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»«C»OCOfr RBOIUTION IBt CHART 
 
 (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No 2) 
 
 ^ ^^PRJEDjvt^E 
 
 (716) 482 -0300- Phone 
 ('16) 2M-5989-FO, 
 
CROP ROTATION AND SOIL CULTIVATION 
 
 I 
 
 C:\ 
 
 A. Pi^PER 
 
 READ By 
 
 J. H. GKISDALE, B. AaR. 
 
 Director, Dominion Experimental Farms 
 
 BETORB TUi: 
 
 STANDING COMMITTEE OF THE SENATE 
 
 OR 
 
 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY 
 
 1911 
 
 PRINTED BY ORDBH OF PABLIAMSNT 
 
 • 
 
 OTTAWA 
 
 FEINTED BY C. H. PARMKLEE, PKINTER TO THE KIN( ' .lOST 
 
 EXCELLENT MAJESTY 
 
 1912 
 
 20140—1 
 
;i 
 
 CROP ROTATION AND SOIL 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 BT 
 
 J. H. Oriklale, B. Agr. 
 
 Dlreotof Uomiiiion Kxperiineiii.tl K'trtnn 
 
 The aim of every farmer sliotild be to produce an larpre crops at as low cost ai 
 prigsiblf, wliile at the same time ineroa^tin^ the crop producing powers of his farm. 
 Orop returns depend upon two things: Soil and -ioil management. 
 
 SOKE SOIL FUNCTIONS. 
 
 The soil is the medium in whicii the roots of every crop live from fleed sowing to 
 harvest. Tlie soil is likewise the source or rather the storage room for plant food. 
 Crop returns depend to some extent upon the character of the soil, hut more largely 
 upon the handling of that soil previous to seeding, and, in the case of certain crops, to 
 it* management during the growing season. 
 
 FOOD SEQiriBEHENTS OF FARH CROPS. 
 
 . rops have different requirements as to plant food ; some, as for instance 
 re jge crops, require large quantities of readily available food suitable for 
 
 th ,» of root, stem and leaf. Other crops, such as cereals or grain crops, 
 
 will ,jo ..th les.j readily available plant food, suitable for root, stem and leaf produc- 
 tion, but need a proportionately greater supply of such plant food, or such elomeiits, as 
 enter into the composition and are necessary for the development of largd quantities 
 of seed, be this seed oats, barley, wheat or any other grain. 
 
 Crop Residues. 
 
 All crops when harvested leave behind them in the soil or on the surl'uoe tlioreof 
 greater or lesser quantities of vegetable matter, such as roots, bits of stems, leaves, etc. 
 The residues from crops such as potatoes, roots, corn and cereals pre very small, in 
 fact negligible, so far as they are likely to exert any influence upon the fertility or 
 the physical condition of the soil in succeeding years. Certain other crops, however, 
 such as pasture, sod, timothy hay, alfalfa and clovers, leave as residues large quanti- 
 ties of vegetable matter in the form of roots and stubble, and these residual sub3tanet?3 
 
 20146—14 
 
on being buried, or niixwl with tlie iiirfacc wil, break lown «nd have a very appreci- 
 able cfToi't uiHin buth the pliyxicul coiiditiun and the fcrlilit* or plant food content uf 
 the Koil. 
 
 Oood Phyiioal Condition. 
 
 Crop returns dcpond very lurKciy upon the physical condition, that is, upon the 
 friability and tincnesg, uptjn the tirmnt'ss and niii-iure-cociaiuing powers of the noil, 
 as well as upon the supply of plant food contained. The pliysioal condition of a soil 
 depends to a tery lante exttiit \ipoii residues left ly retently grown cjopa. Crop 
 residues when breaking (!own or dci-nyinK form h\iniu!', tlie ino^t important of all tiMS 
 various elements entering into the make up or composition uf any surface soil. Soils 
 rich in liunius and at the same time in good physical condition are likely to give large 
 returns in the way of root, leaf and stem, whatever the crop grown. Soils from which 
 some part of the humus has been removed, that is utilized, or which arc .re solid 
 and firmly packed, Bccm better fitted for the production of plant s-cds or grain- 
 Crops Needed by the Fanner. 
 
 Farmers in Canada require to grow some crops likely to give profitable returns in 
 the form of seeds, that is, grain crops. At the same time they need large quantities 
 of forage, that is, such crops as yield rough feed suitable for live stock must be grown, 
 for instance, clover, timothy, roots and corn for ensilage. 
 
 Effect! of Certain Crops on Succeeding Crops. 
 
 Clover or pasture sods, when turned under, leave the soil in most excellent condi- 
 tion for the production of forago crops, such as roots and corn. Soils which have 
 been occupied by roota or corn have lost by the end of the season a considerable pro- 
 portion of the humus they contained at seeding time. They are, however, compacted 
 and in most excellent shape for growing grain. The grain crops grown upon fields 
 which have been under some hoetl crop the previous year are likely to give large yields 
 of seed with a comparatively small proportion of Aia-w, the ideal condition for most 
 profitable returns. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that each crop affects the condition of the soil in its own 
 peculiar way, and that the condition in which a soil finds itself, after having borne a 
 certain crop, is nearly always the condition best suited for the production of some 
 
 other crop. 
 
 Having observed the peculiarities of crops as to food requirements, conditions of 
 growth and residual oflfects upon tlie soil, it is evident that it should be possible to 
 work out a succession of crops where the soil condition after each would be such as 
 best suited the growth of the next. Arranging crops in this way is called ' Rotation 
 of Crops." 
 
 ROTATION OF CHOPS. 
 
 Rotation of crops means the following of one crop with another in a regular and 
 ever recurring or repeated succession. Rotation comes from the word ' rotare,' mean- 
 
iiife' ' to turn roiiml,' hcnio n rotiition miifht possibly include only two »Top#, m for 
 iimtance, h«y hikI gruin BltcriiiiUl,\ lur a lonn periotl of tiinr. <JpiiornIly K|«nkiii(f, 
 liowcvi r, It loiiKcr rotution. thnt ii u •invuMion of crop* jncluiling a grtutcr divefBily, 
 it meant when one lue* the term rotation. 
 
 Crop Rotationi for F.Mtcni Canada. 
 
 A» rotations possible in custtr" ("lUiaiJu, and as rot.iliuMs liio'ly to give sut in factory 
 rt«ult8, I niiglit mention the folio in'.— 
 
 ' A.'— Two year rotation = (irain- -hiiy. 
 
 'B.'— Three year rotution = drain— liay- bay or pasture. 
 
 'C.'—Thrif year rotation = Hoed crop— grain-hay. 
 
 < D.'— Four yiiir rotation = Hoed i-rop- grain —hay or pasture — hay or pasture. 
 
 < E.'— Five year rotation — Hoed erop--Kr>>'n— '""y— Jf'""— l>"y "■" pasti"*. 
 
 < p.'—l'ivo year rotation = Hoed crop— gniin— hay— pimtiirt — grain. 
 
 < O.'— Six year rotation => Hoed croi>— grain— grain— hay— hay or pantui 
 
 pasture. 
 
 Some Reuiarka on Botationi. 
 
 Rotation ' A,' that ia the two year rotation :— 
 
 First year— grain, seeded down 10 lbs. red clover, 6 lbs. timothy per acre. Second 
 yeai^- hay, followetl again by grain, is one that might be adopted on a •<tock farm 
 where the area of arable land was limited and where it was considered impossible to 
 grow hoed crot« to any large extent. It ia, however, not quite what might lie called 
 a practical sort of rotation, and its use could be recommended only under very 
 exceptional conditions. 
 
 Rotation ' B,' of three years' duration, is one much better iuited than rotation 'A' 
 for the farmer who cannot, on account of the character of Lis land, or who does not 
 care for some other reason to grow any considerable area of roota, or other hoed crop. 
 
 This rotation : — 
 
 First year— grair ded down with 10 lbs. red dovcr, 2 lbs. alsike and 12 lbs. 
 timothy per acre. St -d year— timothy or pasture, will provide a large quantity of 
 foragt and at the same time do much toward building up or improving the soil on the 
 farm. On a 100-acre farm in Ontario on which this rotation was u.«c<. fp- six years, 
 the crop producing powers of the soil were practically doubltd, and in ti.is particular 
 case very little barnyard manure was used. 
 
 Rotation ' C' of three years' duration:— 
 
 First year— hoed crop; followed by second year— prain, si>eded down with clover 
 and timothy, say iO lbs. re. clover, 2 lbs. alsike and 6 lbs. timothy per acre. Third 
 year— hay or pasture, is a -otation likely to give very larpre returns in the way of crop 
 produced and net irofit per acre. I is a rotation peculiarly well fitted for certain 
 districts in eastern Canada, where fi^rms usually include considerable areas of rough 
 land fit for pasture, but not available for crop production. On such farms, the division 
 of the arable land into thtw equal or nearly equal areas and the following thereon of 
 the rotation described, will enable the farmer to carry a much la ;jer number of cattk. 
 
nil. I will iniiiiro hU gr^'ma riiu.'h »»i(W«r returnt tlian wher« • I'ugor rotation ii 
 followcl »n.l » ri-lntivcly tinall.-r pnipnrtion of tlio •raWe land fiven nv.,r U> tli« pro- 
 duct ion of f..ru(r.« <Topii iuch ai poni, r->oU fcnd cIotot liay. On tho Kxporimenti' 
 Fnrin. OttnwH, ilii^ rotnlion t-c proTen to b« ly much the moit pntitahla of alt roU- 
 tiDiiM tried. 
 
 notation ' W.'.a four yi'or rntntion, including:— 
 
 Fir»t ypB" — howl crop; lollowod by wiMnd yrur-jtroin, aoivli-d down » ith, »ay, 10 
 ll)». red clover, f U)* nUiko. H \i>*. timothy \mT aorc. Third ynar— hay or pasture. 
 Fuuiili year— hny or pii«fiir«. 
 
 Thi« rotBtion . ■ lamoiidt itnult" for u*e on farmi whore most of the land i< urnhio 
 and whorp t'fovi^ion lm» to he miide for pasturing, to «oino extont ut l.-mf, on umhlo 
 land. It \\a* the advuntane of *xl Unna tiirtuxl down once in four yenri, of clovrr 
 occupy inK the land, to a gr. r-tor or I^*.^er i-xtent, tiirw years out of foul, and of heing 
 under pasture to gome extent tho third ..r fourth year Thi» rotation woul.l probahly 
 unit a light, Randy soil, even lieitor than rotation ■ C '. since rotation ' C ' in the case of 
 liBht. Bondy »oili would prohubly liave a ten<leney to open up or loosen tlie loil t.>i 
 much. 
 
 Jlol'illoii ' E,' of fivi' years' duration, a» follow* :— 
 
 First your—hoed crop. Second year— grain, sopde<l down with 10 Ib^. red clover, 
 8 Ihs. aUiUo and 8 lbs. timothy per acre. Third year— hay. land ploughed in 
 fall. Fourth year— grain, seeiled down with 10 lbs. red clover, 2 IKs. oUike 
 and 6 lbs. timothy per acre. Fifth year— hay or pasture, land to \>e left uiiploughed 
 till tho following spring, manure to be api>Hed during the winter and 
 turnod under with a shallow furrow for corn pr.Kliiction the sixth year, or the 
 first year of the new cycle of rotation. Such parts of the hoed crop field as it is desired 
 to devote to rooU or potat-.»s should bo ploughed in late summer the year prcvioua. 
 Immediately after ploughing the land should be rolled. di«c harrowed and wotkcI down 
 to insure rotting of the sod. Short manure or rotted manure should be applio-l dur..ig 
 the fall or winter and xv .rked in on the surface preparatory to growing roots or corn 
 next year. This rotation does not allow for the production of timothy hay. but pro- 
 vider a very large snppl^ of clover hay suitable for most live stock, and is certain to 
 give lar«e grain crops, both after corn and after the clover. The crop coming aft«r 
 clover is likely to be something heavier in the straw, but on a sto'k farm (the kind of 
 farm for which Fuch a rotation is fitted) an extra amount of straw is always valuable. 
 This rotation, since it allows for growine trrain on two-fifths of tho whole area, may 
 rervminien.l it=!elf to su'h f.irmer" ns dpsir<! to grow all the grain feed tliev require on 
 
 their farms. 
 
 Ilolafiov ' F' is similar to rotation ■ V ' It. . ..ver. allows for the production of 
 
 sonic timothy hay. Tl !■* a-* follows:— 
 
 First year— hoed crop. Second year-grain, seeded down 10 lbs. red clover, 2 lbs. 
 alsikc and 12 lbs. tinvtliy per acre. Third year— clover hay or pasture. Fourth year- 
 timothy hay or pasture, the land under timothy ">ay or in pasture to be plonghed in 
 Auuu-t with a shallow furrow, rolled, di.sced and harrowed to in.sure breaking down or 
 rotting of the sod. and harrowed at intervals during tho fall to destroy weeds and get 
 the soil into good working condition. In .arly October this land should be ploughed 
 again with a slightly deeper furrow, or else ridged up with a double moiddboard plough 
 and left for the winter. 
 
Fiflli year— Rr«iii, ^fcili-d down 10 ti> li lln rdl dovi'r jxt .k-TO. Tbii eluver it 
 allowed to gruw all fall, niimiiro up|iliotl iluring the winter and itu« wlmlo niii<« ')f clo»er 
 nnd inantirp tiiniotl down in Miiy for corn «t root*. Thia rotation, while iiat yielding 
 qiiiio a* lartfp ii pr>|M>i'iiiin nf foruao ih rotuli.m ' C r rntation ' I),' ha» tliu a<lvanti>(c« 
 of nlluwiii); tin" fiirttu-r to gruw rnoro Krain, and »o providing for alnioDt all liii feoda 
 on the hiinu> I'lirni. It it .« rDfution that can bo aafj^ly rucomtiiondod to any furmer 
 intiTontrd in dairy inff or liwf product ion in i»ii«tcrn Ciinndii. 
 
 tiolation ' ' in of •♦it yrur»' durulii;n, iiml might Ih< nt varioun fornui. Tho form 
 (tivpn alwive: — 
 
 Firnt year — liood crop; aecond year— grain; th.rd year— grain; fourth year— 
 hiiy ; filth year -hay or pasfur.;; »ixth your- pasture, i* prohuhly not the h«»t arrnn«e- 
 nienti of cr"!". but it in the rotation mo'tt coniiiionly followed in muny partu if 
 Canada. It l.us the disndvantjiKP of trying to grow two Kriin iTopa in iiPcc«nion. 
 Were it niodifie<l to read: First year— hoed crop; nocond yenr -grain; third jenr— 
 hay; fourth year— liay; fifth year-pasture ; Mxth year- grain, it would be likely to 
 prove more satisfactory, both a« a rotation for producing lar^o (niantiti<r» of forage and 
 as n rotation for keeping the f -i in good cuuclitioii. 
 
 Some Beuona (or Adoption of a Rotttion. 
 
 Any one of the«o rotations carefully followed an<' '.he cultural operationt connected 
 therewith iwrforined at the right time and in the right way would be sure to incieaHO 
 tremendously the crop production of any given farm, and at the same time inerep.ie 
 but slightly, if at all. the cost of production. In nddit!(5n to the iii'Tea<ed TCtums and 
 lower cc3t of production per unit of crop, the following advantaged might be anticipated 
 from the introiiuetion of a rotation into the fnrminc operations of the averaao eastern 
 Canada farmer: — 
 
 1. The eo^t of fenoini on farui* where live stock are kept "uld be n ierially 
 reduced, since it would be necesssary to fence off only three, fou five fields instead 
 of fifteen or twenty as ia very oomnonly the ease. Far uers of . se do not alwaya 
 fence off each small field, still, where fields are not f.^nivi, t'.- disadvantage of being 
 unable to pasture any given area when conditions weri: .uch as to invite such treat- 
 ment, and the trouble of driving cattle f =« unfeuou ii-M? to reach other fields, 
 would more than make up for the extra cr * ■ -curretl in ■•e construction of suitable 
 fenec'f. The introduction of a rotation including a few properly fenced fields would 
 do away with all trouble in this respt-ct. 
 
 2. All cultural operations of one kind would be in one fioM. thus lowering the coat 
 bv reducing the travelling necessary from one small plot to another. All com or hoed 
 crops would be together, all grain crops in one group, and all Im ■ crops it. anotlc.-r, 
 hence much time would be saved, and so cost of production lowered. 
 
 3. Larger inachiiiery oould be used. Where fields are few they are snre to be 
 larger, and larger fields can always be handled more eheaply with large machinery. 
 
 4. Every field would receive its fair proportion of barnyard manure, and receive 
 this manure at regular intervals. In this way every part of the farm would be kept 
 in t;ood tilth, and the whole farm kept up to its high .<t producing possibilities. Aj 
 operations are usually conducted on farms where no rotation is practised, certain fieMs 
 
8 
 
 a.lja.rnt to the fur.n buil.lii.Ks «r «u,,,,o8e.lIy possessing so.ne pe.'uliur soil olianutir- 
 iHtic-« nro i,-A.MIv 1av,.i,r.><l t<, ti... disa.lvanta^'o of the rest of the farm. Many farms 
 include sm.ll anas upon wlmh practically all the manure is lavished each year, preatly 
 to the detriment of the re«t of the farm, and much to the disftdvantnge of the owner. 
 The intlM.n.c of a rotation in improvinB conditions in this rcspeet can hardly be over- 
 eat imali'd. 
 
 5 Considerably 1. - labour is re.,uired to l<e..p tiehls in pood condition where a 
 rotation i^ followed. While it n.ipht be claimed that plouKhinK " field every third or 
 fourth year would involve a larpe amount of labour, it can be stated on tlie other hrnd 
 that performins these cultural operations more frc.p.ently pernnts of their being 
 performed much more easily year by year. At the same time, if c.ireful record be kept 
 of the amount of labour upon a field where no rotation is followed, it will probably be 
 found that praeti.^ally just as many hours <.f horse labour or man labour h^ve been 
 spent as where under a short rotation. 
 
 C Fields under long rotations or no r,.tatioMS are almost certain to become infected 
 to n preater or le.s extent with wce.ls. Fields under a short rotation are practically 
 ■dway. clean, provide.1 of course that t^e cultural operations are properly performed. 
 The value of the rotation in helping eradicate all injurious plant life is a point the 
 import.nnce of whi.-h cannot be too much impressed upon our farmers ,n eastern 
 Canada to-,lay. where weeds are so cxoedingly prevalent, as is well known to be the 
 
 '"""'Many other minor points might be cited in favour of the introduction of a rota- 
 tion The above should, however, suffice to indicate its value on the farm. The rota- 
 tion as I have attempted to demonstrate, is important, but no rotation can make up 
 for poor cultivation or faulty soil treatment. So I propose to devote the rest of this 
 paper to a consideration of some of the T.ore important conditions of plant growth 
 and the different cultural operations as affecting the same. 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 SOIL CULTIVATION. 
 
 The requirements of rapid plant growth are: 1. Moisture. 2. Warmth. 3. Plant 
 
 food. 
 
 HOISTUIIE. 
 
 The moisture supply depends prima ily on precipitation. Precipitation, or rain- 
 fall is however, uo» controllable. It is necessary, therefore, to so handle soils as to 
 enable "them to conserve or retain the moisture received until required for crop pro- 
 duetion. 
 
 Drainage a Factor in Moisture Conservation 
 
 SeverM factors influence moisture conservation in soils. Of these various factors, 
 pood drainage is probably the most important. 'Veil drained soils are free from the 
 danger of baking or puddling, that is, they are friable and loose on the surface, so 
 preventing evaporation. Well drained soils being free from hydrostatic or free water 
 to a considerable depth are in shape to absorb rain as it falls and preserve it in the 
 form of capillary or hygroscopic water. It is only as capillary or hygroscopic water 
 
I 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 that moisture can be retained for any length of time in the soil in dry weather, hence 
 good drainngo is an absolute necessity where moisture conservation is a matter of 
 importance, just as it is an indispensable condition where seasons are short or rainfall 
 very great in order to carry oil the surplus water and allow air to enter the earth to 
 roach plant roots and raise the soil temperature. 
 
 Ploughing and Cultivating as Methods of Controlling Soil Moisture. 
 
 Shallow ploughing uiid deep cultivation are, after druinagc, probably the most 
 important influen.'cs making for moisture conservation. Shallow ploughing by keep- 
 ing the humus near tlio surface greatly increases the moisture holding power of that, 
 the most important soil layer. Deep cultivation by stirring the lower stratum of soil 
 helps disintegrate the stiff and probably waterlogged upper subsoil, and so very greatly 
 increases the amount of capillary water readily available near the surface layer for 
 crop requirements. 
 
 Surface Cultivation Conserves Moisture. 
 
 No matter what the condition of the surface soil an<.\ upper subsoil as influenced 
 by ploughing ami subsoil stirring, no matter bow well drained the lower subsoil, if no 
 precaution be taken to prevent evaporation, a very large amount of moisture is sure 
 to be carried off from the surface by every faintest breeze and weakest sim ray. To 
 prevent this, the maintenance of a soil mulch on such surfaces as are exposed to the 
 moving air or direct sunshine is a necessary precaution. A soil mulch may be made 
 by means of a light harrow. Sometimes, too, it may be made by a roller. The roller 
 has usually just the opposite effect; under certain conditions, however, it is of value in 
 this connection. To illustrate, it often happens that tw<. or three weeks after seeding, 
 before the grain is up high enough to protect the soil surface from winds and simlight, 
 a crust forms and moisture evaporation goes on apace. Going over such a field with a 
 light roller breaks the crust and forms a soil mulch which effectually stops the loss. 
 
 Humus Conserves Moisture. 
 
 Humus absorbs and retains moisture much more readily than any other consti- 
 tuent of the soil. Hence one of the best methods of improving the moisture storing 
 and moisture c, userving powers of a soil i- to increase its humus content. This may 
 bo done by the frequent turning under of sod nnd by the use of barnyard manure. 
 
 WAKMTH. 
 
 For plants to grow rapidly, wannth as well as moisture is an absolutely necessary 
 condition. 
 
 Drainage Warms Soils. 
 
 Drainage was shown to be probably the most important factor in making for 
 moisture conservation. Drainage as an influence affecting soil temperature is of even 
 greater import.vice. Undrained soils are always cool, usually too cold to favour plant 
 
10 
 
 growth, sare in the case of certaht species accustomed to snch peculiar conditions. 
 Practically all cultivated plants require warm soils. Drainage will warm the soil by 
 carrying off surplus moisture and enabling air to enter. 
 
 Soil Mulch Affects SoU Temperature. 
 
 Once a crust has formed on the surface of the soil, water escipes rapidly through 
 the pores, evaporating as it passes off. The change from liquid to gaseous form means 
 the absorption of large quantities of heat by the escaping water, and in this way much 
 heat is taken out of the soil. Thus in spring, when heat is of such paramount import- 
 ance, it not infrequently lappens that a field lying under a bright sun is going down in 
 temperature rather than rising, for the reason that much moisture is escaping from 
 the surface by evaporation. To prevent this and stop the cooling-off process, all that 
 is necessary is a cut with a common harrow, that is, a mulch should be formed. 
 
 Humui Worms the Soil. 
 
 After drainage and the soil mulch, the colour of the soil is an important factor 
 affecting soil temperature. Dark soils absorb heat readily and rapidly. Humus has 
 the effect of darkening soils, hence the increasing of the humus content of a soil is 
 an important and practical method of raising the temperature of • soU that, due to its 
 colour, might otherwise be slow in warming up. 
 
 PLAKT FOOD. 
 
 The supply of plant food in a soil is very commonly supposed to be the measure 
 of its crop producing powers. Such, however, is not exactly the case. Even the most 
 barren soils, so far as plant food is concerned, may in a few years be made to produce 
 most excellent crops provided the other conditions of plant growth be right. Any soil 
 to which humus can be added at not too great expense will shortly be found to yield 
 profitable crop returns. 
 
 Commercial fertilizers might be of some value in building up a worn-out or 
 barren soil, in as much as they will supply more or less immediately available plant 
 food, and in the case of certain fertilizers being used, such as land plaster, lime or 
 BshM will do something toward rendering available such plant food as may be already 
 in the soil. They will also correct any acidity in the soil, and in the case of ashes and 
 lime will do something to improve the physical condition. 
 
 Humus, however, is the material required to get the soil in good crop producing 
 shape The farmer's aim should be, tlierefore, not to find out by chemical analysis 
 what elements of plant food appear to be lacking in whole or in part, but rather t. 
 improve the physical coadition of his soil by adding humus, draining properly and 
 performing the necessary cultural operations in the right way. at the right time. 
 
 CULTURAL OPERATIONS AND IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 The following nfrtes on cultural operations and implements will probably serve to 
 supplement the preceding paragraphs on crop rotation and soil cultivation. 
 
11 
 
 » 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 Floaghing. 
 
 Ploughing is admittedly the foundation operation in M crop production effort. 
 Ploughing has been performed with many different kinds of plough and in many 
 different styles. No definite rule can be laid down as to the beat method of ploughing. 
 A safe rule, however, is to plough only when the soil is in shape, that is when not too 
 wet; this rule, of course, applying to heavy soils only. Ploughing deeply in autumn, 
 turning an upstanding furrow, and ploughing shallow in spring, turning a low-lying 
 or flat furrow, is another general rule, and is applicable to a greater variety of soils 
 than the first. Ploughing should, in my opinion, be done whenever possible with the 
 two-furrow gang plough, using four, or at least three horses. In this way, the cost of 
 the operation is materially reduced. _ _ 
 
 Disc ploughs recently put on the market afford a means of performing this opera- 
 tion at times and under conditions where it would probably be impossible for the 
 common mouldboard plough to operate, as for instance, ploughing heavy cUy lands 
 when hard and dry. They are also useful in burying manure, grass or weeds and in 
 exposing heavy soils to the action of the f ro^, since they leave a very rough surface 
 
 exposed to the air. . 
 
 Subsoil ploughing is a cultural operation very seldom practised, and one that 
 should be more frequently performed by the farmer, and .eives, as indicated m preced- 
 ing paragraphs, to open up the upper subsoil and so increase the water containing 
 capacity of the root-holding soil strata. The subsoil plough may to a certain extent l>e 
 replaced by what is known as the subsoil hook, a cheap, li^ht affair, that can be readily 
 attached to the beam of any plough and passing over between the handles, do a good 
 job in the way of stirring to a depth of three or four inches, the upper subsoil. 
 
 Harrowing. 
 
 A great variety of implements have been devised and put on the market wherewith 
 to perform the operation commonly known aa harrowing. Of all these implements, the 
 disc harrow is probably the most generally useful and the most effective in the work 
 of preparing soil for seed after it has been ploughed. The larger the disc and the more 
 acute the angle at which it is set in operation, the more effectively will it work. To 
 insure good work, however, with a large sharp-set disc, rolling is necessary in order to 
 crush the soil down that it may remain in place when being carved by the dwa 
 
 A new disc harrow, known as the Double Cutaway, has recently made it. appear- 
 ance and has proven to be a most excellent implement. It consists of U.o disc 
 harrows one in front of tlie other, cutting, the one with an inthrow and the other with 
 an outthrow; the discs are so placed as to prevent their running in the same track, 
 hence a much more thorough cutting up of the surface soil is insured. Considerably 
 more power is necessary to operate this disc than in the case of a single disc. It is 
 however, an implement capable of materially reducing the cost of preparing the soil 
 for seed after the land is ploughed. 
 
 The spring tooth harrow is an implement that cannot be too strongly condemned, 
 where used, as is commonly the case, on sod land or on rough hard land. This imple- 
 ment tears up the sods, exposes the grass and leaves an exceedingly rough surface, 
 very certain to give poor results in crop production. 
 
12 
 
 Harrowing is an operation usually very badly performed, and an operation that 
 is almost always ended v.p sometime before it should be on any given area. Good 
 ploughing is a necessary condition of the bcjt crop results, but thorough harrowing is 
 an indispensable condition of profitable crop returns from any field. Thorough har- 
 rowing does not necessarily mean three or four or ten different harrowings, but it 
 means such treatment as leaves the surface of the seed bed smooth and friable, and 
 leaves the bottom of the seed be.1 tiun and solid. Until these two conditions are ful- 
 filled the harrow shoilld not stop. 
 
 Where sod land is being prepared for any crop, possibly the best treatment would 
 bo about as follows: Roll with a heavy roller, disc harrow lengthwise and crosswise 
 or on the bias; roll again, disc harrow once more, and then smooth harrow, with a 
 cmmon spike-toothed harrow. If, however, it is found that the land is not yet in 
 perfect tilth, then it might be necessary to repeat the disc harrowing and the rolling. 
 In any case, seed should not be sown until the soil is in perfect shape for crop produc- 
 tion. It is usually safe to harrow again after conditions seem nearly perfect for 
 
 seeding. 
 
 The spike-toothed harrow may often be run over the land wh.:i the average farmer 
 would consider it utter folly to use it at all, for instance, in the corn field a few days 
 after sowing or planting the corn, and in the same field a few days after the corn is 
 up. Harrowing the field at such times is almost certain to materially help the crop. 
 
 Where large areas of corn are grown, an implement likely to prove a considerable 
 value is what is known as the slant-tooUi or tilting harrow. This enables one to control 
 the depth to which the harrow shall sink in the soil, and so permit of harrowing the 
 corn or potatoes at times and under conditions when the common spike-toothed harrow 
 might do some small amount of damage. 
 
 Seeding. 
 
 Seeding is now rarely done by hand. It is, however, in too many districts still 
 done broadcast, that is, what are known as broadcast seeders are used. Such seeders 
 are not nearly so satisfactory as drill seeders. Much of the seed is insufficiently 
 covered whHe another part is buried t.o deeply. Consequently it comes up unevenly. 
 Krows unevenly, ripens unevenly , and there is thus considerable loss at harvesting, to 
 say nothing of the seed lost by being buried too deeply or by being insufficiently 
 
 *''"'*The hoe drill and the single disc are the best seeders, and of these, I believe the 
 single disc to be the better. Here, as in the case of the plough and the barrow, as 
 large an implement as possible should be selected, since such implements aid materially 
 in reducing the cost of production. 
 
 The Eoller. 
 
 The roller is commonly looked upon as the implement wherewith to give tbe finish- 
 ing touch It is just at this point, however, that the greatest danger lies. It is as an 
 oneraiion after seeding that rolling is. on the average, of least ^^due. There are of 
 eo^;!o. conditions when it is advisable to roll after seeding, but the true value of this 
 
13 
 
 in.pleme,.t lies in it* usefulness as a hh.u.b of preparing the lan.l preparatory to .ced- 
 ing, as already mentioned in conneetion with harrowing. The use of the roller m 
 preparing sod land for grain or corn is mueh to be connnendod. and it .s here that th,s 
 i,uplement is of the greatest value to the farmer. In certain soils, as for u.stan.-e 
 nn.cky or peaty soils, it is often advisable to roll once or twice b,.t.ro see.hng. and 
 two or more times after seeding; this more particularly, if the land .s to bo seeded 
 down to grass or clover, at the same time as sown to grain. 
 
 No land should be rolled after seeding if the surface is at all .lamp. The surface 
 should be allowed to dry a few days before the roller is put o... Rollmg m th.s w.,y 
 a few days or even two or three weeks after the grain is up, breaks the crust, forms a 
 nmlch, and so heli^s to conserve moisture, as already nxntioned in a premhng para- 
 
 ^"""on light dry soils, rolling is an essential operation after seeding to insure quick 
 germination of both grain and grass seeds. Here again, however it is often advisable 
 to roll a second time two or three weeks after the grain =s up. This helps firm the soil 
 and breaks the crust as before stated.