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»«C»OCOfr RBOIUTION IBt CHART

(ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No 2)

^ ^^PRJEDjvt^E

(716) 482 -0300- Phone
('16) 2M-5989-FO,

CROP ROTATION AND SOIL CULTIVATION

C:\

A. Pi^PER

READ By

J. H. GKISDALE, B. AaR.

Director, Dominion Experimental Farms

BETORB TUi:

STANDING COMMITTEE OF THE SENATE

AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

1911

PRINTED BY ORDBH OF PABLIAMSNT

•

OTTAWA

FEINTED BY C. H. PARMKLEE, PKINTER TO THE KIN( ' .lOST

EXCELLENT MAJESTY

1912

20140—1

CROP ROTATION AND SOIL
CULTIVATION.

J. H. Oriklale, B. Agr.

Dlreotof Uomiiiion Kxperiineiii.tl K'trtnn

The aim of every farmer sliotild be to produce an larpre crops at as low cost ai
prigsiblf, wliile at the same time ineroa^tin^ the crop producing powers of his farm.
Orop returns depend upon two things: Soil and -ioil management.

SOKE SOIL FUNCTIONS.

The soil is the medium in whicii the roots of every crop live from fleed sowing to
harvest. Tlie soil is likewise the source or rather the storage room for plant food.
Crop returns depend to some extent upon the character of the soil, hut more largely
upon the handling of that soil previous to seeding, and, in the case of certain crops, to
it* management during the growing season.

FOOD SEQiriBEHENTS OF FARH CROPS.

. rops have different requirements as to plant food ; some, as for instance
re jge crops, require large quantities of readily available food suitable for

th ,» of root, stem and leaf. Other crops, such as cereals or grain crops,

will ,jo ..th les.j readily available plant food, suitable for root, stem and leaf produc-
tion, but need a proportionately greater supply of such plant food, or such elomeiits, as
enter into the composition and are necessary for the development of largd quantities
of seed, be this seed oats, barley, wheat or any other grain.

Crop Residues.

All crops when harvested leave behind them in the soil or on the surl'uoe tlioreof
greater or lesser quantities of vegetable matter, such as roots, bits of stems, leaves, etc.
The residues from crops such as potatoes, roots, corn and cereals pre very small, in
fact negligible, so far as they are likely to exert any influence upon the fertility or
the physical condition of the soil in succeeding years. Certain other crops, however,
such as pasture, sod, timothy hay, alfalfa and clovers, leave as residues large quanti-
ties of vegetable matter in the form of roots and stubble, and these residual sub3tanet?3

20146—14

on being buried, or niixwl with tlie iiirfacc wil, break lown «nd have a very appreci-
able cfToi't uiHin buth the pliyxicul coiiditiun and the fcrlilit* or plant food content uf
the Koil.

Oood Phyiioal Condition.

Crop returns dcpond very lurKciy upon the physical condition, that is, upon the
friability and tincnesg, uptjn the tirmnt'ss and niii-iure-cociaiuing powers of the noil,
as well as upon the supply of plant food contained. The pliysioal condition of a soil
depends to a tery lante exttiit \ipoii residues left ly retently grown cjopa. Crop
residues when breaking (!own or dci-nyinK form h\iniu!', tlie ino^t important of all tiMS
various elements entering into the make up or composition uf any surface soil. Soils
rich in liunius and at the same time in good physical condition are likely to give large
returns in the way of root, leaf and stem, whatever the crop grown. Soils from which
some part of the humus has been removed, that is utilized, or which arc .re solid
and firmly packed, Bccm better fitted for the production of plant s-cds or grain-
Crops Needed by the Fanner.

Farmers in Canada require to grow some crops likely to give profitable returns in
the form of seeds, that is, grain crops. At the same time they need large quantities
of forage, that is, such crops as yield rough feed suitable for live stock must be grown,
for instance, clover, timothy, roots and corn for ensilage.

Effect! of Certain Crops on Succeeding Crops.

Clover or pasture sods, when turned under, leave the soil in most excellent condi-
tion for the production of forago crops, such as roots and corn. Soils which have
been occupied by roota or corn have lost by the end of the season a considerable pro-
portion of the humus they contained at seeding time. They are, however, compacted
and in most excellent shape for growing grain. The grain crops grown upon fields
which have been under some hoetl crop the previous year are likely to give large yields
of seed with a comparatively small proportion of Aia-w, the ideal condition for most
profitable returns.

It is evident, therefore, that each crop affects the condition of the soil in its own
peculiar way, and that the condition in which a soil finds itself, after having borne a
certain crop, is nearly always the condition best suited for the production of some

other crop.

Having observed the peculiarities of crops as to food requirements, conditions of
growth and residual oflfects upon tlie soil, it is evident that it should be possible to
work out a succession of crops where the soil condition after each would be such as
best suited the growth of the next. Arranging crops in this way is called ' Rotation
of Crops."

ROTATION OF CHOPS.

Rotation of crops means the following of one crop with another in a regular and
ever recurring or repeated succession. Rotation comes from the word ' rotare,' mean-

iiife' ' to turn roiiml,' hcnio n rotiition miifht possibly include only two »Top#, m for
iimtance, h«y hikI gruin BltcriiiiUl,\ lur a lonn periotl of tiinr. <JpiiornIly K|«nkiii(f,
liowcvi r, It loiiKcr rotution. thnt ii u •invuMion of crop* jncluiling a grtutcr divefBily,
it meant when one lue* the term rotation.

Crop Rotationi for F.Mtcni Canada.

A» rotations possible in custtr" ("lUiaiJu, and as rot.iliuMs liio'ly to give sut in factory
rt«ult8, I niiglit mention the folio in'.—

' A.'— Two year rotation = (irain- -hiiy.

'B.'— Three year rotution = drain— liay- bay or pasture.

'C.'—Thrif year rotation = Hoed crop— grain-hay.

< D.'— Four yiiir rotation = Hoed i-rop- grain —hay or pasture — hay or pasture.

< E.'— Five year rotation — Hoed erop--Kr>>'n— '""y— Jf'""— l>"y "■" pasti"*.

< p.'—l'ivo year rotation = Hoed crop— gniin— hay— pimtiirt — grain.

< O.'— Six year rotation => Hoed croi>— grain— grain— hay— hay or pantui

pasture.

Some Reuiarka on Botationi.

Rotation ' A,' that ia the two year rotation :—

First year— grain, seeded down 10 lbs. red clover, 6 lbs. timothy per acre. Second
yeai^- hay, followetl again by grain, is one that might be adopted on a •<tock farm
where the area of arable land was limited and where it was considered impossible to
grow hoed crot« to any large extent. It ia, however, not quite what might lie called
a practical sort of rotation, and its use could be recommended only under very
exceptional conditions.

Rotation ' B,' of three years' duration, is one much better iuited than rotation 'A'
for the farmer who cannot, on account of the character of Lis land, or who does not
care for some other reason to grow any considerable area of roota, or other hoed crop.

This rotation : —

First year— grair ded down with 10 lbs. red dovcr, 2 lbs. alsike and 12 lbs.
timothy per acre. St -d year— timothy or pasture, will provide a large quantity of
foragt and at the same time do much toward building up or improving the soil on the
farm. On a 100-acre farm in Ontario on which this rotation was u.«c<. fp- six years,
the crop producing powers of the soil were practically doubltd, and in ti.is particular
case very little barnyard manure was used.

Rotation ' C' of three years' duration:—

First year— hoed crop; followed by second year— prain, si>eded down with clover
and timothy, say iO lbs. re. clover, 2 lbs. alsike and 6 lbs. timothy per acre. Third
year— hay or pasture, is a -otation likely to give very larpre returns in the way of crop
produced and net irofit per acre. I is a rotation peculiarly well fitted for certain
districts in eastern Canada, where fi^rms usually include considerable areas of rough
land fit for pasture, but not available for crop production. On such farms, the division
of the arable land into thtw equal or nearly equal areas and the following thereon of
the rotation described, will enable the farmer to carry a much la ;jer number of cattk.

nil. I will iniiiiro hU gr^'ma riiu.'h »»i(W«r returnt tlian wher« • I'ugor rotation ii
followcl »n.l » ri-lntivcly tinall.-r pnipnrtion of tlio •raWe land fiven nv.,r U> tli« pro-
duct ion of f..ru(r.« <Topii iuch ai poni, r->oU fcnd cIotot liay. On tho Kxporimenti'
Fnrin. OttnwH, ilii^ rotnlion t-c proTen to b« ly much the moit pntitahla of alt roU-
tiDiiM tried.

notation ' W.'.a four yi'or rntntion, including:—

Fir»t ypB" — howl crop; lollowod by wiMnd yrur-jtroin, aoivli-d down » ith, »ay, 10
ll)». red clover, f U)* nUiko. H \i>*. timothy \mT aorc. Third ynar— hay or pasture.
Fuuiili year— hny or pii«fiir«.

Thi« rotBtion . ■ lamoiidt itnult" for u*e on farmi whore most of the land i< urnhio
and whorp t'fovi^ion lm» to he miide for pasturing, to «oino extont ut l.-mf, on umhlo
land. It \\a* the advuntane of *xl Unna tiirtuxl down once in four yenri, of clovrr
occupy inK the land, to a gr. r-tor or I^*.^er i-xtent, tiirw years out of foul, and of heing
under pasture to gome extent tho third ..r fourth year Thi» rotation woul.l probahly
unit a light, Randy soil, even lieitor than rotation ■ C '. since rotation ' C ' in the case of
liBht. Bondy »oili would prohubly liave a ten<leney to open up or loosen tlie loil t.>i
much.

Jlol'illoii ' E,' of fivi' years' duration, a» follow* :—

First your—hoed crop. Second year— grain, sopde<l down with 10 Ib^. red clover,
8 Ihs. aUiUo and 8 lbs. timothy per acre. Third year— hay. land ploughed in
fall. Fourth year— grain, seeiled down with 10 lbs. red clover, 2 IKs. oUike
and 6 lbs. timothy per acre. Fifth year— hay or pasture, land to \>e left uiiploughed
till tho following spring, manure to be api>Hed during the winter and
turnod under with a shallow furrow for corn pr.Kliiction the sixth year, or the
first year of the new cycle of rotation. Such parts of the hoed crop field as it is desired
to devote to rooU or potat-.»s should bo ploughed in late summer the year prcvioua.
Immediately after ploughing the land should be rolled. di«c harrowed and wotkcI down
to insure rotting of the sod. Short manure or rotted manure should be applio-l dur..ig
the fall or winter and xv .rked in on the surface preparatory to growing roots or corn
next year. This rotation does not allow for the production of timothy hay. but pro-
vider a very large snppl^ of clover hay suitable for most live stock, and is certain to
give lar«e grain crops, both after corn and after the clover. The crop coming aft«r
clover is likely to be something heavier in the straw, but on a sto'k farm (the kind of
farm for which Fuch a rotation is fitted) an extra amount of straw is always valuable.
This rotation, since it allows for growine trrain on two-fifths of tho whole area, may
rervminien.l it=!elf to su'h f.irmer" ns dpsir<! to grow all the grain feed tliev require on

their farms.

Ilolafiov ' F' is similar to rotation ■ V ' It. . ..ver. allows for the production of

sonic timothy hay. Tl !■* a-* follows:—

First year— hoed crop. Second year-grain, seeded down 10 lbs. red clover, 2 lbs.
alsikc and 12 lbs. tinvtliy per acre. Third year— clover hay or pasture. Fourth year-
timothy hay or pasture, the land under timothy ">ay or in pasture to be plonghed in
Auuu-t with a shallow furrow, rolled, di.sced and harrowed to in.sure breaking down or
rotting of the sod. and harrowed at intervals during tho fall to destroy weeds and get
the soil into good working condition. In .arly October this land should be ploughed
again with a slightly deeper furrow, or else ridged up with a double moiddboard plough
and left for the winter.

Fiflli year— Rr«iii, ^fcili-d down 10 ti> li lln rdl dovi'r jxt .k-TO. Tbii eluver it
allowed to gruw all fall, niimiiro up|iliotl iluring the winter and itu« wlmlo niii<« ')f clo»er
nnd inantirp tiiniotl down in Miiy for corn «t root*. Thia rotation, while iiat yielding
qiiiio a* lartfp ii pr>|M>i'iiiin nf foruao ih rotuli.m ' C r rntation ' I),' ha» tliu a<lvanti>(c«
of nlluwiii); tin" fiirttu-r to gruw rnoro Krain, and »o providing for alnioDt all liii feoda
on the hiinu> I'lirni. It it .« rDfution that can bo aafj^ly rucomtiiondod to any furmer
intiTontrd in dairy inff or liwf product ion in i»ii«tcrn Ciinndii.

tiolation ' ' in of •♦it yrur»' durulii;n, iiml might Ih< nt varioun fornui. Tho form
(tivpn alwive: —

Firnt year — liood crop; aecond year— grain; th.rd year— grain; fourth year—
hiiy ; filth year -hay or pasfur.;; »ixth your- pasture, i* prohuhly not the h«»t arrnn«e-
nienti of cr"!". but it in the rotation mo'tt coniiiionly followed in muny partu if
Canada. It l.us the disndvantjiKP of trying to grow two Kriin iTopa in iiPcc«nion.
Were it niodifie<l to read: First year— hoed crop; nocond yenr -grain; third jenr—
hay; fourth year— liay; fifth year-pasture ; Mxth year- grain, it would be likely to
prove more satisfactory, both a« a rotation for producing lar^o (niantiti<r» of forage and
as n rotation for keeping the f -i in good cuuclitioii.

Some Beuona (or Adoption of a Rotttion.

Any one of the«o rotations carefully followed an<' '.he cultural operationt connected
therewith iwrforined at the right time and in the right way would be sure to incieaHO
tremendously the crop production of any given farm, and at the same time inerep.ie
but slightly, if at all. the cost of production. In nddit!(5n to the iii'Tea<ed TCtums and
lower cc3t of production per unit of crop, the following advantaged might be anticipated
from the introiiuetion of a rotation into the fnrminc operations of the averaao eastern
Canada farmer: —

1. The eo^t of fenoini on farui* where live stock are kept "uld be n ierially
reduced, since it would be necesssary to fence off only three, fou five fields instead
of fifteen or twenty as ia very oomnonly the ease. Far uers of . se do not alwaya
fence off each small field, still, where fields are not f.^nivi, t'.- disadvantage of being
unable to pasture any given area when conditions weri: .uch as to invite such treat-
ment, and the trouble of driving cattle f =« unfeuou ii-M? to reach other fields,
would more than make up for the extra cr * ■ -curretl in ■•e construction of suitable
fenec'f. The introduction of a rotation including a few properly fenced fields would
do away with all trouble in this respt-ct.

2. All cultural operations of one kind would be in one fioM. thus lowering the coat
bv reducing the travelling necessary from one small plot to another. All com or hoed
crops would be together, all grain crops in one group, and all Im ■ crops it. anotlc.-r,
hence much time would be saved, and so cost of production lowered.

3. Larger inachiiiery oould be used. Where fields are few they are snre to be
larger, and larger fields can always be handled more eheaply with large machinery.

4. Every field would receive its fair proportion of barnyard manure, and receive
this manure at regular intervals. In this way every part of the farm would be kept
in t;ood tilth, and the whole farm kept up to its high .<t producing possibilities. Aj
operations are usually conducted on farms where no rotation is practised, certain fieMs

a.lja.rnt to the fur.n buil.lii.Ks «r «u,,,,o8e.lIy possessing so.ne pe.'uliur soil olianutir-
iHtic-« nro i,-A.MIv 1av,.i,r.><l t<, ti... disa.lvanta^'o of the rest of the farm. Many farms
include sm.ll anas upon wlmh practically all the manure is lavished each year, preatly
to the detriment of the re«t of the farm, and much to the disftdvantnge of the owner.
The intlM.n.c of a rotation in improvinB conditions in this rcspeet can hardly be over-
eat imali'd.

5 Considerably 1. - labour is re.,uired to l<e..p tiehls in pood condition where a
rotation i^ followed. While it n.ipht be claimed that plouKhinK " field every third or
fourth year would involve a larpe amount of labour, it can be stated on tlie other hrnd
that performins these cultural operations more frc.p.ently pernnts of their being
performed much more easily year by year. At the same time, if c.ireful record be kept
of the amount of labour upon a field where no rotation is followed, it will probably be
found that praeti.^ally just as many hours <.f horse labour or man labour h^ve been
spent as where under a short rotation.

C Fields under long rotations or no r,.tatioMS are almost certain to become infected
to n preater or le.s extent with wce.ls. Fields under a short rotation are practically
■dway. clean, provide.1 of course that t^e cultural operations are properly performed.
The value of the rotation in helping eradicate all injurious plant life is a point the
import.nnce of whi.-h cannot be too much impressed upon our farmers ,n eastern
Canada to-,lay. where weeds are so cxoedingly prevalent, as is well known to be the

'"""'Many other minor points might be cited in favour of the introduction of a rota-
tion The above should, however, suffice to indicate its value on the farm. The rota-
tion as I have attempted to demonstrate, is important, but no rotation can make up
for poor cultivation or faulty soil treatment. So I propose to devote the rest of this
paper to a consideration of some of the T.ore important conditions of plant growth
and the different cultural operations as affecting the same.

I
I

SOIL CULTIVATION.

The requirements of rapid plant growth are: 1. Moisture. 2. Warmth. 3. Plant

food.

HOISTUIIE.

The moisture supply depends prima ily on precipitation. Precipitation, or rain-
fall is however, uo» controllable. It is necessary, therefore, to so handle soils as to
enable "them to conserve or retain the moisture received until required for crop pro-
duetion.

Drainage a Factor in Moisture Conservation

SeverM factors influence moisture conservation in soils. Of these various factors,
pood drainage is probably the most important. 'Veil drained soils are free from the
danger of baking or puddling, that is, they are friable and loose on the surface, so
preventing evaporation. Well drained soils being free from hydrostatic or free water
to a considerable depth are in shape to absorb rain as it falls and preserve it in the
form of capillary or hygroscopic water. It is only as capillary or hygroscopic water

I
I

that moisture can be retained for any length of time in the soil in dry weather, hence
good drainngo is an absolute necessity where moisture conservation is a matter of
importance, just as it is an indispensable condition where seasons are short or rainfall
very great in order to carry oil the surplus water and allow air to enter the earth to
roach plant roots and raise the soil temperature.

Ploughing and Cultivating as Methods of Controlling Soil Moisture.

Shallow ploughing uiid deep cultivation are, after druinagc, probably the most
important influen.'cs making for moisture conservation. Shallow ploughing by keep-
ing the humus near tlio surface greatly increases the moisture holding power of that,
the most important soil layer. Deep cultivation by stirring the lower stratum of soil
helps disintegrate the stiff and probably waterlogged upper subsoil, and so very greatly
increases the amount of capillary water readily available near the surface layer for
crop requirements.

Surface Cultivation Conserves Moisture.

No matter what the condition of the surface soil an<.\ upper subsoil as influenced
by ploughing ami subsoil stirring, no matter bow well drained the lower subsoil, if no
precaution be taken to prevent evaporation, a very large amount of moisture is sure
to be carried off from the surface by every faintest breeze and weakest sim ray. To
prevent this, the maintenance of a soil mulch on such surfaces as are exposed to the
moving air or direct sunshine is a necessary precaution. A soil mulch may be made
by means of a light harrow. Sometimes, too, it may be made by a roller. The roller
has usually just the opposite effect; under certain conditions, however, it is of value in
this connection. To illustrate, it often happens that tw<. or three weeks after seeding,
before the grain is up high enough to protect the soil surface from winds and simlight,
a crust forms and moisture evaporation goes on apace. Going over such a field with a
light roller breaks the crust and forms a soil mulch which effectually stops the loss.

Humus Conserves Moisture.

Humus absorbs and retains moisture much more readily than any other consti-
tuent of the soil. Hence one of the best methods of improving the moisture storing
and moisture c, userving powers of a soil i- to increase its humus content. This may
bo done by the frequent turning under of sod nnd by the use of barnyard manure.

WAKMTH.

For plants to grow rapidly, wannth as well as moisture is an absolutely necessary
condition.

Drainage Warms Soils.

Drainage was shown to be probably the most important factor in making for
moisture conservation. Drainage as an influence affecting soil temperature is of even
greater import.vice. Undrained soils are always cool, usually too cold to favour plant

growth, sare in the case of certaht species accustomed to snch peculiar conditions.
Practically all cultivated plants require warm soils. Drainage will warm the soil by
carrying off surplus moisture and enabling air to enter.

Soil Mulch Affects SoU Temperature.

Once a crust has formed on the surface of the soil, water escipes rapidly through
the pores, evaporating as it passes off. The change from liquid to gaseous form means
the absorption of large quantities of heat by the escaping water, and in this way much
heat is taken out of the soil. Thus in spring, when heat is of such paramount import-
ance, it not infrequently lappens that a field lying under a bright sun is going down in
temperature rather than rising, for the reason that much moisture is escaping from
the surface by evaporation. To prevent this and stop the cooling-off process, all that
is necessary is a cut with a common harrow, that is, a mulch should be formed.

Humui Worms the Soil.

After drainage and the soil mulch, the colour of the soil is an important factor
affecting soil temperature. Dark soils absorb heat readily and rapidly. Humus has
the effect of darkening soils, hence the increasing of the humus content of a soil is
an important and practical method of raising the temperature of • soU that, due to its
colour, might otherwise be slow in warming up.

PLAKT FOOD.

The supply of plant food in a soil is very commonly supposed to be the measure
of its crop producing powers. Such, however, is not exactly the case. Even the most
barren soils, so far as plant food is concerned, may in a few years be made to produce
most excellent crops provided the other conditions of plant growth be right. Any soil
to which humus can be added at not too great expense will shortly be found to yield
profitable crop returns.

Commercial fertilizers might be of some value in building up a worn-out or
barren soil, in as much as they will supply more or less immediately available plant
food, and in the case of certain fertilizers being used, such as land plaster, lime or
BshM will do something toward rendering available such plant food as may be already
in the soil. They will also correct any acidity in the soil, and in the case of ashes and
lime will do something to improve the physical condition.

Humus, however, is the material required to get the soil in good crop producing
shape The farmer's aim should be, tlierefore, not to find out by chemical analysis
what elements of plant food appear to be lacking in whole or in part, but rather t.
improve the physical coadition of his soil by adding humus, draining properly and
performing the necessary cultural operations in the right way. at the right time.

CULTURAL OPERATIONS AND IMPLEMENTS.

The following nfrtes on cultural operations and implements will probably serve to
supplement the preceding paragraphs on crop rotation and soil cultivation.

Floaghing.

Ploughing is admittedly the foundation operation in M crop production effort.
Ploughing has been performed with many different kinds of plough and in many
different styles. No definite rule can be laid down as to the beat method of ploughing.
A safe rule, however, is to plough only when the soil is in shape, that is when not too
wet; this rule, of course, applying to heavy soils only. Ploughing deeply in autumn,
turning an upstanding furrow, and ploughing shallow in spring, turning a low-lying
or flat furrow, is another general rule, and is applicable to a greater variety of soils
than the first. Ploughing should, in my opinion, be done whenever possible with the
two-furrow gang plough, using four, or at least three horses. In this way, the cost of
the operation is materially reduced. _ _

Disc ploughs recently put on the market afford a means of performing this opera-
tion at times and under conditions where it would probably be impossible for the
common mouldboard plough to operate, as for instance, ploughing heavy cUy lands
when hard and dry. They are also useful in burying manure, grass or weeds and in
exposing heavy soils to the action of the f ro^, since they leave a very rough surface

exposed to the air. .

Subsoil ploughing is a cultural operation very seldom practised, and one that
should be more frequently performed by the farmer, and .eives, as indicated m preced-
ing paragraphs, to open up the upper subsoil and so increase the water containing
capacity of the root-holding soil strata. The subsoil plough may to a certain extent l>e
replaced by what is known as the subsoil hook, a cheap, li^ht affair, that can be readily
attached to the beam of any plough and passing over between the handles, do a good
job in the way of stirring to a depth of three or four inches, the upper subsoil.

Harrowing.

A great variety of implements have been devised and put on the market wherewith
to perform the operation commonly known aa harrowing. Of all these implements, the
disc harrow is probably the most generally useful and the most effective in the work
of preparing soil for seed after it has been ploughed. The larger the disc and the more
acute the angle at which it is set in operation, the more effectively will it work. To
insure good work, however, with a large sharp-set disc, rolling is necessary in order to
crush the soil down that it may remain in place when being carved by the dwa

A new disc harrow, known as the Double Cutaway, has recently made it. appear-
ance and has proven to be a most excellent implement. It consists of U.o disc
harrows one in front of tlie other, cutting, the one with an inthrow and the other with
an outthrow; the discs are so placed as to prevent their running in the same track,
hence a much more thorough cutting up of the surface soil is insured. Considerably
more power is necessary to operate this disc than in the case of a single disc. It is
however, an implement capable of materially reducing the cost of preparing the soil
for seed after the land is ploughed.

The spring tooth harrow is an implement that cannot be too strongly condemned,
where used, as is commonly the case, on sod land or on rough hard land. This imple-
ment tears up the sods, exposes the grass and leaves an exceedingly rough surface,
very certain to give poor results in crop production.

Harrowing is an operation usually very badly performed, and an operation that
is almost always ended v.p sometime before it should be on any given area. Good
ploughing is a necessary condition of the bcjt crop results, but thorough harrowing is
an indispensable condition of profitable crop returns from any field. Thorough har-
rowing does not necessarily mean three or four or ten different harrowings, but it
means such treatment as leaves the surface of the seed bed smooth and friable, and
leaves the bottom of the seed be.1 tiun and solid. Until these two conditions are ful-
filled the harrow shoilld not stop.

Where sod land is being prepared for any crop, possibly the best treatment would
bo about as follows: Roll with a heavy roller, disc harrow lengthwise and crosswise
or on the bias; roll again, disc harrow once more, and then smooth harrow, with a
cmmon spike-toothed harrow. If, however, it is found that the land is not yet in
perfect tilth, then it might be necessary to repeat the disc harrowing and the rolling.
In any case, seed should not be sown until the soil is in perfect shape for crop produc-
tion. It is usually safe to harrow again after conditions seem nearly perfect for

seeding.

The spike-toothed harrow may often be run over the land wh.:i the average farmer
would consider it utter folly to use it at all, for instance, in the corn field a few days
after sowing or planting the corn, and in the same field a few days after the corn is
up. Harrowing the field at such times is almost certain to materially help the crop.

Where large areas of corn are grown, an implement likely to prove a considerable
value is what is known as the slant-tooUi or tilting harrow. This enables one to control
the depth to which the harrow shall sink in the soil, and so permit of harrowing the
corn or potatoes at times and under conditions when the common spike-toothed harrow
might do some small amount of damage.

Seeding.

Seeding is now rarely done by hand. It is, however, in too many districts still
done broadcast, that is, what are known as broadcast seeders are used. Such seeders
are not nearly so satisfactory as drill seeders. Much of the seed is insufficiently
covered whHe another part is buried t.o deeply. Consequently it comes up unevenly.
Krows unevenly, ripens unevenly , and there is thus considerable loss at harvesting, to
say nothing of the seed lost by being buried too deeply or by being insufficiently

*''"'*The hoe drill and the single disc are the best seeders, and of these, I believe the
single disc to be the better. Here, as in the case of the plough and the barrow, as
large an implement as possible should be selected, since such implements aid materially
in reducing the cost of production.

The Eoller.

The roller is commonly looked upon as the implement wherewith to give tbe finish-
ing touch It is just at this point, however, that the greatest danger lies. It is as an
oneraiion after seeding that rolling is. on the average, of least ^^due. There are of
eo^;!o. conditions when it is advisable to roll after seeding, but the true value of this

in.pleme,.t lies in it* usefulness as a hh.u.b of preparing the lan.l preparatory to .ced-
ing, as already mentioned in conneetion with harrowing. The use of the roller m
preparing sod land for grain or corn is mueh to be connnendod. and it .s here that th,s
i,uplement is of the greatest value to the farmer. In certain soils, as for u.stan.-e
nn.cky or peaty soils, it is often advisable to roll once or twice b,.t.ro see.hng. and
two or more times after seeding; this more particularly, if the land .s to bo seeded
down to grass or clover, at the same time as sown to grain.

No land should be rolled after seeding if the surface is at all .lamp. The surface
should be allowed to dry a few days before the roller is put o... Rollmg m th.s w.,y
a few days or even two or three weeks after the grain is up, breaks the crust, forms a
nmlch, and so heli^s to conserve moisture, as already nxntioned in a premhng para-

^"""on light dry soils, rolling is an essential operation after seeding to insure quick
germination of both grain and grass seeds. Here again, however it is often advisable
to roll a second time two or three weeks after the grain =s up. This helps firm the soil
and breaks the crust as before stated.