made. They compelled him to promise repeat- edly that he would not quit \\'ar.saw ; and, not satisfied with his assu- rances, insisted upon placing two mtinicipal officers as a guard upoa liim j »nd he was desirfd fre(|uently to exhibit hiiuscU' to Lhc pdcpie. '' K ■' 500 GAIJICIA AND LODOMEPxrA. I w ■ Forty tlioui^nncl Russians woiv now put in motion towards PolanJ from tUe Ukraine, iiiul Ki.OOO from Livonia. About the end of Mi^y,. the corps of Kosciusko amounted to nearly 23,000 men ; tliat of gene- ral Kothowski to 18,0t)0; that of Jaflinski to (itXX) ; a corps of 12,00O Avas stMiioncil at Wiliin, jmuI anotlier at Warsaw which consisted of bOtX). 'J ho pcasaiUM wi-re n(jt inchided in this calculation. About the end ot" June a manifesto was published by the emperor, on tJie occasion of his troops entering Poland. On the i2th of July, the iu'ad-(]uarters of the king and prince of Prussia were only three or four leagues from Warsaw, whence they issued a placard, stating tlwt the em Miy had fled before them in their progress. In the mean time, howe\er, Kosciusko (wJio had eluded the Prussian troops), by a brave jUta»-:k, had (It fcatfd the forces which opposed him, and had thrown liiniM'lf into Warsaw, On the Slbt of June, the Prussians began to at- tack the city by a heavy cannonade, and several hundred bombs were in Mie course of the day tliruwn into Warsaw ; a dreadful fire was kept up on tlu- !)csiegcrs by night and by day, and an incredible number of lives were lost. The king and the prince-royal are both said to have been in imminent danger at this time. On the 2d of August, his Prussian ma- iesty, \\ hose liopes of success iiad probably been a littled damped, at- icmpled to open a negotiation with the king of Poland for the surren- der of the capital, which was rejected. About the middle of this month, n(X'i)unts were transmitted to the Prussian eamp of insurrections having .K'isen in South Prussia (formerly Great Poland), of which his Prussian majesty had taken possession the preceding yt-ar ; and on the nighf of the 5th of September, tlie Prussian and Russian forces abandoned the siege of Warsaw, after a fruitless attack of two months, much weakenotl by the diseases and desertions which prevailed in their camps, and dis- abled from the want of provisions and ammunition. In the course of the same month, the Russian grand army, consisting of 20,000 men, arrived in Poland, and on the ISth a severe engagement took place near Rr/.esc, in \\hich the Poles lost very considerable num- bers, ami were compelled to retreat across the Bog. On tlie 10th of October another battle was fought between the Russians, under general Kerfen, and the troops under Kosciusko. The Russians advanced twice to the attack, but were repidsed by the Poles, who, however, unlbrtu- nately, not contented w'lih the advantages they had gained, abandoned their favourable position on the heights, and pressed on to the attack in their turn. This mo\enient threw the troops into some confusion ; and tl'.e Rtis'^'ans forming t hen isi Ives anew, the rout soon became general. The battle, which began ai >»even \u the morning, did not cud till noon. Kosciusko l^uw ivom rank to rank, and was contiimally in the hottest part of the tngagenient. y\t length he fell, and a Cossack, who did not know him in the per.saius dress which he constantly wore, wounded him Irom behind with a lance. He recox ered, and advanccil a few stepi, but wa.-, again knocked dovii by another Co.s.saek, who was preparing to -give hmi a mortal blow, when his arm was slopped by a Russian oilicer, who is '^aid to have beeii gener.il ("hrnii/azow, to whose wile Kosciusko , had a short lime before politely given leave of departure from AV'arsaw to join her hu.^bimd. The unlbrtunate. Kosciusko iui\)lored the officer, if he M i.dif d to n-nder jjim a service, to aUo\V the soldier to put an end •o his eyistencej but the latter (ho-,e rather to maky him a prisoner. 'Ihe hilish inlantry defended themselves with a bravery jjroportioned to that i)f their general, and fought with a degree of valour ahr.ost ap*- \ icQ/ch'wfr to lury, GALLICIA AND LODOiVIERIA. 501 Tlie Russians under general Fcrfcn soon afterwards sanimoncd War- saw to surrender ; and, on being refused, atur the junction of tlie dif- ferent corps under Ferfen, Dernfeldt, Dernifow, and Suwarrow, pro- ceeded on the 4th of Novcjnber to attack the suburb of I'raga, or Pj agiio, separated from Warsaw by the Vistula, which was dcfcuded by nion? than an hundred pieces of cannon disposed upon thirty-three batteries. The Russians succeeded in their assault, and the Tolinh generals found tliemsehes unable to oppo.se, with 10,0CXJ soldiers, which was the whole of tlieir force, the united attack of 50,000 men. After a severe con- flict of eight hours, tl^f. j esistance on the jTart of the Poles ceased ; but the massacre of the sanguinary Suwarrow contiinied for two hours longer J and the pillage lasted till noon on the following da)^ Five thousand Poles wei-e computed to have been slain in the assault ; the re- mainder were either imprisoned or dispersed. Tlie citizens were com- pelled to lay down their arms ; and their houses were plundered by the merciless Russians, who, after the battle had ceased nearly ten hours, about nine o'clock at night set iire to the tt)wn, and again began t(» massacre tlie inhabitants. Nine thousand persons, unarmed men, de- fenceless women, aud harmless infants, jiefished either in the tlanus or by the sword, and nearly the whole of the suburb was reduced to ashes. In the whole of this siege it is computed that not less than 30,000 Poles lost tlieir lives. Tlie city being thus reduced under the power of the Russians, the king was for a short time restored to a kind of mock authority, by the supreme council remitting into his hands that which it had exercised. On the gih of November, the Russian general made his triumphal en- try into Warsaw, in which the streets were lined with his troops, and *he inhabitants, shut up in their houses, observed a melancholy silence The chief magistrate delivered him the keys of the bridge of the suburb, after which he received the compliments of the king; and, on tlie lOtli, went with much pomp to the castle, to pay his respects to his majesty. To complete the whole of this execral^le scene, the lirst of Decembt.T was set apart for a day of solemn thanksgiving, and Tc Dcum was sung for the triumph of barbarous oppression. In the mean time Kosciusko was under surgiail care at Nozcylaok, where the utmost attention was paid to his recovery. He was aftiM'- wards sent to Petersburg, under a very poAtrtiil military escort, and was confined in the fortress there, till the death of Catharine II., when • the late emperor, who on several occasions showed great liberality to- wards the persecuted Poles, set him at liberty, assji'ned him a pension, and allowed him his choice, either to return to Ids own cwnntry, or go to Anaerica. Kosciusko preferred the latter, aiul arrived sately in the asylum which he had chosen. On his way thither be passed through Lji- gland, and was received with the warmest welcome an-.l congiatulatioii by all the friends of freedom. He has since left America, and is at present in Franu?. On the '20th of December 1/94, a courier arrived from the empress, demanding the arrestation of count Ignatius Potocki, and several ol tlie other patriots, whom she ordered to be sent to Petersburg. Ihe sanu^ messenger brought a command from tlie empiess to the unhappy mo- narch of Poland to repair to Grodno, who, in obedience to the aummons, set oft' from his capital on the /th of January \7[)^, The unfortunate king was afterwards removed to Petersburg, where he had a palace and a suitable pension assigned him, ami where lie died February ll, J7yy. With hiiu eiwkd tlic kingdom of Poland. t-l • ' I i ». ( 502 ) R*,^l! f- 'K^i'iii. V'i tf ii i I n '4 'I 1^ Mile; HUNGARY. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Derives. Leiiffth 320 7 , , Ercadth'iioj ^"^'^'"^'^ Containing 5^,500 square mile.>, with 105 inhabitants to each. f 16* and 35° Ea-it longitude. 1 46'^ and 4()^ JO' North latitude. Name.] THE name of Hungary has been usually derived from tlic Huns, who anciently possessed this country ; but Mr. Gibl-,on tinds its- origin hi that of the Ugri, or Ugurs, a Tartarian rribc who migrated from the conlines of China, and, after over runing a'mo^t the whole of Germany, established themselves in this t:ountry in tlie Icntli centuiy. Boundaries.] Hungaiy Proper (for it formerly included Trannyl- vnnia, Sclavonia, Croatia, Morlachia, Servia, Walaciiia, and (^ther coun-t tries) is bounded on the north by Gallicia ; on the east b\ the Bucko- ■«'ine and Transylvania ; on the south by tjlavonia ; am! on tiio west by the circle of Austria and Moravia. Divisions.] Hungary is divided into Upper and Lower Hungary, situate on opposite sides of the Danube. These are again each divided into two circles, which are sub-divided into gc^pannschafis, or counties, in number 52. Presburg is the metropoli.s of Lower, and Caschau of Upper Hungary. The province of Temcswar has been considered as distinct from Hun- gary, because it was formerly governed by an independent king; and it Las several times been in possession of the Turks ; bi\t the Austrians gaining possession of it, it was incorporated into the kingdom of Hun- gary in 177s. The province of Temeswar is ninety-four miles long, and sixty-seven broad, containing about O80O squi-ire miles. It has been divided into four districts, Csanad, Temcswar, Werschex, and Lugos. Te- nieswar, the principal town, is situate in E. Ion. 2'i" 15', N. lat. 45« 54'. Mountains.] Th.e Carpathian mountains, v.liich divide Hungary from Poland on the north, are the principal ; though many de- tnclicd m(ju;itair,o are touiid in the country. Their tops are generally covered v;iih u ood, and on their sides grow the riche.it grapes in the Movld. Rivvnis.] These are the Danube, the Drave, the San, or Save, the Theisse, the Raiib, and the Waag. Lakes, and mineral watkks.] Hungary contains several lakes, paitifidarly the Plattcn, or the Plattcn Sea, ab nit forty-six miles long nnd eight broad, and abounding; with tish. 'J'lie Hung.u'ian baths and mineral waters are esteemed the most s(/vereign of any in Europe : but their magnificent buildings, raised by the I'uiks wlien in ])o>.ses>ion of the country, particularly those of Buda, are suiFered to go to decay. Metai.s ano MJNEUAI.S.] Hungary contains mines of gold, silver, copper, very rich antimony, coal, salt, and alum. The gold mines arc at Crenmitz, about 40 miles to the south of the Carpathian mountains ; and the sih^-r at Shcmnitz, about 20 miles further to the south. Seve- ral kinds of precious stones are found in Hungary, particularly that beautiful gem the opal, which has hitlierlo been disccn ced in no other country lu the world. , \ HUNGARY. 503 Ci.nrATK, SOIL, AND PRODUCE.] Tlic climntc of (ho souil;' rn part-; of Hungary is found to be unhcalthful. owing t(j it.-i numerous lakes, stagnated waters, and marshes j hut tlie northern part i)eino- mount aiii- eus and barren, the air is pure and wholcnoine. No country in tJu; world can boast a ridier soil than that piain which extends 300 miles, from Presburg to Belgrade, and produces corn, grass, toliacoo, satfron, asparagus, melons, hops, pulse, millet, buck-u heat, deliciuas grap^e-, and fruits of various kinds. Vegetables.] Besides thyse already enumerate^!, the \ine'; of ITun- 'gary deserve particular attention for the e\ce!ilcnr wine a!foi\ied by llie:r grapes, particularly the celebrated Tokay, whicli !ias rccc:\ed its name from a towri in llieiiorlh of Hungary, in the \icuiity c;!' uhieh ii is made in the greatest perfection. Animals.] Hungary is remarkable for a fine breed of hovses, gene- rally mouse-coloured, and highly esteemed by military otncers, t-o that great numbers of them are exported. I'here is a remarkable breed of large rams in the neighbourhood of Presburg. I'he other animals of Hungary are, in general, the same with those of Germany and tho neighl.'ouring countries. Natural cuuiosities.] Near Szadello, alw)Ut DO miles from Cas- rhau, is an extraordinary cavern, of such prodigious extent that it is re- ported by the natives to reach sevend miles under the hills, aiul has, never been completely explored. It includes within it dillerent caves and passages, which contain numerous stalactites of various size-. "It is such a labyrinth," says Dr. Townson, a late intelligent tra\eller in Hnngary, " that I firmly believe that a man, once K st in it, though lie have lights and food enough to last him a month, w(mld not be able to find his way out." And ^Ir. Koralnusky, a German writer, sa) s that it is of such astonishing dimensions in length, that tv.o mcmbt rs of the Royal Society of London, who were sent some yc;;vs ago into Ilviugary, by the i»ociety, to examine this and other curiosities, after remaining iu it three days, could never get to the end of it, nor find an oj.'cning. Near Szilitze is another celebrateil cavern, about 100 feet broad, LjO deep or Iwng, and 20 or 30 high. I'rom the roof, at the further end, hangs an innncnse icicle, or rather a congeries of icicles-, and iu one corner is a great mass of ice. Tliis ice, it is said, thaw s iii tlie winter, ■v\hcn the ground without is covered with snow, and treezes again amid. the heats of summer. But this is no doubt an exaggeration, in con- sequence of the observers depending too much on their feelings ; the cave, probably, always preserving the same temperature, which has been foinvl to be that of the freezing point. Near Demanovo, about 10" milt^s from Roscnburg, is a cavern full of bones, of animals no doubt which have made it their haunt ; but among which the credulous pretend the complete skeleton of a dragon lias been found, which is preserved ia the museum of the elector of Saxony, at Dresden. P()PL'L^TIoM.] Before the Turks obtained possession of Constanti- nople, Hungary was one of the most pt.'pulous anil fiouri^hing kingdoin:^ iu Kurope; and if the house oi' Austria should give the proper encourage- ment to th« inhabitants to repair their works, and clear their tens, it might become so again. Tlie j)opulaiion of Hungary, ey.clu^ive of IVau- sylvania, Slavonla, andDalniritia, was e^timated, in 1/70", by the cele- brated Busclnng, to hv ;J,I7(\0(K); and Mr. ^Vindi^h, an Hungarian, in lus Geography of Hungary, [>ubllsl-,od in J 7^0, s;;ys, " the population^ nccord.lng to a new accnr.iic examination, is' 15, 1 70,000, csciLdingTran- 504 HUNGART. y i m 111 \v4 ' 1 it ! ? < 1 r « ■ sylvania, Slavonia, and Dalmatia." But the committee appointed by the diet of 179t, to inquire into things of this nature, ** some of whose notes," says Dr. Townson, *' I have had in my hands, estimate the po- pulation of Hungary in its greatest extent, but always excluding Tran- sylvania, at about 8,000,000, which, they add, is 1777 souls per square mile. In No. 61 of Mr. Slotzer's Staats Anzeigen, there is a detailed ac- count, which makes the total population 7>417,415." Hoeck statei th« population of Hungary and Illyria at 7>350,000 j whence the number of nihabitants for Hungary alone may, perhaps, be justly taken at about 0',300,000. Natioxai cnARACTER,MAN- 7 The Hungarians are a brave, gene- NEKs, AN'D CUSTOMS. j rous, and hardy race of men; their manners are peculiar to themselves; and they pique themselves on being descended from those heroes who formed the bulwark of Christ- endom against the infidels. In their persons they are well made. Their fur caps; their close-bodied coats, girded by a sash, and their cloak or mantle, which is so contrived as to buckle under the arm, so that the right hand may be always at liberty ; give them an air of military dig- nity. The men shave their beards, but preserve their whiskers on their upper lips. Their usual arms are the broad- sv/ord, and a kind of pole- axe, besides their fire-arms. The ladies are reckoned handsomer than those of Austria; and their sable dress, with sleeves strait to their arms, and their stays fastened before with little gold, pearl, or diamond but- tons, arc well known to the French and English ladjcs. Both men and women, in what they call the mine towns, wear fur and c\'cn sheep- skin dresses. I'he inns upon the roads are most miserable hovels, and even those seldom to be met with. The hogs, which yield the chief animal food for the peasants, and the poultiy, live in the same apartment with riieir owners. The gout and fever, owing to the unwholesomeness of the air, are die predominant diseases in Hungar}'. The natives in gene- ral are indolent, and leave trade and manufactures to the Greeks and other strangers settled in their country, the flatness of which renders travelling commodious, either by land or water. The diversions of the inliabitants are of the warlike and athletic kind. They are in general a brave and magnanimous people. Their ancestors, even since the be- ginning of the presen4: century, were so jealous of their liberties, that, rather than be tyrannised over by the house of Austria, they often put themselves under the protection of the Ottoman court ; but their fide- lity to the late empress-queen, notwithstanding the provocations they received from her house, will be always remembered to their honour. The inhabitants of Temeswar are computed at 450,000. There aro in tliis country many faraons, zigeuncrs, or gypsies, supposed to be real descendants of tlie ancient Egyptians. They are said to resemble the ancient Fg)-ptians in their features, in their propensity to melan- choly, and in many of their manners and customs ; and it has beer as- serted tliat the lascivious dances of Jsis, the religious veneration of 0".;<ii'. many famous Egyptian superstitions and specifics, and the Egyptian method of hatching eggs by means of dung, are still in use among the female gypsies in Teniehwar. Cities, t uikf towns, 7 Buda, by the Germans called Oflfen, the. AND KniKiCES. 3 metropolis of Hungary, has neither fortifi- cations nor gates : it is three or four miles Jong, bvtt very narrow. The cities of Buda and Pest may be considered as one, for they are only se- parated by tiic Dnnui^G ; over which there is a bridge of boats half a mile in length. Buda contains 22,000 inhabitants^ and Pest 16,000. HUNGARY. SOS The finest public and private buildings are in Pest, and within the for- tresi. The royal palace is a vast and stately pile of building ; and the Hospital for Invalids, now used as barracks, is tine and spacious. At Buda, the Hungarian regalia, formerly deposited at Pest, are now kept. The crown, in the year 1784, was removed to Vienna by order of the emperor Joseph II. But this measure gave so great oti'ence, and ex- cited such violent discontents, that it was sent back to Buda in 1 790, where it was received with the most extravagant testimonies of joy, the whole city and sviburbs being illuminated. I'his crown was sent, in the year 1000, by pope Sylvester II., to Stephen king of Hungary, and was made after that of the Greek emperors : it is of solid gold, weighing nine marks and three ounces, ornamented with lifty-three sapphires, fifty rubies, one large emerald, and three hundred and thirty-eight pearls. Besides these stones, are the images of the apostles and patriarchs. The pope added to this crown a silver patriarchal cross, wliich was after- wards inserted in the arms of Hungary, At the ceremony of the coro- nation a bishop carries it before the king. From the cross is derived the title of apostolic king ; the use of which was renewed under the reign of the empress-queen Maria-Theresa. The sceptre and the globe of the kingdom are of Arabian gold; the mantle, which is of fine linen, is said to be the work of Gisele, spouse of St. Stephen, who, they say, em*- broidered in gold the image of Jesus Christ crucified, and many other images of the patriarchs and apostles, with a number of inscriptions. The sword is two-edged, and rounded at the i)oint. Presburg, the ca- pital of Lower Hungary, has a claim to be coasidcred as the metrojx)li» of the kingdom ; for Buda has been so often, and for so long a time iu the power of the Turks, that this city has generally been the seat of go- vernment, and the place where the diets have been held, and the coro- nation ceremonies performed. It is well built, and stands in u fine situation on the banks of the Danube, which is here 350 yards broad. It contains about 28,000 inhabitants, of whom one-fourth are Lutherans, and great numbers Jews. Caschau, tlie capital of Upper Hungary, contains about (JOOO inhabitants. The principal church here is a fine building, in the Gothic taste, and in good preservation. Tyrnau is a handsome town, containing about 7000 inhabitants, and so many churches and convents that it has been called the Little Rome. It was also the seat of a university ; but that has been removed to Pest. Raab, Gran, and Comorn, are fortified towns of considerable strengtli. The small town of Kitzee, about two or three miles from Presburg, claims the first fabrication of coaches j which, it is assorted, derive their name, in the diffcrent languages of Europe, from the name of that place. Tokay has been already mentioned for the excellency of its wines. Manufactures and commerce.] The manufactures of Hungary are few and of little importance : there are some, however, of leatner, linen cloth, and difl^rent kinds of Iiard-ware. The exports consist of horses, cattle, swine, (to the amount of several hundred thousand pounds annually), corn, wine, tobacco, the productions of the mines, linen, raw and irtanufactured skins, tallow, safiVon,, h«ney, wax, and oil. hi the )'ear 1787, the exports amounted to 17,800,000 florins (about 1,800,000/. sterling), and tlie imports to 13,800,000 florins (1,400,000/.), leaving a balance to tlie country of 4,000,000 of florins, or 400,000/. sterling. Constitution and government.^ The Hungarians have preserv- ed the remains of many checks upon the regal power. They have a diet vr parliament: which asswajaly consists of twp tables or iiouses ; the fijrst 506 HUNGARY. If 'si- ,'■*-[ 1^ m I I 1 s m i 1 . M m ,if iii Ijr : II! 1 p. composed of magnates, or thegi*e:U officers of the crown, princes, counts, barons, arclibiiihopS} and the second, of the abliots, prelatt's, and depu- ties from the chapters and each of the two-and-fifty gespannschafts, or counties, into which the kingdom is divided. I'hcse hou(>es, however, form but one body, as their votes are taken together. The diet, besides being convened on all great national events, should meet at stated times. Under Matthias Corvinus, and Ferdinand I, it was <lecreed, they should lie annunlj and under Leopold I., that diey should be triennial; Avhicli was coniiinicd by Charles VI., and is stil! con^idircd as the coiislilutional period. But sovereigns and their iui!ii.iters often wish to get rid uf these inciuubrauces ; and from i/64 to l/.QO, no diet was held; lhoiiii,!i many important alTairs had happened within that period. Jl ought not to •'it more than two months. 'I'ht're is likewise a Hunr^ar}'- ofliec, which resembles our chancery, and Avhich resides at Vienna j as the palatine's council, whidi nearly resembles the British privy-council, but has a municipal jurisdiction, does at Prcsburg. Every royal town has its senate ; and the gespannschafts have magistrates, who act as out justices of the peace. Besides tlf-se, there is an exchequer, nine chambers, and other subordinate courts. Revenue.] I'hc revenue wliich the emperor derives from Hungary amounts to about two millions sterling. Army.] The einperor can bring into the field, at any time, se- venty or eighty thousand Hungarians in their own country, but seldom draws out of it above ten thousand : these arc generally light-horse, and well known in modern times by the name of Hussars. They are not near so large as the Germim horse ; and tlierefore the hussars stand up on their short stirrups when they strike. Ihcir expedition and alertness Lave been found so serviceable in war. that the greatest powors in Eu- rope have troops that go by the ^ame name. Tlieir foot are called Hey- dukes, and wear feathers in their caps, according to the immber of ene- mies they pretend to have killed : both horse and foot are an excellent militia, very good at a pursuit, or ravaging aud phjudcring a country, but not equal to regular troops in a pitched battle. The sovereign luay summon the Hungariari nobilit}- to take tl:e lield and defend their coun- try. This service is called an insurrcctio, and from it the high clergy are not exempt. In the frequent wars in which Hungary was formarly engaged, principally against the Turks, this service was rather a severe obligation. Tlie number of combatants each brought into the field was in proportion to his estate. I'he archbishop of Gran, and the bishop of Erlau, brought each two stands of colours, and under each standa tliou- sand men ; the archbishop (jf Colocza, and several bishops, a thousand each. In the fatal battle of Mohatch, seven bishops were left on the field. A general in.varectinn of this kiud was summoned by the em- peror in the late war; but the treaty of Campo Formio having been con- cluded before the troops so raised began to act, tliey returned home. The standing military force of Hungary, in the year 1/94, consisted, according to Dr. Townson, of nine regiments of infantry, of 3000 men each, tliirteen regiments of frontier militia, of 4000 each, and scveii re- giments of hussars, of 1200 each; amounting, in the whole, to 87,400 men. Ahms.] The arms of Hungary are a shield divided perpendicularly info three parts ; the lirsl division, or, contains seven Hungarian towers ; th(> second, gules, the Szekler eagle j and in the third, gules, are the sun and moon of Saxony. Okder 01' KNiGiiTHOQiJ.J Tho Hungarian order of knighthood h HUNGARY. 507 Jt liu ti that of St. Stephen ; the badge of which is an Hungarian cross, worn suspended by a green-edged ribbon. Religion,] I'he established religion of Hungary is the Roman-ca- tholic ; bul tlie protestants, who are generally believed to be as nume- rous as tlu' catholics, and who, two centaries ago, were more numerous, enjoy complete toleration. They have entire freedom of public worship, with chiu-ehcs and bells, and their own schools and seininnries of learning, and are admitted to till all the public offices, and to a seat in the legis- lative councils. There are two archbishopricks in Hungary — Gran and Colocza. The bishoprics are those cf ErLiu, Nitr.i, llaab, Wait^en, Funf-kirchen (or Five Churches), Vesprim, Gross Wardcin (or (Treat Waradin), Osanad Stuhhveissenberg, Neusohl, and Rosena-u. The last three were found- ed in 1777- The archbishop of Gran, as archbishop, is lord-lieutenant of the countv, primate and chancellor of Hungary ; has the exclusive right of crowning the king, and can create nobility upon the archiepiscopal do- minions. His revenue is about U(i,00(J/. sterling per ann., while that of the archbishop of Colocza is not more than 5000/. Un'iversitiks.] The principal university of Hungary is that of Ru« da, which has an annual income of 20,000/. sterling, of which 4000/. is allotted to pay the salaries of the professors. Here is a large library and an observatory. Raab and Caschau are likewise styled universities, but they arc rather academies founded by the Jesuits. The iuiivur>.ity of Tyrnau, as mentioned above^ has within these few years been re- moved to Pest. Languagk.] As the Hungarians are mixed with Germans, Slavo- nians, and Walachians, they have a \ariety of dialects. The Hunga- rian Proper appears to be radically diit'erent from the Slavonian, arid has been supposed to be a branch of the Finnic. The upper and mid- dling classes of people speak German and Latin, though with the latter they continually mix words that can only be understood by those who are acquainted with the Hungarian, Slavonian, or German languages. The Lord's Prayer in Hungarian is' as follows : — Mi atyank ki lac^y a nicnnyekbcn , zcntdssck mep; a tc nevcd ; jojjon d a te orzugod : Le^i/en meg ft te uhirntod, inlnr a mcnj/ben, iii^ij itt e foldounis. A mi mindcnmipi kcnijcrunket ad meg nekiinkma ; es botsasd meg a mi letkeinkct, mikeppia viiis megboLwtunk azoknuk a kik mi cllcniinc vctkeztcnck ; cs nc i-igy miii- ket a ki'sertetbc : de zabudiis meg minket a gonosi,tol ; mert tied as orssagt u hat atom, cs a dirsoaeg mind orokkc. jimen. ANTiauiTiEs.] Many Roman antiquities, such as military roads, ruins, and coins, have been found in Hungary and other parts of the an- cient province of Dacia, About 20 miles from Relgrade are the re- mains of a most magnificent Roman bridge. Hungary was formerly re- markable for Its coinage j and there are still extant, in the cabinets of the curious, a complete series of coins of their former kings. More Greek and Roman medals have been discovered in this country than, periia])s, in any other in Europe. HiSToKY.] The Huns, alter subduing this countiy in the middle of the third century, communicated their name to it, being then part of the ancient Pannonia. They were succeeded by the G(jths ; the Gotivs were exiJcUed by the Lombards ; they by the Avari ; who were followed by tlie Slavi in the beginning of the JUli century. At tlic close of it, tlic Ugri or Ugurs, emigrated from the banks of the Volga, and took pos- session of the country. Hungary was formevly aa asseniblagc oi" dif* ^08 THANSYLVANIA, ifil fetent states ,* and the first whn assumed the title of king waa Steplieh, in the year yp7, wlien he embraced Christianity. In his reign the form of government was established, and the crown rendered elective. About the year 1310, king Charles-Robert ascended tlie throne, and subdued Bulgaria, Servia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Slavonia, and many other pro- vinces J but many of those conquests were afterwards reduced by tlie Venetians, Turks, and other powers. In tlie 15th century, Huniades, v/ho was guardian to the infant king Ladislaus, bravely repulsed the Turks when they invaded Hungaiy j and, upon the deatli of Ladislaus, the Hungarians, in 1438, raised Matthias Corvinus, son of Huniades, to their throne. Lewis, king of Hungary, in 1526, was killed in a battle, fi^iting against Solyman, emperor of the Turks. This battle proved almost fatal to Hungary : but the archduke Ferdinand, brother to the emperor Charles V., having married the sister of Lewis, claimed the title of Hungaiy, in which he succeeded with some difficulty j and that kingdom has ever since belonged to the house of Austria, though, by its constitution, its crown ought to be elective.— For the rest of tlie Hun- garian history, bee Germany. m «# m f : TRAXSYLVANIA, SLAVONIA, the BUCK- OWINE, CROATIA, and DALMATIA. THESE countries appear under one division, for several reasons, and particularly because we have no very exact account of their extent and boun(.l;irie3. The most authentic is as follows: — T; . ksylvania is bounded on the north by the Carpatliian mountains, which divide it iVom Gallicia ; on the east by Moldavia and Waiaclva j on the south by Wa- Iichia J and on the w-est by Hungary. It lies between 22 and 26 degrees of east longitude, and 45 and 48 of north latitude. Its length is about 1 60, and its breadth ] 20 miles ; contains nearly 14,000 square miles, and is surroHnded on all sides by high mountains. Its produce, vegetables, and animals, are almo.^t the same with those of Hungary. The air is \rholcsonie and temperate j but the wine of this country, though good, is not equal to the Hungarian. Its interior government still partakes greatly of the ancient feudal system, being composed of many indepen- dent statf:s and princes, who are little more than nominally subject to the Austrians. Papists, Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians, Arians, Greeks, Maliometans, and other sectaries, here enjoy their several religions. Transylvania is thought to add but little to the Austrian revenue, though it exports some metals and salt to Hungary. All sorts of provisions are verj* cheap, and excellent in their kinds. Hermanstadt, the capital, <?ontains about ni,000 inhabitants, and is a large, strong, and well-built ci tyj as are Clausenburg and Weissenburg. The seat of government is at Hermanstadt, and the governor is assisted by a council made up of Ro- man-catholics, Calvinists, and Lutherans. The diet, or parliament, meets by sun)mons, and receives the commands of the sovereign, to whom of late they liave been more devoted tlian formerly. They have a liberty of making remonstrances and representations in case of grievances. Tiansylvania is part of ancient Dacia, the inhabitants of which long employed the Ixomau arms before they could be subdued. It was over^ JiUCKOWINE AT*D SLAVONIA. '09 nm by the Goths on the decline of the Boman empire, '~A then i tha Huns. Their descendants retain the same military chnracier. Tlic po- pulation of the country is estimated at l,5lK),(XX). The military force is at present reduced to six regiments of 1500 each ; but it is well known, that, during tlic last two wars in which the house of Au.sui;i was engaged, the Transylvanians did great services. Hermanstadt is the only bishopric ; and tiie Transylvanians at present seem to trouble them- selves little eitfier about learning or religion, though the Roman-catlio- lic is the established church. Stephen I., king of Hungary, introduced Christianity there about the year 1000; and it was .afterwards governed by an Hungarian vaivod or viceroy. The various revolutions in thaif government prove their impatience under slavery; and though tluj treaty of Carlowitz, in iGgg, gave the sovereignty of Transylvania, as also of Slavonia, to the house of Austria, yet tlie natives enjoy what we may call a loyal aristocracy, which their sovereigns do not think proper to invade. In October 1784, on account of the real or feigned oppres- sions of the nobility, near 1 6,000 assembled, and committed great de- predations on those whose conduct had been obnoxious to them. Seve- ral liad their palaces burnt, and were glad to escape with their lives. The revolters were disappointed in their attempt on Clausenburg ; and afterwards offered to separate, and go home in peace, on the terms of a general pardon, better treatment from tlie nobility, and a freedom from vassalage. Lenient terms were granted to them ; and, with the punish- ment of a few, the insurrection was suppressed. The BucKowiNE was formerly a part of Transylvania, and afterwards of Moldavia, but was ceded to tiie Austrians by the Turks in 17/1. It is situate between Moldavia and GaUicia,-is about yO mik-s long and 50 broad, and contains nearly 3,000 square miles arvl about 130,000 inlia- bitants. The country is full of woods, and produces but little corn. The people derive their support from the cattle they rear, and the wa.K and honey afforded them by their bees. Tlie inhabitants consist of various nations, as Walachians, Germans, Hungrjrlans,' Armenians, Jews, and a great number of gypsies. The language is the Walachian, but the German becomes continually more prevalent. This country has been united by the Austrian government to Gallicia, and is under the sanio administration. The capital i-; Tzernowitz, situate on the Pruth, the sec of a Greek archbishop, and containing about 6,000 inhabitants. Slavovia lies between the i/th and 21st degrees of east longitude, and the 45tli and 46ih of north latitude. It is estimated to be about 200 miles in lengtli, and 60 in breadtli, and contains about 10,000 square miles. It is bo mded by tlie Drave on the north, by tlie iDannbe on the east, by tlie Save on the soutli, .and by Siiria in Austria on the v/est. The reason why Hungary, Transylvania, Slavonia, and the otlier nations .subject to the house of Austria in those parts, contain a surprising va- riety of people, differing in name, language, and manners, is becausQ^ liberty here made its last stand against the Roman arms, which by degrees forced the remains of the dilferent nations they had conquered into those quarters. The thickness of the woodp, the rapidity of tlie rivers, and the strength of the country, favoured their resistance ; and tlieir <lescendants, notwithstanding the power of the Turks, the Austrians, the Hungarians, and the Pules, still retain the same spirit of independency. Without regarding the anangements made by the sovereigns of Europe, they are quiet under the government that leaves them most at liberty. That they are generous as well as brave appears from their attachment t4> the hwuse of AusU'ia^ sixiot it is well knuwn xliAt tlicy preserved t^te m 510 CROATIA AND DAT.MATIA. I' f>^. ' B if i m ;l n pfagmatic snnctinn, and kept tlie innpf.Ti;il crown in «l»;\t rainHv. Tlie Sla\oniaiis formerly so nv.it h empKjycd the Romnii ;irms, that it i<i thought the word .slave tooks its original from tliiMU, on armuiit of t!io great numbers of them who were tnrrifd into hondas^e, so latc^ as tiie. reign of Charlcningne. Thout^h Slavonia yifM-* noiihc-r in beauty H'lr fertility u\ Hungary and 'IVaiisyJvanla, yet the ra\ages ot war are still visible in the face of the country, whieh lies in a great measure unim- proved. The Slavonians are zealous Homaii-catholies, though Greeks and Jews are tolerated. Here arc (wo bidioprirs ; that of ro.sei;a. w hie!» is the capital of the country, and Zagrab, v hieh lies on (he Drave; but we know of no universities. Esseek is a lar^e and strong town, remark- able for a woodm bridge, over the Drave ami adjoining marshes, five miles long and fifteen paces broad, built by the 'lurks. Waradin and Peterwaradin are places noted in the wars between the Austrians and Turks. The inhabitants are composed of Servians, Radzians, Croats, Walaehians, Germans, Hungarians, and various otlier nations. In 17-JO', Slavonia was unitcni to Hungary, and .the states send represeiitati\es to tlie diet of Hungary. Croatia is situate between the 15th and l"(h degrees of east longi- tude, and the 'Ijth and 47th of north latitude. It is bO miles in length, and 70 in breadth, and con(ains about 2,yoo square miles. I'iie man- ners, government, religion, language, and customs, of the Croats are similar to tJiO'^e of the Slavonians and Transyhanians, who are their neighbours. I'heyare excellent irreg\dar troops, and, as such, are famed in motlern history, under the name of Pandours, and vari(jus other de- signations. Carolst.idt is a place of some note, butZagrab, or Agram, is tlie capital of Croatia. All the sovereignty exercised over them by the Austrians seems to consist in the military arrangernents for bringing (heui occasionally intf) the lield. A viceroy presides o\er Croatia, jointly with Slavonia, and Hungarian Dalmatia. This lies in the upper part of the Adriatic Sea, and consists of live districts, in \\ hich the most remarkable pLiees 'are the two following : Scgna, whieh in a royal free tow n, fortified Ixjth by nature and art, and situated near the sea, in a bleak, mountainous, . and barren soil. The bishop of this place is a sutfragan to the arcld)ishop of Spalatro. Here are twelve churches, and two convents. The go\er- nor resides in the old palace, called the Royal C'astle. 2. Ottoschatz, a frontier fortification on the river Galzka. That part of the fortress, w here the governor and the greateift part of the garrison reside*, is surrounded with a wall and some towers : but the rest of the buildings, \\ hieh are mean, are erected on piles in the water : so that one ucighboiu' cannot visit another without a boat. The partof Dalmatia formerly called Venetian Dalmalin, is now like- wise subject to Austria, qnd together with Hungarian Dalmatia, is esii«- mated to contain about 4,(J40 sfjuarc miles, and above 300,000 inhabi- tants. The country is muuutain<ms, but fruiiful. 'i'lie capital is Spalalro, which has a fine harlxnu', and is the see of an arclibishop. Zara is an- other large town, with 7,CK>0 inlwbitants, and so strongly fort ined that it is deemed almost impregnable. Sebenieo is likewise a strong town. The natives of this part ot Dalmatia carry on a considerable trade, and are esteemed the best mariners of any on the coasts of the Adriatic or any part of Italy. The Dalmatians resemble the Slavonians in their manners, and speak tlie same language. They profess the Roman-caiholi<j religion. \ lu \''cDetian Didinat^ is the liinall aristocratic Ue& state of Poglissa, t ) V M •vi ..^ ^ -^rMtn^mfO^- yr'J-fi-"~''^'V^.- ,5ft. :.i- .,; ,.i.-*, r*-....--.:--4iiJi ."/,!/,■ .\r ■JO .'M oi. a:vd. IVoin Ihe bosl iilii (minus S n-i't./.in/ X.'" jl. I AT () N^J I A" ■7../ ^ .Vv/^. /.l/>iiiii — (/■i</ii/i,i ■II,/lli\ /h/A (> -'i'.. y^W/wr'^flSpV-^- /, JuMVii/n '•':%. '%: V»t/i V/V/ ^fiii/i-ni/itif:, /> ■f \ Ju//> VfVII /a li'V.' {■'^■■li X, ('ii.r or t.lM . 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VW/'/A t ^ SnnHn 'lyi'it •lj~r-^ I "'/(///l^ /'llt.''/y/\ "/'/••:<•,/<; ii/o/iv V/ii/i'llVi W.-ii/i .t'/,'/^'<//.S .//'• iH'lf "/ir^/if r/i// f/i'uriiil {Jll/ll/lOW :it/i,t ''% Voii'i ■/ii'ir V/'« iiiiiA:.i/ii/i Ihi ^y<yfvx/,ir^_ A 1!^^' K- ^Irr/'ji ^./it/ii/' (f../. Cii.''/ii /i>/ll/"^Lr, a.-^ m :/•;/• i . ^ %<'pmv'^ l^<-''m<>-l{,,,,,-/,,/,/i/i. f.^^Uo'ii.'A-^^//i/'/i/i/i ^ ■ 'i-.vif/iii/ ljiW''o/'r, Oii/ii/u'jj ^i;/o?f<,^r ■1^ 1i:nn.i i>i/iril^\^ iniol '//I'liiiii Kefi'iviut's to tlu>l'iiliitiiiati>s. I /'I'/iif/v/tti. y* /'ri//,iA-iir. \7 h'li/i.t;. ^^ /irtii'-f 2 Mii/ii'ii/<urii lO /h'l-Ai. 18 Arrciv. 2ti /fuif/n :\('ii/iii. ' \llVi//io \^ Sir,f,/i,i . 77 /fiKtiit ■i/'oiiuin. \2l\>/i>,A- 20 /.,'/i,-xy,ti . 2R MW/iviiiit 'yi^iii'tiht. V^ Hi/f/Kf/t . 21 /iinvii. 2^ A'lWf A /iu>ivr/in\: VA Xonvfirvi/ek . 32 (hrtriH: •TOAW/'/zi/. 1 1'o/nct 1.1 -«//>*.•/• 2Xf,ui,/i>iiiir M/iin,/,/H'. H Minofiii . 1<> ,H'Yt.t/,m: J4 /.tiNi/i . /WiJi Ui/itt jfltrii /)nriw /iii/ii/i .l/i/iii- I'l) i /('I/ Av^>v. /!» ;•.• ./.' /f.' <%» /,•(■ /V|f ^ v- ^yr/viiiiy/ f,/,r,r//i. %. " <irY>/i/oii') ?^ ^^ ; - /yk^/rv//' '^ - ^' <iJ/<'/</itW A> /.I ft* rai__ui jBi .BUI ..jHsi. ■«_iiiw jBX_ t—— — -: — ~-"T — »im ■» .■wi-wy- w> Di'jtni'.' of' -'■-' l-i'iioihiilf r.o.fl ■< .1 iron) /.oiii/i>n . ^"t^ ■•(> ,1'' "' iL I ;^ t» NJ I A I hotmj K/H./t-j -t^. .V- Y? yiWilrcl'ii-'l^ j/,:<:A\i"' ■i/ki/'i'li) S(./."/,// .^//,v '> rK, /,>/, [•/vi'i'-'TytY//,, /MA/f/ aih-rini.tn 1 ;, T X n 1 , /i,wh,i<Ayf '■IMi'ijii •/v,' ,./. Vii'nii/iji'r \')'in</ii;>r (j/Vi///(' A4 w.r, ; /)„//. f<yy//7 //(■•'(■/nil //<>/•/:•■ ifk mriiPlti Jln<i/^-'i'i'(.lfi'i f'/vA ///.; 'I :r\/i 'oiivm //.'Mi.i/^' .w 'V /iv..-wvl 'y<i/ IWiuf.' (^^ \ pi/< lv'> lyV.rt; ilU'r/ilflr. ';<■"■ •J \''A.\!nh»\ /J^ /'/„W,'/iw 'Md^ J //(■(/TT/'.V/j v/A/i /ur^vX-Ziii;/ I'M I)jlt>«' :9_i'iufl S^.; ^'".'■/•l/'C ■/•'■''"'?/'' fc{" Vv 'irl\. }iy.viri\: rc loin Ai'iir/l ,//e/ifli'' ' Tiifi i^r l|'/V>(/fJl t /("t'/v lU'l ;!/'/(»• il ('tii/-/i>li»:<-/* iir ,' ! l/wi: Xli'iT'ilff' l/it^llC "■■/>. h'ltllh/itM llo/< (•/> r,/iv/. ,^* '.M<^ 'nr/'mi^ Miiiimti^ '■'iiiviii.i.hiii'T ^ iii'it'' vT^i^Z^/ HU'iiAv ../.■/.'..vl:? p 'il/hV^ l.mfi'yii -..„ </,-w.,k<i v/vri /•/■: ,'//// .'»' ill)- if //I/ A' j\i\'-^n „///!■/ ilf/roxh. /;rfiU' M ),•-//</ Mn'/'< ■'<A: 'h//, n- ,, l.i'npol. :,i,>-/i) '1/ll/'lH ?Ki.i 'y/u'i u/:""'; :><' (V/iiir.<-/i'ii' y I f/hnviv Ji V !.//>• .Ill iWi .loTfi -/•< ' /•' }ti</i'i/ii'ii ", ", /./s/i;'/'//< li,ul<l(iTklt'\V Uitrkii \Imh'-'I''I iki' HI I II' vaiiiiouuv Ai'/'itiiiyif Mu,i, tIK \n\\/uy%" /'■'/•->. '"'•■•7-/ ^^~^-N„o <\/ ''<vv<'m„-v > ■^'Z,-*J-''^""<y/ ^^Si/>r,tfl/ior\ ^^ff^'ic^iriirhMUi " * 7itJtiiiim\ ^>-^ 7 s v*4 ,/\i:V/l , Jl.rniti'i %/.}:fiirid!i,y ' ,%ii/i" •/>iii<e"'^"',! — «.//«' < --'"' o I'rii/i'ii ^ Ahf""' 1 1 1' I xli,tllili'l''l^' ^ 7 - /TjrV>W<^ nlio/'Ol I . \ PellCVikit I 77 slltlllll" rM-ii/il^ Ifill/'l ■A.I', yizAvf l//* ririiA'A ik'tiiit ',i/ii'>'// r/ ■,'./ //•('«» l.i'llJoll . "111;., k =>V;--~'->^*' ■.'/' .t^' .1 / PRUSSIA. 511 •• / formerly under the protection of Venice, but now under that of tlic AuHtrian go\tTanR'nt. 'I'jiis state contains abf)Ut 20,000 inliabitnnts, Hud its ch:ef HKi^istnte bears tlie title of nxlikt cncs, or gre:it lord, snd is chosen annualiy from some noble Hungarian families which are settled thfie. A feuiall part of D.iln^.atia belongs to the Turk", and another part to th'^ rtpi'.blle of Ra'^isa. the territory of which contains about 2/0 square n)i!vi-', and 6i),0t)0 inhabitants, Ragusa is an ai'istocratieal st.ite, formed nearly after the model of tiirit of Venice. The government i-^ hi the hands of the nobility ; and the chief of the republic, who is styled rector, is changed every month, and elected by scrutiny or lot. During his short administration, he lives in the palace, and wears a ducal habit. As the Ragusnns arc unable to protect themselves^ they make use of their wealth to procure them protectors , the chief of whom, for many years, was the grand seignor. They endeavour also to keep upon good terms with the Venetians, and otlier neighbouring states. But in the year 1783, a dispute arose between them and the king of Naples, re- specting a claim of right to his appointing a commander of the Ragvisan troop.s It was terminated by the republic's putting itself under that king s protection. I'he city of Rngusa is not above two miles in circum- ference, but it is well built, and contnins some handsome edifices. The ancient Enidaums was situated not far from this city. The Ragusans profess tlie Romish religion; but Greeks, Armenians, and Turks, are to- lerated. Almost all the citizens are traders: and they keep st* watchful an eye over their freedom, that the gates of the city of Ragusa are allowed to be open only a few hours in the day. The language chiefly m use among tfie Rngusans is the Slavonian, but the greatest part of them speak the kalian, lliey have many trading vessels, and are great (arriers in the Medl.-'rranean, like the Dutch, being constantly at peace M itli the piratical states of Harbary. Tlie towns of Gravosa and Stagno, oO miles N. E. of Rpau>^a,are within the territories of this republic; and there are also five small island* belonging to it, the principal oi which is .Melida. .'.'' TnK KINGDOM of PRUSSIA, and the rilLSSlAN DOMINIONS in gemral. E'iXEN'T AND Situation of inn Kivgdom of PriL'sii.v PhorFR. f.eTigth Ereadth Milps 2 SO 210} De<irecs. St loniiitnde. 2S0] , . f KJ'and 21" East * between \..q 1 ^.,u v- 1 1 -■. i \rir and 5S' iS.onh lautude. Kamk.] THE name of Prussia is derived from its ancient inhabitants, the Ijoais>i, or Porussi : so calk-d from tbe Slavonic word po, lu ar^ and Jiiisiii ; signifying (he people wlio lived adjacent to or near the Pinssian:;. PiOUNnAKiKS,"] 'I'iie kingdom of Prussia is bounded on the lu.nih by tJie Baltic Sea and Russia (Samogiti;i), on the east by Rn-i/ia ^Lithuania), wn the soulJi by Gallieii and Siilc'iia^ and oix the wi.v;l b-.' iJi:ujdenl)n;'g unJ Pt'Ukeruui^i. £12 PRUSSIA. Divisions.] The general divisions of the kingdom of Prassia, witli their extent and populaliou^ are as follow : Sq. miles. Population. East Prussia, or Old East PrHssia, the ancient Ducal Prussia 12,050 940,000 West Prussia, with the district of Netz 10,100 52l,630 Soutli Prussia 15,000 1,100,000 New £a^t Prussia 11,000 700,000 i Total.... 48,150 3,261,630 ^'^P ' * ^ mm i M m 1 ■':'\i i\ West Prussia consists principally of tlie territory wrested from Poland in tlie year 1/72 ; and South Prussia and New East Prussia, of the por- tion of the same country allotted to Pi ussia at its final division in 1795. The extent and population of South Prussia and New East Prussia, are not v«ry accurately known, but they have been estimated as above. Face of the country, forests, lakes.] The kingdom of Prussia is in general a level country : tliere are no mountains ; but extensive forests and woods, especially in the parts acquired from Poland. Prussia abounds in lakes ; tlie principal of which are the Sperling See, tlie Mauer See, and the Gneserich I.ake. The first of these is 20 miles long and as many broad. In East Prussia, it is reckoned, there are 300 small lakes j and l60 in West Prussia. Rivers, canals.] The chief rivers are the Vistula, the Pregel, the Memel, the Netze, the Bro, and tlie Warte. The two canals called Fre- deric's canals, and the Bromberg canal, vmite the Netze with the Vistula. At tlie mouths of the rivers Vistula and Memel, singular havens, called by the Germans haJTs, are formed by long narrow tracts of land. This tongue of land in the Frisch-hafi', at the mouth of the Vistiila, is 70 miles in lengtli, and from three to ten broad. It is said to have been thrown up by tempests about the year 1 K)0. Metals, minerals.] Prussia yields no metils, except a little iron ore : its peculiar and valuable mineral is amber, wliicii is usually found at about the depth of 100 feet, and is often washed on shore by tempests^ It is now generally supposed to be a vegetable production, mineralised by some unknown operation of nature. Climate, soil, produce.] Tli^ climate of Pnissia is more damp and raw, and the cold more lasting, than in Germany ; but the air is sar hibrious, and the natives frequently attain to a considerable age. The soil is tolerable ; and produces, corn, fiax, hemp, hops, tobacco, various kinds of fruits, and timber in abundance. Animals.] The uri or bison, a kind of wild ox, and a species of beaver, are found here, as are also lynxes, bwirs, and foxes. The horses, cattle, and sheep, resemble those of the northern parts of Germany. Cities, chief towns.] Konigsberg, the capital of the kingdom of Prussia, is situate on an island formed by the river Pregel, over which it lias seven bridges. This city is seven miles in circumference, and con- tains 4,480 bouses and above 50,000 inhabitants. It carries on an extensive tjade, the river being navigable for ships of considerable burden. Besides its college or university, which contains 38 professors, it has magnificent palaces, a town-house, and exchange^ as also a good harbour, and a citadel, which is called Fretiericsburg, and is .1 regular square. ft PRUSSIA. 513 ■* Warsaw, the late capital of Poland, now a Pru'Jsiaii city, is situate on the Vistula, pnrtly iti a plain and partly on a gentle ascent rising from the river. It contains many niagnificent palaces and other buildings, besides churches and convents. The streets are spacious, but ill paved ; and the greatest part of the houses, particularly in the suburbs, are mean wooden hovels. The city exhibits a strong contrast of wealth and poverty, and has little or no commerce. The numter of inhabitants in 1787 was nearly QO.OOO, including the suburb of Praga. At present, after what the city, and especially that suburb, suffered from the siege and massacre by the Russian army in 1794, they are eitimated at about £)ti,OC)0. Dantzic, formerly the capital of Polish Prussia, is famous in history on many accounts, particularly for beiug at the head of the Hanseatie association, commonly called the Hanse-towns. It is situate on the Vistula, near five miles from the Baltic, and is a large, beautiful, populous city : its houses generally are live stories high ; and many of the streets are planted v/ith ehesnut-trees. It has a tine harbour, and is still a very commercial city, altlwugh it is now on the decline in that respect. It formerly contained 80,000 inliabitants, but in the year 1 793 they were diminished to 30,000. Dr. Busching attirms, that it appears from ancient records, that as early as the year 997 Danlr.ic was a large commercial city, and not a village or inconsiderable town," as some pretend. Marier-vorder, the scat of the government of "West Prussia, stands on the Vistula. The cathedral is the largest church in the kingdom of Prussia, being 320 feet long. It seems by its strong breastworks to have formerly served as a fortress. Here is also a castle and a spacious palace, built in tlie old Gothic style. Elbing and Thorn are cities of considerable trade, and contain, the former about 16,000, and the latter 9,000 inhabitants. Posen, late a Polish city, the seat of the government of South Prussia, is the see of a catholic bishop, has a university, and contains 13 convents and 15,000 inhabitants. National character, manners, customs.] The character, man- ners, and customs of the inhabitants of the old kingdom of Prussia, are nearly the same with those of their neighbours in the north of Germany. Those of the Poles have been already described in our account of Gal- licia. CoMMKRcr: AND MANUFACTURES.] The Prussinu manufiictures are not inconsiderable: they consist of glass, iron- work; paper, gunpowder, copper, and brass mills; manufactures of cloth, camlet, linen, silk- stockings, and other articles. The inhabitants export a variety of naval stores, amber, linseed, and hcmp-secd, oatmeal, fish, mead, tallow, and caviare ; and it is said that 5(X) ships are loaded every year with those commodities, chictly from Konigsberg. Remgion.] The religion of Prussia is very tolerant. The established religions are those of the Lutherans and Calviniiits, but chiefiy the for- mer; but papists, antipcedobaptists, and almost all other sects, are here tolerated. Universities, literature, language] Tiic university of Konigs-" berg was founded in 1544; that of Frankfort on the Oder in 15UJ, by Joachim, elector of Brandenburg. To these are to be added the Polish university of Posen, which has now become subject to Prussia. There aremany schools and seminaries of education in the kingdom of Prussia, but it has pro»luced few men of eminent litrrary ait)ilitiea. . . 2J". . 514 PRUSSIA. It i i f .!j *• I !( The language of Pnissia is th« German } but in the territory lately acquired from Poland, the Polish, as may be expected, prevails. Constitution and government.] Before we ppKced to speak of the government, army, revenue, &c. of Prussia, which have a relerence to the whole of the Prussian dominions, it will be proper to present the reader with a statement of the countries and provinces of v\hich those dominions are composed, with their extent and population respectively, as they now arc, alter the changes made by the ces&ion to France of the Prussian territory on the left bank of the Rhine, and the appropriation of the indemnities assigned in compensation for such cession. These, according to tlie latest and uK>st authentic accounts, are as follow : 8q. miles. Kingdom of Prussia, including the late acquisi- 1 tions from Poland, according to the divisions > 48,150 above given ,. ..^.,..,,0.,..} >^/^ Prussian Pomerania 7,200 § 1 Electorate of Brandenburg... 10,672 S V Part of counties of Mannsfeld and Hohenstein ...ISO i* Abbey of Quedliuburg , 32 ^_*Town and territory of Erfurt, and theEichsteld 810 Duchy of jVLigdcbnrg 1,1^2 incipality of ^alberstadt 4BO Principality, late bishopric, of Hildesheim 0"4O Late imperial cities of Muhlhausen, Nordhau- 7 xj_ sen, Goslar 3 'Principality of East Friesland 8(J4 Principality of Minden 4y6 Part of duchy of Cleve ,. 400 County of Mark 81t) Counties of Lingen and Tecklenburg 208 County of Ravensberg ,.273 ♦Principality, latf bishopric, of Padcrborn 80'8 ♦Principality of Munster, containing the city") and greater p;u"t of the late bishopric J * Towns and territory late belonging to the aljbiys of Herfordcn 32 Essen „...40 Wcrden 40 Elten 32 F nrnna J Principality of Bayreulh or Culmbach.. . 1 ,200 ■ (^Principality of Anspach or Onolzbach... 1,120 Prassian Silesia and the county of Glatz , ll,t}l{j Switzerland. — Principality of Neufchatel or Neuen-l . burg, and the county of Valcngin » J Population. 3,2t>i,630 540,000 1,200,000 35,000 12,000 110,000 2()0,O0O lb(J,00O 90,000 31,000 120,000 tio,ooo 55,000 124, (XX) 45,000 85,00» 120,000 1 ,360 200,OCO 2,000 5,500 5,000 4,000 220,(X)a 275,OfXl I J 890,000 45,000 Total... 88,980 9,015,130 N.B. The territories marked with an asterisk, are those given to Prussia by tlii* -plan of ind«mniticii citrried iuto cfTect in 180J. Constitution and government.} His Prussian majesty is nbso- lute through all his dominions. The government of this kingdom is by a regency of four chancellors of state : viz. 1, The great master ; 2. The great burgravej 3. Tlie great chancellor j aiwl^ 4, The great Hwrjihai- i»RUSSIA. S15 *the'ie are also some other councils, and 37 bailiwicks. The states consist, 1, Of counsellors of state ; 2. Of deputies from the nobility; and, 3. From the Commons. Besides these institutions^ Frederic lit erected a board for cohimerce and navigationi Revenue.] The revenue of the frussian monarchy, before the addi- tions made to it by the last division of Poland, and tlie changes occa- Jiioucd by carrying into effect the late plan of indemtiitics, was estimated at 3,S7(),000/. sterling, of which Prussia contributed *„..... ..^816,600 terandenburg 1,050,000 Silesia ,. 937,500 Pomerania -. 350,000 Magdeburg and Halberstndt -. , 241,600 Westphalia w 483,300 Total.*.3,879,00O It is probable that it now amounts to considerably above four rnilHonsj For though the entire revenue of Poland was not computed to exceed «139,54Ci/. sterling, it would not be surprising if the Prussian govern- ment were to find means to raise a still greater sum from its share of that kingdom only, since Austria obtains from Gallicia nearly to the amount of one million sterling. This revenue arises from the contributions, domains» salt-works, excise> posts, tolls, and various taxes and duties. The duty on amber alone is sairl to produce above 2d,000 dollars annually. There is no state debt, and the exchequer is verj' rich in consequence of the economical regulations of Frederic II. ; who, notwithstanding, in the last }'ear3 of his reign> expended annually, in tlie improvement of his dominions, to the amount of 525,0001. sterling ; and between the years 1763 and 1784, 3,500,000/. Army.] The Prussian army, even in time of peace, consists of about 220,000, including 40,000 cavalry, of the best disciplined troops in the world ; and during the seven years' war, that force was augmented to 300,0(K) men. But this great military force, however it may aggrandise the power and importance of the king, is utterly incon- sistent with the interests of the people. The army is chiefly composed of provincial regiments — the whole Prussian dominions being divided into circles or cantons; in each of which, one or more regiments, in proportion to the size and populousness of the division, have been originally raised, and from it the recmits continue to be taken : and each particular regiment is always quartered, in time of pcjce, near the canton from which its recruits are drawn. Whatever number of sons a peasant may have, they are all liable to be taken into the service, except one, who is left to assist in the management of the farm. The rest wear badges from their childhood, to mark that they are destined to be soldiers, and obliged to enter into the service whenever they are called upon. The maintaining so large an army, in a country naturally so little equal to it, occasioned, however, such a drain from population, and such a withdrawing of strength from the labours of the earth, that Frederic II. endeavoured in some degree to save his own peasantry, by drawing as many recruits as he could from other countries. These fo- reign recruits remain continually with the regiments in which they ar«| placed J but the native Pressians have every year some months of iur- 2 I. 2 5\6 PRUSSIA. lough, during M-hich thoy return to the houses of their fathers nr hro« thers, and work at tlie business of the farm, or in any other way thc-y please, ArxMS.] Tlic roy.il arms of Prussia are, argent, an eagle displayed Siblc, crowned or, for Prussia. Azure, the imperial sceptre or, for Courland. Argtiut, an eagle displayed gules, with semicircular wreaths, for the niarquisate of Brandcubing. To these are added thu respt'ctivo arms of the several provinces subject to tlie Prussian crown. Ohders of KxiGHTHooD.] TluTC are six orders of knij^hthood : the " Oi(icr of Concord," instituted by Christian Kmest, margrave of Urandcnburg, in the year lfJ60, to dlstingui.-^h the pnrt he had acted in restoring peace to manv of the prinv:es of" Knrnpe. Frederic 111. elector of Brandenburg, and afterwards ki;;g of Prussia, instituted, in 1685, the " Order of Generoxitj/." The It-.i.^hts wear a cress of eight points, ena- melled blue, having in llie centre this rao^to, " La Generosiie," pendent to a blue ribbon. The same prince i:iFtituted the " Order of the Bladi l}(L-;lc," on (lie day of his coronation at Kihugsbcrg, in the year 170O : the soverei;fMi is always gr;md-nia--ter : and the number of knights, ex- clusive of the royal family, is limited to thirty, who must also be admitted into the " Order of Gc'ncro,sl.t'/," pre\ious to their receiving this, unless they be sovereign princes. The badge is an eight-cornereil goldeii blue enamelled cross, in tlie middle of which is the name of the sovereign, and on the edges are four black spread-eagles. It is worn suspended fiom a bioad orange-coloured ribbon wliich passes fi'om the left to the light. The knights wear on the left side of their coats a .silver star, in the mid:i!o of which i.> a black eagle, with the motto Siiuiit Cuiquc. The '' Ordi-r of Mirit" was instituted by Frederic II. in the year 1/40, lo reward tlie merit of persons cither in arms or arts, without distinction of birth, religion, or countrv. The king is sovereign, and the. nnmhcr of knights unlimited. Fiedcrie II. likewise instituted the orders oi'"Se. Stcplun" and " Sit.. John-," the former in 1/34, the latter in lysO. HisTOKv.] The ;;ncieiit history of Prussia, like that of olhcr king- doms, is lost in the clouds of fiction and romance. The early inhabitants, a brave and warlike people, descended from the Slavonians, refused to submit to the neighbouring princes, who, on pretence of converting them to Christianity, endeavoured to subject them to slavery. They made a noble stand against the kings of I'oland; one of whom, Boles- laus IV'., was by them defeated and killed in 1 10"3. They continued inde- peiKk'iit, and pagans, till the time of the crusades, when the Germau knights of the Teutonic order, aliout the year 122/', undertook their conversion by the edge of the sword, but upon condition of having, as a reward, the property of the counti-y w hen conquered- A long series of wars followed, in whicli the inhaijitants of Prussia were almost extirpated by tile religious knights, who, in the thirteenth century, after committing (lie n\o.>,t incredible barbarities, peopled the country with Germans. After a vast waste of blood, in l-i&j a peace was concluded between t!ie knights of the Teutonic order and Casimir IV. king of Poland, who had untlertaken the cause of the oppressecl people j by which it was agreed, that the part now called Pfjlish Prussia should continue a free province, under the king's protection ; and that the knights and the };rand-master should possess the other part, jieknowledging themselves vasjfals ol" Poland. This gave rise to fresh wars, in which the knights endeavoured, but unsuccessfully, to throw otf their vassalage to Poland. In 1525, Albert, margtave of Brandenburg, and the last grand-master of ihe Teutonic order, laid aside tlie habit of his order, embraced Lutlier- PRUSSIA. 517 ariisrn, and conclaJod a prnce at Cracow, by w hitfi tlie mareravc was acknowledged duke of thi.' ca^t part of Prussia (formerly called, for that rcnson, Dncal Prussia) but to br lu.ld aj a fiof of Poland, and lo descend lo his male heirs ; and i:pon failure of his male iasue, to hia brother and Jiis male heirs. Thus ended the sovpreij;nty of the Teutonic order iu JViLs-jia, afler it had subsisted n<'arjy 3CX) years. In lC"-7, ti.'; elector Frederic-Williiiin of Brandenbuvi^, doservcdly called the Gre.it, had Ducal Prussia confirmed lo him ; and, by the convt^ntloiw of Welau and Lrom- berg, it \\ as freed, by Jolni C'asimir king of Poland, from vassalage ; and he and liis descendants wert' ^declared independent and iovercign lords; of this pari of Prussia. As the protestant religion had hctu introduced into this countr)' by the margrave Albert, and the electors of Brandenburg were now of tliat persuasion, the protestant uiterest tavoured iheui so mucii, that Frederic, the sun of Frederic-William tlie (ireat, wa.s raised to the dignity of king of Pru.ssia, in a solemn assembly of the states, proclaimed January 18, l/Ol, and soon after acknowledged :\i such by all the powers of Ciu-isteji- <lom. His grandson, Frederic II., in the memoirs of his family, gives us no high idea o^ this first king's talents for government, but expatiates on tlioiju of his own father, Frederic-William, who succeeded in 1713. He certainl)' was a prince of strong natural abilities, and considerably increased the revenues of his C(juntrv, but too often at the expense of humanity. At his de;ith, which happened in 1/40, he is sa'J to have Jeft seven millions sterling in his treasury, which enablod his son, by Jiis wonderful victories, and the more vKtnderful resources by which Jie rej)aired his defeats, to bectjme the admiration of the age. He im- proved tile arts of peace as -well as of war, and distinguished himself as a poet, philosopher, and legisl;;toi. Some of the principal transactions of Ids reign hiive already been relited in our account of the history of Ger- many. In the year 1783 he pu.blished a rescript signifyuig his pleasure that no kneeling should in future be practised in honour of his person, assigning for his reason, that this act of liumiliation was not due but to the Divinity J and near 2,000,000 of crowns were expended by him, in 1782, in draining marshes, establishing factories, settling colonies, re- Jieving distress, and in other purposes of philanthropy and policy. T'he late king of Prussia, who succeeded his uncle, August 17, l/SCJ, made many salutary regulations fi)r his subjects, and t-siablished a court cf honour to prevent the diabolical practice of duelling in his dominions. The exertions of Prussia against France, till the trea.ty of peace con- cluded between those two powers on the 5th of April 179-3, have been already related in our account of France. Frederic- William II.* died at Berlin, of a dropsy, November l6, 1797> yw'l '^vas succeedeilby his son, Frederic- William 111,, the present sovereign. His reign has hitherto been pacific, and he has maintained an amicable connexion with France, amid all the changes of government in that country, Frederic-William III., born Aug\ist 3, 17/0* married December 24, 1793, to Louisa- Augusta-Wilhelmina- Amelia, daughter of Charles- Xiouis-Frederic, duke of Meckletiburg Strelii/.^ by \\ honi he has issue — * In enumerating the kings of Prussia, we have thought It most prop'jr to follow the method used in Prussia, and throughout Germany, where the FnJiihs are di- stinguished from the FreJerk-WilUiWis : thus the uncle of the laie king, and the late king, frequently here styled Frederic III. and Frederic IV., are always called, oa tin continent, Frederic 11. and Frederic- William II.; the father tit the former not belnrf styled Frederic II. but Frederic- William I, w m'^- if •;: ; m I i hi 1 T Ik i ,1 1 3i f'i! J18 SILESIA. Frederic-William, bom October 15, 1/95. Frederic-William-Louis, born March 22, 1 79?- Frederica-Louisa-Charlotte-Wilhelmina, born July 13, 1798. Charles-Frederic- Alexander, born June 29, 1801 . Queen Dowager — Frederica-Louisa, daughter of the hmdgr^va Xiouis IX. of Husse Darmstadt ; born Oct. l(j, 1751, SILESIA, SILESIA is situate between 49*30' and 52" 20' of north latitude, and 15 and IQ degrees of east longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Mark of Brandenburg and Lusatia, on the east by Gallicia and South Prussia, on the south by Hnngi'ry and Moravia, ami on the west by Moravia, Bohemia, and Lusatia. It belongs to Prussia, except a small pait of Upper or Southern Silesia. The Prussian part contains 10,960 square miles and 1 ,816,000 inhabitants. Since the division of Poland h\ 1795, a part of that country, in extent about 656 square miles, has been incorporated with it, and placed under the same government. Tho, Austrian part contains 1296 square miles and 280,000 iiUiabitants. Silesia is divided into Lower and Upper Silesia. The former is again subdivided into the seven principalities of Breslau, Brieg, Schwiednitz, Jauer, Liegnitz, Wohlau, and Glogau, immediately subject to the Prussian monarch, besides some other principalities and lordships not immediately subject J anJ tlie latter, into the three immediate principalities of Mun- sterberg, Oppeln, and Ratibor, besides some mediate principalities and inferior lordships. The Austrian part of Silesia, at the extremity of Upper Silesia, is divided into the two circles of Jagerndorf andTeschen. The Sudetic chain of mountains, a part of which is called the Ries- engebirge, or Giant-mountain, divide tliis country from Bohemia. The Elbe and the Oder have their sources among these mountains ; the latter of which flows through the country, dividing it nearly into two equal parts. Besides these, the principal rivers are die Vistula, the Niesse, the feober, the Oppa, the Quies, and the Elsa. In the northern parts are several small lakes and morasses. The mountainous parts contain mines of gold and silver, but they are not worked j they also produce copper, lead, and iron, sulphur, salt-petre, alum, and vitriol. The soil in the vicinity of South Prussia and Lusatia is sandy, and not very productive ; but this deficiency is compensated by the fertility of the otlier and larger part of Silesia, which produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, buck- wheat, linseed, peas, beans, hops, and inadder. In the mountains of Upper Silesia, tar, pitch, and resin, are made from the pine and fir; and the larch-trees yield turpentine. The breed of sheep here is said to be very prcf\»able on account of tlie excellency of tlieir wool. The wild animals of this country are lynxes, which fre(;[uent only the mountainous parts; a few bears and wolves; and foxes, weasels, otters, and beavers; but the latter in no great number. In the Oder are caught salmon and sturgeon, the latter of which are sometimes extremely large; as also skate and lampreys. The otlier rivers, but especially the lakes and ponds, abound in various kinds of fish, Silesia is said to contain 1 80 cities and towns, and 4,000 villages. The capital is Breslau, situate at the confluence of tlie Oder and tho bniall river Ohlau, which last runs tlirough seTOral of tiie streets. It i,* SILESIA. 519 n largo well-buUt fortified city, containing 3,200 houses, and upwards of ti(),OU() inhabitants; one third of whom are catholics, and nine-tcntlis of tlic otluT two-ihirds I^utherans ; yet the protestants have only nine churches, while the (;atholics h^vo twenty-six.; many of which are, how- ever, clciistcTs, Breslau is the see of a catholic bishop, whose ecclesia- stical jurisdiction extends over the \\ hole of Silesia. The cathedral was founded about the year 1150, and contains several magnificent chajxds, which have been added to the body uf the church by ditfercnt former bishops. The princijial of the jjrotestant churches is the Lutheran church of St. KlizHbcth. In the library belonging to this church is what may be considered as a curious manuscript : to the naked eye it appears to be a drawing with a pen of the Venus de Medicis, upon a h^lf-she^t of folio paper; but on 'xaniining it with a magnify ing-glass, it is found to be a copy of Ovid's Art of Love, perfectly legible, and the whole live books within a con^pass of ten inches in length and three ii) width. Breslau has a university, which was founded in 1702 by the unperor Leopold, Schweidnitz is a large and handsomely built town, which, since it has becon^e subject to Prussia, has been rendered a very strong place. It contains upwards of 6,000 inhabitants, about one fourth of whom are catholics, and claims the intolerant and disgraceful privilege of suffering no Jews witliin its walls. Brieg is likewise a large well-built town, and ;iearly as populous as Schwcidnitz. Troppau, considered as the capital of Austrian or Bohemian Silesia, because it is the seat of the Austrian administration of that province, is situate on the Oppa : it has a castle, and contains about 3,000 inhabitants. Teschen, the other principal town in the Austrian part, situate on the £l.sa, contains about 5,000 inhabitants. Tlie principiil manufactures of Silesia are those of thread, twine, linen, flax, and damask : tiie chief exports are madder, mill-stones, thread, yarn, linen and woollsn cloth, Since Silesia has fallen under the do- minion of the kings of Prussia, commerce has been considerably im^ proved, and many excellent regidations have been made for that purpose, Tlie German language is getierally spoken in Silesia, and the speaking of French is considered as an alfectatioin. Sileski was ancieutly inhabited by the Suevi, a Teutonic nation. In tlae s^iventh century tlie Slavonians made themselves masters of the country,, 'Ihey embraced Christianity in the ninth century. Silesia was afterwards united with Poland, and acknowledged the Polish dukes and kings as its sovereigns, in the fourteenth century the SUesian princes rendered themselves independent of Poland, and the whole of the duchy became subject to the kings of Bohemia. On tlie death of the emperor Charles VI., in the year 1740, Frederic II. king of Prussia laid claim to certain principahties of Silesia, and supported his claim so powerftiUy by his arms, thai Lower and tlie greater part of Upper Silesia, with tlie county of Glatz, were ceded to him by the treaty of Breslau, and have c\cr since reniained subject to Prussui. The county of Qlatz is situate beiwc«;n Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, and is alx)ut -1,0 miles in length and 25 in breadth. It is sur- rounded on all sides by mountains, which contain mines of coal, copper, and iron, and quarries of stone and marble. It has excellent pastures, which feed great numbers of cattle. Glatz, the principal town, is a strongly fortified place,' "contaiuing within th(j walls about 400 houses, and as many more in four suburbs. Tiic number of inhabitants is abput S^OOCX The town carries on a cuuhider;lble iriidc. m I ( 520 ) SWITZERLAND, SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. between Degrees. f 6 and 1 1 East longitude. |4(5 and 48 North latitude. ' Length 2J0> Breadth 120) Contniaing 13^260 square milesj with 130 inhabitants to eadi Name.] SWITZERLAND was considered by the Romans as* a part of Gaul, anri inhabited by the Helvctii on the west, and the. Rliscti on tiie east. The modern name of Switzerland, or Svri.5ser.. nd, seems to be derived from that of the canton of Sc hweitz, one ^f the earliest in form- ing the kai^ue by which the liberty of the country was assorted against the dnkes of Austria. After the late revolution in its government, ef- fected by the influence and arms of France, it took the name of the Helvetic Republic. BouNDAKiES.] It is boundcd on the north by the circle of Swabia in Germany, on the east by Tyrol, on the south by the Italian republic and by France, and on tjic west by France, from which it is separated by Mount Jura. Divisions.] Switzerland, before the year 1798» ^^'as divided into thirteen cantons, which stood, in point of precedency, as follows 1 . Zurich ; 2. Rem ; 3. Lucern ; 4. Uri ; 5. Scnweitz j (J. IJnterwalden 7. Zug; 8. Glarisj g. Basil j 10. Freyburg; 1 1 . Solcure, or Solothurn 1 2. Schaif hauscn ; 13 . Appenzel. Besides these there were certain districts and towns which were the subjects of the cantons, and some small states who were their allies. The extent and population of the cantons, and of tlieir subjects and allies, were as follows : Cantons. Bern Zurich Lucern Uri Freyburg Glaris Schweitz Soleure or Solothurn.. Appenzel Chief Towns. Square Population. Miles. Bern 3,840 350,000 Zurich 752 175,000 Lucern 4y(> iuo,000 Altorf 4SQ 25,000 Freyburg 464 73,000 Glaris 33f) 20,000 Schweitz 320 28,000 Soleure. 288 45,000 Appenzel 250" 54,000 * Switzerland, before the late revolution, was computed to contain 14,960 square miles and about two millions of inhabitants : but the French having seized and annexed to France the city and territory of Geneva, the bishopr ^f Basil (or, as the French write it,'Basic),and the towns and districts of Bid orBiennc, andMuhlhausen ; and also made the Valtelin,and the lordships of Wonns, and Clafen or Cleve, apart of the new Italian republic; the extent of Switzerland is reduced as above. As, likewise, the republic of the Valais, and the principality of Ntiifohattl, are now rendered entirely independent of the Swiss government, these, ] rhajjs, ought also {o be deducted; in which case wi' hall have for the txtciit ol iwitzeriand only 1 1 ,COC J<juare miles, with J 3582,0()0 inhabitants, /•/,//. 17/ e. !e. each *. s afiapartof li«ti on the ?cms to be S3t in form- rted against Timcntj ef- ame of the : of Swabia lan republic leparated by livided into a-> follows: iterwaldcn j Solothurn j :h were the their allies. Libjects and Population. 350,000 175,000 U)0,OOQ 25,000 73,000 20,000 2b,000 45,000 54,000 4,960 square seized and sil (or, as the Vluhlhausen ; Cleve, a part above. As, tcl, are now s, ought also zerland only /'/„/,■ .\// SWITZERLAND. 521 Cantons. Chief .cwns. Unlerwalden Stanx Basil Basil SchatFliauseu Sdutthauseii Zug Zug The subjects of the Swiis, consisting of the bailiwicks, free districts, towns ot Brem- garten, Mellingen, kc The allies, viz. the re^mblic of Geneva, the Gvi- sons, the Valais, town of Muhlhausen, prin- cipality of Neufchatel, &c Total .... Popv.latiori m,ooo 30,(X)0 iJ.,J0O 348,000 551,000 1,867,00(J Under the present constitution and government of Switzerland, the country, exclusive of tlie republic of Valais, aid the territory of Neuf- chatel, is divided into \g caaton.s, the extent and population of which are estimated as follows : Cantons. Aargau . . Appenzel Basil .... Bern . . . . 7 8 Freyburg Claris , Orisons Leman, or Pays-de- Vaud 9 Lucern 10 St. Gall 1 1 Schaffliausen . . . . 12 Schweitz J 3 Soleure 14 Tessin 1 5 Thiirgau 16 Unterwalden . . . . 17 Uri 18 Zug J() Zurich } Chief Towns. Aarau , Appenzel Basil Kern Freyburg Glaris Chur or Coire . . Lausanne Lucern St. Gall Schafthausen Schweitz . . . Soleure. .... Bellinzona . Frauenfeld . Stanz Altorf Z«g Zurich Square Population. Miles. 448 100,000 255*' 00,000 160 40,000 1/J20 200,000 57(i 70,000 330' 24,000 2,240 100,000 1/280 13(),000 49(5 100,000 704 150,000 J 28 30,000 384 32,000 240 50,0(X) 720 lO'0,000 200 75,000 ]()2 20.000 4{J4 20,000 88 , 15,000 70'8 200,000 The republic of Valais jPrincipality of N chatel, or Neu burg, and the CO of Valcngin alais feuf-J uen- f unty f Sitten or Sion Neufchatel 1,3 GO 2-10 100,000 45,000 -IW Total 13/2C0 1,727,000 Face of the country, ajountains.] The face of Switzerland is in general so mountainous, that even the parts of it accnumed level abound with eminences that in other countries -would be called moun- tains. Nature seems here to have fonned every thing on her grandest scale. The surnmits of the Alps, Mount St. Bernard, St. Gothard, the Jujigfrau or Virgin, and tlie Sclueckenhoni, or Peak of Terror, present i' Ji * hilt ' Ml,. iVt ir ^ i '<"'. I? '• >' i 1 ,( 'I ■ I 1 1 Si ' I ill f i' 522 SWITZERLAND. the mo.st «uMime and stupemlou.-? scenes : buL Mont Blaoc, fh? Iiighrst mountain of the old contiueni, is particularly distin;;uishf'cl from the other roountMius, by having its sutimiits and sides clothed to a considera- ble dtpth with a mantle of snow, ulmo.Tt without the inifrvi'ntioii of the ^east rack to break the t;;l;ive ot" (.lie xiliito appearance. vVcrordijig to the calculation of M. de Lur (by wiinsp, iiviprovenient of ihf baronicter elevations are taken with a Liogrec of accr.racy before luiatiainabk') the height of this mountain above the level of the sea is 2,3()i} Fiencli toiscs, ov 15,304 English feet ; or. according to sir f k'orgcShuckbornugh, J.'j.Otri feet, wbicli gives a difVercncc oj' only ,').38 tie!. The pe-,k> ot' Tenerillc and the snmrmt of iEma have been frequently supposed to be thn liighest points cf the globe : Ixit, from the most accurate observaiions, it will be found that Mont IJlanc isof laurh maxc elevation, and that there are no mountains (except those in America, pariicuhirlvChimbovaco, the highest point of tiie Colxiillevas, the eleva'.ion of whicli,, acctnxling to. Condamine, surpasses 3,00O toises, or H^/iOO feet:, but according ta others, '20,60S feet) v^hich are equal in alti',e.de to iMont HIaTic. Lakes.] 'i'lie ])rincipal lakes of Switzt'rland are, the lake of Con- .stance, called by the Germans the Bofien See, which is about 45 miles in length and 15 in breadth ; and the lake of Geneva, about 40 mUes long and i>ine at its grea'est bre;idth. I'he other lakes are those of Lucern^ Zurich, Thun„ JBienne or Biei, and lirieni/:. Rivers.] The chief rivers are the Khirie (which rises in iho eliaia of mountains bordering on St. Gothard), ihe Rhone, the Aar, tlieReuss, the Tcsin, the Oglio, and the Limmat. IMetals and mixekals.] The mountains contain nfnxes of iron^ crystal, virgin sulphur, and springs of mineral wau is. Climate, soil, and agkiculture.] From the mountainous nature of this country, around which the Alps tbnu an ai^aphitheatre of move than 100 miles, the frosts are severe in winter, the eminences being covered with snow sometimes all tlie year long. In summer the inequality of the soil renders the same province very unequal in its sea.sons : on one side of the mountains the inhabitants am often reaping, while they are sowing on another. Tiie valleys, however,, arc warm and fruitful, and well cultivated ; and nothing can be m(M'e de- lightful than the summer months in this charming country. It is .suhjeet to rains and tewijx^sts ; for which reason public granaries arp everywhere erected, to supply the failure of the crops. There is, perhaps, no country in the world where the advautageotia effects of unwearied and persevering industry are more remarkably eon- spicuou-s than in Switzerland. In passing over the mouritainous parts, tiie traveller is struck with admiration, to observe rocks that were for- merly barn'n now planted with vines, or aboimding with rich pastarej and to mark the traces of the plough along the sides of precipices so steep, that a horse could not even mount them without great dithculty. In short, the inhabitants hi.H?m to have surmounted every obstruction which soil, situation, and climate, have thrown in their vi'ay, and to have spread fertility over various spots of the country, which nature seemed to have consigned to everlasting barrenness. I'he feet of the mountains, and sometimes also llie very summits, are covered with vine- yards, corn-fiekis, meadows, and pasture-grounds. Other parts of this country are more dreary, consisting almost entirely of Ixirren and inac' ccbsible rocks, some of wJiich are eoniinually covered with snow or ice. The valleys between these icy and snowy mountains appear like som«ny s.iiuoth frozen iake.s andJiomthc latter^ vast fr.iginentsof icclhu]viciuly SWITZERLAXn. 523 r tlie vine- f this inac- lir ice. many fall dowi into the more fruitful spots beneath. In some parts there is a regular gradation from extreme wiklness to high cultivation ^ in others, the transitions are very abrupt, and very striking. Sometimes a con- tinued cluin of cultivated mountains, richly clothed with wood, and Ktiulded all over with hamlets, cottages above the clouds, pastures which fjppcar suspended in the air, exhibit the most delightful landscape that t:an be conceived ; and in pther places appear rugged rocks, cataracts, and muunuins of a prodigious heigiit covered with ice and snow. Vkgetables and animals.] Switzerland produces wheat, barley, pats, rye, flax, and hemp; plenty of apples, pear.^, grapes which atibrd an excellent wine, nuts, cherries, plums, and chesnuts ; the parts to- wards Italy abouiid in peachts, ahnoiids, ligs, citrons, and pomegranates; and niost of thp cantons abound in timber. Besides game, hsh, and fowl, are also found, in some of the higher and more inaccessible parts of the Alps, the bouquetin and the chamois, whose activity in scouring along the steep and craggy rocks, and in leaping over tlio precipices, is hardly conceivable. The blood of both of these animals is of so hot a nature, that the inhabitants of some of tliese mountains, who are s\ibject tu pleurisies, take a few drops of it, mjxed witii water, as a remedy for that disorder. The flesh of the chamois is esteemed very delicious. Among the Alps is likewise found a species of hares, which in summer are said perfectly to resemble other h-TC^, out in winter become all over white, so that they are scarcely distinguishable among the snuw. iJut this idea has been lately exploded, nor is it certain whether the two species ever couple together. The white hare seldom quits his rocky residence. Here are also yellow and white foxes, which in winter sonieiiiues come down into the valleys. Curiosities natuhal and artiucial.] Every part of Switzerland abounds in natural curiosities ; continually presenting precipices, glaciers, torrents, and cataracts. The glaciers are immense flelds of ice, M-Iiich usually rest on au inclined plane : being pushed forwards by the pres- sure of their own weight, and but weakly supported by the rugged rocks beneath, they are intersected by large transverse crevices, and present the appearance of walls, p)ramids, and other fantastic shapes, observed at ail heights and in all situations, wherever the declivity is beyond thirty or forty degrees. Mr. Coxe thus describes the meUiod of travelling over these glaciers. " We had each of us a long pole spiked with iron ; and in order to se- cure us as much as possible from slipping, the guides fastened to our Hlioca cmmpons, or small bars of iron, pi-ovided with, four small spikes of the same metal. At other times, instead of crampons, we had large nails in our shoes, which more cli'ectually answered our purpose. The diificulty of crossing tliese valleys of ice arises from the immense chasms. We rolled down large stones into several of them; and the great length of time before they reached tlie bottom gave us some conception of their depth ; our guides assured us, that in some places they are not less than Ave hundred teet deep. I can no otherwise convey to you au image of this body of ice broken into irregular ridges and deep chasms, than by comparing it to a lake instantaneously frozen in the midst of a vio- lent storm." — In speaking of an unsuccessful attenipt of some gentlemen to reach the summit of Mont Blanc, he presents to his readers a most horrid image of the dangcT of these chasms. " As they were returning in great liiiste (owing to the day being far advanced) oi;e of the party slippud, in attempting to leap ovor a chasm of ice. He held in his hand a long pole, spiked witii irou^ which he struck into tiic ice j aud tipon wm 52-1 SWITZERLAND. 'A '' '' ' !• 1 I : tlu-^ In-, liiinr^, (bcacu'nlly su.sppmled for a lew moments, until he was re- Jcasecl by iii:-i companions." Ni'M!- SciuiH'haiisen is a tremendous cataract, or rather three unequal cataracts, down which the llhinc dashes headlong upon tlie rock below. Near Rosinicre is a famous :.priiig, which rises in the mid->t of a natural basin of twehe s«iuare ieet. The force that acts upon it must be pro- digious 5 after a great showtn* of rain, it carries up a colujrun of water aij thick as a man's thigh, nearly a foot above its surface. Its temperature never varies: it is clear as crystil, and its depth is unfathomable, — • probably the end of some subterraneous lake, that lias never found an issue for its waters. Among the artificial curiosities may be mentioned an extraordinary hermitage two leagues Irom Freyburg, forn:cd by the hands of a single hermit, who, about a century ago, laboured on it for twenty-five years. It is tlie greatest curiosity ot' the kind perhaps in the world, as it con- tains a diapel; a parlour twenty-eight paces in length, twelve in breadth, and twenty tect in height; a cabinet, a kitchen, a cellar, and other apart- ments; with the altar, benches, flooring, ceiling, all cut out of the rock. At SrhalFhausen w.is a very extraordinary bridge over the Khine, justly adniircd for tl'.u singularity of its architecture. The river is ex- tremelv r;:;vid, .md had already destn^yed s-everal stone bridges of tli« strongest construction, when a carpenter of Appenzel otlered to throw a wootlen bridge of a single arch across the ri\er, which is near 400 feet v.ide. The magistrates, however, re juired tliat it sliould consist of two arches, and that iie sitould, for that }un pt)-,e, employ the nfiddle pier of the old bridge. Accordingly the architect was obiigiid to obey ; but he contrived to leave it a matier of doubt, \.'hether the bridge was supported hy the middle pier, and whether it would not have been equally as safe if formed solely of one arch. I'he sides and top were covered, and the road, which wis almost kvel, was not carried as usual over the top of the arch, but, if tliecxprenftion maybe allowed, let into the middle of it, and therefore suspended. A man of tlie slightest weight felt it tremble under him ; though waggons heavily lacien niigjLt pass over without dan""er. Considering the boldness of the plan and construction, it must appear extraordinary that the architect was only, as was said before, a carpenter, witlioc.t the least tincture of literature, totally ignorant of mallienniics, and not versed in the tiieory of mechanics. His name was Ulric (irubenman. The bridge was fmished in less than three years, and cost about fcOOO/. sterling. It was burnt by the Fiench when tiiey evacuated Schaff hausen, after being defeated by the Austrian^, April ]3th, 170(). At the famous pass of Pierre Pertuis, the road is carried through d solid rock mar fifty feet thick, the height of the aich twenty-six, and its breadth tv.enty-five. At Lucern (says ]Mr. Coxe) is to be seen a topographical representa- tion of the most mountainous parts of Switzerland, by general Piifler, a native of this town, and an ollicer in the French service. It is a motlel in relief, and well deserves the attention of the curious tra- veller. What was finished in 1/76, comprised about sixty square I(>agues, in the cantons of Lucern, Zug, Eern, Uri, Schweitz, and lln'terwaldcn*. I'he model was twelve feet long, and nine and a half broad. The conipositiou is principally a mastic of charcoal, lime, clay, a • Count Stolbcrg, who saw this model in 1791, says of it; " This model, t.he size of which is vail, contains 220 square lc;(a»"-'S'" SWITZERLAND. 525 Utt'iC pitch, with a thin coat of wax 4, and is so haid r.s to bo IroJ iipoa Avithout receiving the least ckni^tje. The whole is painted wmIi ditH-rent colours, rcpre.-entiug the objecus as they appear iu nature. It is worthy of particular observation, (hat not only the woods of o;Jv, beech, pine, and other trees, are distinguished, h A also that tlie strata of the several rocks are marked, each being shaped upon the spot, and Ibrnied wi(h granite, gravel, calcareous stone, or such other uatural substances as com- pose the original mountains. U'he plan is indeed so minutt y exact, that it comprises not only all the mountains, lakeSj towns, vi!l;igus, aixl ibrests; but every cottage, every torrent, every road, and e\en e\er)- jxith, is distinctly and accurately represented. The general takes his elevations from the level of the lake of Lncern, which, according to M. de Saussnie, is about fourteen hundred and eight feet aUjve the Mediterranean. This model, e.s.hibiting the most mountainous parts of Switzerland," conveys a sublime picture of immense Alps piled one upon another ; as if the story of the 'Titans were realised, and they had succeeded (at least in one spot oi' the globe) in heaping Ossa upon I'elion, and Olympus upon Ossa. From the account of this officer, it appears, that there are continued chains of mountains of the same elevaticMi, rising in progres- sion to the liigkest range, and from tlience gradually descending in tha came proportion to Ital}'. Population, national ciia-I The population of this country ha-? RACTEH, MANNEKS, cus'i oMs. y already been given, a<'cording to the latest estimates, under the article Diiisions. — 'I'iie Swiss arc a brave, hardy, industrious people 3 remarkable for their iidelity, and their zealou.s attachment to the liberties of lhi:ir country. Like I he old lloman:,, ihcv are equally inured to arms and agriculture. A genoral simplicity ot" mauners, an open ajid unatFected frankness, together with an in\inciblo spirit of freedom, are the most distinguishing characteristics of the inha- bitants of Switzerland. A very striking proof of the simplicity and openness of manners of this people, and of astonisiiiug comidence, is mentioned by Mr. Coxc, who sa}'s, upon the authority of general Phft'er, that, on each side of the road that runs through the valley of Muotta, in the canton of Schweit/., there are several ranges of small sliops uninha- bited, yet fdled with various goods, of which the prices are uiarked : any passengers who w ish to become purchasers, enter the shops, take away the merchandise, and deposit the price, which the mvners call for in the evening. They are in general a very enlip;hteiied li-iticn ; their common people are far more intelligent than tt.e .-ame ra"'; of nien in most other countries ; a taste foi literature is \ cry pre\ alenl amcnig tho>e who are in better circumstancesj and even among maiiy of the lowest r^'.nk ; and a genuine and unartful good breeding is extrtinel}' cunspit:uous in the Swiss gentry. On the hnst entrance into this country, the tra- veller cannot but observe the air of content and satisfaction \\ hich ap- pears in the countenances of the inhabitants. The cleiinliness of tiu? houses, and of the people, is pccialiarly striking j and in all their inan- ners, behaviour, and diess, some strong outlines may be traced, which distingiush tliis happy people from the neighbouring nations, who laboin- under the. oppressiojas of despotic government. Even the Suiss cotta;.^cs convey tiie liveliest image of cleanliness, case, and simplicity, andcaniiut but strongly impress upon the obser\er a mo;t pleasing conviction of liie peasants' happiness. In some of the cantons, each cottage has its littlo territory, consisting g»*nerally of a lield or two of line pa-ilure ground, .ind frequently skirted with trees, and well supplied with v. uter. Sump- tuary laws are in force in most parts of Switzerland : and no dancing is allowed, except upon pardcular occasions. Silki lace, and ieveral ottn;* ■J3S I m i It ' invr. h I [I;: illl i I 111, I :i' i i'i [ill. ill i I! 13 526 SWITZERLAND. articles of luxnn', are totally prohibited in some of the cantons : nud feveti the head-dresses of the ladies are regulated. All games of haznrd are also strictly prohibited : and ia other gaiVles, the party who lose.l above s';\ florins, whien is about nine shillings of our rmney, incurs a consiilerr.ble fnie. Their di\'erf<ions, therefore, are chiefly oi' the aclivt^ and warlike kind ; and as their time is not wasted in games of chatloe, many of them employ part of their leisure liours in reading, to the great improvement of their understandings. The yo\)ih arc diligently trained to all the nartial exercises, sueli as running, wrestling, throwing the hanmier, and shooting both with the. cross-bow and the musket. Goitres and idiots.] The inhabitants in one part of this country, particularly in tlie republic of Valais, are very nmch subject to goitres, or large excrescences of flesh that grow from ihe throat, and olten in- crease to a most enormous size ; but what is more extraordinary', idio- tism also remarkably abounds aniong them. *' 1 saw," says Mr. Co.\e, " many instances of both kinds j as I passed through Sion, some idiots were basking in the sun, with their tongues out, and their heads hanging down, exhibiting the most afl'ecting spectacle of intellectual imbecility that can possibly be conceivevl." The causes which produce a frequency of these phcenomena in this country form a very curious question. The notion that snow-water occasions tJiese excrescences is totally void of foundation. For, on that supposition, why are the natives of those places that lie most contiguous to the glaciers, and who drink no other water than what descends from those immense resen-oirs of ice and snow, free from this malady ? And why are the inhabitants of those countries in which there is no snow, afflicted with it ? For these guttural tumours are to be found in the environs of Naples, in the island of Sumatra, and at Patna and rurnea in the East Indies, where snow is unknown. The springs that supply drink to the natives are impregnated with a calcareous matter called in Switzerland ttif. nearly similar to the incius- tations of Matlock in Derbyshire, to minutely dissolved as not in (he least to aftbct the transparency of the water. It is not improbable that the impalpable particles of this substance, thus dissolved, should intro- duce themselves into the glands of the throat, and produce goitres, for tlie following reasons : because tuf, or this calcareous deposition, abounds in all those districts where goitres are common. I'here are goitrous persons and much tuf in Derbyshire, in vaiious parts of the Valais, in the Valteline, at Lucern, Freyburg, and Kern, near Aigle and Bex, in several places of the Pays-de-Vaud, n(»ar Dresden, in the valleys of Savoy and Piedmont, near 'I'urin ana Milan. But the strongest proof in favour of this opinion, says our author, is derived from the following facts. A surgeon whom I nut at the baths of Leuk informed me, that he had not unfrequently extracieil concretions of tuf-stone from several goitres ; and that from one in pairicvdar, which suppurated, he had taken several flat pieces, each about half an inch long. He added, that the same substance is found in the stomach of cows, and in the goitrous tumours to which even the dogs of the country are subject. He had diminished and cured the gf)itres of many young persons by emollient liquors, and external applications ; and prevented them in fiUure, by re- moving his patients from the place where the springs are impregnated with tuf: and if that could not be contrived, by forbidding the use of water which was not purified. Children arc occasionally born with guttural SMclling.s, but this may arise from the aliment of the mother. It is to he presumed that people accustomed to these excresc er.ccb will nol be shocked at their deformity j ms : niicl t)f luiznrd vlif) loses incurs a he a(\')\i* f cliartcc, ihe gvcat !y trailii'd wing tlic ■t. i country, () goitres, oltcii iii- ar}', idio- vlr. Coxc» )inc idiots is hanging imbecility frequeucy ion. is totally natives of ) drink no jirs of ice bitants of For thesR [the island re snow is ed with a le incrus- lot in the iblc that uld intro- |)itres, for , abonhds goitrous k'^alais, in Box, in .alleys of It proof in Ifollowing me, that several iiad taken that the goitrousr He had moUicnt e, by re- iregnatcd le vise of SWITZERLAND. i27 m tml it does not appear, as some writers assert, that they consider them OS beauties. To judge from the accounts of many travellers, it might be supix>sed that tJie natives, without exception, were eitlier idiots or goiues ; \\ hcreas, in fact, the Valaisans, in general, are a robust race t and all that with truth can be athrmed is, that goitrous persons and idiots are more abundant in some districts of the Valais than perhaps in nny other part of the globe. It has been asserted tliat the people very nuich respect tliese idiots, and even consider them as blessings J'rom hca- veti. The common people, it is certain, esteem them so, for they call them " .v««ys of God wuhoiit sin;" and many parents prefer these idiot children to tliose whose understandings ar« pertect, because, as they are incapable of intentional criminality, they consider tliem as certain of happiness in a future state. Xor is this opinion entirely without its good ettcet, as it disposes the parents to pay greater attention to such helpless beings. These idiots are siitlered to marry, as well among tliemsclvcs as with others '■ . Cities, chief towns, eimfices.] Of these the most considerable !3 the city of Bern, standing on the river Aar. It is extremely neat and handsome, the streets being wide and long, and including, within it, several streams and fountains. It contains about 13,000 inhabitants^ Basil is accounted, by some, the capital of all Switzerland. It is situate in a fertile mid delightful country, on the banks of the Bliine, -ind the conlines of AU-acq and the empirc. It contains two hun(ia»d and twenty streets, and six market-places. Tlie town-house, which stands ou the river Birsec, is supported by ver>' large pillars, and its great ball is hiicly painted by the celebrated Hans Holbein, who was a native of this city. The situation of Basil is pleasing : the Rhine divides it into llie upper and lower town ; and it is considered as one of the keys of Switzerland. Baden is famous for its anti(}iaity and baths. Zurich is far less consi- derable than Bern ; but in the arsenvii is shown the bow (jf' the famous William Tell ; and in the hbrary is a manu.script of excellent letters, written by the unfortunate lady Jane Grey to the judicious reformer Biillinger, in elegant Latin and Gcrmcn. The city of Geneva, which, bt:fore it was annexed to France, was aji .associate of Switzerland, and under the protection of the Helvetic body, but within itself an independent state antl republic, is well built, and well fortified j and contains 2d,000 inhabitants, most o\ whom are Cal- vinists. It is situate at the efflux of the Rhone from the lake of Ge- neva. Manufactures, commercf..] The productions of the loom, linen, dimity, lace, stockings, handkerchiefs, ribbons, silk, and painted cot- tons, and gloves, are common in Switzerland j and the inhabitants, not- withstanding their sumptuary laws, fabricate silks, velvets, and woollen manutiictures. The Swiss export horned cattle, liorses, sheep, cheese, butter, leather, linen, lace, wrought cotton and silk, and vratches. They injport corn, flax, silk, cotton, spices, and salt. The situation of Switz- erland, and its numerous navigable lakes and rivers, would be very fa- Tourable to commerce, were the inhabitants more intent and assiduous to avail themselves of thcie advantages. Constitution and government.] Tl^e old constitution and go- ternment of Switzerland were very complicated, from the cantons, though belonging to'the same body, being partly aristocratical, and part- ly democratical. Every canton was absolute in its own jurisdiction j but i 1-/I i I m tfif ; iffl ifii I this may it people tformityi • Cox«'« Travels through Svritzerland, vol i. p. 385, &c. IS Bi9 SWITZERLAND. ^^ 'I-, ! I !|V lif ^i if ■'h lliose of Bern, Zurich, aiid Lucern, with other depcfidt'iicies, M'ttfi aii.-tocratical, with a certain mixture of democracy, IWvn excepted. Those of Uri, Schweitz, IJnterwalden, Zug. Glaris, and Appenzel, Were democralical. Bail!, though it hiid the appearance of an aristo- cracy, ratlii.r inclined to a democracy. ]iiU even these aristocracies anci democracies diiiered in their paitii ular modes of government. How- ever, in all of them the real interc-ti of the people appear to have been iimcii attended to j and tliey enjoyed a decree of happiness not to he ex- pe< ted in dc-spotic i,oviTnnients. Each canton prudently reconciled it- self 10 the errors of its ncighl)our, and cetncnted, on the Ixisis of alfec- tion. a hyfteni of niulual defence. 'Ilie C(.iiti:\ieiacy, con.iivkrvd ar> a rcpul)lic, comprehended three divi- sions, 'ihc fir.it v.vre tlic Swiss, properly so called; the second the Grl^ors, or the stales confedeniLcd v.ith the Swiss for their conmion proteelion ; tiic third, tliose pv.i'fediues which, though subject to the other two, by purc'nase or otherwise, preserved each its own jTartrcular magistrates. Every canton firmed within itself a little republic; but when any controversy aro.ie llint might atfect the whole contcderacy, it was referred to the general diet, winch sat at Baden, where, each canton having a \-ote, e\er)' question was dccid( d by the majority. The gene- ral diet consisted of two deputies from eacli cantoti, besides a deputy from the Mvn o( St. Ciatl, and the cities of St. Gall and Bienne. It is observed by Mr. (.'r^se, to whom the public have been indebted for the best account of Sv. it/i 'land tjiat has appeared, that there is no country in which happiness and content more universally prevail among the people. For whether the government be aristocraticnl, democratical, or mixed, a general spirit ef liberty pervades and actuates the several con- stitutions ; so that even the olij'-archical states (which, of all others, are . tisnally the most tyrannital) are here- peculiarly mild; and the property of the subject is .securely gunrdcd against exery kind of violation, A luirmony is maintained by the concurrence of their mutual felicity ; and their sumptuary laws, and et]ual division of their fortunes among their children, seem to in.sure its continuance. There is no part of Europe which contains, within the sime extent of region, so many independent conmionwealths, and such a \ ariety of ditVerent governments, as are col- lected together in this remarkable and delightful country ; and yet, with 8uch wisdom was the Hehetic union composed, and so little have the Swiss, of late years, been actuated by the spirit of conquest, that, since the firm and complete establidiment of their general confederacy, and till the unprovoked invasion of their country by (he French, they have scarcely ever had occasion to employ their arms against a foreign ene- my ; and have had no hostile commotions among themselves, that were not \cry scon happily terminated. In the year 17'JS, Switzerland, obliged to yield to the intrigues and arms of France, abolished th(? old constitution, and framed another on the French model ; by which the wliole country was declared a republic one and indivisible, and tlie government vested in two councils and a di- rectory. But in the year 1802 this constitution was likewise abolished, by the authority of the lirst consul of France, and another presented to tlicni for their acceptance ; but which the great majority of them reject- ed, as still move repugnant to their political prir;ciples and habits than the f^rnicr. Their (<pposition was so delermined th.n they had recourse to arr.os ; and the tirst con-ul thought proper to withdraw his constitu- tion, and otter them a new one, \vhi«!i they consentcil to accept. By this, as under tht^original constitution of Switzerland, each of tlie cau- ii. SWITZERLAND. 52^ ies, M,'Cte excepted. Appcnzel, ai> aristo- ratici anci t. How- have been to be ex- onciU'cl it- s of afll'C- tlirec ('livi- econd the r common ject to the }>artfrular ublic; but jderacy, it ach canton The geiie- s a deputy nne. It is ited for the no country among the icratical, or everal con- [others, are ,, le property )lation. A licity ; ami numg their of Europe nuependeut , ;is are col- d yet, with have the that, since eracy, and they have oreign cne- that were trigues and another on a republic l,i and a di- abolishcd, >resented t»> hem reject- habits than ad recourse is constitu- iccept. By of tlie cau- tons has Its distinct Internal government, which, in seven cf them^ Sthweit?., Appen'/.el, Glaris, Luterwalcieii, Uri, Zug, and tlit." Grison!-;, « of the democratic kind, all the mal.i inhabitants above twenty years of age having voices in the liiridesgcmcim, or assembly, in which all law.; and regulations proposed by the niagiiiliates and j;ub]ic olncers are dis- cussed. The government of seven others, Bern, Zurich, Soleure, Frey- burg, Lucern, Basil, and Schaffhauscn, is of the aristocratic form, being administered by a great and little cauiicil, the composition and privileges of which are different in the ditferent states. The live new cantoui, Aar- gau,Leman, Thurgau, St. Gall, 3ndTesino(orTicino) are likewise aristo- cratic, and governed by two councils. The general government of the coun- try, is administered by a diet, to which each of the cantons sends a member, and which assembles annually at Freyburg, Bern, Soleure, Basil, Zurich, and Liicern, in rotation. Tlie president of die diet is a kind of chief magistrate, and is styled landamman of Switzerland. Tiie nineteen de- puties, of which tlK5 diet consists, have, in the whole, twenty-five voices ; the deputies of those cantons, tlie population of which exceed.s lOO.CKX), viz. Bern, Zurich, Leman, Aargau, St. Gall, and the Grl'-ons, having two voices ; those of the other cantons have only one. 1 he diet as- sembles on the first Monday in June, and, in the ordinary course of af- fairs, continues its sittings during one month. It decides on war and peace, and concludes treaties of alliance and commerce. ; but, on the-e subjects, there must be a concurrence of thrce-fourtlis of the can- tons. Revenue.] The revenue of Switzerland, before that country \va» oppressed and plundered by the French, was estimated at 1,050,000/. sterling. It was derived from, 1. The protits of the demesne land; 2. The tenth of the produce of all the lands in the country; 3. Customs and duties on merchandise ; 4. The revenues arising from the sale of salt, and some casual taxes. The finances of Bern and Zurich were in a very flourishing state, and those cantons were said to be possessed of great wealth, which has, no doubt, fallen a prey to French rapacity and extortion. In the smaller cantons the revenues scarcely defrayed the expenses. Military fokce.] The internal strength of the Swiss cantons, In- dependent of the militia, consists of 13,400 men, raised according to tlie population and abilities of each. FAcry burgher, peasant, and subject, was obliged to exercise himself in the use of arms ; appear a tJie str.ted days for shooting at the mark; furni.sh himself with proper clothing, accoutreiT.'nt-;, powder and ball; and to be always ready ibr the defence of his country. The Swiss engaged in the service of toreign princes and states, either merely as gu'iids, or as marching regiments : in the latter case the government permitted Uie enlisting of volunteers, though, only for such states as they were in alliance v.'lth, or with whom they had entered into a previous agreement on that article. Jk;t no subject vas to bo forced into foreign scrvica, or even to be enlist'jd witjicut tire conciurence of the magiiitracy. By the new constitution, no canton is to have more thaft 200 troops that receive pay, nor to embody more than 500 militia, without the con- sent of the landaAman. Religion.] Though all the Sw'iss cantons form but one political re- public, yet they are not united in religion. The cantons of Lucern, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Zug, Freyburg, and Soleure, are catliolics j those of Bern, Zurich, Basil, and Schafihausen, Calvinists ; and those or Appcnzel aiid Glaxis, of both religions. Of the sL\ aew caato^s, Le- 2M I'l IMdM 53Q ^wiTzr.nTAvn. h I ii ik ! n ?fi. rtv.n and To .no. nn* i.ithfdir.s; iiiul tlir CIrisnns, A;irg;iu, Si. Gall, an.4 'i'lmrgau, ot bolh religions. Tlu" cailmlii's mc uiulfr tlu* jurisdiclic.n, in ccclcsiintiral m::ttci>., ot' tin* bi-^liops at n.i-il, T,au.-..'iiuie, Skjii, ;md Coirc, ai)'! i\w aMxils <it' St. (J.tll iiiul r/ui.siilUii. The rt'public of "X'.iLii.-.. ilioiii-lj fornicily ilu- r.oene f)t cruel iK'thccutiijiH on nccuunt of it,-; .iflci lion u) jiroti'htai'.ti.ini, is cafholir. The inhaliitants ut' tli<j fMMicipaliiy ot" Ni-utlhau 1 ate rliidly Calvinists ; hut all sects of ivliiiinn aie tolorateil. Tl.i-si; dillerenccs in r;liu[ion fonncrlv rnafod many public comr.'.otioiis, nliicli swin now to liave .sub- ;Mi.ied. t'iiie Zwln^li, or Z\viii;i,lius, born ;it WiUlhauscn, wai llie apiislle ot' protestantism in Swit^erlnntl. Ife \\;w a nioiU'rattj re(()n\;cr, and diiicrcil from 1 uth'jr and CaUin only in a lew .speeiil itive [)oints ; so iIkU Calvinism may he said to be i!ie religion of the prote.stiiiU Swiss. r>ut this nui'-t be understood chieily with respect to the mode of church-s,;o\ eminent ; for, in some doetrinal points, they arc far from beinc; uni\ersally Calvinistieal. T!iero is, howe\er, too nuich religiouH bii;oiry prevalent among them ; aiul, though they are ardently atlaelied to the interests of civil liberty, their sentiments ou the sul)jei:t of relic,ious toleration are, in tjeneval, naieh less liberal. LiTfR vreiir:.] I'aKin, whose name i.s .■^o Mell known in all pro- testani roiuilries, instituted laws for the city of Geneva, which are held ni hi';fi esteem by the most learned of that country. Tlie ingenious and t'locjuent lloussean, whose works the present age has received with s(» inucli ajiprubalion, v;a.s a citizen of Gei'"va. Iltjusseau ^'jiwc a force to tlie Freiieh l.mguage, which it was thought inrapable of recei\ ing. hi ]'.'n:.';!anil he is generally known a.s a pro^e w^riter only, but the Frencli ndiniro him as a p.oer. Ilis oyera of tin- Dcria df ['ilUrj^c, in particular, is n\x\v\\ I stccmed. IVI. Bonnet, and IMe,>s. de Sau.^sure and dc l.ue, al^o u'e-erve to bo mentioned with applause. lialier, a native of Ik-rn, deserves tiie highest eulogy, as a poet, plu'siolo^ist, and a philosopher, F.avaler, so eelebraeed i()r hi- e.vii}s on physiognomy, and some other work'--, was likev.ir-e of this ccnnUry, I ^NjvDK.irrifis.] 'J'lie university of Basil, f)uudcd in 14.")(), Las a very curious pliysic- garden, which ccMUains the cluneest exotics ; and ailjoiniug tc) I'e.e library, which possesses some va.luable nianu^ scripts, is a mu-euni well i"urni.-Iicd with natural ae.d arlilicial cu- riosities, and v.ith a great nunilK r of medals and paintings. In the ca- liine'is of l!rasiuus anil Ameibaeli, v.liich also belong to this \nfi\ersity, tiiere are no less llian twi'niv oriirina! piece;; of l-folbein ; for cue of Avhicli, repreiicnting a dead ("iu>;t, a thonsand ducats liave bern ofered'. Ti'.e other universilie?, vliicli indeed are commonly only biyled colleges, are tFiose of Eern, Lausanne, and /ye.vicli. LA.ViiL'ACiE'.J J^evej-al languajter; pre\ dil in Swit.-.cvlanJ ; but the most connr.on is German. The Sui-,s who border upon France speak ari impure French, a.s tliow^e near ftaly do a corrupt italiau. Antiui iTiKs.] Some Roman auiiquifes are {'ownn in tifis comilry, but they are not numerous. The rvfms of ("a-sar's wv.U, which extended XM!.;hteen miles in length, from Mount Jura to the banks of lake Leman, are still discernible. JMany moiuiments of anti<[uity have been disco- veretl near the baths of Baden, which vsere known to the Romans in thvJ 'timecf l'af"itu3. Switzerland boasts of many noble religious buildings, jv-rlicuiai ly .1 rollejrc of .Te^nits •, anil many cabinets of valuable manu'- scripts, a:iti<{ue:-;, and curiosities of all kinds. iii'.iHJi.Y.] Ihe present Swiss and (Prisons, as has been already flMn)tioned/;-io the descendants of tiic aiicieut lielveLii, subdued by JiiliuS J all, aiKi isil'ict'uii. nun, and public ol s uf tlu5 sects of tbrnu;rly lavc sub- sen, wai niocU'iiitci n a low vligit'U of" til IV^JlCCt /uits, they vt'\er, too 1 thiy arii imcnls ou lu-ral. n all pro- :h are lu-l'.l enlous and ed with M» I a ioixc to the i'lvncli I p;liri<.'ul.U", L>'.(^, al->o of Bern, \!lo:-i'pht'r. SCU1C i-'theV In M.-.j), -,t. o'.'-oi'i*-''^ ; ,:le nia'Ui^ In the ca- v.ni\oi-,>ity, I'or cue ol ■( n (jfil ivc'i . jd colleges, but, the ee speak iv\ lis country, h extended ike I.enia'i, been diseo- imanri in th^i buildings, uble niunu- •cen already wdbyJulivS SWITZERIANi). £31 Crsar. 'Ihcir rucuntnlnous uninviting siiuaii'.>M formed a K'tler secui ity for their lilit-rtit-s than their forts or arnfiei. 'I iiey t 'Jiilinued l.^n-^ under little more than a nuniinal subjection to the l}ur:;uiuli;ins diid Germans, till about the year IJCK). when the emperor, Albert I., treated them with so much rigour, that they p.etitioiied against the rut;liy of their governors. Tliis served only to iliaible the hardship-; ..)f the pcojile ; and one of Albert's Austrian governors, Ciresl< r, in the w;a!. tunnels if tyranny, set u[> a hat upon m pole, to which he ordered the natives to pay as much respect as to himself. The famous WiHiam Tell b- 'inr observed to pass frequeiuly withcjut takinj^ notice of the hat, and heinj an excellent marksman, the tyrant condemned him to be hanijed, unless lie cleft an apple upon his son's head, at a certain distance, with an ar- row. Tell cleft the apple ; and Gresler askinj^ him the meaning of an- otlier arrow he saw stuck in his belt, he bluntly answered, that it was intended for his (Gresler's) heart, if he had killed his son. Tell was condemned to prison upon this; but, making his escape, he v.-atched his oppmtunity, and shot the tyrant, and thereby laid the foundauon of the Helvetic liberty. It appears, however, that, before this event, the revolt of (he Swiss from the Austrian tyranny had been planned by somi; noble patriots among them. Their measures were so just, and tiieir course so intrepid, that they soon etfected a union of several cantons. Zurich, driven by oppression, sought first an alliance with Luceni, TVi, Sclnveit/,, and Unlerwalden, on the pruiciples of mutual defence ; lind the frequent successes of their arms against Albert, duke of Austria, insensibly fjrmed the grand Helvetic vmion. They IJr.^t coucp.nred Crlaris and Zug, and admitted them to an e(|ual participation of their rights. Bern united itself in 1353 j Freyburg and Soleure 130 yeaii nfter; Basil and Schaffhauseii in 1501; and Appenzel, in 1513, com- pleted the coidederacy, w hich repeatedly defeated the mi'kted powers of Prance and Germany ; till, by the treaty of Westphalia, in 1048, ihe'r (Confederacy was declared to be a free and independent state. Neufchatel, since the year 1/0/, has been under the dominion of liic king of Prussia ; but the inhabitants are free to serve any prince what- ever, and by no means bound to take an active part in his wars. 'Jlj;i king has the power of recruiting among them, and of naming a go- vernor j but the revenue he derives is not above jOOc/. yearly, great part of which is laid out on the roads and other public w orks of thv^ country. Towards the close of the year 1797 > Switzerland fell a prey to tlia rapacity and ambition of France; the emissaries and parlisans of whic2i republic had prepared the way for the subjugation of the country, by exciting among the people a spirit of discontent against ih^ government, especially in the aristocratic republics. Tliat the aristocracies of Swit- zerland were not entirely blameless, cither in their conduct towards their subjects or towards the French, may, perhaps, be true : but if the powTJr of the state, and its very moderate emoluments, were in some, or perhaps the majority, of the canton^, monopolised by a few f anili-.,;, it must still be remembered that their authority was exercised with the utmost moderation, and that the people were contented and happ}\ The real views of the French directory, in their attack vn Switzerland, however they might endeavoiu- to colour them by i>rolending that they were invited by the people, and that their sole aim was to assert tlie cause of j^eneral liber tv, ny doubt were to give employment to, and pro- 2Mi Pi m ink m I 1% m „! ■ r: . '.mm W I 532 SWITZERLAND. ' ill I'll' 'i fl^^l U '• ': I HI if U ! I ; ' 'ii cure pay and plunder for, their armies ; as also to secure -the commatid of a country, the possession of tlic important posts of which, in case of a renewal of hostilities with the empire, would both seaire their fron- tier, and enable them to attack with much greater advantage. The first act of hostility on the part of the French was tJie seizing of the Helvetic part of the bishopric of Basle, of which they took possession under some frivolous pretext, and contrary to an express' treaty concluded vith the Swiss in the year 1/92. The Helvetic Iwdy, knowing they were too weak to resist, submitted patiently to this usurpation ; but soon after an insurrection which took place in the Pn3's-dc-Vaud, and which, it is not improbal)Ie, was produced by tlie instigation of tlie agents of Fiance, atlorded an opportunity for an interference which soon termi- nated in tlie subjection of almoi;t the whole of Switzerland to the French yoke, and ahucst the entire overthrow of its form of government. In the montii of December, the French directory took upon them to demand of the government of Bern, what they termed the rcsloration of the rights of that people, and the assembling of the si aten of the Pays-de-Vaud. This demand they immediately prepared to enforce liy arms, and general Meynard was ordered to march with a body of l.'5,000 men, to support the claims of the discontented in that country. The supreme council of Kern, fearful of entering into a contest witli the powerful armies of Frauct', on ih» .'ith of Jamiary, \7[)^, issued a proclamation enjoining tlie riiizvu.'^ (^i t'.ie Pays-de-Vaud to assemble in arms, to renew the oath ct all<i'_ianeiv, \o proceed to reform the abuses of the govennncnt, and ti) a.^.-ert a:ul re-establish all tlieir ancient ri^lits. The malcontents, howi'ver, encuraged by the protection of the French army, proceeded to open hostilities, and seized on the castle of Chignon. The government oi r>ivn n.)W had recourse to arms, and ordered a body of 20,000 troops, under the cominarid of colonel Weiss, to disperse the insurgents. But tlie contest was soon decided by the French army luidcr general Mey- nard, V hich immediately advanced, while the Swiss retreated, and, by tiie beginning of February, luid taken possession of the whole of the Pays-de-V'aud. The council of Bern still attempted to negotiate with tlie French di- rectory; but, at the same time, assembled an army of about 20,0tXJ men, the c(»mm.ind of which they gave to M. d'Erlach, formerly a field- marshal in the ser\icc of France. This force was joined by the quotas K>{' the other Swiss cantons, amounting to about 5500 men. The di- rectory, however, requireii that the ancient magistrates of Bern should be dismissed from their offices, and the constitution of the state changcnl to OIK' more agreeable to democratic principles and the new system of liberty and equality. Tliese conditions the government of Bern abso- lutely refused to submit to, and sent orders to break oil' all furthar ne- gotiations. The tlirector)', alarmed at this appearance of IJruuiess and resistance, and fearing they were not suflieiently prepared, sent general Bruue to take the command of tlieir army in the Pays-de-\'au(l, wiili •rders to conclude an armistice until he should receive a sullicient rein- forcement. Bruiic, immediately upon 'us arrival, announced to the se- nate of Bern, that he came prepared to adjust all dilieroncos amicably, and retjuestrd that they would send commissioners to treat with him» These were accordingly sent, and an armistice oncluded for eight days. But, on the 2d of March, two days, it is alTirnied, belore tho true* agreed on had expired, the castle of Domacji, at the northern extremity uf the eantun of Isjoleure, was attacked aiiU carrie(< Ity i\w Freich; ancl, SWITZERLAND. 533 .! I case of ;ir fron- jizing of issession )nclutled ing they but soon i which, igents of n termi- e French ent. In ) demand m of the de-Vaud. d general n support :ouncil of wmies of enjoining " the oath ncnt, and kontcnts, xreedcd to (vernmcnt 00 troops, [Its. But cral Mey- 1, and, by olc of the French di- int 20,0CX) rly a ficld- tlie quotas . The di- em should ite changinl v system of IkMii iibso- furthor ne- i-\nuess and ,rnt general ^'aud, witli lioletit rein- d to the so- s amicably, t with him- • eight days, Iho truc« II extremilv iGidi J and. 4rt the same time, 13,000 men were marched under the walls of Solcure, which capitalafed to general Schawenbourg uii the lirst summons. Frey- burg was innnediatcly alter reduced by general lirune, and the Swiss army was forced to retreat. The French generals inmiediately advanced towards Bern, where alJ was confusion, both in tlie city and in the army, the left di\isiun of which had mutinied, deserted their posts, and put to death some of their officers. The Swiss army was roduced by desertion to 1-1,000 men, ex,- clusive of a rabble of undisciplinefl jx;a.iauts, raised by the landstuniiy or levy of the country in 7n(issc. About bOOO of the regular forces were stationed at Ncwencg, and 6400 held the position of I'Vaueiibrun, against which general Schawenbourg aihanced from Soleure, at the head of 18,000 men. On the morning of the 5th of March, both posis were attacked by the French. 'I'he tax/ps of Noweneg repulsed l\nt enemy; but those at Fraurnbnm, after a vigorous resiitanoe, were com- pelled to retreat. M. d'Erlach rallied his men at Utereii, wliere a se- cond engagement took place, but with no better success on the ])art of the Swiss, They afterwards, however, made a stand at GrauhoU/, about a league and a half from Bern ; but were thence driven to the gates of the capital, where, after another severe battle, they were en- tirely defeated ; and, on tlie evening of the 5th, general Bruno ejitojed the city of Bern, by capitulation. The divisions of the Swiss army stationed at Newoneg and Guminen retreated, and the soldiers of the latter column, in a lit of rage and despair, murdered their olKccrs, anc^ among others, their unfortunate general d'Erlach. The defeat of the Bernese was followed by tlie submi^siini of nearly the whole of Switzerland ; though the democratic republics still made a Btand, defeated general Schawenbourg, and forced him to retire with the loss of 3,000 men, after he had consented to a treaty liy which lie engaged not to enter tlie smaller cantons. After this revolution the Swiss confederacy changed its (•.■)n aitutloii, md even its name. Provincial governments, mider the direction of ihit Fi;>nch generals, were established in the ditferent districts, and the whole assum«id the name of tlie Helvetic republic. Contributions and recjuir sitions were levied, as usual, by the French commissioners, and the most .shocking enormities perpetrated. During the campaign of 1799, the northern jiart of Switzerland bt?came the seat of war between tlie Aus- trians and the French, and the cantons of Schatfliausen and Zurich, especially the latter, suffered tlie severest distress fiom the ravages of tlie contending armies. When the country, however, was no longer exposed to the horrors of war, and especially after the conclusion of the jxjlujc of Lune\ ille, Switzerland became gradually more reconciled to its new form of go- vernment ; but this form not perfectly according with the views of Bonaparte, vlien he had become sovereign dictator in France, he pro- posed a new constitution to the Swiss, which was accepted by the senate, but gave such offence to the people iu geueral that they Hew to arms, appointed commanders, formed magazines, and took the field under several leaders, particularly Aloys Reding, who had distinguished himself in defending his country against the Inrstiiuasion of the French. They defeated the French troops in several skirmishes, and, after an obstinate conflict imder the walls of Bern, obliged that city to capitu- late, and forced the members of the governuuMit in the interest of the French, to retire to Lausanne. The.ic abject creatures vi' Fnuicc applied i 'Pi m h 1 ii ■'! ii!f i ' ! i ! l! It i 'I il *.i; '''i ^:! ,;j \k 534 SPAIN. to ihc first consul, ^^ho immediately, in answer, signified his ref?olutioii of acting ii.s inclintor, as^xirlng tliem that his mediation should be effi- cacious; requiring, at tlie same time, that deputies from the senate', and tram each of the cantons, should meet at Paris to assist in forming a government that might appear less objectionable to the people. The Swiss, fearing tlie consequences of further resistance, reluctantly acqui- esced in the proposal : the deputies met at Paris, the new constitution •already described was framed and aeceptcd, Aloys Reding was ap- pointed landamrnan of Switzerland, and on these terms tranquillity was restored to the country. Miles. SPAIN. SITUATION AND EXTENT. and 3** 20' East longitude. J>ength 020 7 ^^ C 9'' 30' West Breadth oiO j °^'^^«" \zQ'' and 44'' Nortli latitude. Containing 144,6j6 square niiles, v/ith /O inhabitants to each. Name;;.] SPAIN formerly included Portugal, and was known to tho ancients l^iy the name of Ibena, and HesperiiT, as well as Hispania. ft was, about the time of the Punic wars, divided into Citerior and Ulte- rior : the Citerior contained the provinces lying north of the rive^ Ibcrus, or Ebro; and the Ulterior, which was the largest part, comprc'icnded all that lay beyond that river. The name of His-- pania, from v.liich this country has received its different denomina- tions iu the modern languages, has been supposed to be derived from riispan, one of its ancient kings, or from the town of Jlispulis, the; modern Seville. Bochart derives it from the Phoenician word apanjah, a rabbit; thus-.e animals ha^ iiig been formerly very numerous here. Eoi'NDAKiLS.] It is bounded on the west by Portugal and the At- ]i'.nLc ()ce;in ; by the Mediterranean on the east; by tlie Bay of Biscay^ and the P) renean mountains, which separate it from France, on th4 nortli 3 and by the strait of the sea at Gibraltar on tlie soutli. ■■"ftn^j -. nll,AllL. !-' ■H\ UrJ (onloiia \ v; ///,//,/ ll^iliumo -n/„„n:Mr flll,iii,x ~ lJiirr<'m u.i J y^ '.S,i/on I 41 idiiiniin, J ^11 . Uiiu/iittf V"? j/-»/(H./ l/ *'i.i-ira l/>N r MA.I01U A _.-''^ "Vx. n .III & M ilKji ml . uii.AllL. /.{ \l>l1ltKl. " i'^ia — '-"■•^ gjj'Y -t^oMi; |j^u< :ri,^ L-.„,i I.... u^.a ' ..^ ' lu*- 'ux^ »3 BiWI I 1 ■ - y i "■ t ri/i.uiii J, - t _yr '.I/y/i/iiii "^■■■41 ►•■r-5- -^,14 \ ' n \oOt ■Urn/,.. nV (•„.„„?. -'/v//7j^.,f j- ;:tJ7- :- 1-: XO) ^' V/-i.A..-\^ ' Aw/w,i.._ :/;;,,,/„, tr-^"^: "'"■■• i at,.;,.. 7 v- . Mi/iA,. Jl/rttiifiini ^ fft/ imitv ^)/' A .w« (!'/»'//«< ,, V>t < . •?>-. I . N r K I ; ^T AM () / . Ihi'iiovit , . ... I /li'fni<m/i-\ tOilti i .t / . X.. J/t'/nn'tr [ s"n:t I ""^nvV'^Vi?' .w '^rrs II ''"lug / t / 1 I ■i I — - ■ o .//,»w,.\-4"?<,„,^. Itll< .V . '';(/.■>;!• • '■.I/writ f /V/v/t./ . <?//////<• ./////.'r. ,LU.«'^»)^C .Vi~- . ''fudii.t/i MUm. .. '•' /,; '" K> ■>" '^^.w-Av, / Xr H,., A N A \ J) ->cf''' r J* c (. tin/ii/iirj -1--+, Tiiii)i/ifii/ H I i M r,' y ) . llllOIVII r. ('/.IIZI r f«^rj Mum (^it ir.- ' 'wrt mtf--\<mr- > 7 '.•( m- jr^f>..i»> »■■( « * w^^ w mfmrnm II ^-A', '■■•J- ,s ■! -r- , ' '. I •wiiwaasti (!i/<ifi<>nii 'Hi niillillL /■Imp iriii.f- A '.('nnf ( V E 'm/iifiir, f/a..,.-.. <*»*:.. ' .. ■^ J ) - IJfiomn J ,///'.•/,'/■./,>■';./ v' •■'"■'/ /.•'/^ A"/. ,1 f" ■ u ^^/^- 0ir^-..->-^r- t gii w «wmi i n fc» *<*>■-■»? w*---*-" ill: I \'. ,:«*i SPxVIN. ^3<. .T)iYif lONP.] Spain is divided into foi;rteen provinces, or di:.iri ts ^almost ill! of which are styled kin;^dums by the Spaniards bcsid.-s isJands in tht: Mediterranean. P 110WNCE5. I- -J-. Popula- tion. v*- -3 •J CmEKCrriF.-i. •-i 'Castile, Now - Andalusia - - i.i.'(;a,oo;; ■l/_'7(V><K' .1 / , / ,, SX. Lnt. ■:<i-''2">. • Castile, Old - It^'J-L' 1,(K)0,(XW' I p;; 1 !o|lMtr^\)s Arxagoa - - 12,'J7^ 61K),o:k liXi iO.rSanifi'OoEa Estreinaduia - 10,'J'IO 4.:0,0(X 1;h) I'j.J'Had .iu;i Galicia - - - ]0,'!'X) ),(.' K)/)'". 1 /; -> !'-'o|C()!n!Jostella J.eoii - - - IM'ri l,'J(>f;,'yx i'i? D'.'lJ.eon SPAIN ^ Catalonia - - y.'j'.u) !)yo,o')0 17'i UOEiircelona Gran.ula - - f),USO (;,':o,on(^ 'JOO 4.'> (Jranada Valencia - - 7,SI0 KCK),0(K) 180 7J;V:ilcncia Biscay - - - t.',SS{» '200,001/ liO i )|inlij()a Aiistuiia - - i!,'J.SS ijo/xx; l'21 ,"),")i()vit'do ' Miircia - - - (;,(;«8 5(X),000 87 (■).i;.\Tiircia .Upper Navarre .'{,'200 180,00C 'J'J 4.') Hainpeluno 1-H,81(; io,io"a,otx. u Majorca I. - - 1,440 1-10,000 .-'S •10 Majorca ^< Minorca I. - - TS? iiV,SUO 41 20 Citadtlla. M *- Yvi^al. - - Total - 5G0 ;}7 'Ji Yvic,-a M7,56'8 U),:>'i7,P00 1 The town and fortress of Gibniltar, suhjcct to Great Britain. 1 Face of tiir couxtry.] Spain in gcivral presents ahuiuhmt ])as- tni'es, viney.irds, gro\x\s of orange- trees, and hiUs covered u nil aroma- tic plants, hi some parts are extensive plains, ahnost destituie of uees ;ind verdure, bounded by ridges of lofty mountains, the huinniits of which are covered with snow during the greater part of the year. Mountains.] It is next to impossible to speciiV these, tiiev are so numerous; the chief anil the highest, arc the lVreni''e.s, ne.n- 200 ni'les "in length, vvliicli extend from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean^ and divide Spain from France". Over thesti' mountains there are oiily livt; narrow passages to France ; and the road thnnigh the p:!.ss that separates Houssillon from Catalonia reflects great honour on the enginwr wlw planned it. It formerly required the strength of thirty men to support, and nearly as many oxen to drag up, a carriage, which four horses now do with ease. The Cantabrian mountains (as'lhev a.-e called) are a kind of eontinuance of the Pyrenees, and reach to the Atkaulc Oeeau, south of "Cape Finisttrre. .No Knglishman ought to be unacciuaiiUed wit.h Mount Caljxj, now called the llillof Gibnilt;'.r, and in formerjiuies one of the Pillara of Hercules j tlie other, Mount Abyia, lying opposite to ii in Africa. Among the mountains of Spain, Montserrat is pavtii"; a-l> -'ort',- :ho attention of the curious traveller, being one of the nost singular in the world^ ior situation^ sha.pe, and composition. It staU'-ir- in a vast plain, about tliirty mi-lestrgna ijarcelona, and nearly -in tlic centre of tiieprincipani/ t'! ii'i'; I ; (IT iiiiiM 336 SPAJX. I- 'i I' i Ml **»■ '' ' -'it of Catalonia. It is called by the Catalonians Monte Serrado, or th« sawed mountain j and is so named from its singular and extraordinary form ; for it is broken and divided, and crowned with an infinite num- ber of spiring cones, or pine heads, so tliat it has the appearance, when seen at a distance, of the work of man ; but, upon nearer approach, is seen to be evidently the production of nature. It is a spot eo ad- mirably adapted for retirement and contemplation, that it has, for many ages, been inhabited only by monks and hermits, whose first vow 15 never to forsake it. When the mountain is first perceived at a distance, it has the appearance of an infinite number of rocks cut into conical forms, and built one upon another to a prodigious height, and seems like a pile of grotto work, or Gothic spires. Upon a nearer view, cadi cone appears of itself a mountain : and the whole composes an enormous mass about 14 miles in circumference. Th« Spaniards compute it to be two leagues in height *. As it is like no other mountain, so it stands quite unconnected with any, tliough not far distant from some that are very lofty. A convent is erected on the movuitnin, dedicated to our Lady of Montserrat, to which pilgrims resort from the furthest parts of Europe. All the poor who come here are fed gratis for three days, and all the sick received into the hospital. Some- times, on particular festivals, seven thousand persons arrive in one day; but people of condition pay a reasonable price for what they eat. On -different parts of the moiuitain are a number of hermitages, all of which have their little chnpels, ornaments for saying mass, water cisterns, and most of them little gardens. The inhabitant of one of these hermitages, which is dedicated to St. Benito, has the privilege of making an annual entertainment on a certain day, on whidi day all the other hermits are invited, when they receive the sacrament from the hands of the mountain vicar, and, after divine ser\'ice, dine together. They meet also at this hermitage on tlie days of the saints to whom their several hermitages are dedicated, to say mass, and commune with each other. But at other times they live in a very solitary and recluse manner, perform various penances, and adhere to very rigid rules of abstinence. They never eat flesh ; nor are they allowed to keep witliin their walls either dog, cat, bird, or any living thing, lest their attention should be withdrawn from heavenly to earthly allections. The number of professed monks there is 76, of lay brothers 28, and of singing boys 25 ; besides physician, sur- geon, and ser^'ants. Mr. Thicknesse, who has published a very particu- lar description of this extraordinary mountain, was informed by one of the hermits, that he often saw from his habitation the islands of Minorca, Majorca, and Yviga, and the kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia. Filabres is another remarkable detached mountain, situate about three leagues from Almeria, in the province of Granada. It consists entirely of a single stone, or solid block, of white marble, a league in circuit, and near 700 yards in perpendicular height. Forests.] Spain contains many forests, partly inconsequence of the peglcct of cultivation, and partly because they have been reserved by the sovereign for the amusement of the chase. That called Pardo is nearly thirty miles in length. RiVKRP, LARKS.] The principal rivers of Spain are the Douro, for- merly Durius, which falls into the Atlantic Ocean below Oporto in Por- • Mr. Swinburne estimates its height at onlv 3,300 feet; and observes that the *nn6 of the Convent are, the Vit^m Mary sitting at the foot of a rock half cut through by a saw. . SPAIN. 53; at this tugal ; the Tajo or Tagiis, which falls into tlie Atlantic Ocean belov.' Lis- bon ; the Guadiana, which falls into the same ocean near Cape Finisterre; as does tlie Guadalquiver at St. Lucar ; and the Ebro, the ancient Ibciu.s, which flows into the Mediterranean Sea below Tortosa. The river Tinto, the qualities of which are very extraordinarj', rises in Sierra Morena, and empties itself into the Mediterranean near Huelva. The name of Tinto has been given to it from the tinge ot* its waters, which are as yellow as a topaz, hardening the sand, and petrifying it in a most surprising manner. If a stone happen to fall in, and rest upou another, they both become, in a year's time, perfectly united and con- glutinated. — This river withers all the plants on iU banks, as well as the roots of trees, which it dyes of the same hue an its waters. Nu kind of verdure will grow where it reaches, nor any fish li\e in its stream. It kills worms in cattle when given them to drink j but in general no animals will drink out of tliis rr\er, excepting goats, whose tlcah never- theless has an excellent flavour. These singular properties continue till other ri\-ulets run into it and alter its nature 5 for when it pasEcs by Niebla, it is not difterent from other rivers. It falls into the ^lediter- ranean six leagues lower down. Several lakes in Spain, particularly that of Bcneventa, abound witli fish, especially excellent trout. The water of a lake near Antiquera is made into salt by the heat of the sun. The medical waters of Spain are little known : but many salutifcrous springs are found in Granada, Seville, andCordova. 1'hroughout Spain the waters are found to have such healing qualities, that they are excelled by those of no country in Europe j and they are continually more and mor« resorted to, especially at Alhamar, in Granada. Canals.] Several canals have, of late years, been begun in Spain, but most of them are still in an untinished state. That of iViTagon is intended to form a communication, through tire Ebro, from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean. The canal of Castile is to begin at Se- govia, about 40 miles to the north of Madrid, and extend to ilie Bay of Biscay. Other canals have been projected from the Escurial, and from the capital, to the Tagus ; the former, it is said, is completed. Metaxs and MixEiiALS.] Spain abounds in botli, and in as great variety, and of the same kinds, as the other countries of Eui"ope. Cor- nelian, agate, loadstones, hyacinths, turquois stones, quicksilver, copper, lead, sulphur, alum, calamine, crystal, marbles of several kinds, por- phyry, the finest jasper, and even diamonds, emeralds, and amethysts, are tbund here. At Almaden in LalSIancha is a mine of quicksilver, the most ancient known in the world, which produces annually 250 tons of that mineral, and has produced QOO. Near Cardona in Catalonia is a mountain of fossil salt, a league in circuit, nearly TjCO feet high, and ex- tending downwards to an unknown depth. Tlie Spimish iron, next to that of Damascus, fliraishes the best arms in the M'orld, and, in former times, brought in a vast revenue to the crown j the art of \\'orking it being here brought to great perfection, Spanish gun-barrels, and swords of Toledo, are still highly valued. Among the ancients, Spain was ce- lebrated for gold and silver mines ; and silver was in such plenty, that Stnibo, who was contemporary witli Augustus C-esar, informs us, that when the Cartliaguiians took possession of Spain, their domestic and agricultural utensils were of that metal. These mines have now dis- appeared J but whether by their being exhausted, or through the indo- lence of the inhabitants in not working them, we cannot say ; though the latter cause geeius to be tlie most probable. li t i 538 SPAIN. »f-- i'i . ! tj iv 'f if Cmmatf, !=otr., TRODUCE.] Except daring the equinoctial rains, th^ f\\r of S[i3in is dry and serene, but excessively liot in tlie southern pro- vinces in June, July, and August. Thr v<ist nimuilains ll;;it run tlu-ough the cuniry, :ue, however, very bcniiii ir.l to the inhrihitr.uts, by the re- Ireshing breezes tii.it eonac from then: in the southernmost pnrts ; though tliOsL- (ov.T.rds (he norlh and iu/rth-tait an; in the winter very cold. Such is the nic/r^lure of the hills, bounded on the north by the Bay of Biscay, and lo the soutli by snowy mountains, that the utmost care 'is not s.utRciout to preserve tlielr fruits, their grain, (heir instruments of iron, from monid, from ro(, and from ru>>t. Both the ii^ctous and the putrid fe.rnieritatiou here make a rapid progress. Besides the relaxing humidity of the climate, the common food of the inhabilanls contributes much to the prevalence of mo>t diseases which infect (lie principality of Astu- ria. Yet, although sid,^ject to such a variety of endemical diseases, few countries can produce more iustaiu es of longevity ; many live to the sigc oi' a hundred, some to a hundred and ten, and others luuch longer. The r.anie oh=erv:!tion may be extended to Oalieia, \vhere, in (lie parish of St. Juau de Poyo, A. I). 1/24, the curaic a<lministcrcd the sacrament to (hirteen persons ^vl'ose ages togetlicr made one thou.^and four hun- dred and ninety-nine, the youngest of these being one hundred and (en, :ind tile oldest one luuidred and tweiily-.seveii. ]5ut in \'illa de P'ofi- iianes, one Juan dc Outcyro, a poor labourer, died in tlie year 1726, aged more than one huiulred and forty-six }'enrs. I'lie soil of Spain was formerly very fruitful in corn, but the natives Jiave lateJy found some scarcity of it, by their disuse of tillage, through tlieir indcdcTiCC j the causes of which will be afd rwards explained. It produces in many places, almost spontaneously, the richest and most de- licious fruits that are to be found in France and Italj'j oranges, lemons, prunes, citrons, almonds, raisins, and ligs. The wines of Spain, espe- cially sack and sherry, arc in high request among foreigners. 1'herc arc, in the district of iVIalaga (according to Mr. Townscnd), fourteen thousand wine-presses, chieiiy employed in making the rich w'me, which, if white, from the nature of the country, is called jSlountdin ; if red^ iVoin (he c(>iour, vino tinto, known in luigland by the name of lent. Good mountain is sold from thirteen to sixteen pounds the butt, of one huntht'd and thirty-five gallons, according to quality and age. It is reckoned that from eight hundred to a thousand vessels enter this port every year, of which about oire-tenth are Spanish^ and tjie exports in A^ine, fruit, oil, and fish, are computed at about 3/5,000/. per annum ; but (liey have been consid^'-ably more. Spain indeed oilers to tlie tjaveller large tracts of impromising, be- cause unoidtivated, ground 5 but no country perhaps maintains such a number of inhabitants who ncitJicr toil nor work for tiieir food ; such an: the pencrous qualities of the soil, fc",ven sngar-canes thrive in Spain j and it yields saffron, honey, and silk, in great abundance. A late writer, ITstariz, a Sp;.iiiard, computes the number of sh.cjdierds in Spain to be 40,')L0 ; and lias given us a most curious detail of their aronomy, their ch.:i)ges (jf ]);'sture at ceitain times of (he year, and many other particu- lirs unknown (iil la(ely to the public. Those sheep-walks alfqrd the fnie.>t of wool, and are a treasure in themselves. Some of the moun- tains in Spain are clothed with rich trees, fruits, and herbage, to the tops; and Seville oranges are noted all over the world. No country produces a greaU'r variety of aromadc herbs, which render the taste of their kids au'l sheep so exquisitely delicious. The kingdom of "Murcia abjundi) so much with niulberry-trco;, that the product of its I SPAIN. 539 be- >pain ; e writer, ain to be ny, their particu- ftqrd the le moun- ?, to tlie countiy the taste dom of \ct of its ftilk amounts to 2(X),000/. a year. Upon the wluilo, feu- rountrics in the world owe more than S[)ain does to nature, and kvs to iu.liMry. \ K(;KTABLns,] Ik'sidivs tlio vegetable pro lueiions already nieiirioned, Spain j)rotlaces excellent v.heit, rice, tobacco, and s;'.tti\in. Thyme, l:!V(>nder, rosemary, and otlu'r aromatic herbs, grow hi prod i;.,'' on s abun- dance both on the mountains and in tlie valleys. A kind of ;:;ras3 or rush calk'd esparto, which is very p!- ntilMl in ihe southern provinces, is made into mats and ropes, and even into hni' linen. Animals.] 'i'lie Spanish horses, especially those of An.l;;lusia, are. thought to he tlie haud^onK■.^t ot" ;:!iy in Eur(j})e, and at the sanie time are very swift and serviceable. The kiu;^' eudea>'our-> to nionopolisc iho linest breeds for liis own stables and service. Spain furnishe.-. likewise mules and black cattle ; and the wild bulls have :(> much ferocity, that the bull-teasts were tlie most magnifi' enl spectai.le the court oi Spain coukl exhibit ; nor are they yet di.-.u,icd. Wohes are the, chief beasts of prey in Spain, which is well stored with all the game and wikl-fowl that are to be found in the nei<.;hbouring countries already dc-ciibcvl, /.riie Spanish seas ati'ord excellent lish ot' all kinds, especially anchcn :es, which are here cured in great perfection. This country is nuuli in- fested with k)custs} and Mr. Dillon observes, that, in 175-4, La Manclia was covered with them, and tlie horrors of famine assailed tne Iruitral jn-ovinces of Andakrsia, iNIuicia, and Valenc!;'.. Tney have sometimes appeared in the air in such numbers ns to d.u-ken the sky ; tlie clear at- mosphere (jf Spain has becomv; gloomy, and the iinc^t summer day in Kstremadura been rendered nlore dismal than tlic wijitcr ot Hoiiand. 'Their sense of smelling is so delicate, that they can discover a corn tield or a c^arden at a considerable distance ; which they will ravage almost in an instant, Mr. Dillon is of an opinion, that the counuv pcopl:, by- timely attention and observation, might destroy the eggs ci .hese formi- dable insects, and thereby totally extirpate thcni. NiVTURAL CURIOS [tieb.] Anioug the natund cvrio^ities, the medi- chial springs, and some lakes where extiaordin iry M(M.>e^ art- heard, form a principal part. The river Guadiana, like lIk- Mole in iMigland, runs under ground, and then rises again. It disippcar.i near Alcazar cle San Juan, in the country of La Mancha, and, running luivlcr ground nearly eight leagues, emerges again at .some lakes caned die Eyes of the Guadiama. The royal cabinet of natural history, at M:idrid, w as opened to the public, by his majesty's orders, in 1/75. L'very thing in this collection is ranged with neatness and elegance, and the aparimenis are opened twice a week for the public, besides being shown privately to strangers of rank. 1'he mineral part of the cabinet, containing p/ecious stones, marbles, ores, he. is very perfect: but the colieciion of birds and beasts at present is not large, though it may be expected to iniprove rapidly, if care be taken to obtain the productions of the Spanish Ameri- can colonies. Here is also a curious collection of vases, basins, e-,\ers, cups, plates, and ornamental pieces, of the linest agates, amethysts, rock crystals. Sec. mounted in gold and enamel, set with crimeos, intaglios. Sec. in elegant taste, and of very fine workmanship, said to have been brought from France by Philip V. T'he cabinet also contains specinrens of Mexican and Peruvian vases and utensils. In blovvirig up tlie rock of Gibraltar, many pieces of bones and teeih iiave been found incorporated with the .-.tone, some of wh'\:u liavc been brought to England, and deposited in the British Mu.seum. On the west side of the mountain is the cave called St. Michaef.s, elev eu hundred and ten feet above tJie horizon. Many pillars^ of various sizc^, some of It; "It ,1) '4 Ml i^ r ! "I f ■ ;fl; ! Bf.U IP I ! lljn i ^"^si !| 'I' i ml; 340 STAIN. them twf) feet in diameter, liave been formed in it by the droppin;^s of water, which have jjctriliecl in falling. The water perjKJtually tlrip.s from the rnof, and forms an inhniie numbfr of stalactites, of a whitish colour, composed of several coals or cru«ts, and whicli, as well as the pillars, continually increase in bulk, and may probably in time fill the whole cavern. From the summit of the rock, in clear weatlier, not only the tOM'n of Gibraltar may be seen, but tiie bay, the hlraits, the towns of St. Koquc and Algesiras, and the Alpuxara mountains ; mount Abylii, on tho African shore, with its nsowy top; the citiesofCeuta, Tangier, and great part of the Barbary coast. FopuLATioN.] Sinin, formerly the most populous kingdom in Eu- rope, is now but thinly inhabited. This is owing partly to the numerous emigrations to America, and partly to tJie indolence of the natives, who will not labour to raiac food for tlieir families. AnoUier cause may be assigned, and that is, tJie vast numbers of ecclesiastics, of botti sexes, who lead a life of celibacy. Some vritcrs haie assigned .several othoi causes, such as the wars with the I\I<5ors, and the final expulsion of that • people. The prcsenL Inhabitants of this kingdom have been computed, by some authors, at 13 millions, and by otheis at 1 J . Feyjoo, a Spanish writer, estimates them at only p/i^'iOjOOO. According to an eniunera- tion, arranged in clashes, given by JVIr. Townsend, they amounted, in 17B7, to 10,268,250 ; which corresponds with suflicient accuracy to tJie total of the population of the dilVerent provinces before given from tlie statistical tables of Baitichcr, England is therefore much more than twice as populous as Spain, consivlering its extent. K.^TiovAL CHARACTEii,") The persoHs of the Spaniards are gen?- MANNERs, CUSTOMS. J rally tall, especially the Castilians } their hair and complexions swarthy, but their coum nances are very expressive. The court of Madrid has of late been at great pains to clear their upper lips of mustaches, and to introduce among tlicm the French dress, in- stead of their black cJoaks, tlieir short jerkins, strait breeches, and long Toledo swords, which dress is now chiefly confined to the lower ranks. The Spaniards, before the accession of the house of Bourbon to their throne, aiVected tliat antiquated dress, in hatred and contempt of the French ; and the government probably will find some diificulty in abolishing it entirely, as the same spirit is far from being extinguished An old Castihan, or Spaniard, who sees none above him, thinks himself tJie most important liting in nature ; and the same pride is commonly communicated to his descendants. This is the true reason why many of them are so fond of renioving to America, where they can retain all their native importance, without the danger of seeing a superior. Ridiculous, however, as tliis pride is, it is productive of the most ex- alted qualities. It inspires the nation with generous, humane, and virtuous sentiments ; it being seldom found that a Spanish nobleman, gentleman, or even trader, is guilty of a mean action. During the most embittered wars they ha\ e had with England, for nearly 100 years past, we know of no instance of their taking advantage (as they might easily ha\e done) of contiscating the British property on board their galleons and Flate fleet, which was equally secure in time of war as peace. This is the juore surprising, as Philip V. was often needy, and his ministers were far from being scrupulous of breaking their ^^ood faith witJi Great Britain. Frou) the best and most credi!<le accounts of the lute wars, it appears, tint tlu; Spaniards in America gave the most humane and noble relief to all Britiih £ii!)jectJ5 who wixt in distress aud fell into llxch' liunds, iiot only SPAIN. 54 i ppin;^s of 1 lips from ih colfflur, e pillars, he whole t only the *vns of St. lii, on tlic and great jmin Eii- numcrous ivcs, who c may be }t}i sexes, mil othoi on of that ;ompuied, a Spanish ennmera- )vnted, in acy to tlie 1 fiom the ijoie than are gen?- ins ; their 'Xpressivc. heir upper chess, in- ;cbes, aiid the lowrr lourbon to )ntempt of ifficulty in iinguished ks himself commonly ty many of lin all their c most cx- niaiie, ar.d nobleman, g the most irs past, we easily ha\e Ueons and This is ministers witJx Great it appears, )le relief to Is, not ouV V lupplying them with necessaries, but money ; and treating them in ■^e nio5i hospitable manner while they remained amony them. Having said thus mueh, we are carefally to distinguish the Spanish nobility, gentry, and traders, from the lower ranks of Spaniards, w ho are as mean and rapaeiou3 as those of any other country. The kings of Spain, of tJ;e house of Bourbon, have seldom ventured to employ native Spaniards of rreat families, as their minivers. These are generally I-Vench or Italians, but most commonly the latter, who rise into power by the most infamous arts, and of late times from the moiit abject sta- tions. — Hence it is, tliat the French kinj/s of Spain, since tlieir accessioii to that monarchy, liave been but very indiiffvenf.ly served in the cabinet. Alberoni, who had the oroatcst genius anini.g them, embroiled his ma- ster with all Europe, till he was driven into exile and disgrace ; and Grimaldi, the last of their Italian ministers, hazarded a rebellion in the tjapitaJ, by his oppressive and unpopular measures. The common people who live on the coasts partake of all tlie bad qualities that are to be found in other nations. I'hey are an assemblage of Jews, French, Russians, Irish adventurers, and English smugglers, who, being unable to live in tlieir own countr}', mingle with the Spa- niards.— In time of war, they I'ollow privatt-ering with great success ; and when peace returns, they engage in all illicit practices, and often enter into the Irish and Walloon guards in the Spanish service. There are about 40,000 gj-psies, who, besides tlieir trade of fortune-telling, «re inn-keepers in the small towns and villages. The character of the Spaniards is thus drawn by Mr. Swinburne. " The Catalans appear ta be the most active stirring set of men, the best calculated for business, travelling, and manufactures. Tlie VaJencians are a more sullen sedata race, better adapted to the occupations of husbandmen, less eager to change place, and of a much more timid, suspicious cast of mind than the former. The Andalusians seem to be the greatest talkers and rho- domontaders of Spain. The Castiiians have a manly frankness, and le->,s appearance of cunning and deceit. The New Castiiians are, perhaps, the least industrious of the whole nation ; the Old Castiiians are iaburious, and retain more of the ancient simplicity of manners ; — botli are of a firm determined spirit. The Arragonese are a mixture of tlie C;isti- lian and Catalan, rather iF;clining to tlie former. The Biscayners ara acute and diligent, fiery and impatient of control, more resembling a colony of republicans than a province of an absolute monarchy ; and (iia, Galicians are a plodding pains-taking race of mortali, that roam over Spain in search of a hardiy-earoed subsistence," The beauty of the Spanish ladies reigns mostly in their novels and romances ; for though it must be acknowledged that Spain produces as fine women as any country in the world, yet beauty is far from forming tlieir general character. In their persons, they are mostly small and slender ; but they arc said to employ great art in supplying the defects of nature. — If we were to hazard a conjc^cture, we might reasonably suppose that those artifices rather diminish than increase bc-auty, e^jpecially whcn they are turned of twenty-five. Their indiscriminate use of paint, not only upon their faces, but their necks, arms, and hands, undoubtedly disfigures their complexions and shrivels their skin. It is at the same ^me universally allowed, that they have great wit and vivacity. Among the many good qualities possessed by the SpaniArdSj their so- briety ill eating and drinking is remarkable, TIikv frequently breakfast, as well as sup, in bed. Their breakfnst is ni^ually chocolate, tea being very seldom drank. Their dinner is generally beef, mutton,, veal, pork. i fssisssmm .*T 6-12 SPAINj K'' .1 and b:icoii, greens, Sec. all boiled together. They live much upon garlic, cI)Uc>, siilLid, and radis^herf ; viiich, according to one of their proverbs, are foott tor a gentleman. The men drink very little wine ; and the \von;tn u^e water or cliucolate. Both bcxes usually sleep at'tejr liinner, and take (he air in tiie cool of the evening. This is tlie commoa practi(c in v.ai.M v.mntrie.s, huch as Italy, Spain, and Portugal, where^ generally >pL'aking,, tb.e weatlier is clear, and the inhabitanls are hiostly in the hahit ot rising mr.cii earlier th;in in England. The human body cannot larnish spirits hi.-.lK'ient to resist the ctFects of the violent heat, ihrough tin? wliolc day, wiihout some such refreshment ; it is, therefore, the universal pra* tice to go to sleep for some hours after dinner, whicli in tho.^e countries is over early ; and this ti)ue of repose, which lasts for two or tliree hours, is in Spain called the Siatd, and in Portugal the Se.sta. Dancing is so much their liivourite entertainment, that you may sec a grandinoUKn-, moiher, a.nd djiigiiter, ad in the same country-dance. Many of their theatrical exhibitions arc insipid and ridiculous bombast. Tiie pronijitcr's head sometimes appears through a trap-door, above the level of (he ^tiige, and he reads the play loud enough to be heard by the audience. Gallantry is :i ruling passion in Spain. Jealousy, since the :iccjssion of tJie house of Bourbon, has slept in peace, I'he iiightly musical serenades of uiistresses by their lovers are still in use. The tights (;f the cavaliers, or bull feasts, are almost peculiar to this country, iind make a capital figure in painting the genius and maiiners of the !3pai)iards. (Jn these occasions, you.ng gentlemen have an opportunity of showing their courage and activity hefore their mistresses ; and the valour of the cavalier is proclaimed, honoured, and rewarded, according to the nuniber and licKcer.css of the bulls he has killed in these encoun- ters. Great j)ain.-> arc used in settling the form and weapons of the cornbat, so as to give a relief to the gallantry of the cavalier. The diver- sion itself, whicli is attended with circumstances of great barbarity, is uudouljtedly of IMoorish original, and was adopted by the Spaniards when u]5on g(;od term.' with that nation, partly through complaisance, and partly dirough rivalship. There is not a t(nvn in Sp.i'n but what has a large scjuare for the pur- pose of cxhibiiing bull-lighls ; and it is said, that even the poorest inhabitants of the smallest villages will olli'u club together, in order to procure a cow (jr an ox, and fight ihem, riding upon asses for want of Ili.::"-<'S. CiriES, CHIEF TOWN'S, i;i)I1'u;es.] Madrid, thoiigh unfortified, it being only surrounded by a mud wall, is the capital of Spain, and con- tains about 1.50,(K)() inhahitaiits. It is surrounded with \c\y h^ity mountains, whose simrmits are !ic(iucnlly covered with snow. It is well paved and lighted, and some of the streets are spacious and handsome.. The houses oi' Madrid are of brick, and are laid out chielly for show, convenience being little considered : thus you will visually pass through Iv.o or three large apartments of no use, in order to come at a small room at the end where the f tmily sit. I'hc houses in genc-iiil look more like prisons than llie habitations of ))eople at their liberty ; the windows, le.'^idcs ha\ iug a balcony, b'.'ing grated with iron bars, |)articularly the lowxT range, and sometimes all llie rest. Separate fami' >.s generally iuliibit the same house, as in Paris and P.dinburgli, Foreigners arc very much dii.tt-cssed for lodgings at Madrid, ;is the Spaniards are not fond of taking strangers into their houses, especially if they are not catholics.. Its greatest excellency is the cheapness of its provisions ; but neither ta\cujj coilce-house, uor ucwspaper^ excepting the INIadrid GaiJctte, SPAIiV. 343 iiightlv . The 18 small moie ulovis, rly I he ucially ■c very oml of holk'-i. icilhcr h fo be fecund In the whole city. The royal pnlice stnnili on an emi- nence, on the west side of the city : it is a spacious magnilicent strucrnrc, consisting of three courts, and commands a very line prospect. Ivich of tne fronts is 4/0 feet in length, and 100 high, and there is no palace in Europe titled np \viih greater niagnilicence ; the great audience- chamber especially, which is I'iO feet long, and hang with crinisoii velvet richly cmbroic'ered with gold: it is ornainontt'il also with 12 loolsing-glasses made at St. Ildetbnso, each ten feet high, and witli 12 tables of the finest Spanish niarl)le. The other royal palaces round it are designed for hunting seats, or houses of retirement ii-v their )^:i?lgs. Some of them contnin line paintings and good statues. \'Ik- ehief of those palaces are ihc I'ueii Retiro (iiow stripped of all its best pictures and furniture), Casa del Campo, Aranjuez, and St. Ildefonso. A late traveller has re]>resented the palace of Aranjuez, a.nd its gar- dens, as extremely d'clightful. Here is also a pai'k many leagues roiuid, intersected, in dift'erent parts, by alleys of two, three, anci even four miles extent. Each of those alleys is formed by two double rows of elm- trees ; one double row on the right, and one on tlie l(;ft, w hii<:h rendenj the shade thicker. The alleys are wide enough to admit four (xiachei abreast, and betwixt each double row there is a narrow channel, through which runs a strt"am of water. Between these alleys there are thick groves of smaller trees of various kinds ; and thousands of deer and wild boars wander there at large, besides nurnberless hares, rabbits, phettsants, partridges, and several other kinds of birds. I'he river Tagus runs through this place, and divide.'i it into two unequal parts. The central point of this great joark is the king's palace, which is partly surrounded by the garden, and is exceedingly pleasant, adorned with fountains and statues ; and it also contains a vast viricty of the mosC beautiful flowers, both American and European. As to tlie jnlace of Aranjuez itself, it is rather an elegant than a magnilicent building. The palac'i of St. Ildefonso is built of brick, plastered and painted, but no part of the architecture is agreeable. It is tv/o stories hig!], and the garden front has thirty-oi)e windows, and twelve rotjms in a ^luit, The gardens are on a slope, on the tQp of which is a great reservoir of water, called here Et Mar (the sea), wnich supplies the fountains; this reservoir is furnished from the torrents whii-It peur down the niouiitains. Ijiti water-works are excellent, and far surpass those at Versail'es. The great entry of the palace is somewhat similar to that of Versailles, an<l with a large iron palisade. In the gardens are twenty-seven fountains ; the basins are of \\hite marble, and the statues, man;' of which are ex- cellent, are of lead, bronzed and gilt. These gardens are in the formal French style, but ornamented with sixty-one very line marbles statues, as large as the life, with twenty-eight marble vases, and twent/ leadeu vases gilt. The upper part of the palace contains i>iany wdushle paint- ings, and the lower part antique statues, busts, and bas^o- relieves. The pride of Spain, however, is the Escurial ; and the natives say, perhaps with justice, that the building of it cost nior« than that of any other palace in Europe. The desrTiption of this palace forms a sizable tjfuarto volume} and it is said that Philip II., \vl>o was its founder, ex- pended upon it six millions of ducats. It is situate about twent v niile.s from Mailrid, in a deep recess at the foot of tiie Guadarama mcjuntnins. It contain's a prodigious i\umt)er of windows, 200 in t!ie west front, and in the east 30'0" ; and tlie apartments are decorated with an asto- nishing variety of paintings, iii;nlpture, tapestry, ornaixocnts o^ gold and silver, nxarble) ja'^per, ^ems, and other curioui stones. I'hii buiidin>^-. 4 m 544 SPAIN. E 'L i' > besides its palace, contains a church, large, and richly ornamented ; * mausoleum, cloisters, a convent, a college, and a libraiy containing about thirty thousand volumes ; but it is more particularly valuable for the Arabic: and Greek manuscripts with which it is enriched. Above the shelves are paintings in fresco, byBarthelemi Carducho, the subjects of which are t.iken from sacred or profane history, or have relation to the sciences of which the slielves below present to us the elements. Thus, the council of Nice is represented above the books which treat of theology ; the death of Archimedes, at the siege of Syracuse, indicates those which relate to the mathematics ; and Cicero pronouncing his oration in favour of Rabirius, the works relative to eloquence and the bar. A very singular circumstance in this library may be agreeable to the curious reader to know, which is, that, on viewing the books, he will find them placed the contrary way, so tliat the edges of tlie leaves are outwards, and contain their titles written on them. The reason for this custom is, that Arius Montanus, a learned Spaniard of the sixteenth centur)% whose library had served as a foundation for that of the Escurial, had all his books placed and inscribed in that manner, which no doubt appeared to him to be the most commodious metliod of arranging them. He introduced his own method into the Escurial ; and since his time, and for the sake of uniformity, it has been followed with respect to the books afterwards added. Here are also large apartments for all kinds of artists and mechanics } noble walks, with extensive parks and gardens, beautified with fountains and costly ornaments. The fathers that live in the convent are in number 20O, and they have an annual revenue of 12,000/. The mausoleum, or burying-place of the kings and queens of Spain, is called the Pan* theon, because it is built upon the plan of that temple at Rome, as the c'lurch to which it belongs is upon the model of St. Peter's. It is tliirty- six feet in diameter, and incrusted with fine marbles. Allowing to the Spaniards their fiill estimate of the incredible sums bestowed on this palace, anl on its fvirniture, statues, paintings, coluams, vases, aiid the like decorations, which arc most amazingly rich and beau- tiful, yet we hazard nothing in saying, that the fabric itself discovers a bad taste upon the whole. The conceit oi" building it in the form ot a gridiron, because St. Laurence, to whom it was dediaitcd, Avas broiled en siich an utensil, and multiplying the same figure through its principal ornament's upon the doors, windows, altars, rituals, and sacerdotal habits, could have been fwmed only in the brain of a ta.steless bigot, such as Piiilip II., who erected it to commemorate the victory he obtained over the French (but by the assistance of the English forces) at St. Quentin, o|| St. Laurence's day, in the year l^Ty/. I'lit^- apartment where the king resides, forms the handle of the gridiron, liic Building is a long square of O'lO feet by 580. The height of the roof is Oo feet. It has been entiched and adorned by his successors, but its outside has a gloomy ap- j^earanco, and the inside is composed of diitercnt structures, some of which are master-pieces of architecture, but forming a dii-'agrceable whole. Ii must, however, be confessed, that the pictin'cs and statues tliat have found admission here are excellent in thttir kind, and some cf them not to be equalled even in Italy ilself. Cadiz is the great emporiun\ of Spanish commerce. It stands on an island separated from the continent of Andalusia, without the Straits of Gibraltar, by a very narrow arm of the sea, over which a Ibrtified bridge is thrown, and joins it to the main land. The entrance into the bay is about 500 fathoms wide, and gttarded by two forts, called tl;e t ! SPAIN. 64S nted; a itainiug able for Above subjects lation to kments. I treat of indicate* icing his and the eeable to ooks, he !s of tlie m. The )aniard of lation for d in that timodious i into the ity, it has Here are C3 j noble .ntains and in number mausoleum, d the Pan- ne, as the t is tliivty- ■dible sums ,, coluaius, and bcau- Idiscovers a fDini ot a rt-as broiled ts principal otal habits, ot, such as jtained o^ er Lucntin, oi<J [re the king long square It has been gloomy ap- |c's, some of disagreeable and statues and some kands on an Ihc Straits of a fortified Incc into the called tlie Puntals. The entrance has never been of l.-'.te years attempted by the English in their wars with Spain, because of tlie vast interest our mer" cliants have m the treasures there, which ihey could n©t reclaim from th . captors. The streets are narrow, ill paved, and filtliy, and full of rats in the night; the hcnises lofty, with flat ryofs, and few are witlicut a turret for a \iew of the sea/ The population has been reckoned at 140,0CX) inhabitants, of wliich 12,CKJ0 .".re French, and as many Italians. Tlie cathedral has betn already 50 years building, and tlie roof is not yet linlslicd. The en\irons arc beautifully rural. Cordova is now an incousUierable pLice ; the streets are crooked and dirty, and but ttiw of tlie public or private buildings conspicuous for their architecture. The palaces of the inquisition and of the bishop are extensive and well situated. The cadiedral was formerly a mosque di- vided into seventeen aisles by rows of coiunins of various mLU^bles, and is very rich in plate y four of the silver candlesticks cost 850/. a-piece. 'I'he revenue of the see amouuLs to 35001. per annum, but as thebishopa cannot devise by will, all they die possessed of »eschcats to the king. Seville, the Juli;i of the Romans, U, next to Madrid, the largest city in Spain, but is vreatly decayed both in riches and population. The number of inhabitants, however, is still estimated at 80,000 The shape is circular, and the walls seem of Moorish coni-troction ; its circumfe- rence is live miles and a half. The suburb of Triana 's as large as many towns, and remarkable for its gloomy Gothic castle, where, in 1481, the inquisition was first establislied in Spain. Its nunufacturcs in wool and silk, which form'-rly amounted to 10,000, are I'ow reduced to 400j and its great otiice of commerce to Spanish Aintn'lca, is removed to Cadiz. The cathedral of Seville is a fine Gotliic building, with a curious steeple or tower, having a movable figure of a woman at the top, called La Giralda, which turns round with the wind, and which is referred to in Don Quixote. Tins steej)le is reckoned one of the greatest curiosi- ties in Spain, and is higher than St. Paul's in London ; but the cathe- dral, in Mr. Swinburne'.s opinion, is by no means equal to York minster for lightness, elegance, or Gothic delicacy. The first clock made hi the kingdom was set up in this cathedral, in the year 1400, in the pre- sence of king Henry III. Tlie prospect of the country round this city, belield from the steeple of t!ie (\ithedral, is extremely delightful. Barcelona, formerly IJarcino, said to be founded by Hainilcar Earcas, is a large circular trading city, containing 15,000 houses, situated on the Mediterranean, facing Alinorca, and is said to be the handsomest place in Spain ; the houses are lofty and plain, and the streets well lighted and paved. The citadel is strong, and the place and inhabitants famous for the siege they sustained, in 1/14, against a formidable army, when de- serted botli by England and the emperor, for whom they had taken up arms. The number of inhabitants is supposed to be nearly 150,000, and they supply Spain with most of the clothing and arms for tlie troops. A singular cu-^tom prevail.^- .imong them ; on the 1st of No- vember, the eve of All Souls, they run about from house to hou;.e to eat chesnuts, believing that for every chesnut they swallow, with proper faitii and unction, they .shall deliver a soul out of purgatory. Valencia is a iaigc and almost cirrular city, with lofty walls. The streets are crookeil and narrow, and luA pavet! ; the liouses ill built and filthy, and most of the churches tawdry. Priests, nuns, and friars, of every dress, swarm in this city, whose '.nhabitants are computed at 80,000. Its archbishopric is one of the best in Spain, il:- revenue amouniing to about 40,000/. slerlin::- a year. 2 N (.f.,. ■A6 SPAIN, f-il? ■u i . :i M ^MH Cartliageiia is a large city, l)ut has few good streets, and fewer r^^- markable building?. The port is very roniplotf, formed by nature i» the figure of a heart, nnd the ursenal is a spncious square south-west ot' the town, \vilh4() pieces ol' canNoii to defend it towards tliesea. "When Mr. S\\ inlnirnc A'isited it in J 77.3, there were 800 Spanish criminals, ai.ul.GOC) ]'.;irl),irv slaves, working at the pumps, to keep the docks dry, i^'t'., and treated with great inhumanity. The crimes for which the Sjianiards were sent there deserved, indeed, exemplar)' punishment. Grenada stands on two hills, and the ancient palace of the Alhambv;i crowns the- double summit btMi'.vecn two rivers, the Douro, and the Xernl. The former glories of this city are passed av.-'v with its old in- habitants ; the streets are now iilthy, the aqueducts crumbled to dust, and its trade lost. Of 50,000 inhabitants, only 18,000 are reckoncJ tisctul ; the surplus is made up of clergy, lawyers, cliildren, and beg- gars. The amphitheatre for bull-feasts is built of stone, and one of tlie hest in Spain. Tlie enviions of the city are still pleasing and healthful. J^ilhoa is simate on the banks of the river Ybaizabal, and is about 1 wo leagues from tlie sea. It contains ait eight hundred houses, v.ith a large sq\iare by the water side, wen shaded with pleasant walks, which exfeml to the outlets on the banks of the river, wliere there are great nun)bers of houses and gai'dens, Avhich form a most pleasing prospect, particularly in sailing up the nver; for, besides the beautiful verdure, numerous objects open gradually to the eye, and the town ap- ju.'ars as an amphitheatre, ^hich enlivens the landsciipe, and completes the scenery. The liouses are solid and lofty, the streets well paved and level, and ilio water is so conveyed into the streets, that they may be wash- ed at plea.itire, which renders JJilboa one of the neatest towns in Europe, INfaiaga is an ancient cit v, and not less remai'kable lor its opidence and extensive coumrerce, than for the luxuriance of its soil, yielding in great abundance tlie most delicious fruits; whilst its rugged moniUains atfonl those luscious grapes wliich gi\e .-uch rej)Ut;Uion to the Malaga wine, known in England by the name of Mountain. The city is large and po- puiOiis, and of a circular form, surnnuided with a double wall, stn-ngth- cntfl by stately t(n\i'rs, and has nine gater-'. A jSIoorisli castle, on tlio point of a rock, commands every part of it. Tlie streets are nariuvv : and the mo.-t reniarkiible building in it is a stujunidous cathedral, begun by Philip II., said to he as large as tliat <;f 5l, Paul's, in I.oiui'jii. The bi- sJiop's income is )6.000l. stciling. The city of Salamanca is of a circular form, built on three hills atir? two \cd!eys, and on every side surrounded with prospec's ot line houses, noble seats, gar«4ens, orchards, tields, and distant villages ; and is iincient, large, rich, and populous. 1 here are ten gates to this cityj and it con- tains tweiity-tive churches, twenty-five convents of tViars, and the same inim!)er of nunneries. The most beautiful part of this cit) is the great ;.quai'e, built ab(;ut to!t\- years ago. The houn-s are of tiirce stories, and ;i!l oi'oijual lieiglit and e^act svmmetry, whh iron balc»ii>ii's, and a stone h.hu.--trade on the top of them: the, lower pa;t is arched, and forms ii j'ii/.za all I'M.iiid tli«' scpiari', which extends tv, o hundred and ninety- liirt'e feet (m each sirii-. Oicr some of the arehes are medallions, with busts of the kin;> ot bpain, and several eminent nmi. in stone hassu- ]clie\e, amoit>;- which are ifiose of i'Vrdiiiando v.'ortez, Francis Pizarro. D.ivilla, and Ciillln;,'. In tin.-. Mpiare the Ijull-figlit,:) are txiiibited, for thr ritv \.* 1 and 1 s oni' ■1 t!ie monih uf Ji i."..s a ''n.l'je <i\'er it ot t v, en 'i'iie river '{'ornies runs by thi t>--five laches, built by the Romans SPAIN. 547 'er i".'* :uro hi west oV ■\Vheu ■ks dry, ich tlie ent. hambvu ind the 5 old in- to dust, eckoiiei ind beg- e of tl:e eaUbfiil. is about houses, it Avalk?, here are pleasing beautifvd town ap- :ompletes Mtved and / be wash- a Europe, ilence and ff in great lins atl'ord |aga wiuc, ;e and po- stvi'iigtb- Ic, on tho low : and begun by The bl- htils anr? |ne luu^ses, is iv.H'ier.V, \ud it cen- l\ the samf L the great It (ivies, and md a stonc' and tonus Jiid ninety - llions, v.-ith tone basso- •is ri/arro. Inbited, <•.'!■ luns by thi> If RoUKlUV Toledo is one of the most aneient cities in Spain, and dnr-ng seveial reniuries it held the rank of its metropolis. But the nui;ilibourhood ot .Madrid has bv degrees stripped it of its numerous inhabitant-^, and it would have been almost entirely deserted but for its cathedral, the income of wliich being in great part spent here, contributes chiefiy to the maintenance of the few thousands that are left, and assists, in some degree, lhc»-ie small maniUactures of sword-blades and silk-sturfs that are established in this city. It is now exceedingly ill-btiilt, poor^ and nuMU. lhirgo-> was the ancient capital of the kingdom of Castille, but now in obscurity-. The cathedral is one of the most magnificent structures, of the (/othic kind, now in Europe. Its tbrm is exactl) the same as that of \(>i\s minster, and on the cast end is an octagon building, exactly l:k« thtf ciiapter-hoase at York. (iibrahar, once a celebrated town and fortress of Andalusia, Is at pre- sent in possession of Great Britain. Till the arrival of the Saracens in Spain, which took place in 711, or ~\'J,, tlie ro;,'k of Gibraltar \\<'ni by the name ot'DIons Calpc. On their arrival, a fortv>-:;s was built upon it, and it obtained the name of 6'///^/ Tarijf, or IVhtuntTaritl', from the name «.;f their general, and thence Gibraltar. It was In the possession of the tS[-a!iiai"ds and Moors by turns, till it was taken from the former l)y a com- bined tleet of English and Dutch ships, under the command of su- George llo'ike, in l/'04, and this raiher through accident than ar.y thing else. The prince of Hesse, with 1 8(.V) men, landed on the isthmus ; but an at- •■•ick on that' side was found to be impracticable, on account of the steep-" ncss of the reck. The lleet tired ] 5,000 shot, without making any impression on the works ; so that the fortress seems to be etjually im- pregnable both to the British and Spaniards, except by fimiue. A.t last, a party of sailors, having got merry with gn^g, rowed clohe under the I\ew Mole in their bi)ats j and as th«y saw that the garrison, which consisted only of 100 men, did not mind them, they were encouraged to attempt a landing ; and having mounted the mole, hoisted a red jacket as a signal of possession. Tins l)eing innuediately observed from the lleet, more boats and sailors were sont out, v.ho, in like luanner, having ascended the works, got possession ol a battery, and soon obliged the town to surrender. After many fiuitle.-is atitiiijits to recover it, it; was contirmed to the English by the treaty of I'tre-'lit, in ]7i;J. Re- peated attempts have since been made to wre.-t it lioiu England, but. without success ; the war preceding the last rendeied it more famous tha!i ever, when it underwent a long siege against the united forces of Spaiti and Francxj, by laud and sea, and was gallantly dt.fended by general Elliot and his garrison, to the? groat loss and disgrace of the assailants ; thotigh it must be granted the place is by nature ahnostwnpreguahle. Near ;}(X) pieces of eaiuion, of ditlerent bores, and c:hielly brass, which wriii suifK before the port in the tloating batteries, were raised and sold, V) be distrlbu'cd among the garrison. It is a commoiHous port, and form d naturally for conunanding the passage of the !^tra:ts, or, in other words, the entrance into the Mediterranean and Levant seas. But the, road is nei- ther safe against an enemy nor stornjs: the bay is about twenty leagues in circumference. The straits are 34 ufiles long, and 15 broad, through which sets a current from the Atlantic Ocean into the Mediterraneaii, and for the stemming of it a brisk gale is required, I'he tovv'n was neither large norbeautilal, and in the last siege was totally destro\ed by the enemies' bombs; but on accoujit of its fortifications is esteemed the luny of Spain., and k aUva)S faruished with 4 garrison well provided fjr il iL i ui u I n w m iw m i ii mn mi ,it> ^'i, i I is Ik I : M! SPAIN. it-; (loftnco. T'nv ii:irbour is formt-d by a mole, which is well fortified ;;nJ planted witli giuis. l-!ibraltar is acxessible on the land side only by i tiairow pa.ioai^e between tiie reck and the sea ; but that is walled and f')iiilit.(l l){)th by art and nalurc, and so enelosed by higli steep hills, as to be. ahiiust inaccessible. It luis but two gates on that side, and a.s many to^vards the sea. Across this isiimuis the Spaniards have drawn a fortified line, chiefly with a view to Iiinder the garrison of Gibraltar from iia\ ing any intercourse with the country behind them ; notwith- standing' which they carry on a ci.uulestine trade, particularly in tobacco, ot" wh!( :i the Spaniards are exceedingly tond. I'he garrison is, however. coUi'ined within very narrow limits ; and, as the ground produces scarcely any thing, all their provisions are brought them eitlu:rfrom England, or from Ceuta on the oppcjsite coast of ]>arbary. Fornicrly Gibraltar was einirely under military government} but that power prtxincing those, abuses v.hicJi ..re naturally attendant on it, the parliament thought pro- per to erect it into a body corporate, and the civil power is now lodged in its magistrates. The chief i^ilands belonging to Spain in Europe arc Minorca, Ma- jorca, and Yvi<;a, pronounced Eviza. Minorca, which was taken by the English in l/OS, under general Stanhope, and contirmed to Great Bri- tain by the treaty of IJtiecht, 1713, \vas re-taken by the Spaniards. February J 5, J 7^2, and is now a Spanish island again, containing about 27,000 inhabitants. CoMMKKCK A.vn MANUFACTL'RKs.] 1 he Spaniards, unhappily fur tht iiselves, make gold and silver the chief branches i^oth of their exports and imjiorts. Tliey import these metals from America, and afterwards export them to other courilries of Europe. C;idiz is the chief emporium of (his commerce. " Hither," says Mr. Anderson, in his History of Commerce, "■ other European nations send their merchandise (o be. shipj;ed off in Spanish bottoms for iVmerica, sheltered (or, as our old English phrase has it, coloured) under the names of the Spanish factors. I'liose foreign nations have here their agents and correspondents, and the consuls of those nations make a con^itlerable ligure. Cadiz has been said to have '.ne tinest store-houses and magazines for com- nierco of any city in Europe : and to it the flota and galleons legularly import the treasures of Spanish America. 'Ihe ])roper Spanish mei- <-handises exported from Cadiz to America, are ot no great \ alue ; but the duty on the foreign merehimdisf^ sent thither A\ould yield a great revenue (and consequently the prolits of merchants and their agents •would s-ink) v ere it not for the many fraiululeni practices for eluding those duties." At St. Ildefonso the gla.ss manuficte.re i^ carried on to a degree of perfection unknown in England. The largest mirror.-: are made in a brass frame, lf}2 inches long, 1)3 wide, antl six deep, vseighing near nine tons. These are design* d wholly for the royal p.ii.ices, and lor pre- sents from the king. Yt:t even for such ]>urj)Obea it is ill placed, ar.d proves a devouring monster in :i country vliere provi^^iona ar<^ dear, tuel scarce, and carriage exct vdiiigl;- expcn;>Ive. Here is ai;t; a royal manu- facture of line.M, employing abuut fifteei\ loon.):> ; by ulhch it is said Ui<f king is ,1 considerable lo-,er. In the city of VaK !i( in which ti\e thousand luums, and ihrct- hun.tied Allocking frames, gi\«^ cmplf)yment to upwards of 2(),i)0() ot the in!:abit;inti;, without enume- rating those wlia exerr:;e profe.J.>ii'ns relatise t() the m.inuftcture, s\k h iis perso.'is who prepare lite wood <in4 wo.i wvrk «f no ^reul a number there 13 a \erv n-.peclabic S'Jk manufacture. SPAIN. 5-lf) or macliines, or <;pin, wind, or dye tlic silk. At Alconi, in (he neigh- bourhood of Vali'ucia, a manufacture of porcelain luis been successfully established; and they very much excel in painted tiles. In Valencia, their best apartm(;nts are floored with tli('-,e, and are rcnicnkahle for neatness, for coolness, and for elegance. They arc stronger and much more beautiful than tliose of Holland. At Carthageua they make great (juantities of the rsparfa ropes and cables, some of them spun like hen'p, aud others plaili-d. Bulh ope- rations are performed with singular rapidity. Thcic cables a.roexcelli-nt, because they float on the surface of the water, and are not therefore hablc to be cut by the rocks on a foul coast. Tjje esparto ru-,h make,^ good mats for houses, uiimvj^ntcs, or short trousers and buskins for peasants, and latterly it has been si)an into iine thread for tlie ])urj)o>.e of making cloth. If ])roperly encourage>l, there is no doubt that the manufacture may l)e brought to such perfection as to make; tliis once. useless rush a source of abundant wealth to the southern provinces of Spain, for it is the peculiar and natural production of all tlie high and Tuicultivated mountains of the south.' As to the hempen cordage wi)ich is made in Spain for the use of tlie royal navy, M. de IJourgoaime observes, that it ia better and more dma- ble than that of the principal dock-yards and magazines in Kurope : because, in confoing the hemp, all the towy part we leave in it is li<ken out, and made use of in caulking : whence results the double advan- tage of more solid cordage, and the b(=tter caulking of vessels. Anotjier custom in our rope-yards, which the Spaniards have avoitled ado])ting, is the tarring the cordage, and keeping it a long time piied up. in this .state the tar ferments, and eats the hemp, and the ceuiage is extremely apt to break after being used but a short sp;.ce of time. The Spaniards forinerly obtained their heir.-p la)m tlie north ; at pre- sent they are able to do without the assistance, in this article, o*" any otiier nation. The kingdom of (aranada already furiiishes them witli the gre;Uest part of the hemp tliey use; and in ca-e of need, they may have recourse to Arragon and Navarre. AH'the sail-cloth and cordage in the magazines at Cadiz, are maile with Spanish hemp, the texture of which is even, close, and solid. The most important produelion of this country, and the most valua- ble arti(~!e of commerce, is barilla, a species of pot-ash, procured bv burning agreat variety of plants almost peculiar to the kingdoms of V,;- lencia and Ivlurcia, such as >ioza, ali-nud, Htizon, sai/cnncs, sulaovniii, u iih (mrilla. It i> used fir making soap, for bleaching, a lu! for glass. All the nations in Muiope, by the combustion of various vegetable substances, make some kind ot pot-ash ; but the superior excellence of the barilla lias hitherto secured tiie preteience. 'I'he country producing it is ai)out tiixty leagues in lei'glh, and eight in breadth, on the borders of the Me- diterranean. 'I'he (piantity exported annually from Spain (r.ccording to the testimonies of both iSIr. lownshetid and .\l. tie Bourgoannei is about a huntlred ar.d lifiy (juinjals, most of which are ,>,ent to iMance and En- gland, and a small (juantity to Genoa and Venice. Spain is one of tlie richest c(>untries in Eiuope in salt-petre, a most important article of commerce. The account of this surprising nuMiu- lacture we shall abridge from IMr. Towiishend : — " I observed," .says he, " a laitre enclostire, with a number of moimts of about twenlv ieei liigh, at regular distiUices from each (ither. Thei-e were collected t'vom the tubbisli of t'le citv of Madrid, and the sia\']/ms.':s of the higliwavs 1 'I'licv had remained all the winl^v piled up in the iiKiimcr in wlneh ' 'I ,■»!< 550 SPAIN. !,t I™ J^ sBt"; found them. At tliis time men were employed in n-hceling them aw.iVi and spreading abroad the t;arlh to tlie thickness of about one foot, whilst others were turning w!iat had been })reviously exposed to the inrtutncc of the sun and air. The preceding summer these heaps had hven washed, and being thus exposed, would yield the same quantity of salt again; and, as far as appears, the produce would never fail : but, after having been washed, no salt-petre can be obtained witlii)ut a suh.-.equent exposure. vSomc of this earth they can lixiviate once a year, bomc they have washed t^\•enty times in the last seven years, and some they have suiijected to this operation liftecn times in one year, judging always by their eye when they may wash it to advantage, and by their taste if it lias yielded a lixivium of a proper strength ; from which, by evaporatint; the water in boihn;^, they obtain the salt-petre." The other maimiacturcs of Spain are chiefly wool, copper, and hard- ware. Great efforts have been made by the government, to prevent the ether European nations from reaping the chief advantage of the American commerce ; but these never can be successful, till a spirit of industry is awakened aniong the natives, so as to enable them to supply their Ame- rican possessions with their own commodities and me'chandise. Mean- while, the good faith and facility with which the English, French, Dutch, and other nations, carry on this contraband trade, render them greater gainers by it than the Spaniards themselves are, the clear proiits .seldom amounting to less than twenty per cent. I'his evidently makes it an important concern, that those immense riches should belong to the tipaniarus, lathcr than any active European nation : but of this subjecl there will be occasion to speak in the account of America. CoxsTiTU'TioN AND GOVKKNMENT.] Spain, from being the most fixe, is now the m(9st despotic kingdom in Europe; and the poverty which is so visible in most pai ts of the country is in a great degree the result of its government, in the administration of which no proper attention is paid to the interests ;;nd welfare of the people. Th(j monarchy is he- reditary, and fennales are capable of succession. It has even been que- .sfioned, whetlier his catholic majesty may not bequeath his crown, upon his demise, to any branch of the royal family he pleases. It is at least certain, that tlie house ot Bourbon mounted the throne of S^>ain in virtue of the last will of Charles II. Thecoites, or parliaments of the kingdom, which formerly, especially in Castille, had greater power and privileges than those of t-ngland, ari^ now abolislud ; but some taint remains of their constitution are still iiiscernible in the go\ernment, though all of them arc inelfectual, aVid imder theconlroul ol' the king. I'he privy council, which is composed of a mimber of noblemen, or iirandees, nominated by the king, sits only to prepare matters, and to digest paper> for the caljinet council, or junto, which consits of the first v'-ecretary of state, and three or l()i.ir more nanied by the king ; and iu tiiem resides the direction of all theexecutive part ot government. 'Ihe council of" war t,ds.es logni^iance of military atlairs only. The council o\ Castille i-, the highest law tribunal of ihe kingdom. The several courts of the royal audiences are those of Gallicia, Se\ille, Majorca, tiie Canaries, Saragossa, Valencia, and Ilarcclona. 1'hese judge pri^rarily }<A all causes within fifteen miles of their rcs{)ecti\e cities or caj)itals, an-.' ieceive appials trorn inlerior j'>iri;,dictious. Besides these tlien.> are many bubordinate tiibunals, lor the ju)lice, the ilnanccs, and other blanches of (he administration. The gusertuiicut of Spanish America fonns a svot.eni of itself, and is Si\ViN. i^l and is c?'>''!egat«d to viceroys, and other magistrates, \vlio are In tlieir respective • listricts almost absolute. A council tor iho Indies is established in Old Spain, and consists of a governor, t\Air secretaries, and twenty -two counsellors, besides othcers. Their decision is tin.il in matters relating to America. 'The members are geaenilly chosen liom the viceroys and magistrates who have served in that country. Tlie two great viceroyal- ties of Peru and Mexico are so considerable, that they are seldom trusted to one person lor more than three ye;us j and their emoluments are sufficient to make Jiis T'ortune in that time. The foreign possessions of the crown of Sjxiin, besides those in Ame- rica, are the towns of Ceuta, Orau, and NIasulquivcr, on the coast of }5arbary, in Africa j and the islands of St. La.'aro, the Philippines, and Ladrones, in A-ria. Kkve.vues.] 'I'he re\en\ies arising to ihe king from Old Spain, yearly, amount to about 5,(X)0,0(K1/. sterling, though some say eighl; and they torni the siu'est support of his government. His American income, it is true, is immense ; but it is generally, in a manner, embezzled, ur anti- cipated, belbre it arrives in Old Spain. The king has a tilth of all the silver mines that are worked, but little ot it comes into his colfcrs. — He finds meanfl, however, ia case of a war, or public emergency, to sequester into his own hands great part of tbe American treasures be- longing lo his subjects j who riCNCr con^plain, because they arc alway.s punctually repaid with uiterest. The finances of his present catholic majesty are in better order, bcth for himself and his people, than those of the greater part of his predecessor)!. As to the taxes whence the internal revenues aris**, they are various', arbitrary, and so much suited to conveniency that we caunot state them with any certainty. I'hey are laid upon all l;inds of goods, houses, lands, timber, and provisions ; the clerg)' and military orders are like- wise taxed. INIiLiTARY AXD MARiNK s": i{ p/NGTH.] Tlie land forces of the crown of Spain, in time of peace, are never fewer than 70,000 ; but in case of war they amount, without prejudice tij'the kingdom, to llO.tXK.) The great dependence of the king, hcrwever, is upon his Walloon o. foreign gviards. His present catholic majesty has been at great care and expense to raise a powerful maviuc ; and his llect in Europe and Ame- rica, though it has suffered considerably by the late war with England, may still consist of atiout lifiy ships of the Uiie and as m;iny frigates. All along the coast of S[)aia are watch-towers from mile to nfile, with lights and guard.s at night: sf) that from Cach/ to Barcelona, and iVoiu Bilboa to Ferrol, the whole ki-igdom may be soon alarmed in case of an invasion. JloYAi. ARMS, TITLES, Ko- \ Spain formerly comjirehended twelvc BiLiTX, AND OKDKRS. j kingdoms, all of which, with several ctlu-r.;, were, by name, entered into the royal titles, so tliat tiiey . amouiued in ail to about thirty-two. This absurd custom is still occa- si^)nally continued, but the king is j;ow generally contented witli the title of His Catholic Majestj-. The kings of Spain are in;uigiu;ited bv the delivery ot' a sword, without being crowned. Th.eir signature never mentions their name, but, I thk kint;. Their eldest son is calied prince of Asturias, and tluir younger cifddren of both sexes are, by way of distinction, called inf.intf^, or iiintrJas, that is, children. The armorial bearing of the kings of Sp;rin, like liieir lille, is loaded with the arms of all their kiugdoms. It is now a shield, divided into four quarters, of which tiie uppermost on tli.e right h;uid, and liic lowest m 552 SPAIN. f on the left, contain a rnstlo or, with throo towers, for Castille ; and in the uppi-TMiost on the left, i'nd the lowest (in ilie riglit, are three lions gules, lor I-eon; with three lilies in the centre tor Aiijun 'J'he general name lor iho>e Spanish nobility and gentry who arc un- mixed M ith the Moorish blood, is Ilidalj^o. They arc divided into prin<:e^, dukes, nmniuise.s, counts, viscounts, and other interior titles. Such as are created grandees may stand covered belbrc the king,, and are treated with princely distinctions. A grandee cannot be ap])iehended without the king's order; and cardinals, archbishops, aiiil\'s-^ad()rs, kiiigius ol" the golden tleec(% and certain other gieat dii^iiilaiies, l)oth in cJiurch and stntc, have the privilege, as well as the grantlees, to ap- pear covered before ii\e king. The "Order of th-^; (Jol'den Fleece^" particularly dt.^cribed before in the orders of Germany, is generally conterred on princes and sovereign dukes : but the Spanish branch of it has uiiJny French and Italian no- bility ; there are no commandcries or revenues annexed to it. The "■ Order of St. James," or St. Jugo dc ilomjunti'lla, is llie richest of all the orders of Spain. It was diviued into two brandies, each un;ler grand master 5 but the oilice of both was giveti, by pope Alexandir VI., to the kings of Spain and Portugal as grand nusters In 'heir respective dominions. The order is highly esteemed in Spain, and only conferred on persons of noble families. The same nny bo said of the " Order of Calatravd ," tirst instituted by Sanehio, king of Toledo : it look its name from the castle of Calatrava, which was taken from the Isloors, and here began the order, which became \'ery powerful. Th.eir num- ber, influence, and posr.essions, wore so considerable as to excite (he jealousy of the crown, to which, at length, their revenues, and the office of grand master, were annexed, by pope Innocent VIII. The celebrated "Order of Alcantara' derived its origin frora the order of St. Julian, or of the Pear-tree ; but after Alcantara was taken tVom tlie Moors, and made the chief residence of t.\e order, they assumed the name of knights of the order of Alcantara, and laid a^!de the old device of t)ie pear-tree. This order is highly esteemed, and conferred only on persoiis of ancient «nd illustrious families. The " Order of the Lady of Mercy" is said to have been instiutcd by James I., king of Arragon,. about the year 1218, on account of a vow made by him to the Virgin JMary, during his cap- tivity in France, and was de^^igncd for the redemption of capti\-es from the Moors, in which were expended large sums of money, it was first confined to men, hut a lady of Barcelona afterwards get woiu'.'n included in it. This order possesses considerable revenues in Spain. The "Or- der o( Montesa" was instituted at Valencia, at the close of the tliirteenth century, iji the place of the Templars, and enjoyed their possessions. Their chief s !^ being the town of M.-ntesa, tlio order from thence de- rived its name, :>.,.' chose St. George for their patron. In tlie year 17/1, the late king institutLl, after Ids own name, the " Onler of Charlts ill." in commeriioration of the birth of the infant. The badge is a star of eight points, enamelled wiiite, and eJ.ged with gold : in the centre of the cross is the image of the Virgin Alary : ve-tnieni-', while and blue. On the reverse, the letters C. C. v>ith the nuniber 11,1. in the centre, and this motto, Virtiui tt Mcrko. None but persons ot noble descent can belong to this order. Rflioion.] TiieRomisli religion is the onlyone tolerated in Sjiain, The inquisition is a tribiuial disgraceful to human nature j but though disused, it is not )^et abrogated 5 but the eceles;;isties and their oflicers can carry no sentence into execution without lito royal uuthority. I'he Spaniard;} SPAIN. 6S9 lid in lions c iin- , into titlfS. ;„ and muled iidors, ,, both to ;ip- orc in ereigu iau uo- richcst \ un;lcr UrVL, ipcctive iDlcrru'd )rder of took its I\Ioors, ir num- cite the [he office k-brated . JuUan, lora, and ■ linifjhts eav-tree. i ancient s said to ir 1218, Ilia cap- es fVnui was fii'st inckidcd " Or- liirtecnth '.essionn. Loiice de- tar 177 '> vks IIL" la star of Iccntre ot Lnd 1;Uac. Intre, and liCcuL cau la.n. The ti disused, lean carry [Spaniard;} t enibracf! and practise the Fwoman-catholic reliction witli all its absurdities j smd in this (licy have been so steady that their king is distini^uished by the cpilliet of Mo.-,t C(Uli"/:c. It appears, lu.wever, that tlie burning Zeal whi 'h distin!;,ui.shcd their ancestors aljove tlic tv..X ot \}\c catholic world, has lost much of its activity, and seems nearly extinguished; iuid the power of the clergy has been niiich rL-..Iuci.-d ot" late years. A royal edict has also been issued, to prevent the admission of novices into the ditll-rent convent-', witiiout special permission, which has a great tendency to reduce the monastic orders. It is computed that tiiere are now, in the kingdom of Spain, v'J4,(.KX) friars, o4,0t)0 nun5, and 20,0CX) secular clergv, but as liitle true moral religion as iji any country under heaven. In Catalonia, the tonfidente of the peo])Ie in (he interce?iMon of saints, has at all periods betii a souice of consolation to th'MU, but upon some occasions has betrayed them inio mischief. Every company of artisans, and every ship tiiat sails, is under the immediate proitrtion of some patron. Uciidcs tijlio volumes, which tcstity the innumenible miracles performed by our Lady in Montserrat, every .subordinate slirine is laided with votive tablets. This has been the parent of presumption, and among the mercliaiits ha> broui^ht many famiiiis to want. The com- panies of insurance in the American war, having each of tliem its fa- vourite saint, such as San Ranron de Penaforte, la Virgoa de la Merced, and others, associated in form by the articles of parrnersliip, and iian^ed in every policy of insurance ; and having with the most scrupulous exact- ness allotted to them their correspondent dividend, the same as to any other partner, they concluded that with such puwerful ;iss;)ciates it wm not possible for them to sutler loss. Under th'.s persuasion, they vcn- tm-ed, about the year 17/0, to insure the French ^Vcst-lndia-nien at fifty per cent., when die English and Dutch hatl refused to do it at any premiinn, and in;.lced when most of the ships v.ere already in the En- glish jiorts. Ey thi.-, f ital stroke, all the insuring companics_, e-vct^pt two, \vere ruined. AucHBisiiorRics AXD BisHorKics.] In Spain (here are ciglit arcli- bishoprics, and ti)rty-six. bishoprics. I'he arehbishop of Toledo is styled the primate of Spain'; he is great-chancellor of Castille, and Jias a re- venue of ne.irly 100,0^0'. sterling per :tr,;iumj but the Spanish coiut Jias now many ways of lessening tl:e revenues of the church, as by pensions, donations to hospitals, ike. and premiums to the societies of agriculture. This Lirchbi.shopric pays annually l.)/K)0 ducats to the monks of the Eseiirial, besides otiier pf;:>sion.s ; and it is asserted that there is not a bit^hopric in S])ain but has sonrcbodv or other (piartered npcni it: and tlie •-eeoiul-rale b(-nefiee.i are belie\ed to be in llie same predicament. Or.t (>f the rich canonries and ])rel)ends, are taken the pen.-ions of the new order of knights ot' Charles ill. 'i'lie riches of the Spanish cliurches and convents are theunvar/ing dbjccts of admi- ration to all travellers as well as natives ; but there is a sameness in them t'll, excepting that they ditier ia the degrees of tiv.isure antl jewels they contain. LiTKUATauE.] Spain has not produced learned men va proportion t(> the excellent caj'acities of its natives. I'his defect luav, in some mea- sure, be'altri'ouLed to the indolence and bigotry of the Spaniards, w h'cli prevent them from making that progress in the polite arts which they otherwise would : but the greatest impediment to literature in Spain, is the despotic nature of its government. Several of the ancient fsiher:; of llie vhurch svcre Spaniardij ; atjd ie;u"ning owes n;ucU to Lidore^ ,% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) v^^^ <^ ^ 1.0 I.I 11.25 1^ i 2.5 2.2 I 2.0 U ■ 1.6 I 6" Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 '^ 1^ ;\ \ 6^ .M4 SPAIN. if- 'if 1 1" II bishop of Seville, and r^nlinal Ximtncs. Spain has likewise produc«?d home oxrellcnt physiriaji.'^. Such wns the gluom of the Austrian go- vc'ininont tliat took pla:e with the emperor Chnrles \. thni the inimita- ble Cervantes, the author ol" Don Quixote, born at Madrid in J54p, futered into the army iii .i station Utile superior to tliat of a common .soldier, and died neglrried, after fighting ijiavely for his country at tlie battle of Lepanto, in which he lost liis left hand. His satire upon kiiiglit-euanlry, in his adventures of Don Qui.xote, did as nuirh ser\ice' to his coon try men, by curing them of that ridiculous spirit, as it now does honour to his own memory. He was in prison for del)t wlien he com- posed the first part of his histor)-, and is perhaps to be placed at the head of moral and humorous satirists. 'I'he \'i,>ions (*f Qucvcdo, and some other of his humorous and satiri- cal piecc-s, having been iranshitcd into the English language, have ren- dered ikat author well known in this country. He vas born at Madrid in the year 1570, and wjs one of the best writers of his age, excelling equally in verse and in prose, ik'sides his merit as a poet, he was well Tcrsed in tlie Oriental languages, and possessed great erudition. His w orks arc cor.jpriscd in liiu'C volumes quarto, two of which consist of poetry, and the third of pieces in prose. As a poet, he excelled both * in th* serious and burlesque style, and was happy in a turn of humour . .similar to iliat which we admire in Ivailer and Swift. }-(u:try was ruUivaled in T^pain at an early period. The most distin* g-viished dramatic poet of this nation was I.opcz de Vega, who was con- temporary \\ilh oi-r Slutk^pe<!ie. He possesr)ed an iniai.;ination astonish- ingly fertile, and wrctf! wilii great facility; but in his dramatic works he disregarded the unities, and adapted his jjkays more to the taste of the age, than to tlic rules oi critici.-m. His lyric compoiiiions, and f"ugitive pieces, witli his prosc essays, fn-m a ccillcclion of fifty Aolnmes, besides his dramatic works, which make tweuty-six voUunt's niorc) exclusive of four jjundred scriptur.tl dramatic pieces, called in Spain Autos Sacraniai' tdlts. Caldei'on wa.; aho a dramatic v.riter of considerable note, but many of his plays arc very licentious in their tendency. Tostatu.s, a divine, the most voluminous perhaps t'lat ever wrote, was a Spaniard; but his works have been long distinguished only by their bulk. Herrera, and some other historians, particularly De Solis, have shown great abilities in history, by invesligating the antiqtiilies of Ame- rica, and writing the history of its conquest by their countrymen. — Among the writers who have appeared in Spain in modern times, father }'"eyjoo has been one of the most distinguished. His performances dis- play great ingenuity, very exten.-ive riading, and uncommoii libera- lity of seulinient, esjiecially when his situation and country are consi- r<ered. Many of his pieces have been translated into Knglish. and pub- lished in four volumes, Hvo. Don I'Vanrisco I'eiez J^ayer archdeacon of Valencia, and author of a Dissertation on the Pha-iiici"!! Language, may be {)laced in tlie first rapk of Spanish literati. Spain has likewise pro- tJuced many travellers and voyager.s to both the Indies, who are equaHy amusing and instructive. Some of tlie Spaniards have distinguished themselves in the polite arts ; and not only the cities, but the palai.os, especially the K,s( iirial, discover many jU'ikij!g specimens of their abilities as sculptors and arrhilects ; Palomino, in an elaborate treatise on the art of painting, in two \()hunes foiio, has inserted thelises of two hundred and thirty-three painters and srulji'ors, who flourished in Spain from the time of i'erdi- iiand the Calholic, to the conclusion oi the rci^n of i'hilip IV. Anicu;^t.t SPAIN. 553 lie polite Ksturial, itGis and intiu;:;, in irty-lhice ot I'ortli- Arvicu;^st the most eminent Spanish painters, were Velasqucs ; INIurillo, wlui is commonly called the Spanibh Vandyke ; llibeifa ; and Claiulio Cocllo, whose style of painting was very similar to that of Taul Vero- nese. Universities.] In Spain are reckoned 21 universities, the chief of which is Salamanca, founded by Alphonsus, ninth king of Leon, in tho year 1200. It contains 21 colleges, some of which are very niagiiiriccnt. iMostof the nobility of Spain send their .s<»ns to be educated here. Tlic oUiers are Seville, Granada, Conipoijtella, Toledo, Vallailolid, Alcala, Si- )j;uen/.a, Valencia, Lerida, Huesca, jSarai^ossa. loriosa, Ossuna, Oiiafa, Caiidia, Barcelona, Murcia, Taragona, Jiacza, Avila, Oriuela, Ov it-do, .ind Palencia. Language.] The Spanish language, like the Italian, is derived from the Latin ; and it might properly be called a corruptcil T,atin, wi-n*. it not for the terminations, and the c;.\utic words introduced into it hv the Moors and Goths, ebi)eciariy the former. It is a majestic and ey- I)resslve language ; and foreigners, who undcr-^tand it beat, esuvm it most J for tlie Spanish works of geriius appear to di'^:HU antagc even in the best transhitions : and Cervantes speaks almost as aukward Knglish, ;is Shakspeare does French. It may, however, be considered as a stan- darij tongue, having nearly retained its puritj' ibr upw ards oi' 200 }ears. The Lord's Prayer in Spani>^h is as follows : — I'^idrc iiucsiro, <]uc a;tas tn dcido, xtinctijicdilo se cl tu nombre ; vcn^^u a nox vl tu ny/uu ; ^lcl^clsc tii voiuntad, us:i m la tiara comocn cl ciclo; cl pan nucsiru dc aida did da iios dc uj/; y pcidoiiu nos niicslrus dcadiis assi coino nos atrvs pevdomimos u nciuitros dciidon's; no noa dc.iea cair en lit tvntacion, mux libra nos dc nud; porfjiit tao cs cl rryno, y la potcncia, y la isloriaf per lux si^;los. Anu' n. ANTittUiT.ES.] These consist chietly of llomau and Moorihh. Near Segovia, a grand a<iueduct, erected b}' 'IVajan, extends over a deep vj.lley between two liilli^, and is supported by a double row of lot) ;>;ches. Other lloman aqueducts, theatres, and ciici, are to bo /bund at Tarragona, and in diifcreiit parts of Spain. A ruinous watch- fower, near Cadiz, is vulgarly, but erroneously, thought to be one vi' the pillars of Hercules. JSiear the city of Salajuanca are tlie re- mains of a llomau way, paved with large flat stones; it was conti- nued to Merida, and from thence to Seville. At Toledo are the re- mains of an old Roman theatre, which is now converted into a cluuTh» s;iid to be one of the most curious remains of antiquity. It is Ooo feet in length, 500 in breadth, and of a proportior.a!)lc licight ; the roof, which is amazingly bold and lufty, is supptated by MjO pillars of rine marble, in ten rows, forming. i;le\ en aisles, in whkli are 300 altars, and 24 gates ; every part being enriched and adorned with the most noble anel costly ornaments. At Martorel, a large town were much black lace is manufactured, is a very high bridge, built in l/^'S, out of tho ruins of a decayed una tiiat had existed Utb.l ycjrs from its t rection by Hannibal. At the north end is a trium^'hal arch or gateway, said to Iiave been raised by that genera! in honour of his tather Hamilear. It is almost entire, well proportioned and simpk-, without anv kind of onia- juent, except a rim or two of hewn stone. Near Mors iedro (once tho faithful Saguntum, desU'oyed by Hanni!)al) are some lloman remains — as the ruins of the theatre, an exact semicircle about b2 yards diameter j .some of the galleries are cut out of the rock, and <jOob persons mi-^ht attend the exhibitions without inconvenience. The Moorisji an.i(|uities are rich and magnificent. Among the most 4Jsiiuguishcd of these is tlie royal palace of tlie Alljauibi;^, at Giauadaj, 536 SPAIN. I' 1,1 ■;p illii vhirh is one nf the mosf en*"'c as well as the most stately of any of the I'dific'cs which lli. .vhx.i.-. fvoctcd ia Sjvtin. It w.'.h built in 12S(), by the svcoiiurvloojish kiti-;;t)r(ir;iri;ul:i ; ami, in Hy2, iii t!io ivign nt'ihcir eighteenth ' in^, was tii!.(.n by tla- Spnuiarus. It In sliuate on a hill, whiclj is asrendcd by a rnatl bordered witli hedges ot" double or imperial myilU's, and rows ot" elms. On this hill, within the walls of the Al- haniliia, tlic emperor (Jharlcs V, began a new palaee in ITitiH, wlurh wa-i ii'-vtr lii-.i.^hed, though the shell of it remains. It is built nf yellow ^lone : the outside tonus a scjuare of one hundred and ninety feet. The insiile is a grand circular eoint, with a portico of the Tuscan and a <;n!- h-ry of the JJorie order, each supported by thirty-two eolunnis, made of a.-( many single pieces of marble. The orand entrance is ornamented with columns of jasper, on the pedestals of which ari' representations of battles, in marble basso-relievo. The Alham!)ra itself is a ma^s dt" many houses and towers, walled round, and built of large stone*: ot dif- ferent dimensions. Almost all the rooms have .stucco walls and ceilings, some car\ed, some paintetl, and some gilt, and covered with variot'.s Arabic sentences, Hce are se\eral batiis, the walls, lioors, and ceilings of which are of white marble. The gardens abound with orange and le- mon trees, popiegranntcs, and mynles. At tJie end of the gardens is an- otiier palace called (iinaraliph, situate on a nuire elevaied station tliau the Aliiarnbra, From the balconies of this jialace is one of llic linest prospects in Europe, over the whole fertile plain ofGranada, bounded by snowy mountain^. I'he Moors to this day regret thi' lo.vs of Gnnada, ami still olier up prayers to God for the recovery of the city. Many other noble monuments, crvcti d in the Moori.-h times, remain in Spain, some of them in lolerable preservation, and others exhibiting superb ruins. History.] Spain was probably first peopled by the Cch.c, from Gaul, to which it lies contiguous; or from Africa, fioni which it is only bcparated by the narrow strait of Gibraltar. The rim-nieians sen! colo- nics thither, and built Cadiz and Malaga. Alterwartls, upon the rise of Home and Carthage, the possession o{' this kingdom became an cbjrct of contention between those powerful republics j but at length the Ro- iuan arms prevailed, and Spain remained in tln'ir possession until the fall of that empire, when it became a prey to tlie Goihs, In the beginning of the filth century, the Suevi, the Vandals, and the Alaiii, divided tJiis kingdom aniong them : but in the year ."JH J-, the Gotlis again became its masters. These, in their turn, were i:\vadcd by the Saracens, who, about the end of the seventh century, had possessed theraheKv\s of the finest king- doms of Asia and Africa ; and, not content with the immense regions that formerly composed great part of the Assyrian, Greek, and lloman empires, crossed the Mediterranean, ravaged Spain, and established Uiem.selves in the southerly provinces of that kingdom, Don Pelayo is mentioned as the first old Sj)i!nish prince who distin- guished himself against lhe>e infidels (who weie afterwarils known by I lie name of Moors, the gre:iter part of them having come from Manri- tania), and he took the title of king of Asinria about the ye:ir j'lO. His hiiccesses animated other Christian princes to take arms likewise, and the two kingdoms of Spain and Portugal for many ages were perpetually pmbroiled in bloody wars. The Moors in Spain were superior to all theirvcouteniporaries in arts and arms, and the Abdonlrahman line retained possession of tlie throne nearly three liuiidrcd years. Learning tlouriahed in Spain, while the -X SFAIN. 557 from rest of Ear(.pe wns bur'.rd in ij^norancc and barbarity. But the Moorish princes by clt^rocs bt'Ciiine wrak and eftemh'aie, -nul tht'ir chief" n)ini- Rfcrs proud and insolent. A series of civil war* ensued, wliicii at last ov'iTliirncd the tliroiie of Cordova, and t'lc rice of Abdoulralnnan. Sewral j.^fiy piincip.iljti».-s were funm-d on the rumsof tliis eiDpirc, and inatiy cuii's of Spain bad each an independent sovcrciL^n. l'"verv adven- turer was tl*e,n entitled to tlie conquests iic made Irom the Moor<, till Spain at last was divided into twelve or tlrrteeu kinp/.ioms ; and I'.bout tli<- year Kk)5, Hi nry of riUr^undy was declared, by the king of lA'.)n, count of Portugal ; but his son, Alfonso, threw otf Lis dopiMidenec on 1-oon, and declarid hiinsfif king. A scries of brave prmcL-s gjve fh« iMoors repealed evcrthrows in Spain, till about the year l-kj2, wiien all the kiii'Tdoins in Spaiii, Portugal excepted, were united by the marriage ot Ferdinand, king of Arragon, and Isabella, the heiress and afterwards ijneen of ('astille, who took Granada, and expi-llcd out of Spain the Aloors and Jews who wf)uld not be converts to the Christijn faith, to the number of 17U,(XX) families. 'J'he (expulsion of the Mtjors and Jews in a manner depopulated Spaiii oi artiits, iabown r.<, and manufacturers ; and tiie discovery of America wot only added to that calamity, but rendered the remaining Spaniards most deplorably indolent. To con:ip'.ete their mi:,fortunes, Ferdinand and Isabella introduced the popish intjuisition, w ith all its horrors, info their dominions, a.-, a safeguanl against the retmn of the IMoors and Jev.s. CMiarles v., ot the hou^e of Austria, and emperor of Ciermany, .suc- ceeded to the throne of Spain, in right of liis mother, who was tlu* iiaughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, in the year 1510". The extensive possessions of the house of Austria in Km-ope, Africa, and, abovo all, America, from whence it drew immense treasiues, b(>gan to alarm the jealousy of neighbouring princes, but could not satisfy the ambition of Charles; and we imd him constantly engaged in foreign wars, or v/ith his own protesLant suiyects, whom he in vain attempted to bring back t: the catholic church. He also reduced liie power of the iiobles in Spain, abridged the privileges of the connnons, and greatly extended the regal prerogative. At last, atter a long and turbulent reign, he came *o a resolution that hlled all I.Hrope with astonishuicnt, wiihdrawin > himself entirt!/ from any concern \n the afl'airs of tliis world, in ijv(!'>r tiiat he niiglit spend the remainder of his days in retirement and solitude ''-. • Ciiiirltis, of all hi? vast possessions, rp?crvcd nothing fur Iilm,-.(.'lf but riii anminl pensions of 100 OtK) crowns; and ciioie, for tlic place of his rcti car, a vaio in .Sj);i!:i. ♦it no great extent, watered by a small brook, and surround'-d hv rWin"^ i,r;)undii, co- vered \yit!i lolty trcPi. He p^avc strict orders that the styii' of the buildinc; v,l)ich he erected there .hould be such as suited liis present situation, r.uher than liis (ur- \ner dignity. It consisted only of six rooms; four of them in the form of friars' ctvl.i, with naked w.ilh; and tin." other two, each twenty fcrt square, were hunj, with l)rown cloth, and furnished in the most simpio manner, llere he buried i^i solitude and silence his grandeur, his ambition, together wlih all those vast projects v.hich, during half a century, had alarmed aud agit:ited i^urope, tilling evcrv kln:;- doin in it, by turns, with the te.-ror of his arms, and the dread of being subiectod to his [lower. Here he employed himhplf in studying the principles an<l in iomiinfr wurious works of mechanism, of which he !iad .dways been remarkably fond. lie v/as particularly curious with regard to the construction of clocks and watches : atid having found, alter repeated trials, that he could not brinj-; any two of them to «r« exactly .alike, he retlecttd, it is suid, with a mixture of surprise and regret, on his own folly, in having bestowed so much time and labour on the mere vain attempt wf bringing mankind to a prtv-iit unilormity of oentiment con .•'rniiig the intricate and mysrerioHs dociriufi of religion. And here, after two yeari' retirement, he wu ««t2ed wiib A fev«r v/Lich c<irried luoi olT, in the 58tb yeu uf his age. f iif: m if iin )•( ?:l 558 spAiy. Ajji'ee:»b!y to this drtcrmiiiation, Jic rcsigTH-d Spniii and t!ie Nether- lamls, with great, lorinality, in the presfiK e of his ])riiicij)ai nobility, u> Jiis son, Philip IJ. ; but cciilcl not prevail on the jirinccs of Gennanv to elect Iiini emperor, whieh dignity they conferred on Ferdinauil, tJie brother of Charles, thereby diviciitii; the danj^erous power of the house ot Austria into two brandies; ^*^pain, with all its ])ossessions in Africa and the New World, the Netherlands, anvl some Italian states, remained wirh the elder branch; whilst tiie empire, Hungary, and Bohemia, fell to the lot of the younger, which they still possess. Vhilip H. inheriU'd all his father's vices, with few of his good q\ialities, lie was austere, haughty, iniiiKvlerately aml)itious, and, through lii.j whole life, a cruel bigot in the ( ause of pi;pery. His marriage with queen .Mary of England, an untecling bigot like himself, his unsuccess- ful aildreh^.es to her sister Elizabeth, his resentment and fruitless wars Mith that princess, his tyranny and persecu\ions in the Low Coun- tries, the revolt and loss of the United Provinces, with other particulars of his reign, hai^ been ah'cady mentioned in the history of those coun- tries. In Portugal he was more successful. That kingdom, after l>eing go- verned by a race of wise and brave princes, lell to Sebastian, about tha year 1557. Sebastian h;st his lite and a tine army, in a headstrong, ini- just, and ill-concerted expedition against the iVIoors, in Africa ; and in the year 1,580, Philip united Portugal to his own dominions, though the Bragan/a family, of Portugal, asserted a prior right. By this acqui>ition, Sj^ain became possessed of the Portiigucae settlements in India, some of which she still holds. I'he descendants of Philip proved to be very weak princes ; Imt Philip and his father had so totally ruined the ancieut. liberties of Spoin, that they reigned almost unmolested in their own dominions. I'hi-ir vice- roys, however, wt.'re at once so tyrannical and insolent, over the Portu- guese, that, in the reign of Philip IV., in the year l6"40, the nobility of tJiat n:ition, by a wcll-coiKlucted conspiracy, expelled their tyrants, and placed the \luke of Braganza, by tlje title of John IV., upon their throne j and ever since, Portugal has been a distin(>t khigdoui from Spain. The kings of Spain, of the Austrian line, failing in the pjjrson of Charles II., who left no issue, Philip duke of Anjou, second son to th» dauphin of France, and grandson to Lewis XIV., moimted that throne, in virtue <jf his predecessor's will, by the name of Philip V., anno 1/01. After a long and bloody struggle with the German branch of the kouse of Austria, supported by England, he wan coutirmed itxhis (Iignily> at the; conclusion of the war, by the shametwl peace of Utrecht, in 1/13. And thus Lewis XIV., through a masterly train of politics (for, in liis wars to suj^jjort his grandson, as mc have already oliservcd, he was idniost ruined), accf>mnlislicd his tiuourite project of tnmsfi^rring the kiiigdom of Spain, with all its rich possessions in America and the Indies, fr(;m the house of Austria, to thalof hi.-> own I'aiii'ly of Bourboit. In 1/34, Philip invaded Naples, and cot that kingdom I'or 1 is son Don Carh)s, the Sicilians rea- dily acknowledging him for their sovereign, through the oppression ot the imperialisin. AJ"ter a lung and turbulent reign, \\ hich was disturbed by the ambitioti of hiswite, Elizabeth of Parma, Philip ilied in IT-lU, and was succeeded \iv his son Ferdinand \'L, a mild and peaceable prince, who reformed many abuses, and endeavoured to promote the commerce and pro.sperity (jf his kingdom. lu 175}) he died, without issue, through mclanchcly tor the loss of his wite. Ferdinand was succeeded by Uia brother, Chmies III. ether- ity, u> ;uiv lo a, the house Africa naiiu'd ia, toll laVities. igh hi> ;e with urcess- ss wars Co\m- liculars e couu- ;inp J^o- lOMt tho )ng, vm- ; and in )vigh tlie ui.-ition, some of lit Philip ?\r\, that fir vicc- e Portu- ;)biUty of mts, and r throiic ; in. ,u,'rson of on to th» Lit throne, )tu) 1/01. the konse iiy, atthy 13. And ;is v/ars to ,t ruined) , of Spain,_ ic lumi-.e of p invaded ilians rea- lession of SPAIN'. 559 e ambition •succeeded ) reformed prosperity anchcly for ;haiie3ni. then king of K ■[ les and tlie Two Slcillc?, sen to Philip V. by his v.itl* the pnncos.s of Rinna. He was so warmly nttach.cl to the fi'Tiily compact of the l:n;;:-e of Bourbon, that, I'.vo years after his accession, lie even hazarded !;'- Ann • rican doniinion-i to suj.p'jrt it. War beiri;^ ik-rlired between him and l>nglaiid, tha latter took from iiim the f.imoui port and city ot Havan- n ih, in tlie island ot C-'uba, and thereby rendcr.-d herself onlirely mistres-; of the navicalion of the Spanish phtc-fleets. Xotwithstand.in;.; the suc- cess of the ku'^lish, their nfnfistry thought proper, hastily, to cutu lud.e a peace, in consequence of which Ilavannah was restt);-('il to Spain. Jfi 177 ^f, an expedition was concerted agninst Algiers l)y tlie Sp.inish mi- nistry, which had a nir)st ui\succe.->stul termination. 'I'lie iro.)ps, wliicii amounted to upwards of 24,000, and who were commanded by lieute- nant-general conte deO lleilly, landed about a league and a half to the* eastward of the city of Algiers ; but were disgracefully beaten brick, and obliged to take shelter on board their ships, liaving 2/ olhcers killed, and 191 wound'.'d; and f)01 rank and file killed, and 2()S8 wounded. In. tlie years 17^3 and 1/84, tliey also renewed their attacks against Algiers by sea, but after spending much anmuinition, and losing many lives, were forced to retire withuut doing much injury. When the war with Great Britain and her American colonies had sub- sisted for some time, and I'Vance had taken part with the latter, tiie court of Spain was tiL*) prevailed upon lo conuneucc^ liostililies against (ireat Britain. The Spaniards closely besiigcd Oibraltar, b'.)th by sea and land; it having been alv.i.ys a great moniticalion to them, that this fur- tress should be possessel by the English. The grand attack was on tlie 13th of September, 1/82, luuler the command of the duke de Crillon, by ten battering ships, from (JvX) lo 1400 tons burden, carrying in all 212 brass guns, entirely new, and di.sih irglnif shot of 2G p')'.uids wei:;ht. The showers of shot and shells which were directed from them. Irom tlifir land-batteries, and on the other hand from the various v.'or!:". of the K'ai'- rison, exhibited a scene of which perhaps neither the p.»n nor rh-t- peiiLii can furnish a compefenl klea. It is sntlicient to say, that /'.•t.r htindrtd pieces of the heaviest artillery were playing at the same moment : an in- stance which has scarcely occurred in any siege iince the invention of those wonderful engines of destruction. The irresistibk- in>pres>ion of the numerous red-hot balls from the gar- rison was soon conspicuous ; for in the atternoon, smoke was perceived to issue from the admiral's ship and another, and bv one in the morning several were in tiames, and numbers ot ro;.'kets were Llivc<u-n up from each of llieir ships as signals of distress ; and thus ended all the hopes of the Spaniards of reducing the fortress of Gibraltar. Some trifling operations continued on the side of the Sp;uiiards till the restoration ui' peace ia 1/6.3. In oilier enterprises, however, the Spaniards proved more successful. Tlie island of Minorca was surrendered to tU>m on the <Jth of I'ebruarv, 1/92, after having been besieged for Ipl days. The garrison consisted of no more than 'X^iyi men, while the f trees of the enemy aniovmtcd to lO',0{X), under the command of tiu d'ako de Grillon. The Si»anish coni- iiiauder at lirst attempted to corrupt the governor (general Murray) ; but this being' rejected with indignation, the siege was conuneticed in form; and the garrison would have showed themselves C'(iually invinci- ble with those of Gibraltar, iiad it been possible to relieve Uiem in th'.i same manner. His late catholic majesty attempted to ohJi^^e his subjects to desiit i I If' 5(50 SPAIK. from their ancient dress and manners, and carried liis endt-avours sf» fur tJiat it ocoa.-)ic)no<.l such a dnngwous insurrection at Madrid as obliifcd him to part with his minister, the marquis of Squill ve ; tiiercby atVord- iiig an instanci: oi' llic ucccs.^ity that even de-.potic princes are under oi paying snmt' jttent.ion to the inchnationji of tlieir subjects. lljc sudden dismis.sidii of count Florida Bianca from the office of prime minister originated in causes not disclosed. It is imagined that the court found this step necessary t*) api)ease the public murmurs at some Lite measures, particularly tin* edict concerning strangers, which rontrihuted to impose fuillier tetters upon eonnnerce, and which has since been ro- pcal'd. On ihe iiSih of I'cbruaiy, 17jj2, the minister was removed, and count d'Aranda, an old statesman, a warm friend of tlie queen and nobility of Fi nice, succeeded to his employments, till soinc other arrange- ment could be formed. It is said, he abolished the superintendaiit tribunal of police, a Ivind of civil inquisition ; and in other liberal mea- sures appeared to see the real interests of monarchs, which is certainly to concede with grace, in order to pre\ent the despair of the people from recurring to force. His iutkuMice, however, was but short; and he was succeeded by the duke d'Alcudia. The irregularities committed in France, the indecent reception of the humane interference of the court oi' S])ain in favour of the king, and thcf representations of the confederated sovereigns, induced the court of Spain todeclarc war against France, on the 2Jd of March 1/0)3. The issue of this war, tlie treaty of peace concluded l»y Spain with the French repub- lic on the 23d of July 17p5,and the subsequent hostilities with England till the conclusion of the peace of x\miens, have akeady been mentioned in our historical accounts of those countries. Charles IV., king of Spain, born Nov. 11, IT-lS, a.srended the Ihront^ Dec. 13, 17S8 (upon the death of his father, Charles III.) and was mar- ried to Louisa-Maria-Thercsa, princess of Parma, Sept. 4, 17^5, by whom he has issue, 1. Charlottc-Iochiraa, born April 25, 1775. 2. Maria-I,ouisa-Josephine, born July 9, 1 777' 3. Philip, born Aug. 10, 1783. 4. Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias, born Oct. 14, 1784. 5. Charles-Maric-lbidor, born March 29, J 788. 6. Maria-Isiibella, born July G, 17Bp. 7. Francis-de- Paula- Anthony, horn March 10, 179-1- Brothers to the king: 1. Ferdinand, the present king of (he Two Sicilies, born Jan. 12, 1 7^"'l : married. May 12, 17G8, to the archduchess Mary-CharloUe-Loui-a, .sister to Joseph II. late einperor of (iermany. 2. Anthony -Pascalj born Dec. 3-1, 1/55. tVord- Icr of prime • court le late ibutt'd X'n ro- TlOVfd , en and rra)ige- icndaut il mea- ertainly )le from and he n of the and tlvK of Spain issue of 1 repub- England lentioncd le Ihron*^ ft-as mar- 17<35, by 12, i;:;l: .tc-Lovti»ii, ( 501 ) PORTUGAL. t SITVATIO:-.' AND EXTEXT. Miles. Degrees. I.cnjrth 350 1 , , f o/" and 42' Xortli liititiule. Ikcadtli 120 j l^etwocn | 5^ lo' and y'^JC/ We.t longitude. CuuLiinln^ 27,()/'l s(|uare miles, v. itli yo inhabitants to each. X.%Mi-,s.] IVRTUGAL was known to the ancients by the name of l-usitania, derived by the mytholi);^iits from Lysas, the son of Bacchus, who is saivi to have settled a coUtny here. The modern name of Portu- gal is allowed to be derived from Callc, the ancient name of Oporto, with the additifni of Por^t, or port, on account of the e\cellence of ita harl)()\n". In the ele\enth century tiiis name was exteuilcd to the whole kiuLjdom. HouNDARiKs.] It is buuii.led by Spain on the north and east, and on the south and west by tlie Atlanlie Ocean, beinij ilu; most westerly kingdom on the continent of Europe. Divisions.] By the form of the country, it 'n naturally divided into three parts ; the northern, middle, and southern provinces, llie pro- vinces are six in number. Province*. Square Popula- Milcs. tion. Clilcf Towns. Thenorth.f'i;?^^?^^1^'«^0 9(X),000 j$^l--' Viana. V '^"'^^'^'•^'^"iTras OS Montes 2.190 140.000 f^^''"^'^^^''' ^'"^' C Cfieira ;,200 520.000 I ^^^^^^^^ra, "J ^^r'^'N ^ }L::'^8.42.N.la.t division \ . . , .. ^^.^ S ^^^^ I S.53.W.I0.C (I-eiiiaSt.Ubes J The south- ; -'''''i^ • • • • 8.800 300.000 ' t'iu division i Estrcmadura . 5,4-10 6c \2\lc\ ^Alg; ;arve 1,600 93,170 I .eu :a St. Ubes J "Evora, Elvas, ") ,Beja f Faro, Lagos, Ta-f _vora . 3 Total. . 27,070 2,589,470 * * The above numbers are those given by Mr. Murphy in his General View of the State of Portugal, 1798. Ihe population of these provinces is thus stated ia UuEtticher'» tables : Entre Douro e Minho 4.'i0,300 Estremadura - 350,000 % , Tras OS Montes - 180,800 Alentejo - i!55,?i.'3 Beira - S50,b56 jMgdtve - G3,70O * ••-, .•■ .-^^ -^ ' ■- Total . 1,840,979 As Mr. Murphy followed Portuguese authors, his statement may perhaps be ex- aggerated; but it seems more probable that the populatioa of PortugafexcsetU, than that it falls short of, two mUIions. 20 . ^ nli- 50'2 roii'jfciL. Fact; or tiii' odt-n it.y, moivt \ins.] 'I'hc fncc of P(Mttii;;»l isniu!:n« t:!i!i(!i>, or iatlur rocUv, tor thr luouiitaiiis arc i;<.MU'riilly barifti • llic <'liiot rirr tli"sc which (liviilr Al'^;ir\c troiii Alrniojo ; tlinio of 'IVifs oi INfontos; Arr.ihiil;! nml Montciunto in Kitivm;i(hini ; Kstrolhi in Hoini ; ().-s,i ill Ak'iiU'jo ; niul Ciim:i, about i\\c IciigiKs soiitli-wcst o}' yj^hon, Moll kiuyv.;i to iiavigntoi-.s a^ bring the most wc^-trrly part ot'all Kuiopo. The i;!ix'roiitiguous to it, at thi* moiith ot' the Tajo, is liilk'il the lOck of Cinlra, or tho roelv of Lisbon. Kivr.r.'^, i.AKF.s, Mixr.R \i, \VATKi!s.} Tlioiigh f'vcry bronk in Portugal is nckoiKvl a river, yi't flic chief Portiimit-M' rivers are mentioned in .Si)aiti, ;,11 of them tailing into the Atkmtie Ocean. The Tagns or Tajo was anciently relcbrated for its golden sand. It has its source in thw mountains of Mf)lina, at the extremity of Castille, near .\rragon ; whencij ii runs for the most part due west, till it reaches Lisbon, and falls into tl'.e Atlantic Oceati, after traversing, in the whole of its course, -4.50 miles, (f wliicli l.'O are in Portugal and the remainder in Spain. Tliis river annually ovortiows its banks as regularly as the Nile, and inundatcf? the Champrv^ne lands, particularly about \'il]a Franca and Santcrcm, which renders the soil exceedingly fcrtik'. I'he Minho and Douro are the boundaries of the province Entre Douro e IVlinho. Portugal eon- tains several small lakes and 'springs ; some of them arc absorbent even ot" the lightest substances, such as wood, cork, and feathers. The baths called C'aldas da llainha, about 45 miles from Lisbon, arc medicinal and sanative ; an(i some hot baths are found in the little kingdom, or rathei province, of ^Mgarve. -Mktai.s, minkhals.] This country appears to have been as celebrated in ancient times t()r its gold and silver mines as South America is at pre- sent, but no mines of these metals are now worked. There are lead mines which yield silver at Mursa and Lamego, and tiiere is a mine of copper at Kivas. I'he iron mines are well-known, but are neglected for v.ant of i'uel, though coal has been funnel in ditlerent parts. Portugal pinduccs leautiful marbles, almost every kind of ])recious .stones, and iniieed miiKMals of every descrijition. Climati:, son,, aokk rr.Ti'KK.] Thoi-gh Portugal is one of tlie Mn:'.lksi countries in Kurope. its climate is very \arioi'.s in (litliirent parts ; in the northern provinces it is cold, in the iniudle and near the sea temperate, and in the .southern hot. "i he air, especially about Lisbon, is reckoneil soft and beneficial to consumptive ])atienr>^ : it is not so »corching as tliat of Spain, being rc- li'cihed from the sea-brtiv;ces. I'he soil of Portugal is not in genera! equal to th.ai of Spain for fertility, esjK'clally in corn, whicli is iin]iorted iVom olln r countries. Agriculture, at the same time, is greatly neglected. According t(j the best intbrma- ti(. ji, two-thirds of the kingdom are at preseut Iclt inilillej, and tijc )~or!ion that is under vines, olives, corn, puk-e, wood, cS:c. is not in ge- nonil in that stale of improvement of which it is susci'])tib]e. Vr(;i.TAr,LK I'Kodl'ctions.] Fruits of every kind known in pAtropp, jiud particntarly oranges, lemons, citrons^ tigs, grapes, apricots, peaches, almonds, and melons, grow here in many placets almost spontaneously. In lenerr.l, however, the fruits are not esteemed to bo sohiglily flavoured as in Spain. The Portuguest; wines, when old and genuine, are esteem- ed to be very friendly iu the human constitution, and safe to drink *. * Tlie Port wines arc made in the districts round Oporto, which docs not pro- duce one half fhc quantity that is consumed, under that name, iu the British domt- iiien^ tiily. T.hc ir.crch.cnts in this citv have very spacious wine-vaults, capable of h<.!ciiii<; G or TOCO pipci., an*l it is saiJ that ao.UOO are yearly tixportcU from Oporto. rORTUGAL. 5UJ ijv.n* the -,b')ii, xk of irUignl lU'd in in tlw .vlu-nce Us into ;c, 450 , This ntcrcm, )uro are gal con- ent even he bath-i rinal and or rather •elcbrated is at pre- p avu lead a mine ot Iccteil tor PorUigal lones, anc! nc of the enl piU'ts ; ir the sea [ncftcial to being vc- ir fertility, luriculunv, si int'ornia- „ and tlic I not ai g*-'- linEnropc, [s, peaches, |t\taneonsly. [y tiavourcd [drink*. iocs not pro- Ifiritish doBii- Its, capable ol lltom Oporto. Animaf.s.] Th(!;e riro nrnrly tJio snme as in Spnin. The Imr-'es me few and of an inferior l)rectl ; but tiif mules an* ^:;"ong, Ininiy, and sure footed. 'I'hc* sheep are not very numerous. J.argt* lu-riis tjf swine are fouiul in various parts of t!ie f(n:ntry, the llcsli <,f wl/ieh, as they ['cci\ cliieHy on grass ami accjrns, Jias an excellent liavour, whenec the prete- rcnce given to Portuguese hams m most parts of Europe, i)articularly hi Knghmd. Natural cuimositif-.-^.] IT.cse consi-t principally of tli^* lakes already mentioned, aiul some extraordinary cavern-!. In tiie j^rovincc of TrasosMontes, at a pi, ice called St. Mi;>;uel das lre< Minlias are three inmiense mines generally supposed to lu'.vc hren worked by the H(>mans. I'he moulh of the largest, which has iieen cut through the soli.! rock, is a mile and a iialf in circumference, and upwards of biki feet d;'rp. At tiie bottom it is 2400 feet in len-th, and l-JOO in bread;li. N'ear lliii is another of great dimeiisions, and a third in an elevated situation called Covns, the length of which is 2(J00 feet, the licadlh IJOO. and the depth 500. The lake of Kscura, on t!ie sur.jmit of the mountain of Kstrella, in the province of .'Jeira, is of a depth hitlierto una^.vrtaii^ed ; its water is of a dark green coloitr, and it has never l)ecii known to yield hsh of any kind. IVagments of the masts (jf ship^, it is siiid, have been found in it, wlience it h;<s been suppob-.tl to have a subterranean tommunicatiun w ilh the sea, notw ilhstanciing it is so fir iiilaiul. Jt is addcvl, as an additional proof of this conjecture, that It is sn.o(.ih or agitated according as the sea is trancpiil or rough, and that in ?.;orniy weather it makes a rumbl'ng njisc, that may be heard at the distance of several miles, PoruLATioN.] According to the statements bcf(>re given, it appears that Portugal contains about two millioas, or two millioiiS and a Iialf, of inhabitants. The number of Portuguese in all the colonies ajjper- tainingto the crown, are estimated at about nine hundred thousand. Ky a survey made in the year 1/32, there were in that kingdom 3,JM pa- rishes, and 1,742,230 lay persons (which is but .022 laity to each parish Oil a medium) besides above 300,000 ecclesiastics of both sexes. National char alter, 7 The modern Portuguese retain nothing MANNERS, CUSTOMS, j of that advcnturous enterprising spirit that rendered their forefathers so illustrious 300 years ago. They have, ever since the house of Eragsnza mounted the throne, degenerated in all their virtues j though some noble exceptions are still remaining among them, and no peojde are so little obliged as the Portuguese are to the reports of liistorians and travellers. Their degeneracy is evidently owing to the weakness of tlieir monarchy, v.jiich renders them inactive for fear of disobliging their powerful neighbours ; and that inactivity has proved the source of pride, and other unmanly vices. Treachery has been laid to their charge, as well as ingratitude, and, above all, an intemperate passion for revenge. They are, if possible, more supersti- tiotts, aiu! both in high and common life, ati'ect move state, than tlie Spaniards themselves. Among the lower people, thie\ing is commonly practised} and all ranks are accused of being unliiir in their dealings, especially with strangers. It is hard, howe\er, to say what alteration may be made in t!ie character of tiie Portuguese, by the expulsion of tlie Jesuits, and diminution of the papal intluence among them j but above all, by that spirit of independency, with regard to comnierck-il atfairs, upon Great Britain, vvhicli, not nmch to the' honour of tlicir gratitude, though to the interest of th'eir ow n cuuntrv, is now so u>uch encournccd bv their court and ministry. 202 h' I m u I- K 56-4 iORTUGAI. llic ri)'-tui:jncsr ;^.rc nciiht. r so tall nor so well ivuido n^ the Spnninnf*, H'l»o>e l)al)its ami lUstoius tlit-y iinilaU'; only tin- rimiliiy all't'Ct to W more t'aily and rirlily chvsscd. The rorugucso ladies arc thin, and small ot" slat im-. Their roniploNion is olive, their cy.\s blfick and e.v- prL'M'iise, and llieic It-aluits '^ent-raily rigular. They are esteemed to he generous, modc.->i, and witty. Tlh'y dress like the Span'' :>li ladies, with much a\d;vardue;.s and alKeted {gravity, but in >j;ent'ral more raagni- lii-ently ; and they are tau;^ht by tlieir husbands to enact from their ser- vants a hnma»^;e, that in other countries is paid otdy to royal personages. '1 h;' lurnituri; ot' tlie houses, especially ot' their grandees, is rich and fiuperl) to excess ; and they maintain an incredible number of domestics, as they never disciiarsjje any who survive at'ier serving their ancestors. The pooicr .lort have scarceiy any t'arniture at all, fur they, in imitation of the Moors, sii always crcss-kgged on the ground. The Portuguese pea.-.ant has never reapcil any advantage from the benetits of foreign trade, and of the tine and vast countries the kii>gs of Portugal possessed in Africa or in the East ; or of those still remaining to them in South America. The only foreign lu\ur}' he is yet ac(]uainted with is tobacco j and when his feeble purse can reach it, he purchases a dried Newfound- lantl cad-tish — but this is a regale he dare seldom aspire to. A piece of bread made of Indian corn, and a salted i)ilchard, or a head of garlic,- to give that biead a llavour, compose his standing dish ; and if he can get a bit of the hog, the ox, or the calf he himstlf fattens, to regale his wretched family at Christmas or Easter, he has reached the pinnacle of ]irip|)iness in tliis world; ai;d indeed whate\er he possessed beyond this habitual penury, according to the present !^tate and exertions of h\<i intellects, wotUd (juickly he takea from him, or rather he woidd wil- lingly ])ait \\ tth it, being taught by Ids numberless ghostly comforters, with which his country swarms, to look forward for I'ase and happi ties'} to aiuJther state of I'xisteiice, to which they arc tlicmselves the infallible guides and conductois. To ihe-e remarks we shall subjoin those of Mr. Murphy, a late tra- veller in Portugal : — " The common peopla of Lisbon and its cnvirona are a hiborioii.i and hardy race. Jt is painful to see the trouble they art ol)liged to take tor want of proper injpiements to carry on (htir work. Their cars have the rude appearance of the earliest ages ; these vehicles are slow ly drawn by two stout oxen. The corn is shelled by the treading of the same aninials. They have many other customs w inch to us ap- jiear very singular: for example, women sit with the left; side towards the hf)rse's head when they ride. A postillion rides on the left horse. A tailor sits at his w t)rk hke a shocmak^T. A hair-dresser appears on Sundays u ith a sv.ord, a cockade, and two watches, at least two watch- cliains. A tavern is known by a vine-bush, a house to be let by a piece of blank p.([)er, the door of an accoucheur by a while croes, ami a Jew by ilia cxt;a-caihoIic devotion. A rortuguese peasant will not walk w ith a superior, an aged person, or a stranger, without giving him the right-hand side, as a mark of respect. He never passes by a human be- ing without taking otf his hat, and sakUiniJ him in these words — 'J'hc J-vnl jinx^ri-c i/:jn fjr ntunt/ i/airs .' In speaking of an absent friend he always says — ' i die with imparience lo see him.' They all imagine their country is the blessed Elysium, and that Lisbon is die greatest city in the worh!."' . Cities, t:niF,K towns, fdifices.] There are in Portugal, according to Mr. Murphy, lu cities, ami o41 towns. Lisbon, the capital of the kin^doiu, Is situ.tto Qii UiV iiJi'tii side of the mouth of thoTagus. If. roRTroyM, r,i >>JJ 5taiKls on seven liill-i, niul roiitniii" nnny grand c-.V.ficfs. among which ''•ni' (jf ihi principal is llic p.iiriaivluil «iiurcli. 'i'hc trLMsr.n ••. ut s.icTctl ivlics, gold, silver, procioas stom-s and loitly fmniture ol this \c'iu rnbli^ cditic!\ arc; iinincnst?. 'I'iie new stpiare railed I'nujado CtjnuTcio, ., (ii.5 ttrt long, and fiM broad; in tiie ccntrf is a nohli- tviucstrian slitue of bronze ut'Joit'ph I. The m w ihiin-h, buill by her pn-st-nl majesty, is the largest and ino-,t ma^nilicfnt oditire rrt-itcd in I.i-i'.ion since the earth(|uak(' in 175.'), tliL? fatal ctll-cts of which arc still slsiblo in many part.> of ilie city, and never fail to impress every sp-ctatur with an awful rcmcmbrankie ot that di^aslrr; arcortluiLj to the most aorurafe aceomils, there were not less than '2 t,(XK) victims to it. Tlie l\>rtn>;ue<' have, however, nvailed themselves of tlus nnst'ortune, and, like the Kii^lish after the destructive lire of !()()(), h.ave turned the tejnporal evil into u permanent good. All the new streets erected in Lisbon, in the plai e of the old, are capacious, reguLiv, and well paved, will) conveifient li)ot- paths for passengers, as in the streets of London. In point of cleanli- ness, Lisl)on is no lonL;er a subject of so much aimadversion to strangers as formerly ; but all is not yet done, as it still wants common- sewers, pipe-waters, and privies. Lis!)on is deservedly aceounteil the greatest port in Europe, next to L,ondon and Am^^terdam. 'I'he harbour is spacious and secure, and tlie ci;y itself is guarded from any sudden attack towards tlic sea by forts, though they would make but a poor de- fence against ships of war. Of the population of this city (says Mr. Murphy) no exact account lias been recently published; and the rapid increase of its inhabilanis of late years, must render any calculation of that kind very vuicertain. In the year 1774, the forty parishes into which Lisbon is divided, were found to contain 33,76-^ bowses; and in the year 17fH), they amounted to 38,102. Hence it appears to have increased ■],;i;J8 houses in the course of these ten years. Now if we estimate each house on r.u ave- rage at six persons, which, perhaps, is within tlie truth, the populilion «i the year 17[)0 was 21ii,6\2. To these arc to be added the religious; of both sexes< with their attendants, who dwell in convents and monas- teries, the soldierv, tlie pr«';fessors and students of seminaries of educa- tion, and sueh of the Gallician labourers a.i have no lixed dwelling ; their aggregate amount, if my information he corrtict, is not very short of 1200. According to this statement, therefnv, tiie population of I/isbon exceeds 2-40, 0(X). From the magnitude of the city, indeed, we should be induced to supjiose. that its population was considerably more than above stated ; for it is computed to he four miles long, by one cUid a half broad J but many of the liouses have large gardens, and such as have not are, in general, laid out upon a large scale, on account of the heat of the climate. The elmrch and monastery near Lisbon, where t!ie kings of Portugal are buried, are inexpressibly magniticent, and several monasteries in I'ortugal are dug outot the hard rock. The chapel of St. lloch is probably one of the linest and richest in the world ; the paintings are mosaic work, so curiously wrought with stones of all colours, as to astonish the be- holders. The second city in this kingdom is Oporto, whicli is computed to con- tain 30,000 inhabitants. The chief article of commcrco in this city is U'ine ; and the inhabitants of half the shops in the city are coopers. The merchants assemble daily in the chief street, to transact business ; and are protected from the sun by sail-cloths hung across from the oppo- !# 505 rorai.'GAL. • !■ M fi 1 1 1 1 i 1^ m ' i'lf site ho'.iso;. About thirty Etiglish families rciitte here, who are chiefly concunicd in the w iuo-tnulc. Coiiiiu).!, in the province of Pjcira, is one of the mo.st ronsincrablo of tlic J'orfnguosi" Iovnus with respect to population, containing up- wiircLs of 12,OjO iiihabitaais. Braga anil Kvora have nearly the t.ame ininibcr. Maxi'i ACTUKEs, coMMr.RCE.] The ror(Wj;ncse exchange their vine, salt, raid fr;:'t, ami most of their own nicitcrials, for foreign manntactun >. Tlu , make a little linen, and some coarse silk and woollen, with a variety of straws-work, and are excellent in preserving and ci'iidyin;: fruit. 'J he commerce of Portugal, though seemingly ex- tensive, proves of little solid benefit to her, as the European nations trading v. /th her, enj,ror-s all the productions rf her colonies, as well as her own native commodities, as her gold, diamonds, pearls, sugars, cocoa-nuts, line red W(.;od, tobacco, hides, and the drugs of Brazil, her ivory, ebony, spices, and drugs of Africa and East -India, in exchange for tl:e almost niuiiberless manufactures, and the vast niantity of corn and salt-ti>h. supplied by tliose European nations, and by tlie English North Amcric::n colonies. 'i'he Portuguese toreign settlements arc, however, not oniy of im- mense ^ alue, but \ astl)' improveable. These are Brasil, the Isles of Cape Veid, Madeira, and the Azores. They bring gold from tlieir planta- tiois on the e;:.st and west coast of Africa, and hkewise slaves for manu- lacturing tiieir sugars and tobacco in Brasil, and their South American setllemcnts. W])at the value of these latter may be, is unknown perhaps to thcnir seb.es ; but they certainly abound in ail the precious stones, and rich mints of gjid and siiver, and other commodities that are produced in the Spani>ii dominions there. It is computed that the kmg's tifth of gold sent from Brasil, aniounts annually to 300,000/. sterling, notwithr btanding the \;ist tontrabnnd trade. Iho little shipping tlie Portuguese have, is cli'rti\ employed in carr) ing on the slave trade, and a corre- vspondence witii Goa, their ciiicl settlement in the East Indies, and tlieir other possessions there, as Dlu, Dain.:'.n, JMacao, &c. CoN6TiTi'TioN, (jovK'tNMKXT, 7 The crowu of Portugal is absolute ; ANDLW/s. j but tiie nation still preserves an appcnranre of its ancient free lonstitution, in the meeting of the cortes, or states, consisting, like our p;irlijnienis, of rieigy, nobility, and com- mon.-. They pretend to a riglit of being con!>ulted upon the imposition of new taxes ; but the only real power they hiivv, is, tliat tiieir assent is necessary in every new regulation with regard to th.e sueccision. In tins ihey are indulged, to privent all futiue disputes on that account. Tiiis g()\crumcnt may be fairly pronounced the mo.it despotic in Eu- rope. Ihe estabii.-lud law is generally a diad letter, excepting where its decrees are carried into execution by the supplementary mandates of the sovereign, which are generally cm})loyed in e.efcating tlie purposes of safet\' a:Ki |)rotection, wiiicli law is calculated to extend equally over all the sui)jet t>. Tiie peo} le lu re have no n'orc 'bare in the direction of government, in en.-.cting ot laus, and in the regulating ol' agriculture and cunimerce, flian the}' l:a\e ii", the gcxernment of Ilussia, or .Chii'ii- Tiie far greater part know notliing ot \Uuitis clone in that it-pcct. Every man has no other alternarive but to yield a blind and ready obedience, in whatever f.onceiiia liin:,-cit, to the decrees and laws oi' tl.e t'.espot, us promulgated ; chiefly iidcrablii ling up- lie bame ge their : foreign silk and reserving ingly ex- n r.iiiion?s !3 V. ell as i, sugars rasil, her exclianrrc y or' coin e English Jy of im- ii of Cape ;ir planta- for manu- American s to thcni- , and rich oduced in g's fifth of , notwithr ?ormguese a corre- , and tlieir [s absolute j k serves an the cortes, and coni- imposition ir assent is n. In tins nt. )tic in Ea- ling \vhcre_ aridntes. of [purposes ol lly over all |)vcrnnient, unuuerce, lar greater han has no In \\ hatever Kjmulgated rORTX'GAL. 567 'frnm time to time by his secretaries of state. How would nn Engli.sh- ?nan, alive to all the feelings <jf civil liberty, tremble atreadiiij.'; the prcaiu- ble of every new law })ublislied here ! and which runs thus : " /, llic A'/n;', in virtHe of uij oivn certain hurxlcii^c, of inj/ royal ii-ill uiid plca.suve, und of iHjj full^ supreme, ami arbitran/ po\:cr, iihich I hold uidi/ of (rod, and for ivftich I am accountable to no man on earth, 1 do, in conni-ijuencCf vrder and command, ^-c. isc All great preferments, both spiritual and temporal, are disiK-)scd of in the covuicil of state, which iseoni})osed of an equal nuniin^r of (he ilergy and nobility, with the secretary of state. A council of war rep;ul iies ail military attairs, as the treasury courts do the tinances. llij council of the palace is the highest tribunal that can receive appeals, but the Casa da Supplica<;ao is a tribunal from which no ai)i)eal can 1-e brought. The laws of Portugal are contained in three duodecmio volumes, and have the civil law for their tijunJation. Revknu£s.] The revenues of the crown amount to about two mil- lions and a half or three millions sterling, annually. The customs and duties on goods exported and imported are excessive, and farmed out. Foreign merchandise pays twenty-three per cent, on imporlation, and fish from iSiewfoundkuid twenty-five per cent. Fish taken in the neigh- bouring seas and rivers pays twenty-seven per cent, and the t;!;c upon ■ lands, and cattle that are sold, is ten per cent. The king derives a con- .siderahle revenue from the several orders of knighthood, of which he is grand-master. Tiie pope, in consideration of the largs sums he draws out of Portugal, gives the king the money arising from indulgences, and lic-ences to eat flesh at times prohibited, &c. Army, navy.] The Portuguese government depends chicfiy for protection o!i England ; and therefore, for many years, has greatly tieglect- ed the army and fleet. In the late reign, though tln-y reoe'ive<i the most f'llectual assistance from England, when invaded by the French and Spaniards, his most faithful majesty jndged it expedient to r:iise a cou- fiidera!)le body of troops, who were chiefly disciplined by foreign oliicers; but since that period the army has been again neglected, no proper en- couragement being given to tbreign othcers, and little attention paid lo flif discipline of the troops, so that the military force ol" Portugal is now again inconsiderable, an ounting, it is said, to 2.5,000 men. The naval tbrce of this kingdcnii is cumputed at thirteen sail c^i the line tuid lilteen In gates. Ju)Y.\L TITLES.] The king's Titles are, King of Portugal and the Al- gatvcs, on this and on the other side of the bOa in Africa. Lurd of (Guinea, and of the con{|uest, navigation, a:id commerce of luhiopia, Arabia, Persia, and lirasil. John \'. was complimented, by the pope, vith the title of his Most Faithful Majesty. The title of the heir ap- parent is Prince of Brasil : and tliat of his eldest son Prince of lioira. Tiie rest of the princes of the blood-ro}al are called Infante. Arms.] I'he arms of Portugal are, argent, live escutcheons, azure, phicerl cross-wise, each charged with as many besaiits as the hrst, placeil s.altier-wisc, and pointed, sable, for Portugal. The shield bordereci, gules, charged with seven towers, or, three in chief, and two in e:u h flanch. — The supporters are tw^i winged dragons, and the crest a dragon, or, under the two flanches, ami the base of tlie shield appears at the end wt it ; two crf)sses, the first fleur-de-lis, vert, which is i"or the order of Aviez, and the second patee, gules, lor the order of (Christ ; the niolio is changeable, each king assuming a new one ; but it is frequently these words, pro Rf^c et Orcgry " For the King and the People.' S68 PORTCGAL. ri ' ; f . Sill NoBitrTY AND ORDEK3 ] TIic titlcs fliid distinctions of tlic nobility nre much the same :ii those ot* Spain. Ihe onkTs of knightiiood arc ♦Iirc'o ; 1. TJuit of Avis or Avicz, first instituted by Alphonniis Ilciri- quez king of Portugal, in tlie year 1147, ns a military and rc'lij;;i(>us order, on account of Jiis taking Evora from tlie Moors, la 1213 it wa.i hulijtrt to tlie order of Cn:.i'.!::\:i, in Spain ; but when Don John of Por- tugal seized tlie crown, he made it a>';iin independent. '2. Tlie " Or- der ot St. James," instituted by Dennis 1. king of Portugal, in the year 1310, supposing that under that saint's ])rotection he became victorious over the .Moors ; and he endowed it with great pr!\ileges. The knights profess chastity, hospitality, and obedience, and none are admitted till tlipy prove the gentility ot their blood. Their ensign is a red sword, the liablt u hite, and their prineipnl coinent is at Dalmela. 3. The " Or- der of Christ" was in->titutcd in the year 131/, by Dennis I, of Portu- gal, to engage the nobility to assist him more powerfully against th.e Moo)s. The knig!i;s obtained great pi>s--.^-.,si(;n-. and elected their grand- ma.^ter, till 1522, \\ heti pope Adrian VI. conferred that office on John Jll. and his successors to tlie crown of Portugal. Thc-e orders have .snjali c'jmnianrieries and reveiaies annexed to then-., but are in little c-irofu. 'J Jje '' Order of M.ilta' has likew isc tweniy-t vo commandciies in Pw; :.:£■'■']. Rliicion.] The estiMlslied reiigio!i of Portugal is popery, in tliu strick'st sen.-.e. I'lie Por'ngucS" have a ])atriarch ; but fonuerly he de- pended entirely upon the pop:, unless w hen a quarrel subsisted between the courts of Koine and Lisbon. The pt)\ver of his holiness in Portugal has been of laie .-i., mucli cui tailed, tkat it is difHcult to describe the re- Jigious state of ilu.t country : ail we know is, that the royal revenues are grearly increa.-.ed, at the expense of the religious institutions in the king- cion:. Tlic power of the inqui>iticii is now taken out of tlic hand'? of tiie ecclesiastics^ and converted into a state-trap for the benefit of the crown. The archbishoprics are two, Braga and Evora, and tjiere are ten bishoprics. The patriarch (>f Lisbon takes precedence of all the bishops and arehbishop3 in tlic kingdom, is tirst ciiaplain to the king, and a car- dinal of the consistory at Home. His revi'uue amounts to about 30,000/. St riing per ann. and the revenue of the patriarchal church is above J 1-1,000/. jjir aim. LiTEKATrKi;.] T'hc ir.c;; cS ]ear;.iivj; which this couvitry has pro- duced are ao i'cw that they a;e nieaii'jned with indignation, even by those of the p..!iti;guese tl)em.*el\es who have the smallest tincture of literature. Some elTor;-., though vevv weak, hv.\e of late been made by ;i fi.nv, to draw their cDunirymen iVmi this de])!orable stale of igiu;rance. I is uni\ersal!y allowed, that ii,r deii-et is not owing to the w:'rt of ge- nius, but of a jiroper education. Tlie ancestors of the present Portu- guese were ceitainiy poshC'-jed o:' more true knowledge, with regard to astronomy, ge()gra])hy, and navigation, than perhaps any other European Jiation, ab(mt tjie nfuldle of the iG't'i ct:;:tur}, and t'or sometime after. CaiPficns, who hiir.self was a great adventurer and voyager, was possessed of a true, but neglected, poetical genius. UxivKKsrrfFs,"] These are Coimbra, founded in \2(J] , by king Den- nis : and which had fifty profvvv(:"s ; but it has lately been put under M-ine new regulations; Evora, tomideil in 155p ; and the college of the nol)les at Lisbon. All (he books that belonged to the banished Jesuits, which compose a \ery large library, are kept in this college. The Eiigtibh language is likewise taught hero. Ihere is also ;i military fit-W -% PORTUGAT,. ]6g and marine acadeniv, where yountr gcntknion arc educated in the scienct' of enginreriuu; and uaval taciics. Language.] Iho Portugnose laii<';ua2c ditters but little Irnm that of Spain, and tiiat pruvii:«:ialiy, many «n"thc words bring derived from thjj Liinosin, and other diaUvti of the south of France, 'fhe Lord's Pra\er is as follows: Padre no/sso que t,s■^/,s• )wsct:os, .-.nnvlifcailo scio o tu na?i!c: txnha a nos tuorci/no, scinfciiu a tu/t voladc, «.^.v.' 11:^3 ccos, cnmo na tnTtt. O pao nos.10 de codldiii, dano hi oci ncsiro did. K ptrdoii )ios as nos.s.is dexes cukir oni Icntarao, nuts dnamns a on nusnos dcvcdcrcs. K nuo ncs dtvidas, iissi como nos pcrlihra nos do mal. Aincn. AiVTiauiTiKS.] Tiie Uornan bridge and a(|iieduct at Culinbra are al- most entire, and deservedly adtnln'd. The walls of Santarcin are said to be of Roman work likewise. At Evora ar;- tlie rain-j of a temple of Diana, and an a({uedact ascribed to tiie cele'onited Quintus Sertorius. Near Rraga are tlie remains of a teir.ple supposed to liave been dedicated to iEscuiapius. At Chaves have l~oen diicovcitd. not ioui^ .since, tlie ruins of a magnificent aqued\ict, baths, ci-.tcrns, f^ever.il Iragnients of columns, and capitals, and cornices of jasper exquisitely worked. 1'hcrc are also remafiis of jMo(>rish castles and tjlher edifices. History.] This kingdom comprehemls the greatest part of the ■:.::- cient Lusifauia, and shared the sa;ne ^aie w Itii ihe ot!:er Spanish pro- vinces, in thocontc-;t between the Carthaginians and Homr.ns, and iu tL>.» decline and fidl of tke Roiwan empire, and was snccossi\e!y in .si;bjoc{i>.,u to tlieSuevi, Alans, Visigoths, and Moors. In the eleventii century, Al- fonso VL, king ofCasti lie and Leon, rewarded Henry, grandson of Robert, king of France, for his braverv raid a-sistance against the I^Ioor.s, with his daughter, and that part of Portugal then in the hands of the Chris- tians, Henry was succeeded by his son Alfon'so Henry, in the year 10[)5, who gained a decisive victory over {\\c Moosi^:h kir^gs in July 1 I'M). This victory proved the origin of the monarchy of Portugal, for Alfonso was then proclaimed king by his soldiers. He reigned forty-six years, and was esteemed for his c(mrage and \o\ e (jf learning, — His dcsccu- dents maintained themselves on the throne for some i'enturies ; indeed Sancho IL was expelled from his dominions for cowardice, in the year 1240. J.)ennis I., or Dionyslus, was called the luiiL'V of his roimliy : he built and I'ebnilt forty-four cities and towns in Portugal, founded the military order of Christ, and was a very fortunate prince. He reigned forty-six years. — Under his sucix-ssor, Allbn-o IV., happened several e;;rt]:quakcs at Lisbon, which tinew dov\'n part of the city, and destroyed many lives. John L was illustrious for his courage, prudence, and contpiesls in Africa ; under him Madeira was first discovered, in 1420, and the Ca- naries 5 he took Ceuta, and, after a reign ot' foriy-uine verir.s, died in the j'car 14J;3. In the reign of Alfonso V., ;'.l)out 1480, the Portuguese dis- covered the coast of Guinea ; and in the reign of his successor, Johi; II., (hey discovered the Cape of Good Hope, settled colonies, and built forts in Africa, Guinea, and the East Indies. Emanuel, sin-named the Great, Hucceeded him in I4i)5, and adopted the plan of his pridecessors, fittinp- out fleets for new discoveries. Vasco de (iama, muk-r him, cruised along the coast of Africa and Ethiopia, and lantleil in Hindoo4an; and hi the year 1500, Alvarez discovered Brasil. John III. succeeded in 1521, and, while he lost some (^f his African settlements, made new acfpiisitions in the Indies. He st>nt tliv famous Xavier as a missionary to Japan, and, in the height of hi-, /eal, esta- blished that infernal tVibuual^ the inquisition, in PoJ^igal, aiuio I52<j, <*5t: i- 570 roR'rrcAL. 'It I ! fr It: I' m If; I i i I , i I It! against ihe cii(rea(!r^ .--.n J rftiumst ranees of hi?? pcoj?le. Sebastian, hi? grnndsoii, snacciicd liim in l.".T,~, njitj uiidcTlook a crusade against the Moors 111 Arrk-a. In lv7^, in a baltle w'nh the king of Fez and Mo- rocco, on the banks of the river I.ucro, he- was dcJeated, and either slain or drowmxL Henry, a cardinnl, and uncle to the unfortunate ticbastian, bein;; (he «on of iMiiaiuiel, succeeded, but died without issue, in tl)C year I.jSO: o!i whic'i, Ant^Jiiy, prior of Crato, was ( hosen king, by the slates of the kingdom; but PJiilip II, of Spain, ;is has been observed in our liistory of th.it counfry. pretended that the crown bi"- longed to him, becau.>e hi,-, n-.otlier was the eldest da.ughler of Emanuel, iind f-i nt rhe duke of Alva wiih a pcnverful ibrce, who subdued the country, rnd nroclaimed his master kiiij, of Tortugal the ]2th of Sep- tember, J. J SO. The viceroys under Philip and his two successors, Philip III. and Philip IV., bcJiaved towards the I'ortui^iiese with great rapacity and vio- lence. The Spr.ni-h n^.inisters (rc;ited them as vassals of Spain, and, by their repeated acts of oppression and ivranny, so excited the hatred and Courage of the Pt^riuguese, as to produce a revolt at Lisbon, the first of Deceuabcr, I(j-10. I'he people obli:^ed John, duke of Braganza, thcj legitimate heir to the crown, to accept it, and he succeeded to the tlirone by the title of John IV. almost without bloodshed ; and the foreign set- tlements also acknowledged him as their sovereign. A tierce war sub- sisted for many- years between the two kingdoms, and all tlie effurts of the Spaniards to le-unite them proved vain ; so that a treaiy was con- cluded in February, \t)6S, by which Portugal was declared to be free and independent. The P(jrtuguese could not have supported themselves under their re- volt from Spain, had not the latter power been engaged in wars with England and Holland ; and, u])on the restoration of Charles II. of England, that prince having married a princess of Portugal, prevailed with the crown of Spain to give \^^ all pretensions to that kingdom, Al{)hohso, son to John IV,, was then king of Portugal. He had tlie misfortune to disagree at once with his wife and his brother Peter ; and tiiey, uniting their interests, not only forced Alfonso to resign his crown, but obtained a dis5)ei]sation from the pope for their marriage, which was actually consummated. They had a daughter; but Peter, by a second marriage^ had sons, the eldest of whom was John, his suc- «ersor, and father to the late king of Portugal. John, like his father, joined the grand confederacy formed by king AN'illiam ; but neither of them were of much service in humbling the ]K)wer of Fiance. On the contrary, ht almost ruined the allies, by occasioning the loss of the bat- tle of Almanza, in l/'O/. — John died in 1/50, and was succeeded by }iis son Josepli, vhose reign was neiilicr happy to himiself, nor fortunate for his people. The fatal earthquake, in 1-755, overwhelmed his ca- pital, p.nd shook his kingdom to the centre. His succeeding administra- tion was not distin^uisiied by the atlection that it re(}uircd at home, or the reputation which it had sn.-taiued abr;)ad. It vas ilce[)ly stained with domestic blood, and rendered odious by excessive and horrible auelty. In September, \758, the king was attacked by assassins, and narrowly escaped with his life, in a solitary jdace near his country palace of Be- lem. T h.e families of Axeira and Tavora were destroyed by torture, ii\ conscfjuencc vt' an accusation being exhibited against them of having ton.vpired again-it the king's life. Cut they were condemned without prosier e\i(k nee, Jijjf their innocence has since liecn authentically de- clared IVi ni l^Otippoiicd conspiracy is dated the expulsion of the , III PORTUGAL 571 I, h'.« St the iMo- either lunate issur, I king, s been ^■n bc- lanuel, led the )f Sev- II. and md vio- and, by red and i first of i/.a, the e tlirone ^-ic^n sft- »var sun- rtVurts ut ^vas cun- > be tVcc their rc- I'avs with esll. of prevailed ingdom. . had tlie Iter-, and jesign his Iniarriage, lUt Peter, his sue- Ill s tather, neither of On the ^{ the bat- Icecded by fortunate >d his ca- ^Iministra- home, or [lined w ith he cjuelty. narrowly lee of Be- ll ort are, in of liaving •d withont iiically de- ion of the Jesuits (who were conjectured to have been at the bottom of the plot) from all parts ot' the Portuguese d(;iiiinions. The marquis de roinhal, who was at lhi-> time the prime minister of Portugal, governed the kingdom for many years with a mo.st vmbounded authority, and which ap{)ears to have been -sometimes directed to the most cruel and arbitrary I)urposes, In l/ii'i, wiien a war broke out between Spain and Eiigk'ud, the Spa- niards, and their allies, the French, attempted to force his laithfnl ma- jesty into their alliance, and ollerou to <;arrison his sea-towns against the English wlih their troop.^. llie king of Portugal rejected this pro- posal, and declared war .iij"ninst (h.e Spariiards, uho, without resistance, entered Portugal with a crni^JderaiUe army, while a body of l-'rcncii threatened it from ar.other (p'.aner. Sumo have doubled vvhether any of these cGuris were in earnest upon this occasion, and whether the whole of the pretended war was not concerti'd to force England into a peace with Erance and Spain, in con^ideratioii of the apparent danger of Portugal, It is certain, that both the French and Spaniards carried en the war in a \ery dilatory nia.nner, and that, had they been in ear- nest, thev might, have been nia>ter'' of Lisbon long beiore the arrival of the English troops to iIa- a->.-.iniance of ilic Portuguese, Ilovvever, a few English battalions put an etieciual stop, by their c(nirage and con- duct, to the pro^jess ot the invasion. Porlugal \\ as saved, and a peacw was concluded at Fontainebleau, in [J63. His ri)rtnguese majesty having ito son, h.is eldest daughter was mar- ried, by dispensation from tiie pope, to don Pedro, her own nnde, io prevent the crov, u from filling into a foreign family. The late king died on the 24th of February, 1777» and was succeeded by his daugh- ter, the present queen. One of the first acts of her majesty's reign was the removal from power of the marquis de Ponioal ; an event which excited general joy throughout the kingdom, as niirht naturally be ex- pected from t!ie arlji^rary ;uk1 oppr^'ssive nature (;t his administration: though it has been alleged in his f.vour, that he adopted sundry public measures which were calculated to promoUj the real interests of Por- tugal. On the 10th of Marcli I7'^'i2, the prince cf r>rnsi!, as presumptive heir to tiie crown, pubiislied an edict, declaring, that as his inoiiier, from lier unhappy situation, was incapable of managing the aifairs of go- vernment, he would p'ku e Iiis signature to public papers, till the return of her health ; and thai no other change should be made in tl;i; forms. Portugal, as the ally of England, took a feeble part in the late war against France ; but her exertions were conliaed to furnishing Spain wit!; 1 few auxiliary troops, and sending a small scjuadron to join the Engh-.li lleet. After Spain liad made peace with France, a war took place between the former country and Portugal, but which was not, productive of any very impor:ani events. In August 1797. a negotia- tion tor a treaty of peace between France and Portugal was entered into, and the treaty actually concluded ; but the French directory refused to ratify it, alleging that the (|Ueen of Portugal, so far from showing a disposition t.) abide by its articles, had put her forts and principal ports into the possession of the English. After the failure of this atp-iupt at negotiation, Portugal continued a member of the plii..acc against FVance ; though her aid was very unimportant, con- sisting onU jf a small sqtiadron, which cruised iu the Mediterranean, and assisted in tJie blockade of Tdaha. At length, 0* short time pre- # ITALY. w :ii; ''rh # >ious to tli<? ?ij;ning of the preliminaries of tlie peace of Amiens, P(3r- tugal coni liuK-tl a pejco n itli Sj/,iln, tlu- laiur power restoring :^o^le places that h:'.cl been taken I'roiii Portiii^al ; which in return eeiled in perpetuity to Sjinin the Ibrtress of Olivenza, with its territory and in- habitants, trorn the Guatllana, which river, by the same treaty, was made the boiuuiary of ihe two kinj3fd(jnis in that part. Tliis treaty •was signed at JJadajoz, June 6, IfcOl ; and on thi^ 20t]i of September, «f the same year, Portugal likewise concluded a treaty of perlce with France, the principal article of which made some alterations in the limits of Portuguese and French Guiana, coniderably to the advantage of the latter power. The queen is disordered by religious melancholy ; Dr. Willis, at tlie rc<juest of tlie princi', some years since, made a voyage to Lisbon, to attempt her cure ; but her recovery remaining hopeleis, the govenuiient of the country rests witli the prince of Brasil, Maria-Frances-Lsabcila, queen of Portugal, born December ]/, i.734 ; niarried, June 0, 17^> to her uncle, don Pedro Clement, F. R. S. born July 5, 1/17* who died JNLiy 25, 1/8(3 j began to reign February 24, 1777' Their issue. John-Maria- Josrph-Louis, born May 13, 1767 ; married, January 9, l/yO, Maria- Louisa, of Spain, born July 9, 177/. •1 Their issue. 1. Maria-Theres.i, princess of Beira, born April 29, 1793. 2. L'^abella-Maria-Francisca, born May I9, 1797' 3. A piince of Beira, born August 1 3, 1798. Sisters to the queen. 1. ^^nna-Frances-Antoinetta, born Octobers, 1736. 2. ]Maria-Francisca-lk'nedicta, born July 24, 174(i; married in l47f) to her nephew the prince of Brazil, who died September IJ, 1788. ITALY. Length SITUATION AND EXTENT. iVTiles. Degrees. ()50\ !,_.„„-,, ("38 and 40 North latitude. Breadth 200 j ^^^^''^^^^ | 8 and .18° 3(/ Fast longitude. Containing, after deducting the territory lately annexed to France, and including tlie islands of Sicily and Sardinia, 7l>050 square miles, with 220 inhabitants to eacli. W Name.] THF name of Italy, Italia, is usually derived from Ita- lus, the Under of an ancient colony from Arcadia. Sir Walter Raleigh has supposed, with eciual ingenuity and probability, that it is the same vith ylJolia, and retcivtd from a colony of Greeks from that countr}'. EouNDAKiLS.] Italy is bounded on tho north by Switzerland and the circle (;f Austria; on t!)c va.t by the Adriatic Sea, on the south by the Mediterranean, ;.ind on the west by Switzerland and Friince. Divisions.] Ital}', at present, contains the following states and kingdoms. "tw- t-' %^t*r.-^ reigii ri„ir.\riii. -i' iO //• 1 >'^^^. Vr^^/w:^ /:' r / KKl/.VX I) -* -% p ■':>""<"L \ I ^^■< ^_ leghorn l^''^'^ J. ^^. . (itf'rmn .'. 'll..slia ^ A'i C.olJitl"^>^^,j%t/cu-rih jJ ' /; rt/" /; iJiAcv^ I'o/ -(cK A'» > -Aio .... r'^ c^ ..j.^cio . Isimant Uj- yKjSvy^, 1^ i^^ i'i; //„// I////. louloii < \/:,v^-i Ix-i.|,„rn| j-j. j; ^. ^ Hv -t-- "•Its I? i *"> "'''''•'"••'■^' lU-fii, ■^- X!i V . J i'liii.ti A>i / <-- ISrmwne CntV* /'/''■•"'"" /.V>»,WO' .i <<>/lllll" . / MaMe7ie„hv r : r- <' (ii l'm>n^it^i ta*Hai-i )iy'">'fo (anno 'i^> O 'S'.lniitxto ^/-v, ^^( ./rrm/o ,-1 (tirr/jniltir, U/u: •/•/^Ollll'il .'•''''1 // UtAx'utuii /. // /> / / /y/.f:\ /' ;i * fiKirnrtvii 7 tli/t,i GuL'ln /. A' A* 'it >V. ll.Mmo \^ ■'•"i"u"\/ i -'■'^"I'l 7' ''■""" ' JWtltll1U<l.\ • , < / <■' ^raain^iriSL. \ ( '. I'loi.'mi'l fT^ * ~K^Z to I J ^;i^. \ I . I Til a Vf,' 'iia V-^.^ W.lo^iia . [/.^., . v ■ ' • ' ■ ■ rij/tmP''" -^v. .'-'j/.fivio S f A X fX //• V '*'"'»' <;''*(i./^04(i',.riiirTa X. ■lUi ^/•-' I 'illiVUM-(t I J I'Ji !'iilmiii\t \ ^^ i , .,,!/«' 1 ,. ,, V "^ A (•''■'■ ; ''ai>'nu IV nlo /'iirfii/aria I i.'ifi/'i I /- //#///« W UtAx;,, U' it /A ;»;/>*'. ^^T "T'lgg ^.yy" TTjy-CTy 1| Canal of NLilla Uvirlii Afu/Ul \ I'afsapo A' .•!» /l* f"'*' <>V '*'!.' /,,'!' 10 10 V'> ri' "w /I'c /.■«' -Jkt.j. wi"r~ irtKT- /.orffiUud* rS t.'iMSi iiwiUi'Hiit'n 'Jt' I hwiliiO I III «» t* -*«■«»<- •••» • 1^ ¥ I1^ f5 »f :. ■ p j\ 1 1 ^: ti J. l' , . k V <> « I ^ -Fv* j.^^ ,^*s»' *»^ r V ..n _ , l^ ;:•' 4 V . --V- » - -- — \ • 1 V : '*i ITALY. £73 !i Stales. S. Miles. Fopulnt, Chief Towns. Itiiliaii Republic y,280 3,r)rjr,,5oo Milan Liguriiin Uoiniblic 1.700 1)00,000 Genoi Duchy of Venice 8,000 2,(.K_)0,OO0 ^''.■i^ice Duthy of rarnm' and riacentia 1,440 250,(X)0 I'arnia Republic of Lvicca 363 120,000 Lucca Xinpiom of Etruria 7,360 1,050,000 Florence Uepub. of San Mavino 32 5,000 San Marino The Kcclesiastical State lo.oyo 1,500,0(30 Rome Kingdom of Naples 20,500 4,700,000 Napliw Island and Kingcl. of Sicily 7,300 1,3(X),000 Pai.rnio Isld. and Kingd. of Sardinia t»,t>:iO 423,500 15,501,000 Caghari ■ Total 71,C50 1 Face of the country.] The beautiful pvosnects and scenery of Italy have been the theme of almost all tiMvellors in this deli«rhtful country. In some parts, indeed, there are exten-iive plains which liave rather a naked, though not a barren appearance, and in others marshes and standing waters, which render the air unwholesome ; but the ge- neral aspect of the country presents rich u;roves of olive, orange, citron, almond, and other fruit-trees, intermlnoled with corn-fields, inclosed by rows of tall poplars, elms, and mulberry-trees, which suftport the luxuriant branches of the vine : while transparent streams descend the eminences, and meander tlircni!;h the valleys, exhibiting at once th« imnge of the most exuberant fu'riliity, and forming the most varied and enchanting landscapes. • Mountains.] The princi]>nl mountains are the Alps on the borders of France, Switzerland, and (Jermany, and the Apennines, which run along the coast of Genoa, and then jiass through the whole length of Italy, generally approaching nearer to- the Adriatic than the Mediter- ranean. The celebrated volcanoes of Vesu\ ins and jEtna are situate, the former in the vicinity of Naples, and the latter in the island of Sicily } but we shall reserve the description of these for the head of Natukal cukiositiks. Lakks, rivers, minerai, waters.] The most considerable lakes in Italy are the Lago Maggiore, or the Greater Lake, called also the Lake of Locarno, about 27 miles in length and three in breadth ; the lake of Como, about 32 miles in length and two and a lialf in brtnidth j the lake of Gavdn, about 30 miles long and eight broad, and the lakes of Lugano, Perugia, Terni, and Celano. The principal rivers are the Po, the Adige, the Tiber, and the Arno. The two former rise in the Alps, the fust in Savoy, the second ui Tyrol, and bo*h flow intd the Gulf of Venice, the former after a course of about 300 miles, the latter after having run about 200, The Tiber and the Arno rise in the Apennines and fall into the sea of Tus- cany, the former near Rome, after having tiowed through that city, and the latter near Pisa. Mineral springs are found in various parts of Italy. The baths of Pjaia, near Naples, were celebrated in the time of the Romans. At. Pisa are medicinal springs, fnie of which is said exactly to resemble in iHSie the Chelteuluim water in England. 57 i ITALY. '■ . U i ' ''IW Mktals, MiNMiALs.J Tlic luouiiialii.-. of luily abound in minc.t that iin»>hi('c C'iiu'imIi!,, j.-spcr, ng;ito, porphyry, I.ipis hr/nli, and othrr \.ilua})li.' stones. Iro'i ainl copper-niiiKS are t'oiiml in a ftw phucM ; aiul a mill ("or ror':;iii<j; and fabri'-'aiin;;- Uicsc mot:'.ls is (vectt'd iiL'.ir Tivoli, in l\n[»lcs. Saniinia i-; saiil to (■(./Ui..In mines c«f gold, sil- ver, k'ael, iron, suiplmr, :uni ali.m, t!i(>ivj:,h thvy are now noglected. Ucauliful marble ol'all kinds isono ci'ilie chit fprodncf ions of Italy. Climate, sorr., I'Konut k.) The climate of Italy is various, a'.id sonif, parts of lliis country exhibit nu'laiiclioiv prof)fs of the alterations that accidental causes make on the f>n;e of n;:t'.irej for the Canip.igna ili Roma, where the ancient Uomans enjoyed the most salubrious air of any place perhaps on the globe, is now almost peslik ntinl, through the decrease of inhabitaiUs, which has c-cca-'irned a stagnation of wa- ters, and put rill exliahUioii>,. The air of the northern parts, which lie among the Alps, or in tl;eir neighbt)e.rhood, is keen and pierc- ing, the ground being in many places cohered witli snow in winter. Tlie Apeinfuies, wlfuli are a ridge of mountains that Ici.gitudinally almost divide Italy, have great ctfeets on its climate; the countries on the soutli being warm, those on the north mild and temperate.' The sea breezes letVesh the kingdom of Naples so nmeh, tliat no remarkable inconveni'ency of air is found there, notwithstanding its soutliern situation. In general, the air ot Italy may be said to be dry antl pure. I'he happy soil of Ilaly produces the comforts and luxuries of life ifi great abundance ; each district has its jieculiar excellency and commo- dity ; wines, the most dciiLious fruits, and oil, are tlie most general pnxluctions. As much corn grows here as serves the inhabitants ; and, were the ground properl)' cultivaieil, t!ie kalians niigiu export it lo their neighbours. In Lomb.udy, a vi\>[> of co: n, anoliur of silk, and another of wine, are obtained every year from the same land ; tlie vines being planted in rows, with mulberry-trees for their support, and the intervals sown with corn. In the abundance, \ariety, and flavour of its fruits, no country in Europe can vie with Italy ; whu;h, hesiiles oraiiges, lemons, citrons, and tigs, produces such quantities of chesnul>, cherries, and plums, that they are of little \alue to the proprietors. Animals.] I'liere is little dilicMvnce between the animals of Italy, and those of France and Germany already mentioned. Natvkxl cvuioarnKS.] Among the natural curiosities of Italy the most ci)nsplcuous are its volcanoes. M(;unt \'esu\ius, is tivo Italian miles di>laiu from the city of Naples, Ihe declivity of this mountain li)\\ards the sea is c\ery-where plaiUed with vines and fruit-trees, and it is ecjually fertile towards the bottom. 'J'he circum- jacent plain alfords a deligliti'ul ]M"ospect, and the air is clear and whole- some. The south and west sides of the mountain term very ditferent views, being, like the top, co\ered with black cinders and stones. The height of -Mount Vesuvius has been computed to be 3,t)00 feet above the surface vi' the sea ; and it iiasbeena volcano beyond the reach of history or tradition. An animated description of its ravages in the year 7y, is given by the younger Fliny, who was a witness to what he MTOte. From that time to the year Itol, its eruptions were but small and moderate ; then, how e\ er, it broke out with accumulated fury, and desolated miles around. In l0[)4, was a great eruption, V hich continued near a n:onth, when biuning matter wa» thrown out ITALY. C7(> It to ;)f Italy is tivo ivity of inesi iind circum- l whole- iillerent stones. )00 feet le leiicli s in the what he ere but Ululated ruption, vvii out vith so much force, that some of it fell at thirty miles distance, and a vast quantity of liciuici l.iva ran down like a rivt-r lor three niile< ilistance, cairring c\ery (hinj before it which lay in its way. In 17O", when there was another t*rtipiion, such (luar.tities of cinders and a->hes were thrown out, that it wa-i dai K at Nuplcs at noon-day. In 17ti7, a vioK'iit t-rupf'on happened, whii U n reckoned to be the 'i/tli from that which desuu>rd HercuUneum, in the lime of Titus. In this eruption, the ashes, or rallKT small ciii(lr''s, showered d(»wn so fast at Naples, that the jK-ople in the itnets wi-if oblii^cd 'o use tunbrelias, or adopt some other expedient, to guard tlicmselvts ai^ainst them. The tops of the houses and the balc(.iiies were covered with theiB cinders; and ships at sea, twenty leagues fi 01 u iV^ples, were covered with them, to the great astonishment of the sailors. An eruption hap- pened also in IJiii), another in 17/y. '>\hich have beeai particularly de- scribed by sir William Hamilton in the Philosophical Transactions; and another in June I7y-i. which laid wa.^ie a considerable tract (;f country, and destroyed several viU.iges, and a great number of habi- tations. It has been observed by a modern traveller, tkit though Mount Vesuvius often tills the neighbouring country with terror, yet, as few things in nature are so :;bsolutely noxious as not to produce some good, even this raging volcano, by its sulphureous and nitrous ma- nure, and the heat ot' its subterraneous fnvs, contributes not a little to iJie uncommon fertility of the country al)out it, and to the profusion of fruits and iierbage with which it is every-where covered. Ke>i(Ie«, it is supposed that, while open and active, the mountain is less hostile to Naplts, than it would be, if its eruptions were to cease, and its struggles confined to its own bowels, for then might ensue the most latal shocks to the unstable foundation of the whole district of Terra cii l/avoro. Mount i-Etna is 10,954 feet In height, and ha^ been computed to 1>« 180 miles in circumference at its base j wliile Vesuvius is only about 30. It stands separate from all otiier nunuitains, its figure is circular, and it terminates in a cone, 'i'he lower part* of it are, very tVuitiul in corn and sugar-canes ; the middle abounds with woiods, (;:i\e-trees, and ".ines; and the upper part is almost the uiiole year i-ovmed with snow. Its fiery eruptions have alu ays rendered it famous .- in one of these, whicii happened in lOWj, fourteen towns and villages were de- stroyed, and there have been several te-rlble eruptions since th.it time. There is generally an eartlujuakv; before any great eruption. In It;!):;, the port-town of Catania was overturned, und 19,CJ0 pv-ople [)e-. rished. Near the kike Agnano and Pozzuolo, there is a valley called Soha- tara, because vast quantities of sulphur are continudly forced oiu of the clefts by subterranean fi.res. The grotto del Cane is ri-markable tor its poisonous steanis, and is so called from its killing d(jgs that enurr ii. if ii)reed to rem.iin there. Scorpions, \ipv'!-, ami serpents, art; said U* be common in Apulia. Savoy may likewise be enumerated among the curiosities of Italy. Tiiose \ast bodies of snow and ice, Avhieh a;e called th.e glaciers of l^avoy, deserve to be particularly mentioned. There are ii\e glacier* which extend almost to the plain of the vale of Chamouny, and ari5 ^ep.irated by wild forests, corn-lields, and rich tnoadows ; ^o that im- mense tracts of ice are blenJed with the highest cultivation, and per- petually succeed to each other, in the most singiUar and striking vieis- fcitudes. All these several viUleys of ice- which lis chietiv in the hoi- 570" rrAi.Y. !i I Ki ! W i 1:: i-; i r:;1 li--J ! Ii us of tlic mouniairTi, nnd nre soine lei^ues in length, unite together III the ttiot oi'JMont Jilanc ; the bisj,h(.\st inount.ii'a in Enroiie, nnd pro- bably oF the jinci'jiit ^v<)|■ld. Acccrciini; to tlie calculations of JVI. de Luc, the height of thit> inouiit'iin above the lc\e] of the sea, is 2391 4 French toi^es, or 15,, '503 Eaglish ia-r. " I am con\:'ircd," says Mr. Coxc, '•' from tlie situation of ]Mont Blanc, from the height of tlie iuuiuitains around it, from its superior elevation abtne theni, and its being seen at a great distance from all sides, that it is higher than nny juoniitain in Switzcrlar.d ; which, beyond a doubt, is, next to ^lont Eline, the highest grouuil in Europe." 'I'he cascade of Terni, alKUit tour miles from the town of that name, is perhaps tlie most bi?autiful cataract in the vorld. The river Velino, at a short distance from its junction with the Nar, fJls suddenly down a preci])ice, nearlv .300 feet in height, and dashes with such \iolence on liie rocks belov.-, that a great part of its stream rises in vapour. It sitterwards falls down two other prcci])ices, almost as high as the tirstj its waters each time risinq; in a kind ot mist. The asereuiate height of the tl'.ree falls is supposed to be about 800 feet. Near Tivoli is another beau liful cascade, tlie river Te\erone, the aiicient Anio, tailing about 50 feet. Poi'ULATIOV, NATIONAL CHAUACTF.K, MANXKUS, CUSTOMS.] The pojHiJation of Italy in its present state, as -also that of the several re- publics and sovereignties wliid it coniains, have already been given r.ccording to the latest and most ant!\eutic accounts. The Italians nre generally well-proportioned, and have such meaning in ti)eir look:-, <haL they ir.ive greiit'v assisted the ideas of their paint- ers. '^1 'he women are u( U-shaped, and very amorous. The marriage tics, especially of the better sort, are said to be of very little value in Itiiiy. Every wiie h;;s been r«?piesentcd to have her gallant orcicisbeo, ^\'ith wlifan she keeps company, and sometimes cohabits, with very litile ceremony, and r,o oiience on eitiicr sitle. But this pmctice is cli'idly remarkable at^'t.ni(-e; and indeed the representations v\hich iiavi; been made of thi?. kind by tra\"e]lers, appear to have been much e::aggerated. With regard to the modes of lite, the best quality of a inotiern Italian is sobriety, ar.d they submit \ery patiently to the public gnvernnxent. With gre;;t taciturnity, thcv discover but little reilection. They are rather vindictive than bra\c, nnd more sup^Tstitious than de- vout. Tlie middling ranks arc attached to tlieir native customs, and f-;cem to lui'.e no ideas of i:nj)rovement. Their fon:lnoss fur greens, fiiiits, and vegetables of ail kinds, contributes to their contentment iind sat i. -.fact ion ; i]n>.\ i\u Italian gentleman or peasant can be luxurious .'It a \ery small exj;cnsc. I'iiough jx-rliaps all Italy does not contain many de.-!cend(?nts "f the ancient Romans, yet the i)resent inhabitants .speak of themselves as successors of the eoncpierors of the world, and look upon tloe rest of mankind v'>iili contempt. The dress of the Italians is little (iillcrent from that of the neigh- bouring countries, ar^'. thc} alilct a tnedium between the French vola- tility and the solemnity of ih.' Spaniards. The Neapolitans are com- monly dressed in black, in compliment to the Spauiiirds, It cannot be denied that the Ii.'.lians excel in the line arts: though they make at prei-.ent but a very inconsiderable figure in the sciences. They cultivate and enjoy vocal music at a very dear rate, by emasculating tlieir males when young; to which their mercenary parents agree without re- ziior.c. llic Iialians, the Voneiir.::s especially, have very little or no notioa ITALY. 5;; C)f the imnrnjiriety of ma-ny customs that are considered as criminal in other coimtric'S. P.'.rents, ratiier tlKitj t!i<iir sons sliould throw tham- selvcs away by unsuitable marriages, or contract diseases by promiscu- ous amours, hire nii;tie.ssci for them, for a month, or a year, or some determinod time-, and concubinage, in many places of Italy, is an avowed licenced iinde. The Italian courtesans, or lona-robas, as they are called, make- a kind of prufession in all their cities. Masquerading and gamincr, hor-e-raees without rid.ers, and conversations or assem- blies, are the chief diversions of the Italiatis, exceptin;::; religious exhi- Isitions, iu whiih tiiey are ponipo-as beyond all other nations. A modern v/ritcr, descritfnig his journey throii;;h Itnly, gives us a very unfavourable pictun* of the Italians and their inunner of livinp'. " Give what sop..- yoCi plei-e to your fani-'y," says he, " you will ne- ver imagine half the di-:i.:;;reea'-;Ieness that Italian bed-, Italian cooks, and Italian Hastiness, oili-T to an Englishman. At Turin, Milan, Ve- nice, Rome, and perhaps two or three oihcr tcwns, you meet with good accommodations ; but no words can express the wretchedness of the other inns. No other beds than those of straw, with a mattress of straw, and next to that a dirty sheet, sprinkled with water, and con- sequently damp : for a co\'ering, you have another sheet as coarse a.s the first, hke one of our kitchen jack-towels, with a dirty coverlid. Tlie bedstead consists of four wooden forms or benches. An English peer and peeress must lie in this manner, unless they carry an uphol- sterer's sho]) with them. Iliere are, by the bye, no such things as cur- tains; and in all their inns the walls are bare, and the floor lias ncvef yet been Avaslxed since it was first laid. One of the most indelicate customs here is, that men, and not women, make the ladies' beds, and would do ever}' otHce of a maid-servant, if suffered. They never scour their pewter ; their knives are of the same colour. In these inns tliey make you. pay 1: rgcly, and send up ten times as much as you can eat. The soup, like Mash, with pieces of liver swimming in it; a plate full of brains fried in the shape of fritters ; a dish of livers and giz- zards ; a couple of fowls (always killed after your arrival) boiled to rags, without any t!ie least kind of sauce or herbiige; anoiher fov^l, just killed, stewed as they call it; then two more fowls, or a turkey, rr)asted to rags. All over Italy, on the roads, the chi("kens and ibwls are so string);, you may divide the i^-east into as many lilaraents as you can a halfpenny-worth of tln-ead. Now and then we get a liule pieee ot mutton or veal ; and generally speaking, it hs the only eatable mor- sel that falli in our way. The biv:;d all the way is exceedingly bad ; and the butle" so nmcid, that it cani.ot be touched, or even borne v/ithin the re;:ch of yonr smell, ik'.t v/hat is a greater evil to travellers tiuv.i any of the abo\e reviled, are the infinite numibcirs of gnats, bugs, lleas, and lice, v/hich infest us by day raid night." Rklioiont."] I'he rengion of the Italians is the Roman-catholic. The inquisition here is little more than a name j and pcr-fons ol'ali religions live unmolested in Italy, provided no gross msult is offered to their wor- ship. In the Jnirouiiction, we ha\e given r.n account of the rise and establishment of p:)pe'y in Italy, from >Sje!i(X'it spread over all Europe; likewise of the causes and syniptoms of its decline. The ecclesiastical goverument of tlir papacy has employed nnny vol'iincs in describing it. The cardinals, who rue next in digiiity to his holiness, are seventy ; but that number is seldom or never complete ; they are appointed by the pope, who takes can.' to h.ave a majority of Italian cardinals, that the vliair may not be removed "from Rome, as it was once to Avignon in 2P h- 1. Ml f ■ ^.'J ; 578 ITALY. ?"rance, the tht'n popr being a rrciichman. In promoting foreign prc- Intcs to the c:irdinalship, tlie pop<; rt'giilates himself according to the no- n)ina(i()n of the princes who profess that rehgion. His chief minister is the cardinal patron, generally his nephew, or near relation, who im- proves the time of tlie pope's reign by aaiUhhing what he can. When met in a consistory, tlie cardinals pretend 10 controul the pope, in mat- ters botii .spiritual and temporal, aiid have been sometimes known to prp.\ail. The reigu of a pope is seldom of long duration, being gene- rally old men at the time of their election. The conclave is a scene V here the cardinals principally endeavour to display their abilities, and where many transactions pass very inconsistent with their pretended in- spiration by the Holy Gliost. During tlie election of a pope, in 1/21, tlie animosities ran so high, that they c.iuie to blows with both their hands and feet, and tjux'w the ink-standi.^ies at etich other. We shall here give an extract fiom the cre?d of pope Puis IV. (15(M), before his elevation to the chair, which contains llie principal points wherein the church of Rome ditiers from the protesiani chuiches. Alter declaring his belief in one God, and other heads wherein Christians in general are ngrced, he proceeds as foiiuws : *• I mo'-t tirmly admit and embrace the apostolical and ecclesiastical traditions, and all other constitutions of thp church of Rome. '• I do admit the Holy Scriptures in the same sense that holy mother- church doth, whose bushiess it is to judge of the true sense and interpre- tation of them ; and I will interpret tlicm according to the unanimous consent of tJ;e fathers. '* I do profess and believe that there are seven sacrajnents of th« liiw, truly and properly so called, instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, and nece^iary tu the salvation of mankind, though not all of them to i'\ ciy one ; najuely, baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, ex- tieme unction, orders, ;ind marriage, and that they do confer grace ; ;nul that of thee, baptism, contirmation, and orders, may not be re- peated without ^^acrilege. I do alsi> receive and admit the received and .:|'.provcd rites of the catholic church in her solenm administration of ill'' abovesaid sacraments. " I do embrace and receive all and every thing that hath been defined and declared by the holy coimcil of Trent * concerning original sin and justilication. " I do also profess that in the nmss there is offered unto God a true, proper, and propitiator}- sacrifice for the (]uick and the dead ; and that ni till" mast holy sacrament of the eucharist there is truly, really, and Mibslaiitially, the body and blood, together with the soul and divinity, of our Lord Jesus Chri>l ; and that there is a conversion made of tlic whole substance of the btead into the body, and of the whole sub- stance of the wine into the blood j which conversion the catholic • hurch calls Trausubstaniiation. 1 confess that under one kind only, w Jiok' ar.d entire, Christ and a true sacrament is taken and received. " I do tirmly believe that there is a puri^r-tory ; and that tlie souls kept j)risoners there do receive help b^ tlie .-^utlrai^es of the faitliful. " 1 do likuwise bilieve t^nit the saints rci;j,niug together vith Chri.it are to be w orshipped and prayrd unto ; and that tliey do offer j'.;» ^^^ * A convocation of- Roman-cathylic carjlnals, archbisJicp?, bishops, and di- vitips, who assembled at Trent, by virtufot a bull from the p<)[;e, anno 154<), and ticvuttid to hiui, to dettmiiiit- upon ((.rrnin points of faith, and to suppress whM( tfiry wcif plfasH \o ifrra the riiinjj liercsi'.** in the church. iTAl.Y. -'/: Laniuiou$ up prayers unto God fot us, and that their relics are to be had in vene- ration. " I do most firmly assert that the images of Christ, of tlie blessed Virgin the mother of God, and of other saints, ought to be had and re- tained, and that due honour and veneration ought to be given unto them *. " I do likewise affirm, that the power of indulgences was left by Christ to the church, and that the use of thcni ii> very benelicial to Chris- tian people. " 1 do acknowledge the holy catholic and apostolical Roman church to be the mother and mistress of all churches : and 1 do promise and swear true obedience to the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter, the prince of the apostles, and vicar of Jesus Christ. '•■ I do undoubtedly receive and profess all other things wliich have been delivered, defined, and declared by the sacred canons and u.*cu- mcnical councils, and especially by the holy synod of 1 rent. And all otiier things contrary thereto, and all heresies condemned, rt-jected, and ana'.hemaLised by tlie church; I do likewise condemn, reject, and ana- tlieiuatise.'* Akchbishoprics.] There are forty-onp archbishoprics in ttaly, but the sutfragans annexed to them are too indefinite and ru-bitraiy for the reader to depend upon j the [lupe creating or suppressing them asije pleases. Learmxg avd i-pxKNKi) MRv, PAiNTEKS,! In the Introduction STATUAKIES, AKCHiTKCTs, AN D AKTIST3. J we have pariiculatised some of the great men wiiich ancient Italy has produced. In modern timcvS, that is, since the revival of learning, some Italians have shone in controversial learning, but they are chiefiy celebrated by bigots of their own persuasion. The mathematics and natural philoijophy owe much to Galileo, Torricelli, Malpighi, Borelli, and several other Italians. Strada is an excellent historian : and the histcr)' of the council of Trent, by the celebrated father Paul, is a standard work. Guicciardini, B(!ntivoglio, and Davila, have been much coihmended as historians by their several admirers. Machiavel is equally famous as an historian and as a politi- cal writer. His comedies have much merit : and the liberality of his sentiments, for the age in which he lived, is amazing. Among the prose writers in the Italian language, Boccacio has been thought one ofthe most pure and correct in point of style : he was a very natural painter of life and manners, but his productions are too licejitious. Fetrarcha, who wrote both in l<atin and Italian, revived among the moderns the spirit and genius of ancient literature : but among the Italian poets, Dante, Ariosto, and Tasso, are the most distinguished. There are said to be upwards of > • An Kn^jlish traveller, speakinjj of a religious procession some years n^o at Flo- rence, in Italy, describes it as follows: " I had occasion," says he^ " to sec a proces- sion wliere all thj noblesse of the city attended in their coaches. It was tiie anni- versa»y of a charitable institution in favour of poor maidens, a certain number of whom are portioned every year. About two hundred of these virjjins walked in procession, two and two tojjethcr. They were precedetl and followed by an irre- gular mob of penitents, in sackcloth, with ligiued tapers, and monks carryinjj crucilixcs, bawlinjr and bcllowinp the litanies ; but the greatest object was the figure of the Virgin Mary, as big as the life, standing within a gilt frame, dressed in a golj stuff, with a large hoop, a great quantity of false jewels, her face painted and {)atche>l, and her hair frizzled and curlr-d in tUe very extremity of the fashion. Very ittle regard had been paid to the ima:,'o of our S:wiour on the cross ; but when the Lady Mother appeared on the shoulders of three oi fuor lusty Irjaii, the whwi populace fcU upun their kuci.'s iu the dirt." M 1» ■« A<i m m m \m ^ i- '''\ li -.1 > ' ■ ' " J. ^!;.'. ', ' 580 iTArv. a thoT'sauJ conifJies in the Italian lanfjuagej though not many that ar« excelu'ut: but Mctastdsio has acquired a great reputation by writing dniniatic pit-res sot to nmsic. S:ini\;ii:aiiu>, fiacaitorius, llembo, Vida, and other natives ofltaly, liavc di.'^tingaislied themselves h\' the elegance, correctness, and sjiirit of their Latin noeliy, many of their composition* not yielding to the tlnssics themselves. Soeinus, who was so much distinj;u:shed by his opposition to the doctrine of the Trinity, was a na.- tive ofltnly. The Italian painters, houlptors, archlteels, niid musicians, are unrival- led, not only in their number, but tlieir e\.ccllenre. The revival ox learning, after the sack of Constantinople by the Turks, revived laste likewise, and gave mankind a relish for truth un'd beauty in design and colouriui^. Raphael, from his own ideas, a>si>led by the ancients, struck out a licw crcatirui with liis pencil, and still stands at the head of thcf art of painting. jMichael Angelo Ikionarotti united in his own person painting, sculpture, and architecture. Tire coLonring of 'I'itian has ])cr- haps never yet been equalled. Kramante, Bernini, and many other Ita- lians, carried sculpture and architecture. to an amazing height. Julio lloniano, Correggio, Caracci, A^'roiie-c, and others, are, as paisuers, tmequalled in their several manners. Tlie same maybe said of Corelli, and other Italians, in music. At present Italy cannot justly boast of any extraordinary genius ::i the fine nrt.5, Univfrsxtiks.] Those of Italy are, Rome, Venice, Florence, Man- tua, Padua, Parma, Verona, Milan, Pavia, Bologna, Ferrara, Pisa*, Naples, Saleriio, and Pernsia. LvNfiCAOE.] Tiie Italiaji language is remarkable for its smooth- ness, and the f;icility witli which it enters into nmsical composition"?, 1'he ground-work of it is I<atin, and it vs easily acfpiired by a good clas- sical scholar. Alm()=.f every s'ate in Italy has a ditierent dialect ; and the prodlgiou.s pa:n;i taketi by {.he lltcrar/ occitiies tliere, may at last fix. the Italian into a standard language. At presem, the Tuscan style and writing is most in rc-qdcBt, The Lord's Piiiyer ra:) thus : Pu/rc no-^^ro ch-: f.'i vd cido, xia sancti- ficato il tuo mnni- ; il iu<) rt-^no vent/a : lit Liu rolcnid slufatla sicconie m cido cosi unche. in turn, : d.icci (>/;>•/ // n.s'ro pane crrtldiano ; c remtttici i nostri (lehila, siccoms noi uncova rimeitiamo d nostri dfhitori ; e non in» ducici ia'lmnitiouc, nui Ubcnici dal malii^no ; pcrciojche tuo e il regno, e la pnlcnza, e la gloria in srinpitcnto. Anien. AxTiQUifiiss.] Among tlie ant! juities of Italy, the ampitheatres <;laim the first rank, as exhibiting the most wonderful specimens of an- cient magnificence. There are at Rome considerable remains of that Avhich was erected by Ve.sjxisian, and tinished by L'cmitian, called th« Coliseo. Twelve thousand Jev.'ish captives were emplo)ed by Ves- pasian in this building; and it is said to Ji.ive been capable of containing eighty-seven thou-sand spectators seated, and twenty tJiousand standing.. The architecture of this amphitlieatre is perfectly light, and its propor- tions arc so just, that it does not appeur so large as it really is. But it has been stripped of all its magnihccnt pillars and ornaments, at vari- ous times, and isy various enemius. The Goths, and other barbarians, began its destruction, and popes and cardinals have endeavoured to complete its ruin. Cardinal Farnese, in particular, robbed it of som« i;ue remains of its niirble cornices, friezes, &:c. ; and, with iiifinitc pains ai»d labour, took asvny what was practicable of the outside casing of mar- • Pisa liJLi foity-sjx profusion. ■ ' i ITALY: ^81 ble, which he craplayed in building the pahreof Farne.se, The am)>hi- thcatre of \''erona, erected by the consul Fiaiuinius, ii thought ti) 'je the most entire of any in Itiily. I'here are f jrty-tive rows of steps canied all round, formed of fine blocks of marble about a foot and a half high t'.ich, and above two feet broad. 'I'wenty-tuo thousand persons may be sealed herb at their ease, allowini;; one foot and a half for each person. 1'his amphitheatre is <iuite perfect, and lias been repaired with tiie j^rcatest care, at the expen.se of the inliabitants. They frequently give public spectacles in it, sucii as hor.-e-race-;, combats of wild beasts, iVc. The ruins of theatres and amphitheatres are likewise vi>ible in other places, I'he triumphal an.'hes of Vespasian, Septimius Severus, and Constantine the Great, are still standing, though decayed. The ruins of tlie baths, palaces, and temples, answer all the ideas we can form of the Roman grandeur. The Pantheon, which is at present coinertcd into a modern churci), and which from its circular figure is commcnily called tlie Rotunda, is more entire than any other Roman teniple whieli is now remaining. There are still left several of the niclies which an- ciently contained the statues of the heathen deities. The outside ol' llie building is of Tivoii free-stone, and within it i.s incrusted with marble. The roof of the Pantheon is a roinid dome, w'ithout pillars, the diameter of which is a hundi"ed and forty-four feet; and though it has no win- dows, but only a round aperture in the centre of this dome, it is \ery light in every part. Tlie pavement consists of large scp-iare .stones and porphyry, sloping round towards tlie centre, wliere the rain-water, fall- ing down througii the apertiu'e on the top of the dome, is conveyed aw ay by a proper tlrain covered with a stone full of holes. 'I'hc colonnade in the front, which consists of sixteen columns of granite, thirtv-'^even feet high, exclusive of tiie pedestals and capitals, each cut out of a single block, arid which are of the Corinthian order, can hardly be \iowed without asi.j'xi.shment. I'he entrance of the cliurch is adorned with colunm.s fort v-eight teet high, and the architrave is formed of a single piece of grniite. On the left hand, on entering the portico, is a large antitjue va.ii' of Numidian marble; and in the area before the church i.s a foimtain witli an antii[ue of porphj'ry. The pillars of Trajan and Antt)iiine, tlie former l/.l tijet high, and the latter ccjvered with in- fctructive sculi)tnres_, are still remaining, A traveller forgets the devas- tations of the northen barbarians, when he sees the rostrated iu)lumii erected by Duilius in ccjmmemoratiou of the first naval victory the Romans gained over the Carthaginians ; the statue of the wolf giving suck to Romulus and Remus, with visible marks of the strokes of light- ning, mentioned by C'icero ; the original brass plates containing the laws of tJie t\^elve tables ; and a thousand other identical anticjuities, some of them transnnttecl unhurt to the present times ; not U) mention medals, and the inlinite variety of seals and engraved stones which abound m the cabinets of the curious. Manv palaces, throughout Italy, are furnished with buHts and statues fabricated in the times of the re- public and the liigher empire. The Appian, Flaminian. and /Kmilian roads, the first 2(.iO miles, the second 130, and the third 50 miles in length, are in many places .still entire ; and magnificent ruins of villas, reservoirs, bridges, and the like, present them.selves in every part of It:;ly, The subterraneous constru' tlons of Italy are as stupendous as tlio.so above ground : such are tlx'icloacoe, and the cataconibs, or repositories for dead bodies, in the neighbourhood of Rome and Naples. It is not above 50 years since a painters apprentice discovered the ancient city ox 582 ITALY. ' li m !? ■I'r.. >•' 'I 't iV' f Paesfum or Pn.sitlonla, in the kiiigrlom of Naples, still standing; for «o indiriorcnt arc tho t'ountr)' people of Ilnly about objects of antiquity, th;it it was a new discovery to the learned. An inexhaustible mine of curiosities exists in the ruins of Herciil.ineum, a city lying between Naples and Vesuvius, which, in the reign of Nero, was almost destroyed by an earthquake, and afterwards, in tlie first year of the reign of Titus, Overwhelmed by a stream of the lava of Vesuvius. The melted lava in its coarse tilled up the streets and houses in some places to the height of sixty-eight feet above the tops of the latter, and in others one hundred and ten feet. This lava is now of a consistency which renders it ex- tremely dirticult to he renioved or cleared away ; it is composed of bitu- minous particles, mixed with cinders, minerals, metallic and vitrified sandy .siibstnuces, which altogether form a close and heavy mass. In the revolution of so many ages, the spotlit stood upon was entirely forgotten j but in the year 1713, upon digging into these parts, some remains of this luifortunate city were discovereti, and many antiquities were dug out; but tiic search was afterwards discontinued, till the year 1/31), when tl)e king of Niiples employed men to dig perpendicularly eighty feet deep, whereupon not only the city made its appearance, but also the bed of the river which ran through it. The temple of Jupiter was then disclosed, and the whole of the theatre. In the temple was found u statue of gold, and the inscription that decorated the great doors of en- trance. In the theatre, the fragments of a gilt chariot of bronze, with liorses of the same metal, likewise gil" : this had been placed over the principal door of entrance. There were likewise found among the ruins of this city, multitudes of statues, busts, pillars, paintings, manuscripts, furniture, and various utensils. The streets of the town appear to have been (juite straight and regular, the houses well built, and much alike j some of the rooms paved with Mosaic, others with fine marbles, others again with bricks three feet long and six inches thick. It appears that the town was not tilled up so unexpectedly with the melted lava, as to prevent the greatest part of the inhilbitants from escaping with many of the' richest etFects: for when the excavations were made, there was not more than a dozen skeletons found, and but little gold, silver, or pre- cious stones. The town of Pompeii was destroyed by the same eiiiption of Mount Vesuvius which occasioned the destruction of Hercuhineum; but it was not di.scovcred till near forty years after the discovery of Herculaneum. (^)n*^ street, and a few detached buildings of this town, have been cleared; the street is well paved with the same kind of stone of which the ancient voads arc made, and narrow causeways are raised a foot and a half on each side for convcnieucy of foot passengers. Dr. Moore observes, that the street itself is not so broad as the narrowest part of the Strand, and is supposed to have been inhabited by tradespeople. The traces of wheels of carriages are to be seen on the pavement. The houses are .small, but give an idea of neatness and conveniency. The stucco on tiii' walls is sniooth and beautiful, and as hard as marble. Some of the roc.:; > are ornamented with paintings, mostly single tigurcs, representing s( nie iuiimal. They are tolerably well executed, and a little water being thrown on them, the colours appear surprisingly tVesh. Most of the houses art» built on the same plan, and have one small room from the passage, which is conjectured to have been the shop, v/ith a window to the street, and a place which se*»nis to have been contrived for showing the goods to the greatest advantage. In another part of the town is a rectangular ^Hiildin^, with a coloniiado towaids the court, sonietliing in tlie style qf ITALY. 593 the Royal Exchange nt London, but smaller. At a considerable distanci* ■froiii this, is a temple of the gcxldess Isis, the pilhirs ot" which ;ire of brick, stuccoed like, thtxse ot' the t^uard-room ; but there is nothing very magniticent in the appearance of this edifice. Ihe best painiingsj hi- therto found at Pompeii, are these of this temple ; they have been cut out of the walls, and remo\ed to Portici. Few skeletons were foiuid in tlie streets of this town, but a considerable number in the houses. In one apartment (says Mr. Sutherlard), we saw the skeletons of 1" poor wretches who were confined by th.e ancles in an iron machine, I\I:;riy other bodies were found, some of thenj in circumstancei which plainly shewed tliat they were endeavouring to escape when the eruption o\ ir- took thern. States of Itai.v, gover\ments,7 Thus Hir, of It.^ly in general ; ciTFRS, CHiKF TOWNS. J but as the Italian sUitt's are not. like the republic of Switzerland, or the empire of Gevaianv, cemented by a political confederacy, to which every member is accuuntal)le (toi every Italian state has a distinct form of government, trarle, and in- terests), it v.-iU lie necessary to take a separitte vieu' ot'each, to assist the reader in forming an idea of tfie \\h()le. Since the expulsion of the king of Sardinia from !iis possessions on the continent of Italy, and the annexation of Savoy and Piedmont to France, fhe rirst and principal state which presents itself in the northern part of Italy, is tlie new Italian Rkpitblic, founded in the year 17()7 by Ik>- naparte, vmdcr the name of the Cisalpine Republic. In the year 17tj() it was for a time abolished, by th«j success of the Austrian mid Russian arnisj but restored again after the battle of Marengo, in 18()0, and acknowledged, on the part of Austria, by the treaty of Luneville. li C(Misists of the late Austrian duchies of .Milan and Mantua, the duchy cf Mwdena, the principalities of Massa and Carrara ; the late Venetian provinces of Cremasco, Rergamasco, Bresciano, and a part of tJie Vero- nese, as far as the Adige ; the three legations of the ecc-lesiastical state, Rologna, Ferrara, and Romagna, and the late subjects of the Grisons, Rormio, the Valteline, and Claevers. It is bounded on the north by Switzerland and the county of Tyrol ; on the east by the liuchy of Ve- nice and tlie Adriatic Sea -. on the south by the kingilom of Ktruria. Lucca, and the ecclesiastical state ; and on the west by Piedmont. It is divided into thirteen departments, viz. Agogna, Lario, Milan, Serid. Mella, Upj>er Po, Mincia, Crostolo, I'anaro, Lower Po, Reno, Ruin- con, Verona. The country is in general eAtremely fertile atid produc- tive. Milan, the capital and seat of government, is situate in a plain between the rivers Adda and Tesino. It is a strong city, with a <:it;uiel, and a magnificent cathedral in theGotliic t;isie, adorned, it is said, with 4,(KX) statues. It contains about 130,0CK) inhabitants. The other prin- cipal cities are Mantua, one of the strongest lintresses in Europe, and containing about I'i.tKJO inhabitants, who boa^it that Virgil was a native of their country ; Pavia, celebrated for its ancient iiniver.-ity, founded by Charlemagne; Bologna, containing 80,000 inlvtbiiants ; Modcna, with about 30,000, and 100 diurches ; Ferrara, a bishop's see and uni- versity j Raveima, the late capital of the papal legation of Roinagna ; and Verona ; of which latter city, however, a small part on the left bank of the Adige appertains to tlie Austrian Venetian territory. According to the constitution of this republic, dated the '25ih of Ja- nuary 1802, the whole executive power, without responsibility, is lodged U) the president ; which office was at the same time accepted by Rona- porte, the first consul of France, wlip appointed McUi d"Kril his viwc- 1 ■ ' ' '^vl''' ;l.i: li 4 •i *i 1 11'''* 1 W ^'' i ! 1 '? •l! fflll " 'f :i ^1 .:ii £84 n'ALY. president. Tlicre h also a legislative body of sevpnt3--fi\e members — a legislative council of ten — a consnlta of state of eight persons — and three colleges, of v.'hat are called po.<:s/(7f;7^/, or landed proprietors; dotti, or literati and artists; and coinimrciauii, or persons engaged in trade; amounting in the whole to seven hundred members, who are to be con- voked once in two years, to give in a list of n.imes of jjer-ons proper to be appointed public officers, from which they are rho.^-en by a committee of twenty-one members, called cnjA'Mm^j J but all leal i)owLr resides in the president. While the Milanese belonged to tlie house of Austria, it was a very powerful state ; and formerly, wlien under the govenunen*' of its own dukes, gave law to all Itai)'. Tlie revenue of this Jachy was above 300,0001. annually, which was supposed might maintain an army of 30,000 men. Mantua was also a rich Jachy, which brought to its own dukes an annual revenue of oOO.OOO crowns, 'i'l.o duchy of Modem (fornierly Mutina), before the late re-volutions excited by tJic French in Italy, w;ir. governed by its own duke, the he;!d of the house of Este, from whom rhe family cf Brunsw Ii'; desceud.ed. The duke was abso- lute within his own dominions. Ho was und-.r the piotection of the Jhouse of Austria, and a vassal of tl:e em];ire. He has received, as an indemnity for his duchy, the territories of the Brisgau and the Ortenau in Gerra:my. . The republic of Gexoa, or the Liguria?^ republic, is greatly dege- nerated from its ancient power and opulence. The territory is divided into tiiree c'rclcs, or districts, called la lihicra di Lnantc, or eastern coast J la Rhit'ra di Poncntc, or western coast ; and // Centra, the centre or mid-land district. Genoa is a most superb city, and contains some very magnificent palaces, particuLirly tho,?e (,f Doria •>^- and Du- razzo. The inhabitanis of distinction dress in black, in a plain, if not an uncouth, manner. Iheir chief manufactures are velvets, damaSks, .gold and silver ti.-.sues, and paper. The city of Genoa contains about 100,000 inhabitants ; among whom were many rich trading indivi- duals. Its maritime powef is dwindled down to a few galleys. The common [people are wretched beyond expression, as is the soil of its ter- ritory. Near the sea some parts are tolerably well cultivated. I'he old government of Genoa was aristocr.itical, being vested in the nobility ; •the chief person was called the doge, or duke ; to which dignity no per- son was promoted till he was fifty }ears of age. E\ery two }'ears a new doge ■was chosen, and the formicr became incapable, during five years, of holding the same post again, 'i'he doge gave audience to ambassa- dors ; all orders of government were issued in his name, and he was al- lowed a body-guard of two hundred Gernians. Jiy the new constitution of the Ligurian republic, framed at Paris in the year 1601, the government is vested in a doge and senate of thirty, and a legislative body of seventy members ; of which one-fiftJi go out annually. The revenue is said to amount to above 000,000/. ; but there . are great public debts. ^'E^'ICE, now a part of the Austrian territory, was one of the mo:^t celebrated republics in the world, on account both of its constitution and former power. The duchy consists at pre-^ent of the seven provinces of * Andrew Doria, the head of tlii-s family, finnrms. for Iil.. milifa'V exploits, and riiff deii'.crcr of Genoi, was born in tlie ti rritory nf (Junoa, in ihe year 1468; lie w.ij offored the sovtrt-igiuy of the state, but reiii''<-«l it, and g;ive to the people that re- publican form of j^overnmcnt which su^sinttd til) the late revolution; iie lived to the age of nincty-threej the refuse and iVicudof the ujifortuji-le. ITALY. oSft Venice, or the Dogeat, Treviso, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, and P.flhmo; which laUer is diviik'd into the three districts of ReUuno, IVUlre, and Cadore. The city of Veniee is seated on seventy-two islands at the Iwt- tom of the north end of the Adriatic Sen, and is separated from the con- tliK-at i)y a mar-shy hike of live Italian miles in breadth, too shallow for large ships to navigate, which forms its principal strength. \'enic« fireserves the vestiges of its ancient ma:;nifv:ence, but is in evt-ry ro- bjject dfgencratcu, except in the passion which its inhabitants still retain lor music and nnunmery during their carnivals. They seem to Ikivc lost their ancient taste for painting and architecture, and t(» be return- ing to Gothicism. They had, iiowever, lately some spirited diflerences with the court of Romej and s(?en"ied to be disposed to tiirow otf their obedience to its head. As to the conslitutiou of the late republic, it Mas (jriginally demoeratical, the magistrates b<,'ing chosen by a general assembly of t!ie people, and so continued for one hundreU and lifty years ; but various changes afterwards took })lacc : doges, or duk&s were appointed, who were invested with great power, which they often grossly nt)ascd, and some «f them were assassinated by tlie peoi>}e. Tty degrees a body of hereditary nobility was formed ; conti- nued and progressive encroachments were made on the rights of the people ; and a complete aristocracy was at length established upon the ruins of the ancient popular government. The nobility were divided into six classes, amounting in the whole to 2,500, each of whom, when twenty-five years of age, had a right to be a member of the grand roun- cil. Before the late revoUttion, these elected a doge, or chief m-igistrate, ill a peculiar maimer by ballot, which was managed by gold and siher balls. The doge was investe4 with great state, and with emblems of supreme authority, but had very little power, and was not permitted to go out of the city without the permission of the grand ccuncd. The government and laws were administered, by diilerent co^incils of the nobles. The college, otliorwisc called the signory, was the supreme cabinet council of the state, and also the representative of the republic. 'i'h'Mi convt gave audience, and delivered answers, in the name of the ru'public, to foreign ambassadors, to tlie deputies of towns and provinces, and to the generals of the army. It also received all requests and memorials on state alHiirs, summoned the senate at pleasure, and an-anged tlie bu- siness to be discussed in that assembly. The council often took con-ni- sauce of state crimes, and had the power of seizing accused j)ersons, ex- ■j;mining theni in prison, and taking their answers in writing, with thft e\ idence against them. But the tribunal of state inquisitors, which con- sisted only of three members, and whicli was in the highest degree de- spotic in its manner of proceeding, bad the power of deciding, without nj)j;ca!, on the life of every citizen belonging to the Venetian state-— the highest of the nobility, even the doge himself, not being excepted, To these three i)iquisitor.s was given the right of employing spies, con- sidering secret intelligence, issuing orders to seize all persons whose words or actions they might think reprehensible, and afterwards tryinr them, and ordering them to be executed, when they tliougiit pro})er. They had keys to every apartment of the ducal palace; and could, whenever tliey pleased, penetrate into the very bed-chamber of the doge, open his cabinet, and examine his papers; and, of course, might command access to tlic house of every individual in the state, lliey continued in (jliice only one year, but were not icsponsible afterwards for their conduct ■vvhilbt they werp in imlhority. isu much distrust and jealousy were dihr I !■ ' St. 5S6 ITAI.V. .j'l; m •I i[ \.\ m pbycd by this rovf rnmcnt, that tlic noble "^'efictians were afraid of h«v- ing any intcroourM' with foreign ambassadors, or with foirigners of any kind, and wore even cautimis of visiting at caeh other's houses. Ail ilie orders of Venetian nobiliiy are dressed in black gowns, large wi;;s, anil caps wliieh tliey hold in their hands. The eerernony of the doge's marrying the Adriatic once a year, by dropping into it a ring from his bucentaur, or state barge, attended by those of all the nobi- lity, was intermitted, for the first time for several centuries, on Ascensiou- day]7i*7; and tlie bucentaur has since been taken away from Venice by the French, 'I'he inhabitants of Venice amount to alxjut 110,000. 7'he grandeur and convenience of the city, particularly the public pa- laces, the treasury, and Uie arsenal, are beyond expression. Over the several canals of Venice are laid near 5(X) bridges, the greatest part of which arc of stone. The Venetians still have some manufactures in scarlet cloth, gold and silver stuff's, and, above all, fine looking-glasses, all which bring in a considerable revenue to the owners ; that of the state, annually, is said to have amounted to 8,0(X),fXXi of Italian ducats, eacli valued at twenty-pence of our money. Out of this were defrayed ths expenses of the state, and the pay of the arm)', which, in the time of peace, consisted of 10,000 regular troops (always commanded by a fo- reign general) and 10,000 militia. They kept up a small fleet for curb- ing the insolence of the piratical stated of ]iarbary. The French Iku e, however, pressed into their service the ships they found here 5 and like- wise carried away immense quantities of arms and military stores from the arsenal. The Venetians have some orders of knighthood, the chief of which arc those of the Stota d'Oro, so called from the robe they wear, which is conferred only on the first quality j and the military order of St. Mark, of which in the proper place. In ecclesiastical matters, the Verietians have two patriirrhs; the au- tliorily of one reaches over all the provinces, but neither of them has much power: all religious sects, even the Mohammedan and pagan, ex- cepting protestants, are here tolerated ia tlie free exercise of their reli- gion. T})e Venetians arc a lively ingeniovis people, extravagantly fond of public aniusements, willi an uncommon relish for humour. They are in general tall and well made ; and many fine manly countenances are net with in the streets of Venice, resembling tJiose transmitted to us by the pencils of Paul Veronese and 'I'itian. The women are of a fine style of f ountenance, with expressive features, and are of an easy address, llie common people are remarkably sober, obliging to strangers, and gentle in their intercourse with each other. As it is very nmch the custom to go about in masks at Venice, and great liberties are taken durnig the time of the carnival, an idea has prevailed, that (here is much more licentiousness of manners here than in other places : but this opi- nion fieems to ijave been carried too far. Great numbers of strangers visit Venice during the time of the carnival, and there are eight or nine tlieatres here, including the opera-houses. The duchy and city of Pa km a, together with the duchies of Placentia and Guastalla, form r)ne of the most flourishing states in Italy, of its ex- tent, 'ihe soils of Parma and Placentia are fertile, and produce the richest fruits and pasturages, and contain considerable manufactures of silk. The city of Parma is tlie .seat of a bishop's see and a university; and .^ome of its magnificent churches arc })ainted by the famous Correggio. It contains abotit 40,000 inhabitants, and Pliiceutia about 25,000. Both ITALY. of h«v- s of any ns, large y of the it a ring lie nobi- iconsiou- 1 Venice 110.000. nblic pa- Over the t part of in scarlet isses, all the state, ats, each rayed lh« e time of i by a fo- for curb • iich ha^ e, and like- Drcs from which are which is St. Mark, the au- them has agan, ex- heir reli- y fond of They are antes are .1 to us by of a tine y address, igers, and much the are taken ■e is much t: this opi- strangers It or nine Placcntia of its ex- oduce tlie ictures of rsity; and .^irreggio. JO. Both '^. lire enibeirMhcd wifh magnifrc'nt edifices. The late «' ':<» of P.l -ii was a prince of the house of B()url«»n, and son to Don Tni^.p, the ku,;; ct'Spain's younger brother. His court was tliou^ht to be the politest of any in Italy ; and it is said that his revenues amounted to 17.5,000/. sterling a year. Since his ileath in ISOIi, tlie Fiencii have taken p*)ssca- sion of the duchy of Parma ; and it is as yet uncertain in what maimer it will be disposed of by them. The ilihabitants of Lucca, which is a small free commonwealth, lying on the Tuscan sea, in a delightful plain, are the most industri- ous of the Italians. Tiiey have improved their country into a beautiful garden, so that, though they do not exceed 120,(.K10, their animal re- venue amounts to ^:(),(KX)/. sterling. Their capital is Lucca, which contains about 40,0U() inhabitants, who deal in mercery goods, wines, and fruits, e-;pecialiy olives. The vicinity of the grand-duchy of Tus- cany kept tlie peoj)le of Lucca constantly r)ii their guanl, in order to preserve tlicir freedom; for, in such a situation, ri universal concord and liarmony can aK)ne enable ihem to transmit to posterity the blessings of their darling Liberty, vhose name tliey bear on their arms, and wtiosc image is not only impressed on their coiu, but also on the city gates, and all their public buildings. It is also observable, that the inhalntanls of this little republic, being in possession of freeciom, appear with an air of cheerfulness and plenty, seldom to be found among those of the neigh- bouring countries, Tiie KINGDOM of Rtruuia is composed of the late grand-duchy of Tuscany, the small >>tato dr'li I'residi, and the princijudity of Tioni- bino. It is almost surrounded l)y the papal territory -and the Mediter- ranean Sea. It is extremely fruitful, and well cultivated, producing great «iuantities of corn, wine, anil oil. The capital is Flo.ence, which, dnring the n-igns of the illustrious house of Medici, was the cabinet of all that i.s valuable, rich, and masterly, in architecture, liti'rature, and the arts, especially those of painting and sculpture, it contains above 70,000 inhubitanti). The beauties and riches of the grand-duke's palaces have been often described j but, before they were plundered by the French, all description fell short of their contents ; so that, in every j'espect, this city was reckoned, after Home, the second in Italy. 1'he celebrated Venus de Medici, which is considered as tlie standard of taste in female beauty and proportion, .stood in a room called tlie Tri- Lvuial ; but has been carried away by the French, and is now at Paris. From the inscripti(jn on its base, it appears to ha\ e been made by Cleo- menes, an Athenian, the son of Apollodorus. It is of white marble, and was surrounded by other master-pieces of sculpture, some of which, are said to be the wi.rks of Praxiteles, and other Greek masters. Every corner of this beautiful city, which stands between mountains covered vvith olive-trees, vineyards, and delightful villas, and divided by the Arno, is fldl of wonders, in the arts of painting, statuary, and architec- ture. }t is a place of some strength, and contains an archl)ishop's see and a university. The inhabitants bo-ast of the improvements they have made in the ItiUian tongue, by means of their Academia della Crusca ; and several otht'r academies are now estal)lished at Fioreuee. Though the Florentines aft'ect great state, yet their nobility and gentry carry on a retail trade in wine, which they .^11 from their cellar win- dows ; and sometimes they even hang out a broken flask, as a sign where li may be bought. They deal, besideswine and fruits, in gold and silver ftutfs. — Upon the accession of the archduke Peter lieopold, afterwards emperor of Gernjany, to this Jucliy, 3 great rt.'fonnation was intro- 58fl :€ /> ¥ i ii! ■I'vf !'■, (I ■ It;- fm ' i uW > Ii'In '' f) rnt 'i Pl^ if ^^.i m ' t, 1 1 . 1 p 11 J •1 ■ ? 1 ■■ ■ ■ '! 1? ■.■' ' " f • ii. . jTAi.r. dnccd, both Into the gnvcrnincnt and manufarUnrs, to thr p/cat hcuvdt of the finances. It is thought tliat the Rrcat-ducliy ot' Tii;,cany rrmld bring into tht* field, upun occasion, JU.OCX) lighting ukui, and that \tn revenues were above 5CO,0(X>/. a year. Ihe oilier principal tov, f\s of Tuscany arc Visa, Leghorn, and Sienna : the first and last are much de- cayed ; but Leghorn is a vcr\ hund>onie city, built in the modern tiste, and with sueh regularity, tluU both gates are seen tiom the market- place. It is well fortified, having two forts towards the sea, hcsidoo tlir, citadel. The ramparts afl'ord a very a<^re( able prospect of the sea, and of many villas on the land side. Here all nations, and even the Moham- medans, have free access, and many settle. The numhiT of inliabitaiit«i is computed at 40,0()0, among whom are said to be 20,00()Jcus, who live in a particular quarter of the city, have a handsome synagogue, and, though subject to very heavy imposts, are in a tliriving rondi- tion, the greatest part of the commeice of this city going through their hands. When the French erected Tuscany into a kingdom, by tlie name of the kingdom of Etmria, they gave the sovereignty to Lcniis the son of the duke of Parma, to whom the grand-duehy of Tuscany was formally ceded by the treaty of Luneville. Since his death in 1803, the govern- ment has been administered in the name of his infant «on Louis, born Dec. 23, l/.OP, by the quecn-dowager, ^Maila Louisa, daughter of the present king of Spain. The republic of St. Marino is here mentioned as a gcograplii<:al cr.- fiosity. It* territories consist of a high craggy mountain, with a few eminences at the bottom, and the inhabitants boast of having preserved tlieir liberties as a republic for 1300 years. It is under llie jirotcction of the pope; and the inot^'ensive manners of the inhabitants, whose number is not more than .50,000, with tlie small \alue of ilair territory, have preserved its constitution. The Ecclesiastical Statf, whicli contains Rome, foinierly the capital of the world, is situated about the middle of Italy. The ill eflLcts of popish tyranny, superstition, and oppression, are here seen in tho highest perfection. 'I'hose spots, which under the masters of the world were formed into .so many terrestrial ]iaradisos, surrounding their magni- ficent villas, and enriciietl with all the luxuries that art and nature could produce, are now converted into noxious pestilential marshes and quag- mires; and the Campagna di Roma, that formerly (.ontained a iuilli(ji\ of inhabitants, would afford, at present, of itself, but a miserah.e sub- sistence to about five hundred. Notwithstanding this, the pope is a considerable temporal prince; and it is supposed that his annual re- venue, notwithstanding the great diminution it has sutured of late yean, may be still estimated at about (iOO,000/. sterling, includiiig the money received from foreign countries ; for the taxes levied on his own subjects scarcely produce 300,000/. Modern Rome, which stands on the Campus Martins, Arc. is thirteen miles in circumference ; and was supposed in I7b7 to contain (according to Mr. Watkins) 1(X),000 inhabitants. Within its circuit there is a vast numberof gardens and vineyards. It staiuls upon tiie Tiber, an incon- siderable river when compared to the Tliames, and navig:ued by small boats, barges, and lighters. I'he castle of St. Angelo, though Its chief for- tress, would be fovuid to be of small strength, vcre it rcgulariy besieged. The city, standing fipon the niins of ancient Rome, liis much higher, so that it is difficult todistingiii.sh the seven hills on which it was originally i)uilt. When we considgr llojne as it, bow st;!nds, tlicrc is the strongest ■'i^' -;(- >/^' t hcrii'ftt IV ronUi thai iM ;ov. tis of n;ch Jf- •rn tiistp, luiukct- •sidoo tlift soil, and MoIkuu- habltanti :\vs, who ig coiuh- (litrli their ; name of ae son of i formaUy c t^ovcrn- -juis, born ten* of the phi<:^l cr.- ,\ith a few preserved jirotcclion nts, •whose • lerritovy, nuMly the ill ert'tvts leu in iho tho world 'ir m;igiH- lure could and <ii''ng- a aiillioii nih'.c siih- p(ipe is a lannual re- late year:;, the money 11 subjects is thirU'Cn (according re is a vast , zn incon- l by SI u all schicf for- bcsic'ged. higher, so origiualh' |e strongest ITALY. 889 rf.isoii tob«-h<ve tliat it exceeds ancient Rome it>;oif in ihr magnificcnc* of its stvucwrc. Nothing in the old city, when mistress of the world, tonlJ coiiu' 'n competition with St. Veter's church; and perhaps many «»ther chur( s in Uonie os-C^ed, in beauty of aichilecturc, and value of , materials, uu-umIs, and furniture, licr ancient temples ; thougii it must be acknowledged that the I'aniheon must have been an ama/.ing struc- ture. N- 'ity, howc\er, in its giMieral appearance, can unite mora Tiiagnitic'j:. .■ and poverty tlnn this, a^ adjoining the. most superb {»laceg wl- see till leanest habitations ; and temples, the lM)asted (;rnanieiits of .';ntiquit\-, ri.oktd up by sheds and cottages. From the drau ings of thin < itv Mr. Watklus i-vpected to see tlie streets at lea-.t as l)road as iii J-nndon, !)Ut was disappointed. II Corso, llie principal and most ad- Uiired, is but little wider than .St. Mart :i'» lane ; but this mode of I)uild- uig tlu ir streets so narrow, is done with a view of intercepting, as much Rs possible, the sun's heat. The iidiabitants of Roma, in 171-1* amouutcii to l-l;},UK). They arc n4)W estimated at U)0,0(X). I'lie ciiics of lioli'gna, Fcrrara, Ravenna, and Rimini, formerly a part of the papal territory, are now included in the Italian repul)lic. An- cona, situate ou the Adriiitic, is a place of considerable trade, and contains »hout 2(J,C)0() inhabitants. It was made a free pi at by Clement XII., \vhn formed a mole on i!ie ruins of tlie ancient one, rai^.ed by tlie em- peror Trajan, above 2,000 feet in length, lOO in brcadtli, and about iiO in de[)lh, from the surf ice of the soa. Noia* tliis stan.ls the trium- phal arrh of Trajan, which, next to the Maison Qu-.irrce, at Nismes, is the most entire monument of Roman maguilicence existing, UrbitiO, the capital of the legation of that name, is famous for being the native city of the celebrated painter Raph;icl. Sinigaglia, in th» same legation, has about r2,tXJ0 inhabitants, 'i'he rest of the ecclesia- stical state contains many towns celebrated in ancient history, and even now exhibiting the most striking vestiges of their tlourishiwg state about the beginning of the loth century ; but th.ev arj at prescnl little better than desolate, thorgh here and there a luxurious magnificent church and convent may bv-- found, whic h is sivpported by the toil and sweat of the neighbouring peasants, l-orcito, in tUc mean time, an o!)scura spot never thought or heard of in time-: of antiquity, became the admi- ration of the World, for the riches it contain(;d, and the prodigious re- sort to it of pilgrims, and other devotee.;, from a notion industriously propagated by the Romish clergy, that the house in which the Virgin Mary is said to have dwelt at Nazareth, was carried thither through ih« air by :i;igel3, attended with many other miraculous circumstances, suclx. as ti;at all the trees, on the arrival of the sacred mansion, bowed with the profoundest re\ erence ; and great care was taken to pre\ent any bits of tfie marcrials of this house from being carried to other places and ex- posed as relics, to the prejudice of Loretto. The image of the Virgin Mary, and of the divine infant, are of cedar, placed in a small apartment, separa.ted from the others by a silver balustrade, which had a gate of the s.ime luetal. k is imposslbie to describe the gold chains, the rings and jewels, enien'Id.-:, pcarb:, and rubbies, wherewith this Image was leaded; and the angels of s(j1 id _^old, v/ho wore here placed on every side, were e()iial!y mriclsed v.itli tiie moot precious diamonds. To the supersti- ti'jii of Ronuin-critholic privces Loretto was indebted for this mass of treasure. — But on tlie approach of tlic French array, after their late in- vasion of the papal state, th>s treasure was privately withdrawn, and iiivaders fuiuid httle tg gratify tlicii- rapacity: iiideed it was before m\ II 550 ITALT. : ■ 'f V Vi I i'i! m ¥ I if: very generally supposed that the real gold and jewels had long Hitter been earried away, and metals and stones of less value substituted in their pla(^e. There is nothing very particular 'n tlie pope's temporal government a* Rome. Like other princes, he has guards, or sbirri, who take care of the peace of the city, inHier proper mngistrates, both ecclesiastical and civil. The Campagna di lloma, v Inch contain!' Rome, is under tlie in- spection of his holiness. In the other provinces he governs by legate:* and vice-legates. He monopolises all the corn in his territories, and has always a sufficient number of troops on foot, under proper officers, to keep the provinces in awe *. The king of Naples and Sicily f, or, as he is more properly called, the king of the Two Sicilies (tJie name of Sicily being common to both), is possessed of the largest df)minions of nny prince in Italy, as they com- prehend the ancient countries of Sanniium, Campania, Aj)ulia, Mngna- GrrKcia, and the island of Sicily, containing in all about 32,CKX> square miles. They are bounded on all .>-ides by the Mcditerrat^erni and the Adriatic, except on the north-east, where Naples terminates on the ec- clesiastical state. The Apcnninc nms through it fn;m north to soutli ; and its surface is estimated at .'j,.5{X) s(juare leagues. The air is hot. and tlie. soil fruitful of every thing produce d in Italy. The wines called Vino Greco, and Lacrynia^ Christi, are excellent. The city of N ij-Lm, its ca- pital, which is extremely superb, and ado; ned wid\ all the protusion of art and riches, and its neighbourhood, would be one of the most delight- ful places in Europe to live in, were it liot for their vici:iity to the volcano of Vesuvius, \\ Inch sometimes threatens the city with destruc- tion, and the soil being pestered with insects and reptiles, some of whi'-h arc venomous. The houses in Naples :irc inadequate to the population, but in general are five or six stories in height, and flat at the top; on ■which are placed nunibers of flower vases, or fruit-trees in boxes of earth, producing a veiy gay and agreeable etlect. Some of the streets are \exy handsome : no street in llome e(}uals in beauty the Strada di Toledo, at Naples; and still less can any of them Ixi coinpared with those beautiful streets that lie open to tlie bay. The richest and most t'ommodious convents in Europe, both for male and female votaries, are in this city ; the most fertile and beautiful hills of the environs are co- vered with them: and a small part of their revenue is spent in feeding the poor, the monks distributing bread and sc;up to a certain imniber every day before the doors of die convents. Though above two-thirds of the property of the kingdom are in the hands of the ecclesiastics, tJie proicstants live here with great freedom ; and though his Neapolitan majesty presents to his holiness every year a pallrev, as au acknowledgement that his kingdom is a iief of the ponti- ticate, yet no inquisition is established in Naples. The piesent rev»*nues wf that king amount to about l,'1(X),tHK)/. sterling a-year, of which Sicily enly contributes '2S0,(XX)/. The e.vports of the kingdom are legunjes, ht.-n\p, aniseeds, wool, oil, wine, cheese, lish, honey, wax, ujajuia, satiioii. * Cresfory I5nrn.ibas Cfnnramontl, the present pope, who has assumed the name <il I'iiis VII., was born at Ct'stna, August 14, 171'i, and elected pope at Venice, M.ucli 13, 1800. f I'crdinand IV., Jtinj^ of the Two Sicili-'S third .son of his late rathclic majes^, the king of .vpain, born Jan. lii, IT.'il, ascended the tluone Oct'jber .*;, IT.'JO; and married, April V, 176P, tothe archduciicss Maiia-Catoliua-Louisa, sister to the late rmperor. / ITALY. 591 gums, capers, mncaroni, salt, pot-ash, flax, cotton, sUk, and divers itm- nut'actures. The king lias a numerous but generally poor nobility* consisting of princes, dukes, marquises, and other high-sounding titles ; and his capital, by far the most populous in Italy, contains at least 350,000 inhabitants. Among tliese there are 30,000 lazaroni, or black- guards, the greater part of whom have no d\velling-houses, but sleep every night in summer under porticoes, piazzas, or any kind of shelttT they can find, and in the winter, or rainy time of the year, which lasts several weeks, the rain falling in torrents, they report to the caverns under Capo di Monte, where they sleep in crov\ ds like sheep in a pen- fold. Those of them who have wives and children live in the suburbs of Naples, near Posilippo, in huts, or in caverns, or chambers dug out pf that mountain. Some gain a livelihood by fishing, otiiers by carrying burdens to and from die shipping ; many walk about the streets ready to run on errands, or to pertorm any labour in their power for a very small recompense. As they do not meet with constant cmpioyment, their wages are not sufficient for tlieir maintenance : but the deficiency is in some degree supplied by the sou^> and bread which are distributed • at the doors of the convents. But though there is so nuich poverty among tiie lower people, tlierc is a great appearance of wealth among some of tlie great. The Neapo- litan nobility are excessively fond of show and splendor. This appears in tho brilliancy of their equipages, the number of their attendants, thrt richness pf their dress, and the grandeur of their titles. According to a late traveller (Mr. Swinburne) luxury of late has advanced with gigantic strides in Naples. Forty years ago the Neapolitan ladies wore nets and ribbons on their heads, as the Spanish women do to this day, aiul not twenty of them were possessed of a cap : but hair plainly drest is a mode now confined to the lowest order of iiihabitants, and ail distinction of dress between the wife of a nobleman and that of a citizen is entirely laid aside. Expense and extravagance are here in the extreme. Through every spot of the kingdom of .Naples the traveller may bp .said to tread on classic ground, and no country presents the eye with more beautiful prospects. There are still traces of the memorable town of Cannae, as fragments of altars, cornices, gates, walls, vavilts, and un- tler-ground granaries } and the scojie of action between Hannibal and the Romans is still marked out to posterity, by the name of pezzo di snngue, *• ield of blood." Taranto, a city that was once the rival of Home, is now remarkable for little else than its fisheries. Sorent/* is d town placed on the brink of steep rix>ks, that overhang the bay, and, of all the places in the kingdom, has the most delightfiil cli'.nate. Nola, once famous for its amphitheatre, and as tlie place whore Augustus Cae- sar died, is now hardly worth observation. Brundusium, now Brindisi, was the great supplier of oysters for tlvc Roman tables. It has a fine port, but the buildings are poor and ruin- ous ; and the fall of the Grecian empire under the lurks reduced it to a htate of inactivity and poverty, from which it has not yet emerged. Except Rome, no city can boast of so many remains of auoient sculpture as Benevcnto; here the arch of Trajan, one of the most maguificei>t remains of Roman grandeur, out of Rome, erected in the year 114. h »till in tolerable preservation. Reggio contains notliiug remarkable but a Gothic cathedral. It was destroyed by an earthquake before tlie Marsian war, and rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; part oi tlie wall still ivmuins, and W3^ much damaged by the eartliquake iu JTbJ, but not dCilroyed : ^P. /!. m i : \ m 552 ITALY. only 12(j^'f croons lost, their lives out of 1 (7,000 inhabitnnls. 'Hie ancient city of Oppidt) was entirely ruined by tliat earthquake, the greatest force of which seems to have been exerted near that spot, and at Casal Niiova, and Terra Nuova. From Trupea to Squillace, most of the towns Jind villages were either totally or in par'^ overthrown, and many of iho inhabitants buried in the ruins. The island of Sicily, once the granary of the world for com, still con- tinues to supply Naples, and other parts, with that commodity j but its cultivation, and, consequently, fritility, is greatly diminished. Its ve- getable, mineral, and animal productions, are pretty much tlie same wii;h those of Italy. Both the ancients and moderns have mahitaincd that Sicily vas ori- ginally joined to the continent of Italy, but gradually separated from it by the encroachments of the sea, and tiie shocks of earthcjuakes, so as lo become a ])erfcct island. I'he climate of Sicily is so hot, that even iu the beginning of January the shade is refreshing : and chilling wiiKis are only felt a few days in iVIarch, and then a small fire is sufficient to bau''lsh the cold. The only appearance of winter is found towards tlie summit of Mount yEtna, where snow falls^ vvhich the inhabitants have a contrivance for preserving. Churches, convents, and religious foun- dations, are extremely numerous here : the buildings are handsome, and the revenues considerable. If this island were better cultivated, ai:d its government more equitable, it would in many res})ects be a delight- ful place of residence. There are a great number of fine remains of anti(juity here. Some parts of this island are remarkable for the ben.uty of the female inhabitants. Palermo, the capital of Sicily, is computed to contain riO,(X)0 inh;'.bitants. The two principal streets, and which cross cash otlicr, are very fine. This is said to be the only town in all Italy which is ligiited at night at the public expense. It carries on a considerable trade; as also did Messina, whicii, before the earthquake in 1/83, was a large and well-built city, containing many churches and convents, generally elei^uit structures. By that earth(]uake a great part 4)f the lower di:itri*-t of the city and of tiic port was destroyed, tnul con- siderable damage done to the lofty uniform buildings called the raiazzaln, in the shape of a crescent; but the force of the cartlupiake, though ^•io- lent, was nothing at Messina or Reggio, to what it w as in the plain f for of 30,000, tiie supposed population of the city, only /GO are said to have ptri-,lied. " Tl.e greatest mortaiitv fell upon those towns and coun- tries situated in th" plain of Calabria IMterlore, on the western side of tiie mountains Dejo, '■aero, and Caulone. At (^asa! Nuova, the princess Gerace, and uj-.wards of ^(X)() cf the inhabitants, lost their lives ; at Ba- gnara, the nujubcr of dead amounted to ;J0] / : iladicina and Palmi count tJieir lujs at about 3000 each ; Terra iNut-va aboiit 1400 ; Seniinari still more. The sum total of the mortality iu both Calabrins and in Sicily, by the earth(uiakes alone, according to the return in the secretary of State's office at Naples, was '^'lyiO/ j" but ,^ir William Hamilton says, he has good reason to believe, that, includii\g strangers, the number of lives lost must have been considerably greater j '10,<XXJ at least may be allow- ed, he believes, without exaggeration. The island of Saiujinia, which pives a ro\<il title to tlu'i duke of Sa- voy, lies about 150 miles south by we^t of Leghorn, and has seven cities or towns. Its capital, Cagliari, is a university, an archbishopric, and the seat o{ the viceroy, containing about 25,0tX) inhabitants. His Sar- diiiiaa majoELyj reviiuuci, from tliU island; we eitinKited at about 44'^000^. ITALY. 593 sterling n-year. It yields plenty of corn and v-lnc, ntid has a coral tishery. Its air is bad, from its m:irshes and lu^h mountains on the north, and tliercfore was a place of exile for the Romans. It was for- merly annexed to the crou n of Spain, but at the peace of U'recht was g'-ven to t!ie emperor, and in l/ly to the house of Savoy !<•. The island of Cousicv i'es opposite to the Genoese continent between the gulf of Genoa atiu the island of Sardinia, and is better known by the noble stand which the uihabitants made for their liberty against't heir Ge- noese tyrants, and afterwards against the base and ungenerous ertorts ojf the French, to enslave them , than from any advantages they enjoyed from na- tureor situation. Though mountainous and woody, it produces corn, wine, ligs, almonds, chesnuts, olives, and other fruits. It has also some cattle and horses, and is plentifully supplied, both by sea and rivers, with fish* The inhabitants are said to amount to above ] 60,000. Bastia, tlie capital, is a place of some strength ; though other towns of the island that were in possession of the malcontents appear to have been but poorly fortitied. In the year 1794 it was taken by tlie English, and annexed to the crown of England. A cx)nstitution was framed for it, a viceroy appointed, and a parliament assembled. But it has since been retaken by, and still remains in the possession of, the French. Capri, the ancient Capuea, is an island to which Augustus Coesar often came for his health and recreation, and which Tiberius made a scene of the most inflimous pleasures. It lies three Italian miles from that part of the main land which projects flirthest into the sea. It ex- tends four miles in length from east to west, and about one in breadth. The western part is, for about two miles, a continued rock, very high, and inaccessible next the sea ; yet Ano-Capri, the largest town of the island, is situated here ; and in this part are several places covered with a very fruitful soil. The eastern end of the island also rises up in pre- cipices that are nearly as high, though not <|uite so long, as the wentern. Between tlie rocky mo ntains, at each end, is a slip of lower ground that runs across the island, and is one of the pleasantesi sjxjts that can easily be conceived. It is cova^ed with myrtles, olives, almonds, oranges, figs, viney^ards, and corn lields, which look extremely fresh and beautiful, and afford a most delightful little landscaj)e, when viewed from the tops of the neighbouring mount;iins. Here is situated the town of Caprea, two or three convents, and the bishop's palace. — In the midst of this fertile tract rises a hill, which in the reign of Tiberius was probably covered with buildings, some reihains of uhlcli are still to be seen. But the most considerable ruins are at the extremity of tlie en.srem promontory. I'V'nn this place there is a very noble prospect ; on one side of it the sea extends farther than tlw eye can reach ; just opposite is the green promontory of Sarentum, and on tne other side the bay of Naples. IscHiA, and some other islands on the co.ists of i\aples and Italy, have nothing to distinguish them Init the ruins of tluir anti(juities, and their being now beautiful summer retreats for their owners. Elba has bA;en renowned for its mines from a perioil bc^yond the reach of history. Virgil and Aristotle mention it. Itn situation is about ten miles south- west from I'uscany, and it is 80 miles in circumference, contLiiniug near 7000 inhabitants." It was divided lietween the king of Naples, to whom Porto Longone belongs, the great duke of Tuscany, who was niaster oi' • Emanuel V. king of Sardinia, born July U4, 17,')9; niarricvl A])nl 2], 17S9, to Maria-Thereia, daughter of Fcrdinaud, archduke ;.;}' Austria ; succeeded hi* brothar (Emanuel IV., bom "May 24, 17.51} bv cossion, julv 1, IJ'Oi.'. ■ 2Q ' 594 ITALV. ^ J ^ IM \m I ,.tv 1 Porto FptTdio, and the piiiicc of Pionibiiin. Tl»c tVitiH ami wine of the i->l;in({ are very good, ami tiie iiimicry, lislKrics, and suit, produce a good revenue. I>ir\ia lar.AMis. I'lKse islands lie to tlie north of Skily, and were aneiently «\il!ed the lEolian islands. I'hey are twelve in nuntber, viz. l.ipari, Slromholi, \'ulrano, Saline, Felieuda, Alieiul,!, Panaria, Viilca- nello, Uasilur/.o, Lisea Hianca, Dattolo, and Fila Na\i. They are sub- ject to the kiii»!f ol" Xaples, and produce great quantities of alum, sulphur, nitre, cijinabar, and most kinds of fruits, particularly raisins, ciuTants, and lii's, in great perfertion. Some of their wines are much esteemed, especially the Malvasia or Malmsey, (rreal qu:iMtil;es of punfiec are ex- ported from Lipari. All these islands are of ^oloanic origin, and Sirom- l>oli has a considerable volcano, which is remarkable for Iieing continually in a state of eruption. 'I'he numlH'r of inhabitants in I.ipari amount to between <) and 1(),()00, and those of Stromboli to ai)out KXM); but Vul" eano is uninhabited, and several of the otlier islands are little more tium barren rocks. We shall here mention the i.sle of Mvltv, though, it U not properly ranked wit!) the Italian islands. It was formerly called Melita, ami is situated in ]5 degrees 1',. long, and 3(j degrees N. lat. (X) miles south of Cape Pa'i<aro in Sicily. It is of an oval tigure, 21) Riiles long, and I'i broad. The air is clear, but excessively hot : the \\hole island seem?. \.(9 bo a white rock, covered with a thin surface of earth, which is however amazingly productive of excellent fruits and vegetables. '1 his island, or ratlier rock, was given to the knights of St. John of J« rusalini, iu 153(>, by the emperor Charles V., when the 'lurks drove (hem out of Rhodes, under the tender of one talcon yearly i<> the \ iceroy of Sicily, and to aeknowie?!ge the kings of S|)ain and Sicily for their pr(jtector>. They are under vows of celibacy, chastity, and perpetual war with tJ:e infidels^ and are go\«'rned by :t grand-master wl.o is elected for lite. Thekuights wei»; required lo In: of noble birth, Ivith in the palerii:tl ami maternal Jinc. ftir four dcsceixls. They are divided into what are tailed Uin;;ufi!;cs, iTfc. ifiling to till' countries from which tiiey coms. These buguages are c'-jji in uutnlKT, vii. those' of Provence, Auvergne, I'Vatice, Italy, Ar- ra:--!.!!, (Jermany, Castillc, and England, succeeded, by the Anglo- P.ivaiian laniiuaae. Tiie numl)er ot kniiihts is milimiled. Tiie baiiiic ('{ the order is a white cross, with eighi jMjints, worn on the left sjde. The principal city of Malta is Valetta ; fouudtd by the grand-master, I>a Valette, in I5tj(;, after the raising ut" the siegi; (»f MaJui l)y the lurks. It i- [Kiiia.ps one of the fctronge*it furtresses in the world, aud the whole i^land is -tajnirly fortilied wherever a landing iii prai:ti( able. Theformei* residence of tiic knights was called 11 Borgo, tiie Hurgh, and after its successful lesifctanceof tJie Turks, Citta I'ittariosu (the victorious city). The ancient caj)ital was Ciila I'ccchia, or the Old City, called likewise iilta A'.v/^(/;//( ..built on the highest ground and jiearly in the centre of flic islaiul. A channel abt.ut live mile* iu wiiltit, iu Ui»; middle of \viu« h ii ihe buiali island of C-uniino, separates Malta from the island of (ioza or (iuz/a, which is about twehe miles ItJiig and si.x broad. Malta is lUvideti into '24 canals or diitricli, and Go/d into six. The pr.)[)iilatioii of thi'se two islanils is greater, in proportit;u to their extent, than iliat oi any couiii.iy in Europe; Malta, in 17'J'^, being tbund to eoiitain uO,uiK>, and Goza2'l.(X)0 iiiiiabifants*. • Ancient and Modern Malta, by J. d« Boisgolin. knijrht of M.ilta. vol. i. p. U -wliiv'Ii work nnv be rctcrfod to for a particular dwcription of tl'.c island, and 107; ~-».iiv.. V.-.- ••■-; — • - .-. — -—--., > , and an n\ith«'iui(' -rid n'.Itiute accyviu; u»" thii iiutirutioa, regu'»i«n)*, fi!iani««, and history of the ooJ^- ITALY* 595 nc of tH« jiodiice a autl were nbtT, viz. in, Viilca- ;y are suy>- 1, siilnluu-, , curranls, I e^tt'cnK'd, licc are ex- iincl Stroni- otnitiuuaUy I amount to ); butVul-" 3 niore tliaii M>t vropcrly elita, ami is lilcs south ot iDiig, and li laiul secln^ t.<» h i>, however This itilaml, KrusaUni, in Ihoui out ot -ofSi«ilv,aiul oih>r.>. They 1 xhc infidels, Tht> knights iind maternal led lfin;ztin!;cs, 1ausiuas;es artj ire, Italy, At- ,. the Auoj^o- The hadi^c .K» letl side, irrand-ma'^ter, i>y the Turks. iaud the whole Thelornici- [, and after its jlotunous eity)v [called like\vi>.e the eenire of die middle ot^ u the island ot" iiid .-ix broad. Iinio six. 'All'' .0 their extent, lehig tound to klta, voli- p. ^^f't he isJand, and »n [ncti«, and historf The island of Malta was surprised and seized by the French under Boiiaparte, iji his way til EKTPf» "' ^''^ J'^"^ 179^. ^i^id, after a long blockade, taken by the Ent^lish in ISlWJ, by whom it is still retained. The knights have left the island, and a number of tiiemhave established the seat of ilie order in Calabria, under the grand -master Tomasi, elected principally by the French interest. AuMs ANo (MiDKUs.] 1'he pope, as sovereign prince over the terri- tory of theclmrch, bears for his escutcheon, gules, consisting of a long lieadcape, or, surmounied with a cross, pearled and garnished with three ro\ al crowns, together w iih ihe two keys of St. Peter, placed in saltier, llie arms of I'uscany, or, five roundles, gules, two, two^ and'onc, and one in chief, azure, charged with three fleurs-de-lis, or. Those of Venice, azure, a lion winged, st-jant, or, holding under one of his paws a book covered, argent, '^riio'^e of Genoa, argent, a cross, gules, with a crown closed for tiie isiaml of Corsica; .uid for supporter^ two griifins, or. I'he yrins of Xaples are, azure, semce of fleur-de-lis^' or, with a label of five points, gules. The "order ot' St. JanifuriKs" was instituted by the late king of Spain; when king of Xajdes, in July ] 738. The number of knights is limited to thirty, and after the present so\ereign that otfice of the order in to bo possessed by the kings of Naples, All the knights must prove the ijobility (it" tlieir descent for f"our ei'uturies, and are to be adclressed by the title of excellency. St. Januarius, the celebrateil patron of Naples, is the patron of this order. The "order of Anniniciution' was instituted iu the year 1355, by Amadeus V. count of Savoy, in memory of Ama- deus I. nho l)ravely defended ilhodes against the Turks, and \v<jn those arms which are now borne by tlie dukes of Savoy : " gules, a cross ar- gent." It is counted among the most respectable orders in Europe : the knight must be of a noble family, but also a catholic. In the year J 572, Emanuid Philibrrt, didvo of Savoy, instituted the "order oi' Si. Lazarus," and revived and united to it the obsolete order of SV. Maurice; which was confirmed by the pnj)e, on condition of maintaining two galleys against the Tuikv:. In the year 828 it is pretended that the body of St. Mark was re- moved t'rom Alexanilria, in Egypt, to Venice. Accordingly, this salift Avas taken for their tutelar saint and guardian, and his picture was formerly painted on tlieir ensigns and banners. When the " order of St. Mdik^" was iirst instituted is uncertain, but it was an hononr con- ferred by (he df)ge or duke of Wnice and the senate on persons of emi^, nent tpiality, or who had done .son)e signal service totho republic. Tb« knights, when n)nde, if present, were dubbed with a sword on their shouklcrs, the duke saying " I'.xto milf^Jidelis" (bo a faithful soldier). Absent per-ons were invested by letters patent ; but theii" titJc, " Kriights of St. yi(trli," is merely honorary : they have no revenue, nor are Uioy tuider any obligations by vows as other qrders. About the year 14(iO, Frederic III. emperor of Germany, instituted tlie " order of St; George," and dedicated it to St. (ieorge, tutelar saint and patron of Ge- noa. The doge was perpetual grand- mi'.ster. The badge, a plain cross enamelled, gules, jietident to a gold chain, aud worn about their necks. The cross is also embroidered on their cloaks. In the year 15(/1, Casi- mir of Meilieis, first grand-duke of Tuscany, instituted the " order of .SV. Sicp/wn,' m memory of a victory which .secured to him the sovereignty of that province. He and his successors were to be gvatjd-masters. Th« kniu^its are allowed to ni.nr> , and their two princiijal conventual house? mv at Fisa. It is a reli^icuj a^ well as mUltury order, but th« knijjhu of 2 U 2 ' 5()6 ITALY. i » '. J. '. i. , '' 1 ) jr.'iticc and tlir ccrlosinstios arc obliged to make proof of nobility of fonr d«;'.'-cents. Thvy wear a red crois wiih right angles, orlcd or, on the left fcideof tiicir jiabit, and on iheir iiiantlc. The " order ot the Jlch/ C/inst'' was founded ^vith their chief seat', the !;cj5.pit;;l ct tlirit name in Rome, by pope Innocent 111., about the year •Il()8. They have a giand-master, and profess obedienee, chastity, and j)n\erty. 'j'lieir re\enue is estimated at 2-1,000 ducats daily, with which they cntejtain strangeis, relievo the poor, and train up deserted children, A'c, Their ensign is a white patriarchal cross with twelve points, sewed on their breast on the left side of a black mantle. The " order oi'Jesits Chr/tit ," instituted by pope John XXII., was reformed and improved by })oj)C Paul \'. I'he rcignitig pope was to be always sovereign of it, and it was designed as a mark of distinction for tlie pope's Italian nobility ; hut, on account of its frequent prostitution, it has fallen into discredit. I'he "order of the Gohhn Spur" is said to ha\e been instituted by pope Pius IV. 155(), and to have been connected with the "order of Pius," instituted a year afterwards; but the badges were dirterent. The knights of Pius are suppressed, and all that the knights of the Golden Spur have preserved to iliemselves, is the title of counts of the sacred palace of the Lateran. The badge is a star of eight points, white, aiid betweeu the two bottom points a sj)ur, gold. History.] Italy was probably tirst peopled from Greece, as has been mentioned in the introduction — to which we refer the reader for the an- cient history of this country — which, for many ages, gave law to the then known world, under the Romans. The empire of Charlemagne, who died in 814, soon experienced the same fate with that of Alexander. Under his successors it was in a short time entirely dismembered. His son, Louis tire Debonair, succeeded to his dominions in France and Germany, while Bernard, the grandson of Charlemagne, reigned over Italy and the adjacent Islands. But Bernard liaving lost his life by the cruelty of his uncle, against whom he had levied war, and Louis himself dying in 840, his dominions were divided among his sons Lothario, Louis, and Charles. Lothario, with the title of emperor, retained Italy, Provence, and the fertile countries situated between tl\e Saone and tlie Rhine ; Louis had Germany ; and France fell to the share of Charles, the youngest of the three brothers. Shortly afterthis, Italy was ravaged by dilVerent contending tyrants ; but, in 964, Oho the Great re-united Italy to the imperial dominions. Italy after- waj-ds suiiercd much by the contests between the popes and the emperors j it* was harassed by wars and internal divisions, and at length various princijwlitios and states were erected under ditfcrcnt heads. vSavoy and Piedmont, in time, fell to the lots of the counts of Mau- rieniit", the ancestors of his present Sardinian majesty, Victor Ama- eifus 11., becoming king of Sardinia in virtue of the quadruple allianc* ror.rludcd in 17^^- 'I'he great duchy of Tuscany belonged to the emjx'ror of Germany, who governed it by tlv-puties to the year 1240, wlic^n the famous distinctions of theGuelphs, wiiO were the partisans of the pope,. and the Gibellines, who were in the emperors interest, took place. The popes then per- suaded tiie imperial governors in Tu.scany to put themselves under the protection of the church ; but the Florentines in a short time formed tiiemselves into a free conmionw^alth, and bravely defended their liber- ties against botli parties by turns. Faction at last shook their freedom ; and the family of ivledici, long before they were declared either princes or »iukes, in fact governed F'orcnce, though tharii^hts and privile;;es of tii* ITAI.Y. '"jpr people seemed stUl topxist. The Medici, partkul;nly Cosmo, uho wn^r' deservedly called the F'ather of his ccjimtry, being in the secret, shared with the Venetians in the immense profits of the East India trade, be- fore the discoveries made by the Portuguese. His revenue in ready money, which exceeded that of any sovereign prince in Europe, eiiabled his successors to rise to sovereign power ; and pope I'ius V. gave one of his desrendents (Cosmo, the great patron of the arts) the title of great-duke of Tuscany in 1.5/0, whicli continued in his fannly to the death of Gjston dc Medicis, in 1737> without issue. The great duchy was then claimed by the emperor Charles VI. as a fief of the empire, and given to his son-in-law, the duke of Lorrain (afterwards emperor, and father of Joseph II.), in lieu of the duchy of Lorrain, which was ceded to France by treaty. Leopold, hi« second son (brother and suc- cessor to the emperor Joseph II.) upon the death of his father, bccanji^ grand-duke. Wlien he succeeded to tlie impeiial crown, his son Kerdi- nand entered upon the sovereignty of the grand duchy of Tusc;u:y, which the French have since given, under the title of the kingdom of Etmria, to the son of the duke of Parma. As an indemnilic:ition tht: grand-duke has received the new electorate of Salzburg. No country has undergone greater vicissitudes of government than Naples or Sicily, chiefly owing to the inconstancy of the natives. Chri.>i- tians and Saracens by turns conquered it. The Normniis under Tan- cred drove out the Sanicens, and, by their connexions wiili the Crreeks, established there, while the rest of Europe was phmged in monki.ih ig- norance, a most respectable monarchy, flourishing in arts and arms. About the year 1 166, the popes being then all-powerful in Europe, their intrigues broke into the succession of the line of Tancred, and Naples and Sicily at last came into the possession of the French ; and the house ofAnjoa, with some interruptions and tragical revoluiions, held it till the Spaniards drove them out in 1.504, when it was annexed to the crowu of Spain. The government of the Spaniards under the Austrian line was so oj>- pressive, that it gii\e rise to the famou.s revolt, headed by Massaniello, a young fiiherman, without shoes or stockings, in the year lt)47. Hi.s success was so surprising, that he obliged the haughty S])aniard.s to abo- lish the opi)ressive taxes, and to confirm the libertiKS of tlie pcoplr. Re-' fore these could by re-established perfectly, he became delirious, throu;ih his continual agitations of body and mind, and he was put to death at the head of his own mob, Naples and Sicily continued with the Spa- niards till the year 1 700, when the extinction of the Austrian line o[X}n- cd a new scene of litigation. In 170(>> the archduke Charles, after- wards emperor, took possession of the kingdom. By virtue of various treaties, which had introduced Don Carlos, the king of Spain's son, to the possession of Parma and Placentia, a new war broke out in 17^5^. be- tween the houses of Austria and Bourbon, about the possfcssion of Na- ples ; and Don Carlos was received into the capital, where he was pro- <."!aimed king of both Sicilies : this wa,s followed by a very bloody cam- paign ; but the farther effusion of blood was stopt by a peace between France and the emperor, to which the courts of Madrid and Naples at first demurred, but aftenvards acceded in l/'Mi, and D(jn Carlos re- mained king of Naples. Upon his accession to the throne of Spain, it; 1759, — it being found, by the inspection of physicians and other trials, that his eldest son was by nature incapacitated for reigning, and his se- cond being heir-apparent to tlie Spanibh raoaareh, — he resigned the 59S ITALY I :■ ■ '•^■1 il a ik m, E Wi 1' ■',' : III crown of Naples to his third son. Ferdinand IV'., the present sovereign, who married an archduchess of Austria. The Milanese, the fairest portion ot Italy, went throucfh several liandn : the Vicontis were succeeded by the Galea//os and tlie Slorzas; but tell at last under the power of the emperor C'harles V. abo\it the year 1.02/, who gave it to his son, Philip II., king of Spain. It remained with that crown till the French were driven out of Italy, in 1/03, by th6 imperi- alists. They were dispossessed of it in 174.5 ; but by the emperor's ces- sion of Naples and Sicily to the present king of Spain, it returned to the house of Austria, who governed it by a viceroy, till the late conquest of It by the French, and the establishment of the new Italian republic, of which it forms the principal part. The duchy of Mantua was formerly governed by the family of Gon- zaga, who, adhering to France, the territory was forfeited, as a lief of ^he empire, to the house of Austria. Guastalla was separated from it in 1748, and made part of the duchy of Parma. The fiv.st duke of Parnia was natural son to pope Paul III., the duchy having been annexed to the holy see in 154.5, by pope Julius II. The descendants of the houiie of Farnese terminated in the late quecii-dowa- ger of Spain, whose son, his present catliolic majesty, obtained the duchy, and his nephew held it, with tlie duchy of Placcntia, till his deatlx \a 1803. It is now occupied by the French. The Venetians were formerly the most formidably marine power i?^ Europe. In II94 they conquered Constantinople itself, and held it for some time, togetlier witli great part of the continent of Europe and Asia. They were more than once brought to the brink of destrnction by the confederacies formed against them ann)ng tlie other powers of Europe, especially by the league of Canibray in I. 50.0, but were as often saved by the disunion of the confederates. The discovery of a passage to India, by the Cape of Good Hope, gave the lirst blow to their greatness, as i,t lost them the Indian trade. By degrees tlie Turks took from them their most valuable pos.sessior^s on the continent ; and so late as the year 1/15 they lost the itorea. In lfQ7 ^^^^ French seized upon the city of Va- nice, abolished its government, and soon after ceded it by treaty to tli« emperor, with a con.siderable part of its continental territory. The Genoese for some time disputed the empire of the Mediterranean sea witli the Venetians, but were seidom or never able to maintain their own independency by land, being genci-ally protected, and sometimes subjected, by the French and imperialists. Their doge, or first magi- strate, used to be crowned king of Ct)rsica, though it docs not clearly apr pear by what title. The succfessful eftbrt they made in drivuig the vic- torious Austriaus out of their capital, during the war, which was ter- minated by tlie peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, has few parallels iu history, and serves to show the effect of despair under oppression, Ge- xio^ has lately been revpuitionised by fiance, and a u?w form of repub- lican government established there. ■^'ke histoiy o( the papacy is connectes;! with that of Christendom it- self^ Th^ most solid foundatiop.s for its temporal power were laid by the famous Matikki, countess of Tuscany, and heiress of the greatest part of Italy, who bequeathed a large portion of her dominions to the xamous pope Qregory VII. (who, beiore his accession in 1073, was so y-ell known by the name of Hildebrand). It \sould be too tedious here to ont^r into a detail of the ignorance of the laity, and the other causes diat operated to the aggrandisement of the papacy, previous kj the re- ITALY. S99 firmntion. Even since that .lera, the state of Europe has Ix'cn such, that the poju-s have had more than once great wciglit in its public atiairs, chiefly through the weakness and bigotry (jf temporal princes, 'I'hc pupal power is e\idently now nearly extinct. E\cn l)et<»re th« present time^, when innovation and revolution have made su< Ix rapid strides, the p«)p(.' was treated by Roman-catholic princes with very little more ceremony than is due to him as bishop of Il«»me, and possessed of a temporal principality. The late pope Pius \'I., though he acted with considerable caution and modcraiion, co-operated wiUi tl»e allied powers against France : in c(tnsequence of which, the French made an incursion into his territories, where they met with little resistance, and x:oiupellcd him to sign a peace on such terms as they thought proper to dictate. He paid a considerable contribution in money ; and consented tliat such of the most valuable statues and pictures in lloiue, as com- missioners appoiutcil 1b.)V that purpose should select, should be carried away, and convened to Paris. But about the latter end of December, 1797 y a riot happening at Rome, in which the Frexich general Duphot was killed, the French army, under general Berihier, nwirched against tliat city, entered it wiihout resistance, atid, on the 15th of February, J7()8, the tree of liberty was planted, the papal government abolished, m\d the Roman jieople ileclared by the French commander to have <.'ntercd on the rights of sovereignty, and to constitute what was termed ihc Roman repul)lic. On the 20th of March tlie new constitutio .1 was published, and liv.". government declared to be vested in five consuls, ■*:omposinga direct<iry under the direction of the French general as com- mander in chief, 32 st-'uators, corresponding to tJie council of ancients in France, and 72 tribunes, called the representatives of the people. The pope remained in Rome when tlie French entered it, and suffer- ed himself to be made a prisoner by them. The}' confined him to his own rooms, and put the seal of confiscation on every thing he had j but in a few days they resolved that lie should be sent from Rome, and on tlie morning of the 20th of February he left that city, accompanied by a body of French cavalry, who escorted him to Sienna in Tuscany j whence, on the 20'ih of May, he was removed to a Carthusian convent within two miles of Florence ; from which, after the recotnmencement of hostilities with the allies, he was again removed to Grenoble and Valence in France, at which latter town he died on the igth of August, l/Py. In the begiiniiug of December a conclave was held at Venice, and, on the 1 3th of March following, cardinal Chiaramonti was elected to the papal chair. In November, 1 "(JS, the king of Naples commenced hostilities against the French, attacked the new Roman republic, and entered Rome in triumph. Rut this .success was • (juickly foflowed by a fatal reverse. I'he French, collecting their forces, not only soon regained Rome, but totally defeated tJie Neapolitan army, made themselves masters of the city of Naples, and comi)elled its sovereign to take refuge in the island of Sicily. The .succesiies which attended the arms of the Austrians and Russi;ins in the campaign of \799, aided by the powerful co-opera- tion t)f the English fleet lyider lord Nelson, however, again expelled th« t'fcnch both from Naples and Rome, and the king of the two Sicilies returned to his capital. But the victory of Bonaparte at Marengo, and the conditions of the peace of Lvmeville, which the emperor of Ger- many was compelled to conclude, have again given the B'rench a power Ml itaiy, against ',yhich neitlier the pj)pe nor the king of Naples are able ill ' I M\ ' •■..IS ^B- ) I •»,■.;, , I 1 -1!^^! f.^'"' ' 600 TURKEY IN EUROPE. to contend. The former having been sent for by the new emperor of France, has solemnly vrow ned him at Paris; and in the kingdom of Naples 1.5,0CXJ French troops are stationed, and it is expecied will soon be considerably augunenttfd in consequence of the disapprobati«n ex- pressed by Rusbia at the various acts of perlidy and violence committed by the arbitrary chief of tlie French government. 4' TURKEY. r The Gkano Signor's dominions are divided lute 1. TniKr-Y IN EUROPE.! 3. TIJRKKY IN ASIA. }• 790,560 Sq. Miles. 3. TURKEY IN' AFRICA. J Mils-s TURKEY IN EUROPE. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Dcg 0107 . , {36* a] Breadth 7O0J '^^^^^^^^ tlG-a, Containing 1S2,560 square miles, with 43 inhabitants to each. '/.cngLh Degrees. and 490 Korlh latitude, and 32" East longitude. Name.^ This extensive empire derives its name from that of its conquerors and possessors, the Turks or Turkmans, which word, accord- ing to some writefs, signifies vjanderers. The Turkish historians derive this name from tliat of Turk, who they say was their ancestor, and the son of Yafis or Japhet. Boundaries.] Turkey in Europe is bounded by Russia, the Buc- koviiia, Transylvania, and Sclavonia, on the North ; by Circassia, the Black Sea, the Propontis, Hellespont, and Archipelago, on the East ; by the Mediterranean on the South j by the same sea, and the Austrian territories, on the West. Divisions.] The following are the provinces into which it is di- vided. North of the Danube are the provinces of 4-' . ■ ■ ■• . ■ i ■■ % . 4 .. . -■= Pj'ovinccs, Bessarabia . . . Moldavia, olim Da- cia Walachia, another part of the ancient Dacia Chief Towns. Sq. M. }5ender Bek ender 1 elgorod y 9.80Q Jassy ' Choczirn Falczin I 20,800 Texgovisto . . 20,000 V emperor of } kingdom of :ied will soon probation ex- ec committed U« es. titiule, gitude. s to each. om that of its word, accord- storians derive estor, and the sia, the Buc- Circassia, the on the East ; the Austrian vhich it is di- wns. Sq. M. d r) }. . . 20,800 1 sto . . 20,000 l^littvJlW^ ts Hiui ~^ M luh ^<'- ' p,nnrti\ U *". •' «JiiX]'^ BUS 111 r n -r i\^i ra'Mn /'*»>- -4 7" :i<9 II- . /.(V/iff/r/iit' Eiu-t /p //r/« Lorufon io r. /«• I i '> I # ttKXiiMiijirt iiiiV»Mt SEEXf ;f-t mi f ♦ S. M f iy»4,T w«l) |i « > »» »'- w TURKEY IN EUROPE. €01 }' !/•■■■ • '.. South of tlic Danube are Provinces. Chief Towns. Sq. M. 'Bulgaria, the C3«t part "^ Wicldin of the ancient My- sia Nicopoli Silistria Scopia Servia, the west part I Belgrade of Mysia \ Seniendiia Ni.ssa Bosnia, part of the an- cient lllyricum . . 27,840 16,000 Seralo. 7>360 ^ ^, n 1 ^ At r Constantinople, N. I. On the Bosphorus and f j^^^^,^^- ^^j,^ Thrace \ 4 1 . E. 1. 29. 26. 880 Hellespont...... j" iAdrianople" Macedonia "^ Strymou ^ 18,980 • Contessa South of Mount Rho- dope, or Argentum, the north part of the ancient Greece. Thessiily, now Janua (^ Salonichi Larissa Livadia, the ancient Achaia and Boeotia ' Epirus ' > 18, } ..4, ens 1 Thebes > . . 3, anto 3 On the Adriatic Sea or Gulf of Venice, tlie < jincient lllyricum South of the Gulf of Lepanlo, die an- < tient Peloponnesus. , '■'•^' '■ *.." ' ■ ( . tThe aucfcnt Crete Albania Turkish Croatia Dahnatia The Morca ...,,, ^ Athens .420 Lepar Cbiniaera 955 Burtrinto Scodra Durazzo 6,3/5 Dulcigno Bihacz 3,200 Zara 3,680 Narenza \ Corinth Argos Napoli di Ro- mania Lat^daemon, now Misitra, on the river Eurotas iflJ ■;- Island of Cauda Olympia or Longiuica, on the river Al- pheus, where the games were held Modon Coron Patras Elis, or Belvi- dere, on tlie river Peneus. Caudia 7,220 5,200 :ln \i 1 g ' .f' '^ it;^ I i^ ilk. i!i I €02 ttTRKEY IN LUnOPE, Sfas akt) 5TRMTS.] The Knxtiie, or BI;ick Seaj tlie Palus Mrroti!?, rr Sea ot Asopli ; the Sea ot" Marmora, which separates Kurope from Asia J the Archi|>ebgo ; the liiniau Sf-:i, and the Levant, would, wrrc they properly improved, »jive (o Turkey in Euro{)c, particularly that part of if where Constantinople stands, every advantage both foi' trade and dominion. Tiie straits of the Hellespont or J )ardaneiles, and the Basi>iiorus, or canal of Constantinople, which connect the Sea of Mar- iKora with the Archipelaj^o on the one side, and the Black Sea on the other, are remarkable in modern as well as in anc^ient liistorj'. The former, viz. the Hellespont, or Dardanelles, is only two mile.-iajul a half ill broadrij, and is famous for tJie passage of Xer.xes over it, when ab(nit to invade. Greece, and of Alexander in his expedition against Asia, The former, for the more easy transportation of his minicrous forces, laid a bridge of boats over it. It is also celebrated by tlie poets in the ptory of two lovers, Hero and Leandcr, of whom, the latter swam acros.s it to his mistress, but one night was unhappily drowned. The Hosphti- rus is abont the same Itfeadth, but has not been so much celebrated by historians and poets. MouJTTAiiCs.] The principal mountains of Turkey in Europe, are the chain of tJie ancient Haemus, now called Eminch ; Mount Atlios, which stands on a peninsula, projecting into tlie Archipelago or jii^gean Sea ; Olympus and Pindus, the latter now called Mezzo Novo, which separate Thessaly fi'om Epirus, and Parnassus in Achaia, so celebrated for bchig consecrated to die Muses, which still retains its ancient deno- mination. Lakks.] This country aflfords no lakes of considerable ejitent; hut in Albania and the Morea, are found some small ones of classical ce- lebrity. RivEHs.] The chief rivers of European Turkey, arc the Danube, which ej iters the Black Sea by several channels, after having traversed the Turkish territory the extent of -liX) miles ; the Save; the Dneister j ihc Maritz or ancient Hebrus ; the Vardari or auctent Axius ; the Aspro Potamo, or AN'hite River, anciently the Achelous ; and, in the Morea, tlie Rophia, the ancient Alpheus. Metais, minerals.] Mines of iron, lead, and copper, are found in several parts of Turkey in Europe; but they are entirely neglected, from the ignorance and indolence of the Turks. In Macedonia were an- ciently gold-mines, which produeed to Philip, the father of Alex- ander the Great, 1000 talents, or nearly tlu'ee millions sterling, an- nually. Tlie ancient Phrygia, and the Troad, is likewise said to be abundant in silver. Alum and sulphur, perfectly pure, are found in Greece ; where also are quarries of the most beautiful marble. The island of Paros has been in all ages celebrated for its marble of an ex- quisite whiteness. Climatk, soil, Ar,RicuLTxrRF..] The climate of this part of Turkey j.s salubrious, ainl friendly to the imagination, unless when it is cor- rupted from the neighbouring countries, or through the indolence and uncleanliness of the Turkish manner of living. 1'he t-easons are here re- gular and pleasant, and have been celebrated frotn the remotest times of anticjuity. Thv' soil, though unimproved, is luxuriant beyond description j and it is necessary that it should be so for the subsistence of the inha- bitants ; for of agriculture very little is known or practised by^the Turks. Vkgi;table productions.] These are excellent all Qver the Eu- ropean lurkey, especially when assisted by the smallest degree of in- dustry. Besides pot and garden herbs of almost every kind, this country TURKEY IN' EUROPE. 601 e iVoin 1, M'ere rly that, )t tiadc mA tlie 3f Mar- on the . The a a lialf u about st Artia. forces, s in the u across Bosplio- ratcd by rope, are It Athos, • iKj;ean o, which elehrated nit dcno- :€nt; hut ssical cc- Danuhe, traversed Dncister j he Aspro e Moreu, found in |tod, from Acre an- |of Alex- ing, an- :iid to he found in ble. The of an ex- if Turkey it is cor- llencc avA [c here re- It times of jscription; the inha- Ihe Turks, the Ku- Iree of in- lis country produces, in gfcat abundance and perfection, orangcsj lemons, citrons, j)oniegranatcs, grapes of an uncomii. • sweetness, excellent ritj;s, iilmonds, olives, and cotton. Besides tliese, many dmgs, not common in other parts t)l' Europe, are produced here. Amm.vi-s.] The Thessalian or Turkish horses arc excellent botli for their beauty and service. The black cattle are large, especially in Greece. The goats are a most valuable part of the animal creation to the inhabitants, for the nutrition they alford botli of milk and tlesh. The large eagles which abound in the neighbourhood of TJadadat^i tbniishthe best feathers for arrows for the 'I'urkish archers, and they sell at an un- common price. Partridges are very plentiful in Greece ; as are all other kinds of fowls and quadrupeds all over Turkey in Europe : but the Turk» and Mahometans in general are not very fond (jf animal food. Natural cuRiosiTiKS.] Amongtheseis generally clas.ieclMount Athos, already mentioned, now called Monte Santo, from the numerous con- vents erected on it. It is situate on a peninsula which extends into the yEgean Sea, and is indeed a chain of mountains, reaching the whola length of the peninsula, seven Turkish miles in length, and three i» breadtlij but it is only a single mount;iin that is properly called Athos. This is so lofty, that on the top, as the ancients relate, tlie sun-rising was beheld four hours sooner than by the inhabitants of the coast: and, at the solstice, its shade reached into the Agora, or market-place of My- rina, a town in Lemnos, which island was distant eighty-seven miles eastward. There are twenty-two convents on Mount Athos, besides « great number of oelis and grottos, with the habitations of no less than six thousand monks and hermits j though the proper hermits, who live in grottos, are not above twenty : the other monks are anchorites, or such as live in cells. These Greek monks, who call themselves the inhabi- tants of the holy mountains, are so far from being a set of slothful people, that, besides their daily offices of religion, they cultivate the olive and vineyards, are carpenters, masons, stone-cutters, cloth-workers, tailors, &c. They also live a very austere life ; their usual food, instead of flesh, being vegetables, dried olives, figs, and other fruit j onions, cht.>e*ie, and, on certain days, (Lent excepted) fish. Their fasts are many and severe, which, with the healthfulness of the air, renders longevity so common there, that many of them live above a hundred years. It appears from if^llian, that anciently the mountain in general, and particularly the summit, was accounted very healthy, and c(jnducive to long life; whence the inhabitants were called Macrobii, or long-lived. We are farther iulormed by Philostratus, in the lite of ApoUonius, that numbers of philosophers used to retire to tliis mountain, for the better contempla- tion of the lu';ivcns and of natuie^ and after their example the monks, doubtless built their cells. The cavern or grotto in the island of Antiparos, is one of the greatest natural curiosities in this country or ]U'rhaps in the M'orld. It is ahme bt) yards liigh, and l(J<) wide. From the roof hang a variety of marble hialactites, of the mQsi elegant and picturesque foruis ; and on the floor are large masses of stalagmite, one of which, in the centre, resembles a beautiful marble ])yrani:d, I'he famous ca\e of Urophonius is still a natural curiosity in Livadia, the ancient Btt'otia. It is a square ca\ern, with a bench on each side of it, iiewn out of the rock, and a round hole at one end, scarcely large enough fur a man to pass through. Population.] The population of this great empire is by no mean5 4'<iu,il, cither to its extent or feilility, nor Is it iioiwible to ascertain it N j^jl C04 TURKEY IN- EUROPE. i: I :{| • with nny groat accuracy. It certainly is not so groat as it was before the Cliristian aera, under the emperors, or even a century ago, owing to various causes, and, above all, to the tyranny under v '-■ioh the natives live ; and their polygamy, which is undoubtedly very unf.ivourable to' population, as ni;iy be evinced from many reasons: and particularly, ix^cause tJie Greeks and Armenians, among whom it is not practised, arc incomparably more prolific than the Turks, notwithstanding the ri- gid subjection in which they are kept by the latter. The plague is an- other cause of depopulation. Acoording, however, to the latest ami most probable eslin>ates, European Turkey contains about eight mil- lions of inhabitants ; Turkey in Asia, ten millions ; and Egypt, if that country may still be considered as a part of the Turkish empire, about two millions and a half: so that the whole number of the subjects of the Ottoman .,u!tan, is little more than twenty millions. National ciiarac pf.r, 7 The Turks are generally well m:'.de and MAXNEUs, cirsTOMs, ^ I'obust mcu : in youth, their complexions are fair, and then- faces handsome : their hair and eyt?s are black, or dark brown. 'J'iie w(jmen, when young, are commonly handsome, but they generally look old at thirty. In limir demeanour, the Turks are rather hyptH'hondriac, grave, sedate, and passive; but when .igitatcd by pas- sion, furious, raging, ungovernable; big with dissimulation, jealous, suspicious, and vindictive beyond coi\ception : in matters of religion, tenacious, superstitions, and morose. Though the generality seem hardly capable of luuch benevolence, or even iiumanity, with regard to Jews, Christians, or any wlio diifer from them in religious matters, yet they are far from being devoid of .^ocial aiTeetions for those of their own reli- gion. lUit interest is their su[nemc good ; and when that comes in com- ju^iition, all ties of religion, consangninitv, or friendshi^^, are with the gei-.erality, speedily dissohed. Tlie niorals of the Asiatic Turks are far preferable to those of the European. They are hosjiitable to strangers, and the vices of avarice and inhumanity reign chiefly among their great men. They are likewise said to be charitable to one another, and pmic- tnal in their dealings. Their charity and public spirit is most cojispicu- or.s in their huikling caravanseras, or places of entertainment, on roads that are destitute of accojumodations, for the refreshment of poor pil- grims or travellers. With the same laudable view they search out the best springs, and dig wells, which in those countries are a luxur}' to weary travellers. The "I'urks sit cross-legged upon mats, not only at their meals, but in company. Their ideas are simple and contined, sel- dom reaching beyond the walls of their own houses, where they sit con- versing with their women, drinking corfce, smoking tobacco, or chewing *)pium. They have little curiosity to be informed of the state of their own, or any other country. If a vizier, pasha, or other ofbcer, be turned out, or strangled, rhey say no more on the occasion than that tliere will be a !iew -vizier or governor, seldom incjuiring into tlu; reason of the disgrace of the former minister. They arc perfect strangers to ■w'it and agreeable conversation. They have few printed books, and sel- dom read any other than the Koran, and the comments upon it. No- thing is negotiated in Turkey witJiout presents, and here justice may commonly be benight and sold. I'he Turks dine about eleven o'clock in the forenoon, and sup at five in tlie winter, and six in the summer, and this is their principal meal. Among the great people, their dishes are served up one by one ; but they have neither knile nor fork, and they are not permitted by their religion to uac gold or biher speons. Their victuals ary alw ays highly seabuued. before the owing to he natives ' ourable to irticuhirly, : practised, ing ihe ri- ague i.s an- latest and eight mil- •pt", if that [me, about jects of the I m;!de and omplexions ick, or dark le, but they < are rather ted by pas- jri, jealous, of religion, ;eem hardly ird to Jews, TS, yet they 'ir own reli- iies in conr- ire with the 'urks are far strangers, y their great •, and pnnc- st oonHpicu- •nt, on roads :-)f poor pil- [irch out the 1 luxirr}' to not only at ^ntined, sel- ley sit Con- or ehewing tate of their otbcer, be than that o the vcaHon gers to iks, and sei- on it. No- justice may d Slip at five ncipal nieal. 5 but they heir religion ly sca&uiitd. 11 TURKEY IN EimorE. GOi llitc Is the common food of the lower sort, and sometunesit is boiled up with gravy; but their chief dish is pilau, which is mutton and fowl boiled to rags ; and the rice being boiled quite dry, the soup is high sea- soned, and poured upon it. They drink water, sherbet, and coU'ee ; and the only debauch they know is in ojiium, which gives them sensations re- sembling those of intoxication. Guests of high rank sometimes have their beards perfumed by a female slave of the family. They are tem- perate and sober from a principle of tlieir religion, which forbids-them the use of w^ine ; though in private many of them indulge themselves in strong litjuors. Their common salutation is by an inclination of the head, and laying their riglit-hanu on their breast. They sleep in linen waistcoats and drav, ers, upon maltresses, and cover themselves with a quilt. Few or none of the considerable inhabitants of this vast empire have any notion of walking or riding eillier for health or diversion. Tlie most re- ligious among them find, how^'ver, sutficient exercise w hen they con- form tliemselves to the frequent ablutions, prayers, and riles, prescribed them by Mahomet. Their active diversions consist in sliooting at a mark, or tilting it wi»i darts, at which they are very expert. Some of their great men are fond of hunting, and take the field with numerous equipages, which are joined by their inferiors ; but this is often done for political purposes, tl)at they may know tlie strength of their dependents. Within doors the. chess or drauglit-boards are tlieir usual amusements • and if they play at chance games they never bet money, that being prohibited by tlie Koran. Dress.] Tl:e men shave tlieir heads, leaving a lock on the crown, and wear their beards long. They cover their heads with a turban, and never put it o[f but when the;- sleep. Their shirts are without collar or wristband, and over them they throw a long vest, which they tie with a sa?>h, and over the vest tliey wear a loose gown somewhat shorter. Their breeches, or drawers, are of a piece with their stockings; and instead of shoes they wear slippers, which they put off when thev enter a temple or house. Tiicy suifei'no Christians, or others who are not Turks, to wear white turbans. The dress of the wonien diliers little from that ®f tlie men, only tliey wear stift'cned caps upon their heads, with horns something like a mitre, and wear their hair down. When they appear abroad, they are so mutlled up as lujt to be known by their nearest rela- tion. Such of the women as are virtuous, make no use of paint to heighei\ their beauty, or to disguise their complexion ; but thuv often tinge their hands and feet with bcnna, which gives them a deep yellow. The men male uiie of the same expedient to colour their beards. IMakkiaoks.] jNTarriages in this country are chicHy negotiated by the ladius. When the terms are agreed on, the bridegroom pays down a sum of nu/uey, a license is taken out from the cadi, or profx^r magis- trate, and the [)arties are married. Tlie bargain is celebrated, us in other nations, with mirth and joUit.y ; aud the money is generally em- ployed in furnishing the house of the young couple. I'iiey are not al- lowed by their law more than four wives, but they may iiave as many concubines as they can maintain. The wealthy Turks, therefore, besides their wives, keep a number of women u\ their haranis, or, as they are improperly called in Europe, their seraglios. But all these indulgencies are sometimes iusulFicient to restrain their unnatural <lesires. Ft NTRALS.] The burials of the Turks are decent. Thr; corpse is attended by tiu» ve!«itiona, ciiantii)!; passages from the Koran ; and afte>r II I ■ k;%'Jif •'■'■ f ■1' '.'. m C;'* . I, ; ' m ■ 606 TURKEY IN EUROPE. l)eing deiJosUed in a mosque (for so they call their temples), it ia buried in a tield by the iman, or priest, who pronounces a funeral ser- mon at the time of the interment. The male relations express their sor- row by alms and prayers ; the women by decking tjie tomb on certain days with flowers and green leaves j and, in mourning for a husband, they wear a particular head-dress, and leave oft* all tinery for twehe months. The Greeks, who compose a large portion of the inhabitants of Tur- key in Europe, are gay, witty, and cunning. They exercise various trades, H!id apply themselves to m;Hitimo affairs. They delight in mu- sic and tlancing. 1'he rich arc veil informed, supple, and \cry in- triguing. They study languages, and make every exertion to be em- pfoyed as physicians, drognians, or interpreters, or as agents by the Turks who hold the first places of the empire. The ancient families court tlie honour of ftiruishing the lirst drogman to tJie Porte, and of being ap- pointed hospodars, or sovereigns of Wallachiaor Moldavia, notwlthstand- ingthe danger attadied to those eminent places. They areat the same time in general, timid, superstitious, and exact observers of fasts and lent:.. Their priests are very numerous, and affect austerity of manners. The superior clergy are well informed, and tolerably richj the otiier eccle- Biastics are poor, and very ignorant. CniEs, ciiiKF TOWNS, rniFiciKS.] Constantinople, the capital of this great empire, is situated on the European side of the Bosporus. It vas built upon the ruins of the ancient B} zantinm, by tJie Roman em- peror Constantine the Great, as a more inviting situation than Rome, tor the seat of empire. It became afterwards the capital of the Greek empire; and having ecapcd the destnictive rage of the barbaroiis na- tions, it V as the greatest as well as most beautiful city in Europe, and tlie only one, during the Gothic ages, in which there remained any traces of the ancient elegance in manners and arts. While it ren)ained in thu possession of the Greek emperors, it was the only mart in Europe for tlie Commodities of the East Indies. It derived great advantages from Its being the rendezvous of the crusaders : and being then in the meri- dian of its gloiy, the European writers, in the ages of the crusades, speak of it with a.strtnishment. Constantinople is at this day one of the finest cities in the world, by its situation and its port. The prgspect i'rom it is noble. The most regular part is the Besestin, inclosed with, vails and gates, where the merchants have their shops excellently ranged. In another part of the city is the Hippodrome, an oblong square of 400 paces by 100, wljere they" exercise on horseback. The Meidan, or parade, is a large spacicas square, tlie general resort of all ranks. On the t)pposite sitle of the port are four towns, but considered as a part of the suburb-;, their distance being so small a person may easily be heard on the other side. Tlicy are named Pera, Galata, Scu- tari, and Tophana. In Pera tho foreign ambassadors and all the Franks or strangers reside, not being permitted to live in the city. Galata, also, is ino.stly inhabited by i'v.inks or Jew.'!, and is a place of great trade. The siragliu .ibuunds with antiquities. The t(Miib of Constantino the Great is still [ncservcd. Th« mosque of St. Sophia, once a Christian <hurch, is thought in SDme lespectti to exceed, in grandeur and archi- tecture, St. Peter's at Home, 'ihc city is built in a triangular form, with the seniglio standing on a point of one of the angles, from whence there is a prospect of the di^lightfiil coast of LesserA^ia, which is not to be equalled. W hen we speak ot the seraglio, we do not mean the apartmt^nts ia\vhi<.h thc^ruiiJ atii^nior'i woaiui ai'e tonlined; as i» cutu- TURKEY in FXTllOPE. 60/ mniily imni^incd, bnt the whole Inrlosuro of the Ottoman pnliwe. which might well sutlkv for a modfratt- tuwii. The wall which .siincr.nds thf; fcerjiglio is (hiny teet high, ha\ing battlpiueuts, tinlmuures, nnd tnucrs, in tlu; style of iiiidenl forliricatiojis. Tht'iv are in it nine gntcs, but only two of them nia^nilicciit ; ; nd from one of these the Labu lloumajun, or sublime gate, the Ottoman court takes the name of the i\titi; or the Sublime Porte, in all public transactions and records. Both tlie magnitude and population of Constantinople liave b<*e. greatl) ex- aggerated by crecUilous triuellors. It is surrounded by a high and tliick wail, with battlements after the Oriental manner, and towers, defended b}' a lined but shallow diteli, the works of which are double on the land side. Some authors have estimated it to contain above b(X),CXK) inhabi- tants, and others (;(J0,IXW^ but, according to Mr. Djliaway, they do not rxceed 4(X>,()f>(), including tiie suburbs of Galata, Pera, Tophana, and Scniari. Of thcM', 20(),(JO0 are Turks, 10t),0(X) Greeks, and the re- jnaiiuler Jew s, Armenians, and Franks of ail tlie Europcim nations. The city has frecjuently suffered great damage I)y firoi, either o\\i!ig to the narrowness of the streets and the structure of the houses, or (h« practices of tiie Janisaries, who, it is said, lire the city as often as they are discontented with the government. In J(j.')3, "0,(XX) houses were burned; in 1/84 a fiiv ccnisumed JO,CKX) ; and in IJSH, tiiere was sh extensive a conflagraiiwi as to threaten the entire deatruction of the city. 'i'he seraglio, or palace of the emperor, is so extensive that it is '■aid to fx:cupy the whole of the ground on vhich the ancient city of liy/an- rinm stood. The treasures containod within this imperial residence, arc prodigious ; and its furniture is distinguished not by its variety, but tJie ri<'Imess of the materials of which it is composed — silk ancl cl(;th of gold are substituted f<<r cotton and woollen stutfs; fringes are strung with pearl and inferior jewels, and the walls are wainscoted with jasper, inother-of-{)earl, and veneered i\ory. In the audience-chamber, wlK^re the amlussiulors are received by tlie sultan in ptrson, is a throne as re- f plendeiit as tJie mines of the east can make it, ^^itli a canopy of vel- vet fringed witli je\\els,niniler which he bits in state for a few minutes, to hear tlie compliments of thi' sovereign who solicits hi.s friendship. The ladies of the seraglio area colleeti<ai of beautit'ul young women, chietly sent as presents tioni llie provinces and the (J reek islands, n'.ost of them the chiltiren of C'luisiian parents. The brave prince Herailius, some years iince, al)olisheil the infan^ous tribute of children of both sexes, w liich Georgia forntcrly paid c-vciy year to the portc. The niun- ber of women in the haram depends on the taste of the reigning mo- narch. Sultan Seliiu h.:d two tiiousand ; Aehmet had but three hun- dred : and the pre^ent sulian has nearly lO'tX). On tJieir admissii>n. they are conimilted l(» the care of old ladies, tiusght to s«.;w and em- oroider, music, •lancing, and other accomplislunents, and furnished with (he richest clothes and onuimeiits. They all sleep in separate be<ls, and between every tifUi tliere is a preceptress. I'heir chief gov erncss Ls called katon kiaja, or goVernees of the noble y^ung ladies. I'hese ladies are scarcely ever surt'erexl to go abroad, eycept when the grand seignor removes from one pLice to another, when a troop of black eumu.hs cx)n- vey theiu to the boats, whicli are inclosed with lattices and linen cur- iains j and when tJiey go l)y land, they arc put intf) close ch:Vt iot-,, and sig- nals are made at certain distances, to give notice that none may ;ip])rf(ach the roads through which they mardi. Among the emperor's aii*-ndanttf are a numbcf uf niute^, wiiu ac: and converse by signs wiih giwA (j_ujck« I;i 1: ',11 ■,i I :U'< i 3; f ■ ,'){ m iiii Cos TURKEY fK EUROPf:* n(?ss; and some dwarfs, who nrc exhibited lor the diversion of his majesty. Opposite to the seraglio, on the Asiatic side, and about a mile and a fjalf distant across the w ater, is Scutari, adorned with a royal mosque, and a pleasant house of the grand signor. On the brow of an adjacent hill is a grand prospect, embvac'ng in one view the city of Constantino- ple, tlie suburbs Galata and Pern, the small seas of the Bosphorus and Propontis, with the adjacent countries on each shore. Adrianople, the second city ot" Euro])ean Turkey, is situate on the ]VIaritza, or ancient Hebrus, about 1-10 miles N. W. of Constantinople. It is of a circular form, and surrounded by a wall and t(Avers : it con- tains several splendid mo';(|ues. The seraglio, or palace, is pleasantly situated, being separated from the city by the small river Arda, and commanding an extensive view of the countr)', which is fertile, anct celebrated for its excellent vines. The number of inhabitants in Adria- nople is about 80,000. The other principal cities are Silistria, in Bul- garia, and Bucharest, the chief town of Wallachia, with about 60,000 inhabitants to each; and Belgrade, the capital of Servia, which has been repeatedly taken and re-taken by the Austiians and Turks, and con- tains about 25,000 inhabitants. CoMMFRCE AND MANt'iACTUREs.] These objects are little attended to in the Turkish dominions. The nature of the government destroys tliat happy security which is. the mother of arts, industry, and commerce; nnd such is the debasement of the human mind, when borne down by tyranny and oppression, that nil the great advantages of commerce, which nature has, as it were, thrown under the feet of the inhabitants by tlieir .situation, arc here totally neglected. The advantages of Tyre, Sidon, and Alexandria, and all those countries which carried on the commerce of the ancient world, are ov»nlooked. The Turks com- mand the navigation of the Red Sea, which opens a communication with t]ie southern ocean, and. presents them with all the riches of the Indies. Whoever looks on a map of Turkey, must admire the situa- tion of their capital, upon a narrow strait that separates Europe from Asia, and communicates on the south with the Mediterranean Sea, thereby opening a passage U) all Llie European nations, as well as the coast of Africa. The same strait, communicating northwards with the BJack Sea, opens a passar^e, by means of the Danube, and other great livers, into the interior parts of Germany, Poland, and Russia. . In this extensive empire, where all tlie commodities necessary for the largest plan of industry and commerce are produced, the Turks content themselves with manufacturing cottons, carpets, leather, and soap. The most vakuible of their eommfjdities, such as silk, a variety of drugs, and dyeing stufts, they generally export \\ithont giving them much ad- ditional vahie by their own labour. The Internal commerce of the em- pire is extremely small, and managed only by Jews and Armenians. In their traffic with Europe, the Turks are altogether passive. The English, French, Dutch, and other Eiuopeans, report hither with their commo- dities, and bring batk those of Turkey in the same bottoms. They seldom attempt any distant voyages, and are possessed only of a few coasting vessels in the Asiatic Turkey, their chief royal navy lying oir the side of Europe. The inattention of tJie Turks to objects of con)- merce, is perhaps the best security to their government. The ba- lance of power established among the princes of Europe, and their jealousies of one another, secure to the Turks the possession of coun- tries, which, in the hands of Russians, or any active state, might ■■ :v: TURiCEV iTj EUROPE. 609 I of his lie nnd a mosque, adjacent itanlino- orus and tc on the mtinople. : it con- )leasantly Lfda, and -tile, anct in Adria- , in Bui- lt 60,000 1 has been and con- 3 attended it destroys omnierce j ? down by 'ommerce, nhabitants^ antages of carried on .rks com- munication les of the the situa- irope from noan Sea, ell as the ,s with the )ther great iry for the ks content )ap. The of drugs, much ad- )f the cin- nians. In le English, ir commo- bs. They of a few lying oil of com- The ba- and their of coun- ite, might fndnnger the commerce of their neighbours, especially their trade witb India. t'oNSTiTUTioN, GOVF.HNMENT, LAWS.] The Tuikish govemn^.mt i.-i commonly exhibited as a picture of all that h rJiorking and unnatural in arbitrary pow'er. But frcnn tlie jM'.ounts of sir Janu-s I'Ditcr, v. hu re- Bided at the Porte, in quality of anibasiadov from his Ihitannic iimjcjiy, it appears that the rigours of that despotic ;.7i\t'rnnn.-ut iivf con;lac:nil;iy moderated by the power of rciigian. For liv.t.gh in this tnnpirc there is Wo hereditary succession to property, the rights of individuals may be rendered fixed and secure, by being annexed to llie church, which li done at an inconsiderable expense. Even Jews and Christians niuy ia this manner secure the enjoyment of tlieir lauds to the latest posterity ^ and so sacred and inviolable has tliis law been held, tliat there is no in-. stince of an attempt on the side of the prince to trespass or reverse it. — Neither does the observance of this institution altogether depend on the superstition of the sultnn : he knows that any attempt to \iolate it wo\ild shake the foundations of his throne, which is solely supported by the laws of religion. Were he to transgress these laws, he would become! an infidel, and cease to be the lawful sovereign. The same ob.servaticjn extends to all tlie rules laid down in the Koran, which was designed by Mohammed both as a political code and as a religious system. — 'I'he laws there enacted, having all the force of religious prejudices to svip- port them, are inviolable ; and by them the civil rights of the ]Moham- medans are regalated. Even the comments on this book, which explain the law where it is obscure, or extend and complete what Moliannned had left imperfect, are conceived to be of equal validity with the lirst insti- tutions of the prophet ; and no member of die society, however power- ful, «an transgress tliera without censure, or violate them without punish- ment. The Asiatic Turks, or rather subjects of the Turkish empire, who hold their possessions by a kind of military tenure, on condition of their serving in the field with a particular number of men, think theiujielves, while they perform that agreement, almost indepentlent of the emperor, who seldom calls for the head or tlie estate of a subject \\ ho is nut aa immediate servant of the court. Tiie most luibapjjy subjects of tlie T\u-kish government arc those who approach the hlghe.it dignities of state, and whose fortunes are constantly exposed to sudden iikerations, and depend on the breath of their master. There is a gradation uf great otficers in Turkey, of whom the visier, or prime-minister ; the kiaja, second in power to the visier ; the reis-etfeudi, or secretary of state ; and the aga of the janisaries, are the most considerable. I'liese, as well as the mufti, or high priest; the paslias, or governors of provinces j the civil judges; and many pthers, are commonly raised, by tlieir applica- tion and assiduity, from the meanest stations in lite, aud are often the children of I'artar or Christian slaves taken in war. 'I'utored in the school of adversity, and arriving at pre-eminence through a thaui,and ditKculties and dangers, these men are generally as distinguished ibr abilities as deficient in virtue. The/ possess all tlie diosimiiJi.tion, in- trigue, and corruption, which often acconipaiiies ambition in a humbis rank ; and they have a further reason for plundering the people, becatisti they are uncertain how long they may po^sess the divinities to v.hich tliey have attahied. The administration of justice, tlieretcre, is extremely corrupt over the whole empire ; but this proceeds from the manners of the judges, and not from the laws of tlie kingdgm, which are fouudad upon very equitable principlftj. ?R , ri m Mt h I. -■ m 6id TURKEY IS EUROPE. ailil 111!']; Revenues.] The riches drawn from tlie various provinces of Uiii empire must be immense. The revenuf s arise from tlie customs, and J variety of taxes whicli fall cliicliy on the Cliristians, and other sulv jects, not of the Mohammedan rchgion. The rich pay a eapitation tax of thirty shilliii>Ts a year ; tradesmen, tifiecn siiillings; and common labour- ers, six shillings and ten-pena* halfpenny. Another branch of the re- venue arises from the ainiu;d tribute paid by the Tartars, and other na- tions bordering upon Turkey, but governed by their own princes and laws. These f(jrm what are called tlvc miri, and amount to about four millions and a half sterling. All these, however, are trifling, when compared with the vast sums extorted from the governors of provinces^ and officers of state, under the name of prestnts. These harpies, to in- deiunify themselves, as we have ah«ady observed, txercise every species, of oppression that their avarice can suggest, till, becoming wealthy from the vitals of the countries and people they are sent to govern, their riches frequently give rise to a jiretended suspicion of disloyalty or misconduct, and the whole fortmie of the otlender devolves to the crown. The de- voted victim is seldom accjuainted with the nature of the offence, or the names of his accusers ; but, without giving him the Icijst opportu- nity of making a defence, an otlioer is dispatched witli theTfcperial de- cree to take orf" his head. The imhappy pasha receives it with tiie. highest respect, putting it on his head, and after he has read it, says, '* The li'ill of (moU and the anpcior be done !" or some such expression, testifying his entire resigtiation to the will of his j)rince. Then he takes the silken cord, which the officer has ready in his bosom, and having tied it round his own neck, and said a short prayer, the officer's servants throw him on the floor, and, drawing the cord tight, soon dispatch him ; after which his head is out off, and carried to court. Tlic revt nu6 of the whole '1 inkish empire is estimated at about seven , millions sterling, while the expenses do not usually exceed five. This revenue has lately been cousideraUy augmented by improvements in the administratif)!! of the difl'erent branches, and particularly the farms. Akmv, navy.] The militia of the Turkish empire is of two sorts : the first have certain lands appointed for their maintenance, and the other is paid out of the treasury. Those that have certain lands amount to about 2(>S,(X)0 eflective men. Besides these, there are also certain auxiliary forces raised in' the tributary countries of this empire j as the Tartars, Walachians, Moldavians, and, till of late, the Georgians, who rue commanded by their respective princes. The khan of tJie Crim 'Javtars, before his country was subjected to Russia, was obliged to fiir- nish 100,000 men, and to serve in person, when the grand-signor took the field. In every war, Ix'sides the above forces, there are great num- bers of volunteers, who live at their own charge, in expectation of suc- ceeding the officers. Ihese adveuUirers do not only promise themselves^ an estate if they survive, but are taught, that if they die in war against tha , Christians, they shall go in)n)ediately to Paradise. The forces which re-^ reive their pay from the treasury are called the spahis, or horse guards, and are in number about 12,000; ar,d tJie janisaries, or foot-guards, who are esteciued the best soldiers in the Turkish armies,, ami on whom tliey principally depend in an engagement. These amount to about 25,OOU men, who are fpiartered in and near Constantinople. They frequently grow nmrinous, and have proceeded so tcir sometimes as to depose tlie sultan. I'hey are educated in the seraglio, and trained up to the exer- cise of arms from their infancy ; and there are not less than 100,000 foot bcldiers scattered owr ever)- province of the empire, who procure- TURKEY IS EUROPE. 611 tlicnriseives to txi registered ih this hodjr, to enjoy the privilege of janl- saries, which are very grcat^ being subject to no jurisdiction but that of tlicir aga, or chief commander. Mr. Eton states the number of ja- nisaries at 113,400 ; the wliole of the Turkish infantry at 207,400, and the cavalry at 181,000; making a total of ;)88,40(). But, deducting from these the leventis, who belong to the fleet, and can only be em- ployed rtear the coast where the fleet Is ; the garrisons of Constantino- ple, and the fortresses and frontiers in Europe and Asia ; the bostangees, who only march when the grand-signor takes tlie field ; the miklagis, and such as serve the visier, the beglerbegs, and pashas, and never go into the battle ; the remainder of etfective men will amount only to 180,400. Yet the Porte (adds he) has often found it ditficult to as- semble 100,000 men; and in ]7/*4, with its utmost eiforts, could only bring into tlie field 142,000. The naval force of tlie Turks is very inconsiderable. In their last war M'ith Russia, their grand fleet consisted of not more than Hcvonteen or eighteen sail of the line, and those not in very g0(jd comlition ; at pre- sent their number is lessened. Their galleys now are ot' no u^c as shipj of war 3 but there are about twenty large vessels called ttira\ellas, which belong to merchants, and in time of war are frequently t»iken into tlie service of the Porte, and carry 40 guns. Titles and arms.] The emperor's titles are swelU^d with all the pomp of eastern magnificence. He is styled by his subjects, ///; Siiadoi!) of Gdd, a God on earth. Brother to the Snn aiid M<=/on, Disposer of ail carthlj/ Croivns, Sfc. The grand-seignor's arms are, vert, a crescent, ar- ' gent, crested with a turban, charged with three black plumes of heron's quills, with this motto, Do)wc totnm impleat orbcvi. Religion.] The established religion is the Mohammedan, so called from Mohammed, the author of it, some account of whom the reader will find in the following history of Ai-abia, the native country of that im- postor. The Turks profess to be of the sect of Omar ; but these are split into as many sectaries as their neighbours tlie Christians. The mufti or sheik islam is the supreme chief of the- religion of Mohammed in Turkey, the oracle who is consulted, and who solves all the questions which are put to him : his decisions are called fetfas. Tlie sultan has recourse to him in all difficult and intricate cases, and he promulgates ho law, makes no declaration of war, establishes no impost, without having obtained a fetfa. It is the mufti who girds on the sultan's sword on his accession to the throne, at the same lime reminding him of the obligation of defending the rehgion of the prophet,, and of pro- pagating its creed. The ulemas, or doctors of religion and the laws, constitute a powerful body sometimes formidable to the throne itself. They possess the most lucrative employments, are secure from tlie ex- tortions of pashas and great men, and cannot legally be put to death without the consent of their chief the mufti. Their property, after their decease, passes as a right to their heirs, and cannot be appropriated hy- the imperial treasury, unless they have accepted some office untler tlio government. The imauns, who serve the mosques, and the 7niiczi7i.", whose employment is to ascend the minarets five times a day to call the people to prayers, do not belong to this body : they may be dis- missed from their olTice, or voluntarily resign it, and return into the clais of simple private persons. The toleration of the Turks has been much extolled, but tliey make this toleration a source of revenue. The Christians are tolerated where 2R2 ife' I 'IV ti ill Ji ! <5J3 TURKEY iN EUROrK. ii -ii. I '<k il' I' 1' . :jI:1! Ilu'y nrc most prufiLible ; but tlie lurdships imposed U|v>ii liie Gre«'k fhiinli liiv such ;is must a!ua\s (Ii>p()se that p<'')plc to fiuour any revo- lution of ::;o\Trniv)'-'nt. Ccnistaiifinoplc, Jcrn^ak-m, Alexandria, and An- tlorli, art' pitriarrliatcs ; and tlu-ir heads are indulged, accordinjj as they pay for thrir pri\ilegt', uiih a rivil as ucll as an etrli'siastical autliority over their \otarii'.<. The same may i^' said ot' the Nestoriin and Ar- menian patriarchs ; and every great city that can pay for tlic privilege, has its arrhbishiip or bishop. All male Christians pay also a cnpitalioi* tax from seventeen years old to sivty, accordim:;' to their stations. The insulting distinction of Christian and Mohammeilau (says Mr. Kton) is carried to 90 great a length, that even the minutise of dress arc i^ndered sulijects of restriction. A Christian must wear only clothes and li'.'ad-drcsses of dark colours, and such as Turks never wear, with slip- pers of black leather, and must paint his house black, or dark brown. TJie least violation of these frivolous and disgusting regulations is pu- nished with death. Nor is it at all nncommon for a Christian to have Eis head struck oti' in the street, for indulging in a little more foppery ot' dress than tiie sultan or visier, whrtm he may meet incogi\ito, ap- proves. If a CJiristian strikes a Mohammedan, he is most commonly put ro death on the spot, or at least ruined by fine*, and .severely bastinadoed j and if he strikes, though by acrident, a sherif, or descendant of Moham- med, who wears the green turban, of whom there are thousands in some cities, it is death without remission. Literature.] The Turks till of late professed a sovereign contempt for our learning. Greece, wliich was the native country of genius, arts, :ind sciences, produces at present, beside.s Turks, numerous bands ot* C!n"istian bishops, priests, and monks, who in general are as ignorant as tlie I'urks thcmscl\e.s, and are divided into various absurd sects of what ihfv call Christianity, The education of the Turks seldom cxtend.«J Inrtlicr than reading the Turkish language and the Koran, and writing a ('onuTion letter. Their jur!s])rudence and theology consist only of commentaries o)i the Koran ; tlieir astronomy is astrolog)', and their chemistry alchemy ; of the history and geography of other countries they are jierfectly ignorant. Some of them understand astronomy, so tar as lo calculate the time of an eclipse ; but the number of these being A cry small, the}' are looked upon as extraordinary persons. LAr«fui'A(4E.] I'he Turkish language is derived from the Zagatai, a dialect of the Tartarian. It is tlie easiest of any we are acquainted with, because ii is the most regular. It has 4)nly one conjugation of verbs, one declension ()f nouns, and no gender. There is no exception nor any irrejiular vcr!) or noun in the language. It is not very copious, yet it is nianh', energetic, and sonorous. To supply the want of words, their w riters fiefjuently mix with it the Arabic and Persian. The Lord'd Prayer in Turkish is as follows : hnhamiiz luni'^hv ^iiii^tcxson, chudnss ohsum asenungh adun ; gehnn .ssfiiurvj; /ncmlcchrlim ; ols.siirn sfieiHaii.';h istcgiiri<!; nl esse giv^thaule iiyrde ; ecluim- :rii/n()zi /tnqunoii trre bize begun, znn hussa bize ho shjgomoz'i ; ■m/czc luzdc haainiuz borsetiglero mosi ; hem yedma Iiizc ge henemc ; de churtulc hizjij.trarriir.dcir}. Amen. The Greeks spc.i'c a modernised Greek, and in the Asiatic provinces the Arabic and a iliale»t of the Syriac is .spoken. A specimen of the r.iodern (rrevk follows in their Paternoster: filter lujnas, npins iso res ion oiiranous : hagiasthlto to onoma sou ■ 7ia n-'.i he bdsUin i^vu: to ihele-na iou na genetez itzon cu to ^r. os is- ton ouru^ TURKISH OH Gni:ciAN isu;s. C13 rotiomy, so nnn : to ptf!r>rni hrmas doze hemtis .n'mnrni : kcr sirlmvasc hciunx tn crtmnla hiimn ilioiw, L\i luin.is sii-liorusoiiiiii c'unuus opou h/'ui>> mlikoun : ktt vitu iancs hemtiH is to pirasinof alia sascm hemas iipo to kaxo. Amen. Antiui I riKS.] Ahn(j-.t every spot oij^ruund, (nt-ry ri\. '■, and every fount:iia in Gil-ccc, piv^i'iils tlic traveller uilh the ruiiH ul .. coiebrutcil nntiquity. On tlie i.'iihiuus of Coriuih, the ruiub of Neptune's temple, and the theatre where tlic Isthmian i^anies wore cclel;r,;.ijd, nre still vi- sible. AllifUH, whieh contains at pr^'^ent al)uve ](>,C)0<J inhuMtants, is a fruitfiil soiin f of the most mngnihecnt and eeiehr.ited tintii^uilies in the worlfl ; a minute aceouut of which would exceed the limits of this work ; hut it will be proper to mention some of live most Considerable, Amoii^ tlif ;!n'it(uiLies of tliis once .sui)erl) city, an,* the remaius of the temple of Minerva, built of white marble, and encompassed with forty- six tluled coliuiias of the Doric order, forty-two feet higii, and seven feet and a half in clrcuniferenee ; the aivhltrave is adorned with basso- relievos, admirably executed, representing; the wars of the Athenians. To the s()uili-ea.->l of the Acropolis, a citadel which defends the town, are scver.teen heautitul columns of the Corinthian order, thought to lie the remains of the emperor Adrian's palace. The\' are of line wiiiti* marble, about fifty feet hi;;h, including the capital.-, and lj;ises. .fust without the city stands the temple of Theseus, .surrounded with fluted cf)Iumns of the Doric order; the portico at the wc.it end rs adorned with the battle uf tiie Centaurs, in ba.-..iO-relievo ; that at the east appears to be a rontinualion of the same history: iiud on the cnitnide of the por- ticoes, in the spaces between the trigiyplis, are .represented the exploits of Theseus. On the south-west of Athcnis is a beautiful structure, commonly called the T/.intern of D.'mosrhenes : this is a sni ill round edifice of white marble, tlie roof of which is supported by si\ tinted co- lumns of tlic Corinthian order, nine feet and a half hi^-h ; in the spa( e between tlie colunuis are p.uuiels of marble ; and the wlx/le is covered with a cunola, carved with the ivsenil^lanee ijf scales : ;:nd on the frie/<' are beaiuifuUy represented, in relievo, the labours of liercules. Here are also to be seen tlie temple of the W'imls, t])c remain.-, of ihe theatre f)f Bacchus, of the magnrticent lujueduct of the emperor Adrian, and of the temples of Jupiter Olympius and Auj^ustus. The remains of the temple of the oracle of ApijUo are still visible at C istri, ori the south side of Mount Parna.ssusj and the marble steps that descend to a pleasini; running water, supposed to be the reii(n\ned (^astalian :ii)ring, \\ ith the niches tor statues in the rock, are still discernible. The hi.-ilory of the Turks will be gi\en av the end (;f our account of Turkey in-. A iia, from which country they derive their origin and ex- tended their cont|uests into Europe. ;'t i m ISLANDS belon-incr to TITRKEY in Europe, being part ot" Ancient Greeci;, , THE principal of these islands, so celebrated in the Grecian history, jsCanpia, the ancient CKr/ri;, famous in remote aiuicjuity for being the birth-place of Jupiter, the kingdom of Minos the legislator, and for its hundred cities. This island is situate beiueeu :>j and id degrees of north latitude, being 180 miles long, and 40 broad, almost equally distant from Europe, Asia, aiid Africa, and contains 5/220 scjuarc Ulilcj. J A < vJ p !'( 6i4 TURKISH OB GRECIAN ISLES. I r' ' liiii if ■^ i'^'^'^l % i'ii 'ii: i The fimouB Mount Ida stands in the middle of tlie island, and is no better than a barren rock ; and Lethe, the river of oblivion, is u torpi4 stream. Some of the valleys of this island produce wine, fruits, and corn ; all of them remarkably excellent in tlieir kind. The siege of Candia, the capital of the island, in modern times, was of much longer duration and more bloody than that of Troy. The Turks invested it in the beginning of the year 1645 ; and its Venetian garrison, after bravely defending itself against lifty-six assaults, till the latter end of September l06g, made, at last, an honourable capitulation. The siege cost the Turks 1 80,000 men, and tlje Venetians 80,000. Nrgropon't, the ancient Lubgea, stretches from the southrcast to the north-west, and on the eastern coast of Achaia or Livadia. It is ninety miles long and tn^enty-five broad, and contains about 1300 square miles. Here the Turkish galleys lie. The tides on its coasts are irregular ; and the island itself is very fertile, producing corn, wine, fruit, and cattle, in such abundance, that all kinds of provisions are extremely cheap. The chief towns in the island are, Negropont, called by the Greeks Egripo, situated on the south-west coast of the island, on the narrowest part of the strait ; and Castel Rosso, the ancient Carystus. Lemvos, or Stalimenr, lies on the north part of the iEgean Sea or Ar<;hipelago, and is almost a square of twenty-five miles in length and breadths Though it produces corn and wine, yet its principal riche? arise from its mineral earth, much used in medicine, sometimes called terra Leinnia, or terra sigillnta, because it is scaled up by the Turks, whq derive from it a considerable revenue. ScYRr s is about sixty miles in circumference, and is remarkable chief- ly for the remains of antiquity which it contains : about three hundred Greek families inhabit it. 'i'he CyciADES islands lie like a circle round Delos, now called Dilli, the cliief of tliem, which is south of the islands Mycone and Tirse, and almost mid-way between the continents of Asia aiid Europe. Though Dclos is not al)ove six miles in circumference, it is one of the most cele- bjated of all the Gretian islands, as being the birth-place of Apollo and Diana, the magniliceut ruins of whose temples are still visible. This island is ahnost destitute (.f inhabitants. Pakos lies between the islands of Luxia and Melos. Like all the other Greek islands, it contains the most striking and magnificent ruins of antiquity j but it is chietiy renowned for the beauty and whiteness of its marble. Saxtokiv is one of tiie southernmost islands in the Archipelago, and was formeiiy called Calista, and afterwards Thera. Though seemingly rovered with pumice-stones, yet, through the industry of the inhabi- tants, who are about 10,000, it produces barley and wine, with some wheat. One-third of the people are of the Latin church, and subject to a popish bishop. Near this island another arose of the same name, from the bottom of the sea, in I/O/. At tlie time of its birth there was ai) carthqUiike, attended with most dreadful lightnings and thunders, and boilings t)f the sea thv se\ oral days, so that, when it arose out of the sea, it was a mere vt)loano; hut tlie burning scon ceased. It is about 200 feet above tJie si'a ; aud at the time of its first emerpng, it was about a mile broad, and five miles in circumference, but it has since increased. Sover.d other iskind.s of the Archipelago apyK"":!! to have had the like ori- ginai ; but the sea in their n^'ighbourhood is so deep as not to be fa- thomed. Tiie islands in the Ion::m Sea, on tlie other side of Greece, belonged TURKISH OR GRECIAN ISLES. 61. to Venice till the late revolution, and the cession by tliQ French of the greater part of the Venetian cloniinions to Austria. They were first ■occupied by the French, but were taken from them by the Russians and Turks, who, in 1800, formed them into an aristocratical republic, by tlic name of the Republic of tlie Seven I<h.akds, which was recognised by the treaty of Amiens. This republic is under the protection of Russia and Turkey, to the latter of which it pays a certain tribute e\ ery three years. But Kussia appears to take the greatest interest in these islands ; and seems to treat them as a distant possession appertaining to its empire. There are now nearly 10,000 Russian troops in Corfu and some odiers of these islands; which are nominally governed by a legislative bodyat;^^ a president, but in reality by tlie Russian general and troops. Th* seven islands which compose this republic, arc Corfu, Paxo, Santa Maura, Cefalonia, Theaki, Zante, and Cerjgo. Corfu, tlie ancient Corcyba, and tlve Phjeacia of Homer, who places hare his gardens of Alcinous, is about 45 miles long and 20 broad. It is situate opposite Albania, near the continent, between 3() and 40 degrees of north latitude, and I9 and 20 of cast longitutie. The air is healthy, the soil fe^;tile, particularly in the northern part ; and the fniits of every kind excellent, especially a delicious species of tigs, there called Fracazzoni. Its other principal produce is salt, oil, and honey. The number of inhabitants is about 70,000. The town of Corfu, the capital, has an excellent harbour, is a place of considerable strength, and the seat of government for this republic. Paxo, or Paxu, situate at a little distance to the south of Corfu, is about 15 miles in circumference : it produces wine, oil, and almonds; but has but few inhabitants. The town is called San Nicolo, and has a good harbour. Opposite to it is a small island called Antip:\xo. Santa Maura, the ancient Leucadia, is about tifty miles in circum- ference : it was anciently joined to the continent, but the isthmus was cut through by the Carthaginians, or, as others say, the Corinthians : the channel between the island and the continent is at present, it is said, not more than 50 paces broad. It produces corn, wine, oil, citrons, pome- granates, almonds, and other fruits, and has tine pastiires. The princi- pal article of its trade is salt. The town of St. Maura contains about (>,000 inhabitants, "imd is well fortified. Port Drrpauo in this island it an excellent harbour. Cefalonia, the ancient Cephallenia, is situate opposite the Gulf of Lepanto, anciently the Sea of Crissa, and is about 40 miles in length, and from 10 to 20 in breadth. The climate is extremely mild j flowors blooni in the season which corresponds to winter, and tlie trees bear ripa fruits twi/ce in the year, in April and November, but those of the latter montli are smaller than the others. The number of inhabitants in this island is between 60 and 70,000. The chief articles of comnierce ar^e oil, muscadine wine, and the species of grapes called currants *. The priticipal town is of tlie same nime. Theaki, or Littlb Cefalonia, a small island opposite Cefalonia^ claims particular notice, because it was the ancient Ithaca, the birth- place and kingdom of Ulysses. It contains only about ;},000 ii.habitants. The name of the principal town is Valthi, which has a spacious harbour, Zante, the ancient Zacvnthus, is situate opposite the western coast of the Morea, and is about 14 miles long and 6 broad. T|ie climatt 1:1 elonged * So called from a corruption of Ceriath, whcace tht yiati tr'tre erisinallr brought. . . . r J, \ n :!:■ !l?i eio v?-*" ASIA. M ll'K f I fl'^ iiiil:l!ii and proilucG is similar to those of tlie other islands. Its principal riche* consist in currants, Which are cultivated in a large plain under the shelter ot mountains, which gives tlie sun greater power to bring them to ma- turity. Here are also the finest peaches in the world, each weighing eight or ten ounces. The number of inhabitants in this island is about 00,()(X). I'iic principal town is Zante, which is fortified and has a good harbour. Cr.Kiao, the ancient Cytheba, according to tlie mytliologists the favom-itc reoidcuco of Verms, is situate to the .'■:out.h-east of tlie Morea, and is about 50 mile.s in cin^uiniVrence. The greater part of it is moun- tainous and rocky, but the rent produces corn, and excellent grapes. Ihe town ot San Xicolo in this island has a fort and a good road fur ship;. 'i It 1, ^i II mif ■ J .( H ;': \ \. ASIA. AS Ahia exceeds Europe and Africa in tlie extent of its territories, it li also superior to them in the serenity of its air, the fertility of its soil, the dcliriousucss of its fruits, the fiagrancy and balsamiq qualities of it3 plauts, spiivs, and gums ; the salubrity of its drugs ; the quantity, va- riety," beauty, and \ alue of its gems ; the richness of its metals, and the finenes,s of ics silks and cottons. It was in Asia, according to the sa- cred records, that t!ic all- wise Creator planted tlie garden of Eden^ in M'hich he formed the first man and first woman, from whom the race of mankind was to spring. Asia became again the nurseiy of the world after the deluge, whence the dcsrendnnts of Noah dis})er.sed their various colonies into all t!ie other parts of tlie globe. It was in Asia that God placed hir. onco-lavouritc people, the Hebrews, vliom he enlightened by revela'.'ons delivered by the prophets, and to whom he gave the Oracles of rrutii. It was here tliat the great and merciful v.orkof our redenip- ti' "11 r.T!^ accompl-nhed b)- his divine Son ; and it was from hence that the li.:,lit of his giorioa.i Go-.pel wvs, carried, with amjzir.g rapidity, into all ih.' i.iown n;uioi;s, by his diseljiles and followers. Here the first Chris- ti;:ii chuKiiCS were founded, and the Christian faitli miraculously propa- gated and cherished, even with the blood of innumerable martyrs. It was in Asia that the first edifices were reared, and the first empiresi fouiulcdj while the other parts of the globe were inhabited onl^'by wild aniiuils. On all these accounts, this quarter claims a superiority o\er the rest. But it must be (Avned that a great change has happened in that part of it called Turkey, which has lost much of its ancient splend9ur ; and, from the most populous and best cultivated spot hi Asia, is almost boconie a wild and uncultivated desert. The other parts of Asia continue Duieh in their former condition, the soil being as remarkable for its fer- tility as most of the inhabitants for their indolence, effeminacy, and luxury. Tiiis edeminaey is chiefly owing to the warmth of the climate, though in scjme measure heightenwl by custom and education : and the symptoms of it are more or less \isible, as the ■several nations are seated nearer or further from the north. Hence the Tartars, who live in nearly the same latitudes w.uh us, are as brave, hardy, strong, and \igorous, a.s any lluinpean nation. Wlut is wanting in the robust iVamc of theiv ho'dicj., ;unoiig the Chinese^ Uiadoo.s, and all tlw inhabitants of the mo>-(, ''UtrJCr. incipal riche<{ er the slielter them to ma- ach weighing iland is about id has a good hologists the f the Morea, )f it is moun- llcnt grapes. ockI road foi" :erritories, it ty of its soil, laiities of it3 quantity, va- itals, and the g to the sa- of Eden J in n the race of »f the world their various sia that God liglitened by the Oracles r)ur redenjp- ■nce that the lily, into all i tirst Chris- )U9]y propa- lartyrs. It irst empire:* only by wild [priority o\er )ened in that . splendour ; ia, is almost sia continue I for its fcr- ninacy, and the climate, )n : and thtj IS are seated ivein nearly \ igorous, iis me ot" tlieiv of the myn V i.K - ('UtrJX. j<> 06 O'l' -SO 80 0O :fo no J3fJ3c hp Jjc ■ -iO do ffo :90 no J3ifJ3e ijV iiC 16a. J.0O i ±\::.:n li 'I ',li Uii U ^ „ I lim^ *.**^il«W4«(^'.-s i- ,!mitkt.a0tiatt^jm~, .<3 r-" I '■' '> ! f . » e - '■' '■ -^ ,*^ ♦ ASIA. 617 soutlioru rogion=!, is in a great measure innile up to them by the vivarit\' of their minds, aud ingenuity in various Ifinds of workmanship, which ©ur most skilful mc-ch;uiics have in vain endeinoured to imitate. This vast extent of territory was successivyly go\ erned, in early times, by the Assyrians, the Medes,'lhe Persians, and the Greeks ; but the im- mense regions of India and Cliina were little known to Alexander, or the conquerors of the ancient world. Upon th" d'-eline of those empires, great part of Asia submitted to the Roman arms ; and afterwards, in tl\o middle ages, the successors of Mohammeu, or, as tl;ey were usually called, Saracens, founded in Asia, in Africa, and in Europe, a more extinsivft «>'mpire than that of Cyrus, Alexander, or even the Roman when in lU height of power. The Saracen greatness ended with the death of Ta- jnerlane ; and the Turks, coiKpu'rors on every side, took possession of the middle regions of Asia, which they still enjoy. The prevailing form of government, in this division of tlie globe, is absolute monarchy. K^ any of its inhabitants can be said to enjoy some share of liberty, it is the wandering tribes, as the Tartais and Arabs. ^Tany of the Asial ic nations, when tlie Dutch first came among them, could not conceive how it was ptjssible for any people to live under any other form of government tli:ia that of a despotic monarchy. Turkey, Arabia, Persia, part of Tartarv , and part of India, profess Mohammedanism. The Persian and Indian Mohammedans are of die sect of Ali, and the others of that of On«.ar : but botii own Mohammed for their lawgiver, and the Koran for their rule of faith and life. In the other parts of Tartary, India, China, Japan, and the Asiatic islands, they arc generally heathens and idolaters. Jews ■dr<i to be found every where in Asia. Christianity, tliough planted hcni with wonderful rapidity, by tiie apostles and primitive fathers, suH^ereti an almost total ccUpse by the con«piests of the Saracens, and afterwards <.>f the Turks : incredible indeed have been the hazards, perils, and suf- ferings of the catholic missionaries, to propagate their doctrines in the most distant regions, and among the grossest idolaters; but their labours have hitherto failed of success, owing in a great measure to the avarice, cruelty, and injustice, of the Europeans, who resort tliitlier in search of wealth and dominion. The principal languages spoken in Asia are, the modern Greek, the Turkish, the Russian, the Tartarian, the Persian, the Arabic, the Ma- layan, the Chinese, and the Japanese. The European languages are also bpoken upon the coasts of India and China. The continent of Asia is situated between 25 and 190 degrees of east or 170 of weet longitude, and between tlie equator and 78 degrees oi north latitude. It is about .6050 miles in length from the Dardanelles on the west, to tlie eastern shore of Tartary ; and about 54dO miles in breadth, from the most southern part of Malacca, to the most northern cape of Asiatic Russia. It is bounded by the Frozen Ocean on tlie north; en the west it is separated from Africa by the Red Sea, and from Europf», by the I^evant or Mediterranean, the Archipelago, the Hellespont, the Sea of Marmora, tlie Rosphorus, the Black Sea, the river Don, and a line* drawn from it to the river Tobol, and from tlience to the river Oby, which falls into the Frozen Ocean, On tlie cast, it is bounded by the Pacific Ocean, or South Sea, which separates it frcjm America • and on the south, by the Indian Ocean; so that it is almost surrounded by the sea. The principal regions which dlyidp this country are as fuUow : 4» / |i' V, n .1 ^' \ ^IS ASIA; if ? 'I c *^ < >> 1 Nations. Lengt. Breadt. Square Miles. Chief Cities. Dist. and bearing fr. Lond. DifF. of time from LondQn. Religion. Asiatic Rus- sia Chinese Tibet ludqwind. 5300 3000 1500 J500 1900 1080 500 850 1060 3,050,000 944,000 385,000 500,000 Tobolsk Chynian Lassa Samar-7 cand) 2160 N.E. 4480 N.E. 3780 E. 2800 E. 4 10 bef 8 4 bef 5 40 bef. 4 36 bef. [:h.&Pag Pagan* Pagans Pagans China 1850 1890 2000 1300 1,298,000 870,910 Pekin 4320 S.E. 7 24 bef Pagans Hindoostan 1550 DeUii 3720 S.E. 5 16 bef Mah.&P. Incl. beyond thcGani^fs 1000 741,500 Si am Pe^ru 5010 S.E. 1 44 bef. Pag.&M. Persia 1050 800 AX) Ispahan Mecca Aleppo 2460 S. E. 3 20 bef. Mahom. Arabia 1400 270 1260 700,000 2640 S.E. 2 52 bef. Mahom. Syria 160 29,000 1860S.E. 2 30 bef. Ch.&Ma. Holy Land 210 90 7,600 Jerusa- lem 1920S.E. 2 24 bef. CIi.&Ma. Natolia 750 390 210 195,000 Bursa, or Smyrna 1440 S.E. 1 48 bef. Mahom. Diarbeck, or Meso- potamia 240 27,000 Diarbeck 2060 S.E. 2 56 bef. Maho- metans with »some few Chris- tians. Irac, or Chaldea 420 S«0 240 300 180 50,400 Bagdad 2240 S.E. 3 04 bef. Turcoma- niaor Armenia 55,000 Erzerum 1860 S.E. 2 44 bef. Georgia • 240 210 25,600 Teflis 1920 E. 3 10 bef. Curdistan or Assyria 205 23,900 Mousul. 2220 E. 3 — bef. Mahom. * Geor^'a Las ktely put itaelf under the protection of Russia* V-. TURKEY i» ASIA, 019 AU tlie Islands of Asia (except Cyprus, in the Levant, belonging to the Turks) lie in the Pacific or Eastern Ocean, and the Indian Seasj o^ «vhich the principal, where the Europeans trade or have settlements, are. Islands. The Japanese isles - » - The I^adroncs - - * - Fotmosa ..... Anian ---.-. The Philippines - r - The Molucca, or Clove isles The Banda, or Nutmeg isles Amboyna J gurrountliog Celebes > the Molucca Gilolo, &c. 3 &. Banda isles SBurneo Sumatra Java, &c. The Andaman ^Nicobur isles Ceylon - . . - - The Maldives . - - Bombay - - . - - The Kurile isles, and those in covered hv the Russians - i Towns. Jeddo, Mcaco • Guam 17,000 11,900 l:iS,700 rai<<}uan.fou - - - Kiontciieow - - - Mamlla .... Victoria Fort, Tcrnate L?intor- .... Amboyna - « - Macassa .... Gilolo - . - . - Borneo, Caytongee - Acheu, Bencoolen • Batavia, Bantam - - Andaman, Nicobar - Candy - - - - . Caridun - . - - Bombay - - - . the sea of Kamtschatka, fatcly dis- S. Miles. 138,000 4O0 68,400 10,400 2*28,000 120,000 33,250 27,730 'frailcwiUiofluiluiigtu Dutch Spain I China Spain Dutch Dutch Dutch Dutch Dutch AilN.ition» English andDiitch Dutch All Nations Dutch AU Nations English Russia. TURKEY IN ASIA. '. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. '' Length 11207 , . C 28« and 44' North lat. ' 3readtli 1010 j ^^^^^ 1 26^ and 45' East Ion. [ Containing 4/0,400 square Miles. Boundaries.] Bounded by the Black Sea and Circassia on the North ; by Persia on the East ; by Arabia and tlie Levant Sea on the South ; and by the Archipelago, the Hellespont, and Propontis, which separate it from Europe, on the West. Divisions. Subdivisions. Chief Towns. • [1 . Irac Arabia, or Chaldea . . Bassorah and Bagdad. 2. Diarbeck, or Mesopotamia Diarbeck, Orsa, itc. 3. Curdistan, or Assyria . • . Mousul and Betlis. i«w v,ao«_i« i ^ Turcomania, or Armenia Erzerum and Van. |)rovmcesaie | 5 Georgia, including MinO Teflis, Armarchia, 8cGo- grelia and Iraaretta, and> nie; Bursa, Nici, Smyr- part of Circassia } na, and Ephesus. Natolia, or Tl. Natolia Proper \ Araasia, Trapezond, and the Lesser } 2. Amasia j Sinope. Asia, on j 3. Aladulia Ajazzo and Marat. tlie west. ^4. Caramania Satalia and Terasso. East of the f Syria, with R^estine, or the | uS^'S^cXlV^ Levant Sea. \ Holy Land. iSidon,Tripoli, Jerusalem. Mountains.] These are famous in sacred as well as profane writings. I f. m^, 'It fJ-JO TURKEY I^J ASIA. II \'-i A f. t. T\v> ino5l romarkablo ;jro, (llynipus, T.iuras, and Antl-tamiis ^ Caucasus, and Ararat ; ix^bnuou ;in J i LrnK>n. RivKUS, LAKKs, MiNiiKAL wAT>;us.] TIic saiuG may be obseiTC'd fif ihr. rivers, whicli ine, the EupluMtos, which riscb in the mountains of Armenia and falls intoijio Persian CiuU", aftera cfuirse of about MOOKn- j^lish miles; the Tl-ris, which falls into the Euphrates about OO miles to the north oi' liaasora, alter a tour^c of nearly biK) miles; the Ma;ander^ ilw ijarabat or ancient Hermus, iheOrontes in Syria, and the Jordan. The Like of Van, in Curdistan, is about bO n.iles long and 40 broad. The lake of llackama, to the south of Hilla and the ancient Babylon, is £bout 30 miles in iengdi, and lias a communicnlion witli tJie Euphrates. The lake of Asphaltites, usually called the Dead Sea, in ralcsiine, hito vJiich the Jordan tiows, is about 50 miles in length and 12 in breadth. 'J'he mineral vaters of Piiisa or Byrsa, at the foot of Mount Olympus, are in great estimation. The water smokes, and is so hot as to scald the hand. There are several otlier hot and mineral springs in diti'crcnt parts of Asiatic Turkey. Mbtals, minerals.] The mouutiiinous p.rovinces of Turkeyin Asia no doubt abound in a variety of valuable minerals and metals ; but the ig'norancc and indolence of those who possess the country are so great liiat nature has lavished her gifts in vain. Climatk.] Though the climate of this country is delightful in the utmost degree, and naturally salubrious to the hunian constirutiou, yet fuch is the equality vith whicli the Author of Nature has dispensed his boiiCiits, that. Turkey, both in Europe and Asia, is often visited by the plag^iej a fearfid scourge (o mankind wherc\er it takes place, but here doubly destructive, from the irativc indolence of tJie lurks, and their superstitious belief in a predestination, which prevents them from using the proper precautions to defpud themselves against this calamity. Soil, AND PRODUCE.] As this couutry contains the most fertile pro- vinces of Asia, it is scarcely necessary to inform the reader that it pro- duces all the luxuries of lite in tlie utmost abundance, notwithstanding the indolence of its owners. Kaw silk, corn, wine, oil, honey, fruit of fcvery species, coffee, myrrh, frankincense, and odoriferous plants and drugs, are natives here almost without culture, which is practised chiefly by Greek and Armenian Christians. The olives, citrons, lemons, oranges, figs, and dates, produced in these provinces, are highly delicious, «nd in such plenty, that they cost the inhabitants a mere trifle, and, it is said, in some places nothing. Their asparagus is often as large as a man's leg, and tlieir grapes far exceed those of other countries in large- ness. Jn short, nature i^as brought all her productions here to tlie higliest perfection. Animals.] The breed of the Turkish and Arabian horses, the latter especially, are valuable beyond any in the world, and ha\ e considerably inij)roved tliat of the English. We know of no (juadrupeds that are pecidiar to these countries, but tliey contain all that are necessary for the use of mankind. Camels are here in much request, from their strength, their agihiy, and, above all, tlieir moderation in eating and drinking, which is greater than that of any other known animal. Their manu- facture, known by the name of camlets, was originally made by a mix- ture of <amcrs hair and silk, diough it is now often made with wool and silk. Their kids and sheep are exquisite eating, and are .said to surpass, in flavour and ta^te, those of Etu'opt; ; but their butchers' meat in gen( - lul, beef pai ticularly, is not so fine. As to biids, here' are wild fowl in great ucrfcctipn : the ostriches arc. TURKEY iM ASIA. IKSi Veil known by their tallncss, swifincsa hi running, and stupijity. T!ie iloman epicures prized no fish, exct- pt lampreys, mullets, and oysters, but those that were t'ow.id in Asia. Natural cijkiosiiif.s.] The natural curiosities of Asiatic Turkey, though no doubt they must \ye numerous, Hcem to have been little ex- plored or described by travellers, who have in general been morn atten- tive to the remains of anli(iuity with >*hieh almost all the provinces of tliis empire abound. Provinces, cities, chief! The cities and towns of Turkey in TOWNS, KDuiCKS. J Asia are very numerous, and at the same time very insignificant, because they have Uttle or no trade, and are greatly decayed from their ancient grandeur. Aleppo, however, pre- serves a respectable rank among the cities of the Asiatic Turkey, It h still the capital of Syria, and is superior in its buildings juid conveniences to most of the Turkish cities. The houses, as u»iu# in die East, consist of a large court, with a dead wall to the street; an arcade or piazza run- ning round it, paved with marble; and an elegant fountain of the same in the middle. Aleppo, and its suburbs, are seven miles in compass, standing on eight small hills, on the highest of which the citadel, or castle, is erected, but of no great strength. An old wall, and a broad ditch, now in many places turned into gardens, surround the city, which was estimated by the late Dr. Russel to contain 230,000 inhabitants, of whom 30,000 were Christians and 5,000 Jews ; but at present, accord- ing to Mr. Eton, it does not contain more tlian 50,000, which depopu- lation has chiefly taken place since 1770. Whole streets are uninhabited, and bazars abandoned. It is furnished with most of tha conveniences of life, excepting good water, witliin the walls, and even tliat is supplied by an aqueduct, cUbtant about four miles, said to have been erected by tlie empress Helena. The streets are narrow, but wdl paved with large square stones, and are kept very clean. The gardens are plea- sant, being laid out in vineyards, olive, fig, and pistaciiio trees : but tiie country round is rough and barren. Foreign merchants are nume- rous here, and transact their business in caravanseras, or large square buildings, containing their warehouses, lodging-rooms, and comptini''- houses. This city abounds in neat, and some of them magnificent mosques ; public bagnios, which are very refreshing ; and bazars, or market-places, which are formed into long, narrow, arched, or covered streets, with little shops, as in otiier parts of the East. Tljeir coffee is •'scellent, and considered by the Turks as a high luxury ; and their sweetmeats and fruits are delicious. European merchants live here in greater splendor and safety than in any other city of the. Turkish empire, in consequence of particular capitulations with the Porte, (loaches or carriages are not used here, hut persons of quality ride on horseback, with a nmnber of servants before them, according to their rank. The English, French, and Dutili, have consiils, who are much respected, and appear abrtxid, the English especially, -with marks of distinction. Scanderoon, or Alexxindretta, about 70 mile? to the west «)f Aleppo, and the port of that city, is now almost depopulatod. Superb remains of antiquity are found in its neighbourhood. As the mosques and bagnios, or baths, mentioned above, arc built in nearly the same manner in all tlie Mohammedan countries, we shall here give a general discription of them. , Mosques are religious buildings, square, and generally of stone : be- fore the chief gate there is a square court, paved with wluie marble, and iu'.v galleries round it, the rcuf of which is supported by marble pillars. '- ■ I u 1 It! r'l if liil IHI Att' •rtJKkEY m ASIA. 1': IBI'm ^ m^i: i w. ^ ] I Hi m m m It ^Mi Those ga!Iefi« n^rre for places of ablution before tJie llfoljafntff^^A.4 go* Snto the mosque. About every mO)»que there ar6 six high towers, called jiiiiiarets, each of which has three little open gaHeries, one above ah- cther. Ther,e towers, as well as the rtioscjues, are coYered with lead, and adorned with gildinsT and other ornaments ; and from (hence, in- stead of a bell, the j^ople are called to prayer by certain officers ap- pointed for tliat purpose. No ^voman is allowed to enter the mosque ; luir can a man with his shoes or stockings on. Near most ^nosque* is a place of entertainment for strangers during three days ; and thef tomb of the founder, with conveniences fw reading the Koran and praying. 'i'iie bagnios in the Mohmnnledan countries are adrHirably well con- structed for the purpose of batliing. Sometimes tliey are square, but oftener circular, built of white well-polished stone, or marble. Each bagnio contains three rooms ; the rirst for dresshig and Undressing j tlie second contains the water, and the third the" bath ; all of them paved with black and white marble. The operation of the bath is very curi- ous, but wholesome; though, to those not accustomed to it it is pain- ful. The waiter rubs tlie patient with great vigour, then handles and stretches his limbs as if he were dislocating every bone m the body j all which exercises are, in tliose inert warm countries, very conducive to health. In public bagnios, the men bathe from morning to four in the aftern«on ; when all mate attendants being removed, the ladies suc- ceed, and when coming out of the bath display their finest clothes. Bagdad, burlt upon the Tigiis, not far, it is supposed, from the site of ancient Babylon, is the capital of the ancient Chaldea, and was the metropolis of the caliphate^ under the Saracens, in the twelfth cen- tury. This city retains but few marks of its ancient grandeur* It is iri the form of an irregular square, and rudely '"ortifietl ; but theconveui- cncy of its situation renders it one of the seats of the Turkish govern- ment, and it has still a considerable trade> being annually visited by thef Smyrna, Aleppo, and western caravans. The houses of Bagdad are" generally large, built of brick and cement, and arched over to admit thef free circulatron of the air ; many of the windows are made of elegant Venetian glass, and the ceilings ornamented with chequered work. Most of the houses have also a court-yard before tlaem, in the middle of which is a small plantation of orange-trees. The number of houses is computed at 80,000, each of which pays an annual tribute to the pasha, which is caldulated to produce 300,tXX)/. sterling. The bazarsy in which the ti'adesmcn have their shops, are tolerably haiitUome, large, and extensive, filled witli shops of all kinds of merchandise, to the number of 12,000. These were erected by the Persians, when they were in possession of the place, as were also their bagnios, and almost every thing here worthy the notice of a traveller. The popula- tion of Bagdad has, however, greatly declined within these few years. The plague of 1773 earned otf two-thirds of the inhabitants, who now scarttly amount to 20,000 ; for here, as at Aleppo, whole streets afftd bazars are desolate: In this city arc five mosques, t^o of which are well built, iiud have handsome domes, covered with varnished tiles of several colours. Two chapels are permitted for those of the Bomish and Greek persuasions. On the north-west corner of the city stands tlie castle, which is of white stone, and commands the i iver, consisting of curtains and bastions, on which some large cannon are mounted, witli two mortars in each bastion 3 but in the year 1779 they were so lioney- combed and bad, as to be supposed not to be able to support one firing. TURKEY trt ASIA. 631 conveni- Beiow the oastle, by the water-side, ii tlie palace of the Turkish j^ovornnr ; •nd there are several summer-houses in the river, wliich tn.iku a tiuij appearance. The Arabiaiia who inhabited this city under the caliphu wore remarkable for the purity and elegnnce of their diait* t. Bassorah, or Batrah, situate on the Euphrates^ about 10 miles from tlie Pfrsian Gulf, is a place of considerable trade, cotUtiiiViiij; about /«0,000 inhabitants ; but it u »carciely to be includ«d in the 'rurki.sh dominions, since it bclono;s to an independent Arab prince, who pavd very little respect to the Ottoman court. Ancient Assyria is now trailed tlie Turkish Curdistan, thouoh part of it is subject to the Persians. The capital is Curdistan, the ancient Nineveh being now a heap of ruins. Curdistan is said to be for tho most part cut out of a mountain, and is the residence of a viceroy, or beglcrbeg. Orfar, formerly Edessa, is tlic capital of the fine provinctj i>f Mesopotamia. It is now a mean place, and chieOy supported by a nioQufaciure of Turkey leather. Mousul is^ also in the same province,, a large place, situated on the west shore of the Tigris, oi>i)0!>ite where Nineveh formerly stood. Georgia, or Gurgistan, now no longer subject to the Turks, is chiefl/ inhabited by Qhristians. The natives of this country arc a brave war- like race of men. Their capital, Teflijj, is a handsome city, and makesa fine appearance4 all tbehouscsare of stone, neat and clean, witb flat roofs, which serve as. walks for tlie women ; but the streets are dirty and narrow. The number of inhabitants is about 30,000. It is situated at tlie foot of a mountain, by the side of the river Kur, and is surrounded by strong walls, except on the side of the river. It has a large fortress on tlie declivity of a mountain, wluch is a place of refuge for criminals and debtors, and the garrison consists of native Piirsians. There art; thirteen Grreek churches in Teflis, seven Armenian, and one Roman- catholic church ; the Mohammedans who arc here have no mosques. In tiie neighbourhood of the city are. many pleasant houses, and lino gar- dens. The Georgians, in general, arc, by some travellers, said to be the liandsomest people in the world, which is attributed to their having early received the practice of inoculation for the small-pox. They make no scruple of selling and drinking wines in tlieir capital, and other towns ; and their valour has procured tliem many distinguishing liberties and privileges. Lately they have formed an alliance with Uiissia, under the brave prince Heraclius; as has the czar or prince Solomon, sovereign of Immeretta, a district between the Caspian and Black Seas, wlio is distinguished from his subjects (all of the Greek religion) by riding on an ass, and wearing bpots. The ancient cities of Damascus, Tyre^ and Sidon, still retain part of their former trade. Damascus is called Sham, and the approach to it by tlie river is inexpressibly beautiful. It contains a fine mostpie. which was formerly a Christian church. It still is famous for its steel works, such as sword-bladcs, knives, and the like, tlie excellent tem- per of which is siiid to bo owing to a quality in the water. The inlia- bitants manufacture also those beautiful silks, called dnniasks, froni. their city, and carry on a considerable traffic in raw and worked silk, rose-water extracted from the famous damask roses, fruits, and wine. The neighbourhood of this city is still beautiful, especially to the Turks, who delight in verdure and gardens. Sidon, now Said, whicii likewise lies within tlie anciejit Phcenicia, has still ^ome trade^ and a tul«r.tb}e harbour. 'f:' L'H'il m 62t TURKEY ijj ASIA. Tvi(% now called Sur, about twenty miles distant from Sidon, so fa- mous {bniierly tor its rich dye, is now inhabited by scarcely any but H few miserable li>>hermen, who live among the ruins of its ancient gran- deur. 'I'herc are strong walls on tlie land side, of stone, eighteen feet high, and se\eu broad. Ihe ciicuinference of the place is not more lluiii a mile and a half, and Christians and Mohanmiedans make np the number of about five hundred. Some of the ruins of ancient l>re are still visii)le. The pavements of the old city, Mr. Bruce tells us, he sav.-, and observes that they were seven feet and a half lower than the ground upon which the present city stands. Passing by Tyre (says our author, who deserves much praise for some happy elucidations of Scrip- ture), I came to be a mournful witness of the truth of that prophecy-— * That Tyre, Clueen of Nations, would be a rock for tishers to dry thv'ir nets on*.' Two wretched tishermen, with miserable netfi, having just given over their occupation, with very little success, I engaged them, at the expense of their nets, to drag in those places where tiie said shell-ti.^h might be caught, in hopes to have brought out one of the famous purple fish. I did not succeed ; but in this I was, I be- lieve, as lucky as the old fishers had ever been. The purple fish at lyre seems to liave been only a concealment of their knowledge of cochineal, as, had they depended upon the fish for their dye, if the whole cijy of Tyre applied to nothing else but fishing they would not have coloured twenty yards of cloth in a yearf. In NaUjiia, or Asia Minor, is Smyrna, -which may be considered as the third city in Asiatic Turkey. It contains about 120,000 inhabitants, 'i'hc excellence of its harbour renders it the centre of all the traffic ♦ LUiied on between Europe and the Levant, and preser\-es it in a flou- rishing state : but the rest of this country, comprehending the ancient provinces of Lydia, Pamphylia, Tisidia, Lycaonia, Cilicia, Cappado- cia, and Pontus, or Amasia, all of them territories celebrated in the Greek and Roman histor)', are now, through the Turkish indolence iind tyranny, either forsaker, or a theatre of ruins. The sites of an- cient cities are stUi discernible; antl so luxurious is nature in those countries, tiiat i.i many places she .triumphs over her forlorn condition. The selfish Turks culii\ate no more land than maintains themselves, and their gardens and summer-houses fill up the circuit of their niost ilourishing cities. Tlue most judicious travellers, upon an attentive survey of those countries, fiilly vindicate all tliat has be<»n said by sa- cred and profane writers of their beauty, strength, fertility, and pojni- lation. Even Palestine and Jud.xa, the most despicable at present of all those countries, lie buried w ithin the luxuries of tlieir own soil, 'I'he Turks seem particularly fond of representing the latter in the most gloomy colours, and Ikiv* formed a thousand falsehoods concerning it, which, being artfully iwopagated by some among ourbelves, have im- posed upon weak Christians J. • • * F.zek. civtp. xxvi. />. • • f Briirc.'\s'rr:\vc:Is, vol. 1. Introduction, p. Ut, \ '1 he lari.' re\ereiKl J)r. Sliaw, profcsso>' of Cireek at Oxfurd, who sooms fo hhva fxamliiecl tli;tt country with an uncommon 'iegiee of accuracy, and was qualified by the soundest ptii'osopuy to make the most just observations, siiys, that were the Holy .Land as well cultivated asintotinertimes, it would be more feftiJeth-"i the very best purts bi Syria and iMia-nicia, bccaust; the soil is generally much ric.\er, and, everj thirii^ Considered, yield-, larger crops. 'I'liercfore the barrenness (says he) of whicfi some aiiu.ors complain, dot.'» not proceed from the natural unfruitfulness of tht coiintrv, but from ihe want of the' inhabitant*, the inJoleiicewhith prevails aaionff '^ dfcaijtWL ^ TURKEY IS ASIA. 629 to linrc Llifietl b^ [he Holy Very best p, everr of tht i among' ANTiauiTiEs.] TJk- remains of ancitMit edifices and mofuiniems in Turkey in Asia arc so numerous thai they have lurnishecl matter lor many voUiminous publications. The pro\inces which <.umi)osc tliis country eontained all that was rich and magnificent, in architecture and sculpture ; and neither the barbarity of the Turks, nor the depreda- tions they have sutfered from the Europeans, seem to have diminished the number of these valuable anti(juities. They are more or less ])er- jtect, according to the air, soil, or climate, in w hich they stand, and all of them bear deplorable marks of negle(;t. Many oi' tlic finest tem- ples are converted into Turkish moscjues, or Greek ehun.-hes, and are niore disfigured than those which remain in ruins. Amidst sudi a vast variety of curiosities, we shall select some of the most striking. The neighbourhood of Smyrna (now called Ismir) contains many noble and beautiful anticjuities. The same may be flaid of Alei)po, and a number of other places celebrated in ancient times. Tlic site of old Troy cannot be dtstinguisJied by the smallest vestige, and is known only by its being opposite to the isle of Tenedos, iuid the name of a brook which the poets magnified into a wonderful river. A temple «f marble, built in honour of Augustus Caesar, at Milasso, in Caria, and a few structures of the same kind in the neighboushood, are among the autiquities that are still entire. Three theatres of white marble, and a noble circus near Laodicea, near Eatakia, have .sutferetl very little from time or barbarism ; and some travellers think they discerij tlie ruins of the celebrated temple of Diana, near Ephesus. Balbec is situated on a rising plain, between Tripoli, in Syria, and Damascus, at the foot of Mount Libanus, and is tlie Heliopolis of Coelo-Syria. Its remains of anticjuity dusplay, according to the best judges, the boldest plan that ever was attempted in architecture. — Tile portico of the temple of Heliopolis is inexpressiijly superb, Uiough disrigiu-ed by two Turkish towers. The hexagonal cou t behind is now known only by the magnificence of its ruins. The walls w ere adorned with (Corinthian pilasters and statues, and it opens into a quadran- gular court of the same taste and grandeur. The great temple to which this leads is now so ruined, that it is known only by an enta- blature, supported br nine lofty columns, each consisting of three jiieees, joined together by iron pins, without cement. Some of those pins are a fi)()t long, and a foot in diamett.'r : and the sortlid Turks are daily at work to destroy the columns for the sake of the iron, A small temple is' still standing, with a pcdest'd of eight columns in front, and fifteen in tlank, :md every-\\here richl)' oru:unenied with figures in alto-relievo, and tlie heads of gods, 1ktik\s, and einpe/ors. To the west of this temple is anotlier, of a circular form, of the Co- rinthian iuid Ionic order, Init disfigured with Turkish moscjues and houses. — ^The other parts of this ancient citv are proportionably beau- tiful and stupendous. Various have been tlie conjectures concerning Uie founders of these immense buildings. The inhal)itant'; of A-iia ascribe tiiem to Solo- mon, but some make them so modern as the time of Ant<>ninas I'ius. Perhaps they arc of dilferent a,'ras ; and though that prince and hii the few who possess it, and the pcrpctuiil cHscords and deprcdiitiuns of tl»e petty princes who share this tine country. Indeed, the inhabitants can have but little iri- cIljMltion to cultivate the iMith. " In Palestine," says Mi. Wood, '* we haveofterj ieen the husbandman sowing, acroni()anitd by an armi^d frierd, to prevent his be- ing f-obbod of the seed." And, after all, whoever sows u uncLTtam w.hethcr h«^ »hall ever reap the liawcst. 'i S mn M' I. "" if ' M J 'flH u pif rl 1 i ! m ii'" ? ii '-'• 625 TURKEY IN ASIA. ¥. - if ' ,, .1 'i ; i, fi 1 ' successors may have rebuilt some part of them, yet the boldnesa of tlicir arcliitecture, the bcavUy of (heir ornaments, and the stupendous execution of tlie whole, seem to f.x their foundation to a period before the Christian sera, tliough we cannot refer them to the ancient times of the Jews, or Phoenicians, who probably knew little of the Greek style in building and ornamenting. Balbec is at present a little city en- compassed with a wail. The inhabitants, who arc about 5000 in num- ber, chiefly Greeks, live in or near the circular temple, in houses built out of the ancient ruins. A free-stone quarry in the neighbour- liood furnished the stones for the body of the temple ; and one of the stones, not quite detached from the bottom of the quarry, is 70 f^^et long, 14 bro.ad, and lA feet five inches deep: its weight must be 1135 tons. A coarsL' white marble quarry, at a greater distance, fur- nished the ornamental parts. Palm}ra, or, as it was called by the ancients, Tadmor in the desert, is situated in the wilds of Arabia Petraja, in about 33 deg, of N, lat. and 200 miles to the south-east of Aleppo, It is approached through a narrow plain, lined as it were with the remains of antiquity; and opening all at once, the eye is presented with the most striking objects that arc to be foui'id in the world. The temple of the Sun lies in ruins ; but the access to it is through a vast number of beautiful Co- rinthian columns of white marble, the grandeur and beauty of which can only be known by t!;e plates of It, which have been drawn and published by Mr. Wood, who, with his friends, visited it about fifty years sigOj purposely to preserve some remembrance of such a curiosity. As those drawings, or copies from them, are now common, we muat refer the reader to them, especially as he can form no very adequate ideas of the ruins from a printed' relation. Superb arches, amazing columns, a colonnade extending 4000 feet in length, terminated by a noble mausoleum, temples, iine porticoes, peristyles, intercolumnia- tions, and cntablatiires, all of them in the highest style, and finished with the most bcraulful msierials, appear on all hands, but so di- spersed and disjf.intod, that i| is impossible from them to form an idea of tlie whole when perfect. These striking ruins arc contrasted by the miserable huts of the wild Arabs, w ho reside in or n(?ar them. Nothing but ocular proof couii! convin?!e any man that so superb a city, formerl)' ten miles in circumference, could exist in tlie midst of what now arc tracts of ba.-ren uninhabitable sands. Nothing howt-ver is more certain thati that Palmyra was formerly the capital of a great kingdom, tln-t it was the pride as well as the emporium of the eastern •world, and th it its merolKUits dealt with the Piomans and the western nations, for the merchandises and luxuries of India and Arabia. Its present altered situation, therelbre, can be accounted for only by na- tural caus;^s, uhich have turned the most fertile tracts into barren dc- strts. Th^ Asiatics think that Palmyra, as well as Ralbec, owes its original to Solomon j and in this ihey receive some countenance from sacred histoiy. In profane hi.^tory it is not mentioneil before the tima «>{' iVlarc Antony; and its most superb buildings arc thought to be of the lower empire, about thr> time of Callienus. Odenathus, the last king of P.dmyra, was highly caressed by that empt-ror, and even de- clared Augustus. His widow, Zenobia, reigned in great glory for some time ; and I.onginu.s, the celebrated critic, wa^ her sf.cretary. Unwilling lo submit to the lu)man tyranny, she declared war against the emjie'-r)r Aurclian, \\-h() took her j^risoner, led her in triumph' to Jlonie, and butchereil her principal nobility, and, among others, ihc TURKIlY in ASIA. 6i7 <rxcellont T,onglnus. Tie nfterwanls destroyed her oity, and mnssacred its inhabitants, but expended hirge .sums out ot* Zenobia'-: treasures rii repairi'ig the temple of the Sun, tlie majestic ruins of which have been mentioned. Kone of the Palniyrene inscriptions reach abcve the "Christian fsra, though there can be np doubt thyit the city \ti>At' is of much higher antiquity. I'he emperor Justinian hiade some efforts to restore it to its ancient splendor, but without efl'cct, for it dw.ndk'd, by degrees, to its present wretched state. It has b(X',n obsevvbd, ^r.y justly, tJiat its architecture, and the pro])ortions of its columns, are by no means equal in purity to those of iJalbec. Iktwcen the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, where some superstitious and visionary people have sought the situation of Paradise, there are some tracts which undoubtedly deserve that name. The dittl-rent Tuins, some of the m inexpressibly magnilicent, that are to be found in these immense regions, cannot be appropriated with any certainty to their original founders ; so great is the ignorance in which they have been buried for these thousand years past. It is, indeed, easy to pro- nounce whether the style of "their Infddlngs be Greek, Ilonian, or tiaraden : but all other infomKitiou must uouie irom theii- in- scriptions. Nothing can be more futile than the boasted anti(|Uiti.:5 s5iown by tlie Greek and Armenian priests in and near .leru.salem, which is well known to have been ko often rased to the ground, and rebuilt anew, that no scene of our Saviour's life and suHcring'i can be asccrtiiinedj rind yet those ecclesiastics subsist .by their forgeri;'s, and pretending to guide travellers to every spot mentioned in the Old and New Te^sta- inent. They are, it is true, under severe contributions to the Turks, but the trade still goes on, tliough much diminished in its proiiti. The ■rluirch of the Holy Sepulchre, as it is called, said W be bu.ilt by He- lena, mother to Constantine the Great, is still standing, and of tole- rably good architecture; but its clitrcrent divisions, and the dispositions made round it, are chierty calculated to support the forgeries of its keepers. Other churches built by the same lady are fountl in Palestine j but the country is ho altered in its appearance atKltjualities, that it is one of the most despicable ot'^f^ in Asia, and it is in vaiu for a modern tra- \x'ller to attempt to trace in it any vestiges of tiie kingdom of Uavid and Solomon. But the most fertile country, alxmdoned to t} ninny and wild Arabs, must in time become a desert, 'iluis o[)pression soon thinned the delicious plains of Italy ; and the noted countries of Greece and Asia the Less, once tlic glory of the world, are now nearly destitute of learn- ing, arts, and people. Okigin and history or the Ttjuks.] It has been the fate of the more southern and fertile parts of Asia, at different periods, to be con- <iuered by that warlike and hardy race of men who inhal>it the vast country k'/jwn to the ancients by t!ie name of Scythia, ana among the moderns by that of Tartary. One tribe of those people, calU d Turks or Turcomans, extended its conquests under various leaders, and durint; several centuries, from the ,-hore of the Caspi;:n to the Straits of the .Dardanelles. Being long rcsidcitt, in the capacitv ot" l)oiiy-iruards, about the courts of the Sar.accns, they embraced the dov trine ot Mahomet, and acted for a long time as mercenaries in the armies of ccntoading j>rinces, Tiieir chief residence was in the neighbourluKd of Mount Caucasus, from whence they removed to Armeni.i Major ; ai.dr.fter being employed ns mercenaries by the sultans of Per;:'a, the-- seized that kiui-dom »l)Out tiic year IQ'o/, and spread their ravages all over the neighbouring; tM >J <M f I ' i 'ffl 628 TURKEY IN EUROPE ,\nd ASIA. i'n ., ;'t U^ . r 1 I m iii^^ n countries. Bound by their religion to make con\erts to Mahometanisra, they never were without a pretence for invading and ravaging the do- minions of the Greek emperors, and were sciinetimes comfnanded by very able generals. Upon the declension of the calij)hate or empire of the Saracens, they made themselves nia^iters of Palcstinf j and the visit- ing of the holy city of Jerusalem being then part of the Christian exer- cises, in which tiiey had been tolerated by the Saracens, the Turks laid the European pilgrims under such heavy contributions, and exercised such cruelties upon the Christian inhabitants of the country, as gave rise to the famous crusades, which we have mentioned more fully iu the in- troduction. It unfortunately happened, that the Greek emperors were generally more jealous of the progress of the Christians iian the Turks j and though, after oceans of blood were spilt, a Christian kingdom was erected at Jerusalem, under Godfrey of Boulogne, neither he nor his successors were possessed of any real power of maintaining it. I'lie Turks, about the year 1229, had extended their dominions on every side, and possessed themselves, under Othman, of some of the finest provinces hi Asia, of Nice, and Prusa in Bithynia, which OUiman made his capital, and, as it were, first embodied them into a na : hence they took the name of Othmans, from that leader ; the appelJation of Turks, signifying icander- ers or banished men, being considered by them as a term of reproaclj. Othman is to be styled the founder of the Turkish or Ottoman em- pire, and was succeeded by a race of the most warlike princes recorded in history. About the year 1357 they passed the Hellespont, and got a footing in Europe, and Amurath settled the seat of his empire at Adria- nople, which he took in the year 1360 : under him the order of jani« saries was established. Such were their conquests, that Bajazet I. after conquering Bulgaria, and defeating the Greek emperor Sigismund, laid siege to Constantinople, in hopes of subjecting all the Greek empire. His greatness and insolence provoked Timur, or Tamerlane, a Tartarian prince, who was just then returned from his eastern conquests, to de- clare war against him. A decisive battle was fouglit botw ecu tliose ri\al conquerorsi in Natolia, in the plain where Pompey defeated Mithridatcs ; wiien Bajazet's army was cut to pieces, afChe himself taken prisoner, aod shut up in an iron cage, where he cnd«nns life. The successors of Tamerlane, by declaring war against each otiicr, left the Turks more powerful than ever ; ancLthougli their career was checked by tlie valour of the Venetians, Hui^arians, and tlie famous Scanderbeg, a prince of Epirus, they gradually reduced the dominions of tlie Greek emperors ; and, after a long siege, Mahomet II. took Constantinople, in 1453. Thus, after an existence often centuries, from its first commencement under Constantine the Great, ended the Greek empire : an event whicli had been long foreseen, and was owing to many causes ; the chief was the total degeneracy of the Greek ej:i- {)erors themselves, their courts and families, and the dislike their subjects lad to the popes and the western church, — one of the patriarchs declar- ing publicly to a Romish legate, " that he would rather sec a turban than tlie pope's tiara" upon the great altar of Constantinople." But as the Turks, when they extended their conquests, did not exterminate, but reduced the nations to subjection, the remains of the ancient Greeks still exist, as we have already observed, particularly in Constantinople and the neighbouring islands, wiicrc, though under grievous oppressions, tJiey profess Christianity under their own patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antiocli; and Jerusalem j and the Armenians have three; vm» MUM TrRKEY IN EUROPE and ASIA. C29 pafriardis, \vho are richer than those of the Greek church, on account of their people being more wealthy and more conversant in trade. Jt is said that the modern Greeks, though pining under the tyrannical yoke jf the Turk isli government, still retain somewhat of tlie exterior appear- ance, though nothing of the internal principles, which distinguished tlieir ancestors. The conquest of (Constantinople was followed by the submission of all Greece : and from this time the I'urks liave been considt^red as an En- ropean power. Mahomet died in 1481, and was succeeded by Bajazet II., wlio car- ried on war against the Hungarians and Venetians, as well as Persia and Egypt. Baja/CL, K'lling ill of the gout, became indolent, was harassed by family ditferences, and at last, by order of his second son, Selim, was poisoned by a Jew physician. Selim afterwards ordered his eldest brother, Achmet, to be strangled, with many other princes of the Uth- man race. He defeated the Persians and the prince of Mount Taums j but being unable to penetrate into Pevoia, he turned his arms against Egypt, which, after many bloody battles, he annexed to his own domi- nions, in the year I0I7, as he did Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, Gaza, and many other tcwnS. He was succeeded in 1520 by his son Sohman the Magnificent, vvlio, taking advantage of the diiierences which prevailed among the Christian pov/ers, took Rhodes, and drove the knights from that island to Malta, which was given tiieni by the emperor, Charles V. The reign of Soliman, after this, was a contmual war with (he Christian powers, and generally successful, lx)th by sea and land. He took Buda, the metropolis of Hungary at that time, and Belgrade, and carried off near 200,000 captives, A. D. 1520', and two years afterwards advanced into Austria, and besieged Vienna, but retired on the approach of diaries V. He miscarried also in an attempt he made to take the isle of Malta. This Soliman is looked upon as the greatest prince tliat ever tilled the throne of Othman. He was succeeded, in 1566, by his son Selim II. In his reign tli« I'urkish marine received an irrecoveiable blow from the Christians, in the battle of Lepanto, This defeat might have proved fatal to the Turkisli power, had the blow been pursued by the Christians, especially the Spaniards. Selim, however, took Cyprus from the \'enetians, and Tunis iu Africa fi'om the Moors. He was succeeded in 15/5 by his son, Amurath 111., who forced the Persians to cede Tauris, Teflis, and many other cities, to the Turks. He likewise took the important for- tress of Raab, in Hungary; iuid in 1593 he wlis succeeded by Maho- met III. The memory of this prince is distinguished by his ordering nineteen of his brothers to be strangled, and ten of his father's concu- bines, who were sujiposed to be pregnant, to be thrown into the sea. He was otlen unsuccessful in his wars w ith the Christians, and died of the phigue in 16O-I. I'hoiigh his successor Achmet was beaten by tJie Persians, yet he torced the Austrians to a treaty in IfiOG, and to consent that }k' ;.hould keep wlint he w:is possessed of in Hungary. Osman, a prince of great spirit, b\it no more than sixteen years of age, being uri» successful against the Poles, was put to death by the janisaries, whose power he intended to have reduced. Morad IV. succeeded in 1623, and tool; Bagdad from the. Persians, His brother, Il)rahini, succeeded him in l6tO; a wuithless iii:icii\e prince, and strangled by the janisaries in 16 IH. His successor, Mahomet i\'., was eKcellenlly well served by his j,'raud visicr, Cuperli. He took Candiu from the Venetians, aft»r it r T!1<1 •if IS k ': II '•:,\ 'I ■ 530 Tl'RPIEY IN' EUROPE and ASIA, 1'^' « t i' ' ';; W'-- •■' iiix^<l-\ .; «ISi l-lf'l had boon besieged for lliirty yenrs. This conrjuost cost the VenetKir.«»> niid vh:ir allies, «0,(>X) men, and die Turks, it is snid, 180,000. A bloody war svicrt'edcd between the Imperi'dists nnd the I'urks, in whicli tli« l^itei' were so buccthsfii], that they laid biege to Vienna, but w;?re- ioriel (.IS lui-. been already mentioned) to raise it with great loss, by Jolm SoLie.-.ki, kin^^ of Poland, and other Christian generals. Mahomet was, in niS/, sliui up in prison by his subjecLs, and succeeded by hii bi'cthey. Swliuian 11. 'liu: 'i'lu-ks lontiPiUed unsuccessful in their wars during his reign, and that of his broiiit'r and nuecessor, Aclunet I.— but Mustapha II., who ascended die tln'one in ICkji, headed his armies in person. After some active o;uiipaigns, lie was defeated by prince Eugene y and the peace t)f Carlowil/:, l)elueeu die Imperialists and Turks, was concluded m iliyy. Soon alter, Mustapha was deposed, his mufti was beheaded, and his brother Achniet III. mounted die throne. He was the priuctt v.'ho gave shelter, at Bender, to Charles XII. of Sweden ; and ended a., war \; Ith the Uussians, by a peace concluded at Pruth. When the Ilus- f^iviii army was .surrounded without ho})es of escape, the czarina inclined the grand vk^ier to the peace, by a present of all the money, plate, and jewels, thnt were in 1 he army : but the Russians delivered up to the 'J'urk.s Asoph, Kaniinicck', anJ Taiganrog, and agreed to evacuate Po- bnd. lie had afterwards a war with the Venetians, which alarmed all viic CJiristian powers. The scene of action was transferred to Hungary, where the; Imperial general, prince Eugene, gave so many repeated de- feats to the infidels, tliat they were forced to conclude a disgraceful peace at Passarowitz, in I/IB. An misuccessful war with the Persians, under Kouli Khan, succeeding, die populace demanded the heads of the* 'isier, the chief admiral, and secretary, which were accordingly struck t- but the sultan also was deposed, und Mahomet V. advanced to the throne. He likewise was unsuccessful in his wars willi Kouli Klian, and ;.t last obligetl to lecognise that usurper as king of Persia. He was afterwards engaged in a war with tlie Imperialists and Russians : against the former he was viciorious ; but the successes of the latter, which threatened Conntanlinople it.self, torced him to agree to a hasty treaty with the emperor, and, after that, another widi the Rus.^ians, which was greatly to his advantage. Mahomet died in \/5i. He was succeeded by his brother, Osman 111., who died in l/.O^, and was succeeded by his brother ■Mustapha III., who died on the 21st of January, 1/74, whilst engaged in an unsuccessful war with the Rus- .sians, of which some account has been already given in the history of tlut country. h\ the course of this wai', a considerable Russian lleel uas lilted out, which .set sail from the Baltic, widi a view of attacking the remote parts of the Arcjiipekigo. I'liks fleet having arrived at iMii:orcaj departed from thence in the beginuing of February, 1/70, aud bhnpcd its course for the Tvlorea. Count Orluw having debarked Jiueh land forces as Iv- liad v/iih him at Ivlaina, a litde to the westward ofC'ape ilet.ijjan, and about fifty miles to the south-west of Mi.-.ltra, the ancient Sparta, tlu: Miiinoi.'ri, the descendants of the Lacedaniiouians, and wv.o still p-osbessed ilu' country of their ancestors, under subjection to the grand-:- ignur, immediately Hew to anus in e\ery (juarier, and joined the lluv^iaiis by ihousauds, from their aversion to die tyranny of the Turki. Tiie other Greeks immediately followed dieir example, oc j-.idier only waited to hear of the arrival of the Russians, to do what the}' had long iiUendid ; ajid the whoie Morea seemed every where in .'iiwtiuu. 'i'Lic open wLUitiy wiis quickly uvttr-ruUj aad the ancient La- TL'IIKEY IV Kl/ROPE awd ASIA. 631 against u'hich 7, and '21 St ot" le Riis- loty of in licet tackiiij'; ivcid ;'.L , 1770, barked eslward Mi.-iitra^ louians, )ject'iun ev, i\m\ inny of il^le, or (J what lu're in cut La- eonin, Arcadia, and several other countrit'S, as sp«edily taken; whilu tlie kassian sliips, that had been separatfd, or tliat put into It:;!} , arrived successively, and landed tiieir uieu hi iliderfiil places, where, every small detachinenl kouu bwelled into a little army, and tlie Turks wery every where attacked or inierceuted. In the mean time, tlio Greeks gave the utmost loo^e to th'jir revenge, and every where slaughtered the Turks witliout mercy j and the rage and tdry with which the inhabi- t^mt.s of the continent were seised extendetl itself to the islands, where also the 'J'urks were massacred in great numbers. They were, indeed, unable to make head against the Russians and Greeks in the lield ; their only protection was found within the fortresses. 'I'iie malcontents had so much increased suice the first debarkation of tlie Russians, that they invested Napoli di Romania, Gorinth, and the castle of PatJ-as, with several other places of less note. But whilst they were em])loyed in tliese enterprises, an army of thirty thousand men, composed chieliy of Albanians and Epirotes, entered the Morea, commanded by the seras- kier, pacha of Bosnia. This Tuski.sh general recovered all the northern part of the jieninsula as soon as he appeared in it; and all the Greeks that were found in arms, or ont of their villages, were instantly put to death. The Russians were now driven back to their ships ; but aljout the same time, another Russian scjuadron, commanded by admirrd El-* jihinstone, arrived from England to re-inforce count Orlow's armament. The Turkish fleet also appeared, and an obstinate engagement was fought in the channel of Scio, wliich divides that island fron\ Natolia, or tho Lesser Asia. The Turkish fleet was considerably superior in forcc^ consisting of fifteen ships of the line, from sixty to ninety guns, be- sides a number of cliebeques and galleys, amounting in the whole to near thirty sail ; the Russians Iiad only ten ships of the lincy and i\\Q frigates. iSome of the ships engaged with great resolution, while olhers on both sides found various causes ft>r not approaching sufliciently near. But Spiritof, a Russiini admiral, encountered the captain pacha, in the Sultana, of ninety guns, yind-arni and yard-arm; tliey fought with the greatest fury, and at length ran so close, that they lock^ul themselves together, with grappling-irons, and (jther tackling. In tiiis .situation, the RussiiUis, by throwing hand-grenades from the tops, set the Turkish ship on fire ; and as they couhi not now be disentangled, both ships were in a little time equally in flames. Thus dreadfully cir- cumstanced, without a possibility of succour, tiiey both at length blew up with a most terrible ex])lo.-!on. The commanders and principal ctiicers on both .sides were mostly f.ued ; but the crews were almost tjtally lost. The dreatlful fate oi those ships, as well as the danrsT to those that were near them, ])roduced a kind of pause on both sides j after which the action uas renewed, and c( ntinued till night wiUiout any material advaiiLige on eltJier side. When it bt:>::ime dark, xha Turkish fleet cut tlmir cables, and ran into a bay on the coast of Na- tolia ; the Russians surrounded them thus closely j)ent up, and in tliu night some firc-shii)S wore &ucct\ishdly cojiveved among the Turkish fleet, by the intrepid behaviour of lieutenant Dugdale, an Englishman in the Russian service, who, though abandoned by his crew, himself di- rected the operations of the fire-ships. I'Ik; fire took place so etl'ec- taally, that in five hourii the whole tleet, e:;cept or.e ruan of war and a few galleys, that were towed ofi'by the Russians, was totally deatroy- fdj after wliich they entered the harbour, and bombarded and can- nonaded the town, and a castle tliat protected it, w'ilh such success, tiliat a shot liaving blow:n up lUe powder- niajazinc- iu the latter, both m ill e:J2 TITKKEY IV EUROPK and ASIA. I' > ', A' + »f||i*' .<) ■were rcdured to a heap of ruhbisli. Thus was there scarcely a vestigc k'tt, nt nine oilotk, uf a town, :i i;istk% and a line fleet, which had been all in existence atone tiie same mt»rniii;^. Some of the principal military transaction^ by land, in the war 1)^- tweon Russia and 'I"urkc\ , having been alre;id} noticed in our account of the former empire, we shall here only add, that, after a most unfor- tunate war on the side of the Turks, peace was at length concluded be- tween them and the Uussians, on the 21st of July 177'^> 'i l<-'^\' nionths after the accession of Aehmet IV'. I'he emperor Mustapha III. left a son, then only in his i;)th year ; but as he was too young to manage the reins of government in the then critical situation of the Tvu-kish atfairs, Mu.'tapha a[)pointed his brother, the late emperor, to succeed him in the tlironej and to this prince, under the strongest terms of re- commendation, lie contided the care of his infant son. The jxTsevcrance of the Turks, supplied by their numerous Asiatic armies, and tlieir implicit submission to their otficers, rather than an excellenc}' in military discipline or courage in w.ir, have been the great springs of those successes which have rendered tlieir empire so formida- ble. The extension, as v^eJl as duration of their empire, may indeed lie in some measure owing to the military institution of the janisaries, a corps originally composed of children of such Christian parents as could not pay their taxes. These, \w\ng collected together, were form- ed to the exercise of arms under the c}es of their otficers in the seraglio. They were generally in number about 40,0CX); and so ex- cellent was their discipline, tiiat they were deei^ied to be invincible ; and they still contiiuie the flower of the Turkish armies : but the Otta- man power is in a declining state. The political state of Europe, and the jealousies that subsist among its princes, is now the surest basis of this empire, and the principal reason why the finest pro\ inces in tkc world are suflered to remain any longer in the pos.-essiou ot those haughty infidels. Notwithstanding the peace which was estalilished in 1 774, between Russia and the Porte, various sources of discord having been left open, very little tranquillity coidd subsist betwi-^^n them. For an account of these^ we refer our readers to our historfcal narri;Tive of the former em- pire. Towards the latter and of the year I7^(i, the Turks seem to have aciopted a regular system of indirect hostility against Russia, which ■was continually making snch encroachments, as made the Turks resolve to try again the fortune of war. Scarcely had the empress returned from the splendid journey which she made to C'herson, before a declara- tion of Turkish liostilities was announced at St. I'eterslmrgh, What part the emperor of Germany would take in this war was not at first known. The capriciousness of his character kept the spirit of curiosity in sus- pense for some little time ; but he soon declared himself determined to support all the claims which Russia had upon the Porte, Insteinl of being disheartened at tJie formidable appearance of the confederacy formed against them, the Turks applied themselves witli re- doubled ardour to prepare ibr resistance. But an event that srems great- ly to have contributed to the ill success experienced by the crescent in the year 178.0, was the death of Achmet the Fourth, on the 7th of April. This prince, if we make suitable allowances for the disadvantages un- der which he laboured as a despotic mov.arch, and thu prejudices of hli country, may be allowed to have possessed some cliiini to our esteem. He filled the throne of Cuius tantinople without reflecting disgrace upiiit hum;ui nature. His teujpci appears to have been mild and humiuic; TLTvKEY IN' EUROPE and ASIA. 6jj Hi" not only permitted Sclim, his ncplicw, son of the hite emperor, to live, but even publicly acknowledged him for his sueeessor. H'u reis^n was not stained with so many arbitrary murders as those of his j)redeceisors ; nor did he think it necessary that a disgraced minister should part at once with his otHee and his life. He sutiered his coun- frynien to improve by the arts and military discipline of Europe. Yssouf, his prinifc minister, <Uuing the last three years of liis life, though by no mi-ans consistently graat, must be allowed to deserve our applause, and w ill be better known to posterity as tlie patron of tlie Turkish transla- tion of the Kncycloptdie, than as the victorious and skilful rival of the Austrian arms in the Ihnnat of Transylvania. Achmet died at the unenterprisino; age of sixty-four, and Selim tha Third succeeded, at twenty-eight. In the vigour of youth, he tliought it necessary to distinguish himself by something extraordinary, and at tirst purposed to put himself at the head of liis forces. He was easily, as might be expected from his eti^eminate education, dissuaded from this rash and ridiculous project. But he conceived that at least it becanio him to discountenance the ministers of his predecessor, and reverse all their proceedings. TJiese ministers had acquired in some degree the cuntidence of those who acted under their command ; and it appeared in the setjuel, that the fantastic splendor of a new and juvenile sove- reign could not compeasateforthe capricious and arbitrary changes with vhicli his accession was accompanied. In the year 1^88 C'hoczim and Oczakow surrendered to tlie arms of Russia, as will be found in the historv' of that country ; and on the 12th of September, l/Hjj, the Austrian forces sat down before Belgrade, and with that good :brtune which seemed almost constantly to attend their connnander, mar.hal Laudohn. The place, together with its nu- merous garrison, surrencl'jred, after a vigorous resistance, on the 8th of ( )(^tohcr. The rest of the jampaign was Utile else than a succession of tlit5 moi^t important success js; and a circumstance that did not a little con- tribute to this, was the system adopted by the Austrians and Russians, of iiiUiering tlie Turkish troops to march out of the se\eral places they gar- risoned without molesUition. Bucharest, the capital of Walachia, fell without opposition into tlie hands of prince Cobourg j while Akerman, f>n the Black Sea, was reduced by tlie Russians ; and Bender surrendered lo jirince Potcmkin, not without suspicion of sinister practices, on tjie loth of N'ovember. One only check presented itself to the allied arrhs. The garrison of Orsova displayed the most inflexible constancy, and marshal I^mdohn was obliged to raise the siege of this place in the mid- dle of December, after having sat down before it for a period of six w eeks. In a short time after the siege was renewed, and Orsova waa reduced thd lOth of April, 17()0. After the reduction of Orsova, the war was carried on with languor, on the part of Austria ; awd iii the month of June a conference wai agreed upon at Reichenbach, at which the ministers of Pnissia, Austria, England, and the United Province's assisted, and at which also an envoy irotu Poland was occasioiuilly present. After a negotiation, which con- tinued till the 17th of August, it was agreed that a peace should be con- cluded betueen the king of Hungary and the Ottoman Porte ; that the basis of this treaty should be a general surrender of all tl»e conquests made by the former, retaining only Choczim as a security till the Porte shfjuld accede to the terms of the agreement ; when it was also to be restored. On the other hand, the king of Prussia gave up the Belgic provinces, and e\en promised his assistance Ui reducing them again to submi^t to the dominion of Austria. ■ • m u:l'| ft Ga-i TURKEY IX EUHOPE Axn ASIA. :i r^ If' i i; ki- ' m'h The kliyy of Prussia was less succtssful in his moilintion with Russli, Cittli:irine liiul not, like Leopold, nil imperial crown at stake, w Inch, uiuubstaiitial as it is, Jnis always its chrirnis with tho-ie who am eduaited ill the hahilual adoraliun (/f rank aiul (lic^iiities. HtT conquests al.io, on the side of I'urkey, were too iinp(,rtaul to Ix; easily vdiiuiuishcd ; and klie considered hor dignity attacked by the insolent style of i'russiaii me- diation. The Mibslance of her answer t(j the IVus'-'ian memorial was, therefore, " 'I'liat the empress of 11 us.sia would maku pciice and v.ar witli whom she pleased, without the interference of any forei;^ii power." The e;impaign of I79I opened, on the part of llussi,!, with the t.iking of IViaczin, on tlie -Jth of ^Vpril, by prince Gallitzin ; and in a snlxsciiuent \ietory, on the J 2th, by the same oeiural, in the neigh- bourhood of Brailow, the Tiuks lost not less than -luiK.) men, and upward.^ of 100 oliieers, besides many pieces of cannon. On tlie 14th the llus- tian arms experienced a check, by which ihey lost about /GO men, and ■were obliged 10 relinquish their intention of besieging Brailow. After re-inforcing this place, the visier proceeded to the banks of the Danube, near Silibtviaj and by nieau.s of a bridge which he threw across the river, his jidvaneed posts were enabled to make incursions on the oppo- site side, Hie ability of the visier, and the valour of the Turks, were however exerted in vain against the discipline and experience of Euro- pean armies. In the month of June, 15,(X30 Turks were defeated by a party of cavaliy under general Kutusow. On the 3d of July the fortress of Anape was taken by general Gudowitsch j and the garrison, to the amount of (ioOO men, made prisoners. This event was followed, on the yth of the same mouth, by a signal victor}'- which prince iu.'pnin ob- tained near Maczin over a body of 70,000 men, the llower of the Turkish army. The Ottomans left upwards of *K)00 dead upon the field of battle, and lost their entire cnnip-equipage, colours, ami 30 pieces of cannon. The Uurisians are saidtoluive lost only 150 men killed, and between 200 and 300 wounded. While the war was thus vigorously carried on, tlie mediating powers vere not inactive. Great Kritain and Prussia, in particular, declared themselves determined tu support the balance of Europe, and to force the empress to jjcuce upon the basis of a Ktatitfqv.o. Of the interference of Britain in this dispute, we have treated more largely in another place. To the lirst aj. plications of the English mini.-ter, the empress answered in nearly the same terms in w hich she had before replied to tlie memo- rial of Prussia— " That the Eritish court would not be permitted to dic- tate the terms of peace," In the cour.-.c of the negotiation, liowever, her demands became more moderate : and as the northern powers, and f)articuiariy Denmark, began to exert thinisehes for the prevention of lustilities, she confined her \iews to the po-)session oi Oczak<jw, with the distri(;t txlendiug from the liog to the Dneister, and even tlien pro- \iding lor the frev navigation of ilie latter river. The ncgutiation wa.s protracted to the 11th of Augu,->t, when at length peace was ci'ncluded between the czarina and the Porte, nearly upon these terms — terms which, (Diisideriiig the ill success of tlu^war, cannot bo accounted very disadvantageous to the Turks, wh« lost a-fortrens more useful for the purpose t)f annoying Russia than for defciuling their own territories j hut certainly (jf considerable importance to Ilussia, which, by this ces- iion, secured the peaceable pi;;:)aes.-,iou of the Crimea. It is eompiUed tiuit in t!:is war Turkey lost '2(J0,(X)0 soldiers; Russia ]00,000j tlie Austrians, wiu» fell in the battle, or ui the unhealthy marshes, arc suppoijed to exceed 130,000. The treacherous and wanten inva:;ic;n of Egypt by tha French, in 1798/ TURKEY m ASIA. GSi vrltliout even the prctciKe thnt the Porte had i^ivrn them any cnuse of Dfleuce, jiutly provoked the* 'lurks to c'.oclave w'lr jigninst i'Vance ; but of the hwstilitii'S which took I'l.ice between iIh.-sl- powcis, and which h;ive been almost entirely conlincd to the attack on Egypt, :<nd bonic towns in Syria, an aecount is given elsewhere : it is tiicroioio unnece»- j*ary to repeat it here. Sellni ill., born in l/O'l, .sitcceeded to the throne of Turkey on iht* death of his ur.cle, the late buitan, April 7, I'^y. nienio- to die- iwever, ;rs, and Intion of Iv, vith len pro- lion wai ;luded -tenn.^ led ver/ Ifor tlitj itories ; (.lis ces- Ru'^sia [lealthy 1798, ISLANDS belonging to TURKEY in ASIA. THE greater part of the Giecian islands in the Archipelago are con- sidered by geographers as situate in Europe 5 but those which are very near to the Asiatic coast, with tlie island of Cypms in Uuit part of the JMediterranean called the Levant, or Eastern sea, must be referred to Asia, Teneoos it> remarkable only for its l}ing opposite to old Troy, and being mentioned by Virgil as the place to which the Greeks retired, and left the Trojans in a fatid security. It has a town of the same name. I\Ii;tklin, the ancient Lksbos, the principal city of which was My- tilene, whence the modern name, is situate to the north of the gulf of Smyrna, about ten miles from the coast of Africa. It is aljout forty miles long and twenty-four broad. It produces excellent oil and wine, tlie latter of which was anciently in his^h esteem, and still sells at ;4 great price. It is tanwus for having been the native place of S;ippho, The ancient Lesbians were accused of dissolute manners, and the mo- dern inhabitants, it is said, too much resemble them in this respect. Scio, anciently Chios, lies about eighty miles west of Smyrna, and ii about one Inuidrcd nfdes in circumference. This ialand, though rocky and mountainous, produces excellent whie, but no corn. It is inhabi- ted by 1()0,0(K) Creeks, 10,(KX) Turks, and about 3,000 Latins. It lias 300 churches, besides chapels and monasteries ; luid a Turkish gar- rison of 1400 men. The inhabitants have hianufactures of silk, volyet, gold and silver stuffs. The island likewise produces oil and silk, and tlie lentisk-tree, or aiastic, tVom whi'h ihe government draws its chief revemie. The women of this, and almost all the other Greek islands, have in all ages been celebrated for their beauty, and their persons have been the most perfect models of symmetry to painters and statuaries. A late learned traveller, Dr. Richard Chandler, s;;yii, " The beauti-tul Creek girls are the most striking ornaments of Scio. jMany of tliestj were sitting at the doors and windows, twisting (.otton or silk, or em- ployed in spinning and needle-work, and accosted us wiih faraiiiarity, bidding us wehx)me as we passed. Ihc streets on Sundays and holi- days are tilled with them in groups. They wear short petticoats, reach- ing only to tlieir knees, with white silk or coltou hubc. Tlieir liejd- drcss, which is peculiar to the island, is a kind of turban ; the linen so white and thin, it seemed snow. Their slippers arc chicHy yellow, with a knot of red fringe at the heel. Some wore tluni fastened with a thong. Their garmeuu were silk of various colours ; and their wh(jle appearance so fantastic and lively as to atford us much entertainment. 'J'heTiuks inhabit a separate «]vvarter, and their wouirn are concealed."' .A.niong the poets and historians said to be born here, the inhabitariv i reckon Homer, and *how a liitie S4aare housc, whii.hth£y c;;il Iluinur'i. ftcfiool. i i l'» !i 1 ,.^.. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 • 50 ^^" |2.5 2.2 ■ 40 I 2.0 ■HUk. U il.6 ^ Z 7 ^j^ 'V Photographic Sciences Corporation ,\ ^ \ \ k [V 6^ 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WEBSTER, N.Y. MSaO (716) 873-4503 l/j 63ti IXRKLY IN ASIA'. il ! 'Huf' ^H '^^vl ■^^B' Samos lies ojjposite to Eplipsus, on the coast of Lesser Asi.i, about seven miles from tJie continent. It is thirty miles long, .ind fifteen broad. I'his island gave birth to IVthagoras, and is inhabiteii by Greek Chrislians, \vho are well treated by the lurks, their masters. The muscadine Saniian wine is in high request ; and the i>.land also produce--; wool, which they sell to the French j oil, pomegranates, and silk. This ishuid is supposed to have been the native country of Juno : and sonic traveller* think that the ruins of her temple, and of the ancient city Siiinos, are the linest remains of anti(juity in the J>e\ant. To the soi+tli of S:imos lies Patmos, about twenty miles in circum- ference, !)m so hi'.rren and dreary, that it may be called a rock rather than an isljuul. h has, however, a convenient haven : and the few Greek monks who are upon the island show a ca\e where St. John is su}>posed to hitve written tJie Apocalypse. . Sta.ntitio, the ancient C'os, on the co-ast of Lesser Asia, nearly twelve miles from the continent, is about twenty-live miles long and ten broad. It abounds with cypress and tui"pentine trees, and a variety of medicinal plants. This island has a town of the same name, situated in a bay, with a harbour defended by a castle. Cos is famous for hav- ing been the birth-i)lace of liie great fatlicr of medicine, Hippocrates, and the celebrated painter Apelles, The island of UnonEs is situated in 28" 4o' of cast longitude, and 33® ;J0' north latitude, about twenty miles soulli-west of the continent of Lesser Asia, being about thirty-six miles Unig, and fifteen broad. 'I'his island is healthful and pleasant, and abounds in wine, and luany of the necessaries of life j but the inhabitants import their corn from the neighbouring country. The chief town, which also bears the name of Rhodes, is situated on the side of a hill fronting the sea, and is three* miles in circumference, interspersed w idi gardens, minarets, churchej?, and towers. The harbour of Rhodes is the grand signor'a principal arsenal for shipping, and the place is esteemed among the strongest for- tresses belonging to the Turks. The colossus of brass, which anciently Stood at the mouth of the harbour, and was fifty fatlioms wide, was de- servedly acccmnted one of the w onders of the world : one foot being placed on each side of the harbour, ships passed between its legs ; and it held in one hand a light-house for the <lireGtion of mariners. The face of the colossus represented the Sun, to whom this image was dedicated j and its height M'as about 135 feet. The inhabitants of tliis island were formerly masters of the «ea ; and the Uhodian law was tlic dii'cctory of the Romans in maritime alfairs. I'he knights of St. John of Jerusalem, after losing Palestmc, took this island from the Turks in 18t)S, but lost il to thorn in 1522, after a brave defence, and afterwards retired to Malta. ('ytrus lies in the Ix:\ant Sea. about thirty miles distant from the coasts of Syria and I'alestinc. It is KJO miles long, and seventy broad, and lies at almost an e(]ual distance from Europe and Africa. It wan formerly famous for the worship of Venus, the Cyprian goddess j and^ during the time of the crusades, was a rich flourishing kingdom, inha- bited by Christians. Its wine, especially that which grows at the bot- tom of the celebrated MouiU Olympus, is the most palatable and the richest of all prodiu'ed in the tireek islands. Nicosia is the capital, in the midst of the country, nnd the see of a Creek archbishop ; indeed, most part of the inhabitants of the island arc Cireeks. Faniagusta, iti ancient capital, has a good harbour; and the natural produce of the j'^kuid is so rit h, tJiat many EiuMpean u:*t.ioiih fmd ih ;ir acccnuil in keep- ARABIA. €37 ing consuls residing npon it ; but the oppresbloiis of tlit; Tiaivs hnvp dp- populated and impoverished it to iin extreme degree, so ttial (tie reve- nue they get trom it does not exceed I'ioU/, a )ear. The ibland pro- duces great quantities ot' grapes, from, which excellent vine is made ; and also cotton of a very line quality is here cultivated, and oil, silk, and turpeutine. Its temale inhabitants do not degenerate i'rom their ancestors as devotees to Venus ; and Paplios, that ancient scat of plea- sure and corruption, is one of the divisions of the island. Richard I., king of Kugland, swbdued Cyj)rus, on account of its king's treaehery j and its royal title was Iransferreil to (iuy Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, trom whence it passed to the Venetians, who long held that empty ho- nour. i 'I \ ARABIA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Length 1400 7 Rreadth I2ti0 j between DcCTees. and (iO East longltnde ind ',i2 North latitude f 30" s |l2{ Sq. Miles. 'y /00,ooo Name.] It is remarkable that this country has always preserved its ancient name. The word Jrub, it is generally said, signili(>s a roblx^r, or freebooter. The word Sdrncen, by which (jue tribe is called, is said to signify both a thief and an inhabitant of the desert. I'iie.se names justly belong to the Arabians; for they seldom let any merchan- dise pass through the country without extorting something from die owners, if they do not n^b them. IJouxuAKiKs.] Rounded by Turkey, on the north; by the gulfs of I'ersia or Rassorah, and Ormus, which separate it from l'er-.ia, oil the east ; by the Indian Ocean, south j and the Red Sea, which di-»' vides it from Africa, on the west. Divisioivs. Subdivisions. 1. Arabia Petrycaj") N. W. J 2. Arabia Deserta 7 ^- ^^ ^ . in th^j middle \ -^'^^S^' Chief Towns. 3. Arabia Felix, . S.W.!3.andS.E.< Neged Proper Hcdjax Hadraitiaut Yemen Oman Lachsa,Hadjar7 t , . „ , . -* J- Lachsa or Rahrem j "Iinaina ■ Salemia \'MECCA,E.lon.4l''0'N.lat. 21*40' ' Medina Hadramaut \ l)<jfar 3 S \ ANA . K. Ion. 4(P ;) j' N . lat. J ;» 26* I Mocha, E. Ion. 44^' 20' N. lat. 14^' O* S R(jstak "ji Muscat 'yni !■: m »' 14 1 038 ARABIA. li ' W'- %\\ '«,il.'^' if ' ;; "I V If f. y ' ,k' , *! '' ,ilT I » I. ' nk' i#l fE i' i I tell r t^ iti;- ]\rorN*TAivs.] The mnnntains of Sinai and Horch, lying in Ara- bin Petnea, cast of the lied Sva, and those called Gibel el^Arcd, in Arabia Felix, are tlie ino t iiotcil. Rivers, seas, gulvs, and capks.] There are few spriny;s, or 11 vers in t!iis country, except the Euphrates, which washes the north- rast liiiiits of it. it is alraost siirroiMKicd with sras ; as tlie Indian Occnn, the Red *en, tlx- gulfs of Pe-rsia an.i Ormus. The chief capes or pvcr.io-.nories are li/vt (<f Kosaigatv' and Musle<lon. Climati-:, £0!!., AN'r> PRonucH.] As a considerable part of this coinitry lies iiii'lcr the tori'id zojie, and the tropic of Cancer pas=es O'vcr Ar.abia Felix, the air is excessively dry and hot, and the cnuntrv is sulijcct to hot poisonous winds, like those on the opposite shores of Per-ia, which often prove fatal, e'-peci.iily to strangers. The soil, in son e p3rts, is notliirij; nmre than imnien!-.e sand's, which, when ao'iiKtrJ by tiic w!i'^d>, roll like the troubleil ocean, and sometimes form njount.iins by which wh^ie caravans have been buried or lost. Jn these docits, the caravans, having no tracks, are gnided, as at sea, by a coiVap;; .^ or by the stars, for they travel chietly in the night, licrn (.-.ays Dr. Sh r.v) are no pastures clothed with flocks, nor valley's standing thick with corn; here are no vine-yards or t)live-vards j biit the v.'hole is a loncsoir.e, desolate wilderness, no t)ther ways diversi- fied than by plain.-, covered with sand, and numntains that are made up of naked rocks and precipices. Neither is this country ever, im- less sometimes at the equinoxes, refreshed with rain ; and the intense- jiess of the crdd in (he night is almost equ.il to tliat of the heat in the d^y-time. But the southern part of Arabia, deservedly called the Happy, is blessed with an excellent soil, and, in general, is very fertile. There, the cultivated lands, which are chietiy about the towns near the sea-coast, produce balm of Gilead, manna, myrrh, cassia, aloes, frankincense, spikenard, and other valuable gums; cin- nanioii, pepper, cardamom, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, figs, and other fruits ; houey and wax in plenty, w itli a small quantity of corn and wine. This country is famous for its coffee and its dates, which last are found scarcely any where in such perfection as here and in Persia. There are few trees fit for timber in Arabia, and little wood of any kind. Animals.] The nio.^t useful animals in Arabia are camels and dromedaries ; they arc amazingly fitted by Providence for traversing the dry and parc:hcd deserts of this countrj' ; for they are so formed that they can throw up the liquor from tluir stomach into their tliroats, by which means they can travel six or eight days witlunit water. The camels usually carry 8CX)ibs. weight upon their backs, which is not taken otT duiing the whole journey, for tliey naturally Jcneel down to rest, and in due time rise with their load. The dro- medary i^ a small ciunel, with two bunches on its back, and re- markably swift. It is an observation among the Arabs, tliat where- cver there are tre(is the water is not far off; and when they draw near a pool, their camels will smell at a distance, and set up their great trot till they come f:> it. The Arabian horses are w«ll known in Eu- rope, and ha\e contributed to improve the breed of those in En. gland. They arc only fit for the saddle, and are admired for their make as much us for their swiftness and high mettle. The finest breed is in the kingdom of Yk^nien, in \vliic|i Mochu is titualv'd. ARARIA. 639 Natur.m. curiosities.] The deserts, mountains, and places mentioned in Scripture may be considered as the principal of these. Wiuit is called the Desert ot' Sinai is a beautiful plain near nine miles lun<^, and alxne three in breadth j it lies open to the north- cast, but to the southward is closed by some of the lower eminences of Mount Sinai ; and other parts of that mountain riir.ke .such en- croachuients upon the plain as to divide it into two ;\uts, each so capacious as to be .suitieimt to receive the •whole camp of the Is- raeli les. From Mount Sinai may be seen !Mount Iloreb, where Moses kept the flocks of Jethro, liis falher-in-law, when he saw the burning bush. On tho.sc mountains are many chapels and cells, possessed by the Greek and Latin monks, who, like the relit^ious at Jerusalem, pretc:.;! to show tJie very spot where every miracle or transaction recorded in Scripture happened. Inhabitants, manners,"} The Arabians, like most of the na- cusTOMS, and dress, j tiops of Asia, are of a niidciie stature, thin, and of a swarthy complexion, with black hair and black eyes. They are swift of foot, excellent horbcmen, and are said to be, in ge- neral, a martial, brave people, expert at the bow and lance, and, .sir.i f. they became acquainted with tire-arms, good marksnun. The i!\hahi- •tants of the inland country live in teats, and remove from place to place with their flocks and herds. The Arabians, in general, are such thieves, that travellers and pil- grims are struck with terror on approaching the deserts. 'I'liese rob- t)ers, headed by a captain, traverse t!ie r.ouuiry in considerable troops on horselxick, and assault and plunder the caravans -, and we are told that, so late as the year l'/50, a body of 50,000 Arabians attacked a caravan of merchants and pilgrims roLuriiing from Mecca, killed about ()0,000 persons, and plundered it of every thing valuable, though ^■leorted by a Turkish army. On the sea-coast tht y are niere pirates, and make prize of every vessel tiioy cm master, of whatever nation. The h;')it of the roving Arabs is a kind of blue shirt, tied about (liem with a white snsh or yirdle ; and some of tliem ha\e a ve.it of furs or sheep-skins over it: they also wear drawers, and sometimoa flippers, but no stockings -. and have a cap or turban on their head. Many of them go almost luikcd ; but, as in the eastern countries, the women are so wrapped up that nothing can be dibcerned Init their ryes. Like other Mahomeilaiis, the Ariibs eat all manner of tiesh, ex- cept that of hogs ; and prefer the fl^^sh of camels, as we prefer venison to other meat. They take care to drain the blood from the ilesh, as the Jews do, and like them refuse .such li^h as have no scales. Colfee and tea, water and sherbet made of oranges, water, and sugar, is their usual drink : they have no .sU'ong liquors, CiTiKS, CHiKf TOWNS, EDUicKs.] Amoug the cities of Arabia Felix, Mecca and Medina deserve particular noii^e. At Mecca, the birth-place of Mahomed, is a moscjue, the most nnigniiicent of any in the Turkish dominions; its \ol\y roof being raised in fashion of a dome, and covered with gold, wiih two beaulil'ul towers at the end, of extraordinary height and architecture, which make a delightful ap- pearance, and are conspicuous at a great distance. I'he. luosque has a iuindred gates, with a window ovtir each : and the whole building within is decorated witli tlie linest gildings and tape,(ry. The number c*" j)ilgrims who yearly visit tliis plwc is almost invrcdiblo, every Mus- fculuwu being reciuired, by his rcligiun, to come hitht-'V once in iiis iil'e- 'i.'i'H dio ARAHIA. ■;, I. it [^ m timCj or sctid a dcpuly. Af IMcdiiia, about ilfiy mik-N from the Red Sea, tlic cify to wiiiili Malionu'd tied wIumi ho mjs driven out i>i' Mt'cca, and where Ije was huri»'d, is a stately ino^ijiie supportetl by 400 pillars, and furnished with 3CK) silver lamps, wliicli ain* coutiini- ally burning. It is called the '* ^!ost Iloij/," by the Turks, l)eeause in it is placed the coffin of their propliet Mahomed, covered with cloth of gold, under a canopy of silver tissue, which the pr.sha of i'l^yi^, by order of the grand-signor, renews every yi'ar. I'he <-aniel which carries it derives a sort of samtitv tVom it, and is never to be ii-;ed in an)- drudgery afterwards. Over the loot of the oottin is a rich golden crescent, curiously wrought, and adorned with precious stones, 'I'hi-. ther the pilgrims resort, as to Mecca, but not in such numbers. The other prnicipal citiv's of Arabia are Saana, Mocha, Jedda, or Jud- dah, Muscat, and Lachsa. Saana is considered as the capital of Arabia Felix, It has a castle, and contains a number of mo.s<|ues and other elegant buildings. It is about four miles in t.irciimference, and sur- rounded by a brick wall with seven gates. The environs produce abun- dance o^ fine grapes, of above twenty ditterent species, and great quantities of dried raisins are exported frqm this city. Mocha is well built : the houses are very lofty, and are, w ith the walls and forts, covered with a chinam or stucco, that gives a dazzling w hife- ness to them. The harbour is semicircular, the circuit of the wall is two miles, and there rn'e several hatidsome mosques in the city. Jud- dah is the place of the greatest trade in the Red Seaj for there the com- mwce between Arabia and Europe meets, and is interchanged, the for- mer sending her gums, drugs, coftee, &:c., and from Europe come cloths, iron, furs, and other articles, by the way of Cairo. 1 he reve- nues of these, w ith the profits of the port, are shared by the grand- ■ signor and the sheriff of Mecca, to whom jointly this place belojigs. Muscat is a considerable town, \s ith an excellent harbour, and has been, from early times, a staple of trade between Arabia, Persia, and the Indies, It was taken by tlic Portuguese in 1508, and held by thenj during a century and a half. Eiiglibh ships from llindoostan carry on a trade witli this town. Laclwd is a large and well-built to\^n, situate on a rapid stream, which falls into a large bay opposite to tlic isle of lialirein, celebrated t'ov the }K'arl-fishcry, GovKRNMENT, LAWS.] Arabia is under the government of ntany petty princes, who are styled xerjtls and imaus, bothof thcni including the offices of king and priest, in the same tnanner as the caliphs of the Saracens, the successors of Mahomed. These niouarchs appear to be absolute, botfc in spirituals and teinporals ; the su<x'cssion is heredi- tary, and they have no other laws than those found in the Koran, and the comments upon it. The northern Arabs ewe subjection to the Turks, and are governed by pashas residing among them ; but rc- teive large gratuities from the grand-signor, for protecting the pil- grims that* pass through their covmtry, froni the robberies of their coun- trymen, The Arabians have no standing regular militia, but tboir ^mirs command both the persons andtUe purses of their subjects, as tlic {lecessity of affairs requires. Rkligion,] Of tliis the reader will find an account in the follow- ing history of Mahomed their countryirtan. Many of the wandering Arabs are still little different from Pagans ; but in generiU they profess Mahomedanism. Learning and language.] Though the Arabians in former agi'i ARABIA. C41 n).iny lulling )hs uf X":ir to lerctli- 11, aiui to the nit re- ic pil- COUIl- t<v>ir as tlic '<j11o\v- dcrins; Were famous for tlicir lenruing and skill in all the liberal arts, there is scarcely a country at present where the people arc so vuiiversally igno- rant. The vulgar language used in the three Arabias is the Arabesk, or corrupt Arabian, which is likewise spoken, w ith some variation of dia- lect, over great part of the East, from Egypt to the court of the Great Mogul. 'I'he pure old grammatical Arabic, which is said to be a dialect of the Hebrew, and by the people of the East accounted the richest, most energetic, and copious language in tlie world, i;* taught in tlieir schools, as Greek and Latin are amongst Europeans, and used by Ma- homedans in their worship : for, as tlie Koran was written in tliis lauf^uage, they will nf)t sulFer it to be read in any other j they look, upon it to have been the langur.ge of Paradise, and think no man can be a master of it without a miracle, as consisting of .several millions of wovdi. The books which treat of it say they have no fewer than a thousand terms to express tlir word camel, and five hundred for tku of a lion. But among these are reckoned tlie metaphorical expressions and images of their poets. The Lord's prayer in Arabic h as fol- lows : Ahiina elladhi fi-ssamxvat ; jetkuddus csnmc ; tati ?nulacutac : taouri musi'biulic, cama fi-sm?na ; kedlialec ulu lardh autini^ ch.obzena kefutna irtum beiaum ; wassor kna donubcim WiuhuUtinu, cumu no^for nudiiift lemcn acu doina ; ii-alu tudulc/ialnu Jifuijarib ; lakcn mcijiiui me nneschcrir. Amen. History.] The history of this countr)' in snmt-^ meastire differs from that of all others ; for, as the slavery and subjection of otlicr na- tions make a great part of their history, that of the Arabs is entirely composed of tlieir conquests or independence. The Arabs are de- scended from Ishmacl, of whose posterity it was foretold, that they should be invincible, " have their hands against every man, and every man's hands against theirs." They are at present, and have remaiued from the remotest ages, during tJie various conquests of the Greeks, Romans, and Tartars, a convincing proof of the divinity of this pre- diction. Towards ti'-e north, and the sea-coasts of .\rabia, the inlia- bitants are, indeed, kept in awe by the Turks ; but the wandering tribes in tlie southern and inla,nd parts acknowledge themselves the subjects of no foreign power, and do not fail to harass and annoy all strangers who come into their country. The conquests of the Au'.bs make as wonderful a part of their history, as the indopendence and freedom which they have ever continued to enjoy. These, as well as their religion, began with one man, whose character forms a very sin- gular phenomenon in the history of mankind. This was the famous M<diamed, a native of Mecca, a city of tliat division of Arabia, which, from the luxuriancy of its soil anil happy temperature of its climate, has ever been esteemed the loveliest and most delightful region of the world, and distinguished by the epitliet of the Happy. Mohamed was born in die year 569, in the reign of Justinian IL em- peror of Constantinople. Though descended of mean parentage, illite- rate and poor, he was endued with a subtile genius, like tlios* of the same country, and possessed a degree of enterprise and ambition peculiar to himself, and much beyond his condition. He had been employed in the early part of his life, by his uncle, Abuteleb, as a factor, and had occa- sion, in this capacity, to travel into Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. He was afterwards taken into the service of a rich mer(,hant, upon whose defth he married his widuw, Khadija, and by her means came to be possessed «f great wealth and. of a numerous family. JJuriug bis peregrinations •I'i I i I.'.:' 11 u 612 ARABIA, into Eg)'nt ami the E;;sf, he had obsiTvcd tlie \\\nt variety of sects in n- li^i()U, whose hatred against eaih otlicr wns hirong and inveterate, while, at tlie same time, there were many particulars in v.liich the greater part of them were agreed. lie tareJuily took advantage of these; by means of v hieli, and by addressing himself to the love of power, riches, and pleasure, passions universal imiong men, he expected to raise a new sys- tem of religion, more general th;m any which hitherto had been esta- blished. In this design he was assisted by Sergius, a monk, whose libertine dispo.sition had made him forsake his cloister and profession, and engage in the service of Kliadija, with whom he remained as a do- mestic when Mahomed was taken to her bed. This monk was perfectly qualitied, by his great learnnig, for ^applying tlie delects which his ma- ster, lor want of a liberal education, iabuurcd under, and which, in all probability, must have obstructed the execution of his design. It was necessary, however, that the religion they proposed to establish should have a divine sanction ; and for this purpose ]VIahomed turned a calamity, Avith whicU he was atllicted, to his advantage. He was often subject to tils of the epilepsy, a disease which those whtnn it aiilicts are desirous to conceal. Mahomed gave out, therefore, that these lits were trances into which he was nfiraculously thrown by God Almighty, during which he was histrnctcd in his will, which he was comnjanded to publish to the world. By this strange stor}', and by leading a retired, abutemitHis, and austere life, he easily arquiied a chuructcr tor superior sanctity among his acquaintance and ncighiMmrs. "When he tliought iiimself suiliciently tbrtiticd by the numbers and the entiuisiasiu of his foUowers, he boldly declared himself a prophet sent by God into the world, not only to teach his will, but to compel mankind to obey it. As we have already mentioned, h.e c'.id not lay the foundation of liis system so narrow as only to cornpreliend the natives of his own country. His mind, though rude and eniliuoiubtic, wa:^ enlarged by travelling into distant lands, whose manners and religion he had made a peculiar study.. He proposed tliat the system he established should extend over all the neighbouring niitions, to wh»jse doctrines and prejudices he had taken care to adapt it. Many of the inhabitants of tlie eastern countries were at this time much addicted to the opinions of Arius, who denied that Jesus Christ was co-e<iual with God the l-'athcr, as is declared in the Alhanasian creed. Egypt and Arabia were tilled with Jews, who had tied into tlie.se corners of the world from the j)erse<:ution of the emperor Adrian, who threatened the total extinction of tiuit people. The otlier inhabitants of these countries were pagans. 1'hese, however, bad little attachment to tlieir decayed and derided idolatry ; and, like men ^^hose religious principle is weak, had given themselves over to pleasure and sensuality, or to the actjuisition ot riches, to be the better able to indulge in the gratirications of sense, wiiich, together witli the doctrine of pie- destination, cc>:nposed the sole pi im iples of their relit^ion and philosophy. The system ^f Mahomed was exactly suited to these three kinds of men. To gratify the two former, he dechued that there was one God, whc* created the world and governed all things in it j tfiat he had sent various prophets into tlie world to teach his will to mankind, among whom Closes and Jesus Christ were the most eminent : but the endeavours of tJiese had proved inetfectual, and God had therefore now sent his last and greatest prophet, with a conunission more ample than what Mosea ©r Christ had beeii intrusted w ith. He had commanded him not only to. publisli his laws, but to subdue those who were unwilling to believe ot ubey theiu ; and for this en<l, to e6labU*h a klngilom upon earth, which. ARABIA. 64i ihoald prop.igate the divine law througliout the world ; that God had d'.-signed utter ruin and dcsti\iction to those who should refuse to submit to him ; but to his faithful followers he had given the: spoils and posses- sions of all tlic earth, as a reward in this life, and had provi.led for them liereafter a paradise of all sensual enjoyments, especially those of Icnej that the pleasvires of such as died in propagating the faith would lu' pe- culiarly intense, and vastly transcend those of the rest. Thi'se, together with the prohibition of drinking strong liquors (a restraint not very severe in warm climates), and the doctrine of predestination, were the capital articles of Mahomed's creed. I'hey were no sooner published, than a great number of his countrymen embraced them with implicit faith. They were written by the priest before mentioned, and compose' a book called the Koran, or Alkoran, by way of e:ninence, as we say tlie Bible, which means the Book. The person of Mahomed, however, was familiar to the inhabitants of Mecca ; so that the greater part of them were sufficiently convinced of the deceit. The more enlightened and leading men entered into a design to cut him otf j but Mahomed, getting notice of their intention, fled from his native city to Medina Tahmachi, or the City of the Prophet. The fame of his miracles and doctrine was, according to custom, greatest at a distance, and the inhabitants of Medina received him with open arms. From this flight, which hap- pened in the 622d year of Christ, the fifty-fourth year of Mahomed's age, and the tenth of his ministry, his followers, the Mahomedans, compute their time ; and the aera is called in Arabic, Hegira, or Hejra, i. e. the Flight. Mahomed, by the assistance of the inhabitants of Medina, and of ©thers whom his insinuation and address daily attached to him, brought over all his countrymen to a^belief, or at least to an acquiescence, in his doctrines. The speedy propagation of his system among the Arabians was a new argument in its behalf among the inhabitants of Egypt and the East, who were previously disposed to it. Arians, Jews, and Gen- tiles, all forsook their ancient faith, and became Mahomedans. In a word, the contagion spread over Arabia, Syria, Egypt, ant' I'tjrsia j and Mahomed, from a deceitful hypocrite, became a powerful ir A^rch. He ■was proclaimed king at Medina, in tlie year 627 ; and, aftci subduing part of Arabia and Syria, died in 632, leaving two branches of his race, both esteemed divine among their subjects. These were the caliphs of Persia and of Egypt, under the last of which Arabia ^^^^s included. The former of these turned their arms to the East, and made conquests of many countries. The caliphs of Egypt and Arabia directed their ravages towards Europe, and, under the name of Saracens or Moors, (which tliey obtained because they entered Europe from Mauritania, in Africa, the country of the Moors,) reduced the greater part of Spain, France, Italy, and the islands in tlie Mediterranean. • In this manner did tlie successors of that impostor spread their religion and conquests over the greatest part of Asia, Africa, and Europe ; and tli^y sfdl give law to a very considerab!? portion of mankind. l! U\ .-•'.• ..f 2X2 C 044 ) Mil PERSIA. SITUATION AND KXTRNT. Miles. Decrees. Sq. Miles. and 70 East longitude lireallth 1050 j ^^^^'"^ i'i5 ami 40 North laUtude:r°°>°°° Name.] PERSIA, according to the poets, derived its name from Perseus, the son of Jupiter and Danae. Less fabulous authors suppose it derived from Paras, Pars, or Pars, which signify a h()rseman,:r-thc Persians, and Parthtans, being always celebrated for their skill in hurse- inanship. Boundaries.] Modem Persia is bounded by the mountains of Ararat, or Daghistan, which divide it from Circassia and Georgia, on the north- west ; by the Caspian Sea, which divides it from Russia, on the north ; by the river Oxus, which divides it from Usbec Tartary, on the north-eakt j by India, on tlie east } by the Indian Ocean, and the gulfs of Persia and Ormus, on the south ; and by Arabia and Turkey, on the west. Divisions.] Tliis kingdom contains tlie following provinces :— rroiinccs. Ancient Names, Chief Towns. Farsistan Persis, or Persia propria Shiran^ Irac Agemi Media Ispahan Aderlx'itzan Media Atrojiatena .... Tauris Khusistan Susiana Suster Mazanderan Margiana Ferabad Khorasan Margiana and Aria. . . . Herat Ghilan Gela Reshd Sablestan Bactriana Bost Schirvan Albania Schamakie Segestan Arachosia Zareng Mekran Gredrosia ,. . . Kidge I^aristan Lar Kerman Cararaania Kerman Mountains.] 'Jhese are Caucasus and Arsvrat, which are called th«i mountains of Daghiiitan j and the vast chain of mountains called Tau- rus, and tlieir divisions, which run through the middle of the country tiom Natolia to India. Rivers.] It has been observed, that no country, of so great aa ex- lent, has 90 few luvigable rivers as Persia. The most considerable are the Kur, anciently Cyrus ; and Aras, anciently Araxes, which rise in or near the mountains of Ararat, and, joining their streams, fall into the Caspian Sea. Some small rivulets falling from the mountains water the country ; but their streams are so inconsiderable, tliat few or none t)f them «an be navigated even by boats. The Oxus can scarcely be called a Persian river, though it divides Persia from Usbec Tartary. I'ersia has the river Indus on the east, and the Euphrates and Tigris ou liie west. I'he want of rivers in Pt;rsia occasioas a scarcity of water : but the defect, where it prevails, is admirably well supplied by means of re- scnoirs, aqueducts, and canals. MiTALs AND MiTVKALs.] Persla contAins mines of iron^ copper, PERSIA. 6-15 the re- per, lead, and, above all, turqnoise-stfmrs, wIi'kJi ^to fi.iuu! iit KIidrasMf), Sulpluir, salt-iH'tre, and antimony, art* touucl in lUo nioiuu.iins. Ciii;n- ries of red, white, and bl:u k nurtil* have also been discovered near Tauris. Climate.] Those parts of Persia wlilch Ijorder upon Cauc*ius and Daghistan, and tlie mountiiins near the Caspian Sea, are cold, as lying in tlie neighbourhood of these mountains, which are eominonly covered "with snow. The air in tlie midland provinces of Persia is serene, pure, and exhilarating ; bat in the southern provinces it is hot, and sometimes communicateH noxioas blasts to tlie midland parts, which are so often mortal, that the inhabitants fortify their heads with very thick tur- bans. Soil, vegetablk phodittions.] Tlie soil is far from being Inxu- Ttant towards Tartaryand the Caspian Sea, biu with cultivation it might produce abundance of corn and fruits. South of Mount Taurus, the countiy abounds in com, fruits, wine, and the other luxuries of ILle. It produces oil in plenty, senna, rhul)atb, and the linest drug!). The fruits are delicious, especially the dates, oranges, pistachio nuts, melons, cucumbers, and ganlen-stutl'. Great «iuantities of excellent silk are likewise produced in this country, and the Gulf of Ilassorah for- merly furnished great j)art of Europe and Asia with very tine pearls. Some parts, near Ispahan especially, produce almost all the flowers that are valued in Europe; aiid from some of them, particularly roses, they extract waters of a salubrious and odorilic kind, which form a gainful commodity in trade. In short, the fruits, vegetables, aiad flowers of Persia are of a most exalted flavour ; and had the natives the art of horticulture to as much perfection as some nations in Europe, by trans- planting, engrafting, and other meliorations, they would add greatly to tlic natural riches of the country. The Persian assafoctida flows from a plant called hiltot, a«d turns into a gum. Some of it is white^ and some black ; but the former is so nuick valued, that the natives make very rich sauces of it, and sometimes eat it as a rarity. No place in the world produces the necessaries of life in greater abun- dance and perfection than Shirauz ; nor is there a more delightful spot in nature to be conceived, than the vale in which it is situate, either for the salubrity of the air, or for the profusion of every thing necessary to render life comfortable and agreeable. The flelds yield plenty of rice, wheat, and barley, which they generally begin to reap in the montli of May, and by the middle of July the harvest is completed. Most of the Europpan fruits are produced here, and many of them are superior in size and flavour to what can be raised in Europe, particularly the apri- cot and grape. Of the gi'.^pe of Shirauz there are several sorts, all of them very good, but two or three more particularly so than the rest : one is tlie large white grape, which is extremely luscious and agreeable to the taste ; the small white grape, as sweet as sugar ; and the black grape, of which i.hc celebrated wine of Shirauz is made, which is really delicious, and well deserving of praise. It ts pressed by the Armenians and Jews, in the months of October and N<nember, and a great quan- tity is exported annually to Abu Shehr, and other parts in the Persiarv Gulf, for supplying the IndLin market. The pomegranate is good to a proverb ; tlie Persians call it the fruit of Varadise. Animals.] The breed of horses in the province of Fars is at present very indiflerent, owing to the ruinous state of the country ; but in the diiJtrict of Dushtistaan, lyin^to the south-west, it is remarkably good. The slieep are of a superior fiavpur, owii>p to the excelWnce of the 1 ■ 1 '- I ■ I] ti !\1 I I ffMJ PERSIA. Il: I » ..Hi ,v:S pastiirngft in the neighbourhood of Shir.iuz, and are fl^so celebrated frtr the fineness of their fleece : " ilioy h ivc tails of an extraordinary size, some of which I h;uo seen weigli," says Mr. Francklin, " upwards of thirty pounds; but tho^e whicJi arc sold in the markets do not weigh above six or seven. Tlieir oxen are hirge and strong, but their flesh is seldom eaton by the natives, who confine themselves chiefly to that of rIk'c'p iiiul fowls." Natural curiositip.s.] The baths near Gombroon are medicinal, and estet-int'd among the natural curiosities of Fer.-.ia. The springs of the famous Naptha, near Baku, are mentioned often in natural history for their surprising qualities; but the chief of the natural curiosities ia this country is the burning ph.-Bnomenon, and its inflammatory neigh- bourhood, aheady mentioned under the article of Religion. PopuLATiox, INHABITANTS,") It IS impossible to speak with any manm;ks, customs, j certainty concerning the population of a country so little known as that of Persia. If we are to judge by the vast armies, in modern as well as in ancient times, raided tliere, the nutn- bers it contains must be very great, TJic Persians of both sexes are ge* nerally handsome ; the men being fond of marrying G.orgian and Cir- cassian women. Their complexions towards the south arc somewhat swartliy. 1 AC men shave their heads, but the yomi;^ men sufl:er a lock of hair to ^row on each side, and tlie beard of tncir chin to reach up to their temples ; and religious people wear long beards. Men of rank and quality wci'r vt-.y magnificent turbans ; many of them cost twenty- five pounds, auvl few under nine or ten. They have a maxim to keep their heads very warm, so tiiat they never pull oft' their caps or their turbans out of respect even to the king. I'heir dress is very simple. Next to their skin they wear calico shirts, over them a vest, which reaches below tlie knee, girt with a sash, and over that a loose gar- ment somewhat shorter. The materials of their clothes, however, are cqmmonly very expensive, consisting of tbe richest furs, silks, mus- lins, cottons, and the like valuable stutfs, richly embroidered with gold and silver. Tliey wear a kind of loose boots on their legs, and slippers on their feet. They are fond of riding, and very expensive in tJieir equipages. They wear at all times a dagger in their sash, and liner»- trowsers. The collars of their shirts and clothes are ojk^ii ; so that their dress upon the whole is far better adapted for the purpose both of health, and activity than the long flowing robes of the Turks. The dress of the women, as well as tliat of the men, is very costly ; and they are at great pains to heighten their beauty by art, colours, and washes. Tlie Persians accustom themselves to frequent ablutions, which are the more necessary as they seldom change their linen. In the morning early thej drink coffee, about eleven go to dinner upon fruits, sweet- meats, and milk. Their chief meal is at night. They eat at their re- pasts cakes of rice, and others of wheat flower ; and as tliey esteem it an abomination to cut either bread, or any kind of meat after it is dressed, these cakes are made thin, that they may be easily broken with the hand ; and their meat, which is generally mutton or fowls, is so prepared that they divide it \^'ith their fingers. When every thing is set in order before them, they eat fast, and without any ceremony. But it is observed by a late traveller, that when the oldest man in the company speaks, though he be poor, and sit at the lower end of the room, tJioy all give a strict attention to his words. Tliey are temperate, but u.se ophiin, tliough not in such abundance as the Turks ; nor are they very delicate in tiicii" cutcrtainmeuts of eating and drinking. Tl^ey PHUSIA. 6j; use great ceremony townnls their su|H*rinrs, and poliloly acconitrrHlato Europeans who visit tlicm, with stool"., ti»at ihi-y may not bt* forced to sit cross-k'ggcd. They arc so iminodcr.iioly lond ot tokicco, which they binuku through a tiibc fixed in water, .so as to be cool in (Ih* motitii, that, when it hiU been proliibitc<I by their prinees, they have been known to leave tlieir country rather tJian be tlebaiicd from tliat enjoyment. Tiie Persians are naturally fond of poetry, mnr.il sentence >, and liypt'rl)ole. Their long wars, and tl»e national revolutions, liavc mingled tlie native "Persians with barbarous nations, and are said to have l;m';!!t tliem dis- shnulation ; but they are still pleasing and plau>.il)le in their bi^h.i victor, and in all ages have been remarkable liir htj.-^piiality. The gre:;t toitilc of the Persians seems to be ostentation in their eijuipajres atid dre^ises; nor are they less jealous of iluir women than the I'uiks and other eastern nations. They are fond of musie, and take a pleasure in conversini; in large companies : but tii -ir chief diversions are those of the lield, hunting, hawking, horsemauship, and the exercise of arms; in all which they are very dexterous. They excel, as their ancestors the Par- thiaui did, in archery. Thty are fond of rope-ilancers, jugglers, and lighting of wild bc.uts ; and privately play at games of dianee. There are places in Shiran/. (Mr. Francklin ol)ierves) distinguished by the name of Zoor K!»ana, the liouse of strength, or e.\erci'.e, to which the Persians resort l()r the purp(»se of exercising thenvselves. These houses consist of one room, with the tloor sunk about two feet below the surface of the earth, and the light and air are admitted to the apirt- ment by means of several small jK*rforateil ni^crtures made in the tlonie. In tlie centre is a large square terrace of earth, well beaten dow n, smooth and even ; and on each side are small alcoves, raised about two feel above tiie terrace, where tiie musicians and spectators are seateil. "When all the competitors are assembled, which Is on every Friday morn- ing by day-break, they immediattdy xtrip themselves to the wai.-t ; on ■which each man puts on a pair of tliic-k woollen drawers, and takes in his hands two wooden clubs, of aUnu a fooi and a half in length, and cut hi the shape of a pear ; these they rest upon their shoulders ; and the music striking up, they nio\e the^n backwards and fcjrwards with great agility, stamphig with tlieir feet at the same time, auil straining every nerve, till they produce a very proliisc perspiration. After con- tinuing this exercise anout half an hour, upon a .signal given they all leave off, quit the.ir clubs, and, joining hands in a circle, begin to move their feet very briskly in unison with the music, which is all the while playing a lively tune. Having continued this exercise for some time, they commence wrestling j in which the master of the house is alway.'* tlie challenger, and, being accustomed to tlie exercise, generally proves conqueror. The spix'tators pay each a shahee in money, ecjual to three- pence English, for which they are refreshed with a calean to smoke, and coffee. This moile of exercise must contribute to health, as well as add strength, vigour, and a manly jqipeaiance to the frame. It .seems to bear some resemblance to the gymnastic exercises of the ancients. The Persians, with respect U) outward behaviour, are certainly thi' most polished per>ple of tliQ East. While a rude and insolent demeanour peculiarly marks the character of the Turk:.->h nation toward foreigners and Christians, the behaviour of the Persians would, on the contnny, do honour to the most civili.scd natioTis. They are kind, courteou.-., civil, and obliging to all strangers, without being guided by those religious pre- judices .so very prevalent in every other ^Iahomedan nation^ they are fond of inquiring after the njauners and cuiloms of Eufope j and, in " eS48 PERSIA. ' +t ii'.'.:-' i !vr lit;''* ^Si- \r. M. ■ '" retu^, very readily aiford any information in respect to their own coun- try. The prncticc of hospitality is with them so grand a point, that a man thinks himself highly honoured if you will enter his house and par- take of what the family affords ; whereas going out of a house without smoking a calcan, or taking any other refreshment, is deemed, in Persia, a high affront j they say that every meal a stranger partakes with them brings a blessing upon the house. The Persians, in their conversation, use extravagant and hyperbolical compliments on tlie most trifling occasions. I'his mode of address (which in fact means nothing) is observed not only by those of a higher rank, but even amongst the meanest artificers, the lowest of whom will make no scruple, on your arrival, to offer you the city of Shirauz and all its appurtenances, as a peishkush, or present. This behaviour ap- pears at first very remarkable to Eoropeans, but after a ishort time be- comes equally familiar. Freedom of conversation is a thing totally un- known in Persia, as, that ivatls have ears, is proverbially in the mouth of every one. The fear of chains which bind their bodies has also en- slaved their minds ; and their conversation to men of superior rank to themselves is marked with signs of die most abject and slavish submis- sion ; while, on the contrary, they are as haughty and overbearing to their inferiors. In their conversation the Persians aim much at elegance, and are per- petuhily repeating verses and passages from the works of their most favourite poets, Hafez, Sadi, and Jami ; a practice universally preva- lent from the highest to the lowest 5 because those who have not the advantage of reading and writing, or the other benefits arising from education, by the help of their memories, which are very retentive of whatever they have heard, are always ready to bear their part in con- versation. They also delight much in jokes and quaint expressions, and are fond of playirg upon each other; which they sometimes do with great elegance and irony. There is one thing much to be admired in their conversations, which is the strict attention they always pay to the pejson speaking, whgm they never interrupt on, any account. They are in general a personable, and in many respects a handsome people j their complexions, except those who are exposed to tlie inclemencies of the Weather, are as f lir as Europeans. The brightness and sparkling in the eyes of the women, a very strik- ing beauty, are in a great measure owing to art, as they rub their eye- brows and eye-lirls with the black powder of antimony (called sunuu), wliich adds an incomparable brilliancy to their natural lustre. Mahriages.] When the parents of a young man have determined upon marrying him, they look out among their kindred and acquaint- ance for a suitable match ; they then go to the house where tlie female they inf,end to don)and lives. If tlie father of the woman approves, he jrnrnediatcl}' orders sweetmeats to be brought in ; which is taken as a direc t sign of compliance. After this the usual presents on the part of the bridegroom are made, which, if the person i)e in middling circuni- stances, generally consist of two complete suits of apparel, of the best sort, a ring, a looking-glass, and a small sum in ready money, of about ten or twelve tonians, which is to provide for ''^e wife in case of a divorce. There is also provided a quantity of household stuff of all sorts, such as carpets, mats, bedding, utensils for dressing victuals, &c. The contract is witnessed by the cadi, or magistrate. The wedding- night being come, the bride is brought forth, covered from head to foot in a veil uf red silk^ or painted maslln ; a horse is tlien presented for PERSIA. (549 )wn coun- itj that a ; and par- e without in Persia, vith them perbolical )f address f a higher .'hom will irauz and iviour ap- time be- otally up- he mouth s also en- ->r rank to [i submis- searing to d are per- beir most Uy preva- r'C not the ing from tentive of I in con- iions, and do with mired in ay to the hey are lej their s of the ry strik- |ieir eye- surma), Mniined cquaint- female tves, he len as a part of :ircum- lof the pey, of lease of of all is, &c. fdding- |to foot ted for her t<* mount, which Is sent expressly by the bridegroom ; and when she is mounted, a lai'ge k)okinj.^-glass is held before her by one of the bride-maids, all tlie wny to the houbcof her husband, as an admonition to her, that it is the last ti'we she will look into the glass as a virgin, being now about to enter into the cares of the married state. The pro- cession then sets forward in the following order : — first, the nuisic and dancing-girls, after which the presents in trays borne upon men's shoul- ders ; next come the relations and friends of the briclegroom, all shout- ing, and making a great noise ; who are followed by the bride herself, surrounded by all her female friends and relations, one of whom leads the horse by the bridle, and se^ eral others on horseback close the pro- cession. Rejoicings upon this occasion generally continue eight or ten days. Men may marry tor life, or for any determined time, in Persia, as well as tlirough all Tarlary } and all travellers or merchants;, who intend to stay some time in any city, commonly apply to the cadi, or judge, for a wife during the time he proposes to stay. The cadi, for a stated gratuity, produces a number of girls, whom he declares to be honest, and free from diseases j and he becomes surety for them. A gentleman, who lately attended the Russian embassy to Persia, declines, that amongst thousands, tlicre has not been one instance of tlieir dis- honesty during the time agreed upon. Funerals.] The funerals of the Persians are conducted in a manner similar to those in other Mahomedan countries. On the death of a Mussulman, the relations and friends of the deceased, being a.ssenibled, make loud lamentations over the corpse j after which it is washed, laid out on a bier, and carried to the place of interment without tlie city-walls, attended by a Mullah, or priest, who chants passages from the Koran all tlie way to the grave. It' any Mussulman should chance to meet the corpse during the procession, he is obliged, by the precepts of hi« religion, to runup to the bier, and ofter his assistance in carrying it to the grave, crying out at the same time, Luh lllah, III Lillith .' There is no God, but God. After interment, the relations of the deceased re- turn home, and the women of the family make a mixture of wheat, hon ?y, and spices, which they eat in memory of the deceased ; sending a part of it to tlieir friends and acq'iaintance, that they may also pay him a like honour. This custom seems to be deri\ed from \ery great an- tiquity, as we read in Homer of sacritices and libations being iVequently made to the memory of dcparte^l souls. Cities, chief towns, ediuces.] Ispahan or Spahawn, the caj)ital of Persia, is seated on a tine plain, within a mile of the river Zender- hend, which supplies it with water. It is said to be twelve miles in cir- cumfersnce. The streets are narrow and crooked, and the chief amuse- ment of the inhabitants is on the flat roofs of their houses, where thev spend their summer evenings ; and ditferent families associate togetlior. The royal square is a third of a mile in length, and about half as much in breadth : and we are told, that the royal palace, with the buildings and gardens belonging to it, is three miles in circumfexcnce. I'herc are in Ispahan IdO mosques, 1800 caravanserais, 'itiO public baths, a prodigious number of fine squares, .streets, iuid palaces, in which are canals, and trees planted to shade and better accommodate the people. This ca})ital is said formerly to have ronlained i)50,000 inhabitants } but was often depopulated by Kouli Khan during his wars 5 so that we may easily suppose that it has lost great part of its ancient magniticeiice. In 1744, when Mr. Han way was there. It wa.^ thought that not above 5000 of its houses were mhabited. I 'A ' III m 6ao PERSIA. U'f 4". m ■'!!n TflSf^'.- Shirauz lies about 225 miles to the south-east of Ispahan. It is an open town, but its neighbourhood is inexpressibly rich and beautiful, being laid out for many miles in gardens, the flowers and fruits of wliich are incomparable. The wines of Shirauz are reckoned the best of any in Persia. The town is the capital of Farsistan, or Persia Pro- per, and has a college for the study of eastern learning. It contains an uncommon number of mosques, and is adorned by many noble buildings ; but its streets are narrow and inconvenient, and not above 4000 of it* houses arc inhabited. Shirauz has many good bazars and caravanseials j that distinguished by the appellation of the Vakeel's bazar (so called from its being built by Kherim Khan) is by far the handsomest. It h a long street,- extending about a quarter of a mile, built entirely of brick) and roofed something in the style of the piazzas in Co\ent-gar- den } it is lofty and well made j on earli side are the shops of the trades- men, merchants, and others, in which are exposed for sale a variety of goods of all kinds ; these shops are the pro{>erty of tlie Khan, and arc rented to the merchants at a very easy monthly rate. Leading out of this bazar Is a spacious caravanserai, of an octagon form, built of brick, the entrance through a handsome arched gateway j in the centre is a place for the baggage and merchandise, and on the sides, above and be- low, commodious apartments for the merchants and travellers ; these are also rented at a moderate monthly sum. About the centre of the above-mentioned bazar, is another spacious caravanserai of a square form, tlie front of which is ornamented with a blue and white ena- melled work, in order to represent China-ware, and has a pleasing effect to the eye. The city of Shirauz is adorned (according to Mr. Francklin) with many fine mosques, particularly tliat built by the late Kherim Khan, which is a noble one. Being very well disguised, says our traveller, in my Per- sian dress, I had an opportunity of entering tlie building unobser\cd. It is of a square form ; in the centre is a stone reservoir of water, made for performing the necessary ablutions, previous to prayer ; on the lour sides of the building are arched apartments allotted for devotion, some of the fronts of which are covered with Cliina tiles ; but Kherim Khau dying before tlie work was completed, the remainder has been made up witli a blue and white enamelled work. Within the apartments, on tlie walls on each side, are engraven various sentences from the Koran, in the Nushki character j and at tlie upper end of tlie square is a large dome, with a cupola at top, which is the particular place appropriated for the devotion of the vakeel ; or for the sovereign : this is lined through- out with white marble, ornamented with the curious blue and gold arti- ficial lapis lazuli, and has three large silver lamps suspended from th« roof of the dome. In the centre of the city is anotlier mosque, which tlie Persians call the Musji'di Ntx), or the New Mosque, but its date is nearly coeval with the city itself j at least, since it has been inhabited by Mahoniedans j it is a square building, of a noble size, and has apari- nients for prayer on each side; in them are many inscriptions in the old Cufic character, which of themselves denote tlie antiquity of the place. Provisions of all kinds are very cheap in this city ; and the neighbour- ing mountains al^brding an ample supply of snow throughout tlie year, tlie meanest artificer of Shirauz may have his water and fruits coolcil without any ex|)ense worthy consideration. This snow being gathered on the tops of tlie mountains, and brought in carts to the city, is sold in llie markets. The price of provisions is regulated in Shirauz, with PERSIA. 651 the greatest exactnes?, by the darcga, or judge of the police, who sets a tixed price upon every article ; and no shop-keeper dares to demand more, under the severe penalty of losing his nose and ears. The p<)lice in Shirauz, as well as all over Persia, is vary strict. At Bun-set, the gates of the city are shut ; no person whatever is permitted either to come in or go out during tlie niglit ; the keys of tlie ditJ'ereilt gates l)eing always sent to the hakim or goveriwr, and remaining with him until morning. During die night, three tablas, or drums, are beaten at three different times ; the first at eight o'clock, tlie second at nine, and tlie third at half past ten. After the third tabla has sounded, all persons whatsoever found in tlie streets by the daroga, or judge of the police, or by any of his people, are instantly taken up, and conveyed to a place of confinement, where tliey are detained until next morning, when they are carried before tlic hakim ; and if they cannot give a very good account of themselves, are punished, either by the bas- tinado or a fine. The houses of men of quality in Persia are in the same taste with those of the Asiatic Turks already described. They are seldom above ones «tory high, built of bricks, with flat roofs for walking on, and thick walls. The hall is arched, the doors are clumsy and narrow, and the rooms have no communication but witli the hall ; the kitchens and office-houses being built apart. Few of them luive chimneys, but a ■round hole in the middle of the room. Their ftirniture chietly consists of caj-pets, and tlieir beds are two thick cotton quilts, which serve them likewise as coverlets, ^\'ith carpets under tltem. Tauris, or Tcbriz, the chief city of Aderbeitzan, was formerly the capital of Persia, and is said to contain 300 caravanserais, or inns, and 250 mosques. The number of inhabitants was estimated by Chardiii at 550,000, besides a multitude of strangers who resorted thither from all parts of Asia. Tiie bazars, or market-places, are particidiirly grand and spacious ; and it is said that the gi-eat square has held 30,000 men ^irawn up in order of battle. The finest Persian turbans are made in this city ; and its trade, which is very great in cloth, cotton, silks, gold and silver brcxrades, and shagreen leather, extends not only all over Persia, but into Turkey, Russia, Tartary, and the East Indies. Tiie cities of Ormus and Gombroon, on the narrow part of the Per- sian Guif, M'ere formerly places of great commerce and importance. The En^^lish, and other Europeans, have factories at Gombroon, where tftey trade with the Persians, Arabians, Banyans, Armenians, Turks, and Tartars, who come hither wiih the caravans, which set out from various inland cities of Asia, under the convoy of guards. Manui'actuues AND COMMERCE.] The Persians cqual, if Hot cx- ceed, all the manufacturers in the world in silk, woollen, mohair, car- pets, and leather. Their works in these join fancy, taste, and elegance, to richness, neatness, and show ; and yet they are ignorant of painthi:;, 3nd their drawings arc vtry rude. Their dyeing excels that of Europe. Their silvtfr and gold laces, and threads, are admirable for prc^ervin;'- their lustre. 'I'lieir embroideries and horse-furniture are not to b« equalled; nor are they ignorant of the pottery and window-glass manu- factures. On the other hand, tlieir carpenters are very inditlerei^r artists ; which is said to be owing to the scarcity of timber all over Persia. Their jewellers and golilsniiihs aie clumsy workmen ; and they are igno- rant of lock-making, and the m:i!ii.tactnre of louking-glasscs. Upon tlie whole, tliey lie under inoxprcoslUie di-iadvautares trom L'le form (Jif M 652 PERSIA. ):sh. m (m J' 'li 1,1* 'V.. i. ! ' ■ fill" ■1 '■ nionaivli. venimcnt i.osgioi). their government, which renders them slaves to their kings, who often engross cither their labour or their profits. The trade of the Persians, who have little or no shipping of their own, is carried on in foreign bottoms. That with the English and other na- tions, by the Gulf of Ormus at Gombroon, was tlie most gainful they had ; but the perpetual wars they have been engaged in have ruined their commprcc. The great scheme of the English in trading with the Persians tlu"ough Russia promised great advantages to both nations, but it answered the expectations of neither. The court of Petersburg pro- bably is not fonJ of sutfering the English to establish themselves upon the Caspian Sea, the navigation of which is now possessed by the Rus- sians. The C-i.spian Sea is about 680 miles long, and 'itJO broad in the widest part ; it has no tiile, but is navigable by vessels drawing from nine to ten feet M'ater, with several good ports. The Russian ports are Kislar and Guvief. Derbent and Niezahad belong to Persia, as also Einzcllee and Astrabad, with Baku, the most commodious haven in tliis sea, and which has a fortress surrounded witli high walls. As the ma- Kufacturcs and silk of Ghilan are esteemed the best in Persia, Reschd on tlie Caspian is one of the first commercial towns in this part of Asia, and supplies the bordcr'mg provinces with European merchan- dise. Constitution, oovfrnment, and laws.] These are extremely precarious, as resting in the breast of a despotic and often capricious The Persians, however, had some fundamental rules of go- They excluded from their tlirone females, but not their male Blindness likewise was a di.squalification for the royal sucj- In other respects the king's will was a law for tlie people. Tlie instances that have been given of the cruelties and inhumanities practised by the Mahomedan kings of Persia are almost incredible^ especially during the last two centuries. The reason given to the Chris- tian ambassadors, by Shah Abbas, one of tlieir most celebrated princes, was, tliat tJie Persians were such brutes, and so insensible by nature, that they could not be governed without the exercise of exemplary cruelties. Rut this was only a wretched and ill-grouiid(*d apology for his own barbarity. The favourites of the prince, female as well as male, are his only counsellors, and the smallest disobedience to their will is attended with immediate death. The Persians have no degrees of nobility, so that the rtspect due to every man on account of h!s high station expires with himself The king has been known to prefer a younger son to his throne, by putting out the eyes of the elder brotlier. llie laws of Persia,, where the will of the sovereign does not inter- fere, are, like tho.se of otlier Mahomedan countries, founded on tlie Koran. Civil matters are all determined hy the cazi, and ecx'lesiastical ones (particularly divorces) by the sheik al sellaum, or head of the faith, HU office answering to that of Mufti in Turkey. Justice is administered in Persia in a very summary manner ; the sentence, whatever it may bo, being always put into execution on the spot. Theft is generally punished with the loss of nose and cars ; robbing on the road, by rip- ping \\\) the belly of the criminal, in which situation he is exposed upon a gibbet in one of the most public j)aris of the city, and there left luitil he expires in torment : a dreadful ])u:iishment, but it renders robberies in Peisia very micommon. I'he pwnishments in this country are so va- ried and crtiel, tii.-.t luimanity .shudders at them. PERSIA. 653 >*< !l igs, who often RfeVRVuES.] The king claims one tliird of tlie cattle, corn, and fruits, of his subjects, and likewise a third of silk and cotton. No rank or condition of Persians is exempted from severe taxations and servicas. The governors of provinces have particular lands assigned to them for maintaining their retinues and troops ; and the crow ii lands defray tlie expenses of the court, king's household, and great otiicers of state. The water that is let into fields aud gardens is subject to a tax ; and forutgti> ers, who are not Mahomedans, pay each a ducat a head. Military force.] This consisted formerly of cavalry, and it i<» now thought to exceed that of the Turks. Since the beginning of this century, however, their kings luve raised bodies of infantry. The re- gular troops of both brought into the field, ev6n under Kouli Khan, did not exceed 6c),OdO : but, according to tlie modern histories of Persia, they are easily recruited in case of a defeat. The I'eislans have few fortified towns ; nor had they any ships of war^ until Kouli Khan built some' armed vessel ; but sinctt his death we hoar no more of tlieir fleet. Arms and xiTtES.] The arms of the Psrsian monarch are a lion couchant, looking at the rising sun. His title is Shah, or Sovereign ; Khan, and Sultan, which he assumes likewise, are Tartar titles. To acts of state the Persian monarch does not subscribe his name ; but tlie grant runs in this manner : " This act is givon by him whom the uni- verse obeys." Keligiok.] The Persians are Mahomedans of the sect of All ; for which reason the Turks, who follow tlie succession of Omar and Abu Bekr, call them heretics. Their religion is, if possible, in some things more fantastical and sensual than that of the Turks j but in many points it is mingled with some Bralimin superstitions. A comparison may be made between the Brahmins and tlie Persian Guehres or Gnurs, who pretend to be the disciples and successors of the ancient Magi, the fol- lowers of Zoroaster. That both of them held originally pure and simple ideas of a Supreme Being, may be easily proved : but the Indian Brah- mins and Perses atfcuse the Giiurs, who still worship the fire, of having sensualised those ideas, and of introducing an evil principle into the go- vernment of the world. A combustible ground, about ten milei distant from Baku, a city in the north of Persia, is the scene of the devotions of the Guebres. This ground is impregnated with infiammatory sub- stances, and contains several old little temples ; in one of which the Guebres pretend to preserve the sacred flame of the universal fire, which rises from the end of a liirge hollow cane stuck into the ground, re- sembling a lamp burning with very pure spirits. The Mahomedmis are , liie declared enemies of the Gaurs, who were banished out of Persia by Shah Abbas. Their sect, however, i,s said to be numerous, though tole- rated in very f&w places. The long wars between the Persians and the Romans seem early to have driven the ancient Christians into Persia and the neighbouring.^ countrieji. Even to this day, many sects are found that evidently liii\e Christianity for the ground-work of their religion. Some of tliem, called Soussees, who are a kind of quietists, sacrifice their passions to God, and profess the moral duties. The S.ibean Christians hiivo, in their religion, a mixture of Judaism and Mahoniedanism ; and are nmnerous towards the Persian Gulf. The Armenian and Georgian Christians are very nu- merous in Persia. The Persians observe tlie fast during the month of Ramazan Ct'u' 0th uioutli of the Mahoraedan year; with great biiiotness and severity . I. «j4 PliRSIA. i*i 'k^' n About an hcer before d;iy-light, they cat a meal which Is called Sehrff, and from that time until the next evening at sun-set they neither eat nor drink of any thing whatever. If, in tlie course of the dny, the smoke of a calean, or the smallest drop of water, should reach their lips, the fast is in consequence deemed broken, and of no avail. From siui-set • iiutil the next morning they are allowed to refresh themselves. 1'his fast, w lien the mouth Ramazau falls in the middle of summer, as it some- times must do (the Mohamedan year being lunar), is extremely severe, especially to tliose who are obliged by their occupations to go about during the day-time ; and is still rendered more so, as there are also se- reral nights during its continuance which they are enjoined to spend in . prayer. The Persians particularly observe two ; the one being that in which their prophet All died, from a wound which he received from the hands of an assassin, three days before ; which night is the 2lst of Ramazan, the day of which is called by the natives the Day of Murder. Ihe otlier is the night of the 23d, in which they affirm tliat the Koran vas brought down from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel, and delivered to their prophet Mahomed : wherefore it is denominated the Night of Power. Literature.] The Persians, in ancient times, were flimous for po- • lite literature, and their poets renowned ail over the East. ITiere is a manuscript at Oxford, containing the lives of a hundred and tliirty-five of the finest Persian poets. Ferdusi and Sadi were amont; the most ce- lebrated. The former comjnised the history of Persia in a series of epic poems, which employed him for near thirty years, and which are said by Mr. Jones to be "a gloriour; monument of eastern genius and learning." Sadi was a native of Shirauz, and flourished in tlie tliir- teenth century, and wrote many elegant pieces both in prose and in verse. * Shcniseddin was one of the most eminent Ijric jjoets that Asia has produced ; and Nakhsheb wrote in Persian a book called the Tales of a Parrot, not unlike the Decameron of Boccace. Janii was a most animated and elegant poet, who flourished in the middle of the fifteenth century, and whose beautiful compositions, on a great variety of subjects, are preserved at Oxford in twenty-two volumes. Hariri composed, in a rich, elegant, and floweiy style, a moral work, in lift)' dissertations, on tlie changes of fortune, and the various conditions of human life, inter- spersed with a number of agreeable ad\enturcs, and several line piece* of poetry. Of the sprightly and voluptuous bard of Shirauz, the name and cha- racter are s\itilciontly known to orientalists. It niay, however, excitd the curiosity of the English reader, that the poet Hafez, h«»e introduced to his notice, conciliated the fivour of an oli'ended emperor, by the-' delicacy of his wit, and elegance of his verses ; that the most pow- erlpl monarchs of the East .sought in vain to draw him from the enjoy- ment of literary retirement, and to purchase the praises of his Muse by all the honours and splendor of a court ; and that his works were not only tlie admiration of th<! jovial and the gay, Imt the manual of mystic piety to the superstitious Mahomedan ; the oracle which, like the Scries Virgiliaruv, determined the councils of the wibc, and prognosti- cated the fate of armies and of states. Seventeen odes have already been Iranslated into English by Mr. Not, with which he has published the origmals, for the purpose of promoting the study of the Persian lan- guage. The 2dst ode lias also r.ppcared in an English dress, by the ele- gant pen of sir William Jones. 11x9 tomb oi" tliiij Gclebruled aud dwoivedly adioired poet stiuida about PERSIA. 65» two miles distant from the walls of tlie city of Shirauz on the north-east side. It is placed in a large garden, and under the iihade of some cy- press trees of extraordinary size and beauty ; it is composed of fine white marble from Tauris, eight feet in length and four in breadth. This wias built by Kerim Khan, and covers tiie original one. On the top and sides of the tomb are select pieces from tlie poet's own works, most b^'autifully cut in the Periian Nustaleek character. During the spring and summer season, the inJiabitants visit here, and amuse themselves with smoking, playing at chess and other games, reading also the works of Hafez, who is in greater esteem with them tliau any other of their poets ; and they venerate him almost to adoration, never speaking of him but in the highest terms of rapture and enthusiasm. A most ele- gant copy of his works is kept upon the tomb, for the purpose, and the inspection of all who go there. The principal youth of the city assem- ble here ; and show every possible mark of respect for their favourite poet, makhig plentiful libations of the delicious wine of Shirauz to his memory. Close by the garden runs the stream of Ilocnabad, so cele^ brated in the works oi Hal'ez, and within a small distance is tlie sweat bower of Mosellay. At present learning is at a very low ebb among the Persians. Their boasted skill in astronomy is now reduced to a mere smattering in that science, and terminates in judicial astrology j so that no people in tlie world are more superstitious than the Persians, The learned profession in greatest esteem anjong them is that of medicine; which is at perpe- tual variance with astrology, because every dose must be in the lucky liour lixed by the astrologer ; which often defeats tho ends of tlie pre-« >criptions. It is said, however, that the Persian physicians are acute and sagacious. Their drugs arc excellent, and they are no strangers to tiie practices of Gal(?n and Avicenna. The plague is but little known ui this country ; and almcst Lqually rare are many otln-*r diseases that are latal in other places j such as the gout, the stone, die. small-pox, con- sumptions, and apoplexies. The Persian practice of physic is therefore pretty much circumscribed, and tliey are very ignorant in surgery, which is exercised by barbers, whose chiei knowledge of it is in letting blood ^ for they frust the healing of green wounds to tlie excellency of tlie air, and the good habit of the patient's body. Languagf.] The common people, especially towards' the Southern coasts of the Caspian Sea, .speak the Turkish j «nd the Arabic probably introduced into Peisia under the caliphate, when learning tlourished in those countries. I^nny of tlie learned Persians have written in the Arabic, and people of quality Iiave adopted it as a modish language, as we do the French. The pure Persic is said to be spoken in the southern parts, on the coast of the Persiiin Gulf, and in Ispahrm j but many of the provinces speak a barbarous mixture of tlie Turkish, Russian, and 0her languages. I'he Persians write like the Hebrews, from the right to the left ; are neat in their seals and materials for writing, and wondejrfully expeditious in the art. The number of people employed on their manuscripts (tor no printing is allowed there) is incredible. The Lord's prayer in Persian is as follows ; Ei Padcre ma kib dcr os- tnoni ; pac basched mam tu ; buy aycd padpiichabi tu ; schr^cid chivadste tu henzjnnduukib dtr osmon niz dfrzcmirt: bih viu^a jinrouz ndii kef qf ronz mum ; iiadargiiusar mura kondhon ma zjunaukihma itiz mifr sarim onndn niara ; nador ozmnjiich nthicddzzmura ; likin dtuUi ku7i muru et tjlhc' rir. Amtu, t ij ! I M' fl ,;^- (. i;*^ i; ^•■4K't^ 636 PERSIA. ANTiai;iTiEs.] The monuments of antiquity in Persia are more df.^ Ifhrated for their magnificence and expense, than their beauty or taste. No more than nineteen columns, which formerly belonged to the famous palace of Persepolis, are now remaining. Each is about fifteen feet high, and composed of excellent Parian marble. The ruins of other ancient buildings are tbund in many parts of Persia but they arc void of that elegance and beauty displayed in the Greek architecturp, I'he tombs of the kings of Persia are stupendous works ; being cut out of a rock, and highly ornamented witli sculptures. The chief of the modern monuments is a pillar to be seen at Ispahan, sixty feet high, consisting of the skulls of beasts, erected by Shah Abbas, after the sup- pression of a rebellion. Abba* had vowed to erect such a column of human skulls ; but, upon the submission of the rebels, he performed his vow by substituting those of brutes, eaqli of the rebels furnishing one. HisToijY.] The Persian empire suceceded the Assyrian or Babylo- nian. Cyrus laid its foundation about .556* years before Christ, and re- stored the Israelites, who had been captive at Babylon, to liberty. It ended in the person of Darius, who was conquered by Alexander 32f) years before Christ. Alexander's empire was divided among hig great general officers, whose descendents, in less than three centuries, were conquered by the Romans. The latter, however, never fully subdued Persia ; and the natives had princes of their own, from Arsaces, called Arsacides, who more than qnce defeated the Roman- legions. The successors of those princes sun'ived the Roman empire itself, but were subdued by the famous Timur-Leng, or Tamerlane, whose posterity ->\'eie supplanted by a doctor of law, the ancestor of tlie Seti or aophi fa- mily, and who pretended to be descended from Mahomed himself. His successors, from him sometimes called Sophin, though some of them were valiant and politic, proved in general to be a disgrace to huma- nity, by their cruelty, ignorance, and indolence, which brought tlieai into such a disrepute with their subjects, barbarous as they were, tliat Hussein, a prince of the Sefi race, who succeeded in l6g4, was mur- <lered by Mahmud, son and successor to the famous Miriweis ; as Mah- mud himself was by Esref, one of his general officers, who usurped the throne. Prince Thamas, the representative of the Sefi family, had escaped from the rebels, and, assembling an army, took into his service Nadir Shall, who defeated and killed Esref, and re-annexed to the Persian monarchy all the places dismembered from it by the Tiuks and Tarinrs dming their late rebellions. At last the secret ambition of Nadir broke out ; and after assuming the name of I'hamas Kouli Khan, pretending (hat his services were not sufficiently rewarded, he rebelled against his sovereign, made him a prisoner, and, it is supposed, put hiia to death. This usurper afterwards mounted the throne, xindcr the title of Shah Nadir. He made an expedition into Hiiidoostan, from which country he CiUTled otf an amazing booty in money, precious stones, and other va- luables ; but it has been remarked, tliat he brought back an inconsiderable jiart ol his plunder from Iittlia, losing great part of it upon his return by the M;;b)attas and accidents. He next conquered Usbec Tartary ; but \\ ;is not !-o successful ai^aiast the DaghistauTarUirs, whose c(»untry he found t.j be inaccessible. He vanquished the Turks in several engagements, but was unable to take Bagdad. The great principle of his govern- ment ^^■as to strike terror into all his subjects by the most cruel exccu- tiuus. His conduct became so intolerable, and particularly his attempt PERSIA. 507 to change the religion of Persia to that of Omar, and strangling the chief priests who resisted, that it was thought his brain was disordered; and he was assassinated jn his ovra tent, partly in self-defence, by his chief officers and his relations, in the year 1747* Many pretenders, upon his death, started up ; and it may naturally be supposed, that a chronological and accurate account of these various and rapid revolu- tions is' very difficult to be obtained. The confusion which prevailed through the whole country, from the death of Nadir, until the settle- ment of Kerim Khan, prevented all attempts of literature, arts, and sciences. During this interval, the whole empire of Persia was inarms, and rent by commotions ; different parties in different provinces of the kingdom struggling for power, and eacli endeavouring to render him- £elfindependcnt or the other, torrents of blood were shed, and the jnost shocking crimes were committed widi impunity. The whole fiice of the country, from Gombroon to Russia, presents to the view thousands of instances of the misery and devastation which has been occasioned by these commotions. From the accounts we have been able to collect, the number of pre» tenders to the throne of Persia, from the death of Nadir Shah until the final establishment of Kerim Khan's government, was no less than nine, including himself. Kerim Khan Zund was a most favourite officer of Nadir Shah, and at the time of his death was in the southern provinces; Shirauz and other places had declared for him. He found means, at last, after various encounters with doubtful success, com- pletely to subdue all his rivals ; and finally to establish himself as ruler of all Persia. He was in power about thirty years, tlie latter part of ■which he governed Persia under the appellation of Vakeel, or regent ; for he never would receive the title of Shah. He made Shirau/ the chief city of] his residence, in gratitude for the assistance he had re- ceived from its inhabitants, and those of the southern provinces. He died In the year 1779, in the eightieth year of his age, regretted by all his subjects, wlio esteemed and honoured him as the glory of Persia. His character is most deservedly celebrated for the public buildings ■which he erected, and the excellent police which he maintained ; sO that, during his whole reign, there was not In Shirauz a single riot productive of bloodshed : besides these merits, his aversion to severe punishments, his liberality and kindness to the poor, his toleration of people of different persuasions, his partiality for Europeans, and his encouragement of trade, together with his great military abilities and personal courage, rendered him not only beloved by his own subjects, but greatly respected by foreign powers. After the death of Kerim Khan his kinsman Zlkea, or SakI, seized the government, but on account of his cruelties -was soon murdered by the soldiers, who raised Abul Futtah, the son of Kerim, to the throne. He was soon after deposed by his uncle Sadick, who was besieged in Shirauz, taken and put to death by AH Murad, another relation of Kerim Khan's. A eunuch, however, of the name of Aga Mahmet, or Akau Mahomet Khan, refused to acknowledge the conqueror as sovereign. AH Murad marched against him, but on his way died by a fall from his horse. Jaaffar Khan, who had been made governor of Kom by AH Murad, then assumed the regal authority, but being de- feated by Akau, the latter retained possession of the provinces of Ma- randeran and Ghilan, as well as the cities of Ispahan, Hamadan, and Tauris, where he was acknowledged as sovereign. JaafFar Khan held JJosscssion of the city of Shirauz, and the proviiKes or districts of Bea- ... w L; In ■u liil m .,^ i' u |g i'!i"'ii ill !1 i rw, >H ' ' ■ Ji' li «.?« HINDOOSTAN. boon and Shuster : he also received an annual present from the pro- vince of Carniania, and another from the city of Yezd : Alnisht-lir and I^ar also send him tribute. The soutlicrn provinces are in general more fruitful than those to the northward, they not having been so frequently the scenes of action during the late revolutions. In 1792, however, Akau Mahomed Khan assembled an army, and advanced against JaafFar Khan, who was slain at Shirauz, in an insur- rection ; after which Akau became sole sovereign of Persia, except that part in the west included in the dominions of the Afghan sove- reign of Cabul and Candahar. * Akau Mahomed Khan, in ITOI-, was about fifty-five years of age, tall in stature, but of a disagreeable countenance. He is said to pos- sess great art and dissimulation, and equal avarice and ambition. J3eing a eunuch, he liad nominated for his successor his nephew Baba Serdar. ,,;..... ; .... .'. . , • • m : • INDIA WITHIN THE GANGES, or HINDOO- STAN, LATE THE EmPIRE OF THE GREA'i* Mogul. , ,,,... SITUATION AND EXTENT. Decrees. ' Sq. Miles. 870,910 • Miles. Ltn^rtb 18rX)> i.tii-wi io./v// , 5 8 .and M North latitude. > Breadth 1.550 5 '^^'^^'^^" ^7 and 92 East longitude. S NAmk.] The name of India is derived from the river Indus, and IS extended to all countries to the south of Tartary, between that river and China. This region has been divided into India within, and India beyond the Ganges, the former comprehending the northern part of Hindoostan, and the southern, improperly called the penwsu/a, cr the Hither Peninsula ; the latter all the countries from the Ganges to the frontiers of China, with tlic peninsula of Malacca, or the farther Peninsula. The name of Hindoostan appears to be of uncertain derivation. Jt is not a native term, the Hindoos calling their country Bharata. It is supposed to have been given by the Persians, and to have a refe- rence to the river Indus, or Sinde, with the Persian termination sian, signifying country. Mr. Fraser says, Hindoo signifies sv.'arthy or black, and Hindoostan the country of the swarthy people. Boundaries.] This extensive country is bounded oa the north by Usbec Tartary and Tibet ; on the east by Assam, Arracan, and the bay of Bengal ; on the south by the Indian Ocean j and by the sam<; ocean and by Persia on the west. " . '- Grand Divisions. Pi-ovinces. Hindoostan Pro- per — Provinces to the N. E. and N. on the <panges. Bengal . Bahar . Allahabad Oude . . Agra . . iDclhi . Chief Towns. ^Calcutta, or i Fort William J Hoogley I Dacca ^Moorshedabad Patna. Allahabad. Luc know. Agra. Delhi . . E. Lon. 88° 2fV N.Lat. 22 35 English. 5 E. Long. 77° 4C/ i N. Lat. '20 15 (». r/.i/.x.M from the pra. d: Abusljehr .ire in general ving been so s. an army, and z, in an insur- Persia, except Afghan sove- years of age, s said to pos- nd ambition^ nephew Baba HINDOO- E GreA'I? Sq. Miles. 870,910 r Indus, and •etween that ndia within, the northern the peninsula^ the Ganges icca, or the derivation, ry Bharata. lave a refe- nation starit sv.'arthy or e north by in, and the y the same .on. 88° 2fV at. 22 05 h. 'g.77''40' 20 15 I. 11/ f^ f A ./ V ... ifii/zA *■■■.. o I '•■If .tit 1 1 I « o B^ #. m • • v« ^^ .if»t/inty M.I i.in I !■: ...V; ''V.v- ";!'. t ''I. I\ Its '•/• I <'ii,iil,hl, li, ,/■:„.,/, nun J-- lo,i,/,<ii. 7'^' .'/" i I .V<//>>'/"'""' V)r«mri> I Of '•'.'■.-".■'.AMi-i-iii Ihnlf'ntAtt/' AO' Avwr" ,i:'.i>Anr/l / .ir.i/.««*" /■;■»*«• 4^ /.„<«*■ a,';'«'vr</ j,.,.i„...ii.,„ i. t. _.i II. ...1 ..rf* Siinilnviv ( li:iii_i^il ,,ii'' ■Vnr^MwwA Vit., .<••■"' IV.t-^w /■' SB- W 1.1- " / •■•■7 />'•■ /'.'' ' -I'l t-f , J- i";':f, '^- HINDOOSTAN. .659' Grand Divisions. Hlndoostan Proper — Pro- vinces to the ^ N. W. on the Indus. . . The Deccan,* or southern Provinces of the Mogul Empire . Provinces. ■Cabul . Candahar Lahore . Cashmere Moultan Sinde Agimere Guzerat .Malwa . 'Candeish Berar . Orissa . Dowlatabad or . Ahmednagur Visiapour or Beja' pour Golconda or Hy- drabad . . . The northern Cir- cars Chief Towns. ^ . Cabul. ■ f Candahar. Lahore. Cashmere or Serin^gur. Moultan. Tatta. .; Agimere. Ahmedabad, Cambac, Surat* Ougein, Indore. Burhanpour, , - \ . ■ Nagpour. ' , Cuttack. > Aurungabad. I Visiapour. fHydrabad. Southern Hindoos- stan (im- properly) called the ^ Peninsula of Hin- doostan. South- east coast, usually I called ihe-< coast of Coro- mandel. Carnada or the Car- natic. Cicacole Vingapatam. * i Rajamundry. < EUore. + . I Condapilly, Masulipatam. ^Guntoor. f Pullicate, Dutch. Madras or Fort 5 E. Ion. 80° 29'' St. George I N. lat. 13 5 Arcot. Sadras or Sadraspatam, Dutcli; St. Thomas, Portuguese. Pondicherry, late French. Fort St. David, English. Porto Novo. Cuddalore. ' / , Devicotta. Coimbetore. Trichinopoly. Tranquebar, Danish. ' >» Seringapatam. \ Bednore. i Chitteldroog. - ^ Bangalore. Tanjore. ,'" Madura. . - Palamcotta. .1 . Travancore. S Cochin. ,; Calicut. .'" • Tcllichery. * This name Deccan signifies the South, and, in its most extensive signification, includci the whole peninsula ^outh of Hlndoostan Proper. Hovv^ever, in its ordi- nary signification, it means only the countries situated between Hindoostan Propcrt the Carnatic, and Orissa ; that is, the provinces of Candeish, Berar, Amednagur, Hydrabad, Visiapoor, and Orissa. EenncU's Jutxsductiea to the Memoir of hia Map of Hindgostani p. cxii. 2 U 2 Mysore . Tanjore . Madura . Tinevelly . 'Travancore Calicut . -m U \t V ee$ Grand Divisions. Provinces South-west coast, usu- Canara • ally called the coast . of Mala- ^ bar. The Con The Pirate can . coast. te HIKDOOSTAN. Chief Towns, ( Barcclore. ( Onore. Goa, Portu^UM8# j Sevcrndroog. 72* 3fV 18 56 The provinces of the Mopul empire were divided into circars, wliich were again subdi<ridea into purgunnahs, the former of whicK may be compared to counties, and th»' latter to hundreds. The pro- vinces are called soubahs, and the governors or viceroys over them ioubahdars and navaubs or nab jbs. Pkesent poLiTiGAt DIVISIONS-] The invasion of the cTiipIre of Hindoostan by the celebrated Pei-.sian usurper. Nadir Shith (which has been mentioned in the history of Persia), so weakened the au- thority of the emperor, that the viceroys of the dilTercnt provinces either threw off" their allegianfce, or acknowledged a very precarious dependence ; and, engaging in wars with each other, called in as allies the East India companies of France and England, who had been originally permitted, as traders, to form establishments on the coasts. These, from the great superiority of European discii)line» from allies, became in a short time principals in an obstinate contest, that at length terminated in the expulsion of the French from Hin- doostan ; and thus a company of British merchants have acquired, partly by cessions from the country powers, and partly by conquest, •territories equal in extent, and superior in wealth and population, k> most of the kingdoms of Europe. T^c Mabrattas originally possessed several provinces of Hindoo- stan, from whence they were driven by the atms of the Mogul con- querors; they were never wholly subjected, bnt, retiring to the north- ern part of the Gauts, itiade frequent incursions from these Inacces* siblc mountains: taking advantage of the anarchy of the empire, they have extended their frontiers, and are at present possessed of a tract of country ICXX) British miles long by 700 wide; besides the territory they acqtiifed from that of Tippoo Sultan in 1792 and 1799. Hyder Ally, a soldier of fortune, who had learned the aft of war from the Europeans, having possessed himself of that part of the an» cient Carnatic called the kingdom of Mysore, within a few years ac- quired, by continuiil conquests, a considerable portion of the southern part of the peninsula. 'I'his able and active prince, the most formi- dable enemy that the English ever experienced in Hindoostan, dyin^ in iTHfJ, left to his son Tippoo dominions superior in extent lo the kingdom of EngUmd. Tippoo engaged in two wars with the Eng- lisli, in the former of v/hich he lost a considerable part of his territo- ries, and in tlie latter his life and the remainder of his domini<,ns, which were divided hetwcien the British, tlie Nizam, and the M;ih-. rattas. In consequence of these revoliuion';, the present Mogul, Sh^h An^ lum, the descendant of the grt'at Timur, such is the instability of hn- ■inan greatness, is merely a nominal prince, of no importance in the politics of Hindoostan : hn i^ pcrniitH'd '. j r/'side at Delhi, which, \v>i?l HINDOOSTAN. eci 72« .W 18 56 n'rcars, whicK >^ a small adjacent territory, is all that remains to him of that vast eTh- pire, which his ancestors governed for more than 350 years. The sovereignty of this great country is, therefore, now divided be- tween t)ie British, some nabobs or governors tributary to and depen- dent on them ; the Nizam or Soubahdar of the Deccan ; the Mahrat- tas ; some independent rajahs, or Hindoo princes ; and, in the north» the Afghans and the Sciks. The British teiritory consists of the soiibahs, or provinces of Bengal ,and Bahar, the district of Benares, and part of the soubah of Orissa ; t)ie city and district of Cuttack and port of Balasore, lately ceded, after a short campaign, by the Mahratta chief Bounsla ; the Dooab, cr country between the Ganges and Jumna, ceded at the same time by Sindia; four of the five northern circars; the jaghire, or territory of Madras; the territories and ports ofCuddalore, Devicotta, and Ncga- patam ; the island and city of Seringapatam ; the late kingdom of Canara, and district of Coimbetore ; and the island and fortress of Bombay on the gulf of Cambaya. The extent of these territories is computed at above 213,000 square miles, or 100,000 more than arc contained in the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; their population at nearly 14- millions of souls ; and the revenue arising from them at above three millions and a half sterling. The allies, or rather tributaries of the British, are the Nabob of Oude, Azuph Dowla, ■whose chief cities are Lucknow ;uid Fyzabad ; and the Nabob of Arcot, or of the Carnatic, Mahommed Ali, whose capital is Arcot, but who usually " resides at Chepauk, about a mile from Madras, in princely state, upon part of tlie possessions," says Mr. Pennant, " for which the English paid a fine to his predecessors, in acknowledgment of the original permission there to form their settlement-" The small states of Tanjore, Madura, and Tinevelly, are de{5eudent on the Nabob of Arcot, or rather on the English, The original country of tlie Mahrattas was the province of Can- .d«ish, and the district of Baglana, or the n^irth-western part of Dow- latabad, in the Deccan- They extended their territory to the west and south along the sea-coast from Surat to Canara, through that nar- row tract of land called the Concan. They are now divided into the Poonah or western, and tlie Berar or eastern Mahraftas. The Poonah Mahrattas possess the provinces of Candeish, Malwa, and Allahabad ; and a great part of Agra, Agimere, Guzerat, Dowlatabad, and Visia- pour ; the Berar Mahrattas, the greater part of the provinces of Berar and Orissa. Their name is derived, by Major Rennell, from a district called Marat; but even the existence of such a district is dis- piueil. Tiiey are Hindoos, and net Maluimetans, and governed by difFcrtnt chiefs, the principal of whom are named Sindia, Hnlkar, and Bounsla. The chiefs of the Poonaii Mahrattas pay a kind of nominal obedience to a l^ad, called the peishwa, though they often quarrel with him, and often among themselves, and never are united l)Ut by tjie apprehonbionpf a common dangerC The capital of the Poonah Mahrattas is Sattarah, where the rajah, the descendant of their founder Sevajee, is kept in a kind of splendid confinement ; for the peishwa is supposed to be only his minister, and must receive his appointment from him. The scat of government of tho* peishv.'a, however, is at Poonah, in which city centers the principal wealth of the Mahratta st^te^ ; k^india resides at Otigein ; Holkar at Indoor ; and Bounsla, ihc chief of the Berar Mnhratvus at Nao^pour. The Mahratta chiefs ill i m 662 HINDOOSTAN. ;-i'"i •s;s ml were they to act; in concert, are, it is said, able to bring into the field above 200,000 horse and 60,000 foot. The possessions of the Nizam or Subahdar of the Deccan (a younger son of the famous Nixam-al-Muluck) comprise the province of Golconda, that is, the ancient province of Tellingana, or Tilh'ng, situated between the lower pwrts of tlie Kistna and Godavery rivers, and the principal part of Dowlatabad ; together with the western part of Berar, subject to a tribute of a chout, or fourth part of its net re- venue, to the Berar Mahratta. The Nizam has the Peishwa, orPoo- liah Mahratta on the west and north-west ; the Berar Mahratta on the north ; the northern circars on the east ; and the Carnatic and Mysore on the south. 1 am not perfectly clear (says Major Rennell) in my idea of his western boundary, which, during his wars with the Miili- rattas, was subject to continual fluctuation ; but I understand gene- rally, that it extends more than 40 miles beyond the city of Aurun- fabad, westwards, and comes within 80 miles of the city of Poonah. lis capital is Hydrabad, or Bagnagur, situated on the Moussi xiver. The rajah of Mysore, the descendant of the rajah who was dis- possessed by the usurper Hyder Ali, has, since the fall of Tippoo Sultan, been restored to the sovereignty of a great part of the Mysore under the protection of the British. Most of the other rajahs are de- pendent on some of the other great powers. One of the most wealthy and powerful of these rajahs is the Jyepoor rajah, the head of the raj- poots, in Agimere, who is tributary to the Mahrattas, and who, per- haps, is the prince most capable of effectually resisting their overgrown power, were he not c£ an inactive and effeminate character. ' The north-western provinces of Hindoostan are possessed by the Abdallees and the Seiks. The Abdallees, also called Durances, from the custom of wearing a pearl in one of their ears, are properly a sect <ir tribe of Afghans, or the inhabitants of the mountainous country in the north and west of Hindoostan, but the name seems to be applied to the Afghans in general. They possess a territory stretching from the mountains of Tartary to the Arabian Sea, and from the Indus to the confines of Persia. They are a robust hardy race of men ; and being generally addicted to a state of predatory warfare, their man- ners largely partake of a barbarous insolence, and they avow a fixed contempt for the occupations of civil life. The principal cities of Afghanistan are Candahar and Cabul, the former of which was the capital ; but the late and present sultans have kept their court at Cabul. About the year 1720 an army of Afghans invaded Persia, took Ispahan, and made the Shah Hussein prisoner. They kept possession of Ispahan and the southern provinces for ten years, when they were «3efeated in several battles, and driven out of the country, by Nadir Kuli, commonly known in Europe by the name of Kouli Khan. After Nadir had deposed his sovereign Shah 'J'hamas, he besieged and took Candahar; but afterwards received a considerable body of the Afghans into his service, who became his favourite foreign troops. On his assassination in 1747, Abdalli Ahmed Khan, the general of the Afghan troops, though furiously attacked by the whole Persian army, effected a safe retreat into his own country, where he caused himself to be ac- knowledged sovereign of the Afghan territories, by the title of Ahmed Shah. He was succeeded in 1773 by his son TImur Shah, and he by Zemaun Shah, the present sultan. The Seiks are a powerful nation, consisting of several small inde- HINDOOSTAN. 669 hnjr. pendent states, connected by a kind of federal union. They possess tlie whole of Lahore, the principal part of Moultan, and the west part of Delhi. This tract extends 4(X) miles from north-west to south- east, and is from 150 to '200 broad ; though the part between Attock and Behker cannot be less tlian tVM. The founder of their sect was named Nanock, and lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century. They are the descendants of his disciples; the word siiis, in tlie Sans- crit language, signifying disciples. '1 heir army consists almost entirely of horse, ofwhich it is supposed they can bring '200,000 into the field. The Sciks are now become one of the most powerful states of Hin« doostan. Their capital is Lahore. . MouNTArNs.] The chief mountains of Hindoostan are those of the tiorthern chain, which separate this coimtry from i ibet, and are called by the natives Himmala, or the mountains of snow, with which they are constantly covered. They are the ancient Imaus, or Emodus, a branch of Caucasus. In southern Hindoostan the mountains called the Gauts (though this word properly signifies a pass in a mountain, and not a mountain) extend from the river of Surat to Cape Comorin- They are called the Ballaghaut, or upper Gauts, and the Payen- ghaut, or lower Gaiits. They are in many places a mile and a quarter in height, overgrown with forests, and have their summits frequently covered with snow. At their termination near Cape Comorin, they: may be seen nine or ten leagues out at sea. Rivers, lakes ] The Ganges (ganga or river, by way of emr». iience) is not only the principal river of Hindoostan, but one of the noblest in the world. It issues from Kentaisse, on« of the vast moun-» tains of Tibet, and after a course of about 750 miles through moun- tainous regions little known, enters Hindoostan at tlie defile of Kupele, supposed by the natives to be its source. From hence this great river, which the Hindoos hold in religious veheration, believing that its wa- ters have a virtue which will purify them from every moral transgres- ■sion, flows through delightful plains, with a smooth navigable stream from one to three miles wid*?, during the remainder of its course, which is about 1350 miles to the bay of Bengal, into which it falls by two large, and a multitude of smaller channels, that form and intersect a large triangular island, the base ofwhich at the sea is near 200 miles in extent. Tlie whole navigable course of this river, from its entrance into the plains of Hindoostan to the sea, and which, with its windings, extends, as has been observed, above thirteen hundred miles, is now possessed by the British, their allies and tributaries. The western branch, called the Little Ganges, or riv«r of Hoogly, is navigable for large ships, and is generally resorted to. The Ganges receives eleven rivers, some of which are equal to the Rhine, and none inferior to the Thames. The Burrampooter, or Brahmapooter, that is, the son of Brahma, is a river, the extent and Importance of which was not ascertained till the year 1765. It is superior to the Ganges both in length of coursa and in size. It rises near the head of the latter river, in the mountains of Tibet, on the opposite side of the same ridge, and takes its course in a contrary direction, till it is 1200 miles distant from it, having pro- ceeded to within, about 200 miles of Yunan, the most western province of China, when it returns again, and joins the Ganges near the sea. During the last 60 miles, before its junction with the Gangqs, it forms a stream, which is regularly from four to five miles wide. In Tibet it is called the Sanpoo, and when it jouis the Ganges the Megna. 6 i,'i <T <{6i HINDOOSTAN. .%■ %. The river .Tumma is another considerable river In this part of flin* doostan : it rises in the mountains of Sirinagur, and pursuinjf a course nearly parallel to that of the Ganges for 500 miles, falli into the lat- ter river at Allahabad. The Indus, called by the natives Sindch, is the boundary of India to the west, and gives name to the country. It derives its oriijia from ten streams springing;; remote from each other out of the Persian and Tartarian mountains, one of which originates in Cashmere. In its Louise to the Indian sea, it receives five great rivers, the Ikhut, the ancient Hydaspes ; the Chumib or ancient Acesinas ; the Rauvee or Hydraotes ; the Setlcge or Hesudrus ; and a river on the west, the an- cient Hyphasis. Tliesc rivers form the Panjiib, or the country of the five rivers. The Indus is likewise called the Nilab, or the Blue River, and the Attock. Its whole course is about 1000 miles. In southern Hindoostan, the principal rivers are the Nerbudda, which falls into the Indian sea, after a course of about 700 miles, and is considered as forming the northern boundary of the Deccan ; the Godavery, which falls into the bay of Bengal, after a course of nearly the same extent ; the Kistna or Kreeshna, which is the boundary of the Deccan to the south ; and the Cavery or Cauvery, which sur- rounds the city and island of Seringapatam. The two latter rivers fall into the bay of Bengal, after d course of about .500 miles each. Metals, minerals.] The principal of the mineral productions of Hindoostan is that most valuable of gems the diamond, which is ^ound chiefly in the provinces of Golconda and Visiapour, and also in that of Bengal. Raolconda, in Visiapour, and Gandicotta, are famed for their mines, as is Coulour in Golconda. The diamond is generally found in the narrow crevices of tlie rocks, loose, and never adherent to the strong stratum. The miners make use of long iron rods, with hooks at the ends, and with these they pick out the con- tents of the fissures, and wash them in tubs in order to discover the diamonds. In Coulour they dig on a large plain to the depth often or fourteen feet ; near sixty thousand people are employed, the men to dig, and tlic women and children to carry the earth to the places in which it is to be deposited before the search is made. Diamonds are also found in the gravel or sand of rivers, washed out of their beds, and carried down with the stream. The river Goncl, near 5inubulpour, is the most noted for them. Many other precious stones are found in this country ; but there seem to be no mines, either of gold or silver, though pnrticles of gold are found in some of the rivers in the northern parts of Bengal. Climate, soil, agriculturf..] The windfj in this climate gene- rally blow for six monihs from the south, and six from the nyrth, April* May, and the beginning of June, are excessively hot, but re- freshed by sea breezes ; .and in some dry seasons, the hurricanes, which tear up tlie sandu, and let them fall in dry shcAvers, are excessively disagreeable. The iingllsli, and consequently the Europeans in gene- ral, who arrive at Hindoostan, arc connnonly seized with some illness, such as flux, or fever, in their difFereait appearances; but when pro- perly treated, especially if the p^tigi^ts are ubstennous, they recover, and afterwards prove licalthy. : In the southern part of Hindopstan, or what is called the Penlof sula, the chain of mountains named the Gauts, running from iiorth to south, render it winter on one side of this peninsiua, while it is *ummcr ca the otlier. About the end of June a soutli-wqst wind be- HINDOOSTAN. ^5' jtlns to blow from the seai on the coast of Malabar, ^\h!cll, with coiv- liiiual rains, lasts four months, during which time all is serene upon the coast of Coromundcl (the western and eastern coasts being so de- nominated). Towards the end of October, tlie rainy season and the chan;i;c of the monsoons begin on the Coromandel coast, which, being destitute of good luirbours, renders it extremely dangerous for ships to remain there during that lime ; and to this is owing the periodical returns of English shipping to Bombay, upon tlie Mahilxir c^ast. The air is naturally hot upon tnis peninsula, but it is refreshed l)y breeze*, the wind altering every twelve hours ; that is, from midnight to noon it blows olF the laud, when it is tolerably hot, and durin;:; rhe other twelve hours from the sea, which last proves a great refic^ihment to the inhabitants of the coast. The soil of this cou^ntry is in many parts so excellent as to consist of black vegetable mould, to the depth of six feet. In Bengal tho Ganges annually overilows the country to the extent of more than 100 miles in width, which inundation greatly fertilizes the land ; and the periodical rains and intense heat produce an extraordinary luxu- riance of vegetation, and render the arts of agriculture almost unne- cessary. The lands, however, are tilled with very simple instruments, and the harvests g;;Lhered in by the ryots or peasants, who live in the utmost penury and wretchedness, and are allowed for their sustenance no other share of the rich produce of the soil, but some coarse rice, and a few pepper pods. VjEGETAHLh i'KODucT IONS.] Large forcsts are found in various parts of this extensive country, and on the coast of Malabar they con- sist of trees of a prodigious si/e. Tlie teek-tree affords a sti'ong and durable timber, which might be advantageously employed in ship- building ; as teek ships of forty years old arc not uncommon in th« Indian seas, while a European built ship is ruined there in five years. The cocoa-tree is remarkable for its extensive utility : of the body or trunk the natives make boats and frames for their houses and rafters ; they thatch their houses with the leaves, and by slitting them length- wise, make mats and baskets. The nut affords food, drink, and a valuable oil. Eiom the branches, when cut, exudes a licjuor called toddy, from which fermented is distilled an excellent arrack. The Indian tig, likewise called the bajiyan, and the wonder-tree, is some- times of an araa/.ing size, as it is continually increasing : every branch proceeding Irom the trunk throws out long fibres, which take root in the earth, and shoot out new branches, which again throw out fibres that take root, and continue in this state of progression as long as, they Had soil to nourish them. Of fruit-bearing trees the number is very great, and the iVnits delicious, especially pomegranates, oranges, lemons, citrons, dates, almonds, mangoes, pine-apples, musk-melon?, water-melons; and.in tlie northern parts, ]iears and apples. Hiudoostan produces almost every kind of grain, especially rice. Among other vegetables are cucumbers, radishes, carrots, yams, and sweet potatoes. 'I'he sugar-cane no where grows with greater vigour, or is more productive of its juice, or more capable of being manufac- tured into hner sugar, than in Ik'ngal. Tobacco, which was intro- duced into this countiy about the your 1617, is now produced here in great quantities. Animals.] Of the wild animals of Hindoostan, the tyger, for his sl/c and strength, may claim the first place; for lions, if there be any, are extremely rare. Tiie royal tygcr, as he is called, of Bengal, Ijrowii) it is suidj to ihe height of five and six feet, with a proportioa* S :1 \.> ' !: 1 ma KINDOOSTAN. >, Ml li '1 - ■ t .... ti able length, and has suchstrcn/^th, that he can carry ofF a biilloclc or a biifi'ak) with case. Elephants are here very numerous and larn'e. Here are also leopards, panthers, lynxes, hyenas, wolves, jackals, and foxes, with various species of apes and monkeys, and many bcautiiul antelopes, particularly that large kind called the nil-ghau. Wild bnl'- faloes are frequent here, which are very fierce, and have vast hcnns, tliat arc sometimes known to grow to the length of ten feet. Witli respect to domestic animals, the cattle are generally of a large si/c, and the sheep are covered with hair instead of mooI, except in the northern parts. Among the birds are peacocks and various «;pecies of parrots and parroquets. Poultry in a wild state are found in great numbers in most of the jungles or thickets of Hindonstan. Tlic natives of this country, and indeed of almost every part of India, are extravagantly fond of cock-fighting, and pay greater attention to the training and feeding these birds than we ever did, even when that diversion was at its height. The serpents of Hindoostan are very numerous, and some species of them are venomous in an extraordinary degree. At l>ombay, and near Madras, a small snake is found, wliich tiic Portuguese call cobra de morte ; it is only from six to nine inches long, but from its bite death almost instantaneously ensues. Natural curiosities.] Among these may be enumerated the mountains which form the northern boundary between this country and Tibet, sometimes called the Glacieres of India, and which make the most majestic and awful appearance, even at the distance of 150 miles ; the ice rises often into lofty spires on the grandest of scales, and the light sides appear stained in the most elegant manner with a roseate colour. At the Gangontra, or Fall of the Ganges, some- times called the Cow's Motith, that river, after having flowed through a subterraneous passage, again emerges. Tvi'o miles to the west of Gocauk, the Gutpurba river, where it is 169 yards broad, falls per- pendicularly down I7i feet ; a tall exceeding that of the famous cataract of Niagara, in North America, which is not more than l(i2, or according to some accounts only 150 feet. Population.] The Mahometans, or, as they are called, Moors of Hindoostan, are computed by Mr. Orme, a judicious and authentic writer on the history of this country, to be about ten millions, and the Indians, or Hindoos, about a hundred millions. According to other estimates the whole population of Hindoostan is supposed only to amount to about sixty millions. Inhabitants, manners, customs.] The Hindoos, or as they are likewise called Gentoos, have, from time immemorial, been divided into four great tribes. The first and most noble tribe are the Brah- mins, who alone can officiate in the priesthood, like the Levites amonrj the Jews. They are not, however, excluded from government, trade, or agriculture, though they are strictly prohibited from all menial offices, by their laws. The second in order is the Sittri tribe, who, according to their original institution, ought to be all military men ;' but they frequently follow other professions. The third is the tribe of Beise, who are chiefly merchants, bankers, and banias, or shop* keepers. The fourth tril>e is that of Sudder, who ought to be menial servants ; and they are incapable of raising themselves to any superior rank. If any of them should be excommunicated from any of the four tribes, he and his posterity are for ever shut out from the society of every person in the nation, except that of the Harricast, who are held ia HINDOOSTAN. 667 of utter detestation by all the other trilics, and arc employe J only in the meanest and vilest otiices. This circumstance renders excommunica- tion so dreadful, that any Hindoo will snfFer tlie torture, and even death Itself, rather than deviate from one article of liIs faith. Kcsides this divibicn into tribes, the Gentoos are also subdivided in- to casts and small classes or tribes ; arid it has been computed tlmt there are eighty-f(nir of these casts, thoupjli some liavc supposed tliere arc a greater number. Tlie order of pre-eminence of all the oasts, in a particular city or prcA'incc, is generally indi^putal.ly decided. ■^I'he Indian of an inferior woidd thinls. himself highly lionoured by •adopting the customs of a superior cast : but this latter would give battle sooner than not vindicate its prerogatives. The inferior receives tlie victuals prepared by a superior cast with respect, but trie superior will not partake of a meal which has been prepared by tlie hands of an inferior cast. Tlieir marriages I'.rc circuinscrilicd by tlie same harriers as thcrcstcf their intercourses ; and hence, beside the national physiognomy, the members of each cast preserve an air of still greater resemblance to one another. There are some casts remarkable for their beauty, and others as remarlced for their ugliness. TliO members of each cast, says Dr. Robertson, adhere invariably to the profession of their forefathers. From generation to general ion, tlic same families have followed, and will always continue to iolUnv, one uniform line of life. To this maybe ascribed that Ingh degree of perfccticni conspicuous in many of tlie Indian manufactures ; and though veneration for the practices of their ancestors may check the spirit of invention, yet, by adhering to these, they acc[uire such ati oxperincss and delicacy of hand, that Europeans, with all tlie ad- vantages of superior science, and the aid of more complete instru- ments, have iiever been able to equal the exquisite execution of their workmanship. While this high improvement of their more curious manufactures excited the admiration, and attracted the commerce of other nations, the separation of professions in India, and the carh'- distribution of the people into classes attached to particular kinds of labour, secured such abundance of the more common and useful com- modities, as not only supplied their own wants, but ministered to those of the countries around them. To this early division of the people into casts, wc must likewise Ascribe a striking peculiarity in the state of India ; the pcrmant nee of its institutions, and the immutability in the manners of itn ii l-!-!- bitants. What now is in India, always was there, and is still likely to continue ; neither the ferocious violence and illiberal fanaticism of its Mahomedan conquerors, nor the power of its European masters, have effected any considerable alterations. The same distinctions of con- dition take place, the same arrangements in civil and domestic socie- ty remain, the same maxims of religion are held in veneration, and the same sciences iind arts are cultivated. IJence, in all ages, tlie 'trade with India has been the same ; gold and silver have uniformly been carried thither in order to purchase the same commodiies with vdiicli it now supplies all nations ; and, from the age of Pliny to the present times, it has always been considered and execrated as a gulf \\-hich swallows up the wealth of every other country, that flows in- cessantly towards it, and from which it never returns *. All these casts acknowledge the Brahmins for their priests, and from tlicm derive their belief of the transmigration ; which leads- •' ?. >m • Dr. Robertson's HinoricalDistniisition concerning InJI.i, Appendix, p. CGI, 262. ■'m iGn IIINDOOSTAN. 1:!^' It, I 1 I; M^l tj, Ml" I inany nf tlicm to fifliict tlicmsclvcs even at the death of a fly, although occasioned by inadvcntncc. But ilicj;ic.itcr nunihcr of casti are Itus s<:rupulous, and cat, aUhough TtMy !.pavin;;ly, both of fisli and ficih ; but, hkethe Jews, not of all kindiindifleiently. Their diet is chiefly rice and vegetables, drcbsod vitli ginger, tiinneric, and other hotter spices, which grow almost spontaneously iu their gardens. Tht-y cs- ttem milk the purest of foods, because tliey think it partakes of some of the properties of the nectar of their gods, and because they esteem the cow itbelf almost like a divinity. Their manners are gentle ; their happiness consists in the solaces of a domestic life^ and they arc taught by their religion, that matrimony is an indispensable duty in every man, who does not entirely separate himself from the world from a principle of devotion. Their religion also permits them to have several wives ; but they seldom have more than one ; and it has been observed, that their wives are distinguished by a decency of demeanour, a solicitude in their families, and a Hdc- lity to their vows, which might do honour to human nature in then^ost civilized countries. The amu^enlcnts of the Hindoos consist in going to their pagodas, in a^jsisting at religious shows, and in fulfilling a variety of ceremonies prescribed to them by the Brahmins. Their religion forbids them to quit their own shores*; nor do they want any thing from abroad. 'J I'.oy might, therefore, have lived in much tranquillity and happiness, if others had looked on them with the same indifference with which ihey regard the rest of the world. The soldiers arc commonly called rajah pouts, or persons descended from rajahs, and reside chiefly in the northern provinces, and are gene- rally more fair-complexioncd than the pto})le of the southern pro- vinces, who are quite black. These rajah poots are a rf)bust, brave, faithful people, and enter ii\to the service of those who will pay ♦hem j but vvlicn their leader falls in battle, they tliink that their cngagjments to him are hnished, and they run oil the field without any stain upon their rcpuia^ion. The cu';tom of women burning themselves upon the death of their husbands still continues to be practised, though much less frc- fi\icntly ti^an formerly. The Gentoosare as careful of the cultivation of their lands, and tlieir public works and conveniences, as the Chinese ; Jind there scarcely is an instance of a robbery in all Hin- rioostan, liiough the diamond merchants travel without defensive wf^Hpons. The complexions of the Gontoos is black, their hair is long, their persons are straight and dogani, their limbs finely proportioned, their fingers long and taper, tlieir countenances open and pleasant, and their features exhibit tlie most delicate lines of beauty in the females, and in the males a kind of manly softness. Tlieir walk and gait, as well as their whole deportment, is ii\ the hl;;h«.\-it degree gracciul. 'i'he drL;>.s oi' ilie men is a kind of a close- ••odied gown, and wide trowsers, resembling petticoats, r',jaching down to their slippers. Sucli of the women as appear in public, have shawls over their head.> and shoulders, short tlose jackets,, and tight drawers, * TliP fJi'iit'ios nro prr-'.Mclcd, that tiie v.Mti^rs of tlirthree great rivers, O.-nigeSj Ki^tiia, ami Imlii., have the sacicd virttic of ',)iirityin<j; tlio.-c wlio f)atlic in them tfom all pollutions ;iH(l sitis 'rhli; religious idea srcnv.t to he founded on a priii- ripl' oi poiiiy, and intendetl to restrain the natives from niigratiiiji^ tnto distaiil countrie:i : for it is ii'niarWaUle, that the sacred nvej-s arc so hitiiatcd, that there is fiHt any p;'.rt ot India whtie the inbabitatus may not li;ivc ;m opportunity t>f WH hiojj awitv their kiiii. ire It lis ficih ; chieHy hotter iiy es- soin e ces of iiif<ny :ir.ue i^ion more islicd Hdc- most going- ing a Their want much same IIINDOOSTAN. 69 which come x'.CM'n to tlicir ancles. Hence, tlio circs- of t)io men .^: ve$ them, in the evos oi EurcipL';tns, an apjic.iruice of effeminacy, vhile that of the women seemi r.iilier masculine. Their houses cover much grouml, and Irave spacious jr.illerifs, and accommodations ot various kinds. The -.ipartnuiits aic small, tinJ . the furniture not very elei^unt, if we ext( pt tlie rich Pcr.sian carpets. The grandeur of the palaces consists In liatlis and hiuanis. 'J'he harams or zenanas, that is the residences of the womert, arc removed from the front of the house, and receive the iis^lit otdy Irom a square .space in the centre of the whole building. 'J he apparel (>f the women is inconceivably rich ; they have jeveUon their tinkers arid abo-.u their neck, and also in their enrs and nostrils, \vith bracelets on their wrists and arms, and round their ancles. The Mahomedans, who, in Ilindoostan, arc called Moors, are of Persian, Turkish, Arabic, and other extractions. They early began, in the reigns of ilic caliphs of Bagdad, to invade Hindoostan. Thcf penetrated as far as Delhi, which they made their capital. They settled colcniies in several places, whose descendants are called Ty- tans ; but their empire was overthrown by Tamerlane, who founded the Mogul government, wliich still subsists. Those princes being strict Mahomedans, received under their protection all that professed the same religion, and these being a brave active people, counter- balanced the numbers of the natives. They introduced the division of provinces, over which they appointed soubalis ; and those provinces, each of which may be stilcd an empire, were subdivided into nabob- ships, each nabob being immediately accountable to his soubah, who, in process of time, became almost independent of the emperor, or as he is called, the Great Mogul, only paying him an annual tri- bute. The vast resort of Persian anci I'artar tribes has likewise strengthened the Mahomedan government ; but it is observable, tliat in two or three generations, the progeny of all those atlventurers, who brought nothing withthem but their horses and their swords, degene- rated into eastern indolence .and sensuality. The nobility and people of rank delight in hunting with the bow a<j well as the gun, and often train the leopards to the sports of the field. They affect shady walks and cool fountains, like other people in hot countries. They are fonvi of tumblers, mountebanks, and jugglers ; of rude music, both of wind and stringed instrumcnis, and play at cards in their private parties. The Persecs, or Parsees, of Hindoostan, arc originally the Oaurs,de- scribed in Persia, but are a most industrious people, particularly in leaving, and architecture of every kind. They pretend to l>e posses- sed of the works of Zoroaster, whom they call by various names. They are known as paying divine adoration to lire, but it is said only as an emblem of the divinity. Provincks, cities, chief towns, F,DiFicKs.3 Bengal, of all the provinces of Hindoostan, is, perhaps, the most interesting to an Eng- lish reader. It is esteemed the storehouse of the East Indies. Its fertility exceeds that of Egypt after being overflowed by the Nile : and the produce of its soil consists of rice, sugar-canes, com, sesa- mum, small mulberry and other trees. Its calicoes, silks, salt-petn*,. lakka, opium, wax and civet, go all over the world : and provisions here are in vast plenty, and incredibly cheap, especially puUeis, ducks, :ind geese. The country is intersected by canals cut from the Ciangcs for tlie benelit oi commerce, and cxt,cudi near one hiuidred r WA ■i /u 670 llINDOOSTAN. 5' 4i •I 1,1 1%) lit f:i. le;ji,'Ufs on each side of that river, :ind is full of cities, towns, castTe.'j •M\d villaiji'S. In i.t'h;.-;il, the v<irship of the Gcntoos Is practised in its jrrcatest purity, iuul tlicir sacred river ((lunges) is in umunner lined witli thciv niu;;iiiticent pag'uiasor temples. (icncrally spc.ikinc^, tlio description of one Indian city is. a descrip- tion of all, as tliey arc all built on one plan, with extremely narrow asd crooked streets, with an incredible number of reservdir ponds and gardens. A lew of the streets are paved with brick. 'Ilie houses are variously built ; sonie of brick, others with mud, and a still greater proj)ortion with bamboos and mats; which standing intermixed with tacji otlier, f(^rm a motley appearance. The bamboo houses arc in- variably of Anc story, and covered with tliatch. Those of brick sel~ cloin exceed two floors, and have flat terraced roofs, but are often so thinly scattered, that fires, which frequently happen, do not some- times meet with the obstruction of a brick house through tlie whole itreet. Calcutta, the chief city of Bengal, and of all the British posses- sions in tiindoostan, is, in p.irt, an exception to this rule of building ; the quarter inhabited by the Knglisli being composed entirely of brick buildings, many of which have more the appearance of palaces than of private houses ; but the remainder of the city, and by much the j^reatest part, is built according to the general description of Indian cities. W ithin tw-enty or twenty-five years, Calcutta has been won- derfully improved, both in appearance and in the salubrity of, its air, for the streets have been properly drained, and the ponds filled up ; thereby removing a vast surface of stagnant water, tlie exhalations from which were particularly hurtful. Calcutta is well known, to be the emporium of Bengal, and the seat of the governor-general of India. It is supposed at present to contain at least .')C0,0CO inhabi- tants. Its local situation is not fortunate, for it has seme extensive muddy lakes, and a vast forest close to it. It is a modem city, having- risen on tiie site of the village Govindpour, about ninety years ago*. The city of Calcutta is about one hundred miles from the sea, situ ate on the western branch of the Ganges, which is navigable up to the town, for the largest ships that visit India. It extends from the western pr^Int of Fort William along the banks of the. river, almost to the village of Cossipoor, that is, about four and a half English miles ; the breadth is in many parts inconsiderable. The mixture of European and Asiatic manners, which may be observed in Calcutta, is curious — coaches, phaetons, single horse chaises, with the palankeens and hackaries of the natives, the passing ceremonies of the Hindoos, the different appearances of the fiikirs, form a sight, perhaps more novel and extraordinary, than any city in the world can present to a stranger f. In 17.'>6, an unhappy event took place at Calcutta, which is too re- markable to be omitted. The Indian nabob or viceroy quarrelled with the company, and invested Calcutta with a large body of black troops. Ihe governor and some of the principal persons of the place threw themselves, with their chief effects, on board the ships in the river ; they who remained, for some hours bravely defended the place : but their ammunition being expended, they surrendered upon terms. The soubah, a capricious unfeeling tyrant, instead of observ- ing the capitulation, forced Mr. Holwel, the governor's chief servant, ♦ Rciineli's Memoir. f Hedges' Travclij in Ixidia, from 17S0 to 17b;i, p. 15. IIINDOOSTAK. (371 and 14a British subjects, into a little but secure prison, called the ]ihiclv Hole, ;i place ;ib()ut ci{j;htet'U ll-et s(|Uiire, aiul siiut up from almtist all coi /anication of tree air. 'I'heir miseries during the night were ii.^:, , ressible, and before inorniiip; no more than twenty- three were found alive, the rest dying of suffocation, wliich was gene- rally attended with a horrible plnensy. Among those saved was Mr. Hohvel himsL , wlio has written a most affeciing account of the catastroplie. he insensible nabob returned to his capital, after plun- dering the p],i».A , imagining he had routed ihe English out of his do- minions ; but the seasonable arrival of admiral Watson, and colonel, (afterwards lordl Clive, put ihem once more, v/ith some diiHculty, in possession of Calcutta ; and the v/ar wa > concluded by the battle of Plassey, gained by tlic colonel, and the death of the tyrant yurajah Dowla, in whose place Mhir Jaifcir, one of his generals, wlio had previously signed a secret treaty with Clive to desert his master, anil amply reward the Enu;lish, was advanced, of course, to the soubaliship, Moorshedabad, or Muxadabad, is a modern city of vast extent, and was the capital of iiengal before llie establishment of the English power. Chandernagore was formerly the principal place possessed by the French in Bengal : it lies higher up the river than Calcutta, iiut i.hough strongly iortitied, farnish.cd witli a garrison of ."500 Euro- peans, and I'iOO Indians, and defended by 123 pieces of cannon and three mortars, it was taken by the English admirals Watson and Po- cocke, and colonel Clive; and also was t.iken in the following war, but v.-as restored by the peace of 17^^". It was again taken in 17f)ii. and remains in the liaiids of tl'.e English. Moogley, wliich lies fifty iniles to the north of Calcutta, upon the Ganges, is a phicc of pro- digious trade for th.- richest of all Indian commodities. ' The Dutch liad here a v/ell-fortified f ictory. The search for diamonds is carried, on bv about ten thousand people, fnnn Suml)Uipour, which lies thirtf leagues to the north of lioogley, for about fifty miles farther. Dacca is said to be the largest city in Bengal, of Vihich it was the capital, before Moorshedabad. 'L"he tide comes up to its walls, and it for- merly contained a Dutch .factory. I'he weaving business, the great trade of India, is carried here to z perfection unknown in other parts, and the muslins made here arc of most exquisite hneness. The other chief tov r.sarc Cosimbuzar, Chinsura, formerly a Dutch settlement, Rajahm.tiiel, and Mauldah ; besides a number of other places of less aote, but all of them rich in the Indian manufactures. The province of Bahar lies tp the west of Bengal ; it carries on a considerabk; trade, most of the salt-petre exported to England being made in it. The capital is Patna, supposed by Major Rennell to be the PalibCithra of the ancients, with which opinion Sir William Jones appears to have coincided, though D'Auville and Dr. Robertson thought Allahabad, the capital of the soubah of the same name, to have been this celebrated ancient city. Patna ir, situate on the south hank, of the Ganges, along which river the city and suburbs extend five miles. It is fortified in the Indian manner, with a wall and citadel. Benares is a rich and populous city, on the northern bank ®f the Ganges, about four hundred and fifty miles from Calcutta. It is more celebrated as the ancient seat of Brahminical learning, for which it is a kind of university, than on any other account. It con- uii;s the remains of many Hindoo teipples or pagodas, and in. the w t12 HINDOOSTAN. »' 4; •m Uii \ \ \ middle of the city is a large mosque, built by Aflrun/jzebe, "who de- stroyed a magnificent pagoda to erect it on its site. The zemindary or district of Benares, was a part of the province or soubahship of Oude till 1774, when its tribute o.r r^uit-rent of 2^ lacks of rupees was transferred to the English. Allahabad, in the province of the same name, is situate at the con- flux of the Ganges and the Jumna, inhere the waters of the former river, which arc every where held sacred, are thought to be pecu- liarly sanctified ; whence the city has received the name of Jlla/ial/aeff or the Ciiy of God. Jt belongs to the nabob of Oude, and contains a fpncious fort, and several mngnificent structures. At a little distance, to the south-west, are the dinmond mines of Penna, in the small de- tached province of Bnndclcund. Lucknow, which is the present capital of Oude, having superseded Fyzabad, is extensive, but meanly built. The houses are chiefiy mud. walls, covered with thatch, and many consist entirely of mats and bamboos, and are thatched with leaves of tlie cocoa-nut, palm-tree, and sometimes with straw. The palace of the nabob stands on a liigh bank near the river, and commands an extensive view both of the Goomty and the country on the eastern side. Fy/.abad is of great ck- tent, and appears to contain a great number of people, but they are chiefiy of the lowest class ; tor the court being removed to Lucknow, drew after it the great men, and the most eminent of the merchants, bankers, and shroffs, or money-changers. Nearly adjoining to Fyzabad are the remains of tlie very ancient city of Oud, which is said to have been the first imperial city of Hindoostan, and the capital of a great empire twelve hundred years before the christian aera; but whatever was its former magnificence, no traces of it now remain. It is con- sidered as a holy place, and the Hindoos frequently come thither on pilgrimage from every part of India. Agra, situate on the south side of the rivt-r Jumna, was made the capital of the Mogul empire, by the emperor Acbar, about the year 15'*6, and named from him Acbarabad. It was then a small fortified town, but soon became one of the largest and most celebrated cities of Hindoostan, being fourteen miles in circumference, regularly for- tified in the Indian manner, with a fine citadel, and containing many magnificent palaces ; but after the removal of the capital of the em- pire to Delhi, by Shah Jehan, the grandson of Acbar, it rapidly de- clined. To the south-east of the city of Agra is a beautiful monu- ment, raised by the emperor Shah Jehan, for his beloved wife Taje- znahel, whose name it bears. When this building is vievcd from the <jpposite side of the river, it possesses a degree of beauty, from the excellence of the niu^erials, and the perfection of the workmanship, which is only surpassed by its grandeur, extent, and general magnifi- cence. Delhi, or Shahjehannbad, the rapital cf the province of Delhi, is likewise the nominal capital of all Hindoostan, and v.'us the real one, from I6I-7* when Shah jehan miule it his residence, to avoid the heats of Agra, till the present dissolution of the empire. It is said to be a city of great antiquity, and that its ancient iiame was Inderput. It !s situate on the Jumna, 117 miles to the n<'.rth-we<'t of Agra. It is about seven miles in circumference, and is surrounded on tliree sides by a wall of brick and stone, and has seven gates built of free-stone. Though this city may be said to be now in ruin;;, it contiiins above forty mosques, the jjrmcipiil of whicli is very maguiiicei.t, and the HINDOOSTAN. G73 remains of many noble and splendid pak ith baths of marble. TIi K« aces, imar, laid out by order of the emperor Shah Jehan, though not more than a mile in circumference, are said to have cost a million sterling in rich and profuse decorations, and to have becin nine years in completing. One of the quarters of the city has been very thinly inhabited since the dreadful massacre by Nadir Shah, in 17'i9, in which above one hundred thousand of the inhabitants were slaugh- tered. The environs of tliis once magnificent and celebrated city, ap- pear now nothing more than a shapeless heap of ruins, and the sur- rounding country is equally desolate and forlorn. The province of Cashmire, being surrounded with mountains, is dif- ficult of access; but when entered, it appears to be the paradise of the Indies. It is said to contain one hundred thousand villages, to be stored with cattle and game, without any beasts of prey. The capital (called Cashmere) stands by a large lake; and both sexes, the women especially, are almost as fair as the Europeans, and are said to be witty, dexterous, and ingenious. This province is particularly famed for the beauty and fineness of the shawls made here. 'I'he province of Cabul is diversified with hills, dales, and extensive forests ; but the mountains are said to be covered with perpetual snow. The city of Cabul is the capital of the dominions of the Afghans, or kingdom of Candahar. The province and city of Lahore formerly made a great figure in the Indian liistory, and is still one of the largest and finest provinces, producing the best sugars of any in Hindoostan. The city of Lahore was once nine miles in length, but is now much decayed. It is at pre- sent the capital of the Seiks. 'i"'he inhubitants of the province of Moultan carry on an extensive traffic in horses with the Persians and Tartars ; the city of the same 7)amc is principally remarkable for its antiquity and its cotton manu- factures. Tatta, the capital of Sinde, is a large city, formerly distinguished for its manufactures in silk and cotton; but a plague, which happened in 3G99, carried oflT above eighty thousand of the inhabitants employed in them, and they have since greatly declined. It is still famous for its jnanufacture of palanquins, which are a kind of canopied couches, on which ilie great men all over India, Europeans as well as natives, re- pose when they appear abroad. They are carried by four men, who will trot along, morning and evening, forty miles a day ; ten being usually hired, who carry the palanquin by turns, four at a time. '['hough a palancjuin is dear at first cost, yet tlie porters may be hired for nine or ton shillings a month each, out of which they maintain themselves. The Indus, at Tatta, is about a mile broad, and famous for its fine carp. The greater part of the provinces of Agimcre, Candeish, and Malwa, are possessed by the Mahratta chief, Scindiah, whose usual residence is at Ou,'^ein, the capital of the latter, an ancient and spacious city, six miles in circumference, and surrounded by a strong wall, with round towers. It is situate on the Sepras, and contains four mosques, a number of Hindoo temples, and anew and sumptuous palace, built by Scindia. Gu/erat is a maritime province on the Gulf of Cambaya, and one of the finest in India, but inhabited by a fierce, rapacious people. It is said to contain thirty-five cities. Ahmedabad is the capital, wijere there is an Engli-ih factory, and it is said, in wealth, to vie with the 2X ii»| 111 if '■ t i ' % VI IX I'iS'r : :,, I I 674 rflNDOOSTAN. richest towns in I^urope. At the distance of about one hundred and- ten miles to the sfnith, stands Snrat, on the Taptee, one of the most rich and commercial cities in Hindoostan, and containing near three hundred thousand inhabitants, though the harbour is small and in- commodious, on which account ships generally receive and deliver their cargoes for the merchants of Siirat at the port of %S\valley, about twelve miles distant to the north west. The English have a very flourishing factory at Surat. Among the islands lying upon the same coast, is that of Bombay, be- longing to the English East India company. Its harbour can conve- niently contain one thousand ships at anchor. The island itself is about seven miles in length, and twenty in circumference; but its situation and harbour are its chief recommendations, being destitute of almost all the conveniences of life. The town is about a mile long, and poorly built; and the climate was fatal to English constitutions, till ex- perience, caution, and temperance, taught them preservatives against its unwholesomeness. 'I'he best water there is preserved in tanks, which receive it in the rainy seasons. The fort is a regular quadrangle, and well built of stone. Many black merchants reside here. This island was part of the portion paid with the infanta of Portugal to Charles 11. who gave it to the East India company; and the island is still divided into three Roman catholic parishes, inhabited by Por- tuguese, and what are called Mestizos and Canarines ; the former being a mixed breed of the natives and Portuguese, and tlie other the aborigines of the country. The English have found methods to render this island and town, under all their disadvantages, a safe, if not aa agreeable residence. The reader scarcely needs to be informed, that the governor and council of Bombay have lucrative posts, as well as the officers under them. The troops on the island are commanded by English officers; and the natives, when formed into regular com- panies, and disciplined, are here, and all over the East Indies, called Sepoys. The inhabitants of the island amount to near sixty thousand, of different nations, each of whom enjoys the practice of his religion unmolested. Proceeding to the south on tha western coast of what is termed the Peninsula of Hindoostan, the tract that borders on the sea, front Bombay to Goa, is called the Concan, and sometimes the Pirate coast, as it was subject to the celebrated pirate Angria, and his successors, whose capital was * he strong fortress of Gheriah, taken by the English and Mahrattas in 1755 : 'ly the acquisition of this coast the Mahrattas have become a maritime power. The island and city of Goa, the capital of the Portuguese settle- ments in the East Indies, lies about two hundred and sixty miles south of Bombay. The island is about twenty-seven miles in compass ; it is one of the finest aind best fortified ports in the Indies. This was for- merly a most superb settlement, and Was surpassed, either in bulk or beauty, by few of the Europe«n citiesi It is said that the revenues of the Jesuits upon this island equalled those of the crown of Portugal. Goa, as well as the rest of the Portuguese possessions of this coast, are vnder a viceroy, who still keeps up some remains of the ancient splendor of tlie government. The late kingdom of Ganart, Or Canhara, begiiis forty miles to the south of Goa, and reaches to Calient ; its soil h extremely productive of ricr, and supplies many parts of Europe, and severUl of tlie Indies* 'i he Canarines, it is sard) were always governed by a t^nttn, wh«sc soj*- HINDOOSTAN* 675 hnd the title of rajah ; but the country was conquered by Hjrder All ; and since the dei'e;it and death of his son, I'ippoo Sultan, has been in possession of the Enghsh. The principal ports of this province are M;ingiilore and Onore : the capital is Bednore. To the east of Canara, on the other side of the Ghauts or mountains, )s the country of Mysore, the capital of which, Scrinj^apatam, is now lu'ld by the Enpjliih. This celebrated city, the conquest of vliich has shed such lustre on the British arms, is situate on an island of the river Caveri, four miles long, and about a mile and a half broad. On the western side is a fortress with regular outworks, and the city contains several magnificent palaces and lofty mosques ; for 'lipfOO and his father were Mahometans, and not Gentoos. The mausoleum of Hyder /\li, erected by his son, is a sumptuous edifice; in the environs are noble gardens. , Though Malabar gives name to tlie whole south-west coast cf the peninsula, yet it is confined at present to the country so called, lying on tlie north west of Cape Comorin. The principal places on tliis coast ure Tellichorry, an English settlement, in a beautiful situation, and remarkable for its salubrity, whence it is the great resort of invalids ; Calicut, memorable for having been the first Indian port visited by the Portuguese under Vasco de Gama, and as the seat of the Zamorins, tlie sovereigns of the country, who at this period appear to have pos- sessed the whole Malabar coast from Goa to Cochin ; and Cranganore, formerly a Dutch settlement, but sold by them to the rajali of 'i'ravan» core, the attack of which place by Tippoo Sultan, in 1790, occasioned the war with that prince, the result of which put us in possession, by the partition treaty, of the whole coast from Caroor to Mouut Dilly. Cochin is situated on an island separated from the main land by a narrow creek of the sea. It is a rajahship which appears to be depen^ dent upon that of Travanco;e, which extends along this coast to Cape Comorin. Cochin was one of the earliest settlements of the Por* iHgucse in India. The Dutch gained possession of it in 1660; and from them it was taken, in 1795, by the English, who still retain it. In the vicinity of Cochin are to be fbund some thousands of Jews, who pretend to be of the tribe of Manasseh, and to have records en- graven on copper-plates in Hebrew characters ; they are said to be so poor, that many of them embrace the Gentoo religion. Cape Comorin, which is the southernmost part of this peninsula, though not above three leagues in extent, is famous for uniting in the same garden the two seasons of the year ; the trees being loaded with blossoms and fruit on the one side, while on the other they are stripped of all their leaves. This surprising phaenomenon is owing to the ridge of mbuntains so often mentioned, called the Ghauts, which traverse the whole peninsula from south to north. On the opposite sides of the Cape, the winds are continually at variance ; blowing from the west on the west side, and from the east on the eastern side. Beyond Cape Comorin, the sea coast extends northerly, with a con- siderable curvature towards the cast, toCape Calymere, where the coast of Coromandel properly begins. This space comprehends the king- doms or provinces of Tinevelly, Madura, Marawar, or the Marawars, and Pondiman. The greatest breadth of these countries is about seventy-six miles; the length to Cape Calymere, two hundred and twenty. The kingdom of Tinevelly is separated from that of Tra* Viiicore bv the Gh;iuts ; ics£Xteat of coast, which is c«Ued the Fiihinr 2X2 m- 676 I^lNDdO'STAK. )•: 11 mi \H ■ 1 ' t m Coast, from its valuable fishery of pearls, is nearly a hundre'tl' niiles. This province and Madura are flat, and extremely productive of rice ; abundance of cotton also grows in the drier parts. Tho • principal places in the first are Tinevelly and the fort of Palamcottah, which last has in its neighbourhood a peculiar manufacture of nuislin. At Madura various kinds of linen cloths are manufactured. Madunt and P.ilamcottah are garrisone'd by Englisl: troops; but the revenues of the country are collected by the nabob of Arcot. Tanjore is a iittle kingdom lying to the east of Madura ; the soil is fertile, and its prince was rich, till plundered by the nabob of Arcot, and some British subjects connected with him. Within it lies the Danish East India settlement of Tranquebar, and the fortress of Ncgapatam* which was taken from the Dutch during the v/ar before the last, and confirmed to the English by the treaty of peace : the capital city iii- Tanjorc. TheCarnada, or Carnatic, as it is now called, is well known to tlio English ; it is bounded on the east by the buy of Bengal ; on the north by the river Kistna, which divides it from Golconda ; on the west by Visiapour ; and on the south by the kingdoms of Messaur and Tanjore ; being in length, from south to north, about tliree hundred and forty- five miles, and two hundred and seventy- :,ix in bn.'adrU from east to west. The capital of the Carnatic is Arcot, belonging to the nabob' of Arcot. '] 'lie country in general is esteemed healthful, fertile, and populous. Within this country, upon the Coromandel coast, lies Fort St. David, or Cuddalore, belonging to the- English, with .i- district round it. The fort is strong, and of great im[)()rtance to our trade. Five leagues to the north lies Pondicherry, once the emporium of the French in the East Indies, but which has been repeatedly taken by the English, and as often restored by the treaties o^ peace. Fort St. George, better known by the name of Madras, is the capital* of the English East India company's dominions in that part of the East Indies, and is distant eastward from London about four thousand eight hundred miles. Great complaints liave been made of the situa- tion of this fort ; but no pains have- been spared by the company in rendering it impregnable to any force that can be brought against it by the natives. It protects two towns, called, from the complexion o? their several inhabitants, the White and the Black. The White Town is fortified, and contains an English corporation of a mayor and alder- men. Nothing has been omitted to amend the natural badness of its situation, which seems originally Ik) be owing to the neighbourhood of the diamond mines, which are but a week's journey distant. These mines were under the direction of a Mogul officer, who let them out by admeasurement, and inclosing the contents by palisadoes ; all diamonds above a certain weight originally belonged to the emperor. The district belonging to Madras, extending about forty miles round, is of little value for its product. Eighty thousand inhabitants, of various nations, are said to be dependent upon Madras ; but its safety- consists in the superiority of tlie English by sea. It carries on a con- siderable trade with China, Persia, and Mocha. Pullicate, orPoulicst, lying to the north of Madras, belongs to the Dutch. The kingdom of Golconda, which, besides its diamonds, is. famous for the cheapness of its provisions, and for making wliite wine of grapes that are ripe in January, has already been mentioned. Gol- , eonda is subjec;: to a prince called the Nizam, or soubah of the Deccan, who is rich; and can raise one hundred thousand men. Tiie capital u£ HI>TDOOSTAN. C77 iliis Jominions is called Ragnagar, or Ilyclraluid, but tlie kingdom takes its name fiom the fortress of Golconcla. East-soulh-eastot'Gol- -conda liesMasulinatam, where the English and Dntch have tact^ries. 'J'he English have also f^ictories at Ganjam and \ i;iigapatani, on this coast ; and the Dutch at Narsipore. The province of Vlsiapour, or Bejapore, before its conquest by the IVTogul emperors, was a large kingdoin, the- rajah of which, it is said, iiad a revenue of six millions sterling, and could bring- into the field one hundred and fifty thousand soldiers; it is now subject to the ■Poonah Mdlu-attas. The c.ipital is of the same name, pud the country ^very fruitful. The province of Dowlatabad adjoins to \'i^iapouv on the north ; the capital is Aurungabad, one of the most populous cities of Hindoostvm, built by Aurcng/.cbe nearUie old capita), Dowlatabad, or Doltabad, which has a very strong fortress, seated on a lofty mountain. The province of Orissa, whence the English company araw S'.;me ^art of their revenues, lies to the north of G jlconda, eytending in length from east to west about five hundred and fifty miles, and in breadth about two hundred and forty. The greater part of it is in ■possession of the Mahratta chief, Bounsla; but the cnpitrd, Cattack, and the port of Balasore, has been ceded to the English by the treaty <which concluded the short but successful war of 1803 ; an .icquisiti(.h the more valuable, as it secures a communication between the Ijritish territory on the Ganges, and that on the coast of Coromandel. In this provincx: stands the temple of Jagernaut, which they say is attended by five hundred priests. The idol is an irregular pyramidal black stone of about four or five hundred pounds weight, with two rich diamonds near the top, to represeiU the eyes, and the nose and mouth painted with vermilion. Manufactires, Commerce.^ The manufactures of Hindoostan consist principally of muslins and silks; the shawls of Cashmire are par- ticularly esteemed. The inhabitants, in all handicraft trades that they imderstand, are more industrious, and better workmen, than most of the Europeans ; and in weaving, sewing, embroidering, arid some other manufactures, it is said, that the Indians do as much work with their feet as their hands. Their paiating, though they are ignorant of drawing. Is amazingly vivid in its colours. The fineness of their linen, and their fillagree work in gold and silver, are beyond any tlung of those kinds to be foun<l in other parts of the world. The commerce of India, in short, is courted by all trading nations in the world, and pro- bably has been so from the earliest ages ; it was not unknown even in Solomon's time ; and the Greeks and Romans drew from thence their principal materials of luxury. The greatest share of it is centred in i^ngland, the trade of the French with this country being at present entirely annihilated ; nor is that of the Portuguese, Danes, and Dutch, of much importance. The exports from Hindoostua are diamonds, raw, and some wrought silks, rice, spices, and drugs. The Mahomedan merchants carry on a trade with Mecca, in Arabia, ifro'm the western parts of this country, up the Red Sea. This trade is carried on in a particular species of vessels called junks, the largest of which, we are told, besides the cargoes, will carry seventeen hundred Mahoniedan pilgrims to visit the tomb of their prophet. At Mecca they meet with Abyssinian, Egyptian, and other traders, to whom they dispose of their cargoes for gold and silver j so that a Mahomedaa I m 1 ij? 678 HINDOOSTAN. ,aili' .; ■I'feii^ junk, returning from this vo>'age, is often worth two hundred thousand pounds. Government, Laws.] The government of the Mogul emperors was despotic, a«d such is that of the different native sovereigns who rule the country at present. The people of Hindoostan are governed by no written laws, nor is there a lawyer in their whole empire ; and their courts of justice are directed by precedents. The Mahomedan institutes prevail only in their great towns and their nti^libourhood. The empire is hereditary, and the emperor is heir to his own of- ficers. All lands go in the hereditary line, and continue in that state even down to the subtenants, while the lord can pay his taxes, and the latter their rent, both which are immutably fixed in the public books of each district. The imperial demesne lands are those of the grea£ rajah families, which fell to limur and his successors. Certain portions of them are called jaghire lands, and are bestowed by the crown on the great lords or omrahs, and, upon their death, revert to the emperor ; but the rights of the subtenants, even of those lands, are indefeasible. Such are the outlines of the government by which this great empire long subsisted, without almost tJic semblance of virtue among its great officers, either civil or military^ It was shaken, liowever, after the in.. vasion of Mahomed Shah, by Kouli Khan, which was attended by so great a diminution of the imperial authority, tliat the soubahs and nabobs became absolute in their own governments. Though they could not alter the fundamental laws of property, yet they invented new taxes, which beggared the people, to pay their armies, and support their power ; so that many of the people, a few years ago, after being unmercifully plundered by collectors and tax-masters, were left to perish through want. To sum up the misery of the inhabitants, those soubahs and nabobs, and other Mahomedan governors, employ the Gentoos themselves, and some even of the Brahmins, as the ministers of their rapaciousness and cruelties. Upon the whole, ever since the invasion of Kouli Khan, Hindoostan, from being a well-regulated government, i» begome a scene of mere anarchy or stratocracy ; every great man protects himself in his tyranny by his soldiers, whose pay far exceeds the natural riches of his government. As private assassi- nations and other murders are here committed with impunity, the people, who know they can be in no worse state, concern themselves very little in the revolutions of government. 'I'o the above causes are owing the late successes of the English in Hindoostan. Revenues.] 1 he whole revenues of the Mogul empire, in the time of Aurungzebe, were computed at thirty millions sterling ; which, it has been observed, considering the comparative value of all the neces- saries of life, and produce of the soil in that country, may be esiimated as equal to four times that sum in England at present. Rt)YAL Title.] The emperpr of Flindnostan, or Great Mogul (so called from being descended from Timur, or Tnnitrhine, the IVIongul or Mogul Tartar), on his advancement to the throne, assumes some grand title ; as " The Conqueror of the JVcrldy theOiiiament of theThrotiCt'* Ufc. but he is never crowned. Religion.] The institutions of religion, publicly established in all the extensive countries stretching from the banks of the Indus to Cape ComOrin, present to view an aspect nearly similar. 'I hey form a re- gular and ponaplcte system of superstition, strengthened and upheld by HINDOOSTAN. 679 ■'» every thing \which can excite the reverence and secure the attachment ot" the people. The tennples consecrated to their deities are magni- ficent, and adorned not only with rich offerings, but with the most ex- quisite works in painting and sculpture which the artists highest in estimation among them were capable of executing. The rites and ceremonies of their worship are pompous and splendid, and the per- formance of them not only mingles in all the transactions of common life, but constitutes an essential part of them. The jBrahmins, who, as ministers of religion, preside in all its functions, are elevated above every other order of men, by an origin deemed not only more noble, but acknowledged to be sacred. They have established among them- selves a regular liierarchy and gradation of ranks, which, by securing subordination in their own order, adds weight to their authority, and gives them a more absolute dominion in the minds of the people. This dominion they support by the command of the immense revenues with which the liberality of princes, and the zeal of pilgrims and devotees, have enriched them. The temples or pagodas of the Gentoos are stupendous but dis- gustful stone buildings, erected in every capital, and under the direc- tion of the Brahmins. To this, however, there are some exceptions ; for, in proportion to the progress of the different countries of India in opulence and refinement, the structure of their temples gradually im- proved. From plain buildings they became highly ornamented fabrics, and, both by their extent and magnificence, are monuments of the power and taste of the people by whom they were erected. In this highly finished style there are pagodas of great anticjuity in different parts of Hindoostan, particularly in the southern provinces, which are not exposed to the destructive violence of Mahomedan zeal. " In order to assist our readers in forming a proper idea of these buildings, we shall briefly describe two, of which we have the most accurate ac- counts. The entry to the pagoda of Chillambrum, near Porto Novo, on the Coromandel coast, held in high veneration on account of its antiquity, is by a stately gate, under a pyramid, a hundred and twenty- two feet in height, built with large stones above forty feet long, and more than five feet square, and covered with plates of copper, adonied with an immense variety of figures, neatly executed. The whole structure extends one thousand three hundred and thirty-two feet in one direction, and nine hundred and thirty-six in another. Some of the ornamental parts are finished witli an elegance entitled to admira- tion. The pagoda of Seringham, superior in sanctity to that of Chillam- brum, surpasses it as much in grandeur. This pa,2;oda is situated about a mile from the western extremity of the island of Seringham, formed by the division of the great river Caveri into two channels. " It is composed of seven square inclosures, one within the other, the walls of which are twenty-five feet high, and four thick. These in- clcsures are three hundred and fifty feet distant from one anothrr, and each has four Urge gates with a square tower, which are placed, one in the middle of each side of the inclosures, and opposite to tiie four cardinail points. The putward wall is nearly four miles in circum- ference, and its gateway to the south is ornamented with pillars, several of which are single stones thirty-three feet long, and nearly iive in diameter; and those which form the roof are still larger : in the inmost inclosures are the chapels. Here, as in all the other great pagodas uf India.) the Brahmii^s live in » subordination which knows ■V if' '3 1 Mi Si 11 & y / y 680 IIINDOOSTAN. f 1 i l^M mm >1! « ' no resistance, and slumber in a volnptaousness which knows no wants." If the Brahmins are masters of any uncommon art or science, they frequently turn it to the purposes of profit from their ignorant votaries. Mr Scrafton says, tliat they know how to calculate eclipses ; and that judicial astrology is so prevalent among them, that half the year is t;iken up with unlucky days; the head astrologer being always con- tulted in their councils. The Mahomedans likewise encourage those superstitions, and look upon all the fruits of the Gentno industry as belonging to themselves. Though the Gentoos are entirely passive, imder all their oppressions, and, by their state of existence, the prac- tice of iheir religion, and the scantiness of their food, have nothing of that refinement in their nature that animates the rest of mankind ; yet they are susceptible of avarice, and sometimes bury their money, and, rather than discover it, put themselves to death by poison or otherwise. I'his practice, which it seems is not uncommon, accounts for the vast scarcity of silver that, till of late, prevailed in Hindoostan. The reasons above mentioned account likewise for their being less under the influence of their passions than the inhabitants of other coun- tries. The perpetual use of rice, their chief food, gives them but little nourishment ; and their marrying early, the males before fourteen, and their women at ten or eleven years of age, keeps thein low and feeble in their persons. A man is in the decline oif life at thirty, and the beauty of their women is on decay at eighteen ; at twenty-five they have all the marks of old age. We are, therefore, not to wonder at their being soon strangers to all personal exertion and vigour of mind ; and it is with them a frequent saying, that it i& better to sit than to walk, to lie down than to sit, to sleep than to wuke, and death is the best of all. The Persees, or Parses, of Hindoostan, are originally the Gaurs, de- scribed in Persia, but are a most industrious people, particularly in weaving, and architecture of every kind. They pretend to be pos- sessed of the works of Zoroaster, whom they call by various names. They are known as paying divine adoration to fire, but it is said only as an emblem of the divinity. Learning.] The Brahmins, who are the tribe of the priesthood, descend from those Brachmans who are mentioned to us with so much reverence by antiquity ; and although much inferior, either as philo- sophers or men of learning, to the reputation of their ancestors, as priests, their religious doctrines are still implicitly followed by the whole nation ; and as preceptors, they are the source of all the know- ledge which exists in Hindoostan. But the utmost stretch of their mathematical knowledge seems to be the calculation of eclipses. They have a good idea of logic ; but it does not appear that they have any treatises on rhetoric ; their ideas of music, if we may judge from their practice, are barbarous; and inmedicine, they derive no assistance from the knowledge of anatomy, since dissections are repugnant to their religion. The poetry of the Asiatics is too turgid, and full of conceits, and the diction of their historians very diffuse and verbose ; but, though the manner of eastern compositions differs from the correct taste of Europe, there are many things in the writings of Asiatic authors worthy the attention of literary men. Mr. Dow observes, that in the Sanscrit, or learned language of the Brahmins, which is the grand repository of the religion, philcHsophy, and history of the Hindoos, there are in p?r- liculur many hundred volumes in prose, which treat of the ancieat A HINDOOSTAN. 68t Indians and their history. The same writer also remarks, that the Sanscrit records contain accounts of the affairs of the Western Asia, very different from what any tribe of the Arabians have transmitted to posterity ; and that it is more than probable, that, upon examination, the former will appear to bear the marks of more authenticity, and of greater antiquity, than the latter. The Arabian writers have beeu generally so much prejudiced against the Hindoos, that their accounts of them arc by no means to be implic'tly relied on. Mr. Dow observes, that the small progress which correctness and elegance of sentiment and diction have made in the East, did not pro- ceed from a want of encouragement to literature. On the contrary, it appears, that no princes in the world patronised men of letters with more generosity and respect than the Mahomedan emperors of Hin- doostan. A literary genius was not only the certain means to acquire a degree of wealth, which must astonish Europeans, but an infallible road for rising to the first offices of the state. The character of the learned was at the same time so sacred, that tyrants, who made a pas- time of imbruing their hands in the blood of their other subjects, not onTy abstained from offering violence to men of genius, but stood in I'ear of their pens. Universities.] The great seat of Brahminical learning, as has already been mentioned, is Benares ; besides which there is an academy of the same kind at Triciur, on the Malabar coast, that is in great re- pute ; and a celebrated Brahmin school at Cangiburam, in Carnatc, v.'hich appears, from the testimony of Ptolemy, to have existed in the first century of the Christian sera, and the members of which are equal in celebrity to the Brahmins of Benares. Language.] The Sanscrit, or sacred language of the Brahmins, is an original and extremely artificial language, compared by Sir William Jones to the Greek and Latin ; it is written with fifty-two characters, and abounds in compound words. ']'he languages in common use within the wide extent of this great country, are various ; Persian was generally spoken at the court of Delhi ; the Devanagaric, or Hin- doostanic, is spoken at Benares, and has fifty-two characters, with which the Sanscrit may be written. Its mode of Avriting has been in- troduced into all the northern part of India. The Bengalese, or com- mon language of Bengal, is a wretched and corrupt dialect, spoken at Calcutta. The Guzeratic is spoken in the province of Guzerat and Sinde. Tlie Marashda, or language of the Mahrattas, is prevalent through all the country of the Mahrattas. The 'I'alenga, an harmo- nious, nervous, and learned language, which, like the Sanscrit, has fiity-two characters, is spoken on the coast of Orissa, in Golconda, on the river Kistna, and" as far as the mountains of Balangat. The Ta- rn ulac is spoken in the Deccan, Mysore, Madura, and some parts of the Malabar coast, though there the Malabar principally prevails. The Canarese, or language of Canara, extends to Goa. To these may be added the Nepalic, spoken in the kingdom of Nipaul, on the borders ot I'ibet, which has a great similarity to the Dcvangaric. /\lmost all these languages have their distinct alphabets. Antiquities.] Near Bombay are several other islands, one of which, called Elephanta, contains the most inexplicable antiquity per- haps in the world. A figure of an elephant, of the natural size, cut coarsely in stone, presents itself on the landing-place, near the bottom of a mountain. An easy slope then leads to a stupendous temple, hewn out of the solid rock, eighty or ninety feet long, and forty bro.id. The Toof> which is cut flat, is supported by regular rows of piiiais, about ten I I 682 HINDOOSTAN. *^i#l ; , C feet hi,c;h, with capitals, resembliHg round cushions, as if pressed hj tlic weight of the incumbent mountain. At the farther end are three pigantic figures, which have been mutilated by the blind zeal of the Portuguese. Besjde the temple are various images, and groupes on each hand, cut in the stone — one of the latter bearing a rude resem- blance of the judgment of Solomon : also a colonnade, with a. door of regular architecture ; but the whole bears no manner of resemblance to any of the Gentoo works. At Ellora, not Ur i'rom Dowlatabad, in theprovince of that name, is a spacious plain, two leagues in extent, filled with pagodas, tombs, . chapels, piilars, and many thousands of statues of colossal size, cut out of the natural rock, but of bad sculpture, being of great antiquity, and the work of the early Hindoos. History.] The first invader of this country, India, whose expedi- tion is autheniically reccu-dod, was the famous Alexander of Macedon. Zingis Khnn also directed his force thither in the year 1221, and made the emperor forsake his capital. Long before Timur, or Tamerlane, descended in the female lint* from that conquc- ir, Mahomedan princes had entered, made conquests, and established themselves in India. Walid, the sixth of the caliphs named Ommiades, who ascended the throne in the 70Sth year of the Christian aera, and in the 90th of the Hegira, made conquests m India ; so that the Koran was introduced very early into this country. Mahmoud, son of Sebegtechin, prince of Gazna, the capital of a province separated by mountains from the north-west parts of fndia, and situated near Kandahar, carried the Koran with the sword into Hindoostan, in the year fene thousand or one thousand and two of the Christian sera. He treated the Indians with all the rigour of a conqueror, and all the fury of a zealot, plun- dering treasures, demolishing temples, and murdering idolaters throughout his route. The wealth found by him in Hindoostan is re- presented to be immense. The successors of this Mahmoud are called the dynasty of the Gaznavides, and maintained themselves in a great part of the countries which he had conquered in India until the year 115.?, or 1157. when Kosron Shah, the thirteenth and last prince of the Gaznavide race, was deposed by Kussain Gauri, who founded the dynasty of the Gaurides, which furnished five princes, who possessed nearly the same dominions as tlieir predecessors the Gaznavides. Scheabbedin, the fourth of the Gauride emperors, during the life of his brother and predecessor, Gaiatheddin, conquered .the kingdoms of Moultan and Delhi, and drew from thence prodigious treasures. But an Indian who had been rendered desperate by the pollutions and in- sults to which he saw his gods and temples exposed, made a vow to as- sassinate Scheabbedin, and executed it. The race of Gaurides finished in the year 1212, m the person of Mahmoud, successor and nephew to Scheabbedin, who was also cut off by the swords of assassins. Several revolutions followed till tlie time of Tamerlane, who entered India at the end of the year I'iOS, descending more terrible than all its former inundations, from the centre of the northern part of the Indian Caucasus. This invincible barbarian met with no resistance sufiicient to justify, even by the military maxims of Tartars, the cruelties with whicli he marked his way. But, after an immense slaughter of human creatures, he at length rendered himself lord of an en^pire which ex- tended from Smyrna to the banks of the Ganges. The history of the successors of Tamerlane, who reigned over Hindoostan with little, in- terruption more than 350 years, has been variously represented ; but all writers agree, that they were magnificent and despotic princesi and IIINDOOSTAN. 6S3 tlmt I'lcy committed their provinces to rapncious frovemorn, or to their own s.'jns, by which their empire w;is often misefribly torn in pieces. At length, tlie famous Aurent^zebt?, in the year IGGT, though the youngest among many sons of the reigning emperor, after defeating or murder- ing all his brothers, mounted the throne of liindoostan, and may be con:.idered as the real founder and legislator of the empire. He was a grcu and a politic prince, and the first who extended his dominion, though it was little better than nominal, over the peninsula within the Ganges, which is at present so well known to the Knglish. He lived so late as the year 1707* imd it is said that some of his great officers of state wore alive in the year I7o0. In ITI'J, four of his grandsons disputed the empire, which, after a bloody struggle, fell to the eldest, Mauzoldin, who took the name of Jehander Shah. This prince was a slave to his pleasures, and was go- verned by his mistress so absolutely, that his great omralis conspired against him, and raised to the throne one of his nephews, who struck off his uncle's head. The new emperor, whose name was Furrukhsir, was governed and at last enslaved by two brothers of the name of Scyd, who abused their ])ower so grossly, that being afraid to punish them publicly, he ordered them both to be privately assassinated. They dis- covered his intention, and dethroned the emperor, in whose place they raised a grandson of Aurengzebe, by his daughter, a youth of seven- teen years of age, after imprisoning and strangling Furrukhsir. The young emperor proved disagreeable to the brothers, and, being soon poisoned, they raised to the throne his elder brother, who took the title of Shah Jehan. The rajahs of Hindopstan, whose ancestors had en- tered into stipulations, or what may be called pacta conventa, when they admitted the Mogul family, took the field against the two brothers, but the latter were victorious, and Shah Jehan was put in tranquil pos- session of the empire, but died in 1719. He was succeeded by another prince of the Mogul race, who took the name of Mahommed Shah, and entered into private measures with his great rajahs for destroying the Seyds, who were declared enemies to Nizam al Muluck, one of Aurengzebe's favourite generals. Nizam, it is said, was privately en- couraged by the emperor to dechire himself against the brothers, and to proclaim himself soubah of the Deccan, which belonged to one of the Seyds, who was assassinated by the emperor's order, and who im- mediately advanced to Delhi to destroy the other brother ; but he no sooner understood what had happened, than he proclaimed the sultan Ibrahim, anotlier of the Mogul princes, emperor. A battle ensued in 1720, in which the emperor was victorious. He is said to have used his conquest with great moderation, for he remitted Ibrahim to the prison from whence he had been taken ; and Seyd, being likewise a prisoner, was condemned to perpetual confinement ; but the emperor took pos- session of his vast riches. Seyd did not:long survive his confinenjent ; and, upon his death, the emperor abandoned himself to the same course of pleasures that had been so fatal to his predecessors. As to Nizam, he became now the great imperial general, and was often em- ployed against the Mahrattas, whom he defeated, wlien they had almost made themselves masters of Agra and Delhi. He was confirmed in.hissoubahship, and was considered as the first sn]>ject in the empire. Authors, however, are divided as to liis motives for inviting Nadir Shah, otherwise Kouli Khan, the Persian monarch, to invade Hindoostan. It is thought, that he had intelligence of a strong party formed against him at court j .but the truth perhaps is, tlat Nizam did not think that ii 68* illNDOOSl^AN. m'] ■i \U #* JH'S 3;^'' Nadir Shah,could have success, and at first wanted to make himself usehil by opposing him. Th<! success of Nadir Shah is well known, and tile immense treasure which he carried from Hindoostan in 17, if;. Uesidcs those treasures, he oMi^ed the Mogul to surrender to him all the lands to the west of the rivers Attock and Sind, comprehending the provinces of Peyshor, Cabul, ;md Gagna, with many other rich and populous principalities, the whole of them almost equal in value to the crown of Persia itself. This invasion cost the Mogul empire 200,000 lives. As to the plunder imde by Nadir Shah, some accounts, and those too strongly authenticated, make it amount to the incredible sum of two humiitd and thirty-one millions sterling, as mentioned by the London Ga/.ette of thos6 times. The most moderate say that Nadir's own sliare amounted to considerably above seventy millions. Be that as it may, tlic invasion of Nadir Shah may be considered as putting a period to the greatness of the Mogul empire in the house of Timur. Nadir, however, when he had raised all the money he could in Delhi, re-instated the Mogul, Mahomnied Shah, in the sovereignty, and retirrned into his own coun- try. A general defection of the provinces iotm after ensued ; none being Avilling to yield obedience to a prince deprived of the power lo enforce it. The provinces to the north-west of the Indus had been ceded to Nadir Shah, who being assassinated in iT-i*?, Achmet Abdidlah, his treasurer,an unprincipled man, but possessed of great intrepidity, found means, in the general confusion occasioned by the tyrant's death, to carry off three hundred camels loaded with wealth, wliereby he was enabled to put himself at the Iread of an army, and march against Delhi with fifty thousand horse. Thus was the wealth drawn from Delhi made the means of continuing those miseries of war which it had at first occasioned. Prince Achmet Shah, the Mogul's eldest son, and the visier, with other leading men, in this extremity, took the field with eighty thousand horse, to oppose the invader. The war was carried on with various success, aud Mahommed Shah died b;jforeits termination. His son, Achmet Shah, then mounted the imperial throne at Delhi : but the empire fell every day more into decay. Abdallah erected an indepen- dent kingdom, of which the Indus is thegeneral boundary. The Mahrattas, a warlike nation of the south-western peninsula of India, had, before the invasion of Nadir Shah, exacted a chout or tri- bute from the empire, arising out of the revenues of the province of Bengal, which being withheld in consequence of the enfeebled state of the empire, the Mahrattas became clamorous. The empire began to totter to its foundation ; every petty chief, by counterfeiting grants from Delhi, laying claim to jaghires * and to districts. The country was torn to pieces by civil wars, and groaned jiuider every species of domestic misery. Achmet Shah reigned only seven years, after which much disorder and confusion prevailed in Hindoostan, and the people suffered great calamities. At present, the imperial dignity of Kindoostn i is vested in Shah AUum Zadah, who is universally acknowledged to be the true heir of the Tamerlane race ; but his power is feeble : the city of Delhi, and a small territory round it, is all that is left remaining of the house and heir of Timur, who depends upon the protection of !ie English, and whose interest it is to support him, as his authority is th« best legal guarantee of their possessions. ^ , * Jaghire means a grant of land from a sovereign to a subject, rcvokeabte indeed at pleasure, but generally held for life. JUNDOOSTAV. «s'-; II known, ^ ill 17:i9. " Iiim ;ill "ding the ■ rich and liif to the s to the stronglv- ii/.cttc of niountcd inviibion greatness "» when Mogul, vn coun- nc being- enforce cded to lah, his r> found ?iicli, lo he was t Delhi Delhi ' at first svisier, eighty n with 1. His but the depen- 11 la of or tri- ice of ate of began grants iintry ies of vhich eople Dstai to be tyof fthe " he i die 'able We sh.in now conclude tlic hiitory of Hindoostan with sonio acconn*. ofllie i'ritish iriinsactions^ in that part ot tiic world, since 17t>5, when rhey were quietly settled in the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, und in the Carnatic, not indeed as absolute sovereigns, but as tributaries to the emperor. This state of tranquillity, however, did not long con- tinue, i(»r, in 17''7, they fr)und themseh'es engaged in a very dangerous, war with Hyder Ally, the sovereign of Mysore. This man had originally bc-en a military adventurer, who learned the rudiments of the :irt of war in the; French camp ; and in the year 1753 had distinguished himself in their service. In iTfj'J, having been advanced to the com- mand of the army of Mysore, he deposed his sovereign, and usurped the supreme authority, under the title of regent. In a short thne he extended his dominions on all sides, except the Carnatic, until at last his dominions equalled the rsland of Great Britain in extent, with a revenue of not kss than four millions sterling annually. The discords which took place in various parts of Hindoostan, particularly among tlieMahrattas, enabled him to aggrandise himself in such a manner, th a r }iis power soon became formidable to his neighbonrs ; and in 1767, ht* found himself in danger of being attacked on one side by the Mahrattas, and on the other by the British. The former were bought off with a sum of money, and the latter were in consequence obliged to rttin;. Havin;^ soon, however, assembled all their forces, several obstinate engagements took place ; and the British now, lor the first time, found a steady opposiiion from an Indian prince. The war continued with various success during the years 17f>7, 17<)^, and part of 1'69, when Hyder, with a strong detachment of his army, passing by that of the British, advanced Vv'ithin a little distance of Madras, where he intimi- dated the gov'ivnment into a peace upon his own terms. The advantages gained by this peace, however, were quickly lost by an unfortunate war with the Mahrattus, from whom, in the year 1771, he received » most dreiuU'ul defeat, almost his whole army being killed or taken. Hyder was now reduced to the necessity of allowing his enemies to desolate the country, till they retired of their own accord ; after which he retrieved his affairs with incredible perseverance and diligence, so that in a few years he becam-emore formidable than ever. In 177iJ, the Mahrattas made some attempts to get possession of tlie district of Corah, and some other parts of the province of (Dude, but were opposed by the British, who, next year, defeated and drove them across the river Ganges, when tliey had invaded the country of the Rohlllas. On tliis occasion the latter iiad actedonly as the allies of Sujah Dowla, to whom tlie Roliilla chiefs had promised to pay forty lacks of rupees for the protection afforded them; but when the money came to be paid, it wa<5, under various pretences, refused ; the consequence of which was, that the Rohilla country was next year (I77i") invaded and contpiered by tJie British, as well as several o^her large tracts of territory ; by which means the boundary of Oade was advanced, to the westward, within twenty-five miles of Agra; north-westward, to the upper part of the na- vigable course oi" the Ganges ; and south-westward to the Jumna river. in 1778, a new war commenced with the Mahrattas; on which oc- casion a brLgixde, consisting of 7000 Indian troops, commanded by Bri- tish officers, traversed the whole empire of the Mahrattas, from the river Jumna to the western ocean. About this time the war with France broke out, and Hyder Ally, probably expecting assistance from the Trench, made a dreadful irruption into the Carnatic, at the head of 100,000 men. For some time he carried every thing before him ; and il 1^ 686 HINDOOSTAN. u*\ K It l> H i: li: ■\M having the fortune to defeat, or rather destroy, a detachment of the British army, under Colonel IJaillie, it was generally imacincd that the power of Britain in that part of the world would soon have been an- nihilated. By the happy exertions of Sir Eyre Coote, howe'ver, to wliom the management of affairs was now committed, the progress of this for- midable adversary was stopped, and he soon became weary of a war, which was attended with incredible expense to himself, without any reasonable prospect of success. By the year 17S2, therefore, Hyder Ally was sincerely desirous of peace, but died before it cpuld be brouglit to aconclusiotv; and his rival, Sir Eyre Coote, did not survive him above five months : a very remarkable circumstance, that the com- manders in chief of two armies, opposed to each other, should both die natural deaths within so short a space of time. To Hyder Ally succeeded his son, Tippoo Sultan, whose military prow^css is well known. Of all the native princes of India, Tippoo was the most formidable to the British government, and the most hostile to its authority. The peace of Mangalore, in 1784, had, it was supposed, secured his fideHty by very feeble ties ; and the splendid embassy which, not long after that event, he dispatched to France, afforded much reason to apprehend that some plan was concerted between tlie old government of that country and the tyrant of Mysore, for the an- noyance of Great Britain in its Indian possessions ; but this plan was happily defeated by the French revolution. The increasing power of Tippoo was not less formidable to the Dutch, than to the English ; and the vicinity of Cqchin, their most flourishing settlement on the continent of India, to the territories of that aspiring monarch, made them tremble for its safety. Besides Cochin, the Dutch were possessed of two other forts, which were situated between Mysore and their favourite settlement ; and one of them, Cranganore, had been taken by Hyder Ally in 1779, or 1780. When the war broke cut in 1780 between Hyder and the English, he was obliged to evacuate his garrisons on the Malabar coast, to employ his force in the Carnatic ; and Holland and France being soon after united with Hyder against the English, the Dutch embraced the opportunity of clandestinely tak- ing possession, and re-garrisoning the fort ; a measure which greatly offended Hyder, and of which he loudly complained. By the medi- ation, however, of France, a compromise took place, but upon what terms is uncertain. From the vicinity of Cranganore and Acottah to his boundary, and their situation within the territory of an acknowledged tributary to My- sore (the rajah of Cochin), the possession of them was a most desirable object with Tippoo. In the month of June, 1789, he marched a for- midable forcetowardsCranganore, with a professed intention of making himself master of it, upon a claim chiefly founded upon the transactions we have just related. Unable, therefore to retain the possession of the forts themselves, and fearing for a settlement of much superior value, the Dutch readily entered into a negotiation with the rajah of Travan^ core for the purchase of them. That politic people easily saw, that, by- placing them in his hands, they erected a most powerful barrier, no less than the whole force of Great Britain (who was bound by treaty to assist him),against the encroachments of their ambitious neighbour upon their settlement at Cochin. The imprudence of the rajah, in entering upon such a purchase while the tltfe was disputed, drew down upon him the heaviest censures from the government at Madras ; and he was repeat-^ edly cautioned both by Sir Archibald Campbell, audMr. Holland, his HINDOOSTAN. 687 un, the iruccessor in the government, not to proceed In the negotiation. Such, however, was the ardour and temerity of the rajah in making this ac- quisition, that he not only concKided the purchase with the Dutch, but even treated with the rajah of Cochin, without the privity of Tippoo, though he was the acknowledged tributary of that prince, for some ad- jacent territory. The bargain was concluded in July, 17H9, though it was not till the ^th of August that the rajah informed the Madras go- vernment, through their resident Mr. Powney, tliat lie was on the point of making the purchase. It was not probable that Tippoo would remain an indifferent spect.i- tor of these transactions. He insisted on the claim which he retained over these forts, inconsequence of their being conquered by his father, and in consequence of the subsequent compromise. He asserted, that according to the feudal laws, no transfer of them could take place vvkli- out his consent, as sovereign of Mysore ; and on the 29th of December, he made, with a considerable force, a direct attack upon the lines of Travancore. On receiving a remonstrance from the Bi'itish govern- ment of Fort St. George, he desisted, and even apologised. From the i^yth of December to the 1st of March, Tippoo Sultan remained per- fectly quiet, still asserting his claims to the feudal sovereignty of the forts ; but, it is confidently affirmed, offering to submit the dispute to an impartial arbitration. On the first of March, 1790, the rajah's troops made an offensive at- tack upon Tipp'^o, who had continued quiet within his lines from the 29th of December. An engagement took place; and the British go- vernment conceived themselves bound to take an active part. No pe- riod appeared more favourable to humble Tippoo, if that was the object of the British administration. With all the other pov/ers .)f India we were not only at peace, but treaties of alliance existed between Great Britain and the two most powerful states of India, the Nizam and the Mahrattas ; and both declared themselves in perfect readiness to exert their utmost force to crush the rising power of Mysore., We shall here present the reader with a brief account of tho progress and termination of this war, by which the British power was more than ever established on the continent of Asia, from a narrative drawn up by major Dirom, from journals and authentic documents. It should be remembered, that the campaign here recorded was the third of our war with Tippoo Sultan. The Jirst commenced in June* 1790, and concluded with that year. It was carried on below the Ghauts. The second campaign contained the capture of Bangalore, which fixed th^ seat of war in the enemy's country, and concluded with the retreat of lord Cornwallis from Seringapatdm, towards the end of May 1791. The tkirii commences almost from that point, and terminates in March 1792. Observing, however, as the auUior very properly states, that, in the tine climate of Mysore, campaigns are regulated rather by plans of opera- tions, than by seasons. The narrative commences with unfavourable circumstances ; the re- treat of the two armies under general Abercromby and lord Cornwallis; the loss of cannon in both ; an epidemic distemper among the cattle { and a dreadful scarcity of grain. These evils, however, vanished by degrees ; the junction ©f the Mahrattas afforded a supply of necessaries, and arrangements urere made for obtaining in future the most ample and tegular provisions of bullocks and grain,and for replacing the battering guns. On the return of the army to the vicinity of Bangalore, the ope- rations began, which were to secure the commtiaicatioo with ihe Caina- «ss HINDOOSTAN. if't If '.'!*i If fit ''''iill'' h;- ^ ISil^ III :f. 'i )■; I l^^i :-:-V.r tic, and reduce the power of the enemy in those parts. The British force was immediately and successfully employed to reduce Oussoor, Rayacotta, and the other hill forts commanding the PoHcodepass. The next object was the forts to the nor,th-east of Bangalore, which interrupt- ed the communication with the Nizam's army, and with the Carnatic, by that route. These being soon reduced, Nundydroog, built on the summit of a mountain, about one thousand seven hundred feet in hciHit, a place of greater magnitudeand strength, was attacked, and after being besieged from September ii2, was carried by assault on the 18th of October, in spite of obstacles which might reasonably have been deemed insurmountable. , By means of dispositions made for that purpose, supplies of all kinds now came in from the Carnatic. Penagra was taken at the end of Oc- tober ; and Kistnagheri attacked on the 7th of November ; this was almost the only enterprise that was not completely successful ; the lower fort and pettah were taken, but the upper fort maintained its defence, and the attack was relinquished. It seems that it could only have been carried by a coup de main, which unluckily failed. On the second of the same month, another instance of ill success attended us : the relief of Coimbetore having been prevented, that garrison was obliged to capi- tulate to Knmmeer-ud deen Khan, on terms which TIppoo did not afterwards fulfil. Savendroog or the Rock of Death, bore witness, in the month of De- cember, to the ardour and perseverance of the British troops. This for- tress, standing in the way between Bangalore and Seringapatam, is thus described: It is " a vast mountain of rock, and is reckoned to rise above half a mile in perpendicular height, from a base of eight or ten miles in circamference. Embraced by walls on every side, and de- fended by cross walls and barriers, wherever it was deemed accessible, this huge mountain had the farther advantage of being dividet' above by a chasm which separates the upper part into two hills, which , having each their defences, from two citadels capable of being maintained, inde- pendent of the lower works; and, affording a secure retreat, should encourage the garrison to hold out to the last extremity," p. G7. It is no less famed ior its noxious atmosphere, occasioned by the surround- ing hills and woods, than for its wonderful size and strength. Hence it derives its formidable name. The sultan is said to have flattered himself that before this place "half the Europeans would die of sickness, the other lialf be killed in the attack ;" he was, however, mistaken. Tlie garrison, fortunately for us, trusted more to the strength of the place than to their own ex-cr- tions, and, on the 21st of December, only the lltli day of the siege, this fortress, hitherto deemed impregnable, was taken by assault in less tlian an hour, in open day, without the loss of a man, ouly one private soldier having been wounded. Outredroog, and other forts, fell successively after this brilliant sue cess. The forces of the' allies were not equally fortunate during the ;same interval. The army of the Nizam, after a long siege of Gurram- condah, drew off to join our for. es, and only left the place blockaded. To make amends for this failure, the Mahratta army, under Purserara I5how, assisted by our engineers, took Hooly Qnore, Bankapoor, Si- moga, and other places. By the latter end of January, IT92, the whole allied force, excepting the Bombay army, was assembled in the vicinity Jof Hooleadrpog. . We come now to tha cperatioi^s against Seringapatam. On the first of '" "i^ HINDOOSTAN. 689 Februriry, 1792, the allies began their march, and at two o'clock on the 5lh encamped across the valley of ^Tilgotah, only six miles from the pobition of Tippoo before Seringapa: im. It could not well be ex- pected by the sultan that he should receive so early an attack as lord CornwalHs destined for him. His camp was strongly situated and forti- fied by a bound hedge, and several redoubts. Nevertheless, after caus- ing his position to be reconnoitred in the morning of the 6th, the com- mander in chief issued orders for the attack that very evening. The army was to march at night in three divisions, and without cannon. *• The plan of attack," says major Dirom, "was indeed bold beyond the expectation of our army ; -but, like a discovery in science, which excites admiration when disclosed, it had only to be known, to meet with general applause.' ' The outlines of this great enterprise are gene- rally known ; the particulars cannot be detailed in vhis place, but are related with great clearness by the historian, and so illustrated by the attendant plans, that the circumstances cannot be mistaken. The result of tliis operation was,thatTippoo was driven from his camp into Seringapatam, all his redoubts taken, and a lodgment established on the island, in a strong position, where lieutenant Stuart remained posted. All possible preparations were made, from this time, for taking the capital by assault: and they were such as probably would have been crowned with full success. On the 16th of February, the Bombay army, under general Abercromby, after overcoming various obstacles, joined the main array, and remained posted to the north-west of the city. On the 19th it was stationed on the south side of the Caveri, in a situ- ation that seemed to give the sultan much uneasiness. However, after attacking the advanced posts of this army on the night of the 21st, Tip- poo made no farther effort ; and on the 24th, wlien the preparations for the general assault were in great forwardness, it was announced that preliminaries of peace were settled. The conferences for this purpose had begun on the l.'jth ; but the operations on both sides continued till the2kh. After the cessation of arms, which then took place, the conduct of Tippoo Sultan was so equivocal and suspicious, as to make it neces- sary on our part to renew the preparations for the siege. Overawed, at length, by the firmness and decision of lord Cornwallis, and probably alarmed by the discontent of his own people, the reluctant sultan sub- mitted to all the terms proposed; and on the 19th of March, the copies of the definitive treaty were delivered in form, by his sons, to lord Corn- wallis, and the agents of the allied princes. The substance of the treaty was: 1st. That Tippoo was to cede one half of his dominions to the allied powers. 2d. That he was to pay three crorcs and thirty lacks of rupees. 3d. That all prisoners were to be restored. 4th. That two of the sultan's three eldest sons were to become hostages for tlie due perfi)rmance of the treaty. Thus ended a war in which the advantages gained by us may be briefly stated thus: — !. Our most fovmid;4ble enemy was so reduced by it, as to render our posi.essions in India both profitable and secuie. 2. Madras was secured fiom invasion by jjosscssion of the passes, and covered by a territory defended by strong forts. 3. The value of Bombay was greatly enhanced by possessions gained on t'^.e Malabar coast, protected by Poligautcherry ;'aid the frontier of ihe Coorga Rajah. These advantages, it may be presumed, far overbalanced the expenses of the war, By ii statement of majo; Dirum, it appears (.hat ►I I f i o 690 HINDOOSTAN. I* .■i:n , i -r ' M '•iiii: I'ippoo lost in this war sixty-seven forts, eight hundred and one can- nons, and forty-nine thousand three hundred and forty men. The amhition of Tippoo Sultan was for a time represseu by the vic- tories wliich had forced him to sign the treaty above-mentioned. ; and his power diminished by the cessions he had been compelled to make ; still, however, he retained the same enmity to the British government, and the desire of revenge, should any events aiFord him encourage- ment and an opportunity again to resume his arms. The war which' took place between England and France, in consequence of the French revolution, seemed to present such an opportunity, and Tippoo wil- lingly listened to the suggestions of French emissaries, that, by enter- ing into an alliance with that republic, he might receive from it such aid and support as should not only enable him to regain the territory he had lost, but entirely to drive the Fnglish out of Asia, and share the dominions they had there acquired with the French. In the mouth of February, 17J)8, a proclamation was issued by the governor-general of the Isle of France, importing that an embassy had arrived at the Isle of France wiih letters from Tijipoo Sultan, addressed not only to the governor of that island, but to the cxtcuilve directory of France, proposing to conclude an offensive and defensive alliance with the French ; to subsidize and to supply whatever troops the French might furnish to the sultan ; and to commence against the British power in India a war of aggression, for which the sultan de- clared himself to be fully prepared. The proclamation concluded by offering encouragement to the subjects of France to enter into the ser- vice of Tippoo Sultan, on terms to be fixed with his embassadors then on the spot. The circumstances attending this proclamation, on in- quiry, established the fact, that Tippoo had actually concluded such an alliance as was mentioned in it with the French ; and it also ap- peared that he had dispatched an embassy to Zemaun Shah, the sultan of the Abdalli, the object of which could be no other than to encourage tliat prince in the prosecution of his long-intended invasion of Hin- doostan. The French expedition to Egypt, likewise, in the summer of the same year, appeared to have for its ultimate object the execu- tion of a plan of invasion of the British settlements in India, in con- junction with Tippoo. In consequence of these transactions, which so evidently menaced hostility, lord Mornington, (now marquis of Welleslcy ) the present go- vernor-general of Bengal, addressed a letter to Tippoo Sultan, in vliich he expressed his surprise and concern at the intercourse he maintained, and the alliance he had formed, with the French, pro- posing to send to him major Doveton, who might more fully and par- ticularly explain the sole means which appeared effectual for removing all distrust and suspicion, and e:.tablishing peace and good understand- ing on the most durable foundations. His lordship, at the same time, expecting but little satisfaction from the negotiation he had thus offered to open, determined to assemble without delay the armies on the coast of Coromandel and Malabar; and directed all his attention to strengthen and improve the defensive alliance concluded with the T^^'zam and the Peishwa of the Mahrattas. He gave peremptory- Anders to the government of Yon St. George to complete the equip- Tiifnt of tlu'ir battering train, and to advance it with all practicable dis- jKitch to ti'.e most eligible station on the frontier of the Carnatic, with a view of proceeding tcv«ids Scringapatam at the curliest possible HINDCOSTAN. 691 ppnoJ, if such a movement into Mysore slmiilJ becoitie ncces^ Sary. The letter of his lordship to Tippoc produced no other answer than Viigue professii-FiS of a wish to riiaiutain peace and amity. The sulcan, liowever, deciined receiving major Doveton ; allej^int^ that no means moru effectual could he devised than the treaties and engagements ai-, ready entered Into, to j'ive stability to \he foundations of friendship und harmony > or promote the welfare and advantage of all pur- ties. As it was evident tliat Tippoc meant only to gain time and in- ^crease his strength, lord Mornington determined to avail himself of the superiority of his force, and commence hostilities immediately. He accordingly, on the 9d of February, ] 799, directed lieutenant- -general Harris to enter the territory of the Mysore with the army as- sembled under his command ; and on the same day issued orders to lieutenant-general Stuart to be prepared toco-operate Irom Malabar ; and signified to rear-admiral Rainier, and tothe several allies of the company, that he now considered the British government in India to be at war with Tippoo Sultan. • The army of Bombay, under the command of lieutenant-general Stuart, marched from Cananore on the 21st of February, arrived at the head of the Poodicherrum ghaut on the 2Jth of the same month, und took post at Seedapoor and Seedasere on the 2d of March. 'I'hc: army of Madras, under lieutenant-general Harris, entered the terri- tory of Mysore on the .'ith of March, and commenced its operations by the reduction of several forts upon the frontier. On the 6th of March Tippoo Sultan passed his own frontier, and attacked a de- tachment of the army of Bombay, under lieutenant-general Stuart, the total" strength of whose entire army did not amount to six tlwu- sand fighting men. The attack of the sultan's force was sustained by a body not exceeding two thousand men, and the sultan's army was finally defeated and completely dispersed before general Stuart could collect the whole of his divided force. After this signal defeat, Tjppoo retreated precipitately to his camp at Periapatam, and remained there until the 11th of March without making any farther attempt to molest the army. He then returned to Scringapatam, whence in a few days he moved to meet lieutenant- general Harris and the army of Madras, between which and the army of Tippoo an engagement took place on the 27th of March, in whicli the sultan was cgmpletely defeated, and driven from every post which he attempted to maintain. General Harris then proceeded on his march without the least interruption, till, on the 30th, he crossed the Caveri, with his whole army, and, on the 5th of April, encamped two miles south-west of Seringapatam, the siege of which he immediately prepared to commence. In the afternoon of the Hth of April, the army of Bombay joined the army before Scringapatam, A large body of the cavalry of the fcnemy, under the command of Kummcer-nd-deen Khan, had at- tended them closely during their march from Periapatam, but witliouC fiaving been able to make the slightest impression upon them. On the night of the 20th, general Harris received a letter from Tippoo Siultan, expressive of a desire to open a negotiation for peace. To this overture the general answer :;d by transniltting a draft of preli' miuaries, founded on instrucii«ns with which he had been furnished by the governor-general ; and which were, in substance, that Tipaop 2Y2 ^,1 r I w h .( m €'02 HINDOOSTAN. should cJeliver all Frenclnnen, or natives of the island of Mauritius or Bourbon, or of any otlicr countries now subject to France, as also* all Europeans, natives or subjects of countries at war with Gieat Britain, to be treated as prisoners of war ; that he should renounce all connection with the French nation ; that he should cede oue-half of the dominions of which he was in possession before the war, to the allies ; that he sliould pay two crores of rupees (above two millions sterling^ ; and that he should send as hostages four of his sons, and- fourof nis principal officers, together with half the required treasure, \7ithin forty-eight hours, to the camp of the allies. To these pro- positions the sultan replied, that they were weighty, and could not be brought to a concltlsion without the intervention of embassadors.— General Harris, considering this as evidently intended to gain time, refused to admit any vakeels,.or embassadors, unless accompanied by the liostages and specie required. On the 30th of April, the batteries began to batter in breach, and, on the evening of the fJd of May, had so much destroyed the walls,, that the arrangement was made for assaulting the place on the fol- lowing day, wlien the breach was reported practicable. The troops intended to be employed were stationed in the trenches early in the morning of the 4th, that no extraordinary movement might lead the enemy to expect the assault, which it was determined to make in the heat of the day, as the time best calculated to insure success, since the troops of tlie saltan would then be least prepared to oppose the attack. Agreeable to this disposition, at one o'clock the troop* began to move from the trenches, crossed the rocky bed of the Cavei i, and mounted to the assault, indespite of every obstacle which the dif- ficulty of the passage and the resistance of the enemy could oppose. Their impetuous attack was completely snccessful. Resistance, how- ever, continued to be made from the palace of Tippoo for some time after all firing had ceased from the works. Two of his sons were there, who, on assurance of safety, sui rendered to the troops sur- rounding them ; and guards were placed for the protection of the family, most of whom were in the palace. It was soon after veportedy that Tippoo Sulf.Mi had fallen : Sycd Sahieb, Moer Saduc, Syed Gofar, and many other of his chiefs, were also slain. Measures were immediately adapted to stop the confusion, at iirst unavoidable in a city strongly garrisoned, crowded with inhabitants, wiih their property in ruins from the Hre of a numerous artillery,, and taken by assault. The princes were removed to the camp. As it appeared important to ascertain the fate cf the sultan, im- mediate search was made for his body, which, alter much difficulty, was found, late in the evening, in one of the gates, uni,ier .i heap of slain. He had been shot through the head, and bayonctted in throe parts of his body, as he attempted to make his escape. The corpse was the next day recognized by the family, and interred with the honours due to his rank in the mausoleum of his lather. The treasure found in the place was immense ; a prodigious quan- tity of grain, and military stores of all kinds, were likev, isc taken. • • Thus ended the power and life of, perhaps, the most inveterate and formidable enemy the British government ever had in Hindoostan. His death ha-i given a security to their possessions in that country, which they never could have had during his life. His tei ritories have .been divided bctvveen the Britisli, the Nizam, and the Pei.shwa of the Mahjattas, except eertuiu districts of Mysore, which have been as- INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. 693 I Mauritius e, as also' ^ith Great renounce e oae-hali'' var, to the o mill ion <; sons, and treasure, tliese pro- Itl not be sadors.— lin time, anied by ach, and, :he wallbv n the fol- le troops y in tlie lead the ike in the ss, since pose the 2 troop.f -• Cavcri, I the dif- oppose. ce, how- ine time ns were ops siir- II of tiie sported,. . Syed cs were >le in .1 'operty LSi>auIt. n, irTi' iculty, cap of I three •or]).'.c h ihs cjuan- cn. e and >stan. ntry, have fthc n as- signed to a descendant of the ancient rajahs of Mysore, who is to pay an annual subsidy to the liriiish government of seven lacks ot pa- godas (or seventy thousand pounds sterling) lor the defence of his country. The British possess the fortress, city, and island of Se- ringapatam. Tippoo Sultan was, when he fell, about fifty years of age. He was about five feet nine inches high ; his face -vas round, with large full, eyes, and his countenance full of fire and animation. In his dispo- sition he was naturally cruel, passionate, and revengeful. It is pro- bable that his abilities have been over-rated, and that he was .leither so wise a statesman,nor so able a general, as he has been represented. Though he possessed a considerable share of prudence, and was not, in general, wanting either in promptitude or judgment, he at last f;-'ll a victim to ill-concerted schemes, dictated by his ambition and thirst of revenge. The PiiNiNsul.A of INDIA beyond the Ganges, called the Farther Peninsula. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles, Length 2000 ) K«f,„««r, T ^ ^"^^ ^^ ^"^^'^ latitude. 7 - , , -„ „ Breadth 1000 1 '^"^''^^^ 192 and 109 East longitude. J 741,500 Boundaries.] THIS peninsula is bounded by Tibet and Chin^ on the north; by China and the Chinese Sea on the east; by the same sea and the straits of Malacca on the south; and by the Bay of Bengal and Hindoostan on the west. It contains the following provinces and countries. ■ '. . Chief Towns. Length. Breadth. Miles. Miles. Assam . . ^ . . . . Ghergon . . . 260 140 Meckley Munnypour . . 350 170 Aracanor Rcccait . . . Aracaa . . . 500 200 Ava or Burmah (Empire) Ava .... 1050 600 Pegu . Pegu .... 300 200 Martaban Martaban . . . 300 120 v Siam Siam or Yuthia . 600 220 r Malacca , Malacca . . , 560 180 I^aos Lanjan Cambodia Cambodia . . . 400 150 • Siampa or Chiampa . . Ftneri Cochin China Plua 450 100 ; Tonquin Cachao or Kesho . 350 220 ' Of these countries we shall give an account in the order they are above enumerated. The country of Assam lies to the east of the northern part of the province of Bengal, and is bounded o>i tlie north by Tibet, and on the south by Meckley ; its eastern boundaries are not distinctly knOwn. The river Burr<iinpooter runs through it, dividing it iato two parts, n 694- INDIA BLYOND 'HIE GANGES. ^:i\i MA of which the nn: th^rn ii calk J I'trarcul, and the southern XJuc&hir.cul;; scverul other rivers fall into the Burriiiripooter within this country. The products are cocou, pepper, ginger, sugar, .inJ various kinds of iruits, as oranges, citrons, limes, and pine apples. Gold is found in every p'.irt of the country by washing the sand of the rivers, and is one of the sources of the revenue : twelve thousand, or according to some writers, twenty thousand persons are employed in searching for . it. Elephants are very numerous in the extensive forests of ihi$ country, where six or seven hundred may be taken in a year. Assam is the kingdom of a rajah who resides at Ghergong, the capital. Ihis city is encompassed with a bound hedge of bamboos, and has four gates. The rajah's palace is surrounded by a causey planted on each side with a close hedge of bamboos, which serves instead of a wall ; and on the outside there h a ditch which is alw.iys full of water. The rajah's seat is adorned with lattice work and carving; And within and without are placed plates of brass so well polished that when the rays of the sun strike upon them they shine like mirrors. It is an ascertained fact that SOOO carpenters, and 1 '2,000 labourers were constantly employed in this work during two years before it was finished. When the rajah sits in thio chamlier or travels, in.'tead of drums and trumpets they beat the fi'/jo/and dand. The latter is a round and thick instrument made of copper, and is rertainly the same as the drum, which it was customary in the time of the ancient kings to beat in battle and marches.* The people of Assam are said to be a base, unprincipled nation* who have no fixed religion, though- they have some brahmins among them. They abstain from no kinds of meat, but even eat animah . that have died a natural death. They are, however, a stout and brave race, and have repeatedly resisted with success the invasions of the Moguls. They display couiiderablo skill in embroidering with flowers, and in weaving velvet, and partictilarly a kind of silk. Great quantities of gunpowder are made in this kingdoni, the soil abounding with pitre, and it is even pretended that the composition ' of it, and the use of fire«arms ;ind artillery were the invention of this country; an argument for which supposition has been drawn from the code of Gentoo laws, in which the use of <wenp'iiis of Jive is pru- hlhired ; but what these were does not .ippear to be distinctly known. h is certain, however, that they have artillery, and arc verj' skilful in the use of it. . Of Mi:cKL£Y little is known but that it is a country aboiinding with extensive forests. It lies to the south of Assam, and extends to the frontiers of China. It is now subject to the Birnian empire. Aracan or RiccAN lies to the south of Meckley, and was formerly governed by tw-elve princes, subject to the chief kir.g, who resided in liis capital. His palace was very large, and contained, as we are told, teven idols cast in gold, of two inclies thick, each of a man's height, and covered with diamonds and otiier precious stones. 'l"he country produces great quantities of rice, cocoa nuts, bananas, oranges, and many other kinds of excellent fruits ; but the elephants, buffaloes and tigers are said to be so numerous that many parts of it are unin- habited. The capital, Aracan, stands on a river of the same name, wkich runs through the city. The inhabitants are idolaters, worship- ing images of baked clay. The women are tolerably fair, but tht; Pennant's Yicv of IlinJoostanj vol. ii. p. pO'O. s country, itinds of found in rs» and is ording to rchiiigiVxp of iliij ong, the >anjboos, causey h seivv»s s always ork and so well 'ey shine -rs, and "ing two mber or id dand. > and in time of nation* among animak iut and sions of ig with :>f silt. he soil 'osition of this I from s prc- nown. skilful nding nds to merly led in told, light, intry , and ; and Jnin- «mt', hip- iht: INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. C9: ^'^ longest cars are reckoned the mo';t beautiful, and in these they wear many rings. At present Aracan makes a part of the empire of Ava, having been conquered by Mindcragcc, the present sovereign of that country, in 17J^:3. Pegu is about 300 English miles in length, and tiOO in breadth. Its capital, Pegu, on a river of the same name, was, about the year 1600, one of the largest, and most splendid and po- pulous cities in all Asia. The emperor of this country was anciently -a very rich and powerful monarch ; but about the beginning of the seventeenth century, Pegu was comjuered by the kmg of Ava or Birmaii, and the kingdoms united; till about the year 174'0, when the Fegucrs rebelled, and in a few years subdued, in their turn, the kingdom of Ava. In 1 T.'j'K however, the Birmans, under Alompra, who became their sovereign, shook off the yoke, and again subdued Pegu, which now forms a part of the Birman empire. Ava, Bik.m ah, or,as it is called by the natives, Miama, is bounded on the west by a ridge of lofty mountains which divide it from Aracan ; on the north-east and east by China and Siam ; and on the south by Pegu. The Birman empire consists of Ava, Pegu, and Aracan, which are now all subject to one sovereign. It is difficult to ascertain the exact limits of this empire, but according to major Symes, in his ac- count of an embassy to Ava, in the year 1795, it appears to include the space between the 9th and 5i()th degrees of north latitude, and be- tween the 92d and 107th degrees of longitude east of Greenwich; being about 1050 geographical miles in length, and 600 in breadth. The mimber of cities, towns, and villages, in the Birman dominions, major Symes was assured by a person who might be supposed to know, amounts to 8000 ; from which the population of the whole "m- pire, including Aracan, may be supposed to be not less than seven- teen millions. The climate of Ava is extremely salubrious; the seasons are regular, and the extremes of heat and cold seldom experienced ; at least the duration of the intense heat, which immediately precedes the com- mencement of the rainy season, is very short. The soil is remarkably fertile, and produces as luxuriant crops of rice as arc to be found in the finest parts of Bengal. Sugar canes, tobacco of a superior quality, indigo, cotton, and different tropical fruits, in perfection, are all indi- genous products of this fertile country. The kingdom of Ava abounds m minerals : it contains mines of gold, silver, rubies, and sapphires ; it also affords amethysts, garnets, very beautiful chrysolites, jasper, loadstone, and marble. An extensive trade is carried on between the capital of the Birman dominions and Yunan in China. The principal article of export from Ava is cotton. Amber, ivory, precious stones, betel nut, and the edible nests brought from the eastern archipelago, are also articles of commerce. The general disposition of the Birmans is strikingly contrasted with that of the natives of Hindoostan, from whom they are separated only by a narrow ridge of mountains, in many places admitting of an easy intercourse. Notwithstanding the small extent of this barrier, the physical difference between the nations could scarcely be greater, had they been situate at the opposite extremities of the globe. The Bir- mans are a lively inquisitive race, active, irascible, and impatient ; the character of their Bengal neighbours it is well known is the reverse. The unworthy passion of jealousy, which prompts most nations of the East to immure their women within the walls of a haram, and sur- round them with guards, seems to have scarcely any influence over U^e inia4s of this extraordinary aa4 more liberiU people* The wive$ m 4 « I* ^ tK 'hI J BS 11 '•< K 1 :'■ » ; « * i jc ' i'i '' m i ;' li U I jBJjM i mBsi V' K^EMS r ( f Jni i' wilil 4, ', - Va IhTs ^'i i^nll^ 1 S|| ;' ^B§ ' MH H ^ ^Mfii ; ^1 i '#1 ■ v^ j[i% ' '^it] 1 ^4 'J / / ^^Q INDIA BFLYOND THE GANGES. i\ ■H '! and daughters of the Birmans are not concealed from the sight of men, and are suffered to have as free intercourse with each other as the rules of European society admit. The Birmans are extremely fond both of poetry arid music. Their religion is, in fact, that of the Hin- doos, though they are not votaries of Brahma, but sectaries of Boodh. The emperor of Ava, like the (-ther sovereigns of the East, is u despotic monarch. The prevailing characteristic of the Birman court ispride. Like the sovereign, of China, his majesty of Ava acknow- ledges no equal. There are no hereditary dignities or employments in the Birman government. . All honours and offices, on the demise of the possessor, revert to the crown. The titles tlie monarch assumes in his public acts are, the '* Lord of earth and air ; the n^nnarch oi extensive countries; the prcprictor of all kiu.ds of precious stones; the king who perform^ liic ten duties incumbent on all kings ; the master of the white, red, and mottled elephants, whose praises are repeated far a.s the influence of tlie sun and moon extends." Alompra, \vho, as mentioned aboAT, in 17^4' recovered the indepen- dence of his country, and subdued the Peguers, was a Birman origin- ally, of low'extraclion, who collected a baud of resolute adventurers, defeated thePcgueis, and rendered him self sovei-eign of Ava. He died in 1760, and was succecJcd by Namdogee Praw, who died in 1764', leaving the throne to his brother, Shembuan. 'I'he present sovereign is named Shembuau Minderagee Pjaw. He is the fourlh son of Alompra, and ascended the throne in 17H2. Maktaban is aXountry to the soutli-cast of Pegu, and was formerly an independent kingdom, but i^ow makes a part oi the empire of Ava. The soil is fertile in rico, Iruits, and various kinds of wine. The capital, of the same name, was once a nmch.frc<iuented sea-po?t, and one of the most flouiishing commercial towns in the Kast, being situate on a capacious bay, affording an excellent harbour for the largest ships ; but after the conquest of the country by the emperor of Ava, he caused a number of vessels, rilled with stones, to be sunk at its entrance, so that it is now only navigable for small vessels. U'he cWcf trade is now in earthen-ware and fish. The kingdom of Si am is rich and flourishing, and approaches, in its government, policy, and the quickness and acuteness of its, inhabitants, very near to the Chinese. It is surround-ed by high mountains, which, on the east side, separ;ite it from the kingdoms ot Camboja and Laos ; on the west from Pegu ; and on the north from Ava, or more pro- perly from Jangoma : on the south it is washed by the river Siam, and joins the peninsula of Malacca, the north-west part of which is under its dominion. The extent of the country, however, is very un- certain, and it is but indifferently peopled. The inhabitants of both sexes are more modest than any found in the rest of this peninsula. Great care is taken in the education of their childi-en. Their marriages are simple, and performed by their talapoins, or priests, sprinkling holy water on the couple, and repeating some prayer;?. The govern- ment is despotic ; servants must apj^ar before their masters in a Icneeling posture ; and the mandarins are prestrate before the king. Siam, tne capital, is represented as a large city, but scarcely one-sixth part of it is inhabited : and the palace is about a mile and a half in circuit. Bankok, which stands about 18 leagues to the south of Siam, and 12 miles from tlie sea, is the only place towards the coast that is fortified with walls, batteries, and brass cannon ; and the Dutch have a factory at Ligor, whicli stands on the east side of the peninsula of Malacca, but bielonging to Siam. „,. .; . : . .i INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. 697 The peninsula of Malacca is a large country, and contains several kingdoms or provinces. The Dutch, however, till lately were, it i$ said, the real masters and sovereigns of the whole peninsula, being in possession of the capital (Malacca). The inhabitants, in the internal parts, differ little from brutes in- their manner of living ; :uid yet the Malayan language is reckoned the purest of any spoken in all the Indies. We are told by the latest travellers, that its chief produce is tin, pepper, elephants' teeth, canes, and gums. It has been supposed' that it is the Golden Chersonesus, or peninsula of the ancients. Its situation is certainly excellent for trade with India ; so that when it was first discovered by the Portuguese, who were afterwards expelled by the Dutch, Malacca was the richest city in the East, next to Goa-and Ormus, being the key of the China, the Japan, the Moluccas, and the Sunda trade. The country, however, Rt present is cliiefly valuable for its trade with the Chinese. This de- generacy of the Malayans, who were formerly an industrious, inge- tiious people, is easily accounted for, by the tyranny of the Diixh, whose interest it is tli.it they should never recover from their present state of ignorance and slavery. Malacca was taken from the Dutch by the English, in August, J 795, before which the latter used to carry on a smuggling kind Of trade in their country ships, from the coast of Coromandel and the Bay of Bengal, to Malacca. This commerce was connived at by the Dutch governor and council, who little regarded the orders of their su- periors, provided they could enrich themselves. The kingdom of Laos, or Lahos, formerly included that of Jan- j;oma, or Jane^omay ; but that is now subject to Ava : we know few- particulars ot it that can be depended upon. It is said to be im- Jnensely populous, to abound in all the rich commodities as well as the gross superstitions of the East, and to be divided into a number of petty kingdoms, all of tliem holding of one sovereign, who, like his oriental brethren, is Rbsolniely despotic, and lives in inexpressible pomp and magnificence ; but is of the Lama religion, and often the slave of his priests and ministers. Cambodia, or Camboja, is a countrylittle known totheEuropeans ; but, according to the best information, its greatest lengtli, from north to south, is about four hundred English miles; and its greatest breadth, from west to east, about one hundred and fifty miles; This kingdom has a spaci.vis river running through it, tiie banks of which are the only habitable parts of the country, on account of its sultry air, and the pestiferous gnats, serpents, and other animals bred in the woods. Its soil, commodities, trade, animals, and products by sea and land, are much the same with those of the other kingdoms of this vast peninsula. The betel, a creeping plant of a particular flavour, and, as they say, an excellent remedy for all those diseases that are com- mon to the inhabitants of the East Indies, is the highest luxury of the Cambodians, from the king to the peasant; but it is very unpa- latable and disagreeable to the P^uropeans. The same barbarous magnificence, despotism of the king, and ignorance of the people, prevail here as throughout the rest of the peninsula. Between Cambodia and Cochin-China lies the little kingdom of SiAMPA. or Chiampa, the inhabitants of which trade with the Chinese, and seem therefore to be somexdiat more civilised than their neigh- bours. The king i-esides at Feneri, the capital. . . • Cochin-China, or the western China,'' is situated under the torrid ix>ne, and exteads, ftccordiag to some authors^ about H\is hnndred ! t I'M* r 't I :t: : J m li '^f t^ ; (m CHINA. miles in length ; Init it Is mnch Irss cxtensiyc m its hre.iJth irom east lowest. Laos, Canibodiii, ;ind SLimpa, as well as some other sinallcf kingdoms, arc said to be tributary to Cochin-China. The manners and religion of the people beem to be ori^nually Chinese, and tliejr are much given to trade. Their king is said to be immensely rich, and his kingdom enjoys all the advantages of commerce that arc Ibund in the other parts of the East Indies. ToNQUiN is only separated from Cochin-China by a small river ; it produces little or no corn or wine, but is the most healthful coun- try of all the peninsula. Rubies, topazes, amethysts, and other precious stones, are found here. In some places, especially: to- wards the north, the inhabitants have swellings in their throats, said to be owing to the badness of their water. The principal rivef is the Holi Kian, which, after receiving the Li-Sien, passes by Cachao, or Kesho, the capital,, a city which, according to Dampier, resembles* in its form and appearance the towns of China, and is considerably^ populous. The Tonquinese are excellent mechanics, and fair traders ; but greatly oppressed by their king and great lords. The king en- grosses the trade, and his factors sell by retail to the Dutch and other natiorts. The Tonquinese are fond of lacker houses, which are un- wholesome and poisonous. The people in the south are a savage race, and go almost naked, with large silver and gold ear-rings, and coral, amber, or shell bracelets. In Tonquin and Cochin-China, the two pcxes are scarcely distinguishable by their dress, which resembles that of the Persians. The people of quality are fond of English broad- cloth, red or green, and others wear a dark-coloured cotton cloth. The government of Tonquin is particular. The Tonquinese had revolted from thj Chinese, which was attended by a civil war. A compromise at last took place between the chief of the revolt and the representative of the ancient kings, by which the former was to have all the executive powers of the government, under the name of Chouah ; while the Bua, or real king, should retain the royal titles, and be permitted some inconsider^le civil prerogatives within his palace, from which neither he nor any of his family can stir without permission of the chouah. The chouah resides generally in the capital, Cachao, which is situated near the centre of the kingdom. The bua's palace is a vast stFuctiire, and has a fine arsenal. The English have a very flourish- ing factory on the north side of the city. THE EMPIRE OF CHINA. THIS empire includes China Proper, Chinese Tartary, and Tibet ; the Chinese emperors of the Tartarian race having, with the last century, greatly extended their authority and influence over the wan- dering hordes inhabiting the countries to the west of China. We shall treat of each of these divisions of the Chinese empire separately. Miles. CHINA PROPER. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Degrees. Sq, Miles. 000 NAMi. j The Chinese call their country 'j^'^iong Qua, which signi. Length 14501 ,„».„_„ 5 20 and 42 North latitude. ? , ^oo Breadth 1260 / ''*''^^^" < 98 and 123 East longitude. S ^'^^^^ CinNA. C9D • &(?<; the kitiajJ jii of tlis centre, as their vanity lends them lo consider (^hiua as the must ilislini^iiislied region of tlie \v«>rld, and situaie h\ the middle of it. 'I'he lumc of China (in the cast Chin, or 'I'sin) is derived, by some, from one of their ancient nmnirchs of that name, who rcij.Mied, it is said, ahout two centuries hefore tlie Christian »ra ; and hy others, from tlic Chinese word i-bln, signify ins; silk. CousuARiEs.] Cliina is bounded by Chinese Tartary and an ama/.ing stone wall of five hundred leat'ues in length, on thi' north ; by the Pacific Ocean, which divides it from North Americi, on the cabt ; by the Chincsian Sea, south ; and by Tonquin, and the Tartarian countries -dwd niounlains of Tibet and Asiatic Russia, on the west. Division and ropuLATio;.;.] The empire of China is divided into fifteen provinces, each of which might, for its extent, fertility, ropulousness, and opulence, rank as a distinct kingdom. 1 he fol- Jowing statement of the division, pcpnlaiion, and extent of China Proper, was delivered to lord Macartney, .n his request, by Chow-ta- 2hin, a Chinese mandarin, and is founded rm authentic documents, taken from one of the public offices in Pekin. 1 • ■ ■ ■' ■ ~ Provinces. PojiiilatioD. Sq. Miles. Acres. Pe-che-lee - - . - . :w,cx)(),(Xio ')»,94i) 37,T21,MO Kian}j-n;m M province? \ ■■ fl'i,0^X),OCK> 92,9Gl 59,495,040 Ki;injj-scc . 1<)/KX1,0(X) 72,176 4f;,H).',G40 'IVUc-lciaiif - ... 'J1,000,'XK) ;>o,hio '2'>,0.W,Ck)0 Jt'o-chen ... 15,000,0<X1 .WyJHO y4,'.'l.'7,'J0O llou-pe ) ,, Hou-uan 5"°" -quang 3 . H,0'X),0(X)7 1:j,(H)o,(xk) 5 111,770 9'2,«5'.',8(X) Ho-ii:in ... an, 000,000 fi.';,io4 4i,(;f>«j,.'oo Shaiig-tung - ... V l,0:'!'j,o<j() f.'^.lOi 4],Hl)6y'}liO Sh;in-sce 'J7.tX)0,(XX) r,r,,^26s :{j,37i,r>20 Shei»-»ee Kiin-snre - - - lH,fXX),0(X) 1 l'.',0(X>,(X)0 ^ 154,008 9K,.W;7,120 Se-chuecii . . - y 7, 000,000 if;(;,»oo iOf;,7.';2,noo Canton ... 21,0()0,(XX) 7f>,4.j« 5(),8.) 1,840 Qiianp-see ... 10,000,003 1i','2r>0 5(),n80,(X>o Yu-nan ... 8,000,000 107,f)(ii) 69,100,1 'lO Koei-chcou - Total 9,000,000 64,5. -H 4i,;n4,,"(;o :^:JS,(X)0,(XX) l,:J£)7,f)'»9 8:iO,719,:'>(;0 With respect to this statement, sir George Staunton, who compiled ihe judicious and authentic account of the late English embassy to China, observes, that •' the cvtent of the provinces is ascertained by astronomical observations, as well as by admeasurement. Vhe num- ber of individuals is regularly taken in each division of a district by a tything-man, or every tenth master of a family. Those returns arc collected by officers resident so near as to be capable of correcting any gross mistake ; and all the returns are lodged in the great register at Pekin. Thoiigli the general statement is strictly the result of those returns added to each other, which seem little liable to error, or, taken separately, to doubt, yet the amount of the whole is so prodigious as to stagger belief. It must, however, be recollected, that population in China is not subject to be materially diminished by war. No private soldiers, and a few officers only, natives of the ancient provinces of China, were engaged in the conquest of Western Tartary, or in the Tibet war. Celibacy is rare, even in the military professions, among the Chinese. The number of manufacturers, whose occupations are jiot always favourable to health, whose constant confinement to par- m Qii / !rod CHINA. M«-* SA tlcular spots, and somrttmes in a close or tainted atmosphere, must be injurious, and wliose residence in towns esfposes them to irregu- larities, bears but a very small proportion to that of husbandmen in China. In general there seem to be no other bounds to Chinese po- pulousness tlian those which the necessity of subsistence may put to it. These hnnndaries are certainly more enlarged than in other coun- tries. The whole surface of the empire is, with trifling exceptions, dedicated to the production of food for man alone. There is no mea- <low, and very little pasture, nor are fields cultivated in oats, beans, or turceps, for the support of cattle of any kind. Few parks or pleasure- grounds are seen, excepting those belongmg to the emperor. Little land is taken up for roads, the chief communication being by water. There are no commons or lands suffered to lie waste by the neglect, or the caprice, or for the sport, of great proprietors. No arable land lies fallow. The soil, under a hot and fertilising sun, yields double crops, in consequence of adapting the culture to the soil, and sup- plying its defects by mixtute with other earths, by manure, watering, and careful and useful industry of every kind. The labour of man is little diverted from that industry, to minister to the luxuries of the opulent and powerful, or in employments of no real use. Even the soldiers of the Chinese army, except during the short intervals of the guards which they are called to mount, or the exercises or other occa- sional services which they perform, are mostly employed in agricul- ture. The quantity of subsistence is increased also by converting more species of animals i^nd vegetables to that purpose than is usual in other countries. From a consideration ot" the influence of all these causes, the great population of China, asserted in this statement, will not, perhaps, appear surprising, though it appears from it that every square mile in that vast empire contains, upon an average, about one- third more inhabitants, being upwards of three hundred, than are found upon an equal quantity of land, also upon an average, in the most populous country in Europe.'' Face oi- thf, country, mounta1(ns.3 The appearance of the country in China is very di^rersified, though in general it is level and most assiduously cultivated, yet, according to Du Halde, the pro- vinces of Yunan, Koeicheou, Sechueen, and Fochen, are so moun- tainous as greatly to obstruct cultivation ; and that of Tchekiang has lofty and precipitous mountains on the west. In the province of Kiangnan there is a district full of high mountains, which are also numerous in the provinces of Shensee and Shansee. Tliese moun- tains do not appear to be known to Europeans by any appropriate names. FoRcsTs.] Such is the industry of the Chinese, that they are not encumbeied wiih furests or woods, though no country is better fitted for producing timber of all kinds. They suffer, however, none to grow but for omamcnt and use, or on the sides of mountains, from whence the trees, wlien cut down, can be conveyed to any place by water. Lakks."] Cliina contains several extensive lakes, as that of Tong- tint-Jioo, .in the province of Hou-quang, more than eighty leagues in circumference,- ind that of Poyang-hoo, in the province of Kian^-see, thirty leagues in circuit. The lakes of Wee-chaung-hoo and Tai-ho& are also remarkable for their picturesque scenery. On some of these lakes a singular method of fishing is practised. Thousands of small hoats and rafts are sometimes seen on them, and in each boat about ten or a dozen birds, which, at a signal from the owner, plunge into CHINA. 701 icre, roust to irregu- indmen in hinese po- put to it. ther coun- xceptions, is no mea- , beans, or pleasure- r. Little hy water. : neglect, able land ds double and sup- watering, r of man es of the Even the lis of the her occa- 1 agricul- mverting I is usual all these ent, will jat every >out one- than are e, in the '■ of the ?vel and the pro- ' moun- ang has 'ince of are also ; moun- •opriate are not r fitted one to !> from ace by 'long, fues in i^-see. ai-ho6 these small about e into the water, and bring out in their bills fish of an enormous size. They are so well trained that it does not require either ring or cord round their throats to prevent them from swallowing any portion of their prey, except what the master is pleased to return them for encourage- ment and food. The boat used by those fishermen is of a remarkable light make, and is often carried to the lake, together with the fishing- birds, by the men who are there to be supported by it. RivRRS.] The two principal rivers of China are theHoan-ho and the Kian-ku ; the former, called the Yellow River, from its disco- lourmcnt by the mud its waters bring down, has its sources among the mountains of Tibet, and falls into the Yellow Sea, after a course of two thousand one hundred and fifty miles. The Kian-ku rises near the source of the Hoan-ho, and, after passing the city of Nanking, falls into the sea about one hundred miles to the south of the mouth of the Hoan-ho, having traversed a course of two thousand two hundred miles. These two rivers are considered as the longest in the world. There are many other rivers of inferior note ia China ; but the water of this country is in general very indifferent, and, in some places, must be boiled to make it fit for use. Canals.] These are sufficient to entitle the ancient Chinese to the character of a most wise and industrious people. The commodioiis- ness and length of their canals are incredible. The chief of them are lined with hewn stone on tlie sides; and they are so deep, that they carry large vessels, and sometimes extend above one thousand miles in length. Those vessels are fitted up for all the conveniences of life; and it has been thought by some, that in China the water . contains as many inhabitants as the land. They are furnished with stone quays, and sometimes with bridges of an amazing construction. The navigation is slow, and the vessels sometimes drawn by men. No precautions are wanting, that could be formed by art or persever- ance, for the safety of the passengers, in case a canal is crossed by a rapid river, or exposed to torrents from the mountains. Tliese canals, and the variety that is seen upon their borders, render China delight- ful in a very high degree, as well as fertile, in places that are not so by nature. MiiTALs, MINERALS.] Chlua (if we are to believe some naturalists) produces all metals and minerals that are known in the world. White copper, called by the Chinese /»^/07i§-, is peculiar to itself, but we know of no extraordinary quality it possesses. • Tutenag is another peculiai metal, a mine of whicfi, in the province of Hou-quang, yielded many Jiundred weiglit in the course of a few days. One of the fundamen- tal maxims of the Chinese govornment is that of not introducing a superabundance of gold and silver, forfe:ir of diminishing industry. Tlieir gold mines, therefore, are but slightly worked, and the currency- of that metal is supplied by the grains the people pick up in the sand of rivers and mountains. The silvi"' specie is furnished from tlie mines of Hona^. Iron, lead, and tin mines, must be very common, since these metals are sold at alow rate throughout the empire; and it appears, from very authentic documents, that the use of iron in panicuiiiv was very ancient there : quarries and coal-mines abound in almost every pro- vince. Coals are found in great^ plenty in the mountains of the pro- vinces ofShen-see, Slian-see, and Pe-c)ie-lee; they are u,sed by workmen in their furnaces, in all kitchens, and in the stoves with which tlie Chinese warm their apartments during the winter. CtiMATii, SOIL, AGRICULTURE.] The clinwtc of China varies ac- ■ ■ ^ i I' m 9 f 702 CHINA. i1 ■•,! cording to the situation of the places. Tol^'ards the north it is cotS, in the middle mild, and in the south hot. The soil is, either by nature or art, fruitful of every thing that can minister to the necessities, con- veniences, or luxuries of life. Agriculture, in this country, according to the testimony of all travellers, is carried to the utmost degree of perfection. The culture of the cotton, and the rice fields, from ^vhich the bulk of the inhabitants are clothed and fed, is ingenious almost beyond description. Vegetables.] Many of the rare trees, and aromatic productions, either ornamental or medicinal, that abound in other parts of the world, arc to be found in China, and seme are peculiar to itself. The tallow-trce has a short trunk, a smooth bark, crooked branches, red leaves, shaped like a heart, and, is about the height of a common, cherry- tree. The fruit it produces has all the qu;ilities of our tailow, and v/hen manufactured with oil serves the natives as candles ; but they smell strong, nor is their light clear. Of the other tree? peculiar to China, are some which yield a kind of flour; some partake of the nature of pepper. The gum of some is poisonous, but affords tlie rinest varnish in the world. After all that can be said of these, and many other beautiful and useful trees, the Chinese, notwithstand- ing their industry, are so wedded to their ancient customs, that they are very little, if at all, meliorated by cultivation. The s;<me may be said of their richest fruits, which, in general, are fur from being so delicious as those of Europe, and indeed of America. This is owing to the Chinese never practising grafting or inoculation of trees, and knowing nothing of experimental gardening. It would be unpardonable here not to mention the raw silk, which so much abounds in China ; and, above all, the tea-plantt or shrub. It is planted in rows, and pruned to preveutluxurlancy. " Vast tract* of hilly land (says sir George Staunton) are planted with it, particu- larly in the province of Fochcn. Its perpendicular growth is impeded for the convenience of collecting its leaves, which is done first in spring, and twice afterwards in the course of the summer. Its long and tender branches spring up almost from the root without any in- tervening naked trunk. It is bushy like a ros;e-tree, and the expanded petals of the flower bear some resemblance to that of the rose. Every information received concerning the tea-plant concurred in affirming that its qualities depended both upon the soil in which it grew, and the age at which the leaves were plucked off the tree, as well as upon the management of them afterwards. The largest and oldest leaves, which are the least esteemed, and destined for the use of the lowest classes of the people, are often exposed to sale with little previous ma- nipulation, and still retaining that kind of vegetable taste which is common to most fresh plants, but which vanishes in a little time, whilst the more essential flavour, characteristic of each particular ve- getable, remains long without diminution. The young leaves un- dergo no inconsiderable preparation before they are delivered to the purchaser. Every leaf passes through the fingers of a female, wlio rolls it up almost to the form it had assumed before it became ex- panded in the progress of its growth. It is afterwards placed upon thin plates of earthen-ware or iron, made much thinner than can be executed by artists out of China. It is confidently said, in the coun- try, that no plates of copper are ever employed for that purpose. Indeed, scarcely any utensil used in China is of that mital, the chief application of which is lor coin, 'i'he earthen or iron plates are placed CHINA. r03 ts almost over a charcoal fire, which draws all remaining moisture from the leaves, rendering them dry and crisp. The colour and astringency of green tea is thought to be derived from the early period at which the leaves are pluc '-ed, and which, like unripe fruit, are generally green and acrid." The Portuguese h;id the use of tea long before the English ; but it was introduced among the latter before the Rp:.rnration, as mention is made of it in the first act of parliament thn*: sailed the excise ort the king for life, in IGGO. Catharine of Lisbov. wife to Charles II. rendered the use of it common at his court. The gmenfry so famous among the Chinese as the universal remedy, and monopolised even by their emperors, is now found to be but ia common root, and is plentiful in North America. When brought to Europe, it is little dis- tinguished for its healing qualities ; and this instance alone ought to teach us with what caution the former accounts of China are to be read. The ginseng, however, is a native of the Chinese Tartary. Animals.] The lion, according to Du Halde, is not found in China, but there are tigers, rhinoceroses, bears, buffaloes, and wild boars. A very small breed of camels, some of which are not higher than horses, is found here. There are also several species of deer, among which the musk deer is a singular animal, which is likewise a native of Tibet. Curiosities natural and artificial.] Few natural curiosi- ties present themselves in China, that have not been comprehended under preceding articles. Some volcanoes, and rivers and lakes of particular qualities, arc to be found in different parts of the empire. The volcano of Linesung is said sometimes to make so furious a dis- charge of fire and ashes, as to occasion a tempest in the air ; and some of their lakes are said to petrify fishes when put into them. The artificial mountains present, on their tops, temples, monas- teries, and other cditices. The Chinese bridges cannot be snfliciently admired ; they are built sometimes upon barges strongly chained to- gether, yet so as to be parted, and to let the vessels pass that sail up and down the river. Some of them run from mountain to mountain, and consist only of one arch ; that over the river SaJffrany is four hundred cubits long and five hundred high, though a single arch, and joins two mountains ; and some in the interior parts of the empire are said to be still more stupendous. The triumphal arches of this country form the next sj^ecies of artificial curiosities. Though they are not built in ilie Cheek or Roman style of architecture, yet tiiey are superb and beautiful, and erected to the memory of their great men, wi^h vast labour and expense. They are said in die whole to be eleven hundred, two hundred of which are particularly magnificent. Their sepulchral monuments make likewise a great figure. Their towers, the models of which are now so common in Europe, under the name of pagodas, are vast embellishments to the face of their country. They seem to be constructed by a regular order, and all of them are finished with exquisite carvings and gildings, and other ornaments. That at Nantking, which is two hundred feet high, and forty in diameter, is the most admired. It is called the Porcelain Tower, because it is lined with Chinese tiles. Their temples are chiefly re- markable for the fanciful taste in which they are built, for their ca- paciousness, their whimsical ornaments, and the ugliness of the idols they contain. Tlie Chinese are remarkably fond of bells, which give i-,Amt to one of their principal festivals. A bell at Peking weighs I -I: ', \ I f J 704 CHINA.- ^S m one hundred and twenty thousand pounds, but its sound is said to bo disagreeable. Their buildings, except the pagodas, being confined to no order, and susceptible of all kinds of ornaments, have a wild variety* and a pleasing elegance, not void of magnificence, agree* stble to the eye and the imagination, and present a diversity of ob- jects not- to be found in European architecture. National character, manners, customs.] The Chinese, in their persons, are middle-sized, their faces broad, their eyes black and small, tlieir noses blunt, and turned upwards ; they have high cheek-bones, and large lips. The Chinese have particular ideas of beauty ; they pluck up thfe hairs of the lower part of their faces by the root%with tweezers, leaving a few straggling ones by way of beard. Their Tartar princes compel them to cut off the hair of their heads, and, like Mahometans, to wear only a lock on the crown. Their complexion, towards the north, is fair, but to* wards the south swarthy ; corpulence is esteemed a beauty in a man, hut considered as a palpable blemish in the fair sex, who aim at pre- serving a slimness and delicacy of shape. Men of quality and learn- ing, who ^ are not much exposed to the sun, are delicately com- plexioned ; and tbey who are bred to letters let the nails of their fingers grow to an enormous length, to show that they are ngt em- ployed m manual labour. ; ;, The women have little eyes, plump rosy lips, black hair, regular features, and a delicate, though florid, complexion. The smallnessof their feet is reckoned a principal part of their beauty, and no swath- ing is omitted, when they are young, to r,ive them that accomplish- ment ; SQ that when they grow up, they m ly be said to totver rather than to walk. " Of most of the women we saw (says sir Ccorge Staunton), even / in the middle and inferior classes, the feet were unnaturally small, or rather truncated. They appeared as if the forg-part of the foot had been accidentally cut off, leaving the remainder of the usual size, and bandaged like the stnmp of an amputated, limb. They undergo, indeed, much torment, and cripple themselves in a great measure, in imitation of ladies of higher rank, among whom it is the custom to stop by pressure the growth of the ancle as well as foot from the earliest infancy ; and leaving the great toe in its natural position, forcibly to bend the others, and retain them under the foot, till at length they adhere tcx, as. if buried in the sole, and can no more be separated. It h said, indeed, that this practice is now less frequent than formerly, at least among the lower sort in the northern pro- vinces." " The exterior demeanour of the Chinese (observes the same writer) Is very ceremonious. It consists of various evolutions of the body,, and inclinations of the head, in bending or stiffening the kitee, and •in joining or disengaging the hands; all wh'ch are considered as the perfection oi good breeding and deportment ; while the nations who are not expert in such disciplii;e are tliought to be little better than barbarians. "When, however, those Chinese ceremonies are once :»liovvn off, the performers of them relapse into ease and familiarity.— in their address to strangers they are not restrained by any bashful- ncss, but present theraseives with an easy, confident air, as if they considered tliemselves as the superiors, and as if nothing in their man- Xiers or appearance could be deficient or inaccurate." Tiie Chinese, in general, have been represented as the most dis- honest, low, thieving set in the world ; employing their natural quick* CHINA. 70c pess only to improve the arts of cheating the nations they deal with, ospt'cially the Europcaus, whom they cheat with great ease, par- ticularly the English : but they observe that none but a Chinese can cheat a Chinese. They are fond of law disputes, beyond any people in tlie world. Their hypocrisy is without bounds ; and the men of pro- perty among them practise the most avowed bribery, and the lowest meannesses, to obtain preferment. It sliould, however, be remem- bered, that some of the late accounts of China have been drawn up by those who were little acquainted with any parts of that empire but tliC sea-port towns, in which they probably met with many knavish and designing people. But it seems not just to attempt to character- ise a great nation by a few instances of this kind, though well at- tested; and we appear not to be sufficiently acquainted with the in- terior parts of China, to form an accurate judgment of the manners and character of tlie inhabitants. By some of the Jesuit missionaries, the Chinese seem to have been too much extolled, and by later writers too much degraded. Dress.] This varies according to the distinction of ranks; and is entirely under the I'cgul.ition of the law, which has even fixed the colours that distinguish the different conditions. The emperor, and princes of the blood, have alone a right to wear yellow ; certain man- darins are entitled to wear satin of a red ground, but only upon days of ceremony ; in general they are clothed in black, blue, or violet. — White is only worn for mourning; and cannot be too much soiled for the occasion, to avoid every appearance of personal care and orna- ment. The colour to which the common people a^e confined, is blue or black ; and their dress is always composed of plain cotton cloth. The men wear caps on their heads, of the fashion of a bell ; those of quality are ornamented with jewels. The rest of their dress is easy and loose, consisting of a vest and sash, a coat or gown thrown over them, silk boots quilted with cotton, and a pair of drawers. Dress is seldom altered in China from fancy or fashion. Even among the ladies there is little variety in their dresses; except, perhaps, in the disposition of the Hovvers or other ornaments of the head. They ge- nerally wear over a silk netting, which is in lieu of linen, a waistcoat cint] drawers ot' silk, trimmed or lined in cold weather with furs. Above this is worn a long satin robe, which is gracefully gathered round the waist, and confined with a sash. These different parts of their apparel are usually each of a different colour, in the selection and contrast of which the wearers chiefly display their taste. They suffer rlicir nails to grow, but reduce their eye-brows to an arched line. Marriaohs.] The parties never see each other, in China, till the bargain is concluded by the parents, and that is generally whea fhey are perfect children. When the nuptials are celebrated, the lady is carried (as yet unseen by the bridegroom) in a gilt and gaudy chair, hung round with festoons of artificial flowers; and followed by relution.«, atcendamj^s, and servants, bearing the parapiiemalia, being the only portion given with a daughter in marriage by her parents. Next to being barren, the greatest scandal is to bring females into the world ; and if a woman or poor family happens to have three or four girls successively, it not unfrequently happens that she will expose them on the high roads, or throw them into a river: for, in China, pa- rents who cannot support thqir female children are allowed to cast fhcm into the river ; but they fasten a gourd to the child, that it may float on the water ; and there are often cgfnpassionate people «f 1' Z 1 ^ ■ if! m CHINA* h.- . I I life: ^i fortune, vho are moved by the cries of the cliildrcn to save them from death. Funerals.] The Chinese, amonj;^ other superstitions, are particu- larly scrupulous about the time and place of burying their dead. The delay occasioned before these difticult points are ascertained, hns often long detained the coffins of the rich from their last repository ; many are seen in houses and gardens under temporary roofs, to pre- serve them in the mean time from the vi'cather : but necessity forces the poor to overcome many of their scruples in this respect ; and to deposit at once, and "with little ceremony, the remains of their re- lations in their final abode. The following is the description of a Chinese funeral procession, ob- served by sir George Staunton, passing out atone of the gates of Peking: ♦* The procession was preceded by several performers on solemn music ; then followed a variety of insignia, some of silken colours, and painted boards with devices and characters, displaying the rank and office of him who was no more. Immediately before the corpse the male re- lations walked, each supported by friends, occupied in preventing them from giving way to the excesses and extravagance of grief, to which the appearance of their countenance implied that they were prone. Over the mourners were carried umbrellas with deep cur- tains hanging from the edges. Several persons were employed to burn circular pieces of paper, covered chiefly with tin foil, as they passed by burying-grounds and temples. These pieces, in the popular opinion, like the com to Charon for being conveyed to the Elysiaa fields, are understood to be convertible, in the next stage of existence, , into the means ©f providing the necessaries of life.'*^ The public burying-grounds are extremely extensive, owing to the' respect paid to the dead by the Chinese, which prevents them from opening a new grave upon any spot where the. traces of a former one remain upon the surface. Every Chinese keeps in his house a table, upon which are writtea the names of his father, grandfather, arid great grandfather; before which they frequently burn incense, and prostrate themselves : and when tlie father of a f;imily dies, the name of the great grar.dfather is taken away, and that of the deceaiSed is added* Ch'ef ciTUis, EniFicEs.] The empire is sard to contain 4<100 walled cities ; the chief of which are Peking, Nanking, and Canton. Peking, the capital of the whole empire of China, and the ordinary re- sidence of the emperors, is situated in a very fertile plain, twenty leagues distant from the great wall. It is an oblong square, and i.«! divided into two cities : that wjiich contains the emperor's palace is called the Tartar city, because tiie houses were given to the Tartars when the present family came to tlie throne ; and they, refusing to suffer the Chinese to inhabit it, forced them to live without the walls, where they in a short time built a new city ; which, by being joined to the other, renders the whole of an irregular "form, sM leagues in compass. The walls and gates of Peking are of the surprising height of fifty cuhits, so that they hide the whole city: and are so broad, that centinels are placed upon them on horseback; for there arc slopes within the city of considerable length, by which horsemen may ascend the trails, and in several places there are bouses built for the guards. "The gates, which are nine in number, ane neit^r embellished with statues, nor other carving, all their beauty consistnig in their prodigious ?ieight, which at a distance gives them a noble appearattce. The k ■■'■■ CHINA. 707 birches of the gat.cr> are built of marblo ; and the rest with large bricks, cemented with excellent mortar. Most of the streets are built ia a direct line; the largest are about 120 feet broad, and a le;igue in . length. The shops where they sell silks and China^ ware generally take Up the whole street, and afford a very agreeable prospect. Each shop- keeper places before his shop, on a small kind of pedestal, a board about twenty feet high, painted, varnished, and often gilt, on which are written, in large characters, the names of the several commodities he sells. Tliese being placed on each side of the street, at nearly aa equal distance from each other, have a very pretty appearance: but the houses are poorly built in front, and'very low; most of them having only a ground-floor, and none exceeding one story above it. Of all the buildings in this great city, the most remarkable is the imperial palace; the grandeur of which does not consist so much in the nobleness and elegance of the architecture, as the multitude of its buildings, courts, and gardens, all regularly disposed : for within the walls are not only the emperor's house, but a little town, inhabited by the ofticers of the court, and a multitude of artificers employed and kept by the emperor ; but the houses of the courtiers and artificers are low and ill contrived. F. Artier, a Fi:ench Jesuit, who was indulged with a sight of the palace and gardens, says that the palace is more than three miles in circum- ference; and that the front of the building shines with gilding, paint, and varnish, while the inside is set off and furnished with every thing that is most beautiful and precious in China, the Indies, and Europe. The gardens of this palace are large tracts of ground, in which are* raised, at proper distances, artificial mountains, frOm twenty to sixty feet high: which form a humber of small valleys, plentifully watered by canals ; which, uniting, form lakes and meres. Beautiful and mag- nificent barks sail on these pieces of water; and the banks are orna- mented with ranges of buildings, not any two of which are said to have any resemblance to each other : which diversity produces a very pleasing effect. Every valley has its house of pleasure, large enoiiC';h to lodge one of our greatest lords in Europe, with all his retinue: Jnany of these houses are built with cedar, brought, at a vast expense, the distance of 5<.)0 leagues. Of these palace?, or houscj of pleasure, there are more than 200 in this vast inclosure. In the middle of a lake, which is near half a league in diameter every way, is a rocky island, on which is built a palace, containing more than a hundred apartments. It has four fronts, and is a very elegant and magnificent structure. The mountains and hills are covered with trees, particularly such as produce beautiful and aromatic [lowers; and the canals are edged with rustic pieces of rock, disposed with such art as exactly to resemble the wildnesS of nature. The estimated population of Peking was carried in the la^t century, by the Jesuit Grimaldi, as quoted by Gimelii Carreri, to sixteen mil- lions. Another missionary 4"educes at least that of the Tartar city to one million and a quarter. According to the best information given to the late English embassy, the whole was about three millions. Tha low houses of Peking seem scarcely sufficient for so vast a populatiorf ; but very little room is occupied by a Chinese family, at least in the middling and lower classes of life. A Chinese dwelHng is generally surrounded by a wall si:: or seven feet high. Within this inclosure a whole family of three generation?'* witli all their respective w ires and children, will frequently be found. One small room is made to serve for the iodividaals of each branch of tlie family; sleeping iu different ' ' 2 Z 2 : ^ m k I r(>8 CHINA. ^??- t|l^.v ,\.'^- I ?;, T* ■i: I ISPii beds, dividcJ only hy ni.it.s Ijanging trom tJiC ceiling. One common room is used for cuiiiig. Nanking, which was thf roy;iI leydeucc lill the fifteenth century* (its name signifying llie soutLrn cou^t, as Pcl'iny; Joes the noti/jtrn,) is said to be a considerably more extcnsivf city tlian Peking, the ualls being about seventeen miles in circuit ; but its population docs not correspond to its extent. The most remarkable of its edifices is the famous porcelain tower already mentioned. Tlie well-known stufF called miiikeeii derives its name from this city. Canton is the largest port in China, and the only port that lias been much frequented by Europeans. Tlie city wall is above five miles in circumference, with very pleasant walks around it. From the top of some adjacent hills, on which forts arc built, you have a line prospect of the country. It is beautifully interspersed with mountains, little hills, and valleys all green : and these again pleasantly diversified with small towns, villages, high towers, temples, the seats of mandarins and other great men, which are watered with delightful lakes, canals,- and small brandies from the river Ta ; on which are numberless boats and junks, sailing different ways through the mt>st fertile parts of the country. 1 he city is entered by several iron gales, and withinside of each there is a guard-house. The streets of Ciuitnn are very straighti but generally narrow, paved with Hag stones. Tliere arc many pretty buildings in this city, great numbers of triumphal arches, and temples well stocked with images. The streets of Cant on arc so crowded, that it is difficult to walk in them ; yet a woman of any fashion is seldom to be seen, unless by chance when coming out of her chair. There are great numbers of market places for fish, flesh, poultry, vegetables, and all kinds of provisions, which are sold very cheap. There are many private walks about the skirts of the town, where those of the better sort have their houses; whicli are very little frequented by Europeans, whose business lies chiefly in the trading part of the city, where there are only shops and warehouses. Few of the Chinese traders of any substance keep their families in houses Adiere they do business; but either in the city, in the more remote suburbs, or farther up in the country. They have all such a regard to privacy, that no windows are made towards the streets, but in shops and places of public busi- ness, nor do any of their windows look towards those of tlieir neigh- bours. The shops of those that deal in silk are very neat, make a fine show, and are all in one place ; for tradesmen or dealers in one kind of goods herd together in the same street. It is computed that there arc in this city, and its suburbs, 1 ,'200,(HK) people ; and therearc often 5000 trading vessels lying before the city. Public roads.] The security of travellers, and an easy mode of conveyance for passengers and merchandise of every kind, are objects to which particular attention seems to have been paid by administra- tion in China. The manner in which the public roads are managed, greatly contributes to the former. These roads are paved in all the southern provinces, and some of tlie northern. Valleys have been filled up, and passages have been cut through rocks and mountains, in order to make commodious high- ways, and to preserve them as nearly as possible on a level. They are generally bordered vifith very lofty trees; and sometimes witli walls fight or ten feet in heignt, to prevent travellers from entering into the fields. Openings are left in them at certain intervals, which give a passage into cross roads that conduct to diifer^nt villages. On aU CHINA. ■09 lie common ith century, northern,) is \. the AvalJs n docs not ifiees is tlie nowu stufF lat 1ms been ivenjilcs in I the top of le prospect tuiiis, little isified with idarins and :anals,-and s boats and trts of the thinside of y straight, any pretty- id temples vvded, that is seldom r. There egetablcs, Ihere are ose of the uented by t' the city, ise traders > business; "p in the windows blic busi- ?ir neigJi- til^e a fine one kind hat there ill e often mode of e objects fiiinistra- lanaged, neofthe f)een cut us Jlifrh. They til walls ng into ich givo On all the Cfreat ronds, covered scats are erected at proper cTistance<;, where the traveller may shelter himself iVom the inclemency of the winter, or the cxces.-.ive heats of the summer. There is no want of inns on the pi-incipal highways, and even on the crosi roads. The former are very spacious, hut they are badly supplied with provisions. People are even obliged to carry beds with them, or to sleep on a plain mat. Government requires of those who inhabit them, to give lodging only to those who ask and pay f«ir it. We meet with many turrets (says Mr. Eell) called post-houses, erected at certain distances one from another, with a Hag-staff, on which is hoisted the imperial pendant. These places are guarded by soldiers, who run from one post to another with great speed, carrying letters which concern the emperor. Tlie turrets are in sight of one another, and by signals they can convey intelligence ol" any remark- able event. By these mpans the court is informed in tlie speediest manner of whatever disturbanci- may happen in the most remote parts of the empire. M.v^NUFAc TURKS, coMMKRCK.]] China is so happily situated, and produces such a variety ot luaterials for manufactures, that it may be said to be the native land of indusiry ; but it is an industry without taste or elegance, thougli carried on witli great art and neatness. They make paper of the bark of bamboo and other trees, as well as of ct»t- • ton, but not comparable, for records or printing, to the Kuropean. Their ink for the use of drawing is well known in England, and is said to be made of oil and lampblack. The manufacture of that earthen-ware generally known by the name of China, was long a secret in Europe, and brought immense sums to that country. Though the Chinese affect to keep that manufacture still a secret, yet it is well known that the principal material is a prepared pulverised earth, and that several European countries iar exceed the Chinese in manu- facturing this commodity *. 'I'he Chinese silks are generally plain and flowered gau/.es ; and they arc said to have been originally fa- bricated in that country, where the art of rearing silk-worms was first discovered. They manulacture silks likewise of a moire durable kind ; and their cotton and other cloths arc famous for furnishing a light warm wear. Their trade, it is well known, is open to all Ivaropoan nations, with whom they deal for ready money; for such is tlie pride and avarice of the Chinese, that they think no manufactures equal to their own. But it is certain that, since the discovery of the porcelain manu- j-*icture, and the vast improvements the Europeans have made in the weaving branciies, tlie Chinese commerce has been on the decline. Cons 1 1 1 orioN- and government.]] The original plan of the Chinese government was patriarchal, almost in the strictest sense of the word. Duty and obedience to the father of each family was re- commended and enforced in the mt)st rigorous manner; but, at the r,ame time, the emperor was considered as the lather of the whole. His mandarins, or great officers of state, were looked upon as his iubstitutes; and the degrees of submission which were due from the • Tl;e l'!a,j;li'-h, in paitieul;ir, have earrinl tliis branch to a !iiiz;li ilogroc of 'irrf'.^f ten. a'- appears from tlic rommissioiis which luxe beiMi reeeivcd of laic froui st'W'iitl princf,-. inKm-dpt.' ; ^md we liope that a nianufactuve so s^t\\\i- raiiy 'istfui v.iil mv.c; '.vltb tiicouiM-nueiii from every true paliiot among our.sel •.!•„. . . , ■ It- tf i 710 CIITNA. 'i; i''i 4 til t ]-■ i Mi l;f ill i''' ^?i^ I;.; S - i: inferior r^nlcs tn the superior were settled and observed with the most scrupulous piccisiun, and in a manner tliat to us seems highly tidiv-nlous. This simple claim of obedience required great address and kiiowledi^o of human naturu to render it effectual; and the Chinese legislators, Confucius particularly, appear to have been men of von- dcrful abilities. Tiicy enveloped their dictates in annmber of mystical appearances, so as to strike the people with awe and veneration. The mandarins had peculiar modes of speaking and writing, and the peo- ple were taught to believe that the princes partook of divinity } so that tJiey were seldom seen, and more seldom approached. " In the great pahice of Peking (says sir George Staunton), all the mandarins resi- dent in the capital assembled about noon, on his imperial majesty's birth-day, and, dressed. in their robes of ceremony, made the usual prostrations before the throne ; incense of sandal and rose woods burning upon it at the same time, and offerings being made of viands and liquors, as if, though absent, he were capable of enjoying them. Mr. Barrow (a gontlemau of the embassy) was present wlule the same ceremonies were observed at Yuen-inin-yuen; and he was in- formed that they likewise took place on that day in every part of the empiBe, the prostrators being every where attentive to turn their faces towards the capital. On all the days ot new and full moon, simila:;" incense is burnt, and offerings are made before the throne by the officers oftlie household in the several pulaccs of the emperor." Though this system preserved the public tranquillity for an incredi- ble number of years, yet it had a fundamental defect, that often con- vuls.'d and at last proved fatal to the state, because the same attention was not paid to the military as the civil duties. The Chinese had pas- sinus like other men ; and sometimes a weak or wicked administration drove them to arms, and. a revolution easily succeeded, which they justified by saying that their sovereign had ceased to be their father. During these commotions, one of the parties naturally invited their, neighbours, the Tartars, to tiieir assistance; who, possessing great sagacity, became ac(iuainted with the weak side of their constitution, and availed themselves of it accordingly, by invading and conquer- ing the empire, and conforming to the Chinese institutions. Besides the great doctrine of patriarchal obedience, the Chinese had sumptuary laws and regulations for the expcn.ses of all degrees of subjects, which were very useful in preserving the public tranquillity, and preventing the effects of ambition, By their institutions, likewise,! the mandarins might remonstrate to the emperor, but in the most sub- iuissivc manner, upon tl. errors of his government ; and, when he was a virtuous prince, this freedom was often attended with the most salutary effects. No country in the world is so well provided with magistrates for the discharge of justice, both in civil and criminal matters, as China; but they are often inefl'ectual, through want of public virtue, in the execution. R:.vENUis.] The public revenues of China Proper (says Staunton) are said to be little less than tv.'o liandred millions of ounces of silver, which may be equal to about sixty-six millions of pounds sterling, or about four times those, of Great Britain, and three times those of France before the late subversion. From the produce of the taxes, all the civil and military expenses, and the incidental and extraor- dinary cliarges, are first paid upon the spot, out of the treasuries of the respective ^provinces where such expenses are incuiTcd ; and the reniuiiidtr is remitted to tiuj imperial treasury at Peking. This surplu^ niiNA. 711 h the most It address e Chinese •n of won- f mystical 'on. The 1 the peo- so that the great tn'ns resi- majesty's he usual se voods of viands !< them. vliiJe the was in- irt of the ieir faces > simila;- by the ; incredf- ten con- ittention lad pas- istration icli they r father. ?d their ^ great •tution, 3nquer- ise had rees of uilh'ty, <en'fse,' St sub- he was ' most I with minal int of nton) •ilver, ig, or )se of. axes, raor- es of Ithe ■plu^ amounted in tlic year 1792, according to an account taken from a statement furnished by Chow-ta-Zhin,to the sum of 36,61 -iff'i^S ounces of silver, or r2,2()4',77'3A A land tax was substituted in the last reign to the poll tax, as better proportioned to the faculties of individu- als. Most imports, and all luxuries, are likewise taxed ; but the duty, being added to the original price of the article, is seldcm distinguished from it by the consumer. A transit duty is laid likewise on goods .passing from one province to another. Each province in China, which may be compared to an European kingdom, is noted chiefly for the production ot some particular article; the conveyance of which, to supply the demand for it In the others, raises this duty to a considerable sum, and forms the great internal commerce of the empire. Presents from the tributaries and subjects of the emperor, and the confiscaticjis X)f opulent criminals, are not overlooked in enumerating the revenues of the public treasury. Taxes, such as upon rice, are received in kind. The several species of grain, on which many of the poorer classes of the people principally subsist, are exempted from taxatron ; so is wheat, to which rice is always preferred by the Chinese. MinTAKY AND MARINE STRENGTH.] China is at this time a faT rnore powerful empire than it was before its conquest by the Eastern Tartars, in 16''14. This is owing to the consummate policy of Chun- tchi, the first Tartarian emperor of China ; who obliged his hereditary subjects to conform themselves to the Chinese manners and policy, and •the Chinese to wear the Tartar dress and arms. The two nations were tiiereby incorporated. The "Chinese were appointed to all the .•civil offices <if the empire. The emperor made Peking tiie seat of his government; and the Tartars quietly submitted to ;i change of their country and condition, which was so much in their favour. According to the information given to the gentlemen of tlie Eng- lish embassy by Van-ta-Zhin, w-no was himself a distinguished of- ficer, and appeared to give his account witli candour, Uiough not ahvays, perhaps, w^ith sufficient care and accuracy, the total of the army in the pay of China, including Tartars, amounted to one mil- lion infantry, und eight hundred thousand cavalry. Erom the ob- EtTvatlon made by the embassy, in the course of their travels through the empire, of the garrisons in the cities of the several orders, and of the military posts at small .distances i'roni each other, there appeared nothing improbable jn the calculation of tlie infantry; but they met ^ew cavalry. If the number mentioned really do exist, a great pro- portion of them must be in Tartary, or on some service distant from the route of the embassy. As to the marine force, it is composed chiefly of the junks we have already mentioned; and other small ships that trade coast-waysj or to the neighbouring countries, or to prevent sudden descents, A treatise on the military art, translated from the Chinese into the French language, was published at Paris, in 177^, from which it ap- pears that the Chinr-se are well versed in the tJi.ooi > of the art of war : bur caution, and care, and circumspection, are n'liich recommended to their generals ; and one of their nuixim.s is, never vo right witli cnemic;; ^•/tlier more numerous or better armed than themselves. K.OVAL TITLE.3 The emperor is styled '■^ Holy Siii of Heaven y Soh Govtrnor of the Enrtii, Gnat Liither of his People y RiiLiGiON.} There is in Cliina no ;;tatc religion. None is paid, pccl'eri'i''d, or encr.nrai/od, by it. The Chinese have no Sunday, nor ,0'e.i lur.li ii d-viiiQU a; a v.'(rL'; the temples arC| hov»"evrr,open every \ ■1 -If '1 'If If! J' \ll 712 CHINA. « i si'-'. I k . :\ ?i "'<\ IM day for ihe visits of devotees. Persons of that doscrlption have, from time to time, made grants, thoujjli to no great amount, tor tlie maintt- natice ot their clergy; but no lands are subject to ecclesiastical titl.es. 'I'he emperor is of one faith ; many of the nuuularins of .mother ; and the majority of the common people of a third, wliich is that of Fo. No people are, in fact, more superstitious than the conmion Chinese. Ikside the habitual ofKces of devotion on the part of the priests and females, tlie temples are particularly lrec]\icnted by the disciples of Fo, previously to any undertaking of importance ; whether to many, or go a journey, or conclude a bargain, or change situation, or any other material event in life, it is necessary livst to consult the super- intendant deity. This is performed by various methods. Some place a parcel of consecrated sticks, differently marked and mmi- bered, which the consultant, kneeling before the altar, shakes in a hollow bamboo, until one of them fiiUs on the ground ; its mark is examined, and referred to a correspondent maik in a booh which the priest holds open, and sometimes even it is written up(ni a ]>iece ol paper pasted upon the inside of the temple. Polyj^cnial pieces of v.ood are by others tlirown into the air. Each side has its particular mark: the side that is uppermost, when fallen on tlie floor, is in like manner referred to its correspondent mark in the book or sheet of fate. If the first throw be favourable, the person who made it prostrates himseli' in gratitude, and undertakes afterwards, with confidence, tlie business in agitation. But if the throw should be adverse, he tries a second time; and the third throw dutermines, at any rate, the (juestion. In other respects, the people of the present time seem to pa^- little atten- tion to their priests. The temples are, however, alway sopen for such as choose to consult the decrees of heaven. They return thanks ■when the oracle proves propitious to thcii . ishes. Yet they often cast lots to know the issue of a projected enterprise, then supplicate for its being favourable; and their worship consists more in thanksgiving tlian in prayer. The temples of Fo abound with more images than arc found in most Christian churches; some of which, as one of the missionaries has ob- served, exhibit so strong a likeness to those in chuiches of the Roman faith, that a Chinese conveyed into one of the latter, might imagine the votaries he saw were adoring the deities of his ow n country. On the altar of a Chinese temple, behind a screen, isfrequently a represen- tation which might answer for that of the Virgin Mary, in the person of Shin-moo, or the sacred mother, sitting in an alcovf with a child in her arms; and rays proceeding from a circle, which are called a glory, round her head, with tapers burning constantly bef('ire her. The re- semblance of the worship of the Chinese to the forms of the catholic church, in sonic other particulars, has been, nideed, thought so strik- ing, that some of the missionaries have conjectured that the Chinese had formerly received a glimpse of Christianity from the Nestorians, by the way of Tartary; others, that St. Thomas the apostle had been among them : but the missionary Premare cf)iiid account for it no otherwise than by supposii>g it to have been a trick of the devil to mortify the Jesuits. There are other images, however, in these temples, which bear a greater analogy to the ancient than to the present w orship of the Ro- mans. A figure^, representing a female, appears to be somethir.g similar to Lucina ; and is particularly addressed by unmarried women wanting husbands, and married women wanting childrmi. I'he CHINA. TIS 'lavo, from ^if maintf. 'Ciil titl.i's. 't'Hf ; and otl'n. \(, n Chinese. T't-'st-s and nearly, or ". or any ^it- sujH'r- !it! mini- mi's ill ^ ^'>;irJ; is vhic-ii tJjo J>it'ce ol !infv.ond :iJ-niark'; ' niaiijior . If the sliini.sfJi' biisiuess 1 second on. in e attfii- tor sue] J '. thanJv-s ten cast -■ate for skiving n most !ias ch- roma n "agine • On >rcsen- >ers()n lild in ?]()ry, lie re- til o]ic striJ:- linese M'ans, beta it no 'il to ar a Ko. iiv.g nen I'he . doctrincof Fo, admitttnpofu siibordinafc deity partlculnly propitiotn to every wish which can be foriiied in the human mind, cuiiKl scarcely I'ail to spread amoni» those rlasse-; of the people who are not satisfied with their prospects as resnhiiij; from the natural causes of" events. Its progress is not obstructed h\ any measure^ of the govern- ment of the couiurvi which docs not interfere with nieie opinions.— It prohibits no belief whicli is not supposed to alVect the traiupiillity ot' society. The temples of Peking arc not very sumptuous. Tlie relirricm of the emperor is new in China, and its worship is performed with most magnificence in Tartary. The mandarins, tlie men oi letters, from wiiom arc selected the magistrates who govern the empire, and pos- sess the iipper ranks of life, venerate rather than adore Confucius, and meet to iionour and celebrate his memory in lialls of a simple but neat construction. The numerous and lower classes tf the people are less able than inclined to contribute much towards the erection of large and costly edifices for public worshiji. Their religious at- tention is much engaged besides with their household gods. I'.very house has its altar and its deities. The books of their mythology contain representations of those who preside over their persons and properties, as well as over exterior objects likely toatleot them. Few of the Chinese, however, carry the objects to be obtained by their de- votion beyond the benefits of this life. Yet the religion of Fo pro- fesses the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, und promises happi- ness to the people on conditions whicli were, no doubt, originally intended to consist in the performance of moral duties ; but, in lien of which, arc too frequently substituted those of contributions towards the erection or repair of temples, the mainten.ince of priests, and a strict attention to particular observances. The neglect of these is announced as punishable by the souls of the defaulters passing into the bodies of the meanest imimals, in which the sufferings are to be proportioned to the transgression committed in the human f(nin. According to Du Halde, the ancient Chinese adored a Supreme Ik'ing, under the name of Chang-Zi, or Tien; which, according to some, signified tht? spirit presiding over the heavens, but has been supposed by others to mean only the visible firmament. They also worshipped subaltern spirits, who presided over kingdoms, provinces, cities, rivers, and mountains. Since the fifteenth century, many of the Chinese literati have embraced a new system, which acknow- ledges a universal principle which they call Taiki. Their doctrine appears to have a resemblance to that of the soul of tlie world, as held by some ancient philosophers; and they have been denominated atheists. Such opinions are, however, confined to a comparatively ..rriall number of persons, the generality of the Chinese being ad- dicted to the superstitions above described. Gknius, learning, and arts.] The genius of the Chinese is peculiar to themselves : they have no concepdon of what is beantilul in writing, regular in architecture, or natural in painting; and yet, in their gardening and planning their grounds, they exhibit the true sublime and beautiful. They perform all the operations of arith- metic with prodigious quickness, but differently from the Europeans. Till the latter came among them, they were ignorant of mathematical learning and all its depending arts ; they had no proper apparatus for astronomical observations ; and the metaphysical learning which existed among them was only known to their philosophers. j3utevca ■^ » 1 i ■ fn ^: 'i^ \n illt^ 4- j,| K I B-t 1 ! VH CHINA. tho arts introduced by the Jesuits were of very short duration among thcni; and hisled very little longer than the reign of Hang-hi, who was contemporary with our Charles II. — nor is it very probable they will ever be revived. It has been generally said, that they understood printing before the Europeans : but that can only be applied to their method of block-printing, by cutting their characters on blocks of wood ; for the fusile and moveable types were undoubtedly Dutch or Germrin inventions. The Chinese, however, had almanacks which verc stamped from plates or blocks, many hundred years before I'lrinting was discovered in Europe. The diriicuhy of mastering and retaining such a number of arbi- trary marks and characters as there are in what may be called the Chinese written language, greatly retards the progress of their erudi- tion. But there is no part of the globe where learning is attended with such honours and rewards, and where there are more powerful inducements to cultivate and pursue it. The literati are reverencecj as another species, and are thp only nobility known inCliina. If their birth be ever so mean and low, they become mandarins of the highest rank, in proportion to the extent of their learning. On the other hand, however exalted their birth may be, they quickly sink into po- verty and obscurity, if they neglect those studies wlnich raised their fathers. It has been observed, that there is no nation in the world where the first honours of the state lie so open to the lowest of the people, and where there is less of hereditary greatness. The Chinese range all their wwks of literature into four classes. The first is the class of Ki.ig, or the sacred books, which contain the principles cf the Chinese religion, morality, and government, and several curious and obscure records relative to these impoitant subjects. History forms a separate class : yet, in this first class, there arc placed some historical monuments, on account of their relation to religion and go- vernment; and, among others, the Teiun rjicou, a work of Confucius, Vvhich contains the annals of twelve kings of Low, the native country of that illustrious sage. The second class is that of the Su, or C'jc; that is, of history and the historians. The third class, called Tsu, or 'J'se, comprehends philosophy and the philosophers : and contains all the works of tlie Chinese literati; the productions also of foreign sects and religions, which the Chinese consider only, in the light of philosophical opinions; and all books relative to mathematics, astro- nomy, physic, military science, the art of divination, agriculture, and the arts and sciences in general. The fourth is called Tcie or Miscellanies', and contains all the poetical books of thr Chinese, their pieces of eloquence, their songs, romances, tragedies, and comedies. ' The Gliinese literati, in a,ll the periods of their monarchy, have ap- j^lied themselves less to the study of nature, and to the researches of natural philosophy, than to moral inquiries, the practical science of life, and internal polity and manners. Jt is said that it was not before the dynasty of the Song, in the tenth and eleventh centuries after Christ, that the Chinese philosophers formed hypotheses concerning the system of the universe, and entered into discussions of a scholastic kind; in consequence, perhaps, of the intercourse they had long inaintained with tlic Arabiiins, who studied with ardour "he works of Aiistotle. And since the Chinese have begun to pay some atteuLion to natural philosophy, their progress in it has been much inferior to that of the liluropeans. Tkc invention of gunpowder appears to be justly claimed by tllC^ CHINA, 7U t'pn amoir*" ■hi, who was le they will understood ied to their n blocks of y r^utchor ici:s which ars before er of arbi- callej the iieir crudi- s attended powerful everenced '• If their be highest the other !i into po- ised their the world ■ ;st of the - Chinese rst is the ciples of 1 curious History ■ed some and go- mfucius, country or C/m; ! Tsu, or ■ains all foreign bght of astro- ulture, /av or > their nedies. ve ap- bcs of nee of jcloro after >;t the lastic long ks of niion or to Chinese, who made use of it against Zingis Khan and Tamerlane. They seem to have known nothing of small fire-arms, and to have been acquainted only with cannon, which they call the fire-pan. Their industry in their manufactures of stuffs, porcelain, japanning, and the like sedentary trades, is amazing; and can be ctiualled only by their labours in the field, in making canals, levelling mountains, raising gardens, and navigating their junks and boats. Language.] The Chinese language contains only three hundred and thirty words, all of one syllable ; but then each word is pro- nounced with such various modulations, and each with a diiferenc meaning, that it becomes mere copious than could be easily imagined. The missionaries, who adapt the European characters as well as they can to the expression of Chinese words, have devised eleven different, and some of them very compounded, marks and aspirations, to signify the various modulations, elevations, and depressions of the voice, which distinguish the several meanings of the same monosyllable. The Chinese oral languac^e, being thus barren and contracted, is unfit for literature; and therefore their learning is all comprised in arbi- trary characters, which are amazingly complicated and numerous, amounting to about eighty thousand. This language being wholly addressed to the eye, and having^scarcely any oral affinity with the latter, has still continued in its original rude uncultivated state, while the former has received all possible improvement. The Chinese characters, Mr. Astle observes, which are by length of time become symbolic, were originally imitative ; they still retain so much of their original hieroglyphic nature, that they do not com- bine into words, like letters or marks for sounds, but we find one mark for a man, another for a horse, a third for a dog, and, in short, a separate and distinct mark for each thing which has a corporeal form. The Chinese use a great number of marks entirely of a symboHc nature, to impress on the eye the conceptions ol the mind which have no corporeal forms: though they do not combine these last marks into words, like marks for sounds or letters ; but a separate mark is made to represent or stand for each idea, and they use them as they do their abridged picture characters, which were originally imitative or hieroglyphic. The Chinese books begin from the right hand ; their characters are placed in perpendicular columns, of which there are generally ten in a page. They are read downwards, beginning from the right hand side of the p.jper ; sometimes a title is placed horizontally, and this likewise reads from the right hand. Antiquities.] The most remarkable of the remains of antiquity in the Chinese empire, the great wall separating China fromTartary, to prevent the incursions of the Tartars, is supposed to extend from twelve hundred to fifteen hundred miles. It is carried over mountains and valleyv; and reaches from the province Of Shensee lo the Whang- 1 Fay, or Yellow JSea. It is in most places built of brick and mortar, which is so well tempered, thnt though it has stood more than two thousand years, it Is but little decayed. 'J'lic beginning (jf this wall 15 a Lirge bulwark of stone raised in the sea, in the province of Pet- <}iolef'. to the ca.t of Peking, and almost in the same latitude : it is t'uilt like tlie wjlls c: the capital city of the empire, but much wider, \iviiig t' rrasscd untl caTd with bricks; and is from twenty to twcp*"" i\-H hiul) ; it IK ll.uikej vvi-.h towcrs at the distance of almost it ik I* llifti Hi mi •7'^ uve it'**t iiij.^h ; —J THi CHINA. 'j^iiK": ■III ;, jii i I'll. ■ ;■ |i! i»n? *i L*i t hiinilrod rards, u-)ili:]i aJJ to its strength, and render It much easier to be dctended. Ont-tliird of tlie men capa!)le of labour in Cliinu, ve:o, it is said, employed in constructing this wall, which was begun and completely Hnished in the short space of Hve years ; and it is furlher reported, that the workmen stood so close for many miles, that they could hand the maieiials from one "jo another. P. Regis, and the other ge:itlcnien wlio took a map of these provinces, often stretched a line on the top, to measure the bases of triangles, and to lake distant points with an instrun)ent. They always found it paved wide enough for five or six horsemen to travel abreast with ease. The other anticiuities foimd in this country, are coins of the ancient mnnarclis, which are collected and arranged in cabinets by tlie curious among the natives ; several pagodas, or ornamented towers, erected in commemoration of great eventsj and numerous old temples, and triumphal arches. History.] The Chinese pretend, as a nation, to an antiquity beyond all measure of credibility; and their annals have been carried beyond tlie period to which the scripture chronology assigns the rrration of the world. Poan Kou is said by them to have been the iirst man ; and the interval of time betwixt him and the death of their celebrated Confucius, which was in the year before Christ IT^, has been reckoned from '-!7'''),0(>\J to U6,UHi,7li) years. But, upon an ac- , curate investigation of this subject, it appears, that all the Chinese lu'storical lelatiuns of events prior to the reign of the emperor Yao, who lived 'iO/37 years before Christ, are entirely fabulous, composed in modern times, unsui)ported by authentic records, and full of con- tradictions. It appears also, that the origin of the Chinese empiri; cannot be placed higlier tlian two or three generations before Yao. Even this is carrying the empire of China to a very high antiquity, but it is certain that the materials for the Chinese history arc ex. treniely ample. The grand annals of the empire of China are com- prehended in six hundred and sixty-eight volumes; and consist of tlie pieces that have been composed by the tribunal or department of liistory, established in China for transmitting to posterity the public events of the empire, and the lives, characters, and transactions, of its soveieigns. It is said, that all the facts which concern the monarchy, since its foundation, have been deposited in this depart- ment; and from age to ago have been arranged according to the order of time, under the inspection of government, and with all the precautions against illusion or partiality that could be suggested. These precautions have been carried so far, that the history of the reign of each imperial family has only been published after the ex- tinction nf that f.imily, and was kept a profound secret during the dynasty, that neither fear nor flattery might adulterate the truth. It is asserted, that many of the Chinese historians exposed themselves to exile, and even to death, rather than disguise the defects and vices of the sovereign, lint tlie emperor Chi-hoang-ti, at whose com- mand the great wall was Iniilt, in the year 'JllJ before the Christian a.-ra, ordered all the historical bocks and records which contained the fundamental laws and principles of the ancient government to be burnt, that they might not be employed by the learned to oppose his authority, and the changes he proposed to introduce into the mo- narchy. Four hundred literati were burnt, with their books : yet this barbarous edict had not its full effect ; !evcral books were concealed, CHINA. '17 ^«ch easier iJ- in China, 1 ^\'as begun > 'tnd it is jniies, that 5's, and the stretched a '<i^ii distant :ivcd vide :J :^ic ancient 1C-* curious ^, erected ^ples, and antiquity "n carried ■»g:ns the ' been the h of their ■J'7.9, iias 'n an ac- ■ Cliinese ror Vao, omposed I of con. ■ empir*; ^re Yao. itiquity, are ex- J"e con-j- iisist of ruent of ; public ions, of rn the Jcpart- to iha all tlie rested. of the le ex- i/r tlie th. It selves i and com- i.stiaii d the o be ieJiis mo- th is ikJ, arid escaped the general ruin. After this period, strict search was made for the ancient b( )()!'> and records tlrat yet remained ; but. though much industry was employed for this purpose, it appears that the authentic historical sources of the ChineriC, for the times anterior to the year '200 before Christ, are very few, and that they aru still/iii smaller number-; for more remote ])eriods. But, notwithstaudinj^ the depredations th it have been made upon the Chinese history, it is still immensely voluminous, and has been judged by some writers superior to that <>F all other nations. Oi' the grand annals before mentioned, which amount to six hundred and sixty-eight volumes, :i copy is pre-erved in the library of the French nation. A chronolo- gic'.il abridgment of this great work, in one hun.dred volumes, was published in the forty-second year of the reign of Kang-hi; that is, in the year 1703. This work is generally called Ivani-mo, or the abridg- ment. From these materials the abbe Grosier proposed to publish at Paris, in the French language, a General History of China, in twelve Vi iliimes quarto, some of which have been printed ; and a smaller Vv'ork, in twelve volumes octavo, by the late Father de Mailla, niissi(jnary at Peking, has been published. But the limits to which our work is confined will not permit us to enlarge upon so copious a subject as that o{ tlie Chinese history; and which, indeed, would be very uninteresting to iJie generality of Vai- ropean readers. A succession of excellent princes, and a duration of do- mestic tranquillity, united legislation with philosopiy, and produced their Fo-hl, whose history is enveloped in mysteries ; their l^i-I.aokum ; and, above all, their Kong-foo-tse, or Confucius', at once tl.c Solon and the .Socrates of China. After all, the internal revolutloi.s of the empire, though rare, produced the most dreadful effects, in propor- tion as its coiistI'uti(m was pacific ; and they were attended with the most bloody exiorniinations in some provinces : so that, though the Chinese empire is hereditary, the imperial succession has been more than once broken into, and altered. Upwards of twenty dynasties, or difTerent tribes and families of succession, are enumerated in their annals. Neither the grent Zingis Khan, nor Timur, though they often defeated tlie Chiuese, could subdue their empire; and nieith'er of thera could keep the conquests they made there. Their celebrated wall proved but a feeble barrier agaijist the :irms of those famous Tartars. After their invasions were over, the Chinese went to war with the Manchew Tartars ; while an indolent worthless emperor, Tsong- rching, was upon the throne. In the mean while, a bold rebel, named Li-cong-tsc, in the j)rovince of 8e-tchuen, dethroned the emperor; who hanged liimselt, as did most of his courtiers pnd women. Ou-san-qucy, the Cliinese general, on the frontier of Tar- tary, refused to recognise the usurper; and made a peace with '^I'son- gate, or Cliun-tchi, the Manchew prince, who drove the usurper from the throne, and took possession of it himself, about the year Kyi-h, The Tartar maintained himself in his autiiority; and, as has been already mentioned, wisely incorporated lils lieredltary subjceis with the Chinese, so that in effect Tartary became an acquisition to China. He was succeeded by a prince of great natural and acquired abilities; who was the patron of the Jesuits, but knew how to check them when he found them intermeddling with the affairs of his go- vernment. About the year IfifJJ, the Chinese, under this Tartar family, drove the Dutch out of the inland of 1' (»'i im^s.i, v;hich thf latter had taken from the I'ortuguc ;e. I ■m m I liiii 'I 118 CHINA. v? "I in the year 177i» Jill the Tartars who composed tl^.e nation of th^ Tourgouths, left the settlements which they had under the Russian government on the hanks of the Volga, and the laick, at a small dis- tance from the Caspian Sea, and, in a vast body of fifty thousand- families, passed through th& country of the Hasacks. After a march of eight months, in -which they, surmounted innumerable diilicultied and dangers, they arrived in the plauis that lie on tkc frontiers of Carapen, not far from the banks of the river Ily ; and offered them- selves as subjects to Kicn-Long, emperor of China, who was then in the thirty-sixth rear of his reign* He received them graciously; furnished them with provisions, clothes, ahd money, and allotted ta each family a portion of land for agriculture and pasturage. The . year following, there was a second emigration of about thirty thou:iand other Tartar families; who also quitted the settlements which they en- joyed under the Russian government, and submitted to the Chinese sceptre. 'J'he emperor caused the history of these emigrations to be engraven upon stone in four different languages. fhe hopes which were lately indulged of the gteiit atid manifold advantages to be derived from the embassy of lord Macartney to the court of Peking, ended in disappoir ^ent. Never, perhaps^ was there a character better qualified forth nianagement of an embassy of such delicacy and importance than lord Macartney 2 but, notwith- standing his lordship's adroitness, he found it utterly impossible to obtain permission for the residence of an Englishman at the capital of China, as embassador, consul, or in any other' character; or any exclusive settlement for the English within the Chinese dominions,- even on a temporary grant, and solely for the purposes of trade. According to a fundamental principle in Chinese politics, innovation, of whatever kind, is held to be inevitably pregnant with ruin ; and, on this principle, the emperor declined to admit a foreign resident at the court of Peking, or to expa.id the principles on which our com- mercial intercourse with this country arc at present regulated and confined. The embassy arrived in the river Pci-ho, in the Gulf of Peking, the beginning of August 171)1^; and, on the 21st of tlic same m(>nth, reached the city of Peking. They remained here till the beginning of September; when they were conducted to Zl-,e-Iiol, orJcIiol, one of the emperor's country residences in Taruiry, di.uant about forty or fifty leagues from Peking. Here tlu;y hud ihclr audience of the em- peror, who accepted the presents tiiey had Inouf^lit in the most gra- cious manner, and returned other.s of great value, of which two were so singular as to claim particular notice: tlii; one \.'as a poem addressed to his Britannic niajesty, the composition oi' the emperor himself, and in his own hand-writing ; it \va.- lodgfd in a blacix wooden carved box, of no great value, but as a a antique, to v.hlch character it lias a just claim, having been twolhous;ind yo^^r^ in the po^;<;<'ssion of the imperial family of China. The otlier present w.is a mass of costly agate, of unequalled si/c and beauty. It had always been the prictice with the emperor to hold tliis agate in his hand, and to fi>: his eyes upon it, whenever he spoke to a maiidarin, or any of liis minis- ters ; as to look upon a subject is considered as not only d(.»rogntory" to the Imperial dignity, but to confer too much lionour on the indl\ i- dual addressed. Klen-Ijong, the late emperor of Cliina, appeared, at the time he gave audience to the embassy, to be perfectly unreserved, clioerlul, aiui unulFcctod ; his eyes -were- full and cleui, and his countenance CHINESE TARTARY. riD tion of th* lie Russian i small dis- thousand ■ r a. march tiifliculties ron tiers of -red them. <is then in nicioiisly; illotted ta /?e. 'i^lie . thou'janci 1 they eii- - Cliinese ons to be nianifold ley to the i'ps* was embassjr notwith- 'ssible to e capital ; or any minions,. f trade, ovation, n ; and, ident at ir com- ted and Gehrig, month, n'lv.pr of one of my or he en> 't gra- 1 two JJoem ipoior Joden ■acter 'ssion i.ss of nrJie V his iinis- lory cii\i- C he nice open. He was clad in plahi dark silk, with a velvet bonnet, In form not much different from the bonnet of Scotch Highlanders ; on the front of it was placed a large pearl, which was the only jewel or or- nament he appeared to have about him. Kien-Long, or, as sir George Staunton writes his name, Chen- Lung, was only the fourth sovereign of the Tartar dynasty which took possession of the throne of that country about the year 1644. He ascended the throne of China in 173fj, and died February I], 1799. He was succeeded by Ka-Hing, the present emperor; who, im- mediately on his accession to the throne, degraded and imprisoned Ho-chopng-taung, -he prime minister of his predecessor. This mi- nister was in power at tiiC time of lord Macartney's embassy, and was supposed to be very hostile to the object of it : his disgrace ha$ given hopes that such anotlier attempt might now prove successful. CHINESE TARTARY. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles Degrees. Sq. Mil .e5. I^ngrth 3000 > , , C 72 and 145 East longitude. ? „, , ^^^ ferea1ithl030r-^'^^^^i35and 53 North latitude. i9U,fiOO Name. 3 THE origin of the name of Tartary Is uncertain ;* but it has been conjectured to be derived from the Chinese, who call all their neighbours, without distinction, Tata or Ta-ilte. B0UNUARIES.3 Chinese Tartary is bounded on the north by Siberia, or Asiatic Russia ; on the east by the sea of Jap:in, and the channel of Tartary ; on the south by China Proper, and Tibet ; and on the west by Independent Tartar^'. The name of Tartary was formerly given vaguely to all the coun- tries to the north of Persia, Hindoostan, and China, quite to the Northern Ocean ; and from the Black Sea and the limits of European Russia to the Eastern Ocean. Division.]} The only division of this country in general, arise*; from the different tribes by which it is inhabited ; of these the prin- cipal are the Manchews, or Mandshurs in the east ; the Monguls, or Moguls, in the middle; and the Eluts, or Calmucs,jn the west. The country of the Manchew Tartars, who are mure immediately under the authority of China (having given to the latter country th;.> present imperial family), has been divided by the Chinese into three great go- vernments, Chinyang, Kirin,and Tsitciiicar; which take their names from those of their chief towns. The Russians call the letter Daouria; from the tribe Tajouri, who inhabit a g/eat part of this district. I o these may be added the province or peninsula of Ccrea. which has been for several centuries under the dominion of the Chinese. It is considerably populous; and the inhabitants are said to differ in several respects, particularly in their language, from the Manchew Tartars. Face of the country, mountains.] A great part of this extensive country is a vast elevated plain, supported like a table by * More properly written Tafarf/. Rut custom h>T^ so cstnbllshed this orthr grapby, wliich, perhaps, uns suggested by the (*roi«uuV;iatlc)U of th^ n? thai it would appear atlectation to alter it. i^»i hi M III mm I A- '-P rilill H 'I 1 U> i f^' >!'il;^■ 720 CHINESE TARTARY. the mountains of Tihct on tlic south, and the Altaian cJiain on the north. This prodigious plain, the most elevated level land on tlie face of the globe, is intersected by se^veral chains of mountains; and by the vast desarts of Gobi and Slianio, which have been supposed to be the same, the former being tlie Tartarian, and the latter tlip Chinese name. To the west of this great country are the mountains of Belur Tag, or the Cloudy Mountains, the Imaus of the ancients. which separate the Chinese empire from Balk and great Bucharia. iind the Calmucs subject to China from the Kirguses of Independent 'J'artary. La k cs. ] There are several lakes in this country: among which are tliose of Balkash or Tengis, and Zai/.an, each about one hundred and iifty nn'les in length ; as also Koko-nor, or the Blue I/ake, which ha" given its name to a tribe of Mogul Tartars. Rivers.] The principal of tliese is the Amur; called by the Tar- tars Sagalian Oula, or River Sagalian, probably because it falls into Uie I'^astern Ocean opposite the island Sagalian. It is also called, near its source, tlie Kcrlon, and the Argoon ; it is a very large river, the length of its course being above^one thousand eight hundred mile:. The other rivers arc the Songari, the Nonni, the Yarkand, and the Hi, "<\-hich latter falls into the lake of Balkash.' Cmmatf,, soil, pROnucK.] The great elevation ofthis country ren- ders the climate much colder than in others under the same parallel : even in summer it freezes so hard as to produce ice of considerable thick- ness, which is caused as much by the north-east wind blowing contin- u.iUy over this vast plain, but little sheltered with trees, as by the prodi- gious quantities of saltpetre which impregnate the earth at the depth 'i'i'our oi' five feet; and it is not uncommon to dig up clods of frozen turf and heaps of icicles. The trees are neither numerous nor well grown, but there are some forests. Here are immense tracts of pas- turage; and the soil, were it cultivated, would no doubt be found sufficiently productive of most kinds of grain : agriculture, however, is not entirely neglected by the Southern Manchews, who raise some wheat. Animals.] Among the various animals of this country, the most remarkable arc the wild horses, and wild asses, which are very numerous here. The horses and cattle are in great plenty, ant sold at low prices. The los ^mni.uns of Linnaus, or griuiting a:;, wliich inhabit^; Tartary and Tibet, has a tail of uncommon beauty, full and flowing, of a glossy and silky texture. Tliese tails are a considerable article of exportation from Tibet : the Indians fasten small bundles of the hair to a handle, which they use for Hy-Haps; the Chinese dye tufts of it with a beautiful scarlet, to decorate their caps; and the Turks employ it as ornaments to their standards, by some erroneously called horse-tails. Inharitants, manners, customs.] The Mogul Tartars are intlicii persons generally short and stout; with broad faces, flat noses, small «il)liqueeyes, thick lips, and a scanty beard, as they continually tliiu it by plucking out the hairs by the roots. Their ears are very largo and prominent, their iiair black, and their complexion of a reddish or yellowish brown ; but th.at of the women is fair, and of a healtliy ruddiness; they are extremely quick of sight and apprehension, are naturally easy and cheerful, and scarcely ever experience either carp; or melancholy. They are very hospitable to each other, and likewise to strangers who put themselves under their protection. Their dress conaisri yf .1 fia: yellow bor.net, ihe v hole head being shaven except one CHINESE TARTARY, 721 lock of hair; wide trovvsers ; a vest of light stuff, with narrow sleeves; and a girdle which supports the s;ihr'.', knife, and implements for smoking tobacco : the outer gHinient. is of cloth, with wide sleeves, and liaen is wound almut the t'eet, over which are drawn bus- kins of leather, generally black or yellow : shirfi are unknown. The dress of the women is the same with tliat of the men, only that, in- stead of the outer garment, tiit-y wear a gowu witliout sleeves. They have generally long hair, which they plait in tresses. The various tribes of these Tartars in general form wandering hordes, and live in tents, which tliey remove from one place to another, according as the temperature oi the seasons, or the wants of their flocks require. When pasturage beguis to fail, the whoi^ tribes strike their tents, generally from ten to fifteen times In the year, proceeding in summer to the northern, and in winter to the southern wilds ; the latter season they generally pass at the bottom, of some mountain, or hill, which shelters them from the sharp and cutting north wind. Each of these tribes has its respective limits, and it would be an act of hostility towards their neighbours to go beyond them ; but they are at full liberty to encamp wherever they choose, within the circumference assigned them. They live in their tents amid every kind of dirt and the dung of their flocks, which, when dried, they burn on their hearths instead of wood. 'I hey are naturally enemies of labour, and will not take .the trouble of cultivating the earth ; it even appears that tliey neglect agriculture from pride. When the missionaries asked them why they did not cultivate at least some gardens, they answered that " the grass was for beasts, ancl beasts for man." During the summer, they live only on milk, which they obtain from their flocks, using indiscriminately tliiit of the cow, mare, ewe, goat, and camel. Their ordinary drink is warm wrter, in which a little coarse tea has been infused ; with it they mix cream, milk, or butter, according to their circumstances : they have also a method of making a kind of spirituous liquor of sour milk, especially of that of the mare, which they distil after having allowed it to fer- ment. Tartars of better condition, before they distil this sour milk, mix with it some of the flesh of their sheep, which has been also left to ferment. This liquor is strong and nourishing, anJ one of their greatest pleasures is making themselves iHtoxicated with it. The Moguls are extremely dexLrou:; in liandling the bow and arrow, managing their horses, and huati':'; wild beasts. Polygitmy is per- mitted among them, but they geiu^raily have only ooe wife. They burn the bodies of their princes and cliitf priests, witli many soieiu- sities, and bury the ashes on eminences, where the tombs are some- times walbd round, and ornamented with a great number of small standards. -^ The whole nation of the Moguls, under the Cliinese government, nay be divided into four principal tribes ; the Moguls, properly so called, the Kalkas, the Ortous, and tlie Eluts, of v/hich brancli are the Tartars of Kokonor ; all of whom have a great resemblance in their character and manners. TheManchews are not very different in their habits and manners from the Moguls. They have, however, towns ai]d villages, andap- pear to be much more civilized, especially since their conquest of China ; though the Chinese retain a great antipathy against their con- querors, whom they despise as a filthy race of savages. CiTiEG, ciniiF TOWNS.J The capital of the whole country of the Manchow Tartars is Chin-yang, or as It is called by the Tart>' > A i I = s Mi '■I m m f-iias iM ^t 722 CHINESE TARTARS. Mngden. It stands on an eminence, and 1$ said to be nearly three leap;iies in circumference. It contiiins a palace for the emperor, several public edifires, magazines of arms, and storehouses. Kirin, the chief town of the department cf that name, is the residence of a Manchew general, who is invested with ail the powtrs of a viceroy : he has the inspection of the troop?, and authority over all the man- darins. Ningouta, which is considered as the cradle of the present imperial family, is surrounded by a wooden wall, composed of plain •takes driven into the earth, wJiich touch each other, and are twenty feet high. Without this palisado there is another of the same kind^ which is a league in circumference, and has four gates corresponding to the four cardinal points. The Moguls, properly so called, as has been observed, have no towns; but in the country of Little Ijucharia, possessed by the Eluts, or Kalmucs, who were subjected by the Chinese in 1759, is the city of Cashgar, formerly the capital of a kingdom, nearly corresponding ia its limits with Little Bucharia, and which still retains some trade; Yarkand, situate on a river of the same name ; and Turfan, the capital of a detached principality, once much frequented by merchants in their way from Persia to China. Trade.] The principal trade of the Manchews consists in ginseng, and pearls found in several rivers which fall into the Amur. This pearl fishery belongs to the emperor, but the greater part of the pears are small, and not of a fine water : a kind much more beautiful 9re found in other rivers of Tartary, which flow into the Eastern sea. The companies and merchants who engage in this fishery must every year give to the emperor, for permission to fish, 1140 pearls ; this is the fixed tribute, and they must be pure and without blemish, or they are returned, and others required in their stead. The sable skins of this country are highly valued, because they arp- reckoned to be very strong and durable. The most beautiful skins are set apart for the emperor, who buys a certain number of them at a stated price : the rest arc sold at a high rate even in the country, where they are eagerly bought up by the mandarins and merchants. The wandering tribes of Moguls know little of trade : they, how. ever, exchange their cattle for cloth, silk, stuffs, and other apparel and Ornaments for themselves and their women. Government, laws.] The departments of the country of the Manchew Tartars are governed by viceroys appointed by'the emperor of China. The wandering tribes of Moguls are governed by klians, or particular princes, who are independent of each other, but all sub- ject to the authority of the Chinese emperor. Whin the Manchews subdued China, they conferred certain titles on the most powerful of the Mogul princes, and assigned them revenues, but far inferior tc those of the Manchew lords at Peking. l"he emperor settled the limits of their respective territories, and gave them laws according to which they are at present governed. These tributary khans have not the power of eondemning their subjects to death, nor of depriving them of their possessions : the oases of death and confiscation are reserved for the supreme tribunal established ut Peking for the affairs of the Moguls, to which every individ'iul may appeal from the sentence of his prince, who is obligcnJ to appear in person whenever he is cited. Religion.] Many of the Tartar tribes profess the religion of the lamas, or that of Tibet, of which we shall give a further account in the description of that country. T|iey frequently make pilgrimages count m CHINESE TARTARY. 725 in great nnmVtcrs, from the distance sometimes of a thousand miles, to PutoLi und Toeshoo Loomboo, to pay devout homage and bring olTerings to the httna. Another re igi'.Mi, which is very prevalent among the Tartars, is that of Schamanisni. The professors of this religious sect believe in one Supreme GoJ, the creator of all things. They believe tliat he loves his creation, and all his creatures ; that he knows every thing, and is all-powerful ; but th;t.t he pays no attention to the particular actions of men, being too great for them to be able to offend him, or to do any- thing that can be meritorious in his sight. But they also maintain that the Supreme Beinr^ has divided the government of the world, and the destiny of men, among a great number of subaltern divinities. Tinder his command and control, but who, nevertheless, generallv act according to their own fancies ; and therefore mankind cannot dis- pense with using all the means in their power for obtaining their fa- vour. They likewise suppose, that, -for the most part, these inferior deities abominate and punish premeditated villany, fraud, and cruelty. They are all firmly persuaded of a future existence ; but they have many superstitious notions and practices. Among all the Schamanes, women are considered as being vastly inferior to men, and are thought to have been created only for their sensual pleasure, to people the world, and to look after household affairs; and, in consequence of these principles, they are treated with much severity and contempt. Language.] The language of the Manchews is said to be very copious, these Tartai s being particularly nice with respect to the too frequent recurrence oi" the same sounds. It is said, likewise, to be very expressive, as it h.^s names not only for the different species oi dogs, but such as signify ti.e age,colour,good or bad qualities, of a dog, whether he has long hair or short hair, large ears or hanging lips, in all which, and many otl^er cases, he has a distinct and very different name. In like manner a horse has a variety of names, signifying in a single word, whether he be a restive horse, a run-away horse, a horse easily frightened, with what pace he goes, &c. This language is written in characters which represent sounds and not tilings like those of the Chinese. M. Langles, a member of the French Institute, has compiled a dictionary of the Manchew language, which he pronounces to be the most learned and perfect of the Tartar tongues, though not written till the seventeenth century, when the emperor appointed some literati to design letters afr / those of the Moguls. The language of the Moguls is said to be radically different from that of the Manchews. History,] The different tribes which at present inhabit this ex- tensive region, were formerly comprehended under the general name of Monguis, or Moguls, a warlike and formidable nation, whose sovereign, Zingis, or Jenglrs Khan, about the thirteenth qentury, conquered the greater part of the north of Asia, seized on China on the one hand, and invaded Hindoostan on the other. The Tartars held possession of China about a hundred years, but were expelled in i;568. The fugitiives took different routes; some went towards, tha Eastern sea, and established themselves between China and the river Sagalien : the rest returned to their former country, where, intermix- ing with the Moguls that remained, they soon resumed their ancient manner of living. Those who settled towards the east, having found the country almost a desart, and without inhabitants, retained the customs which they had brought from China, ajxd became known br a A2 Vkil M f' ' I .N' t! *ll it' I ^ m. T24 TIBET. the name of Maneliew or Eastern Tartars. In Ifi-M these Tartars re-entered China, and estabh'shed a sovereign of tht'ir own race on the throne, as has been already mentioned in tlie history of China. TIBET. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. ;'. <i I 311 'IV 'il Degrees. 75 and 101 East lonrltuile. *!q. Miles. JJreadth 500 i \ 27 and 35 North latitude. ^ ' Name.] "THE country of Tibet," says captain Turner, " is called fcy the inhabitants Pue, or Puckoachim, whicli is derived, as they told ine, from Pur, sij^nifying northern, and Ksachiiu, snow; that is, the snowy region of tlic north."* I he Chinese call it Tsang. The origin of the name of Tibet ( which in Bengal and the country itself is pronounced Tibhet nvTili) does not appear. B0UNDAKIES.3 Tibet is bounded on the north and north -west by the great desart of Gobi in Tartary ; on the east by China ; on the south by Assam and Birmah ; and on the south- west and west by Hindoostan. Divisions.] This country is divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Tibet. Upper Tibet is also called Nagari, and divided into the three provinces of Sangkar, Pourang, and Tamo. The provinces of Middle Tibet are Shang, Ou, and Kiang: thnsc of Lower Tibet, Congbo, Kohang, and Takbo, or Bootan. The latter is an extensive country, usually considered as distinct from Tibet Proper. The countries to the west of Bootan and to the north of Hindoostan, as Morung, Mocampour, Nipaul, Gorka, and Kemaoon, are not con» sidered as parts of Tibet. Face of the country, mountains, forests.] Tibet at first view appears to the traveller as one of the least favoured countties under heaven, and seems to be in a great measure incapable of culture. Tt exhibits only low rocky hills without any visible vegetation, or exten- sive arid plains, both of the most stern and stubborn aspect, promising full as little as they produce. Bootan, however, or the most southern part, though it presents only the most mishapcn irregularities, h:'is ■ Its mountains covered with verdure, and rich with abu^ulant forests of large and lofty trees. ^ • The mountains in which the Ganges has its sourcp, arc called those of Kentaisse : on the south arc the mountains of Hinnnaln. Lakes.] The most considerable lake, with respect to dimensions, is that of Terkiri, which is about 80 miles in length and '25 broad; but the most remarkable is that of Jamdro or Puke, which is repre- sented as a wide trench of about two leaguos broad, every where surrounding an island of about twelve leagiii'^ in diameter. Rivers.^ The principal river of 'f'ihci is tJie Sanpoo, or Burram- pooter, which has already been desciibed as a river of Hindoostan. The Ganges likewise has its source among the mountains of Tibet, * Account of an Embassy to the Court of the Tee -4i 00 I/.una in Til.ef, * In- Cal'taih Samuel Turner; p. 305 and V TIBET. 725 these Tartars ^wn race on '■ of China. *'q. Miles. 385,000 E?r, «' is called as tliey told ; that is, the "san^. The ountry itself "Tth-wcst by lina ; on tke and west by Vliddle, and divided into le provinces owcr Tibet, an extensive oper. The doostan, as •e not con- It first view tries under nilture. Tt n, or cxtcn- })romi3ing St southern arities, h;:s int forests :^tled those iTicnsions, 2.5 broad; h is reprc- cry where ■ IjLirram- indoostan. of Tibet, I inTIhcf, 3.% have aVso the Cliincse rivers Hoanho and Kianku, the [^reat river Mayhaung of Laos and Cambodia, and the Sardjoo or Gagra, which after a course of about «)0() miles falls into the Ganges, near Chupra. Mrtai.s, MINFRAI.S.] Bootan is not known to contain any iretal except iron, and a little copper ; but in Tibet Proper gold is found in great quantities and very pure ; sometimes in the form of gold dust in the beds of rivers, and sometimes in lar^^e masses and irregular veins. Tliere is a lead-mine about two days' journey from Teeshoo Loomboo, v.'hich probably contains silver. Cinnabar abounding in quicksilver, rock-s ilt, and tincal, or crude-borax, are likewise among the mineral produijiions of tills country: the latter is found in inex-' hausrible quantities. Clima rii, SOIL, PRODUCE.] The climate of Tibet is cold and bleak in the extreme, from tlie severe effects of which the inhabitants are obli;;cd to seek refuge in slieltered vallies and hollows, or amidst the warmest aspects of tiie rocks. In the temperature of the seasons, however, a remarkable uniformity prevails, as well. as in their periodical duration and return. In Bootan almost every part of the mountains and hills wliich h coated with the smallest quantity of soil is cleared and adapted to cultivation ; but in Tibet Proper, the na- tuve of the soil prevents the progress of agriculture. Wheat, barley, and rice are grown in Bootan. Animals.] The variety and quantity of beasts of prey, flocks, droves, and herds of wild-fowl and game i« Tibet, according to Mr. Turner, are astonishing : in Bootan, he tells us, he met with no wild animals, except monkies. The horses, cattle, and €heep of Tibet are of a diminutive size, as are most of the beasts of prey. The grunting ox, called by the Tibetians the yal, has been already described. I he musk deer is a native of this country. This animal is about the hei^vht of a moderately sized hog ; he has in the upper jaw two long tusks directed downwards, which seem intended to serve him to dig roots, his usual food : the musk, which is only found in the male, is of a black colour, and formed in a little bag or tumor near the navel. These deer are deemed the property of the state, and hunted only Ly the permission of government. In Tibet there is also a beautiful species of goats, witn straight horns, which have, next tlie skin, and under the exterior coarse coat, a very fine hairyfroin which the valuable shawls of India are manufactured. Natural curiosities.] To the north of Tassi sudon, Mr. Sanders, who accompanied captain I'urner on his embassy, observed a singular rock projecting over a considerable fall of water, and forming in front six or seven hundred angular semi-pillars of a gr.°at circiim- . ference, and some hundred feet high. Among the mountains o lif)otan is a wateriall called Mlnzapoe^o, which issues in a collected body, but descends from so great a perpendicular height, that before it is received in the thick sliade below, it is nearly dissipated, and appear like the steam arisiny- from boilino: water. PopuLA now] We have not materials from which the population of this country can be ascertained with any degree of accuracy ; but from the facility with which it has been conquered by the Eluts and other invaders, it appears evident that it is very thinly inhabited in comparison to its extent. Inhabitants, manners, customs.] The people of Bootan and Tibet are much more robust and less swarthy than their southern neighbours of BengaL Uumanity, and an unartificial j;entlenes» of ■^'B ■ ^'iV.-'-f, m ^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 12.8 1^ m ■ 2.2 us 140 i I 2.0 ||P.25,u II 1.6 < 6" - » V] y] / Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WEBSTER, N.Y. MStO (716) 872-4503 c^' 72S TIBET. lii ^tf i!■H^ fiFV:'!:!;:i::ll t' ■ UHi. ' : disposition, says Mr. Tamer, are the constant inlieritancc of a Tibetian. Without being servilely officious, tliey are always oblig- inj>;; the higher ranks are unassuming, the inferior respectlul in their behaviour ; nor are they at all delicient in attention to the female sex ; hnx. as we find them moderate in all their passions, in this respect also, their conduct is equally remote from rudeness and adulation. A remarkable custom prevails in this country, directly contrary to the usual cnstoms of the east, by which a woman is permitted to TBarry all the brothers of a family, without any restriction of age or numbers. The choice of the wife is the privilege of the elder brother. The ceremonies of marriage are neither tedious nor intricate. The elder brother of a family, to whom, as has been observed, the choico belongs, when enamoured pf a darnel, niakcs his propcjs.il to her parents. If his suit be approved, and the offer accepted, the parents vriih their daughter repair to the suitor's house, where the male and female acquaintance of both parties meet and carouse for the space of three days, with music, dancing, and every kind of festivity. At the expiration of this time the marriage is complete. Tiie priests of Tibet, who shun the society of women, have no share in these ceremonies, or in ratifying the obligation between the parties. Mutual consent is their only bond of union, and the parties present are wit- nesses to the contract, which is formed indissolubly for life. . The Tibetians expose their dead bodies within walled areas, wliich are left open at the top, and have passages at the bottom to admit birds, dogs, and beajsts of prey : no other funeral rites are performed but such .IS tend to facilitate the destruction of the body by the vo- racious animals, who are, as it were, invited to devour it. Some bodies are conveyed by the friends of the deceased to the snmmit of some neighbouring hill, where they are disjointed and mangled that they may become a more easy prey to carnivorous birds. 1 he bodies of the sovereign lamas are, however, deposited in shrines prepared for their remains, which are ever after considered as sacred, and visited with religious ave : those of the inferior priests are burnt, and their ashes preserved in little hollow images of metal. An annual festival is observed in Tibet, as in Bengal, in honour of the dead, which is celebrated by a general illumination of the houses and other buildings. CitiES, CHIEF TOWNS, EDIFICES.] Lassa, or Lahassa, is con$^ered as the capital of Tibet, and is situate in a spacious plain; the houses are not numerous, but they are built of stone, aad are large and lofty. — The celebrated mountain of Putala, on which stands the palace of tlie Dalai Lama, or grand lama, the high priest and sovereign of Tibet, is about seven miles to the east of the city. Teeshoo Loomboo, or Lubrong, the seat of Teeshoo I-.ama, and the capital of that part of Tibet immediately subject to liis authority, is, in fact, a large monastery, consisting of three or four hundred houses, inhabited by gylongs, a kind of monks or priests, be: 'des temples, mausoleums, and the palace of the severe igli pontiff, with the residences of the various subordinate officers, both ecclesiastical and civil, belonging to the court. It is included within the hollow face of a high rock, and has a southern aspect. Its buildings are all of stone, none less than two stories high, flat roofed, and crowned with a parapet, rising considerably above the rest. The castle or palace of Tassisudon in Bootan, stands near the centre of the valley of the same name. It is a stone building of a <iuadrangular form. The outer walls are lolty, being above ihirr^ TIBET. •' 727 : are wit- feet hi^h, and enclose a central square buildlnjr, which is the habita- tion of the chief kma of the district, or Daeb Raja. There is no town near the palace, but a few clusters of houses are distribuie4 ia different parts among the fields. " A Tibet villap:e," says Mr. Turner, *' by no means makes a handsome figure. The peasant's house is t)f a mean construction, and resembles a brick-kiln in'shape and si/c more exactly than any thing to which I can compare it. It is built of rough stones, heaped upon each other without cement, and, on account of the strong winds that perpetually prevail here, it has never more than three or four small apt;rtures to admit hgh:. The roof is a flat terrace, surrounded with a parapet wall two or three feet high : on this are commonly placed piles of loose stones, intended to support a small flag, or the branch of a tree ; or else as a fastening for a long line with scraps of paper, or white rag strung upon it, like the tail of a kite : this being stretched from one house to ai\other, is a charm against evil genii, as infallible in its efficacy as horse-shoes nailed upon a threshold, or a$ straws thrown across the path of a reputed witch.'* Manufactures, commerce.] The manufactures of Tibft are principally shawls and woollen cloths. 'I'he exports from i'ibet» which go chiefly to China and Bengal, consist of gold dust, diartionds, pearls, coral, musk, rock-salt, tincal, woollen cloths, and lamb skins ; in return for which are imported from China silks, satins, gold and silver brocades, tea, tobacco, and furs of various kinds ; and from Bengal the productions of that country, and a variety of English commodities and manufactures. *' A very small quantity of specie, and that of a base standard, is current in T^bet. It is the silver coin of Nipaul, here termed index* millee ; each is in value about one-third of a sicca rupee, and they are cut into halves, third parts, and quarters. This, which is the only money, serves to obtain the exigencies of life, l>ut never enters into important contracts in the larger concerns of trade ; in all such transactions, the equivalent is made in bullion, that is tureemat talents, or masses of gold and silver, which bear a value in proportion to the purity and specific gravity of the metal."* Government, religion,] The government of this country is intimately connected with its religion, the civil authority, as well as the spiritual, being in the hands of the lamas, or sovereign pontiffs, of whom the.chief, called the Dalai Lama, or Grand Lama, is not only submitted to and adored by the Tibetians, but is also the great object of veneration among the various tribes of Tartars who roam through the vasttrnct of continent which stretches from the banks of the Volgu, to Corea, on the Sea of Japan. He is not only the sovereignl pontiffi tlie vicegerent of the Deity on earth ; but, as superstition is ever the strongest where it is most removed from its object, the more remote Tartars absolutely regard him as the Deity himself. They believe him to be immortal, and endowed with all knowledge and virtue. Every year they come up from different parts, to worship and make rich offerings at his shrine : even the emperor of China, who is a Manchew Tartar, does not fail in acknowledgments to him in his religious capacity, though the lama is tributary to him, and actually entertains, at a great expense, in the palace of Peking, an inferior lama, deputed, us his nuncio, from Tibet. The opinioa of those $\ ■a \ II !: • Turner, p. 373. 728 TIBET. Hi. J .•■;i'., : who are reputed the most orthodox amonj;^ the Tibetians1s,that whem the grand lama seems to die either of old at»c or infirmity, his soul in fact only quits a crazy habit-uion to look for another younger or better, and it is discovered again in the body of some child, by certain tokens, known only to the lamas or priests, in which order he always appears. In 1774, the grand lama was an infant, which had been discovered some time hciore by the Teeshoo lama, whoj in authority and sanctity of character, is next to thr grand lama, and, during his minority, acts as chief. Jn the year 17^3, when Mr. 'I'urncr went on his embassy into 'I'ibet, the Teeshoo lama was in like manner an in- fant, under the guardianship of a regent; and Mr. I'urner, in his ac- count of his embassy, has given a curious and interesting relation of a visit which he was perniiticd to make to him. " Teeshoo l^aina," he tells US, " was at that time eighteen months old. He was placed, in great form, upon his musnud. On the left side stood his father and mother, and on the? other the officer particularly app.inted to wait upon his person, The musnud is a fabric of silk cushions, piled one upon the other, until I he seal is elevated to the height of four feet fVom the floor ; a piece of embroidered silk covered the top, and the sides also were decorated with pieces of silk of various tolr,urs> sus- pended from the upper edge and hanging down. Though the little creature," says our author, "was unable to speak a word, he made the most expressive signs, and conducted himself with astoiilshing dignity and decorum. IHs complexion was <>{ that hue which iii England we should term rather brown, bur not witliout colour. His features were good, he had small black eyes, and an animated ex- pression, of countenance ; altogether, 1 thou^;ht him one of the hand- somest children 1 had ever seen." The religions votaries of the lamas arc divided into two sects, the gyUoclpa and the shammar, at the liead of eacli of which are three lamas. Over the gyllookpa sect preside Dnlai I.ama, whose residence is at Pootalah, near Lassa ; 'Jecshoo Lama, who resides at Teeshoo Loomboo ; and Taranaut Lama, w ho resides at Kharka, in Kilmank. This sect prevails over the gr^^afest part of 'I'ibet. The three lamas who in like manner preside over the shammar sect, have their resi- dence in Boo'tan, in separate monasteries, but from the limited extent of that country, at no great distance from each other. These sects are distinguished by tlie colour of the dress of their priests. Those of the gyllookpa wear long robes of yellow cloth, with a couical cap of the same colour, having flaps to fall down and cover the ears. The dress of the other sect is red, and the tribes are known as belong- ing to the red or the yellow cap. The former, it is said, differ prin- cipally from the others in admitting the marriage of their priests ; but the latter are considered as the most orthodox, as well as possessed of far the greatest influence, since the emperor of China is decidedly a votary of this sect, and has sanctified his preference of the yellow colour by a sumptuary law which limits it to the service of religion, and the imperjal use. These sects formerly engaged in violent religious wars, each destroying, when successful, the monasteries of the other, and establishing its own in their stead ; but at present the power of the gyllookpa has attained the undisputed superiority, in which it ap- pears to be firmly fixed in consequence of the emperor of China having declared in Its favour, and adopted for himself the distinction of the yellow hat. , There are in tliis country nurherous monasteries containing a great TIBET. 72» number of gylongs or monks, who are enjoined sobriety, to forego the society of women, and confine themselves to the austere practices of the cloister. On the establishment of the monastery of Teuslioo Loomhoo, were reckoned no less than three thousand seven hundred of these gylongs. Tlicre are also a number of nunneries, containing annces or nuns ; and the strictest laws exist to prevent any woman from even accidentally passing a night within the limits of a monastery, or a man within those of a nunnery. " The religion of Tibet," says Mr. 'J'urner, " seems to be the schismatical offspring of that of the Hindoos, deriving its orii;ia from one of the followers of that faith, a disciple of Boodh, who first broached the doctrine which now prevails over the wide extent of Tartiiry. It is reported to have received its earliest adn.ission into that part of libel bordering upon India (which from hence became the seat of the sovereign laiiins), to have traversed over Manchew Tart:iry, and to have been ultimately disseminated over China and Japan, i'hough it differs from the Hindoo in many of iis outw.ird forms, yet it still bears a very close affinity to the religion of Br.ahma in many important particulars. The principal idol in tlie temples of 'J'ibet is Miihamoonie (a name which in Sanscrit literally signifies gr^at saint), the BuJha or Boodh of Bengal, who is worshipped under these, and various other epithets throughout the groat extent of Tartary, and among all tlie nations to the eastward of the Burham- pooter. In the wide extended space over wliich this faith prevails, the same object of veneration is acknowledged under numerous titles : among others he is styled Godama or Gowtama in Assam and Ava; Samana in Siam ; Amida Buth in Japan ; Fohi in China; Budha or Boodh in Bengal and Hindoostan ; Dlierma Raja and Mahamoonie inBootan and Tibet Durga and Kali; Ganeish, the emblem of wis- dom ; and Cariikeah with his numerous heads and arms, as well as many other deities of the Hindoo mythology, have also a place in their assemblage of gods. "The same places of popular esteem, or religious resort, as I have already hinted, are equally respected in Tibet and in Bengal. Praag, Cashi, Durgcedin, Sangor, and Jagarnaut, are objects ot devout pil- grimage; and I have seen loads of the sacred water taken from the Ganges, travelling over those mountains (which, by the bye, con- tribute largely to its increase), upon the shoulders of men, whom en- thusiasts have deemed it worth their while to hire at u considerable expense for so pious a purpose. •' As far as 1 am able to judge respecting their ritual or ceremonial, it differs materially from the Hindoo. The Tibetians assemble in chapels, and unite together in prodigious numbers to perform their religious service, which they chant in alternate recitative and chorus, accompanied by an extensive band of loud and powerful instruments ; so that whenever 1 heard tliese congregations, tiiey forcibly recalled ;o my recollection both the solemnity and sound of a Roman catholic mass. »»# Language.] The language of Tibet is said to be radically different both from that of the Manchews and that of the Moguls. According to Mr. Turner, it consists almost entirely of* nasal and guttural sounds. The alphabetic characters are of two kinds, the uchem and the umin ; the former of which is the character in which the itacrei WA • Turner, p. 306, 307. 730 TIBET. S:.ti?;, t<ji \^''- writinps arc preserved, and considerably resemblps the Sanscrit ; thv other is the alphabet used for business and common correspondence. The vowels arc indicated by marks or points, und the order ol writ- ing, contrary to the usual practice in the east, is from tlie left to the Ti^ht. Printing with blocks of wood, in the manner of ihc Chinese, is said to h;»ve been known in Tibet from a very remot j age. History.] 'Ihc. temporal government of Tibet lias not been always in tlie 'possession of the lamas. According to the letters of failier Antlrada, who was in Tibet in the year Iti'Jl', that country was then governed by a secular sovereign, named Tsang-pa-han, who was a zealous protector of the Christian religion, and seemed greatly in- clined to embrace it. 'Jhe Tartar history of the same period corrobo- rates this circumstance, for it relates that this prince despised the Lunas, abandoned tlie law of the god 1* o, and sought every oppor- tunity to destroy ii. The dalai lama being highly incensed at not receiving the homage of Tsang-pa-han, formed a league with the Tartars of Kokonor, who unijer tlieir prince or khan, named Kouchi, entered Tilxit at the head of a powerful army, attacked Tsang-pa-han, defeated him, and took him prisoner, and some time after caused him to be pnt to death, 'f^ ^^'s Tartar prince t.he dalai lama was in- debted forhis sovereignty over all Tibet; for, far from appropriating to himself the fruits of his victory, Kouchi declared hinisclf a vassal of the supreme chief of his religion, and satisfied with receiving from him the ^itlc of klian, which he had never before enjoyed. This prince, to continue his protection to the dalai lama, and secure to him the wndistwrbed possession of his new acquisitions, fixed his residence, accompanied by his tro.ops, in the neighbourhood of Lassa. His sons had no great inclination to return to a country which their father had abandoned, but followed his example and remained i« Tibet. In IG42, tlie dalai lama sent ambassadors to Tsongtc, father to the first emperor of the present dynasty of the Manchew Tartars, threw himself under his protection, and paid him tribute. Ten years after, the dalai lama himself went to Pejiing, and did homage to the emperor. He was loaded with honours, received a golden seal and magnificent presents from the emperor, and was confirmed in his title of Dalai Lama. In 16D'J, the emperor Kanghi, being desirous of honouring the ly/a-, or minister of the dalai lama, declared him a prince, and f ranted him a golden seal. This minister, however, was far from eing faithful to the interests of the emperor ; he, on the contrary, secretly betrayed them to the ambitious views of Kaldan, the chief of the Eluts, w ho was the declared enemy of the Manchew Tartars. He even endeavoured to persuade the grand lama, not to go to Peking when called thither by the emperor, and when the dalai lama died he concealed his death. At le«igth, however, all these intrigues were discovered in 1705, and Lats-khan, the chief of the 'I'artars of Kokonor, caused this perfidious minister to be put to death. Kanghi, informed of the crimes which he had connnittcd, approved of thepunish- ment inflicted on him, and sent some of the grandees of his court to Tibet, to govern that country in conjunction with the Tartar prince, on whom he lavished many rich presents. He afterwards appointed a new dalai lama, who was the sixth who had borne that title. In 1714, Tchongkar, the principal chief .of. the Eluts, jnade an irruption into Tibet, and carried away a great quantity of rich plunder in gold, silver, precious stones, silks, uud other valuable things. The INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 731 iscm; thie 'Pondeiice, ei- ol writ- Ifft to the Ciiinese, is !cn always of fatl)cr "v^'as then 'ho was a catly in- 1 corrobo- ■>iscd tlie y oppor- fd at rot • ^vith the KoucJit, ?-pa-han, ■»^ed him ^vas in- op'iatixig a Vassal i»^ from ':> prince, iiim the "idenee. His sons ther had ither to rartars, en years nage to len seal ■d in his ing the e, and r from ntrary, e chief 'artars. go to J lama rigues tars of *n^hi, unish- uit to rince, )inted de an mder I'he Tartar prince, who endeavoured to resist the invaders, was killed la battle, many of the lamas were put to the sword, and the monastery at Poot.ila was reduced to ashes. The dalai lama made application to the court of China for succours, ami the emperor immediately sent a powerful army to his assistance, which drove the hliii'^ out of the country, rc-establi^Jicd the dalii lama in his authority, and restored to the other lamas possession of their pagodas or monasteries. Since 1759, when the Eluts were finally subjugated by the late emperor of China, Kien I.ong, the Tibetians have had nothing to fear i'rom tlie incursions of those Tartars. But in 1792, the mountaineers of Nipaul invaded and ravngcd the ccumtry, plundering the monas- teries of their treasures, and robbing the mausolja of the lamas. The emperor of China, however, as soon as he had received information of this attack, sent an army to protect and avenge tlie lama. The Nipalese were defeated, and could only obtain peace on condition of becoming tributary to China, and making a full resiitution of all the plunder they had carried off. Tiie Chinese at the same time esta- blished military posts on tlie frontiers of l^ibet, which prevent all communication between that country and Bengal, as the Chinese guard them with their accustomed jealousy and caution, and the approach of strangers, even of the natives of Bengal and Hindoostan, is utterly prohibited.* INDEPENDENT TARTARY. Mites. Length 15(K)? Breadth 8-;0 S EXTENT AND SITUATION. Degrees. h tween 5 ^^ ^^^tioiJ North latitude.^ I 55 and 70 East longitude. 5 Sq. Miles. 500,000 BouNDARiKs.J THESE are, on the east, the m'ountains of Belur» which separate this part of Tartary from Little Bucharia, now sub- jected by the Chinese ; on the south, the mountains of Gaur, which divide it from Persia; and the provinces of Candahar and Cabul, in Hindoostan ; on the west, the Caspian sea, the river Ural or Yaik, and the Uralian mountains ; and on the north, the Russian dominions in Asia. Divisions.] Independent Tartary consists cf extensive tracts in- habited by the Kirguscs or Kirguisian Tartars ; the country of Kharism, and Great Bucharia, inhabited by the Usboc Tartars. — ^""'10,11 Bucluiria is divided into the provinces of Fergana, Sogd, Vash, A.«..Ltan, Balk, Gaur, and Kilan. Mountains, lakes, rivers.] The principal mountains of this t;ountry are the BelurTag, the ancient Imaus, and the mountains of Argjun and of Gaur. The most considerable lakes arc that of Aral, about '200 miles in length and 70 in breadth ; and that of Balcash, I iO miles long and 70 broad. The chief rivers arc the Amu or Gihoon, '.he ancient Oxus ; and the Sir or Sihoon, the ancient laxnrtes. The former rises in the mountains of Belur, and falls into the lake of Aral, ^fror a course of about 900 miles ; the latter rises amon^ the same * Turner, p. 442. ; 1:1,: i 732 INDEPENDENT TARTARY. i" ' r>ii.;-* :«v'^' '! .'V r"t.', Ilii'^S' mountains, and falls Into the same liiko, after a courBC of about 550 miles. - Mktals, minerals.] Several parts of this ctnnifrv contain gold, sHver, inn, copper, vitriol, a'ul s.il ammoniac. Rich quairies of Lipis lazuli abound in Great liiuharia, and several kitids of valuable stones, particularly rubies, are found here; but tlie natives fiavc neither skill nor industry to derive much advauta|;e from the mineral ridies of this country. Climate, soil, pimnucE.] The climate appears to be extremely temperate and salubrious ; an J the soil, in tlie southern parts at least, very productive, the ^yiass, it is said, sometimes growing there to above the height of a man. Rice and other kinds ot grain, as alsoex- cjuibite melons, pears, and apples, are among tlie productions ct Great Bucharia. Animals.] The animals here are nearly the same as inTil>et, the north of Persia, and other surrounding countries. The griuiting ox, chamois goats, and wild asses, are tound among the mountains on the south and north. Inhabitants, MANNERS, customs.] The Kirguscs or Kirguisian Tartars, who inhabit the northern part of this country, live in tents, and lead a wandering life. They consist of three hordes, called the freat, lesser, and middle horde, eac?i of which has its particular khan, 'hey dwell always in portable huts, which they remove froni ti.me to time to different places in scarcli of pasturage for their flocks and herds, which constitutes their jnincipal occupation. Tiiey have horses, camels, cattle, sheep, and goats ; and it is ai.serted that some individu- als in the middle liordc have 10,000 horses, JjOO camels, 3 or 4000 cattle, 20,000 sheep, and more than *2(K)<> goats. They have flat noses, small eyes, a sharp, but not a fierce look, and a frank and pre- possessing air. The decoration of their horses employs them almost as much as that of their persons, they having generally elegant sad- dles, handsome housings, and ornamented bridles, I'hey are great caters, and they also smoke tobacco to excess. Men, women, and children all smoke and take snulF, the latter of which they keep in iittle horns fastened to their girdles. The great and wealthy live per- fectly in the same manner as the rest of the people, and are distin- guished only by the numerous train that accompanies them in their cavalcades, and the nimiber of huts which surround their quartets, inhabited by their wives, children, and slaves. The Usbec Tartars, who inhabit the southern parts of this country, resemble in their persons, manners, and customs, the other Tartarian tribes, except that they are in general more spirited and industrious. They are addicted to predatory warfare, and frequently make sudden incursions into the Persian provinces ; on which occasions, it is said, the women likewise bear arms, and accompany their husbands to the field. Many of these Tartars reside in tents in the summer, but take up their abode in the towns and villages in winter. Those of Balk are the most civilized, and cany on a considerable trade with Persia and Hindoostan. The native Bucharians-are of a fairer complexion than the Usbecs, and of a more peaceable disposition, as it is said they never bear arms. CiTics, CHIEF TOWNS.] Samarcaud, situate on the southern bank ©f the river Sogd, was anciently the seat of empire of the celebrated TImur or Tamerlane. It is fortified with strong bulwarks of earth : the houses are principally of hardened clay, though sc ne are built UHiries of •^valuable ives have INDEPENDENT TARTARY. (38 s extremely at least, there to as alsoex- is of Great '»'>et, the in ting ox, ns on the wirguisian ' in tents, :alled the lar khan. 11 timp to locks and t'e horses, individu- or 4000 have flat and pre- 11 almost ^ant sad- re great len, and feep in live per- -' distin- in their uarters, ountry, irtariaii strious. sudden is said, 5 to tJie ut take f Balk Persia ilexion id they 1 bank brated ?arth : built vJth stone procured from quarries in the vicinity. There is a cit.idd or castle which is now almost in ruins. Bokhara, situate likewise on the Sogd, in the middle of the last century was a larf^e and Hourishin;^ city, with a wall of earth, and several mosques built with brick. Balk, oil the river Dchabh, is also large and populous, with houses of brick and stone, and a palace or castle built almost entirely of marble brouglit from the neighbouring mountains. Badakshau, on the river Amu, is a small town, but well built, and containing a considerable number of inhabitants. TRADt;.] The Kirguisians trade with the Russians: their traffic is entirely carried on by barter, and they exchange their horses, cattle, and sheep for maiuifactures, principally clothing and furniture. Arms of every kind are refused them by the Russians, and they procure them, by the same kind of barter, from Great Buchariai^ and tlie southeru parts of the country. The Tartars of Great Bucharia are a very commercial people: their caravans travel through a great part of Asia, and traffic with Persia, Tibet, Chin^, and Russia. Their principal marts in the latter counti-y are Tomsk and Orenburg. GovEUNMENT.] The Kirguses and Usbecs are subject to princes called khans, whose power is despotic over their several hordes and tribes. In Great Bucharia, the khan of Samarcand in the north, and the khan of Balk in the south, are, it is probable, the principal sovereigns of the country. ReiIgion.] The religion of almost all the Tartars of tlie',e countries is the Mahometan, according to the tenets of the sect of the Sunnis. LtARNisr..] The reader maybe surprised to find this article in an account of the Tartars ; yet nothing is more certain, than that under Zingis Khan and Tamerlane, and their early descendents, Astracau and the neighbouring countries were the seats of learning and police. ness as well as empire and magniiicence. Modern luxury, be ic ever so splendid, falls short of that of those princes ; anJ some remains of their taste in architecture are still extant, but in r- '-is so desolate, that tliey are almost inaccessible. The encouragem. i ci learning was the first care of the prince, and it was generally cultivated by hij; own relations or principal grandees. They wrote in the Persian and Arabic tongues. The name of Ulug Beig, the grandson of the great Timur, is well known to astronomers ; and Abulgazi, tlie khan of Kharism, wrote the history of his country. Samarcand was a cele- brated imivcrsity for eastern science;* and even in the last centurj was still a flourishing school for Mahometan literature. An I iQCiTiEs.] These consist of the ruins of edifices erected by Zingis Khan, Timur, and their successors. Remainsof ditches and ramparts are frequently met with, which heretofore either surrounded small towns, now quite demolished, or were designed for the defence of camps, forts, or castles, the vestiges of which are often to be dis- covered. Many of them are still in tolerable preservation. In the uncultivated tracts, occupied by the Kirguisians, are many relics of opulent cities. Some gold and silver coins have likewise been found, with several manuscripts neatly written, which have been carried to Petersburg. In 1720, there was found in Calmuc lurfiry a subter- raneous house of stone, some urns, lamps, and ear-rings; an equestrian statue ; an image of an oriental prince with a diadem on his head . two women seated on thrones ; and a roll of manuscriutK. whiLh was •( M ^lil H 'i 73* Rt^SSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. l^i '.tr sent by Peter the Great to the Academy of Inscriptions at Paris, and proved to he in the l.ingiuigc of I ibet. History.] The country of Usbec Tartary was once the scat of a more powerful empire than th;it of Rome or Greece. It was not only the native country, but tlie favourite residence of Zingis or Jenghis Khan, and Timur or Tamerlane, who enriched it with the spoils of India and the eastern world. The former, about the year 1200, made himself m:ister of tho^e re- gions which form at this day the Asiatic p:irt of tliC Russian empire; and his son, Batou Sagin, conquered Southern Russia, and peopled it with I'artar colonics, which are now confounded or l)leuded with the Russians. It was not until the time of Ivan III. who ascended the Russian throne in J 4^2, that the Russians were able to throw off the galling yoke of the Tartars. Ivan repeatedly defeated tlicm, subdued the kingdom of Kasan, and other provinces, and made his name re- spected through all the neighbouring countries. The fame of Tamerlane has been more permanent than that of Zin- gis Khan : his defeat of the Turkish emperor Bajazet has been no- ticed in the history of that nation. The honour of being descended from him is claimed not only by ajl the khans and petty princes of Tai^ary, but by the emperor of Hindoostan himself. When the vast dominions of Zingis Khan fell to pieces, under his successors in the sixteenth century* the Mogul and Tartar hordes, . who had formed onp empire, again separated, and have since con- tinued disthict. THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. ) ■ ... , EXTENT AND SITUATION. \ - Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles, Length 5S001 , , f 87. ind 190 East longitude. 7 „ ornn/^^ Breadth ISOo) ^^'^'^" { 50 and 78 North latitude. 5 -^'^^^'^OO B0UNDARIKS.3 THE Russian dominions in Asia are bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean ; on the east by the seas of Kamts- chatka and Ochotsk, or the Eastern Ocean ; on the south by Chinese and Independent Tartary, Persia, and Turkey j and on the west by Russia in Europe. Divisions.] The governments of the Russian empire in genera have already been enumcr.ited : those of which a part or the whole are in Asia, are Caucasia, Saratof, Simbirsk, Orenburg, Ufa, Kazan, Perm, Tobolsk, Kolhyvan, Irkutsk : to which is to be added the peninsula of Kamtschatka. The three great governments of Tobolsk, Kolhyvan, and Irkutsk, are called by the general name of Siberia, from an ancient city named Siiir, which is said to have stood on the banks of the Irtish, near the present city of Tobolsk, and to have been the residence of the old sovereigns of this part of Asia. The government of Tobolsk is divided into the two provinces of Tobolsk and Tomsk ; and that of Irkutsk into the four provinces of Irkutsk, Ncrshinskj Yakutsk, and Okotsk. / Paris, and e sent of a IS not only or Jenghls spoils of those re- in empire; peopled it 1 with the ended the y-' off the . subdued name re- latofZin. been nn- lescended )rinces of under his r hordes, . ince con- !• Miles, 150,000 )onndecl Kamts- Chinese west by- genera I whole Kazan, ded the rkutsk, named ?ar the he old olsk is that of k, and RUS3IA.4 EMPIRE IM ASIA. T!J?» MouNTAiKs J The mountains of Asiatic Russia arc tlie Uralian chain, which divides it from Russian Kurnpe ; the mountains of Caucrtsus, those of Alf.ii, called by the Chinese the Golden Ridge j and those of Norsfjinsk, or Russian Daouria. RivKRs ] The chief rivers of this country are the Ob or Oby, xhe largest in the Russian empire, the Icnpth of its co^irsc being 1000 miles ; and the Yenissei, which has a course of about 1750. The former falls into the sea of Ob, a gulf of the Fro7(^n Ocean ; in which ocean the Yenissei likewise terminates. The other principal rivers arc the Irtish, which falls into the Ob ; the Lena ; the Angora, which falls into the Yenissei ; the An^un or Arrofn, the boundary of the Russian and Chinese territory ; the Selingit, and the Yaik or Vi:\\. In tlie southern part of Siberia, near the confines of Chinese Tartary, is the lake or sea of Baikal, 'MiO miles lonjj and about jO broad. There are also other lakes of less note. MhTALs, MINHK.1LS.] Siberia Contains mincs of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, j.isper, and lapis lazuli. Asiatic Russia also produces sulphur, alum, sal ammoniac, vitriol, nitre, and natron, in :ibund;mce. Ci.rMATE, SOIL, J-Ronucf.] The government of Caucasia, and ia jreneral the southern p;irts of this extensive region arc c."trcmely ferrile, owing more to nature than industry. The parts th:it are cul- tivp.ted produce ex:.cllcnt fruits of almost all the kinds known ia Europe, especially grapes, which are reckoned the largest and finest in the world. 'Ilie summers are very dry, and from the end of July to the beginning of October the air is pestered, and the soil sometinies ruined, by incre.-iihle quantities of locusts. Mr. Bell, who travclleJ with the Russian ambassador in China, represents sntne parts of Tartary as desirable and fertile countries, the grass growing spon- taneously to an am.azing height. The climate of Siberia is cold, but the air is pure and wholesome ; and Mr. Tooke observes, that its in- habitants, in all probability, would live to an extreme old age, if they were not so much addicted to an immoderate use of intoxicating liquors. Siberia produces rye, oats, and barley, almost to the GOth degree of northern latitude. Cabbages, radishes, turneps, and cu- cumbers, thrive here tolerably well ; but scarcely any otiier greens. All experiments to bring fniit-trees to bear have hitherto been in vain ; but there is reason to'believe that industry and patience may at length overcome the rudeness of the climate. Currants and straw- berries of several sorts are said to grow here in as great perfection as in the English gardens. Herbs, as well medicinal as common, to- gether witn various edible roots, are found very generally here : but there are no bees in all Siberia. Animals.] These are camels, dromedaries, rein dcers, bears, bisons, wolves, and all the other land and amphibious animals that arc common in the northern parts of Europe. Their horses are of a good size for the saddle, and very hardy : as they run wild till they are five or six years old, they are generally headstrong. Near Astra- can, there is a bird, called by the Russians baba, of a jrrey colour, and something larger than a swan : he has a broad bill, under which hangs a bag tnat may contain a quart, or more ; he wades near the edge of a river, and on seeing a shoal cr fry of small fishes, spreads his wings and drives them to a shallow, where he gobbles as many of them as he can mto his bag, and then ^oing a$hore^ eats them, or ■- 1', !( ' ! ;* 1- 73G RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. ?;i? i? a. 4r: Si.;'l carries them to his vf^iing. This bird. is probably a spcclcc of iht pelican. . 'J"he forests of Siberia arc well stocked with a variety of animals, srmc of wliich are r.ot to be fuiuul in othtr countries. These supply tlie inhabitants with foovl and clothes; and, at the same lime, furnish them with commodities ior an advantageous trade. Siberia may bo considered as the native country of black foxoi, sables, and ermines, the skins oi' which are here superior to those of any part of the world. Horses and cattle are in great plenty. Natural curiositifs.] Among thcjc may be enumerated the extensive desert levels called stepps, which extend seveial hundred miles with no appearance of a mountain and scarcely of a hill. They contain in many places salt lakes, and in others, productive tracts ca- pable of cultivation. The pejiinsula of Kamtschatka abounds in volcanos, of which however only three have, for several years past, produced eruptions. The same country is likewise said to contain numerous springs of hot-wa:cr. Pori'LATION, INI.'ABITANTS, MANNERS, CUSTOMS.] The populntiort of Asiatic Russia, notwithstandiuijj its vast extent, is not estimated at inore than iliree millions and a. half, or i'onr millions. Tlie inhabitants of this part of the Russian empire arc composed of many different nations, principally Tartar tribfs, sonic of whom now live in fixed houses and villages, and pay tribute like other subjects. Till lately they were not admitted into the Russian armies, but now they make excellent soldiers. Otiicr Kussian Tartars retain their an- cient habits, and live a wandering life. Both sides of the Volga are inhabited by Tchcrmiscs and Morduars, a peaceable industrious people. The Bashkirs are likewise fixed inhabitants of the tract that reaches from Kazan to the frontiers of Siberia, and have certain privileges of which they are tenacious. The wandering Kalmucs occupy the rest of the tract to A^tracan and the frontiers of iliC Usbecsj and in consideration of certain presents which they receive from the sc- vercigns of Russia, they serve in their armies without pay, but ;;rc apt to plunder equally friends and foes. The character of the Tartars of Kazan may serve for that of all the Mahometan Tartars in their neighbourhood. Very few of them arc tall : but they are generally straight and well made, have small f icos, with fresh complexions, and a sprightly and agreeable air. They are luiagiity and jealous of their honour, but (^f very moderate capacity. They are sober and frugal, dexterous at mechanical trades, and tond of neatness. The Tartarian women are of a whclesome complexion rather than handsome, and of a good constitution : from their earliest infancy they are accustomed to labour, retirement, modesty, and sub- mission. The Tartars of Kazan take great cnre of the education of their children. They habituate their youth to labour, to sobriety, and to A strict observance of the manners of their ancestors. They are taught to read and write, and are instructed in the Arabic tongue, and the principles of their religion. Even the smallest village has its cjiapel, school, priest, and schoolmaster ; though some of these priests and schoolmasters are not much skilled in the Arabic language. The best Tartarian academies in the Russian empire are those oi Kazan, Tobolsk, and Astracaii, which are under the direction of the gagouns, or high-priests. It is not uncommon to find small collections of historical anecdotes in zuanuscrip^t, in the huts Qf the boors : and their RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 737 mercluints, hc-ldt's wh;it those little libraries contain, are pfctty ex- ti-'nsivcly acquainted witlj llie Iiistory of ilieir own people, and that of the circumjacent siates,and with tlieantiquitiesof eacii. Sucii as choose to make a progress in theology, enter themselves into the schools of Bucharia, which are more complete than tlie others. The Tartar citi/cns of Kazan, Orcnberg, and other governments," carry on commerce, exercise several trades, and have some manu- factories. Their manner of dealing is chieHy by way of barter ; coin is very rarely seen among them, and bills of exchange never. They arc not in general very enterprising ; but as they extcnii their c(.)n- nexions by partners and clerks, many of them carry on a great deal of business, which their parsimonious way of life renders very lucrative.- At Kazan they make a trade of preparing what is calUd in EnglantJ Morocco-leather. The villages of these people comprehend fj om tea to one hundred farms. Most of them also contain tanners, shoe- niakers, tailors, dyers, smitlis, and carpenters. The habitations and manner of living of tlie Tartar citizens and villagers of Astracan are perfectly similar with those of the Tartars of Kazan. In the city of Astracan they have a large magazine for goods, built of bricks, and several shops upon arches. They carry or. an important commerce with the Armenians, Persians, Indians, Bucharians : and their manufactories of Morocco-leaiiu r, cotton, camelcts, and silks, are in a very thriving state. The Tchouwashes dwell along the two sides of the Volga, in tlie j![Overnments of Kazan and Orenberg. They never live in towns, but assemble in small villages of huts, and choose the forests for their habitations, 'i hey are very fond of hunting, and procure lor iliat purpose screw-barrel muskets, which they prefer to the bow. One of their marriage-ceremonies is, that on the wedding night the bride is obliged to pull ofF her husband's boots. The hiibbaud e\ereises a lordly authority over the wife, and she isoiiliged to «.ibey all his com? niands without reply. .^ The Votiakst wiuj arc a Finnish race, chiefly inhaliit the govern- ment of Kazan. Some of the Votiaks are Christians, but jMeat pail of them ate heathens and idolaters, thougli even tlieiie believe the doctrine of a future state of rewards and punishments. Tlie Ost'iaks, who are likewise a Finnish race, are one of the most nurfierous nations of Siberia. _ Before tiiey were in sul)juction to Russia, tliey were governed by princes of tlieir own nation, and their descendants ;ue still reputed noble. Tlie.-e people tlivide iL'efiistlves into difFeient stocks or tribes, and they choose their cliiefs (roiii the j)rogeny of their ancient niiers. These maintain peace and good order, and superintend the payment of the taxes. They aie entirely unacquainted with the use of letters, and are extremely ignoi aat. It is even said that they cannot reckon farther than, ten. The Voguls are rather below the middle stature. T heir prinjipvil occupation is the chace, in which they discover much oagerne>s and address ; using indiscriminately fire-arms, the bow, .ind the spear. They are also skilful in contiiving traps, snares, and gins, for various kinds of game. The Kalmucs are a courageoiig tribe, andmimerous ; for the most part raw-boned and stout. TH?ir visage is so flat, that the skull of a Kalmuc may be easily known from others. They have thick lips, a small nose, and a short chin, the complexion a reddish and yellowish brown. Their clothing is oriental, and their heads are exactly Chinese. I 73S RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. U V -I Some of their women wear a large golden ring in their nostrils. Theijr principal food is animals, tame and wild: and even their chief* will feed upon cattle that hnvc died of distemper or age, and though the flesh be putrid ; so that in every horde the flesh-market has the ap- pearance of a lay-stall of carrion : they eat likewise the roots and plants of their deserts. They are great eaters, but can endure want for a long time without complaint. Both sexes smoke continually : during the summer they remain in the northern, and in the winter in the southern deserts. 'J'hey sleep upon felt or carpeting, and coi "^r themselves with the same. _, ...j The Tungus'ianst who are of the race of the Manchews, form one of the most numerous nations of Siberia. They are of a middle stature, well made, and of a good mien. Their sight and hearing are of a degree of acuteness and delicacy that is almost incredible ; but their organs of smelling and feeling are considerably -nore blunt than ours. They are acquainted with almost every tree and stone within the circuit of their usual perambulation : and they can even describe a course of some hundred miles by the configurations of the trees an4 stones they meet with, luid can enable others to take the same route by such descriptions. They also disco^jj^r the tracks of the game by the compression of the grass or moss. They learn foreign lan- guages with ease, are alert on horseback, good hunters, and dexterous at the bow. The KamtschaJalcs have a lively imagination, a strong memory, and a great genius for imitation. Their chief employments are hunting and fishing. The chace furnishes them with sables, foxes, and.othet game. They are yfry expert at fishing, and are well acquaintedVith the proper seasons for it. They eat and drink great quantities ; but as what they cat is always cold, their teeth are very fine. Dogs are their only domestic animals, and they put a high value upon them. Some of them travel in small carriages drawn by dogs ; and a com- plete Kamtschadalian equipage, dogs, harness, and all, costs in that country near twenty rubles, or 41. 10s. The Kamtschadales beUeved the immortality of the soul, before they were prevailed upon to em- brace the Christian religion. They are superstitious to extravagance, and extremely singular and capricious in the different enjoyments of life, particularly their convivial entertainments. The manners of the Siberians were formerly so barbarous, Ahat Peter the Great thought he could not inflict a greater punishment upon his .capital enemies, the Swedes, than by banishing them to Siberia. The effect was, that the Swedish ofiicers and soldiers in- troduced European usages and manufactures into the country, and thereby acquired a comfortable living. Kamtschatka is now con- sidered as the most horrid place of exile in the vast empire of Russia ; and hither some of the greatest criminals are sent. Cities, chief towns.] Astracan, s-mate on an island formed by the river Volga, near its entrance into the Caspian sea, is a large and populous city, containing about 70,000 inhabitants. It is about a league in circumference, and surrounded by a wall. It contain*; twenty-five Russian churches and two convents, and is the seat of a Greek bishop. The Armenians, Lutherans, and Roman Catholics, liave also their places of worship, and even the Hindoos a temple. Orenburg, the capital of the government of Ufa, was built in 1 738, by order of the empress Anne, at the conflux of the Or and Ural: but that situation being found inconvenient, the inhabitants were "1 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 730 It is reirtoved and the town bnilt lower down on the Ural, in 1740. now a place of considerable trade. . ' Tobolsk, the chief lown of the government pftjie same name, and considered as the capital of all Siberia, is situate at the confluence of the Irtish and the Tobol. It consists of two towns, called the upper and the lower town, and contains about 15,000 inhabitants. It has a tolerably strong fortress. To this city are sent the Russian state- prisoners who are banished into Siberia. Irkutsk, the capital of the government of that name, situate on the Angara, near the lake Baikal, contains several churches and other edifices of stone, and about 12,000 inhabitants. It is a place 6f con- siderable commerce, the caravans which trade between Russia and China passing through it. Tomsk, the chief town of the province of that name, in the govern- ment of Tobolsk, is a place of considerable trade, and contains about 2000 houses and 8000 inhabitants. Yakutsk, which gives name to a province in the government of Irkutsk, stands on the river Lena ; °it contains about five or six hundred wooden houses, and is defended by a wooden fort. Ochotsk, which gives name to another province of the same government, is a small town or rather station, situate at the mouth of the river Ochota, on a gulph of the Eastern ocean, called the sea of Ochotsk. Bolchetskoiostrog, which has the title of capital of Kamtschatka, and is tlie residence of the governor, contains about 500 houses pretty regularly built. Manufactures, commerce.] There are manufactures of leather and isinglass at Astracan; and a considerable trade is carried on there in salt, produced in great quantities from the salt lakes and marshes in the vicinity of the Caspian sea ; as also in fish procured from the same sea. The principal trade of Siberia is in sables and other furs, which are purchased with avidity by the Chinese, who in return brine tea, silk, and other commodities. The trade of the Kirgusses and Bucharians with Orpnberg and Omsk has been mentioned in the ac- count of Independent Tartary. Religion.] Some of the Tartars since the Russians have been settled in their country have become converts to Christianity ; but the greater part of them still remain attached to their old super- stitions. Tobolsk is a Greek archbishopric ; Irkutsk and Nershink are bishops' sees. Antiquities.] In the environs of Astracan the ruins of ancient Astracan are very visible ; and the rubbish and ramparts of another respectable town still exist near Tzaritzin, on the left shore of the Volga. A little below the mouth of the Kama, which empties itself into the above-mentioned river, are many superb monuments of tlie ancient city Bulgari, consisting of towers, mosques, houses, and sepul- chres, all built of stone or brick. The oldest epitaphs have been there more than eleven centuries, an4 the most modern at lea^t four hun- dred years. Not f.u- from hence, on the Tscheremtscham, a little* river tJiat runs into the Volga, are found ruins somewhat more in- jured by the depredations of time : they are those of Boulmer, an ancient and very considerable city of the Bulgarians. The Tartars have erected upon its ruins the small town of Bilyairsk. In the foi- tress of Kazan is a monument of the ancient Tartarian kingdom \j£ that name. Its loiiy v/alls are so braad, tkat thcv serve at preser.t •JB2 I ■ 'i-al [':■■ rm Ni ! K ;.i Jill '1 !•■*_ ■I; "I ' umti f 'IH! -^'L Mil 740 ISLANDS BELONGING TO RUSSIA, in ASIA. for ramparts; the turrets of which, as weW as the old palace of the khan, are built of hewn stone. Ascending the river Kazanha, we meet with epitaphs, and the 'strong ramparts of the old city of Kazan. Near tlie Ufa are cemeteries full of innumerable inscriptions, and several sepulchral vaults. The ramparts of Sibir, the ancient capital of *l^artary, are still seen near Tobolsk, upon the Irtish. The lofty walls of Tontoura appear yet in the Karabu, a little gulph in the river Om ; and near the mouth of the Ural are the ditches of the city Saratschik. In many par^ of Siberia, particularly near the river Jenissei, are stone tombs witn rude sculptures of human faces, cam(?ls, horsemen witii lances, &c. In thew; tombs arc found human bones, as also the bones of horses and oxcur fragments of earthenware, and various ornaments and trinkets. History.] The Russians, though they had made some incursions into the interior parts of Asia as early as the middle of the fifteenth century, under the reign of John Basilides, or Tvan Vassilievitch,had no fixed establishments there till nearly the middle of the sixteenth ; wlien Trogonotf or StrogonofF, a Russian merchant of Archangel, having found means to open a trade for furs with Siberia, the czar tlien on the throne, Ivan Vassilievitch II. to whom he disclosed the nature of his connexions, promised him protection, and in 1558 as- Mimed the title of lord of Sibir or Siberia. Soon after, Yermac, a rhiefof the Don Cossacs, being compelled by the progress of the Russian conquests to submit, or seek some distant place of refuge, retired with a number of his followers into Siberia, where, having de- feated the Tartar khan of Sibir, he seized his capital, and made it his residence ; but finding himself too weak to preserve his conquests, he applied to Russia for succours and protection, and sent a deputation to do Jiomage to the c/ar as his sovereign. In the course of two or three years after, almost all the Cossacs were killed in repeated battles, and Yermac himself was drowned in attempting to leap into a boat. The Russians, however, after many conflicts, secured to themselves the possession of this evtensive country ; and by the middle of the seventeenth century had advanced to the river Amur, where they built some fort-s, wiiich occasioned hostilitit's between them and the Chinese, who destroyed the Russian loits. These disputes were ter- minated by the treaty of Ncrshinsk, concluded in 16'Si), by which the Argoon was n)ado the bi)undary of the Russian and Chinese ter- ritories. The limits of the former wlm-c somewhat enlarged in 1727. ICamtschatka was reduced under the power of tlie Russian's about tlie )'ear 1 7 1 1 • .ISLANDS BELONGING TO RUSSIA, IN ASIA. T^IF- sea which separates the southern point of the peninsula of Kanitscliatka from Japan, contains a number of islands in a position from north- north-east to south-sovith-west, which are called the KURILE ISLANDS. Tliey are upwards of twenty in number, are all mountainous, and in several of them are volcanoes and hot springs. The principal of these islands are inhabited: but some of the little ones are entirely desert and unpeopled. They differ much from each ISLANDS BELONGING TO RUSSIA, in ASIA. ni other, in respect both to tlicir situation and natural constitution. The forests in the more northern ones are composed of laryx and pines ; those in the southern produce canes, bamboos, vines, &c. In .some of tliem are bears and foxes, 'i'he sea-otter appears on the coasts of all these islands, as well as whales, sea-horses, seals, and other amphibious animals. Some of the inhabitants of these islands have a great like- ness to the Japanese, in their manners, language, and personal ap- pearance ; others very, much resemble the Kamtschadales, 'Jhe northern islands acknowledge the sovereignty of the empire of Russia ; but those of the south pay liomage to Japan. The Kurilians discover much humanity and probity in their conduct, and are courteous and hospitable ; but adversity renders them timid, and prompts them to suicide. They have a particular veneration for old age. They re- verence an old man whoever he be, but have an especial affection for those of their respective families. Their language is agreeable to the ear, and they speak and pronounce it slowly. Tlie men are cm- ployed in hunting, fishing for sea animals and whales, and catching fowl. "^^I'heir canoes are made of the wood that their forests produce, or that the sea casts upon their sliorcs. The women have charge of the kitchen, and make clothes. In the rorthern isles they sew, and make different cloths of the thread of nettles. The southern islanders are more refined and polished than the northern, and carry on a sort of commerce with Japan, whither tliey export whale-oil, furs, and eagles' feathers to fledge arrows with. In return, they bring Ja- panese utensils of metal and varnished wood, skillers, sabres, diflerent stuffs, ornaments of luxury and parade, tobacco, all sorts of trinkets, and small wares. Between the eastern coast of Kamtsohatka, and the western coast of America, are several groups of islands, divided by Mr. Muller into four principal c^roups ; the first two of v.nich are called the ALEU- TIAN ISLANDS.* The first group, which is calh-d by some of the islanders Sasignam. coninvohends, I. Beering's Island; ii. Copper Island; 3. O'.ma ; 'i. Samyni, or Shenivi:i ; 5. Auakta. The second group is called Khao, and comprises eight ii^lands, viz. 1. Imiriak ; 2. Kiska; 5. Tchotcliia ; t. Ava; 5. Kavia; 6. I'schangulek; 7- Ula- gama ; 8. Amtschidga. The third gt-neral name is Negho, and cora- preliends the islands krown to the Russians under the name of An- dreanoffski Ostvova ; sixteen oi' which are mentioned under the fol- lowing names : I. Amatkinak; 2. Ulak; .'{. Unalga ; 4. Navotsha ; 5. Uliga ; ^->". Anagii: ; 7. Kagulak ; 8. J 1 risk, or lllak ; 9. Takavanga, upon which i« a vfrtcano ; 10. Kanag;!, wliich has also a vokano ; 11. Leg; 12. Sketihuna ; i:>. Tagaloon ; li. Gorleoi ; 15. Otchuj * Ml. Coyf oh-tno?, thht " tlic first pron'ct for makin<j; discoveriL's in that tcin|)f,-nit>iis.si'a wiiicli lii^s bttwifii K;uiiI^cIku1<.i .md Atnerir;i was coiiccivc(l and p'annf'd by lA-tcr I.'" Vo\ii;iVs with ili.it \i(\v were a('Of)i(iiim;lv niid'-r- tiiken ur tlic t-xjiciibo ol ihe «Ttiv\ u ; Imt, when it was discnvficd iliai ilit- island j of iin'. se.i abmituifd wiili valuable tins, privatu niprcijaiits iuiuir- diately enu;i>jri'd with ardour in fimilar CNi^editions ; and within a poriod uC ten yvars, luutt- uuporlaul discoveries wvn: made hv tl)osc individuals, at llu.ir owii private cost, liian had liilhcrlo bicu c'll'ecl;ed by all the elVorls of the crowti. i'hf iiivesiigiUidii of ufiff'd kno'.vh\!p;e has also hwtx greatly eu- cnmajfcd b/ tlic !at»- miipr-sv of Uuir-ia ; and die most distant; parts of iier vast doujliiioi..-v, and oilier cou:Uries and i.slands, have Ijclmi v.v^plored, at !ici exponsr, by person^ ofaliiiilios and karniiig, in coi)Socjin;iicc ot' which, con siUcrable t|i«cow;r;oj< liavc U'en luodt-. >f: ' :ii:i' WM', iK.iii(y!,i.|!i| m 742 ISLANDS BiLOHeiNe to RUSSIA, im ASIA. J6. Amia. The fourth group is called Kavalang, and comprehends sixteen iiilands ; which are called by the Russians Lysstc Ostrova, or the Fox Islands ; andwl^ich are named, 1. Amuchta ; 2. Tschigama ; 3. Tschegula ; 4". Unistra; 5. Ulaga ; 6. Tauagulana ; 7. Kagamin; 8. Kigalga; 9. Skelmaga ; 10. Umnak ; 11. Agun-AJashska ; J2. Unimma; 13. Uligan ; 14. Anturo Leissume; 15. Semidit; 16. Senagak. Some of these islands arc only inhabited occasionally, and for some months in the year, and others are very thinly peopled ; but others have a great number of inhabitants, who constantly reside in them. Copper Island receives its name from the copper which the sea throws up on its coasts. The inhabitants of these islands are in general of a short stature, with strong robust limbs, but free and supple. They have lank black hair and little beard, flattish faces, and fair skins. They are for the most part well made, and of strong constitutions, suitable to the boisterous climate of their isles. 1 he inhabitants of tho Aleutian isles live upon the roots which grow wild, and sea animals. They do not employ themselves in catching fish, though the rivers abound with all kinds of salmon, and the sea with turbot. Theii* clothes are made of the skins of birds, and of sea otters. "rtie Fox islands are so called from the great number of black, grey, and red foxes with which they abound. Jhe dress of the inhabitants consists of a cap, and a fur coat which reaches down to the knee. Some of them wear common caps of a party-coloured bird-skirf, upon which they leave part of the wings and tail. On the fore part of their hunting and fishing caps they place a small board like a skreen, adorned with the jaw-bones of sea-bears, and ornamented with glass beads which they receive in barter from the Russians. At theii* festivals and dancing parties they use a much more shov/y sort of caps. They feed upon the flesh of all sorts of sea animals, and generally cut it raw. Butif at any time they choose to dress their victuals, they make use of a hollow stone : having placed their fish or flesh therein, they cover it with another, and close the interstices with lime or clay > They, then lay it horizontally upon two stones, and light a fire under it. The provision intended for keeping is dried without salt in the open air. Their weapons consist of bows, arrows, and darts, and for defence they use wooden shields. The most perfect equality reigns among these islanders. They have neither chiefs nor superiors, neither laws nor punishments. They live together in families, and societies of several families united, which form what they call a race, who, in case of an attack, or defence, mu- tually aid and support e^ch other. The inhabitants of the same island always pretend to be of the same race ; and every person looks upon his island as a possession, the property of which is common to all the individuals of the same society. Feasts are very common among them, and more particularly when the inhabitants of one island are visited by those of the others. The men ot the village meet their guests beating drums, and preceded by the women, who sing and dance. At the conclusion of the dance, the hosts serve up their best provisions, and invite their guests to partake of the feast. They feed their children when very young with the coarsest flesh, and for the niost part rJ^w. Jf an infant cries, the mother immediately carries it to the sea side, and, whether it be summer or winter, holds it naked in the water until it is quiet. This custom is so far from doing the children any harm, th^t it hardens (hem against the cold^ ^nd tlicy The INDIAN and ORIENTAL ISLANDS. 743 accordingly go barefooted through the winter without the least in* convenience. They seldom heat tneir dwellings ; but, when they are desirous of warming themselves, they light a bundle of hay, and stand over it ; or else they set fire to tram oil, which they pour into a hollow stone. They have a good share of plain natural sense, but are ratlier slow of understanding. They seem cold and indifferent in most of their actions ; but let an injury, or even a suspicion only, rouse them from this phlegmatic state, and they become inflexible and furious, taking the most violent) revenge, without any regard to the consequences. The least affliction prompts them to suicide; the ap- prehension of even an uncertain evil often leads them to despair, and they put an end to their days with great apparent ias.tnsibility. ^! Th« INDIAN AND ORIENTAL ISLANDS. THE JAPAN ISI^ANDS consist of three large and a great num- fcer of small islands, which constitute together what has been called the empire of Japan. They are situate about 130 miles east of China, be- tween the IjOth und 41st d£gree of north latitude, and between the 130th and I42d of east longitude. The largest of these islands is called by the Japai^se, Niphon or Nipon ; but by the Chinese, Sippon and Jepuen, whence the European name of Japan. It is about 760 miles in length an4 80 in breadth. The islands of which this king- dom consists are divided into seven departments, which again are subdivided intp sixty-eight provinces, and these into six hundred and four districts. The whole country consists almost entirely ofmountains, hills, and valleys, arid a plain of any extent is scarcely to be seen. One of the highest mountains is named Fusi : its summit reaches above the clouds, and it may be seen at the distance of many leagues. There are several volcanoes in these islands, one of which is constantly in a state of eruption. Gold is found in several parts ; but it is prohibited to dig more than a certiiin stated quantity j nor can any mine of any metal whatever be opened and wrought, without the emperor's ex- press permission% The heat in summer is very great, and would be insupportable, were not the air cooled by the sea breezes. The cold in winter is equally severe : the weather is in general changeable, and a great deal of rain falls in the rainy season, rendering the soil which is most industriously cultivated, exuberantly fertile. There seems to be no peculiar animals in these islands. There are bufHiloes, wolves, foxes, and dogs. The horses, cattle, and sheep, are very few for a country so populous. Its population, however, is not known with any degree of certainty ; but if, as some accounts have stated, it maintains nearly half a million of men in arms, the number of inhabitants may- be conjectured to be between twenty and thirty millions. The complexions of the Japanese arc in general yellowish, although some Jew, chiefly women, are almost white Their narrow eyes and eye-brows are like those ot the Chinese and Tartars, and their noses are short and thick. Their hair is universally black. ' The dress of the Japanese may with more propriety be termed na- tional, than that of any other part of the world ; as it not only differs I'rom that of every other nation, but is uniform from the monarch '' '' >9 * I 7+t The INDIAN and ORIENTAL ISLANDS. ./■I) l^m>:^^./' W 41 m Hffv' down to the most inferior subject, sinnilar in both sexes, and (which almost surpasses belief) has been unchanged for the space of 2.500 years. It consists of one or more loose gowns, tied about the middle with a sash. People of rank have them made of silk, but the lower class of cotton stuffs. Women generally wear a greater number of them than men, and much longer, and have them more ornamented, often with gold or silver flowers woven into the stuff. Their houses are built with upright posts, crossed and wattled with bamboo, plastered both without and within, and white- washed. They ge- nerally have two stories ; but the uppermost is low, and seldom m- babited. 1 he roofs are covered with pantiles, large and heavy, but neatly made. The floors arc elevated two feet from the ground, and covered with planks, on which mats are laid. The public buildings, such as temples and p-alaces, are larger, it is true, and more con- spicuous, but in the same style of architecture; and the roofs, which ;ue decorated with several towers of a singular appearance, are their greatest ornament. The towns are sometimes of a considerable sl/e, always secured with gates, and frequently surrounded with walls and fossces, and adorned with towers, especially if a prince or governor of a province keeps his court there. The town of Jeddo, the capital of the island of Nipon, and of the whole country, is said to be twenty-one hours' walk in circumference, or about twenty-one French leagues, and may vie in size with Peking. The streets are straight and wide, and at certain distances divided by gates ; and at each gate there is a very high ladder, from the top of which any fire that breaks out may be dis- covered, an accident that not uniVequently happens there several times in the week. The furniture of Japan is as simple as the style of building. Neither cupboards, bureaus, sophas, beds, tables, chairs, watches, looking- glasses, nor any thing else of the kind, are to be found in the apart- ments. To the greater part of these the Japanese are utter strangers. Their soft floor mats serve them for chairs and tables. A small board, about twelve inches square, and four in height, is set down before each person in company at every meal, which is served up one dish only at a time. Mirrors they have, but never fix them up in their houses as ornamental furniture; they are made of a compound metal, and used only at their toilets. Notwitlistanding the scvciity of their winters, which obliges them to warm their houses from November to March, they have neither fire-places nor stoves ; instead of these they use large copper pots standing upon legs. These are lined on the iiiside with loam, on which ashes are laid to some depth, and charcoal lighted upon them, which seems to be prepared in some manner which renders the fumes of it not at all dangerous. The first compliment offered to a stranger, in their houses, is a dish of tea., and a pipe of to- bacco Fans arc used by both sexes equally ; and are, within or with- out t'oorsj their inseparable companions. J he whole nation are na- turally cleanly ; every house, whether public or private, has a bath, of which constant and daily use is made by the whole family. Obedi- ence to parents, and respect to superiors, are the characteristics of this nation. Their salutations and conversations between equals abound also with civility and politeness; to this children are early accustomed by the i-ixarr.ple of their parents. Their penal laws are very severe ; but punishments are seldom inflicted. Perhaps there is no country wliere fewer crimes against society are committed. Commerce and )S. and (which »ace of 2500 It the middle lit the lower er number of oraamented. Their houses Jth bamboo, They ge- d seldom in- J heavy, but ground, and ic buildings, d more con- roofs, which ce, are their secured with md adorned ce keeps his d of Nipon, nrs' walk in may vie in id at certain very high nay be dis- lere several ig. Neither es, looking- i the apart- r strangers, nail board, before each e dish only r houses as 1> and used ir winters, to March, e they use the inside I charcoal iner which mipliment pipe of to- n or with- in are na- as a. bath, r. Obedi. ticsofthis Is abound customed y severe ; ) country lerge and The INDIAN and ORIENTAL ISLANDS. m naMufactures flourish here ; though as these people have few wantsj they are not carried to the extent which we see in Europe. The islands of Japan are governed by a despotic sovereign called the Kubo ; besides whom there is a spiritual or ecclesiastical emperor called the Dairi. The veneration entertained for tlie latter is little short of the honours paid to their gods. He seldom goes out of his palace, his person being considered as too sacred to be exposed to the air, the rays of the sun, or the view of the common people. He is brought into the world, lives, and dies, within the precincts of his court ; the boundaries of which he never once exceeds during his whole life. His hair, nails, and beard, are accounted so sacred that they are never suffered to be cleansed or cut by day-light ; but this must be done by stealth, during the night, whilst he is asleep. His holiness never eats twice off the same plate^ nor uses any vessel for his meals a second time : they are immediately broken to pieces after they are used, to prevent their falling into unhallowed hands. He has twelve wives, only one of whom, however, is styled empress. He con- fers all title.-, of honour ; but the real power of government is ex- ercised by the kubo. The Japanese are gross idolaters, and so irreconcileable to Chris- tianity, that it is commonly said the Dutch, who are the only European nation with whom they now trade, pretend themselves to be no Christian?, and humour the Japanese in the most absurd super- stitions. But notwithstanding all this compliance, the natives are very shy and rigorous in all their dealings with the Dutch ; and Nagasaki, in the island of Dezima, is the only port they are suffered to enter. Tlie Japanese trade with no foreign nation but the Dutch and Chinese ; and in both cases with companies of privileged mer- chants. According to Thunberg, however, a late traveller to Japan, the trade of the Dutch to that country, even in time of peace, was be- come so inconsiderable in 1777» that the company only employed in it two ships. Fcnmerly, as they paid there no duty either on their ex- ports or imports, they were accustomed to send an annual present to the emperor, consisting of cloth, chintzes, cottons, stuffs, and trinkets. The Japanese are excellent workmen in iron and copper ; their manu- factures of silk and cotton yield to those of no eastern country ; the excellence of their lacquered ox japanned v::xrc is well known ; and their porcelain is deemed superior to that of China. The island of FORMOSA is situate to the east of China, near the province of Fo-kien, and is divided into two parts by a. chain of mountains, which runs through the middle, from south-east to north- west. Tiiis is a very fine island, and abounds in all the necessaries of iile. That part of the island which lies to the west of the mountains belongs to the Chinese, who consider the inhabitants of the eastern paits as savages. The inhabitants*'of the cultivated parts are Chinese, or at least have adopied their manners and habits. The Chinese have likewise made themselves masters of several other islands in these seas, among which, that of Ainan is between sixty and seventy leagues long, and between fifty and sixty in breadth. It is distant only twelve milei from the main land of the province of Canton. The original inhabitants are a shy and timid people, and live in the most unhealthy part of the island ; the coast and cultivated parts, which are very valuable, being possessed by the Chinese. The L ADKONF, islands, of which the chief is Guam (in north lati- tude 11, east longitude 110) a.'-c about twelve in ntimber. Theirname I Lfi vS ' W l^i f r46 Thb INDIAN ANB ORIENTAL ISLANDS. ilk"" m signifies the island of robbers, the natives when they were first dis- covered by Magellan, or Magalhaens, being, like most other savages, mucji addicted to pilfering. These islands were then, it is said, very populous; Guam, which is about forty leagues in circuit, having thirty thousand inhabitants. Lord Anson, in his voyage round the world, landed at one of them (Tinian) where he found great refreshment for himself and his crew. The PHILIPPINfc.S are said to be 1100 in number, lying in the Chinese Sea (part of the Pacific Ocean) 300 miles south-east of China, of which Manilla, or Luconia, the chief, is 400 miles long and 200 broad. The inhabitants consist of Chinese, Ethiopians, Malays, Spa- niards, Portuguese, Pintadoes, or painted people, and Mestes, a mix- ture of all these. The property of the islands belongs to the king of Spain, they having been discovered by Magellan, and afterwards con- quered by the Spaniards, in the reign of Philip II. from whom tliey take their name. Their situation is such, between the eastern and western continents, that the inhabitants trade with Mexico and Peru, as well as with all the islands and ports of the East Indies. Two ships from Acapulco, in Mexico, carry on this commerce for the Spaniards, ■who make 400 per cent, profit. 'The country is fruitful in ail the ne- cessaries of life, and beautiful to the eye. Venison of all kinds, buffaloes, hogs, sheep, goats, and a particular large species of monkeys, are found here in great plenty. The nest of the bird saligan affords that dissolving jelly which is so voluptuous a rarity at European tables. Many European fruits and flowers thrive surprisingly in these islands. If a sprig of an orange or lemon-tree is planted here, it becomes within the year a fruit-bearing tree; so that the verdure and luxuriancy of the soil are almost incredible. The tree amet supplies the natives with water ; and there is also a kind of cane, which, if cut, yields clear water enough for a draught : this abounds in the moun- tains, where water is most wanted. The city of Manilla contains about 3000 inhabitants ; its port is Cavite, lying at the distance of three leagues, and defended by the castle of St. Philip. In the year 1762, Manilla was reduced by the English under general Draper and admiral Cornish, who took it by storm, and humanely suffered the archbishop, who was the Spanish viceroy at the same time, to ransom the place for about a million sterling. The bargain, however, was ungenerously disowned by hhn and the court of Spain, so that great part of the ransom never was paid. The Spanish government is settled there, but the Indian inha- bitants pay a capitation tax. The other islands, particularly Mindanao, the largest next to Manilla, are governed by petty princes of their own, whom they call sultans. The sultan of Mindanao is a Ma- homedan. Though these islands are enriched with all the profusion of nature, yet they are subject to most dreadful earthquakes, thunder, rains, and lightning ; and the soil is pestered with many noxious and venomous creatures, and even herbs and flowers, whose poisons kill almost in* stantaneously. Some of their mountains are volcanoes. ' The MOLUCCAS, commonly called the Spice orCi.ovE Islands, are not out of sight of each other, and lie all within the com- pass of twenty-five leagues to the south of the Philippines, in 125 degrees of east longitude, and between one degree south, and two north latitude. They are in number five, viz. Bachian, Machian, Motyr, Ternate, and Tydore. These islands produce neither corn uor The INDIAN and ORIENTAL ISLANDS. i47 rice, so that the inhabitants live upon bread made of «i_cfO. Their chief produce consists of cloves, mace, and nutmegs, in vast (iiiantities; which are monopolised by the Dutch with so much jealousy, that tliey destroy the plants, lest the natives should sell the supenuimerary spices to other nations. These Islands, after being subject to various powers, are now governed by three kings, subordinate to the Dutch. Ternate is the largest of them, though not more than thirty miles in circumference. The Dutch liave here a fort called Victoria ; and another called Fort Orange, in Machian. The BANDA, or Nutmeo Islands, are situate between 127 and 12H degrees of east longitude, and between four and five sowth lati- tude. Banda, or Lantor, is not more than eight miles in length, and five in breadth. The names of the other islands of this group are Rossigen, Nera, Gonong, Way, and Rohn. These islands weie all subject to the Dutch, but were taken by the English in 179G, at which time their annual produce was about 163,000 pounds of nutmegs, and 46,000 pounds of mace. The nutmeg-tree grows to the si/e oi a pear- tree, the leaves resembling those of the laurel, and bears fruit from the age of ten to one hundred years. The great nutmeg harvest is in July and August. AMBOYNA. This island is, in some respects, the most considerable of the Moluccas, which, in fact, it commands. It is situate in the Archipelago of St. Lazarus, between the third and fourth degrees of south latitude, 120 leagues to the eastward of Batavia. It is about 70 miles in circumference. When the Portuguese were driven oft' this island, the trade of it was caxried on by the English and Dutch ; and the barbarities of the latter, in first torttiring and then murdering the English, and thereby engrossing the whole trade, and that of Banda, can never be forgotten, 'i his tragical event happened in lfot^2. Amboyna was taken by the English, with the other spice islands, in J79fi ; but they were all restored by the treaty of Amiens in 1802. The island of CELEBES, or MACASSAR, is situated under the equator, between the island of Borneo and the Spice Inlands, at the distance of 160 leagues from Batavia, and is 500 miles long and 200 broad. This island, notwithstanding its heat, is rendered habitabla by breezes from the north, and periodical rains. Its chief productions are pepper and opium ; and the natives are expert in the study of poisons, with a variety of which nature has furnished them. The Dutch have a fortific^ition on this island ; but the internal part of it is governed by three kings, the chief of whom resides in the town of Macansar. In this, and indeed in almost all the oriental islands, the inhabitants live in houses built on large posts, which are accessible only by ladders, which they pull up in the night-time, for their se- curity against venomous animals. They are said to be hospitable and faithful, if not provoked. They carry on a large trade with the Chinese. Their port of Jampoden is the most capacious uf any in that part of the world. GlLOLO, situate likewise under the equator, is about 230 miles long and 40 broad, produces rice and sago, but no spices, though it lies so near the spice islands. It is inhabited by a fierce and savage , race of people. CER AM is .ibout 1 no miles long and 10 broad. The Dutch have a fort here ; and have destroyed almost all the clove-trees on'the island, (P pn^^ce tli^ value of (hose of the otlacr Tslauds. ! i ' I H 'ii >MlMi^i I ! v, -1 ;■ Ii mm ^h .113 m i'i 1 f r f: r • I i i-i^':^ r ;fr .H.; 718 The INDIAN and ORIENTAL ISLANDS. i! / ■i Tho SUNDA ISLANDS are situate in the Indian Ocean, be- vween 93 and 120 degrees of east longitude, and between eight de- grees north and eight degrees south latitude, comprehending the islands of liorneo, Sumatra, Java, Ballay, Lamboe, Banca, 8cc. The three first, from tlieir great extent and importance, require to be sepa- rately described. BORNEO is said to be 800 miles long, and 700 broad, and, till New-Holland was discovered to be an island, was considered as the largest island in the world. The inland part of the country is marshy and unliealthy ; and the inhabit. mts live in towns built upon floats in the middle of the rivers. 'J'he soil produces rice, cotton, canes, pep- per, camphor, the tropical fruits, gold, and excellent diamonds. The famous ouran-nutang is a native of this country, and is thought, of all irrational beings, to resemble a man the most. The original in- habitants live in the mountains, and make use of poisoned darts ; but the sea-coast is governed by Mahomedan princes. The chief port of this island is Benjar-Masseen, and carries on a commerce with all trad- ing nations. SUMATRA has Malacca on the north, Borneo on the east, and Java on the south-east, from which it is separated by the straits of Sunda ; it is divided into two equal parts by the equator, extending five degrees and upwards north-west of it, and five on the south-east ; and is 1000 miles long, arid 100 broad. This island produces so much gold that it has been thought to be the Ophir * mentioned in the scriptures ; but Mr. Marsden, in his late history of the island, thinks it was unknown to the ancients.— Its chief trade with the Europeans is in pepper. The English East-India company have two settlements here, Bencoolen and Fort Marlborough* from whence they bring their chief cargoes of pepper. The king of Achen is the chief of the Mahomedan princes who possess the sea-coasts. The interior parts are governed by pagan princes ; and the natural pro- ducts of Sumatra are pretty much the same with those of the adjacent islands. Rain is very frequent here ; sometimes very heavy, and almost al- ways attended with thunder and lightning. Earthquakes are not uncommon, and there are several volcanoes on the island. The peo- ple who inliabit the coast are Malays, who came hither from the peninsula of Malacca ; but the interior parts are inhabited by a very different people, and who have hitherto had no connection with the Europeans. Their language and character differ much from those of the Malays ; the latter using the Arabic character. The people between the districts of the English company and those of the Dutch at Palimban, on the other side of the island, write on long narrow slips of the bark of a tree, witli a piece of bamboo. They begin at the bottom, and write from the left hand to the right, contrary to the custom of other eastern nations. 'I'hese inhabitants of the interior parts of Sumatra are a free people, and live in small villages called Doosans, independent of each other, and governed each by its own chief. All of them have laws, some written ones, by which they punish offenders, and terminate disputes. They have almost all of them, and * Thgre 18 a mountain in the island which is called Ophir by the Eu- ropeans, whose summit, above the level of the sea, is 13,8-i- t'cet, exceeding in hci^jht the Peak ol'Tcuciiti'c by 577 feet. The INDIAN and ORIENTAL ISLANDS. :i9 particularly the women, large swellings in the throat, some nearly a» large as a man's head, but in general as big as an ostrich's egg, like the goitres of the Alps. That part of this ibland which is called the Cassia country, is well inhabited by a people called Battas,who difter from all the other inhabitants of Sumatra in language, manners, and customs. They have no king, but live in villages independently of each other, and generally at variance with one another. They fortify their villages very strongly with double fences of camphor-plank, pointed, and placed with their points projecting outwards ; and be- tween these fences they place pieces of bamboo, hardened by fire, and likewise pointed, which are concealed by the grass, but which will run quite tlirough a man's foot. Such of thtir enemies whom they take prisoners they put to death and eat ; and their skulls they hang up as trophies in the houses where the unmarried men and boys eat and sleep. They allow of polygamy : a man may purchase as many wives as he pleases ; but their number seldom exceeds eight. All their wives live in the same' house with the husband, and the houses have no partition ; but each wife has her separate fire-place. It i» in this country that most of the cassia sent to Europe is produced. The cassia- tree grows to fifty or sixty feet in height, with a stem of about two feet in diameter, and a beautiful and regular spreading head. Within about ninety miles of Sumatra is the island of ENGANHO, which is very little known, on account of the terrible rocks and breakers which entirely surround it. It is inhabited by naked savages, who are tall and well made, and who generally appcr.r armed with lances and clubs, and speak a different language from the inhabitants of any of th'i neighbouring islands. The greatest part of JAVA belongs to the Dutch; wlio have here erected a kind of commercial monarchy, the capital of whu h i.sBatavia, a noble and populous city, lying in tlie latitude of six djgiees south, at the mouth of the river Jucata, and furnished with one of the finest harbours in the world. The town itself is built in the manner of those in Holland, and is about a league and a half in circumierence, with five gates, and surrounded with regular fortifk'atinns : hut its suburbs are said to be ten times more populous than itself. The governuieiic here is a mixture of eastern magnificence and European police', and held by the Dutch gc^vernor-general of the Indies. VVhcn he appears abroad, he is attended by his guards and ofiicers,and with a splendour superior to that of any Kuropean potentate, except upon some solemn occasions. This city i? as beaurifui as it is strong ; ar.d it^: fine canals, bridges, and avenues, render il a most agreeahie residen'.;c, The description of it, its governnient, and public edifices, have em- governor hi is [lis ployed whole volumes. Tlie citadel, wiiere the palace, commands tlie town and the suburbs, vohich are inhabited by natives of almost every nation ia the world; the Chinese residing in this islarid were computed at 1()(),{;(X)-, hut about 80,000 of chat nation were barbarously massacred, without the smallest offence ever proved upon them, in 1740. This massacre was too unprovoked and detest- able to be defended even by the Dutch, who, when the governor ar- rived in Europe, sent him back to be tried at Batavia ; but he never has been heard of since. A Dutch garrison of 3000 men constantly resides at Batavia; and about 15,000 troops are quartered in the island, and the neighbourhood of the city. The ANDAMAN and NICOBAR islands. These islands lie at the eatrance of the bay of Bengal, and furnish provisions, consisting t1 fc ! r r ' 't ;l 1; 75) Tii8 INDIAN AHO ORIENTAL ISLANDS. m Wwm ~"1IT of tropical fruits :uid other necessaries, for the ships that touch theft* 'ITiey are othcrwihc too inconsiderable to be mentioned. Tliey arv inhabited by a harmless inoffensive people. CEYLON. This island, though not the lncrp;e5t, is thought to be, by nature, the richest and finest island in the world. It is situated in the Indian Ocean, nc^jr Cape Comortn i the scmthern extremity of the Hither Peninsula of India beini^ separated from the coi.st of Coro- mandcl by a narrow strait, and is 'J.'JO miles lon;^, and 'J(X> broad. The natives call it, with some show of reason, the terrestrial paradise ^ and it produces, besides excellent fruits of all kinds, long pepper, fine cotton, ivory, silk, tobacco, ebony, musk, crystal, saltpetre, sulphur, lead, iron, steel, copper; besides cinnamon, gold and silver, and all kindit of precious stones, except diamonds. All kinds of fowl and fish abound here. Every part of the island is well wooded and watered ; and besides some curious animals peculiar to itself, it has plenty of cows, buffaloes, goats, hogs, deer, hares, dogs, and other quadrupeds. The Ceylon elephant is preferred to all others, especially if spotted ; but several noxious animals, such as serpents and ants, arc likewise found here. The chief commodity of the island is its cinnamon, which is by far the best in all Asia. Though its trees grow in great profusion, yet the best is found in the neighbourhood of Columbo, late the chief settlement of the Dutch, and Negambo. The middle part of the country is mountainous and woody, so that the rich and beautiful valleys were left in the possession of the Dutch, who had in a manner shut up the king in his capital city, Candy, whicli stands on a moun- tain in the midcfie of the island, so that he had scarcely any commu- nication with other nations, or any property in the riches of his own dominions. The descendants of the ancient inhabitants are called Cinglasses; who, though idolaters, value themselves upon maintaining their ancient laws and customs. I'hey arc, in general, a sober ino£^nsive people; and are mingled with Moors, Malabars, Portuguese, and Dutch. It may be here proper to observe, that the cinnamon-tree, which is a native of this island, has two ( if not three ) barks, which form the true cinnamon ; the trees of a middling growth and age afford the best ; and the body of the tree, which, when stripped, is white, serves for building, and other uses In 1656, the Dutch were invited by the natives of this delicious island to defend them against the Portuguese, whom they expelled, and afterwards monopolised it to tliem- selves. In January 1782, Trincomale, the chief sea-port of the island, was taken by the English, but soon afterwards retaken by the French, and restored to the Dutch by the following treaty of peace. In August, 1795, it was again taken by the English, to whom it was confirmed by the treaty of Amiens, and in whose possession it still remains. The MALDIVES. These are a vast cluster of small islands or little rocks just above the water, lying between the equator and eight degrees north latitude, near Cape Comorin. I'hey are chiefly re* sorted to by the Dutch, who carry on a profitable trade with the na- tives for couries, a kind of small shells, which go, or rather formerly went, for monjey, upon the coasts of Guinea and other parts of Africa. The cocoa of the Maldives is an excellent commodity in a medical capacity. « Of this tree (says a well-informed author) they build vessels of twenty or thirty tons j their hulls, masts, sixils, rigging, anchors, cables, provisions, an4 firing, are all from this useful tree," ^ i •' ««• 751 4. » tast, in ie Ori. $iicular In £uo radic:il I ; for I many I. * some north' . ; and Vica is eck of jditer- (ength S7de. ide, is egrees andel, unded from ad the •y the )cean, lis ex- of it is tble to , from nks of of this >us as lot ex- ,snow }n the ig re. low m :ty, be I rock, h falls is na- p\ its if the Oftlie -T- jmi^- mi ». .\meer*» < '••aMmH i It ' I m 111 I •m I-I„i, Wll. ,• / ••'^"» 7 .Mfriilhiii U III' IoihIiiii. />' '•iVy, *>r«r.«//A.STK'< ,J 9 d /-■J, J £* ll'ili/rfiul.' i rill,..,,., '/<"*''''■•'•••■'■'*"•■■ \^ r...,,/.-^.,'>J\ I ■/,„/,„.„,. I *ivai - V . f r. ." " ''•• OO ■ •«_ V» -J- - . " ^-^ /. [ 4i'fUlUM> 7 /j.-,',..ry. ' V,. • '- ..i! ^. 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V 0-' 'f-.. ^'V^■"■■.'- ■ ■• ■<''-,i-"A '"^'- ° '•^IlI.VUlA ,,.., \r.\i.in»5n;A9 •"•-••I,,., ;n!*.7Y><.\j ,, /i.»j;«»« ,./'" rr^Anioni,. .)^ •V,,,, "I'm II PI- A" K<|ijin<trtinl Line Paulntlr l.tutnilo •II. J I J ^tVil/lrllJItl-/" R.illniii, i.^y^ ^^ r.N.. _ xM:i'..,ni U;:,/, /I, I ^. \ ('itlllAlllltH \ < .lil,>\ rnn\ljf th'lf Viitm,t\ _ .».wi.A»«iit fi'*ff \ . - ^ 1 /',./,;./„/ //,K^"S"'*"'P""'' I» O M It A\^(.^rlUI).\S ~ / \ -yfll.,,i,„f„..A.' N •■ ■>' t't't'ltttiKlit f rrii't/ tit/tit^ 5L t /Ir.yli.n liitiun'iiiiit X. 9 Ui'iiiiit .y,if,il Amar.-iittt' r*.^ , „ r >'.*,/> /! IxUnrfii ^ .iM.uUtl.mk ^ llnltk .ttStfii/'fifn I , fi'titfiy /, <v, tlononos , «7 4u.<A(ii|.i^- ,/\ ,rr„.i S..ANM.A ; PI^'^^^VT ^^ C^ > -:' /!.:..../ r Hiui\k. -LSAttiA^ , J . < ; ^. . < /l■m.^...,l '' ■ t.nftiA.mi/'.t/ti' >, ^ ■» " / r'«<'/«(»r4i'Ji'<'A"i!i'^ii"4lL .--.- •: ., _- . Xini,l,\ Jf.M.i n,tnl;.i W, r.^h rs'Miuv , ('.■iiiit'lii|^iinrilii« ,^ '''ir>"""'l\. %li, T T.i;> 1 <Vt r, .;.,..«! II,.,,.. 1/ <.«, '•v^y .%>*/ 'l.vl l'/,ll. Willi/ ■l,:1,'l'h,i:tli. r V V I ;iii;i.ll>»^'''' /' // !•: A' ,>• i^y rv \c /•: .i x -T— _f — n if' l.oii.^'itintr /''.' Kiisl rrfiiii l.ti.i'(<iii. 41 ! i^ii If il' -s:' ;sf,d rs: ill r^ . '.jit /•/,//. l.\7/. 730 oftro 'I'hey inhab CEi by n;i tlie In Hitho: mande Tlie n and it cotton lead, I kinds j ubouii and bi cows, ThcC but se found which profu! the ch the CO valley shut V tain ii ntcati own . called maint sober Portu It I a nati cinnat and tl buildi native whon selves island Frenc In A confii remai Th little degre sorte< lives : went, The. capa< vesse; iMichc r 3 :'.•' d t'.tim, I r.rt! C.lUaiKii ..^ i I I'rit.liiit .ifx,,*.-'.'^ ., /t.„„i,;./,.'.''/""- i! (vVi-iili",!" CA.r.l-' AFRICA. 751 Wo have already mentioned BOMBAY, on the Malabar coast, in speaking ol" Hindoostan. With reg;nd to the language of all the Ori- «rntal i iliinds, nothing certain can be said. Each island has a particular tongue ; .but the Malayan, Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, and Indian Words, are so frequent among them, that it is difficult for an Eu- ropean, who is not very expert in those matters, to know tlie radical language. TJie same may be almost said of their religion ; for though its original is certainly pagan, yet it is intermixed witli many Mahomedan, Jewish, Christian, and other foreign superstitious. l.iMl.'iliiilr IV AFRICA. A FRIC A, the third gnmd division of the globe, in shape bears some resemblance to the form of a pyramid, the base being the north- ern part of it, which runs along the shores of the Mediterranean ; and the point or top of the pyramid, the Capo of Good Hope. Africa is a peninsula of a prodigious extent, joined to Asia only by a neck of land, about sixty mile« over, between the Red Sea and the Mediter- ranean, usually calk'd the Isthmus of Suez ; and its utmost length from noith to south, from Cape Bona in the Mediterranean, in 37 de- grees north, to the Cape of Good Hope in 34)-7 south latitude, is 4,900 miles ; and the broadest part, from Cape Verd, in 17-^^0 degrees west longitude, to Cape Guardasui, near the straits of Babel-Mandel, in 51-20 east longitude, is 4,500 miles from east to west. It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, which separates it from Europe ; on the east by the Isthmus of Suez, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean, which divides it from Asia ; on the south by the Southern Ocean ; and on the west by the great Atlantic Ocean, which separates it from America. As the equator divides this ex- tensive country almost in the middle, and the far greater part of it is Within the tropics, the heat is in many places almost insupportable to an European; it being there increased by the rays of the sun, from vast deserts of burning sands. The coasts, however, and banks of rivers, such as the Nile, are generally fertile ; and most parts of this region are inhabited, though it is far from being so populous as Europe and Asia. From what has been said, the reader cannot ex- pect to find here a variety of climates. In many parts of Africa, snow seldom falls in the plains ; and it is generally never found but on the tops of the highest mountains. The natives in these scorching re- frions would as soon expect that marble should melt, and flov/ in iquid streams, as that water by freezing should lose its fluidity, be arrested by the cold, and, ceasing to How, become like the solid rock. The most considerable rivers in Africa are the Gambia, which falls intp the Atlantic or Western Ocean at Cape St. Mary, and is na- vigable for ships of 150 tons burthen five hundred miles from its source ; the Senegal, which rises about a hundred miles east of the Gambia, and falls, likewise, into the Atlantic Ocean, about eighty miles north of Cape Verd, after running a much longer course. The Niger, which rises about ninety miles to the east of tha head of tlie .* ! I i I I ^ ■i ti ii:^ i 752 AFRICA. Senegal, and runs enstiuard* by Tomhnctoo, Houssa, and Cashna, terminating, as is supposed, in some lak'.'S farther to the eastward; and the Nile, which, dividing Egypt into two parts, discharges itself" into the Mediterranean, yfter a prodigious course from its Source in Abyssinia. The most considerable mountains in Africa arc the Atlas, a ridge extending from the Western Ocean, to which it gives the name of Atlantic Ocean, as far as Egypt ; — it had its name from a king of Mauritania, a great lover of astronomy, who used to observe the stars from its summit ; on which account the poets represent him as bearing the heavens on his shoulders ; — tlie mountains of the Moon, extending themselves between Abyssinia and Monomotapa or Mocaranga, and which are still higher tlian those of Atlas ; those of Sierra Leone, or the Mountain of the Lions, which divide Nigritia from Guinea, and extend as far as Ethiopia. These latt«r were styled by the ancients the Mountains of the God, on account of their being sub- ject to thunder and lightning. The Peak of Tenerifte, which the Dutch make their first meridian, is about two miles high, in the form of a sugar-loaf, and is situated on an island of the same name near the coast. The most noted capes or promontories in this country are Cape Verd, so called because the land is always covered with green trees and mossy ground ; — it is the most westerly point of the con- tinent of Africa — and the Cape of Good Hope, so denominated by the Portuguese, when they first went round it in 1489, and discovered the passage to A sia. This is the southern extremity of Africa, in the country of the Hottentots ; and tlie general rendezvous of ships of every na- tion who trade to India, being about halfway from Europe. Tiiere is 'mt one strait in Africa, which is called Babcl-Mandel, and joins the Red Sea with the Indian Ocean. > i * This river has long been an object of research aad dispute with respect to its origin and coiuse. According to Mr. Lucas's eommiinications to tiie African Association, " the ri;>e and tlic termination of iheNiii'jr are unknown, but the course is frpin cast In trr.-/.'' Jle adds, •' so great is its rapidiiv, ihal no vessel can ascend its stream ; ancf ^iicii is the u-anr 61' skill, or such t!ie absence of conunereial inducements, among the nations which inhaiiil its borders, that, even witli the current, nciilur \es,-eU nor boats are seen to na- vigate. That the people wlio live in the neighbourliood ot the Niger should retuse to protit hv its naviiiation nia\ justly surprise tite traveller; but nuicli greater is his astonishment, when ho (inds t'lat even the food wlii-'h tlie bountv of (he stream wotdd give, is uselesslv oiVereti to their acceptance ; for such is the want of .-.kill, or sueh the settled di,-like of the |)eoj)le to this sort of provision, that the (isli, ui;ii which the river abounds, are left in tnidis- turhtd pass :siio;i of the water-;." (Prwc-Hliii'/.s of the .\f'rlcan .Xssnciaiion, p. IK3-18J).) It v.as also geiier;ill\ believL'd, 'that the (>ainbia and Senegal were branches t)f ti.e Niger. iMl these reports are, however, fullv dinproNcd by the late disco\erii.s of l\Jr. Park, who reached the baid^s of the Ni,;er, or, as it is called bv the natives, the .loliba, at Sego, tlie capital of IJambarra, vhere he saw it " Howing sluirhi to llw cit.-iircrJ.'' On the river were nu- tneroiis canoes ; and, proceeding farther, he lells us that lie *' passed a great many villages, inhabited eiiioHv bv fishermen, who caught great plenty of •fish, by means of long cotton nets, which ihev make themselves, and use nearly in the same inunneras nets tire used iu I'.urope." Those wdio would see nioiT concerning this celebrated river, and the ditl'erent opinions and no- tices of ancient and modern geograpi;ers and travellers, relative to its rise, course, and termination, may consult the aiuple and ingenious disrpiisilion on that subject, in Major Ui-MincU's (jco^tiij)/ucai IlUistialiQH of Jj'rkat sub- eined to Mr. Park'a Tian'lu AFRICA. T^IJ Tl>e situatioa of Africa for commerce is extremely faV-ourable, itanding as it were in the centre of the globe, and having thereby a much nearer communication with Europe, Asii, and America, than any of the other quarters has with the rest. That it abounds with gold, Vre have not only the testimony of the Portuguese, the Dutch, the Knglish, and the French, who have settlements on the coast of Africa, but that of the most authentic ancient historians. It is, however, the misfortune of Africa, that, though it has 10,000 miles of sea-coast, with noble, large, deep rivers, it should have no navigation, nor re- ceive any benefit from them ; and that it should be inhabited by an innumerable people, ignorant of commerce, and of each other. At the mouths of these rivers are the most excellent harbours, deep, safe, calm, sheltered from the wind, and capable of being made perfectly secure by fortifications ; but quite destitute of shipping, traJe, and merchants, even w^here there is plenty of merchandiste. In short, Africa, though a full quarter of the globe, stored with an inexhaust- ible treasure, and capable under proper improvements, of producing so many things, delightful as well as convenient, within itself, seems to be almost entirely neglected, not only by the natives, who are quite imsolicitous of reaping the benefits which nature has provided for them, but also by the more civilised Europeans who are settled in it, particularly the Portuguese. Africa once contained several kingdoms and states eminent for the liberal arts, for wealth and power, and the most extensive commerce. The kingdoms of Egypt and Ethiopia, in particular, were much ce- lebrated ; and the rich and powerful state of Carthage, that once for- midable rival to Rome itself, extended her commerce to every part of the then known world ; even the British shores were visited by her fleets, till .Tuba, who was king of Mauritania, but tributary to the re- public of Carthage, unhappily called in the Romans, who, with the assistance of the Mauritanians, subdued Carthage, and, by degrees, all the neighbouring kingdoms and states. After this, the natives, constantly plundered, and consequently impoverislied, by the govern- ors sent from Rome, neglected their trade, and cultivated no more of their lands than might serve for their subsistence. Upon the decline of the Roman empire, in the fifth century, the north of Africa was over-run by the Vandals, who contributed siill more to the destruction, of arts and sciences ; and, to add to this country's calamity, the Sa- racens made a sudden conquest of all the coasts of Egypt and Barbary, in the seventh century. These were succeeded by the Turks ^ and both being of the Mahomedan religion, whose professors carried desolation with them wherever they cainc, the ruin of that once flourishing part of the world was thereby completed. The inhabitants of this continent,, with respect to religion, may be divided into three sorts j namely, Pagans, Mahomedans, and Chris- tians. The first are the more numerous, possessing the greatest part of the country, from the tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope } and these are generally black. The Mahomedans, who are of ;v tawny complexion, possess I'-gypt, and almost all the northern shores of Africa, or what is called the Barbary coast. The people of Abyssinia, or the Upper Ethiopia, are denominated Christians, but retain many Pagan and Jewish rites. There are also some Jews in the north of Africa, who manage all the littla trade thjt paxt of th» cpuntry is possessed of. m 'M In 754 AFRICA. Though we are little acquainted witli the boundaries, and even viih the names, of many of the inland countri.'s of Africa, that con- tinent may be divided according to the following table. !■ d 'S. 2 ^ < =* &> u 1 -1 i ! I 1 Nations. •A ■3 11 U 1 Square Miles. p, . - Dist. and Di(F. of P;.'.' bearing Itimcfrom '-""•''• fr. I.ond.l London. 1 Religion. Morocco, 7 'i'asikt,&c. J Alirjers Tunis Tripoli Barca 500 4S0 7(H) 4«) 480 100 170 240' .'500 219,400 143,000 .'54 ,400 7.";, 000 (;6,400 Fez Aln'icrs 'i'lmis 'Tripoli I'olcmeta 1080 S. 24 aft. 920 S. 1 3 bef. !)9;"> .SE. :0 39 bef. 1 260 .SE. 56 lief. 1440.se. jl 26 bef. Mahom. RTahoni. Mahom. 1 Mahom. Mahom. 1 I'gypt O'OO: 2.50 i I lO.TOO GrandCairo i:)20SE. j2 21 bcf.JMahcni. Bik'dulfjerid 2500; :5.J0 485,000 Dara \ i 5(;5 S. .32 aft. Pagans. Zaara ,;40o| mo 1 7;>.0,200;'l'egc-sa jlKOOS. 24 aft. Pagans. Ncgroland 22tK) 840 l,026,000JMadino;a ;2.>00 S. 38 aft. Pagans. Guinea ISOO 3G0 .510:000 Btf.iin |2700S. 20 bef. Pagans. Nubia 940 600 264,000 Niibii* 2418 .SE. 2 12 bef. M.&Pag. Abyssinia <)00 800 378,0(X)|Gondar 2880 SE. 2 30 bef. Christian Abex ,540 130 1 60,000 JDoncala 3580 SE. 2 36 bef. Ch .& The middle p; P rts, called Lower PJthiopia, are very b"ttle known to the Euro- eaus, but are computed at 1,200,000 square miles. [.oango 4I0J 300 49,400jLoango 3300 S. 44 bef. ( ! Cli.&Pa. Congo .■40: 4yo 172,8(V) .St. Salvador 3480 .S. I bef. CI). & Pa. Angola 1 ;3(;o 2.'o 38,400 l.oando 3750 S. 58 bef. Ch. & Pa. Bcnguela i -VM 1.S0 64,000: Bengiiela r,900 .S. 58 bef. Pagans. Matpnian \ 4/50' 240 144.(K)0No 'Towns * * * * * • Pi^-ans. .<■■.. 1 . III. iAirm ' J 100 ;;oi; L';;4,oc;o:Br,iva 37i;2 ^E. i 40 bef. Pagans. jZangnehnr 1400 ?j5o ! ,A'U)z.imliiq. 4440 SE. 2 38 bef. Pagans. iVIoiioniotajia ;)f)0! 6(i0 222,.500 Mononiota i 450O S. 1 18 bet. Pagans. iVior.ciuiioi I !);u) (;(;o 310,000 Cliicova 4260 SE. 1 44 bi'f (SoiOla 1 480 :joo 97,000,Sosola 4600 SE. 1 JS bof. Pagans. 1 'erra di Nat. . (JOO, 350 184,000:No Towns 1 it r * «' « « Pagans. CalFrarfa oi-'[ 708,: 660 200.340 ^^^g^^^, ^-5200 8. , , , ,'Moststii- ' "'^pidPag. 1 ' / STATES OF BARBARY. I >)j The principal islands of Africa lie in the Indian Seas and Atlantic Oce.ms ; of which the following belong to, or triide with, the Euro- peans, and serve to refresh their shipping to and Irom India. Tradi- with or Islands. Sq. Miles. 'lowns. bekm^ij to. Bahc!-M;uidel, at the entrance? BabeUMundcl - - All Nations of ih'j KsiJSca - - 'i /o>.otra, ia tlu> Indian Ocean f;,GOO Caiilasia ... I'lttO 'J'he Coiiiora Isles, ditto - 1,000 Joaima - - . • 1 itto Mada}'-asc;ir. ditto . - - IGH.OOO St. Austin - - - ])itto Mauritiiij <ii:to - - - l,;-'iO|AIaiiririus - - - Jii'iich Bourhou, diitu - - - - L',100 iJi)iirl)on _ - . Duto -St. :iolona, ill tiie Atlantic Occat. ... .St. Helena ... r.nkHsli AsctiiMion, ditto - - - - ... Uninhabited Duto St. 'I'honras, Anaboa,T Prince Island, i'cr- ^ ditto - nando[)o j - - - St. Thomas, Anoboa Portuguese Cape Verd Islands, ditto - - 2,000 St. Domino;o - - - Ditto Goree, ditto _ - - - - - - I'ort .St. .Michael French Canaries, ditto - - - - - - . I'alui.i, ^'t. Christopher ."r'par.ish Madeiras, ditto ... - l.jOO Santa Cruz, runchul Pcrtiiguese The Azores, Jor Western ^ Isles, lie nearly at an e- r ,• . qual distance from Eu- C 2,000 Angra, St. Michael Ditto rope, Africa, & America * We shall now proceed to describe particularly the more con.siJer- able countries of Africa, as far as they are known to Europeans, from the accounts of the latest travellers ; beginning, as usual, from the west and north, with the States of Baibary. m I: hi hif The states of BARBARY. UNDER this head are included the countries of, 1. Morocco and Fe/ ; 2. Algiers; .S. Tunis ; 4'. Tripoli and Barca. The empire of Morocco, including Fez, is bounded on the north by tlie Mediterranean Sea ; on the south, by 'i'afllet : and on the east, by Segc'lmebsa and the kingdom of -Algiers; being 500 miles in length, and iSO in breadth. Fez, which is now united to Morocco, is about 125 miles in length, and much the same in breadth. It lies between the kinydom of Algiers to the east, and Morocco on the south, and is surrounded on other parts by the sea. Algiers, formerly a kingdom, is bounded on the east by the Jcing- dom of Tunis, on the north by the Mediterranean, on the south by J^^f ount Atlas, and on the west by the kingdoms of Morocco and 'I'afiiet. According to Dr. Shaw, this country e.vt'2nds in length 4B0 miles along the coast of the Mediterranean, and is between 40 and 100 liiiles in breadth. Tunis is bounded by the Mediterranean on the north and cast ; by tlie kingdom of Algiers on the west ; and by Tripoli, with part of 3C 2 ,'. i' (1^1 {k 756 STATES. OF BARBARY. Pill f . Biledulgerid, on the soutJi ; being 220 miles in length from r.orth ta sourh, and 170 in breadth iVom east to west. Tripoli, including B^trca, is lM)unded on the north by the Mediter- ranean Sea ; on tlie soutl), by the country of the Boribercs ; on iher west, by tlie kingdom ofTimis, Biledulgerid, and the territory of the Cadiimis; and on the east by Egvpt ; extending about 1100 miles along the sea-coast ; and the breadth is from 1 to .'JOO miles. Each capital bears the name of the state or kingdom to -which it belongs. _ Vhe Barbary states form a great political confederacy, however independent each may be as to the exercise of its internal polity ; nor IS there a greater difference than happens in different provinces of the same kingdom, in the customs and manners of the inhabitants. CtiMATE, SOIL, PRODUCE.] The air of Morocco is mild, as is that of Algiers, and indeed all the other states, except in the months of July and August. These states, under the Roman empire, were justly denominated the garden of the world; and to have a residence there was considered as the highest state of luxury. The produce of their soil formed those magazines which furni.sl>e(l all Italy, and great part of the Roman empire, with corn, wine, and oil'. '1 hough the lands are now uncultivated, through the oppression aud barbarity of their government, yet they are still fertile ; not oTiIy iii the above- mentioned commodities, but in dates, figs, raisins, almonds, apples, pears, cherries, plums, citrons, lemons, oranges, pomegriinaies, with plenty of roots and herbs in their kitchen gardens. Excellent hemp and flax grow on their plains ; and, by the report of the > uropeans \v)io have lived there for some time, the country abounds with all that can add to the pleasures of life ; for the great people find means to evade the sobriety prescribed by the Muhomedan law, and make free with excellent wines and spirits of their ow-n growth and manu- facture. Algiers produces salt-petre, and great quantities of excellent salt ; and lead and iron have been found in several places of Barbar\. AMM/vr.s.] Neitiier the elephant nor the rhinoceros are to be found in the states of Barbary ; but their deserts abound with lions, tigers, leopards, hyscnas, and monstrous serpents. The Barbary horses wert formerly very valuable, and thought equal to the Arabian. I'hougli their breed is now said to be decayed, yet some very fine ones are ot» casionally imported into England. Dromedaries, asses, nniles, and iumrahs, a most serviceable creature, begot by an ass upon a cow, are their beasts of burden. But from the services of the camel they derive the greatest .tdvan« tages. This useful quadruped enables the African to porforni lii., long and toilsome journics across the continent. The camel is, tlurc- fore, (says Mr. Bruce) emphatically called the Ship of the Dtseri. He seems to have been created for this very trade, endued with pans atu) qualities adapted to the office he is employed to discharge, Thr driest thistle, and the barest thorn, is all the food this useful urlma! requires ; and even these, to save time, he cats while advancing on h.':- journey, without stopping, or occasioning a moment of delay. A s if is hfs Jot to cross immense deserts, where no water is found, and countries not even moistened by the dew of heaven, he is endued with the power, at one watering-place, to lay in a store with which he sup- plies himself for thirty days to come. To contain this cnormoi-s quantity of fluid, nature has formed large cisterns within him, from 0.hlch, «nce filled, he draws at pleasure the. quantity he wauts un(j rnm r.orth ta STATES OY BARBAHY. t:7 *»n\Trs it 41110 his stonmch with the s:ime cfFect :is if he then drew it fiuni ;i sprinjT ; ;ind with this he trnvtls, patiently and vij.'oroiisly, all •ffiay lonj,', carrying a prndignous hxid upon him, through countries in- iccted with poisonous winds, and glowing with parching and never- coohnq' sands. Their cows are hut small and barren of mill:. Tlieir sheep yield indifferent fleeces, but are very large, as are their goats. Bears, por- cupines, foxes, apes, hares, rabbits, ferrets, weasels, moles, cameleons, and all kinds ot reptiles, are found here. Besides vermin, says Dr. Sliaw (speaking of his travels through Barbary), the apprehensions we are under, in some parts at least of this country, of being bitten or ^stuug by the scorpion, the vipei', or the venomous spider, rarely f.iiled io interrupt our rcpo-se.; a refreshment so very grateful, and so h.ighly iiecessary to a weary traveller. Partridges, quails, eagles, hawks, and all kinds of wild-lbwl, are found on this coast ; and of tlie smaller •birds, the capsa-sparrow is remarkable for its l>eauty, and the sweet- ness of its note, which is thought to exceed that of any other bird ; init it caniKK live out <>f' its own climate. The se.is and hays of Barbary abound with the finest and most delicious fish oi" every kind, xmd were preferred by the ancients to those of Europe. Natijuai. 'CURiosrni.s.] We know of few or no natural curiosities An these coujitries, excepting the salt-pits, which in sonw places take up an ;?rea oi' six miles, Dr. Shaw mentions springs found here, that are so hot as to boil a large piece of mutton very tender iu a quarter •of an hour. Population, INHABITANTS, manners, customs.] Morocco was <:ertainly formerly far more populous than it is now, if, as travellers say, its capital contained 1G(),<)()0 houses, whereas at present it is thought not to contaiw above 25,000 inhabitants ; nor can we think that the other parts of the country are more pojiulous, if it be true, that tlieir king or emperor has (->0,0()0 horse and foot, of foreign ne- groes, in Jiis a.rmies,. The city of Algiers is said to contain 100,000 Mahomedans, 15,000 Jews, and '2000 Christian slaves ; but no estimate can be formed as to the populousness of its territory. Some travellers report that it is inhabited by a fnendly iiospitable people, who are very different in their manners and character from those of the metropolis. Tunis is the most polished republic of all the Barbary states. The capital contains J 0,()00 families, and above 3000 tradesmen's shops ; find its suburl)s consist of 1000 houses. The Tunisians are indeed ex- ceptions to the other states of Barbary ; for even the most civilised of the fiiirope^n governments might improve from their manners. Their <.listi^ictionfi ure\VA.'ll kept up, and proper respect is paid to the military, mercantile, xnd karned professions. They cultivate friendship with the Kuropean states ; arts and manufactures have been lately intro- duced among them ; and the inhabitants are said at present to be well ac<[uainted with the various libours of the loonf. The women are handsome in their persons ; and though the men are sun-burni, the complexion of the ladies is very delicate ; nor are they less neat and elegant in their dress ; but they improve the beauty of their eyes by art, particularly the powder of lead-ore, the same pigment, according to the opinion of ilie learned Dr. Shaw, that .Ic/.ebel made use of when she is said (2 Kings, chap. ix. verse IK)) to have painted her face ; the words of tlie original being, that she set off her eyes with the powder of lead-ore. The gentlemen in general are sober, ordovly, t 11 ■k m m it wm 4^5*, If 1 ' 1 ■■ I ■'.^™ mi it- jB III n r- 75S STATES OF BARBARY. f -k U V'i] !' ^ i;';^'^ and clf.m in thf^W persons, their behaviour complaisant, and a won- dtruU regularity reigns thrMi^h all the city. Tripoli was once the rirhost, most populous, and opulent of all the Jt^-ites on the coast; but it is now much reduced, and the inhabitants, >vho arc said to amount to botv/een l(;0,000and 500,000, have all the vices of the Algerines. 'I ht-ir ni init-rs are much the same with those of the Egyptians al- ready dcsciihed. The subjects of the liaibary states, in general sub- sis»ing by piracy, are allowed to be bold intrepid mariners, and will fight desperately when they meet with a prize at sea ; they are, not- ^vith.-jtanding, far inferior to tlie Etigli.di, and other European states, both in the construction and management of their vessels. They are, it we except the Tunisians, void of all arts and literature. The misery and poverty of the inhabitants of Morocco, who are not im- mediately in the emperor's service, are beyond all description ; but those who inhabit the inland parts of the country are an hospitable inoffensive people; and indeed it is a general observation, that the more distant the inhabitants of those states are from the seats of their S;overnment, their manners are the more pure. Notwithstanding their poverty, they have a liveliness about them, especially those who ue <^f Arabic descent, that gives tliem an air of contentment ; and hav- ing nothing to lose, they are peaceable among themselves. 'J'iie Moors are supposed to be the original inhabitants, but are now blended with the Avahs, and both are cruelly oppressed by a handful of In- solent domineering Turks, the refuse of the streets of Constantinople. The dress of these people is a linen shirt, over which they tie a silk or cloth vestment with a sash, and over that a loose coat. Their drawers are made of linen. The arms and legs of the wearer are hare, but they have slippers on their feet ; and perse i , of cfindition sometimes wear buskins. 'J hey never move their turbans, but pull oflf tlieir slippers when they attend religious duties, or the person of their sovereign. They are fond of striped and fancied silks. I'he dress of the women is not very different from that of the m.en, but their drawers are longer, and they wear a sort cf cav>d on their heads instead of a turban. The chief furniture of their houses consists of carpets and mattresses, on which they sit and lie. In eating, their slovenliness is disgusting. 'I'hey are prohibited gold and silver ves- sels ; and their meat, which they swallow by handfuls, is boiled or roasted to rags. Cities, chief towns, f.dificis.] Mention has already been made of Morocco, the capital of that kingdom; but now almost in ruins, the court having removed to Mcquinez, a city of Fez. Incredible tilings are recorded of the magnificent palaces in both cities ; but by the best accounts the common people live in a very slovenb- manner. The city of Algiers is not above a mile and a half in cii cuit, though it is computed to contain near ] 20,000 inhabitants, 15,000 houses, and 107 mosques. The public baths are large, and handsomely paved with marble. The prrspoct of the country and sea from A^lgiers is very beautifid, the city being uuili on the declivity of a mountain ; but, though for several ages it has braved son)e of the greatest powers in Christendom, it could make but a faint defence against a regular .siege; and it is said that three English fifty-gun ships might batter it about the ears of its inhabitants from the harbour. The iSpaniards, however, attacked it, in 1775, by land and by sea, but were repulsed with great loss, though they had nearly 20,000 foot and 2000 horse, STATES OF BARBARY. tf9 an J i? king's ships, of different rates, and 3 Hi transports. In tli, cars iTd.'J and 178 1, they also renewed their attacks by sea to destroy the city and galleys; but, after spending aquantity of amnuinilion, bombs, &c. were forced to retire without cither its capture or destruction. J he mule of the harbour is .'()() paces in lengtli, extending from the con- tinent to a small island where there is a castle and large battery. 'I'he kingdom of 'Tunis, which is naturally the finest of all these States, contains the rem;ilns of many nol)]e cities, some of the:n still in good condition, 'i'unis, built near the original site of Carthajre, has a wall and fortifications, ;;iid is about three ruiles in ciicum- ference. 'J"'lie houses are not maj;r.iticcnt, bur neat and conimodions; as is the public e.vchani;e Im- niiTch-mts atid iheir goods : but, lile Algiers, it is distressed lor want of fresh water ; tluit of rain, preserved in cisterns, is chieily used by theinhal)Uants. The city of Tripoli consists of an old antl new town, the latter be- ing the most flourishing ; but great inconveniences attend its situatii-m, particularly the want of sweet water. The city of Oran, lying upon this coast, is about a mile in circumference, and is fortified both by art and nature. It was a place of coiisiderable trade, and tlie object of many bloody disputes between the Spaniards and the Moors. C!onstantina was the ancient Cirta, and one of the stronyjst cities of Numidia, being inaccessible on all sides excepting tne south-west. Lesides the above towns and cities, many others, formerly of great renown, lie scattered up and down this iTimense tract ofccumtry. The city of Fe/., at present the capital of the i^ingelom so called, is said to contain near 300,000 inhabitants, besidcsmerchant. and foi eign- ers. Its mosques amount to 500 J one of them is magnificent beyond description, and about a mile and a h.ilf in circumference. Mcquinez i^ est; emed the great emporium of all Bai b.n y. S.illee was formerly iunous for the piracies of its inhabitants. Tangier, situated about two miles within the straits of Gibfaltarjr was given by tlic crown of Portugal as part of the dowry of queen CaihcrMie,cons(;rt to Charles II. of Ene;land. It v.ms intended to be to the English what Gibraltar is now ; and it nuist have been a mo^t noble acquisition, had not the miiUnderstanding betv/een the king and his pJirliament occasioned him to blow up its fort'fications and deiuolidi it.-, haiboui' ; so that, from being one of the finest cities in Africa, it is now little better than a fisl ling-town. Ceuta, upon the same strait, almost opposite to Gib- raltar, is still in the hands of the Spaniards, but often, if not always, besieged or blr'cked up by the Moors. Tetnan, which lies within twenty miles of Ceiita, is now but an ordinary town, containing about iSO'v) houses ; but the inhabitants are said to be rich, auel tolerably civilised in their manners. The provinces of Suz, Tafilet, and Gesula, form no part of the states of liarbary, though the king of Morocco pretends to be their sovereign ; nov do they contain any thing that is particularly curious. Zaara is ;) desert country, thinly peopled, and almost destitute both of water and provisions. Manufactures and commkrce.] The lower sulijects of these states know very few imaginary wants, and dep^^nd partly upon their piraciesto be supplied witii necessary uten';ils and manufactures; so that their exjx)rts consist chiefly of leather, tine mats, embroielercd hand- kerchiefs, sword-knots, and carpets, wliich are cheaper and softer than those o^" Turkey, though not so good in other vesjiects. As they leave aiuiost all their commercial afl.ili-.s to the Jews and Christians settled 1 1 ■ i ^^ 41 M i J) |3^ '^i if: 1^1 ! , V 76d STATES OF DARBARY. SUmonpjthcm, the Litter have csiiibH.shcd silk and liucn works, vliich supply the higher r;inks ol" their own subjects. They have no ship3, that, properly speakinpj, are empioyeJ in commerce ; '.o that the French and Knglisli carry on the greatest part nf their trade. Their exports, besides those aire idy mentioned, consist in elephants' teeth. Ostrich feathers, copper, tin, wool, hides, honey, wax, dates, raisins, olives, almonds, pum arabic, and sandarach. 'I'he inhabitants of Morocco arc likewise said to carry on a considerable trade by cara*- vans to Mecca and Medina, and to the inland p;irts of Africa, whence they brinp back great numbers of negroes, who serve in their armies, and are slaves in their houses and fields. In return for their exports, the Europeans furnish them with timber artillery of all kinds, gunpowder, and whatever they want, either in their public or private capacities. The duties paid by the English in the ports of Morocco, are but half of those paid by other 1- uropeans. It is a general observation, that no nation is fond of trading with these statts, not only on account of their capricious despotism, but the vil* lany of their individuals, both natives and Jews, many of whom take all opportunities of cheating, and, when detected, are seldom punished. CoNsriTUTioM AND CO vvR NM KNT.] In Morocco, government cTn. not be said to exist. Tlie emperors have for some ages been parties, judges, and even executioners with their own hands, in all criminal matters : nor is their brutality more incredible than the submission with which their subjects bear it. In the absence (<f the emperor, every military officer has the power of life and death in his hand, and it is yeldom that they regard the form of a judicial proceeding. Sc^me vestiges, howcvpr, of the caliphate government still continue ; for, in places where no military officer resides, the mufti, or high-priesr, is the fountain of all justice, and under htm the cadis, or civil officers, "who act as our justices of the peace. Though the emperer of Mo- rocco is not immediately subject to the Porte, yet he acknowledges the grand-signor to be his superior, and he pays him a distant allegiance as the chief representative of Mahomed. What has been said of Morocco is applicable to Fez, both kingdoms being now under one emperor. Though Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli h«ive each of them a Turkish {)asha or dey, who governs in the name of the grand-signor, yet very ittle regard is paid by his ferocious subjects to Jiis authority. He icannot even be said to be nominated by the Porte. When a vacancy of the government happens, which it commonly does by murder, every soldier in the army has a vote in choosing the succeeding dey ; and though the election is often attended with bloodshed, yet it is no sooner fixed than he is cheerfully recognised and obeyed. It is true, he must be confirmed by the Porte ; but that is seldom refused, as the divah is no stranger to the dispositions of the people. The power of the dey is despotic ; and the income of the dey of Algiers amounts to about J50,0001. a year, without greatly oppressing his subjects, who are very tenacious of their property. These deys pay slight annual tributes to the Porte. When the grand-signor is at war with a Christian power, he requires their assistance, as he does that of the king of Morocco ; but he is obeyed only as they think proper. Subordinate to the deys are officers, both military and civil ; and in all matters of importance the dey is expected to take the advice of a common council, which consists of thirty pashas. These pashas seldom fail of formipg par ties STATES OF IL\RBAIIY. 761 finion^«it the s')Uiiers, against the reipnnij; dcy, whom they make jio -scruple of assassinating, even in council ; and the strongcbt cand" Jitte then fills the pi '". Sometimes he is deposed ; sonu'times, though hut very seldom, Iv resigns his authority to save his lite, and it is seldom he dies a natural death upon the throne. The authority of the dey i<s unlimited t l.at ;tn unsuccH-ssfiil oxpeditinn, or too jvaciHc a conduct, seldom fails ^ )«t an end to liis lik* .iml noveinnieut. Rkvesuv. s 'i'hosc cf Algiers have been already mcntiftned, but they are nov/ d to he exceeded by iho^e of Tunis. 'I'hey consist (A a certain proportion of the pri/es taken from Christians, a small ca- pitation tax, and the customs paid by the English, I'Vcnch, and other nations who are suffered to trade with those states. As to the kinp; of Morocco, we can form no idea of his revenues, because none of his subjects can be said to possess any property. From the manner of his living, his attendants, and appearance, ve may conclude he does not abound in riches. The ransom-i of Christian slaves are his per- <]uisitcs. He sometimes shares in the vessels of the other states, v^hich entitles him to part of their prizes. He claims a tenth of the goodi of his Mahomedan subjects, and six crowns a year from eviry Jc\r merchant. He derives likewise considerable profits from tlieNegroland and other caravans, especially the slave-track towards the south. It is thought that the wliolc of his ordinary revenue, in money, does not exceed 165,0001. a year. A detachment of the army of these states is annually sent into each province to collect the tribute from the Moors aiid Arabs ; and the prizes they take at sea sometimes equal the taxes laid upon the natives. Mil iTARY AND MARINE FORCE.] The king of* Morocco, it is said, can bring into the field 100,000 men ; but the strength of his army consists of cavalry mounted by his negro slaves. 'I'hose wretches are brought young to Morocco, know no otlier state but servitude, and no other master but that king, and prove the firmest support of his tyranny. About the year 17^7, all the naval force of Morbcco coii- sistcd only of three small ships, which lay at S^Hee, and, being fuUoi men, sometimes brought in prizes. The Algerines mHiniain about ();)()0 foot, consisting of Turks .and cologhes, or the sons of soldiers. Part of them serve as marines on board riieir vessels. About l(KX) <A them do garrison duty, and part are employed in fomenting dilfer- ences among the neighbouring Arab princes. Besides these, the dey can bring ' '000 Moorish horse into the field ; but, as they are enemies to the Turks, they are little trusted. Those troops arc under et» cellcnt discipline, and the deys of all tlie other Barbary states main- t.iin a force in proportion to their abilities; so that a few years ago they refused to send any tribute to the Turkish emperor, who .seenjs to be satisfied with the shadow of obedience which they pay him. It is very rcm.irkable, that though the Carthaginians, who inhabited this very ctuiatry of Barbary, had greater lleets and more extensive commerce than any other nation, or than all the people upon the face of the earth, when that state flourished, tln^ present inhabitants have scarcely any merchant ships belonging to tlunn, nor indeed any other than w hat tSallec, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli fit out for piracy; which* though increased since the last attack of the .Spaniards, are now but few and small, and some years ago did not exceed six rhips, from thirty-six to fifty guns. TJie admiral's ship belongs lo the govern- ment; the other captains are appointed I)y private owners, hut stibjcct fo military law. With such a. coutfi,■^^t:l.>lc Ih'ct, Thfsv iji^idels ncv '■II -i<^ :ii STATES OF BARBARY. %m.v ri; i, m^ :i-. A. :■ 1^ \ f only harass t!ic nations of Europe, but oblige them to pay a Iclnd of tribute by w,iy dI' presents. li has b( rii i>t..cn thought surprising, that the Christian powers should suffer iljcir niarine to be insulted by these barbarians, who ta'.e the ships of:ill nations with whom they are at peace, or rather, who do not pay them a sul)sicy either in money or commodities. We cannot account for this forbearance otherwise than by supposing, first, that a IkTOaoh witli them might provoke the I'orte, who pretends to be the lord paramount: secondly, that no Christian power would be fond cl seeing Algiers, and the rest of that coast, in possession of another ; and, thirdly, that nothing could be got by a bombardment of any of their towns, as the ir.habitants would instantly carry tiieir effects into the deserts and mountains, so that the benefit resulting from the con- qiiost must be tedious and precarious. — Indeed, expeditions against Algiers have been undertaken by the Spaniards, but they were ill- conducted and unsuccessful, as before noticed. Relig:o^ .] The inluibitants of these states are Mahomedans ; but nn-iny subjects of Morocco follow the tenets of one Harned, a modern jectarist, and an enemy to the ancient doctrine of the caliphs. All of them have much respect for idiots; and, in some cases, their pro- tection screens offenders from punishment for the most notorious crimes. Tlie Moors of Rarbary, as the inhabitants of these states are now promiscuously called (because the Saracens first entered Eitrope from Mauritania, the country of the Moors), have in general adopted the very worst parts of the Mahomedan religion, and seem to have retained only as much as countenances their vices. Adultery in the women is punished with death ; but though the men are indulged with a plurality of wives and concubines, they commit the most un- natural crimes with impunity. All foreigners are allowed the open profession of their religion. Language.] As the states of Barbary possess those countries that formerly went by tlie name of Mauritania and Numidia, the ancient African language is still spoken in some of the inland countries, and even by some inliabitants of the city of Morocco. In the sea-port towns, and maritime countries, a bastard kind of Arabic is spoken ; and seafaring pecplc are no strangers to that medley of living and dead languages, Italian, French, Spanish, &c. that is so well known, in' all the ports of the Mediterranean, by the name o^ Lingua Frotica. ANTiduiTiKs.] The reader can scarcely doubt that the countries which contained Carthage, and the pride of the Phoenician, Greek, and Roman works, are replete with the most curious remains of an- tiquity : but they lie scattered amidst ignorant, barbarous inhabitants. Some memorials of the Mauritanian and Numidian greatness are still to be met with, and many ruins which bear evidence of their ancient grandeui :'nd populousness. These point out the old Julia Caesarea of the Romans, which was little inferior in magnificence to Cai-thag« itself. A few of the aqueducts of Carthage are still remaining, par- ticularly at M-inuba, a country-house of the bey, four miles from Tunis ; but no vestige of its walls. The same is the fate of Utica, famous for the retreat and death of Cato ; sjnd many other renowned cities of antiquity ; and so over-run is the country with baiharism, that their very sites are not known, even by their ruins, amphitheatres, and other public buildings, which remain in tolerable preservation. Besides those of classical antiquity, many Saracen monuments, of the most stupendous magnificence, are likewise found in this vast tract : EGYPT. [53 pay a kind of ristian powers ians, who ta'.e 5r ratJier, who nodi lies. We ippo&in_e^, first, pretends to be would be fond m of another ; u>nt of any of ;ir effects into from the coa- itions against hey were ill- medans; but ed, a modern •liphs. iVllof es, their pro- )st notorious ese states are ered Europe eral adopted eem to have ultery in the re indulged hejnost un- ed the open luntnes that the ancient mtiies, and he sea-port is spoken ; living and ell known, la Franca, e countries rin, Greek, lins of an- ihabitants. Jss are still ?ir ancient a Cjcsare.i Carthagy n'li^, par- ies from of Utica, renowned aibarism, itheatres, iervation. ts, of the ist tract : II these were erected under the caliphs of Bagdad, and the ancient kings of the counlrv, before it was subdued by the Turks, or reduced to its present form of government. Their walls form the principal fortiti- calions in the country, both inland and maritime. History.] Under the Roman emperors, the states of Barbary formed the fairest jewels in the imperial diadem. It was not till the seventh century that, after these states had been by turns in possession of the Vandals and the Greek emperors, the caliphs or Saracens of Bagdad conquered them, and from thence became masters of almost all Spain, from whence their posterity was totally driven about the year 14'9i?, when the exiles settled among their friends and country- men on the Barbary coast. Tiiis naturally begot a perpetual war between them and the Spaniards, who pressed them so hard, that they called to their assistance the two famous brothers Barbarossa, who were admirals of the Turkish fleet, and who, after breaking the Spanish yoke, imposed upon the ijihabitants of all those states (except- ing Morocco) their own. Some attempts were made by the emperor Charles V. to reduce Algiers and Tynis, but were unsuccessful ; and as observed, the inhabitants have in fact shaken off the Turkish yoke likewise. The emperors or kings of Morocco are the successors of those sove- reigns of that country who were called sherin.. and whose powers re- sembled that of the caliphate of the Saracens. They have been, in general, a set of bloody tyrants ; though they have had among them some able princes, particularly Muley Moluc, who defeated and killed Don Sebastian, king of Portugal. They have lived in almost a con- tinual state of warfare with the kings of Spain and other Christian princes ever since : nor does the crown of Great Britain sometimes disdain, as in the year 1769, to purchase their friendship with presents. EGYPT. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles, Degrees. Sq. Miles. length 5()07 , ^ V 2t and 32 Norrh latitude. ?, .^ ^._„ Brea'dth 25o5 ^'''^'"" 129 and 3t East longitude. \ ^^^'^"^ BouNPARiEs.] IT Is bounded by tire Mediterranean Sea on the north ; by tl^.e Red Sea, east ; by Abyssinia, or the Upper Ethiopia, on ihe somh ; and by the Desert of Barca, and the unknown parts of Africa, on the west. r Divisions. Subdivhions. Chief Toivni. -\ Grand Cairo, E. long. 32. N. lat. 30. N'orthcrn division contains'^ Lower Egypt > ai ' j • I fa/1 r Alexandria J . j Kosetta, or Rashid V. J Damietta Southern divI:.ion contains-j Upper Egypt \ p'^'"!' ""■ '^^^^" : \m ' 1W '41 «|||| i ' ^'Wk 'n ' m '1* I ; ii 'ilt.'i % ? ill ^! rs* EGYPT. ■ > ■■1 fif . V: '■ The pjirt of Lower Egypt, between the branches of the Nile and ihf! Mediterranean, vas anciently called the Delta, from the resemblance of its triangular shape to the Greek letter of ihat name. It is now called by the Arabs Bahira and Kif. Mountains, nESKRTs, OASES.] l'",{^ypt,to the south of Cairo, is a nar- row valley through which the Nile flows, and shut in by mountain'^, beyond which, on both sides, but especially on the west, are vast sandy deserts. In some parts of these deserts, at tlie distance of one hun- dred miles or more to the west of the Nile, are small fertile spots of cultivated land, situated like islands in the midst of an ocean of sand : they are called Oases, the name by wliich they were known to the an- cient Greeks, and by the Arabs Eliuah. Those with which we are now acquainted are in number three ; the Great Oasis, in lat. 'M\ deg. 30min. N.; the Lesser Oasis, about 40 miles to the noith of the former; and the Oasis Siwah, in lat. 2f) deg. 12 min. N. Ion. '14 deg. .54 min. East. The Great Oasis is said to be twenty-five leagues in length, and four or five in breadth. That of Siwah was visited by Mr. Browne in 1792: it is about six miles long, and four and a half or five wide. A large proportion of this space is filled with date trees ; but there are also pomegranates,figs,olives,apricots,and plantains,and the gardens are remarkably flourishing. A considerable quantity of rici; is cultivated here. This has been supposed to be the Oasis where the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon anciently stood. Mr. Browne found here the ruins of an edifice which appeared to be the work of the aticient Egyptians, as the figures of Isis and Anubis were con- spicuous among the sculptures. Here are also catacombs, or ancient places of sepulture. This Oasis has since been visited by Mr. Home- man, who travelled under the patronage of the African Society. H(i observed the ruins which had been discovered by Mr. Browne ; and from a comparison of the observations of both these travellers with the accounts of ancient authors, major Rennell seems to entertain no doubt that this is the true situation of that celebrated temple. Rivers.] The only river of this country is the celebrated Nile, which is formed by the junction (in the country of Sennaar, between Egypt and Abyssinia) of two great rivers, one of which, called the babr el azrel; or the blue river, rises in Abyssinia, where its source is honoured as the head of the Nile, and will be described in our account of that country. The other river, which, as being the longest an itl largest stream, is rather to be considered as the true Nile, is called the iafjr el abiad, or the white river, and rises at a place named Donga, about ten days journey south of Darfur, or the country of Fur, and twenty days journey from the confines of Bornou, among the geld el cuturiy or mountains of the moon. Donga, according to Mr. Browne, lies in about 7 degrees of north latitude, and 25 of east longitude. — The whole length of the course of the Nile may be estimated at about 2,000 miles. Lakes.] In the northern part of Egypt, or Lower Egypt, are se- veral lakes, the largest of which is the lake of Menzala, which is separated from the Mediterranean only by an extfemely narrow ridge of" land, and communicates with that sea by one or two outlets. Jt is iixty miles long, and from two to twelve broad. The lake of Berelos, which adjoins in like manner to the Mediterranean, between Damietta and Roseita, is thirty miles long, and about ten broad. The lake of Kerun, or liirkct cl Kcrun, forty miles to tlic south-west of Alcxaii- ECYPT. the Nile and t)!?* the resemblance ame. It is now •fCairo.isanar. » by mountain^, t, are vast sandy ice of one hun- fertile spots of ocean of sand ; lown to the an- i which we are :,in lat.^Cidetr. Ii of the former; ^deg. ^'l-min. [«es in len^tjth, visited by Mr. ' and a half or 'ith date trees ; [plantains, and >le quantity of ^e Oasis where ■ Mr. Browne •e the work of bis were con- lbs, or ancient 'y Mr. Hornc- 1 Society. H(,. Browne; and ■aveller.s with entertain no iple. 'rated Nile, !ir, between » called the ts source is our account longest and le, is called medBonga, of Fur, and ng the gebel Ay. Browne, ongitude. — ted at about ypt, are se- which is irrow ridge tlets. it" is of Berelos, iDamiettH .'he lake of .■f Alexaii- 7C3 ;m ;b la :h drJii, Is tliirty miles in length, and about six in breadth. The ancient Jake of Marcotis is now dry. iVIiTALs, MINERALS.] Egypt appears not to be productive of any nietals. The mountains contain various kinds of marbles, as por- phyry, the celebrated ver<le antico, or green marble, with white and dark spots ; and many valuable gems, as the emerald, topaz, chal- cedony; onyx, &c. Climate, air.] It is observed by M. Volney, that during eight months in the year (from March to November) the heat is alino it in- supportable by an European. «« During the whole of this sc.ison, tht' :iir is inflamed, the sky sparkling, and the heat oppressive to uil un- accustomed to it." — The other months are more tc-npcratc. The southerly winds which sometimes blow in Egypt, are i)y tiie natives called poisotioui winds, or the hof u-im/t of the desert. They are of iuch extreme iieat and aridity, that no animated body exposed to tliem can withstand their fatal influence. During the three days which it generally lasts, the streets are deserted ; and woe to the traveller whom this wind surprises remote from shelter : wl;cn it exceeds three days, it is insupportable. Very frequently the inhabitants are almost blinded with drifts of sand. The.se evils are remedied by the rising and overflowing of the Nile. Soil and produce.] Whoever is in the least acquainted with li- terature, knows that the vast fertility of Egypt is not owing to rain (little falling in that country), but to the annual overflowing of the iSlile. It begins to rise when the sun is vertical in Kthiopia ; and the annual rains fall there, viz. from the latter end of May to September, and sometimes October. At the height of its flood in the Lower Egypt, nothing is to be seen in the plains but the tops of forests and fruit-trees, their towns and villages being built upon eminences either natural or artificial. When the river is at its proper heigl)t, the in- habitants celebrate a kind of jubilee, vdih all sorts of festivities. The banks, or mounds, which confine it, are cut by the Turklsli pasha, at- tended by his grandees ; but according to Norden, who w:is present on the occasion, the spectacle is not very magnificent. When tliq banks are cut, the water is led into what they call the khalige, or grand canal, which runs through Cairo, from whence it is distributed Into cuts, for supplying their fields and gardens. This being done, and the waters beginning to retire, such is the fertility of the soil, that the labour of the husbandman is next to nothing. He throws his v.heat and barley into the ground in October and May. He turns his •Milk' out to graze in November, and, in about six wet'^s, nothing cm be more charming than the pro.spect which the face of the country prc;:ents, in rising corn, vegetables, and verdure of every sort. Oranges, lemons, and fruits perfume the air. The culture of pulse, melons, sugar- cane j, and other plants which require moisture, is supplied by small but regular cuti? from cisterns and reservoirs. Dates, plantains, grapes, figs, and palm-trees, from which wine is made, are here plen- tiful. March and April are the harvest-monthsj and they produce wiree crops ; one of lettuces and of cuctimbers (the latter being the chief food of the inhabitants), one of corn, and one of melons. The Egyptian pastur.ige Is equally prolific, most of the quadrupeds pro- ducing tv.'o at a tirjie, and the sheep four lambs a year. Among the plants of Egypt, should also be mentioned the papyrus, 5f whitth the ancients made their paper, though their mode of prepaj- '^ ii" /.• 769 Egypt. h- > ■ ■ •-'■■ t ■'' ' .sm\ ijH'.j i:«: iJi I if;; i »ng it is now unknown ; and the lotus, a kind of water-lily, abonndin?j in tlie Nile. The pith()f tlie p-.ipyrus is said to be a nourishing food. The Egyptian mode of hatching chickens in ovens is very curious, and has been practised in Europe with success. Not less extra- ordinary and ingenious is the manner of raising and managing bees in that country. When the verdure and flowers fail in one part of Egypt, the proprietors of bees pu: their Ivlves on board of larc;eboHts, each marking his own hive. The b iitman then proceeds with them gently up the river, and stops with th* m wherever he perceives flowery meadows. The bees swarm from tlieir cells atljrenk of day, and collect honey, returning several times loaded with what they have obtained, and in the evening re-enter tlieir hives, without ever mistak- ing their abode. An iM ALS.] Egypt abounds in black cattle ; and it is said, that the inhabitants employ every day 200,()(:)0 oxen in raising v/ater for their grounds. They have a fine large breed of asses, upon wliicli the Christians ride, those people not being suffered by the Turks to ride on any other beast. The Egyptian horses are very fine ; they never trot, but walk well, and gallop with great speed, turn short, stop in a moment, and are extremely tractable. The hippopotamus, or river- horse, an amphibious animal, resembling an ox in its hinder parts, ■with the head like a horse, is found in Upper Egypt. Tigers, hyasnas, camels, antelopes, apes, with the head like a dog, and tlie rat called ichneumon, are natives of Egypt. The cameleon, a little animal something resembling a lizard, which occasionally changes colour, especially when irritated, is found here, as well as in other countries. The crocodile was formerly thought peculiar to this country ; but there does not seem to be any material difference between it and the alligators of India and America. They aie both amphibious animals, in the form of a lizard, and grow till they are about twenty feet in length, and have four short leg';, with large feet armed with claws, and their backs are covered with a kind of impenetrable scales, liU; armour. The crocodile waits for hir, prey in the sedge, and otlu-r cover^ on the sides of rivers ; and, pretty much resembling the trunk of an old tree, sometimes surprises the unwary traveller with his fore paws, or beats him down with his tail. This country produces, likewise, great numbers of eagles, hawks, pelicans, and water-fowrs of all kinds. The ibis, a creature (accor^l- ing to Mr. Norden) scmiewhat resembling a duck, was deified by the ancient Egyptians for its destroying sei'pents and pebliiVrous ir.sect'j. They were thought to i;e peculiar to Ei^ypv, but a sr.ecies of them is said to have been lately discovered in other p:nts of Africa. Obijiclies are common here, and are so strong, that the Arabs somclimes ride upon their backs. The cerastes, or horned viper, inhabits the greater part of the east- ern continent, especially the desert sandy parts of it. It abounds in Syria, in the three Arabian, and in Africa: this is supposed to be the aspic which Cleopatra employed to procure her ileath. Alexandiia, plentifully supplied by water, must then have had fruit of all kinds in its gardens. The baskets of figs must have come from thence, and the aspic, or cerastes, that was hid in then), from the adjoining desert, where there are plenty to this day. Population, inhabitants, manners, customs.] As the popula- tion of Egypt is almost confined to the banks of the Nile, and the rest of the country inhabited by Arabs and other nations, wc can say liule i'mh\ EGYPT. 707- upon this head with precision. Mr. Browne, who was in Egypt- in 1792, estimates its whole population at two millions and a, half. It seems, however, to be certain, that Egypt is at present not near so populous as formerly, and that its depopulation is owing to the inhabitants being slaves to the Turks. They are, hovever, still very numerous ; but wh;it has been said of the populoubuess of Cairo, as if it contained two millions, is a mere fiction. The descendents of the o-iginal Egyptians are an ill looking, slovenly people, immersed in indolence, and are distinguished by the name of Copt-. ; in their complexions they iivc rather sun-burnt than swarthy or bl;ick. Their ancestors were once Christians, and, in general, they still pretend to be of that religion ; but Mahomedanism is the prevaihng worship among the natives. Those who inliabitthe villages and fields, at any considerable distance from the Nile, consist of Arabs, or tlieir descendents, who are of :i deep swarthy complexion : tlicy in general live in tents, tend their flocks, and have no fixed plartf of abode. Tlie Turks who reside in Egypt, relain :;11 tiicir Ottomaa pride and insolence, and the Turkish habit, to distinguish tliemselves from the Arabs and Copts, vrho dress very plain, tlieir chief finery being an upper garment of white linen, and linen drawers; but tliclr ordinary dress is of blue linen, with a long cloth coat, either over or under it. The Christians and Arabs of the meaner kind conteiit themselves with a linen or woollen wrapper, which they fold, blanket- like, round their body. The Jews wear blue leather slippers ; the other natives of the country wear red, and the foreign Christians yel- low. The d. ^3s of the women is tawdry and unbecoming ; but their clothes are silk, when they can afford it ; and such of theai as are not exposed to the sun, have delicate complexions and features. The wo- men are not admitted into the society of men, even at table. When the rich are desirous of dining with one of their wives, they give her previous notice, when she accordingly prepares the most delicate dishes, and receives her lord with the grea'est attention and respect. The women of the lower class usually remain standing, or seated in ii corner of the room, while their husband is at dinner, and present him with water to wash, and help him at the table. Tlie Copts are an acute and ingenious people ; they arc generally excellent accomptants, and many of them live by teaching the otlier natives to read and write. Their exercises and diversions are mucli the same as tljose usual in Persia and other Asiatic countries. All Eu'ypt is nv;^v.i .ui with jugglers, fortune-tellers, mountebanks, and travelling sieiglu-ot- h md men. CiiiKs, CHIEF TOWNS, KDiFfCfcs.] Aiuoug tlie citios of I'gypt, Alexandria, as one of tlie most ancient, commercial, and best known to Europeans, may justly claim to be first mentioned. It is situate on the Mediterrane.tn, in the most westerly part of Egypt, and was once the e:nporium of the world; and, by means of the Red Sea, fi- nished Europe, and great part of Asia, with the riclie^ of India. It owes its name to its founder, Alexander the Great. It stands forty miles west from the Nile, and a hundred and twenty north-west of Cairo. It rose upon the ruins of Tyre and Carthage, and is famous lor the light-house erected on the opposite island of Pharos, for th.e direction of mariners, deservedly esteemed one of the wonders of the world. All the other parts of the city were magnificent in proportion, as ap- pears from their ruins, particularly the cisterns and aqueducts. Many of the materials of tlie old city, liowever, have been employed ;L;I !» flf'lkh T6S EGYPT. ;k .' ^ '.'.. m '-• .J i! '5i ■ 'a: 'tl'W inhuildin* New Alexandria, vhlch ,it present is a very ordinary s<*v. port, known by the name of Scanderoon. Notwithstanding tlif poverty, ignorance, and indolence of the inhabitants, their mosques^ bagnios, and the like buildings, erected within these ruins, preserve an inexpressible air of majesty. > Some think that Old Alexandria- vr.is built from t!ie materials of the ancient Memphis. Rpsetta, or Raschid, stands twenty-five miles to the north-west of Alexandria, and is recommended for its beautiful situation, and de- lightful prospects, which command the fine country, or island of I>elta, formed by the Nile, near its mouth. It is likev/ise a place of great trade. Cairo, Kiiiiira, or, as It is called by the Arabs, Masr, the present capital of Egypt, is a large and populous, but a disagreeable residence, on account of its pr;tilential air and narrow streets. It cannot, ac- cording to Mr. BrowTie, be estimated to contain less than 300,000 iri- Inibitants. It is divided into two towns, the Old and the New, and defended by an old castle, tlie works of which are said to be three miles in circumference. This castle is said to have been built by }>aladtn : at the west end are the remains of very noble apartments, some of which are covered with domes, and adorned with pictures in mosaic work ; but these apartments are now only used for weaving cnjbroidery, and preparing the hangings and coverings annually sent to Meccii. The well, called Joseph's well, is a curious piece of mechanism, about JiOO feet deep. The memory of that patriarch is still revered in Kgypt, where they show granaries, and many other works of public utility, that go under his name. They are certainly of vast antiquity ; but it is very questionable whether they were erected by him. One of his granaries is shown in Old Cairo ; but Norden sus- pects it to be a Saracen work ; nor does he give us any high idea of the buildings of the city itself. On the banks of the Nile, facing Cairo, lies the village of Giza, which is thought to be the ancient Memphis. Two miles west, is Bulac, called the port of Cairo. The Christians of Cairo practise a holy cheat, during the Easter holidays, by pretending that the limbs and bodies of the dead arise from their graves, to which they return peaceably. The streets of Cairo are pestered with the jugglers and fortune-tellers already mentioned. One of their favourite exhibitions is their dancing-camels, which, when young, tliey place upon a large heated floor ; the intense heat makes ihe poor creatures caper, and being plied all the time with the sound of drums, the noise of that instrument sets them a dancing whenever I Jiey hear it. . The other towns of note in Egypt are, Damietta, supposed to be the ancient Peluslum; Seyd, on the west bank of the Nile, 200 miles south of Cairo, said to be the ancient Egyptian Thebes ; by the few who have visited it, it is reported to be the most capital antique curiosity that is now extant ; and Cossire, on the west coast of tho Red Sea. 'Die general p;-actice of strangers who visit those places, is to hire a i.inissary, whose autliority commonly protects them from the insults ot the other natives. Suez, formerly a place of great trade, is nov/ a small town, and gives name to the isthmus that joins Africa with Asia. . Manufactures and commerce.] The Egyptians export great quantities of manufactured as well as prepared flax, thread, cotton, •and leather of all sorts, calicoes, yellow wax, sal ammoniac, saffron, sugar, senu, wd cassia. They trade with tlie Arabs for coffee, drugs, EGYPT-. 7C9 spices, calicoes, and other merchandises, which are hmded at Suez, from Avlience they send them to I'.urope. Several European states have consuls resident in E_nypt, but the customs of the Turkish go- vernment are manatred hv Jews. A number of English vessels arrive yearly at Alexandria; some of which arc laden on account of the owners, but most of tliem are hired ;nid employed as carriers to the Jews, Armenians, and Maliomedan traders. Con ST I r u T I ON a '^ d go v i; r n m e n t."] The government of Ep^ypt, be- fore the late invasion by the French, was both monarchical and repub- lican. The monarchical was executed by the pasha, and the republican by theMamalukes or sangiacs. The pasha was appointed by the grand- signor, as his viceroy. The republican, nv rather the aristocratlcal part of the government of Egypt, consisted of a divan, composed of twenty-four sangiacs, beys, or lords. The head of them was called th.e' sheik-bellet, who was chosen by the divan, and confirmed by the pasha. Every one of these sangiacs was arbitrary in his own territory, and exercised sovereign power : the major part of ihem resided at Cairo. Jf the grand-signor's pasha acted in opposition to the sense of the divan, or attempted to violate their privileges, they woiddnot suffer him to continue in his post; and they had an autlientic grant of privileges, dated in the year 1517, in which year sultan Selim con- quered Egypt from the Mamalukes. At present, though the French have been driven out of Egypt by the British arms, and the country restored to the i urks, it is in a state of the greatest confusion, and can scarcely be said to have any settled form of government. Revenues.] I'hese are very inconsiderable, when compared to the natural riches of the country, and the despotism of the government. Some say that they amount to a million sterling, but that two-thirds of the whole is spent in the country. • Military force.] This consists in the Mamalukes, somebodies of whom are cantoned in the villages, to exact tribute, and support authority. The greater part are assembled at Cairo. They amount to about 8,000 men, attached to the different beys, whom they enable to contend with each other,' and to set the Turks at defiance. Rf.ligion.] To what has been already said concerning the religion of Egypt, it is proper to add, that the bulk of the Mahomedans are enthusiasts, and have among them their . cantos, or fellows who pretend to a superior degree of holiness, and, without any ceremony, intrude into the best houses, where it would be dangerous to turn them out. The Egyptian Turks mind religious affairs very little. The Copts profess themselves to be Christians of the Greek church, but they em- brace traasubstantiation ; in which, and other points, the catholics of Cairo think they approach their faith nearer than the Greeks. The/ have, however, adopted, from the Mahomedans, the custom of fre- quent prostrations during diviiie service, ablutions, and other cere- monies. In religious, and indeed many civil matters, they are under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Alexandria, Vv'ho, by the dint of money, generally purchases a protection at the Ottoman court. Literature.] Though it cannot be doubted iliat the Greeks de- rived all their knowledge from the ancient Egyptians, yet scarcely a vestige of it remains among their descendents. This is owing to the bigotry and ignorance of their Mahomedan masters ; but here it is proper to make' one observation, which is of general use. The caliphs, or Saracens, who subdued Egypt, were of three kinds, The first, who were the immediate successors of Mahomed, made war, from '1! S 1 ? '1 i i- 77P EGYPT. ,;vi Wf I ; w f;ii conscience and principle, upon all kinds of literature, excepting the Koran ; and hencJe it was, that wlien they took possession of Alexan- dria, which contained the most magnificent library the world ever be- held, its valuable manuscripts were applied for some months in cook- ing t!\eir victuals, and warming their baths. The same fate attended the other magnificent Egyptian libraries. The caliphs of the second race were men of taste and learning, but of a peculiar character. They bought up all the manuscripts that survived the general confla- gration, relating to astronomy, medicine, and some useless parts of philosophy ; but they had no taste for the Greek arts of architecture, sculpture, painting, or poetry, and learning was confined to their own courts and colleges, without ever finding its way back to Egypt. The lower race of caliphs, especially those who called themselves caliphs of Egypt, disgraced human nature ; and the Turks have riveted the chains of barbarous ignorance which ihey imposed. All the learning, therefore, possessed by the modern Egyptians con- sists in arithmetical^calculation for the dispatch of business, the jargon of astrology, a few nostrums, in medicine, and some knowledge of tlie Mahomedan religion. Langoagk.] The Coptic is the ancient language of Egypt. This was succeeded by the Greek, about the time of Alexander the Great ; and that by the Arabic, upon the commencement of the caliphate, when the Arabs dispossessed the Greeks of Egypt. The Arabic, or Arabesque, as it is called, is the current language ; the Coptic (says Mr. Browne) may be considered as extinct : numerous and minute researches have enabled me to ascertain this fact. In Upper Egypt, however, they unknowingly retain some Coptic words. Antiquities.] Egypt abounds more with these than perhaps any other part of the world. Its pyramids have been often de- scribed. Their antiquity is beyond the researches of history itself, and their original uses are still unknown. The bases of the largest covers eleven acres of ground, and its perpendicular height is .500 feet, but if measured obliquely to the terminating point, 700 feel. It contains a room thirty-four feet long, and seventeen broad, in which is a marble chest, but without either cover or contents, sup- posed to have been designed for the tomb of the founder. In short, the pyramids of Egypt are the most stupendous, and, to appearance, the most useless structures that ever were raised by the hands of men. The catacombs, or mummy-pits, so called from their containing the mummies, or embalmed bodies of the ancient Egyptians, are sub- terraneous vaults of a prodigious extent ; but the art of preparing the smummies is now lost. It is said, that some of the bodies thus em- balmed are perfect and distinct at this day, though buried 3000 years ago. The labyrinth in Upper-sEgypt is a curiosity, thought to be snore wonderful than the pyramids themselves. It is partly under ground, and cut out of a marble rock, consisting, it is said, anciently, of twelve palaces or halls, and 3000 chambers, the intricacies of which occasion its name. The lake Mfltiis was dug by the order of an £gyptian king, to correct the irre^larities of the Nile, and to com- municate with that river, by canals and ditches, which still subsist, and are evidences of the utility as well as grandeur of the work. Wonderful grottos and excavations, mostly artificial, abound in Egypt. The whole country towards Grand Cairo is a continued scene.of antiquities, of which the oldest are the most stupendous, but the more mudwrn the most beauiiful. Cleopatra's needle, and its EGYPT. 771 sculptures, nre admirable. Pompey's pillar is a fine regular column of the Corinthian order, the shaft of which is one stone, being eighty-eight feet nine inches in height, or ten diameters of the column; the whole height is 114 feet, including the capital and the pedestal. The Sphinx, as it is called, is no more than the head and part of tlie shoulders of a woman, hewn out of the rock, and about thirty feet high, near one of the pyramids. In many places, not only temples, but the walls of cities, built before the time of Alexander the Great, are still entire, and many of their ornaments, particularly the colours of their paint- ings, are as fresh and vivid as when first laid on. History.] It is generally agreed, that the princes of the line of the Pharaohs sat on the throne of Egypt, in an uninterrupted succession, till Cambyses, king of Persia, conquered the Egyptians^ 520 years before the birth of Christ ; and that in the reign of these princes, those wonderous structures, the pyramids, were raised, which cannot be viewed without astonishment. ^ gypt continued a part of the Persian empire, till Alexander the Great vanquished Darius, when it fell under the dominion of that prince, who soon after built the celebrated city of Alexandria. The conquests of Alexander, who died in the prime of life, being seized upon by his generals, the pro- vince of Egypt fell to the share of Ptolemy, by some supposed to havt been a half brother of Alexander, when it again became an indepen- dent kingdom, about 300years before Christ. His successors, who some- times extended their dominion over great part of Syria, ever after re- tained the name of Ptolemies, and in that line Egypt continued be- tween two and three hundred years, till the famous Cleopatra, the wife and sister of Ptolemy Dionysius, the last king, ascended the throne. After the death of Cleopatra, who had been mistress suc- cessively to Julius Caesar and Marc Antony, Egypt became a Roman province, and thus remained till the reign of Omar, the second caliph of the successors of Mahomed, who expelled the Romans after it had been in their hands 700 years. The famous library of Alex- andria, said to consist of 700,000 volumes, was collected by Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of the first Ptolemy : and the same prince caused the Old Testament to he translated into Greek; which translation Is known by the name of the Septuagint. About the time of the crusades, between the year 11.50 and 1190, Egypt was governed by Nouredin, ■whose son, the famous Saladin, proved so formidable to the Christian adventurers, and retook from "them Jerusalem. He instituted the military corps of Mamalukes, who, about the year 1242, advanced one of their own officers to the throne, and ever after chose thetjr prince out of their ovra body. Egypt for some time flourished under those illustrious usurpers, and made a noble stand against the pre- vailing power of the Turks, till the time of Selim, who, about the year 1517, after giving the Mamalukes several bloody defeats, re- duced Egypt to its present state of subjection. While Selim was settling the government of Egypt, great numberj of the ancient inhabitants withdrew into the deserts and plains, under one Zinganeus, from whence they attacked the cities and villages of the Nile, and plundered whatever fell in their way. Selim and his officers, perceiving that it would be very difficult to extirpate those mar.iuders, left them at liberty to quit the country, which they did in great numbers, and tbeir posterity is known all over Europe and Asia by the name of Gypsies. An atttmpt was made a few years since, to deprive th* Ottomaa 3 D 12 I }i I*-- m Wim EGVPT. Pone of Its aiithoi-ity over Egypt, hy All Rey, wlio"?? /aiher was n priest oF the Greek clnirch. Ali liiiving turned M;ilu)medan, and being a man ol' abilities and address, rendered hiniselt extremely po- pular in Egypt. A false accusation having been made against him tt) the grand-signor, his head was ordered to be sent to Constan- tinople ; but, being apprised of the design, he seized and put to death the messengers who brought this order, and soon found means lo put himself at the head of an army, lieing also assisted by the dangerous situation to which the Turkish empire Avas reduced, in consequence of tile war with Russia, he boldly mounted the throne of the ancient sultans of Egypt. But not content with the kingdom of Egypt, he also laid claim to Syria, Palestine, and that part of Arabia which had belonged to the ancient s\iltans. He marched at the head of his troops to support these pretensions, and actually subdued some of .the neighbouring provinces, both of Arabia and Syria. At the same time that he was engaged in these great enterprises, he was not less attentive to the establishing of a regular form of government, and the introducing of order into a country that had been long the seat of anarchy and confusion. His views were equally extended to com- merce ; for which purpose ho gave great encouragement to the Christian traders, and took off some shameful restraints and indigni- ties to which they were subjected in that barbarous country. He also \vrote a letter to the republic of Venice, with the greatest assurances "of his friendship, and that their merchants should meet with the ut- most protection and safety. His great design was said to be, to make himself master of the Red 8ca ; to open the port of Suez to all . nations, but particularly to the Europeans, and to make Egypt once more the great centre of commerce The conduct and views of Ali Bey showed an extent of thought and ability that indicated nothing of the barbarian, and bespoke a mind equal to the founding of an em- pire. He assumed the titles and state of the ancient sultans of Egypt, and was ably supported by Sheik Daher, and some other Arabian princes, who warmly espoused his interests. He also suc- ceeded in almost all his enterprises against the neighbouring Asiatic governors and pashas, whom he repeatedly defeated: but he was afterwards deprived of the kingdom of Egypt, by the base and un- grateful conduct of his brother-in-law, Mahomed 13cy Abudahab ; his troops being totally defeated on the 7th of March, 1773. He was also himself wouiidcd and taken prisoner ; and, dying of his wounds, was buried honourably at Grand Cairo. Abudahab afterwards go- verned Egypt, as SheikBellet, and marched into Palestine to subdue Sheik Daher. After behaving with great cruelty to the inhabitants of the places he took, he was found dead in his bed one morning at Acre, supposed to be strangled. Sheik Daher accepted the Porte's full amnesty , and, trusting to their assurances, embraced the captain pacha's invitation to dine on board his ship; when the captain pro- duced his orders, and the brave Daher, Ali Bey's ally, had his head cut off in the 85th year of his age. A civil war now commenced between the adherents of AH, and other beys or princes who rose on his ruins. Of these the principal were Murad and Ibrahim, who, having driven their enemies into banish- ment, began to quarrel among themselves ; till, at length, after having alternately expelled each other from Cairo, they agreed to a kind of <"*aipromise in Marchj 17S5. EGYPT. 773 '«• /.ulier was a fahomc'dan, and It c> trcrnely po- ide iigainst Jiim nt to Constan- "ti put to death id means to put r tiic dann;croiis •n consequence e of the ancieuc n of Ec^ypt, he •abia\v]iichliad le head of hU bducd some of • Atthebame le was not less nment, and t]ie ng the seat of t-'nded to coin^ ement to the s and indigni- ntry. He also est assurances t with the ut- aid to be, to of Suez to all e Egypt once [ views of Ali :uted nothing ingof an em- tit sultans of 1 some oiher He also suc- liring Asiatic but he was •ase and un- Abudahab ; 73. He was his wounds, erwards go- le to subdue t inhabitants morning at the Porte's the captain aptain pro- id his head i, and other icipal were ito banish- fter having 3 a kind ok • From this time nothing of Importance occurred till the Invasion of • Egypt by the Frentli, oi which some account has already been given ii) our summary of the afl.iirs of France. The French made them- selves masters o\' Cairo, and the whole of the Delta, forcing MuraJ I5ey and the M.imalnkes to take refuge in Upper Egypt ; but, after the departure of lionaparte, general Kleber, who was left at the head of the army, conckKJeil a treaty with the grand vizier, who had been seat against him with a powerful army ; by which tlie French troops V ere to be permitted to evacuate Egypt without molestation. But tf)e British government having, at the same time, sent orders to the English admirals in the Mediterranean to prevent the return of the French to Europe, general Kleber, having received notice of these orders, im- mediately attacked theTurks, and defeated them with great slaughter. Kleber was, some time after, assassinated, and Menou took the com- mand of the French. ' In the latter end of the year 1800, a strong force was sent out by the British government, to expel the French from Egypt. Admiral Keith commanded the fleet, and that gallant and experienced officer, iSir Ralph Abercrombie, the land forces. After many unexpected delays the fleet arrived off Alexandria on the 1st of March, 1801. The troops made good their landing on the 7th and 8th of that month, and on the l.)th gained a victory over the FVench, though with the loss of above 2000 men in killed, wounded, and missing. On the 21st, x more decisive battle was fought, which ended in a complete victohy on the part of the English, wlio, however, suffered a loss much to be lamented, In the death of the brave general Abercrombie, who .was mortally wounded in this action, and died on the 28tli. General Moore was also dangerously wounded. On the part of the enemy, the French general Roi/e was left dead on the field, and generals Lanusse and Rodet afterv.ards died of their wounds. , After the death of general Abercrombie, general (now lord) Hut- chinson took the chief command of the British foi'ces. The town and castle of Rosetta was taken by a division of the English army, under colonel Spencei, aided by a body of Turks ; and early in May a force was detached to reduce Cairo. The French were defeated at Rhamanieh by the Turks, assisted by the British ; and about the middle of June, the city of Cairo was invested on every side by the English forces, and those of the grand vi/ier. On the 22d of that . month, the garrison of Cairo sent a flag of truce to the English ■ general, and after a negoci^ation of several days, a convention was agreed to, by which the French army at Cairo, and its dependencies, were to be conveyed in ships ct the allied powers, and at their ex- pence, together with their bftgc.age, arms, ammunition, and effects, to the nearest French ports in thc.lvlediterranean. -The complete • con(|uest of Egypt soon followed, by general Menou accepting the conditions of the convention of Cairo, for himself and the rest of the iirmy under his command. " After the evacuation of Egypt by the Frenchj the English en- . deavoured to effect a reconciliation between the Mamaliikes and the Turks, to restore the former government of the country ; but the Turks treacherously assassinating a number of the beys, the remain- der fled Into Upper Egypt, find the Porte being unable to subdue them, at length corcluded a treaty with them, by which, they yielded to ^hem possession of that part of the coiintry. In consequence, how- '1i iw 1 1 i ; ijEj 1 i'|P, I t -' #' 77* ABYSSINIA. ever, of mutinies and intestine contentions amon^ the Turki.li troops, the Mamalukes h.ive again returned into Lower F:;ypt, and the country is at prejteni a scene of confusion and aniirchy, alternately ravaged by the different contending parties. ABYSSINIA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. iwjrth 800 \ , ^ ^. f 6 and 18 North latitude. 7 „-_ ^-.^ Brea^dthGSol ^«'^^^^ { 33 and 43 East longitude. J ^^^'^^ 3otJNDARiE!<, PTVisioNs.^ IT is boiindcd on tl--^ north by the kingdom of Sennaar, or Nubia ; on the east by the Ilcd Sea and the country of \dcl ; on the south by the kingdom of Gingiro and xVlaba ; and on the west by Kordofan and Gorham. It contains (according to Mr. Bruce, from whom the following ac- count is chiefly taken) the following provinces, viz. 1. Masuah ; 2. Tigre; 3. Samen; 4. Begemder; 5. Amhara ; ^. VValaka ; 7. Gojam; 8. Damot; J). Maitsha j 10. Dembea; 11. Kuara; 12 Nara. Face of the country, mountains.] The surface of this country IS generally rugged and mountainous ; it abounds with forests and morasses, and it is also interspersed with many fertile vallic , and plains that are adapted both to pasture and tillage. About the centre of the kingdom are the mountains of Lamalmon, and those of Amhara and Sameno, which latter are said to be the loftiest in the country, and in them numerous rivers arise and flow in all directions. Lakes.] The lake of Tzana or Dembea fnot to mention those of Gooderoo and Court Ohha) is by much the largest expanse of water known in this country. Its extent, however, has been greatly ex- aggerated. Its greatest breadth is thirty-five miles, and its extent in length is forty-nine. The Nile, by a current always visible, crosses 'the end of it. In the dry months, from October to March, the lake shririks greatly in .size ; but after that all those rivers are full which are on every side of it, and fall into the lake, like radii drawn :o a centre, it then swells, and extends itself into the plain country, and has of course a much larger surface. There are about eleven inhabited islands in the lake. All these islands were formerly used as prisons for the great people, or for a voluntary retreat on account of some disgust or great misfortune, or '<is places of security to deposit their valuable effects during trouble- some times. RiVEKSl]! The chief river is the Nile, or that branch of it named the bair eljtztehyOr the Blue River, called by the Abyssinians Abawi. Besides this there are th^Tacaze, the Kibbee, or, as the Portuguese tall it, the Zibbee, the Mareb, and the Hawa:sh, which falL into the Tacaze ; arid a great mimber of other smaller rivers. Metals, MINERALS.] Some gold is found among the sands of the j'Jvers, and there are mines of fossil salt. The Abyssinians, in lieu of small money t frequently make use of pieces of rock salt, which are us ABYSSINIA. i <» TiirlcIJi troops, "f ypt. and the '")', alteinately ^<l' Miles, '} 373,000 north hy the I Sea and the 3 ;»id Alabii ; ollowing ac' 5. Amhara ; 'enibeaj H. this country forests and vallic. and t the centre d those of iest in the directions. 3n those of 5e of water greatly ex. s extent in Je> crosses h the lake ull which rawn tn a ^ and has All these or for a rtune, or trouble- t named ' .Abawi. tuguese into the s of the '■ lieu of h are as white as snow and hard as stone. AccorJing to some accounts this country produces emeralds estimiited at a high value. Cmmate, SEASONS, son., PRouucK.] The rainy season continues for six months of the year, from April to September, which is suc- ceeded, witliout interval, by a cloudless sky and vertical sun : and coW nights, which as immediately follow these scorching days. The earth, notwithstanding the lieat of these days, is yet perpetually cold, so as lu feel disagreeably to the soles of the feet ; partly owing to the six months' rain, when no sun appears, und partly to the perpetual equality of nights and days. The soil, though in many places thinly spread, is rendered fertile and productive by the rains and rivers. Wherever it can be tilled and well watered, it yields very large crops of wheat, barley, millet, and other grain. The inhabitants have two, and'often three harvests in the year : and, where they have a supply of water, they may sow in all seasons ; many of their trees and plants retain their verdure, and yield fruit ^ud flowers throughout the year : the west side of a tree blossoms first, and bears fruit ; then the south side ; next the north side ; and last of all the cast side goes through the same pro- cess, towards the beginning of the rainy season. Vegetables.] The Papyrus^ which is a plant well known in Egypt, appears to have been early brought thither fiom Ethiopia. It is also found in Abyssinia. Balessar, Balmy or Balsam, is also a tjative of Abyssinia. The great value set upon tliis drug in the East, remounts to very early ages. We know from scripture, the oldest history extant, as well as the most infallible, that the Ishmaelites, rr Arabian carriers and merchants trafficking with the India commodities into Egypt, brought with them balm as a part of the cargo.—- The Easite is an herbaceous plant, which grows and comes to great per- fection at Gondar ; but it mostly abounds in that part of Maitsha and Goutto west of the Nile, where there are large plantations of it, and is there, almost exclusive of every thing else, the food of the Galla inhabiting that province. When soft, like the turnep well boiled, if eaten with milk or butter, it is the best of food, wholesome, nourish- ing, and easily digested. — The Tcfh a grain commonly sown all over Abyssinia,' where it seems to thrive equally on all sorts of ground ; from it is made the bread which is commonly used throughout this country. The Abyssinians indeed have plenty of wlieat, and some of it of an excellent quality. They likewise make as fine wheaten bread as any in the world, both for colour and taste ; but the use of wheat-bread is chiefly confined to people of the first rank. The acacia-tree is very common in Abyssinia^ as are several other curious productions of the vegetable world. Animal S.J There is no conjitry in the world which produces a greater number or variety of quadrupeds, whether tame or wild, than Abyssinia. Of the tame or cow-kind, great abundance present them- selves every where, differing in size, some having horns of various dimensions, some w'ithout horns at all ; dijfering also in the colour and length of their hair. Among the wild animals arc prodigious numbers of the gazel or antelope kind ; the bohur, sassa, feeho, and madequa, and many (Others. The hysna is still more numerous. There are few varieties of the dog or fox kind. Of these the most numerous is the deep, or, as he is called, the jackal ; this is precisely the san>e in all respects as tlie deep of Barbary and Syria, who are heard hunting in great num- >i . -u Va i, f. '1 776 ABYSSINIA. m ll^ ■ ■ t V .- a" bers, and howlmg jn the evening and morninc:. The wild boar, , smaller and smr other in the hair than thrit oi" Barbary or Kiirone, . but diliering in nothiv<; else, is met frequciitly in swamps or banks of Ti vers covered with w%T)d. The elephant, rhi'iccevos, giraffa, or camelopardalis, are inhabitants of the low hot rnuntry ; nrr is ihe lion, leopard, or saaJh, which is the panther, seen m the high and cjltivatcd country. The hippopo- 'tamus and crocodile abound in all the rivers, not only of Abyssinia, but as low down as Nubia and Egypt. There are many of the ass kind in the low cpuntry towards the frontiers of Atbara, but no zebras ; . these are the inhabitants of Fazuelo and Narea. But of all the other quadrupeds, there is none exceeds the hyiuna for its merciless ferocity. They were a plague, says cur author, •speaking of these animals, in Abyssinia, in every situation, both in , the city and the field, and I think surpassed the sheep in number. Gondar was full. of them from the time it turned dark to the dawn . of day, seeking the different pieces of slaughtered carcases which this . cruel and unclean people expose in the streets without burial. , It is a constant observation in Numidia, that the lion avoids and . flies from the face of man, till, by some accident they have been . brought to engage, and the beast has prevailed against him ; then th.i; feeling of superiority imprinted by the Creator in the heart of all _ animals for man's j)reservaticin, seems to forsake him. The lion, having once ta-sted human blood, relinquishes the pursuit after the £ock. He repairs to some highway or frequented path, and has been Irnown, in the kingdom of Tunis, to interrupt the road to a market ; for several weeks ; and in this he persists till hunters or soldiers are .sent out to destroy him. The number of birds in Abyssinia exceedc that of other animals beyond proportion. The high and low countries are equally stored . with them: the first kind are the carnivorous bird>. Many species of the eagle and hawk, many more still of the vulture kind, as it were, over-stock all parts of the country. That species of glede , called hadgdaya, so frequent in Egypt, comes very punctually into Ethiopia, at the return of the sun, alter the tropical rains. The uissar, or golden eagle, is ^ot only tlie largest of the eagle kind, but one of the largest birds that flies. From wing to wing he is eight feet four inches. The black eagle, rachamah, crkoom, nioroc, sherogrig, and waalia, are particularly described by the historian of Abyssinia, to w|iose celebrated work we refer the reader "w ho is desirous of infor- mation concerning them. There is no great plenty of water-fowl in Abyssinia, especially of the web-footed kind. Vast variety of storks cover the plains in May, when the rains become constant. All the deep and grassy bogs have snipes in them ; and there are swallows of many kinds unknown in Europe ; those that are common in Europe appear in passage at the very season when they take their flight from thence. Theio are few owls in Abyssinia, but those are of an immense size and beauty. There are no geese, wild or tame, exceptmg what is called the Golden Goose, Goose of the Nile, or Goose of the Cape, common in all the south of Africa : these build their nests upon trees, and, when not in water, generally sit upon them. From the class of insects, we shall select the most remarkable, vir. the tsaltsajya, or fly, which is an insect that furnishes a striking proof how fallacious it is to judge by appearances. If we consider its small ABYSSINIA. 1 1 si/.e, Its weakness, w.int of variety oi- beauty, nothing In the creation is more contemptII)le or insignificant; yet passing from these to his history, and to the account of his powers, we must confess the very great injustice we do him from want of consideration. We are obli(;;ed, wiih the greatest surprise, to acknowledge, that those huge animals, tlic- elephant, the rhinoceros, the lion, and tiger, inhabiting the same wood?;, are still vastly his inferiors, and that the appearance of this small insect, nay, his very sound, though he is not seen, occasions more tre:^id;ition, movement, and disorder, both in the human and brute creai:o;», than would whole herds of these monstrous animals coiltcted together, though their number was in a ten-fold proportion greater tlian it really is. This iv.sccr has not been described by any naturalist. It is in size very iittk- iaiger than a bee, of a thicker proportion. As soon as this ]-J;igue appears, and their bu/zing is head, all the cattle forsake their food, and run wildly about the plain, till they die, worn out with fa- tigue, fright, and hunger. No remedy remains but to leave the black earth, and hasten down to the sands of Atbara ; and there they re- main while the rains last, this cruel enemy never daring to pursue tliem farther. Though the size of the camel is immense, his strength vast, and his body covered v/ith a thick skin, defended with strong hair, yet '.till he is not capable to sustain the violent punctures the fly makes w'di his pointed proboscis. He must lose no time in removing- to the Siinds of Atbara ; for, when once attacked by this fly, his body, head, -Mid legs break out into large bosses, which swell, break, and putrefy, to the certain destruction of the creature. N.\TURAr- cLRiosrriEs.] Of these the principal are the spring wliich the Abysslnians consider as the source of the Nile, and the cataracts of that river. The Aginvs (a people of a certain district) ofDamot, pay divine lionours to the Nile ; they worship the river, and thousands of cattle have been offered, and still are offered, to the spirit supposed to re- side at t!ie sources. The village of Geesh, though not farther distant than -SO.) yards, is not in sight of the sources of the Nile. In the middle of a marsh near the bottom of the mountain of Gccsh, arises a hillock of a circular form, about three feet from the surface of the marsh itself, though apparently founded much deeper in it. The diameter of tliis h something short of twelve feet ; it is surrounded by a shallow tixncli, which collects the water, and voids it eastward ; it is firmly built v, ith sod or earrlien turf, brought from the sides, and constantly kept in repair, and this is the altar upon wliich all their re- ligious ceremonies are performed. . In the middle of this altar is a hole, obviously made, or at least enlarged, by the hand of man. It is kept clear of grass or other aquatic plants, and the water in it is pcribctly clear and limpid, but has no ebullition or motion of any kind discernible unon its surface. This mouth or opening of the pource is some parts of an inch less than three feet in diameter, and the water stood about two inches from tlie lip or brim. The spring is about si;; feet six inches deep. '] en feet distant from the first of these springs, is the sacred fotia- tain, about eleven inches in diameter ; but this is eight feet three inches deep : and about twenty feet distant from llie first, is the third source, its mouth being something more than two feet large, and it is five feel eight inches deep. ,\Vith a brass quadrant of three feet radius, Mr, Bruce found the exact latitude of the principal foun- .7Tfi ABYSSINIA. f Ii4<' ■'.- tv %B' ':(■■ )', f |:|-} A: tiiin of die Nile to be Ur .^1/ 25", though the Jesuits hnve^uppo^cc! it I'J.'^' N. by A random guess. The longitude he usceitained to be ;JG° 55' .'JO" east of the meridian of Greenwich. The grpiit catanict of Alata (for wo shall omitde-icribing those of inferior note) Mr. Kruce tells us was the most magniiicent sight l^e had ever beheld. The height has been rather exaggerated. The niis- sionarics say the fall is about sixteen ells, or fifty feet. The measur- ing is, indeed, very difficult ; but, by the position of long sticks, and poles of d'Herent lengths, at different heights of the rock from thci watcrV, edge, Mr. Bruce thinks he may venture to say that it is nearer forty feet than any other measure. The river had been considerably incre i.sod by rains, and fell in one sheet of water, without any interval, above half an English mile in breadth, with a force and a noise that was truly terrible, and wliich stunned, and made him for a time per- fectly dixzy. A thick fume or haze covered the fall ail round, and' hung over the course of the stream, both above and below, marking its track, though the water is not seen. The river, thou^g;h swelled with rain, preserved its natural clearness, and fell, as far as he could discern, into a deep pool, or bason, in the solid rock, which was full, and in twenty different eddies to the very foot of the piecipice; the stream, when it fell, .seeming part of it to run back with great fury upon the rock, as well as forward in the line of its course, raising a wave, or violent ebullition, by chasing against each other. Wo shall here subjoin a summary of the account our author gives of the causes of the inundation of the Nile. The sun being nearly stationary for some days in the tropic of- Capricorn, the air there becomes so much rarefied, that tlie heavier winds, charged with watery particles, rush in upon it from tlie Atlantic on the west, and from the Indian Ocean on the east. Hav- ing thus gathered such a quantity of vapours as it were to a focus, the sun now puts them in motion, and drawing them after it in its rapid progress northward, on the 7lh of Jamuiry, for two years to- |!;ether, seemed to have extended its power to the atmosphere of Gondar, when, for the first time, there appeared in the sky, white, dappled, thin clouds, the sun being then distant 31° from the zenith, without any one cloudy or dark speck having been seen for several months before. Advancing to the line with increased velocity, and describing larger spirals, the sun brings on a few drops of rain at Gondar theJst of March, being then distant 5° from the zenith; these , are greedil^absorbed by the thir.sty soil ; and this seems to be the far- thest extent of the sun's influence capable of causing rain, which then only falls in large drops, and lasts but a few minutes : the rainy sea- _ son, however, begins most seriously upon its arrival at tlie zenith of every place, and these rains continue constant and increasing after he ; has passed it, in his progress northward. In April, all the rivers in Amhara, Begemder, and Lasta, are first , discoloured, and then, beginning to swell, join the Nile in the several ^ parts of its course learcst them ; the river then, from the height of * Its angle of inclination, forces itself through the stagnant lake with- out mixing with it. In the beginning of May, hundreds of streams fiour themselves from Gojam, Damot, Maitsha, and Dembea, into the a*kc Tzana, which had become low by intense evaporation, but now ■ begins t(j fil^ insensibly, and contributes a large quantity of water to ' the Nile, before it falls down the cataract of Alata. In the beginning of June, the sun having now passed uU Abyssinia, the rivers theie are ABYSSINIA. 779 all full ; and then is the time of the greatest rains in Abyssinia, while it is for some days, as it were, statlw ary in the tropic of Cancer. Immediately after the sun has passed the hne, he begins tlic rainy season to the southward, still as he approaches tlic /.cnith of eacli place: but the situation and necessities ot this country being varied, the manner of promoting the inundation is changed. A high cliain of mountains runs from above 6" south all along the middle of the con- tinent towards the Ca{>e of Good Hope, and intersects the southern parts of the peninsula, nearly in the same manner that the river Nile does the northern. A strong wind from the south, stopping the pro- gress of the condensed vapours, dashes them against the cold sum- mits of this ridge of movmtains, and forms many rivers, whicli escape in the direction either east or west as the level presents itself. If this is towards the west, they fall down the sides of the mountains into the Atlantic, and if on the east, into the Indian Ocean. Inhabitants, manners, customs."] Tlie Ahyssinians are in ge- neral tall and well made. 'Ihey are of a dark olive complexion ; their features are proportionate ; their eyes lary-e, black, and sparkling. ; their noses rather high than fiat: their lips small ; and their teeth ex- tremely white and handsome. With respect to their disposition, they are mild and docile, and in their general conduct sober and temperate. The dress of persons of quality is a long fine vest, either of silk or cotton, tied about the middle with a rich scarf. The common peo- ple have only a pair of cotton drawers, and a kind cf scarf, or piece of the same linen with which they cover the rest of tlie body. The habit of women of the superior class consists of the richest silks, orna- mented, according to their rank, with trinkets and jewels, images, and relics of various kinds. Women in general are allowed to appear in public, and to converse freely with the men, without any of those restrictions to which the Turkish women are commonly subject. The women of superior condition are not very guarded in their con- duct, but those of inferior rank are more faithful to their husbands; and they also willingly submit to the meaner and more laborious offices of domestic life. It is their business to grind corn for the fa- mily, which they perform daily by means of hand-mills. Although we read in the accounts of the Jesuits, says Mr. Bruce, a great deal about marriage and polygamy, yet there is nothing wjiicli may be averred more truly than that there is no such thing as marriage in Abyssinia, unless it be that which is contracted by mutual consent, without other form, subsisting only till it is dissolved ^by dissent of one or the other, and to be renewed or repeated as often as it is agree- able to both parties. There is no such distinction as legitimate and illegitimate children, from the king to the beggar. Their funerals are attended with many superstitious ceremonies : the relaii<>n>, friends, and a number of hired mourners bewail the dead for many days together, with loud shrieks and lamentations ; and the women make wounds in their faces with their nails. The Abyssinlans neither eat nor drink with strangers ; and tliey break or purify every vessel which has been used by them. They eat raw flesh, and even cut it from the livjng animal, according to Mr. Bruce, who tells us that, in the neighbourhood of Axuni, he met with some travellers who were driving a cow before them. He afterwards found that they cut steaks from tiie higher part of the buttock : they then closed the wound by drawing the skiu over it, and aj^plicd to it Hi! f :"■ i .1. 1l i Wm\ ill ■780 ABYSSINIA. m' 1*^' U: .h I a cntciplasm of cliiy. They then drove the animil hrfr. re il-,;m, 'n order to supply iliem and their compiinions v.'ith ..uothcr meal. At their feasts, accordinp; to >.Iic same traveller, they ha\e u'biill or ccw, one or more, accordir.g to the rAimhcr of guests, vliicli are tied at tJic door of tlic liouse in which they are a-scmhiod. From these anirrials square pieces of flesh arc cut and served up on round cakes of luiicavened bread, made of tctf. As no person of any fashion feeds himself, or touclics h's o'vn meat, the women take the steak, while the motion di' the fibres is distinctly seen, cut it into small pieces, Veil pepper them, and v.'ra[) them up in the tefF-hread like so many cartritlges. In this form they are put into the mouths of the guests, \vho, like birds fed by their dam, are opeiiinj; their mouths to receive the morsels tha,; are ready, as fast as they can be prepared for them. The females, after having thus supplied the male guests, eat till the- are satisfied, and then all drink toy-ether. The victim is still bleedin ^' writhing, and roaring at the door. When the animal has bled to death, the cannibals tear the remaining: flesh from the thi?hs with their ' teeth, like dogs. — Such is Mr. Bruce's description of an Ai)yssinian feast. "^J'he ofTcrin": of meat and drink in Abvssinia is an assurance of ' safety to the person to whom it is offered. Many of the customs of this country vescriible tliosc of tlie ancient Persians and fgyptians. CiTii s, CHIEF TOWNr.] Goudar, the metropolis of Abyssinia, is situated upon a hill cf considerable height, the to]) of it nearly plain, on which the towii is placed. It consists of about ten tluHisand la- milics in lime of peace ; tiic houses are chiefly of clay, the roofs " thatched in the form cf cor.cs, which is always the construction within ■ the tropical rains. On the west of the town is the king's house, ior- nierly a structure of considerable consequence. It was a square buildiiig fl.mked with square towers. It was form.erly iour stories higli, and from the top of it had a magnificent view^ of all the country southward to the lake T/ana. Great part of this house is now in ruins, having been burnt at different times ; but theie is still ample lodpinc: in the two lowest floors of it, the audience-chamber' beii^;.'- above one hundred and twenty feet long. The palace and all its contiguoxis buildings are surrotmdcd by a substantial stone wall thirty feet high, with battlements upon the cuter wall, and a parapet roof between the outer and inner, by which yoi! can go along the whole, and look into the street. There appear to have been never anv cmbrastire;^ for cannon, and the four sides of the v.alls arc above an English mile and a half in length. Gondar, bv a number of o'tscrvations of the sun and stars, is in N. lat. 12° 31' J^O": its longitude is ;'T° -'^ii' east from Greeiiwich. Dixan is the first town in Abyssinia, on the side of Taranta. It. is built on the top cf a hill perfectly in form of a sugar-loaf; a deep valley surrounds it every where like a trench, and the road winds spi- rally \\^^ the hill till it ends among the houses. It is true of Dixan, as of most frontier towns, that the bad people of both contiguous countries resort thither. The town consists of Moors and Christians, and is very well peopled ; yet the only trade of either of these sects is a very extraordmary one, that of selling cJiildren. The Christians bring such as they have stolen in Abyssinia to Dixan as to a sure deposit : and the Moors receive them there, and carry them to a ccr- , tain market at Masuah, whence they are sent over to Arabia cr India. The priests of the province of T'gre, especially those near tiie ro^k nscal. At ill or ccw, '.re tied at rom these uiid cakTs liioii feeds pak, while icill pieces, p ^o many :ho i^nests, to receive Tor them. It till the- bleediti^iTj :is bled to with their i)ys!-.inian surr»nce of ustoms cK yptian^. )yssini:i, is irly plain, t>usund i';i- tiie roots ion within lonsc, ior- a square '>ur stories le ccuntrv , ^ IS now in till ample her- beii'i;'- c!cd by a upon ilie by which re appear ir sides of Gondtr^ Lt. 12" 'M' •anta. It f; a dccj> vinds spi- )f DixaR, >rtiguoiis hristians, lese sects christians a sure to a ccr- or India, tlie rock ABYSSINLY. rsi, l>.imo, are openly concerned in this infamous practice. DIxan Is !n lat. 1 1^ 57' 55'' north, and long. IC 7' JO" cast of the meridian of Greenwich. Axum is supposed to have been once the capital of Abyssinia, and Its ruins are now very exlcnsive ; but, like the cities of ani-ient times, consist alto!^:;ether of public buildings. In one sqnarc, which seems to have bet a the centre of the town, there are forty obelisks, none of which hive any hlero^^Iyphics upon them. They are all of one piecti of granite, and, on the top of that v/liich is standing, there is -.iptifera, exceedingly well carved, in the Greek taste. Axuni is watered by a small stre.im, whicli flows all tl:e year from a fotmtaia in tl:e narrow valley where stand the rows of obelisks, 'i he spring is received into a inagniiicL.-nt ba;>oa J ,;0 feet square, and thence it is carried at pleasure, to water the neighbouring gardens, where there is little fruit except- ing pomegranates, neither are these very excellent. ' The latitude of this town is 14^ G' C.iy" north. Masuah. 'i'hc houses of this town, whicli is situated tipon an island bearing the same name, on the Abyssinian shore of the Red Sea, are in general built of poles and bent grass, as in the towns oi Arabia; but besides these, there are about twenty of stone, six or eight €>£ which are two stories each. X. lat. 15" ;i5' 5". E. long. 39'^ 3G' 'iO'\ Tradk.] There is a considerable deal of trade carried on at Masuah, narrow and confined as the island is, and violent and unjust as is the government. But It is all done in a slovenly manner, and for articles in which a small capital is invested. Property here is too precarious to risk a venture in valuable commodities, where the hand ©f power enters Into every transaction. Gondar, and all the neighbouring country, depend for the neces- sarles of life, cattle, honey, butter, wheat, hides, wax, and a number of such articles, tipon the Agows, who inhabit a province in which the sources of the Nile are found, and which province is no where sixty miles in length, nor half that in breadth. These Agows come con- stantly in succession, a thousand or fifteen hundred at a time, loaded with these commodities, to the capital. It may naturally occur, that, in a long carriage, such as that of a hundred miles in such a climate, butter must melt, and be in a state effusion, consequently very near putrefaction : this is prevented by the root of an herb, called Moc-moco, yellow in colour, and in shape nearly resembling a carrot : this they bruise and mix with their but- ter, and a very small' quantity preserves It fresh for a considerable time. Government.] The government of Abyssinia has always been monarchical and despotic ; the sovereign exercising absolute do- minion over the lives, liberties, and fortunes of his subjects, and pos- sessing uncontroulable authority In all matters ecclesiastical as well as civil. His will is the universal law, there neither being, nor ever having been, any written laws to restrain the royal power, or to se- cure the property or privileges of the subject. Tiie monarchs of Abyssinia claim descent from Menilek, the son of Solomon, as they pretend, by the queen of Sheba. The crown is hereditary in this fa- mily, but elective as to the person. A peculiar custom formerly pre- vailed of confining all the (rlnces of the blood royal in a palace on a high mountain, during their lives, or till they were called to the thione ; but this practice, it appears, has now fallen into disuse. p i! ;i ■; ■ii^n.ii)ii ! m III I ■! 'fa: f. I i.; FfCt I m ■1 (•I ■.;' :U ■if.-"> I if- " m r. ■ ,1 I:. ft ■. ;«. 4f'^ ■ ' . • • y )i 782 ABYSSINIA. Revenue.] This anses from different imposts on the trade of tne country ; i lie s;ile of the great places of the kingdom ; and :i tenth, levied every third year, on uU the cattle in the empire. The whole amount of these is not easily estimated, but it appears that it falls xery short of what might be expected from a country of which the sovereign is the sole proprietor and disposer. A KM v.] The military force of this country, according to Mr. Bruce, ha^ been greatly exaggerated : that traveller does not suppose that any king of Abyssinia ever commanded ^O.OOO effect}\*e men, at any- time, or on any occasion, exclusive of his own household troops, which are about 8000 infantry. Royal title, arms.] The Abyssinian monarchs assume the title o^ Nagush or Negu%, and are always addressed either by that or Nagu>ha Nagusht king^ot kings ; or by that of Natzehv, which is equivalent to the French Sire, Those who approach them prostrate themselves be- fore them J and when they are seated in council, they are concealed from view. The device of these sovereigns is a lion passant proper in a field gules, with this motto, Mj Anhasa am Nizilet Solomon am Negade Jink— *• The lion of the race of Solomon and tribe of Judah, hath over- come." RELicroN.] The inhabitants of Abyssinia consist of Christians, Jews, Mahometans, and Pagans : about one-third part are Mahomet- ans, who are every where intermixed with the Christians. The pagans are chiefly the Gallas, besides some others who are dispersed through several of the provinces of the Abyssinian empire. Mr. Bruce informs us, from the annals of Abyssinia, that in the , time of Solomon all this country was converted to Judaism, and the government of the church and state modelled according to what was then in use at Jerusalem. Some ecclesiastical writers, rather from attachment to particular systems, than from any conviction that the opinion they espouse is truth, would persuade us, that die conversion of Abyssinia to Chris- tianity happened in the days of the apostles ; but it appears that this was effected by the labours of Frumentius (the apostle of the Abyssi- nians) in the year of Christ 333, according to our account. Their first bishop, Frumentius, being ordained about the year S33, and instructed in the religion of the Greeks of the church of Alex- andria, by St. Athanasius, then sitting in the chair of St. Mark ; it follows that the true religion of the Abyssinians, which they received on their conversion to Christianity, is that of the Greek church. They receive the holy sacrament in both kinds, in unleavened bread, and in the grape bruised with the husk together as it grows, so that it is a kind of marmalade, and is given in a Hat spoon. They observe also circumcision. The Abyssinian church is governed by a bishop or metropolitan, styled Abttna (our father), and sometimes, though improperly, pa- triarch, sent them by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria, residing at Cairo, who is the only person that ordains priests. Literature.] With respect to arts and sciences, the Abyssinians are very uninformed, and will probably long continue so, both from the form of their government, and tlieir natural Indolence, and from the little intercourse they have with any nations in which knowledge is cultivated. . <■ INTERIOR COUNTRIES or ATRICA. 783 Lanouage.] a variety of languages are spoken in this country. The Jews sptMk a dialect of the Hebrew: the Moors an impure Arabic; the Gallas have lilcewise a lan.tjuage .ot their own I'he dialect of the court is that of Amluira; that of Ti,:::rt*, however, ap- proaches nearest to the old Ethiopic, which has a considerable affinity to the Arabic, and is called kshone genr., or the learned lan- guage ; and is still used not only in all their literary and religious booics, but also in their public instruments and records. History 3 -As the accounts of kings and princes of remote ages are not always entertaining, and as the history of so barb;irotis and uncivilised a people will, we presume, afford but small umusementto our readers, whatever satisfaction they may have rd dved from sur- veying the manners and customs of the people, and the natural his- tory of the country ; we shall, therefore, make no farther apology for omitting the account of the annals of Abyssinia, but refer those who have any desire of information upon this subject, to the secaid volume of the Travels of our adventurous author, where they Avill find a very ample detail through more iliau 700 pages of a ponderous quarto. INTERIOR COUNTRIES of AFRICA; Hl^l^fl FEZZ AN, BORNOU, CASHNA, TOMBUCTOO, HOUSSA, DAR-FUR, ^. IT having been long a subject of complaint that Europeans know very little, if any thing, of the interior cJi'trids of Africa, a number of learned and opulent individuals formed themselves into a society for the purpose of exploring them. The association was formed on the f)th of June, in the year 1788 ; and on the same day a committee of its members, viz. Lord Ra'wdon, the Bishop of Landajf, Sir Joseph Btmh^ Mr. Beattfoy, and Mr. Stuart, Wcve invested witlj the direction of its funds, the management of the correspondence, and the choice of tlie persons to whom the geographical mission was to be assigned. Per- suaded of the Importance of the object which the association had ia view, their committee lost no time in executing the plan which it haJ formed. Two gentlemen were recommended to tlicm ; and, appear- ing to be eminently qualified for making the projected researches^ tliey were chosen. One was Mr. Ledyard; the other a 3Ir. Lwas, * Mr. Ledyard undertook, at his own desire, tiie difficult and pe- rilous task of traversing from east to west, in tlie latitude attributed to the Niger, the widest part of the continent of Africa. On this bold adventure he left London, June 30, 17S8, and arrived at Cairo oa the 10th of August. ' Hence he transmitted such accounts to his employer*; as manifest him to have been a traveller who observed, reHected, and compared ; and such was the information which he collected here from the tra- velling shive-raerchants. and from others, respecting the interior dis- tricts of Africa, that he was impatient to explore them. He v^rrote to the committee, that his next communication would be from Sen- Haar (shx hundred miles to the soutli of Cairo) : but death, attributed ivilj.;,- I A 1- ^f ^> , J 7S4, INTERIOR COUNTRIES oi AFRICA. 3?'; ■if: .■»■. !iv ^:'k IS -■;! ;ir ::■'•■ i^i;-! ! t mm i, I r I to various causes, arrested ln*m at the commcnccnient of Iifs re- searches, and disappointed the hopes which were entertained of his proj>cted journey. ' Mr. Luciis embarked for Tripoli, October 18, 17SH, witli instruc- tions to proceed over the desert of Zahara to Fez/.an, to collect, and' to transmit, by way of Tripoli, whatever intellij^ence the people of Fc/./an, or the traders thither, might be able to ajftbrd respectinir the interior of the continent ; and to return by the way of Gambia, or the toast of Guinea. * Instructions to undertake great enterprises are more easily given than executed. So Mr. Lucas found ; only a part of the plan was this geographical missionary able to carry into execution. He set out, indeed, mounted on a Iiandsome mule, presented to him by the bey, the pasha's eldest son, in company with sherecfs, for the kingdom of l'e7//an, intending to penetrate from Tripoli even to Gambia : but his peregrinations, which began February 1, 17y8» terminated at Mesnrata on February 7. * Deprived of visiting Fezzan, and the other inland districts of Africa, Mr. Lucas solicited the information of his fellow travellers* and transmitted to the society the result of his conferences with a fthercef Imhammed, who described the kingdom of Fez/an to be a . small circular domain, placed in a vast wiUlenicss, as an island in the midst of the ocean, containing near a hundred towns and villages, of which Mourzook is the capital, distant, south from Mesnrata, aliout three hundred and ninety miles. In this kingdom are to be seen some venerable remains of ancient magnificence, some districts of re- markable fertility, and numerous smoking .lakes, producing a species of fossil alkali cAlcd tro/ia.' — We shall presently give a'niore circum- stantial and authentic account of this country, from the description of It by Mr. Horneman, a later traveller inider the patronage of the African society, who was at Mourzook, ai\d resided there several months in the years 1798 and 1799. * The narrative proceeds to state, that south-cast of Mourzook, at the distance of one hundred and fifty miles, is a sandy desert, two hundred miles wide; beyond which are the motmtaius of Tibesti, in- habited by ferocious savages, tributary to Fezzan. The valleys be- tween the mountains are said to be fertilised by innumerable springs, to abound with corn, and to be ceIe{*Kated for their breed of camels. The tribute of the I'ibestins to the king of Fezzan is twenty camel- loads of senna. * This kingdom is inconsiderable, when compared with the two great empires of Bornou and Cashna, or Kassina, which lie south of Fezzan, occupying that vast region which spreads itself from the river of the Antelopes for twelve hundred miles westward, and in- cludes a great part of the Niger's course. Cashna, or Kassina, we are informed, contains a thousand towns and villages ; and in Bornou, which is still more considerable, thirty languages are said to be spoken. The latter is represented as a fertile and beautiful country ; its capital being situated within a day's journey of the river JVod-cl' Gaze/, which is lost in the sandy wastes of the vast desert of Bilma, and is inhabited by herdsmen, dwelling, like the old patriarchs, in tents, and whose wealth consists in their cattle*. (Bornou, or Ber- * Horses and horned catde, goats, sheep, and camels, arc the commou atiimals of the country. INTERIOR COUNTRIES or AFRICA. 785 commou Tioa, is a word signifying the land of Noah ; for the Arabs copccive, that, on the retiring of tlie dchijve, its mountains received the ark.) "^rhough they cultivate various sorts of grain, the use of the plough is unknown ; and the hoe is the only instrument of husbandry. Here grapes, apricots, and pomegranates, together with limes and lemons, -and two species of melons, the water and the musk, are produced in large abundance ; but one of the most valuable of its vegetables is a tree called kedcyna, which in form and height resembles the olive, is like the lemon in its leaf, and hears a nut, of which the kernel and the shell are both in great estimation, the first as a fruit, the last on ac- count of the oil which it furnishes when bruised, and which supplies tlie lamps of the people of Bornou with a substitute for the oil of olives, p. I'jy. Bees, it is added, are so rumerous, that the wax is often thrown away as an article of uo value in the market. Many other particulars are added, for which we must refer to the work. The population is described by the expression, a count/ess multitude. We shall pass over the nature of their religion, v^hich is Mahoni- inedan ; of their government, which is an elective monarchy ; and the singular mode of their electing a new king from among the chil- dren of the deceased sovereign : but the account of the present sul- tan, his wives and his children (p. 227), is too curious not to be ex- hibited. * The present sultan, whose name is Ali, is a man of an unostenta- tious, plain appearance ; for he seldom wears any other dress than the commo.iblue shirt of cotton or silk, and tlie silk or muslin turban, which form the nsual dress of the country. Such, however, is the magnificence of his semglio, that the ladies who inhabit it are said to he five hundred in number, and he himself is described as the reputed father of three hundred and fifty children, of whom three hundred are males ; a dis- proportion which naturally suggests die idea ti:at the mother, pre- ferring to the gratification of natural affection the joy of seeing her- self the supposed parent of a future candidate for the empire, some- times exchanges her female child for the male offspring of a stranger. * We are told that fire-arms, though not unkno\vu to the people of Bornou, are not possessed by thenj. ♦South-cast from Bornou lies the extensive kingdom of Begarmee ; and beyond this kingdom are said to be several tribes of negroes, ido- laters, and feeders on human flesh. Tlrese, we are told, are annually invaded by the Begurmeese ; and when they have taken as many pri- soners as their purpose may require, they drive the captives, like cattle, to Begarmee. It is farther said, tliat if any of them, exhausted by fatigue, happen to linger in their pace, one of the horsemen seizes on tlie oldest, and, culling off his arm, uses it as a club to drive on the rebt. * We are not much disposed to give credit to this relation. That the negroes, who are sold for slaves, are different from the other Africans, is not probable ; and that they should be driven along vvitlj the mangled limbs of their associates, utterly exceeds belief. ' The empire of Cashna bears a great resemblance to that of Bor- nou. * After perusing what is here related of the extent, population, fer- tility, manufactures and commerce of these regions, w^e may be per- mitted to wonder at their having remained altogether unknown to Europeans. We cannot but suspect considerable exaggerations. That •the interior p*rts; of Africa are peopjej, the caraviias which go from y E " , ;■» J8 "!« \\ \ •' 'HI i t i i ! ' 1 I'tl ■7 ''' 'MLlu \i 5 i-'it. i.'.:- 1%,'- ■ i ^4^. -v« |.' ^f!:;-r 78() INTERIOR COUNTRIES of AFRICA. f 'ij •i »j» ; Cairo and Tripoli, antl wliioh are ol'tcn absent three years, sufKcientIr evince ; but tliat they are divided into rep;ular and civilised states may l)e a question. j!4 thousand tniuns anil vUhrres in one empire, and thi iy^ lUjfcnnt hitr^tai;:^ei spoken in the other, manifest a disposition in the shcreef Inihammed to enlargement, or, at least, to retail loos.r reports. That they should be accjiuunted with, yet not possess tiro- arms, nor make any attempt to navigate the Niger, nor even to taic; tlie fisli that abotuid in its waters, but little accords witli the history of their commerce, and of their progress in mani'l'.u-tnres.^ Under tlie patronage of the same society for making discoveries in the interior countries of Africa, Mr. Mango Park has since per- formed a journcy^eastward, from the mouth i>f the Gambia to Silla, on theri"er Niger, above a thousand miles from the Atlantic; and, to use th.e words of mnjor Rennell, brought to our knowledge more im- portant facts respecting the geography of western Africa, bolli moral and physical, than Iiavc been collected by any former tr.iveller. Mr. Park set out from Pisunia (a British factory on the banks of the Gambia) on the ^d ol December 1795, and took liis route through the kingdoms of WooUi, B(Mh1ou, Kayaaga, Kasson, Kaarta, and tLu- dariiar, to Fjambiirra. 'ITie country ot WooUi, he tells us, every where rises into gentle acclivities, which are generally covered with extensive woods, .ind the towns are situate in the intermediate val leys ; the chief jiroductions are cotton, tobacco, and different kinds ot" corn. Medina, the capital of this kingdom, is a place of considera- ble extent, and may contain Irom eight hundred to a thousand houses. The country of B(vadou, like that of Woolli, is very generally covered with woods ; but in native fertility, in the opinion of our traveller, is, not surpassed by any part of Africa. The name of the capital of this country is Fatteconda. The inhabitants are of the tribe of the TVnilahs, who are in general of a tawny comple-vion, with small fea- tures, .and soft silky hair. The Foulahs of Bondou are naturally of at mild and gentle disposition ; but they evidently consider all the negro natives as their inferiors; and, when talking of dilTerent nations,' al- ways rank themselves among the white people. In Kayaaga, tho next kingdom, the air and climate are more pure and salubrious than at any of tht settlements towards the coast ; the face of the country is every where interspersed with a pleasing variety of hills and valleys ; and the windings of the Senegal river, which descends from the rocky hills of the interior, make the scenery on its banks very pictu- resque and beautiful. The inhabitants are called Serawoollies, or, as tlie French write it, Seracolets. Their complexion is a jet lilack i their government is a despotic monarchy; and they are habitually a trading people. In the kingdom of Kasson, of which Kooniakarry is the capital, fi'om the top of a high hill Mr. Park had an enchanting- prospect of the country. The number of towns and villages, and tho extensive cultivation around them, surpassed every thing he had yet seen in Africa. A gross calcxilation may be formed of the number of inhabitants in this delightful plain, from the fact, that the king of Kasson can raise four thousand fighting men by the sound of his war- drum. At Kemmoo, the capital of Kaarta, Mr. Park had an au- dience of the king, who advised him to return to Kasson ; telling him it was not in his power at preseiit to afford him much assistance, for that all kind of communication between Kaarta and Bambarra had been interrupted for some time past, in consequence of a war be- ^ween the two kingdoms. Our tiuveller, however, resolved to con- INTERIOR COUNTRIES of AFRICA. 787 tlnne his journey, and proceed to Jarra, a town in the kingdom of JiUdamar, whence he sent presents to Ali, .the soverei'STn, then en* camped at Benowm, requestinpr permission t« pass throiij'^h liis terri- tories. Several days afterwards, one of Ali's shives .nrived with iiN stnictions, as he pretended, to conduct him as far as Goomha, on the farther frontier ; but, before he arrived there, he was seized by a party of Moors, who conveyed him to Ali at Benowm, who detained him n prisoner more tlian three montiis. tie, however, at length found means to make his escape, in the confusion which ensued in conse- quence of the success of the army of the icing of Kaarta, wiio had invaded the country. His joy at his escape, he tells us, it is impos- sible to describe ; but he soon found that liis real situation was dis- tressful in the extreme : he was in the midst of a barren wilderness; and, after travelling a long time, exposed to the burning heat of the sun, reflected with double violence from the hot sand, his suffering from thirst became so intolerable, that he fainted on the sand, and expected the immediate approach of death. Nature, however, at length resumed its functions ; and, on recovering his senses, he foup^d the sun just sinking behind the trees, and the evening become some- what cool. It soon after rained plentifully for more than an hour, and he quenched his thirst by wringing and sucking his clothes, by which he was sufficiently relieved to enable him to pursue his jour* ney ; and, after travelling several days more, he at length came in sight of one of the principal objects pointed out for his research — the river Niger. '* I saw," says he, *' with infinite pleasure, the great object of my mission — the long-sought for, majestic Niger, glittering t© the morning sun, as broad as the Thames at Westminster, and flowing slowly to the easl'ward. 1 hastened to the brink, and, having drunk of the water, lifted up my fervent thanks in prayer to the Great Ruler of all things, for having thus far crowned my endeavours with success." He had now reached Sego, the capital of Bambarra, which he thu5 describes : — " Sego, properly spealcing, cnisists of four distinct towns ; two on the northern bank of the Niger, and two on tha Kouthern. They are all surrounded with high mud walls ; the houses ai^e built of clay, of a square form, wiih nat roofs; some of tliem have two stories, and many of them are white-washed. Besides these buildings, Moorish mosques are seen in every quarter ; and the streets, though narrow, are broad enough for every useful ptirpose, in ^ country where wheel-carriages are entirely unknown. From the best inquiries I could make, I have reason to believe that Sego contains, akogether, about thirty thousand inhabitants. The view of this ex-« tensive city, the numerous canoes upon the river, the crowded popu- lation, and the cultivated state of the surrounding country, formed altogether a prospect of civilization and magwificence which I little expected to find in the bosom of Africa. — Sego is situate, as nearly ns can be ascertained, in north lat. 1 1 dQ"^. 10 min. : west Ion. '2. d{.'g. 26 min." From Sego, Mr. Park continued his journey along the banks of the Niger to Silla, a large town about eighty miles to the east of Sego ; and here, the tropical rains being set in, his finangesexpended, and various other difficulties concurring to render his farther prg* ^ress extremely dangerous, if not impracticable, ho terminated hi^ travels to the eastward " at a point (says Major Rennell) somewha? more than sixteen degrees east of Cape Verd> and precisely in th« '4 1 '^t ill '1 ; 'li! 7SS INTERIOR COl^NFRTES ov AFRICA. if-?!'- I'" if b.itne p ir.jllcl. TIio line of clist incc .irlsinjr from this diflVipnc^ of loni^icude, is alioiit !)M gcnp;r:iphic;il miles, or Hf.H) IJritish, wiiiim the woslcrn extremity of Africa ; a point which, although short b>' two hundred miles of the desired citation, Toinl)uctoo, the attainment of which would un(inestional>ly have l)ecn attended with great fclnf, was yet fir beyond what any other ICiiropean, whose travels have h.'vn coniiTUiaicated to the European world, had over reached.'' Mr. l^irk gives the following account of Toinhuctoo and Houssa, fioin the information he was able to collect concerning those cities, at Mcgo, ;*nd in the course of his journey ; " To the north-east of Masina (a kingdom on t!ic northern hankrr the Niger, at a slmrt distance from Silla) is situ.ite the kingdom ri. Tornhiictoo, the great object of European risearcii; the capital o** lliis kingdom being one of the principal marts tor that ct' •'nsive com- merce which the Moors carry on with the Mcgmcs. The hopes of aci]iiiring wealth in this pursuit, and zeal for ^-rc^pagating their reli- gion, have tdleel this extensive city wfth Moors and Mahomedaii converts; the king himself, and all the chief c4licers oi state, arr Moors; ami they arc said to be inoie .severe and intolerant in their principles lli.ui any other ol' the Moorish tribes in this part ot' Africa. I was informed by a vcncr.ible old negro, that when he first visite-.} Tombnctoo, he took up his lodging at a sort of public inn, the laiui- lord of ^\hich, when he condncted him into his hut, spread a mat on the f]o{^r, and I,iid a rope upon it, saying 'If you arr a Mussulman, you arc my friend ; sit down; but if you are a Kafir (iniidel), you ;ire niy slave, and with this rope I will lead you to market.' Tlie pn?- scnt king cf IVmibuctoo is named Abu Abrahrina. He !■. reported to possess iniinense riches. His wives and conciil»lncs are saitl to br clothed in silk, and the chief ollicers of state live in coi.sider.ible splendour. The whole e.\ pence of his government is ilefrayed, as I was told, by a tax upon luerchaadise, wliich is collected al tlie '^aIv^ of the city. " The city of Houssu (the capital of a large kingdom to the east- ward of Tombuctoo) is aiiother great mart for Moorish commerce. I.con^-ersed with many mcrcliants who hnd visited that city, and they all agreed that it is larger .and more populous than Tonibiictoo. Thu trade, police, and government, are nearly the same in both; but, in ri(uissa, the Negroes are in greater proportion to the Moors, and have some shaie in tlie 'government." Mr. r.irk was likewise told by asheroefwho resided at Walet, thf* capital of the kingdom of Beeroo, to the northwanl of Scgo, and whcj had visited Houssa, andlived some years at i'ombuctoo, *' that Houssa was the largest town he had ever seen : fhat Walet was larger than Tombuctoo : but being remote from the Niger, and its trade consist-- Jng chieHy of salt, it was not so much resorted to by strangers: that between Bcnowm and Walet was ten days' journey, but the road did not lead throtigh any remarkable towns, and travellers supported themselves by purchasing milk from tlie Arabs, who keep their herds by the watering-places: two of the days* JGurney was over a sandy country without water. I'rom Walet to 1 ombuctoo was eleven day •: hiore: but water was more plentiful, and the journey was usually performed upon bnllocks. He said there were many Jews at Tom- buctoo ; but they all spoke Arabic, and used the samepravers as the Moors." The city of Tombuctoo is placid by major Rennell, from a cqm- IIS dinVtoncJ* Iritisli, wiiliiii ugh short by le iittainmciir h C;rc.U r.7/;/, ti.ivfls haver hiohfd." tlio.ie citic.f,, hern hanker" :e r.ipital o'* '""nsivc conj- 'he hopes ol ij;- their reli- Mahoinfd.u: f'i' state, air i;int in thcii rt of AlVira. ^ first visito'} 11, tlie laiuJ- aJ a mat oir Mussulman, rnlidt'I), you .* 'J'licpr.s [ reported to .' said to hr :or.sidorahk" frayed, as I at the £at("< to the cast, commerce. y,and the\- nctoo. T])i- •ih; but, in "S, and liavr Walct, th.> ^, and who bat Houssa arger tlian ide consist" gers; that le road did supported tlieir iierds ;r ;i sandy Icven day< 'as usually s at Tom. .'ers as tlic >ni a cc^m- INTERIOR COUNTRIES of AFRICA. (89 p.tviion of .ill tlie accounts rcccivcil of it, in north latitude 10'' .'10 ; M.L lonjjitudc 1" ;<;/. According to tlie report of Mr. Parle the interrir parts of AtVica are inluliitiJ hy three tlistinct races of men ; — the M iiiilinijoes, or proper ni'gries ; the Toulali;, or white Ethiopians of I'tuleniy and PIin\-, who jjave neither the crisped hair, nor jetty hlacki\> s of t'le MandlngiK's ; and the Moors, natives (-f \rabia, wiio in their persons rind co.iipledons cx'.ictly re'K,'ni!)le t!ic Mulattoes of the \\'est Indies, •in J who arc l)i_L;otted M.ihomei.ms, and of a di [losiiion most per- fidious and sanii;uinary. Of t'lese three nations, though they are Ire- qucntly iuLernnxed, the negroes, whether Mandingoes or Toulahs, are generally found to tiie south of ;he Moors, 'I he negroes, for the most part, cultivate the grounds ; the Moors, like the Arabi.ms, Irom whom they are descended, are roving shepherds, or travelling merchants, vvlviseera, from the earliest times, to have overspread tiie great African deicrt and the Oases, or fertile islands, thinly scattered tluMugh that r.andy ocean- Hence they extended their arms southwards, and made theniKelvcs masters of several of t!ie ne^ro kinrulofus un the Ni:'er : Oil . ' ' bO th.it their dominions form a n.irrow belt running from west to cast, on the skirts of the deiert, from the coasts of the /\tl.inLii: tt) the nionnt.iJn!> of Abyssinia. We sh.iU iKJW give some account of the travels of Mr. Ilorneniai^ whom we Iiave mentioned above, and who in like manner travelled wilder the directions and p.itronage of the African society. On the fith of September, I79t>, Mr. Florneman set out from C.iiro with the i'"e/./,an caravan, for the purpose of making discoveries in the interior of Africa. Thecar.ivan proceeded by Unmiesogier, a <r:!iall vill.ige coataiujng hut few inhabitants, to the Oasis of Siwah, which h only twenty hours journey from Ummesogier. At Siv.ali, Mr. Horneniiin saw the ruins which had before been discovered by Mr. Browne, whose observations he confirms. From Siwah the caravan proceeded by Augila, a town known to Herodotus, who places it at ten days jrairney from the city of the Anmicmians, to Temissa, in the territory of Fe/./.an ; thence to Zuila, in the same territory; and thence to Mour^ook, tlic capital, where it arrived on the I7th of No- vember. The cultivated part of the kingdom of Fczzan, according to Mr. Hon.eman, is about 300 English miles in length from lunth to soutli, and 'JOO miles from east to west ; but the mountainous region of I laruticli, to the east, and other districts to the souih and west, ar6 reckoned within its territory. The borderers on the north are Arabs, dependent, though rather nominally than really, on Tripoli. To the east ih',' country is bounded by the mountains called the black and the whi'.e Harutsch, and by deserts. To the sfiuth and south-east is the country of the TibboL's ; to the south-west that of the wandering Tuariclcs ; and to the west are Arabs. The climate is at no season temperate or agreeable. During the summer the heat is intense ; and when the wind blows from the south is scarcely supportable even by the natives. The winter would be moderate were it not that a bleak and penetrating north wind frequently prevails. It rains but seldom, undihen butlitdeinquantity; butviolent windsare frequent. Datesmay be considered as the natural and staple produce of the country ; some senna is likewise grown in the western parts ; and the climate and soil suit wheat and barley ; but from the indolence of the peeple, their unacquaintauce with the arts of agriculture, and the oppressions of K^^H\-A \n >■ " ■ h* I *,,):^m i I IP'" ?90 INTERIOR COUNTRIES of AFRICA. ^m\i] i V ■ u • if ., ,1, p' ',!'■;;;■■■ • -'«' >• the ,c:ovcmment, there is not sufficient corn grown for the consiimptiort of the inhabitants, who rely for subsistence on imporf.ition.s from the Arab countries to the north. There are but few horses or cattle in T'cr.zan ; the principal domestic animal is the goat. C.imels are ex- tremely dear, and only kept by the principal persons, and rftore wealthy merchants. The population of the country is estimated by Mr. Horneman at 70 or 75,000 souls. He says it contains a hundred and one towns and villages, the names of the principal of which, next in order to Mour- zook, the capital, and imperial residence, are Sockna, Sibba, Hun, and Wadon, to the north ; Gatron to the south; Yerma to the west; and Zuila to the east. The complexion of the Fe//aners is a deep brown ; their hair is black and short ; their form of face such as may be termed regular, and their nose less flattened than that of the negro. TJiey are but of an ordinary stature, and their limbs are by no means muscular. Their mien, Walk, and every moiion and gesture denote a w;int of energy either of mind or body. Their dress consists of a shirt or frock, made of a coarse linen or cotton cloth brouglit from Cairo, and coarse woollen cloth of their own manufacture, called aL/ie, "^I'ha jTiiddling classes wear frocks made at Soudan of dyed blue cloth. The richer people and the Mamelukes of the sultan are clothed in the Tripolitan habit ; over whic'i tliey wear a Soudan shirt of variegated pattern and colours, and 'ikewise tlie ^ibc. The ornamental dis- tinctions of dress are chiefly confined to the head-dress, and to rings on the afms and legs. The v/omen of distinction divide their hair into curls or tresses, to which they fix pieces-of coral and amber, and little silver bells. Tl.ey also fasten to the top of the head silvei' cords On which are strung a number ol silver rings, which liang on each side pendent to the shoulder. The meaner women wear merely a string of glass beads, and curl their hair above tlie forehead into large ringlets, into which severally is stuffed a paste made of lavender, cara^vay seeds, cloves, pepper, mastich, and laurel leaves, mixed up with oil. The women of Fezzan generally have a great fondness for dancing, and the wanton manners avid public freedoms which, al- though Mahometans, they are permitted, astonishes the Mahometan traveller, 'J he men are much addicted to drunkenness. Their beverage is the fresh juice of the date-tree culled lu:^ibi, or a drink called b'.sa, which is prepared from dates, and is very intoxicating. The commerce of Fezzan is considerable, but consists merely of foreign merchandise. From October to February, Mourzook is the freat market and place of resort for various caravans from Cairo, ripoli, Soudan, and companies of Tibboe and Arab traders. The caravans from the south and west bring to Mourzook slaves of both stxes, ostrich feathers, tiger skins, and gold, partly in dust and partly in native grains, to be manufactured into rings and other ornaments for the people of Interior Africa. From Bornou copper is imported in great quantities ; from Cairo silks and woollen cloths ; and from Tripoli fire-arms, sabres, knives, &c. Fezscan is governed by a sultan descended from the family of the shereefs. His power over his own dominions is unlimited, but he holds them tributary to the pasha of Tripoli. Tlie tribute was for- merly GOOO dollars, but it is now roductd to '1000; and an officer from Tripoli comj s annu.illy ta Mcur/ook, to receive this sum, or its s-ilae in gold, senn.;, or slaves. TJie throne is hereditary ; but the INTERTOll COUNTRIES or AFRICA. roi crown does not, in all cases, descend directly from fiither to son : the eldest prince ot the roy;il family succeeds, perhaps a nephew in pre- icrence to a son who is younger. This custom frequently occasinns' • contest and hlood'^hed. I he sultan's palace or house is situate witliin the castle or fortress of Mourzook, whore he lives nuired with no otlier imnate hut the eunuchs who wait on him. His harcni, consist- ing of a sultina and ahout forty slaves, is contiguous : he no\cr en- ters it ; but th" female whom he at any time wishes to see is conducted to his apartment. The apparel of the sultan on days of stale and ceremony consists of a large white frock or shirt, made in the Soudan manner, of stuff, and brocaded with silver and gold, or of satin, inter- woven with silver. Under this I'i-ock he wears the ordinary dress of tlie I'ripolitans; but the most remarkable appearance is that of his turljan, which from the fore to the hinder part extends a full yard, and is not less than two-thirds of a yard in bi-eadth. Tiie revenues of the sultan are produced from a tax on cultivated lands, duties on fo- reign trade paid by the caravans, from royal domains, and predatory expeditions. The religion of the Fe/zaners is tl>e Mahometan. Justice is ad- ministered, as in other Mahometan countries, by an officer called a cadi, who is here, at the same time, the head of the clergy, and pos- sesses great influence and authority with the people. The name or title of the present sultan of Fez/.an is, *' Sultan Ma- hiunmed ben Sultan Mausur;" but when he wiites to tlic pasha of Tripoli, he only stiles himself shereef. Mr. Horneman has since renewed his travels in the same track, and a letter, dated Mourzook, April 6th, ISOi), has been received from him by the society. He was then preparing to set out with the cara- van for Bornou, whence he proposed to proceed to Cashna, and pe- netrate, if possible, to Tombuctoo. From the abilities and diligence of this enterprising traveller, should no adverse accident occur to him, much curious and usefullnformation may be expected. We shall here add a short account of the country of Dar-Fur, another kingdom of the interior of Africa lately visited by Mr. lirowne. " Dar-Fur, or the country of Fur, is situated to the south of Egypt and Nubia, and to the west of Abyssinia. Cobbe, its capital, stands, according to Mr. Browne, in north latitude 1 1>^ J 1'; east longitude ^2H° S'. in Dar-Fur wood is found in great quantity,. except where tl:e rocky nature of the soil absolutely impedes vegetation ; nor are tlie natives assiduous completely to clear the ground, even where it is designed for the cultivation of grain. The perennial rains, which fall here from the middle of .1 una till the middle of September in greater or less (juantity, but generally both frequent and violent, suddenly invest tile face of the country, till then dry and sterile, with a delightful verdure. The t;aTne. animals in Dar-Fur are camels, horses, sheep, oxen, and dogs; the wild ones,lions, leopards, hy?pnas, wolves, jackals, nnd elephants, which, in tlie places they frequent, go, according to report, in large herds of four or five hundred ; it is even said that two thousand are sometimes found together. The antelope and os- trich arc also extrcaiely common. The population of the country Mr. Browne estimates at '200,000 souls: Cobbe, the capital, he thinks does not contain more than (KMIO inhabitants. This town is more than two miles in length, but ve'"y narrow; and the houses, each of which occupies within itsinclosure a large portion of ground, are di- vided by considerable waste. The walls of the houses are of clay, it I w V t. 792 WESTERN COAST of AFRICA. •i •J i hi ■J^i ! tl Wil^ 1 r ' Hi % ■ 1 1 P i r"'^ T « If V. H >U^ <) 1 1 and the people of Jiigher rank cover tlicm with a kind of plaster, and, cnlcmr them white, red, ;ind black. The disposition ot th.e people of Dar-Fur is more cheerlul than that of the Egyptians. Dancing is practised by the m'en as well as the women, and they often dance promiscuously. But the vices of thieving, lying, and cheating in bargains, are here almost universal. No property, whether consider- able or trifling, is safe out of the sight of the owner. Their religion is the Mahnmedan, but they allow polygamy without limitation; and they arc little addicted to jealousy. To the women are assigned the most laborious employments : they till the ground, gather in the corn, make the bread, and even build the houses. The government is despotic ; though the monarch can do nothing contrary to the koran. He speaks of the soil and productions as his personal property, and of the people as his slaves. His revenues ari?efrom the tenth of all merchandise imported ; the tribute of the Arabs who breed oxen, horses, camels, and sheep ; and some other duties : the sultan is be- sides the chief merchant in the country, and dispatches with every caravan to Egypt a great quantity of his own merchandise. The name of the present sultan is Abd-el-j-achman. When Mr. Browne was in the country, he was admitted to a great public audience given by the sultan. He found him seated on his tin-one, under a lofty canopy, attended by his guards. The space in front was filled with suitors and spectators to the number of more than fifteen hundred. A kind of hired encomiast stood on the monarch's left hand, crying out, with all his strength, during the whole ceremony — * See the butTaloe, tiie off- spring of a bufFaloe, a bull of bulls, the elephant of superior strength, the powerful sultar, Abd-el-rachman-el-rashid ! — May God prolong thy life ! — O Master ! may God assist thee and render thee vic- torious!' Abd-el-rachman usurped the throne from his nephew, ■whom he conquered in battle in the year 1787." WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. ON the western coast of Africa, proceeding* southwards from the empire of Morocco, we pass the country ot Zahara, inhabited by Moorish and Arab tribes, called the Monselemines, Mongearts, Wadelims, and Trasarts, who extend nearly to the mouth of the river Senegal, where the French had a fort and factory, and were entire masters of the gum-trade^ Jt is called Fort Louis, was taken by the Englisli in I75fci, and confirmed to them by the peace of 1763; but in l7Sti it was restored to France. Near Cape Verd is the island of Goree, considered as one of the safest, pleasantest, and most important settlements in all Africa. It was subject to France, but has been lately taken by the English. 'Jo the southward of Cape Verd, in latitude 8 deg. 12 min. north, and about 12 deg. Ion. west, is the settlement of Sierra Leone, formed from the purest motives of hu- •manity, under tne patronage of a very respectable societv of gentle- men in London, in the year 1791. The benevolent purposes lor which it was intended arc, to introduce the light of knowledge and the comforts of civilisation into Africa, and to cement and perpetuate "~^> WESTERN COAST or AFRICA.- '93 t^e most confidential union between the European colony and the natives of that country. A settlement of a s-imilar nature was formed upon the island of Bulam, C' chc same coast, t<^he eastward of the island of Bisgos. }iut this ir, now entirely relinquished. A great part of tiie coUniisis were massacred by the natives of the shore at the mouth of the river Gambia, who w(5re accustomed to mak^^ annual plantations of rice in Bulam. The surviving colonists too;- rtfuge among tluir country- men at Sierra Leone. In the latter end of September ITOt, a Frcncli squadron attacked this settlement, carried off or destroyed all the stoics and wliatcver tliey could find belonging to the company, and burntd all the public buildings and houses of the Europeans, and several likewise (as they said, by mistake) of those of the negro colonists. The coloiiy, how- ever, has not been abandoned, but the tiirectorb -lave taken such mea- sures as liave repaired cheir losses, and will no doubt tend still moir to increase the trade and cultivation of the settlement. 'I'he c(Ui)uists are on tlie happiest terms ot friend?rhip with the natives, and make great progress in clearing and improving the lantis allr>tted them. The country or coast of Guinea (or Upper Guinea) extends from 12 ccpf. west Ion. to H deg. east, nearly in the parallel of CJ deg. north lat. It comprehends the grain coast, the tootli coast, the gold const, the slave coast, (wliich includes Whidah and Ardrah, now subject to Dahomy) and Benin. The principal kingdom on these coasts is Dahomy, the mcmarch of which subdued and annexed to his do- minions Whidah and Ardiali between the years 179A- and 17'-'7. The country of Dahomy, as known at present (according to the history of it by Mr. Dalzel, governor of Cape Coast Castle), is supposed to reach from the sea-coast about 150 or 200 miles inland, though no European has penetrated above half that distance ; the capital, Abomey, lies in about H deg. north lat. and ',i deg. 20 min. east Ion. 'I'he soil is a deep rich clay of a reddish colour, with a little sand on the surface. In some places it is alittle light and gravelly ; but there is not a stone so big as an egg in the whole country, so far as it has been visited by the Europeans. It plentifully produces, according to the quantity of culture, maize and millet, or Guinea-corn of drffcrent sorts, a kind of beans, or rather kidney-beans, called calavances, and also a species of beans, called ground-beans. The Dahomans likewise cultivate yams, potatoes of two sorts, the cassada or manioka: the plaintain and the banana, pine-apples, melons, oranges, limes, guavas, and other tropical fruits also abound in this fertile country. Nor i<i it destitute of })roductions adapted for commerce and mantifactures ; such as indigo, cotton, the sugar-cane, tobacco, palm-oil, together with a variety of spices, particularly a species of pepper very similar in flavour, and indeed scarcely distinguishable from the black pepper of the East Indies. Dahomy abounds witli buffaloes, deer, sheep, goats, hogs both wild and domestic, poultry of various kinds, parti- cularly pintadas, or Guinea hens, and Muscovy ducks. The elephant, though its flesh be coarse, is made use of as food by the natives; and dogs arc reared for the same purpose. The dress of the men in Dahomy consists of .i pair of striped or white cotton drawers of the manufacture ol' tlie country, over whicli they wear a large square cloth of the same, or of European manuiacture. This cloili is about the size of a common counttyipane fur the middling class, but mueli larger for the grandees. It ii wrapped about the loins, and i-ied aa % n \ 'tH m' ?0i Western coast cf afrtca. '^:'\' I'M lr\) mi the left 'ilJeby t\vo of tlie corners, the other hanginp^ down and some- times ti;iiling on tlio gri'mnd. A piece of i-ilk or vtlvct of sixteen or eighteen yards makes :: cloth lor a t'ji-inuice. Thciicid is usually co- vered vith a heaver or felt hat, accordir.i;- to the quahly of the a'. i-aier. The kills;-, :is well a^ sfniic of his niinisters, often \vcars a gold and silver laced hat and ioalher. Tlie ann.s and iipptr ])art of the body are usually naked : and the feet arc ahvays hp.le, ncMie Init: the iiove- reign being permitted to vear sandals. Tlic dress oftl e wo.T.en, though simple, consists of a greater number of avdcles than lliat of the men. They use several clothiS und handkerchiefs ; sonu; to vrap round the loins, and others to cover occasionally the breasts and upper part of the body. They adorn the neck, arms, and ancles with beads and cowiicK, and wear rings of silver or baser metals on th.cir lir.gevs : f^irls, before ihea ;e of puberty, wear nothing but a string of beads or ihells round their loins, and young won-.en usually expose the breasts to view. The general character of the Dahomans is marked by a inixturo of ferocity and politeiiess. 'J'he former appears '\:\ the treat- ment of their e!u>mics: the latter they ]-)ossess far above tlje Airican nations witli \\hom we have hitherto had any intercourse; this beir.g the country where strangers are least exposed to Insults, and where it is easy to reside in security and tranquillity. The language is that •which the Portuguese ca\\ Lingua Gerol, or Gcneial Tongue, and is spoken not only ij» Dahomy Proper, but in Whidah, and the other dependent states; and likewise in Mahee, and several neighbouring places. With respect to the Dahoman religion, it consists of a jumble of superstitiops ceremonies, of whicri ic is impossible to convey any satisfactory idea. The government is, perliaps, the most perfect de- spotism on the eartli ; the policy of th-^ coun'ry admits of 'no inter- mediate degree of subordination between king and slave, at least in the T03-al presence, where the priine minister ii, obliged to prostrate him- self with as much abject submission as tlio meanest subject, A minister of st.ite, on his entrance, crawls towards the apartment of audience on his hands and knees, till he arrives in the royal presence, wliere he lays himself flat on his belly, rubbing his head in the dust, and utter- ing the most humiliating expressions. Being desired to advance, lie receives the king's commands, or commimicates any particular busi- ness, stiil continuing prostrate ; for no person is permitted to sit, even on the floor, in the royal presence, except the women, and even they must kiss the ground when they receive or deliver the king's mes- sage. 'I'he king of Dahomy maintains a considerable standing army, commanded by an agaow or general, with several other subordinate military ofhccrs, who must hold themselves in readiness to take the field upon all occasions, at the command of the sovereign. Ihe pay- ment of these troops chiefly depends on the success of the expeditions in which they are engaged On extraordinary occasions, all the males able to bear arms are obliged to repair to the general's standard ; every caboceer, or grandee, marching at the head of his own people. Sometimes the king takes the field at the head of his troops; and, on very great-emergencies, at the head of his women. Within the walls of the different royal palaces in Dahomy are immured not less than three thousand women, several hundreds of whom are trained to arms iinder a lemale general, and subordinate officers appointed by the king, in tlie same manner as those under the agaow. These warriors ate vegjdarly exercised, and go thrfuigh their evolutions with as much expertness ;isthe mule soldiers. Tl^ey have their large umbrellas, WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. 795 their flags, their drums, trumpets, flutes, and other musicu! instru- ments. The singularity (jf this institution r.evcr lUils to attract pnr- ticuhirl)' the altt'ntion of iuiropeans, when amonc!^ other uncommon exhibitions tliey arc presented with the unusual spectacle of a review of female troops. i'enin is a counr.ry to tlic east of Dahomy, and extending from about y dcg. nortli latitude to 1 deg. soatli. The climaie is said tu bs extremely unwholesome and noxious. The animals are elephr»nis, tigers, leopards, apes and ostriclios, and in the rivers are a great num» ber of crocodiles. The dress of the natives is noat and ornamental. The rich wear white calico or cotton petticoats, but the upper part of the body is commonly naked. The women use great art in dressmg their hair, which they adjust in a variety of forms. Polygamy is common, and the king is said to have six hundred wives. Though jealous of each other, they arc not so of Europeans, as they think it impossible that the taste of the women can he so depraved as to grant r ny liberties to a white man. Their religion is p.iganism. The king exercises an absolute authority : three great oihcers, distinguished by a string of coral, continually attend upon him to consult, instruct, an J decide in his nan-.e. lie can bring into the field an army of 100,000 men. Benin, tlie capital, situated on the river Benin or Formosa, was formerly a very closely built and populous city. In the streets, which are long and broad, are many shops filled with European merchandise, as well as with the commodities of the country. A principal part of the town is occupied by the royal palace, which is of vast extent, but neither elegant nor commodious. To the south of Benin is the country of Loango, which is about ■250 miles in length, and IbO in breadth. The climate of this king- dom ie nearly as hot as any under the torrid zone, and much hotter than those of Congo and Angola. Loango was formerly subject tO| and made a part of, the kingdom of Congo. Congo (or I^ower Guinea) is the name frequently given to the Nvhole tract of country on the coast from the equator to lb degrees of south latitude, including the kingdoms of Loango, Congo, Angola, and Benguela; but Congo Proper is only 150 miles broad along tho coast, though it extends, it is said, 310 inland. It is bounded on the north by Loango, on the south by Angola, and on the east by a;i un- known country, the name of which is said to be Metamba. The cli- mate is extremely hot in summer ; but the winters are as mild as tlie finest springs of Italy. The animals it produces are elephants of a monstrous size, lions, leopards, tigers, wolves, zebras, buffaloes, &c. The country is likewise infested with a vast variety of serpents, some of them of'a monstrous length and thickness ; rattle- snakes, vipers, scorpions, and venemous insects of various kinds, both flying and reptile ; the most pernicious and dangerous of which is the ant or pis- mire, which will not only destroy the fruits of the earth, but in the night surround even beasts and men in prodigious swarms, and devour tliem in a few hours, leaving only the bones. The character, man- ners, religion, and government of the natives of Congo, nearly re- ■semble those of the negro kingdoms on this coast. The Portuguese have several settlement s in this country. To the south of Congo is the country of Angola, which is said to be divided among a number of petty princes. The Portuguese h:ive several settlements on the coast ; but the English and Dutch trailic v/jth the natives, and purchase n great, number of slaves* ." mm |5« Tnfi CAPE OF GOOD ROPE. Eetwcfii Ano-n];i and the country of the Hottentots are the countries of Bemau'la awi Matamnn; but these are vtry little known to turo- pcuns, and the Litter is almust entirely tlesort. COLONY OF THE CAPE or GOOD HOPE. r I : ■ ip ii p, ■ THIS territory is the Dutch settlcrreiU at the most soutliern cr- trennty of Africa, extent! in_i; about 550 n)i!e.s in length, from west to east, and 'M5 in breatlth iVoni sou'Ji to ht/:!;. It lies hetu-cen .SO and ir'f and a lialf degrees of south latitude, and 1 <S and 2H oi cast longitrule, and is divided into four districts : the Cape dih.trict ; that cf Stellen- hosch and Drakensteen ; that of Zv/ellcndanj, and that of Graaf ileynet. *• Of this extensive territory,'' says Mr. Barrow,* " a very great portion may be considered as an unprolitahle waste, uiifit for any sort of culture, or even to be employed as pasture for the r.upport of cat- tie. Level jilains, consisting of a hard impenetrable surface of cla\, thinly sprinkled over with crystalized sand, ccnJcriined to )-,erpetual drought, and producing only a few straggling tufts of acrid, saline, nnd succulent plants, and chains of vast mountains that are either totally naked, or clothed in parts with SQur grasses only, or such plants as are noxious to animal life, compose at least one-half of the colony cf the Cape. Two of these chains of mountains, called the Ziuarfe Jitrg, or Black iVlountain, anci the Ncurcldt Gebcrgli, inclose to- gether the great Karroo, or dry desert, extending nearly .'i(/{) miles in length, and 80 in breadth, and uninhabited by any huniaji creature. Behind the town called Cape-town, are the mountains called the Table Mountain, the Devil's Mountain, the Lion's Mead, and the Lion's Back. The 'rablo Mountain is a stupendous mass of naked rock, the north front of which, directly facing tlie town, is a liorizon- tal line, or very nearly so, about two miles in lei-.gtl). The bold face that rises almost at right angles to meet this line has the appearance cf the ruined walls. of some gigantic fortress; and these walls rise :jbove the level of Table Bay to the height of .'5582 feet. The Devil's Mountain on the one side, and the Lion's Head on the other, make, in fact, with the Table, but one mountain : the height of the former is 3315, and that of the latter 2160 feet. The Devil's Mountain is broken into irregular points, but the upper part of the liion's Head is a solid mass of stone, rounded and fashioned like a work of art, and resembling very much, from some points of view, the dome of St. Paul's placed upon a high cone-shaped hill. From these moun- tains descend several rivulets which fall into Table Bay, and False Bay ; but the principal rivers of the colony are the Berg or Mountain river, the Breede or Broad river, called also the Orange river, which has its periodical inundations like the Nile, and its cataracts; the Sunday rivcr,-and the Great Fish river-, which is the boundary of the colony to the east. 'VhQ climate of the Cape appears to be in general free from the ex- tremes of either heat or cold, and not in reality unhealthy. It has * Travels luty the Interior of Southern Africa, in 1797 and 1798. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 797 heen n-nal with the Dutcli to consider the year as consining of two periods, called the good and the bad monsoon ; but "as thi-e," Mr. Barrow observes, " are neither re|:^ular in their returns, ncr certain in their conlinuince, the division into lour se.t'ions, as in Europe, ap- pears to be more proper. The spring, reckoned irozn the hcfnntiing «){' September to that of December, is the most as;reeable season; the summer, ironi December to March, is the hottest ; the autumn, iVom March to June, is variable weather, generally line, and the latter paic very pleasant ; the winter, from June to September, tliough in general , pleasant, is frequently very stormy, rainy, and cold. The two most powerful winds are the nortli-ea.st, and south-west ; the fiist gene- rally commences towards the end of May, and blows occasionally till the end of August, and sometimes through the mtmth ot' Scjitcmber. The south-east predominates the rest of the year, and when the cloud shews itself on the mountain, sometimes blows in squalls with great vio- lence." The Ijnd of corn generally cultivated in tliis country i-. wh.cat, which richly repays tlie laijour of the husbandman. Barley and rye rue likewise grown, the former of which is preferred to oats for feeding- horses. " The natural productioua of the Cape," says Mr. Barrov/, " arc perhaps more numerous, varied, and elegant, than en any other spot of equal extent in the whole world. Few countries can boast of so great a variety of bulbous rooted plants as Southern Afiica. Mcst of the European, imd several of the tropical fruits have been intro- duced into the colony, and cultivated with success. In every month of the year the table may be furnished with at least ten different sorts of fruit, green and dry. The market is likewise tolerably well iup- plicd with most of the European vegetables fur the table, from the iarms that lie scattered about the eastern side of the colony, in number about forty or fifty. On some of these farms are vineyards also of considerable extent, producing, besides the supply of the market with green and ripe grapes, and prepared raisins, about seven hundred leaguers or pipes of wine a year, each containing \5\' gallons. Of these, from fifty to a hundred consist of a sweet luscious wine, well known la England by the name of Constantia, the produce of two farais lying close under the m.ountains, about mid-way between the two bays. The grape is the muscatel, and the rich quality of the vv^ine is in part owing to the situation and soil, and partly to the care taken in the manufacture. No fruit but such as is full ripe, no st.ilks are suffered to go under the press : precautions seldom taken by the other fai-mers of the Cape." The principal wild animals to be met with near the Cape, are wolves, hyxnas, and various kinds of antelopes, among which are those called by the Dutch the spring-bok, the gemsbokc. and the greisbakc, the former of which is remarkable for its agilitv, whence it derives its name : according to the accounts of the peasants they sometimes go in herds to the amount often thousand in number.. More inlaifd are lions, tygers, buffaloes, elephants, and in the rivers hiopo- potami, called by the Dutch sea-cows. The horses of tlie Cape are not indigenous, but were first introduced from Java, and smce that, at different times, from various parts '•:"the world. The heavy drau"-ht I work of the colony is chiefly performed by oxen. The Cipe ox is distinguished by his long legs, high shoulders, and large horns. The larger kinds of birds which hover round the summit ot'ihv Table- mountain, are eagles, vultures, klies, and rr-jws, Mr. Barrow wounded a condor, whoss wings extended ten fc-f-t and an inch. IHm Br; f', iSi ' *1 798 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. M h ' 'I ii ;*| Thtf general clinracter (f the Dutch at the Cape h a phlegmatic dullness, nn;! an eager desire of gain. TIio njinds of every tlniis .■-•ecm to be v'hoUy bent en; trade, yet none are opulent, ihcnigh many ;ire in easy ciroiunstances. There arc vie b,"iL;;;;irs in the wiuile colony, and but a few who are the objecis of public ch;irity. The ladies cfthe Cape, it has been remarked by most iravellerr., arc pretty, lively, and good-humoured; posr.cssing little of ihat plilegniatic temper which so distiiH^uislies the other sex. They arc expert at the needle, at all kinds of lace knotting and tambour work; and in ;;encral make up their own dresses, following tlie j)revailiri^- fashions of Kngland, brought iVoni time to time by the female passengers bound to India. The Dutch plmters or farmers farther up the coimtry, are remark- able for their indolence and sensuality, and too many of them for their moroseness, and tlie severity and cruelty with wliich they treat the Hottentots, their slaves. They, however, possess one virtue, that ot" liospitality to strangers, in an eminent degree, and in gx-neral are„or aflcct to be, very religious. Cape-lown, the capital of this colony, and indeed the only assem- blage of houses which deserves the name of a town, is pleasantly situate at the head of Table-bay, on a slopin^s^ plain that rises with an easy ascent to the feet of tlie Pevil's-hill, the Table-mountain, and the Lion's-head before-mentioned. The town, consisting of about 1 100 hotiscs, built with regularity, and kept in neat order, is disposed into straight and parallel streets, intersecting each other at right angles. Many of the streets are open and airy, with canals of water running through them, walled in, and planted on each side with oaks ; others are narrow and ill-paved. Three or four squares give an openness to the town. In one is held the public market ; another is the common resort of the peasantry with their waggons; and a third, near the shore of the bay, and between the town and the castle, serves as a parade for exercising the troops. I'he barracks, originally intended for an hospital, for corn magazines, and wine cellars, is a large, well designed, regular building, which, with its two wings, occupies part of one of the sides of the great square. The upper part of this build- ing is sufficiently spacious to contain 4000 men. The castle affords barracks for 1000 njen, and lodgings for all the officers of one regi- ment; magazines for artiileiy, stores and ammunition ; and most of the public officers of government are within its walls. The other public buildings are a Calvinist and a Lutheran church ; a guard- house, in which the burglier-scnate, or the council of burghers, meet for transacting business relative to the interior police of the town ; a large building in <vhicli the government slaves, to the number of r>30, are lodged; and the court of justice, v»'hcre civil and criminal causes are heard and determined. The population of the town is estimated at about 6000 whites, inclusive of the military, and 12,000 slaves: — that (;!' the whole colony, exclusive of the town, is estimated at only 1 j,.000 whites. Between tlie tov/n and I'able-mountain are scattered over the plain a number of neat houses surrounded by plantations and gardens. Of these the largest and nearest to the town ir, that in "whicli the govornmcnt-house ii erected. It is in length near 1000 yards, and contains about 10 acre?; of ricia land, divid'^d Into almost as many squares by oak hedges.* The government of the Cape is administered by a Dutch govcrnoj: * Barrow, COUNTRY OF THE IIOTTENTO 1 ». Od •ml lieutenant-governor, assisted by a council. Over each of the four districts there is a civil magistrate, called the lanJr st^ who with six ht-mniatLii, or a cuuncil of country burghers, is vested with powers to re,\j;ulate the police; oF his district, superintend the afiairs of govern- ment, adjust litigatifjus, and determine petty causes. Their decisions, iunvcver, are subject to an appeal to the court of justice in Capo-town, in which the basis of the proceedings is the Roman or civil law. '['he southern extremity of Africa was discovered by the Portuguese navigator Baitholoniew Uiaz, in HDS, who gave it the name of Cabo Turnnntoso, or the cape of storms, from the boisterous weather which he met with near it ; but Emai\ucl, king of Portugal, on the return oi Diaz, changed its name to that of the Cape of Good Hope, from the hope he entertained of finding beyond it a passage to India. This hope was fulfilled by Vasco de Gama, who, having doubled this cape on the 'iOth of November, 1 1'97, proceeded to India, and landed at Calicut on the '22d of May, 1498, The Portuguese, however, made no settlement in this part cf Africa, nearer to the Cape than the banks of the Ilio Infante, now the Great Fish River, wiiicU is ()00 niiles distant from it. In IGOO the Dutch first visited it, but for many- years only touched at it in their voyages to and from the East Indies, to supply themselves with water and fresh provisioiis. At length, in I()'3(), A surgeon of one of their India ships, named Van Riebeck, pointed out to the directors of the Dutch East Lidia company the great advantages wliich would be derived from establishing a settle- ment at tl\is place. The company adopted his plan, and sent out four ships under his command to commence the settlement he had advised. V^'^ith some presents of brass, toys, beads, tobaccn, and brandy, he purchased of the natives permission to build a fore and form a settle- ment in tlit'ir country ; and from that time the Cape remained in the undisturbed possession of the Dutch, during the space of nearly 150 years, till it surrendered by capitulation to the British arms, under general Alured Clark, and admiral sir George Keith Klphinstone, on the Kith of September, 1795. It was, however, restored bv the treaty of Amiens, and is now again in tlie possession of the Dutch. . ufi COUNTRY OF THE HOTTENTOTS. THE country of the Hottentots is a large region in the southern extremity of Africa, extending north by west from the Cape of Good Hope, beyond the mouth of Orange-river, and from the Cape in an east-north-east direction to the mouth of the Great Fish-river. The Hottentots of the colony of the Cape, formerly the possessors ftf the country, are now almost to a man the slaves of the Dutch. «♦ This weak people," says Mr. Bartow, " the most helpless, and in their present condition, perhaps tlie most wretched of the human race, duped out of their possessions, their country, and finally out of their liberty, have entailed upon their miserable offspring a state of exist- ence to which that of slavery might bear the comparisqn of happiness. It is a condition, however, not likely to continue to a very remote posterity. The name of Hottentot will he forgotten, or remembered only as that of a deceased person «f little note. Their numbers of «oo COUNTRY or the HOTTENTOTS. latr ycirs h:ive rapi>ily dcclitK'd." There arc still, howovor, several tribes to which the general name of f-Iojteiitoi* is given, as the l^am«iqTia:;, the Bosjcsmans, and tljc Gonaciuas, who still proservc their independonce. The former vary but little in their persons and dress from the Hottentots of the Cape and the Gonaquas, though their langn.i^^c is widely different. I'he Bosjesmen, or tr:«n nf the hushes t $0 CiUlcd from their lying in ambn-ih in tlieir predatory expcditioni against iho farmers of the colony, " are," says Mr. 13arrow, " an ex- traordinary race c\{ people. In their persons they are extremely diminutive : the tallest of thr vc\>ix\ mea'Utred only four feet nine inches, and the tallest woman only four feet four inciies. One of these, who had several children, measured only three feet nine inches, Their C(4our, tht^ir haij, and the goneral tiirn oi their features, evidently denote a common origin witli the other tiibes of Hottentots, thou;^h the latter, in point of personal appearance, have greatly the advan- tage, 'llie Hosjesmen indeed are amongst the ugliest of all Inmian beings. The flat nose, high cheek-bones, prominent chin, and con- cave x-isage partake much of the apeish character, which their keen eye, always in motion, tends not to diminish. Their bellies are un- commonly protuberant, and tlieir backs hollow ; but their limbs seem to he in general well turned and well proportioned. I'heir activity is incredibly great. ""I'lie klip-springing antelope can scarcely excel them in leaping from rock to rock, and they are said to be io swift that on rough ground, or up the sides of mountains, horsemen have no chance with them. The Bosjesman. however, though in every respect a Plottentot, yet in his turn of mind differs very widely from those who live in the colony. In his dis{)osivion he is lively and cheerful, and in his person active. His talents are far above mediocrity; and averse to idleness, he is seldom without employment. Confined generally to their hovels by day, for fear of being surprised and taken by the farmers, they sometimes dance on moon-light nights from the setting to the rising of the sun. This cheerfulness is the more extra- ordinary as the morsel they procure to support existence is earned with danger and fatigue. The Bt)sjesmen neither cultivate the ground nor breed cattle, and their country yields few natural pro- tiuv.tions that serve for food. The bulbs of the iris, a few roots of a hitter and pungent taste, and the larvas of ants and locusts are all it Airnisliesj and when these fail they are driven to the necessity of hizardiug a toilsom.e and dangerous expedition into the colcaiy. Of the Conaqu;is and Hottentots in general, we shall give an ac- count from M. \\.,llant, a lute French traveller: — " During the tlurty-six hours wliicli I spent (says M. Vaillant) vith the Gonaqua .Hottentots, 1 had time to make several observations concerning them. I remarked that they made a clapping noise with their tongue, like the rest of the Hottentots. When they accost any one, .they stretch forth the hand, saying Tahcl I salute you. This word and ceremony, which are employed by the CafFres, or KafFers, are not .used by the Hottentots properly so called, " This affinity of customs, manners, and even conformation ; their • beintr so near Great CalFraria, and the accounts I afterwards received, ♦ This name, accordin;:; to Mr. Barrow, is unknown to the Ilottcnlots, except a. dicy have rccvivi';! it %oui the Dutch, and has noplace or menniii* in their language. The genera! name which they bear among thcmselvc^j iii every part of the country, is Q,uui<jua. COUNfTRY OF THE HOTTENTOTS. 801 convinced me that the!;e hordes of Gonaquas, who equally resemble the CaftVes and the Hottentots, must be a miied breed produced by ihcK two nations. The drebs of the men, arranged with more sym- metry, has the same shape as that of the Hottentots ; but as tlie Gonaquas are a little taller, they make their mantles of calves' instead of sheeps' skins ; they are bolh called kross. Several of them wear, hangin/i; from their necks, a bit of ivory, or very white sheep bone; and this contrast of ihe two colours produces u good cfFect, and is very becoming. " When the weather is excessively hot, the men lay aside every part of their dress that is supertluouJ, and retain only what they n;une their jackals. This is a piece of skin of the animal so called, with which they cover what nature bids them conceal, and which is fastened tp their girdle. This veil, ln»wever, negligently arranged, may be considered as an useless appendage, and is of very little service to their modesty. The wnmen, much fonder of dress than the men, employ more care in adornintj their persons. They wear a kross like the latter, but the'apron wliicb conceals their sex is larger than that of die Hottentots. During the great heats they retain only this apron, with a skin which descends behind from their girdle to the calf of the leg : young girls below the age of nine years go perfectly naked ; when they attain to that age, they wear nothing but a small apron. *' Whatever may be the extent of the deserts of Africa, we must not form any calculation respecting its population from those innu- merable s .varms of blacks which are found on the west, and which border all the coast of the ocean from the Canary isles to the environs of the (ape of Good Hope. There is certainly no proportion to enable us to hazard even a conjecture ; since by a trade approved by a few, and held in detestation by the greater number, the barbarous, navigators of Europe jiave induced these negroes, by the most vil- lanous attractions, to give up their prisoners, or those who are inferior to them in strength. As their wants ii'creased, they have become inhuman and perridious beings: the prince has sold his subjects; the mother has sold her son ; and nature, as an accomplice, has rendered her prolific. " This disgusting and execrable traffic is, however, still unknown in the interior parts of the continent, i he desert is really a desert ; and it is only at certain distances that we meet vi'ith a few hordes, that are not numerous, and who live on the fruits of the earth, ani the produce of their cattle. After finding one horde, we must tra- vel a great way to find another. The heat of the climate, the dryness of the sands, the barrenness of the earth, a scarcity of water, rugged and rocky mountains, ferocious animals ; and, besides these, tlie hu- mour of the Hottentots, a little phlegmatic, and their cohi tempera- ment — are all obstacles to propagation. When a father has six children, it is accounted a phaenomenon. *' The country of the Gonaquas, into which I penetrated, ^id not therefore c vitain three thousand people in an extent of thirty or forty leagues, 'i'iiese people did not resemble those degenerated and miserable I lottentotr;, who pine in the heart of the Dutch colonies, contemptible and despised inhabitants, who bear no marks of their ancient origin but an empty name ; and who enjoy, at the exp^r.>;e of their liberty, only a little peace, purchased at a dear rate, by the excessive labour to wJiich tlu-y are subjected on the plantations, and by tiie despotism of tlicir chiefs, wlio are always sold t© government. ■■'. .-.'■: m t^'i^^ t'ik [!' n I ;: ^02 COUNTRY OF THK HOTTKNTOTS. 'M f III': r ;l;i' w 1 II. id li?re an opportunity of adniirin^ a free and brave penpfpv Viiluing notliiinf but iuJcpi-iulei-.cc, and never obi- \ iiicj any inipuls* loiei^^n to n.tttire. ♦* '1 lioir huts, cnnf'trufted like th(;se ni' tlic 1 Inttt-ntnts in tlit colo- nics, '.••c'le tigiit (ir nine leet in di.inictcr, and were covercil witli on or hlitcp skins, but nunc Cdmmonly ivlih rn;!ts. Tiicy had *inly «ine ( penlnp, verv n:irro\v and Unv ; and it v.-.i.s in tliL- middle of their iuit tli.it the larrjilv kiudieil tlu-ii iire. I'he thick Miu-keivithAvhichtiiese kennels were hlled, and which liad nnolher vent but the iloor, added t'> th'-stenvh wliich tiiey always retain, would have SiiHed any European who m!^i;lil liave had the courage to ren.ain in them two minutes ; custom, however, renders all tliis snjiportablc to these sava;;es. " The two colours for which tliey show tiie jirreatcst fondness are red and black. The first is composed t)f a kind of ochrey earth, vhich is found in several places oi tlie country, and whith they nii>- and dilute with t^vca.sc ; this earth has a great resemblance to briek- dust, or tiles reduced to pouusr. 'J'lieir black is nothin^i; slse than soot, or the charcoal ot tender wood. Some wometi, indeed, are contented with painting only the prominence of thtf cheeks ; but in general ihey daub over their wli.»ie body, iji conipartn)ents, varied' witli a certain dtgree (if symr/ietry : and tliis part of tlieir dress re- tjuires no small length of time. 1 he.se two c(^lours, so mucli admired- by the Hottentots, are always perfumed with the powder of the bouglnni, which is not very agreeable to llie smell of an European^ A Ht)ttentot would, pcrliaps, find our odours and essences no ksj; insupportable; but the bnughoii has over our rouge and pastes the- advantage of not being pemJcioiis to the skin, fe)f not attacking and injuring the lungs ; and- the iemal? Hottentot, who is acquainted •wiiii neitlier amber, musk, twr ben/.oin, never knows \vhat it is to be oppressed by vapours, spasms, and the head-ache. Tlie men never paint their iaces, but they use a preparation made of both colours mixed to paint the upper lip as far us the nostrils ; by v.-hich they enjoy the advantage of contiiuially inhaling the odour of the sub- stance employed for this purpose. Young girls sometimes favour their lovers so far as to apply this paint for them under the nose j and on this point they show a kind of coquetry, which has a very powerful inlluence over the heart of a Hottentot novice. The reader, iiowever, mu^t not ir.fcT that the Hottentot womea pay so much attention to dress as to neglect those daily and v^eful occupations to which nature and their us.iges eall them. Separated from l.urope by an imrrensity ot sea, and from the Dutsh cf)lonios l)y desert moun- tains and impassable rc>cks, too much eummumcation ^'ith thesf:.'- people has not yet led ihem to the excesses of our depravation. On the contrary, when they have the happiness of becoming mothers. Nature addresses them in a dilFertnit language; they assume, more than in any other country, a spirit suitable to their state, and reH«.Iily give themselves up to those cares which she imperiously re- quires of tliem. " They are remarkably fond of hunting, and in«lhis exercise they display great dexterity. Besides gins and snares, which they place at convenient spots to catch large animals, they lie in wait for them aLo, attack them as soon as they appear, and kill them with their ipoisnv.ed arrows, or their assagays, which arc a kind of lances. Ou ihe Hrst view of their arrows, one would .not suspect how destructive weji|»ous they are ; their smaUness renders them so nmch the mori COUNTRY OF THE HOTTENTOTS. 803 tiangerous, as it is impossible to perceive and follow them with the eye, and consequently to avoid them. The slightest wound which they make always proves mortal, it" tiie poison reaches the blood, and if the flesh he torn. The surest remedy is to amputate the wounded part, it" it be a limb; but it' the wound be in the body death is uu- avoidable. The assi^'^ay is generally a very ("coble weapon in the hands of a Hottentot ; but, besides this, its length renders it not dan- gerous, for as it may be seen cleaving the air, it is nut diihcult to avoid it. " The Hottentots have not the least notion of the elements of agri- culture; they nei:hcr sow nor plant, n^jr ilo they even reap any crop. When they choose to give themselves tlie trouble, they make an in- toxicating liquor composed of honey and a certain root, which they suffer to ferment in a sufficient quantity of water. This liquor, vhich is a kind of hydromel, is not their usual beverage, nor do tliey ever keep a stock of it by them. Whatever they have, they drink all at once, and frequently regale themselves in this manner at certain periods, 'i'hey sn.ioke the leaves of a plant wiiich they name du^hct and nor dakdt as some authors have written. TJii"; plant is not indi- genous : it is the hemp of Europe. There are some of the savages who prefer these leaves to tobacco ; but the greatest part of them are fond of mixing both together. They set less value on the pipes brought from Europe, than on those which they fabricate themselves ; the former appear to them to be too small. " Though they rear abundance of sheep and oxen, they seldom kill the latter, unless some accident happens to them, or old age has rendered them untit for service. Tlieir principal nourishment, there- fore, is the milk of their ewes and cows, besides which they have tin? produce of their hunting excursions, and from time to time they kill a sheep. To fatten their animals, they employ a process, which though not practised in Europe is no less efficacious, and has this peculiar advantage, that it requires no cave. They bruise, between two flat stones, those parts which we deprive them of by the knife ; and wlien thus compressed, they acquire in time a prodigious bulk, and become a most delicate morsel when they have resolved to sacri* fice the animal, " Those»oxen which they intend for carryuig burdens must be broke and trained -very early to the service, otherwise they would become absolutely untractable. On this account, when the animal is »tiU young, they pierce the cartilage which separates the nostrils, and thrust through the hole a piece of stick about eight or ten inches in lengtlj, and almost an inch in diameter. The task of milking the cows and the ewes belongs to the women : and, as they never beat or tormenc them, they are surprisingly tractable. " ( )f their sheep and kine each village has one common herd ; every inhabitant taking it in his turn to be herdsman. This charge requires many precautions very different from those which are taken by our l:erdsmen, beasts of prey being much more numerous and fierce in tl:e southern parts of Africa than in Europe. Lions, indeed, are not very common ; but there are elephants, rhinoceroses, leopards, tigers, hyaenas, and several kinds of wolves more destructive than ours, to- gctlier with niany other furious animals that abound in the forests, and occasionally make excursions tov/ards the Cape, and destroy th« tame cattle. To prevent these misfortunes, it is the business of the herdsman to go or send every day round his district, in order \m dis- ■VI t-M-'ifl rf ;-mM a "3 '^^l!;,: !'-: r^ilil !li , i! !<;<?; "i: f;; il'^^r!' ,w,; :( .i: 80* COUNTRY OF T»^ HOTTENTOTS. cover If any beast of prey be lurking in that quarter. In which cas^ lie assembles the whole village together, and makes his report; when a party of the stoutest among them arm themselves v/ith javelinj and poisoned arrows, and follow tlie person who may have discoverec? the beast, to the cave or covert wlieve he is lodged. Here they ar- range themselves in two lines; the herdsiTi:in entsiing the cave, and t-mleavouring to provoke the btast to follow him out, when he i» inevitably destroyed. " Th<'se savages measure the year bv the seasons of dronght and rainy weather. This division is common to all the inhabitants of the tropical regions, and it is subdivided mto moons ; but they never count the days if they exceed ten, that is to say. the number of their fingers.. Beyond that, they mark the day or the time by son)e remark- able occurrence : for example, an extraoi-dinary storm, an elephanE killed, an infectious disorder among the cattle, an emigration, &c. 'J'he different parts of the day they drstingirish by the cojirse of the sun ; and they will tell you, poinihig with their finger. He was ihers when I departed, and /jerewhcn I arrived. " A sense of delicacy induces tlie Hottentots to keep thcmselve.') separate from others when they are sick. They arc then seldom seen, and it would appear that they arc ashamed of having lost their health. " When a Hottentot dies, he is btiried in his worst kross, and tiie- limbs are disposed in such a manner that the whole body is covered. The relations then carry it to a certain distance from the horde, and disposing it in a pit dug for this purpose-, and which rs. nevei' deep, cover it with earth, and then with stones, if any are to he found in the neighbourhood. Sudi a mausoleum proves but a very weak de- fence against the attacksof the jackal and the hygena: the body indeed is soon dug up and devoured. However badly this last duty may be discharged, the Hottentots are not much to be blamed, when we call to mind the funeral cereraonres of the ancient and celebrated Parsis, still att; ched to the custom of exposing their dead on the tops of high towers, or in open cemeteries, in order that the crows and the vulture* may feed upon them and carry them away in morsels. The children, and, failing them, the nearest relations of the deceased, take posses- sion of whatever is left j but the quality of a chief is not hereditary. He is always appointed by the horde, and his power is limited, liv their councils his advice prevails, if it be judged good; if not, no regard is paid to it. When they itre about to go to war, they know neither rank nor divisions ; each attacks or defeiuis after his own manner ; the most intrepid march in the van : and v/lien victory da- clares itself, they do not bestow upon one man the honour of an action which has proved successful by the courage of all : it is the whole nation that triumphs. *' Of all the people whom 1 ever saw^ (observes our author,) the Gonaquas are the only natio-n that can be considered as free; but they will perhaps be soon obliged to remove to a greater distance, ov receive laws frt)m the Dutch government. All the land to the east being in general good, the planters endeavour to extend their pos. sessions in that quarter as much as th.ey can, ant. their avarice doubt- less will some day succeed. Misery must then be the portion of thes^ happy and peaceable people ; and every trace of their liberty will be destroyed by massacres and invasions. Thus have all those hnrde» meutioned by old authors been treated ; and, by being often difimctn- COUNTRY OF THE HOTTENTOTS. 805 n which cas^ oport; when •vith javelin J e ciiscovt^recf iere they ar- hc cave, and ^vhen he i* jronght and itants of the they never bur of their nie rcmark- n elephanir ration, &c, ^iirse of tlie ie was /has thcmselve."* ddonj seen, lost tlioir Jss, and the is covered, horde, and aevei- deep» U' found ia y weak de- ody /"ndeed lUy may be len we call ted Parsis, >ps of high le vulture* e children, ike posses- lercditary. "vited. ];» iTnot, no hey know _ his own V Ictory de- 'i»r of an •• it is tho >ior,) tJie ree; bur 'tance, o:-> the oast icir po;;. ^e doubt- t of these* i will he e hnrdej iifiniem- l^rcd and weakened, they are now reduced to a state of abst^lut'^' dependence on the Dutch. The existence of the Hottentof;, thti'. Manics, and dieir history, will therefore in time be acccnnited fibuhvv- , ui.lcif, some traveller, who may possess curiosity enough to indue; iiini i() discover their remains, slnnild have the couraj^e lo pcnclnitt \:'Xo tlic remote deserts inhabited by the tjreat Nimiquiis, wiierc r; cl:', more and more hardened by time, and old and barren mountains, do not produce a single plant worthy to engage the attention of the speculative botanist. " A pJiysiognomist, or, if the reader pleases, a modern wit, would entertain his company by assigning to the Hottentot, in the icale of beings, a place between a m;m and the ouran-outang. I cannot, howevtir, consent to this system:;tic arrangement ; the qualities which T esteem in him will never suffer him to be degraded so far ; and I have found his figure sufficiently beautiful, because I experienced the goodness of his lieart. It must indeed be allowed, that there is tiomt thing peculiar in his features, wliich in a certain degree separates ^lini i'rom the generality of mankind. His check-bones are exceed- ingly prominent; so that his face being very broa-l in that part, and tlie jaw-bones, on the contrary, extremely narrow, his visage conti- nues still decreasing even to the point of the chin. This configuration l^ives him an air of lankiv^ss, which makes his head appear very mudi disproportioned, and too small for his full and plump body. His flat nose rises scarcely half an inch at its gieatest elevation; and Iiis jiostrils, which are excessively wide, often exceed in height the ridge of his nose. His mouth is large, and furnished with small teeth \\\W enamelled and perfectly white : his eyes, very beautiful and open, incline a little towards the nose, like those of the Chinese : and to tl;e sight and touch Jiis hair has the resemblance of wool; it is very bliort, curls naturally, and in colour is a; black as ebony. He has very little hair, yet he employs no small care to pull out by the roi»ts part of what he has ; but the natiaral thinness of his eye-brows s,i\. s liim from this trouble in that part. Though he has no beard but upon the upper lip, below the nose, and at the cxtrcaiity of the chi;), he never fails to pluck it out as soon it appears. This gives him an ■effeminate hwk ; which, joined to the natural mildness of his cha- lacter, destroys that commanding fierceness usual among savages. The women, Avidi movn delicacy of features, exhibit the satne <:har:'.cteristic marks in their figure; rhey arc equally well made. Their breasls, admirably placed, have a most beautiful form while in the bloom of youth: and their hands are small, and their feet ex- ccediugly well shapetl, though they never wear sandals. The sound of their \H)ice is ^ol'c ; and tlioir idiom, passing through the throat, is not destitute of harmoriy. When tliey speak, they employ a great many gestures, which give power and gracefulness to their arms.'' The Hottentots are naturally timid ; their pldegmatic coolness, and tlieir serious looks, give tboiii an air of reserve, which they never Iriy aside, even at the most joyful moments ; while, on the (Contrary, all other black or tawnv nations give themselves up to pleasure with tlie liveliest joy, and WMth^ut any j-cstraint. A profound indiifen-nee to the affairs of life inclines them very mncji to itractivity and indolence: the keeping of their flocks, and the care ' «.)f procuring a subsistence, are tlie only objects that occupy their thoughts. They never follow hunting as sportsmen, but like peoplr oppressed and Lcimcniod by huntjcr. In short, forgetting the past, •«i: (J ■1. • I !.f' ;■{ ■-'i m V- f 806 CAFFRARTA. I . i ;;^ s I ■ ''■ II. and being unJt-r no uneasiness for the future, they are struck onljr with the present ; and it is that which alone c:ig;iges their attention. They are, however, (observes M. Vaillant) the best, tlie kindest, and the most hospitable of people. Whoever travels anion^i^ thorn may be assured of finding food and lodging; and though they will receive presents, yet they never ask for any thing. If the traveller has a long" journey to accomplish, and if tliey learn from the in- formation he requires that there r.re no hopes of his soon mectinrj with other hordes, that which he is going to cjuit supply him with provisions as far as their circumstances will allow, and with every thing else necessary for his continuing his journey, and reaching the place of his destination. Such are these people, or at least such did they appear to me, in all the innocence of manners and of a pastoral life. They excite the idea of mankind in a state of infancy. This favourable character of the Hottentots in general is confirmed by Mr, Barrow, who says of them " Low as they arc sunk in the scale of humanity, their character seems to have been much traduced and misrepresented. It is true there is noihing prepossessing in tJie appearance of a Hottentot, but infinitely less so in the many ridi- culous and false relations by which the public have been abused. They are a mild, quiet and timid people ; perfectly harmless, honest, faithful; and though extremely phlegmatic, they are kind and affcci tionare to each other, and not incapable of strong attachments. A ' Hottentot wotild share his last morsel with his connpanions. 'Jhey have little of that kind of art or cunning that sava,':es generally possess. If accused of crimes of which they have been guilty, they {generally divulge the truth. They seldom quarrel among themselves, or make use of provoking language. Though naturally of a fearful and cowardly disposition, they will run into the face of danger, if led on by their superiors ; and they suffer pain with great patience. They are by no means deficient in talent, but they possess little ex- ertion to call into action ; the want of which has been tlie prlncipitl cause of their ruin." CAFFRARIA. m Vt-i 1'^ * ■ I' , i fn,'. THE country known by the general denomination of CafFiaria is a very extensive region, bounded cu the north by Ncgroland and •j^byssinia ; on the west by part of Guinea, Congo, and the sea ; on the south by the Cape of Good Hope ; and on the east by the sea. It h divided into several territories and kingdoms, of which little is known, and is computed to be 700 miles long, and fifiO broad. The men among the Cuffres (or KafFers,) says lieutenant Paterson, arc from five (e^^ ten inches to six feet high, and well proportioned, and in general evince great courage in attacking lions or any beasts of prey. The colour of the Caffrcs is a jet black, their teeth wluteas ivory, and th'-ir eye<; large. The clothing of both sexes is nearly the same, consistii:g entirely of the hides of oxen, which arc as pliant as cloth. l.»^«. CxM'FRARlA. 807 The TTicn wear tails of ilifForcnt animals tied round their 'Lhic.] is ; j):eccs of brass in tlioir liair, and larp;c' ivory rini?;s on tlieir arms : tlioy uve alio adorned with the hair of lions, and iciihcrs fastened on their heads, viih nsany other fantastical ornaments. I'h.jy are extremely fond of do^s, ^'''hich they exchani^^e for cattle ; ;i;v.l to such a heijHi't; do they carry this passion, that, il' one piirtiru- liiily pleases them, tivy will i^ive two bal!f)cks in exchange for if. Tluir whole exercise tiiraugh the d;iy t*i hunting, !)i;hti!i;;, or d.mc- ing. Tliey arc expert in throving their lances; and in time of war use shields made of the hides of oxen. The women a'-e employed in ike enlti'/atinn of their gardens and rn. They cultivate several vegetables, which are not indigenous con to th-^ir country ; such as t<ib.tcco, water-melons, a sort of kiJi^ey hems, and hemp. The women, also niaice baskets, and tliC ma'.s Av';ich they slce^:) an. The men have great pride in their cattle; t!:ey c'lt their horns in such a way as to be able to turn them into any sliape tlicy please; and they teach them to answer a whistle. Wli.'n iliey V. ish tl;eir cattle to return homo, they go a little way from the house, ■s..\\'l blow thio small instiument, v\hich is made of ivory or bone, a.ui so con!?tnieted as to be beared at a great distance, and in this manner bririg all their cattle home ■■^ ithout any^di/Henlty. 'I he soil of this country is a blackish loamy ground, and so cv- treniely fertile, that every vegetable sui>btance, whether sown or planted, grows here v/it^h great luxuriance. Tliere are great varia- ricins in thiC cliimito ; bv.t 1 had no thcrmjineter to oliserve the de- crees of lieat. It lielJoir. r?.ms exceut in the sum nur season, wlien It is accoijipanitd vmh thunder and lightning. Tiie country, how- ever, is extremely well supplied v, itli water, not only from tb.e high \w\A towards the north, wliich furnishes abundance th'-ouihont tiie year, but from many fountains of excellent water, which are found ill the woods. From v/hat I observed in this country, I am induced to believe, that it is greatly superior to any other knmvn part of Africa. The woods prodi-Ke a vjcriety of arboreous plants, and some of a great iize ; they are inhabited by elephants, buffaloes, occ. Tliere ■W'i.re also vHvieties cyf beautiful birds and butterflies; but they v/eie so shy, that 1 was able only to preserve two bi-rds of that to'uitry. To judge of the CafTres by thnse I had seen, says M. Vaillant, tliey are taller than the Hottentots of the colonics, or even than the Go- naquas, th(uigh they greatly rcseinijle the latter, but are metre robust, and possess a "reater dtgree of jiride and courage. ''J"'he f<.\itures of the Cadres are likewise rnoi-e agreeable, ntnie of tlieir faces rontract- ii\g tow.irds the bi^ttom, nur do tlie chcek-boites of these pcop'e |)ro-. i'ect in the nncontli 'nianticr of the Hottentots; neither have they large flat fa^rcfi'and thic'k lips like their neighbours, the negroes of Mosambiquc, hi; t a well forru/.'d contour, an agreeable nose, \\A\\\ eyes sparkling and expressive : so that, setting aside our prejudice v^ith regard to colmir, there are many women among them who might be thought handsome by t!ie side oi' an European lady. They do not disfigure tliemselve^ by liaubiag their eye-l)rows, like the ITottentots, but are very much t;lttocd, particularly about the face. 'I'hc hair of the CailVes, whicli is strong ami curling, is never greased, but they anoint tlie rest of their bodies, with a view tif mak- ing themselves active and s'rong. The men are more particular in <ij4;orationa than the wumon, Wing very fcnid ',f beads and braks \ \ '•' r ! y ! r I I \ ''.k3 w S06 CAIFRARIA, 1 , r ft 'I; rings. They are seldom seen without bracelets on their le^s and arms, Tnade of the Uisks of an elephant, which they saw to a conve- nient thickness, and then polish and i.nind. As these rings cannot 1)6 opened, it h necessary to make them big enough to pass the hand through, so that they fall or rise according to the motion of the arm : ?^metimes they place small rings on the arms of their children* whose growth soon fills up the space, and fixes the ornament ; a cir- cumstance which is paUicnlarly pleasing to them. They likewise make necklaces ofthe bones of animals, which they polish and whiten in the most perfect manner. Some content theni- Jtelves with tlie legjjone of a sheep hanging on r.ljc breast. In the wzrm season the CafFres only wear their ornament? • when the wea- ther is cold they make use of krosses mr -]e of the skins of calves or oxen, which ^each to the feet. One particularity which deserves at- tention, and does not exist elsewhere, is, that the CafFre women care Jittle for ornaments. Indeed, they are well made, and pretty, when compared to other savages j and never use the uncouth profusion of Hottentot coquetry, not even wearing copper bracelets. Their aprons, like those of the Gonaquas, are bordered with small rows of beads ; which is Che only vani*^ 'ley exhibit. The skiji that the female H-itentot ties about the loins, the Caffre ■woman wears as high as her shoulders, tying it over the bosom, which it covers. They have, like the men, a kross, cr cloak, of calf or ox skin, divested of the hair; but it is only iri the cold or rainy season that either sex wear it. These skins are as soft and pliant as the finest stuffs. Let the weather or season prove ever so bad, neither men nor women cover their heads. Sometimes, indeed, I have seen the head of a Caffre adorned with a feather stuck in the hairj but this sight is by no means common. One part of the daily occupation of the women is makirg earthen- ware, which they fixshion as dexterously as their husbands; they likewise make a curious kind of baskets, of a texture so compact as to contiun milk ; and tliey also prepare the fields for seed, scratching the earth, rather than digging it, with wooden pick-axes. The huts of the Caffres are higher and more commodious than those of the Hottentots : they form perfect hemispheres, and are composed of wooden work, very strong and c^mpacti covered both "vwtliin and without of a mixture of earth, clay, and cow-dung. The opening, or door- way, is so low, that to enter the dwelling you must crawl on your hands and knees; which makes it easier to defend themselves against animals, or the sudden attacks of an enemy. The hearth, or fire-place, is in the centre, surrpunded by a circular rim which rises two or three inchest The lands of Caffraria, either from their situation or the nuntbcr of small rivers that refresh them, are more fertile than those of tlic Hdttentots. 'I'he Caffres practise agriculture; which proves they are not naturally wanderers. I have remarice J, continues M. Vaillant, that, notwithstanding the beautiful forests that adorn Caffraria, and delightful pastures which spring up and almost cover the animals which feed on them ; not- "vvithstanding those rivers and streams which cross each other in a thou«;Hnd different directions, to render them ricii and fertile; their oxen, their cows, and almost all their animals, are much smaller than those o{ the Hottentots; — a difference which undoubtedly arisen from the nature of the sap, and a certain flavour predominant in their hgs arxj »w- to a conve- ^'"gs cannnc pass the hand >n of the arm: icir children, imcnt ; a cir- i> which they ontent them, east. In the len the uea- of calves or ileserves at- ^"omen care >i'ett y, when profusion of ets. Their Ja!! rows of the CafFre 'Jom, wiiich f ca]f or ox n'ny season snt as the •«J» neither have seen ^airj but p: earthen- "ds; they ampact as cratching ious than and are -red both i^g- TJie ►'"u must o defend ly. l^he ular rim number :e of tJic es they '»ng the i which )j not- ler in a ; their -r than arise* ant in CAFFRARIA. SQ9 every Icind of j^ass, I have made the observation bnth on domestic nnd wild animals, which never acquire the size of those bred In the dry barren countries I have passed through. Indaitrv is a leading trait in the cliaracter of the C.iffrcs. Some arts, taught indeed by necessity, a love of agriculture, with a few religious dogmas, distinguish them as a more civili'-'d people tliau those towards the south. Circumcision, which is generally practised among them, proves tliat they either owe their origin to an ancient people, or have simply imitated the inhabitants of some neighbouring country, oi whom they have no longer any remembrance; they do not use it (as they say) in any religious or mystical sense. They acknowledge a Supreme Being, and believe in a future state, whei-e the good will be rewarded, and the wicked punished ; but have no idea of tlio creation, thinking the world had no beginning, and will ever continue in its present state. They have no sacred ceremonies. They instruct their own children, having no priests | but, instead of them, a kind of sorcerers or conjurors, whom they greatly distinguish and revere. The Caffres are governed by a chief or king, whose power is very limited, receiving no tax, having no troops at liis command, but be- ing the father of a free people ; neither attended nor feared, but respected and beloved, and frequently poorer than many of his sub- jects. Being permitted to take as many wives as he pleases, w'jo think it an honour to belong lo him, it is necessary that he should have a larger portion of land to cultivate, and a greater number ( f cattle to tend and feed : these being his only resources for the mnin- tonance of his numerous family, he is frequently in danger of being ruined. His cabin is neither higher nor better decorated than the rest ; his v\'hole family and seraglio live round him, composing a group of a do/cn or fifteen huts: the adjoining lands are generally of Ins own cultivation. it is a custom among tlie CafFres, for eacli to gather his own grain, which is their favourite nourishment, and which they grind or crush between two stones ; for which reason, the families living separiitely^ each surrounded by his own plantation of corn, occasions a small horde sometimes to occupy a le;^j;ue square of ground j a circum- stance never seen among the Hottentots. The distance of the different hordes makes it necessary that they should have chiefs, who are appointed by the king. When there is any thing to communicate, he sends for .and gives them orders, or rather information, which the chiefs bear to their several hordes. The principal weapon of the CafFre is the lance, or a^^saygay ; v^hich shows his disposition to be at once intrepid and noblp, despis- ing, as below his courage, the envenomed dart, so much in us? among his neighbours ; seeking his enemy fare to face, and never ilirowing his lance but openly. In war he carries a shield, of ahour ;' -ce feet in height, made of the thickest part of the hide of i burr.iko ; this defends him from the arrow, or assaygay, but is not [ivu i' ;b;;,iinst a musquet-ball. The CafTre also manages v^itli great skill a club of about two feet and a half long, made of a solid piece '.f wocd. three or four inches thick in the largest paft, and gradu.iil) c'lnurushlng iowards one of the ends. VViien in a close ep;:;np.emeiit, they :;irike ancc oi' fificen or I , I'U [' •: w'ith this weapon, or frcqueally throw it to t!iC dist twtiiiy paces J in v.hicb ^,i<^ d ioldom failK otih'^ in ntcr.J*-o iUxcu fJIO EASTERN COAST of AFRICA. I;;...; The sovereignty here is hereditary, the eldest r.on ahv;iys r'.iccecdin^. In default oi male heirs, it is not the king's brother that siiccft-Js, l>ut the eldt'St ni'p)hew ; and in cnse the kino; slunild l):ive neither children nor nephews, the chiefs of the diHertnt horcle.' elect d kin_e. ITpon these occasions a spirit of party somelmv-s prevails, v.Iiich jjives rise to factions and intrij;ues t.hat genfrally end in bloodshed. Polygamy is customary amoncj the CalTres ; thtir maniages nre even more simple than those of the Hottentots, the parents of the bridej;room being always content with Ijis choice ; tlie friends of the bride are rather more difiiciilt, but seldom relus« their consent ; after which they rejoice, driiik, and dance, ft.r weeks togetljcr, ac- cording to the wealth of the lamilies ; but the.-.e feasts are never held but on die first espou&ils, 'I'hcy have no liiusical instr\inienis, but such as are used by the Hottentots. As lor their dances, the step is not unlike the English. At the death of the father, the sons and the mother divide the property he has 1-ft between them. The daug!;tcrs, rlviiming no- thing, remain at home with th^ir mother or brother, unless it pleases some man to take them ; and if this circumstance takes pLioe during tlie life of the parents, they receive cattle in proportion to the wealth of their father. The dead are seldom buried, but carried awny from tlie kraal, by their family, and deposited in a deep trench common to the whole horde on such occasions, where the wild beasts rep;iir :ir leisure ; which preserves the air I'rom those noxious vajmurs which otherwise the putrefaction would occasion. The honours of burial arc due only to the king or chief of a horde ; they cover these br.dies with piles of stones in the fonu of a dome. i 1^* 1 : '.'i' i>^.iv ' EASTERN COAST of AFRICA. ON the Eastern coast of Africa, proceeding northwards from the Cape of Good Hope, we find the country of Sofala, where the rortu- guesc have a settlement of great importance for their trade to the East-Indies, which is protected by a fort built on a small island near the mouth of a river. The natives of Sofala are for the most part black, with short curled hair, there being but very few tawny or brown among them. Those on the coast speak the Arabic language, for they are not the original natives, but descendants of Arabs >vho settled on this coast. Sofala, accordlig to the report of the Portu- guese settlers, contains some gold mines of considerable value. To the northward of Sofala is Monomotapa ()rMocaranga,a country lying between the 15th and 20th degrees of south latitude. The climate is teniperate, and the soil fertile in rice and sugar-canes, wliich last grow without cultivation. There are here vast herds of elephants, and great numbers of ostriches. This country possesses mines of gold and silver. 'l"he inhabitants are negroes. Like most of the other nations of Afric;i, they admit of unlimited polygamy; and the king is said to have above a thousand wives, most of tlicm the daugh- ters of pett)p» chiefs. The army of the king consists only of Ijot, for tliere are no horses in the country. I'he Portuguese had a scttle- Dient here in ]3G0, but they were all murdered or forced away. P' ii'ii EASTERN COAST of APRTCA. sn BoyoudMocaninp^a, still prncccdini^ northw.'irJ, stretches the cjc- tonsivc country of Zangueh.ir, containing tlie kingdonis of Mosam- i>:que, iVleliuda, and several others. Mosanibiqne consists ot iliri'e isjaiids, on the west side of -x channel of the same name. The prin- cipal, which is not more tlian three miles in length, and iialf as much in breadth, is ahoiittwo miles from the continent. It was seized hj the Portuguese in 1 IDTj a.nd they have kept possession of i: ever since. —The capital of this island, named likewise Mnv;irnbique, is larg'* and well fortiiled, having a strong citadel to detcnd tJie h.irbour. The Pcvtuguese generally keep a. strong garrison liere ; an J^ trade ■with the natives Jor gold, elephants teetU, and slaves. Tlu*y have built severaji churclies and monasteries, and a large hospital ior sick sailors. Their ships always call here in going to the East Indies, and the harbour is so commodious that v hole fleets may anchor and provide themselves with all necessaries. Mosambique is siiuateJ in lat. 13 deg. 5 tnin. south, Ion. 40 deg. lOniin. east. The kingdom of Melinda produces gold, elephants' teeth, ostrich feathers, wax, ahjes, senna, and other drugs ; also plenty of rice, sugar, cocoa-nuts, and other tropical fruits. Tiic natives are son;e of them black, and some tawny ; the women are mostly of an ohve complexion. Their dress, among the liigher classes, is remarkably elegant ; for they never appear abroad but in fine silks girt witli rich gold or silver girdles, collars and bracelets of the same, or soineihiuj^ more valuable, and tlieir heads covered with veils. The meu wear a ^ind of turban ; in other respects tiielr dress consists of a piece of cotton wrapped about the middle, and descending a littlj below the k:.ees ; their legs, feet, and the rest of the body are quite bare. Tlie meaner sort, and those who live farther from the coast, wear little else than a piece of cloth round the middle, if we except t):iir shield and weapons, wiiich are the bow and arrows, tlie scymctar and ja- velin. Their government is monarchical ; and in such veneration is the king held by his subjects, tliat, whenever he stirs out fr(mi his palace, he is carried in a sedan on the shoulders of four or more of the greatest nobles of the kingdom ; and incense and other pcrfunies are burned before him, as he goes through the streets of any city, hv a great number of ladies, who sing songs in liis praise, accompanied by various kinds of musical instruments. The popuh^tion of the kingdom is estimated at a-bout 200,000 persons. With respect to re- ligion, the generality are Pagans, some are Mahnmedans and some Christians, converted by the Portuguese, who have in the capital (hkewise named Melinda) seventeen churches, nine convents, and warehouses well provided with European goods. The city is sur- rounded by fine gardens, and has a good harlwur defended by a lent ; but the entrance is dangerous, on account of the great number of shoals and rocks under water. The country of Ajan is the boundary of Zanguehar townrds the north. It lies between lat. tl deg. and IL* df^. north, e\tending fi «nn the river Magadoxo to Cape Oardafui, and contains several states or kingdoms; the principal of which are Adel or Zeila, and Magadoxo, the inhabitants of both which are Mahomedans. All the eastern coast of Ajan is said to be sandy and barren, but to the north the country is more fertile. The kings of Ajan are frequently at war with the emperor of Abyssinia, and sell the prisoners which they take : they trade likewise in ivory, gold, and h^r&cs of An «xcellcut bK'ed. "I U'. !fl «' i.'wm mM ( ^12 ) 'i'. AFRICAN ISLANDS. i!-r:^ ;S 'l 'I ■ OF the African islands, some lie in the Eastcrr, or '^isdian Ocr':i, and sou\c in the Western, or Atlantic. We shall hec;in withthdse in the Indian Ocean ; the chief of which are, Zocf.trn, habehnandtl, Madagascar, the Comora islands, Bonrbnn, and rtauritius. ZOCO'I'RA. This island is situate in east long. 5.5 ; north lat. 1'2. thirty Icagncs east of Cape Giinrdafui, on the continent of Africa : it is eighty miles ten:-;, and fifty-four Inroad, and has t\vo good harbours, where the Eurf>pean sliips nscd formerly to put in when they lost their passage to India. It is a popul()u<;, plentiful country, yielding most of the fruits and plants that are usually found vithin the tropics, together with frankincense, gum-tra^'aca.nth, and aloes. The inhabitants are Mahoniedans of Arab extractioii, and are under the government of a prince, or sheik, who is probably tii- biitary to the Porte. BABELMANDEL. The island of Babclmandd gives name to the strait at the entrance of the Red Sea, where it i.s situate in east long. 44. 3f). north lat. 12 ; about four miles both from the Arabian and Abyssinian shores. The Abyssinians, or Ethiopians, and the Arabians, formerly contended with great tury for the possession of this island, as it commands the entrance int,o the Red Sea, anil pre- serves a communication with the ocean. This strait was foinicrly the only passage through which the commodities of India found tlu.Mr way to Europe ; but since the discovery of the Cape of G;>fid Hope, the trade by the Red Sea is of little importance. The island is of little value, being a barren sandy spot of earth not nve miles round. COMORA. These islands are five; .Foanna, Mayotta, Mohilla, Angazei, and Comora, situate between 41 and 46 cast long, ami between 10 and 14 south lat. at an etjual distunce from Madaga.scin and the continent of Africa. .Joanna, or Ilin^uan, the chief, and which exacts tribute from the others, is about thirty miles long and fifteen broad, and affords plenty of provisions, and such fruits as «rc produced between the tropics. East India ships, bound to Bom- bay, usually touch here for refreshments. The inhabitants are ne- groes, of the Mahomedan religion, and entertain our seamen with great humanity. MADAGASCAR. This is the largest of the African islands, and is situate between 4.'J and 51 deg. east long, and between 12 and 2f> south iat. 300 miles south-east of the continent of Africa ; it being nearly 1000 miles in length from north to south, and gene- rally between 200 and r-'OO miles broad. The sea rolls with grejit rapidity, and is extremely rough, between this island and the con- tinent of the Cape of Good Hope, forming a channel or passage, through which all European ships in their voyage to and from India generally sail, unless prevented by storms. Madagascar is a pleasant, de.-.irable, and fertile cour>try, abounding in sugar, honey, vines, fruit-trees, vegetables, valuable gunis, corn, c;)ttle, fowls, precious stones, iron, some silver, copper, steel, and tin. It affords an agreeable variety of hills, valleys, woods, and cham- paign ; watered with numerous rivers, and well stored with fish. The air is generally temperate, imd suid to be very lieakliy, though AFRICAN ISLANDS. 815 C^niwitJi these in » Babelm.imlcl, iritiiis. • 5.5 ; north Int. c coiuinsnt (,f J> :»nd hds two icriy to pwt in iilous pleiuifu! ■e usually found ra;,';icaiitli, and ?xtracfi(,n, and ^ probably tii- ;!i_ves name tb situate in east ^ the Arabian 'iars, and the :' possessioii of ^ea, and pvc- vyas fornierly iia found their ' Gofid Hojie, ^ island is of niil'-s ronnd. f'tta, Mol)ill;i, ast long, ant! Mada^ra.scav le chief, and lies long and inch fruits as und to Bom- tants are ne- seamen with ican islands, between 12 of Africa ; » and gene- s vvith great nd the Con- or passage, from India , abounding films, corn, steel, and and cham- -with fish, y, though \r\ A Ivot climate.' The inhabitants are of different corriplexinns and religions ; some white, some negroes ; some Mahomedans, ';ome Paguns. The whites and those of a tawny complexion, who inhabit tlic coasts, are descended from the Arabs, as is evident from thi'ir language and their religions riles ; but here are no mosques, temples, nor any stated worship, except that they offer sacritices of beasts on particular occasions; as when sick, when they plant yams, or rice, when they hold their assemblies, circumcise their childien, declare war, enter into new-built houses, or bury their dead. Stmie of their ceremonies and- practices resemble the Jewish, whence it is conjee, tured they are descended from Jews who formerly settled here, thongh none knows kow, or when. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, and the French took possession of it in UMl ; but the people disliking the government, they were driven out in 1652; since which the natives have had the sole possession of the island, under a number of petty princes, who make war upon each other for slaves and plunder. MAUKinUS, or Maurice, was so called by the Dutch, who first touched here in 159H, in honour of prince Maurice their stadt- holder. It is situate in east long. 5($, south lat. 20, about 400 miles east of Madagascar. It is ot an oval form, about 150 miles in circumference, with u fine harbour, capable of holding fifty large sliips, secure against any wind that blows, and 100 fathoms deep at tlie entrance. The climate is extremely healthy and pleasant. 'I'he mountains, of vliich there are many, and some so high that their tops are covcrci with snow, produce the best ebony in the world, besides various oti^er kinds of valuable wood, two of v.hich greatly resemble ebony in <,nality ; one red, the other yellow as wax. The island is watered w'ch several pleasant rivers, well stocked with fish, and, though the ioil is none of the most fruitful, yields plenty of tobacco, lice, fruit, and feeds a great number of cattle, deer, goats, and sheep. It was formerly subject to the Dutch, but is now in the possession of the French. BOURBON. Tlie isle of Bourbon is situate in east long. 5K south lat. 21, abotit ^500 miles east of Madagascar, and is about 90 miles round. 'I'hcre are many good roads for shipping round Bour- bon, particularly on the north and south sides ; but hardly a single Jvarbour where ships can ride secure against those hurricanes which blow during the mo' 300ns. Indeed the coast is so surrounded with blind rocks, sunk a few feet below the water, that coasting along shore is at all times dang^TOUS. On the southern extremity is a vol- cano, which continually tiirows out flames and smoke, with a hide- ous roaring noise. The climate here, thongh extremely hot, is healthy, being refreshed with cooling gales, that blow moiiiing .inJ evening from the sea and land : sometimes, however, terrible hurri- canes shitke the whole island almost to its foundation ; but generally without any other bad consequence than frightening the inhabitants. The island abounds in brooks ancl springs, iiid in fruits, grass, and cattle, witii excellent tobacco (which tlie French have planted thei-e), aloes, white pepper, ebony, pitlm, and other kinds of wood and fruit- trees. Many of the trees yield odoriferous gums and resins, particu- larly henzoia of an excellent sort, in great plenty. The rivers .Ire Well stocked with ^ish, the coact with land and sea tortoises, and tvery pait of the country with horned cattle, as w«jll as hogs and go'tii. Amber^:»!!;rf», cor.ilj iud the most beautiful ihells, are t'oUnd uLd i-'i ;■ . .i,..ti.i ^i- t'; iiMi. rl ^^ ;i 4 .1 1 Sll AFRrCANISLANT)*?. r\ ' 1 J I upon the sliore. The woods are full of turtle dove-, parOqnetjf, pigeons, aiul a great variety of niher birJs, beautiful to t.he eye and- pleasant to the palate*. The French fir^t settled here in the year 1H72, after they were driven from the island of Madagascar. They have now some considerable towns in the island, with a <;ovcrnoi-. Since the revolution they Iiave given it the name of Rcum'^n. There are a great many more small i.dauiis about Madagascar and on the eastern coast of Africa, laid down in maps, but no where described. Leaving tiiereforc the eastern world and the Indies, wc now turn round the Cape of Good Hope, whicli opens to our view the Atlan- tic, an immense ocean lying bctwecm the two grand divisions of the globe, having Europe, Asia, and Africa, or the old world, on tlie east ; and America, or the new world, on the west ; towards which division we now steer our conrse, touching in our way at the follow- ing islands upon the African coast, that have not yet been described, viz. St. Helena, Ascension, 8t. Matthew, St. Thomas, &c. Gorcc, Cape Verd, the Canary and Madeira islands. St. HELENA. The first island on this side the Cape is St. He- lena, situate in west long. .5. 49. south lat. l.l. 5.3, being 1200 miles west of the continent of Africa, and 18(X) east of South America. The island is a rock, about twenty-one miles in circum- ference, very high and very steep, and only accessible at the landin^c^ place, in a small valley at the east end of it, which is defended by batteries of guns planted level with tlie water ; and as the waves are perpetually dashing on the shore, it is generally difiiculi landing" rven there. I here is no other anchflrage about the island but at Chapel Valley Bay ; and as tlie wind always blows from the soiith- east, if a ship overshoots the island ever so little, she cannot recover it again. The English plantations here aiforci potatoes and yams, with tigs, plantains, bananas, grapes, kidney-beans, and'Indian corn : of the last, however, most part is devoured by rats, which harbour in the rocks, and cainiot be destroyed ; so that the fkmr they use, is almost wholly imported from England ; and in times of scarcity choy generally eat yams and potatoes instead of bread. Though the isl.md appears on every side a hard ba.-ren rock, ret it is agree- ably diversified with hills and plains, adorned with plantations of fruit-trees and garden vegetables. They have great plenty of hogs, bullocks, poultry, ducks, geese, ^nd turkeys, with which they suppi) the sailors, taking in exchange shirts, drawers, or any light cloths, pieces of calico, silks, muslin, arrack, sugar, &c. St. Helena is said to have been first discovered by the Portuguese in 1502, on tlie festival of the empress Helena, mother of the emperor Constantino the Great, whose name it still bears. It does not appear that the Portuguese ever planted a colony here : and the English East India company took possession of it in 1600, and held it. without interruption till the year ItiT-), when the Dutch took it by .surprise. However, the English, under the command of captain Munden, recovered it again within the space of a year, and at the same liu.e took three Dutch E.isl India ships that lay in the road. There arc about 200 families m the island, most of them descended froni English parents. The East India ships take in water and fresh provisions here in their way home ; but the island is so small, and tlie wind so much against them, outward-buuud» that they tlien very seldom see it. AFRICAN ISLANDS: SIJ iox-c, paroqaet.^," ul to i.he eye iind- Iieic in the year Ja^,'ascar. TJit'y With a j^'ovcrnor. Reuni'jn. ■out Madagascar ps, but no where e;3. wc now turn view the Atlari- ih'vihions of the J world, on tl)e towards wliich y at the follow- been describee?, as, &c. Gorcc, ^ape is St. He< ■•', being 1200 Kist of' South liles in circum- ' at the landin^i^ ii defended by the waves are fficult landing- 'i island but at oni the south- annot recover ■^es and yams, Indian corn : ^'hkh harbour r they use, is es of scarcity <d. Though et it is agree, plantations of ?nty of hogs, : they supply light cloths, ' Portuguese tlie emperor s not appear the English and held it h took it by ! of captain _ and at the in the road. I descended r and fresh small, and y tlien very The conip:iny's alTairs arc hme managed by a governor, deputy- governor, and srore-kc'eper, who have standing salaries allowed by the company, besides a public table, well furnished, to which all cofunnindcrs, ur.isters of ships, and principal passengers, are well oine. ASCENSION. This island i;; situate in 7 dt^. 57 min. south lilt, and l;i deg. .';!> niin. west long. fiOO miles north-west of St. Helena : it received its name from its being discoveretl by the I'or- tagucse on Asctnsion-day, and is a mountainous barren island, Hl)out twenty miles round, and uninhabited; but it has a safe conve- nient harbour, wiiere the East India ship« generally touch to furnish themselves with turtle or tortoises, which are very plentiful here, and vastly Lirge, some of them weighing above 100 pounds each. Th'» sailors going ashore in the night-time frequently turn two or three hundred of them on their backs before morning ; and are snmetimes so cruel as to turn many more than they use, leaving them to die on the shore. St. MATTHEW. This is a small island lying m (>. 1 west long» and 1. iJO south lat. 300 miles to the north cast of A',^:ension, and was also discovered by the Portuguese ; who planted and kept pos- session of it for some time, but aftei wards deserted it. This inland )iow remains uninhabited, having little to invite other nations to iettle there, except a small lake of fresh water. I he f(H»r following islands, viz. St. THOMAS, ANABO \, PRINCE'S ISLAND, and FERNANDOrO, are situate in the gulf of Guinea, l)«tween Congo and Benin : ail of them v.-ere rirst discovered by the Portuguese, ai^d are still iu the possession of that nation, and furnish shipping with fresh water and provisions as they pass by. CAPE VERD ISLANDS. These islands are so called from a cape of that name on the African coast, near the river Gambia, over against whicli they lie, at the distance of ,'i()0 miles, be; ween 'J.i and2() deg. west long, and ll and 18 deg. north lat. I'hey were first discovered I?-" the year 1 i()0, by the Portuguese, ;ind areabont twenty in number ; but some of them being only barren uninhabited rocks, are not worth notice. St. Jago, Bravo, Fogo, Mayo, Bonavista, Sal, St. Nicholas, St. I^ucia, St. Vincent, Santa Cru/., and St. An- tonio, are the most considerable, and are subject to the Portuguese. The air, generally speaking, is very hot, and in some of them very unwholesome. They are inhabited by Europeans, or the descendants f f Europeans and negroes. St. Jago, where the Portuguese viceroy resides, is the most fruit- ful, best inhabited, and largest of them all, being 1 JO miles in cir- cumference ; yet it is mountainous, and has much barren land in it. Its produce is sugar, cotton, SM^miO wluc, Indian corn, cocoa-nuts, granges, and other tropical fruits, plenty of roots, and garden vege- tables ; but the phmt of most conse([uenve to them is tlie madder, v.hich grows in abundance among the cliffs. Here is also plenty of hogs and poultry, and some of the preLtie:;t green monkeys, with black faces, tiiat are to be met with any where. Baya, or Praya, (famous for an action between an F.nglish and French scpiadronj) is situate on the east side, has a good port, and is seldom without ships ; those outward-bound to Guinea or the East Indies, from England, Holland, and France, often touching here for water and refrssh- nienti. .J: "m ^ ■r ^, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I l^|2B 125 |50 ^"l W^ 1^ Uii 12.2 u: liii 1.25 14 ill 1.6 V] n f w J^ ^j^ j^ ^ ^^^^' '> 7 .-iC^-^V Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 11$ APRICAN ISLANDS. ^ :? lllil m% In th* islan<S of MAYO, or MAY, immense quantities of sfcit are made by the heat of the sun from the sea-water, which at spring tides is received into a sort of pun formed by a sand>bank, whicn runs alongv the coast for two or three miles. Here the English carry on a considerable trade for salt, and have commonly a man of war to guard the vessels that come to load with it, which in some years amount to a hundred or more. The salt costs nothing, except for raking it together, wheeling it out of the pond, and carrying it on asses to the boats, which is done at a very cheap rate. Several nf our ships come hither for a freight of asses, which they carry to ^aibadoes and other British plantations. The inhabitants of this island, even the governor and priests, are all negroes, and speak. the Portuguese laiiguage. The negro governor expects a small present frum every commander that loads salt, and is plsased tu be invited aboard their ships. The sea- water is so clear on tliis coast, that an b'.nglish sailor who dropped his watch perceived it at the b»)ttom, though many fathoms deep, and had it brought up by one of the natives, who are in general expert at diving. The island of FOGO is remarkable for being a volcano, con- tiilually sending op sulphureous exhalations ; and sometimes the flame breaks forth like ^tna, in a tenible manner, throwing out pumice-stones that annoy all the adjacent parts- GOREE is situate within caunot-shot of Cipe Verd, in N. lat. li. 4.'J, W. long. 17. 20, and was so called by the Dutch from an island and town of the same name in Holland. It is a small spot Mot exceeding two miles in circumference; but its importance arises i'rom its situation for trade so near Cape Verd, and it has been tlierc- fore an object of contention between European nations. It was rirst possessed by the Dutch, from whom, in 16f)3, it was taken by the English ; bnt in 1663 it was retaken by the Dutch, and in 16H7 buhUiied by the French, in whose possession it remained till the year 175$>, wlien the British arms, every where triumphant, again reduced it ; hut it was restored to the Frencli at the treaty of peace in I7fj3. It was retaken by the English in the iinicricau war, but given up again by the peace of 1783. CANARIES. '1 he Canaries, anciently called the Fortunate ialanJs, are seven in number, and situate between I'iand 19 deg. weft Ipng. and between '27 and 2i> deg. north lat. about 15() miles south- west of Morocco. Their particular names Ate Palma, Hiero, (jomera, Tenerifte, Grand Canaria, Fuertcventura, and Langarote. Tiicse islands enjoy a pure temperate air, and abound in the most dtlicious fruits, especially grapes, which produce those rich wines that obtain the name of Canary, of which thv greatest part is e>;- poned to England, to the amount, it is computed, in time of peace, of 10,()00 hogsheads annually. The Canaries produce those little beautiful birds that bear their name, and are now so common and bo much admired in Europe. Grand Canary, which communicates its name to the whole, is about 160 miles in circumference, and so extremely fertile as to produce two harvests in a year. Toncrifi'e, the largest of tliese islands next to that of the Grand Canary, is about 120 miles n und : a fertiJc country, abounding in corn, wine, and oil, though it is pretty much fncumbeied with mountains, particularly the Peak. Captain Glass observes, that in coming in with this island, in clear weather, the Peak may be easily diiicerucd at 120 miles distance^ AFRICAN ISLANDS. 817 n rrf skit are artd in sailing from it at 150. Tlie peak is an a<:cent in the form of a sugar-loaf, about fifteen miles in circumference, and, accord- ing to the account of Sprat, bishop of Rochester, publislied in the Philosophical Transactions, nearly three miles perpendicular; but lately ascertained to be only 1;3,'265 feet. This mountain is a volcano, and sometimes throws out such quantities of sulphur and melted ore, as to convert the richest lands into barren deserts. These islands were first discovered and planted by the Cartha< ginians ; but the Romans destroying that state, put a stop to the navigation on the west coast of Africa, and the Canaries lay con* cealed from the rest of the wojld, until they were again discovered by the Spaniards in the year 1405, to whom they still belong. It is remarkable, that though the natives resemble the Africans iil their stature and complexion, when the Spaniards first came among them, their language was different from that spoken on the conti- nent ; they retained none of their customs, were masters of no science, and did not know there was any country in the world be- sides their own. MADEIRAS. The three islands called the Madeiras are situate m a fine climate, in 32-27 north lat. and from 18-30 to 19*30 west long, about 100 miles north of the Canaries, and as many west of Sallec, m Morocco. The largest, from which the rest derive the general narrie of Madeiras, on account of its being formerly almost covered with wood, is about seventy-five miles long, sixty broad, and 180 in cir- cumference. It is composed of one continued hill of a considerable height, extending from east to west ; the declivity of which, on the south side, is cultivated, and interspersed with vineyards ; and in the midst of this slope the merchants have fixed their country-scats, which form a very agreeable prospect. There is but one consider- able town in the whole island, which is named Funchal, seated on the south part of the island, at the bottom of a large bay ; towards the sea it is defended by a high wall, with a battery of cannon, and is the only place where it is possible for a boat to land ; ^nd even here the beach is covered with large stones, and a violent surf continually beats upon it. Though this island seems to have been known to the ancients, yet it lay concealed for many ages, and was at length discovered by the Portuguese in 1519 ; but others assert that it was first discovered by an Englishman in the year 1 34-4. Be that as it may, tlie Portuguese took possession of it, and are still almost the only people who inhabit it. The Portuguese, at their first landing, finding it little better than a thick forest, rendered the ground ca-^ pable of cultivation^ by setting fire to this wood ; and it is now very fertile, producing, in great abundance, the richest wine, sugar, the most delicious fruits, especially oranges, lemonJt, and pome* granates ; together with corn, honey,- and wax : it abounds also with boars and other wild beasts, and with all sorts of fowls, bo- lides numerous groves of cedar trees, and those that yield dragon's blood, mastic, and other g&ns. The inhabitants of this isle make the best sweetmeats in the world, and succeed wonderfully in pre- serving citrons and oranges, and in making marmalade and per- fumed pastes, which exceed those of Genoa. The sugar they make is extremely beautiful, and smells naturally of violets. This indeed is said to be tlie first place ia the west where that manufacture was . -■- 3G -•-- i'^ i filS AFRICAN ISLANDS. .1.!',. li r: i ill ^i'N il set on foot, nnJ from thence was carried to the Braslls in America, The Portuguese, not finding it so prorttable as at first, have rooted up the greiites*; pa.t of their sugar-canes, and phmted vineyards in their stead, which produce several sorts of excellent wine, particu- • larljr that which bears the name of the island. Malmsey, and Tent ; of all which the inhabitants make and sell prodigious quantities. Not less than i.'0,000 hogsheads of Madeira, it is said, are yearly exported, the greatest part to the West Indies, especially to Bar- badoes ; the Madeira wine not only enduring a hot climate better than any other, but even being improved when exposed to the sun in barrels after the bung is taken out. It is said no venemous animal can live here. Of the two other islands, one called Porto Santo, which lies at a small distance from Madeira, is about eight miles in compass, and extremely fertile. It has very good harbours, where ships may ride with safety against all winds except the south- west, and is frequented by Indiamen outward and homeward-bound. The other island is an inconsiderable barren rock. AZORES. Leaving the Madeiras, with which we close the ac- count of Africa, we continue our course westward, through this immense ocean, which brings us to the Azores, or, as they are Galled, tlie Western Islands, situate between 25 and 32 deg. wcsn long, and between S7 and 40 north lat. 90() miles west of Portugal, and as many east of Newfoundland, lying almost in the mid-way between Europe and America, 'i'hey are nine in number, and are named Santa Maria, St. Miguel or St. Michael, Tercera, St. George, Graciosa, Fayal, Pico, Florcs, and Corvo. They were discovered in the middle of the fifteenth century, by Joshua Vander Berg, a merchant of Bruges in Flanders, who, in a voyage to Lisbon, was, ' by stress of weather, driven to these islands, which he found desti- tute of inhabitants, and called tlvem the Flemish islands. On his arrival at Lisbon, he boasted of this discovery ; on which the Por- tuguese set sail immediately and took possession of them, whicli f' tbey still retain. They were called in general tlie Azores, from the great number of hawks and falcons found among them. All these islands enjoy a very clear and serene sky, with a salubrious air, bur are exposed to violent earthquakes, from which they have fre- quently suffered ; and also by inundations of the surrounding waves. • They are, however, extremely fertile in corn, wine, and a variety of fruits; they also abound in cattle, fowls, &c. It is said that no poison- ous or noxious animal breeds on the Azores, and that, if carried thither, they will expire in a few hours; St. Michael, which is the largest, being near 100 miles in circum- ference, and containing 50,000 inhabitants, was twice invaded and plundered by the English in the reign of queen Elizabeth. Tercera is the most important of these islands, on account of its harbour, which is spacious and has good anchorage ; but it is exposed to the south-east winds. Its capital town, Angra, contains a cathedral and five churches, and is the residence of the governor of thes* islands, as. well as of the bishop. ./ ■.■■:( • 1 ft J - v.- 'A ( 819 ) AMERICA. ITS DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST. WE arc now to treat of a country of vast extent and fertility, and which, though little cultivated by the hand of art, owes in manjf respects more to that of nature that any other division of the globe. The particular circunnstances of this country require that we should in some measure vary our plan, and, before describing its present state, afford such information with regard to its discovery as is most necessary for satisfying our readers. Towards the close of the 15th century, Venice and Genoa were the only powers in Europe who owed their support to commerce. An interference of interests inspired a mutual rivalship ; but in traffic Venice was much superior. She engrossed the whole com- merce of India, then, and indeed always, the most valuable in the world, but hitherto entirely carried on through the inland parts of Asia, or by the way of Egypt and the Red Sea. In this s;ate of affairs, Christoval, or Christopher, Colon, more generally known by his Latinized name Columbus, a native of Genoa, whose know- ledge of the true figure of the earth, however attained, was much superior to the general notions of the age in which he lived, con- ceived a project of sailing to the Indies by a bold and unknown roate, and of opening to his country a n,ew source of opulence and power. But this proposal of sailin? westward to the Indies was re- jected by the Genoese as chimerical, and the principles on which it was founded were condemned as absurd. Stung with disappoint- ment and indignation, Columbus retired from his country, and laid his scheme before the court of France, where his reception was still mor« mortifying, and where, according to the practice of that peo- ple, he was laughed at and ridiculed. Henry VII. of England wat his next resort; but the cautious politics of that prince were the most opposite imaginable to a great but uncertain design. In Por- tugal, where the spirit of adventure and discovery about this time began to operate, he had reason to expect better success. But the Portuguese contented themselves with creeping along the coast of Africa, and discovering one cape after another: they had no idea of venturing boldly into the open sea. Such repeated disappoinyt- ments would have broken the spirit of any man but Columbus. The expedition required expence, and he had nothing to defray it. Hi^ mind, however, still remained firm ; he became the more intent on his design the more difficulty he found in accomplishing it, and was inspired with that noble enthusiasm which always animates an ad- venturous and original genius. Spain was now his only resource ; and there, after eight years' attendance, he succeeded, and chiefly through the intereA of queen Isabella. Columbus now set sail, anno 14<92, with a fleet of three ships, upon the most adventurous attempt ever undertaken by man, and in the fate of which the inhabitants of two worlds were interested. In this voyage he had a thousand dif- ficulties to contend with ; the most formidaole was the variation of the compass, then first observed, and which seemed to threaten that the laws of nature were altered in an unknown ocean, and that the onlv guide he had left was ready to forsake him. His sailors, al- 3 G 2 820 AMERICA. 5l^- \ i If vays disccntcjuted, now broke out into open mutiny, threatening to tlinnv him oveiboiird, and insisted on their return. But the firm- ness ot the commander, and much more the discovery of land after a voyage of S'i days^ put an end to the commotion. Columbus first landed on one of the Bahama islands ; but here, to his surprise and sorro\\', discovered, from the poverty of the inhabitants, that these could not be tlie Indies he was in quest of. In steering southward, however, he found the island whieh he called Hispaniola, or St. Domingo, abounding in all the necessaries of life, inhabited by a humane and hospitable people, and, what was of still greater con- sequence, as it insured his favourable reception at home, pro- mising, from some samples he received, considerable quantities of gold. This island therefore he proposed to make the centre of his discoveries ; and, having left upon it a few of his companions, as the ground-work of a colony, returned to Spain to procure the ne- cessary reinforcements. The court was then at Barcelona : Columbus travelled thither from Seville, amidst the acclamations of the people, attended by '&omc of the inhabitants, the gold, the arms, the utensils, and orna- ments, of the country he had discovered. Tliis entry into Barce- lona was a species of triumph more glorious than that of conquerors, mure unconmion, and more innocent. In this voyage he luid ac- quired a general knowledge of all the islands in the great sea which divides North and South America ; but he had no idea that there was an ocean between him and China. The countries which he Iiad (discovered were considered as a part of India. Even after the error which gave rise to this opinion was detected, and the true position of the new world was ascertained, the name has remained, and the appellation o( the H^ut India is given by all the people of Europe to the country, and that of Indians to its inhabitants. Thus were the West Indies discovered by seeking a passage to the East ; and, even after the discovery, still conceived to be a part of the eastern hemisphere. The present success of Columbus, his former disap- pointments, and the glory attending so unexpected a discovery, ren- dered the court of Spain as eager to forward his designs now, as it had been dilatory before. A fleet of seventeen sail was immediately prepared : ull the necessaries for conquest or discovery were em- barked ; 1500 men, among whom -were several of high rank and fortune, prepared to accompany Columbus, now appointed gover- nor with the most ample aiitliority. It is impossible to determine whether the genius of this great man, in first conceiving the idea of these discoveries, or hi '. sagacity in the execution of the plan he had conceived, most deserves pur admiration. Instead of hurrying from sea to sea, and from one island to another, which, considering the ordinary motives to action among mankind, was naturally to be expected, Columbu?, with such a field Lciuie him, unable to turn on either hand without finding new objects of his curiosity and his pride, determined rather to turn to the advantage of the court of i^pain the discoveries he had already made, than to acquire for him- self the unavailing applause of visiting; a number of unknown conn- tries, from which he reaped no other oenefit but the pleasure of see- ing them. With this view lie made for Hispaniola, where he estab* lished a colony; and erected forts in the situations most advan- tageous, for securing the dependence of the natives. Having spent i considerable time in this employment, and laboured for establish- AMERICA. 8-21 thrcafening to But the firm- y of land after Columbus first is surprise and nts, that these ng southward, laniola, or St. ihabited by a II greater con- t home, pro- e quantities of centre of his jmpanions, as rocure the ne- yrelled thither attended by ils, and orna- •y into Barct- *f conquerors, e he luid ac« eat sea which ea that there which he luid ifter the error true position ned, and the le of Europe Thus were ; East ; and, f the eastern ormcr disap- scovery, ren- is now, as it immediately ry were em- :h rank and tinted gover- to determine 5 the idea of plan he had irrying from tsidering the irally to be ible to turn )sity and his the court of lire for him- nown conn- isurc of sec- ire he estab* lost advan- aving spent ;)r establish- ing this colony, with as much zeal and assiduity as if his views had extended no further, he next proceeded to ascertain the importance of his other discoveries, and to examine what advantages were most likely to be derived from them. He had already touched at Ciil)a, which, from some specimens, seemed a rich discovery ; but whether it was an island, or a part of some great continent, he was alrngcthcr uncertain. To ascertain this point was the present object ot his attention. In coasting along the souihern shore of Cuba, ColiinibiK was entangled in a multitude of islands, of wliich he reckoned KJO in one day. These islands, which were well inhabited, and abound- ing in all tlip necessaries of life, gave him an opportunity of rcHoct- ing on this fertility of nature where the world expected nothing hut the barren ocean : he called them Jiirdin de in Rdna, or the Queen's Garden, in gratitude to his royal benefactress, who was always present to his memory. In the same voyage, Jamaica was dis- covered. But to so many difficulties was Columbus exposed, on an iniknown sea, among rocks, shelves, and sands, that he returned to Hispaniola without learning any thing more certain with regard to Cuba, die main object of this enterprise. By the first success of this great m:w» the public diffidence was turned into admiration ; but, by a continuance of the same success, admiration degenerated into envy. His enemies in Spain set every spring in motion against him ; and there is no difficulty in finding specious grounds of accusation against such as are employed in thQ execution of an extensive and complicated plan. An officer was dispatched from Spain, fitted by his character to act the part of a spy and informer, and whose presence plainly demonstrated to Co- lumbus the necessity of returning to Europe, in order to obviate the objections or calumny of his enemies. It was not without great difficulty that he was enabled to set out on a tliird expedition, still more famous than any he had hitherto undertaken. He designed to stand to the southward of the Canaries until he came under the otiuinoctial line, and then to proceed directly westward, that he might discover what opening that might afford to India, or what new islands, or what continent, plight reward his la- bour. In this navigation, after being long buried in a thick fog, and suffering numberless inconveniences from the excessive heats and rains between the tropics, they were at length favoured with a smait gale, and went before it seventeen days to the westward. A i the end of this time, a seaman saw land, which was an island, on the coast of Guiana, now called Trinidad. Having passed this island, and two others which lie in the mouth of the great river Oronoco, the admiral was surprised with an appearance he had never seen before : this was the frightful tumult of the waves, occasioned by a conflict between the tide of the sea and the rapid current of the im- mense river Oronoco. But saihng forward, he plainly discovered that they were in fresh water: and judging rightly that it was im- probable any island should supply so vast a river, he began to sus- pect he had discovered the continent ; but when he left the river, and found that the land continued on the westward for a great way, he was convinced of it. Satisfied with this discovery, he yielded to the uneasiness and distresses of his crew, and bore away for J^Iis- paniola. In the course of this discovery, Columbus landi d at so- yeral places, where in a friendly manner he traded with the inhubi* *nts, and found gold and pearl in tolerable plenty. 1' ♦1 m 'i A :1 I ^22 AMERICA. yi p6" ' i About this time the spirit of discovery spread itself widely, and many adventurers all over Enrope wished to acquire the reputation of Columbus, without possessing his abilities. The Portuguese dis« covered Brazil, which makes at present the most valuable part of their possessions : Cabot, a native of Bristol, discovered the north- east coasts, which afterwards composed the British empire in North A^merica : and Amerigo Vespuccio, a merchant of Florence, sailed to the southern continent of America, and, being a man of address, had the honour of giving his name to half the globe. But no one is now imposed on by the name ; all the world knows that Colum- bus, or Colon, was the first discoverer. The being deprived of the honoiir of giving name to the new world, was one of the smallest mortifications to which this great man was compelled to submit ; for such were the clamours of his enemies, and the ingratitude of the court of Spain, that, after discovering the continent, and making tettlements in the islands of America, he was treated like a traitor, and carried over to Europe in irons. He enjoyed, however, the glory of rendering the one half of the world known to the other ; a glory so much the more precious, as it was untainted by cruelty or plunder, which disfigured all the exploits of those who came after him and accomplished the execution of his plan. He fully vindicated himself at court, was restored to favour, and undertook another voyage, in which he suffered great fatigues. He returned to Spain, and died at Valladclid, in 1506, in the 59th year of his age. The succeeding governors of Cuba and Hispaniola endea- voured to purchase the same advantaE;es by the blood of the natives, which Columbus had obtained by his good sense and humanity. These islands contained mines of gold. The Indians only knew where they were situate : and the extreme avarice of the Spaniards, too furious to work by the gentle means of persuasion, hurried them to acts of the most shocking violence and cruelty against those un- happy men, who, they believed, concealed from them part of their treasure. The slaughter once begun, they set no bounds to their fury ; in a few years they depopulated Hispaniola, which contained three millions of inhabitants ; and Cuba, that had about 600,000. Bartholomew de las Casas, a witness of those barbarous depopula- tions, says that the Spaniards went out with their dogs to hunt after men. The unhappy savages, almost naked and unarmed, were j)ursued like deer into the forests, devoured by dogs, killed with gun-shot, or surprised and burnt in their habitations. The Spaniards had hitherto only visited the continent. From what they saw with their eyes, or learned by report, they conjectured that this part of the new world would afford a still more valuable con- quest. Fernando Cortez was dispatched from Cuba, with 600 men, 18 horses, and a small number of field-pieces. With this incon- siderable force, he proposed to subdue the most powerful state on the continent of America; this was the empire of Mexico, rich, powerful, and inhabited by millions of Indians passionately fond of war, and then headed by Montezuma, Vfhose fame in arms struck terror into the neighbouring nations. N«ver history, that was true, was more improbable and romantic than that of this war. The em- pire of Mexico had subsisted forages; its inhabitants, it is said, Vere not rude and barbarous ; every thing announced a polished and intelligent people. They knew, like the Egyptians of old, vrhose wisdom is still admired in diis partic lar, that the year con- AMERICA. ft^.. r wideljr, and the reputation ortuguese dis. luable part of Jd the north- pire in North )ience, sailed n of address, But no one that Colum. prived of the the smallest submit ; for titude of the and making ike a traitor, lowever, the 5 the other; i by cruelty' ; who came I. He fully d undertook He returned 1 year of his liola endea- the natives, t humanity, only kne^^ Spaniards, irried them t those un- irt of their ids to their 1 contained t 600,000. depopula- hunt after ned, were killed with ""rom what tared that Liable con- 600 men, lis incon- il state on ico, rich, y fond of ns struck was true, TJie em- it is said, polished i of old, rear con- sisted nearly of 365 days. Their superiority in military afTalrs was • the object of admiration and terror over all the contiutnit ; .md their government, founded on the sure basis of laws coiubiut-J with rdi- jjion, seemed to bid defiance to time itself. Mexico, the capital of the empire, situate in the middle of a spacious lake, wab the noblest monument of American industry. It coniniunicuted with the coa- tinent by immense causeways, wliich were curiied through the lake. The city was admired for its buildings, all of stone, its scjuuies and jnarket-places, the sliops which glittered with gold and silver, and the sumptuous palaces of Monteiiuma, some erected on columns '>f jasper, and containing whatever was most rare, curious, or useful..^ But all the grandeur of this empire could not defend it ;»gaiiist the • Spaniards. Cortez, in his march, met with a feeble opposition froiJi the nations along the- coast of Mexico, who were ternti-'d at their first appearance : the warlike animals on which the Spanish oilicers were mounted, the artiticial thunder which issued from their hands, . the wooden castles whjch had wafted them over the ocean, siruc!! a panic into the natives, from which they did not recover until it was too late. Wherever the Spaniards marched, they spared neither age nor sex, nothing sacred or profane. At last, the inhabitants ci" Tlascala, and some other states upon the coast, despairing'of being able to oppose them, entered into their alliance, and joined arms with those terrible, and, as they believed, invincible conquer- ors. Cortez, thus reinforced, marched onward to Mexico ; and, in his progress, discovered a volcano of sulphur and salt-petre, whence he could supply himself with powder. Montezuma heard of his progress without daring to oppose it. This sovereign is reported, by the boasting Spaniards, to have commanded thirty vassals, of, whom each could appear at the head of 100,000 combatants armed- with bows and arrows ; and yet he dared not resist a handful of Spaniards, aided by a few Americans whose allegiance would be shaken by the first reverse of fortune. Such was the difference be-- tween the inhabitants of the two worlds, and the fame of the Spanish • victories, which always marched before tb' li. By sending a rich present of gold, whicl. •; I7 excited the Spanish avarice, Montezuma hastened the approach vf the enemy. No op- position was made to their entry into his capital. , A palace was set . apart for Cortez and his companions, who were already treated as the masters of the new world. He had good reason, however, to distrust the affected politeness of this emperor, under which he sus- pected some plot for bis destruction to be concealed; but he had. no pretence for violence : Montezuma loaded him with kindness, and with gold in greater quantities than he demanded, and his pa- lace was surrounded with artillery, the moit terrible of all engines, to the Americans. At last, a circumstance took place which af- forded Cortez a pretext for beginning hostilities. In order to secure a communication by sea to receive the necessary reinforcements, he. erected a fort, and left behind him a small garrison at Vera Ciu/, which has since become an emporium of commerce between Kuropc and America. He understood that the Americans In the neighbourhood' had attacked this garrison in his absence, and that a Spaniard Was. killed in the action; that Montezuma himself was privy to this vio. lence, and had issued orders that the head of the slain Spaniard should be carried through his provinces, to destroy a belief, which _ then prevailed among them, that the Europeans were immork^l- M? ^1 I 4 'Ofi.'' 1 ■*' ' U'4 824 AMERICA. ■ri Upon receiving this intelligencf, Cortcz went in person to the em- peror, attended by a few of his most experienced ofHccrs. Mon- tezuma pleaded innocence, in which Cortez seemed extremely ready to believe him, though, at the same time, he alleged that the Spa- lu'ards in general would never be persuaded of it, unless he returned along with them to their residence, which wcild remove all jealousy between the two nations. The success of this interview showed the superiority of European address. A powerful monarch, in his own palace, and surrounded by his guards, gave himself up a prisoner, to be disposed of according to the inclination of a few strangers who came to demand him. Cortez had now got into his hands an engine by which every thing might be accomplished. The Americans liad the highest respect, or rather superstitious veneration, for their emperor. Cortez, therefore, by keeping him in his power, allow- ing him to enjoy every mark of royalty but his freedom, and, at thejsame time, from a thorough knowledge of his character, being able to flatter all his tastes and passions, maintained the easy so- vereignty of Mexico by governing its prince. Did the Mexicans, frown familiar with the Spaniards, begin to abate of their respect, lontpzi^ma was the first to teach them more politeness. Was there a tumult excited through the cruelty or avarice of the Spaniards, Montezuma ascended the battlements of his prison, and harangued his Mexicans into order and submission. This farce continued a Jong time j but pn one of these occasions, when Montezuma was shamefully disgracing his character, by justifying the enemies of his country, a stone, from an unknown hand, struck him on the temple, which, in a few days, occasioned his death. The Mexicans, now delivered from this emperor, who, from timidity and feebleness of character, co-operated with the Spaniards, elected a new prince, the famous Guatimozin, who, from the beginning, discovered an implacable animosity against the Spanish name. Under his conduct, the unhappy Mexicans rushed against those very men, whom a little before they had offered to worship. The Spaniards, however, by the dexterous management of Cortez, were too firmly established to be expelled froiri Mexico. The immense tribute which the grandees of this country had agreed to pay to the crown of Spain, amounted to 600,000 marks of pure gold, besides an amazing quantity of precious stones, a fifth part of which, distributed among his soldiers, stimulated their ava- rice aiid theif courage, and made them willing to perish rather than part with so precious a booty. The Mexicans, however, made no small efforts for independence ; but all their valour, and despair itself, gave way before what they called the Spanish thunder. Gua- timozin and the empress were taken prisoners. This was the prince who, when he lay stretched on burning coals, by order of one of the receivers of the king of Spain's exchequer, who inflicted the torture to make him discover ' into what part of the lake he had thrown his riches, said to hjs high-priest condemned to the same punishment, and who loudly expressed his sense of the pains that he ^ndurpd, ** Do you imagine I lie on a bed of roses ?" The high- jpriest 'remained silent, and died in an act of obedience to his sove- I'eign Cortez, by getting a second emperor into his hands, mad<; a complete conquest of Mexico; with which the golden Castile, Parieh, and other provinces, fell into the hands of the Spaniards, While'Cortez and his soldiers wer« employed in reducing MexicQ) MM AMERICA. 92r» they obtained mtcUigencc of ajiother great empire sUnatcil toward* the equinoctial line, and the tropic of Capricorn, which was said to abound in gold and silver, and precious stones, and to be j»nverned by a prince more magniticent thaii Monle/.uma. Ihis Was the em- pire of Peru, which extended in length near ^0 degrees, and was the only other country in America that deserved the name of a ci- vilized kingdom. Whether it happened, that the .Spanish govern- ment had not received certain intelligence concerning Peru, or that, being engaged in a multiplicity of otlicr concerns, it did rot clioose • to adventure on new enterprises, certain it is, that this eKicnsive country, more important than Mexico itJkcU, was reduced by the endeavours and at the ex pence of three private persons. The names of these were, Francis Pi/arro, Almagro, and Lucqucs, a priest, but a man of considerable fortune. The two former were natives of Panama, men of doubtful birth, and of low education. Pi/arro, the soul of the enterprize, could neither read nor write, Tliey sailed over into Spain, and, without difficulty, obtained a grant of what they should conquer. Pizarro then set out for Uie conquest of Peru, with 250 foot, 60 horse, and 12 small pieces of cannon, drawn by slaves from the conquered countries. If we reflect that the Peruvians naturally entertained the same prejudices wiih the Mexicans^ in favour of the Spanish nation, and were, beside, of a character still more soft and unwarlike, it need not surprise us, after what has been said of the conquest of Mexico, tliat, wiili this inconsiderable force, Pizarro should make a deep impression on the Peruvian empire. There were particular circumstances likewise which conspired to assist him, and which, as they discover some- what of the history and religion of these countries, and of the state of the human mind in this immense continent, it may not be im- proper to relate. Mango Capac was the founder of the Peruvian empire. He was one of those uncommon men, who, calm and dispassionate themselves, can observe the passions of their fellow-creatures, and turn them to their own profit or glory. He observed that the people of Peru were naturally superstitious, and had a particular veneration for the sun. He pretended, therefore, to be descended from that luminary, whose worship he was sent to establish, and whose authority he was entitled to bear. By this story, romantic as it appears, he easily deceived a credulotis people, and brought a large extent of territory under his jurisdiction; a larger still lie subdued by his arms ; huthotli the force and the deceit he employed for the most laudable purposes. He united and civilised the dispersed barbarous people ; he subjected them to laws, and trained them to arms ; he softened them by the institution of a benevolent religion : in short, there was no part of America where agriculture and the arts were so assiduously cultivated, and where the pc..>ple were of such mild and ingenuous manners. A race of princes succeeded Mango, distinguished by the title of Yncas, and revered by the people as descendants of their great god, the Sun. The twelfth of these was now on the throne, and named Atabalipa. His father, Guiana Capac, had conquered the province of Quito, which now makes a part of Spanish Peru. To secure himself in the possession, he had married the daughter of the natural prince of that country, and from this marriage sprung Atabalipa. His elder brother, named Huescar, <>f a diffierent mother, had claimed the succession to the whole of his father's dom.iHions,notexcepting Quito, which devolved on the younger :'■ >i I' ill} K; t2fi AMERICA. / ; i .:sgi by a douMe connr'-tinn. A rivil var had been Tcindled on tW\% aeertunt, wljich, after v:irious turns of fortune, and greatly weakening the kingdom, ended in favour of Atabalipa, vho detaine*! ffucscar, as a prisoner, in the tower of Cusco, the capital of the Peruvian «inpire. In this fct-'ble and di-ijointed state was the kin;,'dom of Peru when Pi- •/arro advanced to attack it. The ominous predictions of religion, too, as in most other cases, joined their force to human calamities. Pro- phecies were recorded, dreams were recollected, which foretold the subjection of the empire by unknown persons, whose description ex. actly corresponded to the appearance of the Spaniards. In these cir- cumstances, Atabalipa, insrc:id of opposing the Spaniards, set himself to procure their favour. Piz.irro, however, whose temper partook of the meanness of his education, had no conception of dealing gently witli those he called barbarians, but who, however, though less ac- quainted with the cruel art of destroying their fellow-creatures, were more civilised than himself. While he was engaged in conference, therefore, with Atabalipa, his men, as they had been previously in- structed, furiously attacked the guards of that prince, and, having butchered 5000 of them, as they were pressing forward, without re- gardfb their particular safety, to defend the sacred person of their mo- narch, seized Atabalipa himself, whom they carried off to the Spanish quarters. Pizarro, with tlie sovereign in his hands, might already be «leemed the master of Peru ; for the inhabitants of this country were as stronglv attached to their emperor as were the Mexicans. Atabalipa •was noi long in their hands before he began to treat for his ransom. On this occasion the ancient ornaments, amassed by along line of magni- ficent kings, the hi.Uovved treasures of the most sumptuous temples, were brought out to save him, who was the support of the king- dom, and of the religion. While Pizarro was engaged in this nego- tiation, by which he proposed, without releasing the emperor, to get into his possession an immense quantity of his beloved gold, the ar- rival of Alrnagro caused some embarrassment in his affairs. The friendship, or rather the external show of fiiondhhip, between these men, was solely founded on the principle of avarice, and a bold en- terprising spirit, to which nothing appeared too dangerous that might gratify their ruling passion. Whentheir interests, therefore, happened to interfere, it was not to be thought that any measures could be kept between them. Pizarro expected to enjoy the most considerable share of the treasure arising from the emperor's ransom, because he had the chief hand in acquiring it. Alrnagro insisted on being upon an equal footing ; and at length, lest the common cause should suffer by any rupture between them, this disposition was agreed to. The ransom was paid without delay, a sum exceeding their conception, but not sufficient to gratify their avarice. It amounted to 1,500,0001. sterling, and, considering the value of money in Europe at that time, was prodigious : on the dividend, after deducting a fifth for the king of Spain, and the shares of the chief commanders and other officers, each private soldier had above 20001. English money. With such for* tunes it was not to be expected that a mercenary army would incline to be subjected to the rigours of military discipline. They insisted on being disbanded, that they might enjoy the fruits of their labour in qttiet. Pizarro complied \\'ith this demand, sensible that avarice would still detain a number in his army, and that those who returned with such magnificent fortunes, would induce rew_^ adventurers to pursue the same plan for acquiring gold. These expectations 1' * I' AMERIC\. ««T were abund;»ntly verified ; it was impossible to send out bettpr re* cruitin}; ofticers than those who had themselves so much j)rotired by the Held ; new soldiers constantly arrived, and the American armies never wanted reinforcements. This immense ransom was only a further reason for detaining Ata- balipa in confinement, until it was discovered whether he had another treasure to gratify their avarice. But whether the Spaniards be- lieved lie had no more to give, and were unwilling to emph)y their troops in guarding a prince from whom they expected no further ad- vantage ; or that Pi/.arro had conceived an aversion against the Pe- ruvian emperor, on account of some instances of craft and duplicity which he observed in h.is character, and which he conceived might prove dangerous to his affairs ; ir is certain, tliat, by his command, Atabalipa was put to death, 'lo justify this cruel proceeding, a pre- tended charge was exhibited against the unhappy prince, in wliich he was accused of idolatry, of having many concubines, and other circumstances of equal impertiiicncc. 'I he only just ground of ac- cusation against him was, that his brother, Huescar, had been put to ' death by his command ; and even this was considerably palliated, because Huescar had been plotting his destruction, that he ffTight establish himself on the throne. Upon the death of the ynca, a num- ber of candidates appeared for the throne. The principal nobility set up the full brother of Huescar ; Pi/.arro set up a son of Atabalipa ;. and two generals of the Peruvians endeavoured to establish them- selves by the assistance of the army. These distractions, which in another empire would have been extremely hurtful, and even here, at another time, were at present ratlier advantageous to the Peruvian affairs. The candidates fought against one another : their bixttles accustomed these harmless people to bloed; and such is the prefer- ence of a spirit of any kind raised in a nation to a total lethargy, that, in the course of these disputes among themselves, the inhabitants of Peru assumed some courage against the Spaniards, whom they re- garded as the ultimate cause of all their calamities.' The losses which the Spaniards met with in these quarrels, though inconsiderable in themselves, were rendered dangerous, by lessening the opinion of their invincibility, which they were careful to preserve among the inhabi- tants of the new world. This consideration engaged Pi/.arro to con- clude a truce ; and the interval he employed in laying the foundations of the famous city of I..ima, and in settling the Spaniards in the country. But as soon as a favourable opportunity offered, he re- newed the war against the Indians, and, after many diflicukies, made himself master of Cusco, the capital of the empire. While he was engaged in these conquests, new grants and supplies arrived frgm Spain. Pizarro obtained 200 leagues along the sea-coast, to the southward of what had been before granted, and Almagro 5200ieagups to the southward of Pizarro's government. This division occasioned a warm dispute between them, each reckoniil^ Cusco within his own district ; but the dexterity of Pi/,arro brought about a reconciliation. He persuaded his rival, that the country which really belonged to him lay to the southward of Cusco, and that it was no way inferior in riches, and might be as easily conquered as Peru. He offered him his assistance in the expedition, the success of which he did net even call in question. Almagro, that he might have the honoux of subduing a kingdom for himself, listened tc his advice j and, joining as many of Pijarro'is > « ili :1 i.^_.. 828 AMERICA. ■1 iJt ii &^ } fl! 'i troops to his own as lie judged necessary, he penetrated, with great danger and difTicuky, into Chili ; losing many of his men as he passed over mountains of an immense height, and always covered with snow. He reduced, however, a very considerable part of this country. But the Peruvians were now become too njuch acquainted with war not to take advantage of the division of the Spanish troops. They made an efiprt for regaining their capital, in which, Fizarro being indis- posed, and Aluiagro removed at a distance, they were very nearly successful. The latter, however, no sooner got notice of the siege of Cusco, than, relinquishing all views of distant conquests, he returned to secure the grand objects of their former labours. He raised the siege, with infinite slaughter of the assailants ; but, having obtained possession of the city, he was unwilling to give it up to Pizarro, who now approached with an army, and knew of no other enemy but the Peruvians. 'I'his dispute occasioned a long and bloody struggle be- tween them, in which the turns of foi tune were various, and the re- sentment fierce on both sides, because the fate of the vanquished was certain death. This was the lot of Almagro, who, in an advanced age, fell a victim to the security of a rival, in whose dangers and tri- umphs he had lonj> shared, and with whom, from the beginning of the enterprise, he had been mtimately connected. During the course of this civil war, many Peruvians served jn the Spanish armies, and learned, from the practice of Christians, to butcher one another. That blinded nation, however, at length opened their eyes, and took a very- remarkable resolution. They saw the ferocity of the Euro- peans, their unextinguishable resentment and avarice, and they con- jectured that these passions would never permit their contests to sub- side. Let us retire, said they, from among them ; let us fly to our mountains ; they will speedily destroy one another, and then we may return in peace to our former habitations This resolution was in- stantly put in practice : the Peruvians dispersed, and left the Spa- niards in their capital. Had the force on each side been exactly equal, this singular policy of the natives of Peru might have been at- tended with success : but the victory of Pizarro put an end to Alma- gro's life, and to the hopes of the Peruvians, who have never since ventured to make head against the Spaniards. Pizarro, now sole master of the field, and of the richest empire in the world, was still urged on by his ambition to undertake new en- terprises. The southern countries of America, into which he had some time before dispatched Almagro, offered the richest conquest. Towards this quarter, the mountains of Potosi, composed of entire silver, had been discovered, the shell of which only remains at pre- sent. He therefore followed the track of Almagro into Chili, and reduced another part of that country. Orellana, one of his com- manders, passed the Andes, and sailed down to the mouth of the river of Amazons: an immense navigation, which discovered a rich and delightful country^ but .is it is mostly fiat, and therefore not abounding in minerals, the Spaniards then, and ever since, neglected it. Pizarro meeting with repeated success, and having no superior to controul,jio rival to keep him within bounds, now gave loose reins to the natural ferocity of his temper, and behaved with the basest tyranny and cruelty against all who had not concurred in his de- signs. This conduct raised a conspiracy against him, to which he fell a sacrifice in his own palace, and in the city of Lima, which ho himself had founded. The partisans of old Almagro now declared AMERICA. 629 his son, of the same name, their viceroy ; but the greater part of \he nation, though extremely well satisfied with the fare of Pizurro, ^.'d not concuv with this declaration. They waited the orders of th • • m-- peror Charles V. then king of Spain, who sent over Vaca di Ca tt ' to be their governor. This man, by bis integrity and wisdom, '■ is admirably well fitted to heal the wounds of the colony, and to plu e every thing on the most advantageous footing, both for it and for 'I c mother country. By his prudent management, the mines of la Pi:u i and Potosi, which were formerly private plunder, became an object • of pubhc utility to the court of Spain. The parties were silenced or crushed ; young Alniagro, who would hearken to no terms of accom- modation, was put to death; and a tranquiUily, since the arrival of the Spaniards unknown, was restored to Pern. It seems, however, that Castro had not been sufPiciently skilled in gaining the favour of the Spanish ministry, by proper bribes or promises, which a ministry would always expect from the governor oi so rich a country. By their advice a council was sent over to controul Castro, and the co- lony was again unsettled. The party spirit, but just extinguished, began to bla/e anew ; and Gon/alo, the brother of the famous Pi- zarro, set himself at the liead of his brother's partisans, with M'hom many new malccontents had united. It was now no longer a dispute between governors about the bounds of their jurisdiction. Gonzalo Pizarro only paid a nominal submission to the king. He strengthened ' dally, and even went so far as to behead a governor who was sent over to curb him. He gained the confidence of the admiral of the Spanish fleet in the South Seas, by whose means he proposed to hinder the landing of any troops from Spain, and he had a view of uniting the Inhabitants of Mexico in his revolt. Such was the situation of affairs, when the court of Spain, sensible of their mistake in not sending Into America men whose character and virtue only, and not opportunity and cabal, pleaded In their behalf, dispatched, with unlimited powers, Peter de la Gasca, a man differ- ing from Castro only by being of a more mild and Insinuating be- liaviour, but with the same love of justice, the same greatness of soul, and the same disinterested spirit All those who had not joined in Pizarro's revolt flocked to his standard ; many of his friends, charmed with the behaviour of Gasca, forsook their old connections; the admiral was gained over by insinuation to return to his duty: and Pizarro himself offered a full indemnity, provided he would re- turn to the allegiance of the Spanish crown. But so intoxicating are the ideas of royalty, that Pizarro was inclined to run every hazard, rather than submit to any ofiicer of Spain. With those of his par- tisans, therefore, who still continued to adhere to his interest, he de- termined to venture a battle, in which he was conquered, and taken Jirisoner. His execution followed soon after ; and thus the brother of him who conquered Peru for the crown of Spain, fell a sacrifice for The security of the Spanisli doniinion over thai country. The conquest of the great empires of Mexico and Peru is the only part of tlie American history which deserves to be treated under the ■ present head. What relates to the reduction of the other parts c^ the continent, or of tlie islands, if it contains either instruction or enter- tainment, shall be recorded under these particular countries. We now proceed to treat of the manners, government, religion, and what- ever composes the character of the natives of America ; and as these aVe c>;tremely similar all over this p^rt of the globe, w e ihall Jipeak of * ■'■i& .( iK 1 tl > I 890 AMERICA. them in general, in order to save continual repetitions, noticing at the same time, when we 'enter upon the description of the particular countries, whatever is peculiar or remarkable in the inhabitants of .each. OF THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. 1 m \ . THE discovery of America has not only opened a new source of wealth to the busy commercial psirt of Europe, but an extensive field of speculation to the philosopher who would trace the character of man under various degrees of refinement, and observe the move- ments of the human heart, or the operations of the human under- standing, when untutored by science, or untainted by corruption. So striking seemed the disparity between the inhabitants of Europe and the natives of America, that some speculative men have ventured to afiirm, that it is impossible they should be of the same species, or de- rived from one common source. This conclusion, however, is ex- tremely ill-founded. The characters of mankind may be infinitely varied according to the different degrees of improvement at which they are arrived, tlie manner in which they acquire the necessaries of life, the force of custom and habit, and a multiplicity of other circum- stances too particular to be mentioned, and too various to be reduced under any general head. But the great outlines of humanity are to be discovered among them all, notwithstanding the various shades which characterise nations, and distinguish them from each other. When the thirst of gold carried the inhabitants of Europe beyond the Atlantic, they found the inhabitants of the new world immersed in what they called barbarism, but which, however, was a state of ho- nest independence, and noble simplicity. Except the inhabitants of the great empires of Peru and Mexico, who, comparatively speaking, were refined nations, the natives of America were unacquainted with almost every European art ; even agriculture itself, the roost useful of them all, was hardly known, or cultivated very sparingly. The only method on which they depended for acquiring the necessaries of life, was by hunting the wild animals, which their mountains and forests supplied in great abundance. This exercise, which among them is a most serious occupation, gives a strength and agility to tlieir limbs, unknown among other nations. The same cause, per- haps, renders their bodies, in general, where the rays vi the sun are not too violent, uncommonly straight and well-proportioned. Their muscles are firm and strong ; their bodies -and heads flattish, which is the effect of art ; their features are regular, but their countenances fierce ; their hair long, black, lank, and as strong as that of a horse. Tlie colour of their skin is a reddisli-brown, admired among them, and heightened by the constant use of boar's fat and paint. The character uf tlie Indians is altogether founded upon their circumstances and way of life. A people who arc constantly employed in procuring the means of precarious subsistence, who live by hunting the wild animals, and who are generally engaged in war with their neighbours, cannot be supposed to enjoy much gaiety of temper, or high flow of spirits. Tlie Indians, therefore, are, in general, grave even to sadness; they have nothing ol that giddy vivacity pecuiiuvto sume nations in Eu» I'flf .91" agm AMERICA. 831 rope, and they despise it. Their behaviour to those aliviit them is regular, modest, and respectful. Ignorant of the drts of amusement, of which that of saying trifles agreeably is one of the most consider- able, they never speuk but when they have something important to observe ; and all their actions, words, and even looks, are attended with some meaning. This is extremely natural to men who are al- most continually engaged in pursuits which to them are of the highest importance. Their subsistence depends entirely on wh^it they pro- cure with their hands ; and their lives, their honour, and every thing dear to them, may be lost by the bmallest inattention to the designs of their enemies. As they have rio particular object t« attach them to one place rather than another, they fly wherever they expect to find the necessaries of life in greatest abundance. Cities, which are the effects of agriculture and arts, they have none. The d life rent tribes or nations are, for the same reason, extremely small, when compared with civiHsed societies, in which industry, arts, agriculture, and commerce, have united a vast number of individuals, whom a complicated luxury renders useful to one another. These small tribes live at an immense distance ; they are separated by a desert frontier, and concealed in the bosom of impenetrable and almost boundless forests. There is established in each society a certain species of govern- ment, which over the whole continent of America prevails with very little variation ; because over the whole of this continent the manners and way of life are nearly similar and uoiform. Without arts, riches, or luxury, the great instruments of subjection in polished so- cieties, an American has no method by which he can render himself considerable among his companions, but by a superiorly in personal qualities of body or mind. But as nature has not been very lavish in her personal distinctions, where all enjoy the same education, all are nearly equal, and will desire to remain so. Liberty, therefore, is the prevailing passion of the Americans, and their government, under the influence of this sentiment, is beliier secured than by the wisest political regulations. They are very far, however, from despising all sorts of authority ; they are attentive to the voice of wisdom, which experience has conlerred on the aged ; and they enlist under the banners of the chief, in whose valour and military address they have learned to repose their confidence. In every society, therefore, there is to be considered the power of the chief and of the elders : and according as the government inclines more to the one or to the other, it may be regarded as monarchical, or as a species of aristo- cracy. Among those tribes which are most engaged in war, the power of the chief is naturally predominant, because the idea of hav- ing a military leader was the first source of his superiority, and, the continual exigencies of the state requiring such a leader, will con- tinue to support and even to enhance it. His power, however, is rather persuasive than coercive : he is reverenced as a father, rather than feared as a monarch. He has no guards, no prisons, no officers of justice ; and one act of ill-judged violence would deprive him of the throne. * The elders, in the other form of government, which may be considered as an aristocracy, have no more power. In some tribes, indeed, there are a kind of hereditary nobility, whose influence being constantly augmented by lime, is more considerable. Bat ih'n source of power, wliich depends chiefly on the imagination, by which we annex to the merit of our contemporaries that ot their forefathers, Hi ¥ I •o fi 832 AMERICA. .i I h'''-^ i i^ih ^ 13 ...u jltr'Hf n - "Si is too refined to be very common among the natives of A merJc*» In most countries, therefore, age iilonc is suflicient for acquiring respect, influence, and autliority. It is age which teaches experience, and experience is the only source of knowledge among a barbarous" people. Among the Indians, business is conducted with the utmost simplicity, and such as may recall to those who are acquainted with antiquity a picture of the most early ages. The Heads of families meet together in a house or cabin appointed for the |>urpose. Here the business is discussed^ and here those of the nation distinguished for their eloquence or wisdom have an opportunity of displaying those talents. Their orators, like those of Homer, express them- selves in a bold figurative style, stronger than refined or rather softened nations can well bear, and with gestures equally violent* but often extremely natural and expressive. When the business is over, and they happen to be well provided in food, they appoint a feast upon the occasion, of which almost the whole nation partakes. The feast is accompanied with a song, in which the real or fabulous exploits of their forefathers are celebrated. They have dances too, though, like those of the Greeks and Romans^ chiefly of the military kind ; and their music and dancing accompany every feast. It often happens, that those different tribes or nations, scattered as they are" at an immense distance from one another, meet in their ex- cursions after prey. If there subsists no animosity between them, i\'hich seldom is the case, they behave in the most friendly and courteous manner. But if they happen to be in a state of war, or if there has been no previous intercourse between them, all who are not friends being deemed enemies, they fight with the most savage fury. War, if we except hunting, is the only employment of the men ; as to e^'ery other concern, and even the little agriculture they use, it is left to the wQmen. Their most common motive for entering into a war, when it does not arise from an accidental rencounter or inter- ference, is either to revenge themselves for the death of some lost friend, or to acquire prisoners, who may assist them in their hunting, and wliom they adopt into their society. These wars are either un- dertaken by some private adventurers, or at the instance of the whole community. In the latter case, all the young men who are disposed to go out to battle, for no one is compelled contrary to his inclination, give a piece of wood to the chief, as a token of their design to ac- company him: for eveiy thing among these people is transacted with a great deal of ceremony and many forms. The chief who is to conduct them fasts several days, during which he converses with no one, and is particularly careful to observe his dreams, which the presumption natural to savages generally renders as favourable as he could desire. A variety of other superstitions and ceremonies are observed. One of the most hideous is setting the war kettle on the fire, as an emblem that they arc going out to devour their enemies ; which among some nations mtiiit formerly have been the case, since they still continue to express it In clear terms, and use an emblem significant of th.-: ancient usage. Then they dispatch a porcelane, or large shell, tp their allies, inviting them to come along and drink the blood of their enemies : for witn the Americans, as with the Greeks of old, ** A generous friendship no cold medium knows, . " JBurns' wiih one love, with one rcscatmcnt glows." jmalum AMERICA. 833 They think that those in their alliance must not only adopt their en- mities, but have their resentment wound up to the same pitch with themselves. And, indeed, no people carry their friendships or their resentments so far as they do : and this is what should be expected from their peculiar circumstances ; that principle in human nature, which is the spring of the social affections, acts with so nuich iha greater force the more it is restrained. I'he Americans, v/ho live in small societies, who see few objects and few persons, become wonder- fully attached to these objects and persons, and cannot he deprivt-J of them without feeling themselves miserable. Their ideas are too confined, their breasts are too narrow to entertain the sentiment of general benevolence, or even of ordinary humanity. But this very circumstance, while it makes them cruel to an incredible degree to- wards those with whom they are at war, adds a new force to their particular friendships, and to the common tie which unites the mem- bers of the same tribe, or those different tribes which are in alliance with one another. Without attending to this reflection, some facts we are going to relate would excite our wonder, without informing our reason, and we should be bewildered in a number of particulars seemingly opposite to one another, without being sensible of the ge- neral cause from which they proceed. Having finished all the ceremonies previous to the war, they issud forth, with their faces blackened with charcoal, intermixed with streaks of vermilion, which give them a most horrid appearance. Then they exchange their clothes with their friends, and dispose of all their finery to the women, who accompany them a considerable? distance, to receive those last tokens of eternal friendship. The great qualities in an Indian warrior are vigilance and atten- tion, to give and to avoid a surprise ; and indeed in these tliey are superior to all nations in the world. Accustomed to continual wan- dering in the forests, having their perceptions sharpened by keen neces- sity, and living in every respect according to nature, their external senses have a degree of acuteness which at first appears incredible. They can trace out their enemies, at an immense distance, by the smoke of their fires, which they smell, and by the tracks of their feet on the groimd, imperceptible to an European eye, but which they can count and distinguish with the utmost facility. They even distinguish the different nations with whom they are acquainted, and can deter- mine the precise time when they passed, where an European could not, with all his glasses, distinguish footsteps at all. Theso circum- stances, however, give them no superiority, because their enemies are equally skilful. When they go out, therefore, they take care to avoid making use of any thing by which they might run the danger of a discovery. They light no fire to warm themselves, or to prepare their victuals ; they lie close to the ground all day, and travel only in the night ; and marching along in files, he that closes the rear diligently covers with leaves the tracks of his own feet, and of theirs who preceded him. When they halt to refresh themselves, scouts are sent out to reconnoitre the country, and beat up every place where they suspect an enemy may lie concealed. Jn this manner they enter unawares the villages of their foes ( and^ while the flower of the nation are engaged in hunting, massacre all the children, women, and helpless old men, or make prisoners of as many of them as they can manage, or have strength enough to he useful to their nation. Unt when the enemy is apprised of their design, and coming on ia 8H ■.■;**■ 83* AMERICA. arms against them, they throw themselves flat on the gronncf amon^ the withered herbs and leaves, which their faces are painted to resemble, Tlien they allow a part to pass unmolested j when all at once, wi^h a tremendous shout, riiJng up Irom their ambush, they pour 'a .v*or»a of musquet-bullets on their foes. The party attacked returns rhe same cry. Every one shelters himself with a tree, and returns the fire of the adverse party, as soon as they raise them.selvcs fr:)Tn the ground to give a second fire. Thus does the battle ci nciuue until the one party is so much weakened as to be incapable of further resistance. But if the force on each side continues nearly etjual, the> fierce spirit of the savages, inUamed by the loss of tlieir friends, cari no longer be restrained. They alxmdon their distant war, they rush upon one another with clubs and hatchets in their hands, magnifying their own courage, and insulting their enemies with the bitterest re- proaches. A cruel combat ensues ; death appears m a thousand hideous forms, which would congeal the blood of civilized nations to beholS, but whkh rouse the fury of savages. Tliey trample, they insult over the dead bodies, tearing the scalp from the head, wallow- ing in their blood like wild beasts, and sometimes devouring their flesh. The flame rages on till it meets with no resistance ; then th» prisoners are secured, those unhapjjy men, whose fate is a thousand times more dreadful than theirs who have died In the field. The conquerors set up a hideous howling to lament the friends they hare lost. They approach, in a melancholy and severe gloom, to theiv own village ; a messenger is sent to announce their arrival; and the women, with frightful shrieks, come out to mourn their dead brothers^ or their husbands. When they are arrived, the chief relates in a low voite, to tlie elders, a ctrcumstantial accoi^it of e\:ery particular of the expedition. The orator proclaims aloud this account to the people; and, as he mentions the names of those who have fallen, the shrieks of the women are redoubled^ The men too join in these cries» according as each is most connected with the deceased by blood op friendship. 'J1ie last ceremony is the proclamation of the victory ; each individual then forgets his private misfortunes, and joins in thq triumph of his nation ; all tears are wiped from their eyes, and, by an unaccountable transition, they pass in a moment from the bitterness of sorrow to an extravagance ot joy. But the treatment of the pri- soners, whose fate all this time remains, undecided, is what chiefly characterises the savages. We have already mentioned the strength^of their aiFections or resent- ments. United as they are in small societies, connected within then;, selves by the firmest ties, their friendly affections, wliich glow with the most intense warmth within the walls of their own village, seldom extend beyond them. They feel nothing for the enemies of their nation ; and their resentment is easily e?;tended from the individual who has injured them to all others of the same tribe. The prisoners, who have themselves the same feelings, know the intentions of their conquerors, and are prepared for them. The person who has taken the captive attends him to the cottage, where, according to the dis- tribution made by the elders, he is to be delivered to supply the loss of a citi/en. If those who receive him have their family weakened by war or other accidents, they adopt the captive into the family, ot wliich he beccmies x member. Hut if they have no occasion for him, cr their resentment lor the loss of their friends be too high to endure the sight of any connected .with those who were concerned in it, they aV MfeH n- AMERICA. S33 sentence him to death. All those who have met witli the snme st?vere eentence being collected, the whole nation is assembled at the execu- tion, as for some great solemnity. A scaffold is erected, and the prisoners are tied to the stake, where they commence their death-song, ^nd prepare for the ensning scene of cruelty with the most undaunted courage. Their enemies, on the other side, are determined to put it to the proof, by the most refined and exquisite tortures. They begin at theextremity of his body, and gradually approach the more vital parts. One plucks out his nails by tlie roots, one by one ; ano- ther takes a finger into his mouth, and tears off the flesh with his teeth ; a third thrusts the finger, mangled as it is, into the bowl of a pipe, made red hoti which he smokes like tobacco ; then they Jjound the toes and fingers to pieces between two stones ; they pull off the flesh from the teeth, and cut circles about his joints, and gashes in the fleshy parts of his limbs, which they sear immediately with red-hof irons, cutting, burning, and piuching them alternately ; they pull off this flesh, thus mangled and roasted, bit by bit, devouring it with *a;reediness, and smearing their faces with the blood in an cnthusiasnj of horror and fury. When they have thus torn off the flesh, they twist the bare nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and snapping them, whilst others are employed in pulling and extending their limbs in every way that can increase the torment, This continues ofteri five or six hours ; and sometimes, such is the strength of the savages, days together. Then they frequently unbind him, to give abrcathi ng to their fury, to think what new torments they shall inflict, and to rer fresh the strength of the sufferer, who, wearied out with such a variety of unheard-of torments, often falls Into so profound a sleep, that they are pbliged to ripply the fire to awake him, and renew his sufferings. He is again fastened to the stalfe, and again they renew their cruelty { they stick him all over with small matches of wood, that easily takei fire, but burns slowly; they continually run sharp reeds into e\'ery part of his body ; they drag out his teeth with pincers, and thrust our. his eyes ; and lastly, .after having burned his flesh from tJie bodies with slow fires ; after having jo mangled tlio body that it I'? all but one wound ; after having mutilated his face in such a mauner as to carry nothing human in it ; after having [.ecied the t^kin frcmi the head, and poured a heap of red-hot coals or boiljug v/ater on the naked ckull, they once more unbind the wretch, who, blind and staggering \vith pain and weakness,' assaulted and pelted upon every side with clubs and stones, now up, now down, fidling'into thejr fires at every step, runs hither and thither, until one of the chiefs, whether out of compassion, or weaj-y of cruelty, puts an end to his life v.ith a club or a dagger. The body is then put into the kettle, ;ind thi;; barba- rous employment is succeeded by -4 feast as barbarous. The women, forgeuing the human as well as the female nature, and transformed into something worsp than furies, even outdo the nicu in this scene ofhop-or; while the ptin.cipal persons of the country sit round the strike, sihoking, and looking pn without the least emotion. What is most extraordinary, the suflerer himself, in the little intervals pf his torments, smokes too, appears unconperned, and converses with his tortiirers ^bout indiflerenf matters. Indeed, during the whole jtimeof his execution, there s^emsj ^ contest, which shall exceed, they in inflicting the most horrid pains, or he in enduring them with a firm- ness and constancy almost above hiiman : not a groan, not a sigh, not ^ distartiott of countpnaace escapes him j he possesstjs his iiiini eji. 311 2 i n mi ij*" ImHH ■1 «i'i Ii36 AMERICA. tircly in the midst of his torments ; he rccoxmts his own exploits ; hcj informs thetn \vh;it cruelties he has inflicted upon tht-ir countrymen, and tluc.ttens ihci" wiiluhe revenge that will atttntl liis death; and, though his vcproaclies e\asperate them to a perfect madness of rage and fwry, he coniinues his insults even oftlH-lr ignorance of the art of tormenting, poiiuing out more exquisite methods, and more sensible parts of the l)od} to he afflicted. The women have this part of courage as well as the lucn ; and it is as rare for any Indian to behave otherwise, is it would be for any 1' uropean to suffer as an Indian. ' Such is tl-e wonderiul pover of an early institution, and a ferocious; thirst of glory, i am brave nud intrep'uf, exclaims the savage in the faces of liis tormentors. 1 do tiot Jlar death, n>r any hind of toi tures \ thoze that fear them are diuards ; they ire less than ivoiun ; life is nothing to t.ioje ZL-ho have ccu>age\ may my enemies be confounded ^'ith despair and rai^e ! Oh ! that 1 cotdd devour them ^ and drink their blood to the last drop ! Nothing in the history of mankind forms a stronger contrast than this cruelty of the savages towards, those with whom they are at war, and the warmth of their affection towards their friends, who consist cf all those who live in the same village, or are in alliance with it. Among these all things are common ; and this, though it may in part arise from their not possessing very distinct notions of separate pro-, perty, is chiefly to be attributed to the strength of their attachment j because in every thing else, with their lives as well as their fortunes, they arc ready to serve their friends. Their houses, their provisions, even their young women, are not enough to oblige a guest. Has any one of these succeeded ill in his hunting — has his harvest failed — or is his house burned, — he feels no other eflect of his misfortune, than that it gives him an opportunity to experience the benevolence and regard of ins fellow-citi/ens. liut to the enemies of his country, or to those tiho have privately offended him, the American is implacable. Ho conceals hii sentiments, he appears reconciled, until, by some treachery or surprise, he has an opportunity of executing a horrible revenge. No length of time is suflicient to allay his resentment; no distance of plate great enough to protect the object ; he crosses the steepest mountains, he pierces the most impenetrable forests, and traverses the most hideous bogs and deserts for several hundreds of miles; bearing the inclemency of the seasons, the fatigue of the expedition, the extremes of hunger and thirst, with patience and cheerfulness, in hopes of surprising nis enemy, on whom he exercises the most shock-! ing barbarities, even to the eating of his flesh. To such extremes do the Indians push their friendship or their enmity; and such indeed, in general, is the character of all strong and uncultivated minds, But what we have said respecting the Indians would be a fain^ picture, did we omit observing the force of their friendship, which principally appears by the treatment of the dead. When any one of the society is cut off, he is lamented by the whole ; on this occasion X thousand ceremonies are practised denoting the most lively sorrow. Of these, the most remarkable, as it discovers both the height and continuance of their grief, is what they call the feast of the dead, or the feast of souls. The day of this ceremony is appointed by public order ; and nothing is omitted, that it may be celebrated with the utmost pomp and magnificence. The neighbouring tribes are in- vited to be present and to join in the soh.'mnity. At this time, all ^•ho have died since the last solemn occasion (which is renewed every tea years among some tribes, and every eight among others) are taken 1 t I exploits ; ha r countrymen, s death; and, dness of rage ;e olthe art of more sensible ; this part of II an to behave IS an Indian, id a ferocious; savage in the t>ul of to I turcs \ life is tiothing 'h/j ikspnir and he last drop ! contrast than ey are at war, 1, who consist ance with it, t may in part separate pro-, attachment; heir fortunes, lir provisions, St. Has any t failed — or is me, than that L'e and regard. Vj or to those acable. Ho me treachery ble revenge, o distance of the steepest nd traverses ds of miles; 3 expedition, erfulness, in most shock- extremes do ;uch indeed, minds, d be a faint ship, which 1 any one of occasion -X ely sorrow, height and he dead, or J by public with the bes are in- time, all evved every ) are taken AMERICA: 837 tMit of their graves : those who have been interred at the greatest distance from the villages are diligently sought for, and brought to tliis great rendezvous of carcases. It is not difficult to conceive the horror of this general disinterment, I cannot describe it in a more lively manner th.m it is done by I.afitau, to whom we are indebted for the most authentic account of ihose nations. Without question, Says he, the opening of these tombs displays one of the most striking sceiK^s that can be conceived; this humbling portrait of human misery, in death, which appe.irs in a thousand various shapes of horror in the several carcases, according to th^^ de- gree in which corruption has prevailed over them, or the manner in \vhich it has attacked them. Some appear dry and withered ; mhers have a sort of parchment upon their bont-s ; some look as if thoy were baked and smoked, without any apiTfearanCo of rottenness ; some are jnst turning towards the point of putrefaction ; while other are all swarming with worm^, and drowned in corruption. I know not which ought to strike us most, the horror of so sliocking a sight, or the tender piety and affection of these poor peojil^? towards their de- parted friends} for nothing deserves our admiration more, than that €ager diligence and attention with which they discharge this melan- choly duty of their tenderness, gathering up carefully even the smallest bones ; handling the c.ircases, disousiful as they are with «very thing loathsonn?, cleansing tliem from the worms, and carrying them upon their shoulders, through tiresomejourneys of several days, without being discouraged from \.he ofiensiveness of the smell, and without suffering any other emotions to arise than those of regiet for having lost persons who were so dear to them in their lives, and $0 lamented in their death. They bring them into their cottages, where they prepare a feast in honour of the dead; during which their great actions are celebrated, and all the tender intercourses which took place between them and their friends are piously called to mind. The strangers, who have come sometimes many hundred miks to be present on the occasion, join in the tender condolence ; and the women, by frigiitful shrieks, demonstrate that they are pierced with th« sharpest sorrow. The •dead bodies are carried irom the cabins for the general icintermcnt. A great pit is dug in the gronrvd ; and thither, at a cettain time, each person, attended by his f^iinily *anJ friends, marches in solemn silence, bearing the dead body of a son, a father, or a lin ther. When they are all convened, the d-Ciid bodies, or dust of those which were quite corrupted, are deposii-ed in tlie pit; when the torrent of grief breaks cut anew* Whatever they possess most valuable i* interred with the dead. I he strangers are not wanting in their generosity, and confer those presents whith they have "brought along with them for the purpose. Then all present go down into the pit, and every one takes a little of the \3arth, winch they afterwards preserve with ihe most religioMs -care. Tl>e bodies ranged in order, are covered with entire "new f«r^, and, over these, with burk, on which they throw "Stones, wood and earth. Ih^i taking the last farewell, they return «ach to his own cabin; We have mentioned that in this ceremony the savages offer, as pre- sents to the dead, wlwtever they valne most highly. This custioin, which is universal among them, arises from a rtide notion of the im- mortality of thesoul. They believe thi? doctriixe most firjnly, and it I i \y\i 8.58 AMERICA. ::i:: lie', ■IW' ■'>'■» ' is the principal tenet of rhcir relin;ion. When the soul is separ<tt6i| from the body of their friends, they conceive that it still continues to hover around it, and to require, and take delight in, the san-.e thinji;s with which it formerly was pleased. Afttr a certain time, however, it forsakes this dreary mansion, and departs far westward into the land of spiritij. They have even gone so far as to make a distinction between the inhabitants of the other world ; some, they imagine, par- . ticularly those who in their life-time had been fortunate in war, possess a high degree of happiness, have a place for hunting and fishing, which never falls, and enjoy all sensual delights, without labouring hard in order to procure them. The souls of those, on the Contrary, who happen to be conquered or slain in war, are extremely iniserable after death. ^ Their taste for \var, xVhich forms the chief ingredient in their cha- Hcter, gives a strong bias to their religion. Areskoui, or the god of battle, is revered as the great god of the Indians. Him they invoke before they go into the field ; and, according as his disposition is more or less favourable to them* they conclude they shall be more or less successful. Some nations worship the slan or hioon ; among others there are a number of traditions, relative to the creation of the world, and the history of the gods ; traditions which resemble the Grecian ^blcs, but which are still more absurd and inconsistent. But reli- gion is not the prevailing character of the Indians ; ahd, except when tney have some immediate occasion for the assistance of tjieir gods^ they pay them no soft of worship. Like all rude nations, however^ they arc strongly addicted to superstition. They believe in the ex- istence of a number of good and bad genii» spirits who interfere in the affairs of mortals, and produce all our happiness or misery. It IS from the evil genii, in particular, that our diseases proceed ; and^ it is to the good genii we are indebted for a cure. The ministers of the gi?nii are the jugglersj ^ho are also the only physicians among the savages. These jugglci-s are supposed to be inspired by the good genii, most commonly ift their dreams, with the knowledge of future events} they are called in to the assistance of the sick, and are sup- posed to be inforttied by the gfcnii whether their patients will recover, and in what manner they must be treated. But these spirits urOi extremely simple in their system of physicj and in almost every disease ' direct the jbgpler to the same remedy. .The patient is enclosed in A narrow cabin, in the midst of which is a stone red hot; on this they throw water, nntil he is well soaked with the warm vapour and hi$ own sweat. Then they hurry him from the bagnio, and plunge hini suddenly into tlie next river. This coarse method, which costs many their lives, often performs very extraordinfry cures. 'I he jugglers have likewise the use of some specifies, of wonderful efficacy ; and all the savages are dextrous in curing, wounds by the application of herbs. But the power of tliese remedies is always attributed to th^ magical ceremonies with which they are administered. It should, be observed by the reader, that the particulars which , have jiist been mentioned concerning the manners of the 'Americans^ ichiefly relate to the inhabitants of North America. The manners and general characteristics of great part of the original inhabitants cf South America were very different. On the first appearance of the ^ inhabitants of the New World, their discoverer* found them to b? in many particulars very unlike the generality of the people of the • aucit^nt hemisphere. They Were different in their features and conai* s«paratft4 tntinucs to an.e thinp;s , however, d into the distinction jgine, par- , :e in war» niing and s, without osc, on the extremely their cha- the god of hey invoke spnsition is be more or ong others the world, le Grecian But reli- tccpt when Jieir godS) , however, in the ex- nterfere in lisery. It ceed ; and. linisters of ns among y the good e oif future d are sup- 11 recover, spirits arci :ry disease closed in A, this they ir and his unge him osts many ? jugglers ; and all iication of ted to th^ ars which Americans) ; manners nhabitants mce of the m to be in Ac of the and coxQi* ■<0'w :^> ¥ ■'^»' i k t EI •t- r^'^JiMIL ■ tUrmaiuA* •«.»wi*» • n .■/'■^•; B^Jl '•^?"'' ifJ*.'; W«rr1 ^;i:i^ ,«J^ %yHf] t" \ ^V' \ ji \ k. r'Jtatiphaii IS, ■^9iy .<* sD^i^Q) 2^^ hi'^y^ A T ^ y \ L'oV ''f/r. Kuo/tscil- E X .V r^^ ,<]wt2IP<*i'Vi,^/5„,7^ ^Z- L ulia Lcau ^If^-B .i.Vo?" uUwm iSaU (•>W \ ?0 r ^"•Ut '<i. f'l^ f^V ^ K / B » ^ -^ trrf ,1 'Mi Co/' A^<32rt}3 IS, IV lO r/. it.xwir ■ \ > r\ vf i» \\ < V ,,fj ^d^ JO ^ — AMERICA. ■ \;ri;..4Vv^»- 'f^.*, !•♦'"'*► 839^ \ 'A L f c t- IT rriuda. ' I i 3p1c*!0iis ; tliey were nol only averse to toil, but seemed incapable of il ; and when roused by force from their native indolence, and com- pelled to work, they sunk under tasks which the inh;ibitants of the other continent would have performed with ease. This feebleness of constitution seemed almost universal among the inhabitants of South America. The Spaniards were also struck with the sraallness of their appetite for food. The constitutional temperance of the natives far exceeded, in their opinion, the abstinence of the most mortified hermits ■ wiiile, on the other hand, the appetite of the Spaniards ap- pean.'dto the Americans insatiably voracious ; and they affirnjed that one Spaniard devoured more food in a day than was sufficient for ten Amciicans. But though the demands ol^ tlie native Americans for food were very sparing, so limited was their agriculture, that thcjr hardly raised what was sufficient for their own consumption. Many nf the inhabitants of Soxith America confined their industry to rear- ing a few plants, which, in a rich and warm climate, were easily trained to maturity; but if a few Spaniavds settled in any district, %uch a small addition of supernumerary mouths soon exliausted their scanty stores, and brought on a famine. The inhabitants of South America, coirpared with those of North America, are generally mere feeble in their frame, less vigorous in the efforts of tl>eir minds, of a gentle but dastardly spirit, more enslaved by pleasure, and sunk in indolence. A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF AMERICA. THIS great western continent, frequently denominated the New World, exte.ids from the 8()th degree north, to the 5t}th degree south latitude ; and, where its breadth is known, from the .'5.5th to the lS()th degree of west longitude from London; stretching be- tween S and 9*)()0 miles in length, and its greatest breadth 4000. It lies in both heniis])hetes, has two sunamers, and a double winter, and enjoys all the variety of climates which the earth affords. It is vashed by the two great oceans. To the eastward it has the Atlan- tic, which divides it from Errope and Africa ; and to the west the Pacific, or Great South Sea, by which It is separated from Asia. By these seas it may, and does, carry on a direct commerce with the other three parts of the world. It is composed of two great conti- nents, on on the north, the other on the south, which are joined by the kingdt'fn of Mexico, which forms a kind of isthmus 1500 miles long, and in one part, at Darien. so extremely narrow, as to make the communication between the two oceans by no means difficult, being only sixty rniles over. In the great gulf which is formed be- tween the isthmus and the northern and southern continents, lie a multitude of islands, many of them large, most of them fertile, and denominated the West Indies, in contradistinction to the countries and islands of Asia beyond the Cape of Good Hope, which are called the East Indies. Before we proceed t6 treat of separate countries in their order, it will be proper to take notice of those mountains and rivers which disdain, as it were, to be confined witliin the limits of particular provinces, and extend ov«r a gieat part ©f the CQiuinent. Fgr, 1,1 •, il J mi; ) "m \ 1; ■ :| 1 J40 AMERICA. thniigh America, in general, be not a mountainous countf y, it has the greatest mountains in the world. In South America, the Andes, or Cordilleras, run from north to south along the coast of the Pacific Ocean. They exceed in length any chain of mountains in the other parts of the globe : extending from the Isthmus of Darien to the Straits of Magellan, they divide the whole southern parts of Ame- rica, and run a length of i-SOO miles. Their height is as remark- able as their length ; for, though in part within the torrid zone, they are constantly covered with snoAV. Chimborazo, the highest of the Andes, is i?0.608 feet ; of this about ^tOv) feet from the summit are always covered with snow. Cara/.nn was ascended by the French astronomers, and is said to be 15,800 feet high. In North America, which is chiefly cbmposed of gentle ascents or level plains, •We know of no considerable mountains, except those towards the pole, and that long ridge which lies on the back of the American states, separating them from Canada and Louisiana, and called the Apalachlan or Allegany mountains; if that may be considered as a mountain, which upon one side is extremely lofty, but upon the other is nearly on a level with the rest of the country, America is, without question, that part of the globe which is best watered ; and that not only for the support of life, and all the pur- poses of fertility, but for the convenience of trade, and the inter- course of each part with the others. In North America, those vast tracts of country situated beyond the Apalachian mountains, at an immense and unknown distance irom the ocean, are watered by inland seas, called the Lakes of Canada ; which not only communicate with each other, but give rise to several great rivers, particularly the Missis- sippi, running from north to south till itfiills into the Gulf of Mexico, after a course, including its turnings, of more than 3000 m.iles, and receiving in its progress the vast tribute of the Illinois, the Misouri, the Ohio, and other great rivers, scarcely inferior to the Rhine or the I)anube ; and on the north, the river St. Laurence, running a con- trary course fi'om the Mississippi, till it empties itself into the ocean near Newfoundland : all of them being almost navigal)]e to their heads, lay open the inmost recesses of this great continent, and afford such an inlet for commerce, as must produce the greatest advantage whenever the country adjacent shall come to be fully inhabited by an industrious and civilised people. The eastern side of North America, besides the noble rivers Hudson, Delaware, Susquehana, and Potowmack, supplies several others of great depth, length, and commodious navigation : hence many parts of the settlements are so advantageously intersected with navigable rivers and creeks, that the planters, without exaggeration, may be said to have each a har- bour at his door. South America is, if possible, in this respect even more fortunate. It supplies much the two largest rivers in the world, the river of Amazons, and the Rio de la Plata, or Plate River. The first, rising in Peru not far from the South Sea, passes from west to east, and falls into the ocean between Brasil and Guiana, after a course of more than 2.500 miles. In which it receives a prodigious number of great and navigable .rivers. The Rio de la Plata rises in the heart of the country, and, having its strength gradually aug- mented by an accession of many powerful streams, discharges itself with such vehemence into the sea, as to make its taste fresh for many leagues from land. Besides these, there are other rivers in South America, of which the Oronoko is the most considerable. AMERICA. m^ A country c.( such vast extent on each side of the equator must necessarily have a variet)' oi soils as well as climates. It is a trea-: sury of nature, producing most ot the metals, minerals, plants, fruitSt trees, and wood, to be met with in the other p-.irts of the world, and many of thenn in greater quantities and hii;her perfection. The gold and silver oi America have supplied Eurcipe with such im? mense quantities ol' those valuable metals, that tiiey are bectMne vastly more common ; so that the gold and silver of Miirope now bear little proportion to the high price set upon them beiore the disr covery of America. This country also produces diamonds, pearls, emeralds, amethysts, and other v.duaMe stones, which, by beir.g brou;,;lit into Eui-ope, have contributed likewise to lower their value. Tvj tliese, which are cliieriy the production of Spanish America, may be added a great number of otiier commodities, which, though of less price, are of much greater use, and m.any of them make tliO ornament and wealth of the British empire in this part of the world. Of these are the plentiful supplies of cochineal, indigo, anatto, log- wood, brasil, lustic, pimento, lignum vitcc, rice, ginger, cocoa, or the chocolate-nut ; sugar, cotton, tobacco, banillas, red-wood, the balsams of Tolu, Peru, and Chili, that vaiuaLle article in medicine the Jesuits' bark, mechoacan, sassafras, sars.tpaiilla, cassia, tamarinds, hides, iurs, i/nibcrgris; and a great variety of v.'oods, roots, and plants, to which, bef <re the dis- covery of America, we v/eve either entire strangers, or forced to buy at an extravagant rate from Asia and Africa, through the hands of the Venetians and Genoese, who then engrossed the trade of the eas- tern world. This continent has also a variety of excellent fruits, which here grow wild to great perfection ; as pinc-applcs, pomegranates, citrons, lemons, oranges, malicatons, cherries, pears, apples, rigs, grapes ; great numbers of culinary, medicinal, and other herbs, ro(Us, and plants : and so fertile is the soil, that many exotic productions are nourished in as great pertection as in their native ground. With respect to the quadrupeds of this new world, it is proper to observe in general, that they are less than lliose of the old j evexi such as are carried from hence to breed there, are often found to der generate, but are never seen to improve, if, v/ith respect to si/.e, we should compare the anim.ils of the new and the old world, we shall find the one bear no manner of proportion to the other. The Asiatic elephant, ibr instance, often grows to above fifteen feet high, while the tapurette, which is the largest native of America, is not bigger than a calf of a year old. TJie lama, which some call the Americail camel, is still less. Their beasts of prey are quite divested of that courage which is so often fatal to man in Africa or Asia. They have no lions, nor, properly speaking, either leopard or tiger. Travellers, however, have affixed those n.imes to such ravenous animals as are there found most to resemble those of the ancient continent. The cougar, thetaquar, and the taquarecti among them are despicable, in C(nnpavison of the tiger, the leopard, and the panther of Asia. The tiger of Bengal has been known to measure six feet in length, without including the tail ; while the congar, or American tiger, as some aiFect to call it, seldom exceeds three. All the animals, therefore, iii the southern parts of America, are oifFerent from those of the southern parts of the ancient continent ; nor docs there appear to be any conimcu to both, but those which, being able to bear the cold; |i 'Hul p 'is i I tii AMERICA. 1 I It ^1 < I < cf the north, have trn-'encd from one continent to tlie other. TluiS the l<iar, the wolf, the rein-doer, the st;ig, and tlie beaver, ;'.rc known as veil by the inhabitants of Mow iJiitain and Canada, as Rusiiia j while tlie lion, the looj):!rd, and the tiger, which are natives of tlic south with lis, are utterly unknown in sotulicni America. But if the quadiyipeds of America arc r.uialkr than tl!o.,e of ih.c ancient con* tinent, they are in much (greater abundance ; lor it is a rule that ob- t.ins tlirotipji nariue. and evidently polrits out the wisdom of tlie au- thor of it, that the smallefit ai.inial? multiply in the ,ijrealest prc};or- t'\^>u. "iho ;M'at, exported from Europe to southern America, in a few peiicrations tjecnnies mii>'li k"<:S ; bnt tlien it also becomes more ])r(j- litic ; and, instead of one I:id at a time, or two Pt the Most, generally produces five, six, nnd sometimes more. '1 lie wisdom of Providence ill making formidi'ble animals nnj^rojine i.s obvious ; had theelejjhant, the rhinoceros, and the lion, tlie s;ime dcp-ree of feewnditv v,-ith the tabliit, or the rat. all the arts of man would be unecjual to the contest* and we should soon perceive thcni to become the tyrants of tliose who «iiU themselves the mMsiers fif the creation. Thotli;h the Indians r-till live in the cjuiet possession of many large tracts, Amerir;.', ^o far as known, is chiefly claimed, and divided into colonies, by tliree European niitinns, til's Spanish, Enp;lish. and Por- tuguese. ""J'lie Spaniards, as they hrst discovered it, have the largest and richest portions, extendinp; from New Mexico and Loiiisiana, in North America, to the ? traits of Magellan, in the South Sea, cxccpt- inj* the large province of rjrasil, Vs'hich belongs to Po.migal ; for* though the French and Dutch have sotnc forts upon Suiinam and Guiana, they scarcely d'. serve to be considered as proprietors of any part of the scuthern continent. Next to Spain, the most considerable proprietor of America was Great Britain, w-iio derived her claim to N(;rlh America from the lirst ch'scovory of that continent by Sebaitian Cabot, in the name cf Her.ry VII. anno ] lyT, about six yeais aiVov the discovery of South America by Columbus, In the name of the king of Spu'ux. This coun- try was in general called Newfoutidland, u r•ame^vhich is now appro* priated solely to an island tipon its coast. It was a long lime before V e made an atte::^pt to vettlc in this country. Sir Walter Raleigh, an tincommon genius, and a brave com.mnnder, first showed the way, by planting a colony in the southern part, which he called Virginiii, in honour of his mistress, quern Elizabeth. The French, from this period until the conclusion of the war in 1763, L'id a claim to, and actually possessed, Canada and Louisiana, Comprehending all that extensive inland country, reaching from" Hudson's Bay on the north, to Mexico, and the gulf of the sam.a name, on the sr^uth. The multitude of islands, which h'e between the two continents of North and South Ameiica, are divided among the Spaniards, Eng- lish, and French. The Dutch indeed possess three or four small islands, which in any other hands would be of no consequence; and the Danes have one or two, but they hardly deserve to be named among the proprietors of America. We shall now proceed to the particular provinces, beginning, according to our method, with the north ; but Labrador, or New Britain, and the country round Hud- Ron's Bay, with ^hose vast »X'gions towards the pole, are little known. ; " AMERICA. ' 843 A summary View of the first Settlements of North AmhImca, j5y whorH' men settled. Names of Places, Quebec .... 1()08 l^y the I'rcnch. Virginia, June 10 1609 By Lord Pelilwar Newfoundland, June 1610 By Governor Jolin Guy* New Jersey^ ^^'^' ^^^^ By the Dutch. Plymouth . . f New Hampshire Delaware } Pennsylvania ^ Massachusetts Bay Maryland . . . ifgr)\ By part of Mr. Rob^nson^s congregji- ( tion. irt}o^^y a small English colony, near the t mouth of Piscataqua river. 1627 By the Swedes and Finhinders. 1G28 By Gapt. John Endicot k Comnnny, ,g«o3 By Lord Bahimorc, with a colony of I Roman-catholics. irar 5 -^y ^^^* Fi-'nwick, at Saybrnok, near th* I mouth of Connecticut river. j/jf.f.^By Mr. Roger Williams, and his per* ^l secuted brethren. f Granted to the Duke of York by inryj Charles IL and made a distinct go- ) vernment and settled some lime be* ^ fore this by the English. 166!) By Governor Sale. 1682 By W. Penn, with a colony of Quakers. North CaroUna. about 17^28 p''^'^^^*^,;"^? ■» «''P;"-;\te goyermuent, c settled berore bv the Lnghsh. 1732 By General Oglethorpe. 1773 By Col. Daniel Boon. jw^Y^l^y emigrants from Connecticut, and ' I other parts of New F.ngland. Connecticut . Rhode Island New Jersey » South Carolina Pennsylvania Georgia Kentucky Vermont Territory NW. of ^ Ohio River > 1787 By the Ohio and other Companie§s The grand divisions of NORTH AMERICA. Colonics. Len. Rrt-a. -.(7. JillUS. Chief lowns. r r 1 ' •^ . from i.ondon. Jioloiigs to New BFiiaiiv.j.. 8j0 7.50 ;;ii^,T.'0, 1 Gre.1t Eritain Canada MOO 40.1 1 ISO.OOO'Qiicbcc Ditto New Scotland ) New Pruiis. ^ 350 '250 Dlap New England.... .550 '200 1 ' S7,400 Boston 1 '27, now. United States New Yorlc 1 3.50 :joo 1 .S-l.OOOjNew York Ditto f-a eit AMERteA* ;-4 ' !!. I ^. ; Colonics. New Jersey. Pennsylvania ... Maryl.'ir.d V irginja r^oitli Carolina fiontli Carolina Cieorjiia * *.. Jtan Florida ) Wt'Jt f lorida ) Laiiisiana ^a..* I,cn. BreaAsq.Miles.Chitf Towns. I)"'t&l>t'ayi»gl Beio„jrsto i»;() 288 1:3-4 •1-lG -1.30 2fXl GOO 600 1200 New Mexicrt <Sc Galiiornia Mexico or New CO or ) Spain ^ 2000 2000 52 L5(> «:i20;Pcrth Amboy United States 44,900 Philadelphia Ditto 110 14jOQO Annapolis Ditto 224 70,000, VVili'ianibburg: iDitto IROj 34,000 Kdenton 12.)| 20,000 Charics-towil 250: <)0,000 Savannah Ditto Ditto Ditto lOo' 60,000 'J,'' -^^'5^"^''"'= I iPcnsacoia Spain Ditto C40 .5iy,000 Ntw Orleans 14(X)' 600,000 !jf"i* ^'^ ' bt. Juan 4080 SW. I United States n r , i - i ir- I I 4.320 SW. ?|:^"" Ditto 600 318,000 Mexico 4900 SW. I Ditto • I . . „ .^■■l- ^aHMliuJWWMM m !, V,'. m ,- % Grand Divisions of SOUTH AMERICA. -1.' "-il'll iM 1 L^.t) i^f 'V-^ /• j Nations. Len. Broa. • 1400 700 Is.i. Miles. Chief towns, f"' ^bearing g j^ | ' 1 ; from LondoDv ^ i ... uj ' - ■ i Terra Pirma 700,000' Panama j 4fi.-50 SW. 1 -■ . - ■■- Spain Peru.; ;. i. 1800| .500 1 970,000, Lima 5520 SW. Ditto Aniaiionia, a very larpe cou ntrv, hut little known to the Europeans , 120r;L.9(iOIi diiiaaa. .>.<;.>..«. 780 480 250,000 .lunnani Cayenne 38-10 SW. ?"'''^ Birasil .la. .;..>.;. 2500 7CD 940,000 St. Sebastian 6000 SW. jPor -jral t>aJ^ag.ol-LaPlati 1 I500[l000 1 ,000,000 Bueitos Ayres 6040 SW. Spain Chili '■ 1260 .ISO 206,000 St. Jagb 6600 SW. Ditto TerhA Migel- ") lanica, or Pa- >■ tagonia ) 1 100 1 .ooo 300,000 ■ ■ -- - ' ' - ■■ . ■■ ■ ^ ■ ■ , The Spaniards took possession of it, but did not think it worth while to settle there. United States AMERICA, fifl The principal Islands of North America belonging to Europeans, are Si) • i 1. -g ft -a 4-# ;! a 1 . <s 0) .a ♦* .3 'bio c CA 4-* (A Islands. Leqgth. Breadth. Sie? ^'"''^ Towns. Belongs t« NewfoundUnd S.)0 '200 f,'5,50t> :*laceiitia < JreatBril. Cape Hreton no 1 80 4,000 !,onisbour.i7 Ditto St. John's 100 1 :io 800 Uliarles-town Ditto The Bermuda Isles. . 20,000 acres 40 St. George Ditto 'I'he Bahama ditto . . very numerous Na.^SdU Ditto Jamaica IJJO GO f>,000 Kingston Ditto '_'! 14 140 Bridi^etown Ditto Ht . Christopher .... 'JV, 7 80 Basse-tcrrc Ditto Antigua "20 20 100 ' St. Jolm's Ditto Nt'vis and ? . . . . Montserrat S . . . . each of tlipse i» 18 circum. Charles-town Plymouth Ditto Ditto 20 j 1'2 (;o \- Ditto Aiit^'uilla. . ........ 80 10 GO Ditto Dominica 28 1 Ifi 150 Rousseau Ditto i St. Vincent 17 10 Mo Kingston Ditto Ciranada 28 18 ]r,o ' St. (ieorge's Ditto Tobijjo.. ■ ;?2 j I'i l.)H ■ France (juba 700 " 1 90 ;is,-10()' liavannah Spain 1 lisniiiiioLA. ........... 450 t 1-^0 ;)ti,uO() St. Domingo Do & Fran. I'orto Rico 100 'I<) y,200 1 Porto UitQ Spain 'rriiil(i;id 90 00 2,8! '7 jst. Joeph Ditto ]VIarp";iritii 40 1 24 «2-l Ditto l\.4artinico 60 1 ;}0 ;ioo {St. Peter's France* (itiadalouDe 45 1 .'JH 250 Basse-terrc Dilto<E St. Lilcia ...*<.. 27 i 12 yo 1 Ditto* St. Bartholomew, i Deseada, and > Marig:alanta ) all of them in- considerable. Dittof' Dittp Ditto St. Kiistatia 29 circum. Ihe Bay Dutch Car;issou ;J0 10 ;i)-j ! Ditto St. Thomas 15' circum. i Denmark St. Croix 30 10* (Basse Lnd Ditto . British Islan4» in Nojrth iV™erica, and the Wesf Indies, 4C,930 square tpijes. • In the present w;jr \ylth France, some of thpse islands have repeatedly changed thpir Piasters. Put a$ the events of war are uncertain, it is impossible to ascertftiiJ yfiik i^O/ p;-ecision to whpm they belong, until the termination of l^ustilities. J- ^.-ately (Ceded to Sweden by France. * . ,. . ' - -. .% ■;;..:■■ • P El '&lHh m ill' :■?■ r •" 5 — »*=• S ' ( Sid ) ^:l: ■i GREENLAND. THtfi extensive country, tliough it has been said to belong pr6« forly neither to America nor Europe, must certainly be referred to the former continent, whether it l)e an island, or united to the main land to tlio north of Davis's Straits, by wliich it is bounded on the West. To the south It terminates in a point called Cape Farewelli f '•* in north l.it. .IM" .')8', west long. 42^ ^■O'; on the south-east it is ^va.sI;ed In- tlie Atlantic ; and on the ?ast it is boimded by the icy fea, and the strait wlych separates it from Iceland, from 'svhich it is distant about 200 niiles ; to the north its limits are unascer-. taincd. The climate of this country is extremely severe, the greater part (if it bein,!;; almost continually covered with ice and snow. Among the vegetables of this cold country are sorrel, angelica, wild tansey, and scurvy-grass. Europeans have sown barky and oats, which have grown as high as in warmer climates, but liave seldom-ad- Vanced so far as to ear, and never, even in the warmest places, . come to maturity. The trees are some small junipers, willows, and birch. The animals are white hares, foxes, rein-deer, and white bears, which are Hcrce and mischievous. The only tame animals are a species of dogs resembling wolves. The shores are frequented b>' the \v4lrus, and several kinds of seals ; and the seas contain va^ fious species of whale?, some of which are white, and others black ; the black sort, the grand bay whale, is in most esteem, on account of his bulk, and the great quantity of fat or blubber he alfords. He is usually between sixty and eighty feet in length ; his tongue Is about eighteen feet long, inclosed in long pieces of what is called Wliidebone, wliich are covered with a kind of hair like horse-hair ; jtnd on each side of his tongue are 250 pieces of this whalebone : the l)ones of his body are ivs hard as those of an ox, and of no use, A number of ships are employed annually in the whale-fishery in the seas of Greenland. When a whale appears, they man their b^>ats, of which each ship bus four or five, carrying six or eight inen ; and when they come near the fioh, the harpooner, who stands Ht the head of the boat, strikes him v.-ith his harpoon, or barbed dirt. Tlje creature, finding himself wounded, dives swiftly down into the deep, and would carry the boat along witli him, if they did not give him line fast enough. Such is the velocity of his mo* tion, th.it to prevent the wood of the boat taking fire by the violent tubbing of the rope ag.iinst t!ic side of it, one of the n:en is con* fetantly employed in wetting it. After the whale has run soine hundred fathoms, he is forced to come up again for air, when he apouts out the water with such a terrible noise, that some havp Compared it to the firing of cannon. As soon as he appears on the surface, the ha'rpoonef fixes another harpoon in him, v/iien he plunges again into the deep as before ; and, when h? again comes up, they pierce him with spears In the vital p;jrts, till he spouts out Streams of blood instead of water, beating the waves v%-ith his .ail Und tins till the sea Is covered with foam, The boats contitiv.e to follov^ him some leagues, till he has lost his strength, and v^hcr "lo IS dying he turns himself upon his back, and is dr.u\vn on shore, r to the ship, if the laud be at a great distance : there they cut him in GREENLAND. fit? belong pr6* >e referred to i to the main inded on the ipc Farewell, nh-east it is d by the icy from which lare unascxn> greater p;irt w- Among wild tansey, oats, whicJj seldom-ad- nest places, , IHows, and and vhite mc animals frequented contain va^ lers black ; on accoimt he alFords. his toni^ue at is called lorse-hair ; I'halebone j of no use, ^fishery in man their c or ei^'ht vho stands or barbed Iftly doAvii n, if tliey f his mo- he violent n 13 con* un some when he mie havp irp ori the v.'iien he "ines up, ">outs out h his .ail iitini-.c to vdier "iG hore, r It liim in pieces, and, by boiling the blubber, extract the oil, if they hav^ conveniences on shoro-; otherwise they barrel up llie pieces, aiul bring them homot Every fish is computed to yi^-ld betueca HO and 100 barrela of oil, of the value of 3/. or •!■/. tlie l)urrel. 'ihe Green- land whale fishery is principally cariied on by the En<Tlish and (wjien at peace with England) the Dutch nations: in 17S,> ihe for- mer employed l.l.S ships in this fishery, and the litter C).'5. The vast fields and mountains of ice in these seas, many of which arc above a m'lc in lensftl;, and 100 feet in thicicncss, are ccjually Btupendous, and, v/hcn illuminated by the sun's rays, dazzling and beaptiful. Their splendour is discernible at the distance of many leagues. In one place, it is said, at the monlh of an inlet, the ico has formed magnificent arches, extendir.g tlie length of about 'J^ miles. But when the jiieces floating in the sea are put in motion by a storm, and dash one against th::; other, the scene they exliihit is most terrible. Th,e Dutch had thirteen ships cruslicd to pitccs by them in one season. By the latest aecc/imti from the missionarie-. employed for the conversion of the Creeniauders, their v.-ho!e number does not amount to above 9.57 constant inliahitants. Mr. Ciantz, however, thinks the roving sonthlahderi ot" Greenland may amount to about 7000, They an; |ow of stature, few e:.ceeding five feet in licigiit, and the generality are not so tail. The hair of their he;uis is long, straight, and of ;; black colour : but tliey have seldom any beards, because it is tiielr consliint practice to root thciTi out. They Jiave high breasts and broad shoiihlers, especially the women, who arc obliged to carry great burdens from their younger years. They are very light a!ui nimble :f foot, and can alsi) v.se their hands witii much bkill and dexterity, 'i'hey are pet very lively in their tempers; bu| they are good-huraoureJ, friendly, and unconcerned about futurity, ■"i'heir too 1 is principally f!-;h, eealsj and sea-fowl. Tlip men hun| and fish ; hut wJien they have vcv,\-d their bc^cty to hr.d, th:y troi;-, Ijle thom.-.!'lvcs no farther uLout it ; nay, it would bo accounted beneath their dignity even to draw out the fish upon tJin shore, Tha wonjen are the butchers and rook';, and also the cnniers to dree? the pcltsj autl make clothes, shoos, and boots out of them ; so l))a| they are likewise both shoenjakers and taylors. The women also- build and repair the houses and tents, so fir as i elates to the nu-t* Eonry, the men doing only the carpenters* work. They live in hut.? during the winter, which is incretlibly severe ; i>ut, according IQ Grant?, the Moravian missionary, in the longest rummer days it ic ?o hot, from the long contir.uance of the sun's rayx, that %he iiih4i hirants ai'PoLligetl to throw clF their sumn}er gaiuients. I hey are very (iexterous in hunting and fishing, particnUriy m catchinp- and killing seals. Greenland was first discovered in the nuith century, by somp It'clanders who v^'ere by accident driven on the coast. So f iv. urablg was the account they gave of the country, that several families went and settled there, and established a colony, v,-]iieii was converted to Cluistianity by a missionary sent thither, in the reign of Okd', th^ first christian monarch of J^ovway, Under the prot{)ction of thi? prince, the Greenland colony continued to increa.'je and thriyp} several tov.-ns, churches, and convents wdre built, aud bishopi^ ;ipj, pointed, under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Dronthi-Mni, The colony appears then to have extended over above %QQ n\\\^% '^^^iU m ^\. m BRITISH AMERICA. :* ., i I I *n the south-eastern extremity of the country, and to hive carried Jl ton a considcrab'e conmierce witli Norway ; but the intercoursd '; ceased in 140G, when tlie last bishop was sent, and from tliat time till the beginning if the last century all knowledge of Greenland . seems in a great degree to have been lost. In IT'^O, however, Hans Egede, minister of Vigcn in Norway, conceived the idea of going in search of the remains of the ancient colony, if any existed ; and having, with some diflncnlty, procured an approbation of his plan from the court of Copenhagen, went to Greenland, where he con- tinued till I7.'i5, preaching the gospel to the natives, and making many converts. His example was followed by several other mis- sionaries ; and about thirty years afterwards the Moravians began their settlements hera, which were chiefly in the south-west p.irt of the country. Denmark now claims this part of Greenland, and a company is established at Copenhagen, which sends thither three or four ships every year. East Greenland, or Spitzbhrcen, was for a long time con- sidered as united to, and a part of West, or Old Greenland, but is now known* to be a cluster of islands, lying between Tfi and HO degrees of north latitude, and 9 and S'l- of east longituc^c, and is generally referred to Europe. It was discovered, accordift^' to some, y Sir Hugh Willoughby, in I55(i ; or, as others suppose, by the Dutch navigator Barent/, in 15^)6. It obtained the name of Spits- bergen (or craggy mountains) from the height and ruggedness of I its rocks. The mainland, or principal of these islands, is about 300 miles in length from north to south. The few vegetables and ani- mals are nearly the same with those of West Greenland. The moun- tains and islands of ice present the same appearance ; and the whale fishery is carried on along the coasts. Tho Russians claim this dreary country, and maintain a kind of colony here from Archangel, The inland parts are uninhabited. ' '■•* * ' I'll ' BRITISH AMERICA. . Under the general name of British America is comprehendea the vast extent of country bounded on the south by the United States of America and the Atlantic Ocean ; on the east by the same ocean and Davis's Straits, which divide it from Greenland; extending, on the north, to the northern limits of the Hudson's Bay charter, and westward indefinitely: lying between 42 and 70 degrees of north latitude, and between 50 and 96 of west longitude. British America is now divided into four provinces, viz. 1. Upper Canada j 2. Lower Canada, to which is annexed New Britain, or the country lying round Hudson's Bay ; 3. New Brunswick, origi- nally included in Nova Scotia ; 4-. Nova Scotia. To these are to be added the islands of Cape Breton and Newfoundland. The British colonies in North America are under the superin- tendence of an officer styled the governor-general of the four Bri- tish provinc6s in North America, who, besides other powers, is commander in chief of all the British troops in the four provinces, dhd the governments attached to them, and Newfoundland. Each I ;'/../- V.f/// ive carriec! intercourse? that time Greenland ever, Hans I of going isted ; and ^f his plan re he con« nd making other /nis- ians began est part of »nd, and ;i ither three time con- "ilaud, but 76 and HO ^1% and is g' to some, ^tj by the • of Spitz- cjedness of about 300 !s and ani» ^he moun- the whale :laim this rchangel. rehended ed States me ocean Ktending, charter, grees of Upper itain, or k» origi- are to be superin- our Bri- wers, is ovinces, > Each itiv K4 d h* i^ni^iAi»'ui«M.«A»-«kii4.i»'»«.i / / / / / rK >" V <> ? (> \ ( V. S ^ /.v h >iii tilt- Ix-st // IIHtHIIIKS. \ i.*P ' • / "*■ I, ' >'•/ 1 i r •i"* ' ..iM^V. ■"'•^■i \>C"''f *""■"• "^--*3 nni ..j^ fi''" \ ^N rj'*/v ^:?<.:^ .^'^' ' \ f" "i<»3 7- rfA'" ni/'l' if"'" :»«^ ::a:: .<e*i?" '"V^Ji /!) ..'f^"! ^>T»ff/.J •^ A m .4r ./i/*-! i^!: fjommaifZ 4;rt ■I. "^ :Si^":A'^ »C«.'; ^^Ji^'^ Ir. •'";.""•" ^^ ""''*> J. ""•' ""„, v^)^ l^^ ,..^' >f-> >:«■ /•> r/ij •- ^'6s<!: / > >\< I/. .'»»'"' / , y W *' \ •■' '"'.■. A:. Wit:*/ Loiiiftiiiii^ I'rotn I omlon . .1^*' \4§ m <d r 1''' / i'KM 'iiy,' ■J. ■ .''i,i 4 i I'm 1' V-^lMi m '^'.tt .■i i: vV^''^'** '"' *^* V! I NEW BRITAIN. 649 cf the provinces has a lieutenant-governor, who In the absence of the govurnor-genenil has all the powers requisite to a chief magis» tratc. The number of Inhabitants in the whole of tliv^5(s novthera JJj'iLisfe colonies has been estimated at about iy3,0U0, • / NEW BRITAIN. ,-i^ SITUATION ANP EXTENT. 4' • • Miles. , . Degree*. Sq, MilcS» Iicngth 8.50 > ;,„.,„^„„ f 50 and 70 North latitude. 7 ..lo*,-/* Breadth 750/ ^'^''^''" { ■>0 and 100 We.t longitude.! '^^^"^^. BpvjinARiEs.], NEW BRITAIN, or the country lying round Hudson's Bay, and commonly called the country of the Esquimaux, comprehending Labrador, and New North and South Wales, is bounded by unknown lands and frozen seas, about the pole, on the north ; by the Atlantic Ocean ojn the east ; by the bay and rivor of. St. Laurence and Canada on the south ; and by unknown lands on the west. Bays, straits, amd capes.] These are numerous, and take their names generally from the English navigators and coraraanders by whom they wore first discovered. The principal bay is that of Hudson, aad the principal straits are those of Hudson, Davis, an4 Belle isle. MouNTAiKs.] In the northern parts of this country are treineA» dous high KK)»ntains, covered widi eternaJ snow ; anc^ the winds blowing from thence three quarters of the year, occasion a degree of cold in the wijnter over all this country which in not etperjencetj in any other part of tjie world in tha same latitude, RivtRs, LAKES.] The principal rivers are the Wager, Monk> Seal, Pockerekcsko, Churchill, NeUon, Haven, New Severn, Albany, and Moose ( all of vvhich fall into fliulson's and James's bays from the west and south. The mouths of all these riVers are full oi'choals, except Chvi.rchill's, in which the largest sliipe may lie ; but tea milc« higher the channel is obstructed by sand-banks. All the rivers, as far as they have been explored, arc full of rapids, and cataracts from ten to eixty feet perpendicular. Down these rivers the Indian traders find a quick passage ; but their return is a labour of many months, Copper-miiu? and M'ivenzi^'s rivers foil into the North The vallies are b general full of lakes, formed not of springs, but rain and snow. Metals, minerals.] The mountains of Labrador appear to Bbound in iron ore. White spar is very common ; and that beauti- ful kind, called from the Country Labrador spar, is collected on tha shores of the sea and lakea by the Esquimaux, or natives, for the rocks have not been discovered. Several small spring? have bfl»n found which have a weak chalybeate taste. Qn}^ATUf sQifc, PRODUCE.] The climate of these legions is inf* SI ill ^1 850 NEW BRITAIN. ! I fix '4i * ! tensely colJ, arid the country, in conseqtience, extremely barren* To the northward of Hudson's Bay, even the hardy pine-tree is seen no longer, and the cold won-.b of the earth has been supposed incapable of any better production than some miserable shrubs. Kvery kind of European seed committed to the earth in this iuhos* pitable climate has hitherto perished ; but perhaps the seed of corn from the northern parts of Sweden and Norway would be more suitable to the soil. All this severity, and lonfj continuance of winter, and the barrenness of the earth which comes from thence, is experienced in the latitude of fifty-two ; in the temperate latitude of Cunibridge. Animals.] These are the moose-deer, stags, rein-deer, bears, tigers, bufi:iloes, wolves^ foxes, beavers, otters, lynxes, martins, squir* rela, ermines, wild cats, and hares. Of the feathered kind, they have ^eese, bustards, ducks, partridges, and all manner of wild fowls. Of fish, there are whales, morses, seals, cod-fish, and a white fish preferable to herrings ; and in their rivers and fresh Waters, pike, perch, carp, and trout. There have been taken at Port Nelson, in one season, ninety thousand partridges, which are here as large as hens, and twenty-five thousand hares. All the animals of these countries are clothed with a close, soft, warm fur. In summer there is here, as in other places, a variety in the colours of the several animnls. When that season is over, which continues onjy for three months, they all assume the livery of winter, and every sort of beasts, and most of their fowls, are of the colour of tlie snow : every thing animate and inanimate is white.. This is a surprising phenomenon ; but it is yet more surprising, that the dogs and cats from England, that have been carried to Hud- son's Bay, on the approach of winter have entirely changed their appearance, and acquired a much longer, softer, and thicker coat of hair than they had orfginally. Inhabitants.] 'Vhe native inhabitants of this country are com- posed of different tribes ; those on the coast of Labrador are called Esquimaux, or Iskimos. These appear to be of a different race from the other native Americans, from whom they are particularly distinguished by a thick and bushy beards. They have small eyes, large dirty teeth, and black and rugged hair. • They go well clothed, in skins, principally of bears, and are said to be very mild tem- pered and docile. They seem to be the same people with the Greenlanders, and have a resemblance to the Laplanders and Sa- moieds of the north of Europe and Asia. DiscovEiiA AND coMMKRCK.] The knowledge of these northern seas and cou.itries was owing to a project started in England for the discovery of a north-west passage to China and the East Indies, as early as the year 1576. Since then it has been frequently dropped, and as often revived, but never yet completed; and from the late voyages of discovery it seems manifest, that no practicable passage ever can be found. Frobisher only discovered the main of New Britain, or Terra de Labrador, and those straits to which he ha<; given his name. Jn 1585, John Davis sailed from Portsmouth, and viewed that and the more northerly coasts, but he seems never to * have entered the bay. Hudson made three voyages on the same adventure ; the first in 1607, the second in 1(S08, and the third and last in IfilO. This bold and ju<licious navigator entered the straits that lead iuiu this new NkditcrrMnean} the bay known by his namvj CANADA, 851 coasted a great part of it, and penetrated to eighty degrees and a half into thL- heart of the fro/on zone. His ardour for the discovery- Hot being abated by the difficulties he struggled with in this empire of winter, and world of frost and snow, he staid here unt'l the en- suing spring, and jneparcd, in the beginning of IGll, to pursue his discoveries; but hi'j crew, who suffered equal hardships without the same spirit to support thcin, mutinied, sei/ed upon him, and seven of those who were most faithful to him, and committed them to the fury of the icy seas in an open boat. Hudson and his com'< panions were either swallowed \ip by the waves, or, gaining the in- hospitable coast, were destroyed by the savages ; but the ship and the rest of the men returned home. Other attempts towards a discovery were made in 1612 and 1667 ; but, though the adventurers failed in the original purjjose for which they navigated this bay, their project, even in its failure, has been of great advantage to this country. The vast countries which sur- round Hudson's Bay, as we have already observed, abound with animals whose fur and skins are excellent. In 1670, a charter was granted to a company, which does not consist of above nine or ten persons, for the exclusive trade to this bay ; and they have acted under it ever sine*.', with great benefit to the individuals who coni"* pose the company, though compirativcly with little advantage to Great Britain. The fur and peltry trade might be carried on to a much R-reater extent, were it not entirely in the hands of this exclu- sive company, whose interested spirit has been the subject of long and just complaint. The company employ but four ships and 130 seamen. They have several forts, viz. Prince of V7ales, Churchill, Nelson, New Severn, and Albany, which stand on the west side of the bay, and are garrisoned by 186 men. They export commodities to the Value of 1 OOOl. and bring home returns to the value of 29,3 tol. which yield to the revenue Ji,734'l. This includes the fishery in Hudson's Bay. The only attempt to trade in that part which is called Labrador has been directed towards the fishery, the annual produce of which amounts to upwards of 49,CX)0l. CANADA. t SITUATION AND EXTENT. ... . , Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 1400 ? , ^. „^^„ 5 61 and 81 West longitude, c , rn n^A ' Breadth 400 ? ^^'^^^'^ I43 and 50 North lautude. ^^ ^^^'^OO. • BouNDARivs.] BOUNDED by. New Britain and Hudson's Bay, on the north and east ; by Nova Scotia, New England, and New York, on the south ; and by unknown lands on the west. * Divisions ] Canada is divided into the two provinces of U/fit and Lower Canada. The former lies to the north of the great lakes, and is separated from New York by the river St. Laurence, here called the Cataraqui, and the lake? Ontario and Erie. Lower Ca- nada Ues on both sides the river St. Laurence, and is bounded oa 3 12 852 CANADA. the south hy New Brunswick, New England, and New York j and* on the west, hy Upper Cunudu. Mountains.] There are some mountains in the northern part of tills country, and others hetwcen Quebec and the sea, but none that dirserve particular notice. RivKKs.J The rivers branching thr(uigh this country are very, numerous, and many of them large, bold, and deep. The princi- pal arc, the Outtauais, St. John, Segiiinay, Despraires, and Troii Rivieres, hut they are all swallowed up by the river St. Laurence. Tliis river issues from the lake Ontario, i>.nd, taking its course north- oast, washes Montreal, where it receives the Outtauais, and iorms many fertile islands. It continues the same course, and meets the tide ivpwards of 400 miles from tlie sea, where it is navigable for large vessels ; and below Quebec, .'320 miles from the .sea, it be- comes broad, and so deep, that ships of the line contributed, in the war before the last, to reduce that capital. After receiving in its progress innumerable streams, this great river falls into the ocean at Cape Rosicres, where it is ninety niiies broad, and where the cold is intense, and the sea boisterous. In its progress it forms a variety of bays, harbours, and islands ; many of them are fruitful, and ei- tremtly pleasant. I^AKEs.] In Canada are five lakes, the smallest of which is a piece of fresh water, larger than any in the other parts of the WQjld ; this is tlie lake Ontario, which is not less than ^K) le;igues in cir- <;umference. Erie, or Oswego, longer, but not so broad, is about the same extent. That of the Huron spreads greatly in width, and is in circumference not less than 300, as is that of Michigan, though, like Lake Erie, it is rathe- long, and comparatively narrow. But ihe lake Superior, wliich contains several large islands, is 50(i leagues in the circuit. All of these are navigable by any vessels, and they all conimunicate with one another, except that the passage between Erie and Ontario is interrupted by tlie falls of Niagara. Tile river i>t. Laurence, as we have already observed, isi the outlet of those lakes, by which tlieydi&cljarge themselves into the ocean. The French, when in possession of the province, built forts at the several straits by which these lakes communicate with,eaGh other, as ■well as where the last of them communicates with the river. By these they circctually secured to themselves the trade of the lakes, and an iuiiucnce over all the nations of America which lay near them. Metals and minerals.] Near Quebec is a fine lead mine, and in some of the mountains, we are told, silver has been found. This country also abounds with coals. Climate.] Winter, in this country, continues with such severity from December to April, that the largest rivers are frozen over, and the snow lies commonly from four to six feet in depth ; but the air is so serene and clear, and the inhabitants so well defended against the cold, that this season is neither unhealthy nOr unpleasant. The spring opens suddenly, and vegetation is surprisingly rapid i the summer is delightful, except that a part of it is extremely hot. Soil AND paooucE.] Though the climate be cold, and the winter long apd tedious, the soil is in general very good, and in many parts botn pleasant and fertile, producing wheat, bjirley, rye, with many other sorts of grains, fruits, and vegetables ; tobacco in particular tlirivei well, aad is much cultivated. The isle of Orleans, acur CANADA. BS3 Yorfc; and, ^ortliern part ' •a, but none pry are very The princi- Is, and Troji It. Laurence, jourse north- 5» and forms Id meets the ^avigable for sea, it be- )uted, in the beiving in its Jto the ocean here the cold Ims a variety T:ful, and ci- whicJj is a f tlie W(y:ld s gues in cir- iid, is about 1 width, and Michigan, vely narrow, ands, is 5(Xi any vessels, the passage of Niagara. i the outlet the ocean, orts at the cli other, as river. By i' tlie lakes, h lay near mine, and ind. This eh severity ^Jzen over, 1 ; but the defended npleasant, ^•ly rapid : ely hot. the winter lany parts ath many particular ans, oeur Quebec, and the lands upon the river St. T^aurence, and orher rivers, are remarkable for the richness of their soil. The meadow grounds in Canada, which are well watered, yield excellent grass, and breed vast numbers of great and small cattle. As we are now entering upon tlie cultivated provinces of British America, and as Canada is upon the back of the United States, and contains almost all the dif- ferent species of wood and animals that are found in these provinces, vc shall, to avoid repetitiinis, speak of them here at some length. TiMBt < AN-n I'l.ANTs.J U'hc uncultivated parts of North America contain the greatest ibrests in the world. They arc a contiiuied wood, wot planted by the hands of men, and in all appearance as old as the world itself. Nothing is more magnificent to the sight ; tlic trees los'e themselves in the clouds ; and there is such a prodigious variety of ^pecies, that even among those persons who have taken most pains to describe them, there is not one perhaps that knows Half the num'qer. The province we are describing produces, amongst others, two sorts iof pines, the white and the red ; four sc^rtsof firs; two sorts of cedar and oak, the white and the red ; the male and the female maple ; three sorts of ash trees, the free, the mongrel, and the bastard ; threie sorts of walnut-trees, the hard, the soft, and the smooth ; vast numbers of beech trees and white wood; white and red elms, and poplars. The Indians hollow the red elms into canoes, some of which, made t)utof i>ne piece, will contain twenty persons; others are made of the bark, tl ^ different pieces of which they sew together with the inner rind, aad daub over the seams with pitch, or rather a bituminous matter resembling pitch, to prevent their leaking ; and the ribs of these canoes are made of boughs of trees, About November the bears and wild cats take up their habitations in the hollow elmS, and remain tliere till April. Here are also found cherry-trees, pluni-trees, the vinegar-tree, the fruit of which, infused in water, produces vine- gar; an aquatic plant, called alaco, the fruit of which may be made into a confection ; the white thorn ; the- cotton-tree, on the top of ^vhich grow several tufts of ilowers, which, when shaken in the' morning before the dew fails off, produce honey, that may be boiled up into sugar, the seed being a pod ccmtaining a very fine kind of cotton; the sun-plant, which resembles a marigold, and grows to the height of seven or eight feet; Turkey corn; tVench beans; gourds, melojis, capillairc, and the hop plant. Animals. 3 Tliesomake tlie most curioufe, and hitherto the moat interesting part of the natural hii^tory of Canada. It is to the spoils of these tliat we owe the materials of many bF ournranufactures, and most of the commerce as yet carried on between tis and the country Me have been describing. '1 he animals that find shelter and nourisli- ment in the immense forests of Canada, and which indeed traverse the uncultivated parts of all this continent, are stags, elks, deer, bears, foxes, martins, wildcats, ferrets, weasels, squirrels of a large size and greyish hue, hares, and rabbits. The southern parts in particular breed great numbers of wild bulls, deer of a small si/e, divers sorts of roebucks, goats, wolyes, &:c. The marshes, lakes, and pools, which in this country are very numerous, swarm with otters, beavers, or castors, of which the white are highly valued, being scarce, as well as t!ie right black kind. The American beaver, though resembling thfe creature known in Europe by that name, has many particulars which render it the most curious animal we are acquainted with. It is near iour feet in length, and weighs sixty or seventy pounds : they live I- )l I ' Si '*! f)54 CANADA. .s in VH . ..: from fifteen to twenty years, and the females generally bring forth four young ones at a time. It is an ampiiibious quadruped, that con- tinues not long at a time in the water, hut yet cannot live without frequently bathing in it. The suvagcs, who wage a continual war with this animal, believe it to be a rational creature, that it lived in society, and was governed by a leader resembling their own sachem, or prince. — It inust indeed be allowed, that the ciH'ious accounts given of this animal by 'ingenious travellers, the manner in which it contrives its habitation, provides food to serve during the winter, and always in proportion to tl^e continuance and severity of it, are suffi- cient to show the near approaches of instinct to reason, and even in some instances the superiority of the former. Their colours are dif- ferent ; black, brown, white, yellow, atid straw colours; but it is ob- served, that the lighter their colour, the less quantity of fur they are clothed with, and live in warmer climates. The furs of the beaver are of two kinds, the dry and the green ; the dry fur is the skin before it is applied to any use ; the green arc the furs that arc worn, after being sewed to one another, by the Indians, who besmear them with unctuous substances, which not only render them more pliable, but give the fine down that is manufactured into hats that oily quality ■which renders itpropcr to be worked up with the dry lur. Both the Dutch and English have of late found the secret of making excellent cloths, gloves, and stockings, as well as hats, from the beaver fur. Besides the fur, this useful animal produces the true castoreum, which is contained in bags in the lower part of the belly, diilerent from the testicles: the value of this drug is well known. The flesh of the beaver is a most delicious ibod, but when boiled it has a disagreeable relish. The musk rat is a diminutive kind of beaver (weighing about five or six pounds), which it resembles in every thing but its tail; and affords a very strong musk. The elk is of the size of a horse or mule. Its flesh is very agree- able and nourishing, and its colour a mixture of light grey and dark red. Elks love the cold countries ; and when the winter affords them no grass, they gnaw the bark of trees. It is dangerous to ap- proach very near this animal when he is hunted, as he sometimes springs furiously on his pursuers, and tramples them to pieces. To f)revent this, the hunter throws his clothes to him ; and while the de- uded animal spends his fury on these, he finds an opportunity to dispatch him. There is a carnivorous animal here, called the carcajou, of the feline or cat kind, with a tail so long, that Charlevoix says he twisted it several limes round his body. Its body is about two feet in length, from the end of the snout to the tail. It is said that this animal, V'inding himself about a tree, will dart from thence upon the elk, twist Jiis strong tail round his body, and tear his throat open In a in(>;nent. The buffaloe is a kind of wild ox, of much the same aj^r^earance uith those of Europe : his bndy is covered with a black wool, which is hitfhly esteemed. The flesh of the female is ifery good; and the buf].iloe hides are as soft and pliable as chamois leather, but so very ■ stri ng. that the huckleis which the Indians make of them are hardly penetrable by a musquet-ball. The Canadian roebuck is a domestic Hnimal, but diflers in no other respect from those of Europe. Wolves «rj scarce in Canada, but th«y afford the finest furs in all the country. CANADA. ^ring fortli •eu, tliat ri)n- oiuinuiil war i:U it Jived in hvvn sachem, pus accounts r in wJiich it ? winter, and •t, are suffi, and even in fours are dif- but it in ob- Ijur they are the beaver sJ^in bt'ibre , ^'orn, after Ji" them with phabie, but h'^y <]uah'ty ■l^oth the •^ excellent heaver fur. ^•-um, which ,'iit from the .^eshofthe I'sagreeabJe ^ about five BRS s tail and ^ery a,fjree. ^ and dark ter affords ""s to ap. iometimes jces. To ie the de- ■tunity to u. of the - twisted 1 length, an'Tnaf, ^Jie elJc, 'en in a J'arance ^'hich is md the very hardly mestic i^olves untry. Tlieir flesh is white, and good to rat ; tiioy piirsno tlu'Ir prey to the tops of the tallest tries. The black foxes are greatly esteemed, and vcry'scarre ; hut those of other colours arc more common : and some on the Upper Mississippi are ola silver colour, and very beau- tiful. They live upon water-fowls, which they decoy within their clutches by a thousand antic tricks, and then spring up and devour them. The Canadian pole-cat has a most beautiful white fur, exce|>t the tip of his tail, which is as black as jet. Nature has given this animal no defence but its urine, the smell of whicli is nauseous and intolerable; this, when attacked, it sprinkles plentifully ^)n its tail, and throws it on the assailant. The Canadian wood-rat is of a beau- tiful silver colour, with a bushy tail, and twice as big as ihe European ; the female carries under her belly a bag, which she opens and sliuts at pleasure; and in that she places her young when pursued. Hen; are three sorts of squirrels ; that called the Hying squirrel will leap forty paces and more, from one tree to another. This little animal is easily tamed and is very lively. The Canadian porcupine is less than a middling dog; when roasted, he eats full as well as a sucking pig. The hares and rabbits differ little from those in Europe, only they turn grey in winter. There are two sorts of bears liere, one of a redish, and the other of a black colour ; but the former is the most dangerous. 'I'he bear is not naturally fierce, unless when wounded or oppressed with hunger. They run themselves very poor in the month of .July, when it is somewhat dangerous to meet them ; during the winter they remain in a kind of torpid state. Scarcely any thing among the Indians is undertaken with greater solemnity than hunt- ing the bear ; and an alliance with a noted bear-hunter, who has killed several in one day, is more eagerly sought after than that of one who has rendered himself famous in war. The reason is, because the chase supplies the family with both food and raiment. Of the feathered creation, they have eagles, falcons, goshawks, ter- cols, partridges, grey, red, and black, viith long tails, which they spread out as a fan, and make a very beautiful H})pearance. Wood- cocks are scarce in Canada, but snipes, and other water game, are plentiful. A Canadian raven is said by some writers to cat as well as a pullet, and an owl better. Here arc black-birds, swallows, and larks ; no less than twenty-two different species of ducks, and a great number of swans, turkeys, geese, bustards, teal, water-hens, cranes, and other large water-fowl ; but always at a distance from houses. The Canadian wood-pecker is a beautiful bird, Tl»rushes and gold- finches are found here ; but the chief Canadian bird of melody is the ^'/hite bird, which is a kind of ortolan, very show^y, and remarkable for announcing the return of spring. The fly-bird, or humming, bird, is thought to be the most beautiful of any in nature ; with all his plumage, he is no bigger than a cock-chafer, and he makes a noise with his wings like the humming of a large fly. Among the reptiles of this country, the rattle-snake chiefly deserves attention. Some of these are as big as a mnn's leg, and they are long in proportion. What is most remarkable in this animal is the tail, which is scaly like a coat of mail, and on which it is said there grows every year one ring or row of scales ; so that its age may be known by its tail, as we know that of a horse by its teeth. In moving, it makes a rattling hoise, from which it takes its name. The bite of this serpent i^ mortal, if a remedy is not applied immediately. In all places where this dangerous reptile is bred, there grows a plant, which 9m CAt^ADA* WW. \h \ I l/SS 4. til 1 ' t ' ^.1 I I .,'' 1 ' 'I J: !t.> L Is callptl r!tttli'-<;h;it:c licrt>, tlic root of which (sttch is tliC ^ooclhcls of Providence) is :i certain iintidolc against the venom of this strpcnt* hrtdthfit with the most jimplo pvepilr.tiion } for it requires only to op pounded or clicweil* and apphtxl Hke a phitster to the wound. 'I'ho rattle-snake seldom hite". pitsiengets, ilnkss it is provoked j and iicvtf darts Itself at nny pet-son without first rattling' three times with ita tail. When pnisncd, if it has but a little tinu? to recover. It folds itself t-ound, With the head in the middle, luul then darts itself with great fUry and violence au.iin;.t its pHrsueis ; nevertheless, the savages rhace it, nnd find its ncsh very good: it also possesses inedicinul qiintitieii. Some writers are of opinion, tliat the fisheries in Canad:!, If pnv pcrly improved, would be inoic Hl.oly to enrich that country than even the lur trade. The river iSt. J.iuirencc contahis perhaps tho jrreatest variety offish of any in the World, and these in the greulest plf^nty and of tlie host sorts. Jk'sides a great variety of otliel* fiili in the rivers and lakes, arc sca- ^V<^lvcs♦ sea-cows, pot-poisen, the lencornet, the goljt'rquo, the sca- phiiscj salmon, trout, turtle, lobsters, the chaourason, sturgeon, thd iichigau ; the gUthead) tUnny, shad) lainjirey, smelts, conger-eels» mackalol, soals, herrhigs, anchOvics, and pilchards. Tlie sea-wolf| fco called iVom Its howling, in an amphihioUs creature j the largest ia said to weigh two tJioitsand pounds j their flesh is good eating } hut the pi-ofit of it hes in the oil, which ir. proper for burning and currying of leather; their skins make excellent coverings lor trunks, nndf though not so fine as Morocco leather, they preserve their freshnes.i better, and are less liable to cl'acks. The shoes and boots made of* those skins let in no Water, and) wheji properly tantied, make excellent ttnd lasting covering for seats. The Canadian sea-cow is larger than the sea-wolf) but resembles it in figure i it has two teeth of tlie thick* ress and leut^th of a man's arm, that, when grown, look like holns, and ate Very fine ivory, tis U'cll as its other teeth. Soihe of the p6r* poises of tin* river St. Laurence are said to yield a hogshead of oil | and of their skins Waistcoats are made, which arc excessively strong* and musket proof* The lencornet is a kind of cuttle fish, quite rov.nd» fer rather oval : there are tln-ee sorts of them, which differ only in size; J some being as huge as a hog'shead, and others but a foot long f they catch only the last, and that with a torch ; they are excelk-nt catihg. The goberqlie has the taste and smell of a small cod. Tlie " sea-plaise is good eating ; they arc taken with long poles armed with iron hookss Tiie chaourason is an armed fish, about five feet longj and as thick as a man*s thigh, icsemhling a pike i it is covered witli scales that are proof ngiiiiwt a dagger; its colour is a silver grey j ind there grows under its moutli a long bony substance, ragged at the edges. One may easily conceive; that an animal so well fortified is a ravager among the inhabitants of the water; hut we have feW instances of uih making prey of the feathered creation, which this fish does, however, with inuch art. He conceals himself among the crtne? and reeds, in such a manner that nothing is to he seen besideti his Weapon, which he holds raised perpendicularly above the surface of the water ; the fowls which come to take rest, imagining the Weapon to be only a Withet-ed feed, pfcreh upon it; but they are no sooner hlightcd, than the fish opens its throat, and makes such a sudden mo- tion to seize his prey, that it Seldom csctipes him* This fish Is an in- liabitant of tliC lakes* The stui-g^coa is both a iresih and salt-wuter frcs only to bd [times with iny V)vt.r, It folds ns itself -tvjth |s, lliesav.iirfs Tsca medicinal Inail.'!, Ifpj-.v jcouiury than pciiiaps thtj tiie grcHieat iif^'cs, arc acu* "<-•> the sea- 't'li-gcrn, tlid coiiMci-.t<e].s, 'ha sea-vvolt; lit! lar^rest ia t'Htlngj hut 'nil currying :i;i'"|f3, niid, i-'ir freshncs.-j ots maile of ^^e excellent ^•■"•.q:er tJiaii "f the thick* JJkc hoins, of tJ)e p6r- lead of oil I 'e|y strong, U'te roi:nd, ffer only ia foot Jong I - excellent :od. Tha ^ ^fmt:d Willi fet't Jong, 'ered viUi ver gvcy < '"•''.^;?ed at II fortified h.ivc few 'i thij; lish tlie cHne? 'sides his Liriace of ■ ^'t'apon sooner Iden mo. h an in- Jt-Wttter CANADA. 8-7 (ish, takert on tlie eois*: of C.math nnd the lukc;, from ci(':ht tn twelve fe\'t lonp^, and propovtionably thick. There is a !fhv,ill kind of stur- J^oon,thc llesh of which is Very tender and delicate. The achit!;aut wad the gilthcad, are fish peculiar to the river St. Laurence. Some of the rivers breed a kind of crocodile, that dilfers but little from those of the Nile. Natural cuRiontriEs.] These are the vast lakes, rivers, and ra. taracts of the country. Among the latter the priiu:i[)al is the stu- pendous fall, or cataract, which is called the Falls of Ningara. The water here is about half a mile wide, where tlio rui k ciossci it, not in a direct line, but in the form of a half mcmn. Vv'lu-n it conies to the jwrpendicUlar fall, which is 1.50 feet, no words can express the consternation of travellers at seeing so great a body of water falling, x»r rather violently thrown, from so great a height, upon the rocks below : from which it again rebounds to a very great height, appear- ing ns white as snow, bemg all converted into foam, through those violent agitations. The noise of this fall is often !u aid at the distance «f fifteen miles, and sometimes much luither. 'J"he vapour arising from the fall may sometimes he seen at a great distance, appeuring like a cloud, or pillar of smtA'C) and exhiliiting the resemblance of n rainbow, whenever the sun and the position of the traveller favour. Many beasts and fowls here lose their lives, by attcuiining to swimr rr cross the stream in the rapids above the fall, and are tbiirid dasheil in pieces below. Sometimes the Indians, through carelessness or drunkenness, have met with the same fate; and perhaps no place ii\ the world is frequented by such a number of eagles as are invited hither fey the ca:noge of deer, elks, bears, 5cc. on which ihey feed. Population, inmahitants.] in the year 178,1, Canada and T/abrador were supposed to contain about l;tO,0(X) inhabitants.* There ai'e many ditleront tribes of Indians in Canada ; but these people arc observed to decrease in population where the Europeans are most mimcrons, owing chiefly to the immoderate use of spirituous li(|Uors, of which they arc excessively fond. But as liberty is tlie Ruling passion of the Indians, we may hatm-ally suppose, that, as tlie F.uropeans advance, the former wiil retreat to more distant regions. Chii:^ rowN'v] Quebec, the capital, not only of Lower Canada, but of all Britisli Anierica, is situate at the conthience of the rivers St. Laurence and St. Charles, or the Little River, ahotit fJ20 miles frona ihv sea. It is built on a rock, partly of marble and partly of slate. The town is divided into an upper and a lower; the lumses iu both tire of stone, and built irt a tolerable manner. The fortifications are strong, though not regular. The town is defended by a regular and beautiful citadel, in which the governor resides. The number of inhubitants have been computed at 12 or 15,000. The river, which from the sea hither is four or five leagues broad, narrows rdl on a sudden to abont a mile wide. "J'Tie haven, which lies opposite the town, is safe ai'id commodious, and about five fathoms deqi. The harbour is fl:tnked by two bastions, that are raised 2.'> feet from tlie ground, which is about the height of tiie tides at the time of the equinox. • In ITfi^, general IlaUlimand orderpc! a census of the iiilKibitanbt to be t.iken, when tho\ anumiilcd to 1 K'J.Ol 2 J''.nu;lis[i and French, exclusive of 10,000 loyalists, Settled in the upper parts of the inwincc. m ...-. il ir*- «58 canaSa. I- f H'. |#^ |.f; ■■ (fiill . From Qiichcc to Montreal, which is about 170 miles, in sailinj^ up the river St. Laurence, the eye is entertained with beautiful land- scapeb, tl)e banks being in many places very bold and steep, and shaded w ith lofty trees. The farms lie pretty close ail the way ; several gentlemen's honses, neatly built, show themselves at intervals, and there is all the appearance of a flourishing colony ; but there are few towns or villages. The country resembles the well-settled parts of Virginia and Maryland, where the planters live wholly within them- selves. Many beautiful islands are interspersed in the channel of the river, which have an agreeable effect upon the eye. After parsing the Richelieu islands, the air becomes so mild and temperate, that the traveller thinks himself transported to another climate; but this is to be understood of the summer months. The town called Trois Rivieres, or the 'f'hrce Rivers, is about half way between Quebec and Montreal, and has its name from three rivers which join their currents here, and fall into the river St. Lau- rence. It is much resorted to by several nations of Indians, who, by means of these rivers, come hither and trade with the inhabitants in various kinds of furs and skins. The country is pleasant, and fertile in corn, fruit, &c. -and great numbers of handsome houses stand on both sides of the rivers. Montreal stands on an island in the river St. Laurence, which is ten leagues, in length, and four in breadth, at the foot of a mountain which gives name to it, about half a league from the south shore. , V\ hile the French had possession of Canada, both the city and island of Montreal belonged to private proprietors, who had improved them so well, that the whole island was become a most delightful spot, 'and produced every thing that could administer to the convenience's of life. The city forms an oblong square, divided by regular and well-formed streets ; and when it fell into the hands of the English, the houses were built in a very handsome manner ; and every house . might be seen at one view from the harbour, or from the southernmost side of the river, as the hill, on the side of which the town stands, falls gradually to the water. The place is surrounded with a wall ,. and a dry ditch; and its fortifications have been much improved by the English. Montreal is nearly as large as Quebec ; but since it became subject to the English it has suffered much by fires. Trade.] The amount of the exports from the province of Lower Canada, in the year 1786, was 34''^,263l. the amount for imports in the same year was 325,1161. The exports consisted of wheat, flour, biscuit, flax-seed, fish, pot-ash, ginseng, and other medicinal roots ; but principally of furs and peltries, to the amount of 285,9771. The imports consisted of. rum, brandy, molasses, coffee, sugar, wines, tobacco, salt, provisions for the troops, and dry goods. GovERNMKNT.] By the Quebec act, passed by the parliament of Great Britain, in the year 1791, it is enaet«d that there shall be within each of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, a legislative council and an assembly, who, with the consent of the governor ap- pointed by the king, shall have power to make laws ; but the king may declare his tlissent at any time within two years after receiving any bill. The legislative council is to consist of not few'er than seven members for Upper and fifteen for Lower Canada, to be sum- moned by the governor, who must be authorized by the king. They hold their seats for life unless they forfeit them by an absence of four years, or transferring their allegiance to some foreign power. The, p. in sailing tia feautifuJ Jand- Nd steep, and J Jiil the Way ; ps at intervals* h but there are ■settled parts of \y within thern- Ichannel of the I After passing pmperate, that fnatej but this !. is about half le from tJiree [river St. Lau- |aians,who,by [inhabitants in pt, and fertile fuses stand on "ce, which is f a mountain .south shore. »ty and island ^proved them ■I'gJitful spot, I conveniences ; regular and ■ the English, I every house iouthernmpst town stands, with a wall h improved c ; but since fires. ce of Lower imports in '^leat, flour, filial roots ; ^771. The far, wines, Iiament of 1 be within legislative ^'ernor ap. the ting receiving Jwer than J be sum- ^ I'hey e of four *r. The NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWICK. 8.9d house of assembly is to consist of not less than sixteen members from Upper and fifty from Lower Canada, chosen by the freeholders in the several towns and olstrlcts. The council and assembly are to he called together at least once in every year, and every assembly is to continue four years, unless sooner dissolved by die governor. Religion,] About nine-tenths of tlic inhabitants of these pro- vinces are Romau Catholics, who enjoy, under the present govern- ment, the same rights and privileges as were granted them in 1772 by the act of p.trliament then passed. The rest of tlie people are protestants of various sects. Language.] The general language of this country is the French; English being confined to the British settlers, who are much fewer in number than the inhabitants of French descent. History.] This country was discovered by the English as early as 1497 ; but the first settlement in it was made by the French, in 1608, who retained possession of it till 17^0, when it was conquered by the British arms, and, by the trenty of Paris, in 1763, ceded by France to the crown of England, under the government of which it has ever since continued. One of the most remarkable events which history records of this country, is the earthtjuake in the year 166% which overwhelmed a chain of mountains of free-stone, more than 300 miles long, and changed the immense tract into a plain. < .. NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWICK. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Length Dreadth Miles. 3507 2504 between Degrees. Sq. Miles. r 4y and 49 North latitude > -_ ^,,v J OO and 67 West longitude J ^''^^ Boundaries, divisions.] NOVA SCOTIA, or NEW SCOT- LAND, in the original and more extensive application of the name, is bounded by the river St. Laurence on the north ; by the gulf of St. Laurence, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the east ; by the same ocean, south ; and by Canada and New England, west. This country, in 1784, was divided into two provinces orgovern- ttients, viz. Nova Scotia proper, and New Brunswick. Nova Sco- tia proper is a peninsula, joined to the continent by a narrow istlamus, at the north-east extremity of the bay of Fundy : it Is separated on the north-east from Cape Breton island by the gut of Canso ; on the north it has a part of the gulf cf St. Laurence, and the straits of Northumberland, which divide it from the island of St. John ; on the west it has New Brunswick, and the bay of Fundy j on the south and south-east the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is about 235 miles from Cape Sable on the south-west, to Cape Canso on the north-east. Its extreme breadth is «8 miles ; but, between the head of Halifax harbour, and the town of Windsor, it is only about 22 miles broad. It contains 8,789,000 acres, of which three millions have been granted, and two millions settled, and under improvemeiit. my NOVA acoTiA and new nmrNswicf:. \A Now Brimswlck is hoinufed mi the wtiiwnrd nf the river 5f« Cicix, hy the said rivor to its sourco, and by :i linr druvn duo north fmni iheiico to the southcru houriilary of thf province of Quebec, to the iiorthwMrd by ihc «;anii- boundary as far as the western fxtrt-niit) of the Day do Ciialetirs, to the eastward by the said hajr to tlu: yn'.i' vf St. IjaiMcnce, to the bay called 15ay Vcrte, to the south by :i lino in the center of tlio bay (i Fundy, Iruni the rivor St. Cioiic niorcsaid, to tlie mouth ot' the Musquat river ; l)y tiio said river to lis sonrie, and from tlieiUT by a due line ai ross rb.e i ahnius into the 3*ay Vertc, to join the enstern hit ab(»ve described, including all JslrnH^s witliin si\' lear^iu s of the coast. Novii Sotia is divided into cii;;bt counties, vi/. Halifar, Hants, King's, Annapolis, Cit;iil)erland, Sunbury, Ouceu's, and LunenlMir;.;. 'J'hese are divided into above iO townships. flivKKH.J 'I'lic principal rivers in New ihtinsvick are St. John's, V hich is navi'i^able for vessels of iilty tons, ab(mt sixty m»lcs ; and Ku Crf)i>:, -wliich divides this province Ironi ilic district oi' Mninr, in the United States. The river of Annapolis, in Nova Scotia proper, isnavif^ablc liftccn miles for vessels of l^)()ton9. Metals, MiNKRALS.j Copper has been lound at Cape D'Or, on the north side of tlie basin ol Minas, and there are mines of coal at Cumberland, and on the cast river, whicli falls into Pictoii haibour. liAKKs.] Tile lakes are very numerous, but Uavc not yet received particular names. CbiMATi;.] The climate of thf<; country, ihoueh within tlie temperate -/one, has been found rather unfavourable to tu^^pean con- stitutions. They arc wrapped up in tlie gloom of a tog dunn!^- great part of the year, and for four or five months it is intensely cold ; but, though the cold in winter, and tlie heat in suhimcr, are preat, they conic on gradually, so as to prepare the body for cndur* ing bcth. Son. AND PRODUci-.] From such nn Ttnfavourable climate little can be expected. Nova Sccnia, or New Scotland, till lately, was almost a continued forest ; and agriculture, though attempted by thy English settlers, made little progress. In most parts, ilie soil is thin and barj-en, the corn it produces is of a shrivelled kind, like rye, anil the grass intermixed with a cold spongy moss* However, it is not uniformly bad; there are tracts in the penihs'-' '. to the ^onthward, wliicli do not yield to the best land in New I:,n;,Jand,and, by the industry and exeriicni'" of the loyalists from the olhe provinces* av) now cuhivated, and likely to be fertile and riourishini.;;. In ge- neral, the soil is adapted to the produce of hehip an-' llax. The timber is extremely proper for ship-building, and pr )duces pitch and tar. Flattering accounts have been given of the improvements makinj^ in the new settlemerits and bay of Fundy. A great quan- tity oi land has been cleared, which abounds in tlmSer ; and ship- loads of good masts and spars have been shipped from thence already. Animals.) These provinces are not defici^mt in l j animals of the neighbouring ooutitries,' particularly deer, 1 e:lvers, and otters. Wild fo\vl, and all manner of game, and many kinds of iMiropean fowls .nnd quadrupeds, have, fronr time to time, been brop'^ht into it, and thrive well. At the close of Mlrch, the fish begin t > spawn, when they enter the rivers in such shoals as are incredible. Herrings come wp in April, and the sturgeon and ' ilnion in May. But the most valuable appendage of New JScotlur. .5 the Cape Sable coast, alonij VCK, the river 5t* luvii duo north U'i Quebec, to jftcni fjktreniit) '/-' sou til by ;j f-Jvcr {jt. Croijc K' Slid river to \hnnts into tfu- including all UVifnr, ]ljntr., M Lniu'iil>urr'-, ^'•e .St. John's, |t.y m»]c.s ; and net oi' Af-,,inf>, Nova .Stotia I. tipc ])'Or, on hies of coal at kton Iiaibour. |t yet recd\ tj /' ^vitliln t?ie Ur^pcnn con- \ojx dtiMiiP' "t is intcnscl'/ •iuhimcr, are Jy lor cndur- cVtmutc Vtulii 1 lately, \v;,5 npted by the- s. the soil is ■<J Jvind, ]i|i>e HoA^'ever, is»''. to tiie ig^and. anif, ■ i'rovinces> ^'A- In ge. ilax. Thn luces pitch proveiiients . ^reat qtian* I JUid ship- om tlicucR ":^Isofthe ers. Wild 'Can fowls to it, and ^'n, AvJien ng:s come tfie most ist, along KOVA SCOTIA AND NKW RRUMSWICK. Sfil w'lilch Is one coutlnncd range of coj-fi'jiiing bank.s, navi^jablc rivers, basins, and excellent harbours. I'oi'ui.Ai ION.] Tlie uhi)le population of Nov.i Scoiiai New iJrunswick-, and the islands adjoining, is about .>(>,()00. Chikk TOWNS."] 'I'liu capital of Nova tjcotia proper is llaHfn, which stands upmi Chcbucto bay, very ccuiniodiuusly sitiiated for tne fishery, and has a communication wiUi most parts of the pro- vince, either by laiul-carviage, the kca, or navigable rivers, wiili ;i tine harbour, where a small squadron of ships ot war lies durin^tj iliw winter, and in summer puis to sea, under the conmiand of a couiino» dore, for the protection of the iishery. The town has an entrench- ment, and is strentjthenod \viih forli of timber. The other towns of less note arc Annapolis Royal, which stands on the east t.ide of the bay t)f Fundy, and, though but a small pUce, was fofmerly thu capital of the province. It has one of the rinest harbours in An;orica, ca- pable of contaiuinjr a tliousanJ vessels at anchor, in the utmost se- curity. St. John's is a new settlement at iljc moutJi of the river u'l that name, that falls into the bay cl" Fimdy, on the west -lide. iSince the conclusion of the Aiiu-ricaix war, the emigration of loy. alists to this province from tlie United States has been very great: by them new towns have been raised ; as Shelburne, which extendi two miles on the water-side, and is said to contain already DOOO in- habitants. Of the old settlements, the most flourishing and populouii are Halifax, and the townships of Windsor, Norton, and Coruwallis, between Halifax and Annapolis. Of tlie new settlements, tlve mi)st important are Shelburne, l5arr-town, Digby, and New Edinburgh." I^arge tracts of land havo beev> lately cultivated, and the province is now likely to advance in population ajid fertility, ^ The chief tov.-us of New Brunswick, are St. John's thp capIt.iJ» Fredcricktown, St. Andrew's, and St, Ann, the present seat of got vernment. Trade.] The amount of imports from Great Britain to tins country, at an average of three years, before the new settlement*. Was about *2(\.100\. The articles exported in evchangi.- are tinibcri and the produce of the fishery, which, at a large average, amounts to 3«,0(X)h History and 6t^TTLEME^!T.] Notwithstanding the forhiddirig; appearance of this country, it was here tluit s<.):ne of tiic first Euro. pean settlements were made. TJie first grant of lands in it wasgive^i by James I. to his secretary, Sir William Ale-vandf-r, from whom it had the name of Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. Since theu, it lua frequently changed hands, from one private proprietor to another, and from the French to the English itation, backward and forward, .It was not confirmed to the English till the peace of Utrecht; and their design in acquiring it does not seem to have so much arisen iVo'u any prospect of direct profit to be obtained by it, as from an appro, hension that the French, by possessing this province, might have had it in their power to annoy our other settlemeals. Upon this principle, 3000 families were transported, in ITllJ, at the chiirge of the government, into this country, wliere they erected thp town of Halifax, so called frf^m the earl of liiat jume, to \vhoi« wisiifiin and care we owe Uus settlement, , \^ ■■■ y ,',! i /^. ■ \ Pt ;• (• 862 ) !■' . M i]\-v'm^} > jii Mmmt H ill BRITISH ISLANDS IN NORTH AMERICA. THE islands belonging to Great Britain in North America are Newfoundland, Cape Breton, St. John's, and the Bermudas, or Summer Islands. Newfoundland is situate on the east side of the gulf of St. Laurence, between 46 and 52 degrees of north latitude, and between 53 and 59 of west longitude. It is separated from Labrador, or New Britain, by the straits of Belleisle, and from Canada by the bay of St. Laurence ; being 350 miles long, and 200 broad. The coasts are extremely subject to fogs, attended with almost continual storms of snov/ and sleet, the sky being usually overcast. The cold of winter is here long continued and severe, and the summer heat, though sometimes violent, is not sufficient to produce any thing vji- luable, the soil being rocky and barren. It is, however, watered by several good rivers, and has many large and excellent harbours. 'Jhis island seems to be rather hilly than mountainous, with woods of birch, small pine, and fir: but on the south-west side are lofty headlands. It is chiefly valuable for the great fishery of cod, car- ried on upon those shoals, which are called the banks of Newfound- land. Great Britain ;ind the United States, at the lowest computa- tion, annually employ 3,000 sail of small craft in this fishery, on board of which, and on shore, to cure and pack the fish, are upwards «f 100,000 hands. This fishery is computed to yield aOO,(X)Ol. a year from the cod sold in Catholic countries. The numbers of cod, both on the great bank and the lesser, are inconceivable ; and not only cod but several other species of fish are caught there in abundance, all of which are nearly in equal plenty along the shores of New- foundland, Nova Scotia, New England, and the island of Cape Bre- ton, and very profitable fisheries are carried on upon all their coasts. The chief towns in Newfoundland are Placentia, Bonavista, and St. John's, but not above 1000 families remain here in the winter. A small squadron is sent in the spring to protect the fisheries and inhabitants, the admiral of which, for the time being, is governor of liie island, besides whom there is a lieutenant governor, who resides at Placentia. This island was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1496, and both the French and English had made settlements there in the beginning of the seventeenth century. After various contests and disputes, however, the island was entirely ceded to England by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713; but the French were left at liberty to dry their nets on the northern shores of the island j ;ind by the treaty of 1763, they were permitted to fish in the gulf of St. Laurence ; but with the limitation that they should not approach within three leagues of any of the coasts belonging to England. The smal) islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, situate to the southward of Newfoundland, were also ceded to the French, under the stipulation that they should erect no fortifications on those islands, nor keep more than fifty soldiers to enforce the police. By the treaty of '783, the French were to enjoy their fisheries on the northern and western coasts, the inhabi- tants of the United States having the same privileges as before tlieir independence, and the late treaty of Amiens confirmed the privileges then j^ranted to the French. BRITISH ISLANDS IN NORTH AMERICA. 863 AMERICA. jrth America are Bermudas, or the gulf of St. |de,and between brador, or New !a by the bay of d. The coasts ontiniial storms It. The cold of summer hear, 'e any thing v^- i^er, watered hy ellent harbours, us, with woods St side are lofty I'y of cod, car- i of Newfound- 'wcst coniputa- this fishery, on h, are upwards ?ld 300,(K)01. a umbers of cod, e ; and not only e in abundance, ihores of New-, i of Cape Bre- all their coasts. Bonavista, and ' in the winter, c fisheries and IS governor of >i> who resides i96, and both the beginning and disputes, ■ the treaty of r to dry their satyof 1763, ce } but with ^e leagues of slands of St. ^ ndland, were should erect fifty soldiers ;nch were to the inhabi- before tlieir e privileges Cape Breton. 3 This island, or rather collection of Islands called by the French Las Isles de MadunHf which lie so contiguous that they are commonly called but one. and comprehended under the name of the island of Cape Breton, lies between 45 and 47 de^. north lat. and between 59 and 60 deg. west long, from Loiidon. Iv: is about 100 miles in length, and 50 in breadih ; and is separated from Nova Scotia by a narrow strait, called the Gut of Cunso, whicli is the communication between the Atlantic Ocean and the gulf of St. Laurence. The soil is barren, but it has good harbours, particu- larly that of Louisbourg, which is near four leagues in circunilor- ence, and has every where six or seven fathoms water. The French began a settlement in this island in 171 1, which they continued to increase, and fortified it in ]7'20. They wore, however, dispossessed in 174-5, by the bravery of the inhabitants of New Eng- land, with little assistance from Great Britain ; but it was again, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, ceded to the French, wh® spared no expense to fortify and strengthen it. Notwithstanding which, it was again reduced, in 1758, by the British troops, under general Amherst and admiral Boscawen, together with a large body of New England men, who found in that place two hundred and twenty-one pieces of cannon, and eighteen mortars, together with a large quantity oi am- muniticn and stores ; and it was ceded to tlie crown of Great Bri- tain by the peace of \76'.i, since which the fortifications have been blown up, and the town of Louisbourg dismantled. Sv. John's.] Situate in the gulf of St. Laurence, is about 60 miles in length, and 30 or 40 broad, and has many fine rivers ; and, though lying near Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, has greatly the advantage of both in pleasantness and fertility of soil. Upon the reduction of Cape Breton, the inhabitants of this island, amounting to four thousand, submitted quietly to the British arms ; and, to the disgrace of the French governor, there were found in his hous6 several English scalps, which were brought there to market by the savages ; this being the place where they were encouraged to carry on that barbarous and inhuman trade. This island was so well improved by the French, that it was styled the granary of Canada, which it furnished with gieat plenty of corn, as well as beef and pork. It has several fine rivers, and a rich soil. Charlotte-town i.s the capital, and the residence of the lieutenant-governor, who is the chief officer in the island. The inhabitants are estimated at about five thousand. BtRMUDfts, OR SUMMER ISLANDS.] Tlicso rccclved their first name from their being discovered by John Bermudas, a Spaniard ; and were called the Summer Islands, from Sir George Summers, wlio was shipwrecked on their rocks in 1609, in his passage to Virginia. They are situate at a vast distance from anycoDiincnt, in thirty-two deg. north lat. and in sixty-five degrees west long. Their distance from the I..and's End is computed to be near 1500 leagues, from the Madeiras about ItiOO, and from Carolina about '500. The Bermudas are but small, not containing iu all above 20,000 acres ; and are very difficult of access, being, as Waller the poet, who resided some time there, expresses it, " walled with rocks." The air of these islands, which Waller celebrates in one of his poems, has been always esteem- ed extremely healthful ; and the beauty and richness of tlve vegeta- ble productions are perfectly delightful. Though the soil of thesse islands is admirably adapted to the cultivatioa ot the vine, the chief T .fc 864 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Si;-^ ^•■' !' ut.' '^;piiii ,1' ': '*i||tii si.?' J^-^i h:^ - .t . a i^ andonly business of the inhabitants, who are about 10,000 in number, is the building and navigation of li^ht sloops and bngantines, tihicH they employ chiefly in the trade between North America and the West Indies. These vessels are as remarkable for their swiftness, as the cedar, of which they are buil.t, is for its hard and 4ura,bl9 quuUty. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. OF the rise, p'rogres,s, and most remarlcable events of that war, between Great Britain and her American colonies, w^ich at length terminated in the establishment of the United States of America, we have already given an account in our view of the principal ira^s* actions in the history of Great Britain. It was on the fourth of July, 177(j, that the congress published a splemn declu,ratioa,in wbicU they assigned tlieir reasons for withdrawing their allegiance from the king of Great Lritain. In the name and by the authority of the in- habitants of the United Colonies of New Hanipsliire, Massachusetts Bay, Khode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, NiMth Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, they declared that jhey then were, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; and that, as such, they had full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states roa,y of right do. They also pub- lished articles of confederation and perpetual union between tha united colonics, in which they assumed the title of ** The United States of America ;" nnd by which each of tlie colonies contracted a reciprocal treaty "of alliance and friendship, for tlieir common de« fence, for the niainteauoce of their liberties, and for their general a^d mutual advantage; obligin^^ themselves to assist each other against all violence that might tlu'caten all or any one of them, and to repel in common all the attacks that might be levelled against all pr any one of them, on account of religio^*^ sovereignty, commerce, or under any other pretext whatsoever. Each of the colonies re- served to tlicinselyes alone the CKclusive right of regulating their in- ternal government, and of framing laws in. all matters iiot included in the articles of confederation. Bui for the. more convenient ma- nagement of the general interest of tha United States, it was dcter» mined that delegates should be annually appointed, in such manner as the legislature of each state should direct, to meet in congress on the first Monday In November of every yeai-, uitli a power reserved to each Jitate to recall Its delegates, or any of them, at any timo within the year, and to sx'ud otliers in their stead for the remainder of the year. No state was lo be represented in congress by less tlian two, nor more than seven members ; and no person w^s ci^pable of being a delegate for more than three years, in any term of six years } nor was any person, being a delegate, capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or any other for his benefit, should receive any salary, fees, or emolument of any kind. In determining questions in the United States, in congTCss assembled, each state was to have one votej and to abide by tlie dett^rminutiou of the United A. ^Of> Jn numlSer, amines, which lerica and the «■ swiftness, as iraW? quality. FlatcXZr. -" -«*»> CA. ■ of that war, ich at length of Amprjca, incipal iraps- thc fourth of tiou,in which mce from th© 'ty of the in- ^assachusetts ecticut, New I'd, Virginia, dechired that ndent states ; delude peace, ther acts and bey also pub- between the ' The United ■s contracted common de- their general each other >f them, and J against ;iU commerce, colonies re- ing their in, ot Included veni^qt m;i, t was deter* uch manner congress on 'er reserved time withiii nder of the s tlian two, b of being years I nor )ffice under :fit, should etermining ^ state wag the United \yi L ; « 'iV* m \\ FlateJOCr. ■'■r'^ff'. I, .' -in k.v m tAn U' iM 1 III ,wi I v/- .;^ ii'^ Vh^' cji f . •r^f V A ■->''•'■ ^'■"f i- *i t*-- ■'V>4» I .«'•, M ■^v- f-vfe;,. \ .^ , ■ aiiifw*''^**^* UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 86^ States in congress assembled, on all questions submitted to them b/ the confederation. The articles of the confederation were to be in- violably observed by every state, and the union to be perpetual ; nor was any alteration thenceforth to be made in any of them, unless previously agreed to in a congress of the United States, and after- wards confirmed by the legislature of vhat state. It was on the SOth of January, 1778, that the French king concluded a treaty of amity and commerce with the Thirteen United Colonies of America, as in- dependent states. Holland acknowledged them as sue' April 19» 1782 ; and, on the 30th of November, 1782, provisional articles were signed at Paris by the British and American commissioners, in which his Britannic majesty acknowledged the Thirteen Colonies to be free, sovereign, and indepcndcz.t states; and these articles were af- terwards ratified by a derinitive treaty. Sweden acknowledged them as such Februarys, 1783; Denmark the 25th of February; Spaia in March, and Russia in July, 178t}. The following Calculations luere made from actual Mea.^urement of the Best Map, by I'homas Hutch ins, Esq. Geographer to the United States. The territory of the United States contains, by computation, a million square miles,* in which are - - - - - Deduct for water - - . - . Acres of land in the United States 610,000,000 of acres, 51,000,000 589,000,000 That part of the United States comprehended between the west temporary line of Pennsylvania on the east, the boundary line between Britain and the United States, extending from the river Ste. Croix to the north-west extremity of the Lake of the Woods, on the north, the river Mississippi to the mouth of the Ohio on the west, and the river Ohio on the south, to the aforementioned bounds of Pennsylva»_ nia, contains, by computation, about four hundred and eleven thou- sand square niileb ; in which are 263,040,000 of acrei. Deduct for water - - - - 4:%040,000 To be disposed of by order of congress 220,000,000 The whole of this immense extent of unappropriated western ter- ritory, containing, as above stated, 220,000,000 of acres, has been, bf the cession of some of the original thirteen status, and by the treat/ of peace, transferred to the federal government, and is pledged as a fund for sinking the continental debt. It is in contemplation to dir vide it into new states, with republican cqnstitutions, similar to the old states near the Atlantic Ocean. The territory of the United States is in length 1250 miles, and ia * The addition of the country of Louisiana, lately purchased of France by the United Suites, will, it is estimated, enlarge the lerfiiofy of the lattoT by 450,0UU square miles. . . SK ^Cy UNITED STATES of AMERICA. M5 Ei IT'l ! breadth 1010; lying between 31 .ind i6 decrees of north latitndCf and between (j-t and 96 degrees oi' west longitude. Tliey consist at present of sixteen separate independent states, having governors, constitutions, and laws of their own, tinited under a general federal constitution, administered by an elective head, and by a proportionate number of representatives of the people from all the states. They are classed in three grand divisions, as follows : • I. The New England, or East:;rn, or Northkrn Status. • Vermont ' New Hampshire Massachusetts, includhig the District of Maine Rhode Island and Connecticut " • II. T/iG MtDDLE States. New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia Kentucky North Carolina III. The South EKN States. South Carolina Georgia Tennessee. Besides -which, there is the extensive north-western territory men- tioned above, which is gradually settling, and is hereafter, u^hen its population shall be sulliciently increased, to be divided into new States. Population of thk Unitko Status.] According to the census taken by ordtr of congress, in 1 T90> the number of the inhabitants of the United States of America was i{,JJ'i9,3'J(), of, wlioni ()97,b'97, "Were slaves. By the census taken in like manner in 1800, they amounted to 5,305,G.'i{^, including 893,3.'U slaves. Ti'vADE.] The trade of the United States has greatly increased, in consequence of the long war between England and France since t!ie French revolution. The exports oI* these Staves, in the year end- ing Sept. 30, 179f>, amounted to 6T,W4,<>97 dollats, though six years before their v;i]ue was only about IS niilHons ol dollars ; and in 1801 they were estimated at above 70 millions. ^KF.vr.Nt'H.J The revenue of ilic Unitcel Sl.(tcs ib derived from duties on merchandise and- tonir.igo, sonic inlcinal duties, and the sale of lands. The duties on mercliandise and tonnage ainnunted i.i the year ending Sept. 30, iPOl, to J 0,,G00,0(K) dollars', and the whoia o{' tiie revenue to 10,000,000 dollars. The expenditure for tlic same yOar was 3,500,000 dollars ; leaving a surplus of 7,100,000 dolLirs to be applied to the liquidation of the public debt, which, in the sai-e fear, amounted to 77,t>8 1,890 dollars. The civil list is about 300,(X)0 dollars annually. Military force.] The military strength of this country con- sists in a militia, estintiated by Mr. Morse at 900,<X)0 men ; there is also a regular force of about three or four thousand men, to dckiid ilie frontiers of the Union, and to man the several fortresses in tlie different parts of the United States. Their marine consists, as yet, only of a few frigates, and small armed vessels. PRESF.NT AND FUTUKK CONSTITDTION OF CONGRESS .] Such nrC the extensive dominions dcpeadLjiton congrcs^i whicht together wiih UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 867 a president chosen for four years, consists, since 17fi9> of a senate and house of representatives. The senate is composed of two senators ftom each state, elected for six years ; and the house of represpnta- trves of one representative, chosen every second year, for every thirty- three thousand inhabitants in each state, until the number has exceed- e"d one hundred ; since wliich there is not to be less than one repre- sentative for every forty thousand, until the number of representa- ti^'es amounts to two hundred. When this takes place, the propor- tion between the people and their representatives is to be so regulated by congress, that there shall not be less than two hundred represen- tative,?, nor more than one reprebcntative for every fifty thousand persons. This is the iiliimate limit to which the Americans as yet look forward, in the constitution of the general government of their Union. 'i'he seat of congress and government, after the year 1800, was to he and has been removed to the new City of IVashington, nmv build- ing on a tract of land ceded by the States of Virginia and Maryland to the United States, and called the Territory of Columbia. This city, •which has been several years building, stands at the junction of the river Patowmack and the Eastern Branch, extending nearly foul* liiiles up each, and including a tract of territory exceeded, in point of convenience, salubrity, and beauty, by none in America. It is laid out in straight streets from north to south, intersected by others run- ning due east and west. The priacipal streets are from 130 to ISO, and the others from 90 to 110 feet wide. The capital or state-house is situated on a most beautiful eminence, commanding a complete view of every part of the city, and of a considerable part of the coun- tt-y roUnd. The population of this new city was in 1801, S210; and that of the whole territory of Columbia, SHi. The city of Washihgtoli is 42 miles south-west of Baltimore, and 144 in the same direction from Philadelphia ; In north lat. 28-53 ; west long. 77-*3, B.«;v 1^^ NEW ENGLAND. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. MileS. ' Length 350 } , ..^-__ 5 41 and 48 north latitude ) .^ Breadth 140 J •^e'^^^" 1 65 and 74 west longitude J ^"^^ Boundaries.] BOUNDED on the north by Lower Canada ; on the east by New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ocean ; on the south by the Atlantic and Long-Island Sound ; and on the west by New York. It comprehends the States of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachu- setts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Bays and capes.] The most remarkable bays and harbours are those formed by Plymouth, Rhode Island, and Providence Planta- tions ; Moiiument Bay ;• West Harbour, formed by the bending of Cape Cod ; Boston Harbour ; .Piscataway ; and Casco Bay". " The chief capes are, Cape Cod, Marble fiead, Cape Ann, Csipe Netlc, Cajjfe Por|)us, Cape Elizabeth, and Cape Sthall Point. 3K 2 fV)8 UNITKD STATED oi AMERICA. , F.vct OF THE couNTRv, MouN i.MNs, &c.] New England IS a liigli, lijlly, and in sonic piuis, ii nionntainciis country. The mountains iu'c fonip.iiMtively- small, running nearly north and south, in ridges parallel to cacli other. Between .Uhjc rid^'^cs How the g-reat rivers in i:>ajcstic mcanJ(.rs, rcccivinn: the innumerable rivulets and larger ill earns \shich proceed i'lom tlie mountains on each side. To a spec- tator on the top of a ncighbourinp; mountain, the vales betvcen the riJ'^cs, while in a state of nature, exliibit a roinuntic appearance. They seem in ocean ol' woods, swelled and depressed in its surface, IHce that of th.e groat ocean itself. 'i'hcre are four principal ranges of mountains, passing nearly from rorth-east to souih-we.st, through New Kngland. They consist of a multitude of parallel ridges, cwdi luving many spurs, deviating from ^ the course of tlie general range ; v.hich spurs nre again broken into ii;rogular hilly, land. The main ridges terminate, somrtimcs in high bliiff heads, near the sea-coast ; and sometimes by a gradual descent in the interior parts ol the country. These ranges of mountains are full of lake:;, ponds, and springs of water, that give rise to numberless streams of various sizes. No country on the globe is better watered than New England.* • RivKiis.] "i'he rivers are, the Connecticut, Thames, Patnxent, Merimac, Piscataway, Saco, Casco, Kennebeque, and the Penobscot, or Pentagonet. MiiXALS.]) Rich mines of iron, of a most excellent kind and temper, have been discovered in New England, which, if improved, may become very beneficial to the inhabitants. , Climati;.) New England, though situate almost ten degrees more to the souih than the mother country, has an earlier wmter, which continues longer, and is more severe than with us. The sum- ruer Is extremely hot, and much beyond any thing known in Europe, in tlie same latitude. The clear and serene temperature of the sky, however, m;:l:os amends for the extremity of heat and cold, and ren- ders the cliniate of this country so healthy, that it is reported to agree btitter vi-idi iirilish constitutions than any other of the American pro- vinces. The winds are very boisterous in the winier season, and na- turalists ascribe tlie early approacli, and the length and severity of the winter, to tho/Iargc ffesh-watcr lakes lyin;; to the north-west of New Kngland, which, being frozen over several months, occasion those piercing winds which prove so fatal to mariner.s on this coast. Soir. A\o rRonocK.] ft has been already' ol)served, that the lands lying on ilie eastern shore of America are low, and in seme parts .swutnpy, bat farther back they rise into hills. In New England, toward* tWc north-east, tl^e lands become rocky and mountainous. The soil here i.s various, but best as you approach the southward. Round Massachuiett*- Bay the soil is black, and rich as in any part oY England ; and here the first planters found the grass above a yard high. I'lie uplands are less fruitful, being for the most part a mixture of sand and gravel, inclining to clay. The low-grounds abound in meadow and pasture-land. The European grains have j)ot been culiivated here with much success ; the wheat is subject to be blasted ; the barley is a hungry grain, and the oats are lean and chaflV. Jiut the Indian corn Hourishes in high perfection, and makes the general food of the lower sort of the pec^ple. 'J'hey have likewise malt, and brew it into a beer, which is not contemptible. HtAvever, the common tal)lc drink is cider and sprucc-becr : the lat- * Mffif's American Geogr:\))hy. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: SGi) ter !s made of the tops of the spruce fir, with the addition of a smull quantity of inelassos. They hkcwise raise in New l'ni;hind a ];u'j:;c quantity of hemp and flax. I'lie fruits of Old Knglauil come to £:rc::t pertection here, particularly peaclies and ajiplc^. Sevta or cijrht: Imndrcd fine peaclies may be ft)und on one tree, aud a single apple- tree has produced seven barrels of cider in one seas(,n. But New England is chielly distinguished for t!;e vaiiety and value of its timber, as oak, ash, pine, fiv, cedar, elm, cy jm-css, beecii, walnut, chesnut, ha/el, sassafras, sumach, and other woods ui,ed in dying or tanning leather, carpenter's work, and ship-building. The o.iks here are said to be inferior to tf.ose of fngl.ind ; bnitlie Hrs arc (/fan amaz- ing bulk, and formerly furnished the r<.yal navy of England with masts and yards. They draw from their trees cou/ideralile <:]u:mtities of pitch, tar, resin, turpentine, guni.i, and balm; and the s^il pm- duces hemp and fiax. A ship may here be built and rigged oui. \.ith - the produce of their forests, and indeed shipbuilding lorms a coii- sidera!)le branch of their trade. Animals.] 'J'he animals of this conntrv l"urni',h many articles of New England commerce. All kinds of Euroj,e:in cattle thrive here, and multiply exceedingly : the horses of New England are liai.dy, mettlesome, and serviceable, but smaller than ours, thuugh laiger than the Welsh. They have few sheep ; and the wool, though of a staple sufficiently long, is ntjt nearly so fine as that ol'l'higland. Hem are also elks, deer, hares, rabbits, squirrels, beavers, otters, monkey.sj minxes, martens, racoons, sables, bears, wolves, whicli arc only a kind of wild dogs, (oxci, ounces, and a variety of other tame and wild qua- drupeds. But one of the most singular animals, of this and the neighbouring countries, is tlie mose, or moose deer, of which there are two sorts ; the common light grey moose, wliich resembles the ordinary deer ; these herd soiiietiinos thirty together; and the larger black moose, wliose l)ody is about the size of ,i bull; his. neck re- sembles a stag's, and his flesh is extremely grateful. The horns, when full grown, are about four or five feet from the head to the tip, and have shoots or branches to each horn, which generally spread about .six feet. When this animal goes throijgh a thicket, or under the boughs of a tree, he lays hi.s horns back on his neck, to place them out of his way ; and these prodigious horns are shed evljry year. This animal does noc spring or rise in going, like a deer ; but a large one, in his common wilk, has been seen to step over a g.ite five feet high. When unharboured, he will run a course of twenty or thirty miles before he takes to bay; but when chased, he geneially takes to tiie water. 'Ilicre is hardly any where greater plenty of fowls, turkeys, geese, partridges, ducks, v/idgeons, dappers, swans, lieath cocks, herons, storks, black-birds, all sorts of barn-door fowl, vast fiights of pigeons, which come and go at certain seasons of the year, coraiorant.s, ravens, crows, Sec. The reptiles are rattle-snakes, frogs, and toads, which swarm in the uncleared parts of these countries, who e, with the owls, they make a most hideous noise in the summer cvciiings. The seas round New England, as v.-ell as its rivers, abound v.-ith fish, and even whales of dilierent kinds, such as the whalebone whale, the spermaceti whale, which yields ambergrise, the fin-hacked whale, the scrag whale, and the bunch- whale, of wliich they take great num- ber.s, and send besides ?,onu> ships every year to fish for whales in Greenland, and as far as Ealkland islands, A terrible creature, called the wliale-killcr, fi'om twcuty to thirty feet long, with strong % k: t ■• I. T' 870 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. \ih ^i. ■ ■ '• V 'y !< ■■ i-.im ■'■ % 11 ill 1^' ! teeth and jnws, persecutes the whale in these seas; but, nfmld of hit monstrous strength, they seldom attack ufull-gmwn wh-.ile, or indecil u young one, but in companies of ten or twelve. At the mouth of the river Penobscot, there is a macicarel fishery ; they likewise fish for rod in the winter, which tliey dry in the frost. PopuLAfroN, INHABITANTS.] Ncw England Contained, according to the census of I7D0, 1,009,.522 souls j and according to that of IfiCX). 1 2'^:i,0ll. Tlie New Englanders are generally tall, stout, and well-built, They glory, and perhaps with justice, in possessing that spirit of free- dom, which induced their ancestors to leave their native country, and to brave the dangers of the ocean, and the hardships of '^-ettling in a wilderness. I'heir education, laws, and situation, serve to inspire them with high notions of liberty. — In New England, learning is very generally diifused among all ranks of people, from the excellent establishment of schools in every township. A person of mature age, vho cannot both read and wiitc, is rarely to be fcund. The inhal)itants of New England are almost universally of English descent ; and it is owing to this circumstance, and to the great and f general atK-ntion that has been paid to education, that the English anguage has been preserved among them so free of corruption. It is true, that from la/.iness, inattention, and want of acquaintance with mankind, many of the people in the country have accustomed them- selves to use some peculiar phrases, and to pronounce certain words in a flat, drawling manner. Hence foreigners pretend they know a new Englandman from his manner of speaking; but the same may be said with regard to a Pennsylvanian, a Virginian, a Carolinian ; for all have some phrases and modes of pronunciation peculiar totheni- »^Ives, which distinguish them from their neighbours. Religion,] Calvinism, from the principles of the first settlers, has been very prevalent in New England: many of the inhabitants also formerly observed the sabbath with a kind of Jewish rigour ; but this has of late been much diminished. There is at present no established religion in New England ; but every sect cf Christians is allowed the free exercise of his religion, and is equally under the protection of the laws.* They annually celebrate fasts and thanksgivings. In the Spring, the several governors issue their prcclamaticns, appointing a day to be religiously observed in fasting, liumiliation, and prayer, throughout their respective states, in which the predominating vices, that particularly call for humiliation, are enumerated. In autumn, after harvest, that gladsome a:ra of the husbandman's life, a day of public thanksgiving is appointed, enumerating the public blessings received in the course of the year.- This pious custom originated with their vciierable ancestors, the first settlers. 1 he custom so ra- tional, and so well calculated to cherish in the minds of the people a sense of iheir dependence on the Great Blnkfactor of the world for all their blessings, it is hoped, will ever be sacredly preserved. f 1 lie Connecticut pn.'vince has lately provided a bibhop for tlie episcopa- lians among them, by sending one cf tlicu number to Scotland to be ordained by the nonjuring bishops of the episcopal church in that kingdom. History.! As early as 1606, king James I. had, by letters patent, erected two companies, with a power to send colonies into those parts, * By alale accrunt, there are 4U0 Independent and Presbyterian churchej in this province, 64 Baptist, and 3 1 ol'olhcr denoniinatious. t Morse's American Geography. UKITr.I) STATr/3 OF AMF.RICA. 871 ■> afraid of Jiig lale, or indeed Jtlie mouth of Ikewibc fish for led, according ng to that of |nd well-built, spirit of free- ly country, and |f -.cttling in a Irve to inspire prning is very the excellent bf mature age, 11 y of English tiip great and the English irruption. It aintance vith stonncd them- ccrtain words d they know a tlic same may a Carolinian ; ruliartothem- St settlers, has habitants also r'ur; but this no established is allowed tJie protection of lyings. In the appointing a , and prayer, inating vices, In autumn, !ife, a day of blic blessings « originated :nstom so ra- the people a the world for ■ved.f Ihe he episcopa- otland to be Jrch in that .'tters patent, those parts, ian churched then comprehended under the general name of Virginia, as all tlie noith-east coast of America was somecinies called. No settbrnents, h'nvever, wcn^ made in New England by viitue of this arilhority. Th<» companik's contented ihemselvci with sending (nil a ship or two, to tradv wirl) tlu- Indians (or iheiv furs, -And to lish upr)n iheir coast. This conciuuetl to bf the only sort of correspondence between (Ireat Britain ami lliis part ot Amfri.M, till the year ](')i'\, when thi» religious dissension;, by which England w is torn to |.i.ces, had be- come warm ami In: ious. Airhbiihop Land persccuied all sorts of non-contorinists with ■,u\ unu-lenting severity. t'hose !Tien, on thii other hand, were reaily to f;ubmit to all the rigour of persecution rather tiian give up liuir religious opinions, and conlorm to the cere- monies of thi.' church of England, whicli tijey considered as :. buses of the most dangerous tendency, 'i'here w.is no part of the worlJ into which they would not lly in order to oi)tain liberty of c(niscience« America openeti an extensive field. Thither they might iv.msporc themselves, and establish whatever sort of religious polity they wcw: in- cline<l to. With this view, having purchased the territory wliich was within the jurisdiction of the Plymoulli company, and liaving obtained from the king the jiriviloge of settling it in whatever way tnt-y cho.se') i Jt) persons embarked for New England, and built a city, which, be- cause they had sailed from Plymcuth, they called by that uanle. Notwithstanding the severity of the climate, the unwholesomencss of the air, and the diseases to which, after a long sea-voyage, and in ;t country which was new to them, they were exposed; notwithstanding the want olall sorts of conveniencies, and even of many of ihc nece..-. saries of life, those who had c(nistilutions tit to endure such hardships, rot dispirited or broken by the death of their tompanii.ns, and sup- ported by the vigour then peculiar to Englishmen, and the satislac- tion of finding themselves beyond the reacii of the spiritual arm, set themselves to cultivate this country, an 1 to lake the best steps for the advancement of their infant colony. New adventurers, encouraged by their example, and finding themselves, for the same reasons, mi- easy at home, passed over into this land of religious and civil liberty. By the close of the year IGl-JO, they had built four towns, Salem, Dor- chester, Charles-town, and lioston ; which last became the capital of New England. But as necessity is the natural source of that active" and frugal industry which produces every thing great among man- kind, so an uninterrupted flow of prosperity and success occasion? those dissensions which are the bane of human affairs, and often sub- vert the best.-founded establishments. The inhabitants of New England, who had fled from persecution, became in a short time strongly tainted with this illiberal vice, and were eager to introduce an uniformity in religion luiiong all who en- tered their territories. The minds of men were not in that age superior to many prejudice ; they had not that open and generous way o( thinking which at present distinguishes the natives of Great liritain ; and the doctrine of universal toleration, which, to the hcmour of the first settlers in America, began to appear among them, had lew abet- tors, and many opponents. Many of them were bigoted Calvinists ; and though Ithey had felt the weight of persecuticm themselves, they bad no charity for those who professed sentiments different from their own. It was not the general idea of tlie age, that men might live comfortably together in the same society, without maintaining the same religious opinions; and wherever these were at variauce, the ;'■•--,■(, )m \m i !':-: 1 ;■ Ml'H^-* V ; '1 !.'! ^i '■.fl m. ill I i 87« UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. members of difFerent sects kept at a distance from each other, and* established separate governments. Hence several slips, torn from the. original government of New Jingland by religious violence, planted themselves in a new soil, and spread over the country. Such was that of New Hampshire, which continues to this day 4 separate jurisdiction ; such was that of Rhode Island, whose inhabitants were driven out from the Massachusetts colony (for that is the name by which the government first erected in New England was distinguished) for sup- porting the freedom of religious sentiments, and maintaining that the civil magistrate had no right over the speculative opinions of man- Icind. These liberal men founded a city, called Providence, which they governed by their own principles ; and, such is the connection between justness of sentiment and external prosperity, that the go- vernment of Rhode Island, though small, became extremely populous and flourishing. Another colony, driven out by the same persecut- ing spirit, settled on the river Connecticut, and received frecjcient re- inforcements from England, of such as were dissatisfied either with the religious or civil government of that country. America, indeed, was now become the main resource of all discon- tented and enterprising spirits ; and such w^ere the numbers which eml)arked for it from England, that, in 1637, a proclamation was published, prohibiting any jjerson from sailing thither, without an ex- press licence from the government. For want of this licence, it is said that Oliver Cromwell, Mr. H;impden, and others of the party, were detarned from going into New England, after being on ship-board for that purp'^se. These four provinces, though always confederates for their mutual defence, were at first, and still continue, under separate jurisdictions. They were all of them, by their charters, originally free, and in a great measure independent of Great Britain. The inhabitants had the choice of their own magistrates, the governor, the council, the assembly, and the power of making such laws as they thought pro. per, without sending them to Great Britai^n for the approbation of the crown. 'J heir laws, however, were not to be opposite to those of Great Britain. Towards the latter end of the reign of Charles II. when he and his ministers wanted to destroy all charters and liberties, the Massachusetts colony was accused of violating their charter, in like manner as the city of London, and, by a judgment in the King's Bench of England, was deprived of it. ' From that time to the revo- lution they remained without any charter. Soon after that period, they received a new one, which, though very favourable, was much inferior to the extensive privileges of the former. The appointment of a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary, and all the officers of tho admiralty, was vested in the crown : the power of the militia was wholly in the hands of the governor, as captain-general ; all judges, justices, and sheriffs, to whom the execution of the law was entrusted, were nominated by the governor, with the advice of the council; the governor had a negative on the choice of counsellors, peremptory and unlimited; and he was not obliged to givf a reason for what he did in this pariicular, or restrained to any number : authentic copies of the several acts pissed by this colony, as well as others, were to he trapcTiitted to the court of England, for the royal approbation ; but if the laws, vi' this colony were ni»t repealed within three years after they were presented, they were not repealable by the crown after that timi; no luws, ordinam:es> election of magistrates, or acts ofgoycin- UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 87* fch otiier, and* torn from the llenco, planted ISuch was that te jurisdiction; re driven out by which the [shed ) for sup- lining that the hions of man- jidence, which |he connection that the go- leJy populous |amc pcrsecut- freqnent re- ;d either with of alldiscon- mbers which lamation was vithout an ex- s licence, it is of the party, on ship-board their mutual jurisdictions, b-ee, and in a liabitants Ijad council, the thought pro. ^probation of ite to those of r Charles If. and liberties, r charter, in 11 the Kine's to the revo- that period, > was much ippointment ihcers of tho militia was all judges, s entrusted, ouncil ; the nptory and 'bat he did C copies of were to be ation ; but rears after 1 .'ifter that ofgoyein. jnent whatsoever, were valid without the governor's consent in writ- ing ; and appeals for sums above 3001. were admitted to the king and council. Notwithstanding thele restraints, the people had still a great share of power in this colony ; for they not only chose tlie assembly, but this assembly, with the governor's concurrence, chose the council, resembling our house of lords ; and the governor depended upon the assembly for his annual support. We shall now proceed to give an account of each state separately. VERMONT. SITUATION AND EXTENT, Miles. Sq. ]V!iles. Length 157? i .. t 42 and 45 nor Breadth 65 I ^'^^^^" ) 7"^ ^^^^i 73, 30 Degrees. 42 and 45 north latitude. ? ,^ ^^^ west longitude. J ^'^»^^'-' • Boundaries and divisions.] BOUNDED on the north hj Lower Canada; on the east by Connecticut river, which divides it from New Hampshire; on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by New York. It is naturally divided by the Green Mountain, which runs from south to north, and divides the state nearly in the middle. Its civil division is into eleven counties, as follow: Ccunfks. rljenuington j Rutland West of the Mountain. '< c^Son .1 Franklin ^Orleans f Orange 5 Windsor East of the Mountain ^ Windham L Caledonia Essex Totvtii . Bennington Rutland Addison Colchester Newbury Windsor Newfane and Putney Rivers and lakks.] The principal rivers in this state are Michis- coui, Lamoille, Onion, and OLtcr-creek rivers, which run from east to west into Lake Champlain ; West, ijexton's Block, Waterquechee, White, Ompompanoosuck, Weld's, Wait's, Passumsick, and several smaller rivers, which run, from west to east, into Connecticut river. Over the river Lamoille is a natural stone brido^e, seven or eight rods in length. Otter creek Is navigable for boats hfty miles. Its banks are excellent land, being annually overflowed and enriched. Memph- remagog is the largest Take in this state. It is the reservoir of three considerable streams, Black, Barton, and Clyde rivers. One of these rises in Willoughby Lake, and forms a communication between it and Lake St. Peter's, in the river St. Laurence. Soil and productions.] This state, generally speaking, is hilly, but not rocky. West of the mountain, from the county ot Rutland, k!-- ¥ >v^ r* UNITED STATES of AMERICA. I! ^'^Pf 1^1 M &( I &1]} I'M J, ,^'^ 'I I 11 northward to the Cnnada line, 5s a flat country, well adapted for til- lage. The state at large is well watered, and affords the best of pas- turage for -cattle. Some of the finest beef-cattk in the world are driven from this state : horses also are raised for exportation. Back from the rivers, the land is thickly timbered with birch, sugar-maple, ash, butter-nut, and Avhite oak of an excellent quality. The soil is' well fitted for wheat, rye, barley, o.i'ts, flax, hemp, &c. Population.] In 1790, according to the census then taken, this . state contained iS.j,539 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of emis^rants from Connecticut and Massachusetts, and their descendents. Two townships in Orange county are settled principally by Scotch. This siaieis i iipidly peopling: the number of inhabitants in 1801, according to the census of that year, was 151,165. CujuF TOWNS.] In a new and interior country, large populous towns are not to be expected. Bennington, situate near the south- weiiL coi-nor of the state, is one of the largest, ft contains .'ibout 2100 inhabiiants, a number of handsome liouscs, a congregational church, a coiu-t-house, and gaol. Windsor and Rutland, by a late act of tlie legislature, are alter- nately to be the seat of governmciVL for eight ycais. The former is situate on Connecticut vivcr, and cont;iins about 1600 inhabitants ; the latter lies upon Oticr creek, and contains upwards of MOO inha- bitants. Both are nouri.diing towns, Tradk an"d manufacturus.J Tiie inhabitants of this state trade principally with Boston, New York, and Hartford. The articles of export are pot a«d pearl ashes ; beef, which is the principal article ; horses, grain, some butter and cheese, lumber, &c. Vast quantities of pot and pearl ashes are made in every part of this state : but one of its most important manufactures is that of maple-sugar. It has been estimated, by a competent judge, that the average quantity made for every family back of Connecticut river, is 2001b. a year. One man, with but ordinary advantages, in one month, made 5501b. of a quality equal to imported brown sugar. In two towns in Orange county, contiiining no more than forty families, 13,000lb. of sugar were made in the year 1791- Constitution.] The legislature consists of a house of representa- tives, and a council of twelve, besides the governor, who is president, and the lieutenant-governor, who is officially a member. The free- men meet annually in their several towns to choose the governor, counsellors, and other magistrates ; and to the privilege of voting, all jnales, twenty-one years old, and of peace;t{)le dispositions, are en- titled, after taking the oath of fidelity to the state. The judges of the supreme and county courts, sheriffs, and justices of the peace, are appointed annually, by joint ballot of the council and house. 'J"he council may originate bills, other than money bills, and suspend till the next session such bills as they disapprove; but have not a final negative. History,] Tlie tract of country called Vermont, before the Lite war, was claimed both by New York and New Hampshire ; and thes* interfering cl.iimshavc been the occasion of much warm altercation. They were not finally adjn.,ted till since the peace. When hostilities commenced between Great Britain and the colonies, the inhabitants of this district, considering themselves as in a state of nature, iind not "tvithin tlie juris,diciion eltlier o{ New York or New Hampshire, asso- ciated, and foriticd a constitution for themselves. Under this con- UNITED STATES of AMERICA. «7i [dapted for ttl- Ihe best of pas- |the world are rtation. Back |) suf^ar-niaple, TJie soil is ^cn taken, this of emit; rants idents. Two iKcotch. This p01,ac corolmg "■gc popiiloiiij Mr the south- Ins a bout 2iOO Clonal church, ii'e, are alter- i'he former is inhabitants ; ofilOOinha- ' lis state trade he articles of cipal article ; ast quantities ate : but one 'gar. It has ^antity made year. One J .'J.^Olb. of a s in Orange lb. of sugar ; representa- is president, The free- ■ governor, r voting, all ns, are en- e judges of ' })eace, are »usc. 'J 'he Jspend till not a final re the late and thes* Itercation. hostilities ihabitants ?>and not lire, asso- thiy con- stitution they have continued to exercise all the powers of an Indepen* dent state, and have prospered. On the iili of March, 1791, agree- ably tn an act of congress of December 6th, 1790, this state became one of the United States, and constitutes the fourteenth, and not the least respttable pillar of the American Union. ' NEW HAMPSHIRE. SITUATION AND EXTLNT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length lb« ^ r ^ ^^^ j^ latitude ) ^ ^c^ Breadth from > between-^ -,» ,n i -o\)u . i „ i ,^ 9>500 90 to 19 3 I ( 0,10 and (2,iib west longitude ij Boundaries.] NEW Hampshire is bounded by Lower Canada on the north ; by the district of Maine on the cast ; by Massachusetts on the south j and by Connecticut river, vhich separates it irom Vermont, on the west. It is divided into five counties, as follows : Counti'S. ClAefTcujns. Rockingham Portsmouth and Concord Strafford Dover and Durham Clieshire Cliarles-towa and iCeei^e Hillsborough Amherst Grafton Plymouth. '"\^ Mountains.] New Hampshire is intersected with several ridges of mountains, among which are the Blue Hills, and the lofty ridge Vvhich divides the Connecticut and Menimack rivers, denovninated the Ht'ight of Lanl. But the While Mountains, vvhich run through this state, are undoubtedly the highest in all New England. Their height above an adjacent meadow is 3500 feet, and ihe meadow ir S500 above the level of the sea. They are almost continually co- vered with snow and ice, whence they have received the name of White Mountain?;. Though they are seventy males inland, they are visible many leagues off at sea. One of their loftiest summits, which makes a majestic appearance along the shore of Massachusetts, has lately been di;.tiriguished by the name of Mount Washington. Rivers and lakes.] The most considerable rivers of this state are the Connecticut, Merrimack, Piscataqua, 8aco, Androscoggin, Upper and I^ower Amonoosuck, besides many other smaller streams. The chief lakes are Winnipiscogee, Umbagog, Sunopee, Squam, and Cireat Ossipee. Metals, minurals.] Iron, lead and copper ores, and several kinds of earths and clays are found in this state. It produces red and yellow ochres, steatites, or foap-rock, the best lapis specularis, a kind of talc, commonly called isinglass ; cry.stals, alum, vitriol, freestone, and black lead. Climate, SOIL, AND PRODUCE.] The air of New Hampshire is hcahhlul, and the wcatl^^r is commonly serene, and not .w subject t© «?fr^ WW' iV.i'. i I :, J, ;,;. h l;"t(:, ll .'lii. ' JiS" .« i r. -1: ^ 'r p'.^ri:^' ,'i?i' T,;l:;^ ^;^-tr; it^r; -f (. '1 toll a'- S' I ■ ■^' i' i 876^ UNITED STATES of AMERICA. Tariation as in the more southern states. From the vicinity of the White Mountains, which, as has been said, are almost always covered with snow and ice, this country is extremely cold in winter. In sum. mer tlic heat is greikt, hut of short duration. Tlie shore is mostly a sandy beach,_ avijoining to which ai^c salt-marshes, intersected by creeks, wliich jji-oduce ^ood pasture lor cattle and sheep. 'I he inter- val lands.on tlie margin of great rivers are the most valuable, because they arc often overHowed and enriclied by the water from the np- lands, wlu'ch brings a fat slime or sediment. On Connecticut river these lands are from a quarter of a mile to a mile and a half on each side, and produce gfrass, corn, and grain, especially wheat, in greater abundance and perfection than the same kind of soil does in the higher lands. The wide-spreading hills are esteemed as warm and rich ; rocky moist land is accounted good for pasture ; drained swjimps have a deep mellow soil, and the valleys between the hills are generally very productive. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the inhabitants. Wheat, rye, Indian corn, barley, pulse, hops, es- ctilent roots and plants, ilax and hemp, are raised in immense quan- tities in New Hanips]iirc. Apples and pears are the most common fruits in this stale; but tree fruit of the first quality cannot be raised in sucli a northern climate ^as this without particular attention. The uncultivated lands ai-e covered with extensive fciests of pine, fir, ce- dar, oak, walnut, &c. ' Population.] The number of inhabitants in New Hampshire, according to the census taken by order of congress in 1790, was 141,885. By that of 1800, they umounted to 183,858. In 1767, they were estimated at only o2,7'''0. Chief towns.] Portsmouth is the nietrmolis, and the largest town in New Hampsliire. Its harbour is one of the finest on the continent, having a suflicient depth o# water for vessels of any burden, and be- ing so well defended against storms by the land that ships may se- curely ride there in any season of the year. Concord is a very- flourishing town, pleasantly situated on the Merrimack river. The legislature of late have commonly held their sessions here ; and, from its central situation, and a thriving back country, it will probably become the permanent scat of government. Trade.] The trade of this state is considerable, though it is not to be ranked among the great commercial states. Its e.vports consist of lumber, shin-timber, whale-oil, flax-seed, live-stock, beef, pork, Indian corn, pot -d pearl-aslics, iScc. In 1700, there belonged to Piscataqua 33 vci c:ls above 100 tons, and 50 under that burden. The value of the exports fiom that port in 1793, amounted to 198,197 dollars. The bank of Hampshire was cstablislied in 1792, with a capital of 60,000 dol' rs : by an act of assembly the stock-holders can increase it to 200,000 dollars in specie, and 100,000 d(.)llars in any other estate. Government.] Accorti-ng to the present constitution, the legis- lative power, as in the other IJnited States, resides in a senate and house of representative which together are here styled the general court, and the suprcm ..vecutive authority is vested in u governor and council, the Later consisting of live members. Coi.L«Gi:s AND ACADTMiiis,] The Only coUcg'c in this State is at Hanover, called Dnrtmouth college, which is amply endov.-ed with lands, anil is in a flourishing si4u;i.tion. The principal academies are those of Exeter, New Ipswich, Atkigson, and Amherst. , ' UNITED STATES of AMERICA. a77 vicinity of thtf Iways covered ntpr. In sum. fe is jmostly a intersected by ■p. 'I he inter. uable, because from the lip. [niiecticut river a half on each eat, in greater il does in the as warm and Jture; drained p-een the hills lef occupation 'ulse, hops, es- nmense quau- ■ost common nnot be raised tention. The f pine, fir, ce- w Hampshire, Jn 17.90, was " 08. In I7G7, e largest town the continent, i*den, and be- ships may so- ord is a very k river. The 'p ; and, from >vill probubl/ '"Sh it is not J^ports consist • beef, pork-, belonged to burden. The J to 198,107 ^Tf)2, with a ■-'-holders can hilars in any' n, the legis- i senate and the general u governor Is Jtate is at :lov.-eJ with atiemies are History.] This state first began to be settled about the year 1629, and was erected into a separate government in 1679, but seems afterwards to have been under the same governor with Massachu- setts ; because New Hampshire complained to the king in council against the joint-governor, relative to the boundaries between the two colonies, and, on hearing the complaint, a separate government was appointed in 1740. .,. , MASSACHU SETTS, INCLUDING tiieDISTRICT .■■;;<.. ._^;.: ..,». OfMAINE.' ' .f - '• i' SITUATION i-ND EXTtNT. Miles. Degrees. Si}. Miles. Length .1501 Kat«r*>*n 5 ^ ^'-^7 and 73-38 west longitude 7 , ^ _„ . ■Breadth 60S ^"^^'^" 2 4.1-13 and 48-15 north latitude J ^^'^ ■ Boundaries.] MASSACHUSETTS, which, with the District of Maine, constitutes one of the United States of America, is bounded on the north by Vermont and New Hampshire ; on the east by the Atlantic ocean ; on the south by the Atlantic, Rhode Island, and Connecticut; and on the west by New York. This state is divided into seventeen counties. Counties. Cl'ief Towns. ;» T * ' c ff- 11 T^^c-.^.. ? 4'2-'i3 N. lat. ' ■ Suffolk BOSTOK i ^,- „„ .^- , i /0-o9 VV. long. Norfolk Dedhara . , * , , Essex Salem .' , < Middlesex Charles-town ., «' . , Hampshire Northampton . . • . W(jrcester Worcester Plymouth •• Plymouth Barnstaple Barnstaple " '. Duke's county Edgartoa ^_. , . Nantucket Nantucket ■'. % Bristol Taunton Berkshire Stockbridge District of Maine. ' ' '. York York ^ '■''^., , >; Cumberland Portland ' . ^ , .. '. Lincoln Pownal^vrough '■ Hancock Hancock Washington Machias ' Bays, capes, and islands.] The chief .;*ays are Massachusetts, Ipswich, Boston, Plymouth, and Barnstaple ; the most remarkable; capes, Ann, Cod, Malabar, Poge, and Gay Head ; the principal islands, Plumb island, Nantucket, MarthiVs Vineyard, Elizabeth islands, and numerous small isles in Boston Bay. n w ■ I : i'ipi m w\ 87» UNITED STATES of AMERICA. i; i' i 1 -;;i I'jl'vfj.,^ r^-:^-- il •!' 4 i, 9 ■■!«■',■■< j'l'«; r1 ■i , 3r4' R1VERS.3 The country is well watered by a number of small rivers, of which the principal ;u*e Mystic and Charles rivers. Metals, minerals.] Iron ore, in immense quantities, is found in various pnrts of this state ; as likewise copper ore, black lead, pipe- maker's clay, yellow and red ochre, alum, and slate. Several mineral springs have been found in different parts of the countfy,. Climate, soil, and producl.] The climate is similar to that of the other northern states. In the District of Maine the heat in sum- mer is intense, and the cold in winter extremely severe. In Massa- chusetts are to be found all the varieties of soil from very good to very bad ; and capable of yielding in abundance all the different productions common to the climate : such as Indi.in corn, rye, wheat, barley, oats, hemp, flax, hops, potatoes, field-beans and peas, apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, &c. Population.] The number of inhabitants in Massachusetts was, in 1790, 378,787. By the late census of 1^00, they amounted to ^^Sf.Sl.! ; and those of the District of Maine to 151,719, together 574',561<. This is the only state in the union in which there are no slaves : slavery was abolished by the legislature some years ago. Chief towns.] Boston is the capital of this state, the largp^t town in New England, and the third in size and rank in the United States. It is built on a peninsula of irregular form, at the bottom of Massa- chusetts Bay, and is joined to the main land by an isthmus at the south end of the tovi'ii. It is two miles long, but of unequal breadth ; the broadest partis 7'-:^(> y^i'ds. In 1790, it contained '2:i76 dwelling- houses, and 1S,03B inhi^bitants ; but the increase has been very con- siderable since. It contains nineteen edifices fov pubhc worship, of which nine are forcongregationalists, three for episcopaUans, and two for baptists: the friends, Roman-catholics, niethodists, Sandemanians, and universalianj'-, have one each. There are also seven free- schools, besides a great number of private schools. The harbour is capacious enough for 500 vessels to ride at anchor in good depth of water, while the entrance is so narrow as scarcely to admit two ships abreast. The wharfs and quays in Boston are about eighty in number, and very convenient for vessels. Long Wharf, or Boston Pier, in par- ticular, extends from tlio bottom of State-street 17i'^ feet into the harbour in a straight line, 'fhc breadth is 104 feet. At the end are 17 feet of water at ebb-tide. Long Wharf is covered on the north side with large and commodious warehouses, arid in every respect exceeds any th\r)i of the kiivd in the United States. Charles river and West I3ostOn Dridges are highly useful and ornamental to Boston, and both are on Ch."^iles river, w'hich mingles its waters with those of Mystic river, in 13ost^n harbour. Charles river bridge connects Bos- ton with Charles-town, in MiddlesC-x county, and is 1503 feet long, 42 feet broad, anc] stands on 75 piers. West Boston is 3483 feet long, stands on 180 piers, vmd exceeds the other as much in elegance as in length. The view of the toAvn, as it is approached from the sea, is truly beautiful and picturesque^ It lies in a circular and pleasingly irregular form round the harbour, and is ornamented with spires, above which the monument of Beacon Hill rises pre-eminent ; on iti top is a gilt eagle, bearii g the arms of the union, and on the base of the column are inscriptions commemorating some of the most remark- able events of the late war. The town is governed by nine select itien, chosen at an annual meeting in March, whan tw(^?lve overseers, twelve constables, and some other officers are chosen. Attempts UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 870 lumber of small I rivers. Intities, fs foiind Iblack lead, pipe- iSeveral mineral Imilar to that of [the heat in sum- Nre. In Massa- Im very good to fii tile different |0rn, rye, wheat, iJ peas, apples, isachusetts was, y amounted to U7J.9, together ch there are no • years ago. he largest town ^ United States. Uoiii ot Massa- islhmus at the equal breadth; -•'i76 dwelling- been very con- 'I'C V. or ship, of )alians,and two ^andcrnanians, en free schools, 'ur is capaciotis ■pth of water, 5 ships abreast. 1 number, and 1 Pier, in par- f^-'et into the At the end are on the north every respect ■ Charles river ital to Boston, with those of connects Bos. 0^ feet long, is 3483 feet h in elegance irom tJie sea, id pleasingly I with spires, inent ; on its » the base of nost remark- nine select .^e overseers. Attempt ?iave been made to change the government of the town from it«: pre- sent form to that of h city ; but this measure not according with the democratic spirit of the people, has as yet failed. Salem is the second town in this state. It contained, in 1700, 99.fi houses, and 7921 inhabitants. It is a very commercial place, ;ind i<; connected with Beverly by Er<^'x bridge, upwards of l.lOO ftxt i:i length, erected in 1789. The harbour is dti ended by a fort. Flymonth was the first town built in New England, and peopled principally by the descendants of tlie first settlers. The rock on v/hicli their forefathers landed was conveyed in 177'i' from the shure to a squtirc in the centre of the town, where it remains as a monument. The situation of the town is pleasant and healthful. Portland is the capital of th^ District of Maine. It has a most ex- cellent, safe, and capacious harbour, and is nnc of the nuist llirivin;^- conimercial towns in the commonwealtli of Massachusetts. In 179.'> a fort, a citadel, and a battery often pieces of cannon, were erected for its defence. CoMiviERCK AND MANUFACTURES. 3 This State, including the Dis- trict of Maine, ov.ns more than three times as many tons of shipping as any other of the states ; and more than one third pnrt of the whole that belongs to the United States. Upwards of '29,000 tons are em- ployed in carrying on tlie fisheries, 4(3,000 in the coasting business, and 96, .000 in trading with almost all parts of the world. Pot and pearl-ashes, staves, flax-seed, and bees-wax, arc carried chiefly to Great Britain, in remittance for their manufactures ; masts and pro- visions to the East Indies ; fish, oil, beef, pork, lumber, and candles, are carried to the West Indies for their produce ; and the two first articles, fish and oil, to France, Spain, and Portugal; roots, vegetables, and fruits to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ; hats, sadlery, ca- binet-work, men's and women's shoes, nails, tow-cloth, barley, hops, butter, and cheese, to the southern states. The value of exports in the year 1791 was 2,U5,975 dollars, and in 1791', 5,3«0,703 dollars. Great quantities of nails are made In this state. The machine in- vented by Caleb Leach, of Plymouth, will cut and head 5000 nails in a day, under the direction of a youth of either sex. There is also a macliine for cutting nails at Newbury Port, invented by Mr. Jacob Perkins, which will turn out two /lunJrrd thousand naits in a day. Tiie nails are said to have a decided superiority over those of English ma- nufacture, and are sold 20 per cent, cheaper. There are in this state upwards of twenty paper-mills, which make more than 70,(XK) reams of writing, printing, and wrapper-paper, annually. Tiiere were in 1792, 62 distilleries, which distilled in one year from foreign ma- terials 1,900,000 gallons. There are several snuff, oil, chocolate, and powder-mills: there are indeed few articles which .ire essentially ne-. cessary, and minister to the comfort and convenience of liio, that are not manufactured in this state. GovEkNMENT.] The legislature of Mas5-,achusetts consists of a senate, and a house of representatives ; which, together with the go- vernor and lieutenant-governor, are elected annually by the people ; electors must be twenty-one years of age, have freeholds of the annual value of three pounds, or personal estate to the value of sixty pounds. To be eligible to the ofiice of governor or lieutenant-governor, the candidate must laavc resided in the state seven years, and during that time have been seised of a freehold of one thousand pounds. Senators must have resided five years in the state, and have possessed a free- fc.:| J>iM;.i ) mil ' l*l*:' 880 UNITED STATES or AMERICA. i':-]! I'PII '*: ■ ■ % !l ■ ■ i iir ,4:i>.a!i w^ hold to the value of three hundred pounds, or personal property to the value of six hundred pounds. A representative must have re- sidi'd one year in the town vvliich he is chosen to represent, and have been seised therein of freehold estate to the value of one hundred pounds, or been possessed of personal property to the value of two hundred pounds. From the persons returned as senators and coun- sellors, being forty in all, nine are annually elected, by joint ballot of botli houses, for the purpose of advising the governor in the execution of Jiis ofllce. All judicial officers, the attorney and solicitor-general, sheriffs, &c. are, with the advice of the council, appointed by the go- vernor. 'The judges (except justices of the pe:ice, whose commissions expire in seven years, but may be renewed) hold their offices during good behaviour. Religion.] There is no established religion in Massachusetts, but evcry sect of Christians is allowed the free exercise of its religion, and is equally under the protection of the laws. Univkrsity and academy.] There is a university at Cambridge, four miles west of Boston, the college buildings of which are four in number, and named Harvard, HoUis, and Massachusetts Halls, and Holden Cha[>el. 'Ihis university generally has from 140 to 200 students; and as to its librar)', philosophical apparatus, and pro- fessorships, is at present the first literary institution on this continent. It takes dale from the year 1G38, seven years after the first settlement in the township. In May I'JiiO, the council and house of representatives of Massachu- setts passed an act for incorporating and establishing a society fur the cultivation and promotion of the arts and sciences. It is entitlt J the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. The first members were named in the act, and never were to be more than two hundred, nor less than forty. History.] An account of the first octtlement and early history of Massachusetts hii^ already been given under the general head of New England. In consequence of the revolt of the American co- lonies from the authority of Great Britain (of the origin and pro- gress of which an account has been given in another place), on the 25th of July, 177G, by an order from the council at Boston, tiie declaration of the American congress, absolving the United Colonics from their allegiance to the British crown, and declaring ihem free and independent, was publicly proclaimed from the balcony of the State-house in that town ; and a constitution or form of government, for the commonwealth of Massachusetts, including a declaration of rights, was agreed to, and establislied by the inhabitants of that province, and took phice in October 17S0. RHODE ISLAND. Miles. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Degrees. Sq. Mile Length 47 > , . c 41. 2(i. and 42. 10. north lat. ) , ,,nr% Breadth 37 ( ^"^''''" ) 71. 17. and 71. 40. west Ion. \ ^»'^^ Boundaries AND DIVISIONS.] RHODE ISLAND and Provi- dence Plantations, which together form the smallest of the United lal property to Imiist JjHve rc- |sent, and have pf one hundred ? value of two [tors and conn- Moint ballot of Jn the execution llicitor-general, Jted by the ^o. pe commissions offices during klassachusetfs, ot its religion, [at Cambridge, ch are four in tts Halls, and 1 HO to 200 tus, and pro- this continent, list settlement of Massachu- ^ society for It is entitlf J [first members two hundred, early history neral head of American co- gin and pro- lace), on the Boston, the ited Colonies ng tiiem free Icony of tlie [government, eclaration of :ants of that Sq. Mile s. md Provi- the United UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 881 States, are bounded on the north and east by Massachusetts ; on the south by the Ail.mtic Ocean ; and on the west by Counectlcuu 'ihis state is divided imo the five following counties : Cvun!ifs. Chief Towns* Newport Newport Providence Providence Washington South Kingston Bristol *" ; Bristol Kent Islands, harbour*;.] Nam;janset bay contains several fertile * islands, the principal of which are, Rhode Island, Cannonicut, Pru- tloncc, Patience, Hope, Dyer's, and Hog Islands. Block Island is the southernmost land belonging to the state. Rhode Island, from which tlie state takes its name, is about Hlteen miles in length, and about tinea and a half broad, on an average. The harbours are, Ni'wport, Providence, "Wickford, Patuxct, Warren, and Bristol. Rivers.] This state i;; intersected in all directions by rivers, the chief of which are Providence and Taunton rivers, which fall into Narraganset bay. MuTALs, MiNtiiiALs.] Iron Ore is found in gieat plenty in several parts of this state ; there is also a copper mine, mixed with iron strongly impregnated with load-stone. Abundance of lime-stone is also found here. Cliiwate, soil, ano pRODtTCE."] Rhodc Island is as healthy a country as any in America. The winters, in the maritime parts of the state, are milder than in the inland country, the air being softened by a sea vapour, which also enriches the soil. The summers are delightful, especially in Rhode Island, where the extreme heats, which prevail in other parts of America, are allayed by cool and refreshing breezes from the sea. This stat« produces rye, barley, oats, and, in some parts, wheat, sufficient for home consumption ; and the various kinds of grasses, fruits, and culinary roots and plants, in great abundance, and in perfection : cider is made for exportation. The north-western parts of the state are but thinly inhabited, and are more rocky and barren than the other parts. Population.] The state of Rhode in 1790 contained 68,825 persons, of whom 94'8 were slaves. In 1 801 the number of inhabi- tants was 69,1 '22, of whom 'i80 were slaves. Chief towns.] The principal towns in the state of Rhode Island are Providence and Newport. 'I'he former is situate at the head of Narraganset bay, on both sides of Providence river, over which is a bridge 160 feet long and '22 wide. It is a large and handsome town, containing several elegant buildings, and about 6400 inha- bitants. Newport is situate at the south-west end of Rhode Island. The harbour (which is one of the finest in the woild) spreads westward before the town. The entrance is easy and sale, and a large fleet ' may anchor in it, and ride in perfect security. Newport contains about 1000 houses. Trade and manufac cures.] The town of Bristol carries on a considerable trade to Africa, the West Indies, and to different parts of the United States ; but by far the greatest part of the commerce of Rhode Island is at present carried on by the inhabitants of the flourishing town of Providence, which had, in 1791,^129 sail of 3 L . ■ '" 1 ' j 111!* * ■ lA. "^ li . ^' 'f ; m^ UNITED STATES of AMERICA. I I'ir ' n f • ■i ( vessels, contninin;^ 1 1,9I2 tons. The exports from this state artfj flux-secd, hinibcr, horses, cattle, beef, poiL-, fish, poultry, onions, biUttr, clieese, barley, grain, spirits, cotton, and linen goods, 'i'lie imports consist of Enrope.in ;incl West Indian goods, and log-wood from the bay of Jlnndui.is. I'pw.nds ol' fj'JO vessels enter and clear iinniially ai the (.iiffcrent ports in llic stale, 'i'he amou'it of exports from this state to foreign countries for one year, ending Sept. MO, 1791, Avas 47(''),l;n dollars; and, in 179^, 95^,57'^ dollars. The inhabitants of this state are rapidly improving in manufactures. A cotton mannfictory has been erected at i'rovidence. Jeans, fustialis, drnims, thicksets, velvets, &c. are heie manufactnrcd, and sent t(» the sculhcrn slates. Large quantities of linen and tow-cloth are made in different parts of tiiis state f(^r exportation; but the most considerable manufactures here are those of iron, such as bar and sheet iron, steel, nail-rods and nails, implements of husbandrvi. stoves, pots, and other liouseliold utensils ; the iron-work 9f sJiippin^, iinchors, and belJs. GovKRNMicNT.J The constitutiou of Rhode Island is fonndL>d on the charter granted by Chailes II. in KiG.i; and the frame of government was not essentially altered by the revolution. The le- gislature of the state consists of two branches ; a senate, or itpper house, conijK)sed of ten members, besides the governor and deputy, jfovernor, called in the charter asihUints \ and a house of represen- tatives, composed of deputies from tlie several towns. The mem- bers of the legislature are chosen twice a year ; and there are two sessions of this body anuTiaily, vi/.. on the first V/ednesday in May, iind the last Wcdnesda}- in October. Religion. J Liberty of conscience has been inviolably maintained jn this state ever since its first settlement. So little has the civil Uuthority to do with religion here, that no contract between a mi- iiister and a society (unless incorporated for that purpose) is of any foi'ce. It is probably for these reasons that so many different sect,; have ever I-)een foimd here ; and that tlie sabbath, and all religious institutions, have been more neglected in this than in any other of the ■Neiv England states. C'lLLLGK.j A college, called Rhode Island college, is established iat Providence. It is a spacious edifice, and contains upwards of sixty students. It has a library, containing nearly 3000 volumes, 'and a valuable philosophical apparatus. .' HfsTouY."] This Slate was first settled from Mtisi^achusetts. Mr. IRoger William?, a minister, who came over to New England in 1G3J, •Was charged with holding a variety of errors, and was on that ac- count forced to leave liis house, land, wife, and children, at Salem, •in the dead of winter, and to seek a residence without the limits of Massachusetts. Governor Winthrop advised him to purstje his vourse to Nehiganset, or Narraganset bay, which he did, and fixed Jiimself at Secunk, or Seekhonk, now Rchoboth. IJut that place beiiig :witliin the bounds Ol tb.e Plymouth colony, governor Winslow, in a friendly manner, advised him to remove to the otiier side of the river, where the lands vvcre not covered by any patent. Accordingly, in •I6fi(j, Mr. Williams, and four othicrs, crossed Seekhonk river, and 'landed among the Indians, by whom they were hospitably received, aud thus laid the foundation of u town, which, from a sense of God's tnerciful providence to him, he called Providence. Here he was soon Wtcrjoiaed by a number cf others; and'though. they were secuieJ UNITED STATES or AMERICA. fi'iS from tKo Tnuiiins by the terror of the English, yet they, for a con- skleriiblc tiiTio, suirored much from f-itigne and wanl : but thev en- joyt'J llbt'rty ol" conscience, which is still m.iiutaiucd in this state. CONNECTICUT. , SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Dej^rees. Sq. Miles. Length 100 I , _._gj. \ 71 . m and 73. 15. west longitude > , ^^. liieadth 7:ii bt^t^een ^,,^^ o. and 4 Si. i>. north latitude. T'^'* Boundaries and divisiov.] CONNIlCTICUT is bounded on the nort]: by Massachusetts ; on the east, by Rhode Island ; on the snuth, by tht« sound which divides it from Long Island; and| on jthe west, by the state ot New York. Divisions.] It is divided into eight counties, as follows : Counties. ■ ■ ■ ChbfToxens, Fairfield Fairfield New Haven New Haven Middlesex Middlcton New London New London Litchfield ., Litchfield Hartford Hartford Tolland Tolland "Windham ■ Windham Harbouks, rivers.] The whole of the sea coast Is indented with harbours, many of which are safe and commodious ; but those ot New London and New Ilayen arc the most important. The prin- cipal rivers in this state are, the Connecticut, Housatonick, Thames, and their branches. Climate, soil, PROnucr..] Connecticut, though subject to the extremes of heat and cold in their seasons, and to frequent sudden changes, is very healthful. It is p;enerally broken land, made up of moijutains, hills, and vallies ; and is exceedingly well watered. Some parts of it are thin and barren. Its principal production'^ are Indian corn, rye, wheat in many parts of tlie state, oats, and barley, which are heavy and good, and, of laie, huck-whca' ; ihis in large quan- tities; some hemp ; potatoes of several kinds, which arc common to the climate. T'he soil is very well calculated for pasturage and, . mowing, which enables the fanners to feed great numbers of neat cattle and horses. Population.] In 1790 the population of this state amounted to '237>9+6 persons, of whom 276-1? were slaves; and in 1801 to 251,002, of whom 9.51 were slaves. The inhabitants are almost en- tirely of English descent: there are no Dutch, French, or Germans, and very few Scotch or Irish people, in any part of the state. Chief towns.] There are a great number of very pli^asant townSi both maritime and inland, in Connecticut. It contains five ciuej, jncorporfttcd with extensive jurisdiction in civil causes. Xw*.) «f t> L "2 .- M if; f * ' i I'j'' t ■■■, r; '^■'SSl JJt' «*." ¥ '.m lp!|i J (J MI" t .1 ■i'i'';:|^ 'ijll n &8+ UNI TED STATEii cf AMERICA. t'lesc, Ii:ntf( rd ar.d Now Hiiven, arc capitals oNhe Mate. The ge- iici:i] abscnibiy i , luikka at tl;e former in May, and at the latter in October, aiinually. Harlt'ord is regularly laid out, the streets in- tL-rstcting t\ich other at rlt^iit angles. The other cities arc New London, Norwich, and Middleton. Tkadi.] The exports Irom tliis state consist of horses, mules, oxen, oak-staves, lioojis, piuc-boards, oak plank, beans, Indian corn, fish, beef, and pork. 'J he amount of foreign exports, m the year 1T''1', aniounU'd to 8(>(,7'IG dollars. GovERNMi".sT.J The supreme legislative authority of the state is vesled in a governor, deputy-governor, twelve assistants or coun- sellors, and tiie representatives of the people, styled the general ns- seribly. Tlie governor, deputy governor, and assistants, are annually '. isen by the I'recmen in the month of May. The representatives (^t:cir number not to exceed two from each town) arc chosen by the freemen twice a year, to attend the two annual sessions, on tlie se- cond I'uesdays of May and OctolM!r. The general assembly is di- vided into two branches, called the upper and lower houses. The upper house is composed of the governor, deputy governor, and n;- sistants ; the lower house, of the representatives of the people. No hnv can pass without the concurrence of both bouses, Rt.LifiioN.] 7\11 religions that are consistent with the peace of society are tolerated in Connecticut ; and a spirit of liberality and Catholicism is increasing. There are very few religious sects in tliis state. The bulk of the pcoplv are congregationalists ; and there are besides episcopalians and b.;i sts. CoLi.EUEs, LiTKRATURr.] Yale college, at New Haven, is an eminent seminary of learning : it was founded in the year 1700. It has a public library of about SOOO volumes, and a very complete philosophical apparatus. Academics have likewise been established at Greentielii, Plainlicld, Ncrwich, Windham, and Pomfret, some of whicli are flourishing, Jn no part of the world is the education o^' all ranks of people more attended to than in Connecticut ; almost every town in the state is divided into districts, and each district has a public sciiool kept in it a greater or less part of every year. A thirst for learning prevails among all ranks of people in the state. Mi)re of the young men in Connecticut, in proportion to their num- bers, receive a public education than in any of the states. Ills TORY.] The first grant of Connecticut was made by the Ply- mouth conned to the earl of Wai"wick, in 1G30. The year following the earl assigned this grant to lord Say and Seal, lord Brook, and nine others. Some Indian traders settled at Windsor in 1633. Tlis .same year, a little before the arrival of the English, a few Dutch traders settled at Hartford : and the remains oif' the settlement are still visible on the bank of Connecticut river. In 1034-, lord Say and Seal, &c. sent over :; email number of men, who built a fort ar Savbrook, and m -ae a treaty with tlic Pequot Indians for the lands on Connecticut iiver. Mr. Haynes and Mr. Hooker left Massachu setts l>ay in 'OS*, and settled at Hartford. The following year, Mr. Eaton and Mr. Davenport seated themselves at New Haven. In KMi the Connecticut adventurers purchased of. Mr. Fenwick, agent for lord Say and Seal and lord Brook, their right to the colony for IGCOl. Connecticut and New Haven continued two distinct governments f(<T many years. At length, John Winthrop, esq. who had been chosen governor of Connecticut, was en)ployed to solicit a royal charter, in UNITED STATES or AMERICA. S.S.l I6G2, Charles II. ;;ranted;i charter, constituting tlie tv.'o colonies for ever one body corporate and politic, by the name of the governor and company of Connecticut. New Haven took the a flair ill ; l)iit in 1665 all difiicuhics were amicably adjusted, and thib charier btill continues to be the basis of their tiovcrunicut. * NEW YORK. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. DcPTces. So. Miles. Length 350 1 , , ( 10 and I.') north latitude 2<,,n/v\ Breadth SCO ( ^'^'''''''' \ 7 J and 80 west lon^ntude (• "^'^"^ BouNDARiKs.] NEW YORK is bounded on the south and south- west by Hudson's and Delaware rivers, which divide it from New Jersey and Pennsylvania; and on the east and nortli east by New England and the Atlantic Ocean ; and on the nortli-west by Canada. This state, including the island of New York, Eong Island, and Staten Island, is divided into the twenty-one following counties: Count'us. Chief 'L owns, •KT V XT V t iO- 10 N. lat. ^^■■^^ York New York | . j,_yy ^^^ ^^^^^^ Albany Albany Ulster Kingston ' Duchess Toughkeepsie Orange Orange West Ch.ester Bedford, White Pkiins King's Flatbush, Brooklyn Queen's Jamaica Suffolk East Hampton, Huntingdon Richmond Richmond Washington Salem Columbia Hudson, Kinderhook Clinton Platsburg Montgomery Johnstown \ Ransdacr Lunsinburg .• \ Ontario Canadaque Hcrkemcr German Flats Otsego Cooper's Town Tioga Chemango, Union Town Saratoga Saratoga Onondago None Cap£s.] These arc Cape May, on the east entrance of Delaware river ; Sandy Hook, near the entrance of Raritun river ; and Mon- tock Point, at the east end of Long Island. Rivers.] The principal of these are Hudson's and the Mohawk: the former abounds with excellent harbours, and is well stored v ith great variety of iish ; on this the cities of New York and Albany are situate. j\\ ,. J \'\ I I. . I .^-rl:! ■(f IINITKB STATES of AMERICA. Thf tide Hows a few miles above Alh.my, wnich is six hundred miles from New Vork. It is nuvigiiblc, for sloops of eighty tons, to Alhii.ny, aiul for ships to Hudson. AIkuu sixty miles ;ihove Now York the water becomes fresh. 'J'hc livcr is si( red witli a variety of fish, which renders a summer pasiarro lo Albany deli^;htfiil and amiisiucr to those wlio are lond of ainrlin{':> On the Moh.iwk "s a large rataract, called the Colices, tlie water of which is said to hdl thirty leet perpendicular; but, incUuiiuir iht; descent above, th(! fall is as much as sixty or seventy feet, where tlie river is a quarter of a mile in breadth. Mft.m.s, minvrai.s.] Great quantities of iron ore are found in this stale. A silver mine has been worked at Phillipslnirg, which produced virr^in silver. lA^ad is found in ilerkernci county, and sulphur in Mont_f;nnicry. '['lie mineral s[)rin^f';s of iKjlhtown, Saratoga, and New Lebanon, arc in great repule. Tlie salt springs of Onond.igo j)roduce excel- lent salt ; and a spring is said to iiave been discovered in the Sus- quehannah country impregnated with niiio, from which saltj)etre is made in the same inanner as salt (rom the Onondago sj)rings. Ci.iM.viF, son,, AND }M<ont'0i;.3 Tiii.'? province, lyuig- to tlie south of New Knghind, enjoys a niorehap})y tcni[)erature of climate. The air is very healthy, and agices well with all constitutions. TJie face of the cotmtry is low, Hat, and marshy tov/ards the sea. As yoti recede from the coast, the eye is eniei tiiined with the gradual swelling of liilhi, which bwconie large in pn^portion as you advance into the country. The soil is extremely Jcrtile, producing wheat, r)c,.Indian corn, oats, barley, flax, and fruits, in great abund.mcc and perfection. Tl:- timber is much the sanjo with that of New England. Animals.] In the nortltcrn and unsettled parts of this state tlicre are numerous moose-deer, bears, some beavers, martins, and most of the other inliabitants of the iorest, evcpt wolves. Tlie domestic animals arc tJie same in general as \[\ the other states. Population.] 'J'hc iuu:iber of inhabitants in this state in 17D0 W.1S .'M0,1'?0, rf wliom ll,.'^!i.M' were slaves. According to the census of ISOO, they had then increased to .'JHC;,'J(;.", including 2(VJl 15 slaves. Crrn.s.} 'i'lie city of New York staitds (.n the south-west end of York Isl.'uid, which is twelve miles long, and near three in breadth, extremely well situate i'or trade, at the mouth of Hud- son's liver, where it is three miles broad, and proves a noble con- vevance from Al!)any and many oth.er inland towns towards Cau.ada and the lakes. The city is in length above two miles, and its mc'4n breadth abotit a mile. This city and harbour are dc-fended by a fort and battery: in the fort is a spacious mansion-house, for the use of the governor. Many of the houses aie very elegant ; arid the city, though irregularly built, affords a line pio^pect. A fourth part of ^he city was burnt down by some incendiaries in 177(), on the king's tron})s taking it. A great part of the iniiabitants, reckoned in 1790 at .1.'>,}.SJ, are descended from the Dutch families \\ ho remained here after the surrender of the New Netherlands to the Fnglish. The city of Albany contains about 6000 ii. habitants, collected from almost all parts of llie northern world. As great a viiiety of lan- guages are spoken iti Albany as in any town in the United States. Adventurers in pursuit of wealth are 'ed hither by the advantages for trade wliich this place affords. Situated on one (Vf the finest rivers in tlie world, at the head of sloop-navigation, suuouuded with u rich UNITED STATES ok AMERICA. 887 Wi im^ extensive l);)ck' country, and tlic st(nc'-house of tiic tr;iile to arul tiom C:ir.;ul.i ami ihe lakcb, it uiusi tlouri^h, unJ the iuhiiUit.iats can- not I)iit m'ow ricii. 'Ihc city of Hudson, liov-evcr, is tlicir j^roat rival, and has had th? most: rapid {.n'owth nl' any plact; in Arncricat. it wo except j'alliinore in Mavyh'.nd. Jt is ll/J miles uorlh ol Nijw York. It was not, begun till the autumn ol" 17'';>. CoMMtKi'i:, MANV'FACTURi'S.] Tlie sitUHtion of New York, \viil> respect to l'irti,'j;n markets, has decidedly tlic prelciencv- to any of the states. It lias at all se;\s<n<s of tlie year a short ami easy access to t!ie ocean. U co::itnands the trade of a great projioriion of llie best settled and best cultivated parts of the United States, 'l he ccnimo- tiilics in uhicli they trade are i^heat, Hour, bailey, oats, beef, and other kinds of animal food. I heir markets; are the same with those vliich tlie Nev,' En;^l,indcr.; use; and tliey h.i\e a .',h;tre in. tlir lo^'- wood tr.uie, and thai, which is carried on with the Spanisli and French plantati(ms. They used to t;ihe almost the same soic oi" commodities tro:n iins^land \Aith the inhabitants of Boston. At an average of tlu'ee years, their c.vports were said to amount to ,?2b',(XJ0l. and their imports Ivom Great Britain to- ,'>.'• 1,0001. 'i'he exports from tiiis state in 17;>l anKVJUted to 'J-.'jO.'), l;i." dollars; and in ITD.J to 10,.'i()i',5SO dolhns, or above two millions sterling. 'I'hc city of Nt'W York contair.s a great number of people wlio are cpiployed in the various brunches of manufactures, vi/,. wheel car- riages of all kinds, loaf sugar, bread, beer, shoes and boots, sadlery, cabinet-work, cutlery, hats, clocks, watches, mathematical and mu- sical instruments, sln'ps, and every thing necessary for their equip- mcnt. A elass woik and ceveral Iron works Ikivo been establisheil. • GovKRSMUNT.] By the constitution f .' the stale of New Yorl, rstaijlished in 1777, the supreme lo!',ish.i.tive pov/er is vestitl in two separate and distinct bodies of men ; the one called " The Assembly of the State of Mev/ Yovk," ccnsi«lin('; of seventy memlier-. annually chosen by ballot; and the other, *' The Senate of the .State i.f New York," consisting of twenty-four, fi>r four years, wlu> together fcn-m the legishiture, and meet once at least in every ye:'.r for the dispati.h of business. The supreme executive power is vested in a governor, v\ ho continues in office three yi.-ars, assi-tvd by four c('Uns;L^li{>l-s chosen by and iroin the senate- Ev-ery male inhabitant oi Rill age, wlio possesses a frQCiiolJ of tlie value oi' twenty ponnds, ov has reiitcM.! a tenem.cnt of the yearly value of iorty sliiliing:;, and been rated and paid taxes to tjio state for :,ix: months preceding the day cf ere- tion, is entitled to vot-e ibr members of the as«embly ; but those who vote for the governor, :ind the members of the senate, arc to be pos- sessed of freehohls of the value of one hundr''d potnids. I'he dele- gates to the corigness, the judg\.'s, &:c. are to be chosen by ballot of the senate and assei^ibly, Rki.icjion.] k ii nn^a^n('d by the constitution of New York, tliat the free exercise and enjoyment of religions profession and worship, without discrimination cu' preference, shall forever be allowed \v.ithin that state to y.U jaauf. ind. CoLLEGiis.j A <:<)]lege was cre-;ted at New York, by act of par- liament, about the year n^).?; but, as the assembly was iit that time <lividcd into parties, it was formed on a contracted plan, and has ior that reason never met with the encouragement v, iiich might naturally be expected for a public seminary iu so populous a ciiy. "Il is now % *:'.' f-rmi i 1 I ;i F88 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. called ColiimMa College, It h;is about one hundred and forty stu- dents in the four clashes, besides medic:il students. A coliejre called Union College was established at Schenectady in 379i, which has now about forty students in the four classes. Be- sides these there are dispersed in different parts of the state fourteen incorporated academics, containing in the whole as many as six or seven hundred students. It is also provided that schools shall be established, one at least in every district of four s(|uare miles. HtsTOK v.] 'J"he Swedes an<l Dutch were the first Europeans who formed settlements on this part of the American coast. 'J he tract claimed by the two nations extended from the 38ih to the 41st de- gree of latitude, and was called the New Netherlands. It continued m their hands till the time of Charles II. who obtained it from them by right of conquest in IWl ; and it was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, 1GG7. 'I he New Netherlands were not long in our possession before they were divided into different provinces. New York took tliat name from the king's brother, James duke of York, to whom the king granted it, with full powers of government, by letters patent dated March i'O, 1(564. On James's accession to tlie throne, the right to New York became vested in the crown, and it became a royal government. The king appointed the governor and council ; and the people, once in seven years, elected their repre- sentatives to serve in general assemblies. 1 hese three branches of the legislature (answering to those of Great Britain) had power to make any laws not repugnant to those of England : but, in order to their being valid, the royal assent to them was first to be obtained. li *.j mM }Vi i '51 M ii H: ^ hi 'A l'^. ' ill ! NEW JERSEY. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Length 160>, ( 39 and 41-24 north lat. } Breadth 50 S ^^^^^^" j 74.44 and 75-33 west long. S Sq. Miles. S,320 Boundaries, nivisroNs.] NEW JERSEY is bounded on the west and south-west by Delaware river and bay, which separates it from the states of Pennsylvania and I)elaware ; on the south-east and east, by the Atlantic Ocean, the Sound, which separates Staten Island from the continent, and Hudson's river ; and on the north, by a line drawn from the mouth of Mahakkiimak river, to a point in Hudson's river. Dhtriets. East Dlvlst«n contains Chief Towns. Perth Amhoy and New PrunswiLk Counties', ■ Middlesex . . . . > i'e .Monmouth .. / Shrewsbury and Frceln 'Id K.ssex V Mi/.abeth and Newark 'Somerset .... \ Dnundbrooic >JBcrgen f V il/.UDLLil ill .... V Dnundbrool -^llakkensak UNITED S I'ATES or AMERICA. SS9 red and forty stu- Dlitncls, West Division contains Counties. Burlington . Gloucester . Salem Cumberland Cape May . Hunterdon . I Morris Sussex ChufTo'U'n'i, Burlington <M-,.^xr i I li>-0 W. long. Woodbury, and Gloucester Salem \ Hopewell, Bridgetown / None •10-15 N.lat. W- long. Morristown Newtown Trenton . . ■< », , - i .'1-15 RivTRS.] These are the Delaware, Raritan, and Passaick, on the latter of wliicli is a remarkable cataract : the height of the rock from which the water falls is said to be about 70 feet perpendicular, and the river there 80 yards broad. C'l.iMATK, sojL, AND i'aouucK.] The climate is much the same with that of New York ; the soil is various ; at least onc-fourlh pare of tlie province is barren sandy land, producing pines and ced.irs ; the other p;irts in general are good, and produce wheat, barley, rye, Indian corn, &c. in great perfection. Metals, minerals.] In this state are :everal iron mines, and ia Bergen county is a very valuable copper mine. Toi'ULATioN.] The number of inhabit mts in New Jersey in 1790 was 181,139, of whom 11,423 were slaves ; in 1801 they amounted to 'ill,119, including 12,422 slaves. Chikf tov/ns.] Trenton isthe largest town in, and the metropolis of this state ; Avhere the legislature statedly meets, the supreme court sits, and most of the public offices are kept. It contains between two and three hundred houses, and about 2000 inhabitants. Perth Aml)oy and Burlington were formerly the seats of govern- ment : the governor generally resided in the latter, which is pleasantly situate on the river Delaware, about twenty miles from Philadelphia,. The lormer is as good a port as most on the continent, and the har- bour is safe, and capacious enough tc contain many large ships. Trade, manufactures.] The trade of this state is carried on al- most solely with and from those two great commercial cities. New York on one side, and Philadelphia on the other, though it wants not good ports of its own. Manufactures here have hitherto been incon- siderable, if we except the articles of iron, nails, and leather. The iron manufacture Is, of all others, the greatest source of wealth to the state. In Morris county alont^ are no less tlian seven rich iron mines. In the whole state it is supposed there is yearly made about 1200 ions rf bar iron, and as many of pig iron, exclusive of hollow ware and various other castings, of which vast quantities are made. GovKRNMENT.] By thc Chartci' of Rights, established by the pro- vincial congress, July 2, 177fi» the government of New Jersey is vested in u governor, legislative covmcil, and general assembly. The members of the legislative council arc to be freeholders, and worth at least one thousand pounds real and personal estate ; and the mem- bers of the general assembly to be worth five hundred pounds. All the inhabitants worth fitty pounds are entitled to vote for representa- tives in coimcil and assembly, and for all otht r public officers. The elections of rhe governor, legislative council, and general assembly, are to be annual ; tlie governor and 1 cvunar.t govirnor to be choren m «i lii ¥'■ m tmiTHD ?;TATES of amertca. out of, and by the :rssrfnbly nnri council. The in J^'cs ot ihe supreme court are chosen tor sovcu years, and th.e ofRcers of the cri'^cutivc pov.-cr for iive yL'ai;i. Remgiox avo f-EArvN!Nr,.l Accordinr^ to the present constitt:- tion of tliis prc'vir.cc, all pcrsfms arc allowed to v.-orsinp God in iht; mamier tluit Is most ;'.;;iee;ible to llcir own consciences ; nor is any person o'.-ttigcd to pay tiuier. tnxef, or ;iiiy other r;ite.,, for the purpose of buildiiii;- or repaiiinu; any chiirci? oi- churches, for tr.c maintennnc* of any minisrer or ministry, contrary to wh:;t lie believer, to be ri^ht, or has delibcratclv or '.'oluntarilv en^'-i.T'od him&elf to perform. There is to be no estahlislirnent of :iny one rciij^-ions r;cct in this province in preference to anoiher : and no proleslunt inhabitants are to be denied the enjoyment of any civil right, merely on account of U;cir religious principles. CoLi-KGEs.] A college, called Nassau Hall, was established at the town of Princeton, In this province, by governor Belcher, in I7i6» vhich has a power of conferring tJie -^ame degrees as Oxford or Cam- bridge. There are generally between eighty and a hundred students liere, who come from al' .rts of the continent, some even from the extremities of it. The.- .s another college at Brunswick, called Queen's College, founded a little before the war, and in considerable repute. There are also several academies. H13TORV.3 New Jersey is part of that vast tract of land which, We have observed, vas given by king ('harles J I. to his brother James, duke of York ; he sold it, for a valuable consideration, to lord Berkeley and Sir Gef>rge Carteret (from which it received its present name, because Sir George had estates in the Island of .Jersey), and they again to others, who in the year 1702 made a surrender of the powers of government to queen Anne, which she accepted; after whicli it became a royal government. ' PENNSYLVANIA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Milc<;. Dcgreea. Sq. Milts, Lcnf»th 2JK)? , . C 71' and HO west longitude. ? a r t^ru^ T. 'j.u 1 -r i- between J'.,, , .„ .u 1 T . j c 4'5,000 . r>readth 1j(* S . ^ iW and 42 north latitude. 5 BotJNn ARIES.] BOUNDED by New York and Lake Frie, on the north; by Delaware river, which divides it from Nt iv .Jersey, on the east ; by a part of Virginia, and by Maryland and Delaware, on the south ; ar,d by the Norih-western territory, and a part of Vir- •pinia, on t!io west. DivrsioNs.j The state of Pennsylvania contains twenty-three countius. Count ks, ' CkufToivns. T)i -1 1 1 1 • n ^ N. lat. 40. Ihnadclphui . rHILADiiLPHIA -', ^»r 1 --nn ^ ( vV.long. t>M Chcritor Chester Bucks Newtown Be^ks ; . Rcad'ng ^/>:.^ TCA. ^^-'s of the sTipreme •s of the c::ecutivc; le present constilt:- iV(n-.s)iin God in iha cience.> ; nor is any tc.,, for the purpose or t);e maint:cn:inc'* )elic vo:; to be ri^ht, to pert'orm. There in this province in nts arc U) be denied nt of Uicirrcli;^ious IS established at the Belcher, in 174-6, as Oxford or Cam* a hundred students ;ome even from the Brunswick, called ind in considerable act of land which, II. to his brother nsideration, to lord received its present id of Jersey), and ; a surrender of the le accepted ; after i. Sq. Miles. de: I «,000 Lalce Frie, on the n Nt w Jersev, on and Delaware, on md a part of Vir- ituins twenty -three 5 N. lat. 40. nV. long. 75-^0 UNITED STATES or AMERICA. 991 Court lies. C /.iff Ti^wris^ North.ampton Easton Lancaster I/.mcabter York "'idrk CuTnberland Curlislq « Montp;oinery N'^rriston Dauphin Enni.sburg I.uzerue V/ilksbarre Northumberland Sunbury Franklin Chamherstov/a Hiniting-don Huntiagdon Westmoreland Greensburg Fayette Union Washington Washington Allesranv Pittsbury; Dehnvare Chester MilHia Lev.'iston Bedford* : Bedford - • {Somerset None Lycoming None Rivers.] The rivers are, the Delaware, which is navlgal)le more than two hundred miles above Phil-idelphia ; the Susquehanija and Schuylkill, which are also navigable a considerable w.-iy uv the country. These rivers, with the numerous bays and creeks in Dt.ia- ware bay, capable of containiuLf the largest lleets, render tliis stattf admirably suited to carry on an inland and foreign trade. MuTALs, MINERALS.] Irou orc abounds in this State ; and copper and lead are found in some places. Lime-stone is common, as also several kinds of marble ; and in the middle and western parts of tlw? country there is abundance of coal. Face or THE country, climaie, soil, produce.] The face of the country, air, soil, and produce, do not materially differ from those of New York. If there be any difference, it is in favour of this province. The air is sweet and clear. The winters continue from December till March, and are so extremely cold and severe, that the river Delaware, though very broad, is often frozen over. The months of July, August, and Septcnil^er, are almost intolerably hot; but the country is refreshed by frequent cold brce/.es. It may be remarked, in general, that in all parts 'if the United States, fron» New York to the southern extremity, ilie woods are full of wild vines of three or four species, all different from those we liave in, Europe. But, whether from some fault in tiieir nature, or in the climate, or the soil where they grow, or, what is nuicli more probable, from a fault in the planters, they have yet pro Juced no v. ine that deserves to be mentioned, though the Indians from them mdke a sort of wine with which they regale thernsclve?. It may also be observed of the tmiber of these states, that towards t!)e south it is not so good for shipping as that of the more northern countries. Ihc farther south. Ward you go, the timber becomes less compact, and rives easily ; tvhich property, as it readers it less serviceable for ships, makes it inore useful for staves. Pennsylvania produces all the various kinds of grain common to * This county was purchased from ihe Indian?, in 176"3, by Mr. Penn» $nd t.stiblished'vn I77i. I ■|4 SDt2 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. V-"': |i»J i :'"^; Km the reip^bbouring states; but wheat is the principal, and of most ge- neral cukiv anon. The vine is much cultivated in ^this state, and good wine has been made irom the grapes raised here. ANiMALf;.] Deer arc found in great numbers in Pennsylvania ; there rire also beavers, otters, racoons, and martens. Buffaloes rarely cross the Ohio, and elks seldom advance from the north. Pantlier';, wild cats, bears, foxes, and wolves, are not rare ; the last do most mischief, especially in the winter ; but tlio fur and skins of all are valuable. In the thick settlements^ rabbits and squinxls are fre- quent ; also musk-rats in marshes. Partridges are yet numerous, though the late hard winters have destroyed many. There are great numljers of wild turkeys in the new settlements; pheasants and grouse are become scarce. Pigeons, ducks, and wild geese, are ge- nerally found in plenty In their proper seasons. Ploie are a great number of singing birds, as many migrate to this state from the north and south in certain seasons. Population.] The inhabitants of Pennsylvania in 1790 amounted to 4;'l,S7:i, including 37:57 slaves; and in 1800 to fiv')'2,S(55, includ- ing 1706 slaves; or about thirteen for every square mile. Origin and character of the inhabitants.] The inhabitants of I'cnnsyivania are principally the desccnd;uits of English, Irish, and Germans, with sonic Scotch, Welsh, Swedes, and a few Dutch. There arc also many of the Irisli and Germans, who emigrated when youog or middle-aged. The Friends and Episcopalians are chieHy of English extraction, and compose about one-t]:ird of the inhabi- tants. Tlicy live cliiefiy in the metropolis, and in the counties of Chester, Philadelphia, Bucks, and Montgomery. The Irish are mostly Presbyterians, but some are Roman Catholics. The Ger- mans compose about one-quarter of the inhabitants of Pennsylvania. They consist of Lutherans, who are the most numerous sect ; Cal- vinists, or Reformed Church ; Moravians, Roman Catholics, Men- •nonistSj 'Junkers, and Zwingfelters, who are a species of Quakers. These are ail distinguished for their temperance, industry, and eco- nomy. The Baptists, except the Mennonists and Tunker Baptists, are chiefly descended of emigrants from Wales, and are not nume- rous. A prf)nortionate assemblage of the national prejudices, thv manners, customs, religions, .u\d political sentiments of all these will form the Pennsylvanian character. Chief towns. 3 Pennsylvania contains several very considerable towns, such as Lancaster, Carlisle, and Pittsburg. But the city of Philadelphia, which is beautiful beyond any city in America, and in regularity unequalled by any in Europe, eclipses the rest, and merits particular attention. It was built after the plan of the famous William Penn, the founder and legislatcr of this colony. It is situ- ate about 120 miles from the sea, by the course of tlie bay and river; and .>.■; or GO in the south-eastward direction. The ground- plot of the city is an oblong square, about one mile from nortli to south, and two from cast to west ; lying in ihe narrowest pavt cf the isthmus, bctv.'cen the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, about five ifiilcs in a right line above tl.eir confluence', wlierc tlie Delaware is a mile broad. The city is intersected by a great number of streets crossing each other at right angles. Of these there were originally nine, which extended from the Delaware to tlie Schuylkill, and were cro?;sed by t^vcnty-three others running north and soutli. 'i he num- ber of squares formed by tliese streets, in the original plan, was 15 i ; .; ;a. I, and of most ge- in this state, and ere. in Pennsylv.-inia ; Buffaloes rarely north. P.intlicr';, the last do most d skins of all are squirrels are frt;- .'c yet nunit'rous, There are great, s; pheasants and :i]d .qec.se, are ge- Hoie are a great .ate from the north in 1790 amoTin ted 3 fn')'2,S<5,'j, includ- re mile. ] The inhabitants of English, Iri:,h, and a few Dutch. 10 emigrated when palians are chiefly iird of the inhabi- tlie counties of The Irish are holies. The Ger- s of Pennsylvania. merons sect; Cal- n Catholics, Men- pecies of Quakers. industry,, and ceo- i Tunker Baptists, nd are not nume- al prejudices, tJie its of all these will very considerable But the city of Anicrica, and in he rest, and nicritr, n of the famous )Iony. It is situ- e of the bay and !• The ground- ilc from north to rowest part of the ■ivers, ahcnit five ;he Delaware is a uuTibfr of streets ■e were originally uiylkill, and were iOuth. 'i lie nuni- ;il plan, was Lst ■ CNITED STATES or AMERICA. 8;)5 hut as several of thcni have late'v betm intersected by new streets, tiieir number now amounts to ;)()^ ; and several of these are again intersected by lanes and alleys. Market-street is 100 feet wide, and runs the whole length of the city, frt.ni river to river ; and near iIir middle is intersected hv Broad-street, llr'> f^et wide, running nc-nrly north .and sovnh. The olher strrets are Si) ieet wide, except Arch- street, which is 65 feet. Most ot the city is well paved with foot- paths of brick, furnish.cd with common sewers and gutters, so that the streets are in general kept veiy clean and neat. Plie houses in the city and suburbs are g(>i\erally of brick, three stories high, in a •plain deoLMt style, without nnich display of ornanirnt. in ITS.'?* there were IK)00 houses in this city, and 40U which v.tre building- ; and the present number of inhabitants is estimated at ab(>ut 7Q,000. Philadelphia contains 27 places of public worsliip, belorig- in^J- to dilFe'rent sects. The state-house is a ma^-nificeat buiUia?, erected in 17t35. In 17^^/ un elegant court-house, or town hall, was built on the left of the state-house, and, on the right, a philosopidcal hall. Here likewise is a public observatory, and several other pub- lic buildings. This city is governed by a mayor, recorder, fifteen .aldermen, and thirty common council men, accoiding to its present ch-artcr, granted in the year 17«>9. A malignant fever raged here in 1793> which in tJic course of August and three succeeding mouths carried oft' H)M1 of the inhabitants ; and this fatal distempei^ tor ic- vcral years returned annually. l/ancaster, the chief town of Lancaster county, is the largest in- land town in the United States: it contains about 7 or .SOO houses, and aOOO inhabitants. Carlisle contains about 4t)0 houses, and 1500 jnJiabitants. (■OMMKKCK, M .wuj ACTUREs.] The commcrcc of Penn.'.ylvania is very Honrishing. It is principally carried on from Philadelphia ; and there are few commeixial ports in the world where ships from Philidclphia may not be found in som.e season of the year. The number of vessels vilnch entered this port in 17^6 was 1^10, and, in J 795, l<i'20. The clearances in the latter year were 1789. It is not mentioned, however, how many of these were coasting vessels. The number of vessels built in 1795 was 31, of which 23 were ships and brigs. In the year i7i'-> Philadelphia shipped 4-20,000 barrels of flour and middlings. The value of exports from the State of Penn- sylvania in the year ending September 60, 1791, was 3,4S6,09'2 dol- lars : and, in 1795, 1 i, 5 18,260 dollars. The existing war has occa- sioned some extraordinary articles in the exportation of late ; coffee and other commodities having been carried to Philadelphia, and thence to Hamburgh, as neutral ports. The manuiactures of this state are of numerous kinds. Iron-works are of long standing, and their products increase in quantity, and im- ]irove in ({uality, 'I'here are also improving manuiactures of leather, paper, cotton, gun-powder, copper, lead, tui, and earthen-ware. GovF.RNMKNT.J Accordiug to the actual constitution, the legisla- tive power is administered by a senate and house of representatives; the executive by a governor; and the judiciary by a supreme court, a. court of cotumon-pleas, and a court of quarter-sessions ot the peac-t;. 'I'he legislature and governor are elected by the freemen ; thegover- iior tor three years ; the representatives, and a fourth part of the se- nate, annually. The number of representatives must not be less than sixty, lior exceed one hundred ; nur that of senators le.>s than a : ! fi9* UNITED STATES or AMERICA. !• ; " ..»; i!"'^i .}. I It. . fntirth, nor p;reatcr than a third part of the number of representatives* The electors of the magistrates must have attained the age of twenty- One, have resided in the state tv.-o years, and paid taxes. The repre- sentatives must have been inhal.-itants of the state three years, and, the last year previous to their election, have resided in the county which chooses them. The qnalihcations of twenty-iive years of age, and of four years residence, are required in senators : and the gover- nor must have attained the age of thhty, and have resided in the state seven years ; and he is not eligible more than nine years in twelve. The stMiators are divided by lot Into four classes ; and the seats of one clas^. vacated and re-filled yearly. RbJLiGiON.] I-iiberty of conscience is allowed in this state In its fullest extent. The proportions in which the several dilR'rcnt sects prevail, may be estimated from the number of congregations in Penn- sylvania, as given l)y Dr. Morse, viz. Presbyterians, SH; German Calvinists, 84 ; nearly 84' of German Lutherans ; Friends, or Qua- kers, 54 ; Episcopalians, '2r>; Baptists, 15 ; Roman Catholics, 11; Scotch Presljyterians, 8 ; Free Quakers, 1 ; Universalists, 1 ; Cove- nanters, 1 ; Methodists, 3 or 4; and a Jewi.sh synagogue ; the whole amounting to 384. Univkrsitv, coi.i.EGiT,.] Thcre is a university at Pliiladelphla^ and colleges at Carlisle and Lancaster. The Episcop dians have an academy at York-town, in York ciHinty. Thcre are ; .so academies at German-town, at Pittsburg, at Washington, at Alhu's-town, and other places : the^e are endowed by donations from t'l:; legislature, and by liberal contributions of individuals. The legislature have slso reserved 60,0(X) acres of the public lands for public schools. The United Brethren, or Moravians, Iiavc academies at Bethlehem and Nazareth, on the best establishment of any schools perhaps in Ame- rica. The literary, h.umanc, and other useful societies are more nu- merous and flourishing in Pennsylvania than in any of the sixteen States. Among diese is one whicli deserves a particular notice, which 1% the Anm-ican Philoiiph'ictil Society, h.c\i^ at Philadelphia. Tliis so- ciety was formed, January 2d, 176f), by the union of two other literary societies that h:Ki subsisted for some time, and were created one body corporate and politic, v/ith such powers, privileges, and immunities, as arc necessary f.ir answering the valuable purpose which the society had originally in view, by a charter granted by the commonweaitii of Pennsylvania on the l.'^^th of March 1780. This society has publi^^hcd tv,-o very valuable volumes <if their Trans- actions : one in 1771, and the other in 1786'. In 1771 it consisted of nearly .SGO meml)ers, and upwards of 120 have since been added ; a large proportion of whom are foreigners. History.] I'liis country, under the name of the New Nether- lands, was originally possesr.cd by the Dutch and Swedes. When these nations, however, V'.cre c::pcllcd from New York by tJie Engli»sh, sdmiral Penn, who, in conjunction with Venables, had ccvnqucrcd the island of. Jamaica (under the auspices ofCroinwell), being in fa- voui- with Charles li. obtained a promise of a grant of this country from tlnit monarch. Upon the admiral's death, his son, the cele- brated quaker, availed himself of this promise, and, after much court- fiolicitation, obtained the performance of it. Though as an author and a divine Mr. Per.n be lirtle known but to t]u);>e of his own per- suasion, his reputation, in a character no less respectable, isunivers:ij among all civilised nations. TJic circumsLautes of the times engaged ^^"^ UNITED STATES of AMERICA. mc vast numbers to follow him into his new settlement, to avoid the per- secutions to which the Quakers, like other soctaiies, were then ex- posed ; but it was to his own wisdom and ability tliat they arw indebted for that charter of privileges Vv-hich placed this colony on so respectable a footin;;. Civil and rehgious liberty, in the uimc/St IatiT< tude, v.MF, laid dnwn by that fjreut man as the cliief and. only founda- fion of all hi;i instirutior.s. Christians of all denominations might not ouly live unmolested, but have a share in the government cf the colony. No laws could be mad-j but by the consent of the inliitbi- tants. Even matters of l)enevolfnce, to which the laws of few nations have extended, v/ere l^y Penu sulijected to r;'j;ulations. 'J Jje alTairs of widovsrs and orphans were to be inrjnired into by a court cunftitut. ed for that purpose. The disputes b.-t\vee:i individuals were nut to be subjected to tlie delay and chicanery of the lav/, but decided Uy wise and honest aibitrators. His benevolence and q;enercsity cx« tended ;dso to t'le Indian nations: instead of taking immediate ad- vantage of his patent, lie purchased of these pcoplo the lan.ds he luiU detained by his grant, jr.dging that, the original property, and oldest righ.t, wa.s vested in thoni. V\''illlam Penu, in ^hort, had lie been ;i nitive of Greece, would have had his statue placed next to tlujise of Solon -imd Lycurgus. Kir, laws, founded on the solid basis of equity, still maintain their force; and, us a j^roof of their efTects, it is only necessary to mention, that land v;as lately granted at twelve pounds an hundred acres, v.uth u quit-rent of four slullings reserved ; wliereatj tlie terms on which it was formerly granted were at tv.'enty ponihU the thou.sand acres, with one shilling quit-rent fcr every hundred, Kear Philad'dphia, before the comnierjcement (;f the war v'lih tha mother count, v, land rented at twenty shillings the acre, and, even at several miles distance from that city, sold at twenty ye^rs pur- chase. It was in Pliladelphia''that the general congress of America, mat in September 1774' ; and tlieir meetings continued to be clnefly held there till the king's troops nuuje themselves masters of that city, on the 2(it]i of September 1777. iiut in June 177S the British troops retreated to New York, and Philadelphia again became the residence of the congress. i DEL A V7 A RE. he NcwNether- Dwcdes. Whea SITUATION ANU UXTENT, Milec;. Degrees. Sq. Miles. I.engtii 9.' ? u . 5 ''>^ -'9 Hn<I 39 .'+ north latitude. } ,„,„,. to u\ r>i r between j-- ,, 1 ^,-,iu *i •. i f 20QQ Jireadth '2+ i t lo -J, and iif 48 west longitude, i . BouNDARiKs] DELAWARE is boundcil on the East by the river and bay i.'f the same name, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the nortli, by Pennsylvania; and on the sourh and west by Maryland, Jt is divided into the three following counties ; Counties, Ch'icfTo'Vims. ' ; Newcastle Newca;.tle^ Wiiniingtoa Kent Dover . . . , . ^ Sussex Lqwcs I t -I -■ !.■( : <t Ul ■i.:,- m'j; ' ^-^Ji I.- liSij' '!! 1 1 '!!'! k p '■!" 8PG UmTED STATES or AMERICA. RivFRS.] In tlie southern and western parts of this state, spring the head-waters of Pocom^ike, Wicomico, Nauticokc, Clioj)tank-, Chester, Sassafras, and Bohemia rivers, all fallins>; into Chesaj)Oak hay. Some of them arc navigaMe twenty or thirty nulcs inio the country for vessels of fifty or sixty tons. Mltals, minkrals.] There arc few minerals in this state, except iion : large quantities of bog iron ore, very fit for castin/^s, are iound ia Sussex county, among the branches o] Nanticoko river. Air, soil, and vroduci.] The air is in general healthy; hut in some parts, where there arc large quantities C/f stagn;int. water, it is less salubrious. The soil along the Delaware river, and from eight to ten miles into the interior country, is generally a rich clay, adapted to the various gflfe**^'^*-'^ of agriculture. From ilience to the swamps the soil is li ijhtTlandy, and ol" an inferior qnalitr. Wheat grows here in such perfection, as not only to be paiticularly sought by tlic ma- Tiulacturersof Hour throughout the (Inion, but also to be distinguished and prefeired lor its superior qualities in foreign markets. Besides wheat, this state generally produces plentiful crops of Indian corn, barley, rye, oats, flax, buck-wheat, and potatoes. Population.] The number of inhabitants in Delaware in 1700 was 5^),09V, of whom 887 were slaves: in 1801 they amounted to ()1'.'27'S including 6,153 slaves. Cmrr towns] Dover, being the seat of government, is con- sidered as the metropolis, though it contains but about a hundred houses; but Wilmington is the most considerable town in the state, containing HOO houses, and r5000 inhabitants. It is regularly laid out in squares, similar to Philadelphia. Trade and manufactures.] The staple connnodity of this state is wheat, which is manufactured into flour, and exported in large quantities. Besides wheat and flour, lumber and various other ar- ticles are exported from Delaware. The amount of exports from tliis state, in the year 1795, was 158,01] dollars. Among other branches of industry exercised in and near Wilmington, are a cotton manufactory, and a bolting manufactory. In the county of New- castle are several fulling-mills, two snuff-mills, one slitting«mill, four paper-mills, and sixty mills for grinding grain, all turned by water. Government. 3 At tlie late revolution, the three counties of Delaware were erected into a sovereign state, having a governor, senate, and house of representatives. The senators are nine in num- ber, tliree from each county ; and the representatives twenty-seven. Tho former must be twenty-seven years old, and the latter twenty- four; and senators must have a freehold of two hundred acres, or real and personal estate to the value of one thousand pounds. The governor is not eligible more than three years in six. In other par- ticulars the constitution of Delaware almost exactly agrees with that of Pennsylvania. Rehgion.] In this state tlierc are a variety of religious deno- minations. Of the Presbyterian sect there are i'l' churches ; of the Episcopal, 11; of the Baptists, 7; of the Methodists, a considerable number. Besides these tJiere is a Swedish church at Wilmington, wJiich is one of the oldest churches in the United States. Lkarning.] There is no college in tliis state. There is an academy at Newark, incorporated in ]7<i9. The legislature, in January 1796, passed an act to create a fund for the establishment of schools throughout tlift stale. UMTKD STATES of AMERICA. mf HisTORV.] Settlements v;ere made lierc by the Dutcli about the yc:ir Ui'i.'i, and by the Sw'.'Jcs about the year }<;27. Their sf.'tlle- incnti were comprehendod in the ^raiU t(Whe chike of York; .md William Pcnn unit:ed them to his government by purchase. ^ They wvvti ai'terwards separated in some mcasur-) from Pennsylvania, and denominated the 'I'.ree Lower Conntiis. They had their own assem- blies, but the governor of Pennsylvania uued to attend, as he did in bis own proper government. MARYLAND. ■J 'll •< .», SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Length 134.? , , Brea^dth 110 5 ^'^' ween Degrees. Sq. Miles. 5 75 and 80 west longitude ) , . ^.^-.^ I 38 and 40 north latitude S ^'^'^^ Boundaries.] BOUNDED by Pennsylvania, on the north; by the Delaware state, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the east ; by Vir- ginia, on the south ; and by tho Apalachian mountains, on the west. Divisions.] Maryland is divided Into two parts by the bay of Chcsapeak, viz. 1 . the eastern ; and, 2. the western division. Divitions. The East Division contain? the coun- ties of Counties. C^-'^f Towns. /'Worcester "^ Princess Anne Somerset Dorset Talbot Cecil Queen Anne's. Kent ^^Caroline fSt. Mary's . . . Charles Prince George. Snow-Iiill Dorset, or Dorchester O.^cford Queen's Town Che iter Danton \ St. Mary Bristol Masterkout Abingtcn Calveit. Ann Arundel Annapolis, W. Ion, Tlie West Division/ \ 75-8 N. lat. 38-5(>. contains \ Baltimore y Baltimore Frederic Frederic Town Washington. . Montgomery Hartford . . . . ^Allegany. . . . Elizabeth Town Cumberland I '■ Rivers.] This country is indented with a vast number of'nav:- gable creeks and rivers. The chief are Patowmac, Pogomoke, Patuxent, Chopt.ink, Severn, and Sassafras. *J M . J-W IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) % A ^ 1.0 I.I ■ 2.2 1.0 11-25 i i.4 ^|2£ M2A m m 1.6 ^ ^ .^>.^V %'^^ Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4503 "^"^^ '^W^' ^ o A /.i '/.. ^ O ;\ 198 UNITED STATES or AMERICA. iXi^' 1 '^ I Iff p .1 :< ill Face of the country, climatk, soil, and produce.] Ih thc-e particulars this state has nothing rcmaikable by which it n,ny be distinguished from those already described. The hills in the inhuul country are of so easy ascent, that they rather seem an artitici.d than a natural production. I he climate is generally mild, and atrree- ably suited to agricultural productions and a great vurifty of iruit- trees. In the interior hilly country tlie inhabitants are healthy ; but in tlic fiat country, in the ncighbourliood of the marshes and stagnant Wiiters, iliey are, as in the oilier southern states, sulvj^ct to interrnittents. 'i he vast number of rivers diffuses fertility through the soil, wliicli is admirably adapted to the rearing of tobacco aihi vhcat (which arc the staple commodities of this country), hemp, In- dian CO] n, grain, &c. Vo r i; I. A T I o N.J The mmiber of inhabitants has of late years greatly increased, amounting in 17JX) to 3in,7'-^8, of whom 103,0iiG were slaves; and in 1801 to 349,()<)2, including 107,707 slaves. Chief towns.] Annapolis, the capital of Maryland, is a small but well situate town upon the river Putuxent. It was formerly called SeveiTi, which name, in the year 1091-, was, by an act of tlie assembly of Maryland, changed into Annapolis. It is situate on a peninsula formed by the river, and two small creeks, and ailbrds a beautiful prospect of Chesapeak bay, and the eastern shore beyond-it. This city is of little note in the commercial world ; but is the V'ealthiest town of its size in the United States. The houses, about three hundred in number, are spacious and elegant, and indicate great wealth. The state-house is the noblest building of the kind in rlic Union. It stands in the centre of the city, from which point the Mipots diverge In every direction like radii. iJaltiniore is the largest town in the state of Maryland : in size it is the fourth, and in commerce the fifth in rank in the United States, It is situate on the north side of Patapsco river, at a small distance from its junction with the Chesapeak. The town is built around \vhat is called the bason, re«koned one of the finest harbours in ■ America. The number of the inhabitants of the town and precincts 'HI 1791 was 13,503, including 1255 slaves, and they must have greatly increased since. Traue.] The trade of Maryland is principally carried on from Baltimore, with the other states, with the West Indies, and with some parts of Europe. To these places they send annually about 30,0{-'0 hogsheads of tobacco, besides large quantities of wheat, flour, pig- iron, lumber, and corn-beans, pork, and flax-seed in small quantities; and receive in return, clothing for themselves and negroes, and other dry goods, wines, spirits, sugars, and other West India commodities. The balance is generally in their favour. — The total amount of ex- ports from Baltimore in 1790 was 2,027,777 dollars, and in 1795, 5,S1 1,379 dollars. In the year 1791 the quantity of wheat exported was 205,571 bushels. GovEUNMENT.] The government of Maryland is vested in a governor, senate of fifteen, and house of delegates ; all which are to be chosen annually. The governor is elected by ballot, by the senate and house of delegates ; and cannot contintte in olhce >,:,'er than three years successively. All freemen above twenty-cnr ^l:.:- r^age, having a freehold of fifty acres, or property to the v .uri- rf thirty pounds, have a right* of suffrage in the election of dc _-av.fs, v.'.chis ' !i;li, UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 899 vha voce. All persons appointed to any office of profit and trust, are to subscribe a dcclariition of tlieir belief in the Christian religion. Rr.LiciON.] The Roman Catholics, who v.erc the Hrst settlers in Maryland, are the most numerous religious sect. Besides these there are Protestants, Episcopalians, English, Scotch and Irish Presby- terians, German Calvinists, German Lutherans, Friends, Baptists, Methodists, Mennonists, Nicolites, or new Quakers ; who all eu'y.y liberty of conscience. Colleges.] The seminaries of learning in this state are as fol- low: Washington Academy, in Somerset county, which was insti- tuted by law in 1779. Washington College, instituted at Chester-town in Kent county in 178'2. By a law enacted in 1787* '<v permanent fund was granted to this institution, oi' 12501. a year currency. St. John's College was instituted in HSl-, to which a permanent fund is assigned of 1751. a year. This college is to be at Annapolis, where a building is now prepared for it. Very liberal subscriptions were obtained towards founding and carrying on these seminaries. The two colleges constitute one university, by the name of " The Univer- sity of Maryland," whereof the governor of the state for the time beini; is chancellor, and the principal of one of them vice-chancellor. The Roman-catholics have also erected a college at George-town on Patowmac river for the promotion of general literature. In IJSo the Methodists instituted a college at Abington in Hartford county, by the name of Cokesbury College. History.] Maryland, like the provinces we have formerly de- scribed, owes its settlement to religious considerations. As they, however, were peopled by Protestants, Maryland was originally planted by Romaa-cathoUcs. This sect, towards the close of Charles the First's reign, was the object of great hatred to the bulk of the English nation ; and the laws in force against the Papists were exe- cuted with great severity. This in part arose from an opinion, that the court was too favourably disposed towards this form of religion. It is certain that many marks of favour were conferred on the Roman- catholics. Lord Baltimore was one of the most eminent, in great favour with the court, and on that account most odious to the geiie- rality of the English. This nobleman, in 1632, obtained a grant from Charles of that country, v/hich formerly was considered as u part of Virginia, but was now called Maryland, in honour of queen Henrietta Mary, daughter to Henry IV. of France, and spouse to king Charles. The year following, about 200 popish families, some of considerable distinction, embarked with Lord Baltimore, to enter into possession of this new territory. These settlers, who had that liberality and good breeding which distinguish gentlemen of every religion, bought their lands at an easy price, from the native Indians ; they even lived with them for some time in the same city ; and the same harmony continued to subsist bctv,'een the two nations, until the Indians were imposed on by the mahcious insinuations of some planters in Virginia, who envied the prosperity of this popish colony, and inflamed the Indians against them, by ill-grounded leports, such as were sufficient to stir up the ^resentment of men naturally jealous, and who from experience had reason to be so. The colony, however, was not wanting to its own safety on this occasion. Though they «ontinued their friendly intercourse with the natives, they took care t« erect a fort, and to use every other precaution for their defence against sudden hostilities ; the defeat of this attempt gave a new 3M2 \ I I if Mi H m I' i m 900 UNITED STATES ov A-Mr.UICA. /•• * t ''^Vi ■It "y /j HI hadi f: sprin;* to the ;ictivity of this plantation, wIiiilMvas likiMvi.e receiving Iri'qucnt reinforcements from I'-nijlantl, oi lliosc who found llicm- silves in danger by the iipproachinjjf ivvohiiion. l^iit, durinj; the protectorship <it' Cromwell, every thini;; was oviTiiirned in Maryland. Baltimore was ileprived of liis rights, anil a new governor, appointevl by tlio prolectin-, suhstitnteii in liis room. At the rebloration, how-, ever, iho property of this province reverted to its nattnal |)ossessor. lialtimore was reinstated in his rights, anil fully discovereil how wcU he deserveil to he so. lie estahlisheil a peilict toliralion in all re- ligions matters ; the eoh^ny increased and Nourished, and dissonlrrs of all ilenominalions, allured by the jnospect ol gain, flocked inty Maryland. JJnt the tyrannical government of James H. again dt^- prived this noble family of their pivssession, accpiised by royal bounty, and improved by nuicl) cnve and expense. At the revolution, lord lialtiniore was again restored to all tliQ profits of the government, though not to the right of governing, wliich could not cimsistently be conferred on a Koinan-calhoHc. IVit, after the family changed tlicir religion, they obtained the power as well as the interest. The government of this country exactly resembled that in Virginia, except that the governor was appointed by the proprietor, and only tontinned by the crown. VIRGINIA. SITUATION AND KXTKNT. Miles. T.ength IkJ I BrtMdth '22i S between Degrees. S 7G and S.H west longitude I 'M and 10 nortli latiitude Sq. Miles, : I 70,000 Hoi Ni>AHii,s ] BOUND F.D by Maryland, part of Pennsylvania, and the Ohio liver, on the north; by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east; b\ Nurtli Carolina, on the south; and by Kentucky, on the vest.^ Divisions.] Virghiia is Jividcd into 82 counties, as follovi's; tii'Uiitin* West of the l^luc llldgc. Countivs. fOhio Monongalia Washington Monigoniery Wythe liotetourt (Jrcen-briar «| Kanawa Hampshire Berkley Frederick Shenandoali Rockingham Aup-usta ^Rockbridge Situation. Coiwties. 'I^ondoun Fau(iuier Culpepper Spotsylvania Orange n .. .1 Louisa Between the n««,.i,i-,,„i 1,1 T, • , , Cfoocnland IJiue Kidgeand J theTidc-uatgr!?. Fhivinia A 1 her marie Amherst Buckingham Bedford Henry Pittsylvania Halii'ax likewise receiving *h() found ihcm- l\iit, durinj; the nt'J ill Maryland, vcmcir, a|)p()intcvl icstoiation, how* natnial |)»)sscssor. covi-i cil how wcU iKralioij in all ic- •d, and disMMUrrs ;ain, Hocked intv) nics H. a^aiu do- 1 \>y royal bounty, cstorcd to all tliQ In of governing, UoHian-calholic. )tained the power s country exactly lor was appointed 1. UNITED S FATES of AMERICA. 901 t of Pennsylvania, :ic Ocean, on the \ei\tucky, on the ;s, as follows ; SUlltltloHt J^rtwfcn the ('nr/nth'it Th;ulntte rtiuce Edward Cinnhciiand I'owliatan r.i«tvvocn .I.mies river and Curu- }iii;t. lihie KiJge and -j Amelia Tide-waters. Notlaway Euiienl)Mrfi^ Mei'kleiihuigli Hninswiek (iieensvilk* Diuw iiUlie Chostcrlicld I'rinoe Cieorj!;^ Surry Sussex ^'oiitliuniplon l.sle of \Vij;ht Nanscni(»nd Norfolk Vrincehs Ann Henrico Hanover Ncu' Kent », T Charles City FjCtM-cen James i , /-•. ,.;.,. <^ .ia)iies City and York rivers, w-ir i •/r Situulion. I'ctwecn York ad Rappahaa- aoc rivurs. Hetween Rapp;i- hannoc and l*a- towniac rivers. I"'aslern sliorc Coiinf'ifx, Caroline Kiii^ William Ivin^ and^iieea l'..SS(.'X Middlesex . ("iloiicesler *- Fairfax f Prince William StaUbid Kiiij; George ^ Kichinond W'c'.Mnorcland Nonliiiinherland LEancaster ( Acconiac I Northampton Die following are new Counties. Caniphell I'Vankiin 1 larrisou KandolpJi Hardy I'endleton Jliissel York Warw '\<k ,Eli/.al)cth City Crrrs, riw., A\n rivkrs] In sailing to Virginia or Maryland, ynu pub-j a .strait between t^vo points of land, called the Capes oi Vir- ginia, wliicli opens a passage into tin; bay of Chesapeak, one of the large.t and s.ilest iu il^- wliole world ; for It enteis the country near- .'iO ) miles from the south to the iioi tli, is about eighteen miles broad for a considerable way^ and seven where it is the narrcnvest, the waters ill must places being nine fathoms deep, 'j'his bay, through its whole extent, receives a vast number of navigable rivers Irojji the sides of both Maryland anil Virginia. From the latter, besides utlurs of lc?s note, it receives James River, York River, the Rappahanuoc, and the I'atowmac : these are not only navigable for large ships into tlie heart of the country, but have so many creeks, and leccive such a lumihcr of smaller navigable rivers, that Virginia is, without all manner of d(iubt, the country iu the world of all others of the most convenient navigation. It has been observed, and the observation is not exaggerated, that every planter has a river at his door. Mp.rAi.s AND MiNhKALb.] Virgin!;* abouuds HUMO witii minerals and Ibssils than any state in the Union, iron, lead, copper, black- K:ad,coal, marble, lime-stone, are fmmd in this country ; a single lump of gold ore has likewise been iomul near the falls of Rappa- liannoc river, which yielded 17 dwt. ofgolil of extraordinary ducti- lity; but no other indications of gold have been observed. Crystals ^re commoii : some amethysts, and one emerald have becu dis- covered. . . '.■-.. I \i I')'.!-' i'*|i.* :':^ ii-i:'*' i I , ; "1 • I 11' 902 UNITED STATl S of AMERICA. Face of the cocntrv.] The wlinle face of this country is so ex- tremely l(f\v towards the sea, that yon are very near tlic shore before you can discover hind from •the masr-head. The lofty trees, wliich cover the soil, gradually rise as it wr-re from the ocean, and afford an enchanting prospect. You travel lOOmilcs iato the country without meeting with a hill, which is nothing uncommon on this extensive coast of North America. Climate.] In summer the heats here are excessive, though not without refreshing breezes from the sea. Tlie weather is changeable, and the change is sudden and violent. The winter frosts come on ■without the least warning. To a warm day there sometimes suc- ceeds such an intense cold in the evening as to freeze over the largest rivers. The air and seasons here depend very much upon the wind, as to heat and cold, dryness and moisture. In winter, they have a iine clear air, and dry, which renders it very pleasant, 'i'heir spring is about a month earlier than in England ; in April they have frequent rains ; in May and June the heat increases ; and the summer is much like ours, being refreshed with gentle breezes from the sea, that rise about nine o'clock, and decrease or increase as the sun rises or falls. In July and August these breezes cease, and the air becomes stagnant, and violently hot : in September the weather generally changes, when they have heavy and frequent rains, which occasion all the train of diseases incident to a moist climate, particularly agues and inter- initting fevers. They have frequent thunder and lightning, but it rarely does any mischief. Soil and PRrtnucE.] Towards the sea- shore and the banlcs of th-c rivers, the soil of Virginia consists of a dark rich mould, which, wi;h- out muniirc, returns p'cntifully whatever is committed to it. At a distance from the water there is a lightness and sandincss of the si il, which, however, is of a generous nature, and, aided by a kindly sun, yields corn and tobacco extremely well. From what has been said of tlie soil and climate, it is easy to infer the variety and perfection of the vegetable productions of this coun- 'try. The forests are covered with all sorts of lofty trees, and no underwood or bushes grow beneath ; so that people travel with case through them on horseback, itnder a fine shade which defends them from the sun: the plains are enamelled with flowers and flowering shrubs of the richest colours and most fragrant scent. Silk__grows spontaneously in many places, the fibres of which are as strong as hemp.. Medicinal herbs and roots, particularly the snake-root and ginseng, are here in great plenty. There is no sort of grain but might be cultivated to advantage. I'lie inliabitants, however, are so engrossed with the culture of the tobacco plxmt, that they think, if corn sufficient f(jr their support can he reared, they do enougli in this way. But flax and hemp are produced, not only for their own conouiViptioii, but for exportation, tiiough not in such quantities as might be ( v. pected from the nature of the soil, wliich is admirably fitted i'or producing this commodity. Animals.] Wc shall here observe, that there were ncitlier horses, cows, sheep, nor hogs in America before they were cairied thither by the Europeans ; but now they are multiplied so extremely, that many of them, particularly in Virgini.i, and the Sotithern Colonies, run wild. Before the war between Great Britain and the Colonics, beef and pork were sold here from one penny to two-pence a pound ; TFNITED STATES of AMERICA. 903 tTio fattest pullets at six-pence a-piecc ; chickens at three bi fuur shilliu2;s a tlozen ; geese at ten-pence ; and turkeys at ei^'iityen ponce a-picce. 13ut fish and wild-fowl were still cheaper in the season, and deer were sold from five to ten sliillings a-piece. Tiiis estimate ma)* serve far the ntlier American colonies, where provisiuns were equally plentiful and cheap, and in some still lower, liesides the animals transported from Kuropc, those natural to the country are deer, of whicli there arc great numbers, a sf.rt of panther or tiger, liears, woK'cs, foxes, and racoons. Here is likc.vise tliat singular animal called the opossum, which seems to be tlie wood-rat mentioned by Charlevoix In his History of Canada. It is about the si/.e of a cat ; and, besides the belly,. common to it with other animals, it has ano- ther peculiar to itself, and whicli hargs beneath the former. 'I'lns belly has a large aperture towards the liinder legs, Wiiich disc(*vers a great number <if teats on the usual parts of the common belly. Upon the e, wl;cn the female of this creature conceives, the young are fo.;:ied, and there they hang, like fruit upon the stalk, until they grow to a certain bulk and weight ; when they drop oil", and are re- ceived into the false belly, from which they go out at pleasure, and in V liich they take rctuge when any danger threatens them. In Virginia there are all sorts of tame and wild fowl. Tlicy have tlie nij-.iringale, whose plumage is crimson and blue ; the mocking bird, ihi light to excel all otlicrs in his own note, and including that of every one ; the humn-.in''- bird, the smallest of all the winf>-ed cre;i- tion, and by far the most beautiful, all arrayed in scarlet, green, and gold. It sips the dew from the flowers, which is all its nourishmeiU, and is too delicate to be brought alive into England. Poi'Uf.ATioN.] The inliabitants of Virginia amounted, according to the census of 1790, to T4'7>t)10, of whom 292,C27 were negroes ; in liSOl, by the census then taken, their number was &86,liy, includ- ing ;! l-(-),9liS slaves. C:iAR.\CTER, M.-vsNERs, CUSTOMS.] Virginia has produced some of the most distinguished actors in effecting the revolution in Ame- rica. Her political and military character will rank among the first in the page of history. But it is to be observed, tliat this character has been obtained for the Virginians by a few eminent men, who have taken the lead in all their public transactions, and who, in short, govern Virginia ; for the great body of the people do not concern themselves with politics, so that their government, though nominally republican, is in fact oligarchal, or aristocratical. Several tr.ivellers give but a very indifferent account of the gene- rality of the people of this state. The young men, observes one, generally speaking, are gamblers, cock-fighters, and horse-jockeys The ingenuity of a Locke, or the discoveries of a Newton, are con- sidered as infinitely inferior to the accomplishments of him who is expert in the management of a cock-fight, or dexterous in mancEuvring at a horse-race. A spirit for literary inquiries, if not altogether con- fined to a few, is, among the body of the people, evidently subordinate to a spirit of gambling and barbarous sports. At almost every tavern or ordinary on the public road there is a billiard table, a back- gammon table, cards, and other implements fur various games. To these public-houses the gambling gentry in the neighbourhood resort, to /•/// time, which hangs heavily upon them ; and at this business they are extremely expert, having been accustomed to it from their earliest youth, i'he passion for cock-fighting, a diversion not only ..T fc H i if^ f.;,. ^1 ii ' I. • M m :f .' r') "-:, I5 ' ' i .ti f)f)4- TTKiTKD r/rA'rrs ok amkiuca. inhumiiiily liail»;in>iis, but inHiiiuly ln'iuMth tlw* ili^jiilry of ;i mnn r/f nciiM', is so proil(»inin;inf, tli;it llicy cvfn ailvcilisc tlicir rnalclifs ii\ the juililii: p.iprrs.* I liis ilissipiition ol nianiuis is llit* i(iiist'<|m ncc 1)1 iiulolcncc aiul hixiiry, wliicli arc tin* I mil t>i Adiiaii sl.ivriy. Ciiri'i' TOWNS. ) Virj'iiiin is not tliviclcil into townships, ii(>r :nt* thiMi' any lartM* towns, owinjr pr(ih,il)ly to the inlLMscctidti i<l' l\w , t .|. ; ciMiniry |iy i\.ivi_i';al)lc iiv(«r:«, whiih hriujif thr traiU- lo the ihiois ot" «MMP'"' w *''*' '"''•''''^•'"'•'»» '"•'' pii'VLMU the iii'cfssity of thrir i;oi»|;- in (pn-t ol' /^ '; ,1" it to a «hstan«t'. The pi iiicipal town-, arc, KiihinonJ thr i.apii.tl, j J VVilliaiii'.Iinijf, iinil Noiioik. Kichmoiul coniaiii ; hi-l wntMi lo;) aiul .^<H) hoii;,( s, ami ahoiil lO(H) inhahilanls 1 Ifiv is a laii>;e sl.itr house, or rapitol, liioly nrtMoil on a hill which roinniaiiijs an fxliiisivr prr)spoct of the huvor part oi till' town, the river, aiul tlic ailjacrnL conntry. Willi. nri'ljiirj;- was ihc ;.lmi: ol iMivcrnnicnl till 17^0. It contains uUoul i(H) honsi'ti, and ahoni I lOi) inhahitant't. It is rci>n< l:irly I nJ out in paralh-l slrccts, \vilh a pi asant scpi.iic in tlio ( ciilii", ol a!»ont l(M) a» r«'s, thron^;h whirh inns ihc piiniipal strcfl, alxait :i mile in IcntMh, anil more than '.'()(» IciM uiiic Nmlolk is the most. < (Misith'i .ililr t oinnit'ri ial town in \'ir^';inia. Tli;' harbour i . salt' anil 4 (inmioJioiis, and \ai{[C imuui.'Ji lo coniain :i()t» ships. In IV!'<) the jMiniluM' (»!* inhabitants in Not folk was 'J}).';'), inrliiilini; I'J'.Jl' .slavi-s. TRAnr:.] Tlu.' tr.nU' <.f Virginia consisis principally in tobacco, and tlill'iMtnt kinds of ;MMin. In \7U0, aboni lO.OdO hoj>,-,Iii'adH oi" tobacco woir cxporlcti ; bnt its cnltnn' has since declined, and that. Cl wlieat taken place. Tlie ;>ri'at(:st (piantity »it tobacco ever pro- duced in this conntiy was 7<',<)()0 hogsheads in the year 17.1^. Tin; o\|)orts iioni this Slate, in the )ear IVi'-, ainounled lo ;$,.>!•;), lU!) dol- l.irs, and in I7i>() to .'j/2fJS,<J|.'> doUais. G«vi:knmi.n r. I Tl'.o present jjovcrnnient; of this province, ixn .scltletl, in convention at Willianisbni^i;, Jnly .lili, I77<>» is, thai the i«'gislative, executive, and judiciary tlei>arlMients be separate and tiistinct; that the house of deh'^;ates be chosen annually by the iVec- Jn)Mers, two for each county, and lor the district ol" West Au_t;;usta ; iind one rcprcscniative lor the city of Willianishiir)^ and town of Norfolk. The senate to consist of twenty-four niembcis, also chosen l)y the freeholilers of the state, dividiul into twenty distiicts. The executive is a ^Mvernor and privy council, of ei_i;hl nienibers, v,l»o«.en annually by tlu' joint ballot ol the general assembly of the slate, wjio also choose the delegates to cone,ress, the judi;es, and oih«r law ( lli- ctTs, presiilent, treasurer, secretary, v^cc. justices, slicriU's, and coro- liers, commissioned by the governor and council. I .:■ -I . Ki t.ic.ioN.] 'J'lie present dcnominalions of Christians in V'irgii.i.i arc, Presbyterians, who are most numerous; lOpiscopalians, liapiists ami Methodists. 'I'he first settlers were l''.piscoi)alians. CoLLEors. j 'inhere is a college at Williamsburg, loundcd by King William, and called William ami Mary College. 'I'liat monarch gave two tliousaml pounds towards building it, and twenty thousand acres of land, with power to purchase and iiold lands to the value of two tliousand pounds a year, and a thity of a penny per pound on all tobacco exported to the other planiation>s. There is a president, siv professors, and other oflicers, who are always appointed by ihegover- • A fravellrr through Virftinia o!)srr\rs : Thrre or four miitc hos were ;mI- wrtiHul in ihr public prints at Wilbanisbnrf^ ; iuid i was witness to fivv in tMccuursc <ji iny lr>ncls from that lu i'<>ri-R<))al. m:. iJNi'rr.i) .vrA'rr.s ov a\]vm\c\. !Ki/J nity of A man r/f tlicir in.ifclus nt llu" ii'iisi'(|iK ncc an sl.ivc'iy. ^•nsliips, n(>r :uf M seel ion ol" iJn- ' l<> llu- iliioir. ol* ,uilJ_i;- ill <|lli" t nl' nJ tlu- i;;.|)it.ii, tlv\i!»>n 10!) .uiJ iiy;i' .state lionsc, i'l an I'.xtt ii'ii\ r 111! tlic ailj.m uL 11 lill IT.so. It nts. I( is rcim- w ill I III' ( cntic, I St reel, al)i;iit ;i oik is the rnosr. hour i , viTf ;iiul s. Ill I7JU) the I,' I'JJM- slavi's. illy in tohacio, ) hi)^> .In'iiJs (>r rlinoJ, aiul fliai y.xcco I'vor pro- LMr IT.IS. TIuj ) ;<,.>i!;,ii^i) dol- l's provinoo, as T<i, is, thai thi" X* soi)arati! ainI illy by till' iVcc- Wcst Aiii^i.stH ; y; and town (,{' K'ls, also chosen distiicts. TIk' icni!)i.'r.s, cIk'.ch r till' stall', will) i oihyr law i llj- lills, and coio- ans in V'Iri;ii,i.i alians, liapii.sis ts. "lindod hy King That monarch ,vcnty ihonsaiiJ to the value of cr pound on all I piesident, siv d by ihe^over- niil( hos wore .mI- .vitr.cbs to flvv in norr, or vi'.itnr'i. The ac.ulftny in IMii.h' I'tlw.iul i(in;i' y lia', Icrn rrci ti-d into a I'^iUc'/i by th ii.Miie (> I 11 ini|i )ulii''v coil'j'C* 'I lu'iT aie bi".idi"; a iiiinibiT ol .m .ui- niii'; in dilh nnl |i.ii's< I V'ii- inia : one al AKxaiuhia, one at Noi l.»ll;, nuo ».l. I ia 1. i in oilier places lli;v'f; d'.il viH ll:sTOKV.| This is the Hi st cniiiiliy whir!' th<- lai/l' h |i!aiiO'.i in Kll (Mil) III this, ll'll III ,til OI|l' .11 v\il, h'tni I'.r d.si nvci / Liriciioa. W e ilciivcU onr J i tiiiii'i s'ttienieiit' h.isl: ecu a hi'.i'l ol Srlrciian Calmt, v.'ln', in I !')V, lii:.' inailc ih" i.oiihci:i conliiUMiL ol An'i' lit a, in ih I'l vu e (I I II'.Muy VII. i.ri",ii;',laiul. Nu .itleinpL' liowever, wcri. Mi.ul«'lo '.iitliMl lill tin- i\-i';n ol' i|ii(en Ivli/al-clh. it was llu-n that sir \\ alter Kaleij'ji .ij'iilic I id coin I, aiul j^nt ti'^^cihcr il ilistiiiiMioi), .'(111 SOU' •A company, vvhii h w.ri eotnposcl ol iiiul sevejal einiiuMit men haiit ., who ;i;Mi'('.! to open ,i Ii.uli- ;iiid siMiiy aeiilony in thai p-.iri d liie woii \M u.h, m ho'ioiir ol ipiiiii lieth, he e a lied V'ir;';inia. 'I'ow.iids l.hr ' h^e oi'ihc • ixlrciilii ce.itui y, st'veral attejiipls were ir.ade lor ••. nliiiji; liii'i colony. It. Iom; any pioveil slice cs'.liil The tlnci- 111 :a conip.ii.ii s vhn s;ril('d to Vii;!;inia peii:.I;ed thronj^h hiin;';cr and disease., ci uco' cut. ollhy il.<- imiiair,. 'I'liL' riiiiith w-ts rcdiiied aliitn'.i, t( tlwindled to a Ice hie leniaiiidi'r, had sit s.ul hn' laii'l.iud, in desi.ai) aiiii' Minaiion ; ami l>ein'.r *)l liviii;^ 111 sucli an iint iMi i\'.i'<'J conaiiy, ii.h.i'nl 'i! liy mii li lio.viu h h and wailike sav I'T .III, 111 ihe ninnili ol (.. .iIv.m; J>.1V liey were met hy hiiil 1 )fla\v,ii e, wilh a s jiiadi on In idcd wilh | )l oVi .ifill aiK I wi:l 1 every liiiii','_ ne{'cs'..irv I'l;- i heir lelielaiul dclciiCi 1 1 v: I n 1 1 11 ' IU'isnaMon they leliiiiird : l-y hi . .nlviii-, priidfi. e, ai lavioiir, llu." inli'iiial (• nvri iinaiil oi ihi.* colonv v. .i ■ .'."rfic i within MS( Th ■ll, and put on a re.',)! i l.ilile Inotiie.r v.i'Ii ir-ar.! \<> .1.1 lis luiliU.ni.in, wli 1 rnisiii!'; province o IV ac( cj) I li-d t! ti- ''nvi'iainu :il (.1 iiv'iin.i lioiii III-' iio!iii",1 inolivrs, v,,i' hy the decayed st:re o| hi, health, I'lK.'iiirn to I'.nt', bchiiul hini, howc vir, his son ;•■, dcpir. y IlKl eneiiif.'s. '(• IlliprOr oni|K'llrd, Jle jell wiili sir Thoir ( rA'. Si; ..IWIJI. ( Jeorj'^i; .Sonimers, the hoiioiir;il)ii- (i''(ai;c Pirn:,, iiini .Mi lor hi i council . liv ilani, Janus Tov.ii, the liist town hiiilt by xhtj l'ai(.^lish in the New World, was c'rectrd. Tiie col.a.y conli" '■•■d |.( llourisl', and I he true sources of its weal ihl )ei.'an i.o 1)'/ iii't'ovL i improved. The liist settlers, lilvc tlios" < 1 Maiyl.ind, W( re- !;"ii!'.ailv persons (>r consideration and distincli'-n. Il icrnained a sUskIv ally to the royal party dining; the trouble-, ol'dreat I'litain. Manyoltlie cavaliers, in tlaiui-er at home, luX u'lii-o' lien !UlI I'lJC Icr ll vernnient of sir Williaiii luik eii'V lielil out lor the c!o\\ n, tin le co- llie 111 pavliament, lallier by strata; cm than loice, redncd iIkiii. /Mter tl jcsloration there is iiothint;; very interesting; in the liisUny < '"^i- this ,)ro- \incc. .)Ooii alter tins lime, a yonii>r ju-nilenian inina'd rjucon, :i lawyer, availin;>; hiniseir ol some discmitents in the e<.]ony on acceiirt ol" leslraiiUs in trade, became very popular, and llucw every ihin.!^ into conlusioii. His death , liov.cver, resloved peace ami unaniniiiy The govcMinient ol this province was not at first adapted to th principles of the I'lntdj'.h cnusiilntion, and to the enjoyment ol that liberty to which a subject of (ireat I'litain thinkj. hinlseU' entitled iu every pan of the id lone It was subject to a ;.;ovein(.r a nd c OV.lKl ippointed by the kinj'; ol Oieat Uritain. As tli<t inhabitants increased, the inconveniency ol' this form became nioie. j^rievons ; and a ncv/ branch was added to the constitnticn., by v.hicli the people, who ha^ ivrnierly no consideration, weie allowed to dec: then- rei-reseniatiycj 906 UNITED STATES or AMERICA. Hi*'- i|'i"1f iji « from C3cli county Into which this country is diviJi»d, \vlih privilcjrps rerL'mbting tfiosc ottlie reprebc?nt;illves of tlie commons of England. Thus two houses, the upper and lower house of assembly, were funned. Tlx! i]i)per house, wliich was Ixifore called the council, re- mained on its furnic;r footinjr ; its members were appointed, duiin{»' ple:i:;ure, by the crown ; tJicy were r.tyled honourable, and answen^d in some mcastire to the hmiseof p- cvs in the l)riti-.h constitution. The lower ln)use was the v^tjardian of tiie people's liberties. And thus, with a governor representing the king, an upper and lower house of assembly, this government bore a sti iking resembUnce to our own. When any bill had passed the two houses, it came before the go- vernor, who gave his assent or negative js he thought proper, ir now acquired the forre ot a law, until it was transmitted to England, and his majesty's pleasure known on rliat subject. The upper house of assembly acted not only as a part of the legislature, luit also as privy council to tljc governor, without whose concMrrence he could do nothing of moment ; it somelinies acted as a court of chancery. KENTUCKY. kITUATtON AND EXTKNT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Mile;. Length 250 J , . ^ c 81 aad 89 wcit longitude } rniM\t\ ■ Breadth 200 \ ^'^^^ '^^^ \ 3 1 - ]0 .md 39-30 north 1 ttitude I ^^'^^ Boundaries.] BOUNDED on the north-west by the river Ohio; west, by Cumberland river; souiii, by North Carolina; east, by Sandy river, and a line drawn due south from its source, till it meets the northern boundary of North Carolina. Kentucky was originally divided into two counties, Lincoln and Jefferson. It has since been subdivided into the following fourteen : Counties. Ch'ff Toxins. JeiFerson, at the falls of the Ohio Louisville Fayette Lexington Bourbon Bourbon Mercer Harodsburgh Nelson Bardstown Maddiaon Milford Lincoln Woodford Versailles Mason Washington Washington Clarke Winchester Scott I^ogan Franklin , Frankfort Rivers.] The Ohio bounds Kentucky, on the north-western side, in its whole length ; and the branches of tills river water and fertilize UNITED STATES or AMERICA. S07 n-ith prlvilcfres ms of England, iissonihly, were the council, re- )()inted, duiin^ ;ind answer'^d nstitutinn. The es. And thus, lower house o| cc to our own. before the '^n. ht proper, ir ted to Kui^land, he upper hoTii'? .ire, luit also as rence lie could of cluinceiy. Sq. Miles. tude[^«'«^ the river Ohio; )linii ; e;ist, by ce, till it metis 3S, Lincoln and wing fourteen : li -western side, er and fertilize tTie country in every part. The principal of these arc the Sandy, lacking, Kentucky, Salt, Green, and Cumberland rivers, which re- ceive on every side mimerous streams of different magnitudes. Cmmatk.3 The climate is healthy and delightful, some few place* in the neighbourh(jod of ponds and low grounds excepted. Tlie in- habitants do not experience the extremes of heat and cold ; none of the neighl>ouring states enjoying so constant tr temperature. The winter, which begins about Christmas, is never longer tlian throe months, and is commonly but two ; and is so mild that cattle can subsist without fodder. Mktai.s, minkkai.s.] There are some iron mines in this state, but only one of tliem, according to the latest accounts, is "worked. Irnn ore, lime-stone, and numerous unexplored mines of coal are nearly tl'C only mineral substances observed here. Son,, PRontCK.] 'I'he soil is extremely fertile: the lands of the first rate are too rich for wheat, and will produce 50 and (JO, and in some instances, 100 husliels of good corn an acre. In common the land will produce 30 busjicls of wheat or rye an acre. Patley, oats, flax, hemp, and vegetables of all kinds common in this climate yield abundantly. Cotton is with dilfioulty brought to perfection, but tlie soil appears to be peculiarly suitable to tobacco. Animals.] Here are buffaloes, bears, doer, elks, and many other animals common to the United States, and others entirely unknown to them. The rivers abound in the finest fish : salmon, roach, porch, eel, and all kinds of hook-fish. The paroquet is common here ; as Is the ivory-bill woodcock, of a whitish colour, with a v>')i!tc plume : the bill is pure ivory. Here is an owl like ours, but diffcrer.t in vcciic- ration. It makes a surprising noise, like a man in distres*;. Natural cuaiosniK.s.] Tlie banks or rather precip.ces of the rivers Kentucky and Dick may be reckoned among the nat'iral curiosities of this country. Here tlie astonislied eye beholds 300 or 400 feet rf solid perpendicular rock, in some parts of the lime sn-ue kind, and in others of fine white marble, curiously checquered with strata of astonishing regularity. Caves are founcl ama/ingly lar'r\ in some of which you may travel several miles under a fiaeiime-stfi.a rock, supported by curious arches and pillars. In most of them run streams of water. Near Lexington are to be seen curious sepulchre? full of human skeletons. There are three springs or ponds of bitumca near Green river, which discharge themselves into a common reser- voir, and, when vised in lamps, answer all the purposes of the finest oil.* At a salt spring near the Ohio river very large bones have beea found, far surpassing the si/e of any species of animals now in America: the head appears to have been considerably above three feet long. Dr. Hunter said it could not be the elephant, and that, from the form of the teeth, it must have been carnivorous, and be- longing to a race 'animals now extinct. Specimens have been sent to France and England. What animal this is, and by vAxaI means its remains are found in these regions (where none such now exist), are very difficult questions, and variotisly resolved. The variety of conjectures only serves to show the futility of all. Population.] The number of inhabitants in this country has in- creased, by emigration from the oilier states, with surprising rapidity. Before the year 1782, they did not exceed 3000. In 1790 they • MorscV American Geography, p. 407. U 1 I, '-i In u I* I i i I I I Mi 1 9on tNITEt) STATr^ OF A>fr.uiCA; 'i';'^ * ■:':.{ J I ' ■ !■ -ii? Vi»^, Amntiiitcil to 7'^fi7T, i-fwlnm l'„', S-.10 v.tio sl.ivo^. At the r^rncrnl tfr.sub in l^'fO, tlicy ucrc i'ouiwi to be '-'-(>,')')(), incliulinij I0,:n;" slaves ; aiui accuiiiiT; I'l M. MicliauY, .1 late i'rciuli travclli-r in this purt lit' /Vnu'iic;t, lia'v were eslitiiatcd in Aiiu'U'»t. l>^0'i, ulu'U he v;ib ut Lcxiuf^ton, 11, this st;iU', at 'J,l(),()()(), incliulinpj iw^'un"^.* Ciiih-.K lowN.i.j Ko;iuioky as yot cnn!;iiiisno very lan;o town;, j the piinrip.il arc f,rr;Jii;;;ti)n, Lf.nisville, Wasliington, and FranklVrt. liC^in^rtnii contains nearly ;>(K) hoiiSL's, and a'vut .WOO inhabitnnls* I'Vanklort, which is now the scat orpovcrnmeni, is h>ss populous. 'r«A!)F."j Almost all t!io connr.crcc oi' Kt-iuiK-IxV is farricd on by thf rpeichaiil>- of Lf\ini;t,r<n. Sovcn-tcnths oi the fabricatcil articli's eoDsunicd in Kcniiicty, as \\»>11 as in the iv-A of the United Stiites, art; Inipcrted tVom Kngland. 'J'hoy c<insist principally ol coar.-.e and fine iron jjnods, cutlery, nails, and tin-ware ; drapery, mercery, druj;'.« nnd tine potrrry. Muslins, nankeen, tea, iic. are imported directly from India in American \'csr;els; and they obtain cotfce, and raW fiii;'ar of different qualities, frnnj the West Indies. These arc ex* i:hanj;ed for llic produce of the country, prir.cipally by barter, on ac« fenunt of the extreme scarcity of coin^t (.- 'VF.RNr.iKN r.] i5v the cnnstitmicn of this ttatc, formed and ad>'pii (.1 in 1 7li2, tiic lei^i.ilativc power is vested in a general assemliiy* conr.i.-;tin_JV of a senato and hou';t» of representatives; the supreme frecutive in a ,t,'overnor; tiie juiliciary in tlie supreme court of aj jieals) and such i.iiijiior conns as the lea;isliture may establish, 'liie re- J<lesent-^tive^ Mre chosen ann".a!ly !)y tl'.e pe(plc; the senators and governor arr chosen lor f(.ur }t :ir.;, by electors appointed tor that pur- pose; ti'.'.' )U(ii;-cs are app(Mnii:v;, durins; ^jowd bchavidur, by t!ie pin- vernor, u lih tfie advice of t!:o ^c•uate. Tlie nunib^'r ci' representatives cannot exceed dUe luuidrcd, nor !)e less than forty; and viie senate, au firnt C( .i,asii;;;^ fjf" eleven, is lo increase with the hoUiLC ot represenla-* tfves, in the latio of one to four. Rii (oiON.l 'Die iriptisf; are the most, numf^rous religious sOct in .Kentilcky. 'i'heie art- sever. il larce conure^'aliuus ot rreab^teriiiusi and some lew oi other dencjniin.iiions. CoLi.Er.i.b, Lti.MiN INC.] Tho le^.rislatnrc of Virginia, while Ken-* tacky belon^^ed to tl;.it sr.ite, made provision for ;i colleij;e in it, ami rndowrd it vvitji very eonsiderable funds. This colle^\e has not fiouri.sl'ed, an^ranolhrr has been e^r.iblished, tl.c. funds tor thcsuppcnt tif which h.Tve been furriished by liberal ctnUiibulions. Schools are r'.'tablished in llitt several towns, and in general re^tnilarly and pro- perly maintained. Th-'rc are two printini!;-ollices at i^cxinj^tou, and a newspaper is publi:.hed by each of thcni, which appears twice ;i \vee'r:. HtsroRv.l The hi tiry of this state is the «iamo with that of Virginia, of wnicli it made a part till the year !7i)-, when it was erected into an independent state. It was iiri^t discovered in 1770 by Some V'iigiiuun hunters, and the favourable -.iccount they gave of it> iiiiiuced utiiers to r^o thither. However there was not any ti.xed establishment fcnincd till 17''^'). At tluit time this extensive country- Was not occupied by any Indian nation: tlic-y came there to luint» btlt with one accord cariied on a war of extern inalion against all who attempted to settle theie. Tliis was the cause ol' giving tlie * Tr;iv.!j to the ur tu-nvd ofih'.- AUcimhv mountains, bv F. A.^Michuux, M D. t Mieh.mx. UNITED STATES or AMERICA. fi09 name of Kentucky to the ct^untfy, wliicli, in the l.inguajri? of Uio primitive y\nioric;ins, signiruN the iind of Ihoil, When the wlnii* appeuri'J there, the nitives ;;;ive a still iiioie" (il)stln;i»e opposition tg their estaUlisIinjcnt: ior ;i long tinu they sprc.id JcvHscatioH an4 sl.uighter throuirli thi* country, ;ind, :iccorJiiij; to their custom, put their prisoners to death witli the most cruel toiiiients. 'I'liis state ot" things lusted until JTs;J, at vhich time the American popula'ion Ir.iv^ in^ become too gre.it tor them to be able to penetrate into the he.irt ol the establishments, the;/ were reJiued to attackinjr llu' emigrant!} on their road. \\\ ITH'J, roads for c.irriajj's were boc»uu to bo opened through the interior of the country. iJjiore that lime thcru were noihinpj bur. tracts, passable only by people on foot or <):i lior^e- back. Until IT^f^tho road ihroui^h Virgini.i was theonly one folioweil by {he cmii^rants who came from thu eastern states to Kencuck./. They went first to tlie block-liouse, situate at Houhton, tn the \ve>;t o^" the mountains, and as the jrnvernmentol'the United States did not fur- nish any escort, they waited ut this place until their numbers wer» sntljcientto pass safely througii the "wildrnuss, an uninhabited interval of a hundred and thirty miles, which they we\e obliged to cross bel'ure they arrived ut Crab-orchard, the first poit occupied by the whites. •' The entiuisiasm for emigrating to Kentucky was at this time carric^i to such a height in the ITniieil States, that in some years as many as 20,000 emigr.ints went thither, and several of ilicm e»^t»ri abandoned their property, if they were unable to dispose of it in :j short time. The influx of new colonists soon raised the price of land in Kj-'iliucky, so that from two or three pence \\\\ ;|cre, at which i'. iiad been sold, it rose rapidly to forty or llt'ty pence. Speculators took ad- vantage of this infatuation. A multiplicity of illicit means were em- ployed to make these lands st,ll to advantage. Even forged plans wore fabricated, on which rivers were laid dov.n, calculated lor the est';))iii;h- nient of mills, and tor other uses. In this manner many ideal )ots jlrom 500 to 100,000 acres wpie sold all over Europe, and in some of the largu towns of the United States."* NORTH CAROLINA. ■1 1 SITUATION ANI> EXTENT. Miles. Degree?. Sq. Miles, Length 4;'^0 , , ., ,^^„ 5 76 and 'd'i v.-cst longitude ) ^, „ . Breadth 180 5 ^''^'^""^ 1 31 and 37 north latitude \ ^^'^^^^ Boundaries.] BOUNDED by Virginia on the north; by th« Atlantic Ocean on the cast ; by South Carolina cu the south } an4 |l)e state of Tennessee on the west. ". A.xMicliaii.v, * JVJichauK. no UNITED STATES of AMERICA. Ti ^ih I (•It < 1 'iii hi l# Di\«siONS.] North Carolina is divided into eight districts, In which are fifty-eight counties. .Diitrkts, Edenton, 9 counties. Wilmington, 5 counties. Counties. 'Chowan Currituck Cambden Pasquetank Perquimins Gates Hertford Bertie j^Tyrrel , New Hanover I Brunswick < Duplin I Bladen *-Onslow rCraven ! Beaufort Carteret I Johnson I Pitt 1 Glasgow I Lenoir Wayne Hyde Jfones Thte above three districts are on the sea-coast, extending from the Virginia line southward to South Carolina. They are called East- ern districts. rHalifax I Northampton J Martin ^ Edgecomb I Warren I Franklin LNash I Newbem, 10 counties. Districts. Hlllsboi»ough, 7 counties. Salisbury, 9 counties. More: .^an, counties. Counlies. rOrange I Chatham ! Granville •^ Person I Caswell I Wake LRandolph r Rowan Cabarras Mecklenburg Rockingham Iredell Surry Montgomery Stokes ^Guildford I Burke I Rutherford \ Lincoln Fayette, 6 counties. < Halifax, 7 counties. Wilkes V, Buncomb rCumberlaud I Moore Richmond Robinson I Sampson *~ Anson Fayette, Hillsborough, and Hali- fax, are called middle districts, and Salisbury and Morgan west- erndistricts. These five districts, beginning on the Virginia line, cover the whole state west of the three maritime districts before mentioned, and the greater part of them extend quite across the state from north to south. Rivers and capes.] The principal rivers of North Carolina are the Chowan, and its branches, Roanoke, Tar, Neus, and Cape Fear, or Clarendon. Most of these and the smaller rivers have bars at their mouths, and the coast furnishes no good harbours except Cape Fear. The principal capes are, Cape Fear, Cape Lqo': out, and Cape Hatteras. Climate, soil, and produce.] The western hilly parts of North Carolina are as healthy as any part of Ameiica; but in the flat country near the sea-coast, the inhabitants, during the summer and autumn, are subject to intermitting fevers, which often prove fatal, as bilious or nervous symptoms prevail. North Carolina, in its vv'hole width, for sixty miles from the sea, is a dead level. A great UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 911 proportion of this tract lies in forests and is barren. On the bants of some of the rivers, particularly of tbe'^<oanoke, theland is fertile and good. The western hilly parts of the state are fertile, and full of springs and rivulets of pure vi'ater interspersed ; through the other parts are glades of rich swamp, and ridges of pak-land, of a black fertile soil. Sixty or eighty miles from the sea, the country rises into hills and mountains, as in South Carolina and Georgia. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and flax, grow well in the back hilly country j Indian corn, and pulse of all kinds, in all parts. Cotton and hemp are also considerably cultivated, and might be raised in much greater plenty. The cotton is planted yearly ; the stalk dies with the frort. Tlie la- bour of one man will produce l(KK) pounds in the seeds, or '250 fit for manufacturing. 'I'he large natural growth of the plains in the low country is almost universally pitch-pine, which is a tall handsome tree, far superior to the pitch-pine of tlie northern states. The swamps abound with cypress and bay trees. Population.] The numi)er of inhabitants in North Carolina, ia 1790, was 39!^,75l,of whom lOO,-;?! were slaves; ia 1801, 478,103, including l'M,'29i) slnves. Character, and manners of the inhabitants.] The people of Carolina live in the same easy, plentiful, and luxurious manner with the Virginians already described. Poverty is here almost an entire stranger; and the planters are the most hospitable people that are to be met with, to all strangers, and especially to such as, by accidents or misfortunes, are rendered incapable of providing for themselves, 'i'he general topics of conversation among the men, when cards, the bottle, and occurrences of the day do not intervene, are negroes, the prices of indigo, rice, tobacco, &c. Less attention and respect are paid to the women here than in those parts of the United States where the inhabitants have' made a greater pru.f^ress in the arts of civilised life. Indeed, it is a truth, confirmed by observation, that in proportion to tlie advancement of civilisation, ia the same proportion will respect for women be increased; so th.it the progress of civilisation in countries, la slates, in towns, and in fHiniiies, may be remarked by the degree of attention which is paid by husbands to their wives, and by the young men to the young women. The North Carolinians are accused of being rather too deficient in iho vir> ues of temperance and industry ; and it is said that a strange and very barbarous practice prevailed among the lower class of peo- ple, before the revolution, in the back parts of Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, called gouging:* but we have lately been informed, that in a particular county, where, at the court, twenty years ago, a day seldom passed without ten or fifteen boxing mateh.es, it is now a rare thing to hear of a light. If indeed the bir- barous practice of gouging, which certainly is a disgrace to hiinian nature, still subsists any where, it ought to be restrained by a positive * The dfUcate and cnloiahihig dtver:>!on, with propriety called (rojirT!n<r, is thns described. When two boxers :ire weuiied with lif.j;hting and bruising each other, llu-v <"onie, as it is rnlled, to close ijuartcrs, wvA euch endeavours to twist his ibi'eliniifrs in the cur-locks of his antau:onist. When these are last clinched, the lliLimhs are extended each way to the nose, and the eyes gi'illi/ turned out of their sockets. The victor for his expertness receives ahoiits ot"ap[)lause from the sporting throng, while his poor ci^dcss antai^o- itibt is laughed ut tor his mlst'ortunc. t%^ ■ :f,| ll ■M m UNITED STATES ok AMERICA. i'-' 1 .'■■Ma' I* ^1i^I^i;*M|[| 'm ]d\v inflictinq on the victor, and on all who aid and abet the savag^ €omhat:ints, the severest punisliment. Chikf towns.]] Newbern is the largest town in North Carolin;i, ftnd v/as foriiierly the residence of the governors. Edenton, Wil- hiington, iialif'ax, Hillsborough, Snlisbiiry, and Fayetteville, have fe;ich in tlicir turns been the seat of the general assembly. Raleighf situate near ilie centre of the state, has lately been established as the niet'^opolis. Tk Aoi;.] A great proportion of the produce of the back countryt Consisting of tobacco, wheat, Indian corn, &c. is carried to market in South Garolitia and Virginia. The southern interior counties carry their pr<xince to Charles-town, and the northern to Petersburg in Virginia. The exports from the lower parts of the state are tar, pitch, turpentine, rosin, Indian corn, boards, scantling, staves, shingles, furs, tobacco, pork, lard, lailow, bees-wax, myrtle-wax, and some other articles, amounting in the year, ending September 30th, 1791, to 'J24,518 dollars. Their trade is chiefly with the West Indies and the nortliern states. Govt; RNM EST.] By the constitution of this state, which was rati- fied in December J7Wi, all legislative authority is vested in two dis- tinct brandies, both dependent on the people, viz. a senate and house of commons, v/liich, when convened for business, are styled the general assembly. The senate is composed of representatives, one from each county, chosen annually by ballot. The house of com- mons consists of representatives chosen in the same w-ay, two for each county, and one for each of the towns of Kdenton, Newbern, Wil- mington, Salisbury, Hillsborough, Halifax, and Fayetteville. Rkligion.] The methodists and baptists are numerous and In- creasing in North Carolina; the Moravians have several flourishintj ■settlements in the upper part of this state; and the friends or quakers have a settlement in Now-garden, in Guildford county, and several • congregations at Perquimins and Pasquotank. Univeksity, acadkmiep 3 The general assembly of North Caro- lina, in 1789, passed a law, incorporating forty gentlemen, five from each district, as trustees of the university of North Carolina. The general assembly, in December 1791, loaned 50001. to the trustees, to enable them to proceed immediately with their buildings. There is a very good academy at Warenton, another at Williamsborough, in Granville, and three pv four others in the state of considerable note. History.] The history of North Carolina is less known than that of any other of the states. From the best accounts that history aftbrds, the first permanent settlement in North Carolina was made about the year 1710, by a number of Palatines from Germany, who luld been reduced to circumstances of great indigence by a cala- mitous war. The infant colony remained under the general govern- hii'nt of South Carolina till about the year 1729, when seven of the proprietors, for a valuable consideration, vested their property and jurisdiction in the crown ; and the colony was erected into a separate province, by the name of North Carolina, and its present limits esta-* bii^jhcd by an orjcrof Ceori^e II. abet the savape United states of America- 913 North Carolina, Edenton, Wil- ayetteville, have nbly. Raleigh, stablished as the he back country, arried to market interior counties rn to Petersburg he state are tar, :antling, staves, myrtle-wax, and September 30th, , the West Indies considerable ess known than unts that history rolina was made 1 Germany, who jence by a cala- general govern- len seven of the eir property and id into a separate cseut limits esta* SOUTH CAROLINA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Decrees. Square Miles. Length 200? ^ c32 and "35 north lat. > ^0,000 Breadth! 25 S 17S and SI west long. S *-^'^"" Boundaries, divisioks.] BOUNDED by North Carolina on the north ; by the Atlantic Ocean on the east ; and on the south and south-west by the Savannah river, and a branch of its head- waters, called Tugulo river, which divides this state from Georgia. South Carolina is divided into nine districts, in which are 38 counties, as follow z Lincoln Charles- town Washington Marion Berkeley Colleton ^^ Bartholomew f Winyah C unfies* Beaufort Di- fHilton STRICT, on the sea-coast, between Comba- hee and Savannah j Granville rivers.Chieftown | Beaufort, (^Shrewsbury Charles-town District, between Santee and Combahee rivers. Chief-^ A)wn Charles- | TOWN. W. long. 80-39. N. lat. 32.4'5. George-Town District, between Santee j Williamsburg river and North-<( Carolina. Chief | Kingston town George- | TOWN. ^^Liberty CherawsDistrict, west of George town district. Chief towns are Grenville and Chatham. Washington District. Chief town PiNCKENSVILLK. Orange Di- strict, west of Beaufort district. Chief town Orange- uUrgh. Di Counties. f Lewisburg Orange Lexington Winton "Clarendort Richland Fairfield Camden strict, west of George J ^T j,„^ I Clercmont town district. Chief town Cam- den. LancastLT Kersliaw *~!Salem Ninety-six Di strict, Chief town Cam" lilUDGE. .r Abbeville J Edgefield j Newbury *~ Laurens fYork J Chester r> J Union tOWnPlNCKNEV.(.3 ^^^^ j^ VILLE. ■' ° PiNCKNEY STRICT. Di- Chief" Marlborough, Darlington. Chesterfield, [ Pendleton, Greenville. Face of country, mountains.^ Except the high hills of Santee, the Ridge, and some few other hills, this country is like what is called' the upper country, one extensive plain, till you reach the Tryon and Hog-back mountains, 220 miles north-west of Charles-tawn. The elevation of these mountains above their base is 3840 feet, and above the sea-coast 46'tO. Their summit affords an extensive vicAV ef this slate. North Carolina, and Georgia. The sea-coast is b&r- • . 3N 'I i !)14 UNITED STATES ok AMERICA. ",i !? ( < ^i 1 1 ^ i ? f > I'j ".] <^ti ,.18 ' I ill dcrcd with a chain of fine islands, the soil of which is generally better adapted to the culture of indi;;o and cotton than the main land, and Jt-'ss suited to riv>e. The whole state, to the distance of eighty or a htindred iniles from the se;i, is low and level, almost without a peb- ble, and is little better than an unhealthy salt marsh ; but the countrv, as you advance in it, improves continually; and at 100 miles di- stance from Charles town, where it begins to grow hilly, the soil is of a prodigious fertility, fitted for every purpose of human life; nor cm any thing be imagined more pleasant to the eye than the varie- gated disposition of this back country. Here the air is pure and wholesome, and the summer heat much more tem])erate than on the flat sardy coast. Rrvt'Ks AND CANALS."} Soutli Carolina is watered by many navi- gable rivers, the principal of which are the Savannah, Edisto, Santec, Pedee, and their branches. rhe Santec is the largest river in the state. Those of a secondary size are the Wakkamaw, Black, Ci'oper, Ashepoo, and Combahce rivers. A canal of twenty-one miles in length, connecting Cooper and Santee rivers, is nearly completed, which it is estimated will cost 400,000 dollars; and another canal is soon tf) be begun, to unite the Edisto with the Ashley. Mktals, mink!<ai,s.] South Carolina abounds with precious ores, such as gold, silver, lead, black-lead, copper, and iron ; but it is the misfortune of those who diiect their pursuits in search of them, that they are deficient in the knowledge of chemistry, and too fre- quently make use of improper mcnstruums in extr.»:ting the respective metals. There are likewise rock-crystal, pyrites, marble beautifully variegated, abundance of chalk, crude alum, nitre, and vitriol. Cmm ATK ANi> AIR.] Thc clinuue of South Carolina agrees in ge- neral with that of North Carolina and Virginia. The weather, as in all this\j)art of Americi, is subject to sudden transitions from heat to cold, and from cold to heat, but not to such violent extremities as Virginia. The winters are seldom severe enough to freeze any con- siderable water, affecting only thc mornings and evenings ; the frosts have never suihcicnt strength to resist the noon-day sun, so that many tender plants, which do not stand the winter in Virginia, flourish in South C'arolina, for they have oranges in great plenty near C'harlestown, and excellent in their kinds, both sweet and sour. Thc .^ulubrity of the air is different in different parts of tlie state. Along the ."•ea-ooast, bilious diseases, and fevers of various kinds, are pre- valent between July and October ; one cause of which is the low marshy country, which is overflowed ior th,c sake of cultivating rice. The upper country, situate in the medium between extreme lieat and cold, is as healthful as any part of thc United States. Soil- AND PRODUCE,] The soil of South Carolina may be divided into four kinds : first, the pine barren, wliich is valuable only for its -timber. Interspersed among the pine barren are tracts of land free of timber, and every kind of growth but that of grass, 'Vhese tracts are called savniwuSf constituting a second kind oi soil, proper for grazii^g. 'J'hc third kind is that of the swamps and low grounds on tJie rivers, which is a mixture of black loam and fat clay, producing, naturally, canes in great plenty, cypress bays, loblolly pines, &c. In these swamps rice is cultivated, which constitutes the st;.ple com- modity of the stale. The high lands, commonly known by the nair.e cf oaii and hickory lands, constitute the fourth kind of soil. The uau:ral grcAvth i:j cak, hickory, vralnut, pine, and locust. On tl.eoS UNITED STATES of AMERICA. mB lands, in the low country, Indian corn is principally cultivated ; and in the back country, likewise, they raise tob;icco in large quantities, wheat, rye, barley, oats, hemp, fl;ix, and cotton. From experiments which have been mude, it is well ascertained that olives, silk, and madder, may be as abundantly produced in South Carolina, and we may add in Georgia also, as in the south of France. There is little fruit in this state, especially in the lower parts of it. They have oranges, chiefly sour, and figs in plenty; a few limes and lemons, pomegranates, pears, and peaches ; apples are scarce, and are im- ported from the northern states ; melons, especially water-melons, are raised here in great perfection. In South Carolina vegetation is incredibly quick. The climate and the soil have something in them so kindly, that the latter, when left to itself, naturally throws out an immense quantity of flowers and flowering shrubs. AH the European plants arrive at a perfection here beyond that in which their native country affords them. With pro- per culture and encouragement, silk, wine, and oil, might be produced in these colonies ; of the first we have seen samples equal to what is brought to us from Italy. Wheat in the back parts yields a prodigious increase. From what we have obse, ved, it appears that the vegetable pro- ductions of this state are wheat, rice, Indian corn, barley, oats, peas, beans, hemp, flax, cotton, tobacco, indigo, olives, oranges, citron, cypsess, sassafras, oak, walnut, cassia, and pine-trees ; white mul- berry-trees for feeding silk-worms ; sarsaparilla, and pines, which yield turpentine, rosin, tar, and pitch. There is a kind of tree from which runs an oil of extraordinary virtue in curing wounds ; and another whicli yields a balm thought to be little inferior to that of Mecca. There are other trees besides these, that yield gums. The Carolinas produce prodigious quantitias of honey, of which they make excellent spirits, and mead as good as Malaga sack. Of all these the three great staple commodities atpre^^ent are the indigo, rice, and the produce of the pine. Nothing surprises an European more at first sight than the size of the trees here, as well as in Vir- ginia and other American countries. Their trunks are often from fifty to seventy feet high, without a branch or limb ; and frequently above thirty-six feet in circumference. Of these trunks, when hol- lowed, the people of Charles-town, as well as the Indians, make canoes, which serve to transport provisions from place to place ; and some of them are so large, that they will carry thirty or forty bar- rels of pitch, though formed of one piece of timber. Of these are likewise made curious pleasure boats. There are also a variety of medicinal roots; among others, the rattle-snake root, so famous among the Indians for the cure of poison ; and the venereal root, which, under a vegetable regimen, will cure a confirmed lues. Animals.] The original animals of this country do not differ much from those of Virginia ; but in both the Carolinas they have a still greater variety of beautiful fowls. All the animals of Europe are here in plenty ; black cattle are multiplied prodigiously ; to have 200 or 300 cows is very common, but some have 1000 or upwards. These ramble all day at pleasure in the forest ; but their calves being separated and kept in fenced pastures, the cows return every evening to them. The hogs range in the same manner, and return like the cows ; these are very numerous, and many run quite wild, as well as horned cattle and horses, in the woods. 3N 2 916 UNITED STATES or AMERICA. *«t.fj njl %-h'i *' 4 Population.] The number of inhabitants in South Carolina, fn 1790, was 24-9,073, including 107,091' slaves. In 1801, according to the census then taken, they amounted to 345,591, including 1-16,151 slaves. Chief towns."] The principal towns of South Carolina are, Charles-town, Georj^e.town, Columbia, and Camden. Charles-town is by tar the most considerable town on the sea-coast for an extent of (jOO miles. It is the metropolis of Souiii Carolina, and is admirably situate at the confluence of two navigable rivers, one of which is navigal)le for ships twenty miles above the town, and for boats and large canoes near forty. The harbour is good in every respect, but that of a bar, wliich hinders vessels of more than 200 tons burthen, loaded, from entering. The fortilications, which were strong, are now demolished ; the streets are well cut; the houses are large and well built ; some of them are of brick, and ochers of wood, but all of them handsome and elegant, and rent is extremely high. 'J'he streets are wide and straight, intersecting each other at right angles ; those running east and west extend about a mile from one river to the other. Jn 1787, it was computed that theic were 1600 houses in this city,, and 15,000 inhabicanis, including 5400 slaves. In 1791, there were 16,.'359 inhabitants, of whom 7684- were slaves. This city has often suffered much by fire : the last and most destructive happened in .1 une 1 796. 'I'he neighbourhood of Charles-town is beautiful beyond description. Columbia is a small town ih Kershaw county, on the cast side of the Congaree, just below the confluence of the Saluda and Broad rivers. It is now the seat of government ; but the public ofiices have, in some measure, been divided, for the accommodation of the in- habitants of ilie lower counties, and a branch of each retained in Charles-towi;. Trade.] The little attention that has been paid to manufactures occasions a vast consumption of foreign imported articles ; but the quantity and value of their exports generally leave a balance in fa- vour of the state, except when there have been large importations of negroes. The principal articles exported from this state are rice, indigo, tobacco, skins of various kinus, beef, pork, cotton, pitch, tar, rosin, turpentine, myrtle-wax, lumber, naval stores, cork, leather, snake-root, and ginseng. In the most successful seasons, there have been as many as 140,000 barrels of vice, and 1,300,000 pounds of indigo, exported in a year, la 1791, tlie exports from this state amoluited to 1,693,267 dollars, and in 1795 to 5,998,492 dollars. Government.] The government of South Carolina is vested in a governor, senate of thirty-seven, and a house of representatives ot or.e hundred and twenty-ibur members. Religion.] Since the revolution, by which all denominations were put on an equal footing, there have been no disputes between different religious sects. They ail agree to diiier.* The upper parts of this state are settled chiefly by presbyterians, baptist?, and me- thodists. There are some episcopalians, but the presbyterians and independents are most numerous. Colleges, academies.] The literature of this state is but at .i low ebb. Since the peace, however, it has begun to flourish. 'I here jire several respectable academies in Charles-towu, one at Eeauforti ♦ Dr. MorsQ, ^ . . . *.>..,* >■ UNITED STATES or AMF.RTCA. 917 on Port- Royal island, and several others in ditTercnt parts of the state. Three coUef^es Iiave lately hccn incorporated by l:i".v; one at Charles-town, one at Winnsborough, in the district of Canulen, anc4 the other at Cambridge in the di'^trict oF Ninety-six. Tlic Icgls. latiire, in their session in January ITJ'j, appointed a comnnttce to inquire into the practicability of, and to report a plan for, the esta- blishment of schools in the different paits of the state. History and government. "] 'I'he first K.ni;lisli expeditions Into Carolina wore unfortunate. None of them had succi's^> till the year 166;}, in the reign of Charles II. At that time several English noblemen, and others of great distinction, obtained a charter from ih« crovpn, investing them with the property and jurisdiction of this coun- try. They parcelled rut the lands to such as v/ere willing to go ovtr into the new settlement, and to subnfitTto a. system o( laws v.hich they employed the famous Locke to cj^mpose for them. They began their first settlerneiifiit a point of hind towards the southward of their district, between two navigable rivers. Here they laid tlie foundation of a city called Ch;^rles-tcwn, which was de- signed to be, what it is now, the capital of the province. In time, however, the disputes betv^•cen the charch-of-Eng)and men and dis- senters caused a total confusv-on in the colony. Tliis was rendered still more intolerable by the incursions of the InJians, whom tliey had irritated by their insolence and injustice. In order to jirevciit the fatal consequences of these intestine divisions and foreign wars, an act of parliament was passed, v.hich put this colony under the im- mediate protection of the crov;n. The lords proprietors accepted a rccompence of about '21,00 '1. for both the property and jurisdiction ; and the constitution of this colony, in thc^e respects in v.hich it uil- fered from the royal colonies, was altered. Earl Grenville, hov.ever, thought fit to retain his seventh share, which continued in the possession of his family- For tlie more convenient administration of alTairs, Carolina was divided into tv/o districts, and two governments. This happened in 17-H, and from that time, peace being restored in the internal government, as well as with tlie Ciierokecs and other Indian tribes, these provinces began to breathe, and their trade ad- vanced with wonderful rapidity. 1 ,. ■ i )■!■, 11 GEORGIA. SITUATION AND EXTJlHT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. tei)Pih GOO? ,„„„„«„ 5 SO and 91 West long,? an r,nn Breadth 250 \ ^"^^""^ \ 30 ancf 35 North lat! \ ^^'^^^ Bot;nd\ries and ? BOUNDED by South Carolina and Ten- LMVLsioNs. inessee on the north and north-east; by the Atlar.tic Ocean on the east,-, by Florida, on the south ; and by the river Mississippi on the west. Georgia was formerly divided into parishes, and afterwards into three districts, but lately into two dis- tricts, viz. Upper and Lower, which are subdivided into 'J I counties, as iollow ; !■ -■n iH ' t mm ifu 918 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. / t Dis/rictt. Comiits. Chief Towns. Camden St. Patrick Glyn Brunswick Liberty Sunbury fM,.,»»,,«, c 5 N. lat. n2. S. Cljutham Savannah ■< .„ , ..^ ^i t W. Ion. 28. 24-. j-ower District Burke \ w ""''k ""^ , c WuyncsborongU Effingham .... Ebcne/.cr ! ¥ Upper District 1 New Counties. M'Intosh Scriven ^ New Counties -Bryan . . . Richmond Auousta Washington . . Colphinton Wilkes Washington Greene Greensboroiigh Franklin .... Montgomery Hancock .... Oglethorp . . Elbert Lincoln .... Warren .... Jefferson .... Jackson .... Bullock .... Columbia. . . . Islands and rivers.] The whole coast of Georgia is borderrd vith isl.mds, the principal of which are Skidaway, Wassaw, Ossa- haw, St. Catherine's, Sapdo, Frederica, .Ickyl, and Cumberland. The chief rivers of Georgia are the Savannah, which separates it from South Carolina, the Ogeoclicc, Alaiamaha, Turtle River, I^iitlc Sitilla, Great Sitilla, St. Mary's, and Apjdichicola. Climatk, soir-, AND jROuucr:.] 'I'he climate of Georgia is ex- tremely temperate : the winters there .ire very mild and plca.sant. Snow is seldom or never seen ; nor is vegetation olten prevented by «evere frosts. The soil and its fertility are various, according to situation and different improvements. 'I'he eastern part of the state, between the mountains and the ocean, and the rivers Savannah and St. Mary's, a tract of country more than 120 miles from north to south, and from 50 to 80 east and west, is level, without a hill or $tone. At the distance of about 40 or 50 miles from the sea-board or salt marsh, the lands begin to be more or less uneven, until they gradually rise to mountains. The vast chain of the Allegany, or Apalachian mountains, which commence with Kaats Kill, near Hud- son River, in the state of New York, terminate in Georgia, sixty miles south of its northern boundary. From the foot of this mountain spreads a wide extended plain of the richest soil, and in a latitude and climate well adapted to the cultivation of most of the productions of the south of Europe, and of the East Indies. Rice is at present the staple cbmniodity of the state; tobacco, wheat, and indigo, are the other great articles of produce. Besides these, the country yields cotton, silk, Indian com, potatoes, oranges, figs, olives, and pome- granates. Most of the tropical fruits would flourish in this state witi> ^^^m.. V, UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 919 proper attention. The souih-vcstorn piirts of ( Jtior^ia, am! tlie puris of East and W est Florida wliich lie adjoiuing, will p-.obaMy, says l)r. Morse, become the vineyard of America. 'Die lorests consist of oak, hicliory, mulberry, pine, and ceilar. Population.] 'I'lie number oi inliabitants in Ceorgra, according to the census of 17!)(), anuMinted to .S'J.olH, of whom '^^.'Jfil- were slaves. The increase by emijj^^ralion lias been very C()nsidLral)le si nee } as iu IHOJ, .According to the cen:,Ub llieu taken, they aniuuuLtJ to Ki'i.fiSl', includinj;- 5}), lOt slaves. Chi; K towns.] I'lie principal towns in Georgia, are Savannah, Augusta, and Louisville, havamiah, lornierly the c.ipilal ot tlie state, is conimodiously siiuate both for inland and foreign tiade, seventeen miles from the so i, on a noble river oi ihe sume name, which is navigable for boats r.pwiirds of 'A)0 miles. Slups uf :JU') tons burthen can lie williin six y.ods ol' the town, and close to a s'cep bank, extending near a mile along the river-side, l he town is iet{U- larly built, in llie Ibrni of a parallelogram, ami contained, i!\ \'!H~l, i!,.'J(JO inhabitants. In the aiitunm of I'i^ti mure than iwo-thirdr, of this town was consumed by fire. Augusta, till lately tile seat of government, is situate in a fertile plain ()n the souih-webt b.iijk of the Savannah river, ac a bend oi tiid river, where it is ncaily ;/00 yards broad, iu i'i^^l, it contained about i;001iouscs. Louisville, now the metiropolis of the state, is situate on the river Ogeechee, seventy miles iiom its mouth. 'I'he convention for tlie re- visal of the conslitiition sat in this town in May I7ij5, and appointed the records to be removed, and the legislature to meet lierc in futnrc. Tradi:.] The cliiel" articles of export from Georgia ;oe rice, to. bacco, indigo, sago, timber, nav.J stores, leather, cieer-:;kins, snake- root, myrtle, and bees' wax, corn, and live-stock. The pla. iters and farmers raise large stocks of cattle, i'rom 1000 to 1500 head, and .some more. The value iu sterling money of tlie exports of Geoigia, in 175.'>, was 15,7iH. — in 177'i, rJl,G77l. — in 1791, value in dollars 4.9l,l'7'2; and in l7:Hh 9.'0,15S dollars. In 17W), the tonnage em- ployed in this slate was 'Jh,.'>10, and the number of American seamen ll,'J25. In return for her exports, Georgia receives West-India goods, teas, wines, clothing, and dry goods of all kinds: from the northern states, cheese, Hsh, potatoes, cyder, and shots. Tlie Importsi and exports are principally to and from Savannah, which has a iin» harbour, and is the place where the principal commercial business of the state is transacted. GoviiRNMEN-r.] The government of Georgia invested in a go. vernor, executive council of twelve, and house of assembly of seventy- two representatives. Ri;i,ir.ioN.] The different religions sects in Georgia arc presby- terians, episcopalians, baptists, and mcthodists. '1 hey have but few regular ministers among ihem. CoLLr.CEs, ACAUKvurs.] The literature pf this state, which is yet in its infancy, is commencing on a plan, which, if properly carried into effect, must be attended wiili great advantages. A college with ample and liberal endowments has been instituted at Louisville. There is also provision made ior the institution of an academy in each county of the state, to be supported from the same funds, and considered as parts and members of th.e same institution, under tlic general superiniendauce and direction of a president iind board u^* ^1 I : I I I. 'M ■.i n 920 UNITED STATES or AMERICA. Mm mm&m tnislcos, selected for tlieir literary accomplishments from the different parts of the state, and invested with tlie customary powers of corpo- r.<tions. This institution is denominated ?'/»<? University of Geargiit. Tlie funds for the support of literary institutions are principally in lands, amountinfT in the whole to .WjOOO acres, a ^reat part of which is of the best quality, and at present very valuable ; t(\t![ethcr with nearly (i,0()Ol. sterling;;, in bonds, houses, and town lots in Augusta. Other public property, to the amount of lOwOl. in each count), has been set apart for the purposes of building, and furnishing their respective academies. The rev. Mr. George Whitfield founded an orphan-house at Savannah, which, after his death, was converted into a college for the education of young men designed chic-lly for the ministry. The funds for its support are chiefly in rice-plant.itions and negroes. On the death of the countess of Huntingdon, to whom Mr. Whitfield bequeathed this property as trustee, the legislature, in the year 1702, passed a law vesting it in l.S commissioners, with powers to carry tlie original intention of Mr. Whitfield into execution; and in me- mory of the countess, the seminary is styled Huntingdon college. History.] The settlement of Georgia was projected in 17132 ; when several pul)lic-spiritcd noblemen, and others, from compassion to the poor of these kingdoms, subscribed a considerable sum, which, •with 10,0001. from the government, was given to provide necessaries for such poor persons as were willing to transport themselves into this province, and to submit to the regulations imposed on them. In process of time, new sums were raised, and new inhabitants sent over. Before the year 17.^2, upwards of 1000 persons were settled in this province. It was not, however, to be expected, that the inhabitants of Georgia, removed, as they were, at a great distance from their benefactors, and from the check and control of those who had a natural influence over them, would submit to the magistrates ap^ pointed to govern them. Many of the regulations, too, by which they were bound, were very improper in themselves, and deprived the Georgians of piivilcgos which their neighbours enjoyed, and which, as they increased in number and opulence, they thought it hard they should be deprived of. From these corrupt sources arose all the bad humours which tors to pieces this constitution of govern- ment. 1 dissensions of all kinds sprang up, and the colony was on tho brink of destruction, when, in 17.32, tlie government took it under their immediate care, removed their particular grievances, and place4 Georgia on the same footing with the Carolinas. TENNESSEE. SITUATION AND EXTENT, Miles, length 360 1 Breadth 105 > Degrees. betweea < 81 and 91 tvest longitude. i 35 and 36 30 north latitude. Boundaries and divisions.] BOUNDED, north, by Kentucky, and part of Virginia j east, by the Stonci Yellow, Iron, and Bald UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 921 they thouoht it Mountains, which divide it from North Carolinii; sou'.h, by South Carolina and Georgia ; west, by the Missi'^sippi.* This extensive territory is divided into three districts ; Washini^lou, Hamilton, and Mero ; and fourteen counties, as follow : Count in . Davidson I Washington district Hamilton district f>UM)iicr Ilolicrtr-^n .Montgomery Counltet. Washington Sullivan Moro Greene district Carter Hawkins Knox Jcfterson Sevier Blount Grainger Mountains.] The Cumberland mountain, In its whole extent from the great Kanhaway to tlie TcnnesseL', consists ol' the most stupendous piles of craggy rocks of any mountain in the western country. In several parts of it, for miles, it is inaccessible, even to the Indians on foot. In one place particularly, near the summit of the mountain, there is a most remarkable ledu;e of rocks, df about thirty miles in length, and 200 feet thick, showing a perpendicular face to the south cast, more noble and grand than any artificial fortification in the known world, and apparently equal in point of ri'gnl,irity. Tiirough- this stupendous pile, according to a modern liypothosis, had the waters of all the upper branches of the Tennessee to foice their way. RivF.tts.] The Tennessee, called also the Cherokee, and, abiurJly, the Hogohege river, is the largest branch of the Ohio. It rises in the nujuntains of Virginia, latitude 1)7, and pursues a course of about 1000 miles south and south-west, nearly to latitude .'34'', receiving; from both sides a number of large tributary streams. It then w heels about to the north, in a circuitous course, and mingles with the Ohio, nearly sixty miles from its mouth. The other rivers are the Cum-» berl.md, the Holston, and the Clinch. Metals, minerals.] Iron ore abounds in the districts of Wash- ington and Mero. Several lead-mines have been discovered. Th« Indians say that there are rich silver-mines in Cumberland mountain, but cannot be tempted to discover any of them to the white people. It is haid that gold has been found here, but the place where is not known. Ores and springs strongly impregnated with sulphur are found in various parts. Climate, soil, produce.] The climate of Tennessee Is temperate and healthful; the summers are very cool and pleasant in that part which is contiguous to the mountains that divide this state from I^Iorth Carolina; but on the western side of the Cumberland moun- tains the heat is more intense, which renders that part better calcu- lated for the production of tobacco, cotton, and indigo. The soil is in general luxuriant, and will afford every production which is tho growth of any of die United States. The usual crop of cotton is bOOlbs. to the acre, of a long and line staple; and of corn from 60 to SO ^jushels.f , * About seven and a Iwlf iinUlons of acres of this tract only have been yet purchased fiou^ the Indians. t Morse. \A > i| l^J' If II? 'I :ti"V'^-\ 1^,- _ ,r . ( ( 4 J I ■ • t ■I « I 92'J UNITED STATES of AMERICA. Animals. 3 A few years since, tliis country al-xninJfJ with l;«rp;e herds ofuild animals, improperly called buiFaloes; but the iniprovi- dent or ill-disposed aninn^:;- t!ie first settlers destroyed multitudes of them out of mere wantonness. I'hey are still to be found on some of the southern branches of Cumberland river. Elk or moose are seen in many places, chiefly amour; the niounuins. 'J lie deer arc become comparatively scarce, so that no person makes a business of liuntii)!^ them for liieir skins only. Enou;^h of bears and wolves yet remain. Ikavcrs and otters are t au<;ht in plenty in the upper branches of Cumberland and Kentucky rivers. Ci;RK)srTii;s.] 'I'he F.nrhanhii Mntinttuu, about two miles south of Brass-town, is famed for the curiosities on its rocks. There are, in several rocks, a number of impressions resembling the tracks of tur- keys, bears, horses, and human beinj^s, as visible and perfect as ihey could be made in snow or sand. I he latter were remark.ible for having uniformly six toes each, one only excepted, which appeared to be the print of a negro's foot. One of these tracks was very large ; the lens^;th of the feet sixteen inches, the distance of tlie extremiiici of the outer toes thirteen inches. One of the-horsc-tracks was of an un- common si/c. TJie transvrr-.e and conjugate diameters were cig!;t by ton inches ; perhaps the liorso which tlie great warrior rode. Wli.it appears most in favour of their being tlie real tracks of the animals they represent, is the circumstance of the iicrscs' feet having slipt several inches, and recovered again, and the figures having all tl.e same direction, like the trail of a company on a journey. If it bo a /i/sus natur/c, the old dame never sported more seriously : if the opera- tion of chance, peihaps there was never more apparent design. If it be the work of art, it may be intended to perpetuate the remembrance of some remarkable event of war, or some h.ittle fought there. The vast heaps of stones near the place, said to be tombs of warriors slain in battle, seem to i';\vour the l.itter supposition. The texture of the rocks is soft : the part on which the sun had the greatest influence, and which was the most indurated, could easily be cut with a knife, and appeared to be of the nature of the pipc-stonc. Some of tlie Cherokees entertain an opinion that it always rains when ar^y person visits the place, as if sympathetic nature wept at the recollcciion nf the dreadful catastrophe which these figures were intended to com- memorate. Population.] The population of this state in November l^O."), was estimated at 77,'^^-. By the census taken in ISOO, it was found to have increased to 10.'>,602, including ISjSH'l' slaves. Chief towns.] Knoxville is the seat of government in Tennessee. It is regularly laid out, in a flourishing situation, and enjoys a com- munication with every part of the United States by post. It conr :• >: about 200 houses. The other principal towns are Nashville .i .j Jonesborough. Tradk.] This country furnishes many valuable articles of expo-r, such as fine waggon and saddle horses, beef, cattle, ginseng, drcr- skins, and furs, cotton, hemp, and flax, which may be transported by land ; also iron, lumber, pork, and flour, which might be exponcd in great quantities, if the navigation of the Mississippi were opened; but there are few of the inhabitants who understand trade, or are pos- sessed of proper capitals ; of course, it is badly managed. Government.] In 17^5, in conformity to the resolves of congress, of April 23, 1784-, the inhabitants of this district essayed to form UNIT EDSTATES or AMERICA. 92S themselves into a body politic, by the name of the State of Franklanc'i ; but differing among themselves, as to tlu; form of government, atiJ other matters, in the issue ot wmdi some blood was siied, and hcin^ opposed by some leading persons in tlw eastern par's, the scliernc was given up, and the inhabit. mts rt'm.iijud i i general peaceable until 17Hfi, when a convention was held at Kn<'X\ il'e, and ov 'he (»tli of February the constitution of the state of Tennessee was sipned by every member of it. Its principles promise to ensure the happiness and prosperity of the people. Religion.] The presbytcrians are the prevailing denoniinatinn of Christians in this district. They have a presbytery, called the Abingdon presbytery, established by act of synod, which, in 1788, consisted of twenty-three large congregations. Colleges.] Besides private scliools there are three colleges esta- blished by law : Greenville college in Green's county : Blount college at Knoxville, and Washington college in the county of that name. Here is likewise a society for promotmg useful knowledge. History.] The eastern parts of tnis district were explored by colonels Wood, Patton, Buchanan, captain Chanes Campbell, and Dr. T. Walker (each of whom were concerned in large grants of land from the government), as early as between the years 1710 and 1750. In 17.'»5, at the ccinmencement of the French war, not more than fifty families had settled here, who were either destrt)yed or driven off by the Indians before the close of the following year. U remained uninhabited till 17G.5, when the settlement of it recom- menced ; and, in 1773, the country as far west as the long island of Holstein, an extent of more than 120 miles in length from east to west, had become tolerably well peopled. In 1780, a party of about 40 families, under the guidance and direction of James Robertson (since brigader-general Robertson of Mero district) passed through a wilderness of at least 300 miles, and founded Nabhvillc. Their nearest neighbours were the settlers of the infant state of Kentucky, between whom and them was a wilderness of 200 miles. This ter- ritory then appertained to North Carolina, which in 1789 ceded it to the United States on certain conditions, and congress provided for its government. TERRITORY North-West of the OHIO. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 6007 . < 37 and 50 north latitude j^jjooo Breadth 700 J °^'^«^" 7 81 and 98 west longitude J BouNDARiESAND DIVISIONS.] THIS extensive tract of country is bounded, north, by part of the northern boundary hne of the United States ; east, by the lakes, and Pennsylvania ; south, by the Ohio river ; west, by the Mississippi. Mr. Hutchins, the late geographer of the United States, estimates that this tract contains 2(j3,0i0,000 acres, of which 'liifiiOiOOO are water. f;'il uNrrr.D states op amertca. .';■ '^''Ti p:-:;t ! .. m 'K^.; i by be mcnt i.it pnrt nf this territory in which the Indian title 'ii extitigiiishtfc! ill .^ t.(irrii,i..G(.i Irom them, and which is setth'ng under the govern- ot theUiiitcd Stiites, is divided into the following live counties; Coun'ki. When inctcd, \V:i<;I,in;>ton, Jul>' i'f>, I7SR Hainilrcn, T.m. % \1<M iit.Cluir, April 27, 1790 Counties. V/ben erected, Knox, June 20, 1790 Wayne, . 1796 This territory has Intdy been admitted into the union, under the' c!enf)rnin;it.iou oi'the State of the Ohio.* R ivKR q.] Tiie Muskingum is u I'jentlc river, confined by banks so high as to prevent its overflowing;. It is 2.>0 yards wide at its conflu- ence with the Ohio, and navigable by large bateaux and barges to the Three I.cgs, and by small ones to the lake at its head. The Hock- liocking resembles the Muskingum, though somewliat inferior in size. The Scioto is a larger river th.m eiiher oi'the preceding, and opens a more extensive navigation. One hundred and seventV'six miles above the Ohio, nnJ eighteen n)iles above the Missouri, the Illinois empties Itself into the Mississippi, from the north-east, by a mouth about 400 yards wide. F.\c:n OF Tirp. covNTRV, son,, productions, &c.3 The lands on the various streams whicli f.i 1 into the Ohio are ir.terspersed with all the variety of soil that conduces to pleasantness of situation, and lays the foundat'on for the wealth of an agricultural and manufacturing people. TiiC sugar-maple is a most valuable tree. Any number of inhabi- tant!* iviay be cc^nstantly supplied with a sufficiency of sugar by pre- si'ivinsr a ilnv of tliese trees lor the use of eacli family. One tree will ".'ieJd aliout ton pounds of sugar a year^ and the labour is verv ti ifling. Springs of e:>-crllent water abound in every p.irt of this icr:itory ; and small and lir;je -^tieaxs, suitable for mills ^nd other purposes, are inverspCTsed, as ;' to prevent any dehciency ofthe cnnveniences of lilc. Nf) country is better stocked with wild, game of every kind. Innu- merable herds of deer and wild cattle are sheltered in the groves, and fed in tlie rxten->ive bctLoms that every where abound ; an unquestion- able proof of the great fertility of the soil. Turkeys, geese, ducks ;:wans, teal, pheasants, partridge, &c. are, from observation, believed to be in greater plenty here than the tame poultry are in any part of the old settlements in America. The rivers are well stored with fish of various kinds and many of them of an excellent quality. They are generally large, thou'^h of diiTcrent si'^es u the cat-fish, which is the largest, and of a delicious flavour, weighs from six to eighty pounds. Population ] According to the census taken by order of con- frr.'s in the year 1800, the population ofthe north-western territory ^mounted to 4."),,')Ci/ ; th.atof what is called the Mississippi territory to 8850, and that ofthe Indian territory to 5611. CmtF Tow^^.j The chief towns in this territory arc Marietta, Chillicothe, and CJallipoli. According to M. Michaux, Marietta is the largest, containing upwards of 200 houses ; Chillicothe is the seat cf government cf the new state ofthe Ohio, and contains about 150 flr-usc;. The inhabitants of Gallipoli c\q almost entirely Trench ; il couuin!) abuul 100 houses. Mid .'iiaux. he union, under the' UNITED STATES or AMERICA. 025 GovERNMFVT.] By an ordinance of congress, passed tlie 13t.li of July, 1787, this country, for the purposes of temporary government, was erected iato one district, subject, however, to a division, when circumstances shall make it expedient. In the same ordinance it is provided, that congress shall appoint a governor, whose commission shall continue in force three years, un- less sooner revoked. The governor must reside in the district, and have a freehold ostato therein of 1000 acres oi^ land, v/hile in the exercise of his office. Congress, from time to time, are to appoint a secretary, to continue in office four years, uuiless sooner removed, \vho nuist reside in tht» district, and have an estate of 500 acres of land v.hile in office. The same ordinance of congress provides tliat tlicre shall be formed in this territory not kss than three nor more than rive states; and when any of the said states shall have (iO,00;)frce inhabitants therein such state shall be udmitted by its delegates into tlie congress of the United States, on an equal footing with the original state's, and sluill be at liberty to form a permanent constitution and state-governnient provided the constitution and government so to be lormed shall be republican, and, so far as it can be consistent with the general interest of the confederacy, such adnnssion sliail be allowed at an earlier period, and when there may be a less number of fr.liLibitaiUs in the btate than tiO.OOO. The settlement of this country has been checked for sevcr.il vcars past by the unhappy Indian war. Of thi;^, howevei-, an amicable ter- mination took place on the third of August, 1795, when a treaty was concluded ; since which a trade has bei.ni opened, by a lav/ of coiisrre.^s with the Indians, on such a liberal footing as promises to eive per- manency to the treaty, and security to the iVvJUtier inhabitants. The number of old forts found in this western country are the ad. miration of the curiou'-. They are mostly of .in oblong form, situated ou strong well-chosen ground, and contiguous to v/ater. WJ:en by whom, aiid for what purpose, these were thrown up, is uncertain'. They are undoubtedly very ancient, as there is not the least visible difference in the age or size of the titnber growing un or within the.<;e forts and that v.hich grows without; and the natives liave lost ali tradition respecting them. ^11 LOUISIANA. i 'fit '■'ill ' Hi fl 1: 1. -aaWMi BouNDARirs.] THIS extensive country, which has been lately ceded by Spain to the French g(jvornment, and sold bv the latter to the United .States, is bounded on the east bv the river Misabsippi, by the gulf ot Nk-xico on the south, by New Me;:ico on the ea^t : to tluj noith its bouudaiies are as yet undcHned. Its dimension-; conso. quently cannot be very exactly ascertained ; but it has be^n estimated to extend 1200 mih'S in length, (j 1 in breadth, and t;o contain 460,000 square miles. *t'. S) '< 926 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. R1VRRS.3 Besides the Mississippi, which forms the eastern bourfd- ary of this country, Louisiana is watered by a number of fine rivers, among which are the Missouri, the St. Francis, the Natchitoches, the Adayes or Mexicano, the Rouge or Red river, and the Noir or Black river. Metals, minerals.] Iron and lead mines are found here in suflicicnt quantity to aflford an abundant supply of those necessary articles ; and it has been said that on the river Rouge there are mines of silver as rich as any in Mexico. Olimati..] Louisiana is agreeably situate between the extremes of heat and cold. Its climate varies as it extends towards the north. The southern parts, lying within the reach of the refreshing breezes from the sea, arc not scorched like those in the same latitudes in Africa ; and its northern regions arc colder than those of Europe under the same parallels, with a wholesome serene air. Soil and produce.] The soil is particularly adapted to hemp, flax, and tobacco, and indigo is a staple commodity. The timber is as fine as any in the world ; and the quantities of live-oak, ash, mul- berry, walnut, cherry, cypress, and cedar, are astonishing. The neighbourhood of the Mississippi furnishes the richest fruits in great variety ; and the soil, with little cultivation, would produce grain of every kind in tlie greatest abundance. Chu;f towns.] New Orleans is the capital of this coimtry. It was built by the French in 17'iO under the regency of the duke of Orleans. Jn 17^8 there were 1100 houses in this town; but in the month of March of that year they were reduced by a dreadful fire to 200. The town has since been rebuilt. It stands on the east bank of the Mississippi, 105 miles from its mouth: in lat. 30°, i^» N. long. 89% 50' W. In the northern part of Louisiana, about 45 miles from the month of the river Ohio, a settlement was commenced, some years ago, con- ducted by colonel Morgan of New Jersey, under the patronage ot the king of Spain. A city was proposed to be built, called New Madrid, and a street 120 feet wide, on the bank of the Mississippi, laid out ; but the building of this city either advances very slowly, or the plan has been abandoned. Trade.] I'he chief articles of exportation are indigo, cotton, rice, beans, wax, and lumber. History.] The Mississippi, on which this country is situatp, was first discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, a Spaniard, in 1511 ; but no settlement was attempted till the latter end of the next century. In the year lfiS2, M. de la Salle, a Frenchman, travelled through it, and, oil his return to France, gave such a flattering account of the country, and the advantages that rr.ight be expected to accrue from settling a colony in it, that l^ouisXIV. was induced to establish a company for tliat purpose. Jhe attempt, liowever, had very little success, and ia 176\S Louisiana was ceded to Spain. By late treaties it has been again restored to the French, by whom it has bceii sold to the Uniied States, to whose territory it now appertains. ie eastern bourtd- jerof fine rivers, ^atcliitoches, the he Noir or Black J found here in F those necessary e there are mines een the extremes wards the north, freshing breezes ime latitudes in hose of Europe ir. iapted to hemp, , The timber is -^e-oak, ash, mul- tonishing. The richest fruits in , would produce :his country. It y of the duke of )\vn; but in the y a dreadful fire nds on the east n lat. 30°, '/, N. from the mouth e years ago, con- the patronage ot iiilt, called New ! Mississippi, laid ry slowly, or the ilgo, cotton, rice, ry is situatp, was in 1.511 ; but no 3xt century. In 1 through it, and. It of the country, p from settling a h a company for e success, and ia saties it has been )ld to the Uniied r>tf ijuAtfMlini' •■^WjVpy si!^>- -■ ^.i /'J i mi too ire, •ry lore nes, ate} ates iks tiJ , — c ■■.■■■♦* **. 1 Tx:*pir£f**.,'^ ^ -^^iV-:f* 'iJAeSeM r <V,i <^.-. 6t> <^(hnnmvra/ r. V ji Cj^Jlo^lS'JJ^^.* J{ A IJ A M O R A K\planalion. /,' KniflUh - F trench. J. Spanish .'.. LhiDutfh />,T />anish. A N T I A 3 r SertmUfa Tijnttisca \ :.■: SAva&\ ','•■ ' ■ / - -^ J -^- -• .rant ^^5 SA y » » _.. ^^^,.,. * '^itro Shcais 'V'-',. i ». ,v «»K .t.' f''^j«?idiS^,...,w:nt ^^i^ ' ^LlZnJ, ^-^ ^K^-'-^^'^-"-^"^'*-^.^- +• . r::ft* 7 . >>-! Cfuwa Reel' iffiUoK /<>/rf/>rSr/c/i<f iji.'AcjyttAv i-fytjThe, XetfJIoar Vril'/rc fiuqti:' r A R_ oTo ji _n_ ^pI'eaH tf I'l I if S H A L I-: A' rrA /i ,*'' r // A' ' ^0? An tj<i.a /;. 77/ A- ^"^ i r^^ Sl\iiU'i-iit/...3, . /Sn.tne l''iiTi g\ ' \^f:\y .>■■••• :'<JreatCom I. •ruSpund in ■'MhmR. Q, jy !*>=>'j *■' fS.< Jr^*'>T L° ^ iVGulf Jiff \ '<'(-,; '^r-/b/*«/u.i aAf</.f . '\"''iy. ,■ • >^32 . ^ ! ^ ^ i l"JeSiw.l'a_ ^^ ^Carthagena»"j "^ V^\ *^ ijPibralter ■ E •iiHimei/iii Q^*.F,^- T>- ■ f;lr.f.-. ^ '. oVo l.'ir .^4 i-m _ J t ■'-*'. ( 521 ) WEST INDIES. WE have already observed, that between the two continents of America lie a multitude of islands which we call the West Indies, and which, such as are worth cultivation, now belong to five European powers, Great Britain, Spain, France, Holland, and Den- mark. As the climate and seasons of these islands differ widely from what we can form any idea of by what we perceive at home, we shall, to avoid repetitions, speak of them in general, and mention some other particulars that are peculiar to the West Indies. The climate in ail our West-India islands is nearly the same, allowing for those accidental differences wMch the several situations and qualities of the lands themselves produce. As they lie within the tropics, and the sun goes quite over their heads, passing beyond them to the north, they are continually subjected to the extreme of a heat which would be intolerable, if the trade-wind, rising gradually as the sun gathers strength, did not blow in upon tliem from the sea, and refresh tlie air in such a manner, as to enable the cultivator to attend to his business, even under the meridian sun. On the other hand, as the night advances, a breeze begins to be perceived, which blows smartly from the land, as it were from the centre, towards the sea, to all points of the compass at once. In the same manner, when the sun advances towards the tropic of Cancer, and becomes vertical, he draws after him such a vast body of clouds, as shield the earth from his direct beams ; and dissolving into rain, cool the air, and refresh the country, thirsty with the long drought which commonly reigns from the beginning of Ji^nuary to the latter end of May. 'J he rains in the West Indies (and we may add in the East laiiles) are by no means so moderate as with us. Our heaviest rains are but dews comparatively. They are rather floods of water, poured from the clouds with a prodigious impetuosity ; the rivers rise in a monient ; new rivers and lakes are formed, and in a short time all the l)w country is under water.* Hence it is, the rivers which have their source within the tropics swell and overflow their banks at a certain season ; but so mistaken were the ancients in their idea of tl>e torrid /one, that they imagined it to be dried and scorched up with acc;ntinued and fervent heat, and to be for that reason uninha- bitable ; when, in reality, some of the largest rivers of the world have tlieir course within its limits, and the moisture is one of the greatest inconveniences of the climate in several places. The rains make the only distinction of seasons in the West Indies ; the trees are green the whole year round; they have no cold, no frosts, no snows, and but rarely some hail ; the storms of hail are, liowever, very violent when they happen, and the hailstones very large and heavy. It is in the rainy season (principally in the month of August, more rarely in .Tuly and September) that they are assaulted by hurricanes, the most terrible calamity to which they are subject from the climate; these destroy, at a stroke, the labours of many years, and prostrates the hopes of the planter, often just at the moment wlien he thinks • . , . . * See VValsou's Journey across the Isthmus of Darien. ^ \ ^ i s < Vi m^ I' 1 .r ^j ^ a. s-*'' • I I ii.'^ t'*' ■fM .1,!; t 938 WEST INDIES. himself out of the reach of fortune. The hurricane is a stiddon and violent storm of wind, rain, thuncier, and lightninp:, attended with A furious swelling of the seas, and sometimes with an earthquake; in short, with every circumstance wliich the elements tan assemble, that is terrible and destructive. First, they see, as the prelude to the ensuing havoc, whole fields of sugar-canes whirled into the air, and scattered over the face of the country; the strongest trees of the forest are torn up by the roots, and driven about like stubble ; their wind-mills are swept away in a moment ; their utensils, the fixtures, the ponderous copper boilers, and stills of several hundred weight, are wrenched from the ground, and battered to pieces ; their houses are no protection ; the roofs are torn off at one blast ; whilst the rain, which in an hour rises five feet, rushes in upon them with irresistible violence. The grand staple commodity of the West Indies is sugar: this commodity was not known to the Greeks and Romans, though it was made in China in very early times, from whence we had tlie first knowledge of it ; but the Portuguese W(;re the first who cultivated it in America, and brought it into request, as one of the materials of a very universal luxury in Europe. It is not agreed whether the cane from which this subtance is extracted, be a native of America, or brought thither, to their colony of Br.isil, by the Portuguese, from India and the coast of Africa ; but, however that may be, in early times they made the most, as they still do the best, sugars which come to market in this part of the world. The juice within the sugar-cane is the most lively and least cloying sweet in nature, and, sucked raw, has proved extremely nutritive and wholesome. From the melasses, rum is distilled, and from the scummings of sugar a meaner spirit is procured. Rum finds its market in North America, where it is con- sumed by the inhabitants, or employed in the African trade, or dis- tributed from thence to the fishery of Newfoundland, and other parts, besides what comes to Great Britain and Ireland. However, a very great quantity of melasses is taken off raw, and carried to New England to be distilled there. The tops of the canes, and the leaves whicli grow upon the joints, make very good provender for the cattle; and the refuse of the cane, after grinding, serves for fire ; so that no part of this excellent plant is without its use. It is c imputed that, when things are well managed, the rum and melasses pay the ch uges of the plantation, and the sugars are clear gain. However, by the particulars we have seen, and by others wliich we may easily imagine, the expences of a plantation in the West Indies are very great, and the profits, at the first view, pre* carious: for the chargeable articles of the wind-mill, the boiling, cooling, and distilling-liouses, and the buying and subsisting a suit- able number of slaves and cattle, will not sufi^r any man to begin a sugar plantation of any consequence, not to mention the purchase of the land, which is very high, under a capital of at least 50001. There arc, however, no parts of the world in which great estates are made in so short a time, from the productions of the earth, as in the West Indies. The produce of a few good seasons generally provides sigainst the ill effects of the worst ; as the planter is sure of a speedy -;ind profitable market for his produce, which has a readier sale than perhaps any other commodity in the world. Large plantations are generally under the care of a manager, or chief overseer, who has commonly a salary of 1501. a year, with over- WEST INDIES. 025 sccrs unJor him In proportion to the t'xtt>nt cf the plantation ; one to ubout thirty negroes, with a salary ol about h)l. S'uch plantations, too, liave a surgeon at a tixed salary, employed to talce care of the negroes whicli bel;)ng to it. But the course which is tlic h-ast trou- blesome to the owr.er of the estate is, to let the laml, with all the v.-orks, and the stuck of cattle and slaves, to a tenant, wlio gives security for the payment of rent, and the keeping up repairs and stock. 'Die estate is generally estimated to «iich a tenant at half the not produce of th.e best years. Such tenants, if industrious and frugal men, soon make good estates for themselves. The negroes in the plantations are subsisted at a very ca-^y rate. This is generally by allotting to each family of thctn a small portic^u of land, and allowing them two days in tlie week, Saturday and Sunday, to cultivate it : some are subsi:Ued in this manner; but other;? find their negroes a certain portion of Ciuinea and Indian corn, and to some a salt herring, or a small portion of bacon or salt pork, a day. i\ll the rest of the charge consists in a cap, a sliirt, a pair of breeches, and a blanket; and the profit of their labour yields lOl. or 121. an- jiually. The price of men negroes, upon their first arrival, is from 4() to 501. women and grown boys 20s. less ; but sucl; negro families as are aciiuainted \vi:h tiie business ol' the inlands generally bring above GOl. up(ni an average one with another ; and there are in- stances of a single negro n;an, expert in business, bringing 1.-30 gui- neas ; and tlie wealth of a planter is generally computed fioai the number of slaves he possesses. To particularise the commodities proper far the V.''est-Indi;i market, would be to enumerate all the necessaries, conveniences, and lu.\'uries of life ; for they have nothing ol' their own but cutton, coffee, tropical fruits, spices, and the commodities already men- tioned. 'i'laders there make a very large profit upon all they sell ; but from the numerous shipping constantly arriving from Europe, and a continual succession of new adventurers, each of whom carry out more or less as a venture, the West-India market is l'rei)nently ovei- stockcd ; money must be raised, and goods are sometimes sold a: prime cost or under. But those who can afford to store their goods, and wait for a better market, acquire fortunes equal to any of tlie planters. All kinds of handicraftsmen, es]-)ecially carpemers, biick- layers, braziers, and coopers, get very great encoinagement. Rut it is the misfoitune of the We^t Indies, that physicians and surgeons even outdo the planter and merchant in accumulating riches. The present state of the population in the British \\'est Indies ap- pears to be about (j.5,0(K) wliites, and k;.'j, 000 blacks. There is like- wise in cachof the islands a considerable number of mixed b'ood,and native blacks of free condition. In Jamaica they are reckoned at 10,000; and they do not fall short of the same number in all the other islands collectively taken. The whole inhabitants, therefore, may properly be divided into four great classes: 1. European whites ; 2. Creole or native whites ; 3. Creoles of mixed blood and free native blacks ; -K Negroes in a state of slavery. The islands of the West Indies lie in the form of a bow, or semi- circle, stretching almost from the coast of Florida north, to the river Oronoque, in tlie main continent of South America. Some call them the Caribbecs, from the first inhabit-ants ; though this is a tertrj Out most geographers confine to the Leeward Iskmds. Sailors di*;- .'3 \m ' u % r i Mh 1 lif ^. t5.iO WEST INDIES. tiur.niish them into WlnJward and Lcew.ird Tsltinds, vrhh re^At^ t» till.' usudl courses ot' ships from Old Spam, or the Canaries, to Car- th.i^'ciia, or New Spain and Portobello.— The geographical tables and maps distinguish them into the great and little Antilles. JAMAICA.] This island, which is the first belonging tn Great Britain, and also the most important that we arrive at alter leaving Florida, lies between the 76th and 79th degrees of west longitude fi oni London, and between 17 and IS north latitude. From the east and west it is in length about 140 miles, and in the middle about 60 in breadth, growing less towards each end, in the form of an egg. It contains 4,0.'-'0,(X)0 acres, of which 900,000 were planted in 167.5; and in November 1789 there were no more than 1, 907>5f^9 acres located, or taken up by grants from the crown. Tliis island is intersected with a ridge of steep rocks, heaped by the frequent earthquakes in a stupendous manner upon one another. These rocks, though containing no soil on their surface, are covered with a gieat variety of beautiful trees, flourishing in a perpetual spring : ihcy arc nourished by the rains which often fall, or the mists which cniuinually hang onthe mountains ; and their roots, penetrating the crannies of the rocks, industriously seek out for their own support. From the rocks issue a vast number of small rivers of pure whole- so/iie waters, which tumbledown in cataracts, and, together with the .stupendous height of the mountains, and the bright verdure of the trees, tlirough which they flow, form a most delightful landscape. On eacli side of this chain of mountains arc ridges of lower ones, ■which diminish as ihey remove from it. On these coffee grows in great plenty. The valleys or plains between those ridges are level beyoncl what is ordinary in most other countries, and the so.'l is pro- digiously fertile. The longest day in summer is about thirteen hours, and the shortest in winter about eleven ; but the most usual divisions of the seasons in the West Indies are into the dry and wet seasons. The air of this island is, in most places, excessively hot, and unfavourable to Eu- ropean constitutions ; but the cool sea-breezes, which set in every jnorning at ten o'clock, render the heat more tolerable: and the air upontae high grounds is temperate, pure and cooling. It lightens almost every night, but without much thunder, which, when it hap- pens, is very terrible, and roars with astonishing loudness ; and the lightning in these violent storms frequently does great damage. During the months of May and October, the rains are extremely violent, and continue sometimes for a fortnight together. In the })lains are found several salt fountains ; and in the mountains, not far from iSpanish-Town, is a hot bath, of great medicinal virtues. It gives relief in the dry belly-ach, which, excepting the bilious and yellow fever, is one of the most terrible endemial distempers of Jamaica. Sugar is the principal and most valuable production of this island. Cocoa was formerly cultivated in it to a great extent. It produces also ginger and the pimento, or, as it is called, Jamaica pepper ; the wild cinnamon-tree, whose bark is so useful in medicine ; the man- cliineel, whose fruit, though uncommonly delightful to the eye, contains a most virulent poison ; the mahogany, in such use with our cabinet-makers, and of the most valuable quality ; but this w ood begins to wear out, and of late is very dear ; excellent cedars, of a large size, and durable ; the cabbage-tree, remarkable for the WEST INDIES. 9iL hardness of Its wood, which when dry is inoonuptiblo, an J hardly yields to any kind of tool ; the paln:i.i, afroiding oil, much es:eemi?il by the natives, br^th in tboj ;ind incJirir.c ; the soap-tree, whose ber- ries answer all purposes of wabhing ; the mangrove and olive-bark, useful to tanners ; the fustic and red-wood, to the dyers ; and lately the log-wood. The indigo plant was formerly much cultivated ; and the cotton tree is still so. No sort of European grain grows here ; they have only maize or Indian-corn, Guinea-corn, peas of various kinds, hut none of them resembling ours, with variety of roots. Fruits, as has licen already observed, grow in great plenty } citrons, Seville and China orangey, common and sweet lemons, limes, ^ shadocks, pomegranates, niame>,'s, soursops, papas, pineapples, custard-a[)ples, star-apples, prickly pears, allicadapeiirs, melons, pompions, guavas, and several kinds of berries, also garden vegeta- bles in great plenty and good. Jamaica likewise supplies the apothe- cary with guaiacum, sarsaparilla, chinia, cassia, and tamarinds. The cattle bred on this island are but few ; their beef is tough and lean ; the mutton and lamb are tolerable: they have great plenty of hogs ; many plantations have hundreds of them, and their flesh is exceedingly sweet and delicate. Their horses are small, mettlesome, and hardy. Among the animals are the land and sea turtle, and the alligator. Here are all sorts of fowl, wild and tame, and in particular more parrots than in any of the other islands; besides paroquets, pelicans, snipes, teal, Guinea-hens, geese, ducks, and turkeys; the humming- bird, and a great variety of others. The rivers and bays abound with fish. The mountains breed numerous adders, and other noxious animals, as the fens and marshes do the guana and the gallewasp j but these last are not venomous. Among the insects are the ciror, or chegoe, which eats into the nervous or membranous parts of the flesh of the negroes, and sometimes of the white people. These insects get into any part of the body, but chiefly the legs and feet, where they breed in great numbers, and shut themselves up in a bag. As soon as the person feels them, which is not perhaps till a week after they have been in the body, they pick them out with a needle, or point of a penknife ; taking care to destroy the ba^ entirely, that none of the breed, which are like nits, may be left behind. They sometimes get into the toes, and eat the flesh to the very bnne. This island was originally a part of the Spanish empire in America. Several descents had been made upon it by the . English, prior t^ 1656 ; but it was not till this year that Jamaica was reduced undef our dominion. — Cromwell had fitted out a squadron, under P«no and Venables, to reduce the Spanish island of Hispaniola, but therf this squadron was unsuccessful. The commanders, of their own accord, to atone for this misfortune, made a descent on Jamaica, and, liaving carried the capital, St. Jago, soon compelled the whol« island to surrender. Ever since it has been subject to the English ; and the government of it is one of the richest places, next to that of Ireland, in the disposal of tlie crown, the standing salary being 2,5001. per annum, and the assembly commonly voting the gQvemor as much more; which, with theotlier perquisites, make it on the whole little inferior to 10,0001. per annum. ' We have already observed, that the government of all the British American islands is the same.namely.that kind which we have former- ly described under the name of a royal government. Tljeir rel'gion 30 2 M I, |fv: Jf 1 ii J.rci " 'I ii ■1" : -'li. 'i L>;i2 WEST INDIES. lof) is universally of ihc cliiircli of I'^r.gland ; though they !i:nc lio bi^ll(lp, tlic bisiinp of" LoiiJou's c(iniiin",sbiuy bciiu;; llie cliici rcligiuus lii.i;',i:Ur.itc in lluvso parts. JamaicM is (JiviJ(;cl intt) tlircc counties, MiJJlcscj;, Surry, and Cirn- wal], whlcli contain, in the v liole, twenty pariihes. 'I'he town vi Port- Royal, uhith now has not .ihove '200 houst-s, was formerly tlie capital (jf .Jamaica. It stood upon the point of ;i narrow neck of land, wliicli, towards the sea, formed j)arL (f liie bonier of a very Hue liarbour of its owii name. Tlie conveniency of this harljour, vhich was capable of containing a thousand sail oi' large ships, and of such depth as ti) allow tlii-'ni to load and unload with the greatest case, induced the inhahitants to build tlicir capital on this spot, tliough tlie f)lacc was a hot dry sand, and produced none of the necessaries of ife, not even t'resh water. But the adv.uita;',e of its li.ubour, ami tlie resort of j)iratcs, made it a place ot great consideration. Tlicse pirates v.ere called Buccaneers ; they Ibught with inconsiderate bravery, and then spent their fortune in this capital with an incon- siderate dissijiation. About the beginning (<f the year l()'.)2, no place, for its si/.e, could be compared to this town for trade, wealth, and an entire corruption of manners. In the mouth of June, in this year, aa eurthqual^e, which shook the whole island to the foundations, totally overwhelmed this city, so as to leave, in one <.|iuirter, not even tiiu- smalle.-,t vestige remaining. Jn two minutes, the earth oj>ened and swallowed up nine- tenths of the houses, and twt) thousand people. Tlie water gushed out from the openings of the earth, and timibleJ the people on heaps ; but some of them had the good ioi tui\e to catch hoUl of beams and rafters of houses, and were afterwards saved by boats. Severiil ships were wrecked in the harbour ; and the Swan ftig;ite, ^^hich lay in the dock to careen, was carried over the tops of sinking houses, and did not overset, but afforded a retreat to some hundreds of people, who saved theii lives upon her. An officer who Mas in the town at this time, says, the earth opened and shut very ipiick in some places, and he saw several people sink down to the middle, and others appeared with their heads just above ground, and were squeezed to death. At Savannah, above a thousand acres were sunk, with the houses and people in them ; die jilace, appearing for some time like a lake, w;»s afterwards dried up, but no houses were seen. In some parts mountains were split; and at one place a pl.intarion was removed to the distance of a mile. They again ro- built the city; but it was a second time, ten years after, destroyed 'oy a great fire. The extraordinary convenience of the harbour tempted them to build it once more ; and once more, in 1722, was it laid in rubbish by a hurricane, the most terrible on record. Such repeated calamities seemed to murk out this place as a devoted spot ; the in- habitants,'therefore, resolved to forsake it for ever, and to remove to the opposite side of the b;iy, where they built Kingston, which has become the capital of tlie island. It consists of upwards of sixteen liundred houses, many of them handsomely built, and, in the taste of these islands, as well as the neighbouring continent, one story high, with porticoes, and every conveniency for a comfortable habitation in that climate. The number of inhabitants is between 2G and 27>0()(\ Kingston now ranks as a city, having been incorporated by charter bearing date January 12, 1803. Not far from Kingston stands St» Jago de la Vega, or Spanish-Town; which, though at WEST INDIES. yS5 gli they linvL' iu> lie cliicf rcligiuus Surry, ;ind drn- ht's. 'I'hc towa t'b, was formerly a narrow neck of bort'.er of a very of this liar!)our, .ru;e iliips, and of the p^reateit ease, spot, tliou^h tile le necessaries of liavbour, ami the loration. Tlicso th inconsiderate I with an incon- r l()'.YJ., no place, :, wealth, and an ', in this year, an ndations, totally Icr, not even the irth oj)ened and housand jjcoplc. ;h, and tumbled foitune to catch rwards saved by ; and the Swan over the tops of retreat to si)nie An officer who I and shut very ak down to the ove ground, and sand acres were e, appearing for no houses were at ouo place u They again ro- sr, destroyed by uirbour tempted 2, was it laid in Such repeated :d spot ; the in- ad to remove to ton, which has ards of sixteen id, in the taste , one story higli, table habitation etween 2G and in incorporated from Kingston lich, though at p)re;ent hiforior to Kingston, not contaiaing more tl an "000 in- I'.aliitants, was one- the capital of Jamaica, and is still the seal of go\frnmenr, and thr M;)ce where the courts of ju'-.t ice aie held. C)i\ the ;5d ol' ()o; ber, 17Ht*» \v.is a dreadlid hurrica.-.c, which almost ovcrwhelnied the little sea port town of Savanna la Mar, and part of the asljifs-e*"^ country. Very few houses were lelt standing, ynil a gri'at numlier f lives were lost. Much dainag'„' was also dune, untl many persons pv 'shed, in other parts of the island. 'l"he number ^■[ \'. liite inhabitants in this island in I7"7 'was .'iO,(M)(); freed negroes 1 (),()()() ; maroons 1 1(V); and slaves 2''),()(l()j in all !'()L,()()(). I he v;-.lne of this island as Jiritish jn-opeity Is e>ti- nrated as follo^vs ; 2.10.000 negroes, at ."(il. --U'rliiig e:icl), tw.lve millions and a half; tlie landed and p<'rsonal property, and builJings to whiih they arc ;ippnrtenant, twenty-five millions irore ; the hoiist s and ])roperty in the to-wns, and the vessels employed in trade, out" million and a half ; in all thirty-nine million'^. The exjioris of Ja- rna.ica for one year, ending the .llh t)f January, IT^K, amounted in iierling money to 2,1.;(),1 121. 17s. ^'d. In 17''''7, the exports to the (Iiiiled States am(HUUed to ()0,0>),"1. ISs. and importations fiimi the Ignited States to the value oi J)0,()!;{)1. The whole produce of the island may be reduced to those liead; : First, sugars, of which article was exported to Crreal i''iitain in 17S7» 821',7O0) cwt. In 1790, IjlS.V^U) cwt. Most of this gf.es to Londc>n, r>ristol, and Glasgow, and some part of it to North America, in return for the beef, p(;rk, cheese, corn, peas, staves, plar.!-:':, pitch, and tar, which they have from hence. Second, rum, of which they ex- port about four thousand puncheons. 'I he rum of tiiis i';land is generally esteemed tlie best, and is the most used in (»reat I'ritjin. Third, melasses, in wliich they make a gre;it part of thoir returns for New England, where there are vast distilleries. All these are the produce of the grand staple, the sugar-cane. Accordir.g rn the late tcstinu)ny of a respectable planter in Jamaica, that idand has • 2H0,()()0 ;icres in canes, of which 21(),()00are annually cut, and nxike ^'rom GS to 70,()(]0 tons of sugar, and i,20(),000 gallons of rum. Fourth, cotton, of which they send out two thousand bags. The indigo, formerly much cultivated, is n.Av inconsiderable; but some cocoa and coilee are exported, with a consideritble ciuanlity of pep])er, ginger, drt;gs tor dyers and apothecitvics, sweet-meats, maiiorany, and mancliiiui . planks. Iktt some of the most considerable articles of their trade ire with the Spanish continent of New Spain ;a'.d Tchm I'irma ; for in the form.erthey cut great quantities of logv.ood, and both in the former and latter they carry on a vast :..ad protitable tr;ide in nei^-roes, and all kinds of European a;oodL'. liARli A nUlCS,] This island, the most easterly of all the C.uib- l)ees, i'^ situate in 59 degrees west long, and lo de:;recs north lat. it is 21 miL', in lengtli, and in breadth I !•. It eont.iins 10^),L7i) acres oi land, most of v.hich is under cultivation ; and is divided iiito five districts and eleven parishes, and contains fcMir tov.-ns : Ijridgetov, u, the capital, where the governor resides ; Ostins, or Charles town ; St. .lames, formerly called the ilole ; and Spei^ht's- town. \\ hen the I'.nglish, some time after the year 16'2'), Hrst lauded here, they found it the most savage and destitute pi-ice they had hitherto visited. It had not the least appearance of ever liaving been peopled even by savages. There was no kind of beasts of pasture or vi prey, no fruit, no herb, norroot, (it for supportiug the hte of man. Ein ^k> • I >i I h> ' i Si-'ii \'iA ^'fS M* WEST INDIES. Yet as the climate was so pood, and the soil appeared fertile, some penilemen of small fortunes in England resolved to become adven- turers thither. The trees were so lar^'e, and of a wood so liard and stub- born, that it was with great difficulty they could clear as much ground as was necessary for thfeir subsistence. By unremitting preseverancc, however, they brought it to yield them a tolerabK; stipport ; and they foGnd that cotton and indigo agreed well with the soil, and that tobacco, which was beginning to come into repute in England, answered tolerably. Those prospects.together with the disputes be- tween the king and parliament, which were beginning to break out in England, induced many new adventurers to transport themselves into this island. And what is extremely remarkable, so great was the increase of people in Barbadoes, twenty-five years after its first settle- ment, that in 1650 it contained more than .50,000 whites, and a much greater number of negroes and Indian slaves : the latter they acquired by means not at all to their honour; for they seized upon all those unhappy men, without any pretence, in the neighbouring islands, and carried them into slavery, a practice which has rendered the Caribbee Indians irrcconcileable to us ever since. They had begun, a little before this, to cultivate sugar, which soon rendered them extremely wealthy. The number of the slaves therefore was still augmented; and in 1676, it was supposed that their numbei amounted to 100,000, V'iiich, together with 50,000, make l.';0,0()0 on this small spot ; a de- gree of population imknown in Holland, in China, or any other partof the world most renowned for numbers. At this time Barbadoes em- ployed dOO sail of ships, one with another, of 150 tons, in their trade. Their annual exports, in sugar, indigo, ginger, cotton, and citron- water, were above .'iSOjOOOl. and their circulating cash at lujme was '200,0001. Such was the increase of population, trade, and wealth, in the course of fifty years. But since that time this island has been much on the decline ; which is to be attributed partly to the growth of the French sugar colonies, and partly to our own establishments in tlie nci-ghbouring isles, in 17H6 the numbers were, 1(),1'}7 whites ; 8^8 free people of colour; and 6*2,115 negroes. Their commerce consists in the same articles as formerly, though they deal in them to less extent. The exports on an average of the years 1784-, 1785, 1786, were 9554- hogsheads of sugar ; .0448 puncheons of rum ; 6320 bags of ginger ; 8331 bags of cottoni exclusive of small articles, as aloes, sv/eeimeats, &c. In 1787, 243 vessels cleared outwards, and tlie London niarket price of their cargoes amounted to 539,6051. 14s. lOtl. of which the value exported to the United States was 7'.'>i2\l\. 13s. 4d. Here is a college {the only ore in the West In- dies) founded and well endowed by colonel Codrington, who was a native of tliis isuind. Barbadoes, as well as Jamaica, has suiTercd much by hurricanes, fires, and the plague. On the 10th of October, 1780, a dreadful hurricane occasioned vast devastation in Barbadoes: great numbers of c'vellir.gs were destroyed, not one house in the island was wholly free from damage, many persons were buried in tiie ruins of the buildings, and many more were driven into the sea, and there perished. By this storm no less than 4,326 of the inhabitants lost their lives; and the damage done to the property was computed at 1,320,5641. Sr. CHRISTOPHER'S.] This island, commonly called by the sailors St. Kitt's, is situate in 62 degrees west long, and 17 degrees north lut. about 14 leagues from Antigua, und is i!0 miles long and WEST INDIES. n^: 7 broad. It lias its name from tho famnu^ Christopher ('(ilumbus, who discovered it lor the iSpaniurds. 'I'hat nation, Jiowcvur, ahaii- doned it, as iinworlliy (>! lliciv attention : ami in l(j'i<> it was settlril by tlic French and English conjointly, but cn'.iiely ceded to the latter by the peace of IJtr'Hht. Great ([irinlilies oi indigo were formerly rais^'d here. In iVVO the.- exports ani'iiuHcd to above 4l!),00Ul. sterlinj^ in su^!;ar, molasses, and rum, aiul near bOtX'l. I^r cotton. Besides cotton, ginj'or, and thetropital iruils, ii produ.i.d in 1 7H7, i^:i i ,.'J07 cwt of sugar, but in ITW only IIH.OU) ,.Hf. It is computed lliat this island contains (JOOO whites, and liliJXX) nci^r' es. In February IT^i-' it was taken by the IVeii'. li.butwas ; jsLored ai^ii.i. to Great liritain by the lre:ity of llo'i. I lie cai)it.d is I'asseterre. ANl'IGUA.] Situate in (il dci^roe^ west h'tig. and 17 iici.'ret'S north lat. Is of a circular iorm, near 20 miles over every way. Tliis island, vliich was formerly thou^^ht useless, is now i)nrerred to any of the rest o'i the En;.dish liarbouvs, beiu^j the best and safest us a dock-yard and an cstablishn;er,t for the royal navy. St. John'': is the port of greatest trade; and this capital, wliii.h, l)efi'ie the lire in 176i), was large and wealthy, is the orJinary seat ot the governor of the Leeward Islands. In 1771', the white inhabitants oi Antij^oia of all at:;es U'.id sexes wove '2500, and the enslaved ne!!;roe;. .i7,S(ih. NEVIS AND MONTSERRAT.] Iwo sniall islands, lyui- be- tween St. ("hribtopher's and Antigua, neither of them exceeding IK miles in circumference. In the former of these islands the present number of wiiites is stated not to evceed b(X), while the negroes amount to about 10,000; a disproportion which nccessaiily converts .dl such white men as arc not exempted by age and decrepitude into a well-regulated militia, among which there is a troop cc^nsistiiig of fifty lujrse, v/ell mounted and accoutred. English forces, on the Briiisli establishment, they have none, 'i'hc inliabitants of Monts<.'rrat amount to I.'IOO whites, and about I0,w()0 negroes. '1 he soil in tiiese islands is pretty much alike, light and sandy, but, notwithstanding, fertile in a high degree; and tkeir principal e.vports are deiivcd from the sugar-c.ine. Both were taken by the Freucii in the year 17^2, but restored at the ensuing peace. BARBUDA.J Situate in lo degrees north lat. and newest long. ['>5 miles north of Antigua, is 'JO miles in lengtli, and 12 in breadth. It is fertile, and has an indi/Tert nt road for shipping, Imt no direct trade with England. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in hus- bandry, and raising fresh provisions for the use of the neighbouring isles. It belongs to tlie Codrington family, and the inliabitants amount to ab( ut 1500. ANGUILLA.j Situate in 19 degrees nortli lat. GO miles north- ,vest of St. Christopher's, is about 'M miles IcMig and lO broad, '^ffiis island is perfectly levt-l, and the climate nearly the same with tli.it of Jamaica. — The inhabitants, who are not numerous, apply themselves to husbandry, and ieediiig of cattle DO. ''11 NIC A.] Situate in J(- deg. north l.it. and In 62 west long, lies aliCHit half-way between Guadaloupe and Martinico. it is near 2.S miles in length, and JH in breadth: it received its r.anie irom being discovored by Columbtis on a Sunday. The .soil of this i.sland is ttiin, and better ada{>ted to llie rearing ot coflce than sugar ; but the sides of the hiils bear the linest trees in the West Imlies, and the Island is well supplied with rividets of fine water. 'I'he French have always opposed uui' scttiiug here, bccauic it must cut oil their ^ : ► \ ill [ 'SJ 1 j)'^ h| .; ; v OSQ WEST INDIES. f^ 'J . I communication, in time of war, between Martlnico and GuadalotTpff, Howevpr, by the peace of I'aris in 17^>.% it was ceded in express terms to tlie English. On account of its situation between the princi- pal French islands, and Prince Rupert's Bay being one of the n)ost capacious in the West Indies, it has been judged expedient to form Dominica into a government of it?,elf, and to declare it a free port. It was taken by the French in 17/8; but restored again to Great Britain by the peace of 1783. St. VINCI^NT.] Situate in 13 (.]eg. north lat. and ^J deg. west long. ,50 miles north-west of Barbadocs, fJO miles south of St. Lucia, is about 17 miles in length, and 10 in breadth. It h cx'irenieJy fruitful, being a black mould upon a strong loam, the most proper for the raising of sugar. Indigo thrives here remarkably well, but this article is less cultivated than formerly throughout tlie West Indies. Many of the inhabitants are Caribbeans, and many here are also fugitives from Barbadoes .and the other islands. The Carib- beans were treated with so much injustice and .severity, after this island came into possession of the English, to whom it was ceded by the peace of 1763, that they greatly contributed tovvards enabling the French to get possession of it again in 1779 ; but it was restored to Great Britain by the treaty of 1783. GRANADA AND THK GRANADINES.] Granada is situate in 12 degrees north lat. and 6'2 degrees west long, about 30 leagues south-west of Barbadoes, and almost the s:tme distance north of New Andalusia, on the Spanish Main. This island is 28 miles in length, and 13 in breadth. Experience has proved that the soil is extremely proper for producing sugar, coffee, tobacco, and indigo ; and upon the whole it is as flourishing a colony as any in the West Indies of its dimensions. A lake on the top of a hill, in the middle of the island, supplies it with numerous streams, which adorn and fertilise it. Several bays and harbours lie round the island, which render it very convenient for shipping ; and it is not subject to hurric;»ncs. St. George's bay has a sandy bottom, and is extremely capacious, but open. In its harbour or careen ing-placc, one hundred large vessels may be moored with perfect safety. This island was taken from the French in 1762; confirmed to the English in 1763 4 taken by the French in 1779; and restored to the English in 1 783. In 1 79.> the French landed stmie troops and raised an insurrection here, v.'hich was not finally quelled till June 1796. TRINIDAD.] Situate between 59 and 62 dcg. west long, and in 10 deg. north hit. lies between the island •if 'fobago and the Spanish Main, from which it is separated by the Straits of Paiia. It is »boat 90 miles long, and 60 broad ; and is an unhealthlul but fruitful soil, producing sugar, Hue tobacco, indigo, ginger, variety of fruit, and some cotton trees, and Indian corn. It was taken by sir Waller Raleigh in 1.595, and by the French in 1676, who pliindered the island and extorted money from the inhabitants. It was cap- tured by the British arms in February 1797; and finally ceded to England bv the treaty of Amiens. VIRGIN ISLANDS.] A number of small islands between Porto Rico and the Leeward Caribbee islands, in about 18 deg. ot north Lit. The Spaniards gave them the name of the Virgin Islands in honour of the 11,000 virgins of the legend. They belong princi- pally to the Kngliih and the Danes, though the Spaniards claim some small ones near Porto Rico. Tortola, the principal of those SPANrSH AMF.RTCA. ViV ; was restored to V,-}iich belong to the Enjijlisli, is about 18 miles long nncl seven broiid : it produces excellent cotton, sugar and rum. V'igin. Ciord i, anotlier of these islands belonging to the Engli.sli, is about ilie same h'v/.e. The islands of St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix, which are a part of this groupe, belong to the Danes. LUCAYOS, oa BAHAMA ISLANDS,] Tlie Ba])amas arc situate to the south of Carolina, bctvvien I'i and '27 degrees north lat. and 73 and yl degrees west long. They extend along the coast of Florida quite down to the isle ot Cuba ; and are said to be ."(HJ in number, some of them only mere rocks ; but 12 c.f thorn are huge, fertile, and in nothing dilTeient from the soil ol C;iroliua: tJiry are, however, almost uninh.ibited, except pKVv-iJcnce, w'hich is ',.'(!() miles east of the Floridas ; thougli some others are larger and more fertile, on which the Englisli have plantations. Between them and the con- tinent of Florida is the Gulf of Bahama, or Florida. 1 hcsc islands were the first fruits of Cohmibus's discoveries; but they were not . known to the tngiish tiir](>o7,w-Iien captain Scyle, being driven among them in his passage to Carolina, gave his r.ame lo one of them ; and being a second time driven upon it, gave it tlic uan;e of Providence. The English, observing tlie advantageous situation of these islands for a check on the French and Spaniards, attempteil to settle on tlieru in the reign of Charles II. Some imlucky incidents prevented this settlement from being of any advantage, and the Isle of Providence became a harbour for the buccaneers, or pirates, who for a long time infested the American navi^^ation. This cblired the (government, in ]71f>, to send out captain Woodes Rogers with a fluet, to dislodge the pirates, and for making a settlement. This the captain etlbcted ; u fort was erected, and an independent cempany was statif)ncd in the island. Ever since this last settlement, these islands have been improving, though they advance but slowly, in time ot war, people gain considerably by the prizes condemned there ; and at all times by the wrecks, which are fr juent in this labyrinth of rocks and fchelves. 'I'he Spaniards captured these islands during tlie \merican war; but they were retaken by a detachment horn St. Augustine, April 7, 17«3. ii« SPANISH DOMINIONS in NORTH AMERICA. OLD MEXICO, OR NEW SPAIN. StTVATION AND KXTENT. leipal of those Mile ?s. Degrees. Sq. M;1es. Lonoth 2000? , . (S.'Jand 110 W. long. ? ...^ ,,,,^ ■*' h . > between •< r- < ,./x xr i ^ ^»^io,Uw<, Breadth bOO^ ut,^.^^LLll ^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^^ j^_ j^^^ ^ Boundaries, divisions.] BOUNDED by New Mexico, or Granada, on the north ; by the Gulf of Mexiccs on the north-east ; by Terra Firina, on the south-east; by the Pacific Ocean, on the south-west. It contains three audiences, viz. 936 SPANISH AMERICA. %v r- Hlfl fifi^f '^ V r Audiences. 1. Galicia, or Guadalajarra. C. Mexico Proper 3. Guatimala Chief Towns. (Cxiadali) ira Mexico. "W. long. 100. N,lat. 19-25. Acapulco Vera Cruz Guatimala* Bays.] On the North Sea are the gulfs or bays of Mexico, Campeachy, Vera Cruz, and Honduras ; in the Pacific Ocean, or i)outh Sea, are the bays of Micoya and Anrxapalla, Acapulco, and Salinas. Winds.] In the Gulf of Mexico, and the adjacent seas, there are strong north winds from October to March, abtnit the full and change of the moon. Trade winds prevail every where at a distance from land within the tropics. Near the coast, in the South Se;i, they have periodical winds, viz. monsoons, and sea and land breezes, as in Asia. Rivers, LAKES.] This country has many large rivers, some of which run into the Gulf of Mexico, and others into the Pacific Ocean. Among the former are the Alvarado, the Coatzacuako, and the Tabasco ; among the latter is the Guadalaxara, or great river. The principal lakes are those of Nicarajrua, Chappalan, and Pazaquaro ; those of Tct/.uco and Chalco occupy a great part of the vale of Mexico, which is the finest tract of country in New Spain. The waters of Chalco are sweet ; those of Tetzuco brackish. These two lakes are united by a canal. The lower lake, or lake Tetzuco, was formerly 20 miles long and 17 broad ; and, lying at the bottom of the vale, is the reservoir of all the waters from the surrounding mountains. The city of Mexico stands nn an island in this lake. Metals, MINERALS.] Mexico abounds in mines of gold andsilvcr, of the latter of which it is said they reckon above 1000 Gold is also found in the brooks and rivers, as well as in the inines. The chief mines of gold are in Veragua and New Granada, bordering upon Darien and Terra Firma. Those of silver, which are much more rich, as well as numerous, are found in several parts, but in none so much as in the province of Mexico. The mines of both kind* are always found in the most barren and mountainous parts of thi country ; nature making amends in one respect for her defects in another. The working of the gold and silver mines depend?; on the same principles. When the ore is dug out, compounded of several heterogeneous substances mixed with the precio'is metals, it is brokeu into small pieces by a mill, and afterwards washed, by which means it is disengaged from the earth, and other soft bodies winch clung to it. Then it is mixed with mercury, which, of all substances, has the strongest attraction for gold, anil likewise a stronger attraction for silver than the other substances which are united with it in the ore. By means of the mercury, therefore, the gold and j,ilver are first so parated from the heteroi:;eneous matter, and then, by straining and evaporation, they are disunited from the mercury itself. It has been computed that the revenues of Mexico amount to twenty-four millions of cnir money ; and it is well known that this, with the other provinces of Spanish America, supply the whole world with silver. • This city was swallowed unbv an earthquake on the 7tli of .Tunc, 177'\, ■when eight tliuasand faiiiiliei mstantly perished. New Giuliuiala ib built at suiae distaucc, and is well inhabiied. SPANISH AMERICA. 939 The mountains of Mexico likewise abound in mines of iron, copper, and lead. Here :irc also found various kinds of precious stoner ; as emeralds, tuv<iuoiscs, amethysts, and a few diamonds. Mineral springs are likewise abundant. Climate, soil.] Mexico, lyin^ for the most part within the torrid zone, is excessively hot ; and on the eastern coast, where the land is low, marshy, and constantly flooded in tliC rainy seasons, it is likewise extremely unwholesome. The inland country, however, as- sumes a better aspect, and the air is of a milder temperament. On the western side the land is not so low as on the eastern, much better in quality, and full of plantations. Tiie soil of Mexico in general is of a good variety ; and would not refuse any sort of grain, were the industry of the inhabitants to correspond with their natural ad- vantages. Pkooucr.] Mexico, like all the tropical countries, is r;ither more abundant in fruits than in grain. Pine-apples, pomeg.anates, orimges, lemons, citrons, figs, and cocoa-nuts, arc here in the greatest plenty and perfection. Mexico produces also a prodigious quantity of sugar, especially towards the Gulf of Mexico, and the provinces of Guaxaca and Guatlmala; so that here are more sugar-mills tlian in any other part of Spanish America. Cedar-trees and logwood abound about the bays of Campeachy and Honduras ; the maho-tree also, which has a bark with such strong fibres that tliey twist and make ropes of it. They have also a tree which is called light-wood, being as light as cork,' of which they make floats to c.irry their merchandise on the -ca-coasts. But the tvi'o most valuable products of this country, next to its gold and silver, are cochineal and cocoa. The former is of the animal kind, and of the species of the gall in- sects. It adheres to the plant called opuntia ; and sucks the juice of the fruit, which is of a crimson colour. It is from this juice that the cochineal derives its value ; which consists in dyeing all sorts of the finest scarlet, crimson, and purple. It is also used in medicine as a sudorific, and as a cordial ; and it is compiued that the Spaniards annually export no less than nine hundred thousand pounds' weight of this commodity to answer the purposes of medicine and dyeing. The cocoa, of which chocolate is made, grows on a tree of a middling size, which bears a pod about the size and shape of a cucumber, con- taining the cocoa. The Spanish commerce in this article is immense ; and such is the general consumption, as well as the external call for it, that a small garden of cocoa- trees is said to produce to the owner twenty thousand crowns a-year. At home it makes a principal part of their diet, and is found wholesome, nutritious, and suitable to the climate. This country likewise produces silks, but not in such quantity as to make any remarkable part of its export. Cotton is here in great abundance, and, on account of its lightness, is the com- mon wear of the inhabitants. Animals.] Horses, asses, sheep, goats, hogs, dogs, and cats, have been transported into this country from the old continent, and have all multiplied. Horned cattle .ire found wild, in herds of from 30 to 40,000, and are killed merely for the sake of tlielr hides. Among the native animals arc the puma and juquar, or American lion and tiger; the Mexican or huncliback dog, a kind of porcupine; wild rats, foxes, sqtiirrels, and arniadillos. The prodigious number of >>irds, their variety and qualities, have occasioned some authors to observe that, as Africa is the ccunirv wf beast.-., iu Mexico is the ! 1 ■i 5 I f^K> SPANISH AMERICA. ;'l 1 ^i '» ' fc country of birds. It is said there arc 200 spocics peculiar to this paiC 0> .America. PoPLri.AT'Os'.] Tlio pnpuhitinn of Mc.\icf) ]::].i been estimated at .')00,00() ,'''|.'-ii>'''i'^^^» '^"^ n;iilion of ncj^rocs niid iiuilauo-js, and two jnillions of native Indian---. Tlje number of inliahilants in all the Spmisli provinces in North America has been enniinucd at about .<cven millions ; of whom the Spaniards are supposed to amount to^ one million, the native Indians to iour niillioub, and the pcrsouii ct ITiixcd race;, to two millioi:s. CiiARACTKR OF IN i( A r,! T .\ NT s.] "Wc liavc already descri'^cd thc firigtnal inhabitants o! Mexico, ;ind the conquest of ihat couniry by the Spaniards. The present irihabitanto may be divided into v.-hiics, Indians, and negroes. Tlx^ v.-l;it05 arc either born in Old ."^'pain, or they arc Creoles, /'. c natives (jf Spanisli A\nierica. 'i'he iormer arc chiefly employed in government or trade, ai.d h;ive nearly the same character with the Spania^-ds in F.urope ; only a still greater j)ortion of pride, for they consider tlicnisclves as entitled to very high dis- tinction as natives of Europe, and look upon the other inhabitants as jiiany degrees beneath them. The Creoles have all t!ic bad qualities of the Spaniards, from whrtm they are descended, without tliat cou- rage, firmness, and patience, which constitute the praiseworthy part t)i the Spanish character. Naturally weak and cfTeminate, they dedicate the greatest part of thtir lives to loitering and inactive plea- sures. JjUxurloiis without variety or elegance, and expensive with great parade and little convenience, their general character is no more than a grave and specious insignificance. From idleness and constitution, their whole business is amour and intrigue; and their ladies, of consequence, are not at all distinguislied for their ch;isiity and domestic virtues. The Indians, who, notwithstanding the de- vastations of the first invaders, remain in great numbers, are become, by continual oppressions and indignity, a dejected, timorous, and miserable race of mortals. The negroes here, like tliose ia other parts of the world, are stubborn, hardy, and as well adapted for the slavery they endure as any human creatures can be. Such is tlie general character of the inhabitants, not only in Mexico, but the greatest part of Spanish America. Cni-Fr,rifii:F iowns, r.Dirici-s.] The city of xMcxico, ilie capital of this part of Spanish America, is situate in the delir>htful v.ile of Mexico, on several small islands in tlie lake Tet/.cuco. It is built with admirable regularity, the litrects being straiglit and crossuig eacli olhc: at right angles. It is the ;e!.' of an archbishop, and contains **;','• c)nn-cl:es and 2J monasteries and nunneries; there is also a tri- bunal of the inquisition, a mint and a university. All the public cditiccs, especially the churches, are magnificent, and the mo.t pro- in-tii display oi'wcaltli is ?ecn in every pait of the city. The number oi inhabitants, by a late accurate enumeration made by the magis- trates and priests, exceeds 2(){),()00. N'cra Cruz, situate on the Gnlf of Mexico, is the great commercial port of Neu- Spain. It is perhaps one of the most considerable places for trade in the world*, being the centre of the American treasure, and the magazine for all liie mechandize sent from New Spain, or that is transported tlu'lher from Europe. It is, however, unhealthy from the n;arshy ground in which it stands ; most of the h(«uscs are of wood; and the inhabitants, it is said, do not exceed Ml'O,). SPANISH AMERICA. 9H ulf.irto this pa: C Acnpulco is situate on a bay (if the Pacific Ocean, and is tlie chief port on this sea, the liarbour being so spacious that several liundred ships may ride in it \vithout inconvenience opposite to the town : on llie east side is a high and strong cattle, with guns oF a hirge size. It is a place of groat trade, in consetjuence of being the port from vliich the galleon annually sails for Manilla. CoMMi-R.cE.] The trade of thi;. country is immense. From tlie port of Vera Cm/., Mexico pours her weulth over the v;hole world ; and receives in return the numberless luxuries and necessaries wliich Europe affords to her, and whicli tlie aidolence of her inhabitants will never permit them to acquire for thcm.selves. To this port (bclore the galleons were laid aside, and the subsec[uent new arrangements) the ileet from Cadiz, called the Fluta, consisting of three men of war as a convoy, and lourteeu large m.erchant ships, annually arrived about the beginning of November, its cargo consisted of every com- modity and manufacture of Europe ; and there are few natit-ns but have more concern in it than the Spaniards, who send out littie more than wine and oil. 'I he profit of these, witli the freight and coni' mission to the mercluints, and duty to tlie king, are almost the only advantages which Spain derives from her American conmieice. When all the goods were landed and diiposed of at I^a Vera Cru/., the fleet took in the plate, preciou:; stones, and other commodities, ior Europe. Some time in May tliey were ready to depart. 1' rom J.,a Vera Cruz they sailed to the Havannah, in the isle of Cuba ; whicli was the rendezvous wiiere they met tl\e galleons, another tleer, v>hich car- ried oi) the trade of Terra Firma by Canhagcna, and of Peru by Panama and Porto Hello. When all were collected, and provided with a convoy necessary for their safety, they steered ior Old S])ain. Atapulci) is the sea-port by which the coiumunication is kvpt up between the diil'erent parts of the ;-.pani.sh empire in America and the East Indies. Abotit the month of December the g-reat galleon, at- tended by a large ship as a convoy, auniudly arrived liere. Tiit* cargoes of these ships (for the convoy, though in an under-hajid nijiiuier, likewise carried goods) consisted of all the rich conmKHiiti^-. and manufactures of the East. At the same time the ainieal i,liip from lama, the capital of Peru, came in, and was not cijuiputed to briiig less tiian two millions of pieces-of-cight in silver, bcsidt'^ ([uick- siiver, and other valuable commodities, to be laid out in the purchase of the galleon's cargoe-:. Several other ships, from different p;in> <f Chili and Peru, met upon the same occasioit. A great fair, in wliicli the commodities of all parts of the world were bartered it a- one an- other, lasted tliirty days. The galleon then prepared for her voyage, loaded with silver, and such European good;; as h.ad been thou!";!'.!. necessary. TJie Spaniards, though this trade was carried on entirely through their hands, and in the very lieart of their domini.ms, were comparatively but small gainers by it. For as they allowed the Duttii, Great Britain, and other commercial states, to furnisli the i^reatcr part of the cargo of tlie Hota, so tlie Spanish inliahitauts tjf the Piii- lippines, tainted with the same indolen(.e which luined their Furope.iU ancestors, permitted the ( hinese merchants to fuvni^.a the greater part of the cargo of the galleon. Since IT'i"', however, the galleons have been laid aside ; and smaller vessels, called register ships, cm- pU^yed. In 1 7(3f monthly packets were established between Coi'u:m:i and the Havannali. The trade to C'uba, as 31*^0 to Yuc;T»tau and Campeachy, has been laid open to all iSpain ; and in 177t a free ' iik Il 'i 1 , 942 SPANISH AMERICA. intercoriTse was permitted between Mexico and Peru. This liberal policy will, no doubt, considerably increase the trade and wealth of these countries. Government.] The civil government of Mexico is administered by tribunals called Audiences, which bear a resemblance to the old parliaments in France. In these courts the viceroy of the king of Spain presides. His employment is the greatest trust and power which his catholic majesty has in his disposal, and is perhaps the richest government entrusted to any subject in the world. The great- ness of the viceroy's office is diminislied by the shortness of its duration : for as jealousy is the leading feature of Spanish politics in whatever regards America, no officer is allowed to retain his power for more than three years ; which, no doubt, may have a good effect in securing the authority of the crown of Spain, but is attended with unhappy consequences to the miserable inhabitants, wlio become a prey to every new governor. Religion.] The estalilished religion of this country, and through- out Spanish America, is the Roman catholic, in all its bigotry and superstition. The clergy are extremely numerous in Mexico ; and it has been computed that priests, monks, and nuns of all orders, make upwards of a-fifth of all the white inhabitants, both here and ia the other parts of Spanish America. The people are superstitious, ig- norant, rich, lazy, and licentious : with such materials to work upon, it is not remarkable that the church should enjoy one-fourth of the revenues of the whole kingdom. History.] The history of Mexico has already been given in our account of the discovery and conquest of America. Mi: NEW MEXICO INCLUDING CALIFORNIA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 2000? , ^ 5 94- and 126 west longitude. Ir-r^^nnr, Breadth HOO S ^^^ween i ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^J^^^^^ J 600,000. Boundaries.] BOUNDED by unknown lands on the north; by Louisiana on the east ; by Old Mexico, and the Pacific Ocean, on the south ; and by the same ocean on the west. Divisions. North-east division South-east division JSouth division Western division Subdivisions. New Mexico Proper Apacheira Sonora California, a peninsula St. Juan Chief Towns. , Santa Fe, W. Ion; 104, N. lat. 36. St. Antonio Tuape Climate, soil.] These countries, lying for the most part within the temperate zone, have a climate in many places extremely agree- able, and a soil productive of every thing either for profit or delight. In California, however, the heat is great in summer, particularly SPANISH AMERICA. S13 n given in our towards tlic SM-roa?!t; bur in the inland country the climate Is more temperate, and in '.vn.tf. tMon cold. F/CK Of T.iK Ct>UN ip.Y, PRODUCE.] THc natural history of these countries is as yet in its iiif.mcy. -he "^paniards themselves know little of them, and the little they know they are unwilling to commu- nicite. It is certain, however, that in general the provinces of New Mexico and Calilbrnia arc extremely beautiful and pleasant ; the face of the country is agreeably varied with plains, intersected by rivers, and adorned with gentle eminences covered with various kinds of trees, some producinp: ejccellcnt fruit. With respect to the value of the gold-mines in these countries nothing positive tan be asserted. Their natr.ral productions are undoubtedly sufficient to render them advantageous colonies to any but the Spaniards. In California there falls in the morning a great quantity of dew, which, settling on the rose-leaves, c;indies, and becomes hard like manna, having all the sweetness of refined sugar v.ithout its whiteness. There is also •another very singular production : in the heart of the country there are plains of salt, quite firm, and clear as crystal ; which, considering the vast quantities of fish found on the coasts, might render it an m- valuable acquisition to any industrious nation. Inhauitants, GOVERNMENT.] The Spanish settlements here are comparatively weak: though they are increasing every day, in pro- portion as new mines are discovered. The inhabitants are chiefly Indians, whom the Spanish missionaries have in many places brought over to Christianity, to a civilised life, and to ral'ie corn and wine, which they now export pretty largely to Old Mexico. The inha- bitants and government here do not materially differ from those of Old Mexico. HiferoRY.] California was discovered by Cortez, the great con- queror of IMexico. Our famous navigator, sir Francis Drake, took possession of it in 1578, and his right was confirmed by the principal king or chief in the whole country. This title, however, the go- vernment of Great Britain have not hitherto attempted to vindicate, though California is admirably situate for trade, and on its coast has a pearl-fishery of great vuiue. EAST AND WEST FLORIDA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 6U0 > , ^^„ „^ ( hO and 91 west longitude ? ^-. ^^.^ 13readth 400 [ **«'^^*" { 25 and 32 north latitude \ ^°'°°^- Boundaries.] THIS country is bounded by Georgia on the north ; by the Mississippi on the west ; by the Guif of Mexico on the south ; aud by the Bahama Straits on the east. RxvKRs.] 'J'he principal of these is the Mississippi, which Js one of the finest rivers in the world, as weil as the largest ; for, including its turnings and windings, it is supposed to run a course of more than 'JOOO miles. The Mobile, the Apalachicola, and St. John's rivers, are also lar^ and noble streams. , t ',\: -.i| '■1% 'kii(i''fti 9U' SPANISH AMlHIirCA. MhTALS, MiNHRALS.] Tliis coiintry produces iron ore, copper* quic!;>ilver, and pit-co.tl : aincthysts, turquoises, and oihor precious itones, it is said, have also been lound here. Ci.iMATi , SOIL, PKonuci;.] Tlic climate is little difForcnt frnrn that of Georgia. The soil is various in ditierenl parts. Kast Flo- rida, near tiie sea. and forty miles b.ick, ia flit and sandy. 15ut even the country rouutl St. AiiLjustine, in all appearance the worst in the province, is far from beintj; unfruitful ; it produces two crops of In- dian corn a-ye >r ; tlie <j;arden vegetables are in great perfection; t-lie orange and lemon trees grow here, without cultivation, to a large .si/e, and produce better fruit than in Spain and Portugal. The in- land country, towards the hills, is extremely lich and fertile ; producing spontaneously the fruits, vegetables, and gums, that are common to Georgia and the Carolinas, and is likewise favourable to the rearing of I'Airopean produclions. This country also produces rice, indigo, and cochineal : mahogany grows on the southern parts of the penin- sula, but inferior in size and quality to that of Jamaica. Animals."] Horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, are numerous, es- pecially in tlie western part of this country. Among the wild animals are the buil'alo, panther, wild-cat, otter, racoon, flying squirrel, opossum, armadillo, and several kinds of serpents. Birds are in great variety and numerous ; and the rivers abound in fish, but are, at the same time, infested with voracious alligators. Ciiii-F TOWNS.] The chief town in West Florida is Pensacola, N. lat. 30-'2'-2, W. long. S7--0; which is situated within the bay of the same name, on a sandy shore that can only be approached by small vessels. The road is, however, one of the best in all the Gulf of Me.\ico ; in which ships may lie in safety against any kind of wind, being surrounded by land on every side. St. Augustine, the capital of Flast Florida, N. lat. 29-4.7, W. long. 81-12, runs along the shore, and is of 'in oblong form, divided by four regular streets, crossing each other at right angles. The town is fortiried witii bastions, ai*Pil enclosed with a ditch. It is likewise defended by a castle, which is called Fort St. .John ; and the whole is furnished with cannon. At the ent/.nce into the harbour are the north and south breakers, which form two cliannels, whose bars, at low tides, have eight feet water. Government.] The government is in general like that of tlie other Spanish colonies in America : but all the settlers from the United States, or other countries, r.re under the immediate orders of the mi- litary commandants, and subject to martial law, with an appeal, from stage to stage, up to the viceroy of Mexico. History.] This country was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1497. It has frequently changed masters, belonging alternately to the French and Spaniards. The French first formed a small es- tablishment in Florida in 1.564, from which they were driven in the following year by the Spaniards, who then began to form settlements themselves. At the peace of 17()'^ Florida was ceded to England, in exchange for the Havannah, which had been takenfrom the .Spaniards. Wiiile it was in possession of the English, it was divided into East and West Florida, separated by the Apalachicola. During the American war, in Uic year 17H1, both the Floridas were reduced by the .Spaniards, to whom they were confirmed by the peace of 17^;!. Ill ore, copper, oihor precious difFcrcnt from rts. Kast Flo- idy. IJuteven le worst in the vo crops of In- perfection; the :ion, to a large igal. The in- tile;producin|^ ire common to to the rearing s rice, indigo, ;sof the penia- i. numerous, es- Jng the wild acoon, flyin;^ •pents. Birds md in fish, but "S. is Pensucola, lin the bay ol" pproached bv 1) all the GulV any kind oi' •i'Jj, W. long. I, divided by <. The town It is likewise nd the whole bour are the !iose bars, at ! that of tJie m the United Ts of the mi- appeal, from an Cabot, in Iternately to a small es- Iriven in the i settlements England, in e Spaniards, d into East During the reduced by ce oi l7St}. '* i?i :| i'^*1i "h-^'V-.c^ii^^iri-P^^^t., r^^lSf^ g—n. -r-- n -~^ Tn-T- - i J'/.r/.-.Wf'U. ( 9i5 } SPANISH DOMINIONS in SOUTH AMERICA, TERRA FIRMA, or CASTILE DEL ORO. ft Miles. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Degrees. Fq. Miles. Length UOO ) , ,„^^„ S (JO and 82 west lonpr. } -n^^n^ Breadth 700 \ ''«'^«^" \ the equator, and 121^. lat. i ^00.000 Boundaries.] BOUNDED by the North Sea (part of the At- lantic Ocean) on the north ; by the same sea and Surinam on the east ; by the country of the Amazons and Peru on the south ; and by the Pacific Ocean and New Spain on the west. Divisions, Subdivisions. Chief ToitfftSm {■<' '1. Terra Firma Proper,' or Darien The northern dlvi- sion contains the^ provinces of 2. Carthagena . '^- 3. St. Martha 4. Rio de la Hacha 5 Venezuela 0'. Comana 7. New Andalusia, or Paria The southern dlvi-r 1. New Granada sion contains the < provinces of C2. Popayan ■:. Porto Beilo Panama, W. long. 80« 21. N. lat. 8-47. Carthagena , , -^'; S. Martha ■ #' Rio de la Hacha ,1*. Venezuela , Comana • > St. Thomas to Santa Fe de Bagotai Popayan a^M. Isthmus OF Darien.] The Isthmus of Darien, or Terra Firma Proper, joins North and South America. A line drawn from Porto Bello, in the North, to Panama in the South Sea, or rather a little west of these two towns, is the proper limit between North and South America; and here the isthmus or neck of land, is only sixty miles over. Bays.] The principal bays in Terra Firma are, the Bay of Panama and the Bay of St. Michael's, in the South Sea ; the Bay of Porto Bello, the Gulf of Darien, Sino Bay, Carthagena Bay and harbour, the Gulf of Venezuela. Rivers.] The chief rivers are the Rio Grande, the Darien, the Chagre, and the Oronoque, or Oronoico, which latter is remarkable for its singularly winding course, the length of which, with all its windings, is estimated at 1S80 miles, it is al$o remarkable for rising and falling once a year only; rising gradually during the space of five months, continuing stationary one month and then falling for fi^^e months, and again continuing stationary one mcmh. This is probably occasioned by the rains which fall on the mountains called the Andes, where it has its source. -* -f";.!^* Metals, MINERALS.] There were formerly rich mines of gQM here, which are now in a great measure exhausted. The silver, iron* 4n('l copper mines, have been since opened, and the inhablt4nts ^nd tfinoraJds, sapphires, and ether precious stones. -- ' ■ -^ y P 0'16 SPANISH AMERICA. «i.!!l. ■I'll: I a J i! Cmmate.] The climate here, particular!}' in the northern divi- sions, is extremely hot ; and it was found by UUoa, that the heat of the Warmest" d.iy in Paris is continual in Carthagena : the excessive heats raise the vapour of the sea, which is precipitated in such rains as seem to threaten a general deluge. Great part of the country, therefore, is almost continually flooded ; and this, together with the excessive heat, so impregnates the air with vapours, that in man7 provinces, p.irticularly about Popayan and Porto Bello, it is ex- tremely unwholesome. Soil, AND PRODUCE.] The soil of this country, like that of the greater part of South America, is wonderfully rich and fruitful. It is impossible to view, without admiration, the perpetual verdure of the woods, the luxuriancy of the plains, and the towering height of the mountains. This, however, only applies to the inland country, for the coasts are generally barren sand, and incapable of bearing ftny species of grain. The trees most remarkable for their dimen» sions are the caobo, the cedar, the maria, and balsam-tree. The manchineel-tree is particularly remarkable : it bears a fruit resem- bling an apple, but whigh, under this specious appearance, contains ajnost subtle poison, aj»;ainst which common oil is found to be the best antidote. The hal?ella de Carthagena is the fruit of a species of willow, and contains a kernel resembling an almond, but less white and extremely bitter. This kernel is found to be an excellent and never-failing remedy for the bite of the most venomous vipers and serpents, which are very frequent all over this country. Animals] In treating of North America, we have taken notice of many of the animals that are found in the southern parts. Among those peculiar to this country, the most remarkable is the sloth, or, as it is called by way of derision, the Swift Peter, It bears a re- semblance to an ordinary monkey in shape and size, but is of a most wretched appearance, with its bare hams and feet, and its skin all over corrugated. He stands in no need of either chain or hutch, never stirring tmless compelled by hunger ; and he is said to bs? several minutes in moving one of his legs, nor will blows make him mend his pace. When he moves, every effort is attended with such a plaintive, and at the same time so disagreeable a cry, as at once produces pity and disgust. In this cry consists the whole defence of this wretched animal ; for on the first hostile approach it is natural for him to be in motion, which is always accompanied with disgustful howlings, so that his pursuer flies much more speedily in his turn, to ke beyond the reach of this horrid noise. When this animal finds no wild fruits on the ground, he looks out with a great deal of pains for a tree well loaded, "which he ascends with the utmost Hneasiness, movihg, and crying, and stopping by turns. At length having ttiDunted, he plucfc* off all the fruit, and throws it on the ground, to iave himself such another troublesome journey ; and rather than be fktigued with coming down the tree, he gathers himself into a ball) and with a shriek drops to the ground. The monkeys in these countries are very numerous ; they keep to- ffether twenty or thirty in company, rambling over the woods, leaping from tree to tree ; and if they meet with a single person he is in danger of being torn to pieces by them ; at least they chatter and make a frightful noise, throwing things at him ; they hang themselves by the txify on the 4)0Ughs, und s«em to threaten him all the way he le northern divl- that the heat of a : the excessive :ed in such rains t of the country, )gether with the s, that in man7 Bello, it is ex- like that of the and fruitful. It letual verdure of vering height of inland country* pable of bearing for their dimen- Isam-tree. The s a fruit resem- jarance, contains found to be the fruit of a species Imnnd, but less )be an excellent venomous vipers :ountry. ave taken notice , parts. Among is the sloth, or. It bears a re- but is of a most and its skin all chain or hutch, \e is said to bs blows make him ended with such cry, as at once whole defence of ach it is natural d with disgustful ly in his turn, to s animal finds no U deal of pains imost uneasiness, length having n the ground, to d rather than be iself into a ball) IS ; they keep to- iC woods, leaping person he is in they chatter and hang themselves n all the way he SPANISH AMERICA. 947 jpassGs : but where two or three peoplb are together, they usually scamper away. Natives.] Besides the Indians in this country, who fall under our general description of the Americans, there is another species, of a fair complexion, delicate habit, and of a smaller stature than the ordinary Indians. Their dispositions too are more soft and effe- minate; but what principally distinguishes them is their large weak blue eyes, which, unable to bear the light of the sun, see best by moonlight, and from which they are therefore called Moon-eyed Indians. Inhabitants, commeuce, chief towns.] We have already mentioned how this country fell into the hands of the Spaniards. The inhabitants therefore do not materially differ from those of Mexico. To what we have observed with regard to this country, it is only necessary to add, that the original inhabitants of Spain arfe variously intermixed with the negroes and Indians. These inter- mixtures form various gradations, which are carefully distingui; had from each other, because every person expects to be regarded in pro- portion as a greater share of the Spanish blqod runs in his veins. The first distinction, arising from the intermarriage of the whites with the negroes, is that of the mulattoes. which is well known. Next to these are the Tercerones, produced from a white and a mulatto. From the intermarriage with these and the whites, arise the Quarterones, who, though still near the former, are disgraced with a tint of the negro blood. But the produce of these and the whites are the Quinterones, who, it is said, are not to be distinguished from the real Spaniards, but by being of a still fairer complexion. The same gradations are formed in a contrary order, by the inter- mixture of the mulattoes and the negroes : besides these, there are d thousaind others, hardly distinguishable by the natives themselves. The commerce of this country is chiefly carried on from the ports of Panaiha, Carthagena, and Porto Bello, which are three of the most considerable cities in Spanish America ; and each containing several thousand inhabitants. Here there are annual fairs for American, Indian, and European commodities. Among the naitural merchan- dise of Terra Firma, the pearls found on the coast, particularly in the Bay of Panama, are not the least considerable. An immense number of negro slaves are employed in fishing for these, who have arrived at wonderful dexterity in this occupatioti. They are some- times, however, devoured by fish, particularly the sharks, whiW they dive to the bottom, or are crushed against the shelves of t1ie rocks. The government of Terra Firma is oh the same fooling with that of Mexico. /.T i-r ••-- -' •ujk . PERU. n'. ■ I . . >( i- SITUATION AND EXTENT*, '■ ?-, Miles.' Degrees. Sq. Milci. Length 1800 ? t^.„,^ 5 the equator and 25 S. lat. ) q^^ ^a Breadth SOQ \ ^'^*^ { 60 and W W. Itnf. J ^^O.OCO m H '■ .-si 1^: iwj I ■>:, mi' 3P 2 94-8 SPANISH AMERICA. I .'■M ^ l?^f il! If BouNiURiEs.1 BOUNDED, by Terra Firma on the north J Vy Ama/onia and Paraguay on the east j by Chili on the south ; and by the Pacific Ocean on the west. Divisions The northern Provinces* ChiefTonvns, 5 Quito division] Quito I ^^^'^^ 1 f Lima, 76-49 W. long. The middle division > Lima, or Los Reyes ^ 12-11. S.lat. 3 ( Cusco, and Callao The southern division \ Los Charcos \ J^^^^^ : ' ' '. * J i rorco ' ' ■ '■;■■. Mountains.] Peru is separated from Amazonia and Paraguay by a chain of mountains the most extensive, and of which some of the summits are the highest in the world. These are the Cordellira cle los Andes, or chain of the Andes, of which an account has already been given in the general description of America. Rivers.] The rivers Granada, or Cagdalena, Oronoque, Ama- zon, or Plate, rise in the Andes. Many other rivers rise also in the Andes, and fall into the Pacific Opean. Metals, minerals.] There are many gold mines In the northern part, not far from Lima. Silver too is produced in great abundance in various provinces ; but the old mines are constantly decaying, and new ones daily opened. Tlie towns shift with the mines. That of Potosi, when tlie silver there was found at the easiest expence (for now having gone so deep it is not so easily brought up), contained V>0,000 souls, Spaniards and Indians, of which the latter were six to one. Peru is likewise the only part of Spanish America which pro- duces quicksilver, an article of immense value, considering the various purposes to which it is applied, and especially the purification of gold and silver. The principal mine of this singular metal is at a place called Guancavelica, discovered in 15G7, where it is found in a whitish mass, resemTbllng brick ill burned. The substance is vola- tilized by fire, and received in steam by a combination of glass ves- sels, in which it condenses by means of a little water at the bottom of each vessel, and forms a pure heavy liquid. In Peru likewise is found the new substance called //a//«a, which maybe considered as an eighth metal, and, from its superior qualities, may almost vie with gold itself. iji .U >-i • ^ CuMATK, SOIL, PRODUCE.] Though Pcru lies within the torrid zone, yet having on one side the South Sea, and on the other the great ridge of the Andes, it is not so hot as other tropical countries. The sky too, which is generally claudy, defends it from the direct rays of the sun ; yet, what is extremely singular, it never rains in 1a»wef Peru: bnt- this defect is sufliciemiy supplied by a soft kindly dew which falls gradually every night on the ground, and so refreshes the plants and grass, as to produce In many places the great- est fertility. In Quito, however, they have prodigious rains, at- tended with violeht .storms of thunder and lightning. Along the sea-coast in Peru is generally a dry barren tian^, except by the banks of rivers, where it Is extremely fertile, as are all the low lands in the inland country. This country produces fruits peculiartO the climate and jiK St of those of Europe. The culture of maize, of pimento, and ^'dtlcm, \\!liich was found esUblisl\ed there, has opt been peg- SPANISH AMERICA. 9Jf) Wt been neg- lected, and that of wlicat, barley, cassava, potatoes, sugar, as also of the olive and vine is attended to. A priiicipal article in the pro- duce and commerce of this country is the Peruvian burk, known better by the name of Jesuits* bark. The tree which produces this invaluable drug grows principally in the mountainous parts of Peru, and particularly in the province of Quito. 'I he best bark is always produced in the high and rocky grounds; the tree which bears it is about the size of a cherry tree, and produces a kind of fruit rcseni- bhng the almond : but it is only the bark which has those excellent qualities that reader it so useful in intermitting fevers, and other dis- orders to which daily experience extends the application of it. Guinea pepper, or Cayenne pepper, as we call it, is produced in the greatest - abundance In the vale of Africa, a district in the southern parts of Peru, from whence it is annually exported to the value of <jOO,000 crowns. Animals.] The principal animals peculiar to Peru are the lama, the vicunna, and the guanaeo. The lama has a small head, resem- bling that of a horse and a sheep at the same time. It is about the size of a stag, its upper lip is cleft like that of a hare, through which, when enraged, it spits a kind of venomous juice, which inHames the part it falls on. The flesh of the lama is agreeable and salutary, and the animal is not only useful in affording a tine kind of wool and food, but also as a beast of burden. It can endme amazing fatigue, and will travel over the steepest mountains with a burden of sixty or seventy pounds. It feeds very sparingly, and never drinks. 'I'he vicunna is smaller and swifter than the lama, and produces wool still finer in quality. In the vicunna is found the bezoar stone, regarded as a specific against poison. 'I'he guanaeo is much larger than the lama, its wool is long and harsh ; but in shape they are nearly alike. Natural clriositiks.] Among these may be classed the vol- canoes of the Andes, which, from the midst of immense heaps of snow, pour forth t(>rrents of tiery matter and clouds of smoke. Here are streams which, in their course, cover whatever they puss over with a stony incrustation ; and fountains of liquid matter, called coppey, resembling pitch and tar, and used by seamen for the same purpose. Population, character of inhabitants.] The population of Peru has never been ascertained with any degree of precision. '\he number of inhabitants in the principal cities has been estimated at about i'00,00(>. The manners of the people in this country do not remarkably differ from those of the whole Spanish dominions- Pride? and laziness are the two predominant passions. It is said, by th^ most authentic travellers, that tlie manners of Old Spain have dege*- nerated in its colonies. The Creoles, and all the other descendants of the Spaniards, a'^cording to the above distinctions, are guilty of many mean and pilfering vices, which a true-born Castilian could not think of but with detestation. This, no doubt, in pari arises from the contempt in which all but the real natives of Spain aie lield in the Indies, mankind generally behaving according to the treat- ment they raeet witli from others. In Lima the Spanish pride has made the greatest descents; and many of the first nobility are em- ployed in commerce. CiTiKS, manutactures, commercf.] We join these articles be- cause of their intimaie connection; for, except in the cities we shall ijes*;ribej there is no commerce worth mentioning. 'J he city of Limji ■ "'i ri if. lit. nl,.. 'r-i 950 SPANISH AMERICA. ! i!i| :• ^ ! rut Vv, i\ 'J ' •>"'. >)/ is the capital of Pera : its situation, in the middle nf a spaciouls and delightful valley, was fixed upon by the famous Pizarro as the most ? roper for a city, which he expected would preserve his memory. t is so well watered by the river Rimac, that the inhabitants, like those of London, command a stream, each for his own use. There are many very magnificent structures, particularly churches, in this city ; though the houses in general are built of slight materials, the equility of the climate, and want of rain, rendenng stone houses unnecessary ; and, besides, it is found, that these are more apt to suffer by shocks of the earth, which are freqnent and dreadful all over this province Lima is about two leagues from the sea, ex- tends in length two miles, and in breadth one and a quarter. It con- tains about 51,000 inhabitants, of whom the whites amount to a sixth part. One remarkable fact is sufficient to demonstrate the wealth of this city. When the viceroy, the duke de la Paluda, made his entry into Lima, in 1682, the inhabitants, to do him honour, caused the streets to be paved with ingots of silver, to the amount of seventeen millions sterling. All travellers speak with amazement of tlie decorations of the churches with gold, silver, and precious stones, which load and ornament even the walls. The merchants of Lima may be said to deal with all the quarters of the world, and that both on their own accounts, and as factors for others. Here all the pro- ducts of the southern provinces are conveyed, in order to be ex- changed at the harbour of Lima, for such articles as the inhabitants ©f Peru stand in need of ; the fleets from Europe and the East Indies land at the same harbour, and the commodities of Asia, Kurope, and America, are there bartered for each olher. What there is no im- mediate sale for, the merchants of Lima purchase on their own accounts, and lay up in warehouses, knowing that they must soon find an outlet for them, since by one channel or other they have a com- munication with almost every commercial nation. But all the wealth of the inhabitants, all the beauty of the situation, and fertility of the climate of Lima, are not sufficient to compensate for one disaster, which always threatens, and has sometimes actually befallen them. In the year 174-7, a most tremendous^earthquake laid three- fourths of this city level with the ground, and entirely demolished Calliio, the port town belonging to it. Never was any destruction more terrible or complete j not more than one of three thousand inhabitants being left to record this dreadful calamity, and he by a providence the most singular and extraordinary imaginable. — This man, who happened to be on a fort which overlooked the harbour, perceived in one minute the inhabitants running from their houses in the utmost terror and confusion ; the sea, as usual on such occa- sions, receding to a considerable distance, returned in mountainous waves, foaming with the violence of the agitation, burled the inha- bitants for ever in its bosom, and immediately pll was silent ; but the same wave which destroyed the town drove a little boat by the place where the man stood, into which he threw himself, and was saved, Cusco, the ancient capital of the Peruvian empire, has already been taken notice of. As it lies in the mountainous country, and at a distance from the sea, it has been lon§ on the decline ; but it is still a very considerable place, and contams above 26,000 inhabitants, three parts Indians, and very industrious in manufacturing baize, cotton, and leather. They have also, both here and in Quito, a par- ticular tafite for painting i and their productions in this- way, soxm^S SPANISH AMERICA. »r a spactouls and ;aiTO as the most rve his memory, inhabitants, like wn use. There churches, in this ht materials, the ng stone houses ire more apt to and dreadful all cm the sea, ex- uarter. It con- tes amount to a emonstrate the a Paluda, made lo him honour, :o the amount of h amazement of precious stones, ■chants of Lima i, and that both lere all the pro- )rder to be ex- i the inhabitants 1 the East Indies sia, h.urope, and there is no im- e on their own they must soon bey have a com- i. But all the on, and fertility lensate for one ctually befallen lake laid three- ■ely demolished any destruction three thousand y, and he by a ginable — This 1 the harbour, m their houses 1 on such occa- n mountainous iried the inha- silent ; but the It by the place nd was saved, 5 already been itry, and at a but it is still inhabitants, :turing baize, 1 Quito, a par* way, soHMtf which have been admired in Italy, are dispersed all over South America. Quito is next to Lima inpoptflousness, if not superior to it. It is, like Cusco, an inland city, and, having no mines in its neighbourhood, is chiefly famous for its manufactwres of cotton, wool, and flax, which supply the consumption throughout Peru. Government.] Peru is under the government of a viceroy, who resides at Lima, and whose authority formerly extended over all the three districts ; but that of Quito has since been detaclit'd from it. The viceroy is as absolute as the king of Spain ; but as his territories are so extensive, it is necessary that he should part with a share of his authority to the several audiences or courts establish- J over the kingdom. There is a treasury court established at Lima, for receiving the fifth or the produce of the mines, and certain taxes paid by the Indians, which belong to the king of Si)ain. History.] For the history of Peru, see the account of the dis- covery and conquest of America. CHILI. SITUATION AND SXTENT. Miles. Length 1260) Breadth 5S0S between Degrees. 5 25 and 41. S. lat. ^65 and 85 W. long } Sq. Miles. 206,000 Boundaries.] BOUNDED by Peru on the north; by La Plata en the east ; by Patagonia on the south; and by the Pacific Ocean on the west. Divisions. Provinces. °"'thel"dt°'^'>'"^"'- On the east side of the Andes, ( Cuyo, or Cutio ; . Chief Towns. St. Jago, W. long. 77. S. lat. 3*. |Baldivia Imperial ^ St. John de Frontiera. Rivers, lakes.] The chief rivers are the Salado or Salt River, the Guasco, Coquimbo, Chiapa, Bohio, and the Baldivia, all scarcely navigable but at their months. The principal lakes are those of Tagatag^ia near St. Jago, and that of Paren. Besides whicht theyhave several salt-water lakes, that have a communication with the sea, part of the year. In stormy weather the sea forces a way through" them, and leaves them full of fish ; but in the hot seasou the water congeals, leaving a crust of fine white salt a foot thick. Metals, minerals.] Mines of Pold, silver, copper, tin, quick- silver, iron, aad lead, abound in this country. V ast quantities of eold are washed down from the mountains by brooks and torrents, the annual amount of which, when manufactured, is estimated at not ess than ei^ght millions of dollars. I .11 s; L QS2 SPANISH AMERICA. h'm C^l^fATt, jorL, PRODUCE. ] The climate of Chili is one of the inrst delightful in the world, being a mediunn between the intense heat of the torrid and thu piercing cold of the frigid zones. The soil is extremely fertile. There is indeed no part of the world more favoured than this i«, with respect to the gilts of nature ; for here, not only the tropical fruits, hut all species of grain, of which a con- siderable part is exported, come to great perfection. Animals.] The wild animals ot this country are nearly tho same as in Peru. The horses of Chili are in great esteem ; and prodigious numbers of oxen, goats, and sheep, are i'attcned in the luxuriant pas- tures of Chili, the breeding of which is almost the only species of husbandry attended to in this country. Turkeys, geese, and all kinds of poultry, are found here in the same profusion. The coasts abound with v.irious kinds of excellent fish: there are also many whales and seals. Population, inhabitants.] This country is very thinly inha- bited. The original natives are still in a great measure uncon- quered and uncivilized ; and leading a wandering life, attentive to no object but their preservation from the Spanish yoke, are in a very unfavourable condition with regard to population. According to gome accounts, the Spaniards do not amount to above 20,000 ; and tht« Indians, negroes, and miilaltoes, not to above thrice that number. The Abbe Raynal, however, says there are 40,000 Spanish inha- bitants in the city of St. Jago, in which case the aggregate number in all the provinces of Chili must be much more considerable than has generally been supposed. Other accounts estimate the popula- tion of this country at 80,000 whites, and 210,000 negroes. Chief towns.] St. .Jago, the capital, is a large and liandsonie town, situate on the river Mapocho, which runs through it from east to west, in the midst r-f ;in extensive and beautiful plain. Baldivia or Valdivia is another large town, situate between the rivers CalacaUes and Portero, where they fall into the South Sea. There are several strong forts and batteries to defend the entrance of the harbour, as it is considered as the key of the South Sea. Trade.] Chili supplies Peru with hides, dried fruits, salted meat, horses, hemp, and corn ; and receives in exchange tobacco, sugar, cocoa, the manufactures of Quito, and articles of luxuuy brought from Europe. Pa:aguay receives from Chili wine, brandy, oil, and chiefly gold ; and returns, in payment, mules, wax, cotton, negroes, &c. Tne commerce between the two countries is not carried on by sea, it having been found more expeditious, safer, and even less ex- pensive to go by land, though it is 354 leagues from St. Jago to JBuenos Ayres, and more than 40 le^^ves of the way are amid the snows and precipices of the Andes. GovfRNMKWT.] The seat of government is at St. Jago: the commandant there is, however, subordinate to the viceroy of Peru In all matters relating to the govefrnment, to the finances, and to war ; but he is independent of him in the administration of justice, and as president of th^ royal audience. Hi sTOR V. 1 This country was first discovered by Diego Almagro, in 1525. rie passed the Andes from Peru ; and, though he had lost a great part of the soldiers who attended him in his expedition, he was received with great submission by the inhabitants of the country, who had formerly been under the dominion of the Peruvians. The Spaniards ag-ain entered C^iili in 15Ht under (heir general B^ldivig, SPANISH AMERICA. 955 the founder of the city which bears his name. They at first met with no opposition, the people of the country being gatticring in their }jai vcit ; but when thai was finished they look up arms, and never laid them down for ten years. The natives have at all times bravely defeniled themselves against the Spanish yoice : they are still in a gri-at degree unsubdued, and are engaged in frequent struggles for their independence. PARAGUAY, OR LA PLATA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. . , Miles. Degrees. Sq, Miles. T.cngth 1500) . „„„ l 1'2 and 37 S. lat. i , ,^.,.,^^ Dre.rdih 1000 5 ^'''^'''' isO and 75 W. long. ( ^'^^'^ Ijoundariks.] bounded by Amazonia on the north; by Bnisil (in the east ; by Patagonia on the south ; and by Peru and Chili on the west. Divisions. Provinces. Chief Towna. r Paraguay Assumption T- ,. . . .„. I Parana St. Aiuie East division contains< /--, • /•-.- i i u i I Guaira Ciudad Keal (. Uragua Los Reyes ' I 'I'ucuman St. Jago South division ....-< Rio de la Plata .... Buenos Avres, W. long. C 57-5'i. S. lat. '6\'.[i5. Rivers, lakes.] This country, besides an infinite number of small rivers, is watered by three principal ones, the Paragua, Uragua, and Parana, which united near the sea, form the famous Rio de la Plata, or Plate River, and which annually overflow their banks ; and, on their recess, leave them enriched with a slime that produces thegr.catest plenty of whatever is committed to it. The Rio de ia Plata has a course of about 1900 miles in length* but it is principally remarkable for its breadth at its mouth. It falls . into the South Atlantic Ocean, between the capes St. Anthony and St. Mary, which are 150 miles distant from each other, and at Monte Video, a fort above 100 miles from the sea, the land of either shore cannot be seen from a vessel in the middle of the channel. This country abounds with lakes, one of which, Casacores, is 100 miles long. Cmmate, soil, PRODVcr..] This vast tract is far from being wholly subdued or planted by the Spaniards. There are many parts in a great degree unknown to them, or to any other people in Eu- rope. The principal province of which we have any knowledge is that which is called Rio de la Plata, towards the mouth of the above- mentioned rivers. This province, with all the atljaccnt parts, is one pontinued level, not interrupted by the least lull {qt several hundred jniles every way. The climate is in some parts extremely hot, in. ( ! S5# SPANISH AMERICA. PI i&i i ill'' Ii ";" I! others temperate and ple;»sanr. Tlie soil is very fertile, proditcfrjif cotton in great quantities; tobacco, and t?ic valuable hcib called Paraguay, with a variety of fruits, and prod*;T;ions ri.li pastures, in which are bred such herds of cattle, th.it the liidcs oi the bcasis are all that is properly bought, the carcases beinjj given into the birgain. Ahorse some years ago might be bmii>^ht fnr a dollar; and the usual price for a bullock, chnsen out of tl e hcid of two or three hun- dred, was only four rials. But, contrary to the general nature of America, this country is destitute of woods. The air is remarkably £weet and serene, and the waters of La Plata aie equally pure and wholesome. First settlement, chief city, and commerc..] The vSpa. niards first discovered this country, by sailing up the river La Plata, in 1515, and in 1535 founded the town of Buenos Ayres, so called on accoimt of the excellence of the air, on the south side of the river, SO leagues within the mouth of it, where the river is seven le.igues broad. This is one of the most considerable towns in South America, containing above 30,0()0 inhabitants, and the only place of traffic to the southward of Brasil. Here we meet with the merchants of Europe and Peru ; but no regular fleet comes here ; two, or at most three, register ships, make the whole of tlieir regular intercourse with lurope. Their returns are very valuable, consisting chiefly of the fold and silver of Chili and Peru, sugar, and hides. Those who ave now and then cirried on a contraband trade to this city, have found it more advantageous than any other whatever. The benefit of this contraband is now wholly in the hands of the Pprtuguese, who keep magazines for that purpose, in such parts of Brasil as lie near this country. The trade of Paraguay, and the manners of the people, arc so much the same with those of the rest of the Spanish colonies in South America, that nothing farther can be said on those articles. But we cannot quit this country without saying something of that extraordinary species of commonwealth which the Jesuits erected in the interior parts, and of which these crafty priests endeavoured to keep all strangers in the dark. About the middle of the last century, those fathers represented to the court of Spain, that their want of success in their missions was ©wing to the scandal which the immorality of the ^'paniards never felled to give, and to the hatred which their insolent behaviour caused in the Indians, wherever they came. They insinuated, that, if it were not for that impediment, the empire of the Gospel might, by their labours, have be^in extended into the most unknown parts of America ; and that all those countries might be subdued to his ca- tholic majesty's obedience, without cxpence, and without force. This remonstrance met with success ; the sphere of their labours was marked out, uncontrouled liberty was given to the Jesuits within these limits, and the governors of the adjacent provinces had orders not to interfere, nor to suffer any Spaniards to enter this pale, with- out licence from the fathers. They, on their part, agreed to pay a certain capitation tax, in proportion t& -their flock ; and to send a certain number to the king's works whenever they should be de- ihanded, and the missions should become populous enough to supply them. On thrse terms the Jesuits gladly entered upon the scene of action, and opened their spiritual campaign. They began by gathering to- gether' about fifty wandering familie.>, whom they persuaded to settle : SPA'JISH AMERICA, 955 tllc, prodiicinif Ic heib culled I li pastures, in the bcasis are to the b irgain. loUar ; and the 'o or tlircc hun- iieral nature of is remarkably ually pure and .] The Spa. river La Plata, Vyres, so called lie of the river, s seven leagues South Anieiica, ace of traffic to lants of Europe at most three, itercourse with g chiefly of the s. Those who this city, have r. The benefit 'prtuguese, who rasil as lie near :rs of the people, Ipanish colonies )n those articles, mething of that esuits erected in endeavoured to s represented to eir missions was ^'paniarc^s never ehaviour caused ated, that, if it Dspel might, by iknown parts of bdued to his ca- without force, heir labours was J Jesuits within inces had orders tins pale, with, agreed to pay a ; and to send 4 :y should be de- lough to supply ; scene of action, jy gathering to- suaded to settle : and they united them into a little township. This was the slight foundation upon which they built a superstructure that amazed the world, and added so much power, at the same time that it occa- sioned so much envy and jealousy of their society. For when thejr had made this beginning, they laboured with such indefatigable pains, and such masterly policy, that, by degrees, they mollified the minds of the most savage nations, fixed the most rambling, and sub- dued those to their government who had long disdained to submit to the arms of the Spaniards and Portuguese. They prevailed upon thousands of various dispersed tribes to embrace their religion ; and these soon induced others to follow their example, magnifying the peace and tranquillity they enjoyed undsr the direction ol the fathers. Our limits do not permit us to trace, with precision, all the steps which were taken in the accomplishment of so extraordin.iry a con- quest over the bodies and minds of so many people. The Jesuits loft nothing undone that could confirm their subjection or increase their numbers ; and it is said, that above iUO,000 fatriilies were sub- ject to them ; living in obedience, and an awe bordering upon adora- tion, yet procured without any violence or constraint: th;it the Indians were instructed in the military art with the most exact dis- cipline, and could raise 60,000 men well armed : that they lived in towns ; they were regularly clad ; they laboured in agriculture ; ther exercised manufactures ; some even aspired to the elegant arts; and that nothing could equal the obedience of the people of these mis» sions, except their contentment under it. Some writers have treated the ciiaracter of these Jesuits with great severity, accusing them of ambition, pride, and of carrying their authority to such an excess, as to cause not only persons of both sexes, but even the magistrates, who were always chosen from among the Indians, to be corrected before them with stripes, and to suffer persons of the highest distinc- tion within their jurisdiction, to kiss the hem of their garments, as the greatest honour. The priests themselves possessed large pro- perty ; all manufactures were theirs ; the natural produce of tlie country was brought to them ; and the treasures, annually remitted to the superior of the order, seemed to evince that zeal for religion was not the only motive of their forming these missions. The fathers would not permit any of the inhabitants of Peru, whetlier Spaniards, Mestizos, or even Indians, to come within their missions in Paraguay. In the year 1757> when part of the territory was ceded by Spain to the court of Portugal, in exchange for Santo Sacramento, to make the Oragua the boundary of their possessions, the Jesuits refused to comply with this division, or to suffer themselves to be transferred from one hand to another, like cattle, without their own consent, and the Indians actually took up arms ; but, notwithstanding the exact- ness of their discipline, they were easily, and with considerable slaughter, defeated by the European troops who were sent to quell them. In 1767» the Jesuits were sent out of America by royal au- thority, and their late subjects were put upon the same foQting with therestofthe inhabitants of the country. . c i \ f<l hi' . ,1! >'i^ ^ ' •'li^ ij>i }\ 1 i I 'I ( 956 ) SPANISH ISLANDS in AMERICA. CUBA.] The island of Cuba is situate between 20 and 25 deg. north lat. and between 74 and 85 deg. west long. 100 miles to the south of Cape Florida, and 75 north of Jamaica, and is near 700 miles in length, and generally about 70 miles in breadth. A chain of hills runs through the middle of the island from cast to west ; but the land near the sea is in general level and flooded in the rainy scm« son, when the sun is vertical. This noble island is supposed to have the best soil, for so large a country, of any in America. It produces all commodities knov/n in the West Indies, particularly ginger, long pepper, and other spices, cassia, fistula, mastic and aloes. It also produces tob.tcco and sugar; but from the want of hands, and the laziness of the Spaniards, not in such quantities as might be expected. It is said that its exports do not equal in quantity those of our small island of Antigua. I he course ot the rivers is too short to be of any consequence ; but there are several good harbours in the island which belong to the prin- cipal towns, as that of St. Jago, facing Jamaica, strongly situate and Well fortiiied, but neither populous nor rich ; and that of the Havan- nah, facing Florida, which is the capital of Cuba, and a place ot great strength and hnportance, containing about 'iOOO houses, with a great number of convents and churches: it wirx taken, however, by the courage and perseverance of the English troops in the year 1762, but restored in the subsequent treaty of peace. Besides these, there is likewise Cumberland harbour, and that of Santa Cruz, a con- siderable town thirty miles east of the Havannah. PORTO RICO.] Situate between Gl- and 67 deg. west long. and in 18 deg. north lat. lying between Hispaniola and St. Christo- pher's, is 100 miles long and 40 broad. The soil is beautifully diversified with woods, valleys and plains ; and is exti-emely fertile, producing the same fruits as the other islands. It is well watered with springs and rivers, but the island is unhealthy in the rainy seasons. It was on account of the gold that the Spaniards settled here ; but there is no longer any considerable quantity of this metal found in it. Porto Rico, the capital town, stands in a little island on the north side, forming a capacious harbour, and joined to the chief island by a causeway, and defended by forts and batteries, which render the town almost inaccessible. It was, however, taken by Sir Francis Drake, and afterwards by the earl of Cumberland. It is better in- habited than most of the Spanish towns, because it is the cpntre of contraband trade carried on by the English aud French with the king of Spain's subjects. MA RG A RETT A.] Situate in 64. deg. west long, and 11-3Q north lat. separated from the northern coast of New Andalusia, in Terra Firma, by a strait of 24- miles, is about 40 miles in length, and 24 in breadth ; and being always verdant, affords a most agree- able prospect. The island abounds in pasture, in maize, and fruit ; bvTt there is a scarcity of wood and water. There was once a pearl- fishery on the coast, which is now discontinued. SrANISII AMERICAN ISLANDS. 957 Tliere are many other small islands in these sPas, to which the Spa- niards have paid no attention ; we shall therefore proceed towards and round Cape Horn into the Souili Sea, in our way to which wc arrive at the FALKLAND OR MALOUIN ISLANDS.] These islands, si- tuate between 51 and 53 dcg. of south hit. and 57 and 62 deg. of west long, were first discovered by Sir Richard Hawkins, in l^Ot, the principal of which he named Hawkins' MaidenlJlnd, in honour of queen Elizabeth. The present English name, Falkland, was prob.ibly given them by captain Strong, in 1G3J), and being adopted by ilalley, it has from that time been received into our maps. The French call them the Malouin Isles from the people of St. Maloes, whom they consider as their discoverers. They have occasioned some con- test between Spain and Great Britain ; but being of very little worth, seem to have been silently abandoned by the latter in 177i, in order to avoid giving nmbrageto the Spanish court. Tlie island of TIblRRA DEL FUEGO, at the southern extremity of America, situate between 52 deg. 30 min. and 55 deg. 35 min. south lat. and 66 and 75 dcg. west long derives its name from the volcanoes observed on it. It is a large island containing about 42,000 square miles ; the aspect of the country is dreary and uncom- fortable, and the climate is cold as that of Lapland, though the latitude is only that of the north of England. The natives are of a middle stature, with broad flat faces, high cheek bones, and flat noses: they are dressed in the skins of seals, and their only food seems to be shell fish. The isle called Staten-land is divided from Tierra del Fuego by the strait of Le Maire. Cape Horn is a promontory on another small island to the south of Tierra del Fuego. Tierra del Fuego is separated from the main land of South Ame- rica by the Straits of Magellan. These straits were first discovered by Magellan, or Magelhaens, a Portuguese in the service of Spain, who sailed through them in the year 1520, and thereby discovered a passage from tlie Atlantic to the Pacific or Southern Ocean. He has been since considered as the first navigator that sailed round the world : but having lost his life in a skirmish with some Indians before the ships returned to Europe, the honour of being the first circum- navigator has been disputed in favour of the brave Sir Francis Drake, who, in 157-1', passed the same strait in his way to India, from which he returned to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope. In 1616, Le Maire, a Dutchman, keeping to the southward of these straits, discovered, in lat. fifty-four and a half, another passage, since known by the name of the Straits of Le Maire; and this passage, which has been generally preferred by succeeding navigators, is called doubling Cape Horn. The author of Anson's Voyage, however, from fatal . experience, advises mariners to keep clear of these straits and islands^ by running. down to sixty-one or sixty-two deg. south lat. before they attempt to set their face westward, towards the South Seas ; but the extreme long nights, and the intense cold in those latitudes, render that passage practicable only in the months of January and February, which is there the middle of summer. , i", , ., A Beyond Cape Horn and the Straits of Magellan, proceeding north- wards in the Great South Sea, or Pacific Ocean, the first Spanish hlaiTd of any importance is CHILOE, on the coast of Chili, which has a governor, and some harbours well fortified. It is situate bfl- SI5S PORTUGUESE AMERICA. if** hv H US Is I tween 42 and 44< deg. of south lat. and 75 and 76 west long, and about 150 miles long, and 21 broad. JUAN FERNANDES.] Lying in 83 deg. west long, and 35 scuth lat. 300 miles west of Chili. This island is uninhabited ; but having some good harbours, it is found extremely convenient for the English cruisers to touch at and water. This island is famous for having given rise to the celebrated romance of Robinson Crusoe. It seems that one Alexander Selkirk, a Scotchman, was left ashore in this solitary place by his captain, where he lived some years, until he vas discovered by captain Woodes Rogers in 1709. When taken up, he had forgotten his native language, and could scarcely be urider- stood, seeming to speak his words by halves. He was dressed in foats* skins, would drink nothing but water, and it was some time efore he could relish the ship's victuals. During his abode in this island he had killed 500 goats, which he caught by running them down ; and he marked as many more on the ear, which he let go. Some of these were caught thirty yfears after by lord Anson's people ; their venerable aspect, and majestic beards, discovered strong symptoms of antiquity. Selkirk, upon his return to England, was advised to publish an account of his life and adventures m his little lingdom. He is said to have put his papers into the hands of Daniel Defoe, to prepare them for publication; but that writer, by the help of these papers and a lively fancy, transformed Alexander Selkirk into Robinson Crusoe, and returned Selkirk his papers again ; so that the latter derived no advantage from them. They were probably foo indigested for publication, and Defoe might derive little from them but those hints which gave rise to his own celebrated per- formance. The other islands that are worth mentioning are the GalHpago Isles, situated four hundred miles west of Peru, under the equa- tor ; and those in the Bay of Panama, called the King's or Pearl Islands. ;>^ . . .'J ;t; .m- ■ ■( ■ v ■ ••' ' , ' ' " • - ' t PORTUGUESE AMERICA. • Containing BRASIL. SXTITATION AMD EXTENT. Miles. ri^r Degrees. '*^, Length 2500 "» . „^,2-* f the equator and 35 south latitude. , Breadth 700/ X '35 and 60 west longitude. BouNDARifis.] BOUNDED by the mouth of the River .Amazon, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the north; by the same Gcean on the east ; by the mouth of the River Plata on the south} And by a chain of mountains, which divide it from Paraguay and Ae country of the Amazons, on the w^est. PORTUGUESE AMERICA. 959 Northern division con tiiius the captain ships of < Dhhiont* Provinces, fPara Marigran Siara Petagaes j Rio Grande I Payraba J Tamara V.Pernambiico MrSerigippe •JJ1 J- • • I Bahia,orthebay iddle division con- I ^^^^ guints tarns the captaui. ^ ^^^^^^ ships of p^^^^ s^g^^^ '^Spirito Santo Soathern division con- r Rio Janeiro tains the captain- < St. Vincent CI CJj'ief ToTOCS. "^ Para, or Belim St. Lewis Siara ^ St. Luc Tignares Payraba Tumara Olinda "^ Seiigippe ®^ I St. Salvador [Paya j Porto Seguro "^ Spirito Santo J St. Sebastian ships of . Del Rey i St. Vincent St. Salvador On the coast are three small islands, where ships touch for provi- sions in tlieir voyage to tlie South Seas, vi^:. Fernando, St. Barb<u-a» and St. Catharine's. Seas, bays, iiARBourvS, and capes.] The Atlantic Ocean washes the coast of Br.isil on the ncrth-east and east, upwards of 3000 miles, forming several fine hays and harbours ; as the harbours of Pernam- buco, All ''vaints, l^orto Seguro, the port and harliour of Rio Janeiro, the port of St. Vincent, tiie harbour of St. Gabriel, and the port of St. Salvador, on the norch shore of La Pliita. M:.iAi.s, MIMR.A1S.] Gold and diamond mines are found in Brasil. The f -rmer were discovered in the year 1681, and have since yielded about uve millions sterling annually, of which sum a fifth belongs to the crown. The diamond mines are situate near the little river Milho'.'erde, not far from Villa Nova do Principe. Thef are farmed at about .30,0001. yearly, whicli is thought to be scarcely a tii'th of what they actually produce. The diamonds, however, are not of so fine water as those of Hindcostan, but are of a, brownish obscure hue. Face OF rHE COUNTRY, CLIMATE, AND RIVERS.] The name of Brasil was given to this country, because it was observed to abound with a wood of that name. To the northward of Brasil, which lies almost under the equator, the climate is hot, boisterous, and un- wholesome, suhject to great r:uns and variable winds, particularly in the months o£ March and September, when they have such deluges of rain, with storms and tornadoes, that the country is overflowed. But to the southward, beyond the tropic of Capricorn, there is no part oF the world that enjoys a more serene and v/holesome air, refreshed with the soft bree/es of the ocean on one hand, and the cool breath of the mountains on the otlier. The land near the coast is in general rather low than high, but exceedingly pleasant, it being interspersed with meadows and woods ; but on the west, far within land, are mountains from v.'hence issue nnmy noble streams, that fall into the great rivers Amazon and I^a Plata ; others running across the country from east to v.'est till they fall into the Atlantic Ocean, after meliorating the lands which they annually overflow, and turning the sugar-mills be- loajj-ing to the Portuguese. '• . • i 1 ',V." t i ! ''': i ■ 1 1 '(* '■Pi i ^rfl m j! i ,p 1 960 PORTUGUESE AMERICA. ^; ' ' ' ' Soil. AND PRODUCE.] In general the soil is extremely fruitful^ producing sugar, which, being clayed, is whiter and finer than our iiruscovado, as we call our unrefined sugar ; also tobacco, hides. In- digo, ipecacuanha, balsam of Copaiba, Brasil wood, which is of a red colour, hard and dry, and is chiefly used in dyeing, but not the red of the best kind \ it has likewise some place in medicine, as a sto- xxuchic and restringent. The produce of the soil was found very sufficient for subsisting the inhabitants until the mines of gold and dianionds were discovered : these, with the sugar plantations, occupy so many hands, that agri- culture is neglected, and, in consequence, Brasil depends upwi Europe for its daily food. 'J'he animals here are the same as in Peru and Mexico." Population. 3 According to Sir George Staunton, the whole number of whites in the Brasils is about 200,000, and that of the ne- groes nOO,000: the natives ntay perhaps be about a million or a jnilHon and a half. Inhabitants, manneiis, ani> customs.] The portrait given ns of the manners and customs of the Portuvjucse in America, by the most judicious travellers, is very far from being favourable. They wire described as a people, who, while sunk in the most effeminate luxury, practise the most desperate crimes ; of a temper hypocritical and dissembling ; of little sincerity in conversation, or honesty in dealing; lazy, proud, and cruel; in their diet penurious; for, like the inhabitants of most southern climates, they are much more fond of show, state and attendance, than of the pleasures of free society, and of a good table ; yet their feasts, which are seldom made, are sumptuous to extravagance. When they appear abroad, they cause themselves to be carried out in a kind of cotton hammocks, called serpentines, which are borne on the negroes shoulders, by the help of a bamboo about twelve or fourteen feet long. Most of these ham- mocks are blue, and adorned with fringes of the same colour : they have a velvet pillow, and above the head a kind of tester, with cui-- tains; so that the person carried capnot be seen, unless he pleases ; but may either lie down, or sit up leaning on his pillow. When he has a mind to be seen, he pulls the curtain aside, and salutes his ac- «iuaintance whom he meets in the streets ; for they take a pride in complimenting each other in their hammocks, and even hold long conferences in them in the streets ; but then the two slaves who carry them make use of a strong well made staff, with an iron fork at the upper end, and pointed below with iron : this they stick fast in the groimd, and rest the bamboo, to which the hammock is fixed, on two of these, till their master's business or compliment is over. Scarcely any man of fashion, or any lady, will pass the streets without being carried in this manner. Chief towns.] The capital of Brasil is St. Salvador, frequently called Bahia, where all the fleets rendezvous on their return to Por- tugal. This city commands a noble, spacious, and commodious harbour. It is built upon a high and steep rock, having the sea upon one side, and a lake, forming a crescent, investing it almost wholly, so as nearly to join tlic sea, on the other. The situation mak«s it in a manner impregnable by nature ; and it has very strong fortifications. It is populous, magnificent, and, beyond comparison, the most gay and opulent city in all Lras'i. St. Sebastian, more usually called Ilio Ue Janeiro, from the name PORTUGUESE AMERICA. 961 .■J from the name of the province, Is situate on a spacious and commodious bay : It is a rich and populous city, containing, it is said, 200,000 inhabitants. On the south side of a spacious square Is the palace of the viceroy, and there are several other square"., in which are fountains supplied with water by an aqi-f'duct of considerable length brought over val- lies by a double row.of arches. In an island in the harbour, called Serpent island, is a dock-yard, magazines, and naval store-houses. Trade.] The trade of Brasil is very great, and increases every year ; which is the less surprising as the Portugr.es . have opportuni- ties of supplying themselves with slaves for thci • several works at a much cheaper r;iite than any other European power that has settle- ments In America ; they being the only European nation that has established colonies in Africa, whence they Import between forty and fifty thousand negroes annually, all of which go into the amount of the cargo of the Brasil fleets for Europe. Of the diamonds there is supposed to be returned to Europe to the amount of 130,0001. This, with the sugar, the tobacco, the hides, and the valuable drugs for medicine and manufactures, may give some idea of the Importance of this trade, not only to Portugal, but to all the trading powers of Europe. The chief commodities that European ships carry thltlier in return, are not the fiftieth part of the produce of Portugal ; they consist of woollen goods of all kinds from England, France, and Holland; the linen and laces of Holland, France, and Germany ; the silks of France and Italy ; silk and thread stockings, hats, lead, tin, pewter, iron, copper, and all sorts of utensils wrought in these metals, from Eng- land; as well as salt-fish, beef, flour, and cheese ; oil they have from Spain; wine, with some fruit, is nearly all they are supplied with from Portugal. England is at present most Interested In the trade of Portugal, both for home consumption and what they want for the use of the Brasils. Brasil Is a very wealthy and flourishing settlement. The export of sugar within forty years is grown much greater than it was, though anciently it made almost the whole of their exportable produce, and they were without rivals in the trade. The tobacco is remarkably good, though not raised hi such large quantities as in the United States. The northern and southern parts of Brasil abound r.'Ith horned cattle: these are hunted for their hiVes only, of which no less than twenty thousand are sent annually to Europe. * G0VKRNMENT.3 Brasil is now divided into nine gevernments, each of which has its particular chief. Of these the governor of Rio Janeiro alone has the style of viceroy. They are appointed for three years, which term Is prolonged at pleasure. Each district has a par- ticular judge, from whose decision there lies an appeal to the superior tribunals of Rio Janeiro or Lisbon. Rkvenue.] The revenue arising to the crown of Portugal from this colony, amounts, according to some writers, to two millions ster- ling in gold, besides the duties and customs on merchandise imported from the country. This, indeed, is more than a fifth of the precious metal produced by the mines ; but every consequent advantage cor.- sidered, It probably does not much exceed the truth. Religion.] The religion of Portugal, or the Roman catholic, I^ established here. Six bishoprics have been successively founded under the archblbhopnc of Bahia, or St. Salvador, which nee was establishei in l').y.'. 'C-illl FRENCH AMERICA. ! m M V¥ History.] This country was first discovered by Air.erigo Ve5»' puccio, in 1498 ; but the Portuguese did not plant it till 1519, when they fixed themselves at the Bay of All Saints, and founded the city of St. Salvador. They met with some interruption at first from the court of Spain, who considered the whole continent of South Ame- rica as belonging to them. However, the affait was at length made up by treaty ; and it was agreed that the Portuguese should possess all the country lying between the two great rivers Amazon and Plata ; wliich they still enjoy. The French also made some attempts to plant colonies on this coast, but were driven from thence by the Portuguese,who remained without a rival till the year 1580, when, in the very meridian of prosperity, they were struck by one of those blows which generally decide the fate of kingdoms. Don Sebastiap, the king of Portugal, lost his life in an expedition against the Moors in Africa; and by that event the Portuguese lost their independence, being absorbed into the Spanish dominions. The Dutch, soon after this, having thrown off the Spanish yoke, and being not satisfied with supporting their independence by a suc- cessful defensive war, but flusned with the juvenile ardor of a grow- ing commonwealth, pursued the Spaniards into the remotest recesses oF their extensive territories, and grew rich, powerful, and terrible, by the spoils of thcr former masters. They particularly attacked the possessions of the Portuguese ; they took almost all their fortresses in the East Indies, and then turned their arms upon Brasil, where they took seven of the captainships, or provinces ; and would have subdued the whole colony, had not the»r career been stopped by the archbishop, at t^'c head of his monk;, i.nd a few scattered forces. The Dutch were, about the year IG'yl, entirely driven out of Brasil; but their West India company still continuing "heir pretensions to this country, and harassing the Portuguese at sea, the latter agreed, in 16GI, to pay the Dutch eight tons of gold, to relinquish their in- terest ip that country ; which was accepted : and the Portuguese have remained in peaceable possession of all Brasil from that time, till about the end of the year 1762, when the Spanish governor of Buenos Ayres, hearing of a war between Portugal and Spain, took, after a month's siege, the Portuguese frontier fortress called St. Sacrament; but, by the treaty of peace of the following year, it wus restored. FRENCH AMERICA. THE possessionr, of the French on the continent of America are ar present incmisiderable. They were masters of Canada and Loui^ siana ; but they have now lost all footing in North America ; though in the southern continent they have still a settlement, which is called CAYENNE, OR EQumoxiAL Fiiance. IT is situate between the equator and 5th degree of north latitude, and between the .'iOth and ")5th of west longitude. It extends i'lO miles along the coast of Guiuna, aud nearly 300 mileswithin land^ 3PRENCH AMERipAN ISJLANDS. .m I by Amerigo \^eS' lit it till 1519, when [id founded the city ion at first from the lent of South Ame- was at length made [uese should possess Amazon and Plata ; le some attempts to from thence by the year 1580, when, in ck by one of those ms. Don Sebastiap, n against the Moors : their independence, iff the Spanish yoke, lependence by a suc- iiile ardor of a grow- the remotest recesses werful, and terrible, :icularly attacked the )st all their fortresses s upon Brasil, where :es ; and would have been stopped by the few scattered forces. driven out of Brasil ; heir pretensions to ea, the latter agreed, relinquish their in- the Portuguese have from that time, till 1 governor of Buenos Spain, took, after a ailed St. Sacrament; , it Y'us restored. A. ;nt of America are ar f Canada and Loui- th America ; though ment, which is called . Fkance. jrec of north latitude, jde. It extends i'lO )0 mileswithin landj it is bounded by Surinam, on the north ; by the Atlantic Qceaprcast i by Amazonia, south ; and by Guiana, west. The c^ef town is Caen. All the coast is very low, but within liand there are fine hills very proper for settlements : the French have, however, not yet extended them so far as they might ; but they raise the same commodities which they have from the West-India islands, and in no inconsiderable quantity. They have also taken possession of the island of Cayenne, on this coast, at the mouth of the river of that name, which is.abou^ 45 miles in circumference. The island is very unhealthy ; but, hav- ing some good harbours, the French have here some settle^ients» vrnich raise sugar and coffee. FRENCH ISLANDS in AMERICA. THE French were among the last nations who made settleraeats in the West Indies; but they made ample amends by the vigour with which they pursued them, and by that chain of judicious and a4- mirable measures which they used in drawing from them every advantage that the nature of the climate would yield ; and in c(»^- tending against the difficulties which it threw in their way. St. DOMINGO, or HISPANIOLA.] This island was at first possessed by the Spaniards alone ; but by far the most considerable part has been long in the hands of the French, to whom the Spanish part was likewise ceded by the treaty of peace between the two n^i- tions in 1795. It must now, therefore, be considered as a French island. It is situate between the 17th and 21st deg. north lat. and the 67th and 74th of west long, lying in the middle between Cuba anjd Porto Rico, and is 450 miles long and 150 broad. When Hispaniola was first discovered by Columbus, the number of its inhabitants .>vas computed to be at least a million. But such was the cruelty of the Spaniards, and to so infamous a height did tliey carry their oppres- sion of the poor natives, that they were reduced to sixty thousand in the space of fifteen years. The face of the island presents j^n agree- able variety of hills, valleys, woods, and rivers ; and the soil is al- lowed to be extremely fertile,producing sugar, cotton, indigo, tdbacc^, maize, and cassava root. The European cattle are so multipliejl here, that they run wild in the woods, and, as in South America, ar.e hunted for their liidcs and tallow only. In the most barren parts qf the rocks they discovered formerly silver and gold : the mines, how- ever, are not worked now. The north-west parts, which were in tlje possession of tlie French, cfinsist of large fruitful plains, which pro- duce the articles already mentioned in vast abundance : this indee4 is the best and most fruitful part of the best and most fertile islan;! ijk the West Indies, and perhaps in the world. The population of this island was estimated, in 1788, at 27,717 white people ; 21 ,808 free people of colour ; and 405,523 slaves. Its trade employed 580 large ships, carrying 189,679 tons, in which the imports amounted to twelve millions of dollars, of which more than eight millions were in manufactured goods of France, and the 9]iitx 'JQ 2 ': rj h^ '11 ■,m J '• hi iJi 1 961' rUENCII AMERICAN ISLANDS. • four millions in French prr Jiico. Tli« Spanish ships exported, \n French goods or money, l,4(K),()()0 Jolliirs, lor mules, imporied by ihein into the colony ; ninety-eight French ships, tarrying 40,1 : JO tons, imported SfJj.'JOG negroes, who sold lor eight millions of dollarM. • ' TJic most ancient town in this island, and in all the New World, ■ built by Europeans, is St. Domingo. It was founded by Bartholo- mew Columbus, l)rother to the admiral, in ],'>() I', wlio gave it that - name in honour of his father Dominic, and l)y which the whole island is named, especially by the French. It is situate on a spacious har- > hour, and is a large well-built city, inhabited, like the other Spanish towns, by a mixture of Europeans, Creoles, Mulattoes, Mestizos, and Negroes. 'J'he French towns are, Cape Francois, the c;ipital, which is neither walled nor paled in, and is said to have only two batteries, one at the entrance of the harbour, and the other bel'ore the town. Before its destruction in I79>'3» it contained about eight thousand inhal)itants, whites, people of colour, ami slaves. It was the governor's residence ii; time of war, as Port-au-1'rince was in time of peace. Tiie Mole, thougli inferior to these in other respects, is the llr.st port in the island ' for safety in time of war, being by nature and art strongly fortified. The other towns and ports of any note arc. Fort Dauphin, St. Mark, LeOgane, Petit Goave, Jcrcmie, Ias Cayes, St. Lovis, nnd Jacmel. Since the French revolution, in consequence of some injudicious decrees of the National Assembly of France, this island has been a scene of confusion and jjloodshed. In the night between the 2'2i.\ and iJ.Sd of August, 17IH, ;i most alarming insurrection of the negroes began on the French plantations ui)on this island, and :i scene of the ' most horrid cruelties ensued. In a little time no less than one hun- dred thousand negroes were in rebellion ; and all the manufactories and plantations of more than half the nortliern province appeared as one general conflagration. The plains and the mountains were fillec! ', with carnage and deluged wiih blood, 'i'he negroes who were slave; * were em mcipated from their ciiains, ami trained to arms ; wi)Ichlhey never afterwards laid down. An Alrican by birth, who had received the French name of Tonssaint rOnvertiiic, was afterwards invested with the chief <;(mimand (;f the negroes and iinilattoes. He appears to have been a man cf some ability, and tu have exercised his au- thority in many instances witli prudence and nuitieiatiijn. Wlicn, 'however, the peace of Amiens had set at liberty the I'"renrli ileels, Bonaparte sent out an exjH-dilion to reduce Tonssaint to de|->eiHlcm:o 'Upon France, and restore ordir in the colony. Alur several en- counters, in which the negro «'liief, unable to resist the regnlar forces . of France, was almost ennstanlly ileleatetl, Tt)nssaint was induced to suimiit;uid accept oi'apparenlly favourable terms. l?iu. the Freii(l), ■ soon alter, most |)erlidionsly sei/ed on Jiini, inider a cliarge,j)rohaMy 'without foundation, of treacheroos [.ractices, and sent him in Iron^ tf) ,1'Vanee, where he perished in a dungeon. 'I'lie other black chiiTs who had stibjuitted wilii liim,Cl)i istophe and Uessalines, saved them- selves by lliglii ; the negrc^'s and mulattoes again Hew to arms, and the French troops rapidly fell viiiims to the climate. Dessalincs has since succeeded to the authority of I oussainV, and, following tlie txain|de set him in Europe, h.is caused himself to be proclaimed imperor of /A/y/;,* by the title oi Jcfjtus I. lie c.u-ries on a war of 'J'he aniioi;i native naiiiL! of llu: isl;ui<l. ship'i exported, tn Liles, imjwiicd hy •ryinpj4(),l:i0toiis, nns oK dollars. the New World, ndcd by Bartholo- wlio gave it that cli the whole island on a spacious har- ihe other Spanisli toes, Mestizos, and il, which is ncitlier atteries, one at the town. Before its usand inhabitants, vernor's residence peace. Tlie Mole, ,st port in the island t strongly fortified. Oauphin, St. Mark, ovis, «nd Jacmel. of some injudicious s island has been a jctwecn the 22d and ition of the negroes , and a scene of tlie i less than one hun- II the manufactories rovince appeared as lountains were fillei! oes who were slave; arms ; which ihc)' h, who had received afterwards invested ittoes. He aj^pcars i'e exercised his aii- locleratiwn. When, y the French Heels, ssaint lo dependcmie Alter several ei;- sl the regular forces ssaint was induced lis. \h\l the Freiuli, r a eliarge, jnohaMy 1 sent liiin in Irou.i to other black cliiefs isalines, saved tlicm- u llew lo aj'ms, and liniate. Dessaliiies ■, and, following tlie 11" to be proclaimed carries on a war oi" il;ui<l. TRENGM AMERICAN ISLANDS. 1*5, extcrminftlion, which has hitherto been but too successful, ngainst the French, who are on the point of being compelled entirely to abandon the island. MARTINICO, which is situate between li and L> degrees of , north latitude, aiul in (il liegrees west longitude, lying aljuut 10 leagues north-west of Bavbadoes, is about (JO miles in length, and lialf as much in breadth. The inland part of it is hilly, from which arc poured out, on r-vcry side, a number of agreeable and useful i ivers, which adorn and enrich this island in a high degree. '1 hy produce of the soil is suj^ar, cotton, indigo, gingir, antl such fruits as ara found in the neighboiuing islands. But sugar is here, as in all the West-India islands, the principal commodity, of which aconsiderable rjuantity is (exported annually. Martinico was tlie residence of the fj-overnor of the I'rench islamls in these .seas. Its bays and harbours are numerous, safe, and commodious, and so well fortified, that they used to bid defiance to the English, who, in vain, often attempted this place. However, in the war of I7.'>f), when the liriti.sh arms were triumphant in every quarter of the globe, this island was added to the British empire ; but it was given back at the treaty of peace. It was again taken by the English in ITL*!', but restored by the treaty of Amiens. GLJAr|ALOUPE, so called by Columbus from^ the resem- blance of its mountains to those of that name in Spain,* is siti^ate in If) degrees north latitude, and in Cj'J west longitude, about .'iO leagues north of Martinico, and abouj: as much soutli of Antigua; being ir* miies long, and 'AH broad. It is divided into two parts by a small, arm of the sea, or rather a narrow channel, through whicli no ships can venture; but the iiihal)itants pass it in a ferry-boat. Its soil is equally fertile witluliat of Martii.ico, producing sugar, cotton, indigo, ginger, &c. TJiis island is in a llourisliing coiKiiti(jn,and its exports of sugar almost incredible. Like Martinico, It was formerly attacked by the English, who gave up the altcmpt; but in IT.vL* it was r"- duced by the British arms, and was given back at the peace of I7f;,'). It was ati^ain reduced by the English in 1791', but evaciiuied a few months after. St. LUCIA, situate in 11 d{rgreos north latitude, and 'in Gl ' degrees west longitude, eighty nnles nortli-west of Barbadocs, is twenty three miles in length, and twelve in breadth. It received its nametiom heing discovered on the day dedicated to the virgin martyr St. liUcia. The i'jigli.sh first .settled on this island in Ifi.'sV. From this time they met with various mislortnnes from the natives and French ; ami at length it was agreed on between the latter and the English, that this island, togdlicr with Dominica and St. Vincent,' should remain neutral. But the French, before the war of 17.:f) broke out, began to sellle these islands ; v.liieh, l)y tlie treaty of peace, were yieltled up to (xieiit I'nitain, and tl.is island to France. The soil of Sr. Lucia, in the valleys, is extremely rich. It produces excellent' timi)er,and abounds in pleasant rivers and well sitn.ited harbours ; and is now declared a free port under certain restrictions. The English* made themselves masters of it in I77S ; l>nt it was restored again to tl'.e Fronch in l7'S:i. It was taken by the English in 1 7<M-,'surren. cicred again to the Fienrh in J7O.0, and re-captured Ijy Great Britain in 17JK>; it was restcnetl by the treaty of Amiens, but retaken soon after the recommenn'nient ofhostilities in IHO.'J. TOBAGO.] This island is situate in U degrees north latitude, ' %-•■ 'H ;J * \ S^9 DUtCH AMERICA. M 120 rtilles south 6f Barbadoes, and about the same distance from the Spanish main. It is about 32 miles in length, and nine in breadth. The climate here is not so hot as might be expected so near the cVjuaitor ; and it ii said fhat it lids out of the course of those hurri- <fanes that have sometimes proved so fatal to the other West-India inlands. It has a fruitful soil capable of producing sugar, and indeed <Very thing else that is raised in the West Indies, with the addition (if we may believe the Dutch) of the cinnamon, nutmeg, and gum copal. It is well watered with numerous springs ; and its bays and creeks are so disposed as to be very commodious for all kinds of shipping. The value and importance of this island appear from the Expensive and formidable armaments sent thither by European powers ih support of their different claims. It seems to have been chiefly l^bssessed by the Dutch, who defended their pretensions against both jEngland and France with the most obstinate perseverance. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 174-8, it was declared neutral; but by the treaty of peace in 1763 it was yielded up to Great Britain. In June 1781 it was taken by the French ; and was ceded to them by the treaty of 1782. In 1793 it was again captured by the British aims, but restored by the late peace. St. BART ^ lOLOMEW, DESK. AD A, and MARIGALANTE, ire thtee sm^l islands lying in the neighbourhood of Antigua and St. Christopher's and of no great consequence to the French, except ih time of war, when they give shelter to an incredible number of ]|Jrivateers, which greatly annoy our West- India trade. The former Vras given to Sweden in 1785. The small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, situated near New- ibundland, have been already mentioned in our account of that island. liL: DUTCH AMERICA. Contaiimng SURINAM, on the Continent of South America. AFTER the Portuguese had dispossessed the Dutch of Brasil in the manner we have seen, and after they had been entirely removed out of North America, they were obliged to console themselves with their rich possessions in the East Indies, and to sit down content in, the West with Surinam ; a country once in the possession of Eng- land, but of no great value whilst we had it, and which we cede4 to them in exchange for New York ; with two or three small and barren islands in the porth sea, not far from the Spanish main. Dutch Guiana is situate between five and seven degrees north lat. e*tending 100 miles along the coast from the mouih of the river Qronoque, north, to the river Maroni, or French Guiana, south. The climate of this country is generally reckoned unwholesome ; and a considerable part of the coast is low, and covered with water- The chief settlement is at Surinam, a town built on a river of the same name; and the Dutch have extended their plantations thirty \agaes above the mouth of this riy^r. This w^s one of the richest DUTCH AMERICA. 967 me distance from id nine in breadth, ectcd so near the se of those hurri- other West-India sugar, and indeed with the addition nutmeg, and gum . ; and its bays and IS for all kinds of d appear from the y European powers have been chiefly nsions against both ^verance. By the ;d neutral ; but by- Great Britain. In ceded to them by ared by the British ARIGALANTE, od of Antigua and the French, except icredible number of trade. The former situated near New- ur account of thai South America. e Dutch of Brastl in een entirely removed isole themselves with > sit down content in, e possession of Eng- and which we cede4 ^o or three small and i Spanish main, ven degrees north lat. le mouth of the river rench Guiana, south, koned unwholesome ; I covered with water- jilt on a river of the icir plantations thirty JAS one of the richest ind most valuable colonies belonging to the United Provinces ; but it is in a less prosperous situation than it was some years since, owing, among other causes, to the wars with the fugitive negroes, whom the Dutch treated with great barbarity, and who are becoine so numerous, having increased from year to year, that they have formed a kind of colony in the woods, which are almost inaccessible, along the rivers of Surinam, Saramaca, and Copename, and arc be- come very formidable enemies to their former masters. Under the command of chiefs, whom they have elected among themselves, they have cultivated lands for their subsistence, and make frequent incursions into the neighbouring plantations. The chief trade of Surinam consists in sugar, a great deal of cotton, coffee of an excel- lent kind, tobacco, flax, skins, and some valuable dyeing drugs. Tliey trade with the North American colonics, who bring hither horses, live cattle, and provisions, and take home a large quantity of melasses. Surinam was taken by the Knglish in August 1799, but restored by the treaty of Amiens. In May 1804, it was retaken. Connected with Surinam, we shall mention the two Dutch colo- nies of Demerary and Issequibo on the Spanish main, which surren- dered to the English in the year 17H1, and were represented as a very valuable acquisition, wliich would produce more revenue to the crown than all the British West-India islands united. But the re- port was either not believed or slighted ; for the colonies were left defenceless, and soon were retaken by a French frigate. In the pre- sent war, however, they again surrendci-ed to the British arms, Aprfl 21, 179fS. Tliey were restored by the treaty of Amiens, but since the renewal of the war they have been retaken. Dr. Bancroft observes, tliat the inhabitants of Dutch Guiana are either whites, bhick'j, or the reddish -brown aboriginal natives of America. Tlie promiscuous intercourse of these different people has likewise generated several intermediate casts, whose colours im- mutably depend on tiieir degree of consanguinity to either whites, In- dians, or negroes. These are divided into Mulattoes, Tcrceronts, Quarterones, and Quinterones, with several intermediate subdivisions, proceeding from their retrograde intercourse. There are so great a number of birds, of various species, and remarkable for the beauty of their plumage, in Guiana, that several persons in this colony have employed themselves advantageously, with their slaves and depend- ents, in killing and preserving birds for the cabinets of naturalists in different parts of Europe. The torporific eel is found in the rivers of Guiana, which, when touched either by the hand, or by a rod of iron, gold, silver, copper, or by a stick of some particular kinds of heavy American wood, communicates a ihock perfectly resembling that of electricity. There are an immense number and variety of snakes in this country, which form one of its principal inconveni- ences. A snrjke was killed some years since, on a plantation which liad belonged to Peter Aniyatt, esq. which was upwards of t-hirty- three feet in length, and in the largest place near the middle three feet in circumference. It had a broad head, large prominent eyes, and a very wide month, in wliich was a double row of teeth. Among the animals of Dutch Guiana is the Laubba, which is peculiar to this country. It is a small amphibious creature, about the si/.e of a pig four months old, covered with fine short hair : and ils flesh, by the Europeans who. reside here, is preferred to aH other kinds of meat. M I! I ■ • ill if i'.*'i ii 9«B DUTCH AMERICAN ISLANDS. t • • 7 • • • ( « * "^ DUTCH ISLANDS in AMERICA. St. EUSTATIUS. or Eustatia.] Situate in 17" 29' N. Int. 63° 10' W. long, and three lc;;gm-s north-west of St. Christopher's, is only a mduntain, about '29 miles in con)p;iss, rising out of tlic sea like a pyramid, and almost round, liui though so small, and in- conveniently laid out by nature, the inilustry of the Dmcli has made it to turn to very pood account, and it is said to contain oOOO whites and 15,000 negroes. The sides of the mountain are disposed in very pretty settlements ; but they have neither springs nor rivers. They raise here sugar and tobacco ; and this island, as well as Curassou, is engaged in the Spanish contraljand trade, for which, Iiowevcr, it is not so well situate; and il has drawn the same adv. lutagc from its constant neutrality. The Dutch first took possession of this islind in the year 1635. CURASSOU, OR ('UKA9AO.] Situite in 12 degrees north lat. 9 or 10 leagues from the continent of Terra Firma, is 30 miles long, and 10 broad. It seems as if it were fated, that the ingenuity and patience of the HoUanJer.s should every where, both in Europe and America, be employed in fighting against an unfriendly nature ; for this island is not only barren, and dependent upon the rains for v.-.iter, but the harbour is naturally one of the worst in America. Yet the Dutch have entirely remedied that defect ; they have upon this liarbour one of the largest, and by far one of the most elegant and cleanly towns in the West Indies. The public buildings are nu- merous and handsome ; the private houses commodious ; and the magazines large, convenient, and well filled. All kinil of labour is here performed by engines ; some of them so well contrived, that ships are at once lifted into the dock. Thotigh this island is natu- rally barren, the industry of the Dutch has brought it to produce a considerable quantity both of tobacco and sugar : it has, besides, Pood salt-works, for the produce of which there is a brisk demand from the English islands, and the colonies on the continent. But what renders this island of most advantage to the Dutch is the con- traband trade which is carried on between the inhabitants and the Spaniards, and their harbour being the rendezvous to all nations in time of war. The other islands, Bonaire and Aruba, are inconsiderable in them- selves, and should be re;.;arded as appendages to Curassou, for which they are chiefly employed in raising cattle and other provisions. The small islands of S.iba >and St. Martin's, situate at no great distance from St. Eustatia, are of very little importance. DANISH ISLANDS in AMERICA. St. THOMAS.] An inconsiderable island of the Caribbees, is situate in 6i- degrees west long, and 18, north lat. about 15 miles in circumference, and has a safe and commodious harbour. SOUTH SEA ISLANDS. 969 Stf. CROIX, OR SANTA CRUZ.] Another small and un- lie.iUhy island, lyinc; about five leagues east of St. Thomas, ten or twelve leagues in length, und three or four where it is hro.idest. These islands, so long as they remained in the hands of the D.mish West- India company, were ill managed, and of little consequence to the Danes : hut that wise and benevolent prince the late king of Denmark, bought up the company's stock, and laid the trade open ; unS since that time the island oi' St. Thomas has been si j^reatly im- proved, that it is said to produce ui)\vards of UK)') hogsheads of .sugar of lOOO Weight each, and others of the West-India commo- dities in tolerable plenty. In time of war, privateers bring in their pri/es here for sale : and a great many vessel; trado from hence along tlie vSpauish main, and return with money, in specie or bars, and Valuable merchandise. As for Sanra Cru/, from a perfect de- sort a few years since, it is beginning to thrive vfiy fast ; several bcrsons from the English islands, some of them of very great wealth, have gone to settle there, and have received very great encourage- ment. 'Chese islands were taken by the Knglish in 1801, during the shftrt war between England and Denmark on account of tlic convention of neutrality, but restored a few months afterwardsi when that dispute was adjusted. ISLANDS OF THE SOUTH SEA, and LATE DISCOVERIES. ^11 f*W f •pu Ifl ili''*' m OUR knowledge of the globe has been considerably augmented by many late discoveries, and especially by those that have been made by British navigators in the present reign, which have been numerous and important. Of these discoveries we shall here give a com- pendious account. m Ma. the Caribbees, is OTAHEITE, OR KING GEORGE's ISI^ND. *' ■ ■ • . - ' ■■ THIS island was discovered by captain Wallis, in the Dolphin*, * The Dolphin was sent out under the command of captain Wallis, with the Swallow, coinniaiidcd by captain Carteret, at the expense of the IJrilish go\t iiiiiRnl, in August, 17W)> iu order to make discoveries in the southern heniispliero. These vessels proceeded together, till ihcy came within sifjjht of the South Sea, at the western entrance of the Strait of Ma- gellan, and from thence relumed by difterent routes to England. On the 6th of June, I7G7, captain Wallis discovered an island, about four miles long and three wide, to which he eave the name of Whitsuu-Island, it being discovered on Whitsun-eve. its latitude is 1()°26'S. and its lon- gitude ld7° 66' W, The next day he discovered another island, to which he gave the name of Queen Charlotte's Island. The inhabitants of this island, raptain Wallis says, were of a middle stature, dark complexion, and long m I ill 97i) SOUTH SEA ISLANDS. m m (4 i' I" s f en the 19lh of June, 1767. It is situate between the 17th aegreo 'JS niin. and the 17ih degree .W min. south latitude, and bctwotn the HOih de^^rec 11 min. and the li*kh degree 39 min. west hingitiide. ll ccnsists o{ two peninsulas, of a somewhat ciiciilar form, joined by an isthmus, and is surroundt-'d by a jcef of coral rocks, which i\nrj\\ several excellent bays and harl>««rs, where there is room and depth of water for jilaiost any number of the largest ships. The face of the country is very extraordinary ; for a border of low land almost eiKJrely surrounds each peninsula, and behind this border the land rises in ridges that run up into the middle of these divisions, and these form mountains that may be seen at sixty leagues distance. The soil, except upon the very tops i-f the ridges, is rL-maiLably rich and fenile, watered by a great number of rivulets, and covered with fvuit-trees of various kinds, forming the most delightful groves. The border of low land that lies between the ridges and the Sea is in few places more tlian a mile and a half broad ; and this, together with some of the valleys, are the only parts that are inhabited. Captain Wallis made some stay at this island ; and it was aftir- wards visited again by captain Cook, in the Endeavour, in April, ]T(>9. 'I hat commander was accompanied by Joseph Banks, K.sq. now sir Joseph lianks, and Dr. Solander ; and these gentlemen, to- gether with the captain, made a very accurate survey of the island. Some parts of the island of Otaheite are very populous ; and cap- black hair, which hnnij; loose over their shtmldcrs. The men were well iiiade, anil the wonuii hundiome. Tlu'ir cluihiiij^ wa.i a khui of ciwr'se cloth or matting, which was fiistciicil about their middle, and seemed ca^ju- Lle e)t' ht'iiij, l)ronp.lit tip round their shoulders. This i'^kmd isabnutsiv. miles loiivr, .Tud one mile wide, and lies in luliu.di; U)" 18' S. loiigitudv; i;JH° 4' W. Ju the space of a few days rt*"';'r, he also discovered several fitiier small ishinds, to which he ccave the u.m.es of Jvj;iuont Island, (iloii- cester Island, Cumberland Island, Prince William Henry's Island, and Osnalmr<3;h Island. i)n the lf)th of the same month be discover^-d the island of Otalicitc ; and after he had q,intted that island, he discovered, on the i^Stii of .luiy 17'>7. another island about sis miles long, which he called Sir Charles Sanndcrs's Island ; and on the iiOth of the same month, another ahnut teti miles loii^ and four broad, which he called Lord Howe's island. After havin;j; disco- vered some other small islands, one of which was named Wallis's Island, ho arri\e«l at Pntaviaon the.SOtii of November; at the Cape of Good Hoj>i; on the 4th of Fehrnarv, 17()8 ; and his .ship anchored safely in the Downs on the i'Olh of May following. Captain Carteret^ in the Swallow, .^fter he bad parted with captain Wallis in the Dolpliin, havlnj; passed through the Strait of Magellan, :md made «on>e Slav Ht the bland of Masafucro, discovered, on the i2d of July, 17f'7. an island about five miles in circumference, to which he gave the name of Pitcairn's Island. It lies in lalitnde Sia'^ 2' S. longitude li3,'3° 'Jl' VV. and about a thousand leagues to the westward of the continciU of America. The ] Ith of the same month he discovered another small island, to which he g^rve the name of the bishop of Osnaburgh's Island. The next day lie di'jcovered two other small ishnids, which he called the Duke of Clouees- tsr's Islands. The following month he discovered a cluster of small islands, to which he ijjave the name of Queen ('barlolte's Islands, and al>o three others, whi< li be named (iower's Island, Simpson's Island, and Carleicl's Island, {fn the i.'4th of the same month lie discovered Sir Charles Hardy's Island, wiiich lies in latitude 4" 50' S. and the next iliy Winchclsea's Island, which is diftant aboiU ten leagues in the direction of S. by Iv He afterwards «li5Covered several other islands, and proceeded rpund the Cape of CooJ Hope to Eniihmd, where he arrived in March HOq. LATE DISCOVERIES, ICl I tlie 17th degrc* !, and bctwota the a. west longitude, .iilar form, joined :oral rocks, wliich hure i» room and rgest ships. Ihe order of low hind nd this border the of these divisions, f leagues distance, is rcm.n k.al)ly rich ilcts, and covered delightful groves. ?s and the Sva is in and this, together hat are inhabited. ; and it was afttr- deavour, in April, obeph Lanics, Ksq. lese gentlemen, to- irvey of the island, opulous ; and cap- Tlie men ucre well va,T a kind of ccMr^e k", and seemed eitpu- is island is abnut siv. 1;)" 18' S. lotigitiulc: lO distMtvcred several iU)Ut Island, (ilnu- enry's Island, and i.sland of Otalicitc ; Stliof .luly 17')7, r Cliarlcs Saunders's )iiiit ten miles loii^ :Vf'ter liavinjz; disco- led Wallis's Inland, r.pc of Good Ili)|ie aaiciv In the Downs with captain Wallis Magellan, :ind maiit; le L'd of July, 17^>7. le gave the name of le iuy° '.'1' W. and ntinent of Ameriea. Kill island, to which The next day lie Duke of CJlouces- stpr of small islands, nds, and also three ,iand, and Carterel's Sir ('liaries Ilardy'a ^Vinchelsea's Island, by Iv lleafierwards I'lhc Ciipc of CooJ tain Cook was of opinion, that the number of inhabitants on the whole island amounted to ii04.000, including v/omtn and children. They arc of a clear olive complexion, the men are tall, strong, well- limbed, and finely shaped ; the women arc of an interior si^e, but liandsonic and very amorous. Their clothing consists of cloth or matting of different kinds ; and the greatest pait of the food eaten here is vegetable, as cocoa nuts, bananas, bread-fruit, plantains, and a great variety of other fruit. 1 heir houses, those which are of a iniddling size, are of an oblonjg square, abtmi tutnty-four feet long, and eleven wide, with a shelving root supported on three rows of posts, parallel to each otncr, one row on each side, and one in the middle. The utmost height within is about nine itet, and the eaves on each side reach to within about three feet and a half from the ground. All the rest is open, no part being inclosed with a wall. '1 he roof is thatched with palm-leaves, and the Hoor covered some inches deep with soft hay, over which they lay mats, upon which they sit in the day. and sleep in the night. I'hey have no tools among them made of metal ; and those they use are made of stones, or some kind of bones. The inhabitants of Otaiiri • are remark- able for their cleanliness ; for both men and women constantly wash their whole bodies in running water three times a day. 1 heir lan- guage is soft and melodious, and abounds with vowels. There were no tame animals upon the island b"ut hogs, dogs, and poultry ; but the Knglish and .Spaniards have since carried tiiither bulls, cows, sheep, goats, a horse and mare, geese, ducks, peacocks, turkeys, and also cats. The only wild animals are tropical birds, paroquets, pi- geons, ducks, and a few other birds ; rats, and a very few serpents. The sea, however, supplies the inhabitants with a very great variety cf the most excellent fish. In other countries the men cut their hair short, and the women pride themselves on its length ; but here the women always cut it short round their ears, and the men (except the fishers, who are almost continually in the water) suiFer it to spread over their should- ers, or tie it up in a bunch on the top. They have the custom of discolouring the skin, by pricking it with a small instrument, the teeth of which are dipped into a mixture of a kind of lamp-black, and this is called tattooing. This is performed upon the youth of both sexes, when they are about twelve or fourteen years of age, on several parts of the body, and in various figures. Their principal manufacture is their cloth, of which there are three kinds, made of the bark of three different kinds of trees. The finest and whitest is made of the Chinese paper-mulberry-tree, and this is chiefly worn by the principal people. Another considerable manufacture is matting, Some of which is finer, and in every respect better, tlian any we have in Europe. The coarser sort serves them to sleep upon, and the fitter to wear in wet weather. They are likewise very dexterous in mak- ing v.'icker-work ; their baskets are of a thousand different patterns, and many of them exceedingly neat. The inhabitants of Otaheite believe in one supreme Deity, but at the same time acknowledge a variety of subordinate Deities ; they offer up their prayers without the use of idols, and believe the existence of the soul in a separate state, where there are two situations, of dilFerent degrees of happi- ness. Among these people a subordination is established, which somewhat resembles the early state of the European nations under the feudal system. If a general attack happens to be made upon t^e islaadf every district is obliged to furnish its proportion of soldiers iirl I'll ■ lllv 11 m ''< ill w ,1 ■1 < Hi -17 972 SOUTH SEA ISLANDS. mi |}-Vji| Iki^^ii hi f" t 1, for the common defence, 'riieir weapons are slings, which they use with great dexterity, and clubs of about six or seven feet long, and * made of a hard heavy wood. They have a great number of boats, many of which arc constructed for warlike operations. THE SOCIETY ISLANDS. OF the several islands so called, and which v/ere discovered by captain Cook*, in the year 1769, the principal are HuAniitNi;, Uli- * At the close of the year 176?. it was rcsolvcr! bv the Iloval Sncietv, that it would bo proper to send pi'isons into soiuc |);irts of the South Sea, to observe a l.ran;iilof the planet Venus over the Sun's disk, whicli, accord- ing; to astronomical calrulalion, would happen in the year 17O9 : and that the islands called Marquesas de IMcndu/.a, or tiiu.c of Ilolterdam or Amster- dam, were the pro|)erest plaees then known fur uiakin;; svich observations. In consequence f)f these resolutions, it was recommended 1*0 his maje-ity, in a memorial from the society, dated February 17'»^!, that he would be pleascc^ to order such an observation to be made; upon which his majestv STa;niticd to the Fiords Commii-sionprs of the Admiraltv his pleasure that a shi|) should be provid'd to carry surli observers as the society should think fit, to the South Seas; and necordingly a bark, of three hundred and sevcntv tons, was preparetl for that purpose. It was named tlie luideavour, and coin- nianded by captain James ('00k, who was soon aficr, by the Koyal Societv, appoinled, with I\Ir. Charles (Ircen, a gentleman who had lont; been assist- ant to Dr. Hradley at the Royal Observatory at Gr.'cnwieli, to observe the transit... But while this vessel \vas getting readv for her expedition, captain Wallis returned ; and it having been reconnnended to him bv lord Morton, when be went out, to fix on a proper place tor this astronomical observation, he, by letter, dated on board the Dolphin, the 18tii of May, I7()8, the dav before he landed at Hastiir^s, mentioned Port Roval harbour, in the island of Otahf'ite: the Roval Societv, tlicreforc, by letter, dated the begiiniiu}^ of June, in answer to aw application from the Admiralty, to be informed whither they would have their observers sent, made ciioice of that place. Captain Cook aet sail from Plymouth, in the Kndeavour, on the 2()th ff August, 17(J8. He was accompanied in his vovagc l.y .loscph Banks, ]"!-(;. and Dr. Solandcr. They made no discovery till they viol within the tropic, where thev fell in with Lagoon Island, Two Groups, Bird Island, and Chain Island.j and they arrived at Otaheitc on'tlr 13th of April, 170';;. During their stay at that island, thev bad the opportunity of making very accurate inquiries rehuive to its produce and inhabitants; and, on the 41^ of June, the whole passage of the planet Venus over tiie Sun's disk was observed'by them with ,ii;reat advantage. The result of their observations may be found in the Philosophical Transactions. Afirr his departure from Otaheitc, captain Cook discovered and visited the Sncieiy Islands and Olie- teroa, and thence proceeded to the south till liearri\ed In tlie latitude of 40 degrees L'2 riiinutes, longitude 147 degrees 2g mi n tes \A . and afterwards made an accurate survey of the coast of New Zealand. In Novendicr he discovered a chain of islands, which he call.'d IJarrier Islands. He at'ier- wards proceeded to New IIoHand, and from thence to Ne|r(«'uinea ; and in Sentend)er, 177O, arrived at the island of Savu, frr, n whence he pro- ceeded to Hatavia, and from thence round the Cape of Good Hope to iing- land, where he arrived on the lyibof June, 177 I • Soon aflei: captiiin Cook's return borne in the Kndeavour, it was rcsobed la equip two ihips, in order to make farther discoveries in the southern licmi- LATE DISCOVERIES. 2;s, which they use ven feet long, and : number of boats, ions. 973 DS. vere discovered by J HuAHUiNK, Uli- the Royal Society, ts of the Soiii-h Sea, disk, which, accord- year 1769 : and that oUcrciam or Amster- ijf such observations, led iT) his majesty, in he would be plenscc^ his majesty sia;iiiticd ire that a ship should luld think fit, to the ed and sevcntv tons, .ndcavour, and com- ly tlie liovai Soclciv, liad lonf.; been assisl- wich, to ol»ber\c the. ■ c\peditii)n, captain lim bv lord Morion, nomical obscrvatiori, May, I7()8, the day larbour, in the island lied the beginning of iltv, to he informed ciioice of thai place, ionr, on the I'tith rf oseph Banks, !>(;, ol within the tropic, )s, Uird Island, and 13lh of April, 17f.i(;. mitv of jujkiiisi; very Its ; and, on the 4lh r die Sun's disk was if their observations r his departure fnun .'ty Islands and Ohc- in tiie latitude of 40 W . and afterwards In Novcndicr lie Islands. He afier- » Ne|^(juinea ; and •r. whence he pro- Good Hope to h.\ lur, it was rcsobed in the soulhcrn hcini- THA, Otaha, and Bolabola. Huaheine is about 31 leagues to the north-vyest of Otaheite, and its productions are exactly the same, sphere. Accordingly the Resolution and the Adventure were ajipointed for that purpose ; the lirsl was commanded by ca|)tain Cook, ami the latter bv rapfaiu Tobias I'nrneaux. They sailed from Plyiuoutii Sound on the I3lh of July, 177-'; and on the C'gth of the same ninnlh arrived at the island of Aladeiru. Frgm thence ihey proceeded to the Cape of Good Hope ; and in February, '773, arrived at New Zealand, having sought in vain for a sonth- rrn continent. In that month the Resolution and the Adventure sepa- rated, in consequence of a thick fog, but thev j(.>ined company again in <^)neen Charlotte's Sound, on the 18tb of Mav following. In .Vugust ihev arrived at Otaheite ; and in Seiitember they di;ieoverod Ilarvev'^^ Isluiid. (Ju the second of October they came to jMiddlcLnrgii, one of the Friendly Islands ; and about the close of that month the Resolution and the .-\d\iii- lure were separated, and did not join company any more. Ciiptain Cook, however, proceeded in the Resolution, in order to make discoveries in 1 he southern |)Olar regions, but was stopped in his progress by the ice, in the. latitude of 7 1 degrees 10 minutes south ; longitude iOD degrees n-i minutes west. He then proceeded to Faster li^land, where he arrived in March, 177-t, as he did also in the same month at the Marcpiesas Islands. He after- wards discovered four islands, which he named Pulliser's Islands ; and again steered for Otaheite, where he arrived on the 2'Jd of A[)ril, and made some • stay, and also visited the neighbouring isles. In August he came to the Kew Hebrides, some of which were first discovered by him. After leav- ing liu'se islands, lie steered to the souliiwai'd a few days, and discovered Is'ew (Jaledonii, Having surveyed the south-west coast of this island, cap- tain Cook suered again for New Zealand, in order to refresh his crew, and put his .-hip into a condition to encounter the danger attending the naviga- tion 'in the high southern latitudes. Directing his course to the south and east, after leaving New Zealand, till he arrived in the lalitud'.' of ,'j5 degrees C minutes south, longitude 138 degrees 5(5 minutes west, without meeting with any continent, captain Cook gave u|) all hopes of liscovering any in this ocean ; ar.d therefore came to a re^okuion to steer directly for the west entrance of tlie Straits of ^h^gellan, with a view of coasting and surveying the outermost or south side of Terra del Fuego. Keeping accordingly in about the latitude of nii or 0.1, and steering nearly east, he arrived oH" the ^vestern mouth of the Straits of Magellan, wiihoul meeting with any thing remarkable in his new route. In .January, 177^. he discovered a laigo and dreary island, to which he gave the name of South Georgia. He afterwards discovered various c.ipcs and elevated niow-clad coasts, to tlie most southern j.art of which he gave the name of the Southern Thule, as being the nearest land to that pole wdiieh has vet been di. covered. In F'.brnaiy he discovered Sandwich Land, and several island'? covered with snow. He then proceeded round the Cape of Good Hope to F.ngLmdj v.here he atrivtd on the 3()ihof .Tuly, 177'). C-aptniu Furneaux had returned to England in the Adventure a year before, having proceeded home round the Cape of Good Hope without making any remarkable discovery. Ten of his men, a boat's crew, iiad been murdered and eaten by some of the sivages of New Zea- land ; so that this vovage afnirded a melancholy proof that cannibals really exist; and, indeed, in the course of tlie-e voyage^ of discovery, other cvi- 'dencc a]ipeared of thi;; tact. As to captain Cook, in the course of his voy- age in the Resolulion.hcjiad made the circuit of the souiliern ocean, in a high laiitu i •, and had traversed it in socii a manner, as to leave not the lei t rooin for the possibility of there l)eing a -.onthern continent, unless near the pole, and out of the reach of navigation. It deserves also to be remembered, m honour of that able c(Mnmaiider, captain Cook, that, with a company of a hundred and eighteen men, hi: perfoniv^d this voyage of three years and eighteen days, ihroughout all the climates, from Hfiy-two degrees north to scentv-one degrees south, with the loss of only one man by sickness ; and this appears, in a considerable degiee, to have arisen from tin; great hu:na- iiity oi'tlie vonuiiander, and ins uncommon care and atlcmion to adopt every method for preson intj the hcalih of liis men. IT' ' . fl't ftS liiil %i; M I'M- 97* SOUTH SEA ISLANi:^. ■I '* If 4 *' 'ill but it appears to be a month forwarder. The inhabitants seem t« be larger made, and more stout, than those of Otaheite. Mr. Banks measured one of tlie men, and found him to be six feet three inches an^ a half high ; yet they are so indolent, that he could not per- suade one of them to goup to the hills with him'; for they said, if they were to attempt it the fatigue would kill them. 'J'he women are fairer than those of Otaheite, and both sexes appear less timid and less curious ; though in their dress, language, and Jilmost every other circumstance, they arc the same. Their houses are neat, and they have boat-houses that are remarkably large. Ulitca is about seven or eight leagues to the south-west>^'ard of Huaheine, and is a much larger island, but appears neitlier sn fertile nor so populous. The principal refreshments to be procured here are plantains, cocoa-nuts, yams., hogs, and fowls ; but the two last are rather scarce. Qtaha is divided from Ulitea by a strait, that in the narrowest part is not above two miles broad. This island affords two good harbours, and its produce is oi the same kind as that of the other islands. About four leagues to the north-west of Otaha lies Bolabola, which is surrounded by a reef of rocks and several small islands, all of wluch are no more than eight leagues in compass. To these islands, and those of Marua, which lie about fourteen miles to the westward of Bolabola, containing six in all, captain Cook gave the name of oocicty Islands. OHETEROA. THLS island is situate In the latitude of 22 deg- 27 min. south, and in the longitU'.Ic of 1.'50 dcg. 47 min. west from Greenwich. It is thirteen miles in circuit, and rather high than low, but neitlier so populous nor so fertile as some of the other islands in these seas. The inhabitants are lusty and well made, but are rather browner than th.ose of Otaheite. Their principal weapons are long lances made of ctoa wood, which is very hard, and some of them are nearly Iv. enty feet long. The navigators* ISLANDS. THESE islands, which were discovered by M. de Bougainville, and explored by the unfortunate De la Pcrouse, in 17B7, are ten in ^number, and called by the natives Opoun, Leone, Fanfoue, Maouna, Oyolava, Calinasse, Pula, Shik;., Ossamo, and (j|iera. Opoun, the most souiherly as well as the most easterly of these islands, lies in IP 7'soutli latitude, and W.P 7 west longitude. At Maouna, M. de l.n Pcrouse, commander of the French ships the Boussole and Astrolabe, met with his tirst fatal accident : M. de Langle, captain of tlie Astrolabe, and eleven oflicers and sailors, being massacred by the natives. Oyolava is separated from Maouna by a channel LATE DISCOVERIES. ci**'; about nine leagues wide, and is at least equal to Otahelte in PN-tent, ibrtiiity, and population. The island of Pola h somcvv}i:it smalU-^r than that of Oyolava, but equally beautiful. The eastern islands, Opoun, Leone, and Funfoue, are small, especially the last two, which are about five miles in circumference; but Maouiia, Oyolav:^, and Tola, may be numbered amongiit the largest and most beautiful islands of the South Sea They combine the advantages of a soil fruitt'ul without culture, and a climate that renders clothing unne- cessary. They produce in abundance the bread fruit, cocoa-nut, the banana, the guava, and the orange. The inhabitants are a strong and handsome race of men. Their usual height is five feet ten or eleven iuclies, and six feet; but tluMr stature is less astonishing than the colossal proportions of the di'Terent parts of their bodies. Ti;e men have the body painted or tattooed, so tliat any one would suppose them clothed, though they go almost naked. They have only a 5>;irdle ci sea-wecus, encircling their loins, which comes down to their iinees, and gives them the appearance of tlie river gods of my tin i- logv. Their hair is very long, and tliey often twis: it round their head>, and thus add to their native ferocity of counteu.iuce, v.hich always e.vprerses eitiier surpri:.e or anger. The stature of the women IS proportional to tiiat of the men. They ar; tall, rlender, and not without grace, though in general di?;gusting from their gross effrontery and indecency. The inliabitants of tliese islands cultivate several arts with success. Their houses have 'jven a kind of elegance, and tliey finish their work very neatly, witli tools made cf a very fine and conip;tct species of basaltes, in the form oi' an ad/e. They manufacture very fi'ae mats, and some paper-stufl's. They are almost continually on the water, and do not go so mucli as fropi one viilag« to another on foot, but perfinan all their journeys in ciinocs ; nv. v.lnch ;iccount M. de Bougainville called these islands the Navigators' Islands. Their villages are all situate in creeks by tlie sea-side, and have no paths from one to the other. In their disposition they ap- pear to be thievish, treacheroas, and ferocious. i ffl'i ¥'■■ 'I The friendly ISLANDS. THESE islands wove so named by captain Cook, in the year 177J5, on account of the friendship which appeared to subsist among the inhabitants, and from their courteous behaviour to strangers. Abel Jansen Tasman, an eminent Dutch navigator, first touched here in l()i3, and gave names to the principal islands. Captain Cook labo- riously explored the whole cluster, which he found to consist of more tlian sixty. The three islands which Tasman saw, he named New Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Middleburg. The first is the largest, and extends about twenty-one miles from east to west, and about thirteen from north to south. These islands are inhabited hy a race of Inilians, who cultivate the earth with great industry. The island of Amsttrdatu is interrected by straight and pleasant roads, with fruit trees on each side, wl.\ich afl'iixl shade from the sco.-.hing heat of the '^v.n u ■T' fl m <■*- t'l ,* ll f' H hm- 76 SOUTH SEA ISLANDS. '1 he principal of these islands are, Ton,fjataboo, or Amsterdam ; Eiloowe, or Mlddlcburg; Annamooka, or Rotterdam; Hapaee, and Lef'ooga. Tho first, which is the largest, lies in 21° 9' south lati- tude, and 171" ■'(>' we-fit longitude. Eaoovve, wlicn viewed from the ship at anchor, formed one of the most beautiful prospects in nature, and very tiificrtnt from the others of the Friendly Isles ; which, being low and pcrfecdy level, exhibit nothing to the eye but the trees which cover them : whereas here the land, rising gently to a consi- derable height, presented an extensive prospect, with groves of trees interspersed at irregular distances, in beautiful disorder ; the rest is covered witii grass, except near the shores, which are entirely cover- ed with Iruit and other trees ; amongst which are the habitations of the natives. In order to have a viev/ of as g' ci.i; a part of the island as possible, captain Cook and some of his officers walked up to the highest point of it. From this place they had a view of almost the whole island, which consisted of beautilul meadows, of prodigious extent, adorned with tufts of trees, and intermixed with plantations. " While I was surveying this delightful prospect," says captain Cook, " I could not help flattering myself with the pleasing idea, that some future navigator may, fro he same station, behold these meadows stocked with cattle, brought to tliese islands by the ships of England ; and that the completion of this single benevolent pur- pose, independent of all other considerations, would sufficiently mark to posterity that our voyages had not been useless to the general in- terests of humanity." The MARQUESAS ISLANDS. M k • ' I 1 'I I ll ' n { I' tt' i ri , ', THESE Islands were first discovered by Quiros In 1595 : their si- tuation was better ascertained by captain Cook in l??-!-. 'J hey are five in number, and named St. Christina, Magdalena, St. Dominica, St. Pedro, and Hood. Captain Cook, in his sccoml voy.ige, lay some time at the first f)f these, wliich is situate in 9'^ ')5' south lati- tude, and l.'i9" 9' west longitude. St. Dominica is the largest, ab(;Ut 1() leagues 'in circuit. 'The inhabitants, their language, manners, and clothuig, with the vegetable productions, are nearly the same as those of the Society Isles. The NFAV HEBRIDES. 7'HIS name was given by captain Cook to a cluster of islands, the most northerly of which was seen by (Juiros, tlie S{'a. nish navigator, in KiOfy, and by him named Terra del Espiritu S.into. I'roni tliat time uniil captain Cook's voyage in the Endea- voui, in I'ibdf this land was supposed to be part of a great souther n '-\. )o, or Amsterdam ; ;lam ; Hapaee, and in 21° 9' south lati- :n viewed from the prospects in nature, mdly Isles ; which, le eye but the trees y gently to a cousi- vith groves of trees isorder ; the rest is are entirely cover- e the habitations of a part of the island rs walked up to the view of almost the iows, of prodigious ?d with plantations, lect," says captain 1 the pleasing idea, tation, behold these islands by the ships jle benevolent pur- ild sufficiently mark ss to the general in- LATE DISCOVERIES. 977 fCmtinrnt, called Terra AustraUs Incognita. But when captain Coolc had Sailed round New ^Zealand, and along the eastern coast of New Hol- land, this opinion was fully confuted. On his next voyage, in the Reso- lution, he resolved to explore tliose parts accurately; and, accordingly, in 1774', besides ascertaining the extent and situation of these iblands, discovered several in the group which were before unknown. The New Hebrides are situated between the latit.u<Ies of 11' deg. 29 min. and 20 deg. 4 min. south ; and between ib'6 dc^. 41 min. and 170 cleg. 21 min. east long. They consist of the following islands, some of which have received names from the different European na- vigators, and others retain the names which they bear among the na- tives, viz. 'i'erra del Espiritu Santo, Mallicollo, St. Bartholomew, Isle of Lepers, Aurora, Whitsur.tide, Ambrym, Immer, Appee, Three Hills, Sandwich, Montagu, Hinchinbrook, Sliepherd, Eorronjanga, Ivronan, Annatom, and Tanna. Not far distant from the New Hebrides, and south-westward of them, lies New Calkdonia, a very large island, first discovered by captairt Cook, in 1774. It is about eighty-seven leagues long, but its breadth does not any whcr« exceed ten leagues. It is inhabited fcy a race of stout, tall, wt^U-proportioned Indians, of a swarthy or dark chesnut brown. A few leagues distant, are two small islands, called the Island of Pines, and Botany Island. ' ( 1 I v>t 1^1 NEW ZEALAND. NDS. in ] 595 : their sl- 1774-. 'Jiiey are ■na, vSt. Dominica, ccond voy<)ge, lay 'iV 55' south lati- the largest, abcut anguagc, manners, nearly the same as s. : tn a cluster of y (^uiros, tlie Spa- 'orra del Espiritu ago in the Endca- f a groat souther n THIS country was first discovered by Tasman, the Dutch naviga- tor, in the year 161'2, who gave it the name of Staten Land, tliough it has been generally distinguished in our maps and charts by the name of New Zealand, and was supposed to be parfof a southern continent ; but it is now known, from the late discoveries of captain Cook, who sailed round it, to consist of two large islands, divided from each other by a strait four or five leagues broad. They are si- tuate between the latitudes of '34 and '\-^ degrees south, vmd be- tween the longitudes of 166 and ISO degrees east from Greenwich. One of these islands is for the most part mountainous, rather barren, and but thinly inhabited ; but the other is much mo.e fertile, aad of a better appearance. In the opinion of sir Joseph Banks and Dr. ^rlander, every kind of European fruits, grain, and plaiits, would flourish here in the utmost luxuriance. From the vegetables found here, it is supposed that the winters are milder than those in England, and the summers not hotter, though rr.ore equably warm : so that it is imagined, that if this country were settled by people from Europe, they would, witli moderate industry, be soon supplied not only with the necessaries, but the luxuries of life, in great abundance. Here are forests of vast extent, filled with very large timber trees ; and near four hundred plants were fonnd here that had not been describ- ed by naturalsits. the inhabitants of New Zealand are stout and robust, and equal in stature to the largest Europeans. Their colour in general is brown, but in few deeper than that of a Spaniard who has been exposea to the sun, and in many not so deep j and both '^W m 1, W .1 i| 978 SOUTH SEA ISLANDS. sexes have good features. Their dress is very uncouth, and they mark or tattoo their bodies in a manner bimilar to the inhabitants of Otahcite. 'I'heir principal weapons are hinces, darts, and a kind of battle-axes; and they have generally sho\vn themselves very hostile to the Europeans who have visited tliem. NEW HOLLAND, THE largest island in the world, and formerly supposed to be A part of that imaginary continent, called Terra Australis Incognita, lies between 10 (leg. 30 mi.i. and l\i deg. south latitude, and between 110 and I5ti deg. '30 min. east longitude; equalling in extent the wliole continent of Europe, the eastern coast running not less than 2000 miles in length from north-east to south-west. Jts dimen- sions from east to west have not been so exactly ascertained, as we are obliged to take our information concerning them from the ac- counts ol' navigators of different nations, who visited this part of the world at a time when the method of making observations, and finding the latitudes and longitudes of places, was less accurate than it is now. Dillerent parts of the country have been called by the names of the discoverers, as Van Diemen's land*, Carpentaria, &c. and though the general appellation of the whole was New Holland, it is now applied by geographers to the north and west parts of the country. The ca^^tern part, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in his majesty's name by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the British dominions, a colony having been formed there, chiefly of the convicts sentenced to transportation. The accounts of tlie climate and soil of this extensive coimtry, now become an object of importance to Great Britain, are very va- rious : different parts have been explored at different times, and ac different seasons of the year. In general, however, the relations are by no means favourable ; the sea-coast, the only place on which any inhabitants have been discovered, appear to be sandy and barren ; and as for the inland parts, which might reasonably be supposed more fertile, they are now thought to be wholly uninhabited ; but whether this proceeds from the natural sterility of the soil, or the barbarity of the inhabitants, who know not how to cultivate it, is not yet discovered. That celebrated navigator, captain Cook, spent upwards of four months in survpying the eastern coast, the extent of whicli, a« has already been mentioned, is nearly 2000 miles. The bay in which he anchored, from the great quantity of undescribed plants found on the shore, was called Botany Bay, and is the place for which the convicts were originally destined ; though now they are settled in another part of the island, about fifteen miles to the northward, named, by captain Cook, Port .Jackson, the principal settlement being called Sydney Cove. • This has lately been discovered to be an island l60 miles long and 80 fcroad, -separated from New Holland by a channel 30 kagties wide. LATE DISCOVERIES. 979 :outh. and they ■) the inhabitants darts, and a kind elves very hostile J supposed to be a ustralis Incognita, itude, and between quailing in extent ist running not less >west. its dimen- ascertained, as we them from the ac- visited this part of T observations, and is less accurate than e been called by the I*, Carpentaria, £;c. . was New Holland, ^d west parts of the I Wales, was takon •ook, and now forms aving been formed ortation. is extensive country, Driiain, are very vii- Ifferent times, and at |ver, the relations are r place on which any e sandy and barren ; )ly be supposed more habited ; but whether [soil, or the barbarity ,tivate it, is not yet l^ent upwards ef four Itentot which, a«hai I The bay ii^ ^^■"''^" [escribed plants found le place for which the low they are settled in Is to the northward, EcipaUcttlemeiitbcmg ui iCiOmilcslongandSO Icagoes wide. This was not visited or explored by captain Cook ; it was seen at the distance of between two and three mflcs from the coast ; biii, had fortune conducted him into the harbour, he would liavc found it much more worthy of his attention, as a seaman, than Hotauy Bay, where he passed a week. From an entrance not more than two miles broad. Port Jackson gradually extends into a noble ;liul capacion ; basin, having sounding sufficient for the lars^cst vi^sscls, :ind spaie to accommodate, in perfect security, any number that could bu assem- bled. It nms, chiefly in a western direction, about thirteen iiiiU's into the country, and contains no less than a hundred small cumi formed by narrow necks of land, whose projections, afford shciicr from the winds. SvnNEy CovK lies on the south side of the harbour, between five and six miles from the entrance. The neck of land that forms this cove is mostly covered with wood, yet is so rocky, that it is not easy to comprehend how the trees could have found suflicient nou- rishment to bring them to so considerable a magnitude. The soil in other parts of the coast, immediately about Port Jackson, is of various qualities. This neck of land, which divides the south end/^f the harbour from the sea, is chiefly sand. Between Sydney Cove and Botany Bay the first space is occupied by a wood, in some parts a mile and a half, in others three miles broad. Beyond tliat, is a kind ofhc;;t]i, poor, samly, and full of swamps; but as tar as the eye can reach to the westward, tlie country is one continued wood. The climate at Sydney Cove is considered, on tlu; v^hole, as equal to the finest in I'airopc. The r;iius arc never of long duralioji, and. there are seldom any fo"■^. The :;oi!, ihou^jh in ceneral lis'-ht and rather sandy in this part, is uill ns r^ood :'.s usu;;liy is fh.ind so near the sea-side. All the plants :vnd fruit-trees bronght from Brasil and the Cape, which were not daniag'-'il in the pa .sac^'c, ilirive exceed- ingly ; and vegetables h;ive now l>ccnnie plentiliil, bcth the liuio- pean sorts, and such as are peculiar to New .South VVales. " The natives f>r New Holland, in general, seem t" have no great aversion to tlie new settlers ; tlie oidy act's ofho.stility tJiey ever com- mitted were on account of tlieir occupying tlie (i^hin;;-gi-ounds which the New Hollanthn-s jn tlv supposed to l)cl()ng to themsclvcrs. 'J^hcy appear, however, to in- \'.\ r^ o savage a state to be canal)lo a^ }et of deriving any instructidn iVotn tiwir new ncighbr.nrs. They are so ignorant ot agriculture, tlrav Ii s'.ems niosi probable tliey clo not even know the use f)f corn, and tlr.vi^lo.,', pevlians more frnm ignorance than malic I set fire to that vJiieVi tire eo I'liist- hul raibiHl ior tiulr own use. They are of a low statme and ill rnaJe : their noses are flat, their nostrils wide, their eyes ^nn!:, tlie'r cye-br.iws and lips thick, with a mouth of prodigious MiJih, bur the teeth wliice and oven. Both sexes go enlirelv nai.e I, ami ^e. rn to have no nioro shame in discovering the w liob: bouv ilian we have in discovering our haiuis and face. They ]i(u-> ever liavc tlieir ornaments : they paint tiiemselvrs with various colours ; and some ol them j)eri"ora.te the cartilage of the nose and thriisr a l.oe.eiione or reed vluough it, which captain Cof)k's sailors liuniorously ealled liieir .v'///-.sY/?t->'rt'7/. Mosr ol the men want one ol ilic loreteeth in the upper jaw ; and it is common for tlie wnmcn Ivi eat oil" two j<)ints of the little finger. The- are exMemely sup^i stiiion-,, b\il aelive, vigoroti'j, and displa-'' gvcal pMiOii.'i lJl'a^•ery un the .ijipe.ir.Kiee o[ daoijj'^r. ':■ W •■> limW^BIl 1 PMHB^'''^ m |,v» Ik^!^^ .fd ■; bjRft ; Wmt .''!i R 1S3^ '. Jl ' '- ■ t ' 1' ' . '■ -J 980 SOUTH SEA ISLANDS. For a more particular account of this new settlement, vr6 refer otir readers to the Voyage of Go^*rnor Philip to Botany Bay ; and Col- lins's History of the Colony of New South Wales. NEW GUINEA, TILL the late discoveries, was thought to be the north coast of an extensive continent, and to be joined to New Holland ; but cap- tain Cook discovered a strait between them, which runs north-east, through which he sailed. Thus it was found to be a long narrow island, extending north-east from the second degree of south latitude to the twelfth, and from one hundred and thirty-one to one hundred and fifty depfrees east longitude; but in one part it does not appeiir to be above fifty miles broad. The country consists of a mixture of very high hills and valleys, interspersed with groves of cocoa-nut trees, plantains, bread fruit, and most of the trees, shrubs, and plants, tbat are found on the other South Sea islands. It affords from the sea a variety of delightful prospects. The inhabitants make nearly the same appearance as the New Hollanders on the other side of the straits. To the north of New Guinea is New Britain, which is situate in the fourtli degree of south latitude, and one hundred and fifty- two deg. nineteen min. east longitude from Greenwich. It was sup- posed to be part of an imaginary continent, till captain Dampier found it to be an island, and sailed through a strait which divides it from New Guinea. Captain Carteret, in his voyage round the world, in 1767, found it was of much less extent than it was till then ima- gined to be, by sailing tliroiigh another strait to the north, which se- parates it from a long island, to which he gave the name of New Ireland. There are many high hills in New Britain, and it abounds with large and stately trees. To the eastward of New Britain, and in both the above straits, are many islands, most of which are said to be extremely fertile, and to abound with plantains and cocoa- nut trees. NEvr Ireland extends in length, from the north-east to the south- west, about two hundred and seventy miles, but is in general very narrow. It abounds with a variety of trees and plants, and with many pigeons, parrots, rooks, and other birds. The inhabitants are black and woolley-headed, like the negroes of Guinea, but have not their flat noses and thick lips. North-westward of New Ireland, a ^cluster of islands was seen by captain Carteret, lying very near each other, and supposed to consist of twenty or thirty in number. One of these, which is of very considerable extent, was named New Ha- nover ; the rest of tlje cluster received the name of the ADMiRALiif ISLANBS. LATE DISCOVERIES. • Ml The PELEW ISLANDS. THE existence and situation of these islands were probably icnowa to the Spaniards at a distant period ; but from a report among the neighbouring islands, of their being inhabited by a savage race of canibals, it appears that there never had been the least communica- tion between them and any of the Europeans, till the Antelope packet (belonging to the East-India company) was wrecked on one of them, in August 1783. From the accounts given of these islands, by cap- tain Wilson, who commanded the packet, it appears that they are situate between the 5th and 9th de^jrees north latitude, and between 330 and 136 degrees of east longitude from Greenwich, and lie in a N. E. and S. W. direction. They are long but narrow, of a mo- derate height, and well covered with wood ; the climate temperate and agreeable ; the lands produce sugar-cane, yams, cocoa-nuts, plantuuis, Vananas, oranges, and lemons ; and the surrounding seas abound with the finest and greatest variety of fish. The natives of these islands are a stout, well-made people, above the middle stature ; their complexions are of a far deeper colbur than what is understood by the Indian copper, but not black. The men go entirely naked, and the women wear only two small aprons, one behind and one before, made of the husks of the cocoa-nut dyed with different shades of yellow. The government is monarchical, and the king is absolute, but his power is exercised inore with the mildness of a father than a sove- reign. In the language of Europeans, he is the fountain of honour ; he occasionally creates hiS nobles, called Rupacks or chiefs, and con- fers a singular honour rf knighthood, called tlie Order of the Bone, the members of which are distinguished by wearing a bone on their arm. The idea which the account published by captain Wilson gives us of these islanders, is that of a people who, though naturally igno- rant of the arts and sciences, and living in the simplast state of nature, yet possess all that genuine politeness, that dehcacy, and chastity of intercourse between tJie sexes, that respect for personal property, that subordination to government, and those habits of industry, which are so rarely united in the more civilised societies of modern times. It appears that when he English were thrown on one of these islands, they were received by the natives with the greatest humanity and hospitaUty ; and, till their departure, perienced the utmost courtesy and attention. " They felt our pe.ple were distressed, and ** in consequence wished they should share whatever they had to give. It was not that worldly munificence that bestows and spreads " its favours with a distant eye to retribution. It was the pure emo- " tion of native benevolence. It was the love of man to man. It *' was a scene that t-ictures human nature in triumphant colouring ; « and whilst their iiberullty gratified the sense, their virtue struck " the heart." <( .!"" ¥ i'r IS I I 98t SOU I'll SEA ISLANDS. INGRAIiAM'S ISLANDS. m^. . THESE Isliiiuls were discoviTctl by captain Joseph In,!;r.ih.ini, of Boston, conmianclcr ol" tlie hiij^antinc Hope, on tla- lijlh of April, I7UI. They lie N. N. \V. from tlie Mar(|iiesas Islauils, Ironi \'>') to 50 leagues dibtant, in abont J) ol soutii lalitude, and Ironi 1 iO to M J west loni,fitude from London. Tliey a-rc seven in number, and were named by captain Inj^raham, Washington, Adams, Liucwln, Federal, tV.iTiklin, Hancock, Knox. Most, ilnot all of these islands are inhal)ited, and appear generally to be diversified with liills and valleys, and to be well wooded, and very pleasant. The people resemble tjiose of the Mar(|uesas Islands, as do tlieir canues, which are carved at each end. They a])peared friendly. i<" SANDWICH ISLANDS. X, :.? ii ?ra \ I BESID!''S the vcnapjes of discovery already mentioned, another voyage was perfornied by captain Cook and captain Gierke, in the Resolntion and Discovery, during the years 1T7<J, 1777, 177^, and 177f), in search of a north-west passage betAveen the continents of Asia and America. Aftey they arrived at the Cape of Good Hope, they proceeded from thence to New Holland. In their course they discovered two islands wliich captain Cook called Prince Edward's Jsles. The largest, about 15 leagues in ciicuit, is in lalitude 'IO'-.'jS south ; long. ,')7-i^" ; the other, about nine leagues in circuit, lat. 4(j-'10, and long. iJ8-S, east, botli barren, and almost covered witli snow. From New Holland they sailed to New Zealand, and after- wards tljev visited tlie Friendly and the Sociclv Isles. In Januarv, 1777, iliey arrived at the Sandwich Isles, which are twelve in num- Ler, and are situate between 22 deg. 15 min. and IS deg. 5!{ min. iiortli lat. The air of these islands is in general salubrious, and many of the vegetable productions are the same with those of the Society and Friendly Isles. The inliabitanis are of a middle si/e, stout, and well made, and their complexion in general a brown olive. On the 7th of February, being nearly in lat. 4 i deg. Ii,'} min. north, and long. 2.'}5 deg. i5(> niln. east, they saw part of the American con- tinent, bearing north-east. They afterwards discovered Kin^ George's Sound, which is situate on tlie north-west coast of Ame- rica, and is extensive : that part of it where the ships under the com- mand of captain Cook anchored, is in lat. 41) deg. VS niin. north, and long. 23:J deg. 28 min. east. The whole sound is surrounded l>y high land, which in some places appears very broken and rugged, and is in general covered with wood to the vcy top. They found the inhabitants here rather below the middle si/e, and their com- plexions approaching to a copper colour. On the 12th of May, they discovered Sandwich Sound m lat. 5*) dc^. 54 min. north. The har- bour, in wliich the ships anchored, appeared to be almost surroundeil LATE DISCOVERIES, 983 pli Iii;;rah.ini, of If lL(lh of A])ril, uuls, from 'A') to iroin J 10 to Ml jiTibt'i', and were Liucwln, I'tJcral, ippear generally ell wooded, and ir(|uesab Islands, They a])pcarcd ntloncd, another in Cloike, in the 1777, 177.S, and :he continents of of Good Hope, heir course they 'rince Edward's n latitude 'U)-5i> s in circuit, lat. St covorrd witli land, and aiier- In January, twelve in nuni- 8 deg. 53 mia. salubrious, and th those of the a middle si/e, a brown olive. ;{;} niin. north, American con- covered King coast of Ame- nder tlie com- '.'j6 niin. north, is surrounded Ml and rugged, They found nd their com- of May, they th. The har- st surroundeil with high land, which was covered with snow ; and here tlioy were visited by some of the Americans in their canoes. They allcrwards proceeded to the island of Unalaschka ; and after their departure from thence, still continued to trace tlie American coast, till they discovered the strait wiiich separates it from the continent of Asia, Here both the hemispheres presented to tlic view a luikcd and dac country, without any defence, and the sea between them not very deep. They passed the strait, and arrived on the 'JOth of /\u!>ust, IJTHi in lat. 70 deg. 5i mm. long. IB* deg. S.'j min. wliere they found themselves almost surrounded with ice, and the farther they proceeded to the eastw;vrd the closer the ice became Compacted. They continued labouring among the ire till the iioth, wiicn a stoi rn came on, which made it clangerous for them to proceed ; and a con- sultation was therefore held on board the Resolution, as soon as the violence of the gale abated, when it was resolved, that as tliis passage was impracticable for any useful purpose of navigation, which was the great object of the voyage, it should be prosecuted no farther ; and especially on account of tlie condition the ships were in, tlie ap- proach of winter, and their great distance from any Icnown place of refreshment. The voyage, indeed, afforded sufficient evidence, that no practicable passage exists between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans towards the north ; and this voyage also ascertained the western boundaries of the great continent of America. On their return, it unfortunately happened that the celebrated and able navigator, cap- tain Cook, was killed in an affray with the natives on the island of O'why'hee, one of the Sandwich Isles, on the 11th of February, 177.9 ; not so much by his own rashness, as througii the inadvertence and neglect of some of his own people. His death was universally regretted, not only in Great Britain, but also in other parts of Eu- rope, by those to whom his merits and public services wore known. In his last voyage he had explored the coast of America, from 42 deg. 27 min. to 70 deg. lOmin. 57 sec. north. After the death of captain Cook, the command devolved on captain Clerke, who died at sea on his return to the southward on the '2'Jd day of August, 1779. The two ships returned home by the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of October, 17^0, anchored at the Noi c. We cannot conclude this article without inserting the following character of captain Cook, to perpetuate the memory and services of so excellent a navigator. " Perhaps no science ever received greater additions from the l.i- bours of a single man than geography has done from those of cap- tain Cook. In his first voyage to the South Seas, he discovered tlic Society Islands ; determined the insularity of New Zealand ; disco- vered the straits which separate the two islands, and are called after his name ; and made a complete survey of both. He afterwards explored the eastern coast of New Holland, hitherto Uiiknown — an extent of tv/enty-seven degrees of latitude, or upwards of two thou- sand miles. " In his second expedition, he resolved the great problem of a southern continent, having traversed that hemisphere between the latitude of forty and seventy degrees, in such a manner as not to leave a possibility of its existent;e, unless near the pole, and out of the reach of navigation. During this voyage he discovered New Caledonia, the largest island in the Southern Pacitic (.^cean, except New Zealand j the Island «f Georgia ; and un unknown coast. I m li .|; f IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // A :a & ^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 ^■28 |2.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 U II 1.6 <^ /; /St Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4503 .'^l^ .^\^T4 9U SOUTH SEA ISLAKn^S. i *! '^ :' ,i:i ! M I m. ^':'v ■SI Ji ■*■ 1 1; 'I which he named Sandwich Land, the T/iula of the southern titlt'i" bphere ; and having twice visited the tropical seas, he settled the sitvh ations of the old, and made several new discoveries. *' Hut the last voyage is distinguished above all the rest, by th« extent and importance of its discoveries. Besides several smallor islands in tliu iSnuthern Pacific, he discovered to the north of th« equinoctial line the group called the Sandwich Islands, which, from their situation and productions, bid fairer for becoming an object of cnnficquencc in the system of European navigation than any other discovery in the South Sea. He afterwards explored what had hitherto icnnuined unknown of the western coast of America, from ilie latitude of forty-three to seventy degrees north, containing au extent of three thousand and five hundred miles ; ascertained the proximity of tlie two great continents of Asia and America ; passed the straits between them, and surveyed the coast on each side, to such a height of northern latitude, as to demonstrate the impracti- cability of a passage, in that hemisphere, from the Atlantic into th» Pacific Ocean, either by an eastern or a western coast. In short, if we except the Sea. of Amur, and the Japanese archipelago, which still remain imperfectly known to Europeans, he ha& completed the hydrography of the habitable globe. " The method which he discovered, and so successfully pursued, of preserving the health of seamen, forms a new sera in navigation, and will transmit his name to future ages amongst the friends and benefactors of mankind. " Those who are conversant in naval history need not be told at how dear a rate the advantages which have been sought through the medium of long voyages at sea have always been purchased. That dreadful disorder which is peculiar to their service, and whose ravages have marked the tracks of discoverers with circumstances almost too shocking to relate, must, without exercising an unwarrantable tyran- ny over the lives of our seamen, have proved an insuperable obstacle to the prosecution of such enterprises. It was reserved for captain Cook to show the world, by repeated trials, that voyages might bi- protracted to tlie unusual length of three, or even fonr years, in un- known regions, and under every change and rigour of the climate, not only without affecting the liealth, but even withiuit diminishing ihc probability of life, in the smallest degree." NORTH WEST COAST of AMERICA. FROM the observations made by captain Conk on the inhabitants of the western covist of North America, in the neighbourhood of ■prince William's Sound, and to the latitude of 64( dcg. north, it ap- poared that a strong similarity was discernible between them and the Esquimaux on the eastern toast ; wlience it was conjectured by sonic that a communication by sea existed between the eastern and western r>Ides of that continent. In support of this conjecture old accounts v.-erc revived of the discoveries of John de Fuca, and De Fonte or Dc Fuentes ; ihc oiic a Creek pilot, who made his voyage in liVJl.' .LATE DISCOVERIES. 985 southern httbi^ settled the sitch the rest, by th« several smallar Lhe north of th« ds, which, froin ing an object of than any other ilored what had ■ America, from 1, containing an ascertained the A.merica ; passed on each side, to ■ate the impracti- Atlantic into the last. In short, if •chrpelago, which jas completed the cessfuHy pursued, ►ra in navigation, »st the friends and leed not be told at ought through the purchased. That and whose ravages istanccs almost too warrantable tyran- superable obstacle served for captain voyages mi^ht be I four years, in un- nir of the climate, ithout diminishing AMERICA. on the inhabitants neighbourhood of 4) dcg. north, it ap- twccn them and the ■onjecturcJ by some eastern and western lecture old accounts *a, and De Fonte or Uis voyage in 1 «->'-• and the other a Spanish or Portuguese admiral, \vho s.ulcJ in hlUJ. John de Fuca had related ihat between the iTth and 4Sili ili.g! fx". of north latitude he had entered a broad inlet which led him into a (itr broader sea, wherein ho sailed above twenty days ; and Da Font? had sailed through crooked channels in an extensive atch.ipel.ij^o 'JfJO leagues, and GO leagues up a navigable riv«r \vhich ilowed into it, in .53 degrees of north latitude, and comniunicateil, by otlur luk-cs and rivers, with a passage in which a ship had arrived from llnstun iu New Kngland. I'lie truth of these ancient accounts appean-il to l>e strongly corroborated, som<; years since, by the discoveiy said to be made by one Mr. Klchcs, who had fitlcd out some sliips lor the fnr traJf', that all the western coa<;t of America, from lat. %'>•>'' to 57* north, was no continued tract of land, but a chain of islands which had jiever been explored, and that these concealed the entrance to a vast inland ;;ca, like the lialtic or Mediterranean in Europe, and which seemed likewise to b» f\ill of islands. Among rlieso. Mix Ktches' ship, the Princess Uoyal, was saitl to have pcnetr;ttfd M-'/cral hundred leagues, in a north-cast direction, rill ihcy r.ime witiiir. WK) leagues of Hudson's Bay; bnt as the intention of their voyage was merely commercial, they had not time fnlly to explore the avchii>r- lago just mentioned, nor did they arrive at die icsmiaatinn of this- new Mediterranean sea. The existence of any such inland sea i*^, however, now completely disproved by the voyai^e of the late captain Vanconvcr, who, JMrinj* the summers of lyr?-, ITJJ^J, and 1791', explored vind accurately sur- veyed the whole western coast of North America, from lat. ">if to 60°. Between the I'Tth and aTlh cleL^rees of north latitiule, there is indeed an archipelago, composed of innumerable islands ai.d crooked channels; bnt lie no where found cither the inlet of .hiln de Fuca, the river of De Fonte, or the inland sea of Mr. 1' tcl:f.*s' ship. — •» T}>e precision," says captain Vanctnivcr, " witli whicli the snrvey of iJiis coast of North- West America has been carried into eflect, will, I trubt, remove every doul)t, and set aside every opinion of u }iortli-\v^;t pan- a^f, or any water communication nuvii^ahle for sliijiping, existinij between the North Pacific and the interior of the American continent, within the limits of our researches." This coast, with very little deviation, has the appearance of one continued forest, being covered with pines of different .species, inVer- mixed with alder, birch, and other trees* Tlie natives of the north- ern parts are in general short in stature, with faces Hat and round, high cheek-bones, and Hat noses. They have smr.e very peculiar customs of nnitilating or disfiguring their person^, prohibly iiy way of ornament, tlinugh to us they appear disgusting md even Itideonj. At port Trinidada, in lat. 4<1 deg. north, the custom, says c.iptaia Vancouver, •* was particularly singular, and must be attended with mucii pain in the first instance, and great inconvenience ever after. All the teeth of both sexes were, by some process, ground nnli'oimly dov/n, horizontally to the gums ; the women especially, cairying the fashion to an extrtiijie, .I\a4 thpirtc^th, reduced e^ven below this level ; and ornaniented tju? Ic^yj^i lip wrihrtltcGelperpanjiiftjLar rov.s < f i;imc- luration, one ifoni'ta'cii v?K"ner<ji*ifho* mwu/Ki'ahd ive in th.- rrjd'.ile, occupyincr tiircc^-fiftlv of thy .Up and ^hin.". . Oiiiithtir v^ni cf th'..-: coast the womeij m,1,lcvra;(ij)r(ztiTrtiUaijcw}on;ttl Ji>e u,ud'.'r lip, cm •.•:. fl- ing fnun one coriief of the'nfouth "tti tlTe*crlter,'eJv'iMly 'hruugh i'>e fieih, whivh 6rdice ii b/ dcigrcei .s^ifhciv.'niiy <^tretclied t-. ad i i' a.-^ ■•1 W I \ ll i' 9HG LATE DISCOVERIES. K' .1 f, ornament made of wood, which is confined close to the gums of the lower jaw, with the external surface projecting horizontally. These wooden ornaments are oval, and resemble a small oval platter or dish, made concave on both sides : they are of various sizes; some of them above three inches in length, and an inch and a half broad. The cliief object of civilized nations in navigating this coast, hitherto, has been to traffic with the natives for furs, which they give in ex- change for pieces of iron, nails, beads, pen-knives, and other trifling trinkets. These furs are carried to China, and disposed of at a great profit. The skins obtained are those of the sea-otter, racoon, pine- .martin, land-beaver, and earless marmot. Ginseng, copper, oil, and some other commodities, might also be procured. In 1788, some English merchants, engaged in this trade, formed a settlement in King George's Sound, since called Nootka Sound, from the name by which it is called by the natives. The Spaniards, however, being jealous of the intrusion of the English into a part of the world which they long regarded as their exclusive property, sent a frigate from Mexico, which captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement. The British ministry, on receiv- ing intelligence of this transaction, fitted out a powerful armament to give weight to their demand of reparation ; but the aiFair was amicably terminated by a convention in 1790. Nootka Sound is situate in lat.49° 3ti' north, long. 126" 4-8' west, on an island about JOO miles in length and SO in breadth, named by captain Vancouver, in 179'2, Quadra and Vancouver's Island, in compliment to scuot Quadra, tlie spanibh commandant at Nootk^i. • « ■ * * 4 C 987 ] A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE, Containing the Names and Situations of the chief Cities, Towns, Seas, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Capes, and other remarkable Places in the known World. Collected from the most authentic Charts, Maps, and Observations. Names 0/ Places. Quarter. Provinces, Count r its, or Sras. ABbeville,Somme, France, Aberdeen Aberdeenshire,Scotlan(1, Abo, FinlamI, Sweden, Acapulco, Mexico, N.America 17-ioN. loi-aoW. Acbcm, Sumatra, East India, Asia 5-21N. 95-34. Va Adrianoplc, Romania, Turkey, Europe 41-45N. 26-27 E. Adriatic sea,or between Italy and Tur-Europe Mediterranean Sea. Lilt. D.M. Europe 50- 7 N. Europe 5 7-22 N. Europe 60- 2 7 NT. J.OH'r. U.M. I - 50 E. 1-45W. i-13 li. Gulf of Venice Adventure Isle Ai^^dc, Agen St (lights) Agra, Aix, Asnes Hfirault, Aveiron, Scillics, Agra, key. Pacific Ocean, Asia 17-05 S. 144-17W. France, Europe 43-18X. 3-27 E. France, Europe 44-1 2N. 0-36 E, Atlant.Occan,Europe 49-56X. 6-46 \V, Albany, Alby, Aleppo, East India, Asia, 26-43N. 76-44 E, Mouths of the Rhone, France, Europe 43-3 iN. 5-8 E. New York, UnitcdStates,N.America42-59>J. 73-30W. J arn, Syria, Eu rope 43 -5 5 \' , 2 - 08 K . Asia Asia Africa Africa Asia S. Pacific Ocean, Asia France, Europe 49-53N. Netherlands, Europe 52-2 iN Pacific Ocean, Asia Italy, Europe 35-1 1 M. 37-10 K. 36-35N. 36-25 E. 31-iiN, 30-10 E. 36-49N. 2- 1 a E. 4-25 S, 127-25 E. 16-09 ^« 168-12 E, 2-18 E. 4-51 E. a 1-09 S. 1 74-46 W. 43-37N. 13-29 E. France, Turkey, Alcxandretta, Syria, Turkey, Alexandria, Lower Egypt,Turkey, Algiers, Algiers, B.irbary, Amboyna, AmboynaIsle,East India, Ambryn Isle, ' ~ Amiens, Sommc, Amsterdam, Holland, Amsterdam Isle, Ancona, March of An cona, Angra, " Tercera Isle, AtlanticOccunEurope 38-39N. 27-iaW". Antigua (St. Antigua Isle, Carib. Sea, N. Amc-i7-04N. 62-09\V. John's town) rica Antioch, Syria, Turkey, Asia 36-ioM. 36-40 E. Antwerp, Brabant, Netherlands, Europe 51-13N. 04-23 E. Archipelago, Islands of Greece, Europe Mediterranean Sea. Apse Isle, Pacific Ocean, Asia 16-4.6 S. i6»-27 E. Archangel, Archangel, Russia, Europe 64-34N. 38-59 E. Ascension Isle, South Atlant.Ocean, Africa 7-s6\. 14-00W. Astracan, Astracan, Russia, Asia 46-ooN. 47-40 V\ Athens, Livadia, Turkey, Europe 38-0 5N. St. Augustin, Madagascar, South Ind.Sea, Africa 23-35 S. Aurora Isle, S. Pacific Ocean, Asia 15-08 S. 13-52 ^' f 43-0,5 I*^* Th 168-17 E. :' 1 98S A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Najites ofPlaceSm Provinces. Im:- Mm ^i li » Avignon, Ayr, Ava, Vauclusc, Ayrshire, Cmin/rieSf or Seas, Eimt India, France, Scotland, Quarter. Lat. D.M. Asia ao-aoN. Europe 43-.'>7N. Europe 6&-30N. Lon/r. D.M. n.^-30 E. 04-53 E. 4-40W, 'Ac^dad, Balusorc, Palbcc, J^iddivia, lUlfic sea, Kurcelona, Rajbuda IfIo, ^5Ac^dad, Eyrac Arabia, Turkey, Asia i^H:il.cr.iv» Orissa, Kast India, Asia Syria, Turkey, Asia Chili, Soatli America between Gcr.andSwed .Europe Catalonia, Spain, Euroi)e Atlaiit. Ocean ,N. Ame- rica "Bmsc Terrc, Guadaloupe, Carib. Sea, 33-20N. 43-.') 1 E. SI-20N. 8t)-().>E. 33-30N. 37-00 E. SP-S-OS. r3-20W. 41 17 -49N. 02-13 E. 61-50W. Biisil, Ra.'<!«iira, BasliA, Rata via, Bath, Bay of Bengal, Bay of Biscay, Bayeiix, Bayonnc, Belfast, Belgrade, Bencooleri, Bender, Behi.in, Bermudas, Bern, Berwick, Bilboa, Basil, Switicrland, Eyrac Arabia, Turkey, Corsica, Itily, .Java, East India, Somersetshire, England, Const of India, Coast ot France, Calvados, France, Lo. Pyieiices, France, Antrim, Ireland, Scrvia, Turkey, Sumatr-i, F-ast India, Bessarabia, Turkey, N. Ame- rica Europe Asia Europe Asia Europe Asia Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe .Asia Eiirf)pe Europe ly-.-igN. 6I-59W. Rraudcnburrj, Germany, Bermuda isles, Atliint.Occan,'N. Ame- rica Bern, Switzerland, Bei-wickshirc, Scotland, Biscay, Spain, 47-3 3N. 30-45 N. 42-30 N. 0(;-12 S. 51-C2N. Indian Atlantic 4n-H)N. 43-2:)N. /)l.-,-J->N. 45-00 N. 0:5-4.9 S. 46-} ON. .52-32 N. ■32-3 5X. 07-.10 1-;. 47-00 E. 09-40 E. 106-33 E, 02-u;w. Ocean. (^rean. 00-42\\'. 01-25W. 6-52 V,. 2I-20E. 102-15 F. 29-00 E. 1.3 22E. 63-23W. Birmingham, W arw ick sh . , 1mi gland. Europe Europe Europe Europe 47-00 N. 07-20 E. 55-4BN. 01.4,'-)W. 43-26N. 03-1 8W. 52-30N. Ol-SOVV. Turkey in Europe and Asia Pacific Ocean, Asia Black, or E ux- inesea, Bolabola Isle, Bologna, Boiogncse, Italy, Europe Bolscheriskoi , Siberia, Russia, Asia Bombay, Bombay blc. East India, Asia Borrougbston-Linlitligowsh. Scotland, Europe nc», Boston, Lincolnshirci England, Europe Boston, NcwEngland, North Am-jrica Boulogne, Straits ot Calais, France, Europe Bourbon hie, Indian Ocean, Africa Bourdeaux, Gironde, France, Europe Brabant, Netherlands, Europe Low. Sajcony, (Germany, Europe Silesia, Kolicmia, Eur()})c Finisterre France, Europe Barbadoci, Atlant.OccanjN. Ame- rica. Breda, Bremen, Brkslaw, Breit, fixidge^tuw IV, in.32 S. 44-29 N. 52-.04N. 18-56^. 53-48N. 53-1 ON. 42-2.'')N. 50-43 N. 20-51 S. 44-50N. 51-40 N'. 53-2.3 N. 51-03 N. 48-22N. d3-05N. 1 51-47 W. 11-2(SE. 1 56-42 E. 72-43 K. 03-44W. 00-2.'jE. 70-32W. l-.ll K. 55-25 E; OO-29W. 04-40 E. OH-20 E. 17-13 K. 04-2!)W. 58-36W, TABLE. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 989 r. hat. IjOntr. 1 NamesofPUtccs. Provinces. Countriest Quarter. Lit. 1 I). M. D.M. 1 or Seas. J), M. ]J. M. ..f 20-20N. 95.30 E. 1 Bristol, Somersetshire, Ent;Iand, E\irope 51-33Nf. 02-40W. ii 43-.'>7N. 04-53 E. 1 Bruges, Flanders, Nclheilunds, Europe il-lGNT 0.3-05 E. ■ f\ 10-30 1, 'W 04-2f) E. 1^1 fi7-''o E. , iH 2(1- 1 3 E. i'O 5u-30N. 4-40W. 1 Brunswick, Low. Saxony ,(iennany, Europe 52-30 N. 1 Brii«sscls, Brabant, NelhcrUinJs, Europe 50-51 N. 33-20N. 43-51 E. 1 Buchuria, Usbec Tailary, Asia 39-1 5 N. 2I-20N. 8(>-0.>E. 1 Bucharest, Walachia, Turkey, Europe 44-2(1 N. 33-30N. 37-00 E. 1 Buda, Eowtr Hungary, Europe 47-40 N. 19-20E. 1§ a 39-3 .OS. r3-20W. 1 liuenos Ayr« ,I,a Plata, Pkraguay, Soath A-34-35 S. ni erica 58-2bVV. 41-23N. 02-13 K. 1 Burlington, Jersey, N. America 40-08N. 75.OOW. i e-I7-49N. 61-50W. ■ ■ /^Abello P., ^-^Cachao, Terra Elrma, South America I0-30N. n7-27W. 1 e-1 5-59N. 6I-59W. I Toiiquln, East India, Asa 21-30N. 1 05-00 E. ;1B 1 Cadiz, Andalusia, Spain, Eiuope Sti-.llX. (;-o()VV. H 47-3 5N. 07-.10 1-;. I Caen, Calvados, France, Europe 4;)-llN. 0-1 tjw. ]in 30-45 N. 47-00 E. ■ Cagliari, Sardinia, Italy, Europe 39-25 N. 9-38 E, 1||| 42-30 N. 09-40 E. 1 C'a lors. Lot, France, Europe 44-2(»N'. i-^ii^- Wk 0(1-12 S. 106-53 E, ■ Cairo, Lower Egypt, Africa 30-02 N. 31-23E. 1^1 : 51-C2N. 02-u;w. ■ Calais, Straits of CalaisFrance, Europe 50-57 N. 1-55E. '11 Indian Ocean. ■ Calcutta, Bengal, F'.ast India, Asia 22-34N. 88-34 K. gJI| Atlantic Ocean. H Callao, Peru , S. A merica 1 2-0 1 X . 7(h53\V. «| 49-H)N. 00-42 W. ■ (.'almar. Smaland, Sweden, Europe 56-40 N, 1b'-2(SE. ^1 43-29N. 01-25W. ■ C'ambodia, Cambodia, East India, Asia 13-"0N. 105-00 E. "'^ 51-3->N. 5-52V,. ■ Cam bray. North, France, Europe 50-1 ON. 3-18 E. 'W 45-00 N. 21-20E. ■ Cambridge, Cambridge- England, Europe 52-12 N. 0-00 E. iUl 0,5-49 s. 102-15 F.. ■ shire. 46-10 N. 29-00 K. 1 Cambridge, New England, N. Ame-42-25!^^. 71-05W. \i| 1! Vm \ .53-32 N. 1322E. ■ rica e-32-35N. 63-23W. ■ Campbeltown, Argyleshire, Scotland, Europe 55-30N. 5-40W. *' |1 ■ Canavy, N. E.Caoary Isles, Atlaut.Ocean, Africa 28-1 3X. 15-33W. m 47-OON. 07-20 E. 1 Point, : 5 5-48 N. 01 -LOW. H Candia, Candia Island,Mediterr. Sea,Europc 35-18 N. 2.5-«.3E. -'■•;|i 43-26N. 03-1 8W. ■ Candy, Ceylon, Indian Ocean, Asia 7-54 N. 7.9-00 E. Ji 52-3 oN. oi-sovv. ■ Canso Port, Nova Scotia, North America 45-20 N. (io-5ovv. m L ■ Canterbury, Kent, England, Europe 51-18 N. 1-14E. ■ m I Canton, Canton, China, Asia 23-07 N. 113-07 E. :|! lfi-32 S. 15I-47W. 1 Cape Clear» Irish Sea, Europe 31-18N. 9-50W. '^^.;!;^ ; 44-29 N. it-seiE. ■ — Comorin, East India, Asia 7-5(S N. 78-1 oE. m 52-54N. 1 56-42 E. ■ — FinLsterre, Galicia, Spain, Europe 42-5 iN. 9-12W. , ijf 18-5bN'. 72-43 K. ■ ■ — Florida, East Florida, North Anaerica 24-57N. 80-30W. J A I mm e 33-48N. 03-44W. ■ — OtGood Hope, Caffraria, Africa 34-29 S. 18-28 E. " 1 II '9 • 5,3-lON. 00-25 E. 1 —Horn, Terra del Fu- South America 55-58 S. 67-2 IW. •1 i hH a42-2.'')N. 70-32W. ■ ego Island, i n ; 50-43 N. l-.'JI K. 1 — Verd, Negroland, Africa 14-45N. 17-28W. ' \ ''1^1 20-51 S. 5,5-25 E; 1 — St. Vincent, Algarve, Portugal, Europe 37-02N. 8-57W; \ 'Wi : 44-50N. OO-29W. ■ Cardigan, CardiganshircWales, Europe 52-1 ON. 4-38W. 1 51-40 N. 04-40 E. ■ Carlcscroon, Schonen, Sweden, Europe 5()-07N. 15-31 E. ■ il^B ; 5,3-25 N. 08-20 E. I Carlisle, Cumberland, England, Europe 54-47N. 2-53W. 1 ilH \ 51-03 N. 17-13 E. H Carthage na. Murcia, Spain, Europe 37-37N. 1-03W. i" I 48-22N. O4-29W. 1 Carthagena, Terra Firnaa, Soutli America 10-26N. 7 5-42 W. j \ »e-13-a5N. 58-33W, I Casan, Casan, Russia, Asia 55-43 N. 49-13 E, ri 1 Caspian Sea^ Russia, Tartury, Asia r 1 m p rH p'i M; m|m ri m jam 1- ■\3. R ■i- '," ITr»I ^i i. t .«* li^ 8*1 f .■* i P'l Hi 6<'>'^ **: 4 m^ 990 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. tiamesofPlaees, Prov/'iicer, CottTiffieij or Seas. C-assrl, UrsFC Casscl, (»crmaiiy, CiistrcR, Tarn, !• ranee, St. Catherine's Atlant. Ocean, Quarter, Cattcgat, Cavan. C;i)'cnnc, C-i-rte, C't'ut.i, Chalons, Lat. D. M. r.urope 5t-ipN. Kurope 48-37 N. South A- 27-35 S. merica bctw. S\¥ed.&Dcn. Europe Atlantic Ocean. Cavan, Ireland, Europe 34-51 N. 7-1 aW. Cayenne Isle, South America 4-5(iN. D. M. 9-UE. 2-1 9 E. 49-1 2W. Merault, Fez, Saone and Loire, ChandernajTur, Bcnrjal, France, Morocco, France, Europe Africa Europe 43-23 N. 3 5-0 IN. 46-46 N. Asia 22-5 IN. East India, Charleston, South Carolina, North America 32-45N. Charlton Isle, Hudson's Bay ,NorthA-32-03N. merica Cliartres, Eurc & Loire, France, Europe 48-26 N. Channel, France, Europe 49-38N. Cheshire, England, Euroj>e 53-1 5N. Terra del Fu- South America 55-2 1 N. eso, Caribbean Sea, N. A me- 1 7-1 5N. rica Ciicrhourg, Chcsttr, Christmas Sound, St. Christo- pher's Is.Ie, 'b"» Europe 42-05 N. CivitaVecchia,Patr. di S. Italy, Petro, Clerke's Isles, Atlantic Ocean, SonthA- 55-05 S. merica Clermont, TuydeDome, France, Colniar, Upper Rhine, Fiance, Cologne, Roer, Prance, Constance, Suabia, Germany, CoNSTANTi- Romania, 'I'urkey, Europe 45-46 N. Europe 48-04 N. Europe 50-55 N. Europe 47-37 N. Europe 41-01 N. NOPl.E, CoPENHAGENZealand Isle, Denmark, Corintli, Morea, Turkey, Cork, Munster, Ireland, ('ovcntr)', WarwickshircEngland, ( "o vves. Isle of Wight, England, (.'racow, Gallicia, CrcmsmunsterAuftria, Cuniuiin I., Curasao I., Cusco, Peru, Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Aust. Poland, Europe Germany, Europe 48-03 N. N. Pacific Ocean, Asia 3 1-40 N. ., West India, America 1 1-56N. South America 12-25 S. 55-40 N. 3 7-30 N. 51-53N. 52-25X. 50-46N. 50-10 N. D Acca, Bvn;^ul, UamascuSjSyria, Dantiiic, Ihx, . i)dir, Delhi, Derhent, Derby, Dcrry, Diti)p-, Landes, Iloliand, Delhi, Daghistan, lV.il)yshire, Ulster, East India, Turkey, Polish Prussia, Fn ance. Netherlands, East India, Persia, England, Ireland, Low. Seiiic, France, Asia Asia Europe Europe Europe Asia Asia Kurope Europe Euro^M: 23-30 N. 33-1 5 N. 54-22 N. 43-42N. 52-06 N. 29-00 N. 41-41 N. 52-58N, 54-52X. 4i)-55N. 52-1 OW. 3-42 E. 6-30\V. 4-5 1 E. 88-34 E. 8O-39W. 79-OOW. 1-33 E. 1-33W. 0-03\V. 69-57W. 62-38^V. 11-51 E. 34-37W. 3-1 OE; 7-27 K. 6-55 E. 9-1 2 F.. 28-53 E. 1 2-40 F.. 23-00 K. 8-2.nv. 1-25\V. 1-14VV. 19-55K. 14-12K. 12 1-09 E. 6B-20W. 70-00\V. 89-20 E. 37-20 E. 18-38E. 0-58W. 4-05 E. 76-30R. 50-30 K. 1-30W. 7-40W. 0-59 E. TABLE. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 991 Lat. Lon/f. D. M. D. M. ! ."il-ipN. 9-34 E. 48-37 N. 2-1 9 F.. 1-27-35 S, 49-1 2W. Atlantic Ocean. 54-51 N. 7-1 8W. a 4-5(iN. 52-1 OW. 43-23 N. 3-42 F. 3r)-oiN. 6-30W. 46-46 N. 4-5 1 E. 22-5 IN. 88-34 F. a 32-45N. 8O-39VV. V-52-03N. 7 9-00 W. :a 48-26 N. 1-33 E. 49-3 8N. 1-33W. 53-1 5 N. 0-03W. a 55-2 1 N. 6"9-57W. :-17-15N. 62-3 8^V. s 42-05 N. 11-51 E. I- 55-05 S. 34-37\V. :a 45-46 N. 3-10 E; ; 48-04N. 7-27 E. 50-55 N. 6-55 E. 47-37 N. 9-1 2 E. 41-01 N. 28-53 E. 55-40 N. 12-40E. 37-30N. 2j-00E. 51-53N. 8-2.3\V. 52-25 X. 1-25\V. 50-46N. 1-14\V. 50-10 N. 19-55E. : 48-03 \. 14-12E. 3 1-40 N. 121-O9E. ;a 1 1-56N. 68-20W. ;a 12-25 S. 70-00\V. 23-30 N. 89-20 E. 33-1 5 N. 37-20 E. 54-22 N. 18-3«E. 43-42N. 0-58W. ; 52-06 N. 4-05 E. 29-00 N. 76-30E. 41-41 N. 50-.'5oE. ; 52-58N, I -SOW. 54-52X. 7-40VV. : 49-5 J N. 0-59 E. Vameiof Places, Procincct, Dijon, Dilbingcii, Diu, Dol, Dominica, Dover, Dresden, Dublin, Dumbarton, Dumfries, Dunbar, Dundee, Dungeness, Dunkirk, Durham, Cote d'Or, Suahia, Guzcrat, Countries, or Seas. Franre, Gcnnaiiy, East Indui, Isle & X'ilaire, Fraiu'L-, Wind. lslands,Wcsl India, Kent, F.np;laiid, Saxony, Germany, Eurc & Loire, France, Ecinster, Ircluid, Dumburtonsh.Ssicotland, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, lIad<lington, Scotland, Forliir, Scotland, Kent, Fn<fland, Flanders, Durham, Netherlands Kngland, Qitarter. )*".uro[)e K 11 rope Asia Europe America Europe Europe Euro[)c E.uiope Europe Euro[)e Europe I'.urope I'.urope Europe Europe Lit. D. M. 47-19 X. 48-30 X, 21-37 N. 4S-33N. 15-18X. ;)1-07N. :)1-00N; 4f<-44X. j^-2lX. 55-1. tX. 55-03 X. 55-58 X. n(i.«(,"X. 50-52X. 51-02 X. 51.-4SX. Lonp. D. M. 4-57 E, 10-19 E. 69-.i0 E. 1-41W. 1-22\V. 1-13 p:. 1S-36E. 1-16 E. 6-0 1\V. 4-20\V. 'i''Z?>\\'. 2-25\V. 2.48W. 1-04 E. 2-27 E. 1-25W. EAoowe I., Pat ilic Ocean, Asia 21-2tS. 174-25W. F^stcrlsle, Paciric Ocean, America 27-06 S. 109-41 \V. EasteraOcean,betw.thcN.\V.of X. Am.and X E.ot'Asia,X'.PaclticOcean. Edinburgh, Edystonc, Eibing, Embdcn, Em b run, Enatum Isle. Edinburghsh. Scotland, Europe Eng. Channel, England, Europe Prussia, Poland, Europe Westphalia, (icrmany, Europe Upper Alps, France, Ku ope Pacific Ocean, Asia 55-57X. 3-07 W. 4-19W. 20-00 E. 7-lOE. 6-34E. English Chan. between Eng. and Fran. Europe Ephesus, Natolia, Turkey, Abia Erramanago Isle Pacific Ocean, Asia Erzerum, Turconiania, Turkey, Ethiopian Sea, Coast of Guinea, Eustatius, Carib. Sea, West India, Evreux, Eure, France, Exeter, Devonshire, England, 50-OSX'. 54-1 5 X. 53-25 X'. 44-31 X\ 20-10 S. 1 69-59 E. Atlantic Ocean. 3;M)lX. 27-30 K. 18-l(i S. l(;i)-?3E. 39-50 X. 42-05 E. Atlantic Ocean. N. Amcr.lr-29X. 6-OjVV. Europe 4;i-0lX. -UE. Europe 50-44X. ;j-';>VV. Asia Africa "T^Alkirk, Stirling, "*■ Faliuoir.li, Cornw.'dl, Fayari'ns'. n, Aiuies, Ferdinand Nu- • ronka, Ferrara, Ferrarese, Fcrro(Town) , Canaries, F^erroj, Galicia, Fez, Fci, Florence, 'I'uscany, Florcs, Azores, St. Flour, Cantal, France(Isle of) FVanckfortMainFranconia, Frauenburg, Polish Fuego Isle, CapeVerd, P'unchal, Madeira, i* urncaux Isle, Scotlatul, Europe 55- En-'land, Europe 50- Atiant. Ocean, Europe 38- Hiusil, South A- 3- merica Italy, Europe 44« Atlant. Ocean, Africa 27- Spain, Europe 43- ]Morocco, Africa 'S'^- Italy, Europe 43- Atlant. Ocean,Europe 39- France, Europe 45- Indian Ocean, Africa 10 (rermariy, Europe 49 Prussia, Europe 54' Atlant. Ocean, Africa' 1 4- Atlant. Ocean,Africa 32- Paciric Ocean, Asia 17 53X. ■08X'. 32X. 56 S. ■54 X. ■47 X. 30X. ■;30X. •46 X. ■34X. •01 X. -09 S. -55N. ■22 N. ■56X. ■lis. 3-4SW. 4-57 \V. 28-36W. 32-43 W. 1 1-41 E. 1 7-40 W. 8-40 W. 6-OOVV, 11-07E. 30-5 1\V. 3-1 OE. 57-33 E. 8-40 E. 20-12 E. 24-23 W. 17-OlW, 143-01 W, \ I 932 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. m Mi m^ S'i :' If. i lit;. i.:S i:^;^ '•Hi, i^M ,f Nirmfso/r lares. Provinces* QAV, ^ (Jtnos, C'faeva, t'KNOA, l^pper Alps, Savoy, ^t. Gcor,;. Isle, Azores, St. Gcorue To.BcriniKlas, Couittrfes, or Suis, France, Italy, I'raiirc, Ilalv, Quaf/rr. l,(tt. I). NT. FiirojV; 41-3.'? \. Kuropc 41-25 \. Europe 46-1 yX. F.uropt- 44-y5N. Atl.int. Ocean, F,uroi>e 33-3; A'. Atlaiit. Ocean, K.Ainer.32-45\. ?; St.Cicorg.FojtCoroniantkl, Fast India, Asia 13-04N. Ctlx'iit, Gibraltar, Gla5£;()\v, (Gloucester, Goa, Gout Me, Gonibr(M)ii, Flaiulcrs, Ndluriands, Europe 51-03 N. Andalusia, Spam, Eurf>pc .KS-O.ON. I^tincrkslurc, Scotland, K«ro|)e 55-5 iN. Giouccstcrsh. F.ti;;laud, Kuvn^)e 51-0;»\'. Malabar, Farsistan, Gorncru IsU', C'anarits, CoodHopCjT.Capc '1'. Goree, Gottenburg, Gotlilmd, Gbttina^en, Hanover, Granville, G ratiosa, CJrdti, Gravelines, Grpfnock, Channel, Azores, Stiria, North, KenlVt'w'shirf, Scotland, Fabt India, Asia Iii(i::iii Ocean, Asia IVvsiii, Asia Atl.int.Occan,Aliira (".'iMiaria, Africa Atlantic Ocean, AlVica Sweden, Europe Germany, Europe France, Europe Atlant. Ocean, Europe Germany, Europe 47-04 \. France, Europe 50-50 N. 15-31 N. 13-55\'. ii;-30\'. i*8-05\. 33-5.) S. 14-40\. 57-42 X. 51-;; 1 N. 48-50N. 3Q-02\ . J). M, <i-0;)E. 8-40 K. b'-05 E. 8-5(E. 'i5\V. 63-30W. 80-33 E, 3-4R E. 5.1 7 W. 4-1 OW. 2-16VV. 73-50 E. i'.ao-o,- F. 74-20 F.. 17-o.nv. 1P-2J^K. 1 7-20 VV. n-4.^F,. 0-58 F. !-32\V. 27-53\V. 15-2!(K. 2-13 F. 4-22\\\ 1 3-4.-! i:. 6!-54\V. 1 40-30 E. F.uropc 5.">-52\ C'»ry{>(iis\vidd, Ponierania, Germany, Europe 5 1-04 X. Cuiadaloupe, Caribbean Sea,lM. Amer.I.')-5f)X. <iuam, Ladrone Isles, East India, Asia 14-00 X. GulforBothnia, Coast of Sweden, Europe Baltic Sea. bctw. Calif.SrMexIcoN.Aiiur. Pacific Ocean, betw. Swed.^HnssiaF.urope Baltic Sea. Coast of New Scotland, X.Amer. Atlantic Ocean* Coast of Mexico, N.Amer. Atlantic Ocean, betw. Persia &r Arab. Asia Indian Ocean, betw. Persia % Arab. Asia Indian Ocean. betw. Italy & Turk. Europe Mediterranean Sea — of C;;lili)riiia, — of Finland, — of St. lawr. -—of Mexico, — of Ornius, — of Persia, — of Venice, TTAcrlem, •^^ Hague, Halifax, Halifax, Hamburg, Hanover, H.istings, Havaniial], Havre ileGraceLow. Seine, Holland, Holland, Yorkshire, Nova Scotia, Holstein, Saxony, Sussex, Netherlands, Europe 52-20 N. Netherlands, Europe 52-04 X. England, Europe 53-45X. North America 44-4oX. Germany, Europe 53-34 N. CJermany, Europe 52-22N. Englaad, Europe 50-52 N. (^uba Island, N.Amer. 23-1 1 N. France, jEnrope 4!)-2})N. St. Helena, South Atlant. Ocean, AlVica 15-53 S. , Ja. Town, Hellespont, Mcd.&rBl.Sca, Europe and Asia Hereford, Herefordshire, Fngland, Europe 52-0() N. He!no«?nd, VV. Bothnia, Sweden, F^urope 62-38 N. Hervey's Isle, South Pacific Ocean, Asia 19-17 S. Hoai-Nghan, Kian-Nan, China, Asia 33-34N. LallogucCiipcNormundy, France, Europe 4y-44N. 4-42 K, 4-22 K. 1-52W. 63-1 5W. 0-55 E. 10-3 E. 0-40 E. 82-l3\V. 1-lOR. 5-44W. 2-38W. 17-58 E. 1 58-43 VV. 11 3-54 E, 1-51W. X TABLE. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 993 T). M. 41".i:^ V. 41-25 N. 44-y'^N. 3 9-3; A'. .32-45N. 13-04N. 51-03 N. 3(S-0.oN. 55-51 N. 51-0:)N. 15-31 N. 13-55%'. iJ7-30N. i>8-05X. 33-55 S. 14-40N. 57-42 X. 51-;; I N. 48-50N. 3i)-02N . 47-04 X. 50-5:)X. 5r)-5'2\. 5i-04X. r.l.')-5oX. 14-()0X. Baltic Seu. .Pacific Ocean. Baltic Sea. V.Atlantic Ocean* iintlc Ocean. Indian Ocean. InJiiin Ocean. Meditenanean Sea, 1). M. (;-0;»E. 8-40 E. 6-05 E. 8-5lE. ?;-55\V. G3-30W. 80-33 E. 3-48 E. 5-1 7 W. 4-1 OW. 2-1 6W. 73-50 E. I'.i0-07 F. 74-20 E. 17-03\V. lP-5i^K. I7-20VV. 11-45F,. 9-.W E. i-3yw. 27-53W. 15-'JI»F.. 2-13 K. 4-22 \V. 1 3-43 v.. 61-54\V. 1 40-30 £, 52-20 X. 52-04 X. 53-45X. a 44-4uX. 53-34X. 52-22N. 50-52N. ■r.23-llX. 4<)-2<)X. 15-35 S. 4-42 K. 4-22 K. 1-52W. 63-1 5 W. 0-55 K. 10-3 E. 0-40 E. 82-1 3 VV. 1-10 E. 5-44W. 52-Ofi N. 2-38W. ; 62-38 X. 17-58 E. 19-17 S. 1 58-43 VV. 33-34 X. 11 3-54 E, : 4M4N. 1-51 W. fiamesofPlaccs* Prov/'ncei. Hood's Isic, CountricSt Quarter. Lot. L^nir. or S.at. . I). M. I). M. South Pacific Ocean, Asia J)-'*;) S. lJ^^-47\\'. lloof^straton, Brabant, Xctbrrlands, I'.mopc 51 -24 X. 4-52 F. Howe's Isle, South Purific Ocean, Asia It"-4i;S. 15l-01\V. HuuhcincUlc, South Pacilic Ocean, Aniu HJ-44 S. 151-01\V. HvKlson's Bay, Coast ol' I .abrador, N . Amer. X. Atlantic Ocean. Hull, . Yorkshire, England, Europe 53-45 N. 0-12VV. Mold: avia. Java Isle, .Japan Isle, Palestine, Rnisil, Turkey, Eaft India, Eiist India, Turkey, S.Amcr.22-54 S. Europe 47-OS N. Asia ()-49 S. Asia 36-20 X. Asia 31-4GX. South Pacific Ocean, Asia 19-10 S. Coast oIl India, Asia. Janeiro Rio, Jassy, Java Head, jeddo, Jerusalem, Immer Isle, Indian Ocean, Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Oermany, Europe 43-45 X. Invcvnesj", I nvernessshu'c, Scotland, Europe 57-33 X. St. John's To. Antigua, Leeward Isle«»,X. Ainer.l7-04X. St. John's To.Xewfoundland, Xorth Amcrica47-32 X. St. Joseph's, Culitbrnia, Mexico, X.Amer.23-03X. Jrish Sea, between Great Britain and Ireland, Europe, Atlantic Irraname Isle, South Pacitic Ocean, Asia 19-31 S. Ispahan, IracAgem, Persia, Asia 32-25 X. Ivigalsle, Mediterr. Sea, Italy, Europe 38-50X. Isthmus of Corinth, joins the Morca to Greece, Europe. - of Malacca, joins Malacca to Farther India, Asia. — of Panama, joins Xorth and South America. ■ of Suez joins Africa to Asia. Islamabad, Bengal, East India, Asia 22-20 X. Judda, Arabia Felix, Arabia, Asia 21-29N. Juthria, Siam, East India, Asia 14-18N. 42-3 8 VV. 27-34 E. IO0-55 E. 1 39-00 E. 35-25 E. 169-51 E. 11-27 E. 4-02 VV. 62-04 E. 52-2 IVV. 109-3 7 V/. Ocean. 170-26 E. 52-55 E. 1-40 E. KElso. Kihnar- nock, Kingston, Kinsale, Kiow, Kola, Konigsberg, Roxboroughs. Scotland, Ayrehire, Scotland, •Jamaica, Munster, Ukraine, Lapland, Prussia, T Aguna, Tenerift'e, ""^Lahor, Labor, Lancaster, Lancashire, Landau, Low. K inc, Landscroon, Schonen, Lausanne, Cant, of Vaud, Leeds, Yorkshire, Leicester, Leicestershire, Lcipsic, Saxony, Leith, Edinburghsh. Lepers' Island S. Pacific Lcskard, Cornwall, Lesparre, Girondc, VVe?t India, Ireland, Russia, Russiy, Poland, Canaries, East India, England, I'rance, Sweden, Switzerland, England, England, Germany, Scotland, Ocean, England, France, 3$ Europe 55-38 X. Europe 55-38 X. America 1 7-57 X. Europe 51-32 X. Europe 50-30 X. Europe 0"8-52 X. Europe 54-'43 X^. A.Ocean28-28 X. Asia 32-40 X. Europe 54-05 X. Europe 49-11 X. Europe 55-52 X. Europe 46-31 X. Europe 53-48 X. Europe 52-38 X. Europe 51-19 X. Europe 55-53 X. Asia 15-23 S. Europe 50-26 X. Europe 45-1 8 N. f'l-50E. 49-27 E. 100-55E. 02-1 2\V. 00-30W. 76-38V\'. OB-20VV. 31-12 E. 33-13 E. 21-35 E. 16-13\V. 75-30 E. 02-55 E. 08-02 E, 12-51 E. 06-50 E. 0l-20V\\ 01-03 VV. 12-25 E. 03-00 VV. 168-03 E. 04-36 VV. 00-52 VV, m \p \ , 994 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. (, Niimes of Places. Provinces. W 1. ''[H if w > H' vt J.iiiia, I.imcritk, l.iinofrcs. iinogcs, Ilnll.iiK Oiittf, IVr.i, I ,iiiu'iirKslilri",Irfl;iiul, Up. Vii'unc, I'lancf, l.iiicnlnshiic, Kiii^laiul, l.iiilillu'ow, I.iiilitlMrowsli. Scot'aiul, l-infz, Austriii, (iirin.iny, J.isliun, Kstritnadiira, I'ortuj^al, LimK', North I'mntr, l-itrliHi'Id, StaH"..n!slpiiv, Kn^'Liiu!, Lizard Point, C'ornu'all, Kiij;laiid, London, Middli'.>-<-\, Kn;4land, T.Diidondrny, I .oii(l(>ndtiTr, frt'land, Loicttn, I'opf's Tnrit. Italy, Conn fries, Quarter, or Siiis. 1), NftlicrhindH, Knropc ft'2- NclluTlaiid?, Kiiropo MJ- Swutli Aincriia \2 Knfonc h^ Fairopc 4.'> FMirope .^3- Kuropr. ri.'i- Kiiropi' 41- F.iiro[)r Hj^- F.ur()|»c .'>(l- Kuropc T'S- K.iiropc 49 Europe 5)1- Kiinipc .00- K II rope 43 North Aineiioa4.0 . M. -lONT. -01 s. .roN. -4!)N[. l.-iN. .')(iN. • KiN. 42\'. •;)7N. 4,1 N. ..VN. ;n X. •00 X. I.-iN. lamvain, Rral'ant, Xtthcrlands, Kuropc .W-.SSN. Louvcau, Siani, Fust India, Asia I2-4'J\. J.uhrr, llolstpin, (J<in\any, F.urojx! .')4-00N. St. l.nria IsIo,Uind\vardIslcsVV est Indies, N.Amcr.l .''.-24N. I.undcn, (lotldand, Sweden, F.uropc .'j,'>-41 N. I.uiicvillc, Mcurthc, I'rancc, Kuropc 48-;?5N. Lnxcrnburj'j, Forests, Nfthorlands, I'.nropc 4r)-;i7N. f.yons, Klionc&I.oiie, France, Kurojjc 45-4.'jN. Asia Asia C,2-12N. ()5-()f) S. Atlantic Ocean, Africa 32-SrN. 17-0(\V Asia 1 3-04N. MA>'.!o, Canton, China, Macas- Celebes isle. Fast India, s:ir, Madeira, I. FuncluU, Madnis, CiTotnani'rl, Ivast India, Maorid, New Cii^tile, Spain, Ma<^dalei;a li.!. South Rcilic Ocean, Asia 10-25 S. Mahon, Fort, Minorca, Mc<litcrr. Sea, F.uropc .SiV-OON. Majorca Is! >, Mediterr. lSea,Fnrope .'?!>-:{.') X. Malacc, M.tlacc.:, Fast India, Asia 02-12 X. Malincs, Uralant, Neihcrlands, Kniopc 51-01 X. MallicoUiI'U-.:, Sonih Pacilic Ocean, Asia f<)'-t5X. .':t. Malois, Morhlhan France, Knrope 48-.''.,sX. Malta Isle, Mediterranean Sea, AlVica 3.')-54X. Manilla, Lucouin^ Phi- East India, Asia 14-3()N. lip. Isles, Mantua, Italy, Atlantic Ocean, I). M. 04-32 K. 05-40 F. 7(;-44W. OB-48VV. 01-20F,. 00-27 VV. 03-30W. 13-57 R. 09-04^". 03-0<) F. 1 -04\\ . 05- low. 1st M»Tid. O7-40W. 14-15 F. 5!)-4hVV, 04-4!) F. 1 00-5(1 F. 1 1-40 F. r)0-4iS\N'. 13-2(;f. 0(;.35F. 0(>-l(>F. 04-54 F. 113-51 F. iiy-53F. Mantua, M.niejjulavitc Isle, Marseilles, 80-33 F. Europe 40-25 N. 03-20F. " 1 38-44 W. 03-53 F. 02-34 F. 102-10 F. 04-33 E. H;7-44K. 01-56\V, 14-33 K. 1 20-58 F. 10-47 v.. 61-06VV. Europe 45-20 N. S. Amcr.l5-55X'^. France, Europe 43-1 7 N. 05-27F. .St. Martha. Terra Fi Mouths of the Rhone, St. Ma'tha, I erra I'lrm St.Martin'sIsleCaribhcan lsl.,\Vosl India, I\Iartinicolslc,CarihbeanJsl., West India, — ..- _. St. Marv'sIsle,Sci|ly Isles, Atlantic Ocean Furope 4f)-57N. St. Marv'.s'C-'. Azores, ■ Atlantic OceanEurope 36-5GX. .:\la.ski-!vuel.vle, . South racilk Ocean, Asia 16-32 S. America ll-2(iX. America 1«-04X. America 14-44N. 75-59W. (;2-57^v. 6"1-05W. 0()-38AV. 25-O6W. 1 68-04- K, ABLE. ). M. j-ioX. :).:«; N. i-ot S. 2-:r'iN. r:)-4!)N. .')-5)(!N. H-KlN. )n-:VN. |.9-r>7N. .i-;n \. .n-ooN. t3-I.'»N. l.'-)-5:;N. 1 2-4'2 N . 5)4-00 N. r).'»-41 N. 48-.? .^N. 40-:i7N. 45-45 N. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 995 I). M, 04-32 K. 0'>-40F. 7(i-44W. OB-48W. 01-20F.. 00-27 VV. O.I-.IOW. 09-04\V. o.i-0<) K. 01-04\V. O.'i-lOW. 1st Mt'uI. 07-4()W, 14-l.oK.. .'■,().4hVV . 04-4! » v.. 1(K)-:>(;k. 1 1-40 K. r)0-4fiVN". o(;-3r»F.. 0(1-1 (iK. 04-34 K. 22-1 2 N. Il3-r>l K. o-o-o^S. iiy-.33K. 12-37N. I7-0IVV. 1 3-04N. 40-2 .ON. 1 0-2.5 S. 3 9- .00 N . .SM-.S.oN. 02-12 N. 5i-0lN. iC-t.OX. 3r)-.04N. 1.4-.3()N. 45-20 N. .15-55N. 80-.">.1 F. 03-20K. 1.38-44\V. O,3-.03 K. 02-54 K. 102-10 K. 04-3.*) E. h;7-44K. 0!-56\V. 14-.53E. 1 20-58 F.. 10-47 F- 6l-06V\'. 43-1 7 N. 05-27F. ll-2(!N. 1B-04N. 14-44N. 4!)-.'57N. 36-5GN. 75-59W. (;2-57W. 6'1-05W. 0()'-38\V. 25-O6W. f^amts of Places. Provincet. Countries^ Quartrr. or Seus, Iiulmii Ucraii, AlVicii South l*ariHc Ocean, Asin Mont TonnercFrancf, Fnmjic Cape Vcrd, Atlantic Ocean Afrira Mtturlt'ms, Muuritu Isle, Muycncc, Mayo I«lc, Meaux, lUrljai V. Fast liulia, Italy, Nortli AniLMira Ail.uitic OccanFuropc j\sia Asi.i A iVica Asia Fui<)|)P Seine and Fraiwe, Europe Manic, Mecca, Aialna Felix, Arabia, Medina, Arabia Felix, Aral>ia, Mcijuincz, Fez, Mersjui, Siarn, Mfssina, Si.ily ls!;iiul, iVIcxico, Mexico, St. MichacPs A/.orc-!, Isl.-, Midillcburglsl. South Pacific Ocean, Af^ia Mit.AN, Milanese, lialy, Fwrope jylilfordllHvcn.Fcnibrok'rih. Wales, Fintjpc Mitea Isles, South I'.iciHc Ocean, Asia Mocha, Arabia Felix, Arabia, Asia MoDENA, Modena, Italy, F.urope .Montague Isle, South Paci He Ocean, Asia Montpolier, Herauit, France, Fui()|m' Montreal, Canada, North America Montrose, Forfar, Scotland, Furope. Montserratlsle Caribbean Isles, West India, America Morocco, Mf)rocco, Barbary, 7\rrica Moscow, Moscow, Hnssia, F.uiopc Munich, Bavaria, (Jermanv, F.urope Alunster, W^cstphalia, CJermaiiy, Europe l.t.f. Lone. T). M. 1). VI. 20-0! >S. .')7-14K. ic-o:. s. 1.02-37 F. 4'i-04N. OH.2.0 v.. i;.-ioN. 2.5-00 W. 4-.-i7\. 02-37 F. 2I-4.0N. 41-00 F. 2.0-00 \. .J!»-3.H F. "VTAgasachi, Japan, '■^^ Nainur, Sambrc and Meuse, Mcuithe, KiaJigan, Fow. Loire, Nuplts, Livonia, North unibcrl. Fn<j;luiid, Rhode lsl;md, New Yurkj Piedmont, Hispaniola, N. Pacifir Oc.AsIa Netherlands, Europe ;M-;{oN. 12-12N. ;io-:u)\. l<)-.04\. r.r-47N. 21-20 S. 4.0-2-'. \. 3!-4iN. 17 -.02 s. 1.S-40M. 44-.34\. i7-2({S. 4:?-;5(;N. 4.o-.vo\, 5(;-.{4N'. 1(;-47X. .30 S2\. .03-4.0N. 4S-(»I)X. .02-00 \. .12-32 V. 60-2dN. Nanci, Nanking, Nantes, Naples, Narva, Newcastle, Newport, New York, Nice, St. Nicholas Mole, Nieuport, Ningpo, Norfolk Isle, Noriton, France, China, J'rancf, Italy, IJussia, Italy, ^Vcst India, I'll rope Asia Europe Europe 4.S. 47- 40 I'Auope Euiope ;'>."' North America VI Nortli Aineiica 40 Europe 'W,' Amenta 1;> •41 N. ■4\. •13\. -,-,c\. !-00 \'. •.>0.\. ■40 X. 41 X. 4: A". 0(i-oaE. !)«-!.! E. 1.0- U)E. 1 011-00 W. 2.0-37W. 17.V.2:)VV\ tM-lM K. 4S-0 1 W. 4 3 -.00 E. 11-17 k".. . l(iH-3<iE, 0:;-37E. 73-1 1 W. O-20W. (;2-l2W, Oi.'-loU'. 37-38 E. 11 -3. OF. 07-1 tiE. ia2-.oiE. oi-m)b:. or;-ioE. 1 ! ^.•>2E. ()i-2SVV. 14-1 « I'". 27-''.0E. ri-obW. 74_OoW. 07-22 E. 7;i-24W. Flanders, Shekiang, Xelhcrlands, Europe C^hina, Asia S. Paci lie Ocean, Asia Pennsylvania, North America 40 .01- 2;) 2i). 16-32 S. 1 68-04- K. North Cape, Wardhus, Lapland, Northampton, Northampt.sh. England, Norwich, Norfolk, England, Nottingham, Nottinghamsh. England Nuremberg, Francouiii, • German; many, Europe 7 1 EurojK; 52 Eur()j)c f)2 Europe 53 Europe 49-27 N. 07 X. ■r>7 X. 01 s. 0!^X. -10 X. •lOX. -40 X. -00 X. 02-00 K. 120-23 E. 163-1 OF. 75-1 «\*.'. 20-02 E„ 00-5 OW. 01-25 E. OI-O6W. ll-i2E. ;IF I L.^r \ fi? v< ! 'i! I, IJ 5196 A NEW GHOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Ntmcs of Places. Proxinces, Countries^ Quarter, Lat.' or Seat, D. M. f^Chotsk, Siberia, Russia, Asia 59-20 N. ^-^Ohevahoa South Pacific Ocean, Asia 09-40 S. Isle, Ohitalioo Isle, Soutli Pacific Ocean, Asia 09-55 S. Citron Isle, Olinde, OIniufz, St. Omer's, Onateuyo Ll., Oporto, Oran, Orenburg", L'Orient(Port)Morbihan, Orleaujt, I.oiret, Orleans (NewjLnuisiana, Ormus, Orotava, Orsk, Low. Charcntt France, Europe 46-02N. Brasil, South A merica 08-1 3 S. Moravia, Bohemia, Europe 49-30 N. Flanders, Netht^rlands, Europe 50-44 N. Dourn, Algiers, Ufa. South Pacific Ocean, Asia Portugal, Barbary, Russia, France, Frahce, Europe A frica Asia f^uropc Europe 09-58S. 41-loN. 3f>-30N. 51-46N. 47-45N. 47-54 N. North America 29-57N. Ormicos Isle, Persia, Asia I'eneriffe, AtlanticOcean, Africa Ufa Russia, Asia Osnaburg Isle, South Pacific Ocean, Asia Ostenw, Flanders, Netherlands, Europe Oxford Obscr-Oxfordshire, England, Europe vator}', ■tDAcific Ocean, between Asia and America ^ Padua, ""-' ^*''" ^ Paisley, Palermo, PAlliser's Isles, Piihna Isle, Falmerston'sl Palmyra, Panama, Paonm Isle, pARisObserva-Islcof France, tory, Parma^ Patna, J'atrix fiord, ]' 26-50 N. 28-23 N. 51-12N. 17-52S. 51-13N. 51-45N. Lonaf4 D. iVT. 143-17 E. 13 8-50 W% 139-OlW. OI-20W. 35-00 W. 16-45 E. C2-I9E. 13 8-40 W. 08-22W. 00-05E. 55-1 4 E. 03-20VV. 01-59 E. 89-53W. 57-00 E. I6-I9W. 58-37 E. 148-01 E. 03-00 E. 01-lOW. Paduano, Italy, Europe 45-22 N. Renfrewshire, Scotland, Europe 55-48N. Sicily Isle, Italy, Europe 38-30 N. South Pacific Ocean, Asia 15-38 S, Canaries, Atlantic Ocean, A frica 28-36N. , South Pacific Ocean, Asia 18-00 S. Syria, Turkey, Asia 33-00 N. Darien, Terra Firma, S.Amer.08-47N. South Pacific Ocean, Asia I()-30 S. France, Europe 48-50 N. N. Atl. Ocean, Europe 65-35N. ui. St. Paul's Isk, Pej^u, Peking', Pembroke, Pr-NSACOLA, Penzance, Perigucux, Perinaldi, Perth, P^Ttncsan, Italy, Europe 44-45 N. Bengal, East India, Asia 25-45 N. Iceland, Low. ryrenee8,France, Europe South Indian Ocean, Africa Pegu, East India, Asia Peche-ler, China, Asia Pembroke"!!., Wales, Europe West Florida, North America Cornwall, Dordogne, Genoa, Perthshire, Perth-amboy, New York, Petersburg, Ingria, England, France, Italy, Scotland, Europe Europe Europe Euroj^ 45-15 N. 37-51 S. 17-00 N. 39-54N. 51-45N. 3O-22N. 50-08 X. 45-1 IN. 43-53N. 5()-22N. R ussia. North America 40.30N. Europe 59-56N. St.Petcr's Islo, North Atlunt. Ocean, America 46'-4()N. St.Peter's Fort.Martinico, W.India, N.Amer. 14-44N. Petropawlo»koi,Kamtschutka, Russia, Asia 33-01 N. 12-OOE. O4-08W. 13-43E. t46-25W. 17-45W. 162-52W. 39-00 K. 80-l6'W. lbR-3.1 F. 2-ii5E. 10-51 K. 83-00 K. 14-05W. 00-04W. 77-53K. 97-00 K. Il(i-2f)F.. 4-50W. 8 7-20 W, 6-OOW. 0-48E. 7-45 E. 3-12W. 74-20W. 30-24 K. 5t;-I2W. 6I-I6W, 1 53-40 E. ^ABLE. Lat.' Lon?* D. M. D. M. 9-20 N. 143-17 F. 19-40 8. 138-50VV. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 997 09-55 s. t6-02N. 08-1 3 S. 49-30 N. 50-44 N. 09-58S. 41-loN. 3(>30N. 51-46N. 47-45N. 47-54 N. 29-57N. 26-50 N. 23-23 N. 51-12N. 17-52 S. 51-13N. 51-45N. 139-OlW. OI-20W. 35-00 W. 16-45 E. C2-I9E. 138-40W. 08-22VV. 00-05E. 55-1 4 E. e3-20\V. 01-59 E. 89-53W. 57-00 E. I6-I9W. 58-37 E. 148-01 E. 03-00 E. 01-lOW. 45-22 N. 55-48N. 38-30 N. 15-38 S. 28-36N. 18-00 S. 33-00 N. 08-47N. 16-30 S. 48-50 N. 44-45 N. 25-45N. 65-35N. 45-15 N. 37-51 S. 17-00 N. 39-54N. 51-45N. 3O-22N. 50-08 X. 45-nN. 43-53N. 56-22N. 40-30N. 59-56N. 4()-46N. .14-44N. 53-01 N. 12-OOE. 04-08W. 1 3-43 E. 1 46-25W. 17-45W. 1 62-52 W. 39-00 K. 8O-I6W. 168-3.1 E. 2-25 E. 10-51 E, 83-00 E. 14-05\V. 00-04W. 77-53E. 97-60 E. II6-29E, 4-50W. B7-20W, 6-oo^^^ 0-48E. 7-45 E, 3-I2\V, 74-20W. 30-24 K. 5ti-12W. 6I-I6W. 1 53-40 i^ Names of Places. Provinces. Countries, Quarter. Lat. or Seas. D. M. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, North America "^9-56^. St. Philip's Minorca, Mcditcrr. Sea, Europe ;}9-50\. Fort, Pickcrsgill Isle, South Atlant Ocean, America 54-4>'S. Pico, Azores, Atlant. Ocean, Europe 33-28N. Pines, Isle of, N. Caledonia, Pacific Ocean, Asia 22-38 S. Pisa, Tuscany, Italy, Placentia, Newfoundland Isle, Devonshire, England, New England, Siiabia, C«romandcl, Lapland, Jamaica, Martinico, Terra Firma, Europe North America iropc 43-43 \'. 47-2bN. North Ainciica Germany, East India, Russia, West India, West India, 50-22\. 41-4SX. 47-43 N. ii-n\. 67-OuM. Europe Asia Evirope America 18-00\. America 14-35N. South America f)-3;;N. 32-5! N. 39-25 S. 6;5-22X. 50-47N. Plymouth^ Plymouth, Pollingen, Pondicherry, Ponoi, Por* Royal, Port Royal, Porto Bello, Porto Santo I-, Madeira, Atlant. Ocean, Africa Portland Isle, South Pacific Ocean, Asia Portland Isle, North Atlant. Ocean, Eurojie Portsmouth Hampshire, England, Europe lown, — Academy, Hampshire, England, Europe 50-4sN. Portsmouth, New England, North America 53-1 OX. Potosi, Peru, South America 21-00 S. Prague, Bohemia, Europe 50-04X. Presburg, Upper Hunp;ary, Europe 48-20X. Preston, Lancashire, England, Europe 5;>-4.')N. PrinceofWales NewN. Wales, North America 5i^-f7X. Fort, Providence, New England, North America 41-50 N'. Pulo Condor I. Indian C)cean, East Indies, Asia 28-lOX. Pulo Timor I., Gulf of Siam, East India, Asiu S-OOX. Pylestaart Isle, South Pacific Ocean, Asia 22-23 S. D. M. 75-Oi)\V. 3-53 E. 3(>'-5.SW. 2,^-21 W-. io;-43E, 10-17 E. 55-00\V. 4-1 OW. 70-25W. 10-48E. 79-57 K . 3 0-28 E. 7(i-4()W. ()l-Ut\V. 7 9-4 5 W. 16-20W. ir8-17E. 13-49VV. 01-01 VV. 01-oiw. 7 0-20 W. 77-oo^^^ 1 1-50 E. 17-SOW. 2-50W. 94-02W. 7I-21W. 107-25E. 104-30E. 17 5-26 W. /^Uebec, Canada, >^ Queen Char- South Pacific Ocean, Asia North America 46-55X. 69-48W. 10-11 S. 164-35E. lotte's Isles, St. Quin- North, tin, Quito, Peru, France, Europe 49-50X. 3-22E. South America 0-1 3 S. 77-50 W. T> Agusa, -"-^-Rumhead, Ratisbon, Rccif, Rcnnes, Resolution Isle, Rhelsle, Rheims, Rhodei, Dalmatia, Venice, Cornwall, Enghnd, Bavaria, Germany, Brasil, South Isle & Vllaine, France, South Pacific Ocean, Low.Charente, France, Marne, France, Rhodes Island, Levant Sea, Livonia, Russia, Europe 42-45N. 18-25E. Europe, 5()-i8X. 4-15W. Europe 48-56N'. 12-05E. America 8-10 S. 35-;)0W. Europe 48-()6X. l-3uW. Asia 17-23 S. 141-40W. Eruope 46-14 N. 1-20W. Europe 4:-i-M- X. 4-07 E. Asia 3':-2n X. 2S-00 E. Europe 5u-55X. 24-00 E. i'i m '^11 M 1 tnU: ffli W «B 1 998 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places. Provinces. Rimini, ]^icliellc, Piochfoit, Hock ol'LIs bon, Rodcz, Kodrigueslsle, Romacrna, Lo.Ciiarente, 1.0. Chaiente, Mouth or Ta- gus river, Aveiron, South Countries^ or Seas. Italy, France, France, Portugal, Quarter, Lai. D. M. Europe 44-03 N. Europe 46-09N. Europe 46-02 N. Europe 38-45 N- 'Rome, (St. Pope's Terri- Pcter's) tory, Rotterdam, Hollund, Rotterdamlsle, South France. Europe 44-21N. Indian Ocean, Africa 10-40^. Italy, Europe 41-53N. Long. D. M. 12-39 E. 1-04 W. 0-33 W. 9-30\V. 2-39 E. 63-15 E. 12-34 E. 4-33 E. S Netherlands, Europe 31-5GN. Pacific Ocean,Asia 20-16N. 174-24W. Rouen, Low. Seine, France, Europe 49-26N. 1-OOW. Aba Isle, Carib. Sea, West India, America IZ-^SpN. 63-1 2W. Sagan, Silesia, Germany, Europe 51-42N. 15-27 E. St. Angus- East Florida, North America 29-45N. 81-12W. tin, —Domingo, Carib. Sea, West India, America 18-20N. 70-00 W. n^ »,. between England and Atlantic Ocean Europe. Ireland, Chili, South America 34-QO S. Brasil, " South America 1 1-58 S. Wiltshire, England, Europe 51-OON. North Atlj^nt. Ocean, Africa 16-38N. Macedonia, Turkey, Europe 40-4 iN. North Atlant. Ocean, Africa 30-OON. Hjspaniola, W\'st India, America 19-1 5N. Usbec Tavtary, Asia 40-40N. — Ueorge s Channel, — Jago, • — Salvador, Salibhmy, Sail Isle. Salonichi, •Salvage Isles, Samana, Saniarcand, Sandwich Isles, 77-OOW. 3 8-00 W. 1-45W, 22-5 IW. 23-13 E. I5-49W. 69-nW. 69-00 E. South Pacific Ocean, Asia 17-41 S. 168-38 E. . 16-1 IW. 105-00W. Saundcrs'sIslcjSouthGcorglujS. Atlantic S. Anie- 58-00 S. 26-53VV. Ocean, rica South Pacific Oce:m,Asia 1 9-02 S. 1 69-25 W. Georgia, Xcith America 31-55N. 80-20W. - — -■— — ? „>..„~.. - — .~ — ^~...... .. ... •, .. .^. Santa Cruz, Tenerific, Athmt. Ocean, Africa 28-27N Santa P'e, New Mexico, North America 36-OON. Savage Isle Sa van nail, Sayd, or I'hebfs, Scarborough, Yorl<sh!rc, England, Schwetzingen . Lower II hine,Gei many. Scone, Perthshire, Scotland, Sea of Asoph, Little 'ravtiry'jEurope and —Marmora, Turkey in Europe and — Ocliotsk, — Yellow, Sedan, Senegal, Seville, Sheerncss, I'pper Egypt, Africa 27-OON. 32-20E. Europe Europe Europe Asia. Asia 54~18N. 49-23 NT. 56-24N. Black Sea. 0-lOW. 8-45 E. 3-1 OW. between Siheria& K arntschatka, Asia,N. Paclf.Ocean, betw. Eastern Tartary, China, and Corea, N. Pacif. Ocean. Aidennes, France, Europe 49-44N. 5-02 E. Negrolaad, Africa 15-53N. 16-26W. Andalusia, Spain, Europe 37-1 5N. 6-O5W, Kent, England, Europe 51-25N. 0-50 E. Sotith Pacific Ocean, Asia 16-58 S. 168-47E. Shepherd's Isles, Shields (South), Durhnm, England, Europe 55-02 N. 1-15 E. Shiewsburv, Shropshire, En glaml, Europe 5:;J-43 N. 2-46 VJ, ABLE. Lat. D. M. i-03N. 6-09N. >02 N. 8-45 N, Long. D. M. 12-39 E. 1-04 W. 0-53 W. 9-30W. 4.21N. 2-39 E. O-40V. 63-15 E. 1-53N. 12-34E. >1-5GN. 4-33 E. 10-16 N. 174-24W. 49-26N. 1-OOW. 17-'39N. 63-1 2W. 51-42N. 15-27 E. 29-45N. 81-12W. 18-20N. 70-00 W. Ocean Europe. 34-00 S. 11-58 S. il-OON. 6-3 SN. 40-41N. 30-OON. 19-1 5N. 40-40N. 17-41 S. 28-27N. 3()-00N. - 58-00 S. 7 7-00 W. 38-OOW. 1-45 W, 22-5 IVV. 23-13 E. 15-49W. 69-UW. 69-00 E. 168-38 E. 16-1 IW. 1 05-00 W. 26-53W. 19-02S. 1 69-25 W. 3I-55N. 8O-20W. 27-OON. 32-20E. 54-18N. 49-23 NT. 56-24N. 0-lOW. 8-45 E. 3-lOW. Black Sea. Asia,N. Pacif.Ocean. )rea, N. Pacif. Ocean. 49-44N. 5-02 E. 15-53N. 37-15N. 51-25N. 16-58 S. 55-02 N. l-Z^M N. I6-26W. 6-O5W. 0-50 E. I68-47E. 1-15 E. 2-46 vr. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 999 Kiimes of Places, Provinces. SiatTi, Si don, Si-gham-fu, Sisteron, Smyrna, Sonibavera Isles, Soolo Isle, Sound, Siam, Holy Land, Shensi, Low. Alps, Natolia, Carib. Sea, Coiintricsy or Sens. East India, Turkey, China, France, Turkey, West India, Southampton, Hampshire, Spa, Ourte, Stafford, Staffordshire, Stirling, Stirlingshire, Stockholm, Upland, Philip. Isles, East India, between Denmark and Sweden, Quarter. Asia A?i;i Asia luuopc Asia N. Ame-18-33X. rica Lofig. D. M. f.nf. 1). M. 1V-1SN[. 100-55 E. 33-3'5N. 36-1 5 E. 3l.-l(;X. 108-4^E. 4 1-1 I \. 6-0 IW. S8-'2SN. 27-24 E. b3-32W. Asia Europe 5-57N. i2l-20E. Baltic Sc;u Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe 5n-5r>N'. 50-3 ON. 5-?,-30N. 5G-10N. 5q-20N\ Ol-'^.'iW. 5-iOE. 2-onW. 18-08 E. Encrland, r ranee, England, Scotland, Sweden, Straits of Babelmundel, between Africa and Asia, Red Sea Straits of Dover, between England and France, English Cbauncl. Straits of Gibraltar, between Europe and Africa, Mck^iterrauean Sea. Straits of Magellan, between Terra del Fuego aiiu Patagonia, South Ameriai. Straits of Le Malre, in Patagonia, South America, Atlantic and Pacliic Oceans. Straits of Malacca, between Malacca and Sumatra, Asia, Itidian Ocean, Straits of Ormus, between Persia and Arabia, Persian Guli'. Stniits of Sunda, between Sumatra and .lava, Indian Ocean, Asia. t>traits of Waigats, between Nova Zemhla and Russia, Asia. Stralsund, Pomerania, Germany, Europe 5i-23N. 13-22E. Strasburgh, Low. Rhine, France, Europe 48-3 iN. 7-46 E. Iceland, N. Atlantic Ocean, Egypt, t ranee, England, East India, Straumness, Europe 65-3 9N. 24-2-iW. Suez, Sultz, Sunderland, Surat, Surinam, Syracuse, Suez, Upper Rhine, Durham, (juzcrat, Surinam, Sicily Isle, Africa Europe Europ^; Asia Italy, 2'>50N'. 47-53N. 5 t-55N. 21-lON. South America 6-OOX. Europe 36-5SN. 33-27E. 7-O9W. 1-1 0\V. 72-'?7E. 55-30\V, 5-05E. TAble Island, Tanjore, 'Eanna Isle, Taoukaa Isle, I anns, Tcfhs, Temontengis, Tenerifll: Peak, Canaries, Tercera Isle, Azores, Tetuan, Fez, St. Thomas's I., Virgin Lies Th6rn, Prus.'^ia, rimor, S. W. , Point, New Hebrides, South Pacific Ocean, Tanjore, East India, South Pacific Ocean, South Pacific Ocean, Aderbeitzan, Asia 15-38 S. Ib7-12E. Georgia, Soloo, Asia Asia Asia Persia, Asia Persia, Asia East India, A«la Atlant, Ocean, Africa Atlant. Oceaii, l''.urr.pc Karbary, \\ est India, Ejst Indi"a, 19-32 S. 1 I -30 8. 38-'20N. 43-30 N. 28-1 2\. 38-ir>M. 3 5-40 N. America 1 8-2 1 N. Europe 52-5tSN, Asia 10-23 S. Af'rl ca 79-n7E. l(ir:-46E« 145-0 tW. 4')-30E. 4X)JE. 120-5!^E. 1(;-24W. 27-01 IV. 5-1 S\V. 64-2;lW, , i;)-OOVV. 121-0t£. ■8 tn '■■■M i: !■:■. i,,. i :!i looo A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE; ;^;a +!K Nametof Places, Provinocs, Timorland, S. Point, Tobolsk, Toledo, Tomsk, Tonga Taboo Isle, Tprnca, Toulon, Trapesond, Trent, Tripoli, Tripoli, Tunis, Turin, I'urtle Isle, Tyre, Tymaw, Countries^ Quarter, or Seas, East India, Asia Russia, Spain, Russia, Siberia, New Castile, Siberia, South Pacific Ocean, Asia Asia Europe Asia Ijot. Long, D. M. D. M , • 8-15 S. 131-59 E. 58-1 2 N. 68-17 E. 39-50 N. 3-25 E. 56-29 N. 85-04 E. 21-o'9 S. 1 74-41 W. Bothnia, Var, Natolia, Treat, Tripoli, Syria, I unis, Pitdmcmt, South Palestine, Trentschin, ULietcal., Upsal, Uraniberg, Ushant Isle, Utrecht, Venice, Vera Cruz, Verona, Versailles, Vienna (Ob.) Austria, Vigo, Galicia, Vintimiglia, Genoa, Virgin Gorda, Virgin Isles, South Upland, Hucn Isle, P'inistcrrc, l-Iolland, Venice, Mexico, Veronese, Seine & Oise, Sweden, France, Turkey, (icrmany, Rarbary, Turkey, Barbaiy, Italy, Pacific Ocean Turkey, Hungary, Pacific Ocean Sweden, Denmark* P'rance, Netherlands, Italy, North Italy, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, West India, Europe Europe Asia Europe Africa Asia A frica Europe ,Asia Asia Europe 65-50 N. 43-07 N. 41-50 N. 46^05 N. 32-53 N. 34-30 N. 36-47 N. 45-05 N. 1 9-48 S. 32-32 N. 48-23 N. , A sia 1 6 Europe 59' Europe 55- Europe 48- Europe 52- Europe 45- America 19 Europe 45- P'.urope 48- Europe 48 Europe 42- Europe 43 America 18- -45 S. •51 N. ■54N. 28N. •07 N. •26 N. 1-1 2N. 26 N. 48 N. •12N. 14N. ■53 N. ■isN. Wakefield, Yorkshire, England, Europe 53-41N. Pr. Wales New N.Wales North America 58-47N. Fort, Wardlius, Norwcsjian Lapland, Europe 70-22 N. Warsaw,' Massovia, Pr. Poland, Europe 52-14 N. Warwick, Warwickshire En<^land, Europe 52-1 SN. Waterford, Munster, Ireland, Europe Wells, Somersetshire, England, Europe Westmanlsles, North Atlant.Occan,Europe Whitehaven, Cumberland, Enj^lnnd, Kurope Whitsuntidelsle, Sou^h Pacific Ocean,, \sia Williamsburg, Virginia, N. America 37-12N. Willes's Isles, SouthCIeorgia,Atl;mt. Ocean, America 54-00 S. Wilna, Lithuania, Poland, Europe 54-41 N. Winchester, Hampshire, England, Europe 51-06N. Wittenburg, UpperS;ixony, Germany, Europe 5 1-49 N. Wologda, Wologda, Russia, Europe 59-1 9 N, Worms, MontTonnere, France, Europe 49-38 N. Worcceter, WorccstershireEngland, Europe 52-09 N. 52-1 2N. 51-12N. 63-20 N. 54-3 SN. 1 5-44 S. 24-17 E. 6-01 E. 40-30 E. 11-02E. 13-12 E. 36-1 5 E. 10-00 E. 7-45 E. 178-02W. 36-00 E. 17-33 E. 151-26\V. 17-43 E. 12-57 E. 4-59W. 5-00 E. 11-59 E. 97-25W. 11-23E. 2-12 E. 16-22 E. 8-23 W. 7-42 E. 63-59W. I-28W, 94-02W, 31-11 E. 21-05E. 1-32W. 7-1 6W. 2-40W; 20-22W. 3-36W. 168-25 E. 7ti-48W. S8-24W. 25-32 E. I-15W. 12-46E. 41-50 E. 8-05 E, 2.0QW. PABLE; A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 1001 Lat. Lone, D. M. D. M, 8-13 S. 131-59 E. .SS-ISN. 68-17 E, (9-50 N. 3-2.5 E. 56-29 N. 8.'i-04E. 21-09 S. 174-41W. 24-17 E. 6-01 E. 40-30 E. 11-02 E. 13-12 E. 36-1 5 E. 10-00 E. 7-45 E. 178-02VV. 36-00 E. 17-38 E. 151-26\\'". 17-43 E. 12-57 E. 4-59W. 5-00 K. 11-59 E, 97-25VV. 11-23 E, 2-12 E. 16-22E. 8-23 W. 7-42 E. 63-59W, I-28W, 94-02W. 31-11 E. 21-05.E. 1-32W. 7-1 6VV. 2-40VV; 20-22W. 3-36W. 168-25 E. 7t»-48W. S8-24VV. 2r^-32 E. I-15W. 13-46E. 41-50 E. 8-05 E, 2-QQ\Y, Jiivnesof Places. Provinces, Countries^ or Seas, Woslak, » Russia, Wurtzburg^, Franconia, Gerniiiny, Russia, Kn<j;laiid, Quatter. Lnt, D. M. Europe 61-15 N. Europe 49-4uN. Asia 62-01 N. Jjong, - 1). M. 42-20 E. 10-18K. Europe 5:3-1.5 \. "^Akutsk, Siberia, -*■ Yarmuuth, Norfolk, York, Yqrkul.ire, England, Europe 5:S-5i)N Yorktainster, Terra del Fu- South America 55-26X. Greenwich Obscrv. Kent, England, Europe, 51® 28' 40" N. C 5' 37** £, ©t' St. Paul's, London. ^ . . 199-62F.. 1-48 1'.. 1-Ob'VV. 70- r)3\V. -jBH '^'l k i ■mHf Ml ^11 ,'d .- ^■ ( 1002 ) MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE, The most Copious and Authentic yet published, of the present State of the Real and Imaginary Monies of the World. Divided into four Parts, viz. EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, and AMERICA i %V'hlch are subdivided into fifty-five Parts, containing* theNamts of the most capital Places, the Species whereof are inserted, shewing how the Monies are reckoned by the respective Na- tions ; and the Figures standing against the Denomination of each foreign Piece give the iMiglish intrinsic A'alue thereof, ac- cording to the best Assays made at the Mint of the Towli: of London. EXPLANATION. By real Money is understood an effective Specie, representing in itself the Value denominated tliereby, as a Guinea, &c. * This Mark is prefixed to the imaginary Money, which is generally made use of in keeping Accounts, signifying a fictitious Piece which is not in being, or which cannot be represented but by savcral other Pieces, AS a Pound Sterling, Src. All fractions in the Value English arc parts of a Penny. — Tiiis Murk slgniiies, ?>, 7>iaf:r, or equal to. Note, for all tlie vSpanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and Danish Domi-- nions, either on the C'ontinent, or in the West Indies, see die Monies of the respective Nations. 1 . N G L A N D AND SCO T I. AND. London, Bristol, Liverpool, i3c. EdiHlnrgb, Glasgow, Aberdeen, ^'c. V. S. .«. d. I A Farthing 2 rarthings ;— a Halfpenny _ 2 Halfpence a Penny — 1 X. 4 Pence a Groat — 4 o 6 Ponce ;^ a Hi.lf Shilling ... , b" 12 Pence — a Shilling 1 h. 5 Shillings :— a (^rown __ 5 o 20 Shillings — a * Pound Stcrllu IW 1 (» 21 Shillings — a Guinea I i f; A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. 1003 )lislied, of the ^loNiEs of the esenting in itself d Danish Domi- t Indies, see die ■■*- rt O O A Farthing 2 Farthings 2 Halfpence 6| Pence 12 Pence 13 Pence 65 Pence 20 Shillings 22i Shillings IRELAND. DubiiHt Cork, Londonderry^ ^c, £» s. d. = — a Halfpenny — = * a Penny — = a Half Shilling - G ■^ * a Shilling Irish 1 =: a Shilling — 11 rr a Crown — 5 ::::; * a Pound Irish 18 5 ~ a Guinea — 110 1 .1 *v I .1 I t 1 3 A 1 FLANDERS and BRABANT, Ghent, Ostend, ^c. Antwerp, Brussels, ^c. * A Pening — 4 Peningeiis rr 8 Pcnintjens r: 2 G rotes rr (> Petards r: 7 Petards :r 40 G rotes ~ l7-[ Scalins — 240 G rotes zr HOLLAND AND Z E A L A N D. Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Middleburg, Flushing, ^c. zz — — I'Rft an Urthe ~,. T* * a Grote •«. -* a Petard — . •,* * a Scalin — 5 a Scalin — 6 T* * a Florin — I 6 a Ducat — 9 3 * aPoundFlem. — - 9 * Pening 8 Peningens 2 Grotes rz 6 Stivers i:: 2o Stivers zz 9 Fieri r.s 10 Stivers — Go Stivers — 3 Florins 3 Stivers zr ~ * a Grote — — a Stiver — 1 ■zz a Scalln — b* zz a Guilder — 19 allix-doUar — 4 6 a Dry Guilder — 054 a Silver Ducatoon 5 8 6 Guilders — * a Pound Flem. 10 6 20 Florins "^ a Gold Ducat, or Du- catoon — 1 16 15 Florins ~ aDucatoon,anothersort, called a Sovereign 1 7 3 7 o 'I I .VO" : ♦ TV J«'i HAMBURG, A!ti)na, Lubec, Bremen, ^c. * c rt o * A 1 ryung _. T?rT 2 'i'rylings Z^ ^ a Sexling — kl 2 Scxlings ^ "^ a Fcning — tri 12 Fenini^i ~ u Shilling Lub. « !i io" Shillings — ♦ a Marc — 1 G • 2 Marcs — a Slctch-dollar 3 3 Marcs ~ a Rit-dollar — ■ 4 6 4 Marcs ~z a SilvcrDucatoonO 6 130 Shillings i:;; * a Pound Fiem. 11 3 1004 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. HANOVER, Lunenburg, Zell, tic. e o o D ^. < M o « 3 R A Fening — Feningi Fcnings 18 Fenings 8 Groshcn 16" Groshrn 24 Groshcn 38 Groshen 4 Guldens £. o o a Drcycr — o o T* a Murien — ■ o o 1 }^ a Grosh — o o J i a Ilalf Guillen o 1 2 a Gulden — o 8 4^ * a Rix-doll: ir o 8 -(» a Double Guidon o 4 8 a Ducat — o 9 2 SAXONY DresJcHt Leipsic, * An Heller r: 2 Hellers = 6 Hellers — \6 Hellers r: 12 Fenings z:r ifi Groshen — 24 Groshcn zr 32 Groshen :z 4 (Moulds = AND HOL STEIN. tic. fVisTnaTj Keilf tic. o o o v^ a Fening >— o o o a\ a Dreyer — o o o T& a Marien — o o 1 f a Grosh ._ o o 1 3. a Gould ^^ o 2 4 *a Rix doll ir — o 3 6' a Specie Dollar o 4 8 a Ducat — o 9 4 BRANDENBURG Berlin, Potsdam, * A Denier =r 9 Deiriers =: 18 Deniers = 3 Polchens =: 20 Groshen r: 30 Groshen =: 90 Groshen =: 108 Groshcn — 8 Florins = AND POMEHANIA. tic. Stetin, tic. a Polchen — o o o o o o a Grosh — o o o an A brass — r o o o * a Marc — o o 9 a Florin — o 1 2 * a Rix-dollar o 3 G an AlberLus o 4 2 a Ducat — o 9 4 COLOGN, Mtntz, Triers, Liege, Munich, Munster, Paderhorn, tic. A Dute = 3 Dutes = 2 Cruitzers = 8 Dutes = 3 Stivers := 4 Plaperts = 4 Stivers ~ 2 Guilders = 4 GuUdcis =:: a Cruitzer M»W o o o u o o -i. an Alb — . o o 9 1 4() a Stiver — o o o Tit a Plapert o o 2 1 1 A a Copstuck — . o o S •f a Guilder — o 4 a Hard Dollar o 4 8 a Ducat .. 9 4 \BLE. /, Gfr. £. o — o — o -— o len o — . o r o ildon o A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. 1005 s. o o o o 1 2 2 -() 4 8 093 d. T* 1 * 1 2 4^ i. « RIN. • A>//, ef e. -.1 — . i\ — Ti: — 1 * — 1 4- i— 2 4 — 3 6* liar 4 8 — . 9 4 • IIANIA • ^c. — .t — 7j — ,1- — r T^ — 9 i — . 1 2 r 3 6' s 4 2 — 9 4 unicbf Munster, ir 2 S 4 4 8 9 4 V u ? I I 1 & BOMKMIA, SILF.SIA, AND HUNGARY, 1 IP 1 Prague, Bredau , Presburg'i, ^c. £. s. d. A Fening z — — ,1 8 Fenings s a Drcycr — o 7i 3 Fenings X a Grosh — o yj 4 Fenings — a Cniitxcr — * o rl 2 Ciuitzers — a White Grosh o \i 60 Cruitzers — ^ a Gould — 2 4 90 Cruitiers 22 « a Rix-dollar o 3 6 2 Goulds S5 a IJard Dollar o 4 8 4 Goijds mT a Duciit — I) 4 AUSTRIA ^ND SWABIA, Vienna, Trieste, Wc. Augsbitrgt Blenbeirnt ^c * A Feniiig rr — — — TV 2 Ffnings z:: u Drcyer — o t5 4 Fenings sf a (-ruitze.r — o xl • 14 Fenings 1 _ a Grosh -~ o 1 H p3 4 Cruitzers z= . a Batzen — o » \i 15 Bat/.on •ri^ a Gould — 2 4 90 Cruitzers ~ ♦ a Hix-doUar o 3 6 J3 • 2 Florins i: ■ ■ a Specie dollar o 4 6 ;i< •« z < 60 Batzen ~ a Ducat — o 9 4 s w 9-t CJ FRANCONIA, FranckJ'ort, Nuremburg, Detti igen, dfc. ci A Fining — ni 4 Fenings ~- a ('ruitznr o a Ti (*5 3 Cruitzfrs ::::;; a Kryser Grosh o 1 } 4 C-ruitzr rs — a Batzen — o I \l 1.0 Cruitzers ;^ an Ort Gold o 7 (Jo Cruitzvrs ~ a Gould — () 2 4 * -• 90 ('ruiti»rs ~ * a Rix-dollar o 3 6 2 Goulds 1"-'".' a Hard Dollar o 4 8 '240 Cruitzrrs — a Ducat — o 9 4 POLAND AND PRUSSIA. Cracow, Warsaw, ^c. Dantzic, Konigsberg, ^c. ■ A Siielon ;z:: — — tJ 3 Slielons ~ a Grosh — o « rS- 5 Grosheii — a Coustio - — 2 3 (?oustics ;::: a'Tinse — o 7 18 Grosheti 'i:;; an Ort — o 8 1 30 Crroshcn ""* a Florin ■— o 1 2 qO Groshen — * a Rix-dollar o 3 G 8 Florins — a Ducat - 9 4 5 Rix-dollars '~ a Frederic d'Or o 17 G m ^1 ■ 8 1 ■: \m ioo6 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. ^'8 If J i m 1 ■ I) ' '■: iil \,\ U LIVONIA. Riga, Revel, Narva, (ge • £. /. rf. A Blackca =: o o o A ; 6 Blackens rr a Grosh ' *-N. o o o .9 Blackens =: a Vording -iiri ■ o o o T* S Groshen :r a Whiten id^ . o o o H 6 Groshen :r a Marc 1*4 o o 2 i 30 Croshcn — a Florin - Mki o 1 2 90 Groshen = • a Rix-doll.« ' mid o 3 6 1 03 Groshen =: art Albertus . „^- o •4 2 ^% 64 Whitens = a Copper-plate Dollar o 5 - DENMARK, ZEALAND, ANr ) NORWAY. Copenhagen, Sound, ^c. Bergen, Droniheim, W« • ' A SkiUinfr _> o o i5 ■ ■ () Slfillings — a Du<;gea • o o 3 I ■■i • 16 Skillinc;s rr >^ a Marc -4. o o 9 % 20 Skillings — a Rix-marc .^ o o 11 k in 24 Skilliiigs = a Rix-ort _ o 1 1 4 ^ 4 Marcs = a Crown — • o 3 o F^^ C S Marcs zr a »iix-dollar __ o 4 6 U Marcs r: a Ducat _k 8 3 14 Marcs =: a Hat Ducat — o 10 6 J§ - •i 1 SWEDEN AND LAPLAND. Stockholm, Vpsal, i£c. Thorn, Sec. f^ * A Runstick — o ri 2 Runsticks rr a Stiver _M o o o • • 8 Runsticks =r a Copper Marc o o 1 3 Copper Marcs r: a Silver Marc —» o o 4 4 4 Copper Marcs n: a Copper Dollar — o o 6 i , 9 Copper Marcs zr a Caroline .— o 1 2 3 Copper Dollars — a Silver Dollar ~~ o 1 6 ^ 3 Silver Dollars = a Rix-dollur — ~ o 4 6 2 Rix-dollars rr a Ducat — o 9 4 RUSSIA AND MUSCOVY. Petersburg, Archangel, &[c. Moscow, Sfc, A Polusca — o o o iS^ 2 Poluscas r: a DcnuRca — o o iSITr 2 Denuscas r: * a Co}>ec — o o H 3 Cojx^fs ~ an Altin o o 1 i; 10 C'opecs ~ a Grlevener _ o o 5 V 25 (iopecs rr a Polpotin — o 1 1 ^ 50 Copecs ir a Poltin ~— o 2 3 100 Copecs ~ a Ruble — . o 4 6 2 Rubles " a Xcn'onltz .— o 9 ABLE. rva, Gftf. £. /. d. o o o 94 o o o Tf o o o Tt o o o H o o 2 i o 1 2 o a 6 o V 2 A o 5 IWAY. ont/ieim. «c. o o o 4 o o 3 3 o o 9 o o 11 A o 1 1 4 o 3 o o 4 6 , «^c. 8 3 o 10 6 ec. 6 A o o o ill o o 1 i o 4 * o o G 1 o 1 2 o I 6 ^ o 4 6 o 9 4 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 2 4 9 o I ? Tr o H 1 5 1 3 6 o A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. 1007 C/3 U4 Ph o a z •< Id H A Rap 3 Hapen 4 Feniiigs 12 Fenings 15 Fenings 18 Fenings 20 Sols 60 Cruitzcrs 108 Ciultzers BASIL. Zurich, Zug, tic. ~ a Feninjr — ~ a OuiUcr — -* a Sol ^ ~ a Coarse Batzf n — n: a Good Batten — ~* a Livrc — "HZ a Gulden — r: a Rix-dolhr — 000 o o o o o o o o o o o o o n 4 o o I 1 O -V 6 6 r I i A Heller 2 Hellers 4 12 4 Fenings Fenings Ciuitzers 5 Cruitzcrs 20 Sols 60 Cruitzcrs 102 Cruitzcrs St. GALL. Appmxel, S,c. =z a Fening — ~ a Cruitzcr — =r» a Sol _ ~ a C-oarse Batzen — — a Good Hatzen — zz* a. Livre — ~ a Gould — — a Rix-dollar — o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 4 I 1 2 t) 6 3 BERN. Lucerne, Neufcbalel, Csfc. A Denier — ■ 4 Deniers 3 Cruitzcrs — # 4 Cruitzcrs 5 Cruitzcrs 6 Cruitzcrs 20 Sols 75 Cruitzcrs Cruiizeis 12 a Cruitzcr a Sol a Plupert a Gros a ^atzen a Livre a Gulden a Crown o o o o o o o 2 4 1 I 2 b' 6 GENEVA. Pckay, Bonne, &c. A Denier — 2 Deniers — 12 Denies — 12 Dealers current" a Denier current a Small Sol a Sol current 12 Small Sols = 20 Sols current r: lo|Floiins zr 15iFiorins ~ , 24 F.}<5rj;is = Fl onn * a Livre current a Patacoon a Croisade a Ducat b o 4 1 3 0. 3 II 5 10 9 if i z r z T^ 3 1 1 8 / Joo8 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. frl Llslt, Cambrayt Valenciennes, Ssc. c *-. r£ s> o o A Denier 12 Denicrs 15 Dcnicra 15 Patards 20 Sols 20 Patards 60 Sols \0\ Livres 24 Livres £. a. d. o o o Ti a Sol — o o o 1 * a Pafard — o o o 1 ♦ aPiettc — o o f) i a Livre Toumois o o 10 * a Florin — o 1 o 1 an Kcu of Ex. o 2 « a Ducat •— . o .*) J a LohIs d'Or I o o • M Dunkirk, St. Omer's, St. Quintin, 4c. A Denier ~ o o < > < 12 Denicrs ~ a Sol — o o rt 15 Denicrs — • a Patard — o o o A 15 Sols ~ * a Pietre — o o 7 c * 20 Sols — • a Livre Tournois o o 10 3 Livres — an Ecu of Ex. o <2 6 BM 24 Livres ::^ a Louis d'Or 1 « < 24 Livres — a Guinea — 1 I 302 Livres ^** a Moccia — 1 7 o Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, SfC Bourdeaux, Bay vine, Sc A Denier , o o o 3 Denicrs :::: a Llard • — o o o 2 Liards — a Durdene — o o o 12 Denicrs ^^^ *Sol — o o e> 20 Sols S * a Livre Tournois o o 10 6o Sols — an Ecu of Ex. o 2 6 6 Livres "^^ an Ecu o 5 o lo [Livres rr * a Pistole — o 8 4 , 24 Livres = a Louis d*Or 1 o o t I •; h' 1 I r B I 4 .! PORTUGAL, Liibon, Oporto, 3rc. * A Re =: ■ lo RcE =z a Half Vintin — 2o Rer =: a Vintin — 5 Vintius — a Testoon ^- 4 Testoons rr a Crusade of Ex. — = a New Crusade — = * aMilre — — • a Moidore ■ — =: a Joannes •— 24 Vintin* lo Testoons 48 Testoons €4 Testoons o o o o o o o o I o o 6 o 2 3 o 8 a 5 7 1 7 o 1 16 9 f X :able. iin, S,-c. o O V mmm o o rt — o <» o — o o 7 mois o o 10 .X. o <> 6 r 1 6 _' 1 1 — 1 7 o auXf Bay onne, Sc. o o o , —. o o o — o o o — o o o rnois o o 10 ^x. o 2 6 o 5 o >— o 8 4 'r 1 o o SfC» o o o o o o o 1 o o o o 2 o 5 7 — 1 16 O Tu.V o 1 6 3 8 7 o X t B •5 c O z o •J < 9 ;/3 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. Madrid, Cadiz, Seville^ 4c J 009 A Miiravctlif 2 Maraveiiitri 54 Maravetlieg 2 Hi;ils UIuU Hials MaravcJic* Hials Rials A'<w Ptatt. X. t. 8 lo S75 32 36' ik Quartil .« a Rial — a Pistarinr; — • * u Piastre of Ex. » Dollar ^ • a Uucat of £x. * a Pistiik ok' Ex. a Pistole — o o o o u o o o o o o o 3 4 4 14 16 o o 5 lo 7 6 11 4 9 i • A Maravedic 2 Muravcdics 4 Maravcdics 34 Maravcdics 15 Rials 512 Maravcdics 60 Rials 2o48 Maravcdics 70 Rials Gibraltar, Malaga, S,c. Velon. an OchaTo aQuatril — * a Rial Vclon * a Piastre of Ex. a Piastre — * a Pistole of Ex. a Pistole of Ex. a Pistole — o o o o o o o o o o 3 3 o 14 o 14 o Hi o H 2 i 7 7 4 4 Barcelona, Saragossa, Valencia, Sj-c, A Marvcdie zr If) Marvedics — 2 Soldos ~ IG' Soldos n So Soldos ::r 21 Soldcs — 22 Soldos zz 24 Soldcs — (jo Soldos ::: Old Plate. 000 a Soldo —003 a Rial Old Plate o o 0" a Dollar — o 4 (j a Libra — o 3 7 a Ducat — o 5 lo a Ducat — o 6" a a Ducat — o <J a u Pistole — o lo* 9 i I 7 Y I A Denari 12 Denari 4 Soldi 20 Soldi 3 Soldi 5 Lires 115 Soldi 6 Tcgtoons 20 Lire* GP..XOA. Novi, St. Remo, Ji* CORSICA. BaUia, 4c _ » a Soldi — a Chevalct — a J. ire ' — a Testoon — a Crolsadc — a Pezzo ot' Ex. a Genoiiitie — a Pistole — o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 3 4 G 14 J i- i o H o 7 9 2 4 ill; i( 1,11 r [ 1019 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. inir hi \Y I f 5?>fi %i !.\ n-ii i O PS >< •< PIEDMONT, SAVOY, and SARDINIA. Turin, Cbatnberri/^ Cagliari, Sec. £. s, d. A Denari ::s — — . » — . o o o 3 Denari ^.^ a Quartrini — o o o i 12 Denari ~ a Soldi _ o o o 12 Soldi — * a Florin _ o o 9 2o Soldi ~ * a Lire — o 1 3 6 Florins 33 a Scudi ■:— o 4 6 7 Florins tz a Ducatoon ~. o 5 3 13 Lires MM a Pistole ~-. o 16 3 16 Lires = a Louis d'Or -^ 1 o o Milant .Modeng, Parma, Pavia, Sfc. A Denari =5 — o o o 1 t\ 3 Denari T*^ a Quatrino — o o o 1,? 12 Denari •^M a Soldi — o o o 4 1 2o Soldi mIZ • a Lire — o o 8 4 1 115 Sokii "~^ a Scudi current — o 4 2 I t 117 Soldi — * a Scudi of Ex. — _ o 4 3 6 Lires — a Philip — o 4 4 1 "4' 22 Lires ^ , , a Pistole _ o 16 23 Lires ~ a Spanish Pistole ^■^ o 16 9 Leghorn^ Florence, l\c. A Denari - _ o o .< 1 14 4 Denari s= a Quatiiiii — o o o 1 6 12 Denari zz a Soldi — o o o I V 5 Quatiini f_ a Craca — o o o 8 Cracus .,_ a Quilo — o o 5 if 2o Soldi rr * a Lire — o o 8 1 6 Lires r^ a Piastre of Ex • o 4 o 7\ Lires . a Ducat — o 5 1 22 Lires — a Pistole "■■* o 15 6 RC A Qiiatrini 5 Quatrini )ME. Cii7frt Vecchia» Ancunay tV<;. g\ 1 a Bayoc __ vr o o I 4 8 Bu»oc» ^, ',, a Julio — o o () 10 Bayoc ~ a stamped Julio- - o o 7\ 24 Bayocs "7* ' a 'festoon — o 1 6 lo Julias ~ a ('rown current .0 12 Julios " * a Crown slampt — _ o () ly Julius *** a ('he(}uia —^ o 9 o 31 Julius Cw a Pistole ~— o i:» 6 TABLE. A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE, loii ' SARDINIA. >•/, SfC. £. s. d, », o o o -~ o o o — o o o — 009 — o 1 3 .:— o 4 (j ■ — o 5 3 — o If} 3 )r — 1 o o T i — o . — o — o — o o o o o o o o o o o 8 4 2 4 3 4 4 — o 1() o ;tolc — o 16 9 rent — l,c. Ex. 5 8 4 2 5 \b nconUf &iC. 1 1 4 I AS 4 I 1 t 1 4 4 ) i J rt — — () Ho — 7\ _ • I (i rent .0 npt — <)■ _- J) _^ \:> G 1 I C C « • x/ ^PLES. Gaivta, Capua, &c. .£. 9. c^. A Qviatriin — — — « 1 , 3 "Quatiiiii u: a CIr;;:!i — J lo C I rains 'ZI~ A (."ariiii — 4 4n Qaatriiii zz a Paul.) 3 2o (ir;,i:is ZZl a Larin — ij 4u drains ZIZ a 'lestooa — 1 4 loo Crains "77j' a Uucat of Ex. 3 t 23 Tarlns —Si a Pistol — li) 4 1 ^'5 Taiins IT a Snaui'-h P-jsto'e IG y SIC1).Y ANO MALTA. Palermo, Messina, i^ ■c. A Pichila — — — tJ (1 Pichlli ."r: a (irain — « 1 1 H Pichili ~ u Pontl — 1 lo ( drains — a Carl In — 1 tJ Oo Criaiiis — a Taiiii — 3 TT t) 'I'arius :::r * a Florin of Ex. 1 ej ri 13 'Tariiis — a Ducat of Ex. 3 4 • (io Cailins — * ai> Ounce — 7 8 4 1 s >< '2 Ounces zz u Pistole — 15 4 '^1 liolog Hti, Ravenua, Sfi:. A QuLitrini = — — ri ()■ Qiiurtniii zz a liayoc — » lo Ijuvocs zir a Julio — 6 S'l Biyocs ~ * a J.ire — 1 3 J alios ™ a Testoon — 1 6 Pa Bayocs — a Sciidi of Ex. 4 3 1 00 1 Javocs — a Crown — Tj 10.0 Ravors ~ a Ducatoon — r» 3 31 .fuiios ~ a Pistole — 15 0' VENICE, llergimo, S-c. A Picoli z^ — — 3^ 12 Pitoli — a Soldi — 1 (JiSoldi ~ * aOros — L U 18 SolUi — a Julc — 6 2n Soldi „"~- * a J. ire -^ a 1 3 .fules — a Te«toon 1 G liJl Soldi :z: a l-)acat current 3 5 ■\ 24 r.ios t: * a Ducat 01' Ex. 4 4 1 17 Lii«« z^ aC)ici|nin ■ — u y t.1 .rr m IOI2 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. 1 f ' i i m f TURKEY. Moreoy Candia, Cyprus, Src. £' s. d. • J9 A Mangar ^__ — •— f «» 4 Mangars ..^ an Asper mmm • 3 Aspcrs rx a Parac .— 1 i- (/) 5 Aspers "Si a Bt'stic 3 W lo Asperi rr an Ostic — 6 o 2o Aspers — a Solota — 1 8o Aspcrs '• ZIZ *a Piastre 4 o D loo Aspers a Carasjrouch — > O] ^ lo Solotas ' «— » a Xcriff •*" lo ARABIA. Medina, Meica, Mocba, efi-. A Carrct ^;; — — I .Oi Carrets i:^ a Career — m 7 Carrets "^ *a Comasliee — . tI 8o Carrets — a Larin — lo 1 18 Coinashecs — an Abyss 1 4 i 6o Comashtcs *a Piastre — 4 6 8o Ca veers — a Dollar i— 4 6 loo Comashees :::; a Sequin — 7 il 8( ) Latins — *a Toinond ~— 3 7 6 PERSIA . hpfthattf Ormus, Gombroon, i •c. A Coz ^z __ i 4 Coz — a Bisti — — I ..» loCoz — a Sliaiice — 4 2o Coz ^~"' a Mamooda ■— 8 CAl 25 Coz ::2 a Larin — _ lo -< 4 Shuhces ::::; an Abashce — _ 1 4 5 Abasliccs ' an Or — 6 « 12 Alnisheos , a Hovcllo 16 50 Abasliees = *;i Tomond — — 3 6 8 GUZURAT. Suraf, Cambay, SjC. 'APecka — — ^_ M 2 Peckas ::::; a Pice — . ii 1 4 Pices — a Fan am ^-. 1 7 • 5 Pices n , a \ iz — 2 8 1 6 Pices ~ an Ana . — 7 1 4 Anas — a l{iij)ee -_ G 2 Uupecs — .-n Enf:lisb Crown > 11 Anus — a Pajjoda — i .9 4 Pagodas — a Gold Knpcc — 1 L TABLE. , Cyprus, Src. A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. 1013 I 3 6 1 4 a •> lo T J Mocha f eft-. — 1 a iH — tI lo i »— 1 4 i — 4 6 — 4 6' — 7 6 — 3 7 6 Gombroon, S ■c. — i 1 .\ — 4 — 8 -^ lo — 1 4 ». 6 8 ,^ 16 •mmm 3 6 8 nbay, S)C. rown I 7 6 > •i .9 1 ^ IS ; ■« 1 , '• ' Bombay, Dabul, ^v. X. s. d. * A Riulgrook o o tf ^t' 2 liud-^rooks lo l'i(cs ~- a Pice 1 — =: a l-aree — o o Q O o o o o 5 2o Ibices rr a Quarter — o o 6' > 2lo Hez ~ u Xcraphim — . o 1 4 4 4 Qiuivteis ~ a Hiipee — o 2 3 14 (^iKUtcrs ~ a Pa:j()(la — o 8 o •< < 1 ()o Quarters ~ a Gold l{upcc 1 13 o i^ < Goa, Visapoiir, tVo. * A Re = ■ — — O o 4H 2 IJri ~ a Hazaraca o o o vH 2 Buzaracas — a Ptuka — o o o ■.H 2o Kcz ~ a V'iiitiii — o o 1 18- 4 Viiitins z:r. a f.arcc — o o 5 f 3 I^aiiees =; a Xeraphiin — o 1 4 i 42 \'iiitiiis rr a I'aniru — o 4 {> 4 'J 'unions :" a Paru . o 18 o B 'I'aiigus IT a Gold Rupee I 1.5 o ^ COltOMANDKI.. Madras, Pondicberry, 4c. A C'usli = — — o o o U .5 (';;sli — a V iz — o o o Ti <i \'VL zz a Pice — o o o i (\ Picps = a Pical — o o 2 i 18 Pices ~ a I'lmarii — O O 3 lo FalKlIllS =: a Kupefi ~ o 2 G S Hupces — an Kn;?;IIsh Crown o 5 o () F;ituuns rr u Pajjoda — o 8 9 4 P;igO(l;is zr a Ciold Rupee 1 1.') o r>K^:';.\ [,. Cullkul, Calcutta, & c. A P1(T --- o o o 7f 4 Pices r: a I'';inarn — o o o i (i P.crs -- a \'iz — o o o ■H- 12 Pices ~ an Ana — O 1 i If) /\ii:iS — a l'"iar)0 — • o 1 b' Ifl Alius ~ a i*u])er* — o 2 (i 2 Rai).'e<? — a l^'reiicli Kcu o 5 u 'Z Kiiiiccs :r an !''.n;r! sh Crown o 5 o f >»; Anas a Pagoda — o 8 6 * Major Henni'll -Jays, thaf we rnay witli ea<? r<'(luc(^ any hrge sum in nif»e-<t to iter- ling, by <-.il>'ul;itin<j nunuilv at tlie \*i>: of a Uck «(' .iijices to tai tliuuMikd puuiiJi, »ii.i'llut ii crors of rui'ecfc Ik «-quai tu a milliun sterlng. m ' ■ i Ol kk Mt' A\ 'I 1 ii^ • 1 'ii ^i 1014 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. SI AM. Fegu,MalaccayCamhodla, Sumatra, Java, BorHeo,^c* jr. s. d. fe < A Cori lo Cori i2'i Fettees 25o Frllcrs 5oo Fcttfcs ;)oo Fetters 2 Ticixh 4 Snoco? 8 Sat dicers a FcttPe a Sat«lpcr a Sftoro a '['iral a Dollar :i Hial an Vra a Crow n o o o o o o o o 7 o I o o o o (>' o 4 6' o ,'3 o o .-i o <> b () A Caxfi lo Caxa lo Candcreen* 3!) Candereciis '2 Ruj)tes 7o Candereens 7 IVlaces 2 Kupees lo Maces CHINA. Prli'in, Can ton y (5jr. a Caiiilerecn a Mare a lUipec a Dollar a Rix-dollar an Ecu a C'rown a Talc o n o n o (> () o S o 2 «> o 4 6" o 4 4 o .0 o (> ()■ o o <J 8 A Piti 2o Pitis !5 Maces 20 Maces So Maces 13 Ounces Silver 2 Ounces Gold 2 Japancscs 21 Ouncis Cold J A PA N . Jcddn, Mcacoj Sfc ■zz a Mace — zz an Ounce Silver — rr a Tale — zr an In sot • — an Ounce Cold ■ — a .fapanesc ■ — a Double — *a Cat tec — o o o o o .> (7 O O o 4 4 lo h 12 12 6() 3 8 8 o o o F^G\ PT. Old and Nc' Co/in, Alcxandnu, Soj/dc^ An As{tcr T) As'pcis 2t Medins 80 Aspers 3o Medins [)(i Aspers 32 Medins 2oo Aspers To Medins a Mrdin an (tali;ui Ducat — *a Piastre a Dollar — an Kru — a Crown — a Suit an in • — ■ a Pa I go Dollar — o «) o f> o (> o o o 3 ■1 4 <) lo o lo o 1 4 o t) o o o ,?,o L TABLE. a, Java, Borneo, ^c. A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. 1015 dnu, Sai/dcy $,•". BARBARY. Algiers, Tunis tTrli >•//, Una, tie. l.s. d. • An Asper :^ —• 3 Aspers Zl" a MecHn -_ 1 lo Aspers ~ a Rial Old Plate — . 6 . 2 Rials ~ a Double _ 1 1 ' 4 Doubles ^~ a Dollar __ 4 6 ' 24 Mcdais — a Silver Chequin 3 4 30 N'.ed.ns — a Dollar _ 4 6 ISo .^spers — a Zequin _ 8 10 • < 15 Doubles — a Pistole ^ 16 9 PS < MOROCCO. Santa CruZy Mequinez, Fez, Tangier, Sal/ee, ^c. A FKice = — ^. ■n- 24 Huffs -. ., a Blunquil _ 2 A Cm 4 Blanquils ~ an Ounce _ 8 7 Bla.iquils _ an Octavo _i 1 2 14 Blanquils — a Quarto — . 2 4 2 Quartos ~ a Medio __ 4 8 28 Blanquils — a Dollar -~. 4 6 64 Blanquils - a Xequln — 9 ^ loo Blanquils — a Pistole *^ u 16 9 r ENGLISH. Jamaica, Bardadoes, ^c. * A Halfpenny — _ 1 Ktr 2 Halfpence zz *a Penny — M 7y Pence — a Bit ~- 5 3. ti 12 Pence ~ *a- Shilling _ 8 ii 75 Pence ^ a Dollar ~~ 4 6 7 Shillings — a Crown _— 5 2o Shillings — *a Pound __ 14 3 • 24 Shillings ,' a Pistole — 16 9 • < ^-1 3o Shillings ^^_ a Guinea — 1 I u N (^ s H in U FRENCH. St. Domingo, Martinico, Csfc. <! ^ * A Half Sol ~^ — *U 2 Half Sols — *a Sol — iH 7i Sols ~ a Half Scalin — 2 1* 1 5 Sols — a Scalia — > 5 i 2o Sols ~ *a Livre — 7 tI 7 Livres — a Dollar — 4 6 8 Livres ~ an Ecu — 4 10 \ 26 Livres — a Pistole — 16 9 , 32 Livres zz a Louis d'Or «. 1 % ill I. 5 ■ ' ill'w I I'i I J' iH i'j3ir!» 'M J. .^/l i mw ioi6 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. ENGLISH. M »-< H 2 O JVovfl Scotia, New England, Virginia, f^-c • A Penny 12 Pence 2o Shillings Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds lo Pounds — « a Sliillinsr * a Pound o o 1 1 o e 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The Value of the Currenry alters according to the Plenty ox Scarcity of Gold and Silver Coins that arc imported. Canada, Florida, Cayenne, S^c. FRENCH. A Denier 12 Deniers 2o Sols 2 Livres 3 Livres 4 Livres 5 J^ivres 6 Livres 7 Livres 8 Livres .0 Ivivrcs a Sol a Livre m ■ 10 Livres The Value of the Currency alters according to the Plenty or Scarcityof Gold and Silver Coins that are imported. Note. For all the Spanish, Poriurruesa^ Dutch, and Danish Dominions, either on the Continent, or in the West Indies, sec the Moniss ©t' the rc»j»ectivc Nations. [ 1017 1 , Cayenne, ^c. A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE or REMARKABLE EVENTS, DISCOVERIES, AND INVENTIONS; ALSO, * THE iERA, THE COUNTRY, AND WRITINGS, OF LF.ARNF.D MEN: The vrholc comprehending, in one View, the Analysis or Ovitllnes of General History, from the Creation to the present Time. 2348 *247 Bef. Christ. 4004 A HE creation of the world, and Adam and Eve. 4005 Th« birth of Cain, the first who was born of ii woman. 5017 Enoch, for his piety, ii translated to Heaven. The whole world is destroyed by a deluge, which continued .'')77 days. The tower of Babel is built about this tini«» by Noah's posterity, upon which God miraculously confounds their language, and thus disperses them into different nations. About the same time, Noah is, with great probability, supposed to have part- ed from his rebellious offspring, and to have led a colony of some of the more tractable into the East, and tliere either lie, or one of his successors, to have founded the ancient Chinese monarchy. 2234 The celestial observations are begun at Babylon, the city which nrst gave birth to learning and the sciences. £188 Misraim, the son of Ham, founds the kingdom of Egypt, which lasted 166 > years, down to its conquest by Cambys;;s, in yib before Christ. 2059 Ninus, tlie son of Belus, founds the kingdom of Assyria, wliich lasted above 1000 years, and out of its ruins were formed the Assyrians of liabylon, those of Nineveh, and the kingdom of the JMcdes. 1921 The covenant of God made with Abram, when he leaves Haran to go into Ca- naan, which begins the 4'jO years of sojourHinj;. 1897 The cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are destroyed for their wickedness, by ire from Heaven. 18;i6 The kingdom of Argos, in Greece, begijis under Inachu*. 18'*^ Memnon, the Egyptian, invents letters. " ' 17 1 i' Prometheus first struck tiie from thntt. 16;\) Joseph dies in Egypt, which concludes the book of Genesis, containing a pe- riod of Iic369 years. 1574 Aaron born in Egypt •, 1400, appointed by Cod first hicfh-priest of the Israelites. 1571 Moses, brother to Aaron, liorn in Egypt, and adopted by Pharaoh's daughter, who educates him in all the learning of the Egyptians. 1556 Cecrops brings a colony of Saitesfrom Egypt into Attica, and founds the king- dom of Athens, in Greece. 1546 Scamander comes from Crete intoPhrygia, and founds the kingdom of Troy. I49d Cadmvis carried the Phcenician letters into Greece, and built the citadel of Thebes. 1491 Moses performs a number of miracles in Egypt, and departs from that king- dom, together with 600,000 Israelites, besides children ; which completed the 430 years of sojourning. They miraculously pass through the Red Sea, »nd come ta the Desert of Sinai, where Moses receives from God, and deli- • Ters to the people, the Ten Commandments, and the other law.i, ani sets up tke Taberaacl*, and in it the >rk of the coveaant. m Wi I( tola A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. .1 t , ■I ., ivi (l.j 1485 The first ship that api^^ared in Greoce was brought from Kjypt by Danaus* wlio arriveilat Tiliodw, andbroiieht with him his ♦ifty daughters. 14'>3 The first Olympic gain's i-.o'.ebratcd at OlTm;)ia, in Greece. 14A2 The Pentateuch, or hv ■ baolcs of Mcisis, arc wiittou in the land of Moab, where he died in the y^ar follow Liit;, asted \20. 1451 The I-^raelitJ-s, aft^r spiourninjj in the Wildcruc;; forty years, a-e lod under Joshua into the land of Canaan, whero llicy fi\ thciiselv ?, sftci having subdnod the n:'.tivcs: and the period of thi' saWbatical y?ar ommi'nces. I'lOfi Iron is found in Gri't'Ct^, from the accidontal burnin'T of the woods. liyS 'I'he nj-ic of H I'/n by I'aris, wlVu-h, in 1 li). i, c;ave rise to the Irojun war and sic'c^; of 'I'roy by the Greeks, wliio.i coutiiiuetl ten years, when tlut city was taken and briri.t. lots David is sole king of bra-l. 1004 Tlie temple is soiemnly d-dlraled hy ^)oIonlon. 8!>6 Elijah, the prophet, is translated to f leaven. *94 Money firet made or gold and silver at Arijos. 8C9 The city of Carthasje, in .\lrica, founded by queen Dido. fil4 The kingdom of Mae^don begins. 77C) Th(" first Olympiad becins. 753 iRra of the building of Home, in Italy, by Romtilus, first king of the Komar ;, 7i'0 Samaria taken, after three years' siege, and the kingdom of Israel Pnish •!, hy Salmanasar, king of Assyria, wlio carried the ten tribes intocanfivity. The first eclipse ef the moon on record. 6f>8 Byzantium (now Constantinople) built by a colony of Athenians. 604 By order of Necho, king of Egypt, some Phoenicians sailed from thoUcd Sea round Africa, and returned by the Mediterranean. 600 TUils,)f Miletus, travels into Kgypt, consults the priests of Memphis, acquires the knowledge of geometry, astronomy, and philosophy, returns to Greece, calculates eciii-s*-;, gives general notionsofrhe universe, and maintains that one supreme intelligence regulates ail its niotioii.s. Maps, spheres and sun-dials invented by Anaximandcr, the scholar of Th.ales. !)07 .Telioiakin, king of.Tudah, carried away captive by Nebuchadnezzar, to Babylon. AS? The cicy of Jerusalem tak^n, after a siege of IS months. bG'Z The first comedy at Athens acted upon a moveable scaffold. , 5j{) Cyrus, the first king of Persia. ijSQ The kingdom of Babylon finished, that city being taken by Cyrus, who, in J Ai, issut-s an cilict for the return of the .lews. 604 The first tragedy was acted at Athens, on a waggon, by Tliespis. ^:..'<) Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and a public- library first faunded. bl "i The second temple at Jertisalcm is finished under DaVins. 60y Tarquin, the seventh and l.tst king of the Romans, is expelled, and Rome is governed i)y two consuls, and other republican magistrates, till the battle of Pharsalia, being a space of 4()1 ye jrs. ^0 1 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which gave occasion to the Persian invasion of Greece. 486 .,'Eschyius, the Greek poet, first gains the prize of tragedy. 481 Xerxes the Great, king of Persia, begins his expe<lition against Greece. 458 tzra is sent from Babylon to .k'rusalem, with the captive Jews, and the ves- sels of gold and silver, &.c. being seventy weeks of years, or 490 years, be- fiire thu crucifixion of our Saviour. 4.'i4 The flonunssend tD Athens for Solon's laws. 461 The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws of the twelve tables compile^ and ratifii^d. 430 The history of the Old Testament finishes about thi.s time. Mahichi, the last of the prophets. 401 Retreat of 10,f)00 Greeks ui-.der Xenophon. 400 SjM-rates, the I'ounder of moral philosophy <>'nong the Greeks, believes the ' ininiDrtality of the soul, and a state of rev rds and punishments, for whicli, and otlier subliiue doetriues, he is put ti, 'ealh hy the Atlienians, whc* soon after repent, and erect to his memory a statue of bra.s.s. S3\ Alexander tliu Great, king of Macedon, conquers Darius, king of Persia, and various nation.-; of .;\;iia. 323 Dies at Babylon, and his empire is divided by his generals into four kingdoms. 28& Dionysius of Alex.\ndria began his astronomical sera on Monday June 3G, being the first wlu> found the exact solar rext to consist of 393 Uajfs, i hours, and 49 niinutati. A NEW CHRONOT,OGlCAL TABLE. loin mandcr, the scholar of akea by Cyrus, who, in ■0 occasion to the Persian 284 riolcmyrhlliK^slrhiiskiiip of Fgypt, employs soventy-two interpreters to trans- late tl»e Ulil Testament into the Greek language, whicl. is called the Sep- tuajjint. •n9 The first coining of silver at Rome. •JO* Thetirst Funic war b»:j»in», and continue of, years. Thp chronology of the Arundelian marble, calkd the Parian Chronicle, composed. 2t;0 The l{on)ans hrst apply themscWes to naval affairs, and defeat the Carthapini- ans al sea. ii.O? Ilamilcar, the Carthap^ininn, causes his son Hannibal, at nine y^ars old, to swear ctiTiial enmity to the ({mnans. '^IS The si-coiul I'unic war boj;iiis, and continues 17 years. Hannibal passes th t- Alps, and defeats the Uoinans in several battles, but does not iurprove his vietiiiies bv thi' stormiiis; of Uonie. 190 The first Homanarmy enters Asia, and, from the spoils of Autiochus, brings the Asiatic luxury first to Uome. 1(',B Perseus defeated by the Komiuis, which ends the Macedonian kingdom. 167 The first library erected at Rome, of books bioiifibt from M.uuidonia. lti;3 The government of.litdea under the Maccabees begins, and continues 12Gycari. 1 \6 Carthage, tin- rival of Home, razed to the ground by the Romans. \!jb The history of the Apocrypha ends. ,V2 Julius C;isar makes his first expedition into Britain. 47 The battle of Pharsalia between Cssar and Pompey, in which the latter is de- feated. The Alexandrian library, consisting of 400,000 valuable books, burnt by uceldent. 45 The war of Africa, in vrhich Cato kills himself. The solar year introduced by (.Jxsar. 41 Cxsar, the greatest of the Roman conquerors, after havinjj fonghtfiftypitche.il battles, and slain 1,192,000 men, and overturned the liberties of his coun- try, "S killed in the senate-house. Gl The battle of Actium fought, in which Mark Antony and Cleopatra are totally defeated by Octaviu*, nephdw to Julir.s Ca.?ar. fiO Alexandria, in Egypt, is taken by Octavius, upon which Antonv and Cleopatra jmt themselves to death, and Kgypt is reduced to a Komau iirovince. £7 Octavius, by a decree of the senate, obtains the title of Augustus Cxsar, and an al)solute exemption from the laws, and is properly the tirst lloman emperor, S Rome at thi.? time is fifty miles in circumference, and contains 403,000 men fit to bear arms. 1 The temi)lc of Janus is shut by Augustus, as an emblem of universal peace ; and JKSUS CI IRIST is supposed to have been born in September, or oil A.C. Monday, Deceinbw 2b. 12 CHRIST hears the doctors in the temple, and asks them questions. i>7 is baptized in the wilderness byJohn. S-J is crucified on Friday, April 3, at •') o'clock P. M. His resurrection on Sunday, April J: his asccnsionj Thursday, Jlay IK r/i St. Paul converted. Sy St. Matthew writes his Gospel. Pontius Pilate kills himself. 40 The name of Christians first given at Antioch to the followers of Christ. 4'} Claudius Cxsar's expedition into Britain. 44 St. Mark writes his Gospel. 49 London is founded by the Romans : 368, surrotindcd by ditto with awal!,5eme parts of which are still observable. 51 Caractacus, the British king, is carried in chains to Rome. 1)2 The <:ouncil of the Apostles at Jerusalem. r>,'> St. Luke writes his Gospel. h9 The emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers to death. 61 Boadicea, the British (lueen, defeats the Romans, but is conquered soon after by Suetonius, governor of Britain. f)2 St. Paul seiit in bonds to Route — writes his epistles between 51 and G6. (JJ The Acts of the Apostles written. Christianity is supposed to be introduced into Britain by St. Paul, or some of his disciples, about this time. C4 Uortie set on fire, and burned forsix days ! upon which began (under Nero) the first persecution against the Christians. 70 St. Peter and St. Paul pur to death. 07 Whilst the factious Jewsarcdcstroyingoncauotherwith mutual fury, Tituff, the h m lots A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. b } ! % fr ■ t ^ rV Roman general, takes Jerusalem, which is razed to the groundj and the ploupfh made to p;i'*s over it. 7fi Hci culrincfim overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 8.T Julius Ap;ricola, jyovernor of .South Kritain, defeats the Caledonians under Gaigiicus, on the (iraiupian hills ; and first sails round Britain, which he discovers to be an island. 9S St. John the Lvangclist wiote his Revelations — his Gospel in 07. ll-'I '1 he Caledonians roconquer from the Romans all the southern purts of Scot- laud. 13.) TIic sccniul Jcwi'ili war ends, when they were all banished Judea. i:y.) Jr.stin writes hi;. Hr.it .\poI()j;y for the Christians. irrJ The: emperor Antoniuiii Pius stops the persecution against the Cliristiani. CO'J About this time the Roman empire begins to sink under its own weight. The Biirh.i'ians lieHu their eruptions, and the Goths have annual tribute not »o mole.'-t the empire. '..'CO Valerius i.-; taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and flayed alive. ■J71 Silk fust broil .L; lit from India; tiie manufactory of it 'ntroduced into Europe by sonic Monks, 531 ; first worn by the clergy in lingland, l5i'A. ;>0(J (.\instantiiic' the Great begins his reign. .'XN C.irdinals iirst created, ."jja 'I'lio tenth persecution ends by an edict of Constantlne, who favours the Chri*- tians, and gives full liberty to their religion. .'114 Three l)ijh(ipi,or fathers, arc sent from Britain to assist at the council of Arlc.i, 0'2j The first general council at Nice, when :H 8 fathers attended against Ariu%, where was composed the famous Nicene creed, which we attribute to them. 328 Constantinc removes the scat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, which i» thencefqrwaid called Constantinople. r,:',t -^_____ orders all the he.ithen temples to be destroyed. .'JG3 Tlie Roman emperor Julian, surnamed the Apostate, endeavours in vain tort. build the temple of Jerusalem. 3G4 The Roman empire is divided into the eastern (Constantinople the capita!) and western (of which Rome continued to be the capital), each being now under the government of difl'erent emperors. 400 Bells introduced by bishop Paulinus, of Campania. 404 The kingdom of Caledonia or Scotland revives under Fc.-gus. 40G The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi, spread into France and Spain, by a concession of Honorius, emperor of the West. 410 Rome taken and plundered by Aloric, king of the Visi-Goths. 41 'J The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain. 4'JO The kingdom of France begins upon the Lower Rhine, under Pharamondi 42G 'I'hc Romans, reduced to extremities at home, withdraw tl:cir troops from L'ri- tain, and never return ; advising the Britons to arm in tlicir own defence, and trust to their own valour. 446 The Britons, now left to themselves, are greatly harassed by the Scots and ricts ; upon which they once more make their complaint to the Romans, but receive no assistance from that quarter. 447 Attila (surnamed the Scourge of God) with his Huns ravages the Roman em- pire. 449 Vortigern, king of the Britons, invites the Saxons into Britain, agiinst the Scots and Picts. 4.1') ']"he Saxons, having repulsed the Scot"^ and Picts, invite over more of their countrymen, .nnd begin to establish themselves in Kent, under Heiigist. 476 The western empire ends, ."JS;} years after the battle of Pharsalia ; upon the ruins of which, several new states arise in Ualy and other parts, cousi.siing of Goths, Vandals, Huns, and other barb;irians, under whom htcra'urc is extinguished, and the works of the learned destroyed. 4f)S Ch)vis, king of France, baptized, and Christianity begins in that kingdom. 50S Prince Arthur begins his reign over the Britons. 5irJ Constantinople besigedby ViteLlianus, whose fleet is burned by a speculum of brass. 516' The computingof time by the Christian zra introduced byDionysius the monk. 5'2'.) The code of Justinian, the eastern emperor, published. 551 A terrible plague all over Europe, Asia, and Africa, which continues near .'50 years . 5^^ I. ntin ceased to be spoken about this time in Italy. " .6:ii; Au^u.-tine !Jie monk comes into England, with forty monks. «.;o^' Tin.' pi'wer uf the popes begins, bv the concession of Phecas, emperor of the ha,t. A NEW CHROKCLOGICAL TABLE. I to the ground) and the lished Judea. ;, who favours the Chrii- to Byzantium, which it 622 Maliomet flics from Mcccii to Medina, in Ar;il)i;i, in the ,71tl> vrar of lii> c and ihc tenth of hi» nunistry, when he laid the found.iion of tht S;iri. t .. empire, and from whom tile M.ihonietan piiticcs lo il.is d;iv clnliu tl-.a- dr iccnt. His follower* compute their time from thi» .ira, which in .\riil:!c 18 called He^ira, i.e. the llij^iit. 6:^ Jerii';;ilem tuken by the .Samcens. or followers of \T,»!ioiiu-t. eiO Alexandria in Egj'pt taken hy the saint, and the gr.aul lihiary tlicre burnt by order of Omar, their calipli or prime. C43 The Saracens extend their comjuests on every s^de, and retaliate theharba- ritics of the Cloths and Vandals I'liun their posterity. 6fi4 Glass introduced into Kn^land hy Ik-nalt, a nioLk. C85 The Britons, after a brave 5tni>r;rh> of near l.^o years, arc totally expelled by the Saxons, and driven into \\ aies and Cornwall. ?13 The Saracens conquer Spain. 7ti<> The controversy .-jbout ima-'es begins, and occasions many insurrections in the eastern empire. 718 The computing of years from the birth of Christ be,!!;an to be used in his. tory. "7 19 The race of Abbasbecomc caliphs of the Saracens, and enrouraj,'e learning. 76ii The city of Bagdad upon the 'I'igris is n^ade tlie capital for the catiphiof the house of Abbas. SCO Charlemagne, king of France, begins the empire of Cfermanv, afterwards called the western empire ; gives the present names to the dav^^ and mouths; endeavours to rtitore learning in l:;uro^)c ; hut manl.-ind are ni-t yd dis- posed for it, being solely engrossed in military ei!ter',)riscs. ti'2G Harold, king of I'tnmark, dethroned by hi', .siii-'nt.- for leing a Chri.tian. S'JH Egbert, king of We^ex, unites the Heptarchy, 1-y the name of I.ni'lar.d. ^J8 The Scots and Picts have a decisive battle, in vvu'lch the former prevail, .and both kingdoms are united by Keiuicth ; which begins the secoiid period of the Scottish history. 867 The Danes begin their ravages in Tngland. 996 Alfred the Great, after subduing the L)ani;ii invadcr=! fiir^ainst whom he fought 5(> battles by sea and land), compost's hii bctly of laws: divides J'.ngland into counties, hundreds, tytliings; erects county-courts, and founds liie ui.iversity of Oxt<ird about this time. ♦115 Tlie university of Cairbridge founded. s;3(> The Saracen emnire is divided by usurpation into seven kingdoms. 97.5 Pope Boniface \ 11. is deposed and banished for his crimes. 979 Coronation oaths said to be iirst used in England. Syi The figures in arithmetic are brought into J'.urope by the Saracens from Arabia, letters of the alplial)<;t were hitherto used. 996 Otho 111. makes tlie en.pire of Germany elective. 9!»1> Holeslaus, the first king of Poland. 1000 Paper made of cotton rags was in use ; that of linen rags in 1 170 : tlic ma- nufactory introduced into England at Dartford, I5K8. ICO!:; All tlie old churches are rebuilt about this time in a new manner of ai .U!-- tecture. 1015 Children forbidden by law to be sold by their parents in England. 1017 Canute, king of Denmark, gets possession of E.ngland. lO'lO The Danes, after several engagements with various success, are about t!ii» time driven out of Scotland, and never again return in a hostile manner. 1041 The Saxon line restored under Edward the Confessor. 1043 The Turks (a nation of adventurers from 'I"artarj% serving hitherto in the arn:ies of contending princes) become formidable, and take possession of Persia. 1054 Leo. iX. the first pope that maintained an army. 1057 Malcolm III., king of Scotland, kills the tyrant Macbeth at Dunsinane, and marries the princess Margaret, sister to Edgar Atheling. 10G5 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens. 10G6 The battle of Hastings fought between Harold and William (surnamed thf. Bastard) duke of Normandy, in which Harold is conquered and slain^ alcei- which William becomes king of England. 1070 William introduces the feudal law. Musical notes invented. 1075 Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and the pope, quarrel about the nomination of the German bishops. Henry, in penance, walks bare-footed to tia- l— ^h* towards the end of January. 1076 Justices of the peace fir>t appointed in England. 1080 Doomsday book be^^an to be compiled by order of Wllliana, from a survey of all the estates m England, and finisbed in 1U36. 1/ ' I 901S A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABI.F:. I t ii » i il mil i "^I'Wmvs ■Hill " ■! •( The Toxvcr of I.nndim biiiit by William, to curb liis F.njjlisK subiects: iiiim- biTs of w bom lly to Scotland, wlu re t bey liitrudiiii; tbc i;iij,'Ii«b or Saxoti I,iii>,'ii3gc, -.irc protected by Malcolm, and bavf land* given tbem. IWDI Tbc Sar.icius in .Spain beinjf bard prtscd by tbc .Spaniards, call to tbi-ir a«- »i:-r.tncc Jostpli, kinij of Morocco ; by wbicb tbc Moori> gain poskcjsiou of all tbc Saracen dominion > in Spain. 1096 Tbc firnt crusade to tbe Holy Land i^ begun under several Cliristian princci, to Oiive tbc iidiiK Is Irom JcruHuliui. 1110 I'.djrar Atbelinjif, tlic last of tbo Saxon princes, dies in England, wberc be b.iil boon pcrniittcil to reside as a subject. 1118 Tbc order of tbe Kni;;bt.s "Jcniplari in,st!iut:d, to defend tbe scpulcbreat Jo- rnsiileni, ;ind to protect Cbri^>tian stranj;ers. ll.'I Tbc canon law collect<d by (iratian, a monk of Bolopna. IKiTJ London brid;;c, coniistini;; of i:i small arolies, lirst built of stone. J KM 'Ibe Tciitonic order of reiij^ioiis knigbt» begins in (Jennany. 1172 Henry II. kinp of Lmjland (and lir^t of tbe TlantJigcnets) lake.^ pojicsslnn of Ireland, wbicli, Ironi tliat period, bus been governed by an J-.n^h.-li viceroy, or lord lieutenant. IITG £n^. bind is divided by Henry into six circuits, and justice ii dispensed by itinerant judjccs. 3 ISO Glass winilows be,i;an to be used in private bouses in England. 1181 Tbe la\v» of Kn}>:land are tlij;estcd about tins time by Olanvillc. 11S2 Pope Alexander III. compelled tbe kings of Knj>land and France to bo!J tlic btirrups of Jn's saddle wben be mounted bis borse. I18S T]ic .threat conjunction of tbc sun and maun and all tbe planets in Libra, in September. 1 192 The battle of Ascalon, in Palestine, in wbicb Ricbard, king of Enijland, de- feats Saladiues army, con.^i-iti.'i^ of .'itXl.OlX) con\batants. 1191 DLit :t vii.M i^nit first used ai .i niuUa by Richard, on u victory over tUe French. l-'OO Chimneys were not known in laigland. Surnames now bej^an to be used; first ani(ing the nobility. I'JOS London incorporat<'d, and obtained tbe first charter lor electino; the lord mayor and other ma;;i.strati>, from king John. I'J15 ATa;.;na C'barta si.t;;ned by kinj^ John and tbc baions of England. I'ourtof Comm.)n Pleas cstabiiJKd. 1227 Ibe Tartars, under Gingia Khar., emerge from tlu' northern parts of Asi.i, over-run ;dl tbo S.nacen erjipiro; and, in imitntion of tormer coniiuei- ors, carry <le.-ith .nnd desolatiini wherever tluy march. 1233 'ibe lni]uisiliun, begun in I'..'t)l, i^now committed to the Dominicans. 'i'he bouses of London, and other citita in England, France, and Cjirmany, stil! tliatcbcd with straw. 12.73 The fair.otii astronomical tables arc cor..;'oscu l)y Alphonso, kingof Castile. 12."H The Tartars take 13:igdad,whicii llnisb*. ;:be tmnireof the Saracens. I'ZGA Acho, kin-^ of Norway, invades Scoii.ind with 16() .sail, and I.uuI.-n 'J ",000 men at tbe mouth of the Clyde, wiio are cutto pieces by Alexaniiir III.. who I ecovei ■, tiie \^'eotern l^le.-;. 1261 Accordingto svtme writers, the commons of England were not summoned tc» j)ar!ia!nc'nt till ibi.-. period. 12G3 The Hamburgh company incorporated in England. J27.'J The empire t)f the |5resent Austfian family begins in Germany. 1282 Llewcilyii, priiire of V\ ales, defeated and killed by j;dward L, wlio unite* that principalit}' to l.ngland. 128'1 Edward II., born at C.';'.ernarvon, is the first prince of Vi'als. 128 J Alexai.der III., king ol ."-cot land, dies and that kingdom is Ui.spiitf<.l by twelve candidates, who submit their claims to the arbitration of Inward king \}^ iiiigland ; which lays tiic foundation of a long and dtjolatiiig uai between both nation-s. 1293 There i.s a regular bucccision of English parliaments from this year, hciii^ the 22d of J'dward L 125)8 The pre cut 'iurkisb empire begins in Bithynia, under Ottoman. Silver-bafted knives, spoons, and cups, a great luxury. '1 allow candles so great a luxury, that splinters of wood were used for li^bti Wine fioKl by apothecaries ai a cordial. 1S02 The mariner's compass invented, or improved, by Givia,of Naples- ISO? 'ibe beginning ol" the Swi,s» cantons. 1;>'08 Tile popes remove to Avignon in France fOT 70 ycars. IQIU Lincolu'b luu society cttabliehcd. A NEV/ CHRONOLOGICAL TARLK. 1071 mtl justice is dispensed by ind were not summoned to tients from tUis year, bcin[ under Ottoman. A vacancy in tht; papal Vil-l The battle of Bhth .kburn Ixtuvi'ij Fdward U., and Rubtrt Hrucc, \vhi,-U cV-.iliH.-r.c* tiji; I. iJtr cm t!ic thruiic »it .'^ciiiLuid. 'I'liPcaidiiuUset lire to luc concl ivc, and♦(^l.^r;ll<.• cl^.'M• for two year*. 1336 Two Hi,.bj(nt wt-.: -is settK^ ut York, whicli, rays fdward MI., may prove of prcat bcnt'fit U is und our hulijoct''. 1;W7 T!if lifbt comet wiiosn coiuht- i., dci>cri!u'd wiih ailrononiica! exactnen. IM'JO isiuipowder and tjun* iirbt ihvontcd by l-;v.anz, aiuonk <»f Colo^n ;' I34t; 1 dward III . l<H<i to'ir piicts ot iMUuon, v/hich (.Dr/ribiitcd to luin Jiim iJie battif of Cvi ; i:'. '>, bouibj :iud mortari. \Mi\,iuvcutcd. Oil pHintiufr tir-i uli (iscof by Julin Vantck. IkTiddi'culi'-;;' ;itutt'd in Ijij^land. 1;111 Gold first tivn'M in t,n;^limd. 'Ihj fi^^t crc.wion to tilis t>y patent used by F.dw.ird HI. 1340 1 tie batt eu: hin-hani> in -.vtiich David kii.k; of icowis t;'kpn priipuer. iJly Tlie order of the (larter Instituted in hagland by Ldward HI. altered «a l.l.M, aid consists of 'Ml knijihts. l;;.'^:_' Tlie'l'uil:s trt enter I'.iiihik. 1351 'I'lic money ii. Scotland till now the s imo as in F.ngland. l\i5G The battle oi I'oicticrs, in wh\cU kin,^ Joint of l-'raiice and hi»son arc taken prisoiit rs by Fdward tbe black prince. 1357 CoaU first !irouj.dvt to London. 11358 Arms of l.n.'laiid and France first quartered by Fdward III. IM'J The law i)leadin.vrs in Kngland cluiigt-d from ireucJi to Fnglish, asa favour of F.dward III,, to his people. John VVicklilTe, ;in Fnglishman, betrins about tlii'i time to oppose tlie crmr* of the cluireh of Rome wiili yreat acuteness and spirit. His followers are call'.'d i.ollard*. 1:13G A company of linen-weavers from the Xcthcrlands eitabli*hed in London. Windsor castle built by Kdward III. 1358 The battle of Otlerburu between ilot^pur and the carl of Douglas j on this is founded thii battle of Clievy Chace. inOl Cards invented in France for the kin;!;'s anuisement. i-^99 Westminster abbey rebuilt and enlarged — Westminster hall ditto. Order of the Bath instituted at the co.-onation of ileiiry IV. ; renewed in 171.'5; consistin;:^ of ;JS knights. 1410 Guildhall, London, built. I'U 1 'Ilic luiiversity of .St. Andrew's in Scotland founded. 1415 'i'lie battle of A,5;inco'. rt j^ained over the French by Henry V. of England. IVJS 'Fhe siege of Orleans, the lirst blow to the Luglish power in Fr.mce. li'M About this time Laurentius of Haarlem invented the art of printing whith he practised with wooden types. (luttenbure;h afterv^ards invented cut ' , metal types: but the art was carried to i)erfectiou by Peter SchoefTcr, who invented the mode of ca-itin;;; the types in matrices. Frederic Cor- sellis began to print in Oxford, in IKjK, witli wooden tvpes; but it wa* William Caxton, who introduced into Eugkuid the art of printing witli fuiile types in 11T4. 14IC TheVatic^ 1 library founded at Rome. The sea b' :ik» in at Dort, in Holland, and drowns 100,000 people. 1453 Constantinople taken bv th»" Turks, wliich ends the ea.-.i<'ru empire, lli'.J years from its dedioation by C'oustiuitlnetiic Great, and iiiOti years fruui the fou:;datIon of Rome. 1 154 The university of Olasgow, in Scotland, founded. 1460 Engraving and etch:n,;>; on copper invented. 1477 The uni -ersity of Abcrtleen, in i^coc!:uid, founded. 1433 Richard HI., kin<!f of F.ugland, and th.e last of tbe Phntagehcts, is defeated and killed at the battle of lk)sworth, by Henry' ( I'lidor) Vli.: which puii an end to the civil war» betweeu the houjics of York and Lanca»ter, after a contest of ;J0 years, and the lots of 10<),iA)0 men. 1483 Henry establishes fifty yeomen of the jruards, the ilrst standinjf array. 14S!> Maps' and sc.-\ charts tir.st brought to Kuglaud by Barth. Columbus. 1491 William Grocyn publicly teaches the Greek langua^a' at O.^.ford. The Moors, hitherto aformid-Hblcenemy to the native Spaniards, are entirely subdued by Ferdinand, and become subjects to that ptiuceon certain con- ditions, which are ill observed by the dpauiards, whose clergy employ the |}<>wers *»f the Inquisition, witli all its tortures: and in H;u5>, near one nnllion of the Moor* are driven from Spain to iCinion oi ine ivioor* iuv unvtu num wj iVffica, fron» whence thty originally came, the opposite coast ef 1024 A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. \'r ;m1 si 1 ' i^^ E ' 'm4 *' ^^fc'-<t'' ■'■■ 1 (5 '^^ ^ :1iSf 1492 America first: discovered by Culoii, or Columbus, a Getx)ese, ia the service of Spain. 1494 Algebra first known in Europe. Ijy7 The Portuguese 4irst sail to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. South America discovered by Americus Vespusius, from whom it has its name. 11[)0 North America discovered for Henry VII. by Cabot. J500 Maximilian divides the empire of Germany into six circles, and adds four more in 1.31 2. ^ 1505 Shillings first coined in England. 1509 Gardening introduced into England from the Netherlands, from whence ve- getables were imported hitherto. 1513 Tlie biittle of Flowden, in which James IV. of Scotland is killed, with the llovver of his nobility. 1G17 Martin Luther began the Reformation. Egypt conquered by the Turks. 1518 Magellan, in the service of Spain, first discovers the straits of that name in buuth America. 1520 Henry VII [., for his writings in favour of popery, receives the title of De- fender of the Faith from the Pope. 1529 The name of Protestant takes its rise from the Reformed protesting against the church of Rome, at the diet of Spires in Germany. 1534 The Reformation takes place in England under Henry VIII. 1537 Religicus houses dissolved by Henry VIII. J539 'I'iie iirst English edition of the Bible authorised; the present translation finished 1(>1 1. About this time cannon began to be used in ships. 3543 Silk stockings first worn by the French king ; first worn in England by queen Elizabeth, 1561 ; the steel frame for weaving invented by the Rev. Mr. I-ee, of iSt. John's College, Cambridge, l.TSL*. Pins first used in England, before which time the ladies used skewers. 1544 Good lands let in England at one shilling per acre. J.)45 The famous council of Trent begins, and continues 18 years. 15 JG First law in England establishing the interest of money at ten per cent. 1549 Lord lieutenants of counties instituted in England. 1550 Horse-guards instituted in England. 1555 The Russian company established in England. 1558 Queen Iiliv;abcth begins her reign. i5C0 The Reformation in Scotland completed by John Knox. I-'GW Knives first made in F-ngland. l.joi) Royal Exchange first built. l,)7'i The great niassucre of Protestants at Paris. 157y Tlie Dutch shake off the Spanish yoke, and the republic of Holland beginj, Knglisii East-India company incorporated — established in 1600, F.nglish Turkey company incorporated. i5«0 .Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage round the world, being the first English circumnavigator. Parochial register first appointed in England. 1582 Pope Gregory introduces the New Style in Italy ; the 5th of October being counted the 15th. 15b3 Tobacco first brought from Virginia into England. 1587 Mary queen of Scots is beheaded by order of Elizabeth, after 18 years im. prisonm'^nt. 1588 The Spanish Armada destroyed by Drake and other English admirals. Henry IV. passes the edict of Nantz tolerating the Protestants. 1589 Coaches first introduced into England ; hackney act 1693; increased to 1000 in 1770, and to 1200 in 1801. 1590 Band of pensioners instituted in England. 1591 Trinity college, Dublin, founded. 1597 Watches first brought into England from Germany. 1^,02 Decimal arithmetic Invented at Bruges. ItiOJ Queen Elizabeth (the last of the Tudors) dies, and nominates James VI. of Scotland (and first of the Stuarts) as her successor , which unites both kingdoms under the name of Great Britain. 1604 The Gunpowder plot discovered at Westminster: being a project of the Roman Catholics to blow up the king and both houses of parliament. innfi Oaths of allegiance first administered in England. IfcOa Galileo, of Florence first discovers the satellites about the planet Jupiter,by the telescope, then just inventi^d iu Holland. A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1025 circles, and adds four the present trauilatio* ics used skewers. :he world, being the first ic 5th of October being beth, after 18 years im. ut the planet Jupiter,by ]t>10 Henry IV. i» miirdicred at Pari« by Ravaillac,a priest. ICI 1 Baronets first created in Eogiand, by James I. 1G14 Napier of Merchiston, in Scotland, inrents the logarithms. Sir Hugh Middleton brings the New River to London from Ware. 161(i l'b« first p«rnian«at settlement in Virginia. 1619 Dr. W. Harvey, an Englishmaft, discovers the doctrine of the circulation of the blood. 1620 Tb« broad lilk manufactory from raw silk introduced into England. 16'21 New England planted by the Puritans. 1625 King Jaaiet dies, and is succeeded by his son, Charles I. 'Hie island of Barbadoes, the first English settlement in the West Indies, is planted. 1626 The barometer invented by Torricelli. 1627 The tliermometer invented by DrabelMus. 1632 The battle of Lutzen, in which Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, and head of the Protestants in Germany, is killed. 1635 Province of Maryland planted by lord Baltimore. Regular posts established from London to Scotlp.nd, Ireland, &c. 1C40 King Charks disobliges his Scottish subjects ; on which their army under general Lesley enters England, and takes Newcastle, being encouraged by the mal-contents in England. The macAacre in Ireland, when 40,<X)0 English protestants were killed. 1642 King Charles impeaches five members, who had opposed his arbitrary mea- sures ; which begins the civil war in England. J64S Excise on beer, ale, ^c. first imposed by parliament. 2646 Fpiscopacy abolished in England. 1649 Charles I. beheaded at Whitehall, January 30, aged 49. 1654 Cromwell assumes the protectorship. HfiS The English, under admiral Penn, take Jamaica from the Spaniards. 1658 Cromwell dies, and is succeeded in the protectorship by his son Richard, 1660 King Charles II. is restored by Monk, commander of the army, after an exile of twelve years in France and Holland. Episcopacy restored in England and Scotland. The people of Denmark, being oppressed by the nobles, surrender their pri- vileges to Frederick III. who becomes absolute. 1662 The Royal Society established in London by Charles II. 1663 Carolina planted ; in 1728, divided into two separate governments. 1064 The New Netherlands, in North America, conquered from the Swedes and Dutch, by the English. 1665 The plague rages in London, and carries off 68/300 persons. 1966 The great fire of Loudon began Sept. 2, and continued three days, in which were destroyed 1 3,000 houses, and 400 streets. Tea first used in England. 1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to tlie English the New Netherlands, now known by the names of Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey. 1668 The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. St. James's par.'., planted, and made a thoroughfare for public use, by Charles 11. 1670 The English Hudson's Bay company incorporated. 1672 Louis XIV. overruns great part of Holland, when the Dutch open their sluices, being determined to drown their country, and retire to their settlements in the East Indies. African company established. lC7i The peace ol Nimeguen. 7'fae habeas corpus act. ' 1680 A great comet appeared ; and continued visible from Nov. 3 to March 9. Willian) Penn, a quaker, receives a cliarter for planting Pennsylvania. 1683 India stock sold from 36at« .500 percent. 1685 Charles II. dies, aged 55, and is succeeded by liis brother, James II. The duke of Monmouth, natural son to Charles II. raises a rebellion, but it. defeated .it Uic battle of Sedgenioor, and beheaded. The edict of Nantju infamously revoked by Louis XIV. and the Protestants cruflly persecuted. U!«7 The palace of Versailles, near Paris, finished by Louis XIV. 1688 The revolution in Great Britain begins Nov. 5 ; king James abdicates, and retires to France, December 3. 1689 King William and queen Mary, daughter and son-in-law to James, arepro- claimed February 10". ViscouQ( PundM lunds «ut for James In Scotland, but is killed by [|[eneral 3 U 1|M ■--/ 1026 A"liIEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. ii'. yi. M )<(u.. iM'iV Mackcy, at the battle of Killycranlcie ; upon which the Highlanders^ wearied with repeated misfortunes, disperse. The land-tax passed in England. Tltc 'toleration act passed in ditto. Several bishops are deprived for not taking the oath to king William. 1690 The battle of the Boyne, gained by William against James, in Ireland. lti-)l The war in Ireland finished, by the surrender of Limerick to William. I0'92 The' English and Dutch fleets, commanded by admiral Russel, defeat the French fleet oflT I.a Hogue. 1693 Bayonets at the end of loaded muskets first used, by the French against the confederates, in the battle of Turin. The duchy of Hanover made the ninth electorate. Bank of England established by king William, The first public lottery was drawn this yean ~ , Massacre of Hijj^hlanders at Glencoe by king William's troops. 1694 Queen Mary dies at the age of iV.i, and William reigns alone. Stamp duties instituted in England. 1695 The peace of Ryswyek. lt>99 Tlie vScots settled a colony at the isthmus of.Darlcn, in America, and callei it Caledonia. 1700 Charles XII. of Sweden begins his reign. - King James II. dies at St. Ocrmains, in theSSth year of his age. ' • 1701 Prussia erected into a kinp;dom. Society for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts established. 1702 King William dies, aged .10, and is succeeded by queen Anne, daughter to James II. who with the emperor, and States General, renews the war against France and Spain. 1704 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards by admiral sir George Rooke. The battle of Blenheim won by the auke of Marlborough and allies, against the French. The court of exchequer instituted in England. 170G 'J'he treaty of union betwixt P^ngland and Scotland signed July 22. The battle of Raniillies won by, Marlborough and the allies. 1707 The first British parliament. 1708 Minorca taken from the Spaniards by general Stanhope. The battle of Oudenardc won by Marlborough and the allies. Sardinia erected into a kingdom, and given to the duke of Savoy. 1709 Peter the Great, czar of Muscovy, defeats Charles XII. at Pultowa, who flies to Turkey. The battle of Malplaquet won by Marlborough and the allies. 1710 Queen Anne changes the Whig ministry for others more favourable to th? interest of her supposed brother, the late Pretender. The cathedrril church of St. Paul, London, rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren, in :{7 years, at one million expense, by a duty on coals. The English .South-Sea company began. 1712 The duke of H.unihon and lord Mohun killed in a duel in Hyde-Park. ni3 The peace of Ufrccht, by which Newfoundland, Nova-Scotia, New Britain, and Hudson's Ijay, in North Aiuerira, were yielded to Great Britain ; Gi- br.Utur and Minorca, in Europe, were also conlirmcd to the said crown by this treaty." 1714 Queen Anne dii'3 at the age of 50, and is succeeded by George I. Interest reduced to live pir cent. 1715 Louis XIV. dies, and is iiuTtcJod by his great-grandson, Loins XV; 'J'he rebellion in Scotland begins in September, under the earl of Mar, in favour of the Pretender. The action of Shcrlll-muir, and the surrender of Preston, both in November, when the rebels disperse. 171(# Tlic Pretender married to the princess Sobieski, grand-daughter of Johii Sibieski, late king of Pulaud. ' /' • , An act passed tor septennial parliaments. , .. • 1719 'I'hc Mississippi sclicme at its height in Franci*. <, I.ombc's silk-throwing machine, containing 'iG,.')Rn wheels, erected at Derby, takes up one eighth of a mile; one vrater-wheel moves the rest; and in ti4 hour,-, it v/orks :U«,50 J,!)fiO yards of organzine silk thread. J720 The South-Sea scheme in England, begun April 7, was at its height atjhe end of June, and quite sunk about September i.'9. 1727 King George dies, in the (iSth year of hi8 age ; and is succeeded by his only .son, George II. Inoculation lirst tried ou criminals witli success. .. I Kuijia, i'oriuci'ly a dukedum, is uuw established as ao empire, j^ A NDW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1027- the French against the in America, and called 1532 Kouli Khan usurps the Persian throne, conquers the Mogul empire, and rc- . ' turns with 231,000,000/. i;tc*lLng. Several public-opirited gentlemea begin the set-tlement of Georgia, in North • America- 173G Captain Porteus having ordered his soldiers to fire upon the populace at the execution of a smuggler, is himself hung by the n\ob at Kdiuburgh- 1738 Westminster-bridge, consisting of fifteen ai-ches, begun j linished in 17^0, at the expense of 389,000/. defrayed by parliament. 1 739 War declared against Spain. 1713 The battle of Dettingen won by the English and allies, in favour of the queen of Hungary. 1714 War declared against France. Commodore; Anson returns from his voya"-c round the world. 1745 The allies lose the battle of Fontenoy. The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, and the Pretender's army defeated by the duke of Cumberland, at Ciilloden, April 16, 1740". IJAG British Linen Company erected. 1748 The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which, a restitution of all places takcB during the war was to be made on all sides. 1749 The interest of the British funds reduced to three per cent. British herring fishery incorporated. 1750 Frederick, prince of Wales, father to his present majesty, died. Antiquarian societv at London incorporated. 1752 The new style introduced into Great Hritain ; the third of September beiug counted the fourteenth. 1753 The British museum erected at Montngu-hou-nc- Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce instituted in London. 1755 Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1. 17JG One hundred and forty-six Englishmen confined in the black hole at Calcutta, in the Last Indies, by order of the nabob, and 12'.i found dead next morning. Marine Society established at London. 1757 Damien attempted to assassinate the French king. 1759 General Wolfe is killed m the battle of Quebec, whicli is gained by the English. i7()0 King George II. dies October 25, in the 77th year of his age, and is suc- ceeded by his present majesty, who, on the 2'Jd of September 1761, mar- ried the princeis Charlotte of Mecklenburgh Strelit/,. Blackfriars bridge, consistiu_, of nine arches, l)egun; linished 1770, at the expense of 15'i,840l. to be discharged by atoll. 1762 War declared ^'.gainst Spain. Peter III- enii^eror of Russia, is deposed, imprisoned, and murdered. American philosophical society established in Philadelphia- George Augustus Frederick, prince of Wales, born Aug. 12. 17C3 The definitive treat v t)f peace between Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, concliuied at Faris February 10, which conlirmcd to Great Britain the extensive provinces of Canada, Fast and West Horidii, and part of Louisiana, in North America; also the islands of Grenada, St. Vulcent's, Dominica, and Tobago, in the West indies- JT()4 The parliament granted 10,000/. to Mr. Harrison, for his discovery of the longitude by liis time-piece- 170"5 Mis majesty's royal charter passed for incorporating the society of artists. An act passed annexing the sovereignty of the island of Man to the crown of Great Britain. 17()S Academy of painting established in London. The Turks imprison the Russian aaiba.ssador, and declare war against that empire. 17TI Dr. Solander and Mr. Banks, in his majesty's ship the Endeavour, licut. Cook, return fi-om a voviige round the world, having made several im- portant discoveries in the South Seas. 1772 The king of Sweden changes the constitution of that kingdom. The emperor of tiermany, empress of Russia, and the king of Prussia, strip the king of Poland of great part of his dominions, which they divide an\ong themselves, in violation of the most solcnui treaties. 1773 Captain Phipps is sent to explore the north pole ; but, havimr made cighty- , one degrees, is in danger of being locked up bv the ice, and his attempt to discover a passage in that quarter proves fruitless. The Jesuits expelled from tlie Popes dominions, and suppressed by his bull, . , August 2i. ,. . Hil » < 1028 A NEW CHRONOtOOlCAL TABLf!. 1773 The English East India Company haTinf;:, by cenquest ar tr«aty« fMuirfi tlie extensive provinces of Bcng;al, Orixa, and Bahar, eonfftinin;; fifteen millions of inhabitants, great irregularities are Committed by their ser- vants abroad ; upon which government intetfcrcs, and sends out judges, &c. for the better administration of justice- The war between the RuMians and Turks prove* disgraceful to the latter, who lose the islands in the Archipelago, and by sea are every where tia- succcssful. 1774 Peace concluded Ijctwecn the Russians and Turks. The British parliament having passed an act, laying a dutv Af three-pence per pound upon all teas imported into America, the cofonists, consider- ing this as a grievance, deity the right of a British parliament to tax them. Deputies from the several American colonies meet at Philadelphia, as the first general congress, September 5. First petition of congress to the king. November. 1775 April 19, the first action happens in America between th^ king's troops and the provincial^ at Lexington. May 20, Articles of confederation and perpetual union between the Ameri- can provinces. June 17, A bloody actional Bunker's Hill, between the royal troops and the Americans. - 177G March 17, The town of Boston evacuated by the king's troops. An unsuccessful attempt, in July, made bv commodore Sir Peter Parker, and lieutenant-general Clinton, upon Cnarles Town, ir South Carolina. Tiie cony;ress declare the American colonies free and independent states, July 4. The Americans are diivcn from Long Island, New York, in August, with great Iom, and great numbers of them taken prisnntTs; and the city of New York is afterwards taken possession of by the king's troops. December 25, General Washington takes 900 of the Hessians prisoners, at Trenton. Torture abolished in Poland. 1777 General Howe takes possession of Philadelphia. Lieutenant-general Burgoyne is obliged to surrender his army, at Saratoga, in Canada, by convention, to the Americxn army, under tlie command of thegrnerals Gates and Arnold, Oct. 17. 177S A treaty of alliance concluded at Paris between the French king and the thir- teen united American colonies, in which their independence is acknow- ledged by the court of France, February 6. The remains of the earl of Chatham interred at the public expense in West- minster Abbey, June 9, in consequence of a vote of parliament. The car] of Carlisle, William Eden, esq. and George Johnstone, esq. arrive at Philadelphia, the be;jinning of June, as conmtissionci s for restoring peace between (jrcit Britain and America. Philadelpliia evacuated by the kings troops, June 18. TJic conj'ress refuse to treat with tiie British conimissioners,unlc5S the inde- pendence of t!;e American colonies were first acknowledged, or the king's (Iccts and armies withdrawn from America. An engagement fought oil" Krest between the English fleet , under the command of admiral Kep[)c!, and the French fleet under the command of count d'Orvilliers, July 'Jl. J 730 Torture in courts of justice abolished in France. The Inquisition abolished in the duke of MoJena's dominions. Admiral Rodney takes twenty-two sail of Spanish ships, January $. The same admiral also engages a .Spanish fleet under the command of Don Juan dc Langara, near Cape St. Vincent, and takes five ships of the line, ' one more driven on shore, and another blown up, January i G. Charles Town, South Carolina, surrenders to Sir Henry Clinton, May 4. Pcnsacola, and the whole province of West Florida, surrender to the arms of the king of Spain, May 9. The pretended Protestant Association, to the number of 50,000, go up to tlie House of Commons, with their petition for the repeal of an act passed in favour of the Papists, June 2. That event followed by the most daring riots in the city of London and in Southwark, for several successive days, in which some Popish chapels arc ilestroycd, together with the prisons of Newgate, the King's Bench, the » Fleet, several private houses, &c. These alarming riots are at lengeh sup- pressed, by the interposition of the military, sud manjr of Uie rioters are tr.cd and executed Hor fcluny. A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 1059 Philadelphia, as the first Five Inriish East-lndiamen, tnd fifty EnglUh mcrcbant ships bound for the West Indies, taken by the combined fleets of France and Spain, Aurv" 8 Mr, Laurens, late president of the Congress, taken in ao American packet* near Newfoundland, (September 3. f » {>ncral Arnold deserts the service of the Congress, escapes to New York, nn J I is made a brigadier-general in the royal service, September 24. Major Andrc.adjutant-general to the Brituh army.hanged as a spy at Tappan, in the province of New York, October 2. Mr. Laurens is committed prisoner to the Tower, on a charge of high treason Oct. '!. Dreadful hurricanes in the West Indies, by which great devastation is made in Jamaica, Barbadoes, St. Lucia, Dominica, and other islands, Oct. 3 and 10. A declaration of hostilities published against Holland, December 20. 1781 The Dutch island of St. Eustatia, taken by admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, retaken by the French, November 27. A bloody engagement fought between an English squadron under the com- mand of admiral Parker, and a Dutch squadron under the com:i.and of admiral Zootman, off the Dogger Bank, August 5. Earl Cornwallis, with a considerable British army, surrendered prisoners of war to the American and French troops, under the command of general Washington and count Rochambeau, at York-town in Virginia, Oct. 1 9. 1782 The house of commons address the king against any further prosecution of ofFensive war on the continent of North America, March 4. Admiral Rodney obtains a signal victory over the French fleet, under the com-, mand of count de Grasse, near Dominica in the West Indies, April 1 2. The resolution of the house of commons relating to John Wilkes, esq. and the Middlesex election, passed Feb. 17, 1769, rescinded May .S. The bill to repeal the declaratory act of George I. relative to the legislation of Ireland, rece''";d the royal assent, June 20. The Spaniards defeated in their grand attack on Gibraltar, Sept. 13. Treaty concluded betwixt the republic of Holland and the United States of America, October 8. Provisional articles of peace signed at Paris between the Britith and Ameri- can commissioners, by which the thirteen United American Colonics are acknowledged by his Britannic majesty tobe free, sovereign, and independ- ent st.itcs, November 30. 1783 Preliminary articles of peace between his Britannic majesty and the kings of France and Spain signed at Versailles, January 20. The order of St. Patrick instituted, February 5. Three eartliciuakes in Calabria Ulterior and Sicily, destroying a great number of towns and inhabitants, Februarv 5, 7, and 28. Armistice between (Jreat Britain andt-IoUand, F'ebruary 10. Ralilicalioii ol the definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain, France, Spain, iiiul the I'liited States of America, September 3. 1784 The great seal stolen from the chancellor's house in Great Ormond-strect, March 'J4. The ratification of the peace with America arrived, April 7. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain and Holland, May 'J1. The memory of Handel commemorated by a grand jubilee, at Westminster- Abbey, May 26. Mr. Lunardi ascended in a b:iiloon from the Artillery-ground, Moorficlds, the first attempt of the kind in England, September IS. I'he bull feasts abolished in Spain, except fur pious or patriotic uses, by edicts November 14. 1785 Mr. Blanchard and Dr. JefFcries went from Dover to Calais in an air balloon, in about two hours, January 7. M. de Rysier and M. Romaln ascended at Boulogne, intending to cross the channel; in twenty minutes the balloon took tire, and the aeronauts camo to the ground and were killed on the spot. I78G The king of Sweden prohibited the use of torture in his dominions. Cardinal Turlone, high inquisitor at Rome, was publicly dragged out of his carriage by an incensed multitude for his cruelty, and hung on a gibbet fifty feet high. Commercial treaty signed between England and France, September 26. |?87 Mr. Burke at the bar of tlu; house of lords, in the name of all the commons of Great Britain, impeached Warren Hastings, late governor-general of Bengal, of high crimen and misdemeanors. May iJl. 1788 In the early part of OcIoIkt, the first symptoms appeared of a severe disorder which a^icted our ' fucions suvtrcigo. Oa tlic sixth of November they ' 'i It ,i.i ■' m iPI^ i' ' h M It; 1030 A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. were very alarminp, and on the thirteenth a form of prayer for his re- covery was ordered by the privy council. 1789 His majesty was pronounced to be in astateofconvalescence, February 17; and to be free from comjjlaint, February '2(5. A general tlianks'^iving for the king's recovery, who attended the service at Si. Paul's, with a great procession, April 2n. Revolution in Traucc, ca^iture of the Bastile, execution of the governor, &c. JulyM. . 17!)0 Grand confederation in the champ de M.irs, July 14. 1791 Riots at Birmingham : tlie meeting houses, and houses of Dr. Priestley and otiiers, destroyed by the mob, July 14. 1702 The.delinitive treaty of peace was signed between the British and their allies, the Nizam and Mahrattas on one part, and Tippoo Sultan on the other, March 19, by which he ceded one half of his territorial possessions, and delivered up two of his !>ons to lord Cornwallis, as hostages for the ful' filment of the treaty. Gustavus III. king of Sweden, died on the 29th of March, in consequence of bein^^t assassinaied by Ankerstroom. 1793 Louis XVI. after having received innumerable indignities from his people, was brought to the scaffold, January '21, and had his head severed by the guillotine, contrary to the express laws of the new constitution, which had declared the person of the king inviolable. On the 25th of March, lord Grenville and count Woronzow signed a con- vention at Loudon on behalf of his Britannic majesty and the empress of Russia, to employ their forces, conjointly, in a war against France. Treaties were also entered into with the king of Sardinia and the prince of Hesse Cassel. I'he unfortunate queen of France, on the 16th of October, was conducted to the spot where Louis Ijad previously met his fate, and beheaded by the guil- lotine in the thirty-eighth vear of her age. 1791 On the tirst of June, the British fleet under the command of admiral carl Howe obtained a signul victory over that of tlie French, in which tw* ships were sunk, one burnt, and six brought into Portsmouth harbour. iT95 Inconsequence of the rapid progress of the French arms in Holland, ths Princess of Or,(n;:o,thc hereditary princci>s,and her infant son, arrived at Yarmouth on the 19th of January. The Stadtholder landed at Harwich on tlie 'JOth. George prince of Wales married to the princess Caroline of Brunswick, Apr. 8. The trial of Warren Hastings concluded on the 2:id of April, wlien he wa; acquitted of the clwrges brought again-st him by the house of conuiion... 1796 Lord Alaliiibbury went to Paris in Octo!)er, to open negotiations for a genera! pe.icc; but returned Dec. 2!) without having elVected the object of hii luis-sion. i 737 A signal victoiy gained over the Spanish fleet by sir John Jervis, since created e:irl St. Vincent, Febru.iry 14. Aw alarming mutiny on board the CliMnnel fleet at Spithead, April 15- 'I'hc nuptitils of the prince of Wirtemberg and the princess royal celebrated at fit. Janic;-.'s May IK- Another alarming mutiny on board the fleet at Sheerness. Parker, tlie chief leader intiiis mutiny, executed on board the Sandwich at Blackstakes, June ;)(). Lord Malmsbury arrived at Lisle July 4, and opened a negotiation for a peace bctucen Kngii'.nd and the French Republic, but again returned without effecting the object of his mibsion, September i;). A »igii;il victory gained over the Dutch fleet by admiral Duncan, Oct. II. Peace between France and Austria dctinitivcly signed at Canipo Formio, October 17. A general thanks;5;iving for the late great naval victories. The king and t'le members of bcUh houses of parliament attended divine service at .St. Paul's in grand procession, December 19. 1798 A dreadful rebellion in Ireland, which was quelled, after several battles with the insurgents, and much bloodshed. The glorius .victory of admiral Nelson at Aboukir, near the mouth of the Nile, in which nine Fri.-nch ships of the line were taken, and two burnt ; only two escaping, which were afterwards taken, August 1. 1799 The war against France recommenced by the emperor; and the French driven out of almost all their conquests in Italy, by the Austrians and Russians under Suwarr(j\Y. A ^EW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. *ro3i )n of the governor, &c. ses of Dr. Priestley and [arch, in consequence of John Jcrvis, Kince created , after several battles with JTD9 Serlngapatam taken by lieut.-gencral Harris, and Tippoo Sultan killed May 4. The directorial government abolished in France, and a new constitution _ framed, according to which Bonaparte was to be iip,t consul for ten years. ISOO A horrid attempt made on the life of his majesty by James Hadfield, a luna- tic, who fired a pistol at him from the pit of Drurv-lane thcatre.May 15. The battle of Marengo gained ])y Bonaparte, and followed by an armistice! and the surrender of all the strong places held by the Austriaus in Italr, June 15. . ' The bill for a union with Ireland signed, July 2. ■1801 The uniim with Ireland took place, Jan. 1, The right hon. Wm. Pitt sent in to his majesty his resignation of tbc oflices of chancellor of the exchequer and first lord of the treasury, after havine been minister 1 7 years, Feb. 0". The peace of Luneville, between France and Austria, signed February 9. Mr. Pitt delivered td his majesty the seals of his office, which were immedi- ately delivered to Mr. Addington, March 14. The battle of Alexandria in Kgypt gained by the British troops, in which the brave general Abercrombie was mortally wounded, March 'JI. The death of- the emperor Paul of Russia, March S4. The battle of Copenhagen, in which 18 Danish ships were taken or des- troyed by lord Nelson, April 2. Preliminaries of peace signed between England and France, October 1. An attempt made to assassinate Bonaparte, by exploding a barrel of gun- powder, called by the French the infernal-machine, 1B(92 The Definitive Treaty of Peace between Great Britain and the French Re- public signed at Amiens, March 27. Peace between England and France proclaimed, April L'9. A general thanksgiving observed for the restoration of peace, June 1. The-foundation of the London docks.at Wapping, laid by the chancellor of the exchequer, June 26. The West India docks at Blackwall opened August 27. 1303 A message from his majesty delivered to both houses of parliament, announc- . ing the military preparations that were carrying on in the ports of France and Holland.— Press warrants issued, March 8. A mes'sage from his majcity to both liouses of parliament, announcing the crmination of the discussion between his majesty and the French Ri^- public, and that his majesty had recalled ins ambassador from Pari». The French ambassador left London, May IG. The French army under general Mortier took possession of the city and electorate of Hanover, June 5. An insurrection in Dublin, in -which lord Kilwardcn, chief justice of the court of king'p bench in Ireland, and his nephew, Mr. Wolfe, were in- humanly murdered, July 2li. Official returns laid on the table of the house of ccmmons, stating tlic number of voh'.ntcers in Gr .-at Britain, -at 379,;) 13, December ?• ISO! The duke d'Encfhicn seized by Bonaparte on a ueutnil territory, Aprils • shot in the night in the wood cf Vincennes, April 1 i. Mr. Pitt again appointed to the olhce of chancellor of the exchcq-v'.er. May 10. Bonaparte proclaimed emperor of the French, May .^0. Francis II. emperor of Gcrmanv and king of Hungary assumes the title of emperor of Austria, Septeniher 5, Sir George Rumbold, the Kngli.sh re5i<lent at Hamburgh, seized by a party of French soldiers, and sent to Hanover, and thence to Paris, Novem- ber 2. Bon-jparte crowned emperor of the French by the Pope, at Paris, December '2. i'iO'j A flag of truce r.tme out of Boulogne and delivered to captain Owen of the Immortality, dispatrlies "containing a letter from Bonaparte to l.is majesty, (dated January 1), expressing in general terms, a wish to put an end to the calamities of war, January 7. The Italian Republic declared an hereditary monarchy, by the title of the Kingdom of Italy. — Bonaparte accepts the crown, March 17. The London docks opened. May 2,1 .Ifonaparte crawncd kiijij of Italy at Milan, May 26. . '■ - . — ' Ki >i^ 'fr 1 u 'fi \ Wi IJs m %i 'i-fi i.n (t H? I i«i i«! loar A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. \ ( MEN OF LEARNING AND GENIUS. N*B> Sy tie Dates is implieithe Time •when the alnve Writers iiei; tut tvhen that J'triod bappeiH not to be inown, the Age in vibich they fiourishii is signified iy fl. Tie Names in Jtalies arc tbost v/bo have given the best English Translations, in- tlusive of Scbtol Books, Bef. Ch. 907 TJOMER, the first profane writer and Greek peet, flourished. Pope. Co-wper. ■ti. Hesiod, the Greek poet, supposed to livenear the time of Homer. Cookt, 584 Lyciirgus, the Spartan lawpver. 600 Sappi^, the Greek lyric poetess, fl. Favulu, S5B Solon, lawgiver of Athens. 556 JEtop, the first Greek fabulist. Croteai. 548 Thales, the first Greek astronomer and geographer. 497 Pythagoras, founder of the Pythagorean philosophy in Greece. Howe, 474 iuiacreon, the Greek lyric poet. Fmjiies. /U£tom, 456 .^chylus, the first Greek tragic poet. Potter. 435 Pindar, the Greek lyric poet. IVest. 413 Herodotus of Greece, the first writer of profane history. ZiiiUbury. £cloe. 407 Aristophanes, the Greek comic poet, fl. JVhite. . Euripides, whe Greek tragic poet. WooibuiL 406 Sophocles, ditto. Franklin. PoUer. , Confucius, the Chinese philosopher, f]. 400 Socrates, the founder of moral philosophy in Greece. S91 Thucydides, the Greek historian. Smith. Hobiet, 961 Hippocrates, the Greek physician. Clifton, Democritus, the Gredc. philosopher: S5,9 Xenophon, ditto, and historian. Smith. Spelman. Aahly, fie&Sng, S48 Plato, the Greek philosopher, and disciple of Socrates. S^ieeiam. S36 Isocrates, the Greek orator. GiUics. 332 Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, and disciple of Plato. Hcbbts, SIS Demosthenes, the Atiieniau orator, poisoned hitnself. LtUmd. French. 288- Theophrastus, the Greek philosopher, and schobr of .Aristotle. Budget. 585 Theocritus, the first Greek pastoral poet, d. Farvies. S77 Euclid, of Alexandria in Egypt, the mathematiciaa, A. X. Simsn^ 270 £picuru«, founder of the Epicurean philosophy in Greece. 264 Xeno, founder of the stoic philosophy in ditto. 244 Callimachus, the Greek elegiac poet. Tytler. 208 Archimedes, the Greek geometrician. 184 PlaUtuE, the Roman comic poet. Thornton. 159 Terence, of Cartilage, the Latin comic poet. Colm4n, 155 Diogenes, of Babylon, th^ stoic philosopher. 124 Polybius, of Greece, the Greek and Roman historian. Hamfton. 54 Lucretius, the Roman poet. Creech. 44 Julius Caesar, the Roman historian and commentator, killed. Duncan, Diodorus Siculus, of Greece, the universal historian, fl. Booth. Vitruvius. the Roman architect, fl. 43 Cicero, the Roman orat* and philosopher, put to death. Guthrie. Melmoth Cornelius Nepos, the Roman biographer. A. Rowe, 34 Sallust, the Roman historian. Gordon. Jiowe- SO Dionvsius of Halicarnassus, the Roman historian, fl. Spe/maK, 19 VirgTl, the Roman epic poet. Dryden. Pitt. Hearten. II, Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius. Roman poets. Grainpr, Dart, 8 Horace, the Roman lyric and satiric poet. Francis, 17 Li vy, the Roman historian. Hay. 19 Ovid, the Roman elegiac poet. Garth. 20 Celsus, tlie Roman philosopher and physician, fl. Grieve, 25 Strabo, the Greek geographer, 55 Phxdrus, the Roman fabulist. Smart. ? IS Patcrculus, the Roman historian, fl. Nevcome. Persius, tiie Roman satiric poet. Bretvtter. C2 64 Quintus Curtius, a Roman historian of Alexander the Great, d. Seneca, of Spain, the philosopher and tragic poet, put to death. 65 I,ucan, the Roman epic poet, ditto. Roiue. 79 Pliny the elder, the Humaa natural historian. HollaniL DjgSf. JL Estrange . A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1033 in Greece. Howe, ry. Zitileiury. £clec. eath. Gutbrit. Melm^th 93 loscphiw, the Jewish historian. IVhiiUn. 94 Ei>ictetus, the Greek stoic philosopher, fl. Mn. Carter. 95 Quintilian, the Roman orator and advocate. Guthrie. 96 Statius, the Roman epic poet. Leivh. 98 Lucius Flfrus, of Spain, the Roman historian, fl. 99 Tacitus, the Roman historian. GovJon. Mur(,l;y. 104 Martial, of Spain, the epigrammatic poet. Huy. Valerius Flaccus, the Roman epic poet. 116 Pliny the younger, historical letters. MitmatL Orrery. 117 Suetonius, the Roman historian. Hughes. Thomvm. 119 Plutarch, of Greece, the biographer.' Z>ry«. Langhome. 128 Juvenal, the Roman satiric poet. DiyJen. 140 Ptolemy, the Egyptian geographer, mathematician, and astronomer, fl. 150 Justin, the Roman historian, fl. Turnbull. 161 Arrian, the Roman historian and philosopher, fl. Rooie. 1G7 Justin, of Samaria, the oldest Christian author after the apostles. 180 Lucian, the Roman philologer. Dimsdjle. Dryden. Franklin. Carr. Marcus Aur. Antonius, Rimian emperor and philosopher. Collier. FJ/ilinstcne. 193 Galen, the Greek philosopher and physician. 200 Diogenes Laertius, the Greek biographer, fl. i'S9 Dion Cassius, of Greece, the Roman historian, fl. 254 Origen, a Christian father, of Alexandria. Herodian, of Alexandria, the Roman historian, fl. Hart. 258 Cyprian, of Carthage, suffered martyrdom. Mard>al. 273 Longinus, the Greek orator, put to death by Aurelian. Smith. S20 Lactantius, a father of the church, fl. 336 Arius, a priest of Alexandria, founder of the sect of Arians. S42 Eusebius, the ecclesiastical historian and chronologcr. Hunmtr. 379 Basil, bishop of C^isarea. 389 Gregory Nazianzen, bishop of Constantinople. 397 Ambrose, bishop of Milan. 415 Macrobius, the Roman grammarian. 428 Eutropius, the Roman historian. 524 Boetius, the Roman poet and Platonic philosopher. Bellamy. Preston. RcJ^ath. 529 Procopius, of Cxsarea, the Roman historian. Holcroft. Here ends the illustrious list of ancient, or, as they are styled, Classic authors, for whom mankind are indebted to Greece and Rome,those two theatres of human glory ; but it will ever be regretted, that a small part only of their writings have come to our hands. This was owing to the barbarous policy of those illiterate pagans, who, in the fifth century, subverted the Roman empire, and in which practices they were joined soon after by the Saracens, or followers of Mahomet- Constantinople alone had escaped the ravages of the barbarians ; and to the few literati who sheltered themselves within its walls, is chiefly owing the preservation of those valuable remains of antiquity. To learning, civili'y, and reiinemcnt, suc- ceeded worse than Gothic ignorance — the superstition and buflbonery of the church of Rome ; Europe therefore produces few names worthv of record during the space of a thousand years ; a period which historians, witli great propriety, (ienominate the dark or Gothic ages. The invention of printing contributed to the revival of learningin the sixteenth century, from which memorable atra a race of men have sprung up in a new soil, France, Germany, and Britain ; who, if they do not exceed, at least equal, the greatest geniuses of antiquity. Of these our own countrymen have the reputation of the first rank, with whose names we shall finish our list. AC. 735 901 1259 1292 1308 1400 1402 1535 1552 1568 1572 1582 Bede, a priest of Northumberland; History of the Saxons, Scots, &c. Ling Alfred ; history, philosophy, and poetry. Matthew Paris, monk of St. Alban's ; History of England. Roger Bacon, Somersetshire; natural philosophy. John Fordun, a priest of Mearns-shire; History of Scotland. Geoffry Chaucer, London; the father of English poetry. John Gower, Wales ; the poet. ' ' Sir Thomas More, London ; history, politics, divinity. " John Leland, London; lives and antiquities, ' > ' V Roger Ascham, Yorkshire ; philology and polite literature. Rev. John Knox, the Scotch reformer ; History of the church of Scotland. George Buchanan, Dumbartonshire; History of Scotland, Psalms of DaviJ, politic*. f;c. ■■- ■ -• 3X • w. I:, •.1 .• H'- j ,4 I I'M' ■j' «, % E' • t..i ; " j!'1 ,£51 S5i 1034 1^98 1615- 1(>16 1622 1623 1626 1634 '63« 1641 1654 1657 1667 1674 1674 1675 1077 1680 1685 1687 1688 1689 1690 1691 1694 16<)7 1701 1704 1705 1707 1713 1714 1718 1719 1721 1724 1727 175i9 J7'^2 17:H 1742 1 744 1745 1746 1748 J 750 1751 1754 1757 I'Jfcl A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEi Edmund Spenser, London ; Fairy Queen, and other poems. . ^ -25 Pcaumont and Fletcher; 53 dramatic pieces. WilliaM Shakspeare, Stratford ; 42 tragedies and comedies. John Napier, of Marcheston, Scotland; discoverer of logarithms. William Cambden, London ; history and antiquities. Lord Chancellor Bacon, London; natural philosophy and literature in general. Lord Chief Justice Coke, Norfolk ; laws of Englan^. ' , , fien Jonson, London ; 53 dramatic pieces. ' ' Sir Henry Spelman, Norfolk ; laws and antic^uities. ^ ' John .Selden, Sussex; antiquities and laws. Dr. William Harvey, Kent ; discovered the circulation of the blood. Abraham Cowley, London ; miscellaneous poetry. John Milton, London ; Paradise Lost, Regained, and various other pieces ju verse and prose. Hyde, earl of Clarendon, Wiltshire ; History of the Civil Wars in England. James Gregory, Aberdeen ; mathematics, geometry, and optics. Reverend Dr. Isaac Barrow, London ; natural philosophy, mathematics, uu^ sermons. Samuel Butler, Worcestershire ; Hudibras, a burlesque poem. Thomas Otway, London ; 10 tragedies and comedies, with other pocms. Edmund Waller, Bucks ; poems, speeches, letters, &c. Dr. Ralph Cudworth, Somersetshire ; Intellectual System. Dr. Thomas Sydenham, Dorsetshire ; History of Physic. Nathaniel Lee, London ; 1 1 tragedies. Robert Barclay, Edinburgh ; Apology for the Quakers. Honourable Robert Boyle ; natural and experimental philosophy and thep« logy. Sir George M'Kenzie, Dundee ; Antiquities and laws of Scotland. John Tillotsor archbishop of Canterbury, Halifax ; 254 sermons. Sir William Temple, London ; politics and polite literature. John Dryden, Northamptonshire ; 27 tragedies and comedies, satiric poems, Virtil. John Locke, Somersetshire ; philosophy, government, ai^d theology. John Ray, Essex ; botany, natural philosaphy, and divinity. George Farquhar, Londonderry ; eight comedies. Ant. Ash. Cooper, earl of .Shaf'tesbury ; Characteristics. Gilbert Burnet, Edinburgh, bishop of Sali.sbury ; history, biography, divi ^ nity, &c. Nicholas Rowe, Devonshire ; se^'en trsgedics, translation of Lucan's Pharsalia. Rev. John Flamsteed, Derbyshire; mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Addison, Wiltshire ; Spectator, Guardian, poems, politics. Dr. John Keil, Edinburgh ; mathematics and astronomy. Matthew Prior, poems and politics. William Wdllaston, Staffordshire ; Religion of Nature delineated. Sir Isaac Newton, Lincolnshire ; mathematics, geometry, astronomy, optics. Rev. Dr. Samuel Clarke, Norv.ich ; mathematics, divinity, &c. Sir Richard Steele, Dublin ; four comedies, papers in 'I'atler, &c. William Congreve, .StaflTordshire; seven dramatic pieces. John Gay, Exeter; poems, fables, and eleven dramatic pieces. Dr. J(ilin Arbiithnot, Mtarns-shire; medicir.c, coins, politics. Dr. Fdmund Hailey, natural philosophy, astronomy, navigation. Dr. Richard Btntlcy, Yorkshire ; classical learning, criticism. Alexander Pope, London ; poems, letters, translation of Homer. Rev. Dr. Jonathan Swift, Dublin ; poems, politics, and letters. Colin M'Laurin, Argyleshirc; algebra, view of Newton's philosophy. James Thomson, Roxnurghsliire ; Seasons, and other poems, five tragedies. Reverend Dr. Isaac Watts, Southampton ; logic, philosophy, psalms, hyumi, sermons. Sec. Dr. Francis Hutcheson, Ayrshire ; system of moral philosophy. Reverend Dr. Convers Middleton, Yorkshire; Life of Cicero, &c- Andrew Baxter, Ofd Aberdeen ; metaphysics, and natural philosophy, Henry St. John, lord Bolingbroke, Surrey; philosophy, metaphysics, and politics. Dr. Alexander Monro, Edinburgh ; anatomy of the human body.^ Dr. Richard Mead, London; on poisons, plagite, small-pox, medicine. Henry Fielding, Somersetshire; Tom Jones, Joseph Andrews, &c, Colley Cibber, London; 25 tragedies and comedies. X humas Sherlock, bishop of Loudon ; 6<J sermons, &c.. , LEi ms. A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1083 dies. logarithnW" )hy and literature in m of the blood. various other pieces ju Jivil Wars in England, ind optics. , ophy, mathemaitics, ^a |ne poem. 1, with other poems. rstem. ysic. tal philosophy and theo. ITS of Scotland. ; 254 sermons. iterature. I comedies, satiric poems, nt, ai\d theology, divinity. istics. ' , J. • history, biography, divi itionofLucan'aPharsalia. id astronomy. »oems, politics, [lomy. ire delineated, tmetry, astronomy, optics, livinity, &.c. 1 in 'Vatler, &c. jieces. latic pieces. II?, politics. fy, navigation, y, criticism. [on of Homer, land letters. ^wton's phi!«nopliy. ^ ^er poems, five tragedies. lilosophy, psalms, hyuini, 1 philosophy. of Cicero, &c. atural philosophy. iKsophy, metaphysics, and le human body, [mall-pox, medicine, 111 Andrews, &c, &c.. 1761 BfDJamin Hoadly, bishop of Winchester ; sermons and controversy. i Samuel Richardso i, London; Grandison, Cl-irissa, Pamela. Reverend Dr. John Leiaud, Lanca'-hire ; Answer to Deistical Writers. J765 Reverend Dr. Edward Young-, Night Ihoughts, and other puems, three tragedies. Robert Simpson, Glasgow; Conic Sections, Euclid, Apollonius. 1758 Reverend Lawrence Sterne; 45 Sermons, Sciuimental Journey, Tristraw. Shandy. 1769 Robert Smith, Lincolnshire; harmonics and optics. . . , ' 1770 Rev. Dr. Jortin ; Life of Erasmus, liccltsiastical History, and sermons. Dr. Mark Akensi<le, Newcastle upon 1 yne; poems. Dr. Tobias SmoUet, Dumbartonshire ; History of England, novels, transh* tions. 1771 Thomas Gray, professor of Modem History, Cambridge; poems. 1773 Philip Dormer Stanhope, earl of t.hesrerfield ; letters. George lord Lyttleton, Worcciterohiic ; History of England. 1774 Oliver Goldsmith ; poems, essays, ^nd other pieces. Zachary Pearce, bishop of Rochester ; Annotations on the New Testa- ment, &c. > 1775 Dr. John Hawkesworth ; essays. 1776 David Hume, Mcrse ; History of England, and essays. James Ferguson, Aberdeenshire ; astronomy. 1777 Samuel Foote, Cornwall ; plays. 1779 David Garrick, Hereford ; plays, &c. William Warburton, bishop of Gloucester; Divine Legation of Moses, and various other works. 1780 Sir William Blackstone, Jutlge of tlic Court of Common Pleas, London ; Commentaries on the i.aws of England. Dr. John Fotliergill, Yorkshire; ph'Iosophy and medicine. James Harris; ller' vs. I'lillolo^ieal Inquiries, Philosophical Arrangements. 1782 Thomas NewKii bishop of Bristol, Lichfield; Discourses on the Prophecies, and other works. Sir John Pringle, Bart. Roxburghshire; Diseases of the army. Henry Home, lord Kaimes, Scotland ; Elements of Criticism, Sketches of the History of Man. 1783 Dr. William Hunter, Lanerkshire; anatomy. Dr. Benjainin Kennicctt, Devonshire ; Hebrew Bible, Dissertations, &c. 1784 Dr. Samuel Johnson, Lichfield ; Engliah Dictionary,' biography, essays, poetry; died Decembor JS, aged 71. 1785 William Whitehei^d, poet-laureat ; poem? and plays. Reverend Richard iiurn, LI,. D. author of the Justice of Peace, Ecclesias- tical Law, &c.; died November iiO. Richard Glover, esq. Leonidas, Medea, &c. died Nov. 25. 1786 Jonas Hanway, esq. travels, miscellanies ; died September 5, aged 74. 1787 Dr. Robert Lowth, bishop of London ; criticism, divinity, grammar ; died November 3. Soame Jeuyns, esq. Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion, «nd other pieces;'died December 18. 1788 James Stuart, esq. celebrated by the name of "Athenian Stuart," died Feb. 1. Thomas Gainsborough, esq. the celebrated painter; died August 2. Thomas Sheridan, esq. Einglish Dictionary, works "bn education, elocution, &c.; died August 14. 1789 William Julius Mickle, esq. Cumberland; translator of t!;c Lusiad; died October 15. J790 Dr. Will. Cullen, Scotland; Practice of Physic, Materia Medica, &c.; died February 5. , , ., Benjamin Franklin, esq. Boston, New Enjjland ; Electricity, Natural Philo- sophy, miscellanies; died April 17. Dr. Adam Smith, Scotland ; Moral Sentiments, Inquiry into the Wealth of Nations; died April 17. John Howard, esq. Middlesex ; Account of Prisons and Lazarettos, &c. Reverend Thomas Warton, B. D. poet-laureat ; History of English Poetry, Poems; died April 21. 1791 Reverend Dr. Richard Price, Glamorganshire^ on \:oraIs, Providence, Civil Liberty, Annuities, Reversionary Payments, Sermons, &c; died 1 cbiu- ary 1 9, aged 68. .11 Dr. Thomas Blacklock,Annandale; Pofems, Consolations from Natural and Revealed Religion; died July, aged 70. 1792 Sir Joshua Reynolds, Devonshire; President of xhe Royal A.;ademy of i0d6 A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. i 11 m Paintinft: Discounes on Painting delivered before the Arademv; dteif February 1 9, afjed 68. 1793 Reverend Dr. William Robertson, Principal of the Univenity of Ediaburgh. . and Historiographer to his mijestyfor Scotland; History of Scotlanilf of the Reign of Charles V. History of America, and Historical Disqui- •ition concerning India; died June 11, aged 7S. 1794 Etiward Gibbon, esq. Surry ; History of the Decline and Fall of the Romaii Empire; died January 16. 1795 Sir Willi m Jonet, one of the judges of India, and president of the Asiatic Socie*/; several law tracts, translation of Isxus, and of the Moailakat, oii seven Arabian poems, and many valuablepapers in the Asiatic Researches. 17A7 Edmund Kurlce, esq. Sublime and Beautiful, Tracts on the French Revoiutiou. 1799 W. Melmoth; Translations of Pliny's and Cicero's Letters, Fitxosborne'a Letters, &c. Lord Monboddo ; Origin and Progress of Language. . '. \* I 1800 Rev. Dr. Joseph Warton ; Poetry, Miscellaneous Literature. William Cowper, esq. ; Poetry. ,> )T"i Reverend Dr. Hugh Hlair ; Sermons, Lectures on Rhetoric. ; 1802 Dr. Erasmus Darwin; Botanic Garden, Zoonomia. 1804 Dr. Joseph PrieAlcy; Natural Philosophy, Theological and Political Tract». ?■-. ,^ J .-J!.!"' ■- t:. '5- ,*> » *»f"' : 1' I N I S. • . .^9>i: ;''t I .-■'I M • 4- - ». .' i' •: ERRATA. ^ Page 505 line 5. for in Cahbria, read at Catania, In Sidty, 659 line 20. for Vingapatam re.id F'isagjpatam. t)0'4 line 1. for 'Jumma read 'Jumna. .'..J » . < 1' ■ U;J .-iV •!. . »■>■■-.'. * 4 ;1M h: : .i.l .,.«■ •'». ' ' Printed by Samuel Haniilto.a, Shct-lane, Fleet-street ; and 1'. Gillet, Saliabury Square. ;:>.,. ■e the Academy { died iveriity of Ediaburghf ; Hittory of Scotland^ ad Historical Disqui« nd Fall of the Roman resident of the Aiiatie d of the Moallakat, or the Asiatic Researches, he French Revolutiou. Letters, Fitxosborne'a ature. :onc. il and Political Tracts. r-:r ■:■■■' :.^ -i ~-'l tw, M oietly» ♦ • ■ > i ■torn. J. I ^ 1 * t'Street ; .Tt